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The microscopy of vegetable foods, with s
3 1924 003 711 151
3j.
Cornell University
Library
The original of this book is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 92400371 1 1 51
WORKS OF
ANDREW L. WINTON.
PUBLISHED BY
JOHN WILEY & SONS
The Microscopy of Vegetable Poods.
With Special Reference to the Detection of Adul-
teration and the Diagnosis of Mixtures. By
Andrew L. AYinton, Ph.D., with the Collabora-
tion of Dr. Josef Moeller, Professor of
Pharmacognosy, and Head of the Pharmacognos-
tical Institute of the University of Vienna, and
Kate Barber Winton, Ph.D. xiv+701 pages,
6J by 10, 635 figures. Cloth, $6.50 net.
Translation:
The Microscopy of Technical Products,
By Dr. T. F. Hanatjsek. Revised by the author
and translated by Andrew L. Winton, Ph.D.,
with the collaboration of Kate Barber Winton,
Ph.D. xii+471 pages , 6J by 10, 276 figures.
Cloth, S5.00 net.
Revision:
Food Inspection and Analysis.
By Albert E. Leach, S.B.,Late Chief of the U. S.
Food and Drug Laboratory at Denver. Revised
and enlarged by Andrew L. Winton, Ph.D. xxi
+1001 pages, 6} by 10, 120 figures, 40 full-page
half-tone plates. Cloth, $6.50 net.
THE MICROSCOPY
OF
VEGETABLE FOODS
WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
THE DETECTION OF ADULTERATION AND THE
DIAGNOSIS OF MIXTURES
BY
ANDREW L. WINTON, Ph.D.
Formerly Chief of the U. S. Food and Drug Laboratory at Chicago; formerly in Charge of the
Analytical Laboratory of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, etc,
WITH THE COLLABORATION OF
Dr. JOSEF MOELLER
Aulic Counselor, Professor of Pharmacognosy, and Head of the Pharmacognostical Institute
of the University of Vienna
KATE BARBER WINTON, Ph.D.
Formerly Micro-Analyst U. S. Bureau of Chemistry
WITH 635 ILLUSTRATIONS
SECOND EDITION
FIRST THOUSAND
NEW YORK
JOHN WILEY & SONS, Inc.
London : CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited
1916
Copyright, 1906, 1916
BY
ANDREW L. WINTON
First Edition Entered at Stationers' Hall
11-10 PRESS OP
BRAUNWORTH & CO.
BOOK MANUFACTURERS
BROOKLYN, N. V*
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
In the preface to the first edition attention was directed to the develop-
ment of food microscopy on the continent, to its practical importance, and
to the lack of a comprehensive work on the subject in the English language.
Since that time microscopic methods have come into more general use
throughout the United States in the examination of human and cattle
foods, and as a consequence certain fraudulent practices have been sup-
pressed or much restricted. Both the author and his helpmate have been
identified with this movement as State and Federal officials and as inde-
pendent investigators and have thus collected data which are incorporated
in the present edition.
Among the features of the edition are additions to the sections on wheat
and flour, a complete revision of such parts of the chapter on oil seeds as
treat on mustards, rapes, cruciferous weed seeds, and linseed, a description
of the histology of alfalfa with distinctions from red and alsike clover, a
revision of the sections on pomes and drupes with practical hints on the
examination of almond pastes, jams, preserves and other fruit products,
and rewritten descriptions of the cucurbitaceous fruits used as foods and
adulterants.
Of the 68 cuts which have been added over half are here published for
the first time and the remainder, with one exception, have appeared only
in journal articles. Twenty-two cuts have been dropped.
The idea that a scientific grounding is essential for practical work has
never been out of mind. Experience has shown that the systematic study
of each product from the morphological and physiological standpoint
develops not only the keenest observation but also the faculty of naming
a product from a single fragment just as the paleontologist forms his picture
of an entire animal from a single bone.
The application of the microscopy of foods is by no means limited to
the detection of adulteration and the identification of unknown materials.
The miller, the brewer, the oil presser, the feed manufacturer, the canner,
and the coffee and spice grinder should be conversant with the structure
iv PREFACE.
as well as the chemical composition of their raw materials, and the student
in the school of technology should follow both lines of study in order that
he may be prepared to attack the complicated problems of the industries.
As was stated in the preface to the first edition, the work is closely
affiliated with the second edition of Moeller's " Mikroskopie der Nahrungs-
und Genussmittel," which was published in 1905 with the collaboration of
the author. The descriptions of most of the leaves, flowers, barks, roots,
and edible fungi, upward of 125 pages, are translations of Professor Moel-
ler's text, and no less than 332 cuts are also his. The author again acknowl-
edges with the deepest gratitude this generous cooperation of his honored
teacher and friend.
Valuable cuts have been borrowed from the works of Berg, Collin and
Perrot, Frank, Gilg, Hager, Halstrom, T. F. Hanausek, Hartig, Hassall,
Kny, Leach, Luerssen, Malfatti, A. Meyer, Mez, R. Miiller, Nees, Nobbe,
Planchon and Collin, Sachs, Schimper, Schumann, Tschirch, Tschirch
and Oesterle, Tulasne, Vogl, and Warburg. Grateful acknowledgment
is due these authors also their publishers as follows: Julius Springer,
Berlin (publisher of Moeller's Mikroskopie); The Clarendon Press,
Oxford; Wm. Engelmann, Leipsig; Ferdinand Enke, Stuttgart; Gustav
Fischer, Jena; Carl Gerold's Sohn, Vienna; H. Haessell, Leipsig; Alfred
Holder, Vienna; A. Joanin & Cie., Paris; Longmans, Green, & Co.,
London; Paul Parey, Berlin; Chr. Herm. Tauchnitz, Leipsig; Urban
& Schwarzenberg, Berlin and Vienna; J. J. Weber, Leipsig; Weidmann-
sche Buchhandlung, Berlin. Permission to reproduce Fig. 16 was kindly
granted by Mr. E. Goodwin Clayton, F.I.C., F.C.S., consulting chemist,
32 Holborn Viaduct, London, England. Numerous cuts, made from the
author's drawings for publications of the Connecticut Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, are reproduced with the kind permission of that institution.
The larger part of the collaborators' and the author's drawings were repro-
duced on wood by F. X. Matolony of Vienna.
In the preparation of the text the works of the leading authors have
been consulted, and credit has frequently been given for important dis-
coveries, although so far as possible the descriptions have been based on
original observations.
Wilton, Conn.,
November 1, 1913.
CONTENTS.
PART I.
PRELIMINARY: EQUIPMENT, METHODS, AND GENERAL
PRINCIPLES.
PAGB
INTRODUCTION I
APPARATUS 5
REAGENTS 8
COLLECTIONS ii
PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR EXAMINATION 12
Mechanical Preparation 12
Treatment with Reagents 15
THE PRINCIPAL HISTOLOGICAL ELEMENTS 20
Tissues ■ 20
Ceia-contents 23
MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS 28
The Leaf 28
The Flower 3°
The Fruit 33
Pericarp 33
Seed 35 .
The Stem 38
Bark 4°
Wood 41
The Root. 44
PART II.
GRAIN: ITS PRODUCTS AND IMPURITIES.
GRAIN 47
Flour and Meal 47
Impurities and Adulterants 47
Methods of Examination 50
v
VI CONTENTS.
PAGE
Bread 55
Cattle Foods 56
Methods of Examination 58
CEREALS (Graminece) 60
Microscopic Characters 61
Analytical Keys 62
Wheat (Triticum) 65
Spelt (Triticum sativum var. Spelta) 73
Emmer (Triticum sativum var. dicoccum) 75
One-grained Wheat (Triticum monococcum) 76
Rye (Secale cereale) 77
Barley (Hordeum sativum) 80
Maize (Zea Mays) •. 86
Broom Corn (Andropogon Sorghum var. lechnicus) 97
Sugar Sorghum (Andropogon Sorghum var. saccharatus) 103
Kaffir Corn (Andropogon Sorghum) 104
Durrha (Andropogon Sorghum var. durra) 104
Rice (Oryza saliva) 105
Oats (Avena sativa) m
Common Millet (Panicum miliaceum) 116
German Millet (Setaria Italica = S. panis) 118
Green Foxtail (Setaria viridis = Chcetochloa viridis) 118
Yellow Foxtail (Setaria glauca = Chcetochloa glauca) 124
Darnel (Lolium lemulenlum) 125
Chess (Bromus secalinus) 1 30
Buckwheats (Polygonaceoe) 132
Common Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) 132
Tartary Buckwheat (Fagopyrum Tartaricum) 138
Black Bindweed (Polygonum Convolvulus) 138
Other Polygonaceous Seeds , 144
WEED SEEDS 145
Screenings 145
European 145
American 146
Analyses 147
Methods of Examination 148
CaryophyllacEous Seeds (Caryophyllacece) 148
Cockle (Agro stemma Githago) 14S
Cow Herb (Vaccaria parvifiora —Saponaria Vaccaria) 151
Soapwort (Saponaria officinalis) jj,
Spurrey (Spergula arvensis) u2
Ranunculaceous Seeds (Ranunculaceoi) " 152
Buttercup Fruit (Ranunculus arvensis) 153
Adonis Fruit (Adonis aestivalis, A. Flammed) ,c.
Larkspur Seed (Delphinium Consolida) i55
Louse Seed (Delphinium Staphysagria) ter
Black Caraway (Nigella arvensis) I55
Miscellaneous Weed Seeds IS6
Cow Wheat (Melampyrum arvense) 1 c6
Bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis) 1 57
CONTENTS. VU
PAGE
Wild Carrot {Daufus Caroia) 158
Hollow Seed (Bijora radians) 159
Cornflower (Centaurea Cyanus) 160
Cleavers {Galium) 161
Plantain {Plantago major, P. lanceolata) 163
FUNGUS IMPURITIES 164
Ergot {Claviceps purpurea) .■ 164
Smuts {Ustilago, Tilletia, etc.) 166
PART III.
OIL SEEDS AND OIL CAKES.
OIL SEEDS 169
Oil-seed Products 169
Methods of Examination 1 70
Cruciferous SEEds (Cfuci)erce) 173
Microscopic Characters 173
Analytical Key 175
White Mustard (Brassica alba) 177
Black Mustard {Brassica nigra) 180
Brown Mustard {Brassica Besseriana) 183
Charlock {Brassica arvensis) 184
Common Rape {Brassica Napus) 186
German Rape {Brassica Rapa) 187
Indian Colza {Brassica campestris var. Sarson) 188
Brown Indian Rape {Brassica Napus var. dichotoma) 18S
Indian Mustard {Brassica juncea) 180
Palai Rape {Brassica rugosa) 1 89
Dissected Mustard {Brassica dissecta) 1 89
Eruca {Eruca saliva) 190
False Flax {Camelina saliva) 190
Hedge Mustard {Sisymbrium officinale, S. Sophia, etc.) 192
Shepherd's Purse {Capsella Bursa-Pastoris) 192
Wild Peppergrass {Lepidium Virginicum, L. campeslre, L. sativum) 193
Field Pennycress {Thlaspi arvense) igj
Treacle Mustard {Erysimum orientate) 194
Wild Radish {Raphanus Raphanistrum) 194
Winter Cress {Barbarea vulgaris) 194
Composite Oil Fruits {Composites) 195
Sunflower {Helianthus annuus) 195
Madia Seed {Madia saliva) 198
Niger Seed {Guizotia A byssinica = G. oleijera) 200
Miscellaneous Oil Seeds 202
Linseed {Linum usitatissimum) 2G2
Cottonseed {Gossypium herbaceum) 207
Kapok Seed {Ceibo pentandra —Eriodendron anfraciuosum) 213
viii CONTENTS.
PAGB
Hemp Seed (Cannabis sativa) ? 214
Sesame Seed (Sesamum Indicum) 219
Castor Bean (Ricinus communis) 222
Candlenut (Aleurites triloba =A. Moluccana) 224
Poppy Seed (Papaver somniferum) 225
Olive (Oka Europea) 228
PART IV.
LEGUMES.
LEGUMES (Leguminosm) 233
Microscopic Characters 233
Analytical Key 235
Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) 238
Spanish Bean (Phaseolus multiflorus) 240
Adzuki Bean (Phaseolus Mungo, var. glaber) , . . . . 241
Lima Bean (Phaseolus lunatus) 241
Pea (Pisum arvense, P. sativum) 242
Lentil (Lens esculenta =Ervum Lens) 245
China Bean (Vigna Catjang = V. Sinensis = Dolichos Sinensis) 247
Soy Bean (Glycine hispida =Soja hispida) 248
Egyptian Bean (Dolichos Lablab = Lablab vulgaris) 249
Horse Bean (Faba vulgaris = Vicia Faba) 250
Spring Vetch (Vicia saliva) 251
Winter Vetch (Vicia villosa) 252
Hairy Vetch (Vicia hirsuta) : 252
Yellow Lupine (Lupinus luteus) 253
White Lupine (Lupinus albus) 255
Blue Lupine (Lupinus anguslijolius) 255
Chick Pea (Cicer arietinum) 256
Soudan Coffee (Parkia Africana, P. Roxburgii) 257
Jack Bean (Canavalia ensiformis, C. oblusijolia) 258
Fenugreek (Trigonella Faenum-Grcecum) 259
Coffee Cassia (Cassia occidentalis) 262
Astragalus (Astragalus bceticus) 264
Alfalfa (Medica sativa) 265
Peanut (Arachis hypogtza) 269
Tonka Bean (Coumarouna odorata =Dipteryx odorata, etc.) 275
Carob Bean (Ceratonia Siliqua) m 2-7
CONTENTS. ix
PART V.
NUTS.
PAGE
NUTS 281
Palm Fruits {Palmes) 281
Cocoanut {Cocos nucifera) 281
Palm-nut {Eltzis Guineensis) 290
Wax-palm {Corypha cerijera = Copernica cerifera) 292
Ivory-nut {Phytelephas macrocarpa, etc.) 293
Polynesian Ivory-nut {Coelococcus) 295
Walnuts (JuglandaceiB) 295
European Walnut (Juglans regia) 295
Black Walnut {Juglans nigra) 298
Butternut {Juglans cinerea) 298
Pecan Nut {Carya olivcejormis) 298
Hickory-nut {Carya alba) .' 299
Cup Nuts {Cupulijercs) 299
Chestnut {Casianea sativa, etc.) 299
Acorn {Quercus) ; 302
Beech-nut {Fagus sylvatica, F. ferruginea) 307
Hazelnut {Corylus) 309
Miscellaneous Nuts 312
Brazil-nut {Bertholletia nobilis) 312
Pistachio-nut {Pistacia vera) 315
Pine-nut {Pinus Pinea, P. Cembra) 316
PART VI.
FRUIT AND FRUIT PRODUCTS.
FRUIT 3i7
Fruit Products 317
Adulterants 317
Methods of Examination 318
Rosaceous Fruits {Rosacea) 32 1
Apple {Pyrus Malus) 321
Pear {Pyrus communis) 326
Quince {Cydonia vulgaris = Pyrus Cydonia) 330
Almond {Prunus amygdalus) 332
Peach {Prunus Persica) 337
Apricot {Prunus Armeniaca) 339
Plum {Prunus domestica, P. triflora) 340
Cherry {Prunus avium, P. cerasus) 341
Rose Fruit, {Rosa canina) 342
Strawberry {Fragaria) 343
CONTENTS
PAGB
Red Raspberry (Rubus Idceus, etc.) 349
Black Raspberry (Rubus occidentalis) • 354
Blackberry (Rubus frulicosus, etc.) 354
SaxiFragaceous Fruits (Saxifragacea) 357
Red Currant (Ribes rubrum) 357
Black Currant (Ribes nigrum) 362
Gooseberry (Ribes Grossularia, etc.) 363
Ericaceous Fruits (Ericaceae) 3°°
Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon, etc.) 3"°
Blueberry (Vaccinium Myrlillus, etc.) 37°
Huckleberry (Gaylussacia resinosa) 373
Citrus Fruits (Rutacece) 376
Orange (Citrus Auraniium) 37°
Lemon (Citrus medica, var. Limon) 3^!
Citron (Citrus medica, var. genuina) 3^1
Miscellaneous Fruits 382
Grape (Vilis vinijera) 3^2
Fig (Ficus Carica) 3^6
Date (Phoenix dactylijera) 39°
Banana (Musa sapientum) 393
Pineapple (Ananassa saliva) 395
PART VII.
VEGETABLES.
VEGETABLES 397
Cucurbit Fruits (Cucurbitacece) 397
Pumpkin (Cucui bita Pepo) 398
Squash (Cucurbita maxima) 402
Cucumber (Cucumis sativus) 403
Muskmelon (Cucumis Melo) 405
Watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris) 406
Solanaceous Fruits (Solanacea) 410
Tomato (Solatium Lycopersicum=Lycopersiciim esculentum) 410
Tubers and Roots 414
Potatp (Solanum tuberosum) 414
Japanese Potato (Stachys Sieboldii) 415
Jerusalem Artichoke (Helianthus tuber osus) 416
Beet (Beta vulgaris) 4^
Carrot (Daucus Carota) 4!8
Turnip (Brassica Rapa) 419
Fungi 419
Truffles (Tuber) 420
Morels (Morchella, Gymitra, Hehella) 422
Mushrooms (Psalliota, Boletus) 423
CONTENTS. xi
PART VIII.
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR SUBSTITUTES.
PAGE
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS 427
Coffee (Coffea Arabica) 427
Liberian Coffee {Coffea Liberica) 438
Chicory (Cichorium Iniybus) 438
Dandelion (Leontodon Taraxacum) 440
Cocoa Bean (Theobroma Cacao) 442
Guarana (Paullinia sorbilis) ..." 45 1
Kola Nut (Cola acuminata) 452
Tea (Camellia Thea) , . . . . 452
Gromwell Leaves (Lithospermum officinale) 458
Willow Herb Leaves (Epilobium angustijolium = Chamaenerium angusti-
folium) 459
Willow Leaves (Salix) 461
Ash Leaves (Fraxinus sp.) ,. . 462
Rowan Leaves (Sorbus Aucuparia =Pyrus Aucuparia) 463
Mulberry Leaves (Morus alba, M. nigra) : 464
Coffee Leaves (Coffea Arabica) 466
Camellia Leaves (Camellia Japonica) 467
Cherry Leaves (Prunus avium) 468
Sloe Leaves (Prunus spinosa) 469
Rose Leaves (Rosa canina, etc.) 470
Strawberry Leaves (Fragaria vesca) ^-ji
Meadowsweet Leaves (Spirtza Ulmaria) 473
Wistaria Leaves (Wistaria Sinensis =Kraunhia floribunda) 475
Hydrangea Leaves (Hydrangea Hortensia) 476
Maple Leaves (Acer Negundo =Negundo fraxinifohum) 477
Oak Leaves (Quercus pedunculata, Q. sessiliflora) 477
Akebia Leaves (Akebia quinata) 478
Blueberry Leaves (Vaccinium Myrtillus) 480
Caucasian Tea (Vaccinium Arctostaphylos) 481
Other Tea Substitutes 483
Mate (Ilex Paraguariensis) 483
Coca (Erythroxylon Coca) 485
Tobacco (Nicoiiana Tabacum, N. rustica) 486
xii CONTENTS.
PART IX.
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
PAGB
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS 493
Impurities 493
Adulterants 494
Methods of Examination 496
Analytical Key 49^
Condimental Cattle and Poultry Foods 499
Methods of Examination 500
PipEraceous Fruits (Pipcracece) 502
Pepper (Piper nigrum) 502
Long Pepper (Piper cfpZcinarum, P. longum) . . . .- 511
Cubebs (/ iper Cubeba) 513
SolanacEods Fruits (Solanacece) 515
Paprika (Capsicum) 515
Cayenne Pepper (Capsicum fastigiatum, etc.) 523
Myrtaceous Fruits (Myrtacece) 526
Allspice (Pimenta officinalis, etc.) 526
Nutmegs and Mace (Myristicacece) , 531
True Kutmeg and Mace (Myristica jragrans) 531
Macassar Nutmeg and Mace (Myristica argentea) , 540
Bombay Mace (Myristica Malabarica) 540
Cardamoms (Zingiberacece) 542
Malabar Cardamom (Elettaria Cardamomum, Amomum Cardamomum,
etc.) 542
Ceylon Cardamom (Elettaria Cardamomum) 547
Umbelliferous Fruits (Umbelliferce) 549
Comparative Histology of Umbelliferous Fruits 550
Analytical Key 55 1
Fennel (Fceniculum capillaceum) cc2
Caraway (Carum Carvi) 555
Anise (Pimpinella Anisum) 1-58
Cumin (Cuminum Cyminum) 560
Coriander (Coriandrum sativum) cg2
Dill (Anetkum graveolens) ,-64.
Celery Seed (Apium graveolens) ,-g ^
Miscellaneous Fruits and Seeds 566
Star-anise (Illicium verum) -gg
Shikimi (Illicium religiosum) ,-,
Vanilla (Vanilla planijolia) ._,
Vanillon (Vanilla pompona) _-o
Bayberry (Laurus nobilis) __0
Juniper Berry (Juniperus communis) -o2
Barks- • '.'.'.'.'.'. '.'.'.'.'.'.'. 585
Cassia (Cinnamomum) 0,
Cassia Buds (Cinnamomum Cassia)
Ceylon Cinnamon (Cinnamomum Ccylonicum)
CONTENTS xm
PAGE
Clove Bark (Dicypellium caryophyllatum) 594
£anella Bark (Canella alba) 597
Rhizomes 599
Ginger (Zingiber officinale, etc.) 599
Turmeric (Curcuma longa) 602
Zedoary (Curcuma Zedoaria) 605
Galangal (Alpinia officinarum, A. calcarata) 606
Sweet Flag (Acorus Calamus) 608
Leaves 610
Sage (Salvia officinalis) 610
Marjoram (Origanum Majorana) 612
Savory (Satureja hortensis) 613
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) 615
Hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis) 615
Bay-leaf (Laurus nobilis) 616
Tarragon (Artemisia Dracunculus) 617
Wormwood (Artemisia vulgaris) 619
Sorrel (Rumex scutatus) 621
Flowers 622
Saffron (Crocus sativus) 623
Marigold Flowers (Calendula officinalis) 627
Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) 629
Cape Saffron (Lyperia crocea) 631
South African Saffron (Tritonia aurea = Crocosma aurea = Babiana aurea). 632
Maize Silk (Zea Mays) j. 632
Cloves (Eugenia caryophyllata = J 'ambosa Caryophyllus = Caryophyllus
aromaticus) 632
Clove Stems 636
Clove Fruit 637
Capers (Capparis spinosa) 639.
PART X.
COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
COMMERCIAL STARCHES 643
Analytical Key 649
Maize Starch (Zea Mays) 651
Rice Starch (Oryza sativa) 652
Wheat Starch (Triticum sativum) 653
Buckwheat Starch (Fagopyrum esculentum) 654
Leguminous Starches (Leguminosce) 65s
Chestnut Starch (Castanea vesca) 656
Horse-chestnut Starch (JEsculus Hippocastanum) 657
Bean-tree Starch (Castanospermuni Auslrale) 658
Banana Starch (Musa) 658
xiv CONTENTS.
PAGB
Bread-fruit Starch (Artocarpus incisa) 659
Potato Starch {Solarium tuberosum) 659
Maranta Starch or West India Arrowroot {Maranta arundinacea) 660
Curcuma Starch or East India Arrowroot {Curcuma) 662
Canna Starch or Queensland Arrowroot {Canna) 662
Yam Starch or Guiana Arrowroot (Dioscorea) 663
Cassava Starch {Manihot utilissima, M. aipi) 664
Sweet-potato Starch or Brazilian Arrowroot {Batatas cdulis = 1 pomcea
Batatas) 665
Arum Starch or Portland Arrowroot {Arum) 666
Tacca Starch or Tahiti Arrowroot {Tacca pinnatifida) 667
Sago {Meiroxylon, Sagus, etc.) 667
Miscellaneous Starches 669
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY 671
GLOSSARY 675
INDEX 685
THE MICROSCOPY OF VEGETABLE FOODS.
PART I.
PRELIMINARY: EQUIPMENT, METHODS AND
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
INTRODUCTION.
The Microscopy of Vegetable Foods is an applied analytical
science having for its purpose the identification of food products of vege-
table origin by the microscopic structure and microchemical reactions
of their tissues and cell-contents.
It is a branch of Analytical Vegetable Histology, other important
branches being the Microscopy of Drugs, or Microscopic Pharmacognosy,
and the Microscopy of Fibers.
Preliminary Study. As the microscopy of foods, like the allied branches
of analytical histology, is a department of applied botany, it cannot be
properly taken up until after a course of instruction in the parent science,
especially that part relating to the histology or microscopic anatomy of
phanerogamic plants. To omit this is as irrational as to undertake the
study of analytical chemistry without previous knowledge of general
chemistry.
This training in botany need not, however, be more than is given in a
good high-school course with practical histological work, although a sup-
plementary course in the histology of phanerogams is highly desirable.
The student should begin his work in food microscopy with a sys-
tematic study of the most important seeds, fruits, leaves, flowers, roots,
and barks used as foods or food adulterants. This work should include:
(i) the macroscopic anatomy; (2) the histology as studied in transverse
(less often longitudinal or tangential) sections ; (3) the histology as studied
2 PRELIMINARY.
in surface preparations of the successive layers obtained by scraping or
stripping; and (4) the microscopic characters of the powdered, pulped, or
macerated material. Macroscopic preparations show the general nature
and relative size of the parts; cross-sections, the number of layers, order
of arrangement, and certain details of structure; surface mounts, the
details of cell structure most useful in practical work; and mounts of
the powdered material, much that is learned from surface mounts and in
addition the characters of the isolated cell-elements and cell-contents.
The student who has not the time, apparatus, or technique for cutting
careful sections can use permanent mounts of a collection, or can even
depend on illustrations of such sections, but he should prepare his own
mounts for the study of each material in surface view or powder form.
After this general work, which is analogous to the study of the reac-
tions of the several bases and acids in his course in analytical chemistry,
the student is prepared to undertake the diagnosis of mixtures. In this
work he will find that of some materials, such, for example, as ground
coffee, he can pick out fragments large enough for cutting sections, or
preparing surface mounts by scraping, but as a rule he must depend
entirely on the microscopic appearance of the powder. His knowledge
gained by his study of sections and surface mounts of standard material
will, however, be invaluable to him in interpreting the results of his exami-
nations of powders.
The object of this book is to aid both the student and the practical
worker, assuming that both are familiar with the general principles of
elementary botany, vegetable histology, and microtechnique, or at least
are in a position to use intelligently reference works on these subjects.
Relation to Chemical Analysis. Although the work of microscopic
examination is distinctly botanical its chief value is in conjunction with
chemical analysis, and for this reason is more often undertaken by the
analyst with a moderate knowledge of vegetable histology than by the
professional botanist. Only in large institutions can the work be divided
among specialists.
Both analytical chemistry and analytical histology, although widely
unlike in their processes, are used in solving problems relating to the
nature or purity of powdered foods, drugs, and other products of vegetable
origin. Sometimes one line of investigation alone is useful, sometimes
the other, but often each throws some light on the problem, thus furnishing
an indisputable chain of evidence.
Analytical chemistry determines the amount of fiber, starch, protein
INTRODUCTION. 3
oil, etc. ; analytical histology, the shape, size, reactions, and other char-
acteristics of the cells and cell-contents. Analytical chemistry usually
stops with the mere determination of the amount of chemical constituents ;
analytical histology goes further, and names the seeds, roots, barks, or
other vegetable products from which the material was prepared. Ana-
lytical chemistry answers a question in scientific terms ; analytical histology
in terms which all can understand.
In many cases a satisfactory idea of a material is gained only by fol-
lowing out both lines of investigation. By chemical analysis we learn the
percentage of protein, fiber, starch, etc., but not the ingredients from which
they were derived; by microscopic analysis we learn the ingredients,
but gain little idea of their proportion; but given the results of both
analyses, we may often calculate approximately the percentage of the
different materials present.
If, for example, we find in ground cloves 5 per cent instead of 15 per
cent of essential oil, and 40 per cent instead of 8 per cent of fiber, we know
it is not pure cloves; if we find under the microscope a large amount of
stone cells and other tissues of the cocoanut shell, we learn the adulterant.
Knowing all this, and knowing the average percentage of volatile oil in
cloves and of fiber in both cloves and cocoanut shells, we have the data
for calculating roughly the percentage of each in the mixture.
Mineral salts and other inorganic constituents of a mixture are iden-
tified by chemical or microchemical tests, and the amounts present deter-
mined by chemical methods.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.1
Elementary Botany
Bergen: The Foundations of Botany. Boston.
Bessey: Botany for High Schools and Colleges. New York, 1880.
Leavitt: Outlines of Botany. New York.
Structural Botany.
Gray: Structural Botany. New York, 1880.
Vegetable Histology.
See p. 27.
1 Works in English.
4 PRELIMINARY.
Microscopy of Drugs.
Greenish: Foods and Drugs. London, ioio.
Jelljffe: Introduction to Pharmacognosy. Philadelphia, 1904.
Ksaemek: A Course in Botany and Pharmacognosy. Philadelphia, 1910.
Microscopy of Fibers.
Matthews: The Textile Fibers. New York, 1913.
Technical Microscopy.
Hanausek (Trans, by Winton) : The Microscopy of Technical Products (Starch,
Textiles, Paper, Wood, Leaves, Barks, Bone, Horn, etc.). New York, 1915.
Winslow: Elements of Applied Microscopy. New York, 1905.
Chemical Microscopy.
Chamot: Elementary Chemical Microscopy. New York, 1915.
Chemistry of Foods.
Battershall: Food Adulteration and its Detection. New York, 1887.
Bell: The Chemistry of Foods. London, 1881.
Blyth: Foods, their Composition and Analysis. London, 1903.
Hassall: Food, its Adulteration and the Methods for their Detection. London,
1876.
Leach: Food Inspection and Analysis. New York, 1914.
Leffmann and Beam: Select Methods of Food Analysis. Philadelphia, 1905.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chemistry, Bulletins, 13, 46, 65, and 107.
APPARATUS.
It is beyond the province of this work to describe the construction of
the microscope and microscopic apparatus, or give instructions for their
care and use. Those who desire information of this nature are referred
to the works named on p. 19 and the pamphlets issued by the leading
makers of instruments.
The list of apparatus which follows is designed merely as a guide
for the purchaser.
Essential Apparatus. The apparatus described under this head is
essential for the most elementary work in food microscopy; on the other
hand, it is sufficient for verifying nearly all the descriptions in this
volume, and for undertaking most of the problems encountered in prac-
tical work.
Compound Microscope. The stand should be of the Continental
type, and should be provided with two objectives, a double nose-piece,
two eye-pieces, an eye-piece micrometer, and a substage diaphragm.
A satisfactory range in magnification is secured by £ and £ objectives
and 1- and 2-inch eye-pieces, of English and American makers, or Nos. 2
and 6 objectives and II and IV eye-pieces of Continental makers.
A simple form of eye-piece micrometer is suited for our purpose. It
may be calibrated by means of a stage micrometer.
The double nose-piece, enabling the worker instantly to change from
one objective to the other, is an inexpensive convenience that adds so much
to the utility of the instrument that it may be regarded as a necessity.
For ordinary work the only substage attachments needed are the
mirror and a simple diaphragm, but the substage should be of such a
construction as to permit the introduction of a substage condenser and
an iris diaphragm.
5
6 PRELIMINARY.
Simple Microscope, A pocket lens will answer the purpose, but an
instrument with a stage and adjustable arm for the lenses is much more
convenient.
Turn-table with centering pins for ringing permanent mounts.
Section Razor. This should be plano-concave and have a keen,
thin edge for cutting soft tissues. Another razor with a stronger edge
is useful for cutting hard materials.
Hone.
Strop.
Dissecting-needle Handles with interchangeable needles.
Scalpel.
Forceps with fine points.
Slides of the usual size (3X1 inch) may be obtained either of thick
or thin glass, as preferred.
Cover-glasses. No. 2 round cover-glasses J inch in diameter are
recommended for both temporary and permanent mounts.
Reagent Bottles with stopper pipettes ground into the neck.
Watch-glasses.
Supplementary Apparatus. The following accessories, although not
essential for ordinary work, should be in every well-appointed microscopi-
cal laboratory.
A Substage Condenser with an iris diaphragm attached is valuable
in securing sufficient illumination on dark days.
Polarizing Apparatus.1 This apparatus is useful chiefly in the exami-
nation of starch grains, crystals, and thickened cell-walls. It consists
of two Nicol prisms, one (the polarizer) mounted in the substage, the
other (the analyzer) in the tube or above the eye-piece. Selenite plates
for use with the polarizing apparatus may be mounted either in a revolving
disk in the substage, or in a metal slip for use on the stage under the
object-slide.
A Mechanical Stage is of service in examining systematically every
portion of a mount. A detachable form is recommended, as there are
many times when this attachment is a hindrance rather than a con-
venience.
Microtome. This instrument is of value in preparing uniformly thin
sections, particularly of soft tissues. In preparing a series of sections
•A convenient micropolariscope, arranged for instantly changing from plain to
polarized light and vice vorsa, has been described by the writer. Jour. Appl. Micros
1899, 1, 51.
APPARATUS. 7
it is invaluable. It is, however, an instrument for special investigation,
and not for practical food examination.
Paraffine Bath. For use in paraffine embedding.
Camera Lucida. Useful in making drawings.
Photomicrographic Apparatus. This is especially useful in preparing
exhibits for court cases.
REAGENTS.
The following reagents comprise all that are needed for practical
work. Others which are useful in special investigations are described
in Strasburger's and Zimmerman's works. (See Bibliography, p. 19.)
Acetic Acid. Glacial or 99 per cent acetic acid diluted with 2 parts
of water.
Alcohol. In dehydrating preparations for mounting in xylol balsam,,
absolute alcohol is used, but for preserving, hardening, and most other
purposes ordinary 95 per cent alcohol meets every requirement.
Alcanna Tincture. Macerate 20 grams of alkanet root for severaL
days with 100 cc. of water. Dilute with an equal volume of water as used.
Ammonia Water. The concentrated solution containing about 30
per cent of ammonia gas is used in making Schweitzer's reagent and for
some other purposes. For the turmeric test the concentrated solution
should be diluted with 10 parts of water.
Canada Balsam in Xylol. The solution prepared ready for use may
be obtained of all dealers in microscopic supplies.
Chloral Hydrate Solution. Dissolve 8 parts of chloral hydrate in 5
parts of water. See also p. 185.
Chloroform.
Chlorzinc Iodine Solution. Treat an excess of zinc with hydrochloric
acid, evaporate to a specific gravity of 1.8, and filter through asbestos-
As needed, saturate a small portion of the sirupy liquid first with potas-
sium iodide and finally with iodine.
The solution may also be prepared by dissolving 30 grams of zinc
chloride, 5 grams of potassium iodide, and 0.89 gram of iodine in 14 cc.
of writer. To prevent deterioration keep a few crystals of iodine in the
bottle.
Ether.
Ferric Chloride. Dissolve 1 part of the salt in 100 parts of water.
Fehling Solution. I. Dissolve 173 grams of crystallized Rochelle-
salts and 125 grams of caustic potash in water and make up to 500 cc.
II. Dissolve 34.64 grams of crystallized copper sulphate in water and
make up to 500 cc. Mix equal parts of I and II as needed.
8
REAGENTS. 9
Glycerine. For use as a mounting medium, dilute with an equal volume
of water.
Glycerine Jelly (Kaiser's). Soak i part of finest French gelatine
2 hours in 6 parts of distilled water. Add 7 parts of glycerine, and to
each 100 grams of the mixture, 1 gram of strongest carbolic acid. Warm
for 10 to 15 minutes with constant stirring, until the flakes from the car-
bolic acid disappear. Filter through previously moistened glass wool.
Warm as needed, and remove with a glass rod. Glycerine jelly is sold
by all dealers.
Glycerine Gum. Dissolve 10 grams of gum arabic and 2 grams of
glycerine in 10 cc. of water.
Hydrochloric Acid, Concentrated.
Iodine in Potassium Iodide. Dissolve 0.05 gram of iodine and 0.2
gram of potassium iodide in 15 cc. of water.
Iodine Tincture. Dissolve in 95 per cent alcohol sufficient iodine
to make a light coffee- colored solution.
All iodine solutions deteriorate on keeping, particularly if exposed
to the light.
Labarraque's Solution (chlorinated soda). Thoroughly triturate 75
grams of fresh chlorinated lime (bleaching-powder) with 600 cc. of water,
added in two or three successive portions, and filter. To the filtrate
add a solution of 150 grams of crystallized sodium carbonate in 400 cc.
of water, mix thoroughly, warm if the solution gelatinizes, and again
filter.
The solution gradually loses strength on standing, and should be
kept in stoppered bottles in a cool, dark place.
Javelle Water (chlorinated potash) may be prepared in the same
manner, substituting 58 grams of potassium carbonate for the sodium
carbonate. This reagent is used for the same purpose as Labarraque's
solution.
Millon's Reagent. Dissolve metallic mercury in an equal weight of
concentrated nitric acid and dilute with an equal volume of water. The
solution should be freshly prepared.
Nitric Acid, Concentrated.
Olive Oil.
Parafflne.
Phoroglucin Tincture. Dissolve 0.1 gram in 10 cc. of 95 per cent
alcohol. The solution deteriorates on keeping.
Potash Solution. Dissolve 5 grams of caustic potash (potassium
10 PRELIMINARY.
hydroxide) in ioo cc. of water. If desired, caustic soda may be substituted
for caustic potash.
The term "alkali" as used in this work refers to one or the other of
these solutions.
Safranin Solution. Prepare a saturated water solution, and dilute as
needed.
Schultze's Macerating Mixture. Mix a few crystals of potassium
chlorate with concentrated nitric acid immediately before using.
Schweitzer's Reagent ("ammoniacal copper solution," "cuprammonia,"
"cuoxam"). Precipitate cupric oxyhydrate from a solution of copper
sulphate by adding a slight excess of caustic soda or ammonia, filter and
thoroughly wash. Dissolve the moist precipitate in strong ammonia
with the aid of heat, cool, and filter from the precipitate which forms.
It should be freshly prepared, and kept in the dark.
Soda Solution. Five per cent solution of caustic soda (sodium hy-
droxide) may be substituted for potash solution as a clearing agent. In
the crude-fiber process, and for removing dark coloring matters, if per cent
solution is used.
Sulphuric Acid. The concentrated acid is employed in several tests.
It should be diluted to i\ per cent for use in the crude-fiber process.
Turpentine (spirits or oil of turpentine).
Xylol.
COLLECTIONS.
A collection of the vegetable materials used as foods or food adulterants
and mounts of such materials are as indispensable to the food microscopist
as is an herbarium to a systematic botanist. Many points of structure and
special reactions can be learned with the aid of such collections which
cannot be properly described in words or illustrated by figures.
Standard Materials. The collection should include not only the
fruits, seeds, barks, leaves, rhizomes, flowers, and other whole materials,
but also the various products prepared from them. Many of these may
be obtained from grain dealers, grocers, seedsmen and pharmacists,
others may be collected in the field or garden. Powders are conveniently
stored in screw-top bottles, which have the advantage over glass- or cork-
stoppered bottles that they more completely exclude dust. Fruits, vege-
tables, and other succulent materials are preserved in alcohol or formalde-
hyde. Especially useful is the collection of economic seeds prepared under
the direction of Frederick V. Coville, Botanist of the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, by Gilbert H. Hicks, also the cabinet of materia
medica specimens supplied by Parke, Davis and Company, Detroit,
Mich., U. S. A.
Microscopic Mounts. Powders such as flour, meal, and starch are
best mounted in water as occasion demands, but sections and other diffi-
cultly prepared specimens should be at hand in permanent form. The
collection of mounts may be prepared either by the microscopist himself,
or by a skilled worker from material of his selection. At present suitable
collections of mounts are not on the market
PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR
EXAMINATION.
MECHANICAL PREPARATION.
Cross-sections. In studying standard material cross-sections are
indispensable, as they show the number and arrangement of the cell
layers and certain details of structure. Longitudinal and tangential sec-
tions are of lesser importance. Sections are also useful in the examina-
tion of coarsely ground commercial products, such as ground coffee and
other materials containing fragments large enough for cutting. It should
be remembered, however, that, sections play a comparatively unimpor-
tant role in diagnosis, as most of the materials which the microscopist is
called upon to examine are fine powders and other preparations in which
the tissues have been torn one from another, and can only be studied in
surface view or as isolated elements.
Considerable discretion is required in the treatment preliminary to the
cutting of sections. As a rule, dried materials are best cut after soaking
in water for some hours or until thoroughly softened, although cruciferous
seeds and some other materials are best cut dry. Succulent fruits and
other fresh materials should be hardened in 50 per cent alcohol. Only
in the investigation of very delicate tissues is it desirable to resort to the
tedious process of impregnating with parafnne or collodion.
Large objects are held between the thumb and first finger during cut-
ting, small objects between pieces of elder pith, sticks of soft wood, or
in a hand vise, or else they are embedded in parafnne jor glycerine gum.
Wood for holding materials during cutting should be sawed across the grain
into sticks so that the razor or microtome knife will cut with the grain.
Glycerine gum is used not merely to embed the object, but also to
attach it to a piece of elder pith. The sections are cut after the gum
has hardened.
Parafnne may be used not only for dry materials, whether or not
impregnated with parafnne as described below, but also for fresh material
or material softened in water, provided the outer surface is carefully dried
PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR EXAMINATION. 13
to insure contact. It should have a melting-point of 54° or 740 C, and
is conveniently molded into sticks by melting at the lowest possible
temperature and pouring slowly into a glass or metal tube. The stick
may be loosened from the tube by gentle heating. The object is introduced
into a cavity in the end of th« stick, and the paraffine melted about it
with a hot wire or needle.
The section razor used for cutting soft objects should have a keen,
thin edge, but for cutting nut shells and other hard tissues another razor
with a beveled edge should be in readiness. Both are kept in order
by honing and stropping.
The microtome is a convenience but not a necessity, being used almost
exclusively in preparing permanent mounts for the collection or in diffi-
cult investigations. Many food microscopists use only a razor.
Impregnating and Embedding with Paraffine or Collodion is best carried
out with material preserved while fresh in 50 per cent alcohol, although
dry material may be soaked in water until the tissues are softened and
then transferred to 50 per cent alcohol. To facilitate the process, seeds
and small fruits should b& cut in half, and other materials in as small
pieces as practicable.
In carrying out the paraffine process the object is immersed successively
in the following : 65, 80, and 95 per cent alcohol, absolute alcohol, a mix-
ture of equal parts of xylol and absolute alcohol, xylol, a mixture of xylol
and paraffine (melting at 430 C), 430 paraffine kept at 50°, and finally
540 paraffine kept at 6o°. The time required for permeation in each of
these varies, according to the size and nature of the object, from one to
several days. Finally the object is removed from the paraffine to a suit-
able mold, covered with melted paraffine, and allowed to cool.
If the collodion process is followed, the object is treated with 50, 65,
80, and 95 per cent alcohol and abs'olute alcohol as above described, but
is removed from the latter to absolute ether, then to a mixture of ether
and collodion, and finally to pure collodion. It is then transferred to
a paper mould, covered with collodion, and, when the latter has
solidified, the whole is placed in 80 per cent alcohol, where the collodion
in some hours forms a cartilaginous mass enveloping the object.
Sections of fruit stones and nutshells are cut with a fine saw and after
being attached to a slide by hot Canada balsam are ground down to the
desired thickness on a whetstone. They are finally mounted in balsam.
Surface Sections are useful in studying epidermal tissues, fruit and seed
coats, and other cell aggregates forming distinct layers. They are much
14 PRELIMINARY.
easier to prepare than cut sections. Dried materials should be soaked
in water, after which the layers may usually be removed by scraping or
stripping. The separation of the coats from very small seeds is often
facilitated by soaking for some hours in dilute (i J per cent) caustic soda.
Boiling with dilute soda is sometimes desirable, particularly if the layers
contain coloring matters which render them opaque. The epidermal
layers of fruits can often be separated by plunging into boiling-hot water.
The bran coats of cereals, the seed coats of legumes, and oil seeds,
and the various layers of spices and other materials may be studied in
fragments picked out from the coarsely ground products with forceps or
separated by sifting. Even in quite finely ground products one often
finds large enough fragments for studying in surface view not only the
characters of the individual cells, but also the arrangement of the cells
in the layers.
The different layers in surface sections may become separated from
one another or they may remain in their original position one on top of
another. In the latter case it is often possible by careful focusing not
only to study successively the layers, but also .to determine their order of
arrangement. This is greatly facilitated by noting in preparing the
mount whether the outer or the inner surface is uppermost, and also by
comparison with cross-sections. Some materials which have no very
characteristic single layer can be identified by the combination of several
cell layers and their order of arrangement.
Powders. Since the food microscopist is called upon to examine
powders more often than any other class of products, he should familiarize
himself with the microscopic characters of standard materials in powder
form. Tissues in definite layers, such as epidermal cells, the bran coats
of cereals, and the coats of various seeds, have much the same appear-
ance in the ground material as in surface preparations ; except that in
fine powders the fragments are smaller, and radially elongated elements,
such as the palisade cells of legumes and cotton seed, often fall on their
sides, presenting the same appearance as in cross-section. Cells not in
layers, such as make up the endosperm of cereals and the cotyledons of
legumes, do not present a striking appearance in powder form, although
the contents of their cells, being liberated by the rupture of the cell-walls,
may be studied to advantage. Stone cells, vessels, and other detachable
elements are also striking objects in powders.
Commercial Powders should first be examined under a simple micro-
scope, either before or after separation into grades by sifting, and fragments
PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR EXAMINATION. 15
picked out fof subsequent examination under the compound microscope.
Mounts representing the whole material should also be made. If the
powder is too coarse for mounting directly, it may be reduced to an im-
palpable powder in an iron mortar, or a small portion may be crushed on
the slide with a scalpel.
Special instructions for the examination of flour are given on p. 52,
of cereal cattle foods on p. 58, of ground oil cakes on p. 171, and of
ground spices on p. 497.
Pulps. The flesh of ripe fruits may be examined as a pulp, hard
elements, such as vessels and stone cells, being especially distinct in such
preparations. The same method is used for commercial jams, jellies,
pastes, etc.
Maceration by Schultze's* method is useful in reducing hard materials
to a pulp, thus isolating the elements. The process consists in cautiously
heating a small amount of the material in a capsule with concentrated
nitric acid and a few crystals of potassium chlorate. As soon as the
tissues are sufficiently disintegrated, the solution is diluted with water and
the fragments washed thoroughly by decantation.
TREATMENT WITH REAGENTS.
Mounting in Water. Although water is usually regarded as an
inert substance, it serves in microscopic work as the most important
of all reagents ; in fact, if we had no other we would still be able to carry
on our work with reasonable success.
Water dissolves sugars, gums, certain proteids, and other cell-contents,
and in addition swells and partially dissolves constituents of the cell-walls.
Most of these soluble substances have no marked microscopic characters,
whereas the insoluble constituents, including starch and calcium oxalate
among cell-contents, and cellulose, lignin, suberin, and cutin of cell-wall
constituents, occur in striking and often highly characteristic forms.
For these reasons water is especially suited as a microscopic medium,
although it cannot of course be used for permanent mounts.
In the water mount we first observe whether starch is present, and
if so, note the characters of the grains. Addition of iodine solution dif-
ferentiates the starch grain from other bodies. We next turn our atten-
tion to the other elements, particularly the tissues. Starch, if present
in considerable amount, obscures the tissues, but can be converted
into a paste and thus rendered transparent by heating the mount to boiling
1 6 PRELIMINARY.
over a lamp, replacing the water lost by evaporation. This boiling,
which takes the place of treatment with alkali, chloral, or other clearing
agents, also renders the tissues more distinct by swelling the cell-walls.
Air bubbles may be removed from a section by soaking in a considerable
amount of recently boiled water.
Treatment with Iodine colors the starch grains of water mounts blue,
proteid matter yellow-brown, and cellulose, lignin, and other cell-wall
substances various shades of yellow.
The solution in potassium iodide acts more rapidly than the tincture,
coloring the starch grains a deeper shade of blue.
If the tincture is added directly to the dry or alcohol material, starch
grains are colored brown-yellow, changing to blue on dilution with water.
Treatment with iodine and then with Strong sulphuric acid colors
cellulose blue, lignified, suberized, and cuticularized tissues yellow. Chlor-
zinc iodine gives much the same color reactions as iodine and sulphuric
acid, and is more convenient. The best results are secured if the prepara-
tion is first soaked in water.
Treatment with Oil Solvents. Products containing a large amount
of fat, oil, or essential oil can be studied to advantage only after treatment
with chloroform, ether, turpentine, or some other oil solvent. Sections
may be soaked in the solvent in a covered watch-glass, and powders may
be extracted on a filter or in a fat extractor. More convenient methods,
provided subsequent treatment with reagents is not needed, are to mount
the section or powder directly in turpentine, which dissolves the oil, or else
in olive or almond oil which mix with the oil of the product. These
methods are especially useful in the study of aleurone grains.
Clearing. Alkalies (potassium or sodium hydrate) are the most
serviceable clearing agents for general use. The treatment may be per-
formed on the slide either by mounting directly in dilute alkali or bv adding
a small drop of 5 per cent alkali to a water mount, or in the case of dark-
colored tissues by boiling with i\ per cent caustic soda.
Alkali dissolves starch, proteids, various coloring matters and other
cell-contents. It also swells the cell-walls, and to some extent expands
compressed tissues.
Chloral Hydrate acts more slowly than potash and soda, but has the
advantage that it does not distort greatly the tissues.
Labarraque Solution (chlorinated soda) and Javellc Water (chlorinated
potash) are admirable reagents for bleaching tissues and expanding com-
pressed cells. They are particularly adapted for sections, but owing to
PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR EXAMINATION. 17
the difficulty of removing the bubbles, are less suited for powders. Sec-
tions should be soaked in the reagents (diluted if necessary) until the
desired result is attained, and then washed in water and finally in very
dilute acetic acid. They become so transparent by this treatment that
staining with safranin or some other dye is usually essential.
Crude Fiber Method. This process serves not merely for the quan-
titative determination of crude fiber, but also for clearing the tissues
for microscopic examination. After weighing the crude fiber a small
quantity may be removed for examination without introducing a per-
ceptible error in the subsequent determination of ash. The action is
so energetic as to destroy delicate tissues; but is valuable in clearing stone
cells and other sclerenchyma elements.
The process (which may be abbreviated if used merely for clearing)
is as follows: Extract 2 grams of the finely ground material with ether,
place in a 500 cc. Erlenmeyer flask, and add 200 cc. of boiling 1.25
per cent sulphuric acid. Loosely cover the flask, heat at once to boiling,
and boil gently thirty minutes. Filter on a paper, wash with hot water,
and rinse back into the same flask with 200 cc. of boiling 1.25 per cent
sodium hydroxide solution nearly free from carbonate. After boiling,
as before, for thirty minutes, collect the fiber on a weighed paper, thor-
oughly wash with hot water, and finally with a little alcohol and ether.
Dry to constant weight at ioo° C, and weigh. Deduct the amount
pf ash in the fiber, as determined by incineration, from the, total
weight.
Staining. Great numbers of stains have come into use for staining
cell-walls and cell-contents.
Safranin, a stain strongly recommended by Strasburger, has the advan-
tage over most other stains in that it differentiates very beautifully the
tissues, and does not, like most coal-tar colors, fade in glycerine mounts.
The best results are secured by soaking the section for some time in a
rather dilute water solution. Overstaining, with subsequent removal
of the excess with alcohol, is often advantageous.
Treatment with Other Reagents is carried on in a watch-glass, or on the
slide, as occasion demands. In the latter case the material is either
treated directly with a drop of the reagent, or it is first mounted in water,
and a drop of the reagent is drawn under the cover-glass by mean's of a
-piece of filter-paper placed on the opposite side.
Sections of impregnated material are attached to a slide by means
of Meyer's albumen fixative, then soaked in chloroform or xylol until
!8 PRELIMINARY.
the paraffine is dissolved, and finally treated with reagents and stains
ad libitum.
Permanent Mounting. The technical microscopist, as well as the
investigator, often has occasion to mount in permanent form objects
of special interest. If the material contains a large amount of oil, or if
it has been impregnated ' with paraffine, these should be removed by
treatment with chloroform, xylol, or other oil solvent. Objects which
have been cleared with alkali or Labarraque's solution should be washed
thoroughly in water and finally in very dilute acetic acid. Most other
reagents can be removed by water or alcohol. Staining is advisable if
the tissues are both colorless and transparent, and is essential if Canada
balsam is employed as the mounting medium. Air bubbles may be re-
moved by boiling or allowing to soak in a considerable bulk of freshly
boiled water. Slides and cover-glasses must be scrupulously clean and
free from finger prints.
The process of mounting is quite simple. A suitable sized drop of
the mounting medium is placed in the center of the slide, the object is
transferred to this, and the cover-glass is placed in position by means
of forceps. If too much of the medium is used, the excess is removed
with a piece of filter-paper; if too little, more is added from one side.
The mount is finally ringed with two or more coats of cement.
It is well to keep the slide on the turn-table not only during ringing,
but also while mounting, thus facilitating the centering of both object
and cover-glass.
Mounting in Glycerine. A mixture of equal parts of glycerine and water
is the best single medium for our purpose, since wet objects may usually
be mounted directly without staining or dehydrating, and can be removed
at any time for further treatment with reagents.
The mounting is greatly facilitated by so gauging the size of the drop
that it exactly fills the space beneath the cover-glass. If more is added,
or an excess removed, care should be taken to clean thoroughly the slide
about the cover-glass with a filter-paper, otherwise the cement will not
stick to the glass. The mount should be ringed two or three times with
a good cement, allowing it to dry at least 24 hours between the coats.1
Mounting in Glycerine Jelly requires less skill than mounting in glyc-
erine, but the heating necessitated by the process injures some materials,
1 The writer uses "King's Transparent Cement" for the first coat, and "King's Lacquer
Cell and Finish" (red or blue) or "White Zinc Cement" for the finishing coats, the three
colors being used to distinguish respectively cross, surface, and longitudinal sections.
PREPARATION OF MATERIALS FOR EXAMINATION- 19
and, furthermore, the objects are not so readily removed should occasion
demand.
A small cube of the solid or a drop of the melted jelly is placed on the
slide and heated gently until fluid throughout. The object, which may
be taken from water or glycerine, is then introduced, and the cover-glass,
previously warmed to prevent introduction of air bubbles, is placed in
position. After cooling, the excess of the jelly should be carefully removed,
and the mount ringed, as described for glycerine mounts.
Mounting in Canada Balsam can be carried out only with objects freed
from water. Dehydration is effected by soaking in 95 per cent alcohol,
absolute alcohol, and finally in xylol, chloroform, or oil of cloves. Stain-
ing is essential for objects with colorless tissues.
A drop of the xylol balsam is placed in the center of the slide, the
object is introduced, and the whole is covered with a slightly warmed
cover-glass. More balsam is added if, after standing, the space under
the cover-glass is not entirely filled. After the balsam has thoroughly
hardened, the excess may be removed and the mount ringed with colored
cement; this, however, is not essential, for the mount is permanent with-
out it.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.1
Behrens: Guide to the Microscope in Botany (Trans, by Hervey). Boston, 1885.
Chamberlain: Methods in Plant Histology. Chicago, 1915.
Lee: The Microtomist's Vade Mecum. Philadelphia, 1900.
Strasbtjrger and Hillhotjse : Handbook of Practical Botany. London, 1900.
Zimmermann: Botanical Microtechnique (Trans, by Humphrey) New York, 1901.
1 Works in English.
THE PRINCIPAL HISTOLOGICAL ELEMENTS.
TISSUES.
Parenchyma (Fig. i) is a general term for the simpler forms of tissues,
with thin walls composed usually of cellulose. The common types of
parenchyma cells are either isodiametric or somewhat elongated, and
may or may not have intercellular spaces at the angles. If the walls are
Fig. i. Parenchyma from the stem of maize, gw double wall between two cells; z inter-
cellular space produced by splitting of the double wall. (Sachs.)
of cellulose, chlorzinc iodine colors them blue and Schweitzer's reagent
dissolves them.
Spongy Parenchyma (Fig. 2) is a loose spongy tissue with numerous
intercellular spaces of considerable size.
Collenchyma (Fig. 3) is characterized by conspicuous thickenings at
the angles of the cells. The cell-wall is composed of cellulose, or a modi-
fication known as collenchym. This form of tissue occurs most com-
monly in subepidermal layers.
Sclerenchyma includes a great variety of tissues with thickened walls
composed chiefly of lignin. The walls of these cells as first formed
are pure cellulose, lignin being deposited on the inner surface of the
walls during subsequent growth. Chlorzinc iodine colors the walls yellow
THE PRINCIPAL HISTOLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 21
or yellow- brown ; phloroglucin and hydrochloric acid, pink; aniline sul-
phate, deep yellow.
Stone Cells (Fig. 4) are isodiametric, or moderately elongated seleren*
chyma elements, with thickened walls and conspicuous pores. They
occur either singly or in groups in parenchyma, or form dense tissues,
such as the shell of the cocoanut and the stone of the peach.
FlG. z. Spongy Parenchyma from the hull Fig. 3. Epidermis and Collenchyma
(spermoderm) of the common pea. from the petiole of Begonia, v
(Moeller.) thickened wall of collenchyma; chl
chlorophyl grains. (Sachs.)
Sclerenchyma Fibers (Fig. 5) occur in various parts of plants. Those
found in fibro-vascular bundles are known as Bast Fibers.
Other sclerenchyma tissues are found in stems, leaves, the coats of
fruits and seeds, and in various organs.
Epidermal Tissues have certain characteristics peculiar to their posi-
tion. They are usually covered by a membrane known as the "cuticle,"
composed of cutin, a substance related to lignin and suberin. Wax,
silica, calcium carbonate, and calcium oxalate also occur as epidermal
incrustations.
Stomata are made up of peculiarly differentiated epidermal cells.
(See pp. 28-30.)
Hairs and Glands, including many beautiful and characteristic forms,
are unicellular or multicellular outgrowths of epidermal layers. > '
22
PRELIMINARY.
Cork Cells form protective layers on stems and other parts. The
cells are arranged in radial rows, and are polygonal in surface view, quadri-
lateral in section. Suberin, the characteristic constituent, is repellent of
water.
Fibro-vascular Bundles (Figs. 6 and 25). The conducting elements
of plants are commonly grouped into vascular or fibro-vascular bundles, of
which the nerves of leaves and the strands of stems and roots are examples.
Fig. 4.
Stone Cells from the shell of the
cocoanut. (Winton.)
Fig. 5. Bast Fibers from the bark
of Sambucus nigra. (Vogl.)
A bundle is made up of two distinct parts: (1) the xylem, wood or had-
rome, consisting of vessels, tracheids, and other lignified elements, and
(2) the phloem, bast or leptome, consisting of sieve tubes, cambiform
cells, and other non-lignified elements.
Groups of bast fibers usually accompany the bundles.
For details as to the arrangement of xylem and phloem see pp. 39-45.
The Vessels of the xylem, also known as ducts and trachea, are thin-
walled tubes with annular, spiral, scalariform or reticulated thickenings,
or thick-walled tubes with pits or pores.
Tracheids resemble vessels in their markings, but consist of rows of
cells placed end to end, not open tubes.
#
THE PRINCIPAL HISTOLOGICAL ELEMENTS.
23
Sieve Tubes, the characteristic elements of the phloem, are thin-walled,
elongated cells, with perforated transverse partitions known as sieve plates.
These sieve plates also occur to some extent on the longitudinal walls.
Both the sieve tubes and the accompanying cambiform cells are com-
posed of cellulose.
Bast Fibers (Fig. 5) are long, pointed cells with lignified walls. Pores
through which pass diagonal, crossing fissures are usually evident.
Fig. 6. Fibro-vascular Bundle from the mesocarp of the cocoanut, in longitudinal section.
ste stegmata; Si silicious body; / bast fibers; t tracheids with- small pits; I' tracheids
with large pits; sp spiral vessel; r reticulated vessel; sc scalariform vessel; s sieve
tube; c and c' cambiform cells. (Winton.)
Latex Tubes (Fig. 341). These are branching tubes containing milky
secretions, found in various stems and roots, and occasionally in fruits.
CELL-CONTENTS.
Protoplasm, the living matter of the vegetable cell, includes: (1) cyto-
plasm, which in the growing stage is a viscous, stringy, more or less granu-
lar substance, but in the dried material has no marked characters ; (2) the
cell nucleus, a rounded body differentiated by staining and often evident
.. without; and (3) the plastids or chromatophores, including the chloro-
plasts, leucoplasts, and chromoplasts.
Chloroplasts, or chlorophyl grains, occur in all green parts, and play
an important r61e in assimilation (p. 29.)
Leucoplasts are inconspicuous, colorless bodies instrumental in the
formation of starch (p. 644).
24
PRELIMINARY.
Chromoplasts are orange or yellow bodies of various shapes to which
certain organs owe their distinctive color.
Proteins occur either in amorphous form or as aleurone grains. On
heating with Millon's reagent they form a reddish deposit; on treatment
with iodine solution they are colored yellow or brown.
Aleurone Grains (Fig. 7) are found in the perisperm, endosperm, and
embryo of seeds, particularly oil seeds, and like starch grains have marked
Fie. 7. Aleurone Grains; in the center two cells filled with aleurone grains. (T. Harhg.)
microscopic characters, which are often characteristic of the species
or genus. These grains vary in size from less than 1 fi to over 50 //.
Among the numerous shapes are round, oval, irregularly swollen, angular,
and warty forms. They are colored yellow or brown by iodine solution
and take up readily certain aniline dyes, haematoxylin, and other stains.
Being partly soluble in water, they should be mounted either in glyc-
erine after extraction of the oil in which they are often embedded, or
directly in oil or turpentine. Each grain consists of a ground substance,
in which are usually embedded one or more crystalloids, one or more
globoids, and often a crystal rosette of calcium oxalate, the whole being
inclosed in a thin membrane.
1. The ground substance consists of amorphous protein matter, and is
usually soluble in water, although after previous standing in alcohol it
dissolves slowly. It is also soluble in dilute alkali, acids, and various
reagents, but is not affected by oil or oil solvents.
2. Crystalloids are proteid crystals belonging to the isometric or hex-
agonal system. In some species they are so large that a single crystalloid
makes up the bulk of the grain, in others they are very minute. For the
most part they are insoluble in cold water, but dissolve in very dilute alkali
(less than 1 per cent), dilute acetic or hydrochloric acid. They are insol-
THE PRINCIPAL HISTOLOGICAL ELEMENTS. 25
ubie in saturated solution of picric acid (distinction from globoids) and
in saturated solution of sodium phosphate (distinction from all other con-
stituents of the. grains).
3. Globoids, according to Pfeffer, consist of lime and magnesia combined
with phosphoric acid and an organic acid. They are usually globular,
of uniform transparent structure, and are not colored by iodine solution.
They are insoluble in both cold and hot water, but unlike crystalloids are
soluble in saturated solutions of picric acid and sodium phosphate and
insoluble in dilute potash.
4. Calcium oxalate occurs as single crystals or as crystal rosettes.
These are insoluble in water, alkali, and acetic acid, but dissolve readily
in dilute hydrochloric acid.
Alkaloids are nitrogenous substances, often with marked stimulating
or toxic properties. Some, such as morphine and piperine, are crystalline
solids, others, such as nicotine, are liquids. Caffein and theobromin are
often classed as alkaloids.
Starch. See pp. 643-650.
Sugars occur in solution in certain stalks, roots, and fleshy fruits, and
in the form of crystals in dried fruits. Crystals are readily seen in alcohol
or glycerine mounts of raisins, figs, dates, etc.
Cane-sugar crystallizes in monoclinic prisms; It does not reduce
Fehling solution.
Invert-sugar consists of equal parts of dextrose and levulose, and is
formed by the splitting up or "inversion" of cane-sugar. In many fruits
both cane- and invert-sugar are present, although as a rule the large fruits
contain much more cane-sugar than the small fruits. As both dextrose
and levulose are reducing sugars, they are detected by heating the dry
object to boiling in a drop of Fehling solution diluted with two drops of
water. The red precipitate of copper suboxide thus formed is often
evident to the naked eye.
Other sugars occurring in plants are rafinose, mannit, dulcit, melitose,
etc.
Inulin is a water-soluble carbohydrate found in the roots of the dande-
lion and other composite plants. In alcohol material it forms sphaero-
crystals; in dried material, colorless, irregular lumps.
Gums. These include various mucilaginous substances, some of which
are formed in the cell, others are derived from the cell-walls. They swell
in water and are precipitated by alcohol.
Glucosides are compounds of sugars with organic acids. Some of
26
PRELIMINARY.
them, such as hesperidin, form needle-shaped crystals insoluble both in
water and dilute acids.
Tannins are themselves colorless, but are usually associated with
brown coloring substances. In the fresh material they are in solution,
but on drying they impregnate the tissues or form brown deposits. With
iron salts they become dark blue or green.
Fats and Fatty Oils rank with carbohydrates and proteids in impor-
tance. They occur in all parts of the plant, but are especially abundant
in certain seeds, where they serve as reserve material. The fats may form
amorphous masses, or beautiful crystals, while the oils occur as globules.
Both are soluble in ether, chloroform, benzine, turpentine, and xylol, and
form soaps with alkalis. With few exceptions they are insoluble in alco-
hol. On treatment for some hours with alcanna tincture, all fatty sub-
stances, as well as resins and essential oils, take on a beautiful red color.
Waxes are closely related to fats.
Essential Oils and Resins are formed in glands or secretory cavities,
and are distinguished from fats and fatty oils by their solubility in alcohol.
T
Fig. 8. Crystals of Calcium Oxalate, a large single crystal; e crystal rosette or cluster;
b intermediate form. (Kny.)
Calcium Oxalate. Lime is one of the elements essential for plant
growth, its chief function being to render poisonous oxalic acid harmless
by conversion into insoluble calcium oxalate. Monoclinic, or rarely
tetragonal, crystals of this salt occur in certain tissues, and are often of
great service in diagnosis. Four distinct forms deserve special mention :
(i) crystal clusters or rosettes (Fig. 8, b and c), (2) large single crystals
(Fig. 8, a), (3) raphides or needle-shaped crystals (Fig. 9), and (4) crystal
sand or deposits of numerous minute crystals (Fig. 10).
THE PRINCIPAL HISTOLOGICAL ELEMENTS.
27
Calcium oxalate is distinguished from all other crystalline substances
by its insolubility in water, alkali, and acetic acid, its solubility without
Fig. 9. Raphides of Calcium Oxalate
from the flesh of the pineapple.
(Winton.)
Fig. 10. Crystal Sand of Calcium Oxalate
from the leaf- of belladonna. (Winton.)
effervescence in dilute hydrochloric acid, and the formation of crystals of
calcium sulphate with sulphuric acid.
Calcium Carbonate is present in certain plants as concretions or
cystoliths (.Fig. 169, cy), less often as crystals. It dissolves in dilute
hydrochloric acid with effervescence.
Silica forms an incrustation on certain epidermal tissues, and less often
occurs as warty bodies in peculiar cells known as stegmata (Fig. 6, Si).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.1
De Bary: Comparative Anatomy of the Vegetative Organs of the Phanerogams and
Ferns (Trans, by Bower and Scott). London, 1884.
Goodale: Physiological Botany. I. Outlines of the Histology of Phaenogamous Plants.
New York, 1885.
Strasburger, Noll, Schenck, and Schimper: A Text-book of Botany (Trans.
by Porter and revised by Lang). London, 1914.
1 Works in English.
MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS.
THE LEAF.
Leaves are specially developed for carrying on three processes: (i)
assimilation (photosynthesis), or the formation of organic matter through
the agency of light from carbonic acid and water, with exhalation of
oxygen; (2) respiration, or the oxidation of organic matter, with exhala-
tion of carbonic acid; and (3) transpiration, or exhalation of water drawn
up from the soil. As a rule they expose a large surface to the air, and have
FlG. 11. Leaf in Cross Section of Marshmallow (Althcea officinalis), e upper epidermis;
p palisade cells and p' spongy parenchyma of the mesophyl; e' lower epidermis; k
hairs; d glandular hairs; st stomata; K calcium oxalate rosette. (Vogl.)
special adaptations for facilitating or preventing communication with the
air, according to the needs of the plant.
A cross-section of a leaf (Fig. 11) shows that it is made up of a middle
layer or mesophyl of green tissues with a network of veins, between two
colorless cuiicularized epidermal layers.
28
MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS.
29
The Lower Epidermis (Fig. 12) consists of ground cells interspersed,
with stomata, and often with hairs or glands. The ground cells in surface
view differ greatly in character according to the species. Some are sharply
polygonal, or quadrangular, with straight walls, others have ill-defined
angles and wavy walls, and others still are irregular in outline. The
walls may be thin or thick, porous or non-porous; the cuticle smooth or
wrinkled.
Stomata are slits between two hemi-elliptical guard cells, which when
open allow free access of air to the mesophyl. In some leaves two or more
modified cells, known as accompanying cells, adjoin the guard cells. The
Fig. 12.
Epidermis with Stomata from the leaf of Hydrangea Hortensia, in surface view.
(Moeixer.)
guard cells of the stomata are the only cells of the epidermis containing
chlorophyl grains.
In addition to ordinary or air stomata a larger form known as water
stomata occurs on some leaves.
Hairs and Glands (secretory hairs) present an endless variety of beau-
tiful and characteristic forms. All hairs whether unicellular or multi-
cellular are epidermal outgrowths, but Emergences are made up of tissues
belonging both to the epidermis and the mesophyl.
The Mesophyl in the under part of the leaf forms a spongy parenchyma,
(Fig. 11, p') thus facilitating assimilation, respiration and transpiration,
but in the upper part it is a close tissue, often consisting of one or more
layers of palisade cells (p.).
Chlorophyl grains are present in all the mesophyl cells, but are most
abundant in palisade cells of the upper layers (Fig. n, p). They are
rounded bodies varying up to 12 /i in diameter. They consist of granules
(some green, others colorless) , proteid matter and starch grains, embedded
in a ground substance and surrounded by a membrane. During assimila-
3u PRELIM/NARY.
tion starch is continually being formed in these grains, but is soon dis-
solved and translocated to other parts of the plant. In dried leaves the
chlorophyl grains are more or less brown in color, and lack distinct char-
acters.
The Fibro-vascular Bundles of leaves are strongly developed in the
midribs and main branches, but in the smaller branches are rudimentary.
Spiral vessels are particularly abundant. Other elements which may
occur in the mesophyl are stone cells, crystal cells, resin cavities, oil cells,
latex tubes, etc.
The Upper Epidermis may or may not be similar to the under epidermis
in structure, but as a rule stomata are less abundant or absent.
Preparation of Materials.
Sections are cut with a razor, holding the leaf between pieces of pith.
In the case of thin leaves it is advisable to cut into several strips, place
one on the other, and section all together. Pieces of the epidermis are
readily stripped off from moist leaves with forceps. In powdered leaves
the elements are isolated by squeezing under the cover-glass.
THE FLOWER.
Although the four parts of the flower — sepals, petals, stamens, and
pistils — are metamorphosed leaves, usually only the sepals, less often both
sepals and petals, resemble leaves in outward appearance and structure.
Calyx. The sepals, like leaves, consist of mesophyl between two
epidermal layers. Stomata and often hairs are developed on one or
both epidermal layers. The mesophyl parenchyma usually contains
chlorophyl, but a well-developed palisade layer is seldom present. Bundles
are more or less strongly developed.
Corolla. The petals are of various colors and commonly of delicate
texture. Each consists of two epidermal layers and a middle tissue of
elongated parenchyma (corresponding to the chlorophyl parenchyma of
leaves) through which pass delicate bundles. Stomata are usually lack-
ing, but hairs and papilla? are often present. Spiral vessels, and less often
crystal fibers, are present in the bundles. The coloring matter of the
fresh petal is usually dissolved in the cell-sap, seldom in the form of chro-
moplasts.^ The perfume of flowers is due to essential oils present in the
cell-sap, in special cavities (nectaries), or in glands
MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS.
31
Stamens. Each consists of a slender, cylindrical (less often flattened,
leaf-like) filament, bearing at the apex an anther with a pair of pollen
sacs on each side of the central bundle (Fig. 13). On ripening, the sacs
Fig. 13. Anther of Datura Stramonium in cross section, c connective tissue with fibre-
vascular bundle; a outer pollen sacs; p inner pollen sacs. (FranKi)
of each pair unite, and finally the wall opens by a slit or pore, liberating
the pollen grains.
The walls of the anthers (Fig. 14) are composed of an outer layer
Fig. 14. Anther Wall in cross
section showing the outer
epidermis and the endothe-
cium with reticulated walls.
(Sachs.)
Fig. 15. Pollen Grains, i, 2 heath; 3, 4 linden;
5 blueberry; 6, 7 marjoram; 8, 9 lavender; 10,
11 sage; 12, 13 balm; 14, 15 rosemary; 16, 17
flax; 18 white mullein; 19, 2omelilot; 21 willow
herb; 22, 23 composite plants. (Villiers and
Collin.)
or epidermis, sometimes hairy, and an endothecium or inner layer of char-
acteristic cells with narrow radial ribs forming reticulations.
32
PRELIMINARY.
Pollen Grains (Fig. 15) are mostly globular, rounded, or tetrahedral,
either smooth or else covered with warts, bristles, or pits. They consist
of single cells clothed with two membranes ; the outer thick, forming a
kind of cuticle; the inner thin, forming the cell-wall proper. The con-
tents consist of protoplasm, often with, granules in suspension. When
the ripe pollen is deposited on the stigma the protoplasmic contents burst
Fig. 16. Pollen Grains and Crystals of Cane-sugar irom Honey, a pollen grains of furze:
b oi heath; c of some composite flower. (Hassall.)
out through clefts, or more commonly through pores, forming tubes whidr
penetrate through the tissues of the stigma and style into the ovule, effect-
ing fertilization. The shape, size, and markings of pollen grains are
often so characteristic as to permit the identification of the species, not
only in powders, but also in honey, thus furnishing evidence a. to the
flowers visited by the bee (Fig. 16).
The Pistil (Fig. i9) consists of stigma, style, and ovary, the latter
enclosing the ovules. The stigma is clothed with clammy" papilte, on
which the pollen grains lodge. The style is long or short, with a central
MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS.
33
■channel. It is made up of elongated elements. The ovary walls are
of quite simple structure, but the fruits into which they ripen are often
complex.
THE FRUIT (PERICARP AND SEED).
A fruit in its simplest form is a ripened pistil, consisting of pericarp or
matured ovary wall, and one or more seeds or matured ovules. In some
fruits, notably the apple and other pomes, the fruit flesh is developed from
Fig. 17. Cocoanut Fruit. 5 lower part of axis forming the stem; A upper end of axis
with scars of male flowers. Pericarp consists of Epi epicarp, Mes mesocarp with
fibers, and End endocarp or hard shell ; T portion of spermoderm adhering to endo-
sperm; Alb endosperm surrounding cavity of the nut; A" germinating eye: (Winton.)
receptacle and ovary wall. If the flower has several ovaries, these on
ripening form an aggregate fruit. A compound or multiple fruit consists
of the united fruits of several flowers. The receptacle of aggregate and
compound fruits is sometimes fleshy, forming the bulk of the fruit. Ex-
amples are the strawberry, an aggregate fruit with nutlets on the outside
of a fleshy receptacle, and the fig, a compound fruit with nutlets on the
inside of a hollow receptacle.
PERICARP.
The mature pericarp may be dehiscent (e.g. legumes, crucifers), or inde-
hiscent, and in the latter case may be entirely fleshy (e.g. grape, banana,
34
PRELIMINARY.
and other berries), entirely dry (e.g. acorn and other nuts), or partly
fleshy and partly dry (e.g. peach and other drupes). It may be distinct
from the seed or seeds (e.g. peach, legumes), or united with the seed (e.g.
cocoanut, wheat, and other cereals).
Mes
Fl%nLJ?1Vf • Ba?be^L<W1" nobilis^ in cross sectlon- Pericarp or fruit coat
"a^ &2S3- ^ ^^ and End end0Car^ * sper^dern, t^r
Since the pericarp is the ripened pistil and the pistil is a metamorphosed
leaf, all three are analogous in structure, each consisting of a middle layer
between two epidermal layers. The mesocarp, or middle layer of fruits
is often however more complex in structure than the mesophyl of leaves'
MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 35
The Epicarp (Figs. 17 and 18, Epi), or epidermis of the pericarp,
consists of a single layer of cells, often interspersed with hairs and rarely
with stomata.
The Mesocarp (Figs. 17 and 18, Mes) in some fruits forms a layer
several centimeters or even decimeters thick, in others is scarcely thicker
than a sheet of writing-paper.
The hypoderm, consisting of one or more layers adjoining the epicarp,
is often different in structure from the layers further inward.
The remainder of the mesocarp may be homogeneous throughout
except for fibro-vascular bundles, or may consist of several forms of cells
(stone cells, oil cells, etc.) irregularly distributed in a homogeneous
ground tissue, or arranged in distinct layers. The visible cell-contents
include starch, sugar, oil, tannin, chlorophyl, calcium oxalate, and other
substances.
The Endocarp (Figs. 17 and 18, End), strictly speaking, consists of the
innermost cell-layer, but in the case of nuts, dupes, and other fruits the
hard shell made up of numerous layers of stone cells is commonly desig-
nated by this term.
SEED.
In order to understand the structure of the seed it is essential to con-
sider the structure of the ovule from which it was developed, and the
changes this undergoes after fertilization.
An ovule (Fig. 19) consists of the body or Nucellus (s) in which is
embedded the Embryo sac (t), the whole being enclosed by one, or more
often two, coats or Integuments (p, q) with an opening at one end known
as the Foramen (m). The Chalaza (0) is the base of the ovule where the
integuments unite with the nucellus : the Hilum is the place of attach-
ment with the support or Funiculus. In orthotropous and campylotro-
pous ovules the chalaza is also the hilum, in anatropous and amphitro-
pous ovules they are more or less separated, and are joined by a ridge
known as the Raphe («).
The pollen grains soon after they are deposited on the stigma of the
flower send off tubes (Mm) which penetrate through the style into the
cavity of the ovary, and through the foramen into the nucellus, finally
entering the embryo sac and effecting fertilization. As a result of this
fertilization the Embryo and the Endosperm are formed in the embryo
sac, and these together with the Perisperm, consisting of the developed,
or more commonly, degenerated nucellus, the Spermoderm, consisting of
36
PRELIMINARY.
the matured integuments, and occasionally certain appendages, make up
the seed.
Either the embryo, the endosperm or the perisperm of the mature
Fig- 19. Flower of Simple Type in Longitudinal Section.
Stamens consist of c filaments and a, b anthers (a cross section, b after dehiscence show-
ing pollen grains).
Pistil consists of h stigma with i pollen grains sending off tubes, one of which (klm) has
reached and penetrated the ovule, g style, and / ovary, the walls of which later develop into
the pericarp.
Ovule consists of it funiculus (below) and raphe (above), 0 chalaxa, p outer integument,
q inner integument, in micropyle, s nucellus or body of the ovule, and t embryo sac in which,
through the agency of « antipodal cells, v synergidae, and z oosphere, are developed the
endosperm and the embryo.
d bases of sepals; c nectaries. (Sachs.)
seed may form the chief reservoir of reserve material, or, on the other
hand may be reduced to a rudiment.
MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS.
37
This reserve material may consist chiefly of starch (e.g. cereals), of oil
(e.g. cottonseed, linseed), or of cellulose (e.g. coffee, ivory nut).
A B
Fig. 20. Cardamom Seeds. A longitudinal section, X 3. B transverse section, X 5. p
perisperm; e endosperm; em embryo. The reserve material in the perisperm is largely
starch; in the endosperm and embryo it is oil and proteids. (Luerssen.)
The Spermodenn, Testa, or Seed Coat, includes all the layers developed
from the integuments of the ovule.1 It may be simple or complex, thin or
thick, soft or hard. In some seeds it con-
sists of but one or two thin layers (e.g.
cereals), in others of five or six distinct
layers, some of the layers being several
cells thick (e.g. cucurbits). Among the
common elements are thick- and thin-
walled palisade cells, stone cells, crystal
cells, spongy parenchyma, and ordinary
parenchyma. The "Nutritive Layer"
found in some seeds is a, parenchymatous
tissue containing in the early stages of
development reserve material, but later
forming an ill-defined, tissue of empty
compressed cells.
The hilum, chalaza, and raphe of the
ovule preserve their characters in the seed,
while the foramen becomes more or less
indistinct, forming the Micropyle.
The raphe (present in anatropous and
amphitropous seeds) is a bundle of vascu-
lar elements with more or less distinct
branches.
The appendages of the Spermoderm include the Arillus or seed mantle,
1 Some authors apply the term "testa'' only to that portion of the seed coat developed
from the outer integument of the ovule, the portion developed from the inner integument
(if present) being termed "tegmen." This usage leads to confusion owing to the difficulty
of tracing the origin of each layer.
Fig. 21. Linseed in cross section.
5 spermoderm or seed coat; £ endo-
sperm; C cotyledons. The reserve
material, consisting of oil and pro-
teids, is partly in the endosperm and
partly in the embryo. (Moeller.)
3«
PRELIMINARY.
an outgrowth from the hilum, the Arillode, an outgrowth from the micro-
pyle, and the Caruncle, a wart -like body formed on the micropyle, also
bristles, wings, and other appendages which
aid in disseminating the seeds.
The Perispenn or Nucellar Tissue is
usually a thin layer, often without cell struc-
ture, but in black pepper and cardamom
(Fig. 20, p) it forms the larger part of the
seed and contains the store of reserve starch.
The Endosperm constitutes the bulk of
many seeds (e.g. cereals), but is almost
entirely absent in others (e.g. bean, crucifers).
Fig. 22. Endosperm of Date 1
Stone with reserve material in In the cereals the outer layer or layers of
(MoELLERk)ened CeU WallS' the endosperm consist of aleurone cells, the
remainder, of starch cells; in linseed the
endosperm (Fig. 21, E), which constitutes about half of the seed, con-
tains aleurone grains and oil, but no
starch; in coffee and the date stone
(Fig. 22) the bulky endosperm contains
Teserve material in the form of thick-
ened cell-walls.
The Embryo is a young plant with
Cotyledons or seed leaves, Radicle or
young root, and Plumule or bud. It
may be embedded in the center or
one side of the endosperm (e.g. cereals,
eoffee), or it may constitute the bulk
of the seed (e.g. legumes, crucifers,
■cottonseed). In the latter case the
reserve material, which may be largely
starch or oil, is located chiefly in
the thickened cotyledons and radicle
(Fig- 23).
Fig. 23. Mustard Seed in cross sec-
tion. Embryo consists of c folded
cotyledons and r radicle. Reserve
material, consisting of oil and pro-
teids, is entirely in the embryo.
(Tschirch.)
THE STEM (BARK AND WOOD).
The stem is the axis connecting the leaf and root systems. It may
be aerial or subterranean, simple or branched, herbaceous or woody. In
some herbaceous plants it is exceedingly short, the leaves appearing to
■spring directly from the root, while in many herbaceous and all woody
MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 39
plants it consists of an elongated trunk with or without a system of
branches.
Not only does the stem serve to mechanically support the leaves, but
also, by means of the bundles, to distribute over the plant solutions of salts
absorbed by the roots, of carbohydrates assimilated by the leaf, and of
other organic substances formed in various parts of the plant. During
the resting season large amounts of reserve material are stored in stems.
AERIAL STEMS.
The nbro-vascular bundles of phenogamous stems are collateral, that
is, the phloem and xylem of each are in the same radial plane. Usually
the phloem is entirely on the outer side of the xylem, but in some stems it
is partly on the inner side (bicollateral).
In the stems of exogenous plants (dicotyledons and gymnosperms)
the bundles with the parenchyma separating them are arranged in a zone
between the pith and the cortex. The outer ring of the bundle zone con-
tains the bast fiber groups, the middle ring, the phloem groups, the inner
ring, the xylem groups. If the plant is perennial a ring of active cells or
cambium soon forms between the phloem and xylem rings, adding each
year new tissues to the inner side of the former and the outer side of the
latter. The layers outside of the cambium constitute the bark, those
between the cambium and pith constitute the wood.
The bundles of endogenous plants (monocotyledons) are irregularly
distributed through a parenchymatous ground tissue. There is no cam-
bium and no differentiation into bark and wood.
The following descriptions of annual and perennial stems apply only
to exogenous plants:
Annual Stems.
The stems of herbaceous plants and the young stems of woody plants
consist of at least four distinct zones :
i. Epidermis. This resembles the epidermis of the leaf. Stomata
and hairs are often present.
2. Cortex. The tissue is largely parenchyma, often with outer layers
of collenchyma and inner layers containing either bast fibers or stone cells,
or both.
3. Endodermis. This consists of a single layer of cells with thin but
suberized walls. Starch grains are usually found in the cells.
4o PRELIMINARY.
All the tissues inside of the endodermis form the central cylinder or
Stele.
4. Bundle Zone. The Phloem strand of each bundle consists of sieve
tubes, cambiform cells, and parenchyma; the Xylem strand, of vessels
(tracheae), tracheids (distinguished from vessels by the cross partitions),
and parenchyma. The bundles are separated from each other by paren-
chyma, developing in perennial stems into the medullary rays. Groups
of bast fibers are commonly present in the outer parenchyma, or Pericycle.
5. Pith. This consists entirely of typical parenchyma.
Perennial (Woody) Stems.
The structure of perennial stems (Figs. 24 and 25) is much more com-
plicated than that of annual stems, owing to the formation of secondary
bark and wood by the cambium, also of cork and secondary cortex by the
phellogen.
The Bark includes all the outer part of the stem up to the wood. It is
readily stripped off from the latter, especially during the spring, the separa-
tion being through the delicate cells of the cambium. Although many
barks are used in medicine (e.g. cinchona, slippery elm, cascarilla), and
in the arts (e.g. oak, hemlock), only cinnamon and its substitutes are of
importance as foods.
1. Cork. With the increase in diameter of the stem the epidermis is
ruptured and finally disappears entirely. In its place cork is formed by
an active (meristematic) layer known as the Phellogen. As the cells of
the phellogen divide by tangential partitions, the rectangular cork cells,
as seen in cross sections, are in radial rows. They usually have suberized
walls, and often contain dark contents with the reactions of tannin.
As the stems continue to grow the primary cork often suffers the same
fate as the epidermis, and is replaced by a secondary layer formed in the
cortex by a new phellogen. This secondary cork may later be replaced
by a tertiary, and so on.
2. Secondary Cortex, a thin-walled tissue hardly distinguishable from
the primary cortex, is formed from the phellogen on the inner side.
3. Primary Cortex. The parenchymatous ground tissue often contains
starch and crystals of calcium oxalate. Stone cells and bast fibers may
also be present. The endodermis of old stems is not usually distinguishable
from the other layers.
4. Pencyle, This may consist of parenchymatous ground tissue with.
MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS.
41
isolated groups of bast fibers, or of a "mixed ring" composed chiefly of
stone cells and bast fibers.
5. Bast. Like the phellogen, the cambium forms one kind of tissue
on the outside, another kind on the inside. These are respectively the
phloem and the xylem, a layer of each being produced each year. The
phloem layers of different years' growth, together with the separating
Fig. 24. Branch of the Linden, in cross section, showing the bark and three annual layers
of wood. (Kny.)
partitions or medullary rays, form the bast ring. In addition to sieve
tubes, cambiform cells, and parenchyma, the bast may contain oil cells,
mucilage cells, latex tubes, and other elements. Starch is often present.
Microscopic Elements 0} Barks. The elements of chief importance in
diagnosis are bast fibers, stone cells, starch grains, and cork. The other
elements have less striking characters.
Wood. The wood elements, like the phloem elements, are in radial
rows, separated by medullary rays, and also in annual layers. The ele-
ments include vessels and tracheids of numerous types, wood fibers,
parenchyma, and medullary "parenchyma. The parenchyma cells often
42
PRELIMINARY.
contain starch and calcium oxalate, and all the tissues may contain or be
impregnated with resins, essential oils, etc.
Woods are not used as foods, but sawdust and red sandalwood powder
are common adulterants.
a b c d e f g h i k I m n o
Fig. 25. Elements of a Dicotyledonous Fibro-vascular Bundle in longitudinal section._ a
parenchyma of pith; b annular vessel passing into spiral vessel; c spiral vessel; d reticu-
lated vessel; e wood parenchyma; / wood fiber; g pitted vessel; h wood parenchyma;
i cambium layer; k cambiform cells; / sieve tubes; m sieve parenchyma; n bast fibers;
0 parenchyma. (Kny.)
The Microscopic Characters of woods of angiosperms and gymnosperms
as given by Moeller are as follows :
The Wood of Angiosperms is characterized by the vessels with numerous
small pits (Fig. 26, g). More abundant than these are the wood fibers
(/) occurring mostly in bundles, accompanied often by wood parenchyma
(p), and crossed by medullary parenchyma (m). Simple crystals of calcium
oxalate in crystal fibers occur in many tropical woods (Fig. 28, k).
Determination of the species or even the genus by the characters of
the powder is very difficult. Chief dependence must be placed on the
structure of the vessels.
The Wood of Gymnosperms consists in large part of tracheids with
single rows of bordered pits (Fig. 27, t), which, except in the spring wood,
where they occur sparingly, are on the sides adjoining the medullary rays..
These are most striking in radial sections. Well-formed oxalate crystals
MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS.
43
are absent. The wood of certain European species may be distinguished
by the_ characters of the medullary rays.
Fig. 26. Sawdust of an Angiospermous Wood, p wood parenchyma; / wood fibers;
g vessels with numerous pits; m medullary rays in radial and tangential view; K crystal ,
cells. X160. (Moeller.)
SUBTERRANEAN STEMS.
To this class belong Rhizomes or root-stalks (e.g. ginger), Tubers (e.g.
potato), and Corms (e.g. cyclamen). Rhizomes in common parlance
Fig. 27. Sawdust of a Coniferous Wood, t tracheids with single rows of pits; m medul-
lary rays; p parenchyma. X 160. (Moeller.)
are classed with roots. Bulbs (e.g. onion) are subterranean stems
covered with leaf scales.
44
PRELIMINARY.
Many subterranean stems are reservoirs of starch, sugar, inulm, and
other reserve materials, and are important foods. Their tissues are much
A
B
,711
Fig. 28. Red Sandalwood {Pterocarpus santalinus), A radial seclion; B tangential sec-
tion, k crystal fibers; I wood fibers; p wood parenchyma; g bundle; m medullary
rays. X 160. (Moellee.)
simpler than those of aerial stems, consisting chiefly of parenchyma with
a thin covering of cork and relatively few bundles. In the rhizomes of
dicotyledons the bundles, like those of aerial stems, are collateral ; in those
of monocotyledons they start as collateral, but later often become con-
centric, with the xylem encircling the phloem. Mechanical elements,
being unnecessary, are usually few or entirely lacking.
THE ROOT.
The root fixes the plant in the soil and absorbs the water and mineral
matters essential for life and growth. In certain plants the root is fleshy,
serving as a storehouse for reserve material. The roots used as foods
include the turnip, beet, carrot, parsnip, chicory, and others.
Annual Root.
The general structure resembles that of dicotyledonous stems, but the
elements of the epidermis and the arrangement of the bundles are quite
different.
MORPHOLOGY OF ORGANS. 45
i. Epidermis. Root hairs, consisting of blunt, thin- walled outgrowths
from the center of epidermal cells, are found on young roots. Hairs
such as occur on aerial parts, as well as stomata, are never present.
2. Cortex. This is a parenchyma tissue similar to that of stems.
Chlorophyl is absent.
3. The Endodermis is characterized by the suberized and often
thickened walls.
4. Bundle Zone. The outer layer (pericycle or pericambium) is of
parenchyma. The bundles proper are of the radial type the phloem and
xylem being side by side, not one in front of the other, as in the collateral
bundles. The groups of xylem and phloem elements alternating with one
another form a chain about the center of the root.
5. Pith. This may or may not be evident.
Certain fleshy annual roots, such as the beet, show concentric rings
similar to those of wood. These are formed by a series of new cambium
layers which appear one after another in the parenchyma, each producing
a ring of phloem and xylem.
Perennial (Woody) Roots.
The secondary changes in the roots of monocotyledons are not impor-
tant, but in dicotyledons the structure finally becomes much the same as
that of the stem. The epidermis with root hairs is replaced by cork, and
the bundles change from radial to collateral. The cambium forms out-
side of the xylem and inside of the phloem of each bundle, and conse-
quently is at first sinuous in cross section. As the thickening proceeds the
radial arrangement disappears, and the cambium finally forms a ring like
that of stems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See p. 27.
PART II.
GRAIN: ITS PRODUCTS AND IMPURITIES.
GRAIN.
Grain, in the ordinary acceptance of the term, includes such fruits of
the cereals (Graminece) and buckwheats (Polygonacea) as are valuable as
food for man and cattle.
The impurities of grain include weed seeds, ergot, spores of smuts,
straw, dirt, and other matters (p. 145 et seq.). Weed seeds belonging to
the Graminece and Polygonacece are described with the economic species
of these families.
The nature and purity of grain is -readily determined by macroscopic
examination, although a thorough understanding of the microscopic
structure of the whole grain is essential for the diagnosis of products.
Flour and Meal.
Insthe examination of mill products with respect to their purity and
wholesomeness, the following points call for consideration: (1) Is added
mineral matter present? (2) Is it or has it been infested by insects or
other forms of animal life ? (3) Has the product or the grain from which
it was made been damaged by rusts, moulds, or bacteria? (4) Was it
made from sprouted grain? (5) Are starch or tissues of weed seed present
in appreciable amount ? (6) Are foreign flours or other vegetable adulter-
ants present?
Mineral Adulterants. Calcium sulphate (gypsum), calcium carbonate
(chalk), clay, and even sand were formerly added to flour and meal, but
at the present time are seldom if ever used in any cereal product, although
calcium sulphate in considerable amount has been frequently detected in
cream of tartar and baking-powder, and powdered rock (talc and tremo-
lite) to the extent of 25 per cent has been found in one brand of baking-
powder examined at the Connecticut Experiment Station.
Foreign mineral matter is best detected by determinations of ash,
supplemented by an ash analysis, although the chloroform test (p. 51)
furnishes valuable indications. 47
g GRAIN.
Insect ana other Animal Contamination. According to Chittenden*
the insects which most commonly infest grain and flour are cosmopolitan,
having been distributed by commerce to all quarters of the earth, ihe
following common species are described: ., ,„ , ,
The granary-weevil (Calandra granaria L.), the rice-weevil KCalandra
oryza L.), the Angoumois grain-moth (Sitotroga cerealella 01.), the wolf-
moth [Tinea granella L.), the Mediterranean flour-moth (Ephestia Kueh-
niella ZelL), the Indian (maize) meal moth (Plodia inter punctella Hbn.),
the meal snout-moth (Pyralis farinalis L.), the confused flour-beetle
(Tribolium confusum Duv.), the rust-red flour-beetle {Tribolium jerrugi-
neum Fab.), the slender-horned flour-beetle (Echocerus maxillosus Fab.),
the broad-horned flour-beetle (Echocerus cornutus Fab.), the small-eyed
flour-beetle (Palorus ratzeburgi Wissm.), the yellow meal-worm (Tenebrio
molitor L.), the dark meal-worm (Tenebrio obscurus L.), the saw-toothed
grain-beetle (Silvanus surinamensis L.), the red or square-necked grain-
beetle (Cathartus gemallatus Duv.), the European grain-beetle (Cathartus
advena Waltl.). and the cadelle (Tenebroides mauritankus L.)
Among the creatures found only in the ground products are the sugar-
mite (Lapisma saccharina), the common flour-mite (Acants farina), and
the feathered mite (Acarus plumiger).
The figures and descriptions given by Chittenden, Bohmer,2 and other
authors aid in the identification of the foregoing species.
In cases where the live insects are no longer present evidences of
previous infection are often furnished by the wings or other parts of dead
insects, also by the excrement, webs and other remains, seen either with
the naked eye or under the microscope.
Wheat is often infested by the wheat- worm (Tylcnchus scandensSchu.,
Anguillula tritici Need.) a nematode related to Trichina. So-called
"cockle -wheat" (Fig. 29) consists of wheat kernels entirely transformed
by the ravages of this disgusting, but probably harmless, creature. The
more or less distorted kernels are from 3-7 mm. long, and often forked at
the apex. The tough shell, consisting of rather thicfc-walled porous
sclerenchyma elements with intercellular spaces, inclose a tangled mass of
worms, which, as may be seen with a low power, become active when
thrown into water.. The worms are upward of 1 mm. long, pointed at
1 Some insects injurious to stored grain. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmer's Bulletin No 45.
Washington, 1896
2 Kraftfuttermittel, pp. 65-68.
FLOUR AND MEAL.
49
both ends, and appear to be filled with a granular substance. They are
easily recognized in water mounts.
The Cryptogamic Plants which attack the inflorescence of cereals
often render the grain unfit for flour-making. To this class belong the
smuts (p. 165) and ergot (p. 164).
Molds, yeast plants, algae and bacteria are also developed in the flour
itself, especially after exposure to dampness, and as a consequence the
TI
Fig. 29. Cockle Wheat. I whole grains somewhat enlarged. II, cross section:
ep epidermis; p thick-walled parenchyma. (Vogl.)
flour becomes "off color," lumpy, and offensive both in odor and taste.
Fungus hyphse, spores and other cryptogamic elements furnish microscopic
evidence of such contamination.
Bohmer1 gives analytical keys and systematic descriptions for the
identification of these and other microorganisms.
Sprouted Grain. As a consequence of improper storage, grain some-
times begins to sprout, and thus loses in a greater or less degree its value
for flour-making. Under the microscope the starch grains have a char-
acteristic appearance due to their partial solution by the diastatic ferments
developed during germination. The concentric rings are unusually dis-
1 Loc. cit.
5°
GR/IIN.
tinct, and branching channels resembling burrows of worms occur in many
of the grains (Fig. 30).
Weed Seeds. See pp. i45"l63-
Foreign Flour. In Europe, wheat flour is sometimes adulterated!
with rye, barley, buckwheat, rice, bean, potato, or acorn flour, while in
America it is frequently mixed with maize flour.
Rye flour, in both Europe and America, is much oftener adulterated
with inferior wheat flour than wheat flour with rye flour.
Buckwheat flour is often mixed with wheat, maize, barley, or rice
Fig. 30. Starch Grains from Sprouted Cereals. Left, large grains from wheat; right,
from rye. (VoGt.)
flour, sometimes with the intent of cheapening the product; less often to
meet the demands of consumers.
Rice flour is liable to the same forms of adulteration as buckwheat
flour, while maize flour, because of its cheapness, is seldom adulterated.
Sawdust, Maize Cob, and other similar waste products cannot be
reduced to a sufficiently fine powder to be used in fine flour, but are some-
times mixed with coarse meal, and cattle foods. They are detected by
their high percentage of crude fiber and low percentage of starch and
protein, as well as by their characteristic tissues.
Methods of Examination.
Preliminary Examination. The color, odor, taste, and other physical
characters should first be noted and compared with samples of known
purity. Flour or meal that is damp, mouldy, foul-smelling, or infested
by insects, is obviously unfit for food whatever may be the results of
chemical or microscopic examination.
Pekar Color Test. In German mills and custom-houses since 1894,
the color of flour has been determined by " pekarizing." As carried out
in American mills this test is as follows }
1 Vereinbarungen zur einheitlichen Untersuchung u. Beurtheilung von Nahrungs- u.
Genussmitteln. Berlin, II, 1899, 18.
FLOUR AND MEAL.
Si
Place 10-15 grams of the flour on a rectangular glass plate or smooth
piece of wood, about 12 cm. long and 8 cm. wide, and pack on one side
in a straight line by means of a flour trier. Treat the same amount
of the standard flour used for comparison in the same manner, so that
the straight edges of the flour are adjacent. Carefully move one of
the portions so as to be in contact with the other, and " slick " both
with one stroke of the trier, in such a manner that the thickness of the
layer diminishes from about 0.5 cm. on the middle of the plate to a thin
film at the edge, and the line of demarcation between the two flours is
distinct. Cut off the edges of the layer with the trier, so as to form a
rectangle, and compare the color of the two flours.
The difference in color becomes more apparent after carefully im-
mersing the plate with the flour in water, and still more apparent after
drying.
By this test the color of different samples may be more accurately
compared than when loose. Since the introduction of bleaching with
nitrogen peroxide or chlorine the value of the test in judging the grade
of flour has been much impaired.
Caillettet's Chloroform Test, designed chiefly to furnish indications of
mineral adulteration, consists in shaking in a test-tube about 2 grams of
the flour with 25 cc. of chloroform. If on standing, any considerable
amount of deposit collects at the bottom of the tube, the presence of
mineral matter is indicated, as the flour particles, being for the most part
lighter than chloroform, rise to the surface.
This residue may be examined chemically, but the test should always
be corroborated by an accurate determination of ash in the original material
and an analysis of the ash.
Beneke's Chloroform Test.1 This test serves not only to detect mineral
powders but also to distinguish rye flour from wheat flour, or to detect
the presence of one in the other. It is as follows : Place 100 grams of
the flour in a 500-600 cc. flask and add enough chloroform to fill the flask
two thirds full ; cork and shake carefully until no lumps remain ; . then fill
nearly full, shake vigorously, and allow to stand. A brown deposit of
dirt soon settles, and gradually a further deposit, consisting largely of aleu-
rone cells forms a layer over the last. After about 24 hours, this latter
deposit should be examined with the naked eye and under the microscope,
noting especially the color. The aleurone cells of rye are blue or olive-
green, those of wheat yellow-brown.
1 Landw. Vers'-Stat., 1889, 36, 337.
52 GRAIN.
Vogl's Alcohol-Hydrochloric Acid Test1 furnishes indications of the
presence of foreign flour or ground weed seed.
Shake violently 2 grams of the flour in a test-tube with 10 cc. of a solu-
tion containing 5 per cent of hydrochloric acid and 70 per cent of alcohol;
warm finally at a gentle heat and allow to settle. Note the color in reflected
light of the column of solution, the meniscus, and the deposit.
Wheat flour entirely free from impurities yields both a colorless solu-
tion and a colorless deposit, and wheat flour with a small amount of im-
purity, also common rye, oat, and barley flour, yield a pale yellow or pale
yellow-red solution. A decided coloration of the solution, particularly at
the meniscus, indicates a considerable amount of weed seed.
Cockle (Agrostemma) and darnel (Lolium) color the solution orange-
yellow; leguminous seeds, rose-red, violet or purple; cow wheat (Melam-
fyrum), blue-green or green; ergot, flesh-red to blood-red.
Gluten Test. Make a handful of the flour into a dough with the
smallest possible amount of water and wash with continual kneading under
a stream of water. Wheat flour yields by this treatment an elastic mass
of gluten while the flour of other cereals is gradually but completely
washed away.
1 Chemical Examination. Determination of the usual proximate con-
stituents in the flour often aids in the diagnosis. For example, wheat flour
is moderately rich in protein but poor in fat, corn flour is somewhat poorer
than wheat flour in protein but much richer in fat, while buckwheat and
rice flour are poor in both of these constituents.
Microscopical Examination. In 1882, the Association of German
Millers offered a prize of a thousand marks for an essay describing a simple
process for detecting admixtures in wheat and rye flour. Wittmack won
this prize, and the motto of his essay was : " Das Mikrosjtop ist der beste
Leitstern."
Not only is it true that the microscope is the most valuable means for
the examination of flour, but in many cases it is the only means.
The following methods of preparing the material for examination will
be found useful:
Direct Examination. The points of special importance are the size
and shape of the starch grains, the presence or absence of aggregates, the
size of the hilum, and the distinctness of the rings. With the aid
of the key on p. 64 and the descriptions under each cereal identifica-
tion of the group and often of the particular starch is readily accom-
1 Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahrungs- u. Genussmittel, p. 24.
FLOUR AND MEAL. 53
plished. Among the more difficult problems are the distinction of the
grains of wheat, rye, and barley; of rice, oats, and darnel; and of maize
and sorghum.
Polarized light is useful in determining the locations and form of
the hilum through which the crossed lines seen with crossed Nicols
always pass. In cereal starches the hilum is central, and in potato and
various other starches eccentric. The hilum of leguminous starches is
elongated (see Fig. 572).
The crossed lines differ greatly in intensity, being scarcely evident
in wheat, rye, and barley, but distinct in maize, sorghum, rice and many
other kinds.
The brilliancy of the starch grains and their crosses when viewed
with polarized light also aids in detecting them in the presence of fat
globules and aleurone grains, although the addition of iodine solution
accomplishes the same end.
Heating the water mount to boiling or Addition of Alkali (potassium
or sodium hydroxide) dissolves at once the starch and protein matter
and thus clears the tissues. Usually, however, this treatment, which
is so valuable in the case of materials with considerable bran tissues,
is of less service in the examination of flour than one of the following
methods for accumulating the bran tissues from a large amount of the
material.
Schimper's Scum Method.1 Mix thoroughly 3 grams of the flour
with 100 cc. of water and heat without further stirring until the boiling-
point is reached. The scum which rises to the surface contains the
greater part of the hairs and other bran tissues, and may be transferred
to a slide and examined, both directly and after treating with chloral
or alkali.
Steinbusch's Diastase Method.2 Make 10 grams of the# flour into
a paste with 40 cc. of water and add with constant stirring 150 cc. of
boiling water. Cool to 55°-6o° C. and add 30 cc. of malt extract (pre-
pared by digesting at room temperature for 3 hours 1 part of freshly
ground malt and 10 parts of water and filtering) and keep at S5°-6o°
for 15-30 minutes. Dilute, allow to settle, decant off the liquid, wash
the residue once or twice by decantation, and finally treat with 1 per cent
sodium hydroxide.
1 Schimper, Anleitung zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der vegetabilischen Nahr-
ungs- u. Genussmittel. Jena 1900, 17.
3 Ber. d. deutsch. Chem. Ges. 14, 2449.
S4 GRAIN.
This method is more laborious than the two following methods and
has no advantage except in the case of delicate tissues. If quantitative
determinations of starch are made, the residue after the malt digestion
may be used for microscopic examination.
Hydrochloric-acid Method.1 Mix 5 grams of the flour in a casserole
with 500 cc. water, heat to boiling, add 5 cc. concentrated hydrochloric
acid and boil for 15 minutes. After allowing to settle, decant off the super-
natant liquid and mount the deposit of bran elements either in water,
chloral or dilute alkali.
The author prefers the following treatment: Mix thoroughly 2 grams
of the flour with 200 cc. of water and 2 cc. of concentrated sulphuric
acid, bring to a boil, allow to settle, and carefully decant off the liquid
from the deposit containing the tissues. Mount in very dilute sodium
hydroxide solution.
Lauck's Method2 is the same as the crude-fiber method (p. 17)
except that 2.5 per cent sodium hydroxide is used and the solution is
boiled but 5 minutes.
The treatment dissolves completely the starch, proteids and fat, thus
making the tissues very transparent, but it also distorts the hairs by
swelling the walls, and for that reason is not suited for the detection of
wheat flour in rye flour, or vice versa.
Of the processes for accumulating and clearing the tissues, Schimper's
scum method has the least action on the cell-walls, Steinbusch's diastase
method somewhat more, the hydrochloric -acid method still more, while
Lauck's method is most energetic of all. The methods are arranged
according to the intensity of their action.
Vogl's Naphthylene-blue Method.3 Thoroughly mix 2 grams of the
flour with a small quantity of a solution of 0.1 gram of naphthylene blue
in a mixture of 100 cc. absolute alcohol and 400 cc. water. Transfer
to a slide, allow to dry and examine in sassafras oil or some other essen-
tial oil or else in creosote or guaiacol. After this treatment the pericarp
coats and contents of the aleurone cells and germ tissues appear bright
blue or violet-blue, and the walls of the aleurone cells light blue, while
1 Various modifications of this method have been described by Moeller, Schimper, and
other authors.
2 Vereinbarungen zur einheitlichen Untersuchung u. Beurtheilung von Nahrungs- u.
Genussmitteln. Berlin, Heft II, 1899, 23.
3Die wicht. vegetab. Nahr.- u. Genussm. Berlin and Wien, 1899, 17.
BREAD. 55
the tissues and contents of the starch cells remain colorless and are ren-
dered transparent by the mounting medium.
BamihVs Test {modified by Wintori).1 This test serves to detect
wheat flour mixed with rye and other flours.
Place a very small quantity of the flour (about 1.5 milligrams) on
a microscopic slide, add a drop of water containing 0.2 gram of water
soluble eosin in 1000 cc, and mix by means of a cover glass, holding the
latter in such a manner that it is raised slightly above the slide and taking
care that none of the flour escapes from beneath it. Finally allow the
cover glass to rest on the slide and rub it back and forth until the gluten
collects into rolls. The operation should be carried out on a piece of
white paper so that the formation of gluten rolls can be noted.
Wheat flour and other flours containing it yield by this treatment
a copious amount of gluten which absorbs the eosin with avidity, taking
on a carmine color. Rye and corn flour yield only a trace of gluten,
and buckwheat flour no appreciable amount. The preparations are best
examined with the naked eye, thus gaining an idea of the amount of
gluten .present. Under the microscope traces of gluten are so magnified
as to be misleading.
In case the, flour is coarse, or contains a considerable amount of
bran elements, as is true of buckwheat flour and low grade wheat flour,
the test should be made after bolting, as the bran particles and coarse
lumps interfere with the formation of gluten rolls.
The test should be supplemented by microscopic examination of the
untreated flour and also of the tissues accumulated by bringing to a
boil with very dilute sulphuric acid and allowing to settle as already
described.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Wheat.
Bread.
Bread, in the broad sense of the word, including biscuit, cakes and
other cereal oven products, is made either from the flour of one cereal or
of several cereals. It is raised commonly either with yeast, baking-powder
(or an equivalent), or eggs.
The examination of bread is much more difficult than that of flour,
partly because other vegetable materials are present, and partly because
the starch grains of the flour are much distorted by baking.
' lU. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Cbem., Bui. 122, p. 217.
S6
GRAIN.
The histological elements include the distorted starch grains (Fig. 31),
more or less bran tissues, and if yeast" was used as the leavening agent,
cells of the yeast plant.
Of the methods of examination described under flour, the diastase
method, the hydrochloric-acid method, and the crude fiber process, are
5> «7&~'A~~*
6 &W&
Fig. 31. Starch Grains from Wheat Bread, u typical forms, little altered; 6 broken and
swollen forms. (Moeller.)
also suited for the examination of bread, provided the material is first
dried and ground to a moderate degree of fineness.
Chemical examination includes determinations of the usual proximate
constituents, tests for alum and other baking chemicals, and, in the case
of highly colored products, tests for artificial color.
Cattle Foods.
Mill Products. The mill products of wheat, rye, barley, rice and
buckwheat, are more commonly consumed by the human family, only
the by-products being ch%ap enough for cattle foods. Among the most
important mill products designed especially for cattle, are maize meal,
ground oats, and provender (a mixture of maize meal and ground oats).
Of lesser importance are meals made from the chaffy wheats, sorghum,
millet, and other cereals. These products are much coarser than flour
designed for human use, and are invariably prepared from the whole
kernel without separation of the bran or adhering chaff.
Mill By-products include the offals of flour mills, breakfast-food
factories and some other industries. Among the most important materials
are screenings, bran, and middlings, from wheat, rye, barley, maize, buck-
wheat, and rice, also more or less analogous materials designated by special
CATTLE FOODS. 57
names, such as hominy feed, oat feed, etc. These products, with the excep-
tion of screenings, which is treated in a separate chapter (pp. 145-163),
are described under the different cereals.
All of these materials contain starch grains in their original form.
By-products from the Manufacture of Starch and Glucose. In
Europe starch and glucose are made chiefly from wheat or potatoes, in
the United States almost exclusively from maize.
In the American factories, whether starch or glucose is the final product,
the germ is first separated from the remainder of the grain and subjected
to pressure to remove the oil. The oil-cake is similar to the cake of
true oil seeds in that it contains no starch, but a high percentage of pro-
teid and a considerable amount of residual oil.
Starch is separated mechanically from the remainder of the grain in
a wet way and is purified for cooking and laundry purposes, or is con-
verted by acid into glucose.
The dried residues from the processes are known as gluten meal,
gluten feed, starch feed, etc. (p. 96). As they are dried at a rather high
temperature the starch grains are distorted or entirely disorganized.
Brewery and Distillery By-products include malt sprouts, brewery
grains and distillery grains.
Malt sprouts are the worm-like radicles removed from sprouted barley.
They are quite simple in structure, and contain no starch in any form (p. 86).
Malt and distilled liquors may be made from any of the cereals. In
Europe barley, rye and wheat are chiefly employed ; in the United States,
barley, rye and maize; in Japan, China, and India, rice and to some
extent sorghum.
As the starch originally present in the grain is converted successively
into sugar and alcohol, the residue or "grains" contain no appreciable
amount of starch. Both wet and dry grains are used for feeding.
Chaff of oats, barley, rice, and weed seeds, also maize cob and buck-
wheat hulls, although of little value except for packing or fuel, are used
for cattle foods, especially when mixed with more valuable material.
Oat and barley hulls are obtained in the factories where oatmeal and
pearl barley are made and are ingredients of certain proprietary cattle
foods containing, in addition to cereal constituents, some concentrated
food, such as cottonseed meal or linseed meal.
Rice hulls, maize cob, peanut shells, and coffee hulls, notwithstanding
their lack of valuable nutrients and their harsh woody structure, are not
infrequently met with in cattle foods, especially as adulterants of bran.
58 GRAIN.
Methods of Examination.
Preliminary Examination. The material should first be spread out
on a paper and fragments of a suspicious nature picked out with forceps.
This search is usually facilitated by separating the material by means of
a series of sieves into several portions of different degrees of fineness.
Many times impurities, such as chaff, insect remains, mouse excrement, etc.,
may be identified with the naked eye or under a lens, although more often
positive identification is not possible without recourse to the microscope.
In bran the black hulls of cockle or of black bindweed are often present,
the former being characterized by the rough outer surface, the latter by
the smooth but dull surface and the regular shape of the larger fragments.
Foxtail (Selaria) is recognized by the mottled color and the transverse
wrinkles on the flowering glumes and other weed seeds by the characters
learned from the descriptions, as well as by comparison with standard
specimens.
Rice hulls or chaff, even in quite small pieces, are recognized under a
lens by their rough surface and straw-yellow color; oat hulls by the smooth
convex surface; barley hulls by their smooth but ribbed surface; corn-
cob by the hard fragments of the woody zone and the hard glumes, also
by the papery thin glumes, often of a red color.
The bran coats of wheat and rye are rather soft, of a reddish or buff
color; those of maize tough and horny, either white, yellow or red (rarely
blue) ; those of oats and rice, thin and delicate, of a brownish-yellow color.
These are but a few of the macroscopic characters which either furnish
positive evidence, or serve as a guide for microscopic examinations. The
eye of the microscopist as well as his senses of taste, smell, and touch soon
becomes trained to note very slight peculiarities, which often leads him
to form an opinion before he has looked in his microscope.
The Chemical Analysis of fodders commonly includes the determina-
tion of water, ash, protein (NX6J), crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract
(by difference) and fat. Determinations of starch, sugars, pentosans and
albuminoid nitrogen are rarely desirable.
Microscopic Examination. As the cereal products and bv-products
used for cattle food are for the most part coarsely ground, and contain
considerable amounts of the bran coats or chaff, their identification is
usually easier than that of flour and other products consisting largely
of starchy matter in the form of a fine powder.
Direct Examination. For the identification of starch grains an ex-
CATTLE FOODS. 59
amination is made in water either of the fine powder separated from
the coarse by sifting, or of a finely-ground sample of the whole material.
Coarse fragments of a starchy nature picked out with the forceps are
crushed, scraped or sectioned and likewise examined in water. Exami-
nation with the aid of polarizing apparatus is often useful.
Treatment with Reagents. Fragments of bran or chaff may also be
examined directly in water, but much better results are secured after
first dissolving the starch and other interfering substances, either by
boiling for a moment in water on the slide (always under a cover-glass),
or by mounting in dilute alkali or in chloral hydrate.
It is often convenient to examine the finely-ground material or iso-
lated fragments, first in cold water, then after treatment with a small
drop of iodine tincture, again after boiling, and still again after treatment
with a small drop of 5 per cent potash or soda solution.
Crude-fiber Process. As most cattle foods contain a considerable
amount of the bran coats and other tissues, there is commonly no need
of resorting to the methods described under flour, as a means of accumu-
lating the tissues from a rather large quantity of the material, although
as a means of clearing the tissues, some of these methods, particularly
Lauck's method, or what is practically the same thing, the crude-fiber
process, are occasionally useful. After weighing the fiber a portion
obtained in the quantitative determination of crude fiber may be used
for microscopic examination, as the subsequent determination of ash
in this fiber is not appreciably affected by the removal of the small quan-
tity necessary for the purpose.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, ppl 671-674: Beneke (2); Bohmer (6, 23); Collin et
Perrot (9).
Chapman: The Microscopic Identification of Cattle Foods. Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta.
Bui. 141.
6o
GRAIN.
CEREALS (Graminece).
Most grasses are hermaphrodite, the organs essential to fertilization
being in the same blossom, although in some blossoms either the male
or female element is abortive. Maize is, however, monoecious, the flowers
of the tassels being entirely male, those of the ear entirely female.
The inflorescence is in panicles, racemes, or spikes, made up of spike-
lets (Fig. 32, A), each consisting of two lower scales (empty glumes) on
opposite sides of the axis, and one or more flowers (B), each usually
inclosed by two scales, the one (flowering glume) situated on the
outer side, the other (palet) two-veined and two-keeled, situated on
the inner side with its back toward the axis. Sometimes the flower is
inclosed by only one scale, in which case it is the palet that is lacking.
Two minute hyaline scales (lodicules) are commonly present at the base
of the flower and rarely a third occurs within the palet. The beard
of the spikelets consists of coarse bristles, often barbed, which may be
borne on the glumes or palets, in which case they are known as awns
(e.g., wheat), or may spring from the base of the spikelet (e.g., Setaria).
Commonly there are three stamens (rarely one, two, four, or six) with
slender filaments and versatile anthers. The pistil has a one-celled
ovary containing a single ovule, and one to three styles with feather-
like stigmas. The flowering glume and palet, although free at the time
JhAl Y •? {TrUlcum sat™»™\- A sPlkelet with four flowers; B single flower; C
whole fruit or caryopsis; D fruit in longitudinal section. 1 and 2 empty glumes- b
flowering glumes; v palets; e embryo. (Schumann.) PV g'umes, o
of flowering, sometimes become closely adherent to the fruit during
npening (e.g., barley), or so closely envelop it that they are not sepa-
rated by threshing (e.g., oats).
CEREALS. 6l
In general appearance the cereal grains resemble seeds, but a study of
their development clearly shows that they are true fruits. Each consists of
a single fruit leaf with edges rolled over and grown together, the groove on
the ventral side of wheat and other grains marking the line of juncture.
The fruit (Fig. 32, D; Fig. 62) consists of the bulky endosperm and the
small embryo embedded in the endosperm at the base of the grain on the
dorsal side, the whole being encased by the pericarp and spermoderm. The
outer cell-layer of endosperm (in barley, two or more of the outer layers)
contains proteid matters but no starch; the larger part of the endosperm,
however, is a mass of large cells closely packed with starch grains. In
the embryo three distinct parts are evident: the plumule, consisting
of undeveloped leaves, the radicle or rootlet, and attached to these on
the side adjoining the endosperm, the scutellum (cotyledon), which at
x the "time of sprouting draws the nutritive matter from the endosperm and
conveys it to the young plantlet. The embryo contains fat and protein
but no starch.
Microscopic Characters of the Cereals.
The Glumes and Palets have much the same structure as the leaves
of which they are but modifications, and normally contain four distinct
tissues :
1. The Outer Epidermis is made up largely of cells with wavy outline,
arranged end to end in rows. Usually these wavy cells are strongly
elongated, and between them are interposed isodiametric cells often
extended beyond the surface as hairs ("silica cells") and twin cells, one
of the twins being usually crescent-shaped.
2. The Hypoderm consists of one or more layers of sclerenchyma
elements resembling bast fibers. This layer is imperfectly developed or
entirely absent in the thin glumes and palets.
3. Spongy Parenchyma, corresponding to the mesophyl of leaves,
makes up the third layer of variable thickness. In oats these cells are
star-shaped, but in the other cereals they are more or less rectangular
in form.
4. The Inner Epidermis is usually of thin-walled cells with less striking
characters than the outer epidermis. Hairs are often present.
The Pericarp differs greatly in the number of layers and the form of
the cells, but in general consists of four distinct tissues:
1. The Epicarp of porous cells, with or without hairs at the apex of
the grain.
62 GRAIN.
2. The Hypoderm and Mesocarp, often of porous cells.
3. The Cross Cells (so named by Wigand), a layer of cells transversely
extended.
4. The Tube Cells (so named by Vogl) or endocarp, consisting of
detached vermiform cells longitudinally arranged.
The Spermoderm of thin-walled cells is usually inconspicuous.
The Perisperm, or nucellar layer, also known as the hyaline layer,
usually forms a thin coat of one or two layers of colorless, more or less
obliterated cells, which, with suitable preparation and under favorable
conditions, may be seen in surface view. In the case of sorghum, the
layer is conspicuous and of diagnostic value.
- The Endosperm. 1. The so-called " Aleurone Cells, " or "gluten cells "
—both misnomers, as they contain neither aleurone grains nor gluten-
form several layers in barley, but only one layer in other cereals. These
cells have thick walls, and contain protein matter and fat but no
starch.1
2. The Starch Parenchyma, which makes up the great bulk of the
fruit, is closely packed with starch grains varying greatly in shape and
size according to the species.
Embryo. The cells are small and, like the aleurone cells, contain
much oil and protein but no starch.
Analytical Keys to the Cereals and Graminaceous Weed Seeds.
I. Key Based on the Structure 0} the Thick Glumes and Palets.
A. Outer epidermis of cells' with wavy side walls, interspersed with circular cells (often
forming hairs) and twin cells.
(a) Spongy parenchyma of star-shaped cells.
1. Circular cells forming conical hairs; saw-edge of hairs on keel of palet. . . Oats.
(b) Spongy parenchyma of rectangular cells.
1 The early microscopists, believing that the outer starch-free layer of the endosperm was
the seat of the gluten of the grain, gave to these cells the name gluten cells. Schenk, how-
ever, in 1872 showed that gluten, like starch, was present only in the inner endosperm cells,
and Johannsen in 1883 reached the conclusion that the contents of the so-called gluten cells
were aleurone grains embedded in fat. During the past twenty years the name aleurone
cell has been slowly taking the place of the earlier name. v. Hohnel, Berthold, and other
authors have not only accepted this view, but have used the size of the so-called aleurone
grains as a means of distinguishing the different cereals, a procedure which has been severely
criticized by Wittmack, Moeller, and others.
Recently Brahm and Buchwald have found that the name aleurone cells is quite as erroneous
as the earlier term, since what appear to be aleurone grains embedded in fat are really fat
globules in a ground substance of amorphous proteid matter. They state that a more exact
name would be " protein cells ", or, better still, " starch-free peripheral cells " of the endosperm.
CEREALS. 63,
2. Circular cells and saw-edge of hairs as in oats.
Spelt, Emmer, One-grained Wheat.
3. Circular cells as in oats; no saw-edge of hairs on palet Barley.
4. Circular cells represented by hair scars Sorghum.
5. Circular cells large and porous; wavy cells often very short Darnel.
6. Circular cells porous with wavy side walls; wavy cells long Chess.
B. Outer epidermis of porous and non-porous cells, with thick, but not wavy walls,,
interspersed with hairs.
7. Cells on the papery ends with thin wavy walls Maize.
C. Outer epidermis mostly of one kind of cell with thick deeply sinuous side walls.
(a) Epidermal cells broader than long, colorless.
8. Surface rough; spongy parenchyma of rectangular cells Rice.
(6) Epidermal cells somewhat longer than broad, colorless, or mottled.
9. Surface smooth, colorless Common Millet. -
10. Surface with narrow wrinkles, colorless German Millet.
n. Surface with narrow wrinkles, mottled Green Foxtail.
12. Surface with 'broader wrinkles, mottled Yellow Foxtail.
IT. Key Based on the Structure oj the Bran Tissues.
A. Cross cells elongated polygonal, side by side in rows, forming a continuous layer.
(a) Side walls of cross cells thick, distinctly beaded.
1. Hairs less than 1 mm. long with narrow lumen Wheat.
2. Hairs often over 1 mm. long Spelt-
(6) Side walls of cross cells indistinctly beaded.
3. End walls often swollen; hairs with broad lumen Rye-
4. End walls of cross cells thin (not swollen) Emmer.
5. Cross cells as in rye, hairs as in wheat One-grained Wheat.
(c) Walls of cross cells thin, not beaded.
6. Cross cells in two layers Barley..
7. Hairs long, narrow at base Oats.
8. Fungus layer usually present Darnel.
B. Cross cells vermiform, forming an interrupted layer.
9. Epicarp cells transversely elongated; walls non-porous; end walls deeply
sinuous Rice.
10. Epicarp and hypoderm with wavy beaded side walls Sorghum.
I Common Millet, German
Millet, Green Foxtail,
Yellow Foxtail.1
C. Cross cells forming spongy parenchyma.
12. Cells with long narrow arms; epicarp and mesocarp of s rongly developed,
elongated, beaded cells; endosperm thin -walled Maize.
13. Cells star-shaped or irregular; epicarp not beaded; mesocarp undeveloped^
endosperm thick -walled . Chess.
1 Distinction by tissues of chaff.
64 GRAIN.
III. Key Based on the Characters of the Starch Grains.
A. Large starch grains mostly over 20 n, round with indistinct hilum; feeble crosses
with polarized light.
1. Many grains over 50 p Rye.
2. Few grains over 50 jx Wheat, Spelt, Emmer, One-grained Wheat.
3. No grains over 50 ft Barley.
B. Large starch grains mostly over 15 /«, polygonal or round, with distinct hilum.
4. Distinct crosses with polarized light Maize, Sorghum.
C. Grains less than 20 ft mostly polygonal, often in round or ellipsoidal aggregates.
5. Occasionally spindle-shaped grains Oats.
6. No spindle-shaped grains Rice, DarneL
D. Grains less than 20 /1, mostly polygonal, never in rounded aggregates.
(Common Millet, German
Millet, Green Foxtail,
Yellow Foxtail.1
E. Grains less than 20 p, ellipsoidal.
8. Hilum elongated, very distinct Chess.
WHEAT. 65
WHEAT.
Common wheat (Triticum sativum var. vulgare (Vill.) Hackel), the
most important of the bread cereals, is grown throughout the temperate
regions of the earth. The numerous cultivated varieties differ greatly
in habit of growth, hardiness, presence or absence of beards, and also in
the form, size, and color, of the grain, but they are commonly grouped in
two classes: the " Winter Wheats, " or those sown in the fall and therefore
adapted only to the wanner regions, and the "Spring or Summer Wheats,"
including the varieties grown in colder countries.
The grain of all these cultivated varieties readily separates from the
chaff on threshing, and is termed "naked wheat" in contradistinction to
the spelts, which, like barley and oats, are closely invested by the chaff.
Other species and varieties of wheat yielding naked grains are Polish
wheat (T. Polonicum L.), English wheat (T. sativum var. turgidum (L.)
Hackel), macaroni, hard or glass wheat (T. sativum var. durum (Desf.)
Hackel), and hedgehog, or dwarf wheat (T. sativum var. com pactum
(Host.) Hackel).
The grain of common wheat (Fig. 32, C and D) is oval in longitudinal
section, heart-shaped in transverse section. Other characteristics are the
slightiy -keeled back with a pronounced depression at the base marking the
position of the embryo, the deep, longitudinal groove on the ventral side,
and finally the beard on the end. In color the kernels vary from light
yellow to brown. Rye kernels are longer, more slender, more pointed
at the base, and of a darker color.
The kernels of macaroni and English wheat resemble those of com-
mon wheat in shape, but are larger.
Polish wheat is distinguished from all the other wheats by its long
(often 12 mm.), slender, rye-shaped kernels with a sharp-pointed base.
HISTOLOGY.
As the glumes and palets of all the varieties named remain with the
straw on threshing, they do not enter into the composition of mill products,
and their anatomy is for us of no moment. All the naked wheats have
practically the same structure.
After soaking the grain for some hours in water cross-sections may
be cut with a razor or microtome, and surface preparations obtained by
scraping.
66
CRAW.
cut-
epi-
9SH9BB£^?L
Fig. 33. Wheat. Cross section through bran coats and outer endosperm of fruit. F peri-
carp consists of cut cuticle, epi epicarp, hy hypoderm (first layer of mesocarp), Ir cross
cells and tu, tube cells; S, spermoderm consists of two brown layers; P perispenn;
E endosperm consists of al aleurone cells and am starch cells. X 160. (Moeller-
Tschtrch.)
?& i™&f m- SUItCi V1T' ep,i ePlcarP at end of ?rain with t hairs;
«*' epicarp on body of grain; hy hypoderm (first layer of mesocarpl; *n intermediate
&S crossfce"s; ful ^P^?1 tul* cells; <«2 tube ceUs passing Into spongy paren-
chyma; 0 outer layer and 1 inner layer of spermoderm; P perisperm; afaleurone
cells; aw starch grains. X160. (Winton.)
WHEAT. 67
Pericarp (Fig. 33, F). 1. The Epicarp (Fig. 33, epi, Fig. 35) is
composed of colorless cells, which, except at the apex of the grain
(Fig. 34, epi i) are longitudinally elongated and are arranged end to end
(but not side by side) in rows (epi2). A thin cuticle covers the outer
wall (Fig. S3, cut)- In surface view, both tne side and end walls appear
distinctly beaded, the double side walls being about 4^ thick. At the
apex of the grain the cells are nearly isodiametric, and between them
arise numerous hairs (Fig. 34, t; Fig. 36) which vary up to 1 mm. in length
and (measured near the base) up to 25/1 in diameter. Most of them
Fig. 35. Wheat. Epicarp in surface Fig. 36. Wheat. Hairs from the apex
view. X300. (Moeller.) of the grain. X300. (Moeller.)
are awl-shaped, with a more or less globular base, and, as Wittmack
first noted, a narrow lumen or cell-cavity, the breadth of which is less
than the thickness of the walls.
2. The Mesocarp consists of two or three layers of cells, which differ
little from those of the epicarp.
3. The Intermediate Layer (Fig. 34, in) occurs here and there be-
neath the mesocarp, chiefly in the cleft, forming a spongy parenchyma.
The cells are of fantastic shapes and occur not infrequently in bran and
low-grade flour.
4. Cross Cells (Figs. 33 and 34, tr; Fig. 37). Beneath the meso-
carp is another layer of cells with porous radial walls, but these are trans-
versely elongated and, as may be seen in surface view, are arranged not
68
GRAIN.
end to end but side by side in rows. Over the larger part of the surface,
the cells are 100-200/. long and 15-25 /* broad, but in the region of the
apex they are shorter and more irregular in form. The very distinctly
porous, double side walls are about 7 fi thick, but the end and outer
walls are often much thinner, and the end walls are never swollen as
in rye. Intercellular spaces sometimes occur at the angles. Treatment
with alkali imparts a yellow color, but does not appreciably swell the walls.
This layer, from the diagnostic standpoint, is the most important of
the bran tissues.
5. Tube Cells (Figs. 33 and 34, <«)• Instead of an unbroken layer
of cells, the endocarp of wheat, as of most of the cereals, consists of more
or less detached vermiform cells arranged parallel to the axis of the
Fig. 37. Wheat. Surface view of cross cells. X300, (K. B, Winion.)
grain. Oftentimes two adjoining cells are in interrupted contact, with
circular intercellular spaces formed by sharp bends in the walls, suggest-
ing that this layer is but disintegrated spongy parenchyma (lu2). Cross-
sections of these cells are circular or elliptical.
Spermoderm (Fig. 33, S; Fig. 34, 0 and i). In cross-section, before
treatment with reagents, the two layers of the spermoderm appear like
yellow-brown, structureless membranes, the inner somewhat darker than
the outer; but on treatment with Javelle water, the cell structure can
often be recognized. Owing to their brown color, the layers are readily
found in surface preparations. The thin-walled, elongated, pointed cells
of the two layers cross one another.
Perisperm (Figs. 33 and 34, P). The remains of the nucellus or
body of the ovule, known as the " nucellar layer," and by some authors,
because of its colorless, almost structureless appearance, as the " hya-
line layer," can be seen in surface preparations only under the most
favorable conditions. To differentiate this layer, as well as others of
the grain, Moeller proceeds as follows : Warm a whole kernel with alkali,
WHEAT.
69
wash in water containing a drop of acetic acid, remove to a slide a por-
tion of the inner skin, which may be readily separated after this treat-
ment, and gently press sidewise with a cover-glass. If zinc chloride
iodine is now added, both cell layers of the spermoderm are colored
brown, the perisperm and the remaining coats blue.
Endosperm. 1. The Aleurone Layer (al) is but one cell layer thick.
These cells, rectangular in transverse section, rounded polygonal in sur-
face view, are 25-75 /i in diameter. Viewed in water, the double walls
are about 7 /1 thick; but on treatment with alkali, they swell consider-
ably and also take on a yellow color. This layer contains proteins but no
starch. Often the nucleus
of the cell is clearly seen,
especially in surface mounts.
Fig. 38. Wheat. Surface view of
aleurone cells. X 300. (Moel-
LER.)
Fig. 39. Wheat Starch. X300. (Moeller.)
2. Starch Parenchyma {am). The large isodiametric, thin-walled
cells 'contain starch grains (Fig. 39) of two forms: (1) large, lenticular
grains, mostly 28-40/4 (rarely 5o/<) with indistinct rings and hilum;
(2) small rounded or polygonal grains, usually less than & ft. The large
grains lying on edge are more or less elliptical in outline; with polarized
light indistinct crosses dividing each grain into four equal parts are
evident (Fig. 572, III). The small grains are detached members of
aggregates, which are seldom found intact.
Embryo. Tissues of the embryo show little differentiation. The
cells are small, seldom exceeding 25 /i. They contain fat and aleurone
grains, but no starch. Treatment of sections with a mixture of iodine
green or methyl green and fuchsin stains the cell nucelli green, the aleu-
rone grains red. In many of the cells the contents is largely nuclear
substance.
70 GRAIN.
DIAGNOSIS.
Whole-wheat Products. Roasted Whole Wheat is used as a coffee
substitute and adulterant. In over-roasted kernels it is often difficult
to identify the tissues.
Puffed Wheal is prepared by heating in closed cylinders resembling
cannons, and finally opening the breech. The kernels, which escape
with violence, are swollen to several times their natural size.
Graham Flour is the ground wheat kernel with nothing removed.
Rolled Wheat, a popular breakfast food, is the wheat kernel rolled
and sometimes partially cooked, but not ground.
Shredded Wheat is prepared by shredding the kernel in machines of
peculiar construction, and cooking. •
"Force," '"Malta-Vita," "Zest," and numerous proprietary foods,
consist chiefly of wheat which has not only been cooked, but also sub-
jected to a malting process, thus converting a portion of the starch into
maltose and dextrines. They come into the market either granulated
or flaked.
These products contain all the histological elements of the wheat kernel;
but in those which have been cooked, the starch grains are more or less
distorted. The most characteristic tissues are the cross cells with dis-
tinctly beaded side walls and thin (never swollen) end walls, and the hairs
i mm. or less long with lumen thinner than the walls.
Flour and Other Decorticated Wheat Products. Wheal Flour con-
sists chiefly of the starchy portion of the grain with fragments of hairs
which pass endwise through the bolts, and, less frequently, other tis-
sues. The microscopist should note the size, form and deportment
with polarized light, of the starch grains, also the characters of the tissues
accumulated by one of the methods described on pp. 53-S5.
Rye flour is an occasional adulterant of wheat flour, and inferior
wheat flour is a common adulterant of rye flour. Rye flour is char-
acterized by the somewhat larger size of the starch grains, the hairs
with wide lumen, and the indistinctly beaded cross cells, often with
swollen ends. In America maize flour has been added to wheat flour.
Maize starch grains are identified by their size, polygonal form, and
distinct polarization crosses.
Of great service in the identification of wheat flour, even in mixtures
containing as little as 10 per cent, is the test which was devised in 1852 by
Bamihl, a Prussian custom-house official. A small portion of the flour and
enough water to form a rather thick paste are thoroughly mixed on a slide
WHEAT. ?I
by rubbing w.th a cover-glass. Wheat flour yields by this treatment
yellowish, stringy, glutinous masses in considerable amount, whereas rye
and maize flour yield only a trace and buckwheat flour practically none.
For further details of the test see p. 55.
Wheat flour, if made into a dough, and kneaded in a stream of water
to wash away the starch, finally yields an elastic mass of gluten; other
kinds of flour are entirely washed away by this treatment and yield no
gluten.
Weed seeds and other impurities of flour are discussed on pp. 47-50,
and methods of examination on pp. 50-55.
Wheat Bread, Biscuit, and other baker's products contain all the
elements of flour, but the starch grains are more or less distorted (Fig.
31). Yeast introduces a certain amount of yeast cells and most baking
powders introduce a trace of corn starch.
"Grits," "Cream 0} Wheat," etc., are coarsely ground kernels freed
from bran, and differ from flour chiefly in mechanical condition.
By-products. Wheat Bran is an important cattle food, a common
adulterant, and, after roasting, an ingredient of coffee substitutes. It
consists largely of the pericarp, spermoderm, and gluten cells, with frag-
ments of the germ, and considerable adhering starch. The cross cells,
hairs, and starch grains should be carefully noted.
Among the accidental impurities of bran are the hulls and other ele-
ments of various weed seeds. The black hulls of cockle are distinguished
from those of black bindweed by their rough surface as well as by the
characteristic tissues. Other weed seeds of wheat are considered on
pp. 145-148.
In bran adulterated with ground corn-cob, hard lumps of the woody
zone, and hard glumes may be found under the dissecting lens, or by
chewing the bran. These, as well as the white or red membraneous
chaff, may be identified by the methods described on p. 96.
Corn Bran, a common adulterant, is identified by the thick pericarp.
Broom-corn waste, coffee hulls, peanut shells, and some other adulterants
may also be detected by their microscopic characters.
Wheat Middlings is a term used to describe various products inter-
mediate between flour and bran, some being chiefly starch matter, others
bran finely ground.
Wheat Germs, separated from the flour and bran in the flour mills,
are used both as a human food ("Fould's Wheat Germ") and as a cattle
food. They are much smaller in size than those of maize, the only other
72 GRAIN.
cereal from which the germs are removed on a commercial scale; but
when finely ground cannot be readily distinguished from them.
Wheat Gluten, a by-product from the manufacture of starch, contains
over 80 per cent of protein and less than 10 per cent of starch. It is a
valuable diabetic food. Under the microscope the flakes of gluten show
their amorphous structure.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Blyth (5); Bohmer (6, 23);.
Hanausek, T. F. (16, 17); Harz (18); Hassall (18); Leach (25); Mace- (26);
Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (29, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch
u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45); Wittmack (10).
Baixand: Sur la falsification des farines avec le seigle, le sarrassin, le riz, 1'orge, le
ma'is, les feres et la fecule de pomme de terre. Jour, pharm. chim. 1899, 9, 239, 286.
Bamihl: Pogg. Ann. 1852, 161.
Barnstein: Roggen und Weizen. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1902, 56, 25.
Baumann: Nachweis von Maisstarke im Weizenmehl. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm.
1899, 2, 27.
Benecke: Zum Nachweise der Mahlprodukte des Roggens in den Mahlprodukten des
Weizens. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1889, 36, 337.
Berthold: Ueber den mikroskopischen Nachweis des Weizenmehles im Roggenmehle.
Ztschr. f. landw. Gewerbe. Beilage, 1883.
Bessey: The Structure of the Wheat Grain. Bull. Neb. Agr. Exp. Sta. 1894, 32.
Brahm und Buchwald: Botanische und chemische Untersuchungen an prahistorischen-
Getreidekornern aus alten Graberfunden. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1904,
7, 12.
Collin: Examen microscopique des farines de ble". Jour, pharm. chim. 1898, 8, 97,.
150, 200.
Danckwortt: Ueber Mehluntersuchungen (Bamihl'sche Probe). Arch. Pharm. 187 1,
145, 47.''
Haberlandt: Wissensch.-prakt. Untersuch. auf d. Geb. des Pflanzenbaues. 1, 162.
Hanausek, T. F.: Zur mikroskopischen Unterscheidung des Weizen- und Roggen-
mehles. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1887, 25, 143.
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Untersuchung der Mehle. Oesterr. Chem.-Ztg. 1899,
2, 103.
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Griffigkeit der Mehle. Oesterr. Chem.-Ztg. 1900, 3, 54.
v. Hohnel: Die Starke und die Mahlprodukte. Kassel und Berlin, 1882.
Johannsen: Studien iiber die Kleberzellen der Getreidearten. Bot. Centralbl. 1883,
15, 305.
Jumelle: Sur le constitution du fruit des Gramin&s. Comp. rend. 1888, 107, 285.
Kleeberg: Ueber einen einfachen Nachweis von Weizenmehl im Roggenmehl. Chem.-
Ztg. 1892, 1071.
Kornicker und Werner: Handbuch des Getreidebaues. Berlin, 1885.
Kraemer: An Examination of Commercial Flour. Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 1899, 21, 650.
Krasser: Mikroskopische Prufung des Grieses. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver.
r897. 35, 543.
WHEAT. SPELT.
73
Krutizky: On Some Peculiarities in the Structure of the Caryopsis of Wheat.
Uebers. Leist. Gebiet. Bot., in Russland wahrend 1891, St. Peters'g, 1893, 62 ;
also in Just's Bot. Jahresb. 1893, 21, 1 Abth. 571.
Kudelka: Ueber die Entwicklung und den Bau der Frucht- und Samenhaut unserer
Cerealien. Dissertation, Berlin, 1875.
Lange: Die Mikroskopische Untersuchung von Mehl. Ztschr. angew. Mikrosk. 1896,
369-
Lebbin: Arch. Hyg. 28, 212.
Le Roy: Zum Nachweis von Sagespanen im Mehl. Chem. Ztg. 1898, 31; 1899, 264.
Maurizio: Kleberverteilung im Getreidekorn. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1902, 57, 405.
Matirizio : Getreide, Mehl und Brot. Berlin, 1903.
Moeller: Die Mikroskopie der Cerealien. Pharm. Centralh. 1884, 25, 507.
Nevinny: Ueber Verunreinigung von Mehlen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1,
2°5. 244-
Schlickum: Morphologischer und anatomischer Vergleich der Kotyledonen und ersten
Laubblatter der Keimpflanzen der Monokotylen. Dissertation, Marburg, 1895.
Spaeth: Nachweis des Mutterkorns im Mehl. Pharm. Centralh. N. F. 1896, 17, 542.
Stutzer: Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Handbuch d. Hyg. 3, 243.
Tardien: Eichelmehl enthaltendes Weizenmehl. Ann. chim. analyt. 1898, 3, 307.
Vaudin: Sur un element d'erreur dans la recherche du riz ajoute a la farine de froment.
Jour, pharm. chim. 1899, 9, 431.
Vinassa: Ueber mikroskopische Mehluntersuchung. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg.
1895, 9, 53.
Vogl: Die gegenwartig am haufigsten vorkommenden Verfalschungen und Verunreini-
gungen des Mehles, etc. Wien, 1880.
Waage: Zur Unterscheidung von Weizen- und Roggenmehl. Apoth.-Ztg. 1892, 7,
430.
Weinwurm: Ueber die Verteilung der einzelnen Bestandteile des Roggen- und Weizen-
kornes auf die verschiedenen Mahlprodukte. Oesterr.-ungar. Ztschr. Zuckerind.
1890, 19, 163.
Weinwurm: Ueber eine qualitative und quantitative Bestimmung von Weizenmehl
im Roggenmehl. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.- u. Genussm. 1898, 1, 98,
Wittmack: Sitzgsber. des bot. Ver. f. d. Prov. Brandenburg, 1882, 4.
Wittmack: Anleitung zur Erkennung organischer und unorganischer Beimengungen
im Roggen- und Wiezenmehle. Leipzig, 1884.
Woy: Vorbereitung von Mehlproben zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung. Ztschr.
offentl. Chem. 1900, 6, 213.
Anon: Kartoffelfaser als Falschungsmittel fur Kleie. Pharm. Centralh. 1896, 181.
SPELT.
The three so-called "chaffy wheats," spelt, emmer, and one-grained
wheat, differ from the common varieties in that the threshed grain, like
oats, is closely invested by the chaff.
In ancient times spelt (T. sativum Spelta (L.) Hackel) was one of the
74 GRAIN.
leading cereals of Egypt, Greece, and Rome, but at the present time is
of comparatively little importance. Its culture is limited chiefly to
Southern Germany (particularly Wurtemberg), Switzerland, and Spain,
and is slowly giving place to more valuable cereals.
Each of the more or less four-sided, loosely arranged spikelets con-
sists of two truncate empty glumes clasping two to three flowers. The
flowering glumes are thin, many-nerved, awned or awnless; the palets
are still thinner, two-keeled. Some varieties have smooth, others hairy
chaff. The grain is triangular with a dense beard. On threshing, the
axis breaks at the joints and remains attached to the. chaffy spikelets.
HISTOLOGY.
The Empty Glumes are thick, and of horny texture, except on the
very edges, where they are membranous.
i.- Outer Epidermis. As is true of most chaffy envelopes of cereals,
the outer epidermis consists of elongated cells with wavy walls, "twin
cells", one of which is more or less crescent-shaped, and circular cells,
the latter often being extended beyond the surface in the form of hairs.
Except on the edges, the cell-walls are thickened. Stomata occur in
rows along the nerves.
2. Hypoderm. Several rows of thick-walled fibers are present ex-
cept on the edges.
3. Spongy Parenchyma occasionally is present beneath the nerves,
but does not form a continuous layer.
4. The Inner Epidermis is much like the outer epidermis, with thick
wavy-walled, elongated cells, twin cells, circular cells, and stomata.
The Flowering Glume is thinner than the empty glumes.
1. The Outer Epidermis is practically the same as that of the empty
glumes.
2. The Hypoderm Fibers are thin-walled and form only a thin layer.
3. Spongy Parenchyma. Rectangular spongy parenchyma cells form
a continuous and well-developed layer in the central part of the glume,
but are lacking on the edges.
4. Inner Epidermis. The cells are elongated polygonal and have very
thin walls, which are usually straight, but near the nerves are often wavy.
Awl-shaped hairs with swollen bases are numerous, especially toward the
apex.
Palets. 1. The Outer Epidermis is practically the same as in the
other envelopes. Thick-walled, tooth-like hairs, up to 200 ,« in length,
SPELT. EMMER. 75
form a saw-edge on each of the two keels, much like those found on the
palet keels of oats.
2. Hypoderm Fibers with thin walls occur throughout, except at the
very edges.
3. Spongy Parenchyma is found only under the keels.
4. Inner Epidermis. Thin-walled, elongated polygonal cells, and
short, awl-shaped hairs with globular bases form the inner layer.
Pericarp. The cells of the Epicarp and Mesocarp have thinner walls
than those of wheat. Spelt hairs are considerably longer than wheat
hairs, often reaching 1 500 fi ; the breadth of the lumen in some of them
exceeds the thickness of the walls. The cross cells of wheat and spelt
are very «imilar, though in the latter the walls are often not so thick nor
so distinctly beaded. Tube cells occur in considerable numbers. The
remaining layers are practically as described under wheat; the large
starch grains, however, are somewhat smaller.
DIAGNOSIS.
The products of spelt are grits, other coarse human foods, and fodders.
Spelt chaff is distinguished from oat chaff by the rectangular cells
of the spongy parenchyma. Rows of tooth-like hairs form a saw-
edge on the palet keels of both spelt and oats but not of barley. Hairs
1000-1500 fi long, such as occur on the epicarp of spelt, are seldom
or never found in wheat. The cross cells and starch cannot be dis-
tinguished with certainty from the same elements of wheat.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Hauptfleish: Die Spelzweizen. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1903, 58, 65.
Netolitzky: Mikroskopische Untersuchung ganzlich verkohlter vorgeschichtlicher
Nahrungsmittel aus Tirol. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1900, 3, 401.
Vogl: Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Berlin u.
Wien, 1899, 75.
EMMER.
Two-grained, chaffy wheat, or emmer (Triticum sativum var. dicoccum
(Schrank) Hackel), a cereal cultivated since prehistoric times, is now
. of little importance, its culture being limited chiefly to sections of South
Germany, Switzerland, Spain, Servia, and Italy.
The flattened, often hairy spikelets are densely crowded in the spike.
76 GRAIN.
Both of the empty glumes are strongly keeled and narrow gradually to
the blunt-pointed apex, the keel being prolonged into a short tooth.
HISTOLOGY AND DIAGNOSIS.
The glumes and palets agree closely in structure with those of spelt,
and the same is usually true of the pericarp, except as regards the cross
cells. These latter are thin-walled and, as was rightly noted by Haupt-
fleisch, are even less distinctly beaded than the cross cells of rye. They
are distinguished from the latter by the thin (not swollen) end walls.
According to Hauptfleisch, the epicarp hairs of some varieties have broad
lumens like rye hairs, but this distinction does not hold good for all
varieties and cannot be depended on in diagnosis. The statch grains
are slightly smaller than in common wheat.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Spelt, p. 75
ONE-GRAINED WHEAT.
So distinct are the macroscopic characters of one-grained wheat
from the preceding varieties that it is classed as a separated species
(T. monococcum L.). Only one fertile flower is present in each spikelet,
hence the German name Einkorn and the Latin and English names
above given.
The empty glumes are rather thin, and have the nerve of the keel and
the two side nerves continued as short teeth. Both the flowering glume
and palet are membranous, the latter, on ripening, splitting longitudi-
nally into two pieces.
HISTOLOGY AND DIAGNOSIS.
The glumes and palets have the same general structure as the cor-
responding parts of spelt, but the layers are not so robustly developed.
Hauptfleisch has correctly observed that the awl-shaped hairs of the inner
epidermis of the flowering glume are shorter than those of either spelt
or emmer. In this layer the cell-walls, especially over the nerves, are
often wavy. The epicarp hairs of one-grained and common wheat are
not distinguishable, but the cross cells in the former are thin-walled and
indistinctly beaded much as in emmer and rye.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Spelt, p. 75.
RYE.
RYE.
77
Rye (Secale cereale L.) is botanically closely related to wheat and
ranks next to it in importance as a bread cereal.
The naked kernels are longer, more slender, sharper keeled, sharper
pointed at the base and darker colored than those of wheat; they are
also not so plump nor so uniform in form, size, and color.
HISTOLOGY.
The rye kernel is in general structure the same as the wheat kernel,
but some of the layers show differences in detail which are of great im-
portance in diagnosis. Treatment of sections with cold alkali or chloral
hydrate swells the walls of the epicarp, middle layer, and perisperm,
and aids in differentiating them.
Pericarp (Fig. 40). 1. The Epicarp is distinguished from the cor-
responding layer of wheat by the thinner and less distinctly beaded walls
of the cells, and the thinner walls and broader lumens of the hairs (h).
In both grains the epicarp cells are longitudinally elongated except at
the apex, where they are more or less isodiametric. Often, but not al-
ways, the lumen breadth of rye hairs is greater than the wall thick-
ness. Even at the apex of such hairs the lumen is distinct, whereas in
wheat hairs it is reduced to a faint line.
2. The Mesocarp or Middle Layer is only one cell layer thick, and
the walls are thinner than in wheat, and less distinctly beaded.
3. Cross Cells (qu). As in wheat, these cells cross those of the outer
layers at right angles, and are further distinguished by the fact that they
do not "break joints," but are arranged side by side in rows. They
are 200 ft or less long and 15-35 n wide. The side walls are thinner
and less distinctly poi»us than in wheat; furthermore, the end walls
are often rounded and swollen, with pronounced intercellular spaces,
whereas in wheat they are thinner than the side walls and without spaces.
4. The Tube Cells are not numerous.
The Spermoderm and Perisperm of wheat and rye are hardly dis-
s tinguishable.
Endosperm. 1. The Aleurone Cells, according to Vogl, are smaller
and thicker-walled than in wheat. Moeller notes that on treatment
with alkali the cell-walls swell greatly (Figs. 41 and 42).
2. The Starch Parenchyma contains starch grains (Fig. 43) of the
78
GRAIN.
wheat type, but larger, a considerable number being over 50 ft. They
often display delicate concentric rings, also fissures radiating from the
tpl—
Flo. 40. Rye {Secale cereale). Outer bran layers in surface view. Epicarp consists of
porous cells, h hairs and * hair scars; qu cross cells. X300. (Moeller.)
hilum. The small grains are round or angular, seldom in aggregates.
DIAGNOSIS.
Whole Rye Products. Roasted Whole Rye is a coffee substitute and
adulterant.
RYE.
79
Rye Graham Flour. The ground whole kernel is used for coarse thread.
Starch grains (Fig. 43), cross cells (Fig. 40, gu), and hairs (h) are the
important elements.
Rye Flour prepared by the usual bolting process is not so white noi
so fine as wheat and usually contains more bran elements. The dough
FlG. 41. Rye. Aleurone cells in water.
X3OO. (MOELLER.)
Fig. 42. Rye. Aleurone cells
warmed in alkali. (Moeller.)
gradually washes away on repeated kneading under running water.
The large starch grains (larger than in wheat) often with radiating fis-
sures (Fig. 43), the hairs (Fig. 40, h) with lumen breadth often greater
than the wall thickness, and especially fragments of cross cells (qu) are
Fig. 43. Rye Starch. X300. (Moeller.)
of value in identification. Adulteration with wheat flour is detected by
the Bamihl test (p. 55) and microscopic examination of the tissues that
settle after heating to boiling with dilute acid (p. 54).
By-products. Rye Bran and Rye Middlings, well-known cattle foods,
contain the coats of the grain and also more or less starch. The side
80 GRAIN.
wal^of the epicarp, mesocarp, and especially the cross cells (Fig. 4°> ?«)
are thinner and less distinctly beaded than in wheat. Some (but not
all) the cross cells have swollen end walls.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Wheat, p. 72—73.
Egger: Ueber das Vorkommen blaugefarbten Zellinhaltes in der Kleberschicht von
Roggenkornern. Arch. Hyg. 1883, 1, 143-
Gregory: Die Membranverdickungen der sogenannten Querzellen in der Fruchtwand
des Roggens. Beitrage z. wissensch. Bot. 2, 165.
Hanausek, T. F.: Zur Mikroskopie des von der Presshefe abgepressten Roggenmehles.
Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1894, 32, 416.
BARLEY.
Barley (Hordeum sativum L.), one of the most ancient of the cereals,
is still cultivated in the northern countries of the Old World as a bread
grain, and throughout the temperate zone for the production of malt.
The spikes consist of groups of three one-flowered spikelets arranged
alternately on opposite sides of the zigzag rachis. In six-rowed barley
(H. sativum var. hexastichon (L.) Hackel) and four-rowed barley (H.
sativum var. vulgare (L.) Hackel) all of the flowers are fertile. In the
former variety they form six equidistant, longitudinal rows, whereas
in the latter only the middle flowers are arranged in distinct rows, alter-
nating with two more or less indistinct rows formed by the side flowers.
Only the middle flowers of two-rowed barley (H. sativum var. dislichon
(L.) Hackel) are perfect, the side flowers being staminate or neuter and
much reduced in size. The grain of six-rowed and four-rowed barley
and of many two-rowed varieties is so closely adherent to the flowering
glume and palet that it is not freed from them by threshing, but the grain
of some of the two-rowed barleys is naked or hulless.
Characteristic of the flowering glume are the five prominent ribs,
the middle one being extended into a long awn, which, however, breaks
off in threshing. The palet is grooved to correspond with the groove
in the caryopsis, and is partially hidden from view by the overlapping
glume. Both before and after the removal of the chaff, the grain is
distinctly spindle-shaped. The groove on the ventral side of the cary-
opsis and the depression over the embryo at the base of the dorsal side
are the same as in wheat and rye.
BARLEY.
81
HISTOLOGY.
Cross-sections are prepared without removal of the glume and palet.
Successive treatments of the section with potash, dilute acetic acid, and
chlorzinc iodine solution, or Javelle water and safranin, aids greatly in
differentiating the layers. The glume and palet are readily separated
after boiling with water. The layers of these, as well as of the caryopsis,
are obtained for study by scraping, and may be cleared and stained in
the same manner as the cross sections.
The kernels of naked barleys are distinguished from the other varie-
ties not only by the absence of chaff but also by their larger size and the
thicker walls of the epicarp and middle layer.
Fig. 44. Barley (Hordeum sativum). Cross
section of palet and outer layers of fruit.
P palet; FS pericarp and s-permoderm;
endosperm consists of al aleurone cells,
and E starch cells. X160. (Moeller.)
Fig. 45. Barley. Palet in surface view.
Outer epidermis consists of elongated wavy
cells, h circular cells extended into short
hairs, and 5 twin cells; / hypoderm fibers.
X 300. (Moeller.)
The Flowering Glume and Palet (Figs. 44, -P) are each made up
of four layers.
1. The Epidermal Cells (Fig. 45) are strongly silicined and are of
three forms. First, elongated cells with wavy side walls; second, small
circular cells extended beyond the surface in the form of conical hairs
(h); and third, crescent-shaped, hemi-elliptical or circular cells occur-
82
GRAIN.
ring usually in pairs (5). Examined in water, the thickened, convoluted
double walls of the long cells appear to be of uniform structure; but on
treatment with alkali, the zigzag middle lamella separating adjoining
cells is clearly evident.
2. Hypoderm (Fig. 44; Fig. 45, /). One to three layers of fibers with
thick, porous walls, underlie the epidermis.
3. Spongy Parenchyma (Fig. 44; Fig. 46, p). This layer consists of
thin-walled, rectangular cells, either isodiametric or slightly elongated
with numerous circular, elliptical or irregular intercellular spaces.
Pig. 46. Barley. Surface view of p spongy paren-
chyma of palet, ep inner epidermis of palet,
and / epicarp. X 300. (Moeixer.)
Fig. 47. Barley. Outer epidermis
with hairs from margin of palet.
(Moeller.)
4. Inner Epidermis (Figs. 44 and 48). Cross sections show this
layer indistinctly; surface preparations, however, bring out the thin-
walled, elongated epidermal cells, stomata, and rather short, thin-walled,
awl-shaped hairs, often with swollen bases.
Pericarp (Fig. 44). Little detail can be made out in cross sections
mounted in water, but all the layers are evident on treatment succes-
sively with potash, dilute acetic acid and chlorzinc iodine.
1. Epicarp (Fig. 49). The cells have rather thin, porous walls.
On the body of the grain they are longitudinally elongated; at the apex
more nearly isodiametric. Vogl notes the occurrence of stomata. The
numerous hairs which clothe the apex are less than 150 ft long. Some
... >
BARLEY.
33
like wheat hairs, have walls thicker than the lumen, others, like rye hairs,
have lumen thicker than the walls. Usually they are broadened at the
base.
Fig. 48. Barley. Inner epidermis with h
hairs and st stomata, from middle of
palet. X300. (Moeller.)
Fig. 49. Barley. Epicarp with hairs.
(Moeller.)
2. Mesocarp. Several rows of cells, similar to those of the epicarp,
make up this layer.
3. Cross Cells (Fig. 50, qu). Two rows of cross cells with non-porous
walls scarcely 2 /i thick, are found in barley. Most of the cells are
60-100 n long and 10-25 /* wide, but in some parts they are nearly iso-
diametric. In both layers intercellular spaces frequently occur at the
angles, and to some extent between the side walls.
4. Tube Cells (Fig. 50, sch) are not numerous.
The Spermoderm consists of two . layers of elongated cells, but in
both layers the cells are longitudinally extended, not crossed as in wheat
and rye.
1. The Outer Layer (Fig. 50, ie) is composed of thin-walled cells,
which can be clearly seen only after treatment with reagents. Chlor-
zinc iodine brings out the bright yellow cuticle.
2. The' Inner Layer is composed of thick-walled cells. Treatment
with potash greatly swells the walls, and subsequent addition of chlor-
s4
GRAIN.
zinc iodine colors the swollen walls blue and the cuticle on the inner wall
bright yellow, but does not affect the middle lamella.
The Perisperm is often evident in section after soaking in dilute
alkali, but is rarely seen in surface view.
Endosperm (Fig. 44). 1. The, Aleurone Layer (al) differs from that
of ah other cereals in that it is two to four cell-rows thick. In cross
section the cells are square or radially extended, but in surface view,
Fig. 50. Barley. Surface view of qu double layer
of cross cells, sch tube-cells, and ie spermoderm.
X 300. (Moeller.)
Fig. 51. Malt Sprouts. Epi-
dermis with root hairs.
(Moeller.)
rounded polygonal, 18-30 ,1 in diameter, with double walls 4 u or more
thick.
2. Starch Parenchyma (E). Barley starch (Fig. 52) occurs in both
large and small grains resembling closely those of wheat and rye, though
smaller. The large, circular- or irregularly-shaped grains are commonly
20-30 p. in diameter and seldom exceed 35 [i. As aggregates are uncom-
mon, the smaller grains are for the most part rounded and have few if
any angles. Concentric rings and hilum are often evident.
DIAGNOSIS.
Whole Barley Products. Malt, the most important barley product,
is prepared by first sprouting the grain, thus converting the starch into
maltose through the action of the diastase ferment. As soon as this con-
B/1RLEY.
85
Version is complete, the action of the diastase is stopped by heating, and
the radicles, known as "malt sprouts," removed. Malt contains all
the cellular elements of the grain but the radicles.
Roasted Barley and roasted malt are common coffee substitutes and
adulterants.
Decorticated Products. Barley Flour is prepared for bread-making
in some countries, and finer grades are. used as food for infants and in-
valids.
Pearl Barley consists of the kernels denuded of the chaff and bran
coats, and rounded. Tissues of the pericarp and spermoderm are found
in the groove.
Barley Farina or grits is a decorticated product in a coarse granular
form.
The characteristic elements of the decorticated products are the
starch granules (Fig. 52), which are smaller than those of wheat or rye,
Fig. 52. Barley Starch. X 3°°- (Moeller.)
the thick- and thin-walled hairs (Fig. 49), and occasional fragments of
cross cells (Fig. 50, qu).
By-products. Brewers' Grains is the moist residue after extracting
the sugars and other soluble materials from malt. Both wet and dry
brewers' grains, also malt sprouts, are utilized as cattle foods. The glumes
are distinguished macroscopically from oat glumes by the prominent
ridges, and microscopically by the rectangular cells of the spongy paren-
chyma (Fig. 46, p). The thin- walled hairs of the inner epidermis (Fig.
48), the two layers of thin-walled cross cells (Fig. 50, qu), and the two
or more layers of aleurone cells, further aid in diagnosis.
86 GRAIN.
Malt Spouts axe. the vermiform radicles removed in preparing malt.
Dried sprouts are used as a food for cattle.
The central cylinder, consisting of incipient vascular elements, ap-
pears darker than the outer parenchyma zone. Numerous typical root
hairs arise from the centers of epidermal cells (Fig. 51).
Other Cattle Foods containing chaff, bran, germs and starchy matter
are obtained in the manufacture of pearl barley, barley grits, etc.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Bohmer (6, 23); Hanausek, T. F.
(10, 16, 17); Harz (18); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace (26); Moeller (29, 32);
Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin
(42); Vogl (43, 45); Wittmack (10).
Also see Bibliography of Wheat, pp. 72-73.
Emmerling: Ueber eine einfache Unterscheidungsweise von Gersten- und Haferspelzen.
Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1898, 50, 1.
Holzner: Die Bestandteile und Gewebeformen des bespelzten Gerstenkornes. Ztschr.
gesamm. Brauwesen. 1888, 473.
Zoebl: Der anatomische Bau der Fruchtschale der Gerste (Hordeum dislichum L.).
Verhandl. Naturf. Ver. Brunn. 1889, 27, 1.
Zoebl: Beitrage zur Entwickelung des Gerstenkornes. Allg. Ztschr. f. Bierbrauerei u.
Malzfabrikation. 1889.
MAIZE.
The fruit of maize or Indian corn (Zea Mays L.), a plant of American
origin, is the leading cereal crop of the United States, the production
being four times as great as that of wheat, and is also a valuable grain
in Southern Europe.
By far the larger part of the grain is used as food for cattle, swine,
and poultry, though a considerable amount is consumed by the human
family in the form of corn-bread, mush, hominy, and various corn-starch
products.
The varieties of maize cultivated in America are usually divided
into five classes, viz.: dent corn (long kernels with a depression in the
end), flint corn (kernels more nearly round, at the end smooth and con-
vex), pop-corn (small kernels used for parching or "popping"), sweet
corn (cooked green as a vegetable), and the less important soft corn.
The numerous varieties belonging to each class vary greatly as to
MAIZE.
87
the number of rows of kernels on the cob, as to the size, form, and
color of the kernels, the length and diameter of the cob, etc. Only
the dent and flint varieties have any considerable importance as grain
plants.
An ear of maize consists of a thickened rachis or spindle, on which
are inserted the closely-packed kernels
with their accompanying chaff. The
spindle and chaff together form the
cob.
The kernels of a maize ear spring OTHflf ' \
from the cob transversely in pairs
Fig. 53. Maize (Zea Mays). Cross sec-
tion of ear looking toward the base.
5 inner surface of lower empty glume
seen behind flowering glumes and
palets; s outer surface of upper
empty glume; F axis; H depression;
B bundle zone; M pith. Natural size.
(WlNTON.)
Fig. 54. Maize. Radial section of ear
through the center of the kernels. 5
and j empty glumes; j2 glume and
5s palet of perfect flower; S1 glume
and S2 palet of rudimentary flower; P
spongy lining of thick glumes; U sur-
face of woody zone beyond depression;
H depression ; T denser portion of
woody zone; B fibro-vascular bundle;
M pith. X 4. (Winton.)
and longitudinally in double rows. The arrangement is such that a plane
perpendicular to the axis of the cob which passes through the bases of
the pair in one double row will pass alternately between and through the
bases of the pairs in the other double rows. Since the double rows of
kernels are arranged in pairs, it follows that there are normally an even
number of rows. In the early stages of ripening, the double rows are
separated by marked grooves; but as the kernels approach maturity
they become so crowded that the arrangement in pairs and double
88 GRAIN.
rows may not be outwardly apparent, but is evident on cutting into
the cob.
Fig. 53 shows, a cross-section of an ear so cut as to leave three of the
six pairs of kernels entire, alternating with three pairs of fruit cups in
section; Fig. 54 shows a longitudinal section. The core of pith (M)
is surrounded by a zone (B) containing numerous fibro-vascular bundles
running longitudinally through the cob and this in turn by an outer
woody zone bearing the fruit cups. The woody regions (T) beneath
the double rows are separated from each other by thin radial partitions
of soft tissues extending from the central pith nearly to the surface.
These partitions can be traced the whole length of the cob separating
the woody matter into strips which are arranged about the pith like the
staves of a barrel. The strips of woody matter are pierced for the
passage of the tissues connecting the kernels with the zone of vascular
bundles.
On the surface of the woody zone between the pairs of fruit cups is
a transverse depression (H) clothed with hairs, which is more or less
pronounced according to the dryness of the cob. The woody matter
(T) about these depressions is of a darker color than in other parts, owing
to its greater density. The cups in which the kernels rest are formed
by six envelopes, viz. : two empty glumes (S and s), the glume (s2) and
palet (S3) of the perfect flower, and the glume (S1) and palet (S2) belong-
ing originally to a rudimentary blossom. Both of the empty glumes are
thick and horny with linings of spongy tissues (P) and thin ends re-
sembling tissue paper. The other enveloping parts are entirely of this
papery texture. Hairs occur at the bases of the thick glumes, espe-
cially at their points of juncture, and also on the thin ends. The more
or less flattened kernels are usually longer than broad in the dent va-
rieties, but broader than long in the flint varieties. The ventral side
(the side nearest the apex of the cob) is smooth and flat, while the dorsal
side has a broad groove extending from the base of the kernel (where
it is broadest and deepest) nearly to the apex. Beneath this groove is
the unusually large germ (Fig. 62).
HISTOLOGY.
Spindle. 1. The Epidermis overlying the woody zone in the depres-
sions (Figs. S3 and 54, H) is made up of thin-walled cells of wavy out-
line arranged more or less distinctly in rows (Fig. 55, ep). The hairs
MAIZE.
S9
{H, h) which spring from this epidermis are, in part, long, pointed, single-
celled, with walls from one-third to one-sixth the thickness of the cavity,
i H
Fig. 57. Fig. 56.
Fig. 55. Maize Cob. Surface view of ep epidermis and hy hypoderm in the depression
(H, Figs. 53 and 54). H single-celled pointed hair; h blunt three-celled hair. X160.
(Winton.)
Fig. 56. Maize Cob. Radial section through depression (H, Figs. 53 and 54), showing
epidermis with hairs, elongated and isodiametric sclerenchyma cells, fibro-vascular
bundle and parenchyma of pith. X32. (Winton.)
Fig. 57. Maize Cob. Transverse section through the elongated sclerenchyma of the
woody zone. X160. (Winton.)
and, in part, blunt, two or more celled, with exceedingly thin walls..
In the region between the depressions and the base of the upper thick
9°
GRAIN.
glume (Fig. 54, U), the epidermis is like that of the homy portion of
the empty glumes (Fig. 59).
2. Woody Zone. The sclerenchyma cells of the woody zone vary
greatly, according to their location, in form, size, and in the thickness of
the walls. The first layer beneath the epidermis in the depressions, as
ep
Fig. 58. Maize Cob. Cross section of upper thick glume, ep epidermis with thick -walled,
porous cells and thin-walled non -porous cells; st isodiametric cells; If longitudinally
elongated sclerenchyma cells and fibre-vascular bundle; p parenchyma with compressed
inner layers. X160. (Winton.)
seen in the surface view (Fig. 55, hy), consists of elongated cells with
porous walls usually narrower than the lumen. The side walls are much
thicker than those at the ends.
The cells of several succeeding layers are long and fibrous with narrow
lumen, and extend in curves parallel to the surface of the depressions
(Fig. 56).
Proceeding inward from these layers, the cells gradually diminish in
MAIZE.
91
length and increase in width until they are finally round or oval. At
first this change in shape is accompanied by a thickening of the ceil-
wall; but further inward the walls begin to diminish in thickness and
continue to diminish until the cells lose the character of sclerenchyma.
All the transitional forms from woody fiber to the thin parenchyma of
the pith are noticeable.
Fig. 59. Maize Cob. Outer epider-
mis of an empty glume, consisting
of porous and non-porous cells and
base of hair. X 300. (Winton.)
Fig. 60. Maize. Membranous glume in
surface view, ep outer epidermis with
H long one-celled hair, and h short,
blunt 1-3 celled hairs; * hair scar; p
inner epidermis. X 160. (Moellee.) '
In cross-sections of the cob the thick cell-walls show not only numer-
ous pores, but beautiful concentric markings (Fig. 57).
3. Bundle Zone. The fibro-vascular bundles passing through the
soft tissue between the woody zone and the pith have the characteristics
peculiar to endogenous plants. In longitudinal sections, spiral, annular,
scalariform, and pitted vessels and thin-walled elongated sclerenchyma
cells are conspicuous (Fig. 56).
4. The Pith consists entirely of parenchyma with thin cell-walls which,
under high power, are seen to be pierced by pores:
92
GRAIN.
Fig. 6i. Maize Cob.
parts. X 1 60
Hairs from different
(WlNTOX.)
Empty Glumes. Each of the thick glumes (Fig. 54, S, s) is composed
of a homy lower portion and a thin papery tissue at the end.
The structure of the horny portion
appears in cross section in Fig. 58.
The epidermis (Fig. 59) is composed
of two forms of cells, one with thick
porous walls, the other with thinner
walls free from, pores. Both forms
yM ii II H \'i\\\\ R 111 are corninomy' rounded-rectangular,
(O *U/ u O O O D *■> either isodiametric or somewhat elon-
gated. The non-porous cells are some-
times crescent-shaped, and often occur
in pairs at more or less regular intervals, showing that they are analogous
to the twin cells of other cereals. They are usually smaller than those
with pores, although in some parts the difference in size is not so
marked. In addition to these two forms
of cells, hairs and well-developed sto-
mata also occur in parts. The structure
of the papery ends is like that of the
thin glumes and palets.
2. Sclerenchyma (Fig. 58, si and //).
The sclerenchyma of the glumes extends
from the epidermis nearly to the inner
surface. In the first few layers, the cells
are large, loosely arranged, more or less
isodiametric, and have walls of mod-
erate thickness; but further inward
the cells are smaller, thicker walled
and are longitudinally much elongated.
The fibro-vascular bundles run among
these elongated cells and parallel to
them.
3. Parenchyma (p). Toward the
inner surface the cell-walls diminish in
thickness and the sclerenchyma passes
finally into parenchyma. The parenchyma cells of the inner layers are
indistinct and much compressed.
4. The Inner Epidermis is not evident.
Flowering Glumes and -Palets (Fig. Co). 1. The Outer Epidermis
Fig. 62. Maize. Longitudinal section
of fruit. e pericarp; n remains of
stigma; fs base of kernel; eg horny
endosperm; ew floury endosperm; sc
and jj scutellum of embryo; e epithe-
lium of scutellum; k plumule; w (be-
low) primary root; ics root sheath;
iv (above) secondary root; st stem.
X6. (Sachs.)
MAIZE.
93
(ep) consists of cells with thin wavy walls and thin-walled unicellular
and multicellular hairs.
2. The Inner Epidermis (p) is of elongated cells.
tip :-;«.■ *^\^~eS».'j£^L* <£3 X ep
Fig. 63. Maize. Cross section of bran coats and outer endosperm of fruit. Pericarp
consists of ep epicarp, m mesocarp, p spongy parenchyma and sch tube cells; h spermo-
derm; is perisperm; endosperm consists of K aleurone cells and E starch cells. X 160.
(Moeller.)
Pericarp (Figs. 63 and 64). After soaking the grain for a day or two
in water, a skin, having the same color as the' grain and consisting of
the epicarp, mesocarp, and spongy parenchyma, may be readily sepa-
sch/ aj
Fig. 64. Maize. Bran coats in surface view, m mesocarp; sch tube cells; p spongy
parenchyma; is perisperm; K aleurone layer. X160. (Moeller.)
rated. If yellow or white, this skin turns deep yellow with alkali; if
red, it turns green.
1. The Epicarp {ep) consists of porous-walled, elongated cells much
like the corresponding layer of wheat, except that the walls are thicker.
A thin cuticle covers the exposed surface.
94 grain: •
2. Mesocarp (m). Six or more layers of cells similar to those of
the epicarp, but with thicker walls, constitute the mesocarp, or middle
layer. In the outer layers these cells are 600 // or more long and 20-40 fi
broad. In the inner layers, the cells are broader, flatter, and thinner
walled, grading into those of the next layer.
3. Spongy Parenchyma (p). Instead of a close layer of cross cells,
such as occur in wheat, rye and barley, or isolated vermiform cells, as in
rice and sorghum, we find in maize a spongy parenchyma made up of
branching and anastomosing cells with narrow, radiating arms, and
large intercellular spaces. In most parts the transversely elongated arms
occur in the greatest numbers, indicating the relation with the vermiform
cross cells of rice and sorghum.
4. Tube cells (sch). In order to study the tube cells, also the spermo-
derm and perisperm, a whole kernel should first be soaked in water,
stripped of the outer pericarp, as already described, and the thick inner
skin removed. This skin should then be boiled in ij per cent alkali,
washed in dilute acetic acid, picked apart with needles, and the frag-
ments mounted in chlorzinc iodine.
Spermoderm (is). The so-called brown membrane, although ex-
ceedingly thin, is readily seen in cross-section. It becomes intensely
yellow on treatment with alkalies, without swelling perceptibly. A
single layer of delicate elongated cells and traces of a second are dis-
closed by the method described in the preceding paragraph.
Perisperm (h). Beneath the spermoderm is still another layer which,
although seen in cross-section only under the most favorable circum-
stances, is brought out clearly in surface view by the method above de-
scribed, the swollen walls remaining colorless, the finely granular con-
tents, however, being stained deep blue.
Endosperm (Figs. 62, 63 and 64). 1. The Aleurone Layer (K) con-
sists, for the most part, of a single cell layer, although some of the cells
are divided by tangential partitions. The cells are 30-40 // in diameter,
the double walls 6-9 ji thick.
2. Starch Parenchyma (E). Immediately adjoining the aleurone
layer, the cells are small and flattened; further inward, large and is o-
diametric. In the outer horny portion of the kernel, nearly all the starch
grains (Fig. 65) are sharply polygonal, only a few being rounded; while
in the inner mealy portion the reverse is true, nearly all the grains being
rounded. A distinct hilum, often with radiating clefts, is always evident,
at least in the larger grains. Most of the grains are 15-35 ft- Compound
MAIZE. 95
forms do not occur. T. F. Hanausek has aptly described the starch
grains of maize as standing out in bold relief, in striking contrast with
the flat grains of many starches. Examined with crossed Nicols, maize
starch displays very distinct crosses.
The Embryo (Fig. 62) contains oil and proteids, but no starch.
DIAGNOSIS.
The numerous products of maize serve not only as foods for man
and beast, but also frequently as adulterants.
Fig. 65. Maize Starch. X 300. (Moeller.)
Whole Maize Products. Maize Meal. Finely ground whole kernel
meal is an important human food in the Southern States. Coarse meal
is fed to cattle, swine, and horses.
Cracked Com is a coarser product used as a poultry food.
From these products lumps of horny and floury endosperm and
fragments of the bran and germ may be picked out under the simple
microscope. The large polygonal starch grains (Fig. 65) differ from
those of all other economic plants but sorghum. On treatment with
alkali, yellow or white fragments of the skin become a deep golden-
yellow and red fragments green. The pericarp is further characterized
by the thick porous walls of the epicarp and mesocarp Fig. (64, m), and
the star-shaped or transversely elongated cells of the spongy parenchyma
(p). The tube cells (sch) are much like those of rice, oats, and
sorghum.
Com and Cob Meal, often known as "cob-meal, " consists of the kernels
ground with the cob. The characteristics of the cob are noted below.
Flour and Other Decorticated Products. Maize Flour is an ingre-
96 GRAIN.
dient of some griddle-cake flours and various other preparations. It
is also an adulterant of wheat flour.
Maize Meal, prepared with or without removal of germ and bran, is used
for making corn bread, " Johnny cake," and mush (" hasty pudding ")
Hominy, or Grits, a coarser product made from white maize, is a
well-known breakfast cereal. These and some other products consist
largely of starchy endosperm.
" Corn Flakes " is one of several cooked and flaked preparations,
with distorted starch grains.
Com Starch (p. 651).
By-products. Gluten Meal and Gluten Feed are dried by-products
from the manufacture of glucose. The former is a concentrated feed,
consisting largely of hard, irregularly rounded, yellow lumps, the only
marked microscopic elements being fragments of bran. Gluten feed
cojitains more bran than does the meal. The starch grains are distorted
in both products.
Hominy Feed and Starch Feed, by-products containing starch}' matter
and bran, are obtained in the manufacture of hominy and starch.
Maize;JZake. The germs of maize' yield, on pressing, maize oil.
Ground germ cake is sold under the name "germ oil meal." It contains
no starch.
Maize Bran, although much inferior to wheat bran, is frequently
added to the latter as an adulterant, in which case it is detected by the
cells of the epicarp, mesocarp, and spongy parenchyma (Fig. 64).
Maize Cobs, because of their mechanical condition and low content
of nutrients, have little value as cattle food. Their legitimate use is as
fuel and for making smoking- pipes ; the ground cobs are, however, too
often mixed with wheat or rye bran as an adulterant.
In bran, thus adulterated, a practiced eye, even without the aid of a
lens, will usually find fragments of the thin glumes and palets, also of the
thick horny glumes and woody zone. Lindsey notes that by chewing the
bran the hard woody fragments may often be detected. The thin glumes
and palets (Fig. 60) can be examined directly under the microscope,
noting the color on addition of alkali; but pieces of the thick glumes and
the woody zone require special preparation. The characteristic epidermal
cells (Fig. 59) of the empty glumes are obtained for study by warming with
dilute alkali and scraping with a scalpel. For the identification of other
tissues, sections should be cut with a razor or the elements isolated bv treat-
ment with a macerating solution. Stone cells (Fig. 57), such as make up
MAIZE. BROOM CORN. 97
the woody zone of the cob and the interior of the thick glume, will be at once
recognized as foreign to bran; and the same may be said of fibro-
vascular bundles and the parenchyma of the pith. The compound hairs
with thin walls, and sharp-pointed single-celled hairs with cavity five to
six times the thickness of the walls, are unlike hairs of bran. Where the
percentage of adulteration is large, chemical analysis will disclose a de-
ficiency of nitrogen, fat, and starch and an excess of fiber.
Usually the thin glumes (Fig. 60) with sinuous walls and hairs, also
the porous and non-porous epidermal cells (Fig. 59) of the thick glumes,
suffice for identification.
Ground cobs from corn (maize) canneries are said to be used in cheap
cocoanut candy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674; Berg (3); Bohmer (6, 23) ; Hanausek, T. F.
(16); Harz(i8); Hassall(i9); Leach (25); Mace (26); Moeller^gJ; Planchon et Col-
lin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45); Wittmack
(10).
Also see Bibliography of Wheat, pp. 72-73.
Bersch: Mais und Maisabfalle. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1895, 46, 85.
Harshbercer: Maize, a Botanical and Economic Study. Contrb. Bot. Lab. Univ.
Pennsylvania I, 1893, 75.
Linz: Beitrage zur Physiologie der Keimung von Zea Mais L. Dissert. Marburg, 1896.
PAmmel: Comparative Anatomy of the Corn Caryopsis. Iowa Acad. Sci. 1897, 5, 1.
White: Note on the Use of Maize as an Adulterant. Analyst, 1895, 20, 30.
Winion: Die Anatomie des Maiskolbens mit besonderer Riicksicht auf den Nachweis
von Kolbenmehl als Verfalschungsmittel der Weizen- und Roggenkleie. Oesterr.
Chem.-Ztg. 1900, 3, N. F., 345. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1900, 186.
BROOM CORN.
A number" of plants formerly regarded as separate species of the
genus Sorghum (S. saccharatum Pers., S. vulgare Pers., S. Cafjrorum
Beauv., S. nigrum Roem. et Schult., S. cernuum Willd.) are now classed
as varieties of a single species (Andropogon Sorghum Brot.), the extraor-
dinary differences in their inflorescence and fruit being the result of
hybridization and selection extending through centuries. These dif-
ferences are especially marked, because some of the varieties have been
developed for grain, others for brush, and still others for sugar; whereas
in the case of other cereals the production of grain has been chiefly con-
sidered.
9 8 GR4IN.
Broom corn (Andropogon Sorghum var. technicus Koern.), one of
the most important varieties, is grown in large quantities in Illinois,
Kansas, Nebraska, and some other states of the United States, and to
a much lesser extent in Spain, Italy, and other parts of Europe. Al-
though the grain is not fully ripe when the brush is in its best condition,
still it is utilized to some extent as food for cattle and poultry, and some-
times is mixed with wheat bran as an adulterant.
A fertile spikelet (Fig. 66) and one or two staminate or rudimentary
spikelets (r) are borne at each joint of the panicle. The fertile spike-
■*i
Fig. 66. Broom Corn (Andropogon Sorghum var. technicus). Fruit with chaff, r two
staminate spikelets; gi lower empty glume; g2 upper empty glume; g, glume of rudi-
mentary flower; gj flowering glume with awn; p palet; c caryopsis or fruit. X4-
(WlNTON.)
let consists of two shining, thick, empty glumes (gi and g2) and three
membranous, hairy envelopes, constituting the glume (g/) and small
palet (J>) of the perfect flower, and the glume (g3) of a rudimentary flower.
A geniculate upwardly barbed awn, 5-7 mm. long, is borne on the glume
of the perfect flower; but this awn, being readily detached by thresh-
ing, is seldom found in the grain on the market. The grain or cary-
opsis is about s mm. long and from 2-3 mm. wide, tapering to a
blunt point at both ends. It varies in color from yellow-brown to
red-brown.
HISTOLOGY.
Both Empty Glumes (Fig. 66, gi and g2) are from 4 to 6 mm. long,
equalling and closely enveloping the fruit. They vary in color from
yellow-brown to red-brown. The soft hairs, which nearly cover the outer
surface, are loosely attached and most of them are removed during the
threshing and cleaning of the seed, leaving the glumes smooth and
shining.
BROOM CORN.
99
i. The Outer Epidermis (Figs. 67 and 68, aep) consists of thick-
walled sclerenchyma cells several times as long as broad, with wavy con-
Fig. 67. Fig. 68.
FlG. 67. Broom Corn. Transverse section of empty glume and outer layers of fruit. Sp
empty glume consists of aep outer epidermis, / fiber layer, p spongy parenchyma with
g bundle, and iep inner epidermis with sto stoma; Fs pericarp consists of ep epicarp with
. c cuticle, hy hypoderm, mes starchy mesocarp, q cross cells and sch tube cells; N peri-
sperm with i swollen inner walls; E endosperm, consists of al aleurone layer and the
starch cells with si starch grains and a proteid network. X 160. (Winton.)
Fig. 68. Broom Corn, aep outer epidermis and / fiber of an empty glume in surface view.
X300. (Winton.)
tour, interspersed here and there with isodiametric hair-scars, each ac-
companied by a crescent-shaped cell with granular contents. The hairs,
which are almost invariably detached in preparing the mount, if not in
cleaning the seed, are often 1.0 mm. long and 12 /x broad in the middle,
but tapering towards both ends. Invariably the lumen is much broader
than the walls.
2. The Hypoderm Fibers (Figs. 67 and 68, /), of which there are
several layers, have thick walls and narrow cavities.
3. Spongy Parenchyma (Figs. 67 and 69, p). As seen in surface view,
the cells of this layer are more or less rectangular with circular inter-
cellular spaces, and resemble those of rice and barley glumes.
4. Inner Epidermis (Figs. 67 and 69, iep). In cross-section this layer
is not readily studied, since the radial walls are usually collapsed; but
in surface preparations, the large elongated cells, often 150 p. long and
50 n wide, interspersed with stomata and hairs, are clearly displayed.
IOO
GRAIN.
Flowering Glumes and Palet. i. Outer Epidermis (Fig. 70, aep).
In general form the cells are similar to those of the outer epidermis of
the empty glumes, but are narrower and much thinner walled. The
marginal hairs (h) are long (often 500/*), single-celled, and pointed;
sto.
Fig. 69. Broom Corn. Inner layers of
empty glume in surface view showing p
spongy parenchyma and iep inner epi-
dermis with sto stoma and h hair.
X 300. (Winton.)
Fig. 70. Broom Corn. Glume
of rudimentary flower (Fig.
66, g3) in surface view, aep
outer epidermis with h one-
celled hair and h1 two-
celled hair; iep inner epi-
dermis. X 300. (WrxTON.)
but on the surface, shorter hairs (h1), with two or three joints and blunt
ends, also occur. Both of these forms have exceedingly thin walls.
2. The Inner Epidermis (iep) is distinguished from the outer by the
straight walls, and almost entire absence of hairs.
Pericarp. 1. Epicarp (Figs. 67 and 71, ep). The cells are longi-
tudinally extended and have thick, wavy side walls, with more or less
distinct pores. Hassack has noted that the cuticle (c) is of uneven thick-
ness, due to minute granules or crystals, which may be seen either in
section or surface view.
2. The Hypoderm (hy) consists of from one to three layers of cells,
with walls somewhat thinner than those of the epidermis.
BROOM CORN.
101
3. Starchy Mesocarp (mes). Several layers of thin-walled parenchyma
cells, filled usually with small round or rounded polygonal starch grains,
seldom over 6 fi in diameter, make up this coat. The starch appears
during the early stages of growth and persists until the fruit nearly or
quite reaches full maturity. As the caryopsis, even when nearly ma-
ture, is intensely green owing to chlorophyl grains in the outermost layers
of the mesocarp, it may be inferred that this starch is a direct product
of assimilation in the pericarp. The presence or absence of a starchy
mesocarp in the grain at the time of harvest is not a definite varietal pecu-
FlG. 71. Broom Corn. Bran layers in surface view, ep epicarp; hy hypoderm; mes
starchy mesocarp; q cross cells; sch tube cells; N perisperm; al aleurone cells. X 160.
(WlNTON.)
liarity, but is dependent on the ripeness of the fruit or other conditions.
Some kernels of the same variety may possess it, while others show only
empty, obliterated cells. Whether or not-the starch is present in a given
seed may often be determined by careful scraping and observation with
the naked eye.
4. Cross Cells (q). These cells are usually long and narrow, being
distinguished from the tube cells only by their transverse arrangement.
Near the extremities of the seed they are, however, shorter and of more
irregular shape.
5. Tube Cells (sch). The cells of this layer lie at right angles to the
cross cells. They are about 5 fi wide and often reach a length of 200 /*.
Perisperm (N). This layer is frequently 50 ft thick. The outer radial
walls are thin, but the inner wall (s) is greatly swollen. In surface view
the large cells are conspicuous, not only because of their size, but because
of their yellow or brown color.
102 GRAIN.
Endosperm, i. Aleurone Layer (al). The individual cells of this
layer are characterized by their great variation in size and form.
2. Starch Parenchyma (st). In the outer layers the starch grains,
if present, are much smaller than in the interior of the seed, where they
sometimes reach a diameter of 30 /i. They are usually sharply polygonal,
with a distinct hilum and radiating fissures. The starch is surrounded
by small protein granules, forming a network (a) which is especially
evident after removing the starch by reagents. In some specimens,
one or more of the outer cell layers are filled with these protein granules
to the complete exclusion of the starch.
DIAGNOSIS.
The starch grains of broom corn and other sorghum fruits are practi-
cally the same, both in form and size, as those of maize, although radically
different from those of all other cereals. Meyer observed that the grains
of some varieties of sorghum take on a reddish color, not a blue, with
iodine solution, but Mitlacher found that this reaction takes place only
after first soaking the grain in water. As a means of distinguishing
sorghum starch from maize starch, this test is of little value, and it is neces-
sary to depend on the differences in structure of other histological elements
The epidermis (Fig. 68) of the glumes and the perisperm (Fig. 71, N)
of both broom corn and sugar sorghum are radically unlike any tissues
found in maize. Especially characteristic are the cells of the perisperm,
which may be readily found without treatment with reagents, whereas in
other cereals they can seldom be seen except under the most favorable
conditions.
After treatment with alkali, the epidermis (Fig. 68, aep) of the empty
glumes may be readily distinguished from the corresponding tissues of
maize by the longer cells, their zigzag contour and the crescent-shaped
cells which almost invariably accompany the hair-scars. The thin glumes
(Fig. 70) resemble those of maize (Fig. 60), but the epidermal cells are
longer, narrower and less irregular in form.
The tube cells of the two cereals are much the same, and the cross
cells of sorghum are often not distinguishable from the spongy parenchyma
cells of maize. Of the other tissues, the epicarp is not always character-
istic, and the starchy mesocarp is difficult to find in the ground product.
The elongated cells of the outer epidermis of the thick glumes in
.sorghum and barley are much alike, but the short conical hairs, often
BROOM CORN. SUGAR SORGHUM. 103
unaccompanied by crescent-shaped cells, are characteristic of barley.
Sorghum and oat glumes are not so readily distinguished by the epidermal
tissues ; but in sorghum the cells of the spongy parenchyma are, like those
of barley, irregularly rectangular with round intercellular spaces, whereas
in oats they are star-shaped.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See general Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hassall (19).
Brown: On Another New Pepper Adulterant. Analyst. 1887, 12, 89.
Harz: Landw. Samenkunde. Berlin, 1885, 2, 1249.
Hassack: Anatomie der Sorghum-Friichte. Mitth. aus dem Labor, f. Waarenk. an
der Wiener Handels-Akad. 1887, 113.
Mitlacher: Ueber einige exotische Gramineenfriichte, die zur menschlichen Nahrung
dienen. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1901, 813, 831, 856, 875, 899 u. 928.
Winton: Anatomie der Kultur-Varietaten der Hirse. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm.
1903, 6, 337. Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rep. 1902, 326.
SUGAR SORGHUM.
Sugar sorghum (Andropogon Sorghum var. saccharatus Koern.) has
been cultivated for many years in China and Africa and for the past half
century in America. At one time it gave promise of being the chief sugar
plant of the United States, but has since largely given place to the sugar
beet. It is cut for sugar before the seeds reach maturity, but the latter
still have some value as food for stock. When grown to maturity the seed
is said to be equal or superior to durrha.
Early Amber, Early Orange and other important varieties resemble
closely the broom corns in habit of growth, but the panicles are shorter
and less spreading. The two black, shining, empty glumes are of about
the same length as those of broom corn, but are somewhat broader and,
since they do not so closely envelop the caryopsis, are sometimes,- though
not usually, removed in threshing.
Numerous loosely attached hairs cover the surface of these empty
glumes, but they, as well as the awned flowering glumes, drop off in the
preparation of the grain for the market.
Under the microscope the two varieties named cannot be distinguished
from the broom corns except by the material in the epidermal cells of the
empty glumes, to which they owe their black color.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Broom Corn, p. 103.
104 GRAIN.
KAFFIR CORN.
Kaffir corn (Andropogon Sorghum (L.) Brot.) is the chief bread cereal
and cattle food of the natives in parts of South Africa, and is an impor-
tant product in parts of America. The fruit is borne in a dense head
which does not bend over at maturity.
The empty glumes are somewhat shorter than the fruit and the flower-
ing glume is not awned. The caryopsis is white or red according to the
variety, nearly globular, about 4 mm. in diameter and separates from
the glumes in threshing.
In microscopic structure Kaffir corn, aside from the absence of chaff,
differs from the broom corns and sugar sorghums chiefly in that the peri-
sperm is not evident either in cross-section or in surface preparation, and
in that the hypoderm is more strongly developed, often consisting of three
layers of thick-walled cells.
White milo maize is but a subvariety.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Broom Corn, p. 103.
DURRHA.
Brown durrha, white durrha or Jerusalem corn, and yellow mila
maize are forms of Andropogon Sorghum var. durra (Forskal) Hackel,
differing from each other chiefly in the color of the caryopsis. They are
grown to some extent in America for the grain, which is used as food for
both cattle and poultry. The plants reach the height of 2 to 3 meters,
but as the dense heads approach maturity, the rachis below them bends
over, forming a goose-neck.
Both of the empty glumes are obtuse, densely hairy, and about half
the length of the large, flattened, more or less lenticular caryopsis, which
is 5 to 6 mm. long and of about the same breadth. The flowering glume
of white durrha is awned, but that of red durrha and yellow milo maize
is awnless. As found in the market, the grain is usually free from all
envelopes.
Although to the naked eye the fruits of the three varieties are much,
alike except in color, under the microscope they show one marked differ-
ence. In brown durrha the perisperm or nucellar layer is always strongly
developed, whereas in the white and yellow varieties this layer is not evident.
DURRHA. RICE.
!°5
The other parts of the fruit are much the same as described under
broom corn, but the outer layers of the endosperm normally contain
only aleurone grains.
See Broom Corn, p. 103.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
RICE.
Rice (Oryza sativa L.), although not strictly a bread grain, furnishes
daily food for more human beings than any
other cereal. It is the chief food product in
China, where it has been cultivated for nearly
5000 years,- also in Japan, India, and other
Oriental countries. Its culture has extended
from the East to all the wanner regions of the
globe.
The inflorescence is in panicles (Fig. 72, A)
made up of single-flowered spikelets (B), each
with two minute empty glumes, a thick, awned,
conspicuously five-ribbed flowering glume, and
an equally thick, three-ribbed palet, both the
latter being strongly compressed and keeled. The
flowering glume and palet are dull and lusterless,
harsh and rasping to the touch, owing to numer-
ous longitudinal -striations with transverse mark-
ings, which, together with coarse hairs, are readily
seen under a lens. The awn is seldom found
on the threshed grain. The flattened fruit or
caryopsis (K) is oblong, about 8 mm. long with
blunt base and apex. The relief of the glumes
is impressed on the surface, forming longitudinal
grooves and ridges. The germ is situated on the **• yg <*2£t&
dorsal edge at the base. -with chaff; Snaked fruit;
0 F flower. (Nees.)
HISTOLOGY.
Flowering Glume and Palet. Owing to the silica in the epidermis,
rice glumes cannot be readily sectioned until after they have been soaked
io6
GRAIN.
Maceration in Schulze's fluid serves to isolate
for some time in alkali,
the elements.
i. The Outer Epidermis (Figs. 73 and 74, ep1) consists of parallel
longitudinal rows of large, thick-walled cells, square in general outline,
with highly characteristic, very deeply sinuous side walls. Focusing on
the outer walls, these side walls are seen to be compoundly sinuous.
Stiff dagger-shaped hairs (t1) up to 500 p long (usually 150-250 /1)
and 40 /t in diameter at the base are scattered over the surface, being
Fig. 73. Rice. Cross section of palet and outer portion of fruit. P palet consists of
ep1 outer epidermis with hair, / hypoderm fibers, p spongy parenchyma with jv bundle,
and ep1 inner epidermis with sto stoma;. F pericarp consists of epi epicarp, mes mesocarp,
tr cross cells, and tu tube cells; 5 spermoderm; N perisperm; E endosperm consists
of al aleurone cells, also starch cells. X160. (Winton.)
especially abundant and also longest on the ribs and near the apex.
The walls are 5-9 /* thick.
2. The Hypoderm (/) consists of a double or triple layer of longi-
tudinally-extended sclerenchyma fibers. In the outer layers, the fibers
are strongly thickened and often have comb-like outgrowths, which join
them one with another or with the epidermis. The inner fibers are thinner
walled and have outgrowths only on the outer sides.
3. Spongy Parenchyma (p). Two, sometimes more, layers of spongy
parenchyma, through which run the bundles, form the mesophyl. The
cells are rectangular, with thin wavy walls. Intercellular spaces occur,
not only at the angles, but also between the surfaces of the walls.
RICE.
107
4. Inner Epidermis (ep2). In cross-section, this layer of collapsed
cells appears as a hyaline, striated membrane. Surface preparations
Fig. 74. Rice. Layers of palet in surface view, ep1 outer epidermis with x sinuous cells,
t1 hair, and y hair scar; / hypoderm fibers; p spongy parenchyma; ep2 inner epidermis
with sto stoma and t1 hair. X 160. (Winton.)
show that the cells over the bundles are elongated, but in other parts are
more or less cubical. The cell-walls are thin and marked with delicate
striations. Between these cells occur one- to three-celled (usually two-
celled) very thin-walled hairs, also stomata, consisting of two peculiar
guard cells and two somewhat larger companion cells with protoplasmic
contents.
Pericarp (Fig. 73, F; Fig. 75). Sections are cut after removing the
hulls and soaking for some hours in water. Fragments for surface ex-
amination are obtained by boiling the grain for a few moments in ij
per cent alkali, plunging in dilute acetic acid, and removing the outer skin,
which readily separates after this treatment.
1. Epicarp (epi). The outer layer of the fruit is the easiest found
and the most characteristic. Unlike the epicarp of all the other cereals,
the cells are transversely elongated, with curious, wavy, end walls. They
are 120-500 p. long and 30-100 [i wide, and are arranged side by side
in rows.
2. Mesocarp (mes). Several layers of more or less compressed cells,
indistinctly seen in transverse section, underlie the epicarp. In the first
layer or two these cells are much like the cross cells of barley, but in the
Io8 GRAIN.
inner layers they are more elongated, passing into the vermiform cells
of the next layer.
3. Cross Cells (tr). As all the cells between the epicarp and tube
cells are transversely elongated, increasing in length but decreasing in
breadth from without inward, a sharp classification into two layers is
obviously impossible. The cells of the inner layer, here designated as
N'--
Fig. 75. Rice. Bran coats in surface view, epi epicarp; mes mesocarp; tr cross cells;
tu tube cells; S spermoderm; N perisperm. X300. (Wintost.)
cross cells, are strikingly distinct from the cross cells of wheat, rye, barley,
and oats, but resemble closely those of maize, sorghum, and millet. They
range in length up to 500 fi, but are only 4-6 /j. broad. As a rule they
are nearly straight, but in parts they are bent and even branching. They
Occur either united in a close layer or detached.
Tube Cells (tu). The detached vermiform cells resemble strikingly
those of the last layer, but are narrower, being but 3-5 p broad. They
are the only cells of the pericarp, spermoderm, or perisperm that are not
transversely elongated.
Spermoderm (Figs 73 and 75, S). Cross-sections, previous to treat-
ment with reagents, show only an indistinct structureless line between the
tube cells and aleurone layer; but after heating with potash, washing in
dilute acetic acid, and staining with chlorzinc iodine, the cuticle of the
spermoderm is evident as a thin, yellow line, and the perisperm as a dark
blue layer. After the removal of the tnin skin forming the pericarp, as
RICE. 109
already described, a second, thicker skin, consisting chiefly of spermoderm,
perisperm, and aleurone cells may be separated by scraping. The spermo-
derm is recognized by the thin cell-walls and the bright yellow color
due to the thick cuticle. The more or less transversely or diagonally
elongated cells resemble those of wheat and other cereals, but form only
one layer.
Perisperm (Figs. 73 and 75, N). As has been noted in the preceding
paragraph, remains of the nucellus may be seen in section after treatment
with potash and staining with chlorzinc iodine. In carefully prepared
mounts the reticulated radial walls are evident. These cells are easily
seen in surface view in mounts prepared as above described, and are
distinguished from the cells of the spermoderm by the beaded appearance
of the radial walls, due to reticulations, and their dark blue color. The
cells are transversely elongated and are side by side in rows.
Endosperm (Fig. 73, E). 1. The Aleurone Cells (al) are rounded
polygonal, 25-40 p. in diameter, with uncommonly thin walls.
2. Starch Parenchyma. The thin- walled cells contain starch grains
(Fig. 76) 2-10 n in diameter often united into oval aggregates containing
Fig. 76. Rice Slarch. X 300. (Moeixer.)
from two to upward of a hundred grains. Grains from the center of a
large aggregate have only flat facets, but those from the outer portion are
curved on the exposed surfaces. Perfectly round grains arc rare. In com-
mercial rice-starch one seldom finds aggregates, since they are usually
broken up in the process of manufacture. The grains show distinct
crosses with crossed Nicols, the hilum being centrally located.
no GR4IN.
DIAGNOSIS.
Whole Rice. Rice is largely used as a human food in the form of the
whole grain divested of the chaff, pericarp, spermoderm, the larger part
of the germ, and some of the aleurone layer.
Puffed Rice is made by the same process as puffed wheat (p. 70).
Mill Products. Rice Flour and various other mill products are used
in preparing infant and invalid foods, griddle cakes, puddings, etc.
In all the products above named, the microscopic elements are starch
grains (Fig. 76) , occurring as individuals or in aggregates, aleurone cells,
and occasional fragments of other parts of the grain.
Flaked Rice is a breakfast preparation, cooked ready for use. The
starch grains are much distorted.
Rice-starch (see p. 652).
Rice By-products. Two by-products are obtained in preparing com-
mercial rice : first, hulls or, more correctly, glumes and palets, and second,
bran or middlings, consisting of the pericarp, spermoderm, germ, and
fragments of the aleurone layer.
Rice Hulls are useful as packing for eggs, bottles, etc. Owing to their
harshness, as well as the lack of food elements, they are not fit for cattle
foods. Ground rice hulls are, however, used for adulterating not only
fodders, but cocoa, pepper, and other human foods. Fragments of
sufficient size may be identified under a lens by the striations. If, while
held by a needle, they are scraped with a scalpel, their rough, silicious
nature is evident. Under the microscope, after treatment with alkali or
macerating, the nearly square epidermal cells (Fig. 74, epl) with thick
deeply zigzag walls and the broad dagger-shaped hairs (t1) are highly
characteristic.
Rice Bran or " Rice Polish " is a valuable fodder and a common
adulterant of spices. It is composed not only of the elements of the
pericarp, spermoderm, and germ, but also of aleurone cells and starch
parenchyma, and often is contaminated with hulls.
The most characteristic elements of the fruit are the epicarp cells
(Fig. 75, epi) with zigzag end walls, but cross cells and tube cells also aid
in identification.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 23); Hanausek, T. F. (16, 17);
Harz(i8); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace" (26); Moeller (29) ; Planchonet Collin (34);
OATS.
Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45); Wittmack
(10).
Also see Bibliography of Wheat, pp. 72 and 73.
Btjrchard: Reis und Reisabfalle. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1896, 48, in.
v. Hohnel: Die anatomischen Verhaltnisse der Reisspelze. Haberland's Wissensch.-
prakt. Unters. auf dem Gebiete des Pfknzenbaues. I, 149.
Street: Rice Hulls. New Jersey Agrl. Expt. Sta. Bull. 160, 1902.
OATS.
Oats {Avena sativa L.) are not only a valuable food for horses and
other cattle, but also for the human family. For generations this cereal
has been one of the chief articles of diet in Norway, Scotland, and Ireland,
and within the last generation oat preparations have come into extensive
■ use in America.
The numerous varieties are grouped under two races: panicled oats,
with loose inflorescence, and banner oats (A. orientalis Schreb.), with
one-sided, contracted panicles. Belonging to both races, are naked and
chaffy, awned and awnless varieties. Wild oats (A. fatua L.), with
Fig. 77. Oats (Avena sativa). Cross section of flowering glume and fruit. Sp flowering
glume consists of ep outer epidermis, / hypoderm fibers, p spongy parenchyma, and
i inner epidermis; Fs pericarp consists of je epicarp and gu cross cells; K aleurone
cells of the endosperm. X160. (Moellee.)
geniculate awns, a common weed in grain fields, is believed by many
botanists to have been the parent of the principal varieties in cultivation.
The two or more flowered spikelets are subtended by two large, mem-
braneous, empty glumes, which are left on the straw after threshing.
In the common varieties, each grain is closely enveloped by the smooth,
rounded, silicified, five or more veined, but not ribbed flowering glume,
and the two-nerved, thin, palet. The flowering glume has narrow, thin,
112
GRAIN.
edges; the palet, broad, membraneous wings which clasp the fruit. The
I
Fig. 78. Oats. Outer epidermis from the margin of the flowering glume, h hairs;
/ crescent-shaped cells. X 300. (Moeller.)
awn of the flowering glume, when present, is broken off in cleaning the
Fie. 79. Oats. Elements of chaff (flowering glumes and palets) isolated by maceration.
ep elongated cells, I crescent-shaped cells and K silica cell, all of the outer epidermis;
h hair; / hypodcrm fibers.' X160. (Moeller.)
grain. Freed of the chaff, the grain is spindle-shaped, with a silky -hairy
OATS.
"3
shallow groove on the ventral side. The germ is about one-third the length
of the fruit.
HISTOLOGY.
Flowering Glume, i. The Outer Epidermis (Fig. 77, ep) consists
of elongated cells with thick, wavy walls, twin cells (one of which is usually
crescent-shaped), and circular cells. On the body of the glume the cell-
walls are often thicker than the cavity (Fig. 79, ep) while on the edges
(Fig. 78) they are much thinner. Hairs occur on the edge's, being most
Fig. 80. Oats. Cells and hairs from
membranous margin of flowering
glume. X160. (Moeller.)
Fig. 81. Oats. Inner layers of chaff (flowering
glume or palet), in surface view. p spongy
parenchyma; i inner epidermis with si stomata.
X 300. (Moellee.)
numerous near the apex. They are mostly rigid, thick-walled, dagger-
shaped, broad at base (15-20 /i) and seldom exceed 60 ft in length. Some
at the very edge are thin-walled, with a slight curve toward the end, giving
them a peculiar, hooked appearance (Fig. 80).
2. Hypoderm Fibers (Figs. 77 and 79, /), for the most part in 4-10
layers, form a dense, hard coat. The individuals often exceed 1 mm. in
length, and have thick, sparingly porous walls. As may be seen after
maceration, the walls adjoining the epidermis are often toothed.
3. The Spongy Parenchyma (Figs. 77 and 81, p) is distinguished from
the corresponding layer of other cereals by the star-shaped form of the cells.
ii4
GRAIN.
4. The Inner Epidermis (i) consists of thin-walled cells and stomata.
The Palet. The middle portion of the palet has practically the same
structure as the flowering glume, except that the hypoderm layer is thinner;
but the membraneous wings have an outer epidermis made up of thin-walled
cells, and a rudimentary hypoderm or else no hypoderm whatever. Near
the keels and parallel to them are rows of stomata, and on the keels are
numerous stiff, thick- walled, pointed hairs about 15 p in diameter at
the base and upward of 100 ft long. As the palet often breaks or bends
on the keels these hairs form a highly characteristic saw-tooth edge.
Fig. 82. Oats. Bran coats in surface view, je epicarp with long- hairs; jnt mesocarpj;
qu cross cells; K aleurone cells. X 160. (Moellee.)
Pericarp (Figs. 77 and 82). In cross-section the pericarp and spermo-
derm do not show details of structure. The following characters may
be observed in surface view:
1. Epicarp. The cells on the body of the grain are longitudinally
elongated, with thin, porous side walls, but at the apex and base are nearly
OATS. 115
isodiametric. The long hairs which clothe the apex often exceed 200 /i in
length. They are usually broadest in the middle (about 20 /z), tapering
toward both ends. The base is sometimes so narrow as to be hardly
distinguishable from the apex.
2. The Mesocarp or Middle Coat Qm) is ill-defined.
3. Cross Cells (qu). The thin- walled, inconspicuous cells are arranged
side by side in rows.
The Spsrmoderm and Perisperm are not evident in the ripe grain.
Endosperm (Figs. 76 and 82). 1. The Aleurone Layer (K) is commonly
one cell-layer thick. The cells are 20-60 ji, and have thinner walls (double
walls 5 jx or less) than in wheat, rye and barley.
2. Starch Parenchyma. The large, thin- walled cells contain starch
grains (Fig. 83) which for the most part are polygonal, and are collected
Fig. 83. Oat Starch. X300. (Moeller.)
in ellipsoidal or rounded aggregates (up to 60 ji) of from two to many grains.
Among the simple grains are characteristic spindle-shaped forms. The
individual grains seldom exceed 10 \i in diameter, and are commonly much
less.
DIAGNOSIS.
Oats are commonly fed to horses and other farm animals without
removing the chaff, and often without grinding. Ground oats are fre-
quently mixed With other cereal products, particularly those containing
less fibrous matter. Provender, a mixture of ground oats and maize,
is one of the commonest horse feeds in the United States.
The elements of chief importance in diagnosis are: first, the smooth,
rounded (not ribbed as in barley) flowering glume, with an epidermis
(Fig. 79, ep) of thick, wavy-walled, elongated cells, circular cells and
twin cells, and with star-shaped (not rectangular as in other cereals)
1 1 6 GRAIN.
spongy parenchyma cells (Fig. 81, p); second, the palet of more delicate
structure, having keels barbed with coarse hairs, forming saw-toothed
edges; third, the epicarp with long, slender hairs (Fig. 82), often nar-
rowed at the base; fourth, the rounded aggregates of polygonal starch
grains and spindle-shaped forms (Fig. 83).
Oatmeal, Rolled Oats, and similar "breakfast cereals," contain all
the above elements except those of the chaff, though in some of these
products the starch grains have been distorted by cooking.
Oat By-products, consisting chiefly of chaff, are obtained in the manu-
facture of breakfast cereals and are used in mixed cattle foods. They
are inferior in nutritive value, being rich in fiber but poor in protein, fat
and starch. The glumes and palets are distinguished from the corre-
sponding parts of barley by the characters above named.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Bohmer (6, 23); Hanausek, T. F.
(16); Harz (18); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace" (26); Moeller (29); Planchon et
Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl
(43> 45); Wittmack (10).
Also see Bibliography of Wheat, pp. 72 and 73.
Emmerling: Ueber eine einfache Unterscheidungsweise von Gersten- und Haferspelzen.
Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1898, 50, 1.
White: Note on the Use of Maize as an Adulterant of Oatmeal. Analyst. 1895, 20, 30.
COMMON MILLET.
Millet (Panicum miliaceum L.), an ancient cereal, is still extensively
cultivated for grain in India, China, and Japan, and to some extent in
Russia and other parts of Europe. In America it is grown only for green
fodder and hay.
The nearly globular fruit is tightly clasped by the flowering glume
and palet, the whole forming an oval grain 3 mm. long and 2 mm. broad.
Both envelopes are of a uniform buff or straw color and are smooth and
lustrous.
HISTOLOGY.
Flowering Glumes and Palet. The Outer Epidermal cells on the palet
and the central part of the glume are isodiametric or somewhat elongated,
with compoundly sinuous side and end walls ; on the edges of the glume
they are more elongated, with straight end walls. Both forms have
smooth outer walls and are without colored contents.
COMMON MILLET. Ii7
The Hypoderm Fibers, rectangular parenchyma cells without inter-
cellular spaces, and the inner epidermis also of rectangular cells, are
the same as in the glumes and palet of Setaria.
The Caryopsis agrees in structure with that of Setaria viridls and S.
Italica, except that the aleurone cells are 25-50 [i in diameter, whereas
in Setaria they seldom exceed 20 /*. Vogl has shown that on treatment
Fig. 84. Common Millet {Panicum miliaceum). Starch cells of endosperm showing (at
the left) beaded network remaining after treatment with alkali. (Vogl.)
with alkali the starch grains dissolve, leaving a beaded network corre-
sponding to the form of the grains (Fig. 84).
DIAGNOSIS.
The chief products of millet are grits and the chaff and other by-
products obtained in the preparation of grits.
Millet grits contains starchy matter, large aleurone cells, and frag-
ments of other bran elements.
In chaffy by-products, the glumes and palets are distinguished from
those of chaffy wheats, barley, oats, rice, maize, darnel, and chess by
the absence of hairs, and of twin cells, and also by the rectangular paren-
chyma cells without intercellular spaces; from those of German millet
by the absence of wrinkles on the outer epidermis, and from those of
green foxtail by the absence of both wrinkles and patches of brown tis-
sues.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Matta. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 24.
Netolitzky: Mikroskopische Untersuchung ganzlich verkohlter vorgeschichtlicher
Nahrungsmittel aus Tirol. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1900, 3, 401.
Vogl: Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel. Berlin u. Wien,
1899. ns-
Il8 GRAIN.
GERMAN MILLET.
There is good evidence that German millet or Hungarian grass (Seta-
ria Italica Beauv., 5. panis Jesseri) was the chief cereal of the lake
dwellers and other prehistoric races. In China as early as 2700 B.C.
it ranked with rice as one of the staple crops, and is still an important
cereal in the East. In other parts of the world it is grown largely for
hay or for poultry food. Since German millet is regarded as but a form
of green foxtail (Setaria viridis) developed by cultivation, it is not sur-
prising that the fruits of the two agree closely both in macroscopic and
microscopic structure.
The glumes and palets are of a yellow or buff color, which aids in dis-
tinguishing them from the spotted or dark envelopes of green foxtail.
In other respects the two grains are not distinguishable.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Matta. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 24.
Vogl: Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahrungs- u. Genussmittel. Berlin u. Wien,
1899, 135-
GREEN FOXTAIL.
Green foxtail {Setaria viridis Beauv., Chaelochloa viridis (L.) Scribn.)
is a troublesome weed in both continents, particularly in the grain fields
of the northwestern states of the United States. The seed has been
found in American screenings in quantities varying up to 11.6 per cent.
The inflorescence is in dense, bristly spikes, or rather spiked panicles,
4-10 cm. long. Each spikelet consists of two empty glumes and two
flowers, one perfect with coriaceous transversely wrinkled glume and
palet, the other staminate with membraneous envelopes (Fig. 85). At
the base of the spikelet are from two to four upwardly barbed bristles
varying in length up to 8 mm,
HISTOLOGY.
Empty Glumes and Glume of Sterile Flower (Fig. 85, g1, g2 and
g}1). The lower empty glume is three-veined and less than 1 mm. long;
the upper empty glume and the glume of the staminate flower are five-
veined and 2 mm. long. In microscopic structure the three are practi-
cally identical.
GREEN FOXTAIL.
119
i. Outer Epidermis (Fig. 86). Characteristic of this layer are the
elongated cells with sinuous side walls and longitudinal rows of pits so
arranged that one pit occurs in each concave bend of the wall. On
the middle portion of the mature glume each of these pits is so large
that it fills completely the bend of the wall and in addition has a thickened
border, half of which coincides with the cell-wall, thus giving the tissue
a lace-like appearance. This structure is optically delusive, the pit
^jjf
Fig. 86. Green Foxtail. Outer
epidermis of the glume of the
staminate flower. I at the edge;
II in the middle. X 300. (Win-
ton.)
Fig. 8.5. Green Foxtail (Setarii viridis). I
spikelet with ripe fruit: gl lower empty
glume; g2 upper empty glume; gjl glume
and p1 palet of staminate flower; gp glume
and p1 palet of fertile flower; c fruit or
caryopsis; b bristles. II and III caryopsis
enclosed by flowering glume and palet.
X8. (Winton.)
borders often appearing to be the cell-walls, but is resolved by careful
focusing and comparison with the tissue in earlier stages of growth.
In addition to these elongated cells, pairs of short cells, one isodia-
metric, probably a hair-scar, the other more or less crescent-shaped,
occur here and there, and less frequently stomata and thin- walled one-
to three-jointed hairs.
2. Mesophyl. Only about the nerves and the basal portions of the
glumes is this coat evident. It has no diagnostic importance.
3. The Inner Epidermis is composed of elongated cells with straight
walls.
Palet of Staminate Flower (Fig. 85, p1). Within the glume of the
staminate flower is the palet, a hyaline scale only 1 mm. or less long with
120 GRAIH.
a notch at the end. In general structure, it is much the same as the other
thin envelopes, but the cell-walls are thinner.
i. Outer Epidermis. The narrow, elongated cells are wavy in outline,
but pits are lacking or are indistinct. Isodiametric cells and thin-walled
jointed hairs also occur.
2. Inner Epidermis. Except at the base, where traces of mesophyl
are sometimes evident, the inner epidermis immediately underlies the
outer epidermis.
Glume and Palet of Perfect Flower (Fig. 85, g}2, p2). Both the glume
and the palet of the fertile flower closely envelop the grain at maturity,
the former being strongly convex, the latter flat except on the edges
which clasp about the caryopsis. At the time of flowering these envelopes
are thin and of a green color, but at maturity they are coriaceous, silici-
fied and of a brown or mottled color. Under a lens, numerous transverse
wrinkles are evident on the glume and on the middle or flat portion of the '
palet, the lateral portions of the latter which clasp the caryopsis being
smooth and shining.
1. Outer Epidermis (Figs. 87, 88, 89). Throughout the glume and on
the middle portion of the palet, the cells are isodiametric or moderately
Fig. 87. Green Foxtail. Outer epidermis of glume of fertile flower, showing the smooth
edge and the wrinkled and mottled central portion. (Winton.)
elongated and are arranged not only in longitudinal rows but also in
irregular transverse rows, the wrinkles being formed by the outward bending
of the cells at the end walls and the inward bending halfway between.
GREEN FOXTAIL.
121
At the time of flowering, it may be seen that at the outer surface the end
walls are sinuous and the side walls are compoundly sinuous (Fig. 88, 7),
but further inward the end walls are nearly straight and the side walls
are simply, not compoundly sinuous (Fig. 88, II). At the end of each
III
Fig. 88. Green Foxtail. Outer epidermis from middle of glume of fertile flower. I
Outer surface and II inner surface soon after blooming. Ill Outer surface when in
fruit. X 300. (Winton.)
cell nearest the apex of the envelope, a cuticular wart bearing a group
of pits is usually evident, particularly on the palet (Fig. 88, I). About
these warts the adjoining end walls are more or less curved and the
side walls are not so deeply sinuous. At maturity the cell cavity beneath
122
GRAM.
the wart is conspicuous (on the palet nearly circular), but at the other
end of the cell is narrow or not evident at all owing to the encroachment
of the strongly thickened walls (Fig. 87;
Fig. 88, III).
The cell contents during the early
stages of development are colorless, but
later on usually become dark brown.
The epidermal cells on the lateral or
smooth portions of the palet which clasp
about the caryopsis are longer, narrower,
and less complex than those already de-
scribed (Fig. 89).
At maturity the wrinkles are usuaEy
30-60 fi apart.
2. The Hypoderm Fibers may be
readily isolated by treatment on the slide
with caustic alkali. They vary in length
up to 0.6 mm. and are often toothed at
the margin.
3. Mesophyl. Rectangular paren-
chyma cells without intercellular spaces make up this layer. Numerous
chlorophyl granules are present at the time of flowering.
4. The Inner Epidermis is composed of rectangular cells resembling
those of the mesophyl. Both of these layers become more or less obliterated
at maturity and are of no diagnostic importance.
Pericarp (Figs. 90 and 91). The ventral side is flat and has a dark
colored spot, the remains of the hilum, near the base. Extending half-
way from the base to the apex on the dorsal side is a groove, which marks
the position of the embryo.
1. Epicarp. (ep). As in the outer epidermal layers of the floral
envelopes the cells are elongated and wavy in outline. On the dark
colored spot already referred to, the epidermal cells are more or less
rectangular.
2. The Cross Cells (q) are similar to the tube cells in form, but are
usually shorter, broader, and more irregular in shape.
3. Tube Cells (sch). These are 2-4 n wide and often reach the length
of 300 fl.
Perisperm (iV). After treatment with alkali, this layer is clearly seen
in surface view. The cells are of large size and have beaded walls.
Fig. 89. Green Foxtail. Outer epi-
dermis from edge of glume of fertile
flower. X 300. (Winton.)
GREEN FOXTAIL.
123
Endosperm. 1. Aleurone Layer (al). The cells are 10-20 fi in
diameter.
% Starch Cells (Fig. 90, s). Polygonal starch grains' with conspicu-
FlG. go. Green Foxtail. Cross section of outer portion of fruit. F pericarp consists of
ep epicarp, q cross cells, and sch tube cells; N perisperm; E endosperm consists of
al aleurone cells and s starch cells. X300. (Winton.)
ous hilum fill the parenchyma cells of the endosperm. In the outer
layers they are from 4-8 ft in diameter, but further inward they reach
the maximum diameter of 18 ft.
After dissolving the starch with alkali, there remains a network of
FlG. 91. Green Foxtail. Bran coats in surface view, ep epicarp; q cross cells; sch tube
cells; N perisperm; al aleurone cells. X300. (Winton.)
threads containing conspicuous granules, which is very different from the
network of homogeneous threads obtained from polygonaceous seeds.
124 GRAIN.
In this respect, however, this fruit cannot be distinguished from the
fruits of S. glauca Beauv., S. panis Jessen, Panicum miliaceum L. (see
Vogl) and other species of Panicum.
DIAGNOSIS.
The membraneous glumes with pores in the bends of the walls (Fig.
86) and the coriaceous, transversely wrinkled, more or less spotted,
envelopes of the fertile flower with compoundly sinuous, thickened cell-
walls (Figs. 87 and 88) are highly characteristic of both green and yellow
foxtail. These tissues are usually present in all stages of development.
The fruit elements are like those of common millet and German
millet. Treatment with alkali brings out the structure of the fruit coats
and perisperm, and serves to distinguish this fruit from the common
cereals.
The starch is hardly distinguishable in form from the starch of bind-
weed, but the network remaining after treatment with alkali is beaded.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Winton: Ueber amerikanische Weizen-Ausreuter. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm.
1903, 6, 433. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 339.
YELLOW FOXTAIL.
The fruit of this species (Setaria glauca Beauv., Chaetochloa glauca
(L.) Scribn.) is larger than that of green foxtail, the envelopes are also
proportionately larger (with the exception
of the upper empty glume which is but
half the length of the spikelet) and the
wrinkles on the glume of the fertile flower
are more pronounced (Fig. 92).
In microscopic structure the fruits
of the two species are identical. The
floral envelopes are also much alike, the
Fig. 92. Yellow Foxtail (Setaria only distinction being in the distance
glauca). Fruit inclosed in flowering j- ,, . ,, ,,
glume and paiet. z showing glume ; aPart of the wrinkles on the mature
{Joshomug palet lndLed^ °l glume' flowering glumes. In green foxtail this
X 8. (Photograph by W. E. Brit- . °
ton.) distance is usually 30-60 fi, but in yellow
foxtail it is often 80-120 fi. Since this
distinction does not apply to the immature glumes and since the wrinkles
DARNEL.
I25
on the palets of the two species are practically the same, it is often diffi-
cult to identify the species in ground mixtures. Fortunately, identifica-
tion of the genus is all that is usually required.
DARNEL.
The microscopic identification of darnel (Lolium temulentum L.) is
important, as this fruit not only is one of the commonest impurities of
European and Californian wheat, but also contains a poisonous prin-
ciple (temulin) which renders it highly pernicious.
The four- to eight-flowered spikelet is inclosed within a strongly-
nerved empty glume which, however, is seldom
found in the threshed grain.
Adherent to each caryopsis is a flowering glume
6-8 mm. long, and a two-keeled palet of about the
same size but of thinner texture (Fig. 93). The
flowering glume is obscurely five-nerved, lobed at
the end, and bears an upwardly-barbed awn often
15 mm. long. In cross section the caryopsis is
U-shaped, owing to the deep groove on the ventral
side.
HISTOLOGY.
The Flowering Glume, like the glumes of barley,
oats, and other cereals, consists of four coats, some
of which, however, are lacking on the margins and
at the end.
1. The Outer Epidermis differs greatly in struc-
ture in different parts of the glume. At the
margins (Fig. 94) it consists of straight-walled,
elongated cells interspersed here and there with short Fig. 93. Darnel {Lolium
, , ii. r\ ax. 1 ^1 temulentum). a dorsal
lance-shaped hairs. On the greater part of the sur- ^e an(j j ventral side,
face, however, the cells, as in barley and some other enlarged, c dorsal side,
113.111X3.1 S1ZC* ^JNOBBE.J
cereals, are of three kinds (Fig. 95) : first, cells of
wavy outline, into which the straight-walled cells at the margin pass;
second, circular cells corresponding to the conical hair-cells of barley; third,
exceedingly short, more or less crescent-shaped cells. Near the margins
and on the veins, where they alternate with stomata, the cells of wavy
outline are elongated; but in other parts they are very short, often being
126
GRAIN.
broader than long. Although the cells are thick-walled, the walls are
transparent, and the middle lamella is conspicuous, giving the impression
Fig. 94. Darnel. Margin of flower- Fig. 95.
ing glume showing lance-shaped glume,
hairs. X 300. (Moeller.)
Darnel. Middle portion of flowering
X 160. (Winton.)
of thin-walled cells. Pores are few and inconspicuous. Near the margin
the circular cells are small and are usually accompanied by crescent-
shaped cells which often exceed them in size. On the greater part of the
glume, however, the circular cells are much larger, often being 70 // in
diameter. Numerous pores are conspicuous, both in the radial and
tangential walls. Often one, sometimes two, crescent-shaped cells ac-
company a1 circular cell.
Characteristic of this coat are the short, wavy cells and the numerous
circular cells, the latter frequently exceeding in area the former.
2. Hypoderm. The fibers in this layer are much the same as in
cereals. Fibers of similar structure also make up the ground tissue of
the awn.
3. Spongy Parenchyma. The elements are more or less rectangular
in shape, like those of the corresponding layer of barley, and are readily
distinguished from the star-shaped elements of oats.
4. Inner Epidermis. This layer is made up of thin-walled cells
and stomata, and is of no diagnostic importance.
The Palet lacks a well-developed hypoderm layer except beneath the
keels.
The Outer Epidermis is much the same as that of the flowering glume,
except that it is barbed on the keels with rigid, thorn -like hairs 150 ft
or less in length (Fig. 96).
DARNEL.
127
The Pericarp (Fig. 97, F; Fig. 98) consists of four coats, of which
only two, the epidermis and cross cells, are fully developed.
1. Epidermis (ep). Cross sections of the mature seed show that
this layer consists of collapsed, moderately thick-walled cells, which are
Fig. 96. DarneL Keel of palet showing outer epidermis with h hairs, and / hypoderm
'fibers. X160. (Moellee.)
Fig. 97. Darnel. Cross section of outer portion of fruit. F pericarp consists of ep epi-
carp, m mesdcarp, q cross cells, and sch tube cells; 5 spermoderm consists of a outer
layer and i inner layer; N perisperm; / fungus layer; E endosperm consists of al
aleurone layer, and st starch cells. X160. (Winton.)
best studied after heating with alkali. Seen in surface view, the cells
at the apex of the seed are nearly isodiametric, but at other parts are
elongated. The walls are indistinctly beaded. '
128 GR/IIN.
2. The Mesocarp (m) is not developed on all parts of the seed, but
is conspicuous on the angles. The cells vary greatly in shape and size,
Fig. 98. Darnel. Bran coats in surface view, ep epicarp; m mesocarp; q cross cells;
sch tube cells; a outer and i inner layer of spermoderm; N perisperm; / fungus layer;
al aleurone cells. X160. (Winton.)
some being irregularly isodiametric, others transversely elongated, re-
sembling the cells of the next layer.
3. Cross Cells (q). Especially striking are the cells of this layer,
which resemble the cross cells of barley. The side walls are indistinctly
beaded.
4. Tube Cells, spongy parenchyma, and various intermediate forms
(sch) make up the interrupted inner layer of the pericarp.
Spermoderm (S). The cells are for the most part elongated and are
often diagonally arranged with reference to the axis of the fruit. In trans-
verse sections this coat often separates from the pericarp on the one hand
and the perisperm on the other. Examined in water, only one cell layer
(the inner) is evident: but successive treatments with 5 per cent alkali,
dilute acetic acid and chlorzinc iodine, bring out two layers.
1. The Outer Layer (a) is made up of thin-walled cells with cuticularized
outer walls. Treated as above described, the cuticle is colored yellow-
brown, the radial and inner walls, blue.
2. The Inner Layer (i) is not only thicker than the outer, but the
cells are thicker-walled and, in addition, swell greatly with alkali. These
DARNSi. 129
rswollen walls are stained deep blue by chlorzinc iodine, thus differentiating
them from the yellow-brown cuticle on the inner wall.
Perisperm (AT). Characteristic of this seed is the perisperm, con-
sisting usually of two cell layers. In cross section these cells are rectan-
gular with swollen walls; in surface view, as may be seen after soaking
for a long time in dilute alkali, they are irregularly polygonal or more
or less elongated.
Fungus Layer (/). In most specimens a layer of fungus threads 20 [i
thick is present between the perisperm and the aleurone layer. So com-
monly is this fungus present in darnel grown in Europe, that it is of no
little value in identifying the grain; but it remains to be determined
whether in California, where the plant is a pest in wheat fields, the fungus
is also a common accompaniment. After treatment with alkali this
layer is stained bright yellow by zinc chloride iodine.
Endosperm. 1. The Aleurone Cells (al) vary from less than 20 to
40 [i in diameter.
2. Starch Parenchyma (Fig. 97, st). The thin-walled cells contain
small polygonal grains 3- 7 p. in diameter. The individual starch grains
are not distinguishable from the grains of rice and oats, and like the
latter often occur in aggregates of various sizes.
DIAGNOSIS.
The characteristic elements of darnel are the epidermis (Fig. 95) of
the glumes and palets, and the fungus layer (Fig. 98, /) . The cross cells
(q) and starch grains (Fig. 97, st) aid in identification, though the
former may be readily confounded with the corresponding tissue of
barley and the latter with the starch grains of oats. The spongy paren-
chyma of the flowering glume resembles that of barley, but is readily
distinguished from the spongy parenchyma of bat glumes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Mace" (26); Moeller (29); Villiers et
Collin (42); Vogl (45)-
Hanausek, T. F.: Vorlaufige Mittheilung iiber den von A. Vogl in der Frucht von
Lolium temulentum entdeckten Pilz. Ber. deutsch. bot. Ges. 1898, 16, 203.
Nestler: Ueber einen in der Frucht von Lolium temulentum L. vorkommenden Pilz.
Ber. deutsch. bot. Ges. 1898, 10, 207.
Vogl: Mehl und die anderen Mahlproducte der Cerealien und Leguminosen. Ztschr.
Na.hr. -Unters. Hyg. 1898, 12, 25.
Winton: Anatomie der Fruchte des Taumellolches und der Roggentrespe. Ztschr.
Unters. Nahr.-Genussra. 1904, 7, 321. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1903, 165.
130
GRAIN.
CHESS.
Chess (Bromus secalinus L.) is one of the commonest weeds of grain
fields, both in Europe and America, and the fruit is a common constituent
of uncleaned grain, screenings, and various by-products.
The fruit when invested by the flowering glume and palet closely
resembles darnel, but the awn of the flowering glume is short or absent.
HISTOLOGY.
Flowering Glume. The structure throughout is much the same as
in darnel, but the cells of the outer epidermis (Fig. 99) are much more
Fig. 99. Chess (Bromus
secalinus). Outer epi-
dermis of flowering glume
in surface view. X 160.
(Wintom.)
Fig. 100. Chess. Cross section of outer portion of fruit.
F pericarp consists of ep, epicarp, and q cross cells;
5 spermoderm; N perisperm; E endosperm consists of
al aleurone layer, and st starch parenchyma. X160.
(Winton.)
conspicuously thick-walled, and the wavy-walled cells are throughout
much longer than broad. The circular cells also have wavy walls. The
cells on the margins, interspersed with lance-shaped hairs, are the same
as in darnel.
Palet. The flowering glume and palet are similar in structure, but
the outer epidermis of the latter is barbed on the keel, the stiff hairs often
reaching 45 11 in length.
Pericarp (Fig. 100, F; Fig. 101). The pericarp consists of two layers
with rudiments of another layer in parts.
1. The Epicarp Cells (ep) are large, elongated polygonal, and haw
thin, non-porous walls.
CHESS. 131
2. Mesocarp. As a rule, the cross cells immediately underlie the
epidermis; but occasionally traces of the mesocarp are evident.
3. Cross Cells (q). Whether this layer corresponds with the cross
cells or the tube cells of other grasses is uncertain. The tissue is made
Fig. ioi. Chess Bran coals in surface view, ep epicarp; q cross colls; S spermoderm;
N perisperm; al aleurone cells. X160. (Wjcnton.)
up of irregular spongy parenchyma cells, usually transversely elongated
with large, round or elongated intercellular spaces.
The Spermoderm (S) consists of one layer of elongated brown cells
15-20 fi wide.
Perisperm (N). This layer is enormously developed. As may be
seen in cross section, the cells are 40 p.. thick, but trie walls are so swollen
as to almost entirely obliterate the cavity. After soaking for some time
in t^ per cent soda solution they are evident in surface view.
Endosperm. 1. The Aleurone Layer (al) is "not of especial interest.
2. The Starch-Parenchyma (Fig. 100, st) is remarkable for the thick-
ness of the cell-walls (often 10 /j.) and the elliptical starch grains 3-20 [i
in diameter. With proper illumination each grain may be seen to have
an elliptical hilum.
DIAGNOSIS.
Especially characteristic are the thick-walled parenchyma cells (Fig.
100, st) with elliptical starch grains. The cross cells (Fig. 101, q) also
are of diagnostic importance. The epidermis (Fig. 99) of the flowering
132 GRAIN.
glume is distinguished from that of darnel by the bolder outlines of the
wavy-walled cells and their greater length, as well as by the structure
of the circular cells. The hairs on the keels of the palet are longer
than those of darnel.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Vogl: Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahrungs- u. Genussmittel. Eerlln u. Wien,
1899, 36.
Winton: Anatomie der Friichte des Taumellolches und der RoggentreSpe. Ztschr.
Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1904, 7, 321. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. 1903, 165.
BUCKWHEATS {Polygonaced).
Although buckwheat and other polygonaceous plants are botanically
widely removed from the cereals, the fruits of the two families are quite
similar in structure, as well as in chemical composition. In both, the
pericarp is thin and dry, and the single seed consists of a thin spermoderm,
a bulky endosperm with aleurone and starch cells, and a relatively small
embryo. The following characters arc peculiar to buckwheats: (1)
the thin leaf-like or colored perianth, (2) the brown or black pericarp,
without hairs, (3) the network of homogeneous threads remaining after
dissolving the starch grains in alkali. The structure of the spermoderm
taken as a whole is also characteristic, although some of the layers are
quite like tissues "found in the cereals.
The starch grains are of the rice type, but they do not occur in rounded
aggregates.
COMMON BUCKWHEAT.
Nearly all the buckwheat raised in Europe and America as well as
the larger part of that raised in oriental countries belongs to a single
species (Fagopyrum esculentum Mcench), a native of Central Asia. Tar-
tary buckwheat (F. Tartaricum Gsert), a less valuable species, is described
in the following chapter.
The sharply triangular, pointed, dark-brown or gray-brown achenes
are 5-8 mm. long and 3-4 mm. broad. Fragments of the calyx are often
attached to the base. A nerve passes longitudinally through the middle
of each of the three sides. The seed completely fills the pericarp, but
is not grown to it and is readily separated by machinery. On the other
hand, the spermoderm adheres closely to the endosperm and is not en-
COMMON BUCKWHEAT.
*33
tirely removed in milling. The embryo, with broad but thin cotyledons,
is embedded in the endosperm, and is so folded that, in cross section, it '
is S-shaped.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp (Figs. 102 and 103). Sections are cut after soaking for
some time in water. Surface preparations are obtained by scraping
Fig. 102. Buckwheat {Fagopyrum esculentum). Cross section of the pericarp at one
of the angles showing the epicarp, the hypoderm of sclerenchyma elements with fibro-
vascular bundle (g), the brown parenchyma (p), and the inner layers of obliterated
cells. X160. (Moeller.)
with a scalpel, after boiling for an hour in 1 \ per cent alkali to remove
a- portion of the brown coloring matter.
* » f
Fig. 103. Buckwheat. Isolated elements of the pericarp, o epicarp; p parenchyma
(the upper group from a bundle); / hypoderm fibers; ep inner epidermis; sp spiral
vessel. X160. (Moeller.)
i. The Epicarp Cells (0) are elongated, rounded quadrilateral and
range up to 100 fi in length and 20 ;i in breadth. Diagonally extended
134 GRAIN.
pores on the outer wall, crossing those of the inner wall at nearly
right angles, give the layer a peculiarly characteristic latticed appear-
ance. Owing also to these pores the radial walls appear indistinctly
beaded. On each of the three faces of the fruit the cells of both
the epidermis and the hypoderm are pinnately arranged either side of
the central vein, but on the angles of the fruit they are longitudinally
extended.
2. The Hypoderm (/) consists of several layers of short fibers (up
to 150 [x long, 10-15 I1 broad), with thick porous walls. The narrow
cavities contain a brown substance.
3. Brown Parenchyma (p). Only a single thin layer of parenchyma
is present in the faces of the pericarp, but in the angles there are several
layers. The cells are either isodiametric or elongated, with rather thick
0 walls impregnated with a brown sub-
m' stance. This same substance is also
.ep
^g found in the other layers, though in
smaller amount. Through this tissue
pass the bundles of the veins.
4. An Endocarp (ep), for the most
part of large, elongated, mostly pointed
S> »„'_'„§ & • © Q cenS) w;tn SOmewhat thickened walls,
Fig. 10 1. Buckwheat. Cross section covers the inner surface.
of outer portion of seed. Spermo-
derm consists of 0 outer epidermis, bpermoderm (l"lgS. 104 and 105).
m spongy parenchyma, and ep inner After the removal 0f tne pericarp the
epidermis; endosperm consists of r r
K aleurone cells and E starch cells, seed is seen to be covered with a thin,
Xl6o. (MOELLER.) ,, . t , , . , . .
yellowish membrane, which is best ex-
amined in cold dilute alkali. The three superimposed layers are easily
found on careful focusing.
1. Outer Epidermis (o). Wavy-walled cells, isodiametric or some-
what elongated, form a conspicuous epidermal layer.
2. Spongy Parenchyma (m). Cells of various shapes, with numerous
round intercellular spaces, underlie the epidermis, and with it form a
most valuable means of identification. Greenish or brownish-yellow
cell contents render this layer particularly distinct.
3. An Inner Epidermis (ep) of elongated, thin-walled cells, is readily
found after the addition of cold dilute alkali.
Endosperm (Figs. 104 and 105). 1. Aleurone Cells (K) similar to
those of the true cereals form an outer coat one cell layer thick. In
cross section the cells are seen to be somewhat tangentially extended.
COMMON BUCKWHEAT.
*35
Surface mounts show that the cells are exceedingly variable both in size
and wall thickness.
2. Starch Parenchyma (E). Cells of large size with thin walls contain
the densely crowded, polygonal starch grains (Fig. 106). Isolated cells
Fig. 105. Buckwheat. Bran coats in surface view. Spermoderm consists of 0 outer
epidermis, m spongy parenchyma, and ep inner epidermis; K aleurone cells. X300.
(Moellee.)
(Fig. 107) closely packed with grains are the most striking constituents
of mill products. The starch grains range from less than 2 to over 15 ft
Fig. 106. Buckwheat Starch. X300. (Moeller.)
but are commonly 6-12 /i. They are either round or more commonly
rounded polygonal and usually display a conspicuous hilum. Although
the grains are never united into circular or elliptical aggregates, such as
occur in rice, oats, and darnel, two or more of them are often joined to
form a rod-like aggregate. As noted by Vogl these aggregates are often
curiously constricted, and the contact surfaces of the individuals are
indistinct.
i36
GRAIN.
Vogl also found that, on treating the starch masses with alkali, there
was obtained a network of homogeneous threads (Fig. 108), not beaded
Fig. 107. Buckwheat. Starch grains in masses. Xno. (Leach.)
as in Setaria and Panicum, corresponding to the outline of the dissolved
grains. This phenomenon is also common to various species of Poly-
gonum and Rumex and is probably characteristic of the entire family.
mii
Fig. 108. Buckwheat. Starch cells of endosperm Fig. ioq. Buckwheat. Longitudinal
showing at the left network of homogeneous section of cotyledon. 0 epidermis i
threads remaining after treatment with alkali. p mesophyl; g procambium or in-
(Vogl.) cipient bundle. (Moeller.)
Embryo (Fig. 109). As appears in cross section, the two cotyledons
consist of a mesophyl (p) between an outer and inner epidermis, and the
elongated cells of the procambium (g) or incipient bundle running through
the mesophyl.
The Mesophyl consists of small, polygonal cells with protoplasmic
contents, the epidermis, of somewhat larger and more sharply defined
cells of more or less elongated form.
COMMON BUCKWHEAT. 137
DIAGNOSIS.
The whole grain is esteemed in Europe as a poultry food. It is seldom
ground with the hulls.
Decorticated Products. Buckwheat Flour is employed, especially in
America, for making griddle cakes. To the touch it has a peculiar harsh-
ness quite unlike the soft feeling of wheat and rye flour. It consists of
parenchyma cells packed with starch grains (Fig. 107), isolated starch
grains (Fig. 106), and occasional fragments of the spermoderm (Fig. 105).
The individual starch grains are much like those of oats, rice, and
darnel, but they are never united into rounded aggregates. They are
distinguished from Selaria and Panicum starch by the network of homo-
geneous threads left after treatment with alkali (Fig. 107). The rod-
shaped and constricted aggregates are characteristic. Of greatest value
in diagnosis are the fragments of the spermoderm (Fig. 105), consist-
ing of the wavy-walled cells of the outer epidermis, the spongy paren-
chyma with greenish cell-contents and the elongated cells of the inner
epidermis.
Buckwheat flour is often adulterated with cheaper flour. Of 107
samples examined in 1900 by the author, 26 contained wheat flour or
wheat middlings, 9 maize flour, and 9 both wheat and maize flour.
Prepared or Self-raising Buckwheat Flour are names applied in
America to griddle-cake preparations containing such proportions of salt
and baking-powder that they may be prepared for cooking by simply
mixing with water or milk. The flour in these preparations is either
pure buckwheat flour or various mixtures of buckwheat, wheat, maize,
rice, and barley flour. If, as is usually the case, the baking-powder used
contains corn-starch as a filler, traces of this starch will be found under
the microscope.
Buckwheat Grits is a valuable food for the common people in Russia
and some oriental countries. It contains the same elements as the flour.
By-products. Buckwheat Middlings, a by-product from the manu-
facture of the flour, is readily identified by the tissues of the spermoderm
(Fig. 105). It is used as a cattle food and also as an adulterant of spices.
Buckwheat Hulls have little food value, but make good packing.
They have been extensively ground for adulterating black pepper. The
latticed epicarp cells (Fig. 103, 0) and the hypoderm fibers (/) are of chief
value in identification.
138 GRAIN.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer, (6, 23); Hanausek, T. F. (10,
16); Harz (18); Leach (25); Mace" (26); Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34);
Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45);
Wittmack (10).
Also see Bibliography of Wheat, pp. 72 and 73.
Hanausek, T. F.: Reis- und Buchweizenstarke. Chem. Ztg. 1894, 18, No. ^3-
Meyer, Arthur: Arch. d. Pharm. 1883, 912.
Tschirch: Starkemehlanalysen. Archiv. d. Pharm. 1885, 23, 521.
TARTARY BUCKWHEAT.
Indian wheat, Tartary buckwheat, or duckwheat (Fagopyrum Tartari-
cum Gaertn.) is known chiefly in the East. In Piedmont and some other
cold, mountainous regions, it has been grown to some extent, as it ripens
earlier than the common sort.
The grains are dull brown and have a marked longitudinal groove
running through each of the three faces.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp. 1. The Epicarp Cells are isodiametric or somewhat elonga-
ted with thin, non-porous walls. On the inner surface they are convex,
fitting into corresponding concave depressions of the next layer.
2. ITypoderm. In the outer two or more layers the fibers are trans-
versely extended, but in the inner layer they are arranged longitudinally.
3. The Brown Parenchyma is much like that of common buckwheat.
4. An Endocarp of thin-walled cells completes the pericarp.
The Spermoderm, Endosperm, and Embryo are the same as in common
buckwheat.
BLACK BINDWEED.
Of the several common weeds belonging to the genus Polygonum,
black bindweed or wild buckwheat (P. Convolvulus L.) is the most trouble-
some. Although a native of the Old World, it thrives luxuriantly in the
grain fields of the United States, and the seed is the chief impuritv of Ameri-
can wheat. Samples of wheat screenings from the leading wheat-growinc
states of the Union contained from 8 to 27 per cent of this seed.
The jet black, lusterless, triangular achenes are 3 mm. long and the faces
are 2 mm. broad (Fig. no, II). Since the achenes at maturity are closely
BLACK BINDWEED. l39
invested by the calyx (/), both are harvested together; but during thresh-
ing, screening, and transportation, the dry calyx, as a rule, is removed
i n
Fig. no. Black Bindweed {Polygonum Fig. in. Black Bindweed. Cross section of
Convolvulus). I Fruit with calyx. fruit. C calyx; Epi epicarp; Mes meso-
II Fruit without calyx. XS- (Win- carp; B nbro-vascular bundle; S spermo-
TON.) derm; E endosperm; Em embryo. X16.
(Winton.)
from the achenes, and the pericarp, splitting at the angles, is often sepa-
rated from the seed.
The seed consists of a thin, colorless spermoderm, a starchy endosperm,
and a minute embryo situated in a longitudinal groove of the endosperm
at one of the angles.
HISTOLOGY.
Calyx (Figs, in and 112, C). The three outer lobes of the five- to
six-lobed calyx are broader than the others and are slightly keeled at the
angles.
1. Outer Epidermis (Fig. 112, aep). Distributed over the outer surface
are numerous characteristic blunt-conical or nipple-shaped papillae from
30-60 n in diameter at the base, each of which is marked with longitudinal
striations. These papilla?, as may be seen in transverse section, are
the outer portions of the epidermal cells, the inner portions forming a
continuous cell layer.
2. Mesophyl (m). Between the outer and inner epidermis are several
layers of chlorophyl-containing parenchyma with intercellular spaces.
3. Inner Epidermis (iep). Elongated cells with more or less wavy
outline and varying in length up to 200 // and in breadth from 1 5-45 fi}
interspersed here and there with stomata, make up the inner coat of the
calyx.
Pericarp (Figs. 113-115). The black hulls or shells of the grain should
be studied in cross section and in surface preparations, the latter being
140
GR41N.
freed from the black coloring matter by warming on the slide with caustic
alkali, or better by boiling for half an hour with i\ per cent sodium hydrate
solution as in the determination of crude fiber.
i. Epicarp (epi). Cross sections show that the cells are about ioo fi
in radial diameter on the sides of the achenes and are still longer at the
Fig. 112. Black Bindweed. Cross section of calyx and angle of fruit. C calyx consists
of aep outer epidermis, m mesophyl, and iep inner epidermis; F pericarp consists of
epi epicarp with w cuticular wart, p mesocarp, and end endocarp; 5 spermoderm con-
sists of ae outer epidermis, q cross cells, and U inner epidermis; E endosperm consists
of al aleurone cells and s starch cells. X 1 6o. (Winton.)
angles. The inner wall is thin, but the outer wall and the outer portions
of the curiously wrinkled radial walls are strongly thickened. Proceeding
from the inner wall outward, the radial- walls increase in thickness until
the much-branched cell cavity is almost obliterated. On the surface
are numerous warts from 15-30 fi in diameter, into each of which a narrow
branch of the cell cavity passes.
Surface preparations of the pericarp with the outer surface upper-
BLACK BINDIVEED.
141
most clearly show that the warts are arranged in irregular longitudinal
rows, also that the epicarp cells at the surface are sinuous in outline
Fig. 113. Black Bindweed. Epicarp in
surface view showing wavy outline of
cells and cuticular warts. X 1 60.
CWixton.)
Fig. 114. Black Bindweed. Tangential
section of epicarp. X160. (WrsT-
TOX.)
(Fig. 113), but further inward gradually approach a circular form
(Fig. 114).
P
epi
Fig. 115. Black Bindweed. Surface view of pericarp from below, epi epicarp; hy
hypoderm; p mesocarp with g bundle. X160. (Wixtox.)
As may be seen in preparations of the pericarp with the inner surface
uppermost, the contour of the inner cell-walls of the epicarp is, like the
outer wall, sinuous in outline (Fig. 115, epi).
142
GRAIN.
2. Hypoderm (Figs. 112 and 115, hy). Beneath the epicarp is a layer
of slightly elongated parenchyma cells somewhat larger than the cells of
the mesocarp.
3. Mesocarp (p). At the angles of the fruit this layer is somewhat
thicker than on the sides. The cells of the ground tissue are thin-walled
and isodiametric, those of the inner layers being more or less obliterated
in the ripe fruit. Six primary, sparingly branched vascular bundles
pass longitudinally through the ground tissue of the mesocarp, one in
each angle and one in each of the faces.
4. Endocarp (Fig. 112, end). Like the inner mesocarp, the cells are
usually obliterated in the mature seed and are seldom evident either in
cross section or in surface view.
Spermoderm (Fig. 112, S; Fig. 116). Three coats, analogous to those
of buckwheat, but differing in form, make up the spermoderm.
Fig. 116. Black Bindweed. Seed in surface view, ae outer epidermis, q cross cells, and
ie inner epidermis of spermoderm; al aleurone cells. X160. (Winton.)
i. Epidermis {ae). As in buckwheat, the epidermal cells are wavy
in outline; but they are strongly elongated, whereas in buckwheat they
are nearly isodiametric.
2. Cross Cells (q). Most of the cells of this layer are elongated,
resembling the tube cells of cereals; but short cells of more irregular shape
also occur, particularly near the base and apex. In no part do they form
a spongy parenchyma with circular intercellular spaces like that of buck-
wheat.
BLACK BINDWEED. 143
3. Inner Epidermis (ie). The coat consists of thin-walled, elongated
elements.
Endosperm (Figs, in and 112, E). None of the elements are dis-
tinguishable from those of buckwheat, cither in form or size.
1. Aleurone Cells (Figs. 112 and 116, al) are of variable size and
irregular shape.
2. Starch Cells (Fig. 112, s). In the outer layers the cells are tangen-
tially elongated ; further inward, they are radially elongated and of large
size. The polygonal or rounded grains vary in diameter from 3-12 /1.
As in buckwheat and other species of Polygonum and Rumex, a network
of homogeneous threads, corresponding to the outline of the starch grains,
remains behind after dissolving out the starch in alkali.
The Embryo, consisting of an elongated radicle and two oblong coty-
ledons, may be conveniently isolated by soaking the seed in ij per cent
caustic soda solution for some hours until the starch is removed.
DIAGNOSIS.
Ground screenings containing a large percentage of this seed has
been sold in the United States as a fodder ("Germ Middlings," etc.), and
has been used as an adulterant of ground pepper. Fragments of the
seed, particularly the black hulls, are frequently encountered as an acci-
dental impurity in bran and other by-products.
' Characteristic of this fruit are the papilla? on the outer epidermis
(Fig. 112, aep) of the calyx, also the epicarp (Fig. 113) with sinuous cell-
walls and rows of warts.
The outer epidermal cells (Fig. 116, ae) of the spermoderm are
sinuous in outline, like those of buckwheat, but are commonly more
elongated.
Although the cross cells (q) are morphologically the same as the spongy
parenchyma of buckwheat, they resemble more nearly in structure the
tube cells of the cereals.
The starch grains, also the network of homogeneous threads obtained
after treatment with alkali, are characteristic of the family, not of the
species.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Kraus: Pringsh. Jahrb. f. wissensch. Bot. 1866, 5, 83.
VnxiERS et Collin: Traite des Alterations et Falsifications. Paris, 1900, 103.
Winton: Ueber amerikanische Weizen-Ausreuter. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm.
1903, 6, 433. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 339.
1 14 GRAIN.
OTHER POLYGONACEOUS SEEDS.
A number of European and American species of Polygonum and
Rumex are troublesome weeds.
The black or brown seeds are either triangular or flattened, rough
or more commonly lustrous.
The anatomical structure of most of them resembles that of black
bindweed. The epicarp cells in surface view are commonly sinuous
with or without cuticular warts; the starch grains polygonal, of the buck-
wheat type.
WEED SEEDS.
Of the weeds which infest grain fields, some are so low-growing that
they escape cutting with the grain, others ripen their seed before or after
the grain is harvested, and others still, including some of the rankest
weeds, have such small seeds that they do not appreciably add to the
weight of the grain. Of the seeds harvested with the grain by far the larger
part, being larger or smaller than the grain, are separated as screenings,
so that the cleaned grain is nearly, although never quite, free of foreign
seeds.
European Screenings. According to Vogl the commonest weed seeds
of European grain are Agrostemma Githago L. (cockle) and legumes,
although the following occur in considerable quantities: Vaccaria parvi-
flora Moench (cow herb) ; Species of Galium (bed straws) ; Bi}ora radians
M. B.; Bromus secalinus L. (chess); Lolium temulentum L. (darnel);
Avena jatua L. (wild oats); Centaurea Cyanus L. (corn flower); Papaver
RhoeasL,. (corn poppy); Lithospermum aruense~L.; Species of A triplex;
Convolvulus arvensis L. (small bindweed); Species of Polygonum, espe-
cially P. Convolvulus L. (black bindweed) ; Melampyrum arvense L. (cow
wheat); Alectorolophus hirsutus Allion; Delphinium Consolida L. (lark-
spur); Ranunculus arvensis L. (buttercup); etc. Fruits of species of
Setaria (foxtail) and some umbelliferous plants, seeds of cruciferous
plants, etc., occur only in small amounts.
In a sample of wheat screenings from one of the largest steam mills
near Vienna, Vogl found: broken wheat 41.7 per cent, cockle 42.7 per
cent, legumes 6.4 per cent, bed straws 3.3 per cent, Atriplex 3.1 per cent,
Polygonum species 1.1 per cent, miscellaneous 0.6 per cent; while in
another sample he found broken wheat, etc., 42.1 per cent, cockle 29.7
per cent, legumes 11.1 per cent, Bijora radians 4.9 per cent, bed straws
3.5 per cent, Polygonum species 2.0 per cent, cow wheat 2.5 per cent,
cruciferous species 1.4 per cent, miscellaneous 2.3 per cent.
A sample of so-called "tares" consisted chiefly of legumes with
»4S
146 WEED SEEDS.
small amounts of broken wheat, cockle, etc. One known as " chicken or
small wheat" consisted largely of small wheat kernels mixed with chess
(4.3 per cent) and other fruits and seeds, including three kernels of foxtail.
The foreign matter in a sample of uncleaned wheat was chess, cockle
and small amounts of other impurities, including two fruits of black bind-
weed.
American Screenings. The chief wheat-growing regions of America
may be divided into three sections: First, the spring wheat section of
the middle west, including Kansas, Ohio, Indiana, Missouri, Illinois,
southern Nebraska, southern Michigan, and the adjoining states to
the south; second, the winter wheat section of the middle northwest,
including the states of Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Iowa,
"Wisconsin, northern Nebraska, and Canada; third, the Pacific section,
including the states of California, Oregon, and "Washington.
Botanical analyses of screenings from the first two of these sections
are given on p. 147.
From these it appears that the screenings of the Old and New World
are quite different at the present time. Of the two chief constituents
of European screenings, cockle occurs in small amount and leguminous
seeds less often in the American product, while the three leading seeds
of American screenings (black bindweed, green foxtail, and yellow fox-
tail), although introduced from Europe, are of minor importance in
their native land. Chess is often met with in considerable amount on
both continents.
No analyses of screenings from the Pacific coast are available, but
it is well known that the product differs markedly in constitution from
that of the East.
Hilgard 1 in 1890 stated that in California all of the species of Poly-
gonum excepting P. aviculare were almost unknown, and chess, although
found here and there, had failed to gain a foothold as a weed.
Darnel (Lolium temulentum L.) and wild oats (A vena jatua L.) were
named, however, as serious pests in the California wheat fields.
Uses of Screenings. The seeds of charlock are separated in large
quantities from the screenings of the spring wheat section of the United
States, and are used as a substitute for true mustard. It is probable
that most of the samples described in the table on p. 147 represent the
residue after this separation.
Screenings are particularly adapted for poultry food, as poultry pick
1 California Agricultural Experiment Station Report, 1890, p. 238.
WEED SEEDS.
*47
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148 WEED SEEDS.
out the valuable seeds one by one, avoiding any that are distasteful.
They are also used for feeding sheep, swine, and other farm animals.
In Chicago, New York, and some other grain centers, ordinary screenings
are separated into two products, one consisting largely of broken and
shrunken wheat, the other of weed seeds, notably black bindweed, green
foxtail and yellow foxtail. The weed seeds are made into proprietary
cattle foods sold under such names as "germ middlings," "seed meal,"
etc., and are used also as adulterants.
Examination or Screenings axd Products of Screenings.
Samples of unground screenings may be separated into their con-
stituents by sifting and careful sorting. The individual seeds are best
identified with the aid of a standard collection (see p. 11).
Microscopic examination coupled with determinations of the proxi-
mate constituents is sufficient for the identification of mill products of
screenings, and also for the detection of weed seeds in various cereal
products, spices, etc.
Seeds of graminaceous and polygonaceous weeds are described with
the cereals (pp. 1 18-132) and buckwheats (pp. 138-144). The following
belong to other families.
CARYOPHYLLACEOUS SEEDS
( Caryophyllacece) .
COCKLE.
One of the chief impurities in European grain is the seed of cockle
(Agrostemma Githago L.). This seed is also found in American wheat,
but in smaller amount than the fruit of black bindweed, green foxtail,
and yellow foxtail.
The black or dark-brown campylotropous seeds are globular-kidnev-
shaped, resembling a rolled-up caterpillar (Fig. 117). Rows of stout
warts arranged in semicircular lines about the hilum are evident even to
the naked eye and especially to the sense of touch. The long, yellow-
green embryo forms a ring about the pure white, mealy endosperm.
Cockle is an especially undesirable impurity in grain, as it contains
a poisonous principle known as "sapotoxin."
COCKLE.
149
HISTOLOGY.
Spermoderm. 1. Outer Epidermis (Fig. 118, 0; Fig. 119). Highly
characteristic of cockle are the large, more or less elongated (up to 600 fi
Fig. 117. Cocide {Agvo-
stemma Githago).
Seed, enlarged.
(NOBBE.)
Fig. 118. Cockle. Cross section of outer portion of seed.
Spermoderm consists of o outer epidermis, p parenchyma,
and e inner epidermis ; E endosperm consists of thin-walled
cells containing st starch aggregates. X160. (Moeller.)
long) epidermal cells, with enormously thickened, deeply sinuous, brown
walls. These cells form humps, covered on the outer surface with numer-
FlG. 119. Cockle. Outer epidermis of spermoderm in surface view. X160. (Moeller.)
ous fine warts. They contain a brown substance which is not removed
by dilute alkali even on boiling.
2. Parenchyma (Figs. 118 and 120, p). Beneath the epidermis are
one or more layers of parenchyma cells with somewhat thickened, brown
*5°
WEED SEEDS.
walls. These, like the cells of the epidermis, are more or less transversely
elongated.
3. Reticulated Cells (e). A layer of colorless, isodiametric polygonal
cells with delicate reticulations adjoins the endosperm. Some authors
Fig. 120. Cockle. Inner layers of spermoderm in surface view, p parenchyma; e inner
epidermis. X 1 60. (Moeller.)
describe this layer as the inner epidermis of the spermoderm; Vogl,
however, regards it as perisperm.
Endosperm (Fig. 118, E). The large cells contain highly character-
istic, oval-fusiform, club-shaped, or, less often, globular bodies 20-100 p
in diameter, composed of minute (scarcely measurable) starch grains.
These starch bodies slowly disintegrate in cold water, the liberated grains
displaying lively molecular movements.
The Embryo contains aleurone grains of considerable size.
DIAGNOSIS.
The epidermal layer often occurs as pieces of considerable size in
bran and similar coarse products. If examined under a lens or held
COW HERB. SOAPWORT. 151
with a needle and scraped with a scalpel, the rough surface (Fig. 117)
is very evident. Under the microscope, a glance suffices for the identi-
fication of this remarkable tissue (Fig. 119). The coloring matter is little
acted on by alkali. Equally striking are the starch masses (Fig. 118, si)
of the endosperm'.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Hanausek, T. F. (16);
Harz (18); Mace" (26); Moeller (29); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40);
Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45); Wittmack (10).
Benecke: Ueber den Nachweis des Samens der Kornrade (Agrostemma Githago L.)
in Mahlprodukten. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 31, 407.
Kruskal: Ueber Agrostemma Githago. Arb. d. pharmakol. Inst. Dorpat. 1891, 6,
116. ,
Lehmann: Arch. Hyg. 1893, 19, 104.
Meyer, A. : Mikroskopischer Nachweis von Radenmehl in Getreidemehlen. Han-
noversche Monatsschrift "Wider die Nahrungsfalscher," 1880, Heft X.
Petermann: Sur la presence des graines de Lychnis Githago (nielle) dans les farines.
Ann. chim. phys. i88o> 19, 243.
COW HERB.
The globular seeds of Vaccaria parviflora Moench (Saponaria Vac-
caria L.) are a common impurity of European wheat.
In general structure they resemble cockle, but are distinguished by
the more uniform height of the epidermal cells (Fig. 121) and especially
by the absence of papilla; on these cells.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
SOAPWORT.
Soapwort, or bouncing bet {Saponaria officinalis L.), a common road-
side weed with a handsome flower, has a roughened, dark brown seed
smalle. than cockle (1-1.5 mm.), but closely resembling it in other re-
spects.
The wavy epidermal cells are not warty.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Harz: Samenkunde, p. 1081.
15*
WEED SEEDS.
SPURREY.
The seeds of common spurrey (Spergula arvensis L.) often occur in
linseed-cake and other concentrated feeds.
Fig. 121. Cow Herb (Vaccaria parviflora). Outer epidermis of spermoderm in surface
view. (Moellee.)
They are 1-1.5 mm- broad, circular in outline, and slightly flattened.
The seed itself is dark brown, but is encircled
by a narrow wing of a straw color.
This seed is readily identified under the
microscope by the curious club-shaped, warty
bodies on the outer surface, which are but
Fig. 122. Spurrey (Sper- modified epidermal cells (Fig. 123). The other
uS^rtnk^ntget. epidermal cells are sinuous in outline like those
(Nobee.) 0f cockle and many other seeds of the same
family (Fig. 124).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Harz (18).
RANUNCULACEOUS SEEDS
(Ranunculacecz).
This family includes a number of weeds, the seeds of which are par-
ticularly objectionable ingredients of grain because of their poisonous
constituents.
BUTTERCUP FRUIT. 153
Nearly all the representatives of the family have flowers with several
or many pistils ripening either into single-seeded achenes or several-
seeded pods.
Fig. 123. Spurrey. Cross section of seed show- Fig. 124. Spurrey. Epidermis of
ing e outer epidermis of spermoderm with p out- spermoderm in surface view. (Col-
growths from the centers of the. cells. (Col- LIN and Pereot.)
lin and Peerot.)
The brief descriptions which follow are based on Senft's valuable
paper, to which the reader is referred for further details.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Senft: Die Bestandtheile des Ausreuters aus der Familie der Ranunculaceen. Pharm.
Praxis. 1902, 1, 65.
BUTTERCUP FRUIT.
Of the several species of Ranunculus infesting cultivated fields, the
fruit of only one (R. arvensis L.) is here described, although those of
the 'other species are very similar in microscopic structure.
The achenes (Fig. 125) are 5-6 mm. long, 1 mm. thick, keeled, and
have a blunt beak and tapering base. On the flattened inner side
they are prickly.
Fruits of other species are shown in Fig. 126.
HISTOLOGY.
The Pericarp consists of four layers: (1) The epicarp of yellow-brown
cells extended into papillae; (2) parenchyma forming a single layer of
tangentially elongated cells of a yellow-brown color; (3) crystal cells
(100 ,u) with dark-brown walls; (4) sclerenchyma fibers for the most
part longitudinally extended in the outer, transversely in the inner layers.
154
WEED SEEDS.
Spermodenn. (i) The outer layer has detached, rounded, trans-
versely elongated, thick- walled cells; (2) the inner layer, longitudinally
elongated, closely united cells with porous walls.
Perisperm. This consists of more or less quadri-
lateral cells with thick, porous walls and granular
contents.
Endosperm. The cells are thick walled (up to
9 fi) and contain aleurone grains embedded in fat.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Villiers
et Collin (42). Also see Senft, loc. cit.
ADONIS FRUIT.
Fig. 125. Field But-
tercup {Ranunculus
arvensis). Seed, nat-
ural size and en-
larged. (NOBBE.) if. cat' .,._
The compound fruits of Adorns aestivalis L. and
A. Flammea L. consist of numerous one-seeded, beaked achenes.
The Pericarp tissues are: (1) an epicarp made up of polygonal cells
with striated cuticle and stomata; (2) a parenchyma tissue of several
obliterated layers containing small oxalate crystal clusters; (3) an outer
endocarp of several layers of large, strongly thickened sclerenchyma
cells, many of which contain crystals; and (4) an inner layer of trans-
versely elongated fibers.
I II III
Fig. 126. Buttercup Seeds. I, Ranunculus re pens; II, R. acris; III, R. sceleratus. Nat-
ural size and enlarged. (Nobbe.)
Spermodenn. Of the three layers, the middle layer, with porous,
distinctly striated, yellow walls, is alone worthy of mention.
The Endosperm contains aleurone grains up to 14 /i long.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Villiers et Collin (42). Also
see Senft, loc. cit.
LARKSPUR SEED, LOUSE SEED.
155
LARKSPUR SEED.
The characteristic tissues of the field larkspur {Delphinium Con-
solida L.) are the outer epidermis and third
layer of the spermoderm. ^■xgifi, 'BaS^ JF/\^|
The outer epidermal cells have strongly '*MV ****- «»»'-"* ' ' J
thickened outer walls with minute warts.
Curious fan-like outgrowths of this layer
are highly characteristic. The third layer FIG- I27- Field Larkspur {Del-
. ..... , , phinium Consolida). Seed, nat-
1S 01 longitudinally elongated, narrow, re- ural size and enlarged; also
ticulated cells. longitudinal section showing the
embryo. (Nobbe.)
The macroscopic characters are shown
in Fig. 127.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers
et Collin (42) ; Vogl (44). Also see Senft, loc. cit.
LOUSE SEED.
In this species {Delphinium Staphysagria L.) the brown walls of
the epidermis of the spermoderm are strongly thickened throughout,
Fig. 128. Louse seed {Delphinium Staphysagria). Outer epidermis of spermoderm in
cross section. (Moeller.)
and are marked by beautifully distinct concentric rings. The outgrowths
on the cuticle are here finger-shaped, up to 9 p broad and 30 fi long (Fig.
128).
>56
WEED SEEDS.
BLACK CARAWAY.
The seeds of Nigella arvensis L. are irregularly triangular, flattened,
about 2 mm. long and 1.2 mm. broad. On the surface they are finely
granular.
The characteristic elements as seen in surface view are the large
Fig. 129. Black Caraway (Nigetta arven- Fig. 130. Black Caraway. Spiral cells of
sis). Outer epidermis of spermoderm in spermoderm in surface view. (Moellee.)
surface view. (Moeller.)
fioo n broad) papillae-like, dark-brown epidermal cells (Fig. 129) and
the 4-5 sided striated, cross-cells of the third layer (Fig. 130).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Planchon et Collin (34);
Vogl (44). Also see Senft, loc. oil.
MISCELLANEOUS WEED SEEDS.
COW-WHEAT.
In many regions cow-wheat (Melampyrum arvense L. order Scro-
phulariacece) is an abundant wecu, and its seed finds its way into grain.
The brown, oval seed (Fig. 131) is somewhat smaller than wheat and
contains a horny endosperm, in the axis of which is embedded the minute
embryo.
COW-WHEAT. BINDWEED.
157
Only traces of the spermoderm are present, the bulk of the seed con-
sisting of thick- walled endosperm (Figs. 132 and 133). The cells in the
outer layer are radially elongated, elsewhere isodiametric, usually about
Fig. 131. Cow
Wheat (Mhlampy-
r um a rvense).
Seed, natural size
and enlarged.
(Nobbe.)
Fig. 132. Cow Wheat. Cross
section of spermoderm (oblit-
erated cells) and endosperm.
X160. (Moeller.)
Fig. 133. Cow Wheat. Outer
layer of endosperm in sur-
face view. X160. (Moel-
ler.)
50 ji in diameter. The double walls are 15 /x thick, and, excepting the
outer and radial walls of the outer layer, are pierced by distinct pores.
Oil globules and finely granular protoplasm are the only visible con-
tents.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 23); Hanausek, T. F. (16);
Mace" (26); Moeller (29); Schimper (37); Vogl (43, 45); Wiltmack (10).
Tschirch: Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Studien. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1897,
35, No. 17.
BINDWEED.
In some regions the wild morning glory or field bindweed (Convol-
vulus arvensis L. order Convolvulacem) is a serious pest in grain fields,
the vines twining on the grain stalks, thus checking their growth and
the seeds finding their way into the threshed grain.
The black seed is the shape of an orange segment, about 4 mm.
long and 2.5 mm. broad (Fig. 134). It consists of a shell-like spermo-
derm, a bulky endosperm, and an embryo with curiously folded coty-
ledons.
158
WEED SEEDS.
HISTOLOGY.
Spermoderm. Cross-sections and surface mounts, the latter prepared
after boiling the seed in i\ per cent alkali, serve for the study of the
seed coats.
i . Outer Epidermis. The cells are of unequal height, the outer walls
often being convex, forming short papillae. In surface view they are
polygonal and show dark-brown contents.
2. Cross Cells. Exceedingly narrow, colorless cross cells arranged
side by side in rows and often parqueted make up a thin subepidermal
layer.
3. The Palisade Cells forming the third layer are about 75 fi high,
and are of a yellow-brown color except for a light line about 15 ft from the
Fig. 134. Bindweed (Convolvulus arven-
sis). a fruit; b seed, natural size; cseed,
enlarged. (Nobbe.)
Fig. 135. Wild Carrot (Daitcus Carota). a
fruit showing inner or commissural surface,
enlarged; b showing outer surface, enlarged;
c fruit, natural size. (Nobbe.)
outer end. The narrow lumen broadens somewhat near the light line.
These cells resemble the palisade cells of cottonseed.
4. Parenchyma Cells form the inner layers of the spermoderm.
Endosperm. The cells have very thick, more or less mucilaginous
walls.
DIAGNOSIS.
The epidermal cells with brown contents, the narrow cross cells, and
the palisade cells serve for the identification of this seed in powder form.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Villiers et Collin (42).
WILD CARROT.
The fruit of the wild form of Daucus Carota L. (order Umbellijera;)
is broadly ovoid, 1.5-2.5 mm. long (Fig. 135). The secondary ribs are
HOLLOW SEED.
!S9
barbed with bristles over i mm. long, while the inconspicuous main
ribs are sparingly hairy. The bristles are made up of numerous axially
arranged, narrow, elongated cells. Oil ducts are present only in the
secondary ribs.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18).
HOLLOW SEED.
According to Vogl, Bijora radians M. B. (order Umbellifem) is an
abundant weed in Austrian grain fields, particularly in the region south
of Vienna, and the fruit frequently occurs in considerable amount in screen-
ings. In one sample of screenings he found 4.9 per cent of this fruit.
The pericarp lacks conspicuous ribs and has no oil ducts whatever.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp (Fig. 136)
tinctive characters.
1. The Epicarp (I, Ep) is smooth, without dis-
Fig. 136. Hollow Seed {Bijora radians). I pericarp in surface view showing Ep epicarp,
p parenchyma, Q cross cells, and P reticulated cells (endocarp); II stone cells from
sclerenchyma iayer of pericarp, isolated bf maceration; III endosperm showing aleu-
rone grains; IV aleurone grains containing calcium oxalate rosettes. (Vogl.)
2. The Mesocarp consists of a dense sclerenchyma zone between outer
and inner multicellular parenchyma layers (p). Many of the scleren-
i6o
WEED SEEDS.
chyma cells after maceration display characteristic side branches (//)•
Curious netted cells form the innermost layer of the mesocarp.
3. The Endocarp consists of narrow cross cells (Q).
The Spermoderm lacks distinctive elements.
The Endosperm (III) contains aleurone grains with conspicuous
rosettes of calcium oxalate (IV).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Vogl (45).
CORNFLOWER.
European grain fields are often infested with the plants of the corn-
flower (Centaurea Cyanus L. order Composites).
The achene is light gray, about 4 mm. long, and bears a pappus of
tan-colored bristles, also about 4 mm. long (Fig. 137).
HISTOLOGY.
The Pappus bristles are made up of bundles of narrow, sclerenchyma
fibers, some of which are prolonged into upwardly directed barbs.
Pericarp and Spermoderm are united, forming a leathery hull.
^Mikm
Fig. 137. Cornflower (Centaurea Cyanus).
a fruit, natural size; b fruit, enlarged; c
pappus bristle, enlarged. (Nobbe.)
Fig. 138. Cleavers (Galium Aparine).
Fruit, natural size and enlarged.
(Nobbe.)
i. Epicarp. The cells have thick, porous, sclerenchyma walls, and
are arranged end to end in longitudinal rows.
2. Sclerenchyma Cells, similar to those of the epicarp but of smaller
diameter, form several layers.
CORNFLOWER. CLEAVERS. 161
3. Crystal Cells. Beautiful bar-shaped, monoclinic crystals are present
in great numbers in an ill-defined layer on the inner surface of the scleren-
chyma coat. After boiling the seed with i\ per cent alkali, this together
with the first two layers may be readily stripped off from the seed.
4. The Palisade Cells of the fourth layer are about 75 // high and
have thick brown walls. They separate from one another on maceration
in alkali. •
5. Parenchyma. The several layers of compressed cells, on treatment
of sections with Javelle water, expand to their normal size. Through this
tissue passes the raphe.
The Endosperm consists of a single layer of aleurone cells.
Embryo. The aleurone grains are exceedingly interesting because
of their warty outer surface. They are globular or ellipsoidal, varying
to 18 [i in length, and inclose numerous globoids.
DIAGNOSIS.
The elements of value in diagnosis are the upwardly barbed bristles,
the sclerenchyma layer with crystal cells on the inner surface, the palisade
cells, and the warty aleurone grains of the embryo.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (p8); Villiers et Collin (42).
CLEAVERS.
A number of plants of the genus Galium (order Rubiacem), known as
cleavers, bed-straws, etc., are characterized by their slender square stems
provided with numerous small prickles. The fruit-of G. Aparine L. is
rounded, 2-3 mm. in diameter, and hollow with a small hole on one side
connecting with the inner cavity. The surface is roughened with minute
hooked hairs (Fig. 138). The thin pericarp and spermoderm inclose a
horny endosperm in which is embedded a crescent-shaped embryo. Other
species of the same genus have similar fruits, although in some species
they are of smaller size and without prickles.
HISTOLOGY. •
Pericarp (Fig. 139). On boiling with x\ per cent alkali, the pericarp
readily separates as a gray skin.
l62
WEED SEEDS.
i. TAe Epicarp is highly characteristic owing to warts (2T), the stomata,
and the large hairs, each with a broadly conical base and a hooked apex.
2. Mesocarp. A thin-walled tissue, for the most part of spongy
parenchyma, forms the thin mesocarp. Fibro-vascular bundles ramify
Fig. 139. Cleavers. 7 cross section of fruit. The pericarp consists of Ep epicarp, P
mesocarp with R raphides cells, and Q cross cells or endocarp; 5 spermoderm; N
endosperm. II surface view showing cross cells and spiral vessels. 777 sclerenchy-
matized parenchyma from mesocarp. IV papilla from epicarp. V spermoderm in
surface view. VI, Q cross cells in cross section; s isolated raphides cells. (VOGL.)
through this tissue. Cells containing large raphides bundles occur here
and there (s). m
3. The Endocarp Cells are thin-walled, narrow, and transversely
elongated (27).
Spermoderm. A single layer of large, polygonal, often elongated cells
PLANTAIN. 163
with conspicuous brown walls constitutes this coat (V). Vogl has noted
the presence of brown starch-grains 3 fi in diameter.
Endosperm. The exceedingly thick, horny cell-walls of this tissue are
very striking.
DIAGNOSIS.
The warty epicarp cells, the hooked hairs, the raphides bundles, the
large brown cells of the spermoderm and the horny endosperm are the
characteristic elements (Fig. 139).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
PLANTAIN. -«fc
The minute seeds of common plantain (Plantago major L. order
Plantaginacea) and the larger seeds of ribgrass or English plantain (P.
lanceolata L.) are ■ often present as an impurity in flaxseed and other
Fig. 140. Plantain {Plantago major), a fruit with calyx, 6 fruit with cap, and c longi-
tudinal section of fruit showing placenta, natural size, d seed from inner side and e
seed from dorsal side, enlarged. (Nobbe.)
economic seeds. The brown seeds resemble in form the wheat kernel,
being elongated, convex on one side and grooved on the other (Fig. 140).
The characteristic tissue is the thick-walled, porous endosperm,
reminding us of the endosperm of cow-wheat (Melampyrum}.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23).
FUNGUS IMPURITIES.
ERGOT.
Ergot is the resting stage (sclerolium) of Claviceps purpurea Tulasne,
a fungus belonging to the order Pyrenomycetes. It is formed in the
inflorescence of rye and other grasses, entirely replacing the grain.
Ergot is separated from rye for use as a drug in Russia and other con-
tinental countries. If the grain is not thoroughly freed from this impurity
it is liable to cause certain diseases, although the opinion of authorities
differ as to the amount whMi can be eaten with impunity.
The active stage (sphacelia) of the fungus makes its appearance on
the ovary during flowering as a soft felt of threads (mycelium), bearing
numerous brood cells (gonidia) in a slimy mass. Later the mycelium at
the base of the sphacelia forms a compact mass which develops when
mature into the elongated sclerotium. At its apex the sclerotium bears an
easily detachable cap, consisting of the remnants of the sphacelia of the
fungus and the ovary of the grass.
The grains of ergot are 1-3 cm. long 1-6 mm. broad, more or less
angular, longitudinally striate, slightly bowed, tapering toward the blunt
ends. (Fig. 141.) They are purple-black on the surface, and white
with a tinge of pink or purple within.
HISTOLOGY.
The structure, although quite simple, is very different from that of
the cereals. As may be seen in cross-sections mounted in turpentine,
the compacted hyphse form a false parenchyma, with narrow cells, rounded
cavities and rather thick walls (Fig. 142). The variation in size of the
cells is especially noticeable. Fat and proteid matter fill the cells ; starch
is absent. In one or more of the outer layers both the walls and the cell-
contents are of a dark brown color, changing to bright red with acids
and to purple with alkali.
164
ERGOT.
165
DIAGNOSIS.
The cells of the false parenchyma are distinguished from those of
endosperm tissues by their smaller size and the absence of starch; frorn
those of germ tissues by their thicker walls, more variable size and irregular
arrangement. The dark brown coloring matter of the outer layers, with
Fig. 141. Ergot (Claviceps purpurea),
with cap. Natural size. (Vogl.)
Fig. 142. Ergot. Cross section after
extraction of fat. X 300. (Moeller.)
the reactions noted above, is characteristic,
alcohol test is described on p. 52.
Vogl's hydrochloric aci'd-
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Bohmer (6, 23); Flvickiger (11);
Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. F. (16); Mace (26); Meyer (27); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32);
Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43,
44, 45); Wigand (46); Wittmack (10).
Belztjng: Journ. pharm. chim. 1890.
Getiber: Die Methoden d. Nachw. v. Mutterkorn im Mehl u. Brot. Arch. f. Hyg.
1895, 24, 228.
Hartwich: Schweiz. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1893.
Lagerhetm: Pavisande af mjoldrvga i mjol. Svensk kemisk Tidsk. 1900.
Mitlacher: Versuch einer quantitativen Bestimmung des Mutterkorns im Mehle.
Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1902.
Moeller: Gutachten in der Mutterkornfrage. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1895.
Mtjsset: Zum Nachweis von Mutterkorn in Mehl. Pharm. Centralh. 1899.
Spaeth: Pharm. Centralh. 1896, 17, 542.
166 FUNGUS IMPURITIES.
SMUTS.
The smuts (Uslilaginece) are parasitic fungi living inside various
parts of higher plants. Those which infest grain ripen their resting spores
in the ovaries where they form a dark powdery mass replacing the starch
of the seed. These spores are more or less globular and have a thick
membrane or episporium which is smooth or reticulated, brown or color-
less, according to the species (Fig. 143).
The Stinking Smuts of Wheat ripen their spores in the wheat kernel,
destroying the inner tissues but not the outer hull. The damaged kernels
are not greatly different in size from the sound ones, and consequently
are not readily separated by screening. Flour made from this grain is
contaminated with the spores which, if present in appreciable amount,
injure its color and impart to it a disagreeable odor and taste.
The common species (Tilletia Tritici (Bjerk) Wint, T. Caries Tul.)
has reticulated, pale brown, transparent spores reaching 18 y. in diameter
Fig. 143. Spores of Smuts, a reticulated-spored stinking smut of wheat (^Tilletia Caries);
b smooth-spored stinking smut of wheat (T. Icevis); c rye stalk smut (Urocyslis occulta);
d maize smut {Ustilago Maidis); e loose smut (Ustilago Carbo). (Mez.)
(a); a less common species (T. foetens (B. & C.) Trel., T. laevis Kiihn)
has smooth spores (b).
Rye Smut {Tilletia Secalis Kiihn) is a rarer species, occurring chiefly
in Europe. The reticulated spores are 20-25 p. in diameter.
Loose Smuts. Several species of loose smuts, formerly classed together
as Ustilago Carbo Tul., attack the fruit of wheat, oats and barley. As they
destroy, not only the starchy inner portion of the kernels, but also the hull,
the spores (e), which vary up to 8 //, escape during harvesting and seldom
contaminate the grain or the flour made from the grain.
The following species, infesting respectively wheat, oats and barley,
have been described: U. Tritici (Pers) Jens, U. Arena (Pers) Jens,
U. nuda (Jens) Kell. & Sw.
Maize Smut (U. Zea (Bechm.) Ung., U. Maidis LeV.) develops in
SMUTS. . 167
the ear of maize, forming an irregular sack filled with a dust consisting
of dark brown spores (d), 8-14 n in diameter, with numerous papillae on
ihe surface.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Clinton: North American Ustilagineae. Jour. Mycol. 1902, 8, 128.
PART III.
OIL SEEDS AND OIL CAKES.
OIL SEEDS.
All fruits and seed in which the reserve materiatl is largely in the.form
of oil or fat properly belong under this head, although for convenience
the cocoanut and other oleaginous nuts are described in Part V, and
the peanut, which contains starch as well as oil, with other legumes in
Part IV. The mustards are not only oil seeds but also spices.
As a rule the oil is contained largely in the embryo, but in the linseed
it is about equally divided between the endosperm and the embryo, while
in the olive it is largely in the pericarp. In addition to oil the seeds con-
tain large amounts of proteins in the form of aleurone grains.
Oil-seed Products.
The most important products of the oil seeds are the expressed oils,
but many of the cakes or residues of the oil presses, like the by-products
of flour mills, starch factories, breweries and distilleries, are of great
value as cattle foods. Castor pomace is utilized as a nitrogeneous fer-
tilizer, and ground cottonseed cake or cottonseed meal both as a cattle
food and a fertilizer. Mustard cake is employed both as a drug and a
condiment.
Some seeds are decorticated before expressing the oil, others are
pressed whole and the hulls are either separated from the cake after
grinding, as for example in the manufacture of mustard flour, or are
not separated at all.
Since oil cakes and oil meals are rich in protein and also in fat, not-
withstanding the removal of the larger part of this latter constituent,
they are known as concentrated feeds.
Starch being entirely absent in true oil seeds when fully ripe, its pres-
169
170 OIL SEEDS.
ence in the cake indicates adulteration with starchy material or at least
contamination with weed seeds. Peanut cake, however, being a by-product
of a starchy legume, contains a considerable amount of starch, while on the
other hand, maize cake, although a cereal product, is free from starch.
The hulls separated from cottonseed, sunflower seed and some other
seeds are utilized as adulterants of cattle foods, and mustard hulls are
employed as adulterants of spices and prepared mustard.
The dried residues from the manufacture of some of the essential
oils are also non-starchy materials similar to those here considered.
Methods of Examination.
preliminary Examination. Each oil-cake has certain physical char-
acteristics, such as color, odor, texture, deportment with water, etc.,
which can be learned only by experience. For example, maize cake
has a characteristic taste and odor; cottonseed cake a characteristic color;
most cruciferous products develop an odor of mustard oil on mixing
with water; linseed cake becomes slimy by the same treatment; and so
on.
Foreign seeds, fragments of hulls and other constituents may often
be found by macroscopic examination of the unground material or of
the coarser grades obtained by sifting. These, if not identified by the
naked eye or under the lens, are reserved for microscopic examination.
Cold-water Test. The presence of a large excess of hulls in cotton-
seed meal is easily disclosed by mixing 5 grams of the ground material
with 100 cc. of cold water, and comparing the deposit of black hulls,
which immediately settles from the yellow suspended matter, with that
obtained by the same method from samples of known composition.
This simple process is also useful in the examination of other oil cakes
as well as some cereal products, and serves not only to detect hulls but
also added mineral matter.
Collin and Perrot's Method1 of preliminary examination is as follows:
Boil 2 grams of the powdered material 10 minutes with 60 cc. of water
to which are added 10-12 drops of concentrated potash solution. Allow
to settle 7 or 8 minutes, decant and wash twice with water by decanta-
tion. The last decantation should leave 1,5-20 cc. of water in the dish,
which, given a gentle gyratory motion causes the particles of the residue
1 Les Residus Industriels, etc. Paris, 1904, 35.
OIL-SEED PRODUCTS. 171
to deposit according to their density. These particles are examined
as to their physical properties, especially their color and hardness, and
are afterwards prepared for microscopic examination.
Chemical Analysis. Tests for starch or starchy adulterants are
made by boiling a small quantity of the material with water, cooling and
adding a few drops of potassium iodide iodine.
Quantitative determinations of starch are laborious and only neces-
sary in exceptional cases, but determinations of protein (Nx6|), fat
and crude fiber are easily made and are essential for the proper valuation
of the material. The addition of starchy substances tends to diminish
the percentage of protein and fat without greatly altering the percentage
of crude fiber, while the addition of hulls or woody adulterants tends to
increase the percentage of fiber at the expense of both the protein and
fat.
Microscopic Examination. Starch grains being absent, except in
peanut cake and in cake made from unripe or impure seeds, the micro-
scopist must rely largely on the structure of the hulls, or in exceptional
cases on the characters of the aleurone grains. The treatment pre-
liminary to the microscopic examination is also very different from that
employed for starchy products. Digestion with diastase or boiling with
dilute acid is obviously irrational in products containing no starch, but
on the other hand, extraction with ether or a similar solvent is often neces-
sary owing to the presence of considerable fat, and treatment with alkali
to remove the proteid matter is usually desirable.
Direct Examination of the powdered material in water is useful chiefly
in detecting foreign matter containing starch. As starch grains are
liable to be confused with oil drops and proteid grains, addition of
iodine tincture is advisable.
Addition of alkali facilitates the examination of the tissue by dis-
solving the proteid grains, saponifying or emulsifying the oil, and swell-
ing the cell-walls. Mounting in a drop of concentrated sulphuric acid
aids in identifying cottonseed meal, as the resin masses become bright
red in this reagent.
Chloral hydrate serves to detect the hulls of wild mustard by im-
parting a beautiful cherry-red color to the contents of the palisade cells.
These and a few other reactions are of value in diagnosis, but as a rule
reagents serve merely to clear the tissues, thus facilitating their examina-
tion.
Fragments of the hulls picked out from the unground material
I72 OIL SEEDS.
are sectioned, scraped, macerated or otherwise treated and examined
in water, dilute alkali or some other suitable medium.
Ether Extraction preliminary to examination in water or to treatment
by Hebebrand's method may be performed on a filter or by decantation
in a beaker. If more complete extraction is desirable the continuous
apparatus of Soxhlet, Tollens or Johnson may be employed.
Hebebrand's Method * for clearing sesame cake and other materials
with delicate tissues which would be destroyed by Beneke's methods is
as follows :
Extract a portion of the material with ether and grind so as to pass
a 0.5 mm. mesh. Mix 0.5 gram of the extracted and finely ground
material with 10-15 cc. of sodium carbonate solution (7 grams of the dry
salt in 100 cc. of water) and pass chlorine gas into the mixture, taking
care that the solution remains alkaline. After 2-15 minutes, according
to the material, dilute with water, allow the fragments of tissues to settle,
decant off the liquid and wash twice by decantation. Examine the residue
in water or some other suitable solvent.
Chlorine gas is conveniently prepared by treating the so-called "chlo-
ride of lime cubes" with dilute hydrochloric acid in the special form of
generator supplied by Peters and Rost, Berlin. Sufficient gas for clearing
one sample may be generated from a single cube.
Beneke's Method 2 may be used for accumulating and clearing tissues
of the pericarp and spermoderm, provided these tissues are strongly devel-
oped. It is not suited for clearing delicate tissues.
It is described at some length by the author, but the following direc-
tions will be found sufficient: Heat in a porcelain dish, with constant
stirring, about 5 grams of the material with 30 cc. of concentrated
hydrochloric acid and 10 cc. of concentrated nitric acid until the liquid
begins to foam. Add at once considerable cold water, and filter on a
piece of fine mull and wash with water.
Rinse back into the dish with 60 cc. of water, add 30 cc. of concentrated
sodium hydrate and heat until the solution begins to boil. Dilute with
cold water, filter and wash as before. Mount the residue and examine.
Collin and Perrot's Method. See p. 170.
1 Beitrag zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung von Nahrungs- u. Futtermitteln. For-
schungsber. f. Lebensm. 1897, 306. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1808, 51, 74.
2 Anleitung zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Kraftfuttermittel. Berlin, 1886, 38.
CRUCIFEROUS SEEDS. 173
CRUCIFEROUS SEEDS (Cruci/era).*
The flowers of cruciferous plants are very similar in all the species,
having, as the family name suggests, four regular petals and four sepals.
Classification is based largely on the characters of the pods and seeds.
The pods, known as siliques when long or silicles when short, are com-
monly divided into two cells by thin, longitudinal partitions, passing through
the two parietal placentae. When ripe the outer walls of each pod separate
from the partition as two valves, the seeds remaining with the partition.
The campylotropous seeds consist largely of spermoderm and em-
bryo with a thin endosperm, and usually have a pungent taste.
As seen in cross section the arrangement of the cotyledons (=) with
reference to the radicle (o) may be accumbent (0 = ) incumbent (o||)
or conduplicate (o >>). In some species the cotyledons are coiled or
folded endwise, the cross section appearing thus: o |( |j, o || | j | etc.
Under a lens the seeds of some species show numerous shallow pits,
the ridges between the pits forming delicate reticulations.
Microscopic Characters of Cruciferous Seeds.
The Spermoderm (Figs. 145 and 145a) normally has four layers, but
in many species the first and second layers at maturity are not distinctly
cellular.
1. The Epidermal Cells (ep) when evident are polygonal, and usually
have thin walls. In certain species on adding water a mucilaginous
substance is evident which D'Arbaumont, contrary to the formerly accepted
view, has shown is formed from cell contents, not from the cell-wall.
D'Arbaumont divides the phenomena observed in numerous species
on addition of water into four groups :
(1) Complete diffusion of the contents.
(2) Diffusion of the lateral layers, an axial cylinder remaining
unchanged.
(3) Simple swelling of the layers.
(4) The mucilage, owing to the pressure developed in the cell, bursts
through the outer wall, forming a body of definite shape.
These phenomena are of value in diagnosis. As noted by Collins,
each cell" displays a polarization cross.
2. The Subepidermal Layer, or outer parenchyma layer, consists of one
1 Revised by Kate Barber Winton after studying authentic material, including Prain's
specimens of Indian rapes and mustards kindly furnished by Dr. Arpad de Degen, Director
of the Royal Hungarian Seed-testing Station, Budapest.
174 OIL SEEDS.
or two cell layers of thin-walled polygonal elements often of considerable
size. In some species,, notably white mustard, the cells (Fig. 144, col)
are collenchymatously thickened at the angles.
3. The Palisade Cells, or beaker cells, form the most striking layer of
the seed. The inner walls and at least the inner portions of the radial
walls are more or less strongly thickened, giving the cells in cross section
(Fig. 145, pal) a beaker-like appearance. These thickened walls are either
yellow or brown, according to the color of the seed.
In certain species this layer in surface view displays dark meshes
(Fig. 1450, pal2) corresponding to the reticulations of the spermoderm.
This appearance is due to the greater height of the palisade cells (Fig.
145, pal) in the meshes and is valuable in diagnosis.
As seen in surface view the cells vary greatly in breadth (3-100 //)
and have a sharply polygonal outline and more or less rounded lumen.
Owing to their polygonal form and thick walls they present a mosaic-like
appearance.
4. The Pigment Cells (pig) are in one or more layers and contain,
in the case of brown seeds, a dark colored material. In surface view
they lack characteristic features.
Endosperm. Most authors have described the* remaining layers of
the hull as inner spermoderm; Gruinard and also Gram, however, have
demonstrated that they belong to the endosperm.
1. Aleurone Cells (E) similar to those found in the cereals form the outer
portion of the endosperm. In most seeds only a single cell layer is present
except under the micropyle where there are two or even more layers, and
under the hilum where they are entirely absent.
2. Obliterated Parenchyma makes up the remainder of the endosperm.
The Embryo tissues are thin-walled and contain aleurone grains and
fat.
Chief Characters.
None of the common cruciferous seeds contains starch, and all have
a palisade layer of beaker cells forming a brown or yellow mosaio, and
an endosperm with usually a single layer of aleurone cells.
Of diagnostic value when present are the epidermal cells with muci-
laginous contents, the subepidermal layer of collenchyma cells and the
pigment layer.
CRUCIFEROUS SEEDS. 175
Analytical Key to Cruciferous Seeds.
A. Spermoderm yellow.
1. Epidermal cells with mucilaginous contents; subepidermal layer collen-
chymatous White Mustard (Brassica alba).
2. Epidermal cells with mucilaginous contents; subepidermal layer not evi-
dent (Eruca sativa).
3. Epidermal and subepidermal layers form a nearly structureless membrane
(not distinctly cellular) . .Indian Colza {Brassica campestris var. Sarson).
B. Spermoderm brown.
(a) Palisade layer with reticulations. .
* Epidermis cellular, usually with mucilaginous contents.
4. Subepidermal cells large, not collenchymatous; palisade cells red-brown,
narrow (usually 3-10 ju) Black Mustard (B. nigra).
5. Subepidermal cells collenchymatous; palisade cells red-brown.
(Sinapis dissccia).
6. Subepidermal cells very large, collenchymatous; palisade cells red-yellow.
Wild Radish (Raphanus Raphanistrum).
7. Subepidermal cells indistinct or lacking; pab'sade cells red-brown, broader
than in 4 Brown Mustard (B. Besseriana).
8. Subepidermal layer lacking; palisade cells after treatment with acid and
alkali, yellow-brown Palai Rape (B. rugosa).
** Epidermis not distinctly cellular,
t Palisade cells with lumen broader than double walls.
9. Reticulations distinct. .Brown Indian Rape (B. Nap'us var. dichotoma).
ft Palisade cells with lumen narrower' than double walls.
10. Reticulations distinct Indian Mustard (B.juncea).
11. Reticulations indistinct German Rape (B. Rapa).
(b) Palisade layer with ribs, not reticulations.
12. Epidermal and subepidermal layers not cellular.
Field Pennycress (Thlaspi arvense).
(c) Palisade layer without distinct reticulations or ribs.
* Epidermis cellular with mucilaginous contents.
t Mucilage escapes as long tapering columns.
13. Epidermal and palisade cells broad (up to go fi), walls 15-20 y..
False Flax (Camelina sativa).
14. Radial walls of epidermis thick and porous; palisade cells broad with
broad lumen (Erysimum orientate).
ft Mucilage escapes as long columns broadened at the outer ends.
15. Palisade cells up to 40 n Pepper Grass (Lepidium).
ftt Mucilage in axial columns seldom escaping from the cells.
16. Palisade cells up to 60 \x broad with broad lumen; epidermal cells in rows.
Shepherd's Purse (Capsella Bursa-Pastoris).
17. Palisade cells narrow, thickened at inner ends. . . .(Sisymbrium officinale).
tftt Mucilage never escapes from cells.
18. Mucilage in layers in outer portion of cells; palisade cells broad with
broad lumen, containing an oxalate crystal (Barbarea vulgaris).
176
OIL SEEDS.
**
19. Mucilage shows honeycomb structure; palisade cells narrow, contents
dark, becoming red with acid chloral hydrate. . .Charlock (B. arvensis).
Epidermis not distinctly cellular.
20. Palisade cells av. 20 y., lumens av. 10 y. Rape {B. Napus).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674 Bohmer (6, 23); Collin et Perrot (9).
Abraham: Bau und Entwicklung der Wandverdickungen in den Samenoberhaut-
zellen einiger Kruziferen. Jahrb. f. wissensch. Bot. 1885, 14, 559.
d'Arbaumont: Note sur les teguments seminaux de quelques Cruciferes. Bot. Jahresb.
1890, 18, I Abt., 663. Journ. de m'crographie. 1891, 15, 212. Bull. Soc. Bot. de
France. 1891, 38, 67.
Burchard: Ueber den Bau der Samenschale einiger Brassica- und Sinapis-Arten.
Jour. f. Landw. 1894, 42, 125. 1896, 44, 337.
Bussard et Fron: Torteaux de graines oleagineuses; examen macroscopique et
microscopique diagnose. Ann. d. l'inst. nation, agron. 1892-96. No. 15, 117.
Claes et Thyes : Morphologie comparee des testes des Brassica : oleracea, napus, rapa
et nigra et des Sinapis: alba et arvensis. Bull, de l'agric. 1891, 7, 253.
Collins : Mustards and Charlock. Swarthmore, 1910.
Gram: Ueber Rapskuchen und deren Verunreinigung. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1898, 50,
449.
Guignard : Recherches sur le developpement de la graine et en particulier du tegu-
ment seminal. Jbur. Bot. 1893, 7.
Hartwich u. Vuillemin: Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Senfsamen. Apoth. Ztg., 1005.
v. Hohnel: Bau der Samenschale der vier cultivirten Brassicaarten; in Haberiandt:
Wissensch. -prakt. Untersuch. auf dem Gebiet des Pflanzanbaues. 1875, 1, 171.
Kinzel: Ueber die Samen einiger Brassica- und Sinapis-Arten, mit besonderer Bertick-
sichtigung der ostindischen. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1899, 52, 169.
Kobus: Kraftf utter und seiner Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 13, 813.
Pammel: On the Seeds and Spermoderm of some Cruciferas. Amer. Monthly Mcr.
Jour. 1897, 1.
Pieters and Charles: The Seed Coats of Certain Species of the Genus Brassica. U. S.
Dep. Agr., Div. Bot. Bull. 29, 1901.
Prain: A Note on the Mustards cultivated in Bengal. Agricultural Ledger 1898, No. 1.
Schroder: Untersuchung des Samens der Brassica-Arten und Varietaten. Landw.
Vers.-Stat. 1871, 14, 179.
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen.
Landw. Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823.
Tschirch: Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Studien. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1897, 35,
No. 17.
Vuillemin: Beitrage z. Kenntnis der Senfsamen. Diss. Zurich, 1904.
Wolff: Zur Kentniss der Senfsorten des Handels. Pharm. Ztg. 1893, 38, 761.
WHITE MUSTARD.
177
WHITE MUSTARD.
Yellow or white mustard {Brassica alba (L.) Boiss., Sinapis alba L.),
a native of Europe, is grown for its seed in various parts of Europe and
America, particularly in England, Holland, Germany, and California.
The nearly globular seeds are 1.5-2.5 mm. in diameter and are
usually of a buff color although occasional seeds are black or dark brown.
Examined under a lens they have an indistinctly reticulated surface.
Like all .the mustards they are campylotropous. Cross sections slightly
magnified show the embryo consisting of the radicle and two large con-
duplicate xotyledons.
In addition to sinapin sulphocyanide and the enzyme, myrosin, both
of which are found also in black mustard, white mustard contains a
glucoside, sinalbin, which, in the presence of water, is split up by myrosin
into sinapin hydrosulphate, d.extrose, and sinalbin su'phocyanide, the
latter being a non-volatile principle with a biting taste.
HISTOLOGY.
Cross sections are cut of the dry seed embedded in hard parafnne'
or held between pieces of cork. For the study of the epidermis these are
mounted in alcohol, and water is
cautiously drawn under the cover-
glass during observation. The
same sections, after treatment
with alkali, serve for the study
of the other layers of the spermo-
derm. Sections mounted in tur-
pentine or strong glycerine are
adapted for studying the aleurone
grains of the endosperm and
embryo. Surface preparations
of the spermoderm and endo-
sperm are obtained by heating
with dilute alkali and scraping
with a scalpel.
Spermoderm (Fig. 144, S;
Fig. 144a). 1. The Epidermis (ep) consists of polygonal, isodiametric
mucilage cells, ranging up to 115/4 in diameter, with finely beaded
primary walls. Cautious treatment of alcohol mounts with water dis-
'Fig. 144. White Mustard {Brassica alba).
Seed in cross section. 5 spermoderm con-
sists of ep epidermis, col collenchyma, pal l,
outer thin-walled portion of palisade layer,
pal2 inner thick-walled portion of palisade
layer, and p parenchyma; E endosperm;
C cotyledon with aep outer epidermis and al
aleurone cells. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
i78
OIL SEEDS.
plays the mucilaginous substance deposited in layers with a distinct cyl-
indrical cavity in the axis of each cell. In surface view, concentric rings
and often radial clefts are evident.
2. Collenchyma {col). Characteristic of white mustard are the sub-
epidermal cells with collenchymatously thickened angles and triangular
intercellular spaces. These are of about the size of the epidermal cells
and are usually in two layers.
3. Palisade Cells {pal1 and pal2). Radially elongated cells, thickened
in the inner half, form the most conspicuous layer of the seed, the
thickened walls forming a kind of cup, hence the name " beaker cells."
Of great diagnostic importance are the colorless, thickened walls, which
Fig. 144a. White Mustard. Elements of seed in surface view. Significance of reference
letters as in Fig. 144. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
in most economic cruciferous seeds are brown. As these cells are of
nearly uniform height, pronounced reticulations are not evident on the
seed. In surface view the cells are sharply polygonal, varying up to
22 ji in diameter.
4. Inner Layers {p). Two or more layers of thin-walled isodiametric
or elongated cells complete the spermoderm. These cells, unlike the
corresponding layer of many cruciferous seeds, do not contain a pigment.
Endosperm (£). 1. Aleurone Cells. These cells resemble closely
the aleurone cells of cereals. They are 10-40 /( in diameter, have thick,
colorless walls, and contain fat globules and polygonal or rounded aleurone
grains 1-4 (i in diameter.
2. Obliterated Parenchyma. The remainder of the endosperm con-
sists of compressed cells without evident cellular structure.
Embryo (C). Cross sections show that not only the cells on the
WHITE MUSTARD. 179
inner sides of the cotyledons (the upper sides after sprouting) are typi-
cal palisade cells, but all the mesophyl cells are more or less elongated.
These cells in the mature seeds contain fat and aleurone grains, never
starch. The aleurone grains are either isodiametric- or oblong. In the
outer epidermis (aep) the isodiametric grains aire about 3 fi in diameter, in
the inner layers (al) 6-10 /*. The oblong grains are about the same width
as those of isodiametric form, but are often twice or three times as long.
As the cells are but little broader than the grains, each usually contains
but a single row of grains, which are often so crowded that the sides in
contact are more or less flattened. Each grain contains numerous minute
globoids.
As was first noted by Gruinard, occasional cells of both the cotyledons
and radicle contain grains without globoids, which, in sections previ-
ously extracted with ether, are colored bright crimson-red on gently
heating with Millon's reagent and golden-yellow on treatment in the
cold with iodine. These cells are believed by both Gruinard and Gram to
be the seat of the myrosin, and are designated "myrosin-cells. "
DIAGNOSIS.
The color of white mustard seed serves to distinguish it from all
black or brown cruciferous seeds both in a macroscopic and microscopic
way. Seeds of white Indian colza (B. campestris L. var. Sarson Prain)
sometimes used as an adulterant, although of the same color as white
mustard, are distinguished macroscopically by the more pronounced
ridge over the radicle, and microscopically by the indistinct epidermis,
the absence of a collenchymatous subepidermal layer and the large size
of the palisade cells.
White Mustard Flour is prepared either from the whole seeds, or*
more commonly from the cake remaining after expressing the oil. Al-
though the hulls are largely removed, fragments are always present in
small amount and are distinguished from the brown hulls of black
mustard and other related seeds by their yellow color. The bulk of
the organized material consists of protein and fat. Examined in tur-
pentine or, after extraction of the fat, in iodine tincture, the aleurone
grains are clearly differentiated. White and black mustard flour are
usually blended, as noted under black mustard.
Prepared Mustard. See Black Mustard (p. 182).
White Mustard Hulls, separated in the manufacture of mustard
flour, serve as an adulterant for prepared mustard and various spices.
!8o OIL SEEDS.
The elements of the hulls of chief value in diagnosis are the colorless
distinctly cellular epidermal layer (Fig. 144a, ep) with mucilaginous con-
tents, the collenchymatous subepidermal layer {col) and the yellow mosaic
of palisade cells {pai2) with indistinct reticulations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Blyth (5); Bohmer (10); Fliick-
iger (n); Greenish (14); Hanausek T. F. (16, 48); Harz (18); Hassall (19); Leach
(25); Mace" (26); Meyer, A. (10, 27, 28); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin
(34); Schimper (37); Tichimirow (38); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin
(42); Vogl (43,45)-
Also see Bibliography, of Cruciferas, p. 176.
Harz: Ueber eine neue Verfalschung des weissen Senfes. Bot. Centralb. 1887, 8, 249.
Steffeck: Ein neues Falschungsmittel des weissen Senfes (Sinapis alba). Landw.
Vers.-Stat. 1887, 33, 411.
BLACK MUSTARD.
Black mustard (Brassica nigra, (L.) Koch) is cultivated in various
parts of Europe, Asia, and America. The globular, campylotropous
seeds (1-1.5 mm0 vary ln color from light brown to nearly black.
Under a lens they show fine reticulations averaging about 90 (i in
diameter. The husk or hull of the seed, consisting of the spermoderm
and the thin endosperm, envelops the embryo with its conduplicate
cotyledons.
The sharp taste of black mustard is due chiefly to allyl sulphocyanide,
or volatile mustard oil. This does not, however, exist ready formed in
the seed, but is developed by the action of an enzyme, myrosin, on a
glucoside, sinigrin (potassium myronate), in the presence of water.
HISTOLOGY.
Cross sections and surface mounts are prepared as described under
white mustard.
Spermoderm (Fig. 145, 5; Fig. 145a). 1. The Epidermis (ep) con-
sists of large (50-100 /i) polygonal mucilage cells with finely beaded
primary walls. If sections are first mounted in alcohol, and water is
carefully drawn under the cover-glass, the mucilaginous substance is seen
to be deposited in layers. Gentle warming with alkali removes this sub-
stance, and also aids in clearing the remaining layers.
2. Subepidermal Layer (sub). Beneath the epidermis are thin-walled
cells even larger than those of the epidermis, the radial walls of which
BLACK MUSTARD.
i8r
correspond with the reticulations of the seed and the highest cells of
the next layer.
3. Palisade Cells (pal). Cross sections show that the brown pali-
sade or beaker cells are of unequal height, causing the reticulated ap-
pearance of the seed and the con- ^^^^^^
spicuous, dark meshes seen in ^^^^■■!^~~^~''^^S=^y)
surface view (Fig. 145a, pal2). sub''~~^^Li^^}^f^^^^Trrrr p
Sometimes the outer thin-walled ~jSg- -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ >
portion of the palisade layer ' ^^^^^^^^^S }^
breaks away from the remainder aeP ~ '^^^^&ffj^JJ^XX^ \c
of the spermoderm, as shown in f \ AKi J
Fig. 14^, pal1. In surface view, FlG- Jj$: Black Hustard„ (Brasska nigra).
0 J L _ . seed in cross section. 5 spermoderm con-
the cells are isodiametric, 4—10 [i, sists of ep epidermis, sub subepidermal layer,
in rliumptpr nr plnncrarprl rparh pd PaUsade cells> and P*S pigment cells; E
in diameter, or elongated, reacn- endosperm; C cotyledon with aep outer
ing a maximum length of 20 a. epidermis and al aleurone cells. X160.
^ „ / • s X (K. B. WlNTON.)
4. Pigment Cells (pig). One,
sometimes two, layers of cells with brown contents form the inner coat
of the spermoderm. In surface view the cells are either isodiametric or
somewhat elongated, often reaching a length of 75 fi. Ferric chloride
^pal1 P'ff,
)
eP X^iy pul1^^' e^Q^xT ~:
Fig. 145a. Black Mustard. Elements of seed in surface view. -Significance of reference
letters as in Fig. 145-. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
colors the cell-contents blue. The color of the seed is due partly to
this layer and partly to the palisade layer.
The Endosperm (E) and Embryo (C) are practically the same as
described under white mustard.
DIAGNOSIS.
Black Mustard Seed is distinguished from that of white mustard by
its darker color, from brown mustard by its smaller size and finer retic-
182 OIL SEEDS.
ulations, and fiom rape by its smaller size and distinct reticulations.
Charlock, a common weed seed, is about the same size, but is not
reticulated and is usually of a darker color.
Black Mustard Flour, like that made from white mustard, is usually
prepared from the cake, with the removal of the hulls. It is a common
practice to blend the flour of both black and white mustard, the excess
of myrosin in the latter serving to convert the last traces of potassium
myronate of the former into allyl sulphocyanide. The flour of black
mustard consists in large part of embryo substance, with occasional frag-
ments of the hulls (spermoderm). The aleurone grains may be examined
in oil of turpentine, or, after the removal of the fat, in strong glycerine.
Fragments of the spermoderm, owing to their darker color, cannot be
confounded with those of white mustard. The reticulations are smaller
than in brown mustard and German rape; charlock and common rape
have no reticulations. The palisade cells (Fig. 145a, pal2) are smaller
than those of brown mustard and rape. Charlock, a common adulter-
ant, is detected by the cherry-red color imparted to fragments of the
hulls by treatment with acid chloral hydrate (p. 185). Examined with a
lens the proportion of Charlock can be roughly estimated.
Other adulterants of mustard flour are wheat flour and other cereal
products, gypsum and other mineral substances, turmeric and coal-tar
dyes. Since mustard contains no starch, farinaceous adulterants are
especially easy of detection. Turmeric is identified by the bright yellow
particles which change to reddish-brown on treatment with alkali.
Prepared Mustard. Mustard paste, also known as German or French
mustard, is a mixture of flour or ground mustard seed from one or more
kinds of mustard with spices, salt, and vinegar. It is often adulterated
with charlock, starchy matter, mustard hulls, dyes and preservatives.
Turmeric being a spice cannot properly be regarded as an adulterant.
Black Mustard Hulls, obtained as a by-product in the manufacture
of the flour, are used not only as adulterants of mustard paste, but of
pepper and other spices.
The palisade cells are the most striking elements; The inner thick-
walled portion of the layer forms a brown mosaic (pal2) with darker
reticulations, while the outer thin-walled portion displays a delicate
network (pal1).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of White Mustard, p. 180.
BROWN MUSTARD. 183
BROWN MUSTARD.
In Russia the so-called Sarepta mustard (B. Besseriana Andr.) is
grown in considerable quantities. Formerly this species and Indian
mustard (asi-rai) were both known as B. juncea Hook. f. et Thorns.,
but Prain has shown that these two - — -^ — ^^ _
plants are distinct, and has reserved e^'-'^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^\ S
out the striking diSerence in the aep — ^^^f^^wn^it^. \C
histological structure of the two a >% /vVy^t fji )
seeds. Macroscopic and micro- Fig. 146. Brown Mustard (Brassica Besse-
.• <■ riana). Seed in cross section. S spermo-
scopic examination of numerous derm consists of ep epidermis; sub sub-
samples Of brown mustard cultivated epidermal layer, pal palisade cells, and
. pig pigment cells; E endosperm; C cot-
in both Europe and America, as yledon with aep outer epidermis and al
well as escaped in American grain aleurone cells. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
fields, show that the seed is undoubtedly from the Russian and not the
Indian species, notwithstanding the statements by American authors to the
contrary.
Fig. 146a. Brown Mustard. Elements of seed in surface view. Significance of reference
letters as in Fig. 146. X 160. (K. B. Winton.)
The seed (1-2 mm.) is somewhat larger than that of black mustard
and the reticulations are broader and more distinct.
In microscopic structure (Figs. 146 and 146a) the seed is distinguished
from black mustard by (1) the mucilage in the epidermal cells which,
after treatment of alcohol mounts with water, shows concentric rings
about a central core, (2) the less distinct subepidermal layer, and (3)
the larger size of the palisade cells and the dentate appearance in cross
section.
1 84
OIL SEEDS.
BIBLI06RAPHY.
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Bohmer; Kinzel; Hartwich u. Vuillemin.
Tichomirow: Die Struktur der Samenschale von Brassica juncea Hook. Pharm.
Centralh. 1900, 41, 510.
CHARLOCK.
Grain fields, both of the Old and New World, are often infested by
charlock (Brassica arvensis (L.) Ktze., B. Sinapistrum Boiss., Sinapis
arvensis L.), a cruciferous plant
S with bright yellow flowers. Char-
lock is especially abundant in the
) -® grain fields of the Northwest. So-
called wild or Dakota mustard con-
sists of variable mixtures of char-
lock and brown mustard separated
F1G.-147. Charlock (Brassica arvensis). m Seed from screenings by ingenious ma-
in cross section, o spermoderm consists of ° J °
ep epidermis, sub subepidermal layer, pal chines depending on the principle
Pdol^mfc'clty\IdLPwk^Lf^tefe^- that the round seeds ro11 away from
dermis and al aleurone cells.
B. WlNTON.)
C160. (K. the other seeds on amoving inclined
belt or disk or in a spiral trough.
The deep brown or black seeds (1-1.5 mm.) have a dull surface,
but do not appear reticulated, even under a lens. Charlock yields prac-
tically no volatile oil.
Fig. 147a. Charlock. Elements of seed in surface view. Significance of reference letters
as in Fig. 147. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
HISTOLOGY.
This seed differs from other cruciferous seeds in the structure of the
mucilaginous substance of the epidermis, and the nature of the contents
of the palisade cells.
CHARLOCK. 185
Spermoderm (Fig. 147, S; Fig. 147a). 1. The Epidermal Cells (ep)
are 40-75 ft in diameter. Cross sections mounted in alcohol and treated
cautiously with water display well-defined radial walls and a radially
striated mucilaginous deposit. This latter, in surface view, is seen to
be made up of an aggregate of delicate cylinders about a central cavity.
The cylinders are about the same size as those formed by the outer radial
walls of the palisade cells, but are not so distinct, and disappear entirely
on adding sufficient water. Harz first called attention to this structure,
and Gram shows it clearly in his figures.
2. Subepidermal Layer (sub). This coat consists of two compressed
layers of thin-walled cells.
3. Palisade Cells (pal). The dark contents are highly character-
istic. Waage« first noted that treatment with chloral hydrate solution
changes the color to crimson-red. The author finds that this reaction
takes place only when the reagent is acid, and best after cautious heating.
Although chloral hydrate solution gradually develops acidity on standing,
the best procedure is to add at once to 20 c.c. of the usual reagent, 1 c.c.
of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The reaction also takes place with
acidified glycerine or zinc chloride solution and with syrupy citric acid
solution, showing that it is dependent on the acid. The chloral hydrate
serves merely to penetrate the masses.
4. Pigment Layer (pig). A single row of pigment cells is present.
Although the contents are yellowish-brown, the dark color of the seed
is due solely to the material in the palisade cells.
Endosperm and Embryo are much the same as in black mustard.
DIAGNOSIS.
The dark, nearly black color of the seeds and the absence of retic-
ulations on the surface distinguish charlock from black and brown mustard;
the smaller size of the seeds distinguishes it from rape. The delicate
radial cylinders of the mucilaginous substance in the epidermis are char-
acteristic, but not always clearly evident. Especially striking are the
dark contents of the palisade cells, which become blood-red on heating
cautiously on the slide with acid chloral hydrate.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Bohmer; Burchard; Collin et Perrot;
Collins; Gram; Hartwich u. Vuillemin; Pieters and Charles.
i86
OIL SEEDS.
COMMON RAPE.
Of the cruciferous seeds utilized for oil and cattle food, not for con-
diments, common rape, also known as colza, (Brassica Napus L.) is
the best known in Europe. Before the advent of petroleum and coal
gas, rape oil was burned for illuminat-
ing purposes; but at the present time
it is used chiefly as a lubricant and for
making soap. As the cake yields but
a small amount of volatile oil, it is
well adapted for feeding animals.
Rape is grown chiefly in Germany,
Russia, and Austria-Hungary, to a
limited extent in France and Belgium,
but seldom in America. There are
summer and winter varieties.
The seed is globular, 1.5-2.5 mm. in diameter, and is of a dark brown,
almost black color. On the surface it is dull but never reticulated, even
under a lens, a striking distinction from brown and black mustard.
Fig. 148. Rape (Brassica Napus). Seed
in cross section. S spermoderm con-
sists of ep epidermis, sub subepidermal
layer, pal palisade cells, and pig pig-
ment cells; E endosperm; C cotyledon
with aep outer epidermis. X160. (K.
B. Winton.)
Fig. 148a. I. Common Rape. Elements of seed in surface view. Significance of ref-
erence letters as in Fig. 148. II. Palisade cells of German rape (B. Rapa). X160.
(K. B. Winton.)
HISTOLOGY.
Rape corresponds in general structure to black mustard, but the
Epidermis and the Subepidermal Layer of the ripe seed form an indis-
tinct coat with little or no evidence of cellular structure in cross section
and easily overlooked in surface view (Figs. 148 and 148a, I, ep and sub).
The Palisade Cells are of nearly uniform height, hence the absence
of reticulations such as occur on the seeds of black and brown mustard.
RAPES. 187
Another striking distinction from the mustards lies in the larger size
of the palisade cells, which, as seen in surface view, have an average
diameter of 20 ft and often reach 30 /i.
Harz states that the diameter of the lumen of each cell is about as
great as the breadth of the double walls, whereas in German rape (Fig.
148a, II) the lumen is narrower. Hanausek and Gram confirm this
distinction, but Collin and Perrot state that the lumen n """-erman rape
is the larger. Pieters and Charles place chief dependence on the more
regular height of the palisade cells, which varies not more than 3 pt, while
in German rape it varies from 5-7 fi.
The faintly reticulated appearance of the spermoderm of German
rape which Collin and Perrot regard as the chief means of distinction,
is explained by the variation in the height of the palisade cells.
The remaining coats of the spermoderm, also the endosperm and
embryo, agree in structure with the corresponding coats of black mustard,
though myrosin cells are less numerous in the embryo.
DIAGNOSIS.
The characters of chief use in diagnosis are the large size of the pali-
sade cells (average diameter 20 //), their uniform height, and the
consequent absence of reticulations. Epidermal cells are seldom distin-
guishable. Among the foreign seeds of rape cake are false flax (Came-
lina sativa), treacle mustard [Erysimum orientate), wild radish (Raphanus
Raphanistrum) , charlock (Brassica arvensis), hedge mustard {Sisym-
brium officinale and S. Sophia), penny-cress (Thlaspi arvense), shepherd's
purse {Capsella Bursa-Pastoris) , peppergrass {Lepidium campestre), and
other cruciferous seeds.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674; Beneke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin
et Perrot (9); Hanausek, T. F. (17, 48); Harz (18); Hassall (19); Moeller (29).
Also see Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Burchard; Claer, et Thyes; Gram;
Hartwich u. Vuillemin; Kobus; Pieters and Charles; Schroder; Sempolowski.
GERMAN RAPE.
The seeds of Brassica Rapa L., known in Germany as Rtibsen, are
smaller than those of common rape and show faint reticulations.
The differences in microscopic structure of the two species are noted
under common rape.
r88 OIL SEEDS.
INDIAN COLZA
Sarson, or Indian colza (Brassica campestris L. var. Sarson Prain,
Sinapis glauca Roxb.), has both white and brown seeded varieties,
although the latter are rare. The seeds have been introduced into Europe
as adulterants of white mustard, which they closely resemble. Kinzel
believes that the "Guzerat Raps" of Wittmark belongs under this variety,
and it is probable that the same is true of the yellow Indian rape described
by Steffeck and the false white mustard to which Harz gave the name
B. Iberijolia. The seed is without reticulations, and in general appear-
ance closely resembles white mustard.
Unlike white mustard seed, the epidermis and the subepidermal layer
form a nearly homogeneous layer with indistinct division into cells. In
some, if not all varieties, the palisade cells are broader than in white
mustard, being about the same size as in common rape.
The cake from this and the three following oil seeds is imported into
Europe from India.
According to Kinzel, the chief impurity is the black triangular seeds
of Asphodelus lenuijolius, which resemble the fruits of black bindweed
\Polygonum Convolvulus), except that they are transversely wrinkled.
The epidermis obtained by scraping the opaque spermoderm is char-
acterized by the thin lamellae, which appear like 4-6 concentric circles.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Kinzel.
BROWN INDIAN RAPE.
According to Prain, tori or brown Indian rape is Brassica Napus
L. var. dichotoma Prain.
It is grown both as an oil seed and as a vegetable.
Kinzel states that the epidermis in cross section does not appear
cellular, and that the aleurone cells are often in two layers. He further
notes that the highest palisade cells form usually distinct but very narrow
reticulations, and that the lumens of the palisade cells arc as broad as
those of European rape.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Kinzel.
INDIAN MUSTARD. PALA1 RAPE. DISSECTED MUSTARD. 189
INDIAN MUSTARD.
The Indian plant asi-rai, according to Prain and Kinzel, is Brassica
juncea Hook. f. et Thorns. It yields a brown seed much like that of
black mustard, although somewhat larger. The meshes on the surface
are distinctly seen with the aid of a lens.
Unlike brown mustard, the epidermis shows scarcely any evidence
of cellular structure.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Kinzel.
PALAI RAPE.
The seeds of the plant known in India as palai, palangi or pahari rai,
etc., {Brassica rugosa Prain), are brown and finely reticulated.
According to Kinzel, this species is distinguished from all other
Indian rapes by the ce^ular structure of the epidermis. Treated with
sulphuric acid and alkali, the palisade cells are of a more yellow-brown
color than in other varieties.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Kinzel.
DISSECTED MUSTARD.
Kinzel states that the seeds of Sinapis dissecta Lagasca (Brassica
dissecta Boiss.) frequently occur in Russian linseed and rape seed, as
well as in the cake made from these seeds.
Burchard finds that the histological structure is very similar to that
of white mustard, the chief differences being that the palisade and pig-
ment layers contain a brown pigment, and the palisade layer displays
narrow reticulations, due to the unequal height of the cells.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliog., p. 176: Bohmer; Burchard; Gram; Hart wich u. Vuillemin; Kinzel.
190
OIL SEEDS.
ERUCA.
This plant (Eruca sativa Lam.) is a common weed in Southern Europe
and India. The seeds are usually yellow, but occasionally are red-
yellow or mottled with green-brown spots. The spermoderm is smooth.
Gram notes the following points with regard to the histological structure :
The epidermal cells contain mucilaginous substance in layers with axial
columns. The double contour of the walls as seen in surface view is
due to a thickening of the outer walls at the edges of the cells. No sub-
epidermal layer is evident. The palisade layer has thickened radial
walls only in its inner half, where the double walls are about the thick-
ness of the lumen.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliog., p. 176: Bohmer; Collin et Perrot; Gram; Hartwich u. Vuille-
min.
FALSE FLAX.
In Germany, Holland, and some other countries, false flax (Camelina
sativa L.) is sparingly grown for its seed, which yields oil and cake. It
also occurs as a weed in flax fields and the seed as an impurity of lin-
seed and rape seed.
mac-
Fig. 149. False Flax (Camelina sativa). Fig. 150. False Flax. Seed in cross section.
Seeds, natural size and enlarged. 5 spermoderm consists of cp epidermis with
(Nobbe.) muc escaping mucilage, pal palisade cells,
and p parenchyma; E endosperm; C cot-
yledon with aep outer epidermis and al
aleurone cells. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
The brown seed (Fig. 149) is 1.5 mm. long and about half as broad,
its surface being finely granulated, but not reticulated. A pronounced
longitudinal ridge marks the position of the radicle.
FALSE FLAX.
191
mSTOLOGY.
The Spermoderm (Fig. 150, S; Fig. 150a) consists of epidermis,
palisade cells, and an inner layer corresponding to the pigment layer
of the mustards and rapes.
There is no evidence of a sub- /*■'£}'- ''Tf^lT^IL ^'^"V"^-®
epidermal layer in the ripe
seed.
1. The EpidermalCells (ep)
average about 50 fi broad, but
often reach 100 fi. They are
characterized by the presence
in each cell of an axial column
of mucilaginous substance
which, on the addition of
water, bursts through the
outer wall in the form of a long tapering cylinder.
2. The Palisade Cells (pal) are brownish and striated. Their average
breadth is 45 /*, their maximum 90 /*. The double radial walls are
15-20 fi thick, but only about 15 fi high.
3. The Inner Layers of the spermoderm, corresponding to the pig-
ment cells of allied seeds, consist of compressed cells, which are clearly
evident in cross section only after treatment with chloral hydrate.
The Endosperm and Embryo are practically the same as in the mus-
tards, except that the aleurone grains of the embryo seldom exceed 5 fi.
Fig. 1500. False Flax. Elements of seed in sur-
face view. Significance of reference letters as
in Fig. 150. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
DIAGNOSIS.
Seeds and cake of false flax are identified by the long tapering
mucilage column which bursts through the outer epidermis on the addi-
tion of water, also by the broad, low palisade cells (Fig. 150a).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin
et Perrot (9); Hanausek, T. F. (17, 48); Harz (18).
Also see Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Gram; Kobus; Sempolowski.
Nevtnny: Die Samen von Camelina saliva. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. u. Hyg. 1887, 1, 85.
Van Pesch: Leindotter-Kuchen. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1892, 41, 94.
192
OIL SEEDS.
HEDGE HUSTARD.
Sisymbrium officinale Scop., 5. Sophia L., and other species of this
genus, known as hedge mustard and by other names, are common weeds
in both Europe and America.
The brown seeds are minute and more or less irregular in shape.
Gram notes that the epidermis in S. officinale contains a mucilaginous
substance in layers, with an axial column in each cell which does not
readily escape on addition of water, also that the palisade cells are thick-
ened only at the very inner ends.
According to the same author the seeds of S. Sophia are very similar
to those of shepherd's purse, but the palisade cells are not so broad.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Cruciferse, p. 176: Eohmer; Gram.
SHEPHERD'S PURSE.
Shepherd's purse (Capsella Bursa-Pastoris Moench) has a seed of
much the same shape and color as false flax, but of about half the size.
The structure (Figs. 151 and 151a) is also similar, but the epidermal
aep
al-
Fig. 151. Shepherd's Purse (Cap-
sella Bursa-Pastoris). Seed in
cross section. 5 spermoderm
consists of ep epidermis, pal pal-
isade cells, and p parenchyma;
E endosperm; C cotyledon with
aep outer epidermis and al aleu-
rone cells. X160. (K. B.
W'lNTON.)
Fig. 151a. Shepherd's Purse. Elements of
seed in surface view. Significance of ref-
erence letters as in Fig. 1 5 1 . X160. ;K.
B. Winton.)
cells are in rows, the mucilage columns escape less readily, and the pal-
isade cells are not so broad, the average diameter being 30 p., the max-
imum 60 fi.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliograpny, pp. 671-674; Bohmer (6, 10, 23); also see Bibliogra-
phy of Cruciferae, p. 176: Gram.
WILD PEPPERGRASS. FIELD PENNY CRESS.
193
WILD PEPPERGRASS.
Several species of Lepidium, notably L. Virginicum L., L. campestre
Br., and L. sativum L., are common weeds. The seeds of the first named
species occur in American grain and flax seed. They are small (1-1.3
mm.), yellow brown, minutely margined, and have accumbent cotyledons.
They are also more or less flattened.
The palisade cells of L. campestre are unusually high.
The striking microscopic characters (Figs. 152 and 152a) are the
central columns of the epidermal cells, irregularly broadened at the
Fig. 152. Pcppergrass {Lepidium
Virginicum). Seed in cross sec-
tion. 5 spermoderm consists of
ep epidermis, pal palisade cells,
and p parenchyma; E endo-
sperm; C cotyledon with aep
outer epidermis and al aleurone
cells. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
Fig. 1520. Peppergrass. Elements of seed in
surface view. Significance of reference
letters same as in Fig. 152. X160. (K. B.
Winton.)
outer ends, and the palisade cells (up to 40 fi) of the usual type. The
epidermal cells of the immature seed contain numerous starch grains
which are replaced at maturity by mucilage.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Bohmer; Gram.
FIELD PENNYCRESS.
According to Bohmer and Gram, the seeds of this common weed
(Thlaspi arvense L.) frequently occur in linseed
and rape cake (Fig. 153).
The epidermis and parenchymatous second
layer form a membrane of obliterated cells over
the palisade layer. In cross section the palisade
cells are of unequal height and have strongly
Fig. 153. Field Penny- thickened inner and side walls. Their appearance
cress (Thlaspi arvense). . r . ..... . .
a and b seed enlarged; m surface view is highly characteristic, owing to
c seed natural size.
(Nobbe.)
the arrangement of the high cells in longitudinal
194 OIL SEEDS.
rows forming parallel ribs of a darker color than the intervening chan-
nels.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Cruciferas, p. 176: Eohmer; Gram.
TREACLE flUSTARD.
Seeds of this weed (Erysimum orientale R. Br.) occur in rape seed
from both Europe and India. They are dull brown, and have a nearly
smooth spermoderm.
Gram's figures show the following details:
The epidermal cells contain mucilage which escapes from each as
a long conical body. The thickened radial walls are punctured with
radially elongated pores, and as a consequence appear toothed in surface
view, and scalariform in section. The palisade cells have broad lumens
and are seldom thickened except at the inner ends.
BIBLIOGRAPHY .
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Bohmer; Gram.
WILD RADISH.
Gram finds seeds of the wild radish (Raphanus Raphanistrum L.)
in small amounts in European rape cake. The seeds are globular,
much larger than those of rape, from which they are further distinguished
by their red-yellow color. The epidermal and subepidermal cells are
broad, and the latter have collenchymatously thickened angles. The
palisade cells are rather low, and of unequal height. In surface view
they display moderately distinct reticulations. The lumen is usually
thicker than the walls.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Cruciferae, p. 176: Gram.
WINTER CRESS.
The brown-gray, smooth seeds of Barbarea vulgaris R. Br., are occa-
sionally present in rape seed.
The mucilage is situated in the outer portion of each epidermal cell,
extending inward at the sides. The radial walls are often thickened.
In some seeds the subepidermal coat is not evident, in others it consists
of one, or seldom two, layers.
SUNFLOWER. 105
Characteristic of the palisade cells are their large size, large lumen,
and the single crystal, less often the costal cluster, present in each.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Cruciferse, p. 176. Gram.
COMPOSITE OIL FRUITS (Composite).
The fruits (achenes) of the sunflower, the tarweed (madia), and the
niger plant are of local importance. They are characterized by the
leathery pericarp, with strongly developed bast-fiber bundles, also by
the black pigment plates which cover these bundles. The species are
easily distinguished by certain layers of the pericarp and spermoderm
described under each.
SUNFLOWER.
Although a native of tropical America, the sunflower (Helianthus
annuus L.) is grown for its oleaginous seed chiefly in Europe and Asia.
In Russia, Hungary, Italy, and India, sunflower oil is used both as a
human food and in the arts, and the cake is fed to farm animals. The
sunflower is cultivated in other countries chiefly for bird seed or as an
ornamental plant.
The obovoid achenes are more or less four-sided and flattened. Al-
though variable in size, they are seldom less than 10 mm. long. In
some varieties the pericarp is nearly black, in others, striped with black
and white.
HISTOLOGY.
The Pericarp (Fig. 154). is dry and brittle, and may be readily
separated from the seed.
1. The Epicarp Cells (Fig. 154, ep') are large, usually elongated,
with rather thick, porous walls. Stomata are absent. Dark-colored
contents are present throughout in black seeds, but only in some of the
cells of striped seeds. Characteristic of this fruit are the broad, thin-
walled hairs (h, h', c), usually in pairs, most of which are broken off in
cleaning the seed. As a rule, the members of each pair are united for
nearly their entire length. T. F. Hanausek has found that these hairs
are attached at their bases to a specially differentiated cell of the epi-
dermis, known as a "foot cell" (/), one hair being seated directly on
this foot cell, the other attached to its side.
196
OIL SEEDS.
2. Hypoderm (sep). Three or more layers of cells characterized
by their numerous minute pores form this coat. In cross section the
cells, like cork cells, are quadrilateral and arranged in radial rows.
3. Pigment Plates (hb). As is true of madia and niger fruits, the
pericarp of varieties of sunflower with dark or striped seeds, has a de-
posit of pitch-like substance between the hypoderm and the fiber bundles.
This material was at one time regarded as an intercellular deposit, but
has been shown by T. F. Hanausek to consist of a layer of cells (III, hb),
Fig. 154. Sunflower (Hettanthus annuus). I Cross section of outer layers of pericarp:
ep epicarp with c cuticle; sep hypoderm; hb pigment plates, b fiber bundles separated
by m parenchyma; II hairs: a attached to foot cell, b without foot cell, c seen from
side. Ill cross section of immature fruit showing hb cells which later form pigment
plates and b undeveloped fibers. (T. F. Hanausek.)
disorganized through what appears to be a humincation process. In
the early stages of growth the loosely arranged elongated cells bear numer-
ous minute protuberances on the outer and radial walls, which undergo
the process of disorganization before the cell proper. This observation
led him to surmise that the change was due to oxidation, the air spaces
formed by the protuberances facilitating the absorption of oxygen.
4. The Fiber Bundles (b) consist of several layers of longitudinally
arranged fibers. Proceeding from without inward, the cells increase
in size; the porous walls diminish in thickness. Not only are these
SUNFLOWER. 197
bundles larger than in madia and niger, but the elements are broader
and have much broader lumens (often 50 /i) . The bundles are separated
by radial rows of thin-walled cells (m) reminding one of medullary rays,
and each adjoins on its inner side a small vascular bundle.
5. Parenchyma. An exceedingly thin-walled, loose parenchyma com-
pletes the pericarp. In the ripe seed the cells are much compressed,
forming a white, papery tissue.
Spermoderm. A delicate membrane, consisting of spermoderm and
endosperm, closely envelops the seed.
1. The Outer Epidermal Layer as seen in surface view consists of
rounded cells (about 50/*), with rather thick, obscurely beaded walls.
2. Spongy Parenchyma, through which ramify the bundles of the
raphe and its branches, forms the middle layer.
3. An Inner Epidermis of more or less rectangular cells 8-20 n in
diameter, may be seen in section on heating with chloral, and in surface
view without treatment with reagents.
Endosperm. One, sometimes two, layers of typical aleurone cells
15-50 /j. in diameter are readily found, both in cross sections and in sur-
face mounts. Rectangular cells predominate, although triangular and
polygonal forms also occur.
The Embryo consists of two folded cotyledons and a short radicle.
The folded cotyledons have several rows of palisade cells adjoining the
inner epidermis — the upper epidermis after unfolding. These contain
irregularly spherical aleurone grains 3-12 (i in diameter, and fat globules.
Only small aleurone grains occur in the epidermal cells.
DIAGNOSIS.
As sunflower achenes are shelled before expressing the oil, the cake
contains only such fragments of the pericarp as escape separation. These
are readily identified by the twin-hairs (Fig. 154, II), the cork-like hypo-
derm with numerous fine pores, and the large fibers.
The spermoderm, endosperm, and embryo do not possess any char-
acteristic tissues.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin (8);
Hanausek, T. F. (17, 48); Harz (18); Moeller (29).
Hanatjsek, T. F. : Zur Entwicklungsgeschichte des Perikarps von Helianthus annuus.
Ber. deutsch. Bot. Ges. 1902, 20, 449.
Heineck: Beitrag zur Kenntniss des feineren Baues der Fruchtschalen der Composite^.
Inaug.-Diss. Giessen. 1890.
198
OIL SEEDS.
KoBtrs: Kraftfutter und seine Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 13, 813.
Kraus: Ueberden Bau der trockenen Perikarpien. Inaug.-Diss. Leipzig, 1866, 66.
Ppistee: Oelliefernde Kompositenfriichte. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1894, 43, 441.
MADIA SEED.
Common tarweed, known in Chili as "Madi" {Madia sativa Mol.),
is one of severa1 species of this genus natives of the Pacific coast of North
and South America. It is cultivated as an oil seed in parts of the Ameri-
can continent and more extensively in Germany.
The slender, ribbed achenes, 4-8 mm. long, 2 mm. wide at the apex
tapering to the base, are borne in heads 3-6 cm. in diameter. The
achenes are usually light in color, but sometimes are nearly black.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp (Fig. 155, F; Fig. 156). 1. Epicarp (ep). The cells
are longitudinally elongated, variable in size, with colorless, distinctly
beaded walls and a thickened cuticle.
Fig. 155. Madia (Madia saliva). Cross section of fruit. F pericarp consists of ep
epicarp, hy hypoderm, br pigment plates, / fiber bundles, m partitions, and p paren-
chyma; 5 spermoderm, with R raphe; E endosperm; C cotyledon containing al aleurone
grains. X 160. (Winton.)
2. Hypoderm (hy). Thin-walled more or less collapsed cells form
the second layer.
3. Pigment Plates (br). As in niger seed and some varieties of sun-
flower, the fiber bundles are covered with dark-colored plates of a ma-
terial insoluble in all the common reagents, including boiling alkali. In
surface view the markings, resembling those of a tortoise shell, which are
due to the variable thickness of the pigment material, and the rows of
MADIA SEED.
199
minute pores appearing as light spots in the dark field, make this layer
the most striking in the fruit.
4. Fiber Bundles (/). The fibers are 5-15 (i in diameter and often
are 1 mm. long, being smallest in the outer layers. Between the bundles
are groups of thin-walled, more or less longitudinally elongated cells,
forming wedge-shaped partitions (m).
5. Parenchyma (p). Several rows of partially collapsed parenchyma
cells form the inner layers of the pericarp.
The Spermoderm (Figs. 155 and 156, S) consists of one distinct layer
of parenchyma cells without any striking characters, and other less dis-
tinct layers near the raphe bundles.
Curiously shaped, pitted cells (Fig. 156, sc), some nearly isodiametric,
others greatly elongated, are present at the base of the seed, the longer
Fig. 156. Madia. Elements of fruit in surface view, ep epicarp; hy hypoderm; br
pigment plates; / fiber bundle; 5 spermoderm with R raphe bundle; sc pitted cells
at base of spermoderm; End endosperm. X160. (Winton.)
forms extending in bundles toward the apex. These bundles appear
to be distinct from the raphe and its ramifications.
The Endosperm (Figs. 155 and 156, E) is, represented by a single
layer of thick-walled, often quadrilateral, aleurone-cells.
Embryo. Beneath the outer epidermis of the folded cotyledons
(Fig. 155, C) are several layers of isodiametric cells, but adjoining the inner
epidermis are three to four layers of typical palisade cells. Aleurone
grains (2-6 p) and fat are the only visible contents.
200 OIL SEEDS.
DIAGNOSIS.
Madia fruit has much the same structure as sunflower and niger
fruits; but is distinguished from the former by having no hairs on the
epicarp (Fig. 156, ep), a single layer of hypodermal cells, and fibers
(/) with relatively small diameters; while it differs from niger seeds in
having the walls of the epicarp beaded, an inconspicuous hypoderm layer
(no rail-shape cells), and the walls of the spermoderm (S) straight and
non-porous.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23) ; Collin (8);
Hanausek, T. F. (17, 48); Harz (18).
Pfister: Oelliefernde Kompositenfriichte. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1894, 43, 441.
Winton: The Anatomy of Certain Oil Seeds with Especial Reference to the Microscopic
Examination of Cattle Foods. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1903, 175.
NIGER SEED.
The fruit of Guizolia Abyssinica (L) Cass. (G. oleijera D.C.), a
composite plant, is an important oil seed in Abyssinia, its native country,
and alsoin India. It has been introduced into Europe and America, but
has not been extensively cultivated as yet.
The black achenes are shaped like those of madia, but are much
smaller, seldom over 5 mm. long and 1 mm. broad at the apex.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp (Fig. 157, F; Fig. 158). 1. The Epicarp cells (ep) are dis-
tinguished from those of madia by their greater length and the absence
of pores.
2. Hypoderm (hy). Pfister has shown that the isolated, longitudi-
nally elongated cells of this layer are shaped like railway rails, resembling
Fig. 157. Niger Seed {Guizotia Abyssinica). Cross section of hull. F pericarp consists
of ep epicarp, hy hypoderm, br pigment plates, / fiber bundles, m partitions and p paren-
chyma; 5 spermoderm; E endosperm. X300. (Winton.)
in cross section the hour-glass cells of the legumes. The color of the
seed is largely due to the black pigment in this layer.
NIGER SEED.
201
3. The Pigment Plates (br) are similar to those of madia seed, but
the cross markings are nearer together and not so distinct.
4. The Fiber Bundles (/) are smaller than the similar bundles of
madia, and the individual fibers are narrower.
5. Parenchyma. The partitions between the fiber bundles (m), and
also the inner layers of the pericarp (p), consist of parenchyma cells which,
in the layers adjoining the spermoderm, are usually compressed.
Spermoderm. 1. Reticulated Cells (Figs 157 and 158, S). Charac-
teristic of this seed are the reticulated cells with wavy side walls, forming
the outer layer of the spermoderm.
2. Inner Layers. One or more layers of obliterated cells form the
inner spermoderm.
Endosperm (Fig. 157 and 158, E). As in madia, the endosperm
Fig. 158. Niger Seed. Pericarp, spermoderm and endosperm in surface view, ep epi-
carp; hy hypoderm; br pigment plates; / fiber bundle; S spermoderm; E endosperm.
X 300. (Winton.)
consists of a single layer of thick-walled aleurone cells, often of retangular
outline.
Embryo. The thin-walled cells of the embryo contain aleurone
grains and fat, and are not distinguishable from those of madia.
DIAGNOSIS.
Niger cake is utilized as a cattle food. The characteristic elements
are the rail-shaped cells of the hypoderm (Fig. 158, hy) with their dark
202 OIL SEEDS.
contents, and the outer layer of the spermoderm (5). These are
rendered distinct by treatment with alkali.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Madia, p. 200.
MISCELLANEOUS OIL SEEDS.
A number of oil seeds and fruits belonging to widely separated fam-
ilies are of even greater importance for oil production than cruciferous
seeds. Of those here described, linseed, cottonseed, castor bean, sesame
seed and poppy seed are true seeds, while hemp seed is a dry fruit, and
the olive is a fleshy fruit.
LINSEED.
The flax plant (Linum usitatissimum L. order Linacece) is valuable
not only for its fibers, but for its seed, which yields one of the most use-
ful of the vegetable oils, also a concentrated cattle food. Since the fiber
is in its best condition before the seeds reach maturity, it is not practicable
to secure a yield of both fiber and seed from the same crop.
Flax is grown for seed throughout the temperate zone, particularly in
India, Russia, Egypt, and the United States.
The yellowish pods (Fig. 159), 8 mm. in length, are slightly broader
than long, with live, pointed sepals and a slender pedicel. Each of the
five locules is incompletely halved by a false dis-
sepiment, making a 10-celled fruit which dehisces
at maturity into ten valves. Each cell contains a
single flattened, anatropous seed (4-6 mm. long)
with a slightly beaked base. To the naked eye
^mm^usitatulimiT De- the surface is smooth and lustrous, but under a
Wscing fruit wiA sepals lens appears slightly roughened. The Indian seed
is yellow, the ordinary varieties brown. The
straight embryo consists of two long, thick cotyledons and a short radicle,
the cotyledons being several times as thick as the inclosing endosperm
(Fig. 21).
LINSEED.
HISTOLOGY.
203
The Calyx consists of an outer and an inner Epidermis of elongated,
wavy -walled cells with simple stomata and a mesophyl of parenchyma cells.
Pedicel. Four tissues are present: (1) Epidermis of elongated rect-
angular cells; (2) Subepidermis of several parenchyma layers; (3) Bast
end
Fig. 160. Flax Fruit.^ Pericarp in cross section, epi epicarp; cr crystal cells; hyl pro-
jections of hypoderm; hy2 hypoderm; mes mesocarp; end endocarp. X160. (K.
B. Winton.)
Fibers with cross-striated joints like those of the linen fibers of com-
merce ; (4) Xylem of spiral and pitted vessels, wood fibers, and paren-
chyma.
Fig. 161. Flax Fruit. Elements of pericarp in surface view, epi, epicarp; cr crystal
cells; hyl projections of hypoderm; hy2. hypoderm; mes mesocarp; end endocarp.
X160. (K. B. Winton.)
Pericarp (Figs. 160 and 161). The Epicarp {epi) consists of partially
collapsed cells. In surface view they are elongated and often show
yellowish contents.
2. Crystal Cells {cr). These are arranged in indistinct rows forming
an interrupted layer. They are rounded and have light-brown walls
204
OIL SEEDS.
which are so thickened that the single monoclinic crystal of calcium
oxalate completely fills the cavity.
3. Hypoderm. The pitted cells are characterized by the numerous
projections of the outer walls (hy1) and the pitted side walls (hy2).
4. The Mesocarp consists of one to several layers of pitted cells (mes).
5. Endocarp. The cells of this layer, as well as of the papery dis-
sepiment (Fig. 162), into which it passes, are transparent, pitted, usually
elongated; and are arranged
in beautiful parquetry patterns.
These and the crystal cells are
highly characteristic.
Spennoderm (Fig. 163, S;
Fig. 164). Sections of the dry
seed may be cut after embedding
in parafhne. 1. Epidermis. If
water is gradually added to a
cross section mounted in alcoholr
the outer wall is seen to have a
stratified appearance due to a
mucilaginous substance which
nearly fills the cavity (Fig. 163,
ep) . It is this mucilaginous sub-
stance that gives the seed its
value in medicine. In surface
view (Fig. 164, ep1), the cells are
polygonal, with a finely granular cuticle. The layer is brittle and readily
breaks up into pieces through straight or irregular cracks.
2. Round Cells (Fig. 163, p; Fig. 164, r). One or two layers of
yellow cells with circular cavities and marked intercellular spaces form
the second layer. Their appearance in surface view is characteristic.
3. Fiber Layer (/). Strongly thickened, porous fibers longitudinally
arranged make up this layer. They vary up to 250 p in length and 10 //
in breadth. As may be seen in cross section, their radial diameters
are much greater than their breadth.
4. Cross Cells (tr). Several layers of exceedingly thin-walled, more
or less obliterated, colorless cells cross the fibers of the preceding layer
at right angles.
Layers 1 to 4 inclusive usually separate from the seed together, pre-
senting in surface view a highly characteristic appearance.
Fro. 162. Flax Fruit. Dissepiment in surface
view. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
LINSEED.
205
5. Pigment Layer (Fig. 163, g; Fig. 164, pig). Equally characteris-
tic are the square or polygonal cells of this layer, with finely porous walls
and deep yellow or brown contents. This material is insoluble in alcohol
or ether and is colored dark blue by ferric chloride. It often separates
from the cells in the form of rectangular plates.
Fig. 163. Linseed. Cross section of S spermoderm and E endosperm, ep outer epidermis;
p round cells; /fiber layer; tr cross cells; g pigment cells. (Moeller.)
The Endosperm (E) is usually from 2 to 6 cell layers thick, being thinnest
at the edges. The cells have thicker walls than those of the embryo
and contain fat and distorted aleurone grains, each grain with a globoid
in a sort of beak and an indistinct crystalloid in the body.
Embryo (Fig. 164, ep2 and mes) . The cells contain large, ovoid aleurone
grains up to 20 ji long, like those of the endosperm, also minute grains.
Tschirch and Oesterle recommend mounting in alcohol and running
a water solution of iodine under the cover, thus staining the crystalloid
yellow.
DIAGNOSIS.
Flax Bran consists largely of pericarp tissues. The papery endocarp
and dissepiment (Fig. 162) are characteristic.
Ground Linseed is used chiefly as a drug, but linseed cake from the
oil presses and the ground cake, known as linseed meal, are highly es-
teemed by cattle feeders.
2o6
OIL SEEDS.
The conspicuous elements are pieces of the yellow outer spermoderm,
consisting of round cells (Fig. 164, r), fibers (/), and cross cells (ir),
and also the nearly square, faintly beaded pigment cells (pig) with brown
contents. These tissues are highly characteristic and permit the detec-
ttnJvi
Fig. 164. Linseed. Elements in surface view, ep1 epidermis of spermoderm; r round
cells; / fiber layer; x middle lamellae of fiber layer; ir cross cells; pig pigment cells;
E endosperm with al aleurone grains; ep2 epidermis of cotyledon with sto immature
stoma; mes mesophyl. X300. (K. B. Winton.)
tion of small amounts of linseed products in mixtures. Starch should
not be present in appreciable amount.
Linseed Cake and the ground cake known as Linseed Meal are often
contaminated with cruciferous and other seeds.
The meal is itself used as an adulterant for black pepper and other
spices, and as an ingredient of many mixed cattle foods.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2) ; Berg (3) ; Bohmer (6, 10, 23);
Collin (8); Fluckiger (11); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16, 17, 48); Harz, (18); Mac6 (26);
Meyer, A. (28); Moeller (29 30, 31, 32); Schimper (37); Tschirchu. Oesterle (40);
Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45).
COTTON SEED.
207
Berghe: Tourteaux et Farines de Lin. Bruxelles, 1891.
Cramer: Ueber das Vorkommen und die Entstehung einiger Pflanzenschleime. Pflan-
zenphysiologische Untersuchungen von C. Nagali u. C. Cramer, Zurich, 1855.
Goderin: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc.
d. Sci. d. Nancy, 1880, 109.
Haselhoff u. van Pesch. Ueber Leinsamenkuchen und Mehl. Landw. Vers.-Stat.
1892, 41, SS
Kobtts: Kraftfutter und seiner Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 13, 813.
Koran: Der Austritt des Schleimes aus dem Leinsamen. Pharm. Post, 1899, 32.
Sempolowski : Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. Landw.
Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823.
Winton, K. B.: Histology of Flax Fruit. Bot. Gaz., 1914, 58, 445.
COTTON SEED.
The varieties of upland or short-staple cotton commonly cultivated
for fiber are classed under Gossypium herbaceum L. (order Malvacece),
I II
Fig. 16?. Cotton Seed {Gossypium herbaceum). I transverse section. II longitudinal
section. S spermoderm; NE perisperm and endosperm; C cotyledons; R radicle.
X4. (Winton.)
although quite probably some of these varieties have been obtained by
crossing with other species. Other species of economic importance are Sea
Island or long-staple cotton (G. barbadense L.), and tree cotton (G. ar-
bor eum L.).
The culture of cotton has extended from India, its native country,
to northern Africa, the southern states of the United States, Brazil, and
other warm regions.
Within the bolls are borne numerous seeds in a mass of fibers, the
208 OIL SEEDS.
latter being but epidermal cells of the spermoderm prolonged as hairs
(Fig. 165). After ginning, the seeds of upland cotton are still enveloped
by a close ground fiber, often gray or green in color, which cannot be
easily removed. Sea Island cotton seed is nearly free from ground fiber.
Freed from the fiber, the pointed, egg-shaped, black or dark-brown seed
is 6-12 mm. long. The chalaza is a little to one side of the broad upper
end, the hilum and micropyle at the pointed lower end, the raphe con-
necting them being evident as a ridge on the surface. A shell-like spermo-
derm and a thin skin consisting of perisperm and endosperm inclose the
bulky embryo, the latter having cotyledons which in cross section are
dotted with minute dark-brown resin cavities.
HISTOLOGY.
The Spermoderm (Fig. 166, 5; Fig. 167) is 300 ji thick, separating
readily from the seed. The inner surface is brown with a whitish opales-
cence.
1. Epidermis (ep). Over the raphe the epidermis is 30-40 fi thick,
but in other parts it seldom exceeds 25 /1. The cells are conspicuous
because of the thick (5-12 ,u), stratified, yellow walls and the dark-brown
contents. In surface view, the cells are irregular in shape and van- in
size from less than 10 to over 60 ft. About the hairs they form rosettes.
The hairs of cotton are twisted, thus distinguishing them from all other
textile fibers. Stomata with thin, colorless-walled guard cells occur
either singly or in pairs.
2. Outer Brown Coat (br). The hypodermal coat consists of thin-
walled, often compressed cells, with indistinct contour and brown contents.
Over most of the surface, this coat is but 20-40 /n thick, and consists of
only two or three cell layers, but about the raphe it is several times
thicker.
3. Colorless Cells (w). The next layer consists of small (10-30 ,u),
colorless cells, with sharply defined walls 2-3 u thick. Cells divided by
tangential partitions occur not infrequently. Hanausek states that these
cells contain occasional oxalate crystals or granular masses; most of
them, however, are empty.
4. Palisade Cells (pal). Over one-half of the thickness of the
spermoderm is due to the thickened palisade cells. These remark-
able and exceedingly characteristic cells are 8-20 p. wide, and about
150 fi long, each consisting of an outer portion of about one-third the
length of the cell with nearly colorless walls, and an inner portion
COTTON SEED.
209
with yellowish- brown walls. The lumen in the outer portion of each
cell is narrow except for a globular enlargement at the inner end, 4-6 //
in diameter, containing a dark-colored material. Seen in tangential sec-
tion, this cavity has radiating branches. An indistinct light line adjoins
aep—
Fig. 166. Cotton Seed. Cross section. 5 spermoderm consists of ep epidermis with
' h hair br outer brown coat with R raphe, w colorless cells, pal palisade cells, and
a b and c la vers of inner brown coat; N perisperm; E endosperm; C cotyledon with
aep outer epidermis and iep inner epidermis; s resin cavity surrounded by 2 mucilage
cells- al aleurone grains; k crystal cells; g procambium bundles. X160. (Winton.)
the outer wall. No lumen at all appears in the inner portion of these
cells in cross section, but in tangential section faint radiating lines are
evident, due, according to von Bretfeld, to lamella arranged about the
axis of the cell. Individual cells isolated by macerating with Schulze's
solution and treated with chromic acid show clearly this differentiation.
210 OIL SEEDS.
The same author found that the outer portion has all the chemical and
optical properties of pure cellulose, the inner portion, those of lignified
cellulose. Cross sections viewed with polarized light exhibit with a dark
field a beautiful play of color in the outer, a clear white light in the inner
portion.
5. The Inner Brown Coat. In the outer layer of this coat (a), the1
cells are polygonal, and well denned both in cross section and surface
view. Proceeding inward, the tissue takes on the characters of a typical
spongy parenchyma, the cells in th« innermost layers being much com-
FlG. 167. Cotton Seed. Surface view of outer layers, ep epidermis of spermoderm
with hl hair and sto1 stoma; br outer brown cells; w colorless cells; pal1 and pal2 pali-
sade cells (see Fig. 166); a, b, c layers of inner brown coat of spermoderm; .V perisperm;
E endosperm; aep outer epidermis of cotyledon with h? multicellular hair and sto1
stoma. X160. (Winton.)
pressed (b and c). Brown coloring matter like that in the second layer
of the spermoderm is usually present only in the cells of the outer layers.
Owing to the absence of cell-contents in the inner obliterated cells, the
inner surface of the spermoderm is more or less opalescent.
Perisperm (Figs. 166 and 167, N). An exceedingly thin skin con-
sisting of a single cell layer of perisperm and another of endosperm
covers the embryo. The colorless perisperm cells are characterized by
the fringe-like walls made up of threads perpendicular to the surface.
Hanausek's name, "fringe cells," is very appropriate.
Endosperm (Figs. 166 and 167, E). A single layer of moderately
COTTON SEED. 211
thick-walled cells containing small aleurone grains constitutes the endo-
sperm.
Embryo. After soaking for a day in water, the complicated folds
of the cotyledons (Fig. 166, C) may be straightened out and their broad
kidney shape noted.
By scraping the cotyledons the epidermis (Figs. 166 and 167, aep) may
be removed for examination. As was first noted by Hanausek, three
kinds of cells are present: first, thin-walled polygonal cells; second,
pairs of cells with curved walls, the guard cells of immature stomata (sto2);
and third, small cells continued beyond the surface in the form of oval
hairs divided into several cells by cross partitions (h2). The hairs are
most abundant at the point of insertion on the axis.
Sections of the cotyledons and radicle may be cut dry without remov-
ing the spermoderm, although better sections are obtained after remov-
ing the spermoderm and embedding directly in paraffine.
In the outer portion of the mesophyl, the cells are isodiametric,
in the inner layers, of typical palisade form. Procambium bundles (g)
run longitudinally or obliquely through the mesophyl.
Crystal clusters (k) occur in cells scattered here and there, but in
most of the mesophyl cells aleurone grains and fat are the only visible
contents. The aleurone grains (al) are 2-5 p. in diameter and are more
or less angular or irregular in shape. Alkali dissolves the aleurone
grains and other contents and imparts a deep-yellow color to the tissues.
The so-called resin cavities of the cotyledons (s), containing a dark-
colored secretion, appear to the naked eye as brown dots in the nearly
colorless ground tissue. Around these cavities two or more indistinct
rows of exceedingly thin, elongated cells (the mucilage cells of Hanausek)
are arranged in concentric layers.
We are indebted to Hanausek for the following observations: Ex-
amined in water, the secretion is olive-green, flowing out of the cavities
in the form of a yellow-green emulsion, the particles of which are in
lively motion. Strong sulphuric acid dissolves the secretion to a beau-
tiful blood-red solution. Alkalies color it green-brown, but do not dis-
solve it.
DIAGNOSIS.
Undecorticaled Cottonseed Cake. It is customary in India, Egypt, and
in most cotton-growing countries, except the United States, to express
the oil without previous removal of the hulls. The cake obtained as a
by-product in this process, although containing more fiber and less pro-
212 OIL SEEDS.
tein than the decorticated cake, is preferred by the English feeders, be-
cause of the mechanical action of the hulls.
Samples should be mounted in water and examined first directly
to detect possible starchy adulterants, and again after addition of alkali,
noting the fragments of spermoderm and the yellow color of the dis-
organized lumps. The coats of the spermoderm are best studied in
fat- and protein-free material obtained by the crude-fiber process or
by Hebebrand's method (p. 172).
Especially characteristic are the thick- walled epidermal cells (Figs. 166
and 167, ep) with hairs and the palisade cells (pal), although the other
layers aid in identification. The fringe cells (N) of the perisperm are char-
acteristic, but not so conspicuous as are the layers of the spermoderm.
The cake or meal from common cotton contains more fiber (often
attached to fragments of hull) and less abundant brown pigment in both
the outer brown layer and the inner, than products of the varieties of
G. Barbadense (Sea Island Cotton, Egyptian Cotton, etc.). Voelcker
places considerable dependence on the more or less pronounced opales-
cent appearance of the inner surface of the hulls of Bombay seed as dis-
tinguished from the deep-brown inner surface of the hulls from Egyptian
seed, a distinction which also holds good in most cases between upland
and Sea Island seed as grown in the United States. This observation,
first brought to notice by Richardson of Lincoln, England, depends on
the degree of obliteration of the innermost cells of the spermoderm.
Decorticated Cotton-seed Cake. In the United States, upland cotton
seed is hulled before expressing the oil, the cake and the rich yellow meal
obtained by grinding the cake consisting of material from the cotyledon
with only a small amount of spermoderm. This meal is often grossly
adulterated with ground cotton hulls, and occasionally with rice refuse.
Finely ground hulls, owing partly to the fine state of division of the dark-
colored m atter, and partly to the exposure of the nearly colorless palisade
cells, is not so dark as the coarsely ground hulls and more readily escapes
detection in the meal.
Determinations of nitrogen and fiber, coupled with microscopic ex-
amination of the original material and of the crude fiber, serve for the de-
tection of this form of adulteration.
Cotton Hulls formerly were burned as a fuel under" the boilers of
the oil mills, and the ash, rich in potash, utilized as a tobacco fertilizer.
They are now used for feeding cattle or as an adulterant of cotton-seed
meal, as noted above.
KAPOK SEED. 213
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin (8);
Hanausek, T. F. (17, 48).
V. Bretfeld: Anatomie des Baumwolle- und Kapoksames. Jour. f. Landw. 1887,
35, 29.
Hanausek, T. F.: Zur mikroskopischen Charakteristik der Baumwollsamen-Producte.
Ztsch. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1888, 26, 569, 591.
Kobtjs: Kraftfutter und seiner Verfalschung, Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 13, 813.
Voelcker: Methods of Discriminating between Egyptian and Bombay Cotton Seed
Cakes. Analyst. 1903, 28, 261.
Winton: The Microscopic Examination of American Cotton Seed Cake. Analyst.
1904, 29, 44. The Anatomy of Certain Oil Seeds with Especial Reference to the
Microscopic Examination of Cattle Foods. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1903, 175.
KAPOK SEED.
Several tropical trees belonging to the order Bombacece have capsules
filled with a dense mat of woolly hairs which spring from the endocarp,
not as in the case of the cotton, a member of a closely related family,
from the spermoderm. These hairs are too brittle to be of value as
textile fibers, but are used for upholstery. Of these "silk-cotton trees"
Java kapok (Ceibo pentandra (L.) Gartn., Eriodendron anfractuosum DC),
and East Indian kapok (Bombax Ceiba L.) are of importance, not only
for the fibers, but also for the oily seeds, which resemble cotton seeds
in structure. In the Celebes the seeds are eaten by the natives, and in
various countries are used for making oil. Two German authors, Reinders
and Kobus, state that the cake is an adulterant of linseed cake.
The campylotropous seed is about the size of a pea and has a swollen
funiculus which covers the chalaza. The cotyledons are folded simi-
larly to those of the cottonseed, but do not have resin cavities.
HISTOLOGY.
The following comparison of the structure of cotton and Java kapok
seeds is given by v. Bretfeld :
Cotton Seed. Kapok Seed.
Spermoderm.
1. Epidermis: . sclerenchymatized with thin-walled with gland-like
hairs; cavities.
2. Outer Brown Coat: with nbro-vascular bundles; without fibro-vascular bun-
dles.
214
OIL SEEDS.
Spermoderm:
3. Colorless Cells:
4. Palisade Cells:
5. Inner Brown Coat:
Perisperm:
Cotyledons:
Cotton Seed.
1-2 cell layers;
Kapok Seed.
3-4 cell layers with crystal
clusters.
\ longer; $ shorter,
more star cells; fewer star cells,
cells smaller, walls more cells larger, walls less knotty.
knotty;
green tissue with resin colorless tissue without resin
cavities; cavities.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Bketfeld : Anatomie des Baumwolle- und Kapoksamens. Jour. Landw. 1887, 35, 29.
Kobus: Kraftfutter und seiner Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 3, 813.
Van Pesch: Kapok-Kuchen. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1896, 47, 471.
HEHP-SEED.
Hemp {Cannabis saliva L. order Cannabinea) is grown as a fiber
plant throughout Europe, especially in Russia, also in Africa, India,
China, Brazil, the United States and other regions.
When the production of fiber alone is considered, the plant is cut
shortly after blooming; but in Russia it is allowed to grow until the fruit
reaches maturity, thus securing a yield of seed as well as fiber. Indian
hemp (Cannabis saliva var. Indica) is grown exclusively as a medicinal herb.
The dicecious plant yields an oval, somewhat flattened, two-ribbed
fruit, consisting of a brown pericarp delicately marked with white veins
(Fig. 168, II and III, F), a spermoderm (5) of a green color, a thin endo-
sperm, and a bulky embryo with thick cotyledons (C) and a radicle (R)
bent parallel to the cotyledons. The "seeds" on the market consist,
for the most part, of naked fruit, with an occasional fruit inclosed within
the hooded calyx (Fig. 168, I).
HISTOLOGY.
Calyx (Fig. 169). 1. Outer Epidermis (aep). From among the
polygonal cells of the epidermis arise two very characteristic and striking
elements: first, the glands, either sessile or stalked (d); and second,
the cystolith hairs (h). The glands are globular with eight or more
cells on the under side radiating, usually, from two central cells, the
secretion cavity being formed by the separation of the outer cuticle
from these cells. These glands are usually borne on many-celled stalks,
often 300 ft long. The cystolith hairs are characterized by their irregu-
HEMP-SEED.
«S
larly globular bases, often 75 p in diameter, in which is suspended a
cystolith of calcium carbonate (cy). They taper either abruptly or gradu-
III
FlG. 168. Hemp (Cannabis sativa). I calyx. II outer surface of fruit. Ill longitudinal
section of fruit. F pericarp; 5 spermoderm; E endosperm; C cotyledon; R radicle.
X4. (WlNTON.)
ally from this base to the pointed apex, in the latter case often reaching
a length of 500 p. and sometimes 1 mm. The walls, although but one-
half to one-sixth as thick as the lumen, are often 8 fi thick.
2. Mesophyl (mes). Several layers of. small cells, through which
run numerous bundles, make up the mesophyl. In the inner layer the
aep
Fig. 169. Hemp. Calyx in surface view, aep outer epidermis with h hair containing
cy cystolith, and d glandular hair; mes mesophyl containing crystals; iep inner epi-
dermis. Xl6o. (WlNTON.)
■cells are about 10 fi in diameter and contain crystal clusters of calcium
oxalate.
2l6
OIL SEEDS.
3. The Inner Epidermis (iep). Cells with wavy outline, thin-walled
hairs, and stomata form the inner layer.
Pericarp (Figs. 170 and 171). 1. Epicarp (ep). This layer consists
of more or less sclerenchymatized cells with wavy outline. The radial
walls are, in some parts, moderately thickened, in others so thick that
there is but a narrow lumen. All the walls are porous.
2. Spongy Parenchyma (hy). One or more layers of colorless cells,
usually with numerous circular intercellular spaces, form a hypodermal
Fig. 170. Hemp Seed. Cross section of fruit. F pericarp consists of ep epicarp, hy
hypoderm, br brown cells, w dwarf cells, and pal palisade cells; 5 spermoderm consists
of sch tube cells and J spongy parenchyma; N perisperm; E endosperm; C cotyledon
with aep outer epidermis, and iep inner epidermis; al aleurone grains. X160.
(Winton.)
coat. Through this layer run the numerous anastomosing bundles,
which, seen through the epicarp, are evident to the naked eye as veins.
This layer is thickest in the two keels of the fruit.
3. Brown Cells (br). Owing to their greater thickness and the presence
of brown contents, these cells are more readily distinguished in cross
section than those of the preceding layer. In preparations obtained by
heating the fruit in alkali and scraping, they are conspicuous. Focusing
on the outer wall, the radial walls are straight or moderately sinuous;
but further inward they are zigzag with projections — often branching —
extending into the cell cavity and forming in each cell what appear to be
several indistinct compartments. The cell-contents, after this treatment,
form irregular lumps shrunken away from the walls.
HEMP-SEED.
217
4. Dwarf Cells (w). Owing to its thinness, this layer can be seen in
cross section only in carefully cut specimens; but in tangential sections
' ' ' Tgi
mSKm
:
Ifef*
']':-■:
sp
FlG. 171. Hemp. Pericarp in surface view seen from without, ep epicarp; hy hypoderm
with s/> spiral vessels; br brown cells; iv colorless cells; pal1 palisade cells (see Fig. 170).
X 160. (Winton.)
or preparations obtained by the treatment above described, the minute,
colorless, porous cells (seldom over 12 ji) with wavy, radial walls are
readily distinguished.
5. Palisade Layer {pal). This layer, owing to its thickness (often
100 //), the peculiarly thickened porous walls, and the wavy outlines of
Fig. 172. Hemp. Palisade cells, spermoderm, perisperm, and endosperm seen from
within. paP palisade cells (see Fig. 170); sch tube cells and 5 spongy parenchyma
of spermoderm; N perisperm; E endosperm. X160. (Winton.)
the radial walls as seen both in cross and tangential sections, is the most
conspicuous and characteristic of all the layers of the fruit. So strongly
sclerenchymatized are the outer and, except at the inner end, the radial
walls, that the lumen is reduced to a narrow line for fully two-thirds of
218 OIL SEEDS.
the outer portion of the cell (pal x); at the inner wall, however, the radial
walls abruptly narrow, leaving a wide lumen (Fig. 172, pal2). The
inner wall is porous and moderately thickened.
Spermoderm (Figs. 170 and 172, S). The cells contain green granules,
which are insoluble in alcohol, ether, and alkali.
1. Tube Cells (sch). The outer layer is quite distinct from the inner
layer, owing to the elongated form of the cells and the elongated rows of
intercellular spaces.
2. Inner Layer (s). Further inward the cells form an indistinct
spongy parenchyma with star-shaped or irregular cell outlines.
Perisperm (Figs. 170 and 172, N). If the fruit is soaked for a day
or two in 1 J per cent soda solution, the perisperm with adhering endosperm
readily separates from the spermoderm on the one hand and the embryo
on the other. In cross section it is indistinctly seen.
The Endosperm (Figs. 170 and 172, E) forms a coat, mostly one cell-
layer thick, about the whole embryo, and also extends in the form of a
partition several layers thick between the cotyledons and the radicle.
These cells, containing small protein grains, resemble the aleurone cells
of the cereals.
Embryo (Fig. 170, C). Both epidermal layers of the cotyledons are
composed of small cells with aleurone grains 2-3 \i in diameter. Beneath
the outer epidermis are several layers of isodiametric cells, while adjoin-
ing the inner epidermis are two layers of typical palisade cells. Both
forms of cells contain, in addition to fat, aleurone grains up to 8 ft.
Each grain consists of an irregularly-spherical or elliptical body con-
taining a crystalloid with a globoid excrescence.
DIAGNOSIS.
The seeds serve primarily for the production of oil ; but the cake from
the oil presses is utilized in various parts of Europe as a cattle food, a fer-
tilizer, and possibly as an adulterant.
The characteristic elements are the epicarp (Fig. 171, ep), the spongy
parenchyma (hy) with anastomosing bundles, the dwarf cells (w), the
palisade cells (pal), and the tube cells (Fig, 172, sch) of the sper-
moderm with green contents insoluble in alcohol, ether and alkali.
Extraction with ether, and treatment by Hebebrand's method (p. 172)
may be used to prepare material for examination. If sufficiently large
fragments of the shell are obtainable, the palisade cells are best identified
SESAME SEED. 219
in cross section, and the dwarf cells in tangential section. The aleurone
grains, if still intact, may be seen in turpentine mounts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin (8);
Hanausek, T. F. (17); Harz (18); Tschirch (39); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40).
Macchiati: Sessualita, anatomia del frutto e germinatione del seme della canapa.
Bull. d. Statione agraria di Modena, 1889, Nov. Ser. 9.
Tschirch: Ueber den anatomischen Bau und die Entwickelungsgeschichte der Secret-
driisen des Hanfes. Naturforscherversammlung, 1886- Ber. in Pharm. Ztg,
1886, 31, 577.
Winton: Anatomie des Hanfsamens. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1904, 7, 385.
The Anatomy of Certain Oil Seeds with Especial Reference to the Microscopic
Examination of Cattle Foods. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1903, 175.
SESAflE SEED.
Common sesame {Sesamum Indicum L., order Gesneracem) is one of
the most valuable cultivated plants in India, China, Asia Minor, Palestine,
Arabia, and other parts of the Orient, the
seeds serving for the production of oil
and cake, also for direct consumption as
human food. The plant is also to some
extent cultivated in Egypt, parts of East
Africa, and in the warmer parts of North
and South America. j jj
The flattened pear-shaped seeds (Fig. fig. 173. Sesame Seed {Sesamum
17 V) are 2-3 mm. long and vary in color indicum). / outer surface of seed.
' J/ _ ^ ° J II transverse section, o spermo-
from white to brown. Passing longitU- derm with I ridges and R raphe;
j. n .i 1 ,i . j: r .r E endosperm; C cotyledon. X8.
dinally through the center of one of the (Winton )
flattened sides, is the raphe (R), and run-
ning around the edge of each of the flattened surfaces is an indistinct ridge
conforming to the shape of the seed (/). The endosperm (£) is about
half as thick as the cotyledon (C).
HISTOLOGY.
Spennoderm (Fig. 174, S; Fig. 175). 1. Epidermis (ep). The cells
throughout are radially elongated with convex outer walls. Owing to
the thinness of the radial walls, they are usually collapsed, but assume
their normal form on heating cross sections with dilute alkali. The cells
forming the ridges are empty and, as was first noted by Benecke, are
OIL SEEDS.
arranged like the vanes of a feather. In other parts the cells are parallel
and each contains in the extreme outer end, adjoining the thin outer wall,
E S
Fig. 174. Sesame. Cross section of seed. 5 spermoderm consists of ep epidermal cells
with Ca crystal masses, / epidermal cells of ridges, p parenchyma and m yellow mem-
brane ; E endosperm ; C cotyledon containing al aleurone grains. X 1 60. (WiNTON.)
an irregularly spherical mass consisting of calcium oxalate crystals (Ca),
apparently within a thin membrane. These masses are 1 2-40 ft in diam-
eter. In surface view, as may be clearly seen by examination of the skin
which separates after boiling the seed in water, the crystal cells are iso-
diametric -polygonal (ep), the cells of the ridges slightly elongated (/).
Fig. 175. Sesame. Spermoderm and endosperm in surface view, ep epidermis with Ca
crystal masses; I epidermal cells of ridges; E endosperm. X160. (Winton.)
By boiling with alkali on the slide, some of the epidermal cells may be
isolated and, after staining with chlorzinc iodine, viewed in a horizontal
SESAME SEED. 221
position. Sometimes the crystal masses are disintegrated, the separate
crystals presenting the appearance shown in Fig. 175.
2. Parenchyma (Nutritive Layer) (p). One, sometimes more, layers
of collapsed cells, form what in the earlier stages of growth was a nutritive
layer. Only after heating with alkali is the cellular structure at all
evident in cross section and then but indistinctly. After removing the
epidermis as above described and treating the seed with safranin or chlor-
zinc iodine, colored fragments may be removed from the surface of the
seed, which often show longitudinally elongated cells. Hanausek has
noted that the cells contain loose crystals of calcium oxalate.
3. Yellow Membrane (Fig. 174, m). Lining the inner surface of the
spermoderm is a membrane, probably the cuticle of an obliterated inner
epidermis.
Endosperm (Figs. 174 and 175, E). The outer wall of the endosperm
is strongly thickened. At the ends of the elliptical cross sections there
are but two cell layers, but on the sides there are three to five layers.
The cells contain aleurone grains (2-6 fi), and fat.
Embryo (Fig. 174, C). The cells of the cotyledons, except in the
single layer of palisade cells, are isodiametric and like those of the endo-
sperm, contain aleurone grains (up to 10 fi) and fat, but no starch. Hanau-
sek states that each grain contains either a crystalloid or, at one of the
poles, a globoid.
DIAGNOSIS.
Not only is sesame oil one of the most valuable of the vegetable oils,
but the seed itself is an ingredient of various articles of diet throughout
the warmer countries of the East, and the cake obtained as a by-product
in the manufacture of the oil serves as food for both man and beast.
Sesame cake has been imported into Europe in large amount, where it
is highly esteemed by cattle feeders.
Samples of sesame cake may be prepared for examination by Benecke's
or Hebebrand's method or by simply boiling with ij per cent alkali.
Previous extraction with ether is desirable.
Characteristic of common sesame are radially elongated, thin-walled
epidermal cells (Fig. 175, ep), each with a crystal mass (Ca) in the outer
end. In black sesame (S. radiatum S. et T.) the masses are in the inner
end of the cell, where the cell-wall is strongly thickened.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin (8);
Hanausek, T, F. (17, 48); Harz (18).
222 OIL SEEDS.
Benecke: Die verschiedenen Sesamarten und Sesamkuchen des Handels. Pharm.
Centralh. 1887, 545.
Hebebrand: Ueber den Sesam. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1898, 51, 45.
Kobus: Kraftfutter und seiner Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 13, 813.
Winton: The Anatomy of Certain Oil Seeds with Especial Reference to the Micro-
scopic Examination of Cattle Foods. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1903, 175.
CASTOR BEAN.
The castor-bean plant (Ricinus communis L., order Euphorbiacece) is
grown for its oily seeds, from which is obtained the castor-oil of commerce.
Castor pomace, although not suited for use as a cattle food because of
the highly poisonous ingredient "ricine," is a valuable fertilizer. As this
material has repeatedly been consumed by animals with fatal results,
its microscopic detection is sometimes desirable.
The seeds are obovoid, slightly flattened, with markings like those of
a tortoise shell. On one of the flattened sides the raphe is clearly evident,
and at the base a prominent caruncle. The
~ei spermoderm is hard and exceedingly brittle; the
endosperm is bulky; the cotyledons of the axial
embryo are broad but thin.
HISTOLOGY.
The Spsrmoderm (Fig. 176) consists of five
distinct layers of which four are readily removed
as a brittle shell. As noted by Collin, the three
outer layers may be separated from the fourth by
boiling with dilute alkali. The innermost layer
remains attached to the seed after shelling.
1. The Epidermis (Fig. 176, ep; Fig. 177) is
section of outer portion characterized by the sharply polygonal, finely pitted
dermis; s spongy paren- cells, some of which are colorless, others of a brown
Ca£Tade cells ^p^trm color' hence the mottled appearance of the seed.
chymatized palisade cells. 2. Spongy Parenchyma (s) forms a layer several
(MoELLER.) ceUs th.ck_
3. Thin-walled Palisade Cells (p) with dark contents are the elements
of the third layer. In surface view the cells are polygonal or rounded,
12-20 /x in diameter, and often have intercellular spaces at the angles.
4. Sclerenchymatized Palisade Cells (P) constitute a layer 200 [i thick.
The cell-walls are of a brown color and show distinct pores. At the
Fig. i 76. Castor Bean {Ri-
cinus communis). Cross
CASTOR BEAN. 223
outer ends the cell cavities are somewhat broader than at other parts-
Seen in surface view, the cells are polygonal, 8-15 /* in diameter.
5. Inner Layer. After removing the foregoing layers, the seed, on
close examination, is seen to be enveloped by a thin white skin— the inner
layer of the spermoderm. This consists of a colorless, thin-walled, more
or less compressed parenchyma, several cells thick, and numerous fibro-
Fig. 177. Castor Bean. Outer Fig. 178. Castor Bean. Aleurone grains of
epidermis in surface view. endosperm. A in oil; B in iodine solution.
(MOELLEE.) (MOELLER.)
vascular bundles. Crystal clusters and radiating groups of feather-like
crystals are readily found in surface mounts.
Endosperm (Fig. 178). By far the greater part of the reserve material
of the seed, consisting largely of aleurone grains and fat, is in the endo-
sperm. The aleurone grains are round, ellipsoidal, or egg-shaped, and
frequently reach a diameter of 20 /j.. Each contains a large crystalloid
and an excentrically located globoid. Rarely two or more globoids are
present.
DIAGNOSIS.
Highly characteristic of this seed are the sharply polygonal, pitted
epidermal cells (Fig. 177) of the spermoderm, some with, others without,
brown contents, and the brown, sclerenchymatized palisade cells (Fig.
176, P). The other layers of the spermoderm are also of some diag-
nostic value. Numerous large aleurone grains (Fig. 178), each with a
large crystalloid and a smaller globoid, are seen in turpentine or glycerine
mounts.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin (8); Hanausek,
T. F. (48); Planchon et Collin (34); Tichomirow (38).
Collin: Tourteau de ricin; ses dangers, ses caracteres anatomiques. Jour, pharm.
chim. 1903.
Gram: Om Frosskallens Bygning hos Euphorbiaceerne. On the structure of the
spermoderm of euphorbiaceous seeds. Eot. Tidskrift. 1896. 20, 358.
224 OIL SEEDS.
Geis: Note sur le developpemenl de la graine du Ricin. Ann. Soc. nat. Eot. 1861, 15^
5; 1862, 17, 312; 186-;, Se>. V. 2, 5.
Kayser: Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte der Samendecken bei den Euphorbiaceen
mit besonderer Eeriicksichtigung von Ricinus communis L. Ber. Pharm. Ges.
1892, 2, 45-
Pammel: On the Seed Coats of the Genus Euphorbia. Contributions from Shaw
School of Bot. 1891, No. 8, 543.
Schlotterbeck: Beitrage zur Entwicklungsgeschichte pharmakognostisch wichtiger
Samen. Inaug.-Diss. Bern, 1896.
CANDLENUT.
The seeds of the candlenut tree (Aleurites triloba Forst., A. Moluc-
cana (L.) Willd., order Euphorbiacece) yield a valuable oil used as food
and in the arts. The tree is a native of the Moluccas and the southern
islands of Polynesia, but is cultivated in tropical and subtropical regions
of both the Old and the New World, including Florida and California.
The fruit is nearly globular, 5-6 cm. in diameter, and has two locules,
each containing a single dark-brown, chestnut-shaped seed about 30
mm. in diameter, consisting of a hard spermoderm 2-5 mm. thick, a
bulky endosperm, and in the axis of the endosperm a thin embryo
with broadly heart-shaped, leaf-like cotyledons and a short radicle.
HISTOLOGY.
Wichmann made a thorough microscopic study of candlenut seeds
on the market in 1880, and found the structure in most details analogous
to that of the castor-bean. His material, however, lacked tissues cor-
responding to the epidermis and subepidermal layer of the castor-bean,
and his observations as well as my own further indicate that such tissues
may have been present in the original seed but were removed before
reaching the market.
Spermoderm (Fig. 179). 1. Thin-walled Palisade Cells (p). Al-
though probably not the epidermis, this is the outermost layer of the
commercial seed. The prismatic, thin-walled cells are colorless and
filled with a granular mass of calcium carbonate.
2. Sclerenchymalized Palisade Cells (P). These cells correspond in
structure with the brown palisade cells of the castor-bean, but are
characterized by their much greater height, which varies from 1.5 to
over 2.5 mm. Both the porous walls and the cell-contents are of a
brown color.
CANDLENUT. POPPY-SEED.
225
3. Parenchyma (s). This layer is characterized by the narrow, greatly
elongated pores of the cell-walls and the cystolith-like masses of calcium
oxalate contained in the cells. The cells increase
in size from without inward and have intercellular
spaces at the corners.
4. Compressed Cells form the inner layers.
The Endosperm contains, in addition to oil,
aleurone grains from 8-24 p. in diameter, similar to
those of the castor-bean. A crystalloid is always
present in each grain, also one to two globoids.
Calcium oxalate occurs in crystal clusters in the
cells but not in the aleurone grains.
Embryo. The cells are smaller than those of
the endosperm, but like the latter contain oil and
aleurone grains.
DIAGNOSIS.
The cake is distinguished from castor-pomace
by the greater height of both layers of palisade
cells (Fig. 179). The colorless outer layer contains
granules of calcium carbonate; the inner brown
cells have amorphous contents. These latter often
reach 2.5 mm. in length. The narrow, elongated
pores in the parenchyma of the third layer are fig. 179. Candlenut
more or less evident. Aleurone grains similar to (Aleurites triloba).
Spermoderm in cross
those of the castor-bean form a large part of the section, p thin-
t ■ 1 walled palisade cells;
material. p brown sclerenchy.
POPPY-SEED. matized palisade cells;
J spongy parenchyma.
The poppy plant (Papaver somniferum L. order (moellee.)
Papaveracea), a native of the Orient, is now
cultivated in various parts of the Old and New
World.
Two distinct varieties are recognized, the
white, and the black or blue. The white
poppy is grown chiefly for the production of
opium, the black for the seed, from which is
expressed poppy oil.
The anatropous seeds (Fig. 180), are very small, seldom over 1 mm.
long, and kidney-shaped, one end being slightly broader than the other.
I Q
Fig. 180. Poppy {Papaver
somniferum) . /seed. 77 em-
bryo. X16. (Winton.)
226
OIL SEEDS.
The hilum and chalaza are in a notch, connected by a short raphe, the
chalaza being nearer the broad end of the seed. Under the lens the
FlG. 181. Poppy Seed in cross section. 5 spermoderm consists of ep epidermis, k crystal
layer, / fiber layer, q cross cells and n netted cells; E endosperm, contains al aleurone-
grains. X160. (Winton.)
surface is beautifully reticulated. The straight embryo is embedded in
the bulky endosperm.
HISTOLOGY.
Spermoderm (Fig. 181, S; Fig. 182). Cross sections are prepared
after soaking the seed in water and may be cleared with chloral or alkali.
After soaking the whole seed for about 24 hours in i£ per cent sodium
hydrate solution, the first four layers readily separate from the fifth.
Fig. 182. Poppy. Spermoderm in surface view, ep epidermis; k crystal layer; / fiber
I layer; q cross cells; « netted cells containing pig pigment. X160. (Winton.)
Subsequent treatment with hydrochloric acid dissolves out the calcium
oxalate, and staining with chlorzinc iodine or safranin renders the outer
layers more distinct.
POPPY-SEED. 227
1. The Epidermal Cells (ep) are polygonal and of enormous size,
corresponding to the network on the seed. As appears in cross section,
the cells are collapsed except in the neighborhood of the radial walls.
In surface view the radial walls are sinuous and thin, what are "often
considered the thick dark walls of this layer being not the walls at all,
but the ribs formed by the thickening of the second and third layers.
2. Crystal Layer (k). On the ribs, the cells of this layer are more or
less tangentially elongated, but between the ribs, are isodiametric and
polygonal, the elongated cells having longer radial walls than the others,
thus contributing to the formation of the ribs. They contain fine, granu-
lar crystals of calcium oxalate. Meyer has demonstrated that the blue
color is due to the interference of light by the crystals over the brown
cells in the background, and is the same phenomenon as causes the ap-
parent blue color of the sky and the iris of the eye. As soon as these
crystals are dissolved in hydrochloric acid, the seed appears brown.
3. Fiber Layer (/). The fibers of this layer are 15-40 [i broad and
are parallel to the curved axis of the seed. Seen in cross section, this
layer is thickest in the ribs, the walls throughout being distinctly thick-
ened and stratified. In surface view they are rendered more distinct by
chlorzinc iodine.
4. Cross Cells (q). The fourth layer consists of moderately thick-
walled, transversely elongated, pointed cells arranged side by side in
rows. The walls are impregnated with a brown material.
5. Netted Cells (n). Owing to the netted-veined, colorless walls and
the presence of deep brown contents, these cells are particularly strik-
ing. They are arranged transversely and are often side by side in rows.
The cell-contents are insoluble in alkali and do not give the tannin re-
action.
Some authors designate the cells of this layer "pigment cells," not-
withstanding the fact that in the white poppy they do not contain pigment.
Meyer, Tschirch and Oesterle, Vogl, and Hanausek describe an inner
layer of thin-walled cells, but this layer is not usually evident except
in the vicinity of the hilum.
The Endosperm (Fig. 181, E) contains aleurone grains up to 3 ft
in the outer layers and 7 ft in the inner layers, each grain containing sev-
eral globoids and crystalloids.
Embryo. In the cotyledons there is only one layer of palisade cells,
and these cells are only slightly elongated. The aleurone grains are
like those of the endosperm.
228 OIL SEEDS.
DIAGNOSIS.
Poppy-seeds are used in bread and pastries; poppy-cake, the by-
product in the manufacture of poppy-oil, is fed to cattle.
The ground material should be examined directly, also after s"oaking
successively in i\ per cent soda solution and hydrochloric acid, or
after treatment by Hebebrand's method. Fragments consisting of the
first four layers, showing the ribs, and separate fragments of the layer
of netted cells with brown contents, are readily identified (Fig. 182).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Genera] Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Berg (3); Bohmer (6, 10, 23)-
Collin (8); Hanausek, T. F. (16, 17,48); Harz (18); Meyer, A. (27); Planchon'et
Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vogl (45).
Godfkin: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc.
d. Sci. d. Nancy, 1880, 109.
Hockauf: Beobachtungen an Handelsmohnen. Chem. Ztg. 1903.
Mach: Mohn und Mohnkuchen. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1902, 57, 421.
Meuniee: Les teguments seminaux des Papaveracdes. "La Cellule," Recueil de
Cytologie et d'Histologie generate. 1891, 7, 377.
Michalowski: Beitrag zur Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte von Papaver
somnijerum L., I Theil, Dissertation, Gratz, 1881.
Tschirch: Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Studien. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1897
35, No. 17.
Winton: The Anatomy of Certain Oil Seeds with Especial Reference to the Micro-
scopic Examination of Cattle Foods. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1903, 175.
OLIVE.
Of the vegetable oils commonly used as foods or in the arts, olive
oil is the only one derived from the flesh of a fruit {Oka Europea L., order
Oleacece).
Olives differ greatly in size and shape according to the variety. When
ripe they are of a purple color. Morphologically the fruit is a drupe,
corresponding in general structure to the peach and apricot.
HISTOLOGY.
Ripe olives preserved in brine furnish suitable material for studying
all the histological elements except the salt-soluble aleurone grains of
the endosperm and embryo. After soaking several days in alcohol, the
fruit flesh is sufficiently hardened to permit the cutting of sections. These
should be soaked for a time in ether to remove fat.
OLIVE. 229
Pericarp. 1. The Epicarp (Fig. 183) consists of thick walled polyg-
onal cells about 25 fi in diameter. This layer, .as well as the mesocarp,
contains a purple pigment, which, as Hanausek first noted, becomes in-
tensely red on addition of concentrated sulphuric acid.
2. The Mesocarp contains so much oil, that a clear idea of its struc-
ture can be gained only after extraction with ether.
In the outer portion the thin-walled cells are isodiametric, but in
the middle and inner portion they are radially elongated. Distributed
Fig. 183. Olive;(0Zea Europea). Epicarp and two stone cells of the mesocarp, seen from
beneath. (Moeller.)
here and there among this thin-walled tissue are stone cells (Fig. 183)
remarkable for their fantastic shapes and especially for the curious
beaked, T- or Y-shaped excrescences, occurring at the ends and angles.
Being colorless, the stone cells are not readily found in water mounts,
especially if the oil has not been extracted; but on treatment with alkali,
they are colored a bright yellow.
3. Endocarp (Fig. 184, a, m, i). The oblong stone consists of a
dense conglomerate of sclerenchymatized tissues forming an envelope
about the seed 1-3 mm. thick. In cross sections prepared by grinding
on a whetstone (p. 13), the curious forms and grouping of the stone
cells are clearly evident. These stone cells, like those of the mesocarp,
are colorless and diverse in form, although lacking conspicuous excres-
cences. In the outer and middle layers, both elongated and isodiametric
=3°
OIL SEEDS.
forms occur, the former extending in all directions; in the inner layers
all the cells are transversely elongated. Most of them are thick-walled,
with exceedingly narrow lumen; occasional cells, however, have lumens
broader than the walls.
An innermost layer (en) composed of compressed thin-walled paren-
chyma cells lines the cavity.
Spermoderm (Fig. 184). 1. The Epidermal Cells (ep) seen in sur-
face view are highly characteristic, owing to their unequally swollen
Fig. 184. Olive. Elements in surface view, p oil cells of mesocarp; a, m, i stone cells
and fibers of endocarp; en inner layer of endocarp; ep outer epidermis of spermoderm;
eo outer layer of endosperm; E and e parenchyma of cotyledon; sp spiral vessel. X160.
(Moeller.)
and colorless walls. They are more or less elongated, often reaching
a length of 300 fi.
2. Parenchyma. Beneath the epidermis are several layers of thin-
walled cells, through which ramify the numerous bundles. The cells
in the outer layers are sharply.polygonal; those further inward are rounded;
the innermost are compressed. Numerous crystals of various forms are
the conspicuous contents.
v The Endosperm (Fig. 184) makes up the bulk of the seed.
1. The Outer Layer (ea) consists of irregularly polygonal cells. Both
the outer walls and the outer ends of the radial walls arc greatly thickened,
the latter, in surface view, showing distinct pores.
2. Parenchyma. The remainder of the endosperm consists of thin-
■walled parenchyma, containing fat and proteid grains.
OLIVE. 231
Embryo (E, e). Embedded in the axis of the endosperm is the straight
embryo, with oblong cotyledons several times the length of the radicle.
The cells are smaller and thinner-walled than those of the endosperm,
although containing the same materials.
DIAGNOSIS.
Olive Pomace, consisting of the fruit pulp obtained as a by-product
in the manufacture of olive oil, is used to some extent as a cattle food,
and also as an adulterant.
Characteristic of this pulp are the grotesque stone cells (Fig. 183)
becoming bright yellow on the addition of alkali, and the purple pigment
of the epicarp and mesocarp, which changes to an intense red on addition
of sulphuric acid.
Olive Stones are ground to a considerable extent in France as an
adulterant for white pepper and other spices, and are shipped to other
European countries, as well as to America.
The stone cells (Fig. 184, a, m, i) are characterized by their colorless
walls and contents, and by the bright yellow color produced by alkali,
wrhile those of pepper are yellow and often contain a brownish material.
Especially characteristic are the large epidermal cells (ep) of the spermo-
derm with swollen walls. The outer layer of the endosperm (ea) is also a
striking element, but like the last, can be found only after diligent search.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16, 17);
Macd (26); Moeller (29); Schimper (37); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
Also see Bibliography of Pepper, p. 509.
Bottini: Sulla struttura dell'oliva. Nuov. giorn. bot. ital. 1889, 21, 369.
Hanatjsek, T. F. : Ueber einige, gegenwartig im Wiener Handel vorkdmmende Gewiirz-
falschungen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters, Hyg. 1894, 8, 95.
ILandrin: Falsification du poivre a l'aide des grignons d'olive. Jour, phann. 10, 194.
PART IV.
LEGUMES {Leguminoscs).
Plants of this family are characterized morphologically by their pods
which are dehiscent on both sutures, physiologically by their power of
assimilating atmospheric nitrogen through the agency of micro-organisms
residing in the root tubercles, and anatomically by the structure of the
spermoderm and starch grains. ^
Most of the species of economic importance belong in the subfamily
Papilionacece, so-called because of their butterfly-like flowers, of which
the sweet pea is a type; a few species, however, including the genera
Cassia and Ceratonia have more regular flowers and are classed in the
subfamily Ccesal-piniecB.
The reserve material of the seed in many species is" starchy, but in
some species starch is absent, the reserve material being largely proteid
matter or, in exceptional cases, cellulose.
Microscopic Characters of Leguminous Seeds.
Only the seeds of most legumes are of interest to the food micro-
copist, but notable exceptions are the green pods of snap beans eaten
as a vegetable, the dried saccharine husks of the carob bean, serving as
food for man and beast, and the shells of the peanut used as an adulterant
of foods.
The Spermoderm (Fig. 186, S) in all the species of economic im-
portance has three layers, of which the two outer are one cell thick and
the third is several cells thick. An inner epidermis is seldom evident.
The hilum in some species is more or less elongated, and pierced through
its major axis by a narrow slit.
i. The Palisade Layer {pal), or outer epidermis, is of great diag-
nostic value, not only in determining that a leguminous product is present,
but also in naming the particular legume. The cells are prismatic, with
thick walls, and in all the common species except the peanut and tonka
bean are much higher than broad. The lumen in the inner portion is
broader than in the outer, where it is usually a mere line.
On both sides of the hilum slit two layers of palisade cells are present
233
S34 LEGUMES.
(Fig. 185, pl „and p2), while immediately beneath the slit in many species
is a group of sclerenchyma cells with reticulated walls (Tri), which,
according to Tschirch and Oesterle, probably serve to prevent the
entrance of fungi.
The "light line," a light-colored band of different refractive power
from the rest of the layer, may be seen in cross section. This line varies
nsp
Fig. 185. Pea (Pisum arvense). Cross section of spermoderm through nsp hilum slit.
p palisade epidermis with double layer of cells on both sides of the hilum slit; x sub-
epidermal layer expanding beneath the hilum into a cushion of cells in which is em-
bedded Tri a cluster of porous sclerenchyma cells. (Tschirch and Oesterle.)
in its breadth and distance from the outer surface according to the species,
and is of some importance in diagnosis.
In surface view the cells are sharply polygonal, and often show radi-
ating lines, due to the pores separating the ribs which make up the
thickened walls. Focusing on the outer surface it has a shagreen-like
appearance due to the strips which make up the thickened walls (Fig.
190).
After macerating with hot alkali or grinding, the palisade cells be:
come isolated and, owing to their rod-shaped form, assume a horizontal
position.
2. The Column Cells (sub) forming the subepidermal layer are com-
monly hour-glass or I-shaped (Fig. 189) without evident contents, but
in the common bean they are prismatic and contain well-formed crystals
of calcium oxalate (Figs. 186 and 187).
MICROSCOPIC CHARACTERS OF LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 235
In some species the walls of the hour-glass cells are ribbed, giving
them in surface view the appearance of a sunburst.
3. Parenchyma (p), usually of the spongy type, forms several layers,
.seen to advantage only in surface view. The character of the cells differs
in different species and different layers of the same species.
4. The Inner Epidermis when present, is of thin-walled cells.
The Perisperm is commonly absent, and when present, as for ex-
ample in the soy bean, is not of interest.
The Endosperm in some species forms an obliterated layer (e.g. bean,
pea, etc.), in others a dense, horny structure with thickened cell-walls
(e.g. carob bean), and in others still a tissue with thick mucilaginous
inner-cell membranes (e.g. fenugreek).
Embryo (C). This is always relatively large and has large coty-
ledons, while in seeds lacking a well-developed endosperm it makes up
by far the greater part of the seed. The contents are protein matter
and fat together with, in many species, starch.
Leguminous starch (am) is characterized by the large ellipsoidal
grains with elongated, more or less branching hilum, although in some
species the forms of the grains are irregular, and in the peanut and tonka
bean are normally globular.
The hilum is indistinct in some species, but is brought out clearly by
polarized light.
Chief Characters.
Of chief value in recognizing a leguminous seed are the thick-walled
palisade cells, the subepidermal cells (usually hour-glass shaped) and,
when present, the ellipsoidal starch grains with elongated hilum.
The parenchyma of the spermoderm is usually spongy. An endo-
sperm with thickened walls is present in some species.
Analytical Key to Leguminous Seeds.
A. Seed contains starch.
(a) Starch grains evident without treatment with reagents or by direct treatment
with iodine solution; seed not aromatic.
* Starch grains globular, under 15 f- in diameter; palisade cells under 25 n high.
1. Palisade cells in surface view over 25 p broad with beaded walls and
broad lumen Peanut (Arachis hypogaea).
** Starch grains ellipsoidal, over 15 [i long; palisade cells over 25 ft but under
100 £ high.
+ Palisade cells with flat outer ends.
II Column cells prismatic containing aystals.
236 LEGUMES.
2. Palisade cells under 60 p high; column cells thin-walled with large
crystals Common Bean (Phaseolus vulgaris).
3. Palisade cells over 60 p high; column cells thick-walled with small
crystals Spanish Bean (P. mulliflorus).
II II Column cells hour-glass shaped without crystals, under 20 p high.
4.*Starch grains irregularly ellipsoidal up to 40 p long.
Common Pea (Pisum sativum, P. arvense).
5. Starch grains irregularly ellpisoidal up to 90 p long.
Adzuki Bean (Phaseolus Mungo, var. glaber).
6. Starch grains regularly ellipsoidal up to 35 p long.
China Bean (Vigna Catjang) .
II || II Column cells hour-glass shaped without crystals, 25-35 p high.
7. Starch grains irregularly ellipsoidal up to 65 p long.
Lima Bean (Phaseolus lunatus).
+ + Palisade cells with rounded or pointed outer ends.
8. Palisade cells under 45 p high with light line up to 10 p broad.
Lentil (Ervum Lens).
9. Palisade cells 50-65 p high with light line 10-15 p broad.
Vetch (Vicia saliva, V. villosa, V. hirsula>.
*** Starch grains ellipsoidal, over 15 p long; palisade cells over 100 p high.
+ Column cells in one layer, hour-glass shaped.
10. Starch grains up to 40 p long Egyptian Bean (Dolichos Lablab).
11. Starch grains up to 70 p long Horse Bean (Faba vulgaris).
+ + Column cells in several layers, hour-glass shaped, simple in outer, com-
pound in inner, layers.
12. Starch grains up to 50 p long Jack Bean (Canavalia).
**** Starch grains ellipsoidal over 15 p long; palisade cells variable in height
(35-I2S rt-
13. Palisade cells with rounded outer ends. . .Chick Pea (Cicer arietinum).
(6) Starch grains evident only after treatment successively with a mixture of hot
ether and alcohol and iodine solution; seed aromatic.
14. Palisade cells over 50 p high, under 25 p broad, with dark contents;
starch grains globular, under 10 p.
Tonka Bean (Coumarouna odorala).
B. Seed contains no starch, or only traces.
(a) Palisade cells pointed; column cells ribbed; endosperm mucilaginous.
15. Palisade cells 30-45 ^ high; column cells 15-45 m oroad.
Alfalfa iM-di.a saliva).
16. Palisade cells 60-75 /• high; column cells 30-75'^ broad; seed aromatic.
Fenugreek (Trigonella Foenum-Gracum),
17. Palisade cells 125-150 p high; column cells 35-75 P high.
Astragalus (A. baliciis).
(6) Palisade cells with flat or rounded outer ends; column cells not ribbed.
* Palisade cells straight, under 100 p high.
18. Palisade cells 50-60 p high, 6-15 p broad; column cells 35-50 p
high; easily isolated Soy Bean (Glycine hispida).
ANALYTICAL KEY TO LEGUMINOUS SEEDS. 237
19. Palisade cells 60-75 P high, 3-7 ^ broad; column cells 16-25 J" high,
endosperm with enormously thickened walls.
Coffee Cassia (C. occidentalis).
** Palisade cells straight, over 100 fi high.
20. Palisade cells 150 /* high, blunt spindle-shaped after isolation in
water Soudan Coffee (Parkia).
21. Palisade cells 170-250 11 high, with swollen outer walls; endosperm
with enormously thickened walls; brown wrinkled bodies in
mesocarp, becoming violet on treating with alkali.
Carob Bean (Ceratonia Siliqua).
*** Palisade cells geniculate, over 100 ft high.
22. Outer J of palisade cells straight; inner i geniculate with dark
contents; epidermis of cotyledons porous.
Yellow Lupine (Lupinus luteus).
23. Outer § of palisade cells straight, inner J geniculate with colorless
contents; light line 2-6 ,"; epidermis of cotyledon not porous.
White Lupine (L. albus).
24. Outer J of palisade cells straight, inner i geniculate with dark
contents; light line narrow; epidermis of cotyledons porous.
Blue Lupine (L. angustifolius).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Beck: Die Samenschale einiger Leguminosen. Sitzb. K. K. Aka'd. zu Wien, 1878, 79.
Chalon: La graine de Legumineuses. Mem. et Pub. Soc. Sci., Arts et Let. du Hainaut.
1875, 55-
Guignard: Embryogenie des Legumineuses. Ann. des Sc. nat., Bot. 1882, Ser. VI,
12,68.
Mattirolo e Buscalioni: Ricerche anatomofisiologiche sul tegumenti seminali delle
Papilionacee. Reprint from Memorie Accad. Szienze Torino. Ser. II, 42, 1892.
Nadelmann: Ueber Schleimendosperm der Leguminosensamen. Ber. deutsch. Bot.
Ges. 1889, 248.
Pammel: On the Structure of the Spermoderm of Several Leguminous Seeds. Bull.
Torr. Bot. C. 1886, 17.
Pammel: Anatomical characters of the seeds of Leguminoss, chiefly genera of Gray's
Manual. Transact. Acad. Sc. St. Louis, 1899, 9, 91.
Pfafflin: Untersuchungen iiber Entwicklungsgeschichte, Bau und Function der
Nabelspalte und der darunter liegenden Tracheldeninsel verschiedener praktisch
wichtiger Papilionaceen-Samen. Inaug.-Diss., Bern, 1897.
Schips: Ueber die Cuticula und die Anskleidung der Intercellularen in den Samen-
schalen der Papilionaceen. Ber. deutsch. bot. Ges. 1893, 11, 311.
Schleiden: Beitrage zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Eliitenteile bei den Leguminosen
und iiber das Albumen, insbesondere der Leguminosen 1838.
Scrobischewky: Recherches sur l'embryogfoie des Papilionacees. Bull. Congr.
Internat. Bot. et Hortic. Petersburg, 1884, 207.
VAN Tieghem: Observations sur la legerite" ct la structure de 1'embryon de quelques
Legumineuses. Mem. de Soc. Sc. nat. de Cherbourg, 19.
23»
LEGUMES,
connoN BEAN.
The larger part of the dried beans used as food in Europe and America
are the seeds of Phaseolus vulgaris Metzger, now regarded by Wittmack
as a native of tropical America. To the same species belong the edible-
podded varieties— the so-called snap- or string-beans— also certain twining
varieties cultivated for the seeds.
The hemitropous seeds are more or less kidney-shaped, although
the ratio of length, breadth and thickness varies greatly in the different
Fig. i 86. Common Bean {Phaseolus vul-
garis). Cross section of outer portion of
seed. 5 spermoderm consists of pal pali-
sade cells with / light line, sub subepi-
dermal layer containing calcium oxalate
crystals, and p spongy parenchyma; C
cotyledon ; ep epidermis of cotyledon ; al
aleurone grains; am starch grains. Xi6o.
(Winton.)
Fig. 187. Common Bean. Elements of
spermoderm in surface view. p pali-
sade cells; s subepidermal cells with crys-
tals; m spongy parenchyma. X 300.
(Moellee.)
varieties, some being nearly globular, others much elongated, and still
others strongly flattened. In color they are white, black, red, brown, or
mottled. The elliptical hilum is situated in the middle of one of the
narrow sides. A narrow slit follows the major axis of the hilum, piercing
the outer of the underlying tissues. Near one end of the hilum is the
micropyle and near the other end is a small wart. The raphe enters
the seed at a point near this wart.
COMMON BEAN. 239
HISTOLOGY.
The seed consists of a large embryo closely covered by a thin, brittle
spermoderm.
Spermoderm. 1. The Palisade Cells (Fig. 186, pal; Fig. 187, p), as
may be seen in cross section, are upward of 60 p. long, with a narrow light
line adjoining the cuticle. In the outer portion the cavity is narrow,
but broadens toward the inner end. The color of the bean is determined
by the color of the contents of these cells. Beneath the hilum there are
two layers of palisade cells, both of which are pierced by the hilum slit.
2. The Column Cells (Fig. 186, sub; Fig. 187, s) in this species are not
hour-glass shaped as in the pea and many other legumes, but are pris-
matic without intercellular spaces. The walls are moderately thick, and
swell considerably in water or alkali. Each cell contains one, or rarely
two, large monoclinic crystals of calcium oxalate, which nearly fills the
cavity. The presence of la^ge crystals in the column cells is characteristic
of this species. Beneath the hilum this layer is absent.
3. Spongy Parenchyma (Fig. 186, p; Fig. 187, m). The cells are
largest and have the thickest walls in the outer layers. In the inner layers
they have long, narrow arms and exceedingly thin walls. At the hilum
this layer forms a thick cushion.
Embryo. (Fig. 186, C; Fig. 188). The two large cotyledons form the
bulk of the seed. Fat and proteins are present throughout, as is also
starch, except in the epidermal cells.
In the outer epidermis (ep) the cells are isodiametric, in the inner
epidermis they are tangentially elongated as in the pea.
The cells of the Mesophyl are large (often 100 ft), and have thick
(4-9 n) walls with distinct pores. Intercellular spaces of moderate size
occur at the angles.
The starch grains vary up to 60 fi in length, the larger grains being,
for the most part, ellipsoidal or kidney-shaped, seldom irregularly swollen
as in the pea. A conspicuous, branching cleft, appearing black because
of inclosed air, is almost always present.
DIAGNOSIS.
Beans usually reach the consumer whole, and therefore unadulterated.
Bean Meal is a comparatively rare article of commerce, used chiefly
as a cattle food. Coarsely ground beans have been employed as adul-
terants of coffee, although less often than peas and other legumes.
The starch (Fig. 186, am) is distinguished from pea-starch by the
240 LEGUMES.
absence of irregularly swollen forms, and the presence of a distinct
branching cleft in each large grain. The cell-walls of the endosperm
are thick and conspicuously porous, whereas in the pea they are usually
thinner and indistinctly porous.
Bean Hulls serve as a cattle food and adulterant. In bean products
Fig. 188. Common Bean. Cross section of cotyledon showing starch grains. X3°°-
(Moellee.)
containing the hulls, the crystal-bearing column cells (Fig. 187, s) furnish
a ready means of identification.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6); Greenish (14); Hanausek, T.
F. (10); Harz (18); Maci (26); Moeller (29); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et
Collin (42); Vogl (45); Wittmack (10).
Gulliver: On the crystals in the Testa and Pericarp of several Orders of Plants
and in the other Parts of the Order of Leguminoseas. Monthly Micros. Jour. 1873,
2S9-
Haberlandt: Ueber die Entwicklungsgeschichte und den Bau der Samenschale bei der
Gattung Phaseolus. Sitzb. d. k. k. Akad. zu Wien. 1877, 75, 33-
Koehler: Erbsen, Bohnen, Wicken und deren Mullereiprodukte. Landw. Vers. -Stat.
1901, 55, 401.
Tschirch: Ueber Starkemehlanalysen. Arch. d. Pharm. 1884, 22, 921.
SPANISH BEAN.
Of the several varieties of Spanish bean (Phaseolus mulliflorus Willd.)
in cultivation, the scarlet runner and Dutch case-knife bean are the best
known. The scarlet runner is grown partly for the brilliant scarlet flowers,
and partly for the flattened black and pink mottled seeds. The Dutch
case-knife bean has white flowers and seeds.
ADZUKl BEAN. LIMA BEAN. 241
HISTOLOGY.
In histological structure these beans are much like the common bean,
but the palisade cells are longer (60-75 f) and the column-cells have
thicker walls and contain smaller crystals. Although the column cells
are prismatic without intercellular spaces, the radial walls are thickest
in the middle and diminish in thickness toward both ends, the cavity
being, as a consequence, hour-glass-shaped. The cell structure of the
embryo and the starch grains are practically the same as in the common
bean.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40).
ADZUKl BEAN.
The adzuki bean (P. Mungo var. glaber Roxbg.) is highly esteemed
in Japan as food for man and has been introduced into the United States.
Other varieties of this species are also cultivated in the East.
The plant yields a seed 8-10 mm. long, of a rich wine color.
Characteristic of this seed is the narrow, elongated hilum 2-3 mm.
long.
HISTOLOGY.
Spermoderm. 1. The Palisade Cells are 75 [i high, 6-15 n wide, and
contain a reddish pigment.
2. The Column Cells are hour-glass-shaped like those of the pea?
They are 14-20 fi high and 8-20 ft wide.
3. The Parenchyma is much the same as in the common bean.
Embryo. The thin-walled cells contain larger starch grains than
any other common legume (often 90 /*). In addition to the usual ellip-
soidal grains, trefoil and irregular grains, such as occur in the pea, are
numerous. Their large size serves to distinguish them from pea-starch
and their form as well as size from other leguminous starches.
LII1A BEAN.
The small seeded Lima or Sieva bean (Phaseolus lunatus L.) and
the true or large-seeded Lima bean (P. lunatus var. macrocarpus Benth.)
are natives of South America, but are grown throughout the Western
Hemisphere, the seed being eaten as a vegetable either green or dried.
The flattened white seeds of the true Lima bean are 20-25 mm- l°ng and
about half as wide.
242 LEGUMES.
HISTOLOGY.
Spennodenn. i. The Palisade Cells are 60-80 /j. long and 12-20 [i
wide.
2. Column Cells. These are quite unlike the column cells of the
other members of this genus. Their hour-glass form distinguishes them
from the corresponding cells of the common and Spanish bean, and
their greater height (25-35 /0 from the last named and all the other
species of Phaseolus here described. The cells are 14-35 f- wide.
3. Spongy Parenchyma. The outer and innermost " layers contain
small cells, the middle layers large cells.
Embryo. The moderately thick-walled cells contain ellipsoidal, reni-
form and trefoil-shaped grains, which are, on the average longer (up
to 65 /<) and broader than in the common bean.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18).
PEA.
The field pea (Pisum arvense L.) is grown both as a forage plant and
for the production of mature seeds; the garden pea {P. sativum L.)
only as a vegetable.
Peas of the former species are smooth, nearly spherical, and of a
buff color; those of the latter species are either smooth or wrinkled.
HISTOLOGY.
The Spermoderm (Figs. 189-192) is thin and brittle. The structure
at thehilum is shown in Fig. 185; in other parts it is as follows:
1. The Palisade Cells (p) are 60-100 ,u high, a narrow light line
immediately adjoining the cuticle. In the inner portion of each cell
the cavity is broad and wavy in contour.
2. The Column Cells (t), of typical hour-glass form, are conspicuous
both in cross section and in surface view. They never contain crystals.
On heating pieces of the hull with dilute alkali and pressing with the
cover-glass, these cells may be isolated, the hour-glass form being espe-
cially striking after this treatment. They vary up to 20 [i in height.
3. Spongy Parenchyma (Fig. 189, m; Fig. 192). The cells decrease
in size from without inward.
Embryo. 1. The Epidermal Cells (Fig. 193, ep) of the cotyledons
PEA.
243
are tangentially elongated and arranged end to end in rows. They
contain aleurone grains and fat, but no starch.
2. The Parenchyma (Figs. 193 and 194), making up the remainder
of the cotyledons, is composed of large cells with moderately thick, non-
porous walls, with intercellular spaces
at the angles. Usually, but not al-
ways, the walls are thinner than in the
bean and the intercellular spaces are
larger, often extending from one angle
to another.
The Starch Grains (Fig. 193) are
commonly smaller than in the bean
(seldom over 40 //) and among ellip-
soidal, reniform, and globular forms,
occur many which are characterized
by irregular, rounded protuberances.
As a rule, comparatively few grains
have distinct clefts.
Fig. 189. Pea (Pisum arvense). Cross
section of spermoderm. c cuticle;
p palisade cells with * light line; t
hour-glass cells of the subepidermal
layer; m spongy parenchyma. X160.
(Moeixer.)
DIAGNOSIS.
Whole Peas, as well as pea hay, are highly prized in many regions
as cattle food. Roasted and flattened whole peas are used as substitutes
or adulterants for coffee.
Split peas, freed from hulls, are prepared for use in soups and other
culinary articles.
Pea Flour, because of its high nutritive value, is an ingredient of
many dietary preparations for infants and invalids, as well as for soldiers
and others requiring a nutritious and palatable food in a concentrated
form.
Many of the starch grains (Fig. 193, st) have irregular swollen pro-
tuberances, a phenomenon of no little value in dis-
criminating between this and bean-starch. The
starch of the adzuki bean also displays this pecu-
liarity. Clefts in the grains are indistinct or want-
ing. The parenchyma of the cotyledons is seldom
as thick as in the bean and shows much less dis-
tinct pores. The individual cells are readily sepa-
rated from one another through the middle
lamella, especially after treatment with alkali. This latter treatment, in
Fig. 190. Pea. Pali-
sade cells in surface
view showing the
outer surface . X 300.
(Moellee.)
?44
LEGUMES.
the case of roasted peas, dissolves out the starch grains, leaving a char-
acteristic skeleton of colored proteid material.
Pea Hulls are utilized as a cattle food and an adulterant. A
Fig. igi. Pea. Elements of spermoderm in surface view, p palisade cells; t hour-glass
cells (subepidermal layer) ; e parenchyma. X160. (Moellee.)
common coffee adulterant in the United States consists of pea hulls
made into pellets with molasses and other ingredients.
Fig. 192. Pea. Outer layers of spongy parenchyma, i intercellular space; s porous
membrane at end of arm. (Moeller.)
The elements of the hull may be studied in section (Fig. 189), or
in surface view (Fig. 191) after scraping with a scalpel. Isolation of
PEA. LENTIL.
J45
the palisade and column cells is accomplished by judicious heating with
dilute alkali and side wise pressure with the cover-glass. The column
cells (/) are hour-glass in form, without crystals; whereas in the com-
mon bean they are prismatic, with large crystals of calcium oxalate.
Fig. 193. Pea. Cross section of cotyledon.
ep epidermis, p parenchyma containing
st starch grains. X160. (Moeller.)
Fig. 194. Pea. Cotyledon tissues in sur-
face view, ep epidermis; st starch pa-
renchyma. X160. (Moeller.)
The height of the palisade cells (60-100 [i) and column cells (up to 20 ji)
is of importance in diagnosis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 23); Greenish (14); Hanausek,
T. F. (10); Harz (18); Mace" (26); Moeller (29, 32); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vil-
liers et Collin (42); Vogl (45); Wittmack (10).
Sempolowski : Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. Landwu
Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823.
LENTIL.
Lentils, the seeds of Lens esculenta Moench (Ervum Lens L.), have
been used in Oriental countries as food for man since very ancient times.
Esau sold his birthright for a mess of pottage made from this seed. At
present the plant is cultivated chiefly in the countries bordering on the
Mediterranean.
The Latin word "lens," meaning primarily lentil, was afterward
applied by the philosophers to the biconvex magnifying glass because of
its resemblance to the lentil in shape. The seeds are gray-brown or red
in color and 5-7 mm. in diameter. The long and narrow hilum, as well
as the micropyle and raphe, are on the narrow edge.
24&
LEGUMES.
The Spermoderm (Fig,
same as in the pea.
i. The Palisade Cells (Fig
HISTOLOGY.
195, S) is 1 mm. thick with layers much the
195, pal) are 45 ft high, 8 /* broad, have
rounded outer ends, over which the cuticle
is extended in the form of blunt-pointed
papillae. A light line nearly 10 ft broad
lies directly beneath the cuticle, but the
remainder of the walls are yellow-brown.
Fig. 195. Lentil (Lens esculenta).
Outer portion of seed in cross sec-
tion. S spermoderm consists of pal
palisade cells with / light line, sub
hour - glass cells (subepidermal
1 layer) and p spongy parenchyma;
c cotyledon with ep epidermis and
am starch cells. X 1 60. (Winton.)
Fig. 196. Lentil. Hour-glass
cells (subepidermal layer)
of spermoderm in surface
view. X160. (Moeller.)
2. The Column Cells (sub) of hour-
glass form are 18-35 /* broad and 12-
22 fi high. An irregular brown lump
nearly fills each cell (Fig. 196).
3. Spongy Parenchyma (p). The outer layers consist of very small
cells without conspicuous intercellular spaces. In the middle layers the
Fig. 197. Lentil Starch. X300. (Moeller.)
cells are large, some of them containing a brown substance showing the
reaction for tannins.
CHINA BEAN.
247
Embryo (Fig. 195, C). The thin-walled cells contain starch grains
(Fig. 197) somewhat smaller than those in the bean or pea, the largest
being but 40 fi long. In form they are mostly ellipsoidal, although forms
with irregular excrescences similar to those occurring in the pea, are not
infrequent.
DIAGNOSIS.
Ground lentils are distinguished from bean and pea products by the
smaller diameter (maximum 8 /1) of the palisade cells (Fig. 195, pal),
their rounded or blunt-pointed outer ends, and the broader light line.
The starch grains (Fig. 197) are also smaller.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 23); Greenish (14); Harz (18);
Mace1 (26); Moeller(29, 32); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42) ; Vogl (45).
Beck: Vergl. Anatomie der Samen von Vicia und Ervum. Sitzb. Wiener Akad. 1873, 77.
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. Landw.
Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823.
CHINA BEAN.
Varieties of Vigna Catjang Walp (V. Sinensis Endl., Dolichos Sinensis
L.) are grown in the East for their seeds, and in the Southern States as a
vegetable and for forage and manuring.
Although known in America as the cow
pea or black pea, the plant is more cor-
rectly a bean, and the names China bean
and black-eyed bean in vogue in Europe
are more appropriate.
Black, white with black eyes, yellow,
red, brown, and mottled seeded varieties
are in cultivation, the size of the some-
what flattened, kidney-shaped seeds varying
from 6-10 mm.
HISTOLOGY.
The Spermoderm (Fig. 198) consists of:
(1) a layer of palisade cells (pal) 60-75 I1
high and 6-18 fi broad;. (2) a layer of
column -cells (sub) 9-15 [i high -and 9-25 fi
broad; (3) several compressed layers of
spongy parenchyma (p).
Fig. 198. China Bean (Vigna cat-
jang). Outer portion of seed in
cross section. 5 spermoderm con-
sists of pal palisade cells with I
light line, sub hour-glass cells
(subepidermal layer), and p spongy-
parenchyma; C cotyledon with ep
epidermis and am starch cells.
X160. (Winton.)
248
LEGUMES.
The Cotyledons (C) contain starch grains much like those of the
common bean though somewhat smaller (maximum 35 /t).
DIAGNOSIS.
The China bean has smaller starch grains (Fig. 198, am) than most
of the common legumes. Compared with the large grains of the Lima
or the adzuki bean, this characteristic is especially marked. The
spermoderm has much the same structure as in the last-named species.
The column cells (sub) are hour-glass-shaped.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40).
SOY BEAN.
Numerous varieties of the soy or soja bean (Glycine hispida Maxim,
Soja hispida Moench), natives of the Orient, are grown in China and
Japan for the highly nutritious seed, and
in Europe and America for forage as well
as for the seed.
The yellow, brown or black seed
(5-10 mm.) in some varieties is nearly
globular, in others slightly flattened and
elongated.
HISTOLOGY.
Marked features of the soy bean are
the high column cells of the spermo-
derm, the presence of an endosperm
and the absence of starch in the coty-
ledons.
The Spermoderm (Fig. 199) is closely
united with the layers of the endo-
sperm.
1. The Palisade Cells (pal) of this
seed are of about the same height
(50-60 ft) and diameter (6-15 fi) as
those of the common bean and, like
ve colored contents, according to the color
Fig. 199. Soy Bean (Glycine hispi-
da). Outer portion of seed in
cross section. 5 spermoderm con-
sists of pal palisade cells with /
light line, sub hour-glass cells (sub-
epidermal layer), and p paren-
chyma; E endosperm consists of
aleurone cells and compressed
cells; C cotyledon, with ep epi-
dermis and al aleurone cells.
X160. (Winton.)
the latter, may or may not ha
of the seed.
SO Y BE/IN. EG YP TIAN BE A N. 249
2. Column Cells (sub). This layer is of about the same thickness
as the palisade layer, being thicker than in any of the other common
legumes. The hour-glass or I-shaped cells are usually 35-50 ji high,
but about the hilum they often reach 150 ,«. In width they vary from
16-36 /1. Since the cells have a marked tendency to separate from the
adjoining layers and from each other, isolated cells may usually be found
in considerable numbers in surface mounts obtained by scraping the inner
surface of the hull, or in the ground seed.
3. The Spongy Parenchyma (p) is much compressed and presents no
characteristic features.
An Endosperm (E) consisting of a single layer of moderately thick-
walled aleurone cells (15-45 fi) and obliterated cells, marks this seed as
an exception among legumes. The aleurone cells as seen in surface
view are rectangular or polygonal with protein contents.
Embryo (C). The thin- walled cells contain large aleurone grains,
sometimes 25 fi in diameter. Starch is entirely absent.
DIAGNOSIS.
The absence of starch, the presence of long (35-50 fi) I-shaped column
cells (Fig. 199, sub) readily isolated from the surrounding tissues, and
the presence of an endosperm layer (E), furnish ready means for the
identification of this seed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6. 23); Harz (18); Moeller (29);
Tschirch u. Oesterle (40).
Hanausek, T. F. : Die Sojabohne. Irmischia II, 1882, No. 7, 44.
Hanausek, T. F. : Ueber das Vorkommen von Starkemehl in der Sojabohne. Ztschr.
allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1884, 474.
Harz: Ueber den Starkegehalt der Sojabohne. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver.
1885, 40.
Trimble: The Soja Bean. Amer. Jour. Pharm. 1897, 69.
EGYPTIAN BEAN.
Seeds of the Egyptian or hyacinth bean (Dolichos Lablab L., Lablab
vulgaris Savi.) are much eaten in the Tropics.
In macroscopic structure they are characterized by their flattened
form and large hilum.
2 5°
LEGUMES.
HISTOLOGY.
Strongly developed in this species are: (i) The Palisade Cells, 125 ft
or more high; (2) The Column Cells of hour-glass form, 35-55 11 high and
of about the same width. The Spongy
Parenchyma is not remarkable. The
Starch Grains vary up to 40 fi in length.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz
(18); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40).
HORSE BEAN.
The name bean, now largely applied
to plants belonging to the genus Phaseo-
lus, formerly was appiled almost exclu-
sively to the varieties of Faba vulgaris
Moench (Vkia Faba L.) of which the
horse bean, also known as the broad or
Windsor bean, is one of the best known
examples. Beans of this species were cul-
tivated by the ancient Egyptians, Tro-
jans, Greeks, and Romans, as well as by
the lake dwellers and other prehistoric
races.
It is not remarkable that so ancient
Fig. 200. Horse Bean (Faba vulgaris). a plant should have numberless varieties
Outer portion of seed in cross sec- wjdely different, especially as to the size,
tion. o spermoderm consists of pal J * '
palisade cells with i light line, sub shape, and color of the seeds. The best
Kfi^ySSScSg known varieties have slightly flattened
don with ep epidermis and am starch seeds 8-12 mm. long and tWO-thirds as
cells. X160. .(Winton.) .
broad. The conspicuous elongated nilum
is not on the side of the seed, but at one of the ends.
HISTOLOGY.
Spermoderm (Fig. 200). The palisade and column cells are remark-
able for their large size.
1. The Palisade Cells (pal) are 150-175 ji long and 12-20 ,u broad.
A light line 20-25 /t broad, directly beneath the cuticle, is distinguishable,
HORSE BEAN. SPRING VETCH. 25 1
although the whole outer half of the layer is colorless. The cell-walls
of the inner portion are yellow-brown.
2. Column Cells (sub). This layer has strongly developed cells,
35-50 ft high and 35-60 p. broad. They are hour-glass-shaped with a
cavity only slightly constricted in the middle. The walls are rather thick.
3. Parenchyma (p). The outer layers are of large cells with few
intercellular spaces; the middle layers are of similar cells with deep
brown contents; the inner layers are of compressed spongy parenchyma.
Embryo (C). The isodiametric cells, with non-porous walls similar
to those of the pea, contain starch grains (am) up to 70 fi in length.
Broadly ellipsoidal grains, many scarcely longer than broad, also irreg-
ular forms, are common. The hilum is often indistinct.
DIAGNOSIS.
The enormous height of the palisade cells (Fig. 200, pal) and their
broad light line, also the large column cells (sub), serve to identify this
seed in powder form. Although the starch grains (am) are of large size,
and more nearly circular in outline than in most common legumes, too
much dependence should not be placed on this distinction.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6, 23); Harz (18); Mace" (26);
Tschirch u. Oesterle (40).
Godfrin: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. d.
Sci. d. Nancy. 1880, 109.
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen.
Landw. Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823.
SPRING VETCH.
The spring vetch or tare (Vicia saliva L.) has been cultivated since
prehistoric times both for green fodder and seed, the latter being used
to some extent for human food. The tare of the scriptures- is not this
plant, but darnel (Lolium temulentum).
Seeds of the spring vetch are dark colored, nearly globular, and 5 mm.
or less in diameter.
HISTOLOGY.
The Spennoderm of the vetch and lentil are much alike in structure.
1. The Palisade Cells are characterized by the rounded or blunt-
pointed outer ends, the thick cuticle, the broad light line (10-15 /j.) and
252 LEGUMES.
the dark color and moderate thickness of the walls in the inner portion
of the layer. They are 50-65 pt high and 6-10 ,u broad.
2. The Column Cells (13-25 n high, 22-40 ,u broad) are hour-glass-
shaped and contain a dark material.
3. Parenchyma. This tissue is not spongy, but true parenchyma
without marked intercellular spaces. The middle layers contain a dark,
tannin-like material.
Embryo. The non-porous walled cells contain ellipsoidal and irregu-
larly-shaped starch grains each with a more or less distinct cleft.
DIAGNOSIS.
Both the lentil and vetch have palisade cells with rounded or blunt-
pointed .outer walls, but in the latter seed these cells are somewhat higher
and have a broader light line (10-15 fi).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6); Harz (18); Mace (26);
Tschirch u. Oesterle (40).
Beck: Vergl. Anatomie der Samen von Vicia und Ervum. Sitzb. Wiener Akad. 1873,
77.
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen. Landw.
Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823.
WINTER VETCH.
The winter or hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.), like the spring vetch,
is a common forage plant in Europe and parts of
the East.
Although the seeds are somewhat smaller than
those of the latter plant, they have practically the
same structure.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Harz
(18).
HAIRY VETCH.
Among the leguminous plants infesting Euro-
Fig. 201. Hairy Vetch Pean Sram nelds tne hairy vetch (Vkia hirsuta Koch)
fruittranchf ^'seed? is one of the commonest> *e seeds often occurring in
natural size; c and considerable quantity in the grain.
(Nome.) *" "^ ' Tne seeds are globular, about 2.5 mm. long, with
dark spots on a somewhat lighter field (Fig. 201).
The palisade cells are about 50 fi high, the spool-shaped column
YELLOW LUPINE.
253
cells about 15 fi. Starch grains up to 30 fi long fill the cells of the coty-
ledons.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Vogl (45).
YELLOW LUPINE.
Lupines are cultivated chiefly for forage or green manuring,
parts of Europe the seeds are used for hu-
man food, and especially as a substitute
for coffee.
The common yellow lupine (Lupinus
luteus L.) has a flattened, kidney-shaped
seed 6-9 mm. long and 5-7 mm. wide,
with black spots on a light background.
The round hilum is- not situated in the
cove, but in the center of one of the lobes.
HISTOLOGY.
Spermoderm (Fig. 202, S; Fig. 203).
1. The Palisade Cells (Fig. 202, pal; Fig.
203, p) are 140-170 (i long and 8-18 fi
broad, with rounded outer ends. The
roughened cuticle is 3-6 /i thick and the
narrow underlying light line 2-6 /1 broad.
The outer portion of each cell for two-
thirds its entire length has straight walls
and a narrow cavity; the inner portion
has two slight bends in opposite direc-
tions. Those cells lying underneath the
dark-colored spots on the surface of the
seed contain a dark substance situated
chiefly in the inner portion of the cavity.
2. The Column Cells (Fig. 202, sub;
Fig. 203, t) are 35-70 fi high, 25-50 /j.
broad, hour-glass- or spool-shaped, much
3. Parenchyma (Fig. 202, p; Fig. 203,
and middle layers are sharply polygonal
which appear distinctly beaded in surface
up the inner layers.
but in
Fig. 202. Yellow Lupine (Lupinus
luteus). Outer layers of seed in
cross section. 5 spermoderm con-
sists of pal palisade cells with I
light line, sub hour-glass cells (sub-
epidermal layer), and p spongy
parenchyma with jv fibro-vascular
bundle; C cotyledon with ep epi-
dermis and al aleurone cells. X160.
(Winton.)
constricted in the middle.
sch). The cells in the outer
with thin, finely-porous walls,
view. Compressed cells make
254
LEGUMES.
Embryo (C). As noted by Bohmer, the outer epidermal cells of
the cotyledons are finely porous; these pores, however, are confined
to the radial walls and the edges of the tangential walls.
The remainder of the cotyledons consists of Isodiametric cells with
much swollen, porous walls, often 15-25 n thick. This thickening is
especially marked at the angles. Ovoid aleurone grains up to 20 n, often
containing large crystalloids, are the only visible cell-contents. Starch
is entirely absent.
DIAGNOSIS.
All the common lupines have high palisade cells (Fig. 202, sub),
geniculate in their inner portions, hour-glass-shaped subepidermal cells
Fig, 203. Yellow Lupine. Elements of spermo- Fig. 204. Yellow Lupine. Collen-
derm in surface view, p palisade cells; t hour- chyma cells of cotyledon with aleu-
glass cells (subepidermal layer) showing contour rone grains, p porous wall. X 300.
of base and constriction; sch spongy paren- (Moeller.)
chyma. X160. (Moeller.)
{sub) and thick-walled cotyledon cells containing aleurone grains (al),
but no starch.
In the yellow lupine, the outer two-thirds of each palisade cell (Fig.
202, pal) is straight (distinction from blue lupine), and the inner genic-
ulate portion often contains dark contents (distinction from white
lupine). The sharply polygonal cells in the outer layers of the paren-
chyma of the spermoderm, as well as in the epidermis of the cotyle-
dons, are distinctly porous (distinction from white lupine).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Harz (18).
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen
Landw. Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823.
WHITE LUPINE. BLUE LUPINE. 255
WHITE LUPINE. .
The white-flowered lupine (Lupinus albus L.) has light-colored,
flattened, almost lenticular seeds somewhat larger (often 10 mm.) than
those of the yellow and blue species. A depression is present in the
center of each of the flat sides.
HISTOLOGY.
The palisade cells and column cells are of the same size and structure
as those of the yellow lupine, except that the light line of the palisade
cells is broader (15-20 ft) and the contents are colorless. The cells of
the spermoderm and the outer epidermis of the cotyledons are not evi-
dently porous.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Moeller (29); Vogl (45).
Godfetn: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. d.
Sri, d. Nancy. 1880, 109.
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen.
Landw. Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823.
BLUE LUPINE.
The type of Lupinus angushjolius L. has mottled seeds; the variety
leucospermus, white seeds. Both have blue flowers. The seeds are
rounded reniform, 5-7 mm. long.
HISTOLOGY.
The structure corresponds with that of the yellow lupine, except as
regards the palisade layer, which has a distinct line of demarcation a
little less than half way between the outer and inner end. In the outer
portion the walls are straight, of even texture, and the cavity is without
contents; in the inner portion the walls are geniculate, of uneven tex-
ture, and the ragged cavities contain a dark material near the line of de-
marcation. The light line is narrow, as in the yellow lupine, but the
outer end of the cell is not rounded.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10); Harz (18); Vogl (45).
Gundriser: Ueber ein Kaffeesurrogat aus den Samen der blauen Lupine (Lupinus
angustifolius). Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1892, 6, 373.
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau der Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen.
Landw. Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823.
256
LEGUMES.
CHICK PEA.
The East Indians prepare from the seeds of the chick pea {Cicer
arietinum L.) various articles of daily food, as also do the Spanish and
French; the inhabitants of Southern Europe and of some of the Western
States of the United States utilize them as a substitute for coffee.
Cicer is the old Latin name, and the English "chick" is a corruption
of the same word, although suggesting the resemblance of the seed to a
Fig. 205. Chick Pea (Cicer arietinum). Cross section of
spermoderm. pal palisade cells; sub hour-glass cells
(subepidermal layer); p spongy parenchyma. X160;
(Moeller.)
Fig. 206. Chick Pea. Pali-
sade cells in surface
view. X160. (Moel-
ler.)
chick. The specific name "arietinum" was adopted because of the
imagined resemblance of the seeds to a ram's head.
The irregularly-globular seeds vary from 7-14 mm. in diameter, and
from light buff to dark brown in color. They are encircled on one side
by a groove, through the middle of which passes the raphe, and on the
other by a ridge ending in a pointed projection at the micropyle. A cir-
cular hilum 1 mm. in diameter is situated at the base of this projection.
HISTOLOGY.
Spermoderm (Fig. 205). 1. The Palisade Cells are characterized by
their variable length (35-125 //) and by their broad lumens (Fig. 206),
the walls being thickened only at the extreme outer and inner ends. The
thin radial walls are finely wrinkled toward the inner end. The cells
are 12-20 n broad.
2. The Column Cells are hour-glass-shaped, 20-30 // high and 25-45 ft
broad.
3. The Parenchyma is much the same as in the common pea.
CHICK PEA. SOUDAN COFFEE.
257
Embryo. The isodiametric cells of the embryo also resemble those
of the common pea. They contain broadly ovoid, sometimes nearly
globular, starch grains up to 35 /x in length.
DIAGNOSIS.
.The irregular height and thin walls of the palisade cells (Fig. 205,
pal) suffice for the detection of this seed.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (28); Moeller (29); Tschirch u.
Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
SOUDAN COFFEE.
The negroes in Soudan and other parts of Africa prepare from the
seeds and other parts of Parkia Africana R. Br. various articles of diet,
Fig. 208. Soudan Coffee. Ele-
ments of spermoderm. C iso-
lated palisade cells; qu palisade
cell in end view; m paren-
chyma; ep inner epidermis.
X160. . (Moeller.)
Fig. 209. Soudan Cof-
fee. Tissues of cot-
yledon. X 160.
(Moeller.)
Fig. 207. Soudan Coffee
{Parkia Africana).
Spermoderm in cross
section, p palisade cells ;_
5 hour-glass cells (sub-
epidermal layer); m
parenchyma. X160.
(Moeller.)
including a substitute for coffee. P. Roxburgii Don. is said to be a
valuable food plant in the Indian Archipelago.
HISTOLOGY.
Spermoderm (Fig. 207). The intercellular substance of the Palisade
Layer is dissolved by soaking in water and the cells (150 fi high and 15 //
broad) are liberated. After this treatment the isolated cells are char-
acterized by their blunt, spindle-shaped form (Fig. 208, C).
258 LEGUMES.
Both the Column Cells and the Spongy Parenchyma have thick walls.
The Embryo (Fig. 209) is thin-walled and contains protoplasm and
fat, but no starch.
DIAGNOSIS.
Examined in water the blunt spindle-shaped palisade cells (Fig. 208,
C), the thick-walled column cells and spongy parenchyma (m), and the
thin-walled cells (Fig. 209) of the starch-free embryo, are the important
features.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (29).
JACK BEAN.
Several tropical and subtropical species of Canavalia yield edible seeds,
the most important being C. ensijormis DC. and C. obtusijolia DC. Both
are used as coffee substitutes.
The Jack bean or Chickasaw Lima (C. ensijormis) is grown to some
extent in the southern part of the United States both for human food and
feeding stock.
The ovoid beans (15 mm. long) are white with a red eye about the
long (5-7 mm.) hilum.
HISTOLOGY.
Spermoderm. 1. The Palisade Cells are nearly colorless, 125-150 n
&&. high and 10-22 /( wide. Their great height distin-
t vll^. guishes ^em from the palisade cells of species of
^^^M Phaseolus. The thin cuticle when separated bears the
t ^;J impressions of the cells beneath ^Fig. 210).
\ ; 2- The Column Cells (Fig. 211) over the body of the
I jj| I seed are in four or more layers and beneath the hilum
/ ,*'\*1 f()rm a spongy mass upwards of 2 mm. thick. Those
\u 'V / in the first layer are 25-45 /t high and 25-60 fi broad.
F.g. 210. jack Bean In the inner layers one finds a11 transitions from typical
(Canavalia ensi- hour-glass cells, to fantastic compound or branching
jormis). Cuticle ( , . 6
with imprint of lorms sucn as are shown in Fig. 211, and finally to
(MoelleI?6) CeUS' Parenchyma. Brown contents are present in the cells
beneath the hilum.
3. Parenchyma. This layer presents no remarkable features.
Embryo (Fig. 212). The moderately thick-walled, porous cells of the
JACK BEAN. FENUGREEK.
259
cotyledons, containing ellipsoidal starch grains up to 50 fi, recall the
corresponding tissue of the common bean.
DIAGNOSIS.
Identification, whether in coffee or other food products, is not usually
difficult, owing to the great height of the palisade cells and the several
Fig. 211. Jack Bean. Subepidermal cells
of spermoderm. X160. (Moeller.)
Fig. 212. Jack Bean. Cotyledon tissue
showing i intercellular spaces and / sec-
tion of cell arm. X160. (Moeller.)
layers of column cells (Fig. 211). The starch (Fig. 212) is of much
the same size and form as that of the common bean.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (29).
FENUGREEK.
Seeds of fenugreek (Trigonella Foenum-Graecum L.), remarkable alike
for their curious shape, aromatic odor, and anatomical structure, have
been employed as a drug both in human and veterinary practice for many
centuries, especially in India, Asia Minor, Egypt, the Barbary States,
and Southern Europe. They are also used as food by the women of
Northern Africa to give plumpness to their forms.
The outline of the slightly flattened, brown seed is quadrilateral,
and the form of both the cotyledons and radicle is clearly evident on
the exterior (Fig. 213). The radicle is bent parallel to the cotyledons
and the longer axis of the seed (Fig. 214). Under a lens, the hilum is.
seen to be situated near the apex of the radicle.
260
LEGUMES.
HISTOLOGY.
Cross-sections, cut after soaking the seed in water, show a spermo-
derm, a well-developed endosperm, and an embryo, both the latter being
free from starch.
Fig. 213. Fenugreek (Trigonella Foenum-Graecum). Fig. 214. Fenugreek. Seed with
a seed, natural size; the others enlarged. spermoderm partially removed
(Nobbe.) showing cotyledon and radicle.
(Moeller.)
The Spermoderm (Fig. 216, 5; Fig. 215) has the three layers of a
typical legume.
Fig. 215. Fenugreek. Elements of seed in surface view, cut cuticle and blunt palisade
cells; pal pointed palisade cells; sub subepidermal cells and parenchyma; a aleurone
cells of endosperm. (Tschirch.)
. i. The Palisade Cells (Figs. 215 and 216, pal), 60-75 J" high and
8-20 n broad, have narrow cavities in the outer, broad cavities in the
FENUGREEK.
261
muc
muc
inner portions. On the outer surface the side walls are continued into
pointed or, less often, blunt ends 8-20 fi long, projecting into an outer
mucilaginous coat, the latter being indistinct in water and entirely in-
visible on the addition of alkali. The cells with blunt ends are higher
than the pointed cells. A narrow light
line 3-6 [i is situated 25-35 V- fr°m
the outer ends of the cells.
2. The Column Cells (Figs. 215 and
216, sub), although but 15-20 fi high,
are quite as remarkable as the palisade
cells. They are hour-glass-shaped, but
the inner end is much broader than
the outer. Particularly striking are the
ribs, which may be seen either in cross
section or in surface view, in the latter
case presenting a beautiful radiating
effect. Their great breadth, 30-75 ft, is
a notable feature.
3. Parenchyma (Fig. 216, p) with
wavy walls and occasional intercellular
spaces completes the spermoderm.
An Endosperm (Fig. 216, E), glassy
when dry, mucilaginous when wet,
makes up nearly half the volume of
the seed.
1. Aleurone Cells (Figs. 215 and
216, a). A single layer of cells (15-45
fi) containing small aleurone grains
envelops the embryo, and extends also
between the cotyledons and the radicle.
2. Mucilage Cells (muc). Tschirch
has shown that each cell has a very
thick mucilaginous inner membrane,
glycerine slowly to a water preparation,
only the thin primary membrane is evident
empty.
Embryo (C). The hard yellow cotyledons and radicle contain aleurone
grains (al) but no starch. Usually three layers of palisade cells underlie
the inner epidermis.
Fig. 216. Fenugreek. Seed in cross
section. S' spermoderm consists of
pal palisade cells with cut cuticle and
I light line, sub subepidermal layer,
and p parenchyma; E endosperm con-
sists of a aleurone cells and muc mu-
cilage cells; C cotyledon, with ep1 and
ep2 epidermal layers and al aleurone
cells. X160. (Wdjton.)
which is evident on adding
In sections mounted in water
The cells appear to be
262 LEGUMES.
DIAGNOSIS.
Fenugreek is a common ingredient of condimental cattle foods and
condition powders, where it is recognized by its characteristic taste and
odor.
The high, pointed palisade cells (Figs. 215 and 216, pal) with
mucilaginous outer membranes {cut), the ribbed column cells (sub),
and the aleurone cells (a) are all easily found in fragments of the hull.
Starch is absent throughout.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18); Hassall (19); Meyer, A. (27);
Moeller (31); Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch (39); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40).
Godfetn: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc
d. Sci. d. Nancy. 1880, 109.
DE Lanessan : Sur la structure des graines du Trigonella Foenum Graecum et la pre-
sence d'un albumen dans ces graines. Bull, de la soc. Linn, de Paris seance du 4
juillet 1877, 134.
Sempolowski: Ueber den Bau des Schale landwirthschaftlich wichtiger Samen.
Landw. Jahrb. 1874, 3, 823.
COFFEE CASSIA.
Seeds of coffee cassia or Mogdad coffee (Cassia occidentalis L.) are
raised in parts of Africa, the East and West Indies, and other tropical
regions as a substitute for coffee.
Although a legume, the seed in external appearance does not resemble
at all those of any other common member of the family. It is flattened
obovoid, 4-6 mm. long, 3-4 mm. broad, its shape reminding one of the
sesame seed. Its color is dark gray. An elliptical spot on the middle of
each flattened side is dull and lusterless; the remainder of the surface
however, is lustrous, owing to an enamel-like coating, which readily
flakes off from the dry seed. The embryo, consisting of two thin but
broad heart-shaped cotyledons and a short, straight radicle is em-
bedded in a horny endosperm.
HISTOLOGY.
After soaking in water for 24 hours, the outer coats form a slimy
mass, which can be separated for study in surface view. The soaked
seed also serves for cutting sections of the endosperm and embryo, but
the dry or partially swollen seed is better suited for sections of the outer
coats.
COFFEE CASSIA.
263
The Spermoderm (Fig. 217) is closely united with the endosperm.
1. Palisade Cells (p). These are 60-75 F high an(i 3~7 P broad,
the breadth being less than in most members of the family. A striking
characteristic is the cuticular membrane, which is not a cuticle proper,
but is made up of the metamorphosed outer portions of the palisade cells.
Cross sections show that in the elliptical spots already mentioned this
cuticular membrane is 30-35 n thick, or nearly half the height of the
cells, though in other parts it is only about 1 2 y.. That it is derived from
the cells proper is indicated by the faint markings perpendicular to the
Fig. 217. Coffee Cassia (Cissii occiden-
talis). Elements of spermoderm. p pali-
sade cells in surface view; c isolated
cells; cp cuticular plates; s subepidermal
cells. (Moeller.)
Fig. 218. Coffee Cassia. Cells of endo-
sperm with brown contents. X160.
(Moeixer.)
surface, which correspond lo the radial walls of the inner portion of
the layer. These are more distinct in the broader portion of the
membrane. The enamel-like scales (cp) which separate from the dry
seed consist of this membrane, although over the spots the fusion is
more complete and no such separation takes place. The light line is
confined entirely to the inner portion of the layer, being most distinct
beneath the thick portion of the cuticular membrane. About two-thirds
of the distance from the line of separation of the cuticular membrane to
the inner surface of the layer there is noticeable a line of demarcation,
caused by the presence of dark contents in the cell cavities, which are
there somewhat inflated. In surface view the membrane displays peculiar
zigzag walls. Moeller was the first to call attention to the disintegra-
tion of the palisade cells through swelling, which takes place after soaking
for a day or two in water. The cuticular membrane is not affected by
264 LEGUMES.
this treatment, but the cells proper are reduced to a mass of hair-like
bodies, shown in Fig. 217, c.
2. The Column Cells (s) are 16-25 /" l°ng> 25~4° f- broad, and have
somewhat thickened walls.
3. The Parenchyma Cells -are also thick-walled.
Endosperm (Fig. 218). This resembles the horny endosperm of the
carob bean, consisting of cells with enormously swollen walls and brown
protein contents. Cross sections are elliptical, bisected by the narrow,
band-like sections of the cotyledons.
Embryo. The thin cotyledons have two rows of palisade cells on
the inner surface. They contain proteins and fat.
DIAGNOSIS.
This seed is one of the few belonging to the legume family that con-
tains no starch. The cuticular membrane is alike characteristic both
in section and surface view. It is thickest on the elliptical spots. The
small breadth of the palisade cells, their length, and the horny character
of the endosperm, further aid in identification. If time permits, the
effect of soaking the material for a day or two in water should be noted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10) ; Moeller (29) ; Vogl
(45).
Moeller: Ueber Cassia-Samen. Bot. Ztg. 1880, 38, 737.
ASTRAGALUS.
The coffee astragalus {Astragalus baelicus L.) is found wild in Spain
and Portugal, and is cultivated in other parts of Europe for its seeds,
which, after roasting, are said to have a true coffee flavor. "Swedish
Continental Coffee," a popular substitute for coffee, is a preparation of
this seed.
The seeds resemble fenugreek in color, shape, and size. They are
brown, more or less rhombohedral with flattened ends, and are upward
of 5 mm. long and about two-thirds as broad. The position of the radicle
is distinctly marked on the surface.
HISTOLOGY.
In anatomical structure also, the seeds of astragalus and fenugreek
are very similar, the chief difference being in the size and structure of the
palisade cells.
ASTKALAGUS. ALFALFA.
265
Spermoderm (Fig. 219)
125-150 n high, and 12-20 ,u
1. The Palisade Cells (p) are colorless,
broad. They are somewhat geniculate
Although there is no distinct line of
-P
Fig. 219. Astragalus (A. baeticus). Surface
view of p palisade cells and t subepidermal
cells. X 160. (Moeller.)
like the palisade cells of the lupine,
demarcation, the cavity in the inner
portion is broader and more irregu-
lar than in the outer.
2. Column Cells (t). These are
hour-glass-shaped, 16-40 ,u high,
and 35-75 f- broad. Distinct ribs
are conspicuous both in cross sec-
tion and surface view.
3. Parenchyma. This layer is
much compressed and presents no
interesting features.
Endosperm. 1. An Aleurone
Layer of more or less rectangular cells 25-50 // broad forms the outer
coat.
2. Mucilage Cells much like those of fenugreek constitute the horny
inner portion of the endosperm. Viewed in water, only the faint outline
of the cells is visible.
Embryo. Proteid matter and fat form the reserve material. Starch
is not present. The cells of the cotyledons are thronghout thin-walled
and somewhat elongated, those in the inner layers being pronounced
palisade cells.
DIAGNOSIS.
All the tissues are practically the same as in fenugreek, except the
palisade cells, which are fully twice as high and are neither swollen nor
pointed at the outer extremities. These cells are geniculate and nearly
colorless. In surface view the ribbed column cells (Fig. 219, i) remind
one of sunbursts, but this appearance is common to fenugreek, alfalfa,
and some other leguminons seeds. Starch is absent.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10); Harz (18); Moeller
G»9).
ALFALFA.
The forage plant known as alfalfa or lucerne (Medica sativa (L.)
Mill., Medicago sativa L.) is a native of Asia, where it has been cultivated
since long before the Christian era. It is now extensively grown in both
266
LEGUMES.
hemispheres, especially in the arid and semiarid regions of the United
States. Ground alfalfa is a valuable cattle food. When wheat follows
alfalfa in rotation the grain is liable to contain alfalfa seed as an impurity.
Although the plant is described as glabrous, hairs are evident under
a lens on the leaves and flowers. The leaves (Fig. 220, I) are alternate
with three obovate to lanceolate leaflets finely dentate at the apex. The
violet flowers (II) occur in racemes. At maturity the brown pods (IV)
are coiled and contain greenish-brown seeds (III) up to 3 mm. in length.
Numerous cultivated varieties differ from the type in the color of the
Fig. 220. Alfalfa (Medica sal iva). I, leaf,
Xi; II, flower, X3; HI, seed, X3;
IV, fruit, X3. (K. B. Winton.)
Fig. 220a. Alfalfa. Elements of stem in
surface view, ep epidermis; /' bast
fibers; f wood fibers; sp spiral vessel;
to pitted vessel. X160. (K.B.Win-
ton.)
flower (blue, yellow, green, and white) and in the number of pod coils,
seeds and leaflets.
HISTOLOGY.
Stem. The elements (Fig. 220a) are not characteristic.
Leaf. The tissues (Fig. 2206) are not only striking, but of great
importance in diagnosis.
1. Upper Epidermis. The cell walls are strongly sinuous. Numerous
stomata are scattered over the surface and occasional hairs, similar to those
on the lower epidermis, o.ccur at the base of the leaf.
2. Mesophyl. The ground tissue is characterless parenchyma. Rows
of crystal cells (Fig. 2206, cr) accompany the bundles.
3. Lower Epidermis (Fig. 220b). This differs from the upper epider-
mis principally in the greater number of hairs and their occurrence over
the entire surface. The hairs are of two types: (1) unicellular, warty,
thick-walled, sinuous (t1) and (2) capitate, smooth, thin-walled (f) . Similar
hairs also occur on the calyx.
ALFALFA.
267
Pericarp (Fig. 220c). The hair scars of the epicarp (x) and the
crystals cells (cr) are of interest.
Fig. 2206. Alfalfa. Lower epidermis of
leaf with t1 unicellular hair, t1 capi-
tate hair, and sto stoma;, cr crystal
cells accompanying bundles. X160.
(K. B. WlNTON.)
FlG. 220c. Alfalfa. Elements of pod in
surface view, aep outer epidermis
with x hair scar; iep inner epider-
mis; cr crystal layer; / fibers.
X160. (K. B. Winton.)
Fig. 22od. Alfalfa. Seed in cross sec-
tion. 5 spermoderm consists of
pal, palisade cells with cut cuticle
and I light line, sub subepidermal
layer (hour-glass cells) and p par-
enchyma; E endosperm; C cot-
yledon with ep epidermis and
al aleurone cells. X 160. (K.
B. Winton.)
Fig. 220c. Alfalfa. Elements of seed in surface
view, pal1 outer ends of palisade cells, pal2
inner ends of palisade cells, sub subepider-
mal layer (hour-glass cells) and p1, p2 pa-
renchyma of spermoderm; ep epidermis
and p3 parenchyma of endosperm. X160.
(K. B. Winton.)
Spermoderm (Fig. 22od, 5; Fig. 2200). 1. The Palisade Cells (pal)
are upward of 45 /j. high and 8-10 n broad, with blunt-pointed outer
268
LEGUMES.
ends and thin cuticle. A narrow light line (/) is situated about 7 ji from
the outer surface.
2. The Column Cells (sub) although usually only 6 p. high, are broad
(up to 45 n) . Distinct ribs are present.
3. Parenchyma (p). The outer layers are of simple parenchyma, the
inner of the spongy type.
The Endosperm and Embryo contain aleurone grains but no starch.
Fig. 221. Red Clover {Trifolium pratense). Fig. 221a. Alsike Clover (Trifo-
Lower epidermis of leaf with t1 unicellular Hum hybridum). Lower epider-
hair arising I from swelling of epidermis, t2 mis of leaf with I1 unicellular
capitate hair, and sto stoma. X160. hair, I1 capitate hair, and sto sto-
(K. B. Winton.) ma. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
DIAGNOSIS.
The characters of chief value in the identification of ground alfalfa
are the form of the lower epidermal cells of the leaf, the diameter of the
unicellular hairs, and the prominence of the warts on these hairs. The
distinction of alfalfa (Fig. 2206) from red clover (Fig. 221) and Alsike
clover (Fig. 221a) are brought out in the following table:
Alfalfa.
Red Clover.
Alsike Clover.
Lower epidermis of
leaf
Wavy walls
Deeply sinuous walls
with projections at
angles and about
stomata
Straight walls
Unicellular hairs of
leaf
Average diameter 15
H, warts prominent
Average diameter 30
ju, warts prominent;
arising from epider-
mal swelling
Average diameter 13
ix, warts indistinct, ,
Palisade cells of seed
Outer end blunt-
pointed
Outer end flattened
Outer end blunt-
pointed
PEANUT.
269
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Harz (18).
Winton, K. B.: Comparative Histology of Alfalfa and Clovers. Bot. Gaz., IOi4
57, 53. ' y *>
PEANUT.
Formerly the peanut {Arachis hypogaea L.) was thought to be a native
of the Old World.but more recent investigations indicate that it is a Brazil-
ian plant which was introduced into other regions in early colonial times.
At the present time, peanuts are grown in Africa, Southern Europe,
India, China, Japan, and the Islands of the Pacific, largely for the pro-
duction of oil and oil cake, the latter serving as food for man and cattle,
and in the United States for consumption as roasted peanuts and in peanut
confectionery. Peanut hay, consisting of the stalks, leaves, and immature
pods is utilized as a cattle food. About 4,000,000 bushels of peanuts
are annually consumed in the United States, the larger part being roasted
and sold on the street.1
The African variety, grown not only in Africa, but -also in India and
other parts of the eastern hemisphere, as well as in North Carolina, yields
a small pod with seeds rich in oil. A variety with larger pods (often 4-5 cm.
long), but less oily seeds, is extensively grown in Virginia, yielding the
nuts commonly roasted by venders. Tennessee produces two varieties,
the white and the red. A small podded variety is grown in Spain partly
for the production of oil, and partly for the cake which, mixed with choco-
late and spices, is a common food for the lower classes. The Spanish
peanut is also cultivated to a limited extent in America.
Peanuts of the varieties named usually contain two seeds, less often
one, rarely three. Costa Rica produces a variety with long pods containing
four to five seeds. A variety grown in Argentine Republic has pods of a
deep orange color.
The peanut belongs to a small group of legumes which ripen their
fruit below ground. Shortly after blooming the flower stalks bend down-
ward until the young fruit is completely buried in the soil. If for any
reason this does not occur the fruit fails to ripen.
The dry pod, or pericarp, is brittle and easily broken with the fingers.
Ten or more longitudinal ridges with anastomosing branches form more
or less distinct reticulations on the outer surface (Fig. 222). Beneath
1 Handy: U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers' Bui. No. 25.
270
LEGUMES.
the surface is a spongy tissue, further inward v. thin but hard woody coat
(Fig. 222a,/), and still further inward, forming the lining of the pod, a
papery tissue (p) with a silky luster. In the early stages of ripening the
seeds completely fill the pod, and as a result of this crowding the adjacent
surfaces are flattened in a diagonal plane. This flattened surface is at
the hilum end of the upper seed, at the chalaza end of the lower seed. When
ripe the seeds only partly fill the cavity. The united spermoderm and
perisperm form a thin skin, red or brown on the outer, colorless or yellow
Fig. 222. Peanut {Arachis hy-
pogaea). Fruit, natural size.
(Winton.)
Fig. 2220. Peanut. Cross section of fruit, m meso-
carp, / fiber layer and p parenchyma, of the pericarp;
g nbro-vascular bundle; 5 spermoderm; C coty-
ledon. X4. (Winton.)
on the inner surface, on which are veins formed by the raphe and the
five branches radiating from it at the chalaza.
The elongated cotyledons (Fig. 222a, C) are longitudinally grooved
on the inner surface.
HISTOLOGY.
The Pericarp (Figs. 223 and 224), or shell, while morphologically
corresponding with the pod of other legumes, exhibits some remarkable
peculiarities traceable partly at least to the conditions encountered while
ripening in the soil. Not only is it deprived of all chlorophyl and con-
sequently of the photosynthetic power of the leaf, but, on the other hand,
is provided with root hairs, and presumably possesses to some degree
the absorptive function of a true root. In other words, the pericarp,
although morphologically a leaf, acts physiologically as a root.
1. The Epicarp Cells (ep) have such thin walls that they are seen
with difficulty in surface view. In cross section, especially after stain-
ing with safranin, the presence of typical root hairs, arising from the
center of many of the epidermal cells, is evident. These hairs are not
PEANUT. 271
usually present on the peanuts sold by venders, due probably to
their removal by cleaning or by friction of one against the other in the
bags.
2. Hypoderm {hy). The cells of one or more layers beneath the epi-
'dermis have thin non-porous walls, but further inward the walls are
Fig. 223. Peanut. Pericarp in cross section, ep epicarp with k hair; hy hypoderm;
mes mesocarp; qj transversely elongated fibers; Ij longitudinally elongated fibers;
p parenchyma; 6 bast fibers, ph phloem and xy xylem, of a fibro-vascular bundle. X 80.
(Wdstton.)
thick and conspicuously porous. Owing to these pores as well as their
quadrilateral shape the cells are readily identified in powdered shells.
3. The Mesocarp (mes), or more properly the outer parenchyma layer,
consists of thin-walled cells which become obliterated to a large extent
on ripening. Over the bundles this layer is thin or lacking.
4. Fiber Layer (Fig. 223, qf, I}; Fig. 224, /, z, g, h, k, t). A thin but
hard coat of fibers extended in different tangential directions gives rigidity
to the pericarp. Many of these fibers bear rows of saw-teeth (z), be-
tween which lie the crossing fibers of an adjacent layer. At the end they
are often branched, giving rise to halberd-shaped (h) and other curious
forms. Many other remarkable cells varying greatly in size, form and
wall thickness occur in this layer.
The ridges forming the reticulations of the nut are but channeled
outgrowths of this layer, formed by remarkable T- (/) and L-shaped
fibers. Often in partially macerated specimens one finds a series of
these angled fibers, part of e.ach belonging to the fiber-layer proper, the
remainder to a ridge.
272 LEGUMES.
In the channels of these outgrowths run the nbro-vascular bundles
with well-marked bast fibers (b), phloem (ph), and xylem (xy).
5. Inner Parenchyma (p). Cross sections of partly ripe seeds show
a thick inner layer of pith-like cells, with triangular intercellular spaces
at the corners. At full maturity, especially after drying the seeds, the
compressed cells of this layer form the papery lining of the shell.
FlG. 224. Peanut. Isolated elements of the pericarp, a and b cells of the hypoderm;
/, s, k, k, t, d and g cells of the fiber layer. X 160. (Winton.)
The Spermoderm (Fig. 225, S; Fig. 226) and perisperm form a thin
dry skin which may be readily separated and sectioned either dry in paraf-
fine, or wet between pieces of pith. As recommended by T. F. Hanau-
sek, sections should be treated either with hydrochloric acid and alkali,
or with Javelle water, in order to make the inner epidermis of the sper-
moderm evident.
1. The Outer Epidermis (aep) corresponds with the palisade layer
of other legumes, although the two appear at first sight to have nothing
in common. The cells are 15-25 /i high and 25-50 ft broad. Cross
PEANUT.
273
sections show that the inner walls are thin, but that the radial walls in-
crease in thickness from within outward, and as a consequence the cavities
are more or less triangular in shape.
aep
Fig. 225. Peanut. Seed in cross section. 5 spermoderm consists of aep outer epidermis,
pl parenchyma, p2 and p3 spongy parenchyma, and iep inner epidermis; g fibro-vascular
bundle; N perisperm; C cotyledon consists of ep epidermis with sto stoma and the
porous parenchyma cells containing st starch grains and al aleurone grains. X 1 60.
(Wintton.)
FlG. 226. Peanut. Elements of the seed in surface view, aep outer epidermis of spermo-
derm; p1 parenchyma; p2 and ps spongy parenchyma; g bundle; iep inner epidermis
of spermoderm; N perisperm;. ep epidermis of cotyledon with sto stoma. X160.
(Winton.)
Radially elongated pores pierce the thickened portion of the walls,
forming ribs. Examined in surface view the sharply polygonal cells
274 LEGUMES.
with thickened and porous radial walls present a characteristic appear-
ance.
When it is considered that the palisade cells of nearly all legumes are
polygonal in surface view and have ribbed radial walls, increasing in
thickness from within outward, it is evident that these cells differ from
the type merely in that they are broader, higher, and have a broader
lumen.
2. Subepidermal Layer (p1). Column cells such as characterize other
legumes are not present, the layer being of thin-walled parenchyma cells
without intercellular spaces.
3. Parenchyma. The character of the cells varies from ordinary
parenchyma (p1) in the outer layers to spongy parenchyma with moderate-
sized intercellular spaces in the middle layers (p2) and then to a very
striking spongy parenchyma, with narrow branching cells and rela-
tively large intercellular spaces in the inner layers (p3). These latter
aid in identification. Strongly developed vascular elements occur in
the raphe bundles and its branches.
4. Inner Epidermis (iep). Treatment of sections with Javelle water
brings into evidence the inner epidermis. In surface preparations
treated in the same manner, and stained with safranin, the cells are
quadrilateral, usually elongated, with often marked evidence of division
and subdivision of the mother cells.
Perisperm (Figs. 225 and 226, N). A single layer of moderately
thick-walled cells with somewhat wavy contour forms the inner coat of
the skin. The contents, according to T. F. Hanausek, are granules
consisting sometimes of corroded crystals.
The Embryo (C) comprises two large cotyledons and a relatively
small radicle.
1. The Epidermal Cells (ep) of the cotyledons are characterized by
their elongated form and thick outer walls. Small aleurone grains are
present in all the cells, and starch grains of small size, according to
Hanausek, only in the guard cells of the stomata (st).
2. Mesophyl. Cells of large size containing aleurone grains (al),
starch grains (st), and fat make up the larger part of the cotyledons.
Their double walls, pierced by large pores, range up to 6 p. in thickness,
being separated at the angles to form small intercellular spaces. The
starch grains (up to 15 /1) are globular and have a central hilum. The
aleurone grains vary greatly in shape and size, some of them being about
the size of the largest starch grains, most of them, however, only half
TONKA BEAN. 275
or a third as large. Several globoids are present in the largest
grains.
DIAGNOSIS.
Peanut shells (pericarp) are a normal constituent of peanut cake
made from unhulled peanuts and of cattle food made from damaged or
immature fruits. They are identified by the pitted, more or less quadri-
lateral hypoderm cells (Fig. 224, a, b) and the various elements of the
fiber layer, particularly the L- and T-shaped (t), toothed (z) and halberd-
shaped (h) forms. The root hairs of the epidermis are difficult to find
and the compressed parenchyma cells are not characteristic.
Products containing the seed include peanut cake, peanut confectionery,
peanut butter (a paste prepared from the seed after removal of the pericarp
and spermoderm), and the mixtures of chocolate and peanut cake prepared
in Spain and possibly in other countries. The products contain not
only the starch (Fig. 225, st), fat and proteids of the seed, but also in
greater or less amount the tissues of the spermoderm (Fig. 226), of
which the porous, sharply polygonal cells of the outer epidermis (aep),
and the spongy parenchyma cells, often with narrow arms (p3), are most
useful in diagnosis. Fragments of the spermoderm, brown or red on the
outer, yellow on the inner surface, can often be picked out under the
single microscope.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (10); Hanausek,
T. F. (48); Harz (18); Moeller (29); Vogl (45).
Bilteryst: Recherche de l'arachide et de son tourteau dans le chocolat. Jour, pharm.
chim. 1897, 6, 29.
Kobus: Rraftfutter und seiner Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 13, 813.
Uhlitzsch: Ruckstande der Erdnussolfabrikation. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1892, 41, 385.
Winton: The Anatomy of the Peanut with Special Reference to its Microscopic Identifi-
cation in Food Products. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1904, 191.
TONKA BEAN.
South America produces the larger part of the Tonka or Tonquin
beans of commerce, the chief ports of shipment being Angostura in Vene-
zuela, Surinam in Guiana, and Para in Brazil.
The true Tonka bean is the seed of Coumarouna odorata Aubl. (Dip-
teryx odorata Willd.), but less important commercial sorts are the products
276 LEGUMES.
of other species of the same genus (C. oppositijolia (Aubl.) Taub., etc.).
They are used in perfumery, flavoring extracts, and medicines.
As seen in the market, the black seeds vary from 25-50 mm. in length
and from 10-20 mm. in breadth, measured across the flattened sides at the
broadest part. One edge of the seed is sharp, the other blunt, the hilum
being situated on the blunt edge near one end. The surface is wrinkled
and often covered with white crystals of coumarin, the flavoring principle
of this seed as well as of the leaves of sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis),
sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), and the sweet woodruff
(Asperula odorata). Two large cotyledons with a small radicle at the
end make up the embryo.
HISTOLOGY.
T. F. Hanausek has called attention to the histological structure of
this seed, which shows some remarkable variations from the usual legu-
minous type.
Spermoderm. This, together with the perisperm and the nearly
obliterated endosperm, separates from the embryo as a thin, brittle shell.
1. The Palisade Cells are much thinner- walled than in ordinary
legumes, the cavity being broader than the double walls even in the outer
portion where the walls are thickest. A nearly black substance fills the
cavity. Seen in cross section, these cells are rectangular; in surface view,
polygonal. The outer half of each cell is thickened by ribs arranged
parallel to the axis and separated from each other by narrow slits or pores.
Focusing on this outer portion of the cell, the thickened walls in surface
view appear beaded. The cells are 50-65 fi high and 16-25 J" broad.
After maceration in alkali their characteristics are manifest.
2. The Column Cells have thickened walls and are not in close contact.
Although hour-glass-shaped, the cells are often curiously distorted. They
are 15-24 ji high, 30-50 ji broad.
3. Spongy Parenchyma with moderately thick walls and well marked
intercellular spaces forms the third layer. In the inner layers the cells
are much compressed.
4. An Inner Epidermis or pigment layer consists of transversely
elongated cells with dark contents.
Perisperm. A layer of aleurone cells is classed by Hanausek as a
nucellar remnant or perisperm.
Endosperm. Within the aleurone layer is a hyaline membrane with
jndistinct cellular structure, the remains of the endosperm.
Embryo. The isodiametric cells of the cotyledons contain round
CAROB BEAN. 277
starch grains (4-9 /x) and yellow, irregularly elongated aleurone grains up
to 35 n long, embedded in a ground substance of fat and proteid material.
As the aleurone grains are insoluble in water, both these and the starch
grains are clearly differentiated by extracting sections with ether and
mounting in potassium iodide iodine. Hanausek found that if the section
was treated with alcohol before mounting in iodine solution, only a faint
blue color appeared in the starch grains, a phenomenon which he attributed
to the formation of a protective coat over the grains preventing the entrance
of the iodine.
DIAGNOSIS.
Although synthetic coumarin has, to a large degree, replaced Tonka
beans, the latter are still used in considerable amount in perfumery,
snuff, and flavoring extracts. As vanilla extract is often mixed with
extract of the Tonka bean, it is quite possible that ground vanilla beans
are adulterated with ground Tonka beans.
Coumarin may be isolated and quantitatively determined by chemical
means; but the microscope must be depended on to detect ground
Tonka beans.
The palisade cells with dark contents, characteristic alike in section
and surface view, the irregularly shaped column cells and the grains of
aleurone and starch contained in the cotyledons, render identification a
simple matter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (48); Planchon et Collin
(34); Vogl (44).
CAROB BEAN.
The nutritive elements of the carob bean (Ceratonia Siliqua L.) reside
chiefly in the fleshy pods, which contain a high percentage of sugar.
It is believed that the husks eaten by the prodigal son were the pods of
this bean, then as now a common swine food; also that the locusts and
wild honey on which John the Baptist subsisted while in the wilderness
were respectively the seeds and pods of this same bean, hence the name
St. John's bread.
Throughout the countries bordering on the Mediterranean the carob
tree is cultivated and the pods are used as food for the poorer classes
and cattle, also for the preparation of drugs, sirups, alcoholic liquors,
etc. In Germany they are eaten by children as confectionery.
The several-seeded fruit is 10-20 cm. long, 2-3 cm. broad, 5-10 mm.
278
LEGUMES.
thick, and has several cells with a coriaceous lining (endocarp), each
containing a flattened, obovate seed 8-10 mm. long of a dark wine color.
On either side of the furrowed sutures the pods are swollen, and within
each of the four swollen portions occurs a row of cavities, which are
readily seen in longitudinal section.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp (Fig. 227). Although this fruit is similar in structure to
other legumes, several of the tissues have individual characteristics which
allow of their ready identification.
b x
FIG. 227. Carob Bean (Ceratonia Siliqua). Elements of pericarp in surface view, ep
epicarp with s stoma; rp brown hypoderm; b bast fibers; mc mesocarp with z wrinkled
bodies. X160. (Moeller.)
i. Epidermis (ep). Of the several layers of cells with dark-brown
contents which together form the leathery outer portion of the pod, the
outermost consists of polygonal cells (12-30 /1) and stomata, with cuticu-
larized outer walls.
2. The Hypodermal Layer (rp), often 120 /i thick, is made up of
6-10 layers of tabular parenchyma cells, which, in surface view, are
rounded. They are filled with brown contents like that in the epicarp.
3. Fibro-vascular Bundles. The bast fibers (b) form a nearly unin-
terrupted layer. They are accompanied by crystal- fibers (k), each con-
taining a single crystal, and stone cells (st). Further inward are the
phloem and xylem, the latter containing only a few vascular elements.
CAROB BEAN. 27c,
4. Mesocarp (mc). The fruit-flesh or mesocarp is a thick tissue
of large, thin -walled, radially elongated parenchyma cells, containing
sugar and large, curiously wrinkled, reddish-brown lumps (2). These
lumps are insoluble in water, alcohol, acetic acid, and dilute sulphuric
acid. Chlorzinc iodine colors them yellow, the cell-walls blue. A
highly characteristic reaction is the colors produced by caustic soda
or potash. If the alkali is cold and dilute, the color changes first to
green, then to blue-gray. Heating produces a violet color. If, however,
the alkali is strong and heat is cautiously applied, a magnificent deep
blue is obtained at once. This color is insoluble in alcohol and ether,
but slowly changes on exposure to the air (more quickly with hydro-
chloric acid) to red-brown.
5. Inner Fiber Layer. The cavities containing the seeds have a
chartaceous lining or "endocarp" consisting of bast fibers, crystal
fibers, and stone cells, much like those occurring in the fibro-vascular
bundles of the outer pericarp, also of an inner epidermis. The fibers
in this layer are arranged transversely, in other words, at right angles
to those of the outer pericarp.
6. The Inner Epidermis or Endocarp proper consists of a single
layer of small, isodiametric cells (15-25 n) with swollen and conspicu-
ously beaded walls.
The Spermoderm is closely united with the endosperm.
1. The Palisade Cells examined in water are 170-250/1 high, of which
35-50 n is a swollen outer layer with no evident lumens.
2. Column Cells. The walls of the hour-glass-shaped column cells
swell greatly, so that the cavities are hardly discernable. Intercellular
spaces are, however, distinctly evident. The layer is 20-35 f- thick.
3. Parenchyma. The walls throughout are greatly swollen. In
the outer and middle layers, the cells are large ; in the inner layers small,
and in addition dark colored.
The Endosperm (Fig. 228) is green- white, of a dense horny structure.
In the middle of the broad side of the seeds it is 2 mm. thick, but dimin-
ishes toward the edges, where it is almost entirely absent. The partitions
between the cells are enormously thickened, owing to a deposition of
a carbohydrate material in the intercellular spaces. On heating with
water this intercellular substance dissolves, while the swollen inner
membrane or true cell-wall remains intact. Protein and fat are the
only visible cell-contents.
Embryo. In cross section the embryo appears as a narrow, yellow
280
LEGUMES.
band less than i mm. thick, extending along the entire longer axis of the
ellipse dividing the endosperm into two semielliptical halves.
Three inner layers of palisade cells and several outer layers of iso-
diametric cells form the mesophyl. The contents are aleurone grains
and fat.
DIAGNOSIS.
Ground carob beans are used as a cattle food and a coffee substitute.
The brown, wrinkled bodies (Fig. 227, 2) of the mesocarp are identified
Fig. 228. Carob Bean. Endosperm with thickened cell walls. (Moellee.)
by the blue color produced by heating with 5-10 per cent alkali. The
bast fibers (b) and other elements of the bundles, also the cells of the
epicarp (ep) and hypoderm (rp) with brown contents, are readily found,
but are not characteristic. Of the seed elements, the long palisade cells
with swollen outer walls, and especially the endosperm cells (Fig. 228),
are most remarkable. The latter are best identified in sections cut from
the white, horny fragments.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bell (1); Harz (i8);Moeller (29); Vogl (45).
Makliere: Sur la graine et spdcialement sur l'endosperme du Ceralonia Siliqua.
La Cellule, 1897, 13, 5.
PART V.
NUTS.
PALM FRUITS (Palmce).
The fruits of the palms are either fleshy (e.g. date) or dry (e. g. cocoa-
nut). The endocarp of certain of these nuts is a thick layer of stone
cells. The reserve material of the seed, consisting largely of fat and
proteid (cocoanut, palm nut) or of cellulose in the form of thickened
cell-walls (date, ivory nut), is usually stored in the endosperm.
COCOANUT.
The cocoanut palm (Cocos nucifera L.) yields food for man and
cattle, oil, fiber, and other useful products, also adulterants.
The flowers are arranged in spikes branching from a central axis
and inclosed with a tough spathe usually a meter or more in length. A
single female flower is borne near the base of each lateral axis, and numer-
ous male flowers are distributed on all sides of the axis between the female
flower and the apex. After the male flowers drop, the naked lateral
axis persists, forming a prominent appendage of the fruit (Fig. 229, A).
Only one ovule of the three-celled ovary comes to maturity, but the tri-
carpellary nature of the fruit is indicated by its triangular shape as well
as by the longitudinal ridges and the three eyes or germinating holes of
the nut. When ripe the fruit is inverted pear-shape, 25 cm. or more in
length.
The epicarp (Fig. 229, Epi) is a smooth tough coat, of a brownish
or grayish color.
The mesocarp (Mes), consists of a thin, but hard outer coat, and
a soft portion usually 3-4 cm. thick on the sides and much thicker on
the base, with numerous longitudinally arranged fibers.
Oftentimes the inner layers of the mesocarp become impregnated
with a brown fluid, which on drying gives the thin tissue a mottled brown
appearance.
The endocarp, or shell (Fig. 229, End; Fig. 230), consists of a hard.
282
NUTS.
dark-brown coat, 2-6 mm. thick, with numerous fibers adhering to the
surface. Three nearly equidistant ridges (often indistinct) pass from
base to apex, where they unite to form a blunt point. At the basal end,
between the ridges, are the three depressions or eyes (K), the tissues of
which are much softer and thinner than those of the rest of the shell.
Mes
-End
Fig. 229. Cocoanut (Cocos nucifera). S lower part of axis forming stem; A upper end
of axis with scars of male flowers; Epi epicarp; Mes mesocarp with fibers; End endocarp
or hard shell; T portion of spermoderm adhering to endosperm; Alb endosperm sur-
rounding cavity of the nut; K germinating eye. XJ. (Winton.)
Through the softest of these eyes the embryo, embedded in the endosperm
directly behind it, escapes in sprouting.
The Spermoderm of the anatropous seed (T) is a thin coat of a light-
brown color, closely united with the endocarp without and the endo-
sperm within. Embedded in the outer portion and extending from trie
principal eye nearly to the apex is the raphe, consisting of a thin. band
of vascular tissues about i cm. broad, which sends off branches in all
directions, forming a network about the seed. The endosperm with
the inner portion of the spermoderm may be separated from the outer
spermoderm and endocarp by introducing a knife-blade between the layers.
By this operation the veins are split, part of the vascular tissue adhering
to the convex surface of the inner spermoderm and the remainder to
COCOANUT.
283
the concave surface of the outer spermoderm, so that both surfaces are
covered with reticulations.
The endosperm or meat {Alb.) is a white, fleshy
layer, 1-2 cm. thick, in which, near the base,
is embedded the small embryo. While imma-
ture, the nut is filled with a milky liquid and has no
solid endosperm, but as the ripening proceeds the
endosperm is gradually formed and at the same
time the milky liquid diminishes in quantity or
entirely disappears.
The epicarp and mesocarp are cut away from
nuts designed for export, although invariably a
small amount of the mesocarp with its fibers re-
mains attached to the shell. The dried meat
(copra) is exported in large amount to Europe,
where the oil is expressed.
Fig. 230. Cocoanut. In-
ner surface of shell with
adhering outer spermo-
derm. At the left the
raphe, from which pro-
ceed veins forming a net-
work over the surface.
Xi. (Winton.)
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp. 1. The Epicarp consists of a single layer of rectangular
cells with dark contents.
Fig. 23t. Cocoanut. Cross section of a large flattened (mesocarp) fiber, zle stegmata;
/ sheath of bast fibers; ph two phloem groups; x xylem; p parenchyma of ground
tissue; a rudimentary bundle belonging to small branch. X90. (Winton.)
2. Mesocarp. The outer portion consists of a ground tissue of thick-
walled, porous cells, through which pass longitudinally arranged strands
284
NUTS.
of bast elements. Further inward the ground tissue is thin-walled
parenchyma and the strands are well developed fibro-vascular bundles.
Wherever the brown liquid previously referred to has penetrated the
Fig. 232. Cocoanut. Longitudinal section of a large (mesocarp) fiber, sle stegmataj.
Si silicious body; / bast fibers; t tracheids with small pits; /' tracheids witfi large .pits;
sp spiral vessel ; r reticulated vessel; sc scalariform vessel ; s sieve tube; c and c' cambi-
form cells. X300. (Winton.)
inner layers of the mesocarp, groups of the parenchyma cells here and
there, being impregnated with this material, are of a brown color and
appear thicker-walled than the others (Fig. 234, br). This brown sub-
stance is quickly changed to a reddish color by alkali, but is not
affected by alcohol, ether, or the specific reagents for proteids, fats and
resins. No immediate effect is produced by
ferric chloride solution, but on long standing
the color is changed to olive-green.
Coir fibers (Figs. 231 and 232) are built
up of a thick sheath of bast fibers with rows of
stegmata on the surface, and within the sheath
two groups of phloem and one of xylem.
As seen in surface view the stegmata (ste) are circular or elliptical,
thick-walled cells (8-20 p.) extending in longitudinal rows over the surface
of the fibers. Inclosed in each cell and filling it almost completely is
a silicious body (Fig. 233), 6-12 fi, with wart-like protuberances on the
surface.
The phloem elements are sieve tubes and cambiform cells; the xylem
elements, spiral, reticulated and scalariform vessels, also tracheids.
Fig. 233. Cocoanut. Silicious
bodies from the stegmata of
a fiber. X1500. (Winton.)
COCOANUT.
285
w-
Mes
glaj||§§|&s >End
1st—
qst — ^
Fig. 234. Cocoanut. Cross section of shell. End endocarp or hard shell; Mes adhering
mesocarp; T adhering outer spermoderm; w colorless parenchyma of mesocarp; br
same as w but impregnated with a brown substance; g vascular bundles in the endo-
carp, with phloem and xylem partially obliterated; 1st longitudinally elongated and
isodiametric stone cells; qst transversely elongated stone cells. X60. (WrNTON.)
286
NUTS.
3. Endocarp (Figs. 234 and 235). This coat, known commonly as the
shell, is a dense aggregation of stone cells, among which run longitudi-
nally, partially destroyed bundles.
The stone cells have thick, deep yellow walls, branching pores,
and dark-brown contents. They are either isodiametric or strongly
1st
Fig. 235. Cocoanut. Longitudinal-radial section of shell (endocarp) through the stone
cells and edge of bundle, qst transversely elongated and isodiametric stone cells; 1st
longitudinally elongated stone cells; / thick-walled porous cells; g pitted vessel; sp
spiral vessel. X300. (Winton.)
elongated. The latter (often 20 fi long) are usually spindle- or wedge-
shaped-, although hammer-shaped, hooked and various other curious
forms abound.
They are arranged in groups, commonly with the longer diameters in
tangential transverse directions and are best seen in cross sections of
the shell (qst), but in some groups, particularly those adjoining the
bundles, they pass longitudinally about the shell (1st).
Groups of thinner-walled cells with dark-brown contents are occa-
sionally met with.
COCOANUT.
287
The brown contents of all the endocarp cells react the same as the
brown impregnating material of the mesocarp.
Vascular bundles (Fig. 234, g; Fig. 235) are studied with difficulty in
the mature shell. By the rupture of the phloem and part of the xylem
during growth, passages are formed, which, in shells transversely cut or
broken, are evident to the naked eye as minute holes. The structure
sp-~
Fig. 236. Cocoanut. Tangential section of outer spermoderm showing ground tissue
of thick-walled porous cells. Most of these are empty, but a few contain brown contents
in the form of k globules, or v films with circular openings, st colorless stone cells;
sp spiral trachea. X300. (Winton.)
of the bundles is still further obscured by the presence of fungus threads
and spores.
In structure the bundles differ from those of the mesocarp fibers,
the bast fibers being replaced by forms (/) intermediate between these
and tracheids. The vascular elements are chiefly spiral vessels (sp),
and pitted vessels (g), the latter being especially noticeable.
Spermoderm. i. Outer Layers. This coat consists of a ground
tissue of large, variously shaped cells, crossing one another in all direc-
tions (Fig. 236), between which ramify the veins.
2. Inner Layers. Firmly attached to the endosperm are from ten
to twenty layers of small isodiametric or slightly elongated cells. The
NUTS.
double walls are about 3 p thick and free from pores. These cells con-
tain a material varying in color from light yellow to dark brown, which
either fills them completely or occurs in globules, films, etc., as in some
of the cells of the outer spermoderm. In
the layer adjoining the endosperm the cells
are smaller and have darker brown con-
tents than the cells in the other layers.
Endosperm (Fig. 237). In the outer
layers, the prismatic cells are nearly iso-
diametric (about 50 p in diameter), but
further inward they are radially elongated,
often reaching a length of 300 p. Double
cell-walls are about 3 p thick. According
to T. F. Hanausek, the radial walls are
non-porous; the tangential walls, however,
show large, but indistinct pores, which are
evident after heating with water or treat-
ment with alkali. The cell-contents are
bundles of needle-shaped fat crystals, and
aleurone grains, each grain usually con-
taining a large crystalloid, sometimes 25 p
in diameter. Ether and alcohol readily
dissolve the fat crystals and strong alkali saponifies them. The aleurone
grains give the usual color reactions with iodine, Millon's reagent,
and dyes.
DIAGNOSIS.
Shredded Cocoanut is the desiccated flesh of the cocoanut reduced
to a coarse powder and usually prepared with glycerine and sugar. It
is sold in packages for use in making pastries and confectionery.
The microscopic elements are the thin-walled cells (Fig. 237) of the
endosperm, containing large aleurone grains and fat, also occasional
fragments of the spermoderm.
Cocoanut Cake, the residue from the manufacture of cocoanut oil,
is in Europe a well-known cattle food and adulterant of spices, but is
almost unknown in the United States. The cells of the endosperm are
distinguished from those of the palm nut by their thinner walls; the
contents of large aleurone grains and fat are, however, much the same
in the two species. Of no little value in diagnosis are the tissues of the
Fig. 237. Cocoanut. Cross section
of endosperm in glycerine, al
aleurone grain; kr crystalloid; jk
fat crystals; ei oil plasma. (T.
F. Hanausek.)
COCOANUT. 289
*
spermoderm, especially the porous, moderately thick-walled elements
of the outer layers.
Cocoanut Shells. It is stated on credible authority that in a certain
American city several hundred tons of shells, obtained as a by-product
in the preparation of shredded cocoanut were annually reduced to a powder
in mills of peculiar construction and sold to spice grinders. This powder,
without further treatment, is mixed with ground allspice, which it closely
resembles in appearance. By cautious roasting the color of ground
cloves and nutmegs is matched, and by roasting at a higher temperature
a charcoal is obtained which, mixed with starchy matter, is a clever
imitation of black pepper.
Powdered cocoanut shells appear to be a distinctively American
adulterant, while cocoanut cake, which in Europe is commonly em-
ployed both as a cattle food and as an adulterant of human foods, is
almost unknown in America.
All the tissue elements of the mesocarp, the endocarp and the outer
spermoderm are present in cocoanut shell powder (Fig. 238), but the
stone cells (st) of the endocarp make up the bulk of the material. These
stone cells are characterized by their brown-yellow walls, their dark-
brown contents becoming red-brown on treatment with alkali, and the
predominance of peculiar elongated forms. They differ in one or more
of these characteristics from the stone cells of pepper, allspice, clove
stems, walnut shells, almond shells, Brazil-nut shells, hazelnut shells,
peach stones and olive stones.
The outer spermoderm or lining of the shell also forms a consider-
able part of the powder, the most striking elements being the thick- walled
porous cells (/>) and the vascular elements.
Colorless cells of the mesocarp ground tissue (w) are not distinguish-
able from the parenchyma of many other plants, but when impregnated
with the brown substance which has been described they are striking
objects (br). Alkali changes the color of these brown cells to a reddish
brown, but ferric chloride does not produce any immediate effect, thus
distinguishing them from the brown cells of allspice seed, the color of
which alkali removes and ferric chloride changes at once to a
green.
Spiral, reticulated, and pitted vessels (sp, t, and g), from the meso-
carp, endocarp, and spermoderm bundles, are also frequently met with
in the powder, the pitted vessels being quite unlike any vascular ele-
ments of the spices.
2 go
NUTS.
The stegmata (ste) of the mesocarp fibers with their silicious con-
tents are characteristic, but they are difficult to find owing to the great
Fig. 238. Cocoanut shell. Elements in powder form, si dark-yellow stone cells with
brown contents; t reticulated vessel; sp spiral vessel; g pitted vessel; w colorless, and
br brown parenchyma of mesocarp; / bast fibers with ste stegmata. X160. (Winton.)
preponderance of other tissues. Bast fibers (/) are more liable to be
encountered than stegmata, but they furnish less conclusive evidence.
Spices adulterated with charred cocoanut shells show under the
microscope black, opaque fragments which are not bleached by aqua
regia, or nitric acid and potassium chlorate. Except in cases where
some of the stone cells or other elements have escaped charring, this
material cannot be distinguished from other forms of charcoal.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer, (6, 10, 23); Col-
lin et Perrot (9); Hanausek, T. F. (16, 17, 48); Harz (18); Moeller (29); Planchon
et Collin (34); Vogl (45).
Moeller: Die Rohstoffe des Tischler- und Drechslergewerbes. Cassel. 1884.
Winton : The Anatomy of the Fruit of Cocos nucijera. Amer. Jour. Sci.- 1901,
12, 265. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1901, 208. Amer. Jour. Pharm. 1901,
73, 523-
PALH-NUT.
Closely related to the cocoanut, although differing greatly from it in
macroscopic appearance, is the drupaceous fruit of the oil-palm (Elaeis
GvAneensis L.).
PALM-NUT.
291
The palm fruit is about the size of a date and has a deep-red, oily
fruit flesh or mesocarp, and a hard endocarp. Within the thin, brown
spermoderm is a blue-gray endosperm containing a minute embryo, and
within the endosperm is a small cleft corresponding to the large cavity
of the cocoanut.
Palm oil is expressed from the seed, which has previously been freed
from the mesocarp and the greater part of the endocarp.
HISTOLOGY.
After shelling, a few stone cells of the endocarp often remain attached
to the. spermoderm. These, in surface view, are polygonal with distinct
pores.
The Spermoderm (Fig. 239, s) is composed of several layers of thin-
walled, tangentially elongated cells, those in one layer often crossing
those of the adjoining layer. The &bsm^*?
Hill
outer cells contain a brown sub-
stance, the inner, a material which,
according to T. F. Hanausek, be-
comes lemon-yellow with alkali.
The Endosperm (Fig. 239, E)
of the palm -nut is distinguished
from that of the cocoanut by the
thicker walls (double 5 n) and more
distinct pores, the walls, in section,
having a knotty appearance. As
a rule, the cells are radially elon-
gated. Masses of fat crystals and
aleurone grains are the most con-
spicuous cell-contents. T. F.
Hanausek states that crystals of
fatty acids grouped in bundles are
also present. Globular aleurone
grains (a), each containing a large crystalloid, may be seen in water
or glycerine mounts, but are best studied after successive treatment
with tincture of iodine and very dilute hydrochloric acid. This latter
procedure, recommended by Hanausek, colors the grains yellow, the
brilliant crystalloid being clearly seen through the transparent proteid
envelope. In the inner layers, the aleurone grains are often 25 /j. in
diameter, in the outer layers, much smaller.
Fig. 239. Palm-nut (Elaeis Guineensis).
Outer portion of seed in cross section.
s spermoderm; E endosperm containing
a aleurone grains. X160. (Moeller.)
292 NUTS.
DIAGNOSIS.
Palm Cake and the meal prepared from it is imported from Africa
into Europe for cattle feeding. It is also much used as an adulterant
of pepper.
This product is distinguished from cocoanut cake by the distinctly
porous, knotty-thickened walls of the endosperm (Fig. 239, E). Tissues
of the spermoderm (s) and endocarp are also of service in identi-
fication.
The aleurone grains (a), fat masses, and bundles of raphides, which
make up the bulk of the material, are rendered distinct by treatment
with iodine tincture followed by dilute hydrochloric acid.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Benecke (2); Bohmer (6, 10, 23); Collin
(8); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16, 17, 48); Harz (18); Moeller (29); Schimper (37);
Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
Emmerling: Ueber Palmkernkuchen und mehl. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1898, 50, 5.
Haxausek, T. F. : Ueber die Frucht der Oelpalme. Ztschr. allgem. osterr. Apoth.-
Yer. 1882, 15, 325.
Kobits: Kraftfutter und seine Verfalschung. Landw. Jahrb. 1884, 13, 813.
Meyer, A.: Ueber die Oelpalme. Arch. Pharm. 1884, 22, 713.
Moeller: Ueber afrikanische Oelsamen. Dingl. polyt. Jour. 1880, 23S, 252.
WAX-PALil.
The seed of the wax-palm (Corypha cerifera L., Copemica ccrifera
Mart.) for a long time has been used in Brazil as a coffee substitute and
in recent years has been introduced into Europe.
The seed, similar in size and shape to a small acom, is of a light-brown
color with irregular, dark-brown, longitudinal striations. The inner
surface of the spermoderm and the adhering outer surface of the endo-
sperm are deeply wrinkled. A small embryo is embedded in the endo-
sperm at the base of the seed near the hilum.
HISTOLOGY.
The Spermoderm consists of: (1) two or more layers of small, thin-
walled, polygonal cells ; (2) several layers of large, isodiametric or slightly
elongated, rounded, sclerenchyma cells with moderately thick, porous
walls, and numerous intercellular spaces; and (3) a thick tissue of paren-
chymatous elements.
IV AX-PALM. IVORY-NUT. 293
Endosperm. As regards the structure of the endosperm, the seeds
belong in the same class with the coffee bean, the ivory-nut, the date
stone and other seeds with carbohydrate reserve material largely in the
form of cellulose. The cell-walls are porous, somewhat thinner than
those of the date endosperm.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Villiers et Collin (42); see also Bibliog-
raphy of Coffee: Brunotte; Konig.
IVORY=NUT.
Several species of the genus Phylelephas, of which, P. macrocarpa
R. et P. is the most important, yield the true ivory-nuts or vegetable
ivory used in making buttons and other articles. The sawdust and
similar refuse, after being roasted, has been mixed with coffee and pos-
sibly other ground food products.
The true ivory-nut, as it appears in commerce, is of about the size
of a hen's egg, but is shaped more like a segment of an orange. It con-
sists of a brittle shell (the inner pericarp), gray on the surface, but
dark within, and inclosed in this a large seed with a thin, brown spermo-
derm. The endocarp and seed are grown together during the earlier
stages of development, but when fully ripe, the endosperm together with
most of the spermoderm shrinks away from the endocarp and becomes
loose in the cavity. On the surface of the loose seed may be seen the
raphe and its numerous branches, also near the hilum, a wart-like pro-
tuberance beneath which is a small cavity containing the germ.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp. Three layers of the pericarp form the shell.
1. The Outer Layer is made up of several layers of thickly porous,
colorless cells arranged in radial rows like cork cells.
2. Palisade Cells. These remarkable cells, brought to notice by
Molisch, are 500 /x high and 40-90 // broad, with thickened inner and
side walls of a dark-brown color. The side walls diminish in thickness
toward the top, the cavity being as a consequence funnel-shaped.
What is most remarkable of all is the presence in each cell of a silicous
body entirely filling the cavity. These bodies may be clearly seen after
reducing sections to an ash and dissolving out other mineral matter with
hydrochloric acid.
294
NUTS.
3. Collapsed Cells form a thin layer beneath the palisade cells.
Spermoderm (Fig. 240, S). 1. Sclerenchyma Fibers with dark con-
tents, crossing one another in the different layers, form the outer coat.
The separation of the pericarp from the seed takes place in the
layer through which ramify the raphe and its branches, the outer portion
of the spermoderm remaining attached
to the inner surface of the pericarp.
2. Inner Layers. Large, nearly
isodiametric cells with thick walls,
but without evident pores, complete
the spermoderm. These are shown
at the left in Fig. 241.
sp
Fig. 240. Ivory-nut {Phytelephas macro-
carpd). Cross section of outer layers. 5
spermoderm; E endosperm with thick-
ened cell walls. (Moellee.)
Fig. 241. Ivory-nut. Elements of
spermoderm. X 1 60. (Moeller.)
The Endosperm (Fig. 240, E) of the ivory-nut is the most striking
of all the examples' of reserve material in the form of cellulose. The
cell-walls are on the average about 35 fi thick and often exceed 50 p.
Penetrating these walls are conspicuous pores, which broaden at the
middle lamella. Most of the cells are radially elongated.
DIAGNOSIS.
Ivory-nut powder, a material used as an adulterant of coffee, is identi-
fied by the enormously thickened cell-walls of the endosperm (Fig. 240),
also by the tissues of the spermoderm (Fig. 241) and pericarp. The
only materials with which it might be confounded are ground date stones
and Polynesian ivory-nuts. The date stone seldom has cell-walls as
POLYNESIAN IVORY-NUT. EUROPEAN IVALNUT. 295
thick as those in the ivory-nut, furthermore, the tissues of the spermoderm
are different.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Hanausek, T. F. (16, 17,
48); Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (45).
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber einige, gegenwartig im Wiener Handel vorkommende
Gewurzfalschungen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1894, 8, 95.
Molisch: Die Kieselzellen in der Steinschale der Steinnuss. Centr.-Org. Waarenk.
Techn. 1891, 103.
Moeller: Die Rohstoffe des Tischler- und Drechslergewerbes. Cassel, 1884.
POLYNESIAN IVORY-NUT.
Of late years, seeds of several species of Coelococcus known as Poly-
nesian or Tahiti ivory-nuts have been substituted for true ivory-nuts,
and their by-products, quite probably, have been utilized for adulterat-
ing foods.
T. F. Hanausek finds that these seeds differ from true ivory-nuts
in having: (1) longer but narrower endosperm cells; (2) more conspicu-
ous middle lamellae; (3) distinct diagonal markings on the cell-walls as
seen in section; and last but most important, crystals of calcium oxalate
as cell-contents.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Hanausek, T. F.: Zur Anatomie der Tahitinuss. Ztschr. allgem. osterr. Apoth.-
Ver., 1880, 13, 360. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1893, 7, 197.
WALNUTS (Juglandacea).
The fruits are 2-4 celled, with a rather thick, leathery mesocarp
and a hard, 2-4 celled endocarp or nut shell. The seed consists largely
of a curiously furrowed embryo with reserve material in the form of
fat and proteid matter. The endocarp is made up of a dense mass of
colorless stone cells. Characteristic of the spermoderm are the large
stomata.
EUROPEAN WALNUT.
The walnut tree {Juglans regia L.), a native of Asia, is extensively
cultivated throughout the central and southern regions of Europe, par-
ticularly in France, Italy, Spain, and Greece, also within the past few
2gt
NUTS.
years in California. As European nuts reach America by way of Eng-
land they are known there as English walnuts.
Inclosed by the husk, the fruit is usually 4-8 cm. long and about
two-thirds as broad. When dry the epicarp and strongly scented
mesocarp separate from the nut proper, consisting of the shell or endo-
carp and the seed. The nut is light brown, ovoid, short-pointed, and
marked on the surface by shallow furrows and depressions. Encircling
it longitudinally is a suture, into which a knife-blade may be easily in-
serted, thus separating the shell into two equal segments. Thin par-
titions divide the cavity imperfectly into four cells at the base and two
at the top. The curiously wrinkled and lobed orthotropous seed, con-
forming in shape to the embryo, is covered with a thin, brownish-yellow
skin or spermoderm. The embryo has two large cotyledons arranged
at right angles to a plane passing through the suture and partially
separated from each other by a thin partition; each cotyledon is deeply
lobed, the lobes being separated by another partition at right angles
to the first. The relatively small, pointed radicle is directed upward.
HISTOLOGY.
Only the endocarp and seed need be studied, as the epicarp and
mesocarp are removed before the nuts are marketed.
Pericarp. Sect ons of the shell are cut with a strong blade or are
obtained by grinding on an oil stone (p. 13).
1. The Outer Endocarp (Fig. 242), the hardest part of the shell, is
a dense aggregate of nearly isodiametric
cells with almost colorless walls so strongly
thickened that the lumen is scarcely evi-
dent.
2. Middle Endocarp (m). The cells in-
crease in size and the walls diminish in
thickness in the middle layers, the thick-
ness of the walls in most of the cells being
much less than the breadth of the lumen.
Many of the cells have irregularly concave
faces, a peculiarity noticeable even in
powdered shells.
3. The Inner Endocarp (i) is a loose
parenchyma with thin, brownish walls becoming darker on addition of
alkali.
%
Fig. 242. Walnut {Juglans regia).
Tissues of shell, a stone cells
of outer layer; m stone cells
of middle layer; i parenchyma
of inner layer. X 160. (Moel-
ler.)
EUROPEAN WALNUT. 297
Spermoderm. The seed may be easily sectioned without special
preparation. The cell structure should be studied after treatment with
Javelle water and staining; the aleurone grains, in sections mounted
directly in turpentine or, after extraction with ether, in glycerine.
i. Outer Epidermis. As may be seen in cross section, the thin-
walled, prismatic cells, containing yellow or brown material, are more
or less radially elongated, and often divided by tangential partitions.
In surface view they are sharply polygonal. The large stomata, often
broader than long, are very noticeable.
2. The Middle Layers are composed of compressed yellow-brown cells
which do not usually assume their original form on treatment with
Javelle water.
3. Inner Epidermis. The cells of this layer are also compressed,
but on soaking in Javelle water swell to their original form.
Perisperm. The hyaline membrane, forming what appears to be
the thickened outer wall of the endosperm, is probably the remains of
the perisperm.
Endosperm. The outer cell layer of the seed flesh, although usu-
ally firmly attached to the second layer, is sharply differentiated from
the latter, the two layers being separated by a thick membrane. This
outer layer is endosperm. Seen in surface view, the polygonal cells are
15-40 ft in diameter and have thick walls. They resemble the aleurone
cells of cereals.
Embryo. The cells are of the' usual thin-walled parenchymatous
type and contain irregular aleurone grains up to 10 [i in diameter, also
oil globules.
DIAGNOSIS.
The Seeds or "meats" are largely used in foods, either whole or
chopped. The residue from the manufacture of walnut oil is obtained
in limited amount in Europe and is utilized as a cattle food.
The most conspicuous elements are the polygonal outer epidermal
cells of the spermoderm and the broad stomata.
Ground Walnut Shells are in Europe a common adulterant of spices.
The elements are of three forms: (1) the small but thick- walled, color-
less stone cells (Fig. 242, a) of the outer layers; (2) the colorless stone
cells (m) of the middle layers, characterized by their large size, broad lu-
men, and irregular, here and there concave, outline; (3) the loosely
united cells (i) of the inner layers, with thin, yellow or brown walls.
298 NUTS.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Collin et Perrot (9); Han-
ausek, T. F. (10, 16); Mace" (26); Moeller (29); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
Godfrin: Etude histologiquesurles tegument se"minaux des Angiospermes. Soc. d. ScL
d. Nancy. 1880, 109.
Hartwich: Ueber die Fruchtschale von Juglans regia. Arch. d. Pharm., 1887, 25, 325.
Pfister: Wallnusskuchen. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1894, 43, 448.
Young: A Study of Nuts with Special Reference to Microscopic Identification.
U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Chem., Bull. 160.
BLACK WALNUT.
The black walnut tree {Juglans nigra L.), a native of America, is
valuable chiefly for its wood. The globular nut is about the same size
and shape as the European walnut, but has an exceedingly rough endo-
carp with deep furrows and numerous sharp, branching ridges.
Notwithstanding these differences, the two nuts have much the same
microscopic structure. The aleurone grains are somewhat smaller in
the American species, but the difference is too slight to be decisive.
The nut is sometimes found on the market.
BUTTERNUT.
This American nut, the fruit of Juglans cinerea L., differs from the
black walnut chiefly in being elongated, and sharply pointed at both
ends. The structure of the two is practically the same.
PECAN NUT.
One of the most valuable native nuts of the United States, is the
pecan nut (Carya olivaejormis Nutt.), produced by wild and cultivated
trees in the central and central southern states.
The nut is smooth, elongated, 3-4 cm. long, taper-pointed, and very
indistinctly six-ribbed. It is divided at the base into two cells. Although
small, the meats have a mild, delicious flavor, and are much used in
confectionery, while the shells are available for adulterating spices.
In structure both the seed and shell are much like those of the
English walnut. The aleurone grains are, however, somewhat smaller,
seldom exceeding 6 p. in diameter.
HICKORY-NUT. CHESTNUT. «99
HICKORY-NUT.
In addition to the pecan tree, various others of the same genus yield
edible nuts, of which the shellbark or shagbark hickory-nut, (C alba
Nutt.) is the most valuable, and is the only one gathered in considerable
amount for the market. The somewhat flattened nut of this species is
about 3 cm. long and nearly as broad, the light colored, more or less
angular but otherwise smooth surface, being marked with six indistinct
ribs ending abruptly in a sharp point at the apex.
The structure of the hickory-nut is the same as that of the pecan nut.
CUP NUTS {Cupuliferd).
These nuts are usually borne in an involucre or cup. The pericarp
is horny or leathery, with stone cell layers. The single seed consists
largely of embryo, which is either starchy (acorn, chestnut) or fatty
(beech-nut, hazelnut). The hairs of the pericarp and spermoderm are
often of service in diagnosis, as are also the starch grains of the two
species named.
CHESTNUT.
The European or Spanish chestnut (Castanea saliva Mill.), the Ameri-
can variety (C saliva var. Americana Michx.), and the Japanese chest-
nut (C. crenata Sieb. et Zucc.) are all forest trees of great value, not
only for their timber but for their edible" nuts. In Spain, southern France,
Italy, and other countries bordering on - the Mediterranean, chestnuts
form a staple article of diet with the poorer classes, while in other
European countries and in America they are regarded more as delicacies.
Spanish and Japanese chestnuts are large, 2.5 cm. or more broad,
whereas those of the American variety are only 1.5-2.5 cm. broad.
Commonly 2-3, rarely 4-7, nuts are enclosed within a densely spiny
involucre or burr which does not open until the nuts reach full maturity.
The outer nuts in the burr are plano-convex, the inner flattened on both
sides. At the base they are broad and rounded, at the apex pointed
with more or less of the style attached. The dark brown, leathery peri-
carp is smooth and glossy, except on the broad scar at the base, where
it is dull and lusterless, and near the point, where it is hairy. On the
300 NUTS.
inner surface it is covered with a dense mat of silky hairs. The thin,
brown spermoderm separating readily from the seed, is sparingly pubes-
cent on the outer surface, but on the inner surface is smooth, although
marked by irregular ribs corresponding to the furrows on the surface
of the cotyledons. The flesh of the large cotyledons is starchy, and
when dry is readily reduced to a powder. It has a sweet taste.
HISTOLOGY.
Fresh or dried nuts of either the Spanish or American chestnut may
be used for laboratory work.
Pericarp. Transverse sections, also tangential sections at different
depths may be cut with a strong razor and examined both with and with-
out treatment with alkali.
i. Epicarp. The cells are polygonal or quadrilateral, either iso-
diametric or longitudinally elongated, in the latter case often arranged
end to end in irregular rows. Their contents are of a deep-brown color.
Hairs are present at maturity only about the apex, although hair scars
are found on other parts. They are pointed or rather blunt, 2-3 mm.
long, and vary greatly in breadth and wall-thickness. The breadth
of the lumen in the larger hairs is greater than the thickness of the walls,
but in the case of the smaller hairs the reverse is often true.
2. Sclerenchyma. The cells of the outer layers, as appears from
cross sections, are radially elongated, often 50 // high, and have thick
walls. In tangential section they are either isodiametric or longitudi-
nally elongated, the walls being deeply sinuous and much folded, remind-
ing us of the intestine cells of capsicum. Their shorter diameter is usu-
ally over 25 fi. In the middle layers the cells are smaller than in the
outer, have relatively thicker walls, and are polygonal in outline; while
in the inner layers large cells with broad lumen predominate. The
structure of the tissues beneath the scar varies somewhat from those
described and many of the cells contain large oxalate crystals.
3. Mesocarp. Longitudinally elongated, more or less quadrilateral
cells with very thick, beaded walls form the middle layers of the peri-
carp. The cell-contents are colored brown and the cell-walls yellow-
brown. Intercellular spaces frequently occur at the corners of the cells
and between the side walls. Fibro- vascular bundles with strongly de-
veloped bast tissues run through the mesocarp.
4. Endocarp. This layer is itself inconspicuous owing to the dense
mat of hairs forming the woolly lining of the pericarp. The hairs vary
CHESTNUT. 301
up to several millimeters in length and up to 35 (i in breadth. They are
pointed, often crooked, and have broad lumen and very thin walls.
Spermoderm. This coat may be separated from the seed as a papery
brown membrane.
1. The Outer Epidermis consists of polygonal cells up to 50 ft in
diameter, interspersed with hairs similar to those on the endocarp.
2. Middle Layer. The loose tissue of brown cells traversed by fibro-
vascular bundles is of little interest.
3. An Inner Epidermis of polygonal cells without hairs completes
the spermoderm.
Embryo. The parenchymatous tissue of the cotyledons contains
numerous starch grains (Fig. 243) up to 30 ft in diameter. Among
the large grains are ovoid, pear-shaped, fusiform, rounded triangular,
polygonal, and various irregular forms, often with wart-like excres-
cences. The hilum is commonly eccentric, indistinct, and may or may
not have radiating clefts. With suitable illumination, rings are clearly
evident.
DIAGNOSIS. •
Chestnut Meal is a food product of considerable importance in south-
ern Europe, where it is made into puddings, cakes, and even into bread.
Starch (Fig. 243) is the predominating element. The large grains are
Fig. 243. Chestnut Starch (Castanea vesca). X600. (Moellee.)
less than 30 ft in diameter, and are of the various irregular forms
already noted, with inconspicuous, eccentric hilum. Hairs from the peri-
302 NUTS.
carp or spermoderm, like those of the acorn, beech-nut, and hazelnut,
are remarkable for their thin walls and broad lumen.
Chestnut Shells are characterized by the thin-walled hairs, the
sclerenchyma cells with thick, sinuous walls, and the thick-walled, beaded
mesocarp.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (16); Harz (18); VogI
(45); Wiesner (48).
Godfein: Etude histologiquesurles tegument seminauxdesAngiospermes. Soc. d. Sci.
d. Nancy. 1880, 109.
Hanausek, T. F. : Zur mikroskopischen Charakteristik des Kastanienmehles. Beilage
der Ztschr. f. Landw. Gewerbe. Dobruska, 1883, No. 1, 3.
ACORN.
Several European species of oak, notably Quercus Cerris L., Q. pedun-
culate Ehrh., Q. sessiliflora Salisb., and Q. pubescens Willd., yield edible
acorns, the kernels of which are used chiefly for making a substitute
for coffee ^known as acorn coffee. In America, acorns are produced in
large quantities by numerous native species and are eaten on the ground
by swine, but as yet are not gathered for the market.
Whatever the species producing it, the acorn is characterized by its
well-known form, the short wart at the apex, its smooth surface, and
the circular scar at the base. The cup-shaped, scaly involucre (the
cupule) in some species is shallow, in others deep, nearly covering the
acorn. The pericarp is made up of a hard outer coat and soft inner
tissues of a deep brown color, the innermost layer or endocarp being either
smooth or densely woolly. A thin, brown spermoderm incloses the
embryo, the latter consisting of two large fleshy cotyledons and a small
radicle. Endosperm is lacking.
HISTOLOGY.'
The structure of acorns of different species is very similar, the
chief differences being in the presence or absence of hairs on the en-
docarp and the size of the starch grains.
Cupule. 1. The Outer Epidermis consists of polygonal cells averag-
ing 14 n in diameter interspersed with numerous pointed hairs varying up
to 700 n in length. In the inner half of each hair the lumen is broad,
1 Free use has been made of the descriptions of Mitlacher, who has studied the cupule,
pericarp, and spermoderm of Quercus sessiliflora.
ACORN.
3°3
but toward the apex it is reduced to a narrow line. At the base the hairs
are somewhat constricted owing to pressure of adjoining cells.
2. Middle Layers. In a ground tissue of thin- or moderately thick-
walled chlorophyl parenchyma are distributed numerous stone cells
occurring either singly or in small groups. These cells vary in form
and are usually between 100 and 200 ft in diameter. The solitary cells
have thinner walls than those in groups and often contain crystal clusters
of calcium oxalate. The bicollateral bundles are accompanied on the
outer side by sclerenchyma fibers and rows of crystal chambers.
3. The Inner Epidermis is much like the outer in structure.
Pericarp. 1. The Epicarp (Fig. 244, epi; Fig. 245) on the lower part
of the fruit is made up of cubical cells regularly arranged in rows, form-
mes
Fig. 244. Acorn (Quercus sp.). Tissues of shell in cross section, epi epicarp; st crystal
cells and stone cells; mes mesocarp. (Moeller.)
ing a highly characteristic tissue. These cells contain colorless drops
in a brown ground substance. On the upper end in many species are
numerous hairs (Fig. 247, 1) similar to those of the cupule.
2. Crystal Layer. An interrupted hypodermal layer of thin- walled,
isodiametric cells, each containing a large rhombohedral crystal of cal-
cium oxalate, is clearly seen both in transverse and tangential sections.
3°4
NUTS.
3. Stone Cells (Fig. 244, st). Radially elongated, spindle-shaped
cells up to 56 n long and 10-20 n broad, with thick, sparingly porous,
and indistinctly stratified walls and narrow lumen make up the outer
three or four layers. In the inner layers these pass by degrees into
isodiametric cells with walls narrower than the lumen.
At the apex of the fruit the dense stone cell tissue is replaced by a
brown parenchyma in which are numerous small stone cells with brown
walls and contents and broad lumen. Similar cells form a second hard
layer further inward. The stone cells of the basal portion of the peri-
carp have characteristic branching pores.
4. Outer Mesocarp (Figs. 244, mes). The loosely united cells of
this tissue in the ripe fruit aretmuch compressed. The only noticeable
Fig. 246.
Acorn. Brown parenchyma of pericarp.
X160. (MOELLER.)
Fig. 245. Acorn. Epicarp
in surface view. X160.
(Moeller.)
cell-contents are occasional crystal clusters of calcium oxalate. Through
this tissue pass the fibro-vascular bundles
5. Inner Mesocarp. A spongy parenchyma (Fig. 246) of cells arranged
end to end in longitudinal rows forms a characteristic tissue. In cross
section these cells are round, in tangential section elongated with
numerous connecting arms. The contents are yellow-brown.
6. The Endocarp is characterized by the numerous exceedingly thin-
walled hairs (Fig. 247, 2), also by the presence of small crystals of vari-
ous forms.
The Spermoderm is thicker over the furrows of the cotyledons than
in other parts.
1. Outer Epidermis. The thin- walled, tabular cells are polygonal
in surface view, both the walls and the contents being of a deep brown
color. Hairs from this layer are shown in Fig. 247, 3.
2. The Middle Layers, through which ramify the bundles, consist
of a loose brown parenchyma containing crystals of various forms.
3. The Inner Epidermis is much the same as the outer.
ACORN.
3°5
Embryo (Fig. 248). The polygonal epidermal and subepidermal
cells of the cotyledons contain distinct nuclei, each inclosing a crystalloid.
Similar nuclei occur along with starch grains in the small subepidermal
cells. The remainder of the tissue is a parenchyma with round cells
about 100 fi in diameter, having very small intercellular spaces at the
angles. They are closely filled with ellipsoidal or irregular elongated
starch grains (st) usually 15-20 p., rarely and only in some varieties,
Fig. 247. Acorn. Hairs: i from epicarp; 2 from endocarp; 3 from spermoderm.
(MOEIXER.)
50 fi long with very distinct, elongated hilum. The grains usually occur
singly, although twins and various larger aggregates similar to those
found in tapioca, sago, and buckwheat are not uncommon. The ellip-
soidal forms remind us of the leguminous starches. Fibro- vascular
bundles with small spiral vessels pass through the ground tissue.
DIAGNOSIS.
Acorn Co fee is a product of considerable importance. It is pre-
pared from the shelled nut and should contain only traces of the tissues
of the pericarp and spermoderm. The conspicuous elements are the
ellipsoidal or irregularly elongated starch grains (Fig. 248, st) with elon-
306
NUTS.
gated hilum, reminding us of leguminous starch. These are distorted in
the roasted product.
A corn Flour is mixed with chocolate and other food preparations.
Acorn Shells are used as an adulterant of acorn coffee and possibly
of other food products. The quadrilateral epicarp cells (Fig. 245) in reg-
ular rows overlying the crystal cells, the spindle-shaped stone cells (Fig.
244, si) with narrow lumen, also other forms with broad lumen, and
'*8?&
Fig. 248. Acorn. Elements of cotyledon, ep epidermis; E parenchyma; st starch;
sp spiral vessel. X300. (Moellee.)
finally the exceedingly thin-walled hairs (Fig. 247), are the tissues of most
importance in diagnosis.
The Cupule is also said to serve as an adulterant. The geniculate
hairs of the outer epidermis with constricted base, also the stone cells
of the middle layers are the elements of diagnostic value.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16);
Harz(i8); Hassell (19); Mace" (26); Moeller (29); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45).
Hager: Ueber Eichelkakao und Chokolade. Pharm. Ztg. 1888, 33, 511.
Hanausek, T. F.: Mikroskopische Untersuchung eines hollandischen Eichelkakao.
Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 247.
Michaelis: Eichelkakao, Eichelchokolade. Pharm. Ztg. 1888, 33, 568.
Mitlacher: Die Fruchthiillen der Eichel (Fructus Quercus sessilifloras) und ihre
mikroskopische Feststellung als Beimengung zum Eichelkaffee. Ztschr. allg.
osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1901, 39, 1.
Tardieu: Eichelmehl enthaltendes Weizenmehl. Ann. chim. analyt. 1898, 3, 307.
Tschirch: Untersuchung der Eichel-Kakaosorten des Handels. Pharm. Ztg. 1886,
32, 190.
BEECH-NUT. 307
BEECH-NUT.
The European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) and the American species
(F. ferruginea Ait.) yield nuts which, like the walnuts, contain no starch
but a high percentage of oil. Beech-nuts are collected on a commercial
scale in the forests of Europe for oil production, the cake being utilized
as a cattle food. Owing to the presence of cholin the cake is poisonous
for horses, but is not injurious to bovine cattle or swine.
The American beech grows in abundance in the eastern half of the
United States. In Virginia and other states the nuts are eaten by swine
as they drop from the tree, the ham and bacon of these animals being
especially prized for their fine flavor; but in most sections they fall a
prey to squirrels and other wild animals.
The brown nuts are triangular, winged near the apex, and clothed
with a coat of minute hairs hardly visible except under a lens. Two
of these nuts are borne in a prickly involucre or cupule, which splits
into four valves. The ovary is trilocular, each with two ovules, but the
partition wall disappears during development and only one ovule reaches
maturity, completely filling the fruit cavity. Remains of the partitions
are evident on the inner surface of the pericarp as ridges running through
the middle of the three sides. Silky hairs occur in some numbers along
these ridges. The brown spermoderm is of thin papery texture and
is united with a still thinner endosperm. Running through one of the
angles is the raphe, which sends off several distinct branches running
through the other two angles as well as in the tissues between. At first
sight the embryo appears homogeneous, but on closer inspection is
seen to consist of much folded cotyledons connected with a minute radicle.
HISTOLOGY.
Either the European or American beech-nut may be used for study,
as both are essentially the same in structure.
Pericarp. Transverse sections are cut from the middle of the sides
and at the angles, also tangential sections at different depths.
1. The Epicarp Cells are polygonal with moderately thin, faintly
beaded walls and contain either a brown homogeneous material or well-
formed crystals. The hairs of this layer are short, pointed, and usually
thick-walled. Hanausek notes that thin- walled, twisted hairs, also
multicellular forms are occasionally found.
3°8 NUTS.
2. Sclerenchyma. Stone cells in 5-10 layers form a dense hypo-
dermal tissue about the nut. These are rounded, nearly isodiametric,
and have thick and distinctly porous walls and brown or yellow-brown
contents.
3. The Mesocarp consists of several layers of tangentially elongated
parenchyma cells with thick, porous walls, impregnated with brown
coloring matter. As appears in cross section, large V-shaped bundles
of bast fibers pass through the brown parenchyma in the angles,
strengthening the tissues. In the inner portion of the layer broad fibro-
vascular bundles with strongly developed bast fibers form an almost
continuous layer. Accompanying the bundles are crystal fibers.
4. The Endocarp is of parenchyma cells interspersed about the par-
tition wall with long, thin- walled hairs.
Spermoderm. 1. Epidermis. The cells are polygonal, often over 50/*
in diameter and have deep brown walls, which Pfister notes are sub-
erized.
2. Brown Parenchyma Cells similar to those of the epidermis but
smaller, form one or two subepidermal layers.
3. A Spongy Parenchyma of colorless compressed cells, and
4. An Inner Epidermis of thin-walled elements completes the spermo-
derm.
Endosperm. Adhering to the inner surface of the spermoderm is
a single layer of thick-walled, polygonal aleurone cells forming the endo-
sperm.
Embryo. The epidermis on the inner sides of the cotyledons has
larger cells than on the outer. Both layers have thickened outer walls.
The ground tissue in the outer portion of the cotyledon consists of iso-
diametric cells passing into one or more layers of palisade cells in the
inner portion. Procambium bundles occur in the middle layers. The
cell-contents are aleurone grains up to 15 ft, fat, and calcium oxalate
rosettes. Hanausek notes that a single rosette is present in each cell
as may be seen after treatment with alkali.
DIAGNOSIS.
Undecorticated Beech-nut Cake can be easily identified by the tissues
of the pericarp and spermoderm, provided fragments sufficiently large
for cutting sections are present; otherwise the task is not an easy one
as the tissues, although both striking and varied, are not especially char-
acteristic in surface view. The epicarp with short, usually thick-walled
BEECH-NUT. HAZELNUT. 3°9
hairs, the isodiametric stone cells, the bundles accompanied by bast
fibers and crystal fibers, and the long, thin-walled hairs of the endocarp,
are the most striking elements.
Decorticated Beech-nut Cake is still more difficult of diagnosis. The
tissues of the cotyledons are much the same as those of numerous other
oil seeds, and the brown cells of the spermoderm in surface view are not
distinctive. Tissues of the pericarp, particularly the hairs, are however
present even in decorticated cake, and on these the microscopist must
largely depend in forming his conclusion.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (23); Collin et Perrot (9); Ha-
nausek, T. F. (17, 48); Harz (18).
Pfister: Buchnusskuchen. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1894, 43, 445.
HAZELNUT.
The hazelnut is of no little importance in Europe both as a table
nut and for the production of hazel oil ("nut oil "), which is used on the
table and in the arts.
The numerous European and Asiatic varieties have probably been
derived from three species: the common hazel (Corylus Avellana L.),
Lambert's hazel or filbert (C. tubulosa L.), and the Turkish hazel
(C. colurna L.), of which the Spanish or cobnut (C. pontica Koch) is
perhaps but a variety. Three native American species (C. Americana
Walt., C. rostrata Ait., and C. Californica Rose.) also yield nuts of
excellent quality, but are not as yet cultivated.
The nuts of all the species named are inclosed in a leafy involucre
consisting of two more or less foliaceous members, which in C. tubulosa,
C. rostrata, and C. Californica is prolonged into a narrow tube, but in
the other species is short and open. The nuts of the various species and
varieties differ both in size and in the ratio of breadth to length. They
have a broad circular scar at the base, and a short blunt point. On
the lower portion they are smooth, on the upper covered with a gray
bloom consisting of numerous minute hairs visible only under a lens.
The pericarp or shell consists of a hard outer coat 1-2 mm. thick and
a brown spongy inner coat. Through the outer part of the hard coat,
corresponding to longitudinal streaks visible from without, pass fibro-
vascular bundles which in cross section appear as dark-brown spots in
the light-colored, woody ground tissue. One, rarely two, hemitropous„
3io
NUTS.
nuts are suspended from, the top of the cavity. Each seed consists largely
of fleshy cotyledons, the radicle, the brown spermoderm and the colorless
endosperm forming but a small portion of its bulk. The short raphe,
about half the length of the nut, and the nerves radiating from the chalaza
are distinctly seen through the spermoderm.
HISTOLOGY.
Commercial hazelnuts of any variety may be studied. After noting
the macroscopic characters, particularly the bloom on the outer sur-
face, the brown fibro-vascular bundles of the pericarp and the spermo-
derm with its raphe and nerves, transverse sections
and surface mounts should be prepared.
Pericarp, i. The Epicarp is best obtained by
boiling the shell in dilute alkali and scraping with
a scalpel. Fragments from the upper part of the
shell consist of thin-walled, isodiametric, polygonal
cells interspersed with numerous hairs. In cross
section (Fig. 249) it may be seen that the hairs
are deeply planted between the thin-walled cells.
Characteristic of these hairs are their thick walls,
the lumen being scarcely evident except in the
basal portion, and the bright yellow color produced
by alkali. On the lower half of the shell the
layer consists of isodiametric, somewhat elongated
cells and hair scars, the hairs themselves usually
being lacking.
2. Outer Stone Cells (Fig. 249). The hard
portion of the shell is in three layers, each of
colorless stone cells distinctly different from those
in the others. The stone cells in the outer layer
Fig. 249. Hazelnut (Cory- are characterized by their rounded isodiametric
hSrsTand stonTraiilln form, distinct outline, and especially, as noted by
(Mal- Malfatti, by their loose arrangement. They gradu-
ally increase in size from 15 p in the outer layers
to 50 fi in the inner. Being in loose contact, they separate readily on
grinding. Through this layer pass the large bundles, often 500 fi in
diameter, which in the ripe nut are usually disorganized.
3. Middle Stone Cells. In this layer the stone cells are radially
elongated and closely arranged.
cross section.
FATTI.)
HAZELNUT. 311
4. The Inner Stone Cells are larger than those in the two outer
layers and have thicker walls and broader cavities. They are either
isodiametric or tangentially elongated and have brown contents. Ha-
• nausek has rightly observed that their contour is ill-defined on direct
examination, but becomes more distinct on addition of alkali. This
latter reagent imparts to the walls of the stone cells in all three layers
a bright yellow color.
5. Brown Parenchyma, at maturity more or less disorganized, forms
the inner layers.
Spermoderm. 1. The Outer Epidermis of polygonal cells with dis-
tinct outline and colorless contents is clearly seen in surface mounts or
cross section.
2. Hypoderm. Two or three cell layers similar to the epidermis
form the next coat.
3. Brown Cells make up the compressed inner tissues.
Endosperm. One to three layers of typical aleurone cells are
closely united with the embryo.
Embryo. Hanausek first observed that the cells of the embryo
contain spherical aleurone grains 16-30 // in diameter, with rounded glo-
boids embedded in a yellowish granular ground substance.
These are clearly seen on mounting in alcohol sections previously
extracted with ether. In water the ground substance gradually dis-
integrates, liberating the globoids. Hanausek states that minute granules
of starch are also liberated, but these are not commonly evident.
DIAGNOSIS.
Hazelnut Meal prepared from the kernel without removal of the
fat has been used in conjunction with wheat and rye flour for bread-
making.1 This product consists chiefly of embryo tissues with the char-
acteristic yellow, globular aleurone grains from which the rounded
globoids gradually separate on the addition of water. Fragments of the
spermoderm are also present.
Hazelnut Cake. Meager details are available as to this product,
although considerable quantities must be obtained in the manufacture
of hazelnut oil. Its microscopic characters are the same as of the unex-
tracted kernel.
Ground Hazelnut Shells have been detected by Malfatti, Micko, T. F.
1 Plagge and Lebbin : Veroffentlichungen auf dem Gebiete des Militar-Sanitatswesens
1897, 12, 193.
3i2 NUTS.
Hanausek, Mansfeld, and others as an adulterant of cinnamon. The
elements (Fig. 249) are the epicarp cells interspersed with hairs or hair
scars, the colorless stone cells of the woody portion of the pericarp,
and the brown obliterated tissues of the inner pericarp. The hairs are •
characterized by their thick walls, narrow lumen and the yellow color
produced on addition of alkali. Among the stone cells are isodiametric
forms of various sizes from the outer layers, readily separating from one
another on grinding, elongated forms from the middle layers, and large
cells with thick walls and broad lumen from the inner layers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (16); Villiers et Collin
(42); Vogl (4s).
Hanausek, T. F. : Ueber den hystologischen Bau der Haselnusschalen. Ztschr. allg.
osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1892, 30, 61.
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber einige, gegenwartig im Wiener Handel vorkommende
Gewiirzfalschungen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1894, 8, 95.
Malfatti: Eine neue Verfalschung des Zimmtpulvers. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg.
1891, 5, 133.
Micko: Haselnusschalen als Verfalschungsmittel der Gewiirze. Ztschr. allg. osterr.
Apoth.-Ver. 1892, 30, 42.
MISCELLANEOUS NUTS.
BRAZ1L=NUT.
Young has shown that the Brazil-nut, also known as the Para-nut
from the port of shipment, and incorrectly as the castanea-nut, is the seed
of Bertholletia nobilis Miers. and not of B. excelsa Humb. et Bpl. (order
Myrtacece) although the latter yields a similar nut. The tree grows in
forests on the banks of the Amazon and Rio Negro.
The fruit is spherical, about the size of a cocoanut, which it further
resembles in having a hard endocarp. The ovary is four-celled, each
containing numerous ovules borne on a central placenta in two rows;
but on ripening the partitions disappear. At maturity the seeds are
usually three-sided, resembling the segments of a small orange. On
the surface they are transversely roughened and of a dark gray color.
The hard shell-like spermoderm, as seen in section, has an outer coat
1 mm. or less thick of a light color, and an inner coat, of softer dark-brown
tissue with a glossy inner surface. Running through the inner coat in
BRAZIL-NUT. 313
the angles is a hard tissue, triangular in cross section, with broad bands
of vascular elements on the inner side through which the tissues readily
separate. On cutting away the inner tissues, it may be seen that the
vascular elements forming the band in the straight edge belong to the
raphe, the delicate lateral ramifications being directed upward or trans-
versely, while those in the two curved edges proceed from the chalaza with
lateral ramifications directed downward. The flesh of the nut is largely
radicle. Young states that the minute cotyledons located about 5 mm. from
the apex may sometimes be found under a lens after soaking in water.
HISTOLOGY.
Spennoderm. Transverse sections should be cut through the shell
at the angles and through the tissues half way between the angles. Radial
longitudinal sections at the angles and tangential sections through the
epidermis and the raphe are also instructive.
1. Palisade Cells. The epidermis consists of greatly elongated,
sclerenchyma cells arranged perpendicularly to the surface, forming a
palisade layer 0.5-1 mm. thick. These remarkable cells have narrow
branching cavities and thick colorless walls, except at the extreme outer
end, where the cavity is broad. In tangential section they are poly-
gonal, varying up to 50 fi in diameter.
2. Outer Brown Tissue. This. is a spongy parenchyma with small
cells containing a deep brown substance responding to the tests for tannin.
On the sides of the seeds it passes directly into the inner brown tissue.
3. Stone Cells. At the angles these cells form a hard tissue, broadly
triangular in cross section, extending the entire length of the seed. The
cells are for the most part isodiametric, reaching a maximum diameter
of 100 fi. The transition to brown tissue in the outer layers is gradual,
the intermediate tissues being composed of stone cells interspersed with
parenchyma elements. The stone cells have colorless walls of medium
thickness and brown contents, and are conspicuous both in sections and
in the powdered shells. In the inner layers the cells are longitudinally
elongated.
4. Fibro-vascular Bundles. The thin broad bands on the inner
surface of the stone-cell tissue forming in the straight edge the raphe, and
in the curved edges the branches of the raphe, contain numerous small
spiral vessels. As the inner spermoderm separates from the outer
through this tissue, tangential sections are easily prepared.
5. Inner Brown Tissue. The cells in the inner layers are larger than
those of the outer layers and form a closer tissue.
314 NUTS.
Endosperm. After removing the shell, the meat of the nut, con-
sisting largely of radicle, is in perfect condition for sectioning either
with a razor or a microtome. In cross sections we note that the cells
in the first two or three layers are sharply differentiated from those
further inward, suggesting that they may not belong to the embryo at
all, but are endosperm or less probably perisperm.
Embryo. Next follows 8-15 layers of thin-walled, circular cells
(30-60 ,«) in loose contact, forming a cortex, then a procambium of
narrow longitudinally-elongated cells, along which Young finds rudi-
mentary vascular bundles. A medullary tissue of round cells varying
up to 100 n in diameter makes up the inner portion of the meat. All
the cells of the embryo contain aleurone grains, of which the solitary
grains, often 30 ji in diameter, each with a large crystalloid and an irregular
globoid mass, are especially noticeable. Because of these grains which
are among the most striking protein bodies found in the vegetable king-
dom, the nut is often used in laboratories as a material for study.
DIAGNOSIS.
The Meat or Embryo is used whole or broken in confectionery. In
sections mounted in turpentine the large aleurone grains are the notice-
able elements. Fragments of the brown inner spermoderm are often
attached to the outer surface.
The Cake remaining after expressing the oil contains the elements
already noted.
Shells of the Brazil-nut have been ground for adulterating spices.
This material is identified by the following characters: (1) the colorless,
sclerenchyma palisade cells of the spermoderm which occur in groups of
more or less rectangular form; (2) the deep-brown parenchyma; (3)
the isodiametric stone cells with colorless walls and often with deep-
brown contents.
Young finds that the sapucaia or paradise nut (Lecythis usitata Miers)
is similar to the Brazil-nut in structure, but the cortex is thicker (about
14 cells), the endosperm consists of but one cell layer, and the inner
spermoderm is very thin and contains crystal rosettes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek,.T. F. (16); Tschirch (39).
Hofmeister: Pflanzenzelle, 1867, 178.
Millardet: Ann. Sc. nat. iv ser. 34.
Young: See reference, on p. 298.
PISTACHIO-NUT. 315
PISTACHIO-NUT.
The pistachio tree (Pistacia vera L. order Anacardiacece), was culti-
vated in Asia Minor and Egypt in the days of Joseph, and was introduced
from these countries into Greece and Rome at an early period. Its
culture is still limited largely to the Mediterranean region.
The fruit is a dry drupe with an oily seed, which, freed from the peri-
carp, is known in commerce as the pistachio-nut or green almond, and
is extensively used in pastries and confectionery. The seed is elongated,
10-25 mm- l°ng' witn a pronounced ridge on the dorsal side and a shal-
low depression on the ventral side near the base. The lower portion is
flattened from front to back, while the upper portion is flattened in a
plane at right angles to the last. After soaking or boiling in water, the
spermoderm and endosperm may be separated as a thin skin from the
embryo. On the dorsal side, where it is also thickest, the spermoderm
is dark purple, on the ventral side, green. Closely attached to the
spermoderm is the colorless, silky-lustrous endosperm. The embryo
consists of large cotyledons of a green color attached to a radicle sit-
uated directly beneath the dorsal ridge.
HISTOLOGY.
The Spermoderm, together with the endosperm, is sectioned without
separation from the embryo.
1. Outer Epidermis. The cells are polygonal, 30-60 ft in diameter,
and have faintly beaded walls.
2. The Middle Spermoderm consists of thin-walled cells and fibro-vas-
cular bundles. On the ventral side only a few cell layers are present,
but on the dorsal side, eight or more layers. The cells on the dorsal
side, not only of the middle layers but also of the epidermis, contain a
water-soluble substance of a carmine or brown color which becomes
green with alkali, but is not altered by chloral.
3. The Inner Epidermis on the dorsal side is also of thin-walled,
inconspicuous elements, but on other parts is an exceedingly character-
istic tissue of small, distinctly porous cells. As seen in surface view,
the cells are 7-15 n in diameter, sharply polygonal, with, beaded walls.
Cross sections show that some of the cells are divided by tangential
partitions. This layer is here tentatively classed with the spermo-
derm, although further investigation may show it to be perisperm.
316 NUTS.
Endosperm. The outer endosperm consists of a variable number of
layers of typical aleurone cells, the inner layers of more or less obliterated
cells forming a hyaline membrane.
Embryo. The green color of the tissues is more apparent to the
naked eye than under the microscope. The thin-walled cells contain
spherical aleurone grains, most of which are small (3-5 fi), some however
larger (8-14 /<).
DIAGNOSIS.
Pistachio-nuts, whether whole or chopped, are recognized (1) by the
carmine or brown coloring matter in the spermoderm becoming green
with alkali, and (2) by the exceedingly small but distinctly porous cells
of the inner epidermis.
Almonds and other nuts dyed with coal-tar colors are sometimes
substituted for genuine pistachio-nuts. In a suspected sample, foreign
tissues should be searched for under the microscope, and tests made
for foreign dyes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (16); Planchon et
Collin (34); Vogl (43). See also reference to Young on p. 298. .__
PINE-NUT.
The seed kernels or " nuts " of several species of pine, notably the
stone pine of Italy (Pinus Pinea L. order Abietinea), and the Cembra or
Swiss pine (P- Cembra L.), including the Siberian variety (var. Siberica),
are highly prized for their delicate resinous flavor.
As found on the market, the kernels, consisting of the endosperm
and embryo entirely free of spermoderm, are narrow, elongated, 1-1.5 cm.
long, smooth, and of an ivory-white color. After boiling with water,
the elongated embryo embedded in the axis of the endosperm, may be
easily separated. It consists of twelve needle-shaped cotyledons 5-7 mm.
long and a radicle of about the same length.
HISTOLOGY.
' In microscopic structure both the endosperm and the embryo en-
tirely lack characteristic elements. The thin-walled, for the most part
isodiametric cells contain fat and rounded aleurone grains usually 3-5 «,
less often 10-12 ji, in diameter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY,
See reference to Young on p. 298
PART VI.
FRUIT AND FRUIT PRODUCTS.
FRUIT.
Fruit, in the common acceptance of the term, includes such succulent
fruits as are suited for table use. Dry fruits (cereals, buckwheats,
pepper, anise, cocoanut, etc.), some known as seeds, others as nuts, are
described elsewhere in this work.
Only those fruits used for the preparation of preserves, jams, and
other commercial products are here considered.
Fruit Products.
The products of pomes, drupes, berries and other succulent fruits
include dried and candied fruits, jams, marmalades, preserves, jellies,
sauces, and catsups. Of these some contain all the histological ele-
ments of the fruits, including the seed tissues, others only the elements
of the fruit flesh, and others still no cellular matter whatever, or only
traces.
Dried Fruits are prepared from the whole fruit in the case of figs,
dates, raisins, Xanti currants, prunes, and various berries; from the
fruits freed from stones in the case of peaches, apricots and cherries;
and from the pared and cored fruits, in the case of apples and pears.
Substitution of cheaper fruits is not often practiced, as the macroscopic
characters and taste of most of the products cannot be successfully imitated.
The most objectionable practice is the bleaching with sulphur or "sul-
phuring " of peaches, apples, apricots, pears, and similar fruits that show
a tendency to turn brown on drying.
Jams, Marmalades, and Other Preserves, like dried fruits, are pre-
pared either from the whole fruit or the fruit flesh. After addition of
sugar the mixture is boiled down to the proper consistency.
The common adulterants may be classified as follows :
i. Foreign Pulp and Gelatinous Material. Under this head may be
included the pulp of turnips, beets, apples and figs ; the residues or pomace
obtained in the manufacture of fruit juices and jellies; also starch-paste,
gelatin, agar- agar, and other vegetable materials used to give " body "
to fraudulent mixture.
317
318 FRUIT.
It is stated on creditable authority that artificial raspberry jam has
been made in America in which grass seed took the place of fruit seeds.
Another fraud, more difficult of detection, consists in mixing the residues
from the manufacture of fruit juices or jellies with water, gelatinous
materials, dyes and flavoring substances.
2. Sweeteners other than cane-sugar include glucose sirup and also
chemical sweeteners, such as saccharine, dulcin, etc.
3. Dyes. Cochineal, cudbear, and various vegetable dyes, formerly
employed in food products, are now largely replaced by dyes of coal-
tar origin.
4. Artificial Flavors. These are mixtures of ethers, such as ethyl
acetate, ethyl butyrate, amyl butyrate, etc., prepared in imitation of the
real fruit flavors. Banana and pineapple flavors are quite closely imi-
tated, but the imitations of strawberry and raspberry flavors are sicken-
ing mixtures, with little resemblance to the genuine.
5. Vegetable Acids. Citric and tartaric acids are employed to give
.artificial fruit products the requisite acidity, also to bring out the flavor
of certain mild-flavored fruits.
6. Chemical Preservatives. Formerly salicylic acid was the common
preservative of fruit products, but recently, at least in America, sodium
benzoate has largely taken its place. Saccharine may also be classed
under this head, as it is not only a sweetener but also a preservative.
Fruit Juices and Jellies, being strained products, are usually quite
free from seeds, skins and pulp cells, although small fragments of tissues
may sometimes be found on careful search.
The adulterants are the same as are used in preserves, excepting the
pulp of fruits and vegetables.
Tomato Catsup, a popular sauce in America, consists of tomato pulp
freed from seeds, mixed with spices and vinegar. It is adulterated with
foreign pulp, notably that of the pumpkin and apple, coal-tar and other
dyes, and chemical preservatives. See p. 412.
Chili Sauce is made from tomatoes, peppers, spices and vinegar. It
is not usually strained, and therefore contains seeds of both the tomatoes
and the peppers. The adulterants are the same as of tomato catsup.
Methods of Examination.
Preliminary Examination. Seeds, styles, fragments of skin, and
other tissues are picked out either from the original material, the residue
after washing on a sieve, or the deposit that settles after dilution and
FRUIT PRODUCTS.
3X9
•shaking. These may often be identified by the macroscopic characters,
but in doubtful cases should be examined under the microscope.
Artificial flavors imitating strawberry, raspberry, and some other
fruit flavors, are recognized by their characteristic odor and taste, which
are quite different from those of the real fruits. Apple jelly also has a
more or less characteristic odor, which is especially marked on heating the
FlG. 250. Common Diatoms, a Surirella splendida; b Meridion circulare; c Nitzschia
linearis; d Nitzschia acicularis; e Epithemia Zebra; f Tabellaria fenestrate; g Synedra
Ulna; k Gomphonema acuminatum; i Rhoicosphenia curvaia; k Cocconema Cistula;
I Navicula Stauroptera; m Stauroneis Phoenicentron. (Mez.)
product. Sulphites or glucose containing sulphites, if used in consider-
able amount, impart a disagreeable sulphurous taste.
Chemical Examination. Methods for the detection of starch-paste,
gelatin, glucose, dyes, preservatives, etc., are described in the works on the
chemical analysis of foods named on page 4.
Microscopic Examination. Direct examination is made both of the
original material and of the seeds, styles, skin, fibro-vascular bundles, etc.,
separated by washing on a sieve or by allowing the diluted material to settle.
Jams and similar saccharine products can be mounted without dilution,
320 FRUIT.
the gelatinous portion of the material forming a suitable medium in which,
to examine the solid fragments. Owing to the heating with sugar sirup
in the process of manufacture, as well as to the absence of starch grains,
fat and similar interfering substances, the tissues are beautifully distinct
and treatment with clearing reagents is usually quite unnecessary. Seeds
may be broken up on the slide, or may be held in a hand- vice or between
pieces of soft wood and sectioned with a razor.
Agar-agar. Marpmann boils the jelly with 5 per cent sulphuric acid,
adds a few crystals of potassium permanganate and allows to settle. If
microscopic examination of the sediment discloses diatoms, agar-agar is
probably present.
Schimper heats the jelly on a piece of platinum foil and examines the
residue in a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid for diatoms (Fig. 250). If,
however, only small amounts of agar-agar are present he recommends
Marpmann's method.
Lagerheim calls attention to the presence of characteristic fibrous
bodies, pointed at one end, which are always present in agar-agar and are
readily identified.
Lagerheim' s Test for Benzoic Acid. Place a portion of the material
on a watch-glass and cover with a glass plate; heat to boiling, allowing the
steam to condense on the plate. Remove the latter while still hot, allow
the drops of liquid to evaporate and examine the residue under the micro-
scope. If benzoic acid is present, branching crystalline deposits, resem-
bling frost on the window-pane, are evident. As stated by Lagerheim, this
test is so delicate as to permit the detection of the small amounts of benzoic
acid naturally present in cranberries.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Lagerheim: Om den mikroskopiska undersokningen af marmelad. Svensk Farm.
Tidsk. 1901, 5.
Lagerheim: Kralitativ bestanining af benzoesyra och salicylsyra i narings-och
njutningsmedel genom direkt sublimering. Svensk Farm. Tidsk. 1903, 7.
Marpmann: Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Fruchtmarmeladen.
Ztschr. angew. Mikros. 1896, 2, 97.
Me'nier: Falsification de la gelfe de groseille du commerce decouverte par les Diatomees.
Nantes. 1879.
Schimper: Anleitung zur mikrosk. Unters. der veg. Nahr.-u. Genussm. Jena, 1900,
146.
Winton: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobsten. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.- u. Genussm.
1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288.
APPLE. 321
ROSACEOUS FRUITS {Rosacea).
Most of the important tree fruits and several of the bush fruits belong
to this family. They are grouped under three subfamilies, each with
quite distinct characters.
1. Pomes (Apple, Pear, Quince). The five carpels are united into a
fleshy fruit, bearing the remains of the calyx teeth in a depression at the end.
The morphology of pomes has long been a subject for dispute, some botan-
ists asserting that the»outer fruit flesh is calyx tube, others that it is recepta-
cle. At present the preponderance of evidence favors the latter theory.
The epicarp of the quince is hairy, and the mesocarp of the pear and
quince contains groups of stone cells. In all the pomes the cartilaginous
endocarp of each of the five locules is made up of sclerenchyma cells. The
seed is quite complicated in structure, consisting of a spermoderm of 5-6
more or less characteristic layers, a thin perisperm, an endosperm of a
few layers of aleurone cells, and a bulky embryo.
2. Drupes (Almond, Peach, Apricot, Plum, Cherry). The most
striking characteristic is the thick, hard endocarp or stone. Only one of
the two ovules usually matures. The spermoderm usually consists of
four layers, of which the epidermis is characterized by groups of thin-
walled stone cells. The perisperm, endosperm and embryo are similar
to those of pomes.
3. Other Rosaceous Fruits. The raspberry and blackberry are mul-
tiple drupes, the small individual fruits agreeing in general structure with
the true drupes. The succulent part of the strawberry is a receptacle, on
which are diminutive achenes.
APPLE.
The apple is not only the leading table and culinary fruit of the tem-
perate zone, but in addition ranks next to the grape for the production
of fermented liquors.
It is a native of eastern Europe and southwestern Asia, and has been
cultivated since prehistoric times in the Old World, and since colonial
times in America and Australia. The common species (Pyrus Mains
L.) includes many varieties, differing greatly in size, shape, color of skin
and flesh, texture, flavor, acidity, and keeping qualities.
Notwithstanding the variations in shape, all apples have a depression
at one end, in which are borne the withered calyx teeth, and another
322 FRUIT.
more pronounced at the other end, in which is inserted the woody stem.
The skin is tough and closely adherent to the fruit flesh. In the recep-
tacle or outer fruit flesh are embedded the five wedge-shaped carpels,
which are also fleshy, except for the cartilaginous endocarp lining the
cavities. At full maturity an axial cavity appears in the fruit and the
endocarps split on their inner edges, thus opening communication between
the cell cavities and the axial cavity. Each cell contains two brown,
flattened obovoid seeds.
The crab-apple (P. baccata L.) is the only other species cultivated to
any considerable extent for fruit. In this species the fruit is small, seldom
exceeding 40 mm. in diameter, and is useful only for cooking. The
calyx teeth drop before the fruit reaches maturity.
HISTOLOGY.
Fresh ripe apples, either hardened in alcohol or without special treat-
ment, supply material for preparing sections.
Receptacle and Pericarp. 1. Epidermis (Fig. 251, epi). The cuticle
is 12-15 f1 thick. In surface view, the thick-walled, sometimes beaded,
mother cells, divided by much thinner walls into 2-5 more or less quadri-
lateral daughter cells, remind us of windows, hence the name " window-
cells." The daughter cells (15-50 u) are about twice as large as in the
pear. In the calyx and stem depressions, the walls throughout are of
more uniform thickness, and long, thin-walled, strap-shaped, pointed
hairs are present. " Russet spots " consist of cork breaking through the
epidermis. The contents of the cells are brown granular masses, occa-
sional chlorophyl grains and, in the case of colored apples, reddish or
violet coloring matter in solution, which becomes greenish with iron
salts and blue-green with alkalies changing back to its original color
with acids.
2. Hypoderm (hy). Two or three layers of porous, collenchymatously
thickened eel's underlie the epidermis. In cross-section they are tangent-
ially elongated, in surface view, polygonal. Starch grains (am) 3-14 ft long,
the larger grains with elongated hilum, the smaller often in twins, trip-
lets, or larger aggregates, occur in the larger cells of the unripe fruit.
In highly colored apples, coloring matter in solution is present.
3. The Fruit Flesh consists partly of the receptacle and partly of
the united carpels, separated by an indistinct zone evident in cross section
to the naked eye. The bulk of the ground tissue is a mass of large thin-
walled cells containing in the immature fruit starch grains like those
APPLE.
323
of the hypoderm. On ripening the starch largely disappears and the
cells (p1), which separate readily by pressing with a cover-glass, appear
like partially collapsed ref
sacks with shriveled con-
tents. In the layers ad- .
joining the endocarp the
cells are smaller, irregu-
larly elongated, forming a
spongy tissue (p2) . They
contain occasional crys-
tal rosettes (cr1) or, less
often, monoclinic twins.
Stone cells (5/1) are some-
times present in the stem
end, although never in
such numbers as in the
pear and quince. Spiral
(sp), annular (an), retic-
ulated (ret), and pitted
vessels (g) form the bun-
dles; fibers (/) and stone
cells (st) adjoin them.
4. Endocarp (end). The parchment-like endocarp consists of 3-7
layers of thick-walled, sclerenchyma fibers and elongated cells, extended
in various directions par-
allel to the inner surface,
forming a tissue similar
to that found in the en-
docarp of coffee. Rows
of thin-walled cells, con-
taining monoclinic twin
crystals (cr2), are distrib-
uted among the fibers.
Pores are distinct in the
outer layers, indistinct
in the inner. In the
cleft formed by the splitting of the ripe carpels at the sutures paren-
chyma cells and curious, jointed, branching, warty hairs (Fig. 251a)
form dead white masses often evident to the naked eye. Some of the
Fig. 251. Apple {Pyrus Malm). Isolated elements of the
fruit, epi epidermis, hy hypoderm; 'fruit flesh ele-
ments: st1 stone cells, p1 parenchyma containing am
starch grains, p2 inner parenchyma, cr1 rosette crys-
tals, / fiber, bundle consisting of g pitted, ret reticu-
lated, sp spiral and an annular vessels, and st stone
cell; end endocarp with cr2 crystal cells. X160.
(K. B. Winton.)
Fig. 251a. Apple {Pyrus Malus). Hairs from suture of
endocarp. (Malfatti.)
3*4
FRUIT.
hair cells, particularly the terminal ones, are sclerenchymatized, thus
furnishing a distinction from the similar hairs of the pear and quince.
Spennodenn. i. The Outer Epidermis (Figs. 251& and 251c, ep) is
studied in cross sections mounted in glycerine. The radial and especially
the outer walls are greatly thickened and show a laminated structure.
What .appear like minute warts on the inner surface of the walls are
due to the diagonal pits seen in surface view.
The outer walls are mucilaginous and swell
Fig. 2516. Apple. Seed in cross
section. 5 spermoderm consists
of ep epidermis, / fibers, /;( tube
cells, tr cross cells, am starch
cells, and iep inner epidermis;
N perisperm with h hyaline
layer and p1 obliterated paren-
chyma; E endosperm with al1
aleurone cells and p2 compressed
parenchyma; C cotyledon with
aep outer epidermis and al2
aleurone cells. X160. (K. B.
WlNTON.)
Fig. 251c. Apple. Elements of seed in surface view.
Significance of reference letters as in Fig. 2$ib.
X160. (K. B. Winton.)
greatly on addition of water. Surface sec-
tions show that the cells are longitudinally
elongated and conspicuously marked by
diagonally elongated pits.
2. Hypodermal Fibers (/), longitudi-
nally arranged, with greatly thickened brown
walls, form 6-10 layers or about half the thickness of the spermoderm.
3. Tube Cells (tu). Adjoining the last is a loose tissue of 2-3 layers
of longitudinally elongated, rather thin-walled, blunt cells in interrupted
contact, resembling the tube-cells of cereals. Diagonal markings are
evident after bleaching and staining. In parts the tissue is a typical
spongy parenchyma. A brown substance with the reactions of tannin
impregnates the walls and partially fills the cells.
4. Cross Cells (tr). The next layer resembles the preceding, but
APPLE. 325
the transversely elongated elements are narrower and in closer con-
tact.
5. Starch Cells (am). A single cell layer of colorless, exceedingly
thin-walled, transversely elongated cells contains minute starch grains.
Were it not for these grains the layer would hardly be noticeable.
6. Inner Epidermis (iep). These cells are also transversely elongated
but have distinct walls. They are impregnated with a brown substance.
Perisperm (AT). A colorless skin, consisting of perisperm and endo-
sperm,may be found between the thick brown spermoderm and the embryo.
1. Hyaline Layer (h). Cross sections show a thick outer mem-
brane 3-6 [i thick and delicate radial walls. The membrane is stained
a deep yellow with chlorzinc iodine, whereas the adjoining tissues are
stained blue. After this treatment a delicate, cellular network is dis-
tinguishable in surface view.
2. Obliterated Cells (p1) make up the inner perisperm.
Endosperm (E). 1. Aleurone Cells (a/1) form the outer layers. These
are colorless, rather thick-walled, in surface view polygonal, and contain
aleurone grains and fat.
2. Obliterated Cells (p2) complete the endosperm.
The Embryo (C) consists of two oval cotyledons and a relatively small
radicle. The thin-walled cells contain aleurone grains and fat.
Stem. Cork cells in 4-6 cell layers form the outer zone, then 4-5
layers of small-celled collenchyma, passing by degrees into the middle
bark. The bundles of very delicate cells are partly inclosed on the outer
sides by the bast-fiber bundles. On the inner side they adjoin a zone
of stone cells, interrupted only by the medullary rays.
DIAGNOSIS.
Preserves. Various products of the apple, such as preserves, jams,
jellies, and sauces are sold as such and are used as adulterants of products
of more expensive fruits, the deception being completed by the addition
of dyes, artificial fruit ethers, and even grass seed. These products either
contain only the fruit flesh of the apple, the tissues of which lack dis-
tinctive character, with traces of the characteristic elements of the epi-
dermis, the endocarp and the seed, or else, in the case of jellies, no cel-
lular structure whatever.
Mince Meat is a chopped mixture of apple flesh, meat, suet, raisins,
xanti currants, sweetening and spices. Cereal flour is often added, the
starch of which may be distinguished from apple starch.
326 FRUIT.
Apple Pomace, the residue from the cider-press, is used for feeding
cattle and for other purposes. It contains all the histological elements
of the fruit.
The tissues of chief use in diagnosis are the epidermis, the " window "
cells of which are larger than those of the pear; the endocarp with
thicker- walled fibers than in other pomes; the branching, multicellular,
warty hairs from the suture, which differ from the corresponding hairs
of the pear and quince in that some of the cells are sclerenchymatized;
the longitudinally elongated, diagonally pitted, thick-walled epidermal
cells of the spermoderm, which differ markedly from the isodiametric
cells of the pear and quince; and finally the tissues of the stem. Crystal
rosettes are numerous in the apple, rare in the pear and quince, whereas
the reverse is true of stone cell groups. Products of the ripe apple contain
only faint traces of starch.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hassall (19).
Boedzilowski: Ueber die Entwicklung der beerenartigen und fleischigen Friichte.
Arb. Kiewer Naturf. Ges. 1888, 9, 65.
Howard: Microscopical Examinations of Fruits and Fruit Products, U. S Dept. Agr.
Bur. Chem. Bull. 66, 103.
Malfatti: Beitrage zur Anatomie der Birn- und Apfelfrucht. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters.
Hyg. 1896, 10, 265.
Strasburger: Das botanische Practician.
Strasburger: Das kleine botanische Practicum.
PEAR.
Most of the varieties of pear, including all those cultivated in Europe
and America before the early part of the nineteenth century, are forms
of Pyrus communis L., a native of Europe and western Asia, although
a number of the varieties now cultivated in America, including the Le Conte
and the Kieffer, are hybrids with the oriental pear, P. Sinensis Lindl.
The pear differs from the apple in form, having a more or less tapering
stem-end without a depression, also in the texture and flavor of the fruit
flesh; but in general morphological details the fruits are identical.
HISTOLOGY.
Receptacle and Pericarp. 1. The Epidermis (Fig. 252, epi), consists
of " window cells " like those of the apple, but only half as large (10-25 J").
The thick cuticle V ruptured in places, particularly about the stomata,
PEAR.
327
with the formation of cork cells beneath. In varieties with a rough
skin, the epidermal cells proper give place almost entirely to cork tis-
sues. In the calyx depression are thick-walled, pointed hairs 200-250 /i
long.
2. A Hypoderm (hy) of 3-4 layers consists of cells with knotty,
thickened walls and collenchymatous angles.
3. The Fruit Flesh is characterized by numerous clusters of strongly
thickened stone cells (st1), about which as a center radiate elongated
Fig. 252. Pear (Pyras communis). Isolated elements of fruit, epi epidermis; Ay hypoderm;
fruit flesh elements: st1 stone cell group, pl radiating parenchyma, / fiber, bundle
consisting of sp spiral, g pitted and ret reticulated vessels, st2 stone cell accompanying
bundle, and cr crystal cells of mesocarp; p2 porous layers and ie inner layer of endo-
carp. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
parenchyma cells (p1). The groups of stone cells are largest (often
over 1 mm.) and occur in the greatest number in the inner layers. The
individuals are isodiametric, often over 50 ft in diameter, or slightly
elongated, and have colorless walls with distinctly branching pores.
Alkali colors them yellow, safranin, red, thus making them evident in
the ground tissue. Similar stone cells occur in the quince, but only in
the stem end of the apple. Starch grains (4-5 [i) occur in the unripe
fruit. The bundles are similar to those of the apple. Monoclinic twin
crystals (cr) are numerous; rosettes are rare.
4. Endocarp. Fibers with walls thicker than the breadth of the
lumen, such as form the dense endocarp of the apple, are here replaced
328 , FRUIT.
by elongated cells with broader cavities and less strongly thickened
walls.
Fig. 252 shows the transition forms (p2) from the large parenchyma
cells of the fruit flesh to the thin-walled elongated cells of the inner layer
(ie). The parenchyma which forms in the suture bears multicellular,
branching, warty hairs (Fig. 252, c) similar to those found in the apple,
but lacking the thick-walled members.
Spermoderm. 1. Outer Epidermis (Fig. 252a, ep; Fig. 2526). Since
the cells are isodiametric polygonal, as seen in surface view, they may be
distinguished at a glance from the longitudinally elongated, conspicuously
pitted cells of the apple. Viewed in cross section they are quadratic,
upward of 50 ji high. All of the cells have a mucilaginous secondary
membrane and groups of cells also have a thickened tertiary membrane,
Fig. 252a. Pear. Cross section of outer layers Fig. 2526. Pear. Epidermis of spermo-
of spermoderm. ep epidermis; / fibers. derm in surface view. X160. (K.
X160. (K. B. WlNTON.) B. WlNTON.)
readily stained by safranin, about a pear-shaped lumen. In surface
view the cells with thickened tertiary membrane are recognized by their
darker color.
'2. Fiber Layer (/). Eight to fourteen layers of strongly thickened
fibers with brown walls and contents form the bulk of the spermoderm.
3. Spongy Parenchyma takes the place of the tube cells of the apple.
4. Cross Cells, 5. Starch Cells, and 6. Inner Epidermis, also I»eri-
sperm, Endosperm, Embryo, and Stem are much the same as in the
apple.
DIAGNOSIS.
Pears are preserved and dried in various ways for winter use. On
the Continent, fruit of inferior grade, as well as the pomace from the
manufacture of pear cider, is dried and ground for the preparation
of various coffee substitutes and for adulterating spices and other food
products.
The elements of value in distinguishing pears from apples are the
PEAR. 329
window cells (Fig. 252, epi) of the epidermis (smaller than in the apple);
the groups of stone cells (st1) in the fruit flesh (rare in the apple); the
endocarp cells (p2) with broad lumen (narrow in the apple); and the
isodiametric epidermal cells (Fig. 2526) of the spermoderm (longitudi-
nally elongated and diagonally pitted in the apple). The warty, multi-
cellular hairs (Fig. 252c) on the sutures of the carpels lack thick-walled
Fig. 252c. Pear. Hairs from suture of endocarp. (Maifatti.)
members. Crystals rosettes, so common in the apple flesh occur rarely
in the pear.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10); Moeller (29);
Schimper (37); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
Baillon: Sur le development des ovules des Pyrus. Bull. mens, de la soc. Linn, de
Paris. 1875, 45.
Garcin: Recherches sur l'histogenese des pericarpes charnus. Ann. Soc. nat. Bot.
Ser.VII, 1890, 12, 175.
Howard: Microscopical Examinations of Fruits and Fruit Products. U. S. Dept. Agr.
Bur. Chem. Bull. 66, 103.
Jxtmelle: Sur les graines a deux teguments. B. S. B. France, 1888, 35, 302.
Malfatti: Beitrage zur Anatotriie der Birn- und Apfelfrucht. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters.
Hyg. 1896 10, 265.
Nevtnny: Die Piment-Matta. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 46.
33°
FRUIT.
QHJNCE.
The quince (Cydonia vulgaris Pers., Pyrus Cydonia L.), although re-
garded by some authorities as belonging to another genus, is closely
related to the apple and pear. The tree is a native of central Asia, but
is cultivated throughout the temperate regions of both hemispheres.
The fruit of some varieties is apple-shaped, of others pear-shaped.
Woolly hairs cover the surface of the immature fruit, but are loosely
attached, and many of them either fall off during ripening or are rubbed
Fig. 253. Quince {Cydonia vulgaris). Isolated elements of fruit, epi epidermis with t
hair; hy hypoderm; fruit flesh elements: stl stone cell group, with p1 radiating
parenchyma containing am starch grains, p2 irregularly thickened parenchyma, /
fiber, bundle consisting of sp spiral, g pitted and ret reticulated vessels, si1 stone cells
accompanying bundle, p% spongy parenchyma and cr crystal cell of inner mesocarp;
p* and p6 parenchyma and ie inner layer of endocarp. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
off by handling. The fruit has five cavities, like the apple and pear,
but each contains 6-15 seeds arranged mostly in two crowded rows.
HISTOLOGY.
Receptacle and Pericarp (Fig. 253). 1. The Epidermis (epi) consists of
window cells (10-25 /") like those of the pear, brown cells about round
openings, and hairs (t) with the walls usually thinner than the lumen.
2. The Hypodermal Cells (hy) are of no special interest.
3. Fruit Flesh. Several authors have cited the flesh of the quince
as an example of stone cells in a parenchymatous ground tissue. The
structure is even more remarkable than in the pear, as the groups (st1)
QUINCE.
33i
are usually larger, often several millimeters in diameter, more numerous,
and the parenchyma cells radiating from them (px), except for occasional,
irregularly thickened, isometric individuals (p2) are usually more elongated.
Small starch grains (am) occur in the parenchyma. The bundles con-
tain the same elements as in the .apple. The inner portion of the fruit
flesh consists of spongy parenchyma (p3) with occasional cells containing
twin crystals (cr).
4. The Endocarp of the quince is similar to that of the pear, but
the cells of the inner epidermis (ie) are narrower. Three kinds of hairs
(Fig. 253a) occur in the sutures :
(1) crooked, thick-walled forms
like those of the epicarp, (2) thin-
walled, one to several celled
hairs and (3) jointed, branching,
warty hairs, such as occur in the
pear.
Spermoderm. 1. Epidermis
(Fig. 254). The gelatinous sub-
stance which surrounds the moist
seeds originates in this layer.
Mounted in glycerine the cellular
structure is indistinct, but on
addition of water the mucilaginous substance forming the inner or
secondary membrane of the walls dissolves and the cells assume their
normal, sharply prismatic form.
The cells are often over 100 p.
high and have thin, colorless
primary walls. In tangential
section they are isodiametric
polygonal, but in fragments
Fig. 254. Quince. Epidermis of spermodenr 1 obtained by scraping, owing to
cross section and surface view. X160. their height, they often fall on
(K. B. WlNTON.) ... .j j , ,
their sides and present the
characteristic elongated appearance seen in cross section.
2. Fiber Layer, 3. Cross Cells, 4. Starch Cells, and 5. Inner Epi-
dermis resemble the corresponding layers of the apple.
Perisperm. By treating cross sections with Javelle water, the outer
cells of the compressed tissue forming the perisperm swell to their nor-
mal shape. The thick cuticle evidently belongs to these cells.
Fig. 2530. Quince. Epidermis of endocarp su-
ture in cross section. tl thick-walled, /2 thin-
walled and ts warty jointed hairs; cr crystal
rosette. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
332 FRUIT.
Endosperm and Embryo present the characters common to the group.
Tschirch notes that the aleurone grains vary from 5.5-6.5 n and com
tain globoids in considerable numbers.
DIAGNOSIS.
As quinces are more expensive than the other pomes, they probably
never serve as adulterants. The microscopist may, however, be called
upon to examine quince preserves for foreign pulp, or quince seeds
(used in medicine because of their mucilaginous properties) for seeds
of the .apple or other foreign seeds.
The stone cell groups (Fig. 253, st1) in the fruit flesh are often larger
and more numerous than those of the pear, and are distinguished from
other stone cells by the elongated parenchyma cells, which, even after
cooking, form rosettes about the groups. Mounted in water, the thin-
walled, prismatic epidermal cells (Fig. 254) of the spermoderm^ often
100 /j. high, are unlike the epidermal cells found in the apple or pear.
In surface view they are isodiametric. The crooked hairs (Fig. 253, t)
of the epicarp resemble those of the raspberry, while those of the suture
(Fig. 253a) are of three forms.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Planchon et Collin (34);
Tschirch (39). See also p. 329: Garcin; Howard.
Bordzilowski: Ueber die Entwicklung der beerenartigen und fleiscbigen Friichte.
Arb. Kiewer Naturf. Ges., 1888, 9, 65.
Godfrin: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc.
d. Sci. d. Nancy, 1880, 109.
ALflOND.
Although the almond is commonly known as a nut, it is properly a
drupe with the outer pericarp removed, or in common parlance, a "stone."
The almond tree (Prunus amygdalus Stokes) is so closely related to the
peach that some botanists regard it as but a variety of the latter developed
by cultivation. According to Focke it is a native of Turkestan and middle
Asia, but it is now cultivated not only in the Orient, but in southern Europe,
northern Africa and California.
The cultivated varieties fall into two classes: the sweet almonds (var.
dulcis) including the hard and the paper-shelled varieties, and the bitter
ALMOND. 333
almonds (var. amara), the latter containing a glucoside, amygdalin, which
through the agency of emulsin, another constituent, splits up into dex-
trose, hydrocyanic acid, and oil of bitter almonds. In all the varieties,
the outer pericarp at maturity is not fleshy as in the peach, but thin and
leathery, splitting away from the stone along a longitudinal groove on one
side of the fruit. The stone or unshelled almond is flattened, pointed at
one end, of a buff color, and has a dull surface with numerous shallow pits.
The outer part of the endocarp is not so hard as the inner, and is more or
less separated from the latter by a zone containing the nbro-vascular
bundles. Paper-shelled almonds, owing to the thin endocarp, are partic-
ularly suited for table use.
Although the ovary contains two ovules, only one of these usually
develops into a seed. The latter is suspended in the cavity, being con-
nected with a large bundle running between the two layers of the endo-
carp. A conspicuous raphe passes from the hilum situated near the
pointed or upper end of the seed to the chalaza at the lower or broader
end, there separating into numerous branches. A thin brown spermoderm
and a still thinner, colorless skin made up of perisperm and endosperm
incloses the embryo, which consists of large cotyledons and a small radicle
situated at the hilum end.
The highly esteemed Jordan almonds from Malaga have long, narrow
kernels, with light buff, smooth spermoderm. Other varieties, including
Alicanti or Valencia almonds, have broadly ovoid, flattened kernels and
a rough, dark-brown spermoderm.
HISTOLOGY.
Endocarp. In the outer papery layers the ground tissue is made up
of isodiametric, parenchyma and sclerenchyma cells with thickened walls
pierced by circular pores. The bundles, which lie in a zone between this
and the inner endocarp, contain numerous pitted vessels 10-15 I1 broad
and, rarely, spiral vessels.
The inner or hard endocarp is thin, being but 0.5 mm. or less thick in
paper-shelled, varieties. On the inner surface it is smooth but not lus-
trous. The cells throughout are sclerenchymatized, but vary greatly in size
and shape as well as in the thickness of the walls. Those in the outer layers
are large, usually isodiametric, with walls only slightly thickened. Their
circular or elliptical pores are small but very conspicuous. In the middle
layers the stone cells are transversely elongated and rather narrow, with
walls often thicker than the breadth of the lumen. Still narrower (seldom
334 FRUIT.
over 20 fi), elongated stone cells form the inner layers. They are for the
most part longitudinally arranged and have walls so strongly thickened
that the lumen is reduced to a narrow line. All have white or light yellow
walls and colorless or light brown contents.
The Spermoderm forms a thin brown skin with a finely granular outer
surface. Cross sections should be examined directly in water and also
after treatment with alkali, or, better still, with JaveHe water.
1. Outer Epidermis (p. 335, I, ep and IT). Stone cells (60-400/;,
usually over 100 pi) occur singly or grouped among the parenchyma cells.
As seen in cross section (7, si) they are more or less rectangular, with
moderately and uniformly thickened walls, commonly higher than broad
and often elongated like trichomes. The outer end is free from pores
but often cracked; the inner end is porous. Young finds in the paper-
shelled almond, cells with rather thick walls but no stone cells.
2. The Hypoderm includes two or three layers of brown polygonal
cells without intercellular spaces.
3. The Middle Layers (p) are of spongy parenchyma, through which
pass the raphe and its branches, consisting of numerous spiral vessels,
phloem elements, and crystal cells.
4. Inner Epidermis (iep) . Although made up of small cells, this layer
is distinct in cross section because of the brown contents. In surface
view the cells are polygonal.
Perisperm (N). From seeds soaked in water the perisperm and endo-
sperm may be separated as a white inner skin. A hyaline layer of oblit-
erated cells occurs in this as well as in the other common drupes. Treat-
ment of sections with Javelle water brings out the outer layer of rect-
angular cells with a cuticularized outer membrane.
The Endosperm (E) consists of a single layer of aleurone cells with
rather thick walls, and inner layers of obliterated cells.
Embryo. The epidermal cells are elongated, the cells of the inner
layers rounded. The small aleurone grains of the ground tissue are
3-5//, the large solitary grains 10-15//, in diameter. Some contain
crystalloids, others globoids, and still others, particularly the large soli-
tary grains, calcium oxalate rosettes.
DIAGNOSIS.
Shelled Almonds. Kernels of the peach, apricot, and plum are com-
mon substitutes, particularly in confectionery. The epidermal stone
cells are larger and higher than in the apricot and plum. In cross sec-
I and n Almond; III and IV Peach; V and VI Plum; VII and VIII Apricot.
Left: Skin of Seed in Cross Section. S spermoderm consists of ep outer epidermis made up of paren-
chyma and st stone cells, P ground tissue vnthfv fibro-vascular bundles and cr crystal, cells, and iep inner
epidermis; N perisperm; R endosperm consists of al aleurone cells and * obliterated parenchyma.
Right: Epidermis of Spermoderm in Surface View, st1 stone cells with focus on outer wall; si2 stone
cells with focus on inner wall; st3 chain of stone cells.
X160. (K. B. Winton.)
336 FRUIT.
tion they are more or less rectangular, whereas in the apricot they are
rounded and in the peach and the plum they taper. Further distinctions
from the peach pit are the absence of a continuous layer of stone cells
at the hilum (Hannig), of rows of small stone cells along the bundles,
and of several layers of aleurone cells in the endosperm (Young), also
the presence of cracks in the outer end of the stone cells (Hannig). The
ends of the nerves do not have tree-like branches such as occur in apricot
kernels (Hannig). Wittmack and Buchwald state that, although the
stone cells of the almond and peach are commonly higher than broad,
whereas in the apricot and plum they are broader than high, more de-
pendence can be placed on the following physical characters :
1. Almond. Agreeable taste, also strong odor on adding hot water char-*
acteristic. Even bitter almonds lack disagreeably bitter taste. Spermoderm
firm, leathery, light yellow-brown within.
2. Peach. Kernels broadly ovoid, flatter than those of almonds, smaller
than most almonds, sharply angled. Spermoderm very thin, brown within.
Taste at first somewhat sweet, afterwards bitter. Odor, after treatment with
hot water, sweet.
3. Plum. Kernels rather long or broadly ovoid| thick, rounded at angles.
Spermoderm as in peach. Taste like that of peach kernels, but bitter after-taste
more disagreeable. Odor after scalding sweet, suggesting ripe plums.
4. Apricots. Kernels broadly heart-shaped, flat. Spermoderm firm, leathery,
within white and shining. Taste same as that of peach and plum kernels. Dis-
agreeable, sweet odor on treatment with hot water.
Almond Paste, consisting of the ground embryo, is used in preparing
diabetic foods and macaroons. Pastes made from peach and apricot
pits, often used as adulterants, usually contain fragments of the spermo-
derm with the epidermal stone cells.
Almond Cake, a by-product in the manufacture of almond oil, yields
on grinding almond flour, used as a diabetic food, a cosmetic, and in
Europe as an adulterant of ground spices and other powders. The
tissues of the spermoderm, particularly the stone cells of the epidermis,
are of chief importance in diagnosis.
Almond Shells, like those of other fruit stones, are ground for adul-
terating spices. The stone cells and vascular elements are easily found,
but not so easily distinguished from similar elements of other shells.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Collin et Perrot (9) ; Hanausek,
T. F. (10, 16, 48); Meyer, Arthur (27); Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34);
Vogl (45). See also pp. 329 and 332: Garcin; Godfrin.
PEACH. 337
Collin: Falsification des substances alimentaires par les coques d'amandes pul-
v6ris6es. Journ. pharm. chim., 1905, 101.
Garcin: Du noyau des drupes. Histologic et histogenese. Ann. d. 1. Soc. Bot.
Lyon, 1890, 17, 27.
Garctn: Contributions a l'etude des pericarpes charnus. Du noyau des drupes.
Histologic et histologenese. Lyon, 1890.
Hannig: Ueber die Unterscheidung der Mandeln von ahnlichen Samen. Ztschr.
Unters. Nahr.-Genussm., 1911, 21, 577.
Wittmack u. Buchwald: Die Unterscheidung der Mandeln von ahnlichen Samen.
Ber. deutsch. bot. Ges. 1901, 19, 584.
Young: A Study of Nuts, with Special Reference to Microscopical Identification.
U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem., Bull. 160.
PEACH,
Notwithstanding its specific name (Primus Persica Sieb. et Zucc), the
peach is believed to be a native of China. It is a typical drupe, with
a hairy epicarp, a fleshy mesocarp, and a dense, deeply furrowed stone
or endocarp. The varieties in cultivation have yellow or white flesh,
the outer portion, particularly in white peaches, often being suffused
with red, as are often the fibrous layers adjoining the stone. The stone
either clings to the flesh or is free. The seed is smaller than the almond
and has a thinner spermoderm.
HISTOLOGY.
Fresh or canned whole peaches may be hardened in alcohol for sec-
tioning. The epicarp separates readily from the fully ripe fruit, espe-
cially after scalding. Sections of the stone may be prepared with a
strong razor, or by grinding on an oil-stone.
Pericarp (Fig. 255). 1. The Epicarp (epi) elements are polygonal
cells, stomata and numerous hairs (t), the latter forming a dense velvety
coat. These hairs are exceedingly variable in length, many being mere
papillae, while others exceed 1 mm. They are straight or slightly sinu-
ous, 10-25 f- broad in the middle, tapering toward both ends, and are
blunt pointed. Even the short forms are strongly devel&ped, the thick-
ness of the walls usually exceeding the breadth of the lumen. The basal
portions between the epidermal cells are exceedingly narrow (6-10 fi) .
Separated from the epicarp, the hairs often appear double pointed.
2. Hypoderm (hy).- Collenchyma cells in 4-6 layers.
3. Mesocarp (mes). The cells are mostly large and sac-like. They
often contain rosettes of needle crystals (cr2). Smaller cells contain rosettes
333
FRUIT.
of the usual, oxalate type (cr1). Reticulated, pitted, and spiral vessels
occur in the bundles (fv) and, near by, rows of crystal rosette cells (cr3)
and elongated, thin-walled stone cells (st1). Thick-walled fibers like
those found in the apricot are rare.
4. Endocarp. The hard, deeply furrowed shell of the peach stone
is 3-8 mm. thick, of a light brown color. Although exceedingly hard
throughout, it is easily split into halves by inserting a knife-blade through
the suture, thus disclosing a prominent bundle entering the cavity near
its upper end. A continuation of this bundle is the funiculus. There
Fig. 255. Peach (Pmnus Pefsica). Isolated elements of pericarp, epi epicarp with
t hairs; hy hypoderm; mes mesocarp cells with cr1 oxalate crystal rosette and cr'
rosettes of needle-shaped crystals; fv fibro-vascular bundle; cr3 crystal cells and st1
stone cells accompanying bundle; sf- and st3 stone cells of endocarp; iep inner laver
of endocarp. X160. (K. B. Winton.)
is no separation of the endocarp by a bundle zone into an outer and
inner portion as in the case of the almond.
The bulk of the stone consists of nearly isodiametric stone cells (si2)
often 50-75 fi broad, with thick, colorless, porous walls. The cell con-
tents are usually brown, whereas in the plum they are colorless. Within
0.5 mm. or less of the inner surface there is a layer 200-300 fi thick of
narrow transversely elongated stone cells (sP) passing abruptly into an
inner layer of narrow forms mostly longitudinally arranged (iep).
Spermoderm (p. 335, 777 and IV). Hannig finds that the epidermal
stone cells form a continuous layer at the hilum and that the outer wall is
PEACH. APRICOT. 339
strongly thickened and free from pits and cracks. Wittmack and Buch-
wald note that these stone cells taper toward the free end, whereas in the
almond they are more or less rectangular. In addition to the large
stone cells of about the same size as those of the almond, Young finds
small ones (average 50 /x) in rows along the bundles (IV, st3).
Endosperm. Two or more layers of aleurone cells are present.
DIAGNOSIS.
The Pulp or flesh is not only eaten raw, but is dried and preserved
whole, and is made into jam. It consists of thin-walled elements and
bundles. The rosettes of needle crystals usually disappear on cooking.
In preserves, even when made from the pared fruit, as is -almost always
the case, fragments of the epicarp, or more commonly the detached hairs
from this coat, are present in greater or less abundance. The hairs are
characterized by their variable length, thick walls, and narrow base,
whereas apricot hairs have a broad base. Apple pulp, and apple jelly,
common adulterants, usually contain traces of gelatinized starch and
sometimes tissues of the epidermis and core.
The Endocarp in powder form consists largely of colorless stone cells
with brown contents.
The Seed is distinguished from shelled almonds as noted on p. 334.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See pp. 329 and 337: Garcin; Godfrin; Hannig; Howard; Wittmack u.
Buchwald; Young.
Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saf tiger Friichte. Ztschr.
Naturw.,"i886, 59, 295.
Micko: Ueber den microskopischen Bau der Steinkerne von Amygdalus persica,
Prunus armeniaca, domestica el avium. Ztschr. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1893, 31,
2, 21.
APRICOT.
The apricot tree (Prunus Armeniaca L.), a native of central Asia,
is cultivated in various parts of Europe, also extensively in California.
The fruit is a drupe, very much like the peach in macroscopic structure,
the chief difference being that the stone is nearly lenticular, about 20 cm.
broad, and is merely roughened on the surface by shallow pits, whereas
the peach stone is deeply furrowed. On the ventral suture is a promi-
nent keel with a sharp edge, and either side of this keel a pronounced
rib. Through the stone, beneath the suture, passes the bundle which
enters the locule near the apex and passes into the funiculus.
340
FRUIT.
The more or less heart-shaped, flattened seed is but little elongated,
the breadth often equaling or exceeding the length.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp (Fig. 255a). The Epicarp hairs (t) are broadened at the base
whereas those of the peach are narrowed.
Mesocarp. The bundles and oxalate ro-
settes are like those of the peach. Accompany-
ing the bundles are characteristic thick-walled
fibers (/).
Endocarp. The stone cells have colorless
or yellow contents.
Spermoderm (p. 335). The epidermal
stone cells are seldom over 100 ji broad and
60 ijl high. The rounded outer walls are por-
ous and somewhat thickened. Hannig notes
the tree-like branching of the nerve ends.
DIAGNOSIS.
The epicarp hairs and mesocarp fibers are
characteristic. The latter occur in preserves
made with the removal of skin and pits. For
Fig. 255a. Apricot (Pmnus distinctions of the seed from the almond, see
Aimemaca). Epi epicarp
with / hair; / mesocarp fibers p. 334.
X160. (K. B. Winton.) '
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Almond, p. 337, and Peach, p. 339: Hannig;
Micko; Wittmack u. Buchwald; Young.
PLUM.
Howard;
Numerous varieties of both the European plum (Primus domestica L.)
and the Japanese species (P. trifiora Rxb.) are cultivated throughout
the temperate zone. The European species includes red, blue, and
yellow-green varieties, differing greatly in size and excellence. None of
the Japanese varieties is blue or purple.
Plums never have a hairy epicarp, thus differing from the peach and
apricot. The stone is smaller than that of the apricot and more elon-
gated, but otherwise is similar both in gross and minute structure.
PLUM. CHERRY. 341
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp. 1. Epicarp (Fig. 2556). The division of the mother cells
into daughter cells is clearly evident. The walls are more or less dis-
tinctly beaded. In the European plum the cells are seldom over 60 fi,
in the Japanese varieties still smaller, rarely ex-
ceeding 35 fi. The coloring matter of blue and
red varieties is confined almost entirely to the
epicarp.
2. Mesocarp. Characteristic are the strongly
refractive masses accompanying the bundles
which in making jam take up color from the
epicarp. The bundles and neighboring thin-
walled stone cells are like those of the peach;
thick-walled fibers occur rarely.
3. Endocarp. The stone cells have colorless FlG 2$sk pium {Pnmus
contents. domestica). _ Epicarp in
Spermoderm (p. 335, V and VI). The stone (K. b. Winton.)
cells resemble those of the apricot, but the outer
end is more strongly thickened, somewhat tapering, and has pits extending
only part way through the walls.
Endosperm. On the broad sides of the seeds there are 15-25 layers
of aleurone cells, but on the narrow sides there is but one layer.
DIAGNOSIS.
Plums are commonly dried, or preserved in a wet way, with skins and
stones, thus facilitating their identification. Prunes (dried plums), are
sometimes used in coffee substitutes. The stone is smaller than that of
the apricot, but similar in shape, external appearance, and anatomical
structure. The absence of hairs on the epicarp furnishes a ready means
of distinction from both the peach and apricot.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Blyth (5); also see Bibliographies,
pp. 337 and 339: Hannig; Howard; Micko; Wittmack u. Buchwald; Young.
Bordzilowski: Ueber die Entwickelung der beerenartigen und fieischigen Friichte.
Arb. Kiewer Naturf. Ges., 1888, 9, 65.
CHERRY.
The sweet or Mazzard cherry (Prunus avium L.), a native of Europe
and western Asia, also the sour or Morello cherry (Prunus Cerasus L.),
342 FRUIT.
are both cultivated in numerous varieties, which are black, white,, or red,
according to the nature of the coloring matter in the epicarp.
Like the plum, the epicarp is smooth, but the cells are noticeably
larger, seldom less than 35 //, often 100// in diameter; furthermore,
the division of mother cells into daughter cells is not usually evident.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saf tiger Friichte. Ztschr.
Naturw. 1886, 59, 295.
ROSE FRUIT.
The fruits of the dog rose (Rosa canina L.) and other species are of
some importance in Europe as drugs and as coffee substitutes. Rose
fruits occur in American and Canadian screenings.
The ovoid, lustrous, red, compound fruit, the size of a small grape,
consists of a closed receptacle bearing on the inner hairy surface several
dry drupes about as large as grape seeds, each with hard pericarp hairy
at the base, thin spermoderm, inconspicuous endosperm, and large embryo,
the structure resembling that of the strawberry nutlet.
HISTOLOGY.
Receptacle. The polygonal outer epidermal cells with red contents;
and the hairs of the inner epidermis are the important tissues. The
latter often reach the length of several millimeters, have thick walls and
narrow lumen, and gradually taper toward the base so that when
detached they are pointed at both ends.
Pericarp. Sections are cut with a strong razor.
1. The Epicarp Cells are longitudinally elongated, and are the only
cells of the pericarp that are not sclerenchymatized.
2. Hypoderm. One or more layers of longitudinally elongated (in
cross section isodiametric), rather thin- walled cells form this layer.
3. Large radially elongated Stone Cells constitute the middle layers.
4. Longitudinal Fibers. These fibers are distinguished in cross sec-
tion from the stone cells of the preceding layer by their small diameter
and isodiametric form.
5. Transverse Fibers in several layers are seen in cross section. Like
the longitudinal fibers, they are exceedingly narrow.
Spermoderm. Cross sections cut with the pericarp should be soaked
for a time in Javelle water to expand and clear the tissues. Surface
preparations are obtained by soaking in Javelle water and scraping.
ROSE FRUIT. STRAWBERRY. 343
The Outer Epidermis is of polygonal cells (30-75 [i) in diameter, and
the Inner Epidermis, of narrow (8-15 ft), transversely elongated cells of a
brown color. The middle layers are either absent or obliterated.
Perisperm. This is an obliterated tissue forming a hyaline mem-
brane on the outer cells of the endosperm.
Endosperm. One to several layers of cells containing aleurone
grains, with often obliterated inner layers, constitute the thin endosperm.
The Embryo tissues are like those of the strawberry (p. 347).
DIAGNOSIS.
The epidermal cells of the receptacle with red contents, the hairs
pointed at both ends, the stone cells of the pericarp, and the thin-walled
cells of the spermoderm are the chief diagnostic elements.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10); Villiers et Collin
(42).
STRAWBERRY.
The varieties of strawberry cultivated in Europe are chiefly improved
forms of Fragaria Chiloensis Ehrh., but some are said to be hybrids
of this species with F. vesca L., or F. Virginiana Duchesne. In many
parts of Europe, however, the small but delicious wood strawberry
(F. vesca L.) is consumed in larger quantities, both fresh and preserved,
than the cultivated sorts.
In colonial times the wild strawberry (F. Virginiana), with its several
varieties, was cultivated in American gardens, but of late years has been
supplanted almost entirely by the numerous derivatives of the Chilian
species, although wild strawberries are still gathered in considerable
quantities in the meadows. F. vesca grows in the northern part of the
United States, but it is not so common as the Virginian species.
The cultivated strawberries (F. Chiloensis) are usually of large size
(often 3-5 cm. in diameter), and bear the achenes in deep depressions.
Berries of the wood species (F. vesca) are of small size (seldom over
1 cm. in diameter) and bear the achenes in shallow depressions.
Berries of the Virginian species are of about the same size as the
wood strawberries, but like the cultivated berries, the achenes are deeply
sunken in the receptacle.
The receptacle, the edible part of the strawberry, consists of a some-
344
FRUIT.
what fleshy pith, a still more fleshy cortex, and between the two a narrow
zone of fibro- vascular bundles, from which branches shoot off through
the cortex to the achenes (Fig. 256, 7).
On the surface, the receptacle has a tufted appearance, due to the
Fig. 256. Strawberry (Fragaria Chiloensis). I aggregate fruit, X2. II achene, Xi.
Ill achene, X8: Sty style; Sti stigma; B connecting bundle. IV achene in trans-
verse section, X32: F pericarp; 5 spermoderm; R raphe; E endosperm; Em embryo.
(Winton.)
somewhat regularly arranged depressions occupied by the achenes. The
epidermis is sparingly pubescent.
The achenes are ovate, pointed, about i mm. long (Fig. 256, II and ///).
Each is attached to the receptacle a little above its base, and contains
a single anatropous seed, which is described as " exalbuminous," since
the endosperm is not evident under the simple lens. The style (about
2 mm. long) arises from the ventral side a little above the point of attach-
ment.
The pericarp is hard and comparatively thick; the spermoderm soft
and thin; the embryo minute (Fig. 256, IV). When the fruit reaches
maturity the calyx is still green and leaf-like, and the stamens are also
well preserved. The calyx, the stamens, and a portion of the pith are
removed in preparing the fruit for the table.
HISTOLOGY.
In microscopic structure the cultivated, the wood, and the Virginian
strawberries are identical.
Receptacle (Fig. 257). 1. The Epidermal Cells (ep) for the most
part are polygonal and isodiametric, but those radiating from the base
of each hair are usually irregularly diamond-shape, and often strongly
elongated. The hairs are not numerous, but are often over a milli-
meter long, tapering gradually from the widest part near the base to
STRAWBERRY. 345
the point (h). In the basal portion the lumen is several times the thick-
ness of the walls, but narrows somewhat abruptly further on, • and for
fully three-fourths of the total length of the hair is but a narrow channel
Fig. 257. Strawberry. Receptacle in surface view, ep epidermis with h hair and sto
stoma; hy hypoderm; k glucoside (?) crystals. X160. (WlNTON.)
hardly one-quarter as wide as the walls. The walls, on the other hand,
are narrowest at the basal end. Stomata occur sparingly.
2. Hypoderm or Sarkogen Layer {hy). Tschierske has shown that
the fleshy receptacle of the strawberry owes its origin to a hypodermal
layer of meristematic cells, which are mostly tangentially elongated,
and are always without intercellular spaces. These cells, to which he
gives the name "sarkogen layer," resemble the phellogen or cork- forming
cells of other plants, but differ in that the new cells are formed centripe-
tally and remain active during the whole period of growth, whereas the
cork cells are formed centrifugally and die soon after formation. The
cells increase in size in radial directions, and divide by tangential par-
titions. After they have performed their mission they continue to increase
in size, but hold to their original shape.
3. Cortical Tissue. The daughter cells formed by the division of
the cells of the sarkogen layer increase rapidly in size, become round
in shape, and form intercellular spaces. This tissue forms the bulk
of the ripe fruit. Each cell is rich in contents, which, on cooking or
treatment with alcohol, yield a shriveled, opaque mass.
4. Bundles. Spiral and annular vessels from 5-10 /x in diameter,
and thin-walled, elongated cells, are the conspicuous elements of the
bundles.
346
FRUIT.
5. Pith. Large berries often contain large intercellular spaces or
cavities in the pith, formed by the tearing asunder of the cells during the
rapid growth.
Pericarp (Fig. 258). 1. Epicarp (epi). In surface view, the cells
are polygonal, 15-50 /( in diameter, with thin walls. The cuticle is
several times as thick as the radial walls of the cells.
2. Mesocarp (mes). This layer 'is strikingly different from the meso-
carp of most edible fruits in that it is not succulent, and consists of only
Fig. 238. Strawberry. Achene in transverse section. F pericarp consists of epi epicarp,
mes mesocarp, sp spiral vessels, k crystal layer, // outer endocarp with longitudinally
extended fibers, and qj inner endocarp with transversely extended fibers; 5 spermoderm
consists of ep epidermis with reticulated cells, and br elongated brown cells; N peri-
sperm; E endosperm consists of a single layer of aleurone cells. X 300. (Wiirros.)
one, or in some parts two, cell-layers. In cross section the cells have
much the same appearance as the epidermal cells, but usually have
smaller dimensions. On the inner side are numerous bundles, the branches
of which run transversely about the achene.
3. Crystal Layer (k). The cells are polygonal, 8-20 ,u in diameter.
The monoclinic crystals are always simple.
4. Outer Endocarp (If). This layer, forming the larger part of the
pericarp, is made up of five or more thicknesses of sclerenchyma fibers
longitudinally arranged. The cell-walls are distinctly porous and about
as thick as the lumen.
5. The Inner Endocarp (qj) consists of the same elements as the outer
endocarp, but is only one or two cell-layers thick, and the cells are ar-
ranged transversely. On the dorsal side some of the fibers of this layer
extend radially through the outer endocarp, thus facilitating the rup-
ture of the pericarp during sprouting.
STRAWBERRY.
347
Spennoderm (Figs. 258 and 259). 1. The Epidermis (ep) is of thin-
walled polygonal cells. The cell- walls are exceedingly thin, but are
strengthened by spirally reticulated bands, which do not pass completely
around the cell, but are wanting on the outer surface, so that in mounting
a preparation the outer wall often collapses and the side walls fall down,
presenting the appearance shown in Fig. 259.
2. Brown Layer (br). The second layer of the spermoderm is com-
posed of transversely elongated brown cells, often arranged side by side
Fig. 259. Strawberry. Spermoderm
and endosperm in surface view.
ep reticulated epidermis of spermo-
derm; br brown cells; E endosperm.
X300. (WlNTON.)
Fig. 260. Straw-
berry. Style and
stigma. X32.
(Winton.)
Fig. 261. Strawberry.
Style in surface view, ep
transparent epidermis;
sp spiral vessels; k crystal
cells. X 300. (Winton.)
in rows. They vary up to 100 fi in length, and usually between 10-
15 fi in width.
Perisperm (N). This coat consists for the most part of obliterated
cells forming a cellulose layer from 2-4 ft thick, but on the ventral side
the cells are often well defined.
Endosperm (E). This consists of a single layer of aleurone cells.
Embryo. Two large cotyledons, each in cross-section semielliptical,
make up the bulk of the embryo. The thin-walled cells contain pro-
tein and fat but no starch.
Style and Stigma (Figs. 260 and 261). The strawberry style is dis-
tinguished from the styles of other edible rosaceous fruits by its constricted
base and the large size and transparency of the epiderm cells. It is
about 0.3 mm. in diameter in the middle part, but tapers somewhat toward
348 FRUIT.
the stigma, and very markedly toward the base, where it is less than
o.i mm. in diameter. The epidermal cells (ep) are for the most part
about 40 p. wide, 100-150 p long, and (as may be seen on the margins,
by focusing) 50 ft thick. The central core appears darker than the
transparent margins, owing to the greater density of the parts as well
as to the greater thickness. Treatment with alkali discloses spiral and
annular vessels, also rows of accompanying crystal cells (k), each con-
taining a crystal rosette.
Fungous growths often completely hide the papillae of the stigma,
even after treatment with reagents or cooking.
DIAGNOSIS.
Styles and achenes may be readily picked out with forceps and exam-
ined as to their size and shape under a lens. The styles (Figs. 260 and
261), transparent in the fresh fruit, and rendered still more so by the
boiling with sugar, may be studied under the compound microscope
without further treatment. Their size (2 mm. long), narrow base and
large transparent epidermal cells, are especially characteristic; but the
spiral vessels accompanied by crystal clusters, and the stigma, .often
bristling with fungous threads, further aid in the identification. Crystals
are* clearly differentiated by the aid of polarizing apparatus.
For the study of the pericarp and seed, cross sections (Fig. 258) should
be prepared, holding the achene between pieces of soft wood or in a
hand-vice during the cutting. Especially striking are the two crossing
endocarp layers of sclerenchyma fibers, the endosperm of a single cell
layer, and the relatively large embryo. The reticulated cells of the outer
layer of the spermoderm are highly characteristic.
The hairs (Fig. 257, h) of the receptacle are characterized by their
length (often 1 mm.) and narrow lumen.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Blyth (5).
Keaus: Ueber den Bau trockner Pericarpien. Pringsh. Jahrb. 1866, 5, 83.
Marpmann: Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Fruchtmarmeladen.
Ztschr. angew. Mikr. 1896, 2, 97.
Tschierske : Beitrage zur vergleichenden Anatomie und Entwicklungsgeschichte einiger
Dryadeenfriichte. Ztschr. Naturwissenschaft. 1886, 59, 594.
Winton: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm.
1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288.
RED RASPBERRY.
349
RED RASPBERRY.
Rubus Idaus L. occurs native in various part of the Old World and
is the parent of the raspberries cultivated in European gardens.
Bailey 1 states that the red raspberries cultivated in America are
offspring of the native R. strigosus Michx., which, however, is closely
related to the European raspberry R. Idaus L. The yellow varieties
are but albino forms of these species.
The raspberry, blackberry, and other bramble fruits (Rubus) are
intermediate in both macroscopic and microscopic structure between
the strawberry {Fragaria) and the stone fruits (Primus). They resemble
the strawberry in that they are aggregate fruits with numerous indi-
vidual fruitlets on a common receptacle (although unlike the straw-
berrv, the cortex of the receptacle is not fleshy and bears the fruitlets
on elevations, not in depressions); and they resemble the stone fruits
in the structure of the pericarp and seed, each individual fruitlet
being in fact a minature drupe. The resemblance between the rasp-
berry drupelet and the peach is especially striking. In both the epi-
carp is pubescent, the mesocarp is fleshy, the endocarp (Fig. 262, III
Fig. 262. Red Raspberry (Rubus strigosus). I aggregate fruit, Xi. II cross section
of a drupelet, X32: Epi epicarp; Hy hypoderm; Mes mesocarp; F outer endocarp;
F' inner endocarp; 5 spermoderm; R raphe; E endosperm; Em embryo. Ill stone,
Xi. IV stone, X8. (Winton.)
and IV) is a hard stone with wrinkles on the surface and the united
spermoderm and endosperm form a thin coat for the relatively large
embryo. They are also very similar in minute structure, as is noted
further on.
1 The Evolution of Our Native Fruits. London, 1898, 287.
35° FRUIT.
The drupelets are crowded together on the top and sides of the recep-
tacle, each having a convex top or exposed surface and four to seven
facets on the sides formed by the pressure of the adjoining drupelets
(Fig. 262, /). These facets are usually slightly convex or concave. Owing
to their crowded arrangement the thickness of the flesh in the sides of
the drupelets is much less than in the outer part. The exposed surface
and the angles between the facets are pubescent, the facets themselves
glabrous. In picking a raspberry the drupelets separate from the
receptacle, clinging together in the form of a cup. Tschierske states
that the individuals cling together, first because of the closely fitting
adjoining facets, the slightly convex surface of one fitting into a cor-
responding concave surface of another, and second because of the in-
terlocking of the crooked hairs. The style is about 4 mm. long and
arises from the upper edge of the exposed surface of the drupe, appear-
ing to come from between the drupelets.
HISTOLOGY.
Receptacle. 1. The Epidermis resembles somewhat the epicarp of
the fruit, but the hairs are less numerous and usually thicker walled.
2. Cortex. As no sarkogen layer is developed in the raspberry the
cortex layer is thin, the bulk of the receptacle being pith.
3. Bundles. It follows from what has been stated that the main
bundles run near the surface of the receptacle. They are shorter and
more strongly developed than in the strawberry, with larger and more
numerous vessels.
4. The Pith consists of round parenchyma cells, devoid of cell-contents,
with intercellular spaces.
Pericarp. 1. The Epicarp (Fig. 262, Epi; Fig. 263) on the facets of the
drupelets consists entirely of polygonal cells, but on the exposed surfaces
consists of polygonal cells and hairs, the hairs often being so numerous
that they occur at two to four of the angles of the polygonal cells. Five
or six cells frequently meet at the base of a hair, forming a rosette about
it. The hairs vary greatly in length, up to 700 fi, and are seldom over 10 /t
broad. Most of them have thin walls (0.5 to 1.5 ft) of nearly uniform
thickness (h) ; but some of the longer forms have thick walls and a narrow
lumen resembling the strawberry hair (h'). The thin-walled hairs are
commonly sinuous.
2. Hypoderm (Fig. 262, Hy). Two or more cell-layers of collen-
RED R/ISP BERRY. 35 1
chyma form the hypoderm, a water tissue serving to retard the evapora-
tion of the fruit juice.
3. Mesocarp (Fig. 262, Mes). The outer two or three layers of the
mesocarp consist of isodiametric cells with intercellular spaces, inter-
spersed with crystal cells; but further inward, at least in the thicker
portion of the fruit, the cells are enormously elongated in radial directions
and are without intercellular spaces. Tschierske points out that the
succulent nature of the fruit results from the radial growth of cells, not
as in the strawberry from the formation of numerous isodiametric cells by
a meristematic layer.
As in all the species of Rubus, cells with crystal clusters are common,
Btov
Fig. 263. Red Raspberry. Epicarp with h' straight hair, h sinuous hairs, and sto stoma.
X160. (WlNTON.)
particularly near the base of the style. Reticulated cells occur in the
inner layers adjoining the endocarp.
4. Outer Endocarp (Fig 262, F; Fig. 264, //). Owing to the deep
wrinkles, the thickness of this coat is exceedingly variable. As in the
strawberry, the sclerenchyma fibers are longitudinally arranged and
cross those of the inner endocarp at right angles. The fibers are a
little narrower than in the latter fruit and in cross sections are usually
elliptical polygonal, with the longer diameters in radial directions.
5. Inner Endocarp (Fig. 262, F'; Fig. 264, qf). The fibers of this coat,
of which there are four or more thicknesses, are the same as in the outer
endocarp, but run transversely about the fruit.
Spermoderm (Fig. 264, S). The seed coats of the bramble fruits
resemble closely those of the stone fruits, the chief difference being that
the epidermal stone cells are wanting.
3S2
FRUIT.
i. Epidermis (ep). The cells are polygonal in surface view, the average
diameter being 35 [i and the maximum 70 /i. In transverse section they
are cushion-shaped, with a cuticularized outer wall.
2. Nutritive Layer (p). The cells in this layer, having fulfilled their
mission, are empty and are often more or less collapsed.
Fig. 264. Red Raspberry. Endocarp and outer portion of seed in cross section. End
endocarp consists of If longitudinally extended fibers and }/ transversely extended
fibers; 5 sperraoderm consists of ep epidermis, p parenchyma (nutritive layer), and iep
inner epidermis; JVperisperm; E endosperm with k aleurone grains. X300. (\Vinton.)
3. Brown Layer {iep). The inner layer of the spermoderm consists
of cells of the same kind as in the outer epidermis, but only about half
as large, the maximum diameter in surface view being 30 ,u and the average
20 fi. These cells' are readily distinguished from those of the neighbor-
ing layer by their thicker walls and yellow -brown color.
RED RASPBERRY.
353
II
0
I
Perispenn (Fig. 264, N). As in the strawberry, all that remains of
this tissue is the layer of obliterated cells, which in section appears as the
thickened outer wall of the endosperm.
The Endosperm (Fig. 264, E) is made up of aleurone
cells with remnants of other cells adjoining the embryo.
On the two broader sides of the elliptical section there
are five or six cell-layers, but the number diminishes
toward both the ventral and dorsal sides, where there
are only two or three.
Embryo (Fig. 262, Em). The structure of the
embryo is practically the same as in the strawberry.
Style (Figs. 265 and 266). 1. The Epidermal Cells
(ep) are much smaller than in the strawberry, and
owing to numerous wrinldes on the surface are not so
transparent. These wrinkles may be brought out
clearly either by treating specimens with iodine as
recommended by Tschierske, or better, by bleaching
with Javelle water and staining with safranin. On the
broadened basal portion of the style are scattering
hairs like those of the epicarp.
2. Bundles. After heating the style with dilute
alkali, the vessels (sp) and accompanying isodiametric
crystal cells (k) are clearly evident.
DIAGNOSIS.
Styles and stones (seeds with inclosing endocarp)
are evident to the naked eye.
The styles (Figs. 265 and 266) may be examined
directly under the microscope as in the case of the
strawberry, and are identified by their length (4 mm.),
broadened base with hairs, and small, wrinkled epider-
mal cells. Vessels and crystal cells are also striking
elements.
The stones (Fig. 262, III, IV) are distinguished
from seeds of other genera by their characteristic
wrinkled surface and from blackberry stones by their
smaller size. Cross sections (Fig. 264) show the two
layers of endocarp, the spermoderm with cells of the
outer epidermis twice the diameter of those of the inner epidermis, the
endosperm of several cell layers, and the embryo.
1
Fig. 265. Raspberry.
Style and stigma.
X32. (Winton.)
354 FRUIT.
The epicarp (Fig. 263), the hairs of which are mostly blunt, narrow
(10 pi), thin-walled, and sinuous, also the crystal cells of the underlying
mesocarp, may be readily found in mounts prepared
iffli^yifflHi from the gelatinous portion of the product. The
1 H hairs are easily distinguished from those of the
'|af|p---k peach and apricot which are broad (10-25 /*)>
m ' fffiSS— - sp nearly straight, and have walls thicker than the
I^BB^^ breadth of the lumen. Vascular elements are almost
entirely wanting, as the receptacle is not picked
Fig. 266. Raspberry. . , , , .
Style in surface view. With the fruit.
ep epidermis; sp spiral
vessel; k crystal cells. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
X 300. (Winton.) See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Villiers et Collin (42).
Marpmann: Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Fruchtmarmeladen.
Ztschr. angew. Mikr. 1896, 2, 102.
Tschterske: Beitrage zur vergleichenden Anatomie und Entwickelungsgeschichte
einiger Dryadeenfruchte. Ztschr. Naturwissenschaft. 1886, 59, 612.
Winton: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm.
1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288.
BLACK RASPBERRY.
Rub us occidentalis L., a native of the northern United States, is
the parent of the black varieties. It differs from the red raspberry
chiefly in the smaller size of the drupelets and their deep purple-black
color, due to the dark claret-red cell juice. The pits of both are about
the same size and shape.
The black raspberry has practically the same microscopic structure
as the red species.
Black raspberry jam or preserve is of a deep claret-red color and
the seeds are stained the same color.
BLACKBERRY.
Rubus jruticosus grows wild in various parts of Europe, but is sel-
dom cultivated.
In North America three native species are of importance: the tall
blackberry (R. nigrobaccus Bailey), the short cluster blackberry (R. nigro-
baccus var. sativus Bailey), and the dewberry, or running blackberry
(R. villosus Aiton). These are not only common wild plants, but have
given rise to numerous cultivated varieties.1
1 Bailey: The Evolution of our Native Fruits. London, 1898, 366, 379.
BLACKBERRY.
355
In macroscopic and microscopic structure the berries of all the species
named are practically alike.
The blackberry agrees with the raspberry in general structure, but
differs in the following details: (i) The drupelets are glabrous or, in
,sto
Fig. 267. Blackberry (Rubus nigrobaccus). Outer layers of pericarp in surface view.
epi epicarp with sto stoma; hy hypoderm; k crystal cells. X160. (Winton.)
the case of the dewberry, sparingly hairy. (2) The drupelets are firmly
attached to the receptacle by broad bases and do not separate from the
latter on picking the fruit. There is really no
epidermis of the receptacle as the surface is
almost completely covered by the bases of the
drupelets, the epicarp of one being continuous
with that of the adjoining drupelet. (3) As may
be seen from Fig. 268, the pits resemble those
of the raspberry in shape and markings, but
are much larger. (4) The styles (Fig. 269) are
but 2 mm. long and commonly arise from a marked depression in the
drupelet. They are free from hairs and do not broaden at the base.
Fig. 268. Blackberry.
Stone, X 1 and X 32.
(Winton.)
HISTOLOGY.
Receptacle. The structure of the receptacle differs in no essential
detail from that of the raspberry.
Pericarp (Fig. 267). 1. Epicarp (epi). The cells are for the most
part elongated, the longer diameters extending in latitudinal directions
on the sides of the drupelets, and in concentric circles about the styles.
Stomata are always present, hairs never in R. nigrobaccus, seldom in
R. villosus.
35<5
FRUIT.
2. Hypoderm (hy). As in the epicarp, the cells are commonly elon-
gated, but are much larger and extend in longitudinal directions.
3. Mesocarp. This layer is much the same as in the raspberry.
Crystal clusters (k) are numerous, especially near the surface.
4. Endocarp. As in the raspberry, the sclerenchymatized fibers of
the endocarp have secondary and tertiary membranes and run longi-
tudinally in the outer, and latitudinally in the inner
layer. Both coats, however, are thicker than in the
raspberry, the inner consisting of 6-10 cell-layers.
Sperm oderm. It has been noted that the outer
epidermis of the raspberry spermoderm is made up of
polygonal cells with about twice the diameter of those
in the inner epidermis. The reverse is true in the case
of the blackberry, the spermoderm being much the
same as a raspberry spermoderm turned inside out.
The average diameter of the outer epidermal cells is
about 25/1, the maximum 40 ji, whereas the average
diameter of the inner epidermal cells is 40 /j. and the
maximum 60 ,«.
Style (Fig. 269). The epidermal cells are about
the same size as in the raspberry, but are not wrinkled
to any appreciable extent. Hairs are entirely wanting.
Crystals and vessels are conspicuous in alkali prepa-
rations.
DIAGNOSIS.
Fig. 269.. Blackberry
Style and stigma
X32. (Winton.)
Examination of blackberry preserves is made as
h ! ! described under raspberry. Styles (Fig. 269) are less
numerous than in the latter and are distinguished by
their shorter length, and the absence of hairs and wrinkles. In cooked
products it is not usually evident that the styles arise from a depression
in the drupelet. The seeds (Fig. 268) are larger than in raspberries, but
in histological structure are very similar. They are, however, distin-
guished from the latter by the thicker inner endocarp and by the fact that
the cells of the outer epidermis of the spermoderm are about half the
diameter of those of the inner epidermis; whereas, in the raspberry the
reverse is true. In blackberry preserves, unlike that made from rasp-
berries, hairs are few or entirely absent; but tissues of the receptacle,
notably the vascular elements, are present.
Compared with the strawberry, the bundles are shorter but more
BLACKBERRY. RED CURRANT. 357
strongly developed, with larger and more numerous vessels. Elongated
epidermal cells and crystals clusters are also distinguishable.
The loganberry, a cross between the raspberry and blackberry, has
epidermal hairs similar to those of the raspberry, but with thicker walls.
The style is of the blackberry type.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See p. 332 (Godfwn) ; p. 339 (Lampe); and p. 354 (Winton).
SAXIFRAGACEOUS FRUITS {Saxifragacea).
The bush fruits of this family yield many-seeded berries, wi h
withered remains of the floral parts at the extremity. The epicarp is
either smooth (red currant), glandular (black currant), or prickly (some
species of gooseberry). Only in the currants is the endocarp sclerenchy-
matized. The seeds are characterized by the large inflated epidermal
cells, and the crystal layer of the spermoderm, the bulky thick-walled
endosperm containing aleurone grains, and the minute embryo.
RED CURRANT.
Both the red and white garden varieties of currant are derived from
the European species, Ribes rubrum L.
The calyx tube is united with the ovary, and the fruit (a true berry)
bears on the summit the shriveled remains of the floral parts (Fig. 270,
/). The deeply five-cleft bell-shaped calyx tube bears in its throat five
petals much smaller than the calyx lobes and alternating with them, and
five stamens opposite the lobes. The short style, about half the length
of the calyx, is deeply two-cleft. The midribs of each of the floral envelopes,
ten in number, are continued in the fruit in the form of longitudinal veins,
and are clearly seen through the transparent epicarp. The anatropous.
seeds, one to eight in number, are borne on two parietal placentas (Fig.
270, II). As a result of the crowded arrangement they are usually flattened
on one or more sides. The outer spermoderm (Fig. 270, III, S) is gelat-
inous and transparent, and through it may be seen the delicate thread-
like raphe and the brown hard inner spermoderm. The minute embrya
(Fig. 270, III, Em) is embedded in the base of the endosperm.
358 FRUIT.
Divested of the gelatinous c"oat the seeds are from 4 to 5 mm. long and
from 3 to 4 mm. broad (Fig. 270, IV and V).
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp (Fig. 271). 1. Epicarp (epi). In parts the walls are thick-
ened with narrow pores; in other parts the walls are not thickened at
IV
FlG. 270. Red Currant (Ribes rubrum). / f;uit, Xi. 7/ cross section of fruit with seeds,
Xi. /// longitudinal section of seed, X8: 5 gelatinous epidermis of spermoderm;
S' inner spermoderm; R raphe; E endosperm; Em embryo. IV seed deprived of
gelatinous coat, Xi. V same as IV, X8. (Winton.)
all, or only here and there. Frequently strongly beaded cells are divided
by thin partitions into two daughter cells. Stomata are numerous. Cross
sections show that the cells are considerably broader than thick.
PlG. 271. Red Currant. Outer layers of pericarp in surface view, epi epicarp with sto
stoma; hy hypoderm; B vascular bundle or vein seen through the transparent outer
layers of the fruit. X160. (Winton.)
2. Hypoderm (hy). Two or three cell layers of collenchymatous cells
underlie the epidermis. In surface view they are polygonal with diam-
RED CURRANT. 359
eters twice or more those of the epidermal cells. Their collenchymatous
character is seen in a cross section.
3. Mesocarp. The cells are isodiametric (100 -300 /*), with thin
walls and numerous intercellular spaces. Radiating from the bundles
are elongated cells. Crystal rosettes abound in the inner layer.
4. Endocarp (Fig. 272). Unlike the gooseberry, the currant has a
sclerenchymatous endocarp. The long cells are arranged in groups, each
Fig. 272. Red Currant. Endocarp in surface view. X160. (Winton.)
group consisting of five to fifteen cells side by side. The cells of adjoin-
ing groups may extend either in the same or different directions. Curious
fan-shaped forms result from the junction of several groups. As a rule
the cavity is much thinner than the walls and oftentimes is reduced to a
mere line. Numerous pores connect adjoining cells and some pierce the
walls separating these cells from the mesocarp. The cells range in length
up to 500 p.; the thickness of the double walls is 5-20 p..
Spermoderm (Fig. 273, S). 1. Mucilage Cells (aep). The outer
layer consists of large, thin-walled cells filled with gelatinous matter.
They are about 90 p. in tangential diameter but often have a radial diam-
eter of over 500 [i. On the outer surface they are usually convex. Owing
to the great size of the cells, this coat, although but a single cell-layer
thick, forms a considerable part of the bulk of the seed.
360
FRUIT.
2. Parenchyma (p). Beneath the mucilage cells are several layers
of more or less flattened parenchymatous cells with intercellular
spaces. The cells of the inner layers are smaller and flatter than in the
outer.
3. Crystal Layer (Figs. 273 and 275, k). In surface view the deep
brown, thick-walled cells of this layer are sharply polygonal with diam-
FlG. 273. Red Currant. Seed in cross section. 5 spermoderm consists of aep gelatinous
outer epidermis, p parenchyma (nutritive layer), k crystal layer, and iep brown layer
(inner epidermis); 2V perisperm; E endosperm. X300. (Winion.)
eters from 8 to 20 ,u. The middle lamella is colorless, the thick mem-
brane, brown. Each cell contains a single monoclinic crystal, which
nearly or completely fills the cell cavity.
With crossed Nicol prisms these crystals appear as luminous spots in
the black background, disappearing on addition of a drop of hydrochloric
acid. In section it may be seen that only the radial and inner walls are
thickened, and that as a consequence each crystal lies close to the thin
outer wall.
4. Inner Epidermis (Figs. 273 and 275, iep).. Like the crystal layer,
the inner epidermis is of a deep-brown color, but this color is due to cell-
contents, not to thickened cell-walls. The cells are longitudinally elon-
gated, varying in length up to 150 p and in width from 4 to 9 /*. Both
this layer and the crystal layer are readily separated from the endosperm
by soaking in dilute alkali and scraping.
RED CURRENT.
361
Perisperm (Fig. 273, N). A cross section of the seed shows a cellulose
band about 10 ft thick between the spermoderm and the endosperm,
consisting of the obliterated cells of the nucellus.
The Endosperm (Figs. 273 and 275, E) consists of thick- walled cells
containing aleurone grains and fat. In the outer layers the cells are
radially elongated, with walls of even thickness (2 fi), but in the center of the
seed they are isodiametric, often with knotty thickened walls (Fig. 274).
DIAGNOSIS.
Cells of the endocarp (Fig. 272) are the most conspicuous and char-
acteristic elements of preserves. Fragments of the epicarp and floral
parts are also evident but are of less value in identification. The outer
gelatinous coat of the seed is destroyed by cooking, but the crystal layer
and the inner epidermis retain their
original form and may be identified
in surface mounts (Fig. 275) prepared
by warming in dilute alkali and
Fig. 274. Red Currant. Cross sec-
tion of central portion of endo-
sperm. X 300. (Winton.)
Fig. 275. Red Currant. Surface view of K
crystal layer, iep inner epidermis of spermo-
derm, and E endosperm. X 300. (Winton.)
scraping with a scalpel. Sections of the seed are sometimes useful, but
as a rule an examination of the spermoderm in surface view is sufficient.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Blyth (5); Villiers et Collin (42).
Garcin: Recherches sur l'histogenese des pencarpes charnus. Ann. Soc. nat. Bot. Se"r.
VII, 1890, 12, 175.
Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saftiger Friichte. Ztschr.
Naturwissenschaft. 1886, 59, 295.
Wtnton: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm.
1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288.
362
FRUIT.
BLACK CURRANT.
The Black Currant (Ribes nigrum L.), a native of the Old World, is
cultivated both in Europe and America.
In external appearance the fruit is distinguished from the red currant
by its black color and by the longer floral parts. The seeds are some-
what smaller and more numerous (about 15 in each berry) than in the
red varieties.
The calyx is about 7 mm. long, and the lobes are reflexed. On
the outer surface and on the inner surface at the ends the lobes are
clothed with numerous hairs; but the throat is smooth, as are also the
petals and the style. The latter is entire for at least three-fourths its
length, but two-lobed at the end.
HISTOLOGY.
The cells of the Epicarp (Fig. 276, epi) are beaded and of about the
same size as in the red currant. Here and there are bright-yellow disc-
Fig. 276. Black Currant {Ribes nigrum) . epi epicarp with d gland, in surface view. X160
(WlNTON.)
shaped glands (d) which often exceed 170 ,« in diameter. Meyen noted
that they occur in still greater numbers on the leaves, and that they agree
in structure with the glands of the hop. Each gland consists of a single
layer of cells in the form of a disc, joined in the middle to the epicarp
BLACK CURRANT. GOOSEBERRY. 363
by means of a short several-celled stalk. The yellow oily secretion to
which the plant owes its characteristic odor and flavor is contained in
the reservoir formed by the separation of the outer cuticle from the cells.
The Mesocarp, Endocarp, and Seed have the same general structure
as the same parts of the red currant.
Under the microscope the calyx hairs have the same appearance
as those on the epicarp of the raspberry. They are crooked, blunt-
pointed, thin-walled, and vary in length up to 600 a.
DIAGNOSIS.
Black currant preserves, jams, etc., have a red-black color, and the
characteristic spicy flavor of the fresh fruit. They are further distinguished
from similar products made from red currants by the glands on the epi-
carp (Fig. 276,) the longer floral parts, the hairs on the outer surface of
the calyx, and the smaller seeds.
The mesocarp, endocarp, and seed tissues of the red and black cur-
rant are the same in structure.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saftiger Friichte. Ztschr.
Naturw. 1886,. 59, 295.
Meyen: Secretionsorgane d. Pflanzen. Berlin, 1837.
Winton: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm.
1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288.
GOOSEBERRY.
The European or prickly gooseberry (Ribes Grossularia L.) is one
of the most valuable small fruits cultivated in Great Britain and the
Continent,- but is seldom grown in America owing to the mildew to which
it is there, subject. The varieties cultivated in the United States are
largely derived from a smooth fruited native species, R. oxyacanthoides L.
The fruit has much the same general structure as the currant, but is
larger (1 to 2 cm. in diameter), the calyx and style are longer (6 mm. in
length), and are pubescent, and the smooth or prickly pericarp is thicker
(Fig. 277). The gelatinous coat of the seed is thicker (often 2 mm.
thick on the raphe side), but the seed freed from this coat is about the
same size as in the currant, although somewhat narrower and more nearly
terete. Except for the prickles, the European and American gooseberry
are identical in structure.
364
FRUIT.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp, i. The Epicarp Cells are polygonal and more
beaded like those of the red currant.
The Prickles have a broad base and are often over i mm. long
have a blunt point, others, a head of globular
form. Both forms are shown in Fig. 278.
The Epidermal Cells of the prickles are elon-
gated, and are arranged end to end in longitudinal
rows. At the base they pass into the isodia-
metric cells of the epicarp.
2. The Hypoderm is the same as in the red
currant.
or less
Some
Fig. 277. American Gooseberry (Ribes oxyacan-
thoides). I whole fruit, Xi. 77 transverse sec-
tion of fruit with seeds, X 1. 777 seeds deprived
of gelatinous coat, X 8. (Winton.)
Fig. 278. European Gooseberry
{Ribes Grossularia). Prickles
with and without globular head.
X32. (Winton.)
3. Mesocarp. This layer is composed of extraordinarily large cells
(often 500 fi in diameter), which are evident to the naked eye and are
separated from each other by a network of cells hardly 50 fi in diameter.
In the inner layers the small cells are less numerous or entirely lacking.
Crystal clusters are abundant, particularly in the inner layers.
4. The Endocarp consists of a layer of parenchyma cells with walls
so thin that they are studied with difficulty, and is quite different from
the sclerenchymatous endocarp of the currants.
Spermoderm, Endosperm, and Embryo. The microscopic structure of
the seed is practically the same as that of the currant seed.
Floral Parts (Fig. 279). The remains of the floral parts are usually
deep brown, and can be studied to advantage only after bleaching, prefer-
ably with Javelle water, and staining. A prominent midvein runs from'
the base almost to the apex of each of the calyx and corolla lobes.
About four secondary veins branching near the base, partly from the
calyx midrib, partly from the corolla midrib, also run nearly to the-
GOOSEBERRY.
36S
apex of the calyx lobes. Lateral branches from the midribs are numer-
ous in the corolla, less so in the calyx.
The epidermal cells of the calyx are for the most part slightly elon-
FlG. 279. Gooseberry. Floral parts. X5.
(Winton.)
Fig. 280. Gooseberry. Epider-
miSj from margin of calyx, with,
hairs. X160. (Winton.)
gated, and are arranged end to end in longitudinal rows. Near the ends
of the lobes they have wavy outlines. The outer surface of the calyx
and the upper part of the inner surface bear only a
few scattering hairs. The calyx throat, however, is
densely pubescent. These hairs are all thin-walled,
and vary in length up to i mm. or more, the longest
being in the calyx throat (Figs. 280 and 281).
The deeply parted styles are covered with epider-
mal cells, for the most part quadrilateral and arranged
end to end in rows, and on the lower half bear
numerous thin- walled hairs 1 mm. or more in length.
DIAGNOSIS.
The epidermis, mesocaip, and seed have the same
structure as the corresponding parts of the currant,
but the endocarp is not sclerenchymatized and is
not evident in preserves. The floral parts (Fig. 279)
are of about the same length as in the black currant
(6 mm.), but the calyx throat and the styles bear Fig. 281. Gooseberry.
numerous long hairs (Fig. 281), whereas these parts in tr^oaT^calyx/with
the black currant are smooth, or only sparingly hair- XI(5°- (Wm-
pubescent.
366 FRUIT.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Blyth (5).
Garcin: Recherches sur l'histogenese des pencarpes charnus. Ann. Soc. nat. Bot. Ser.
VII, 1890, 12, i7S.
Marpmann: Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Fruchtmarnieladen.
Ztschr. angew. Mikr. 1896, 2, 97.
Winton: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm,
1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288.
ERICACEOUS FRUITS (Ericacece).
The fruits are either several-celled berries, each cell containing a
number of seeds (cranberry, blueberry), or ten-celled drupes (huckle-
berry).
The smooth epicarp bears short triangular calyx teeth. Groups of
stone cells occur in the mesocarp of the huckleberry, but are lacking in
the mesocarp of the other species. The endocarp in the cranberry is
of thin- walled elements; in the blueberry, of thin- walled cells interspersed
with groups of stone cells; in the huckleberry, of a dense mass of stone
cells. The spermoderm of the cranberry and blueberry is characterized
by the elongated, thick-walled, porous cells.
CRANBERRY.
Bailey1 states that the cranberry {Vaccinium macrocarpon Ait.), the
most unique of American horticultural products, was first cultivated,
or rescued from mere wild bogs, about 1810. The varieties now known
are over a hundred, all having been picked up in bogs, and the annual
product in the United States is more than 800,000 bushels.
The cowberry, or mountain cranberry, Vaccinium Vitis-Idcsa L., is
gathered in great quantities in Canada, where it is used for sauces. It
is also a native of Europe, where it is much prized as a culinary fruit.
Different varieties of the cultivated cranberry vary in shape (spherical,
oval, pear-shaped), in color (pink, red, maroon, mottled), and in size
(diameter up to 15 mm.).
The epicarp is smooth, and bears on the summit four short tooth-
like calyx lobes, which are usually bent inward. Between the calyx lobes
1 The Evolution of Our Native Fruits. London, 1898, 414, 424.
CRANBERRY.
367
is a circular spot with a dot in the center, formed by the dropping of the
floral parts (Fig. 282, I).
The berry is four-celled, each cell containing on a central placenta
a number of seeds which fill only a small part of the otherwise empty
cavity (Fig. 282, II).
In the nearly ripe fruit only the epicarp is colored, the other parts
being white; but in the fully ripe fruit all the tissues are usually red.
FlG. 282. Cultivated Cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon). I berry seen from above,
Xi. II cross section of berry, Xi. /// seed, X8. IV cross section of seed, X15:
5 epidermis of spermoderm; S' inner spermoderm; R raphe; E endosperm; Em
embryo. (Winton.)
The yellow short-beaked seeds have a thick spermoderm and a bulky
endosperm in the axis of which is an elongated embryo of moderate size,
consisting chiefly of the radicle (Fig. 282, III and IV).
The mountain cranberry has practically the same macroscopic structure
as the cultivated species, but is much smaller.
HISTOLOGY.
The following description applies to both the cultivated and the moun-
tain cranberry, the two being nearly, if not quite, identical in microscopic
structure.
Pericarp. 1. The Epicarp (Fig. 283) is very simple in structure,
with cells as seen in surface view from 20
to 50 [i in diameter, and cell-walls 3 /i thick.
Cross sections show that this layer is about
25 [i thick and that the cuticle is strongly
thickened.
2. The Hypoderm (Fig. 283) is for the
most part only one cellrlayer thick, and the
cells are more or less isodiametric in cross-
section. Evaporation is largely prevented by
the thick cuticle, rendering a more strongly
developed hypoderm unnecessary.
3. The Mesocarp cells are mostly isodiametric, and range up to
Fig. 283. Cultivated Cranberry.
Epicarp and hypoderm. X160.
(Winton.)
368 FRUIT.
200 n in diameter, but in the partitions between the fruit cavities they are
somewhat smaller.
4. Endocarp (Fig. 284). The cells are for the most part longitudi-
nally extended and are more or less curved or wavy in outline. The in-
FiG. 284. Cultivated Cranberry. Endocarp with stoma. X160. (WlNTON.)
distinctly porous cell- walls are somewhat thicker than those of the meso-
carp, but unlike those in some Vaccinium species are not conspicuously
thickened. Although stomata are entirely lacking in the epicarp, they
occur in considerable numbers in the endocarp.
Spermoderm. 1. Epidermis (Fig. 285, ep; Fig. 286). Of all the
tissues, this is the most characteristic and remarkable. The cells in the
mature seed range in width up to 100 ji, and in length up to 400 n, but
in abortive seeds are much smaller. As is seen in cross section, the
outer walls (Fig. 285, ep) are thin and convex, but the deep-yellow or
brown inner and radial walls are sclerenchymatously thickened (double
walls often 20 p.), and in addition the radial walls and sometimes the
outer and inner walls have a transparent mucilaginous layer of distinctly
stratified structure which nearly fills the cell cavity. Treated with chlor-
zinc iodine the mucilaginous formation is stained blue, the cell-walls
CRANBERRY.
369
proper remaining yellow. In V. Vitis-Idcea the outer and inner walls
often have a swollen layer (Fig. 287). The sclerenchymatous radial
— ep
— m
— B
Fig. 285. Cultivated Cranberry. Seed in cross section, ep epidermis of spermoderm
with sclerenchymatized and mucilaginous layers; m inner spermoderm; E endosperm.
X160. (Winton.)
Hi
II
mm
IB
Wft'tiPSfm.
ilBi
■I
mm
Warn
Fig. 286. Cultivated Cranberry. Epidermis of spermoderm in surface view. X160.
(Winton.)
and inner walls are pierced with numerous pores which, in the immature
or abortive seeds, are nearly circular, but in the fully ripe seeds are usu-
ally much elongated.
37° FRUIT.
2. Inner Layers (Fig. 285, m). The remainder of the spermo-
derm consists of two or three layers of large thick-walled porous cells,
the innermost layers being more or less collapsed. In dried or cooked
specimens, all of these cells are collapsed.
The Endosperm (Fig. 285, E) contains aleurone grains but no starch.
The Embryo is not remarkable.
DIAGNOSIS.
Fragments of the epicarp (Fig. 283) and endocarp (Fig. 284),
bundles from the mesocarp, and seeds, may be found in preserves. The
large porous epidermal cells of the spermo-
derm, with sclerenchymatized and mucilage
layers are characteristic and may be studied
in surface preparations (Fig. 286). In un-
ripe or abortive seeds these cells are smaller,
Fl°- 287-. M^ntH^ranr^ thinner-walled, and have pores more nearlv
(Vaccmium Vttts-idcza). Cross > in-
sertion of spermoderm. x 160. round than in the mature seeds. Isolated
stone cells detached from the spermoderm
of immature seeds by cooking, sometimes occur in the gelatinous portion
of the preserve.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Wnsriox: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. ZtschrL Unters. Nahr.-Genussm.
1902, 0, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288.
BLUEBERRY.
Vaccinium Myrtillus L. grows over an extended area in Europe, and
the berries are used both as food and as medicine.
Among the American species yielding edible berries similar to those
of the European species are the tall or swamp blueberry (V. corymbosum
L.) and two dwarf species (V. Pennsylvanicum Lam. and 1'. Canadense
Kalm.), all of which are being introduced into cultivation.
The berries of all the species named are black with a -gray-blue bloom,
globular, 1 cm. or less in diameter, and are crowned by five calyx teeth.
Except for the bloom they are hardly distinguishable in external appear-
ance from the huckleberry, which they further resemble in flavor, but
in internal structure the two fruits have little in common. The dense
endocarp tissue of the huckleberry is represented in the blueberry by
a thin and soft, although partially sclerenchymatized, tissue; furthermore,
BLUEBERRY.
371
the locules of the former fruit contain but one seed, whereas in the latter
they are several -seeded. On the other hand, the blueberry and cran-
berry, although strikingly different in color and flavor, are very similar
both in gross and minute anatomy.
HISTOLOGY.1
The important European and American species have practically the
same structure.
Pericarp. 1. The Epicarp consists of polygonal cells like those of
the cranberry, but the contents are dark violet instead of red.
2. The Hypoderm of collenchyma cells is of no special interest.
3. Mesocarp (Fig. 288). The cells are for the most part thin-walled,
but here and there, especially near the bundles, the walls are sclerenchy-
Fig. 2
Blueberry (Vaccinium Myrtillus). Endocarp and mesocarp in surface view.
(R. Muller.)
matized without being greatly thickened. Thick-walled stone cells, such
as occur in the mesocarp of the huckleberry, are entirely wanting. Crystal
clusters abound in the inner layers.
4. Endocarp (Fig. 288). This tissue, consisting of a single thin layer
of loosely united stone cells, is intermediate between the parenchyma-
tous endocarp of the cranberry on one hand, and the thick stone -cell tissue
of the huckleberry endocarp on the other. These stone cells separate
readily from one another and are remarkable for their diversity of size
1 Based largely on R. Miiller's exhaustive paper on the histology of the European
blueberry.
37 2 FRUIT.
and shape. Elongated cells, 15-50 ji in breadth, usually predominate,
although isodiametric forms are also common. Among the elongated
cells are distorted L-, S-, and Y-shaped, as well as various grotesque,
forms. Quite as variable are the isodiametric cells, which are triangular,
quadrilateral, rounded, or exceedingly irregular with curious horn-like
projections.
Spermoderm. 1, The Outer Epidermis (Fig. 289) is of large elon-
gated cells, the inner halves of which are strongly sclerenchymatized
Fig. 289. Blueberry. Epidermis of spermoderm in surface view. (R. MtJuEH.)
and porous. Except for the absence of the mucilaginous inner layers of
the walls, the structure is like that of the corresponding coat of the cran-
berry;
2. The Ifiddle Layers are of parenchyma cells, and
3. The Inner Layers of obliterated elements forming in cross section
a hyaline band.
Endosperm and Embryo contain aleurone grains and fat.
DIAGNOSIS.
The epidermis of polygonal cells, the curious stone cells of the endo-
carp (Fig. 288), and the whole seeds with the sclerenchymatized epider-
mis (Fig. 289), are easily found in preserves and similar products. The
absence of large stone cells in the mesocarp and of a dense endocarp in-
closing each seed, as well as the structure of the seed itself, distinguishes
the fruit from the huckleberry, while the dark color of the cell-contents
and the presence of the curious endocarp stone cells furnish a ready
means of distinction from the cranberry.
HUCKLEBERRY.
373
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Garcin: Recherches sur l'histogenese des pericarpes charnus. Ann. Soc. nat. Bot. Ser-
Vn, 1890, 12, 175.
Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saftiger Frtichte. Ztschr.
Naturw. 1886, 59, 295.
Muixer v Blau: Fructus Myrtilli. Pharm. Post, Wien. 1902, 35, 461.
HUCKLEBERRY.
This wild berry (Gaylussacia resinosa Torr. and Gray) is abundant
in the northern United States, and furnishes large quantities of fruit for
the market.
The fruit is globular in form, blue-black in color, and 1 cm. or less
in diameter (Fig. 290, / and II). It is not a true berry, but a ten-celled
drupe, the hard coverings of the so-called seeds
being the inner walls of the pericarp cells. The
epicarp is smooth and the fruit is crowned
with five-pointed'calyx lobes much like those
of the cranberry. In the center, between these
lobes, is a small depression, the scar of the
style. The pits are closely crowded about
the axis, and as a consequence are wedge-
shaped (Fig. 290, III and IV). Under the
hand lens they have a rough granular appear-
ance.
Within the thick endocarp is the seed with
a thin spermoderm and a bulky endosperm;
in the axis of the endosperm is an elongated
embryo.
Fig. 290. Hucklebenv {Gaylus-
sacia resinosa). 1 fruit seen
from above, Xi. II cross
section of fruit, Xi. Ill
stone, X8. IV cross section
of stone, X 8: End endocarp;
5 spermoderm; £ endosperm;
Em embryo. (Winton.)
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp. 1. Epicarp (Fig. 291, epi). Surface mounts show the
cells of this layer to be much the same in form and size as those of the
cranberry epicarp; cross sections, however, show that the cuticle is much
thinner.
2. The Hypoderm (hy) is several cell layers thick, and thus furnishes
a protection against evaporation, which is not necessary in the case of
the cranberry, owing to its thick cuticle.
374
FRUIT.
3. Mesocarp (mes). Owing to the presence of numerous stone cells
(s/) this layer is strikingly different from the mesocarp of the other com-
f — epi
-mes
FIG. 291. Huckleberry. Cross section of outer portion of the pericarp, ept epicarp;
hy hypoderm; mes mesocarp; st stone cells. X160. (WlNTON.)
Fig. 292. Huckleberry. Cross section of endocarp and seed. End endocarp with large
isodiametric stone cells and // narrow longitudinally extended fibers; 5 spermoderm;
N perisperm; £ endosperm. X160. (Winton.)
mon small fruits, but resembles that of the quince and pear, although
the stone cells are thinner-walled and the parenchyma cells about them
HUCKLEBERRY.
37S
are not strongly elongated, and are not arranged in a marked radiating
pattern. These stone cells are angular or elliptical and vary in diameter
up to 200 jx. The walls (20 ft or less thick) are pierced with numerous
small pores. They occur either singly or in groups throughout the
mesocarp, and may be readily separated from the soft tissues by
pressure.
4. Endocarp (Fig. 292, end). Most of the elements of this hard
coat are stone cells, about the same size and shape as those of the meso-
carp (although usually thicker-walled), but in the wall adjoining the
mesocarp there is a group of narrow sclerenchyma fibers running parallel
Fig. 293. Huckleberry. Spermoderm in surface view. X300. (WiNTON.)
with the axis of the fruit and similar fibers form the inner layer of the
coat.
The pits of the huckleberry crush more readily between the teeth than
those of the bramble fruits, owing to the larger size of the stone cells and
the relatively larger cell cavities.
376 FRUIT.
Spermoderm (Fig. 292, 5). There is but one layer of cells in this
coat, which may be removed after cutting off the endocarp and studied
in surface view (Fig. 293). Most of the cells are of fantastic form with
wavy outline, and often reach a length of 200 p. The walls are beauti-
fully reticulated, the nearly circular pores being 4 ,u in diameter. This
coat is highly characteristic. The raphe is not conspicuous.
The Endosperm (Fig. 292, E) and Embryo are much the same in
structure and form as those of the cranberry.
DIAGNOSIS.
The characteristic elements of the huckleberry which may be found
in preserves are the large stone cells of the mesocarp (Fig. 291) and
endocarp (Fig. 292), and the reticulated cells (Fig. 293) of the spermo-
derm. Stone cells of the mesocarp are distributed throughout the pre-
serve, but those of the endocarp are obtained in transverse sections of
the "seeds." The spermoderm is best seen in surface preparations.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
WrNTON: Beitrage zur Anatomie des Beerenobstes. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm.
1902, 5, 785. Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rep. 1902, 288.
CITRUS FRUITS (Rutacea).
The fruits of this family are many-seeded berries differing in size
and flavor but much alike in structure. The following detailed descrip-
tion of the orange suffices for an understanding of the group.
ORANGE.
The orange {Citrus Aurantium L.) is the most valuable citrus fruit
and may be styled the apple of subtropical regions. It was introduced
into Europe from the Far East at an early period and thence into America
in colonial times. Before the days of rapid transportation the fruit was
unknown in cooler regions except as a greenhouse product; now, how-
ever, it is on sale throughout the civilized world.
Two marked varieties are recognized, the common sweet orange
(var. Sinensis Engler) and the bitter orange (var. amara L.).
The fruit is a berry with normally 10 two-seeded locules, but as a result
of cultivation the number of locules varies from 6-1 2 and the number of
seeds also varies, being entirely absent in the navel varieties. The outer
ORANGE.
377
rind is of a deep orange color and consists of epicarp, hypoderm, and
outer mesocarp. In this tissue are numerous cavities, often over i mm. in
diameter, in which is secreted an
essential oil consisting largely of a ter-
pene, limonene, with small amounts
of citral and other substances. The
pimples on the surface of the fresh
fruit, becoming depressions on drying,
mark the position of these cavities.
The inner rind or inner mesocarp is
white and of much the same texture
as blotting-paper. Each of the seg-
ments of the fruit is covered by a
membranous skin, the endocarp,
while the fleshy part is made up of
club-shaped vesicles springing from
the inner surface of that portion of
the endocarp adjoining the rind.
Each of the seeds consists of two or
more (maximum 12) embryos in-
closed within a skin consisting of
spermoderm, perisperm, and rem-
nants of endosperm. Owing to the
mucilaginous outer layer of the spermoderm the seeds are slimy
Fig. 294. Orange (Citrus Auranliuni).
Cross section of outer layers of peel from
an unripe fruit. Ep epicarp with st stoma;
scb oil cavity; gf fibro-vascular bundle;
kr crystals of calcium oxalate; He lumps
and crystals of hesperidin. (TsCHIECH
and Oesterle.)
HISTOLOGY.
Fresh ripe oranges are usually obtainable at all seasons and in all
countries. Lacking these, alcoholic material may be used, and with the
advantage that the tissues are hardened and the crystals of hesperidin are
better defined.
Pericarp (Fig. 294). Transverse and tangential sections of the rind
and surface mounts of the skin covering the segments should be studied,
also preparations obtained by crushing the isolated vesicles of the fruit
pulp under a cover-glass.
1. The Epicarp Cells {Ep) are rather thick- walled, sharply polygonal,
and from 10-25 P- m diameter. Division of the mother cells into daughter
cells is often evident. Beautifully formed stomata nearly circular in
outline occur in considerable numbers; the epidermal cells about each
stoma being more or less concentrically arranged. The color of the
378
FRUIT.
orange rind is due to chromatophores present not only in the epidermis
but in the subepidermal layers and also in the vesicles of the pulp.
2. Hypoderm. This tissue consists of rather small collenchyma
cells in which ground tissue are the oil cavities (scb). These latter con-
tain yellow drops of essential oil secreted by the delicate cells lining the
cavity. In the cells of the ground tissue are numerous needle-shaped
crystals of a glucoside, hesperidin (He), which, in alcoholic specimens,
occur in dense spheroidal aggregates. Hesperidin is very abundant in
the green fruit of all varieties, but diminishes in amount on ripening.
The amount present at maturity in the sweet orange is, however, much
greater than in the fruit of the bitter variety, a distinction of some value
in the examination of marmalades. Cells here and there contain single
monoclinic crystals of calcium oxalate (kr).
3. Mesocarp (Fig. 295). The close tissue of the hypoderm passes by
degrees into a colorless spongy parenchyma which makes up the white
Fig. 295. Orange. Spongy parenchyma from inner layers of peel. (Berg.)
tissue forming the larger part of the rind and the middle layers of the
partition walls through which the segments separate. Owing to the large
intercellular spaces and the narrow arms of the cells, this tissue presents
a striking appearance in tangential section, and is also noticeable in
the debris found in marmalades.
4. Endocarp. The membranous skin or endocarp inclosing the seg-
ments consists of greatly elongated, narrow cells transversely arranged.
These are for the most part thin-walled, but individuals here and there
have sclerenchymatized walls pierced by oblique pores, making the tissue
especially noticeable in marmalades.
5. Vesicles (Fig. 296). Tschirch and Oesterle find that in the
green fruit two forms of multicellular hairs occur on that portion
OR/INGE.
379
of the endocarp adjoining the rind; one, club-shaped with smooth sur-
face, the other more or less knob-shaped with glandular epidermal cells
forming an aggregate resembling a bunch of grapes. The former develop
into the fruit vesicles, while the latter remain small and are not noticeable
in the mature fruit. The vesicles are thread-like at the base, broadening
into the distended and elongated bodies containing the fruit juice. The
outer layer of these consists of narrow, fiber-like cells, the walls of which,
although usually thin, occasionally are thickened like the sclerenchyma
cells of the endocarp. In the inner portion of the vesicle the cells are
Fig. 296. Orange. Multicellular hairs from inner surface of pericarp of an unripe fruit.
These develop later into the fruit vesicles. (Tschiech.)
larger and more isodiametric in form. The yellow color is due to
chromat ophores.
The Spermoderm may be studied in cross sections of the entire seed,
also in preparations obtained by stripping off the outer and inner layers.
1. Outer Epidermis. The sclerenchyma cells are 12-20 /: broad, 350-
400 fi long, and 100-225 J" high> tne latter dimension not including the
mucilaginous outer walls which often swell to a thickness of over 150 /z,
forming a structureless hyaline layer about the seed. Being elongated
both longitudinally and radially, in surface view they appear like fibers,
in cross section like palisade cells. The outer ends of the sclerenchy-
matized portions are of various curious shapes, appearing in cross section
38o FRUIT.
like beaks projecting into the outer mucilaginous layer. The walls are
narrower than the cavity and are distinctly porous.
2. The Middle Spermoderm forms a close tissue in the layers adjoining
the epidermis, passing into a spongy parenchyma further inward.
3. Inner Epidermis. The cells are elongated and contain a brown
substance.
Perisperm. Several layers of rather thick- walled cells form a tissue
resembling the aleurone cells of various oil seeds.
The Endosperm is either not evident at all or only as an obliterated
structureless membrane.
Embryo. According to Tschirch and Oesterle, only one of the several
embryos is a product of the embryo sac, the others being formed in the
outer layers of the nucellus at the end of the ovule without special fertiliza-
tion. The nucellar embryos are none of them so well developed as the
one formed in the embryo sac, only two at the most being capable of
sprouting. The cells contain rounded aleurone grains from 2-10 /i in
diameter, with numerous globoids.
DIAGNOSIS.
Orange Marmalade usually contains slices of the rind. Under the
microscope we note the sharply polygonal epidermal cells, also the
cells of the hypoderm containing numerous orange-colored chromato-
phores. Needle-shaped crystals of hesperidin are often found distributed
in the outer rind, especially if the marmalade was made from the common
or sweet orange. After soaking for some time in alcohol they are
evident as spherical aggregates as well as isolated raphides. The oil
cavities (Fig. 294, scb) are macroscopic objects.
The spongy parenchyma (Fig. 295) of the inner mesocarp, char-
acterized by the narrow arms of the cells and the large intercellular
spaces, is easily found in the de"bris, notwithstanding the thinness of the
walls and the absence of color.
Other characteristic elements are the fiber-like cells of the endocarp,
some of which are sclerenchymatized, and the elongated epidermal cells
of the vesicles, united into a thread at the base.
Orange seeds are occasionally found in marmalades. Their shape,
the presence of more than one embryo and otiier macroscopic characters
usually suffice for their identification. Under the microscope the scleren-
chymatized epidermal cells, both radially and longitudinally elongated,
are the most conspicuous features. In cross section the outer beak-
ORANGE. LEMON. CITRON. 38r
like extremities extending into the swollen, apparently structureless,
mucilaginous layer, identify them beyond doubt as seeds of a citrus
fruit.
An examination of orange marmalade should include a search under
the microscope for the pulp of cheaper fruits and vegetables. All the
common citrus fruits have practically the same structure. Adulteration
of one with the other is improbable.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Blyth (5); Hanausek, T. F. (16); Hassall
(19); Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40).
Moeller, H. J.: Unterscheidung von Cortex Aurantii fructus und Apfelsinenschalen.
Arch. Ph. og. Ch. 28, 369.
Strasburger: Das Botanisches Practicum.
LEMON.
The lemon {Citrus medica L. var. Limon L.) differs from the orange
in color, shape, and flavor, but not in microscopic structure. The seed
seldom contains over three embryos and often only one.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Biermann: Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Entwickelungsgeschichte von Citrus vulgaris
Risso und anderen Citrus-Arten. Arch. d. Pharm. 1897, 235, 19.
Ross: On the structure and development of the lemon. Bot. Gazette, 1890, 15, 262.
CITRON.
The citron (Citrus medica L. var. genuina Engler) is much larger
than the lemon, being often 15-18 cm. long and 8-10 cm. broad. TFhe
thick rind of the green fruit (2-4 cm.) is candied for use in cakes and
confections.
In cross section the cells are nearly circular, forming a loose paren-
chyma tissue with oil cavities near the outer surface. The epidermal
cells are the same as those of the orange and lemon.
Possible substitutes are the rind of the water-melon and other
cucurbits.
382 FRUIT.
MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS.
GRAPE.
The Old World grape (Vitis vinijera L. order Vitacea), a native of
the East, has been cultivated since time immemorial in Europe, and
within the past half century has been successfully introduced into Cali-
fornia.
There are innumerable varieties differing in size, shape, and color of
the berries, as well as in their flavor, acidity, and wine value. Aside from
their use for wine production, the fresh berries are among the most de-
licious of table fruits and the dried berries or raisins are everywhere
common sweetmeats.
Xanti currants are the dried seedless berries of a grape (V. vinijera
var. apyrena L.) grown in the Ionian Islands and neighboring regions.
Excepting those raised in the Pacific States, American grapes are
largely derivatives of V. Labrusca L., V. oestivalis Michx., V. rotundijolia
Michx., and other native species, although some are hybrids with
V. vinijera. The northern fox grape (V. Labrusca) is the parent of the
Concord, Hartford, and others of the most valuable varieties. Berries
of the American varieties are more valuable as table fruit and for
preserves than for wine-making.
The morphology of both the fruit and the tissues is practically the
same in all the European and American grapes, excepting the Xanti
currant and other seedless varieties. The berry has a smooth epicarp
(often with a bloom), a pulpy mesocarp, but lacks a conspicuous endo-
carjD. Each of the two locules normally contains two seeds, but often
only one, or in the case of the Xanti currants, none at all. The seeds
(Fig. 297, A) are pear-shaped, 5-8 mm. long. On the ventral side are two
longitudinal grooves penetrating into the tissues of the endosperm. Be-
tween these runs the raphe, extending from the hilum at the narrow end
of the seed over the apex or broad end to the chalaza situated on the
dorsal side near the apex, its position being marked by an oval depression.
The reserve material is largely in the form of horny endosperm. In
cross section, owing to the grooves on the ventral side, the endosperm
is mushroom-shaped. The minute embryo situated in the narrow end
of the seed may be isolated after soaking for some days in ij per cent,
alkali.
CRAPE.
3«2
HISTOLOGY.
The Pericarp of the grape lacks throughout characteristic tissues,
thus facilitating the identification of foreign matter with marked character-
istics. Sections are easiest prepared from fully formed but not fully
mellowed berries, hardened in alcohol.
1. Epicarp. The cells are polygonal, 15-40 fi in diameter, without
any characteristic features. Cross sections show that the outer wall is
about 7 ft thick with a roughened cuticle.
2. The Hypoderm Cells are tabular and increase in size from with-
out inward, passing finally into the pulp cells of the mesocarp.
3. The Mesocarp or fruit flesh consists of thin-walled pulp cells and
.fibro-vascular bundles. Howard notes that needle-shaped crystals are
present, also crystal fibers attached to
the bundles. The vascular elements of
most of the bundles are entirely spiral
vessels, but the larger bundles, par-
ticularly of the European grape, often
contain in addition pitted elements..
4. Endocarp. There is no sharply
differentiated endocarp, the cells being
thin- walled with the same general char-
acters as those of the mesocarp.
Spermoderm (Fig. 297). Seeds of
any variety of European or American
grape or of raisins may be studied, as
observations indicate that all are the
same in structure. Surface mounts are
prepared of the outer and inner spermo-
derm and cross-sections of the entire
seed. The latter should be bleached
with Javelle water and stained with
safranin to bring out the inner layers
of the spermoderm.
1. Outer Epidermis (B, ep). Seen
in surface view, the somewhat elon-
gated cells are from 20-60 fi broad,
Fig. 297. Grape {Vitis vinifera). A, I
seed, ventral side with chalaza, natural
size; II dorsal side with hilum, X2.
B cross section of spermoderm show-
ing ep outer epidermis, pa parenchyma
with ra raphides, sc sclerenchyma layer
and iep inner epidermis. C, D, scleren-
chyma layer of Malaga grape in surface
view and cross section. (T. F. Hanatj-
SEK.)
and have thin colorless walls. Cross sections show that the outer wall is
thickened and cuticularized.
384 FRUIT.
2. A Parenchyma (B, pa) of thin- walled cells forms a subepidermal
coat, which over most of the surface is from 2-6 cell-layers thick, but
in the grooves is thicker. Many of the cells contain bundles of beauti-
fully formed raphides, evident both in cross sections and in surface
mounts. The inner layers are often colored brown.
3. Stone-cell Layer (B, se; C; D). This exceedingly hard coat
makes up by far the greater part of the spermoderm. It varies in thick-
ness from less than 75 ft to over 500 //. In the grooves it bends sharply
and extends much deeper into the endosperm than does the parenchyma.
Here, however, the layer is thin, often less than 75/4, whereas the paren-
chyma over it is thicker than in other parts of the seed. At first sight
the dense brown tissue appears to consist of a single layer of enormously
elongated radially arranged cells forming a palisade layer, but on careful
examination it is clear that only in the thinner portions is there but a
single layer, the thicker portions consisting of an aggregate of moderately
elongated or even isodiametric stone cells arranged end to end in radial
rows. All of these cells have strongly thickened walls and narrow cavities.
4. Lattice Cells. This cell-layer is obtained with some difficulty by
cutting open the seed, picking out the endosperm, and scraping the inner
surface of the spermoderm with a scalpel. The cells are for the most
part longitudinally elongated, exceedingly narrow (6-10 /z), and have
numerous small but very distinct spiral reticulations, giving them a lat-
ticed appearance. In cross section the layer appears like a thin brown
line of a darker color than either the stone cells or the inner epidermis,
but on bleaching with Javelle water and staining, the reticulations are
evident.
5. Inner Epidermis. Quite as remarkable as the lattice cells and
much easier to find, are the cells of this layer. They are polygonal,
12-35 I-1 m diameter, and have yellow, porous radial walls, which in surface
view are 4-5 /j. broad and very distinctly beaded.
Perisperm. A hyaline band of obliterated cells is evident in cross
section.
Endosperm. The cells are rather small, seldom exceeding 40 p.,
and have moderately thick but distinct walls. Sections mounted in tur-
pentine serve for the study of the remarkable aleurone grains which have
been described by Tschirch, Liidtke, and others. The large, irregularly
spherical, solitary grains reach 25 fi in diameter, and inclose either an
oxalate rosette 5-10 n in diameter, or a large globoid. The numerous
small grains are 3-6 /< in diameter.
GRAPE. 385
The Embryo is so minute and so encased in hard tissue that it is
difficult to study. It has no characters of diagnostic importance.
DIAGNOSIS.
Grape Preserves contain either the whole fruit or only the skin and
fruit flesh, both of which lack distinctive characters. The epidermal
cells are polygonal, resembling those of the currant, plum, and many
other products, and the pulp cells are not characteristic. Most of the
vascular elements of the bundle are spiral vessels. Calcium oxalate
raphides occur in greater or less abundance.
The seeds (Fig. 297, A) are recognized by their pear-shaped form, the
two grooves on the ventral side and the hilum depression on the dorsal
side near the apex. Cross sections of the endosperm are mushroom-
shaped. The characteristic tissues of the spermoderm (B) include the
crystal-bearing parenchyma, the brown stone cells, the lattice cells, and
the yellow, beaded inner epidermis. The soli-
tary aleurone grains of the endosperm and the
oxalate rosettes and globoids are also worthy
of notice, the rosettes appearing most distinct
after the proteid matter has been dissolved in
dilute alkali.
Raisins are used in cakes, sweetmeats, etc.,
either whole or chopped, with or without the
seeds. The cellular elements are the same as
Fig. 298. Kaism. Section of
have been noted under preserves. Sugar crystals fruit flesh showing crystals
(Fig. 298) often separate in the cells, and are ° sugan <■ OGL-'
seen after mounting in alcohol or some other medium in which they are
not soluble.
Xanti Currants contain the same elements as the grape and raisin,
except that they lack fully developed seeds. Brown abortive seeds are
always present.
Grape Pomace and other refuse from the wine-presses have been
utilized in various ways, both as food for the lower animals and as adul-
terants.
Ground Grape Seeds serve as adulterants of coffee and possibly of
other products. They are easily identified by the characters already
noted.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); Villiers et Collin
(42); Vogl (45)-
3g6 FRUIT.
Howard: Microscopical Examinations of Fruits and Fruit Products, U. S. Dept. Agr,
Bur. Chem., Bull. 66. 103.
Lampe: Zur Kenntniss des Baues und der Entwickelung saftiger Friichte. Ztschr.
Naturw. 1886, 59, 295.
Schuler: Studien tiber den Bau und die Zusammensetzung der Traubenbeere. - Die
Weinlaube, 1880, 34.
FIG.
According to De Candolle, the fig tree (Ficus Carica L. order Arto-
carpea) grew wild in prehistoric times in a subtropical belt extending
from Syria on the east to the Canaries on the west. It was cultivated
in very early times in Egypt, Palestine, Greece, and Rome, and at later
periods was introduced into France, Spain, Persia, India, and finally,
in the eighth century, into China. Its culture in America dates from
Colonial times, and is now an important industry in California and some
of the southern states.
The numerous minute flowers are borne on the inner surface of a
fleshy pear-shaped receptacle, communication with the outer air being
through an opening or eye in the broad end. They are of four kinds :
1. Staminate flowers with five-parted perianth and four stamens, pro-
duced in considerable numbers only in the wild fig (caprifig, goat fig,
Latin, caprijicus). 2. Fertile pistillate flowers, also known as seed flowers,
with three- to five-parted perianth and a long style. The inflorescence
of the Smyrna fig and other cultivated sorts is largely or entirelv of these
flowers, caprification (fertilization) being effected only bv the pollen of
the wild fig, which is carried to the fertile flowers by a wasp breeding in
the latter variety, hence the time-honored practice of tying a flowering
branch of a caprifig to the cultivated tree during the flowering season.
3. Gall flowers, that is abortive pistillate flowers which do not develop
seeds, but serve as a breeding place for the wasp, are instrumental in effect-
ing caprification. They are found chiefly in the wild fig, and have short
styles of such a length that the wasp is able to introduce its eggs into
the ovary by means of its ovipositor. 4. Abortive flowers useless alike for
the reproduction of the fig or of the wasp. In English they are known
as mule flowers, and are the only ones present in numerous varieties,
without perfect seeds.
Two or even three crops of figs are produced by some varieties. The
first crop ("Fichigrossi," " fiori," or "orni" figs) is borne early in the
spring on the old wood. Later in the season " joniiti " figs are produced
FIG.
387
in the axils of the leaves on the lower portions of the new shoots, and
"cratiri" figs on the upper portion.
The ripe fig is not a true fruit but an aggregate of small fruits or drupe-
lets in a fleshy receptacle. In this respect it is like a strawberry, but
the fruitlets are borne on slender stems over the inner surface, not sessile
in depressions over the outer surface of the receptacle. The numerous
yellow, pear-shaped "seeds," about 2 mm. long, found in ripe figs, whether
fresh or dried, are the seeds proper invested by the hard inner pericarp
The fruit, strictly speaking, is a drupe.
HISTOLOGY.
If fresh figs are not obtainable, the preserved fruit or even dried figs,
soaked up in water, will answer for laboratory work.
Receptacle. The fleshy receptacle forms the larger part of the fig.
1. The Epidermal Cells (Fig. 299) are small, usually less than 20 ft
in diameter, and have thick walls. Here and there they form rosettes,
in the center of which are stout hairs (h)
with globular bases up to 20 fi in diam-
eter. Usually the hairs are short, some-
times scarcely twice as long as broad, but
occasionally they reach a length of 300 fi.
In the dried fruit they are often detached,
although the scars with rosettes of cells
about them are always evident.
2. Hypoderm. Several layers of small
cells with thick walls underlie the epider-
mis. They contain rosettes of calcium
oxalate.
3. Fruit Flesh (Fig. 300). Proceeding
inward, the cells increase in size but
diminish in wall thickness, the bulk of the
tissues consisting of loosely arranged, irreg-
ular cells usually about 100 fi in diameter.
Their content* are largely sugar, which in the dried fruit is crystalline.
Branching but not anastomosing latex cells (m) ramify in great num-
bers through the outer layers of the fruit flesh, also sparingly through
the inner layers. They are remarkable for not only their numbers, but
their size, reaching 50 /j. in breadth. The walls are delicate but distinct.
Numerous minute granules which are colored intensely yellow bv iodine
Fig. 299. Fig (FicusCarica). Epi-
carp in surface view, h hairs and
hair scars. X160. (Moeller.)
388 FRUIT.
solution are suspended in the milky contents. On warming, the latex
coagulates, forming large drops. The fibro-vascular bundles occurring
in the middle layer have small spiral or reticulated vessels usually only
15 j« broad, seldom over 25 [i.
4. The Inner Epidermis is of delicate-walled cells, which are not
m
K—
FlG. 300. Kg. Longitudinal section of fruit flesh showing p parenchyma, K crystals, m
latex tubes and g vessels. X160. (Moeller.)
easily found in the ripe fruit. Hairs occur on this as well as on the
outer epidermis.
Pericarp (Fig. 301). The inner surface of the receptacle is thickly
beset with fruitlets inclosed by the perianth and borne on delicate stems.
The perianth and stems are of thin-walled tissue of no special interest.
1. The Epicarp Cells are thin-walled, more or less radially elongated.
2. The Mesocarp of two or more layers is also of thin -walled, incon-
spicuous elements. Tschirch and Oesterle have shown that in removing
the so-called seeds (inner pericarp and seeds proper) the tissues separate
through this layer, part of the cells adhering to the oufter layers, part
to the inner.
3. Outer Sclerenchyma (sc). This consists of exceedingly small stone
cells 15 /x in diameter in a single layer.
4. The Endocarp (st) or inner sclerenchyma is composed of one or
more layers of rounded angular stone cells about 50 n in diameter. They
FIG.
389
have narrow lumen and thick walls with distinct rings and numerous
branching pores. They are readily distinguished from the smaller cells
of the outer sclerenchyma.
Spermoderm (Fig. 302). The seed, which as a rule does not com-
pletely fill the locule, is enveloped by a brown spermoderm, consisting of
two or more layers of thin-walled, polygonal, isodiametric or somewhat
elongated, often compressed cells (a, i).
The Endosperm (Fig. 302, E) makes up about half the bulk of the
Fig. 301. Fig. Elements of peri-
carp (shell of nutlet) in surface
view, sc outer sclerenchyma layer;
st stone cells of endocarp. X 1 60.
(Moeller.)
Fig. 302. Fig. Elements of seed in surface view.
Spermoderm consists of a colorless outer epidermis
and * brown inner layers; E endosperm; e embryo.
X160. (Moeller.)
seed. The cells are thick-walled, polygonal, about 50 n in diameter,
and contain proteid matter and fat.
The Embryo (Fig. 302, e) is curved so that cotyledons and radicle
almost meet. Small thin-walled cells without marked characters make
up the tissues.
DIAGNOSIS.
Preserves. Whole figs preserved in syrup or cordial are easily iden-
tified by their form, taste and the numerous "seeds." If, however, they
are cooked to a pulp the microscope should be brought into service.
As the fig is one of the cheapest fruits in southern Europe, it, like the
apple in America, is used as an adulterant of preserves purporting to
be made from more valuable fruits. Marpmann has found tissues and
seeds of the fig in numerous samples of strawberry, raspberry, and currant
preserves.
Fig Coffee, consisting of the dried, roasted, and ground figs, is a popular
coffee substitute in various parts of Europe. It is adulterated with
cereal products, legumes, chicory, and even, so it is stated, with foreign
39° FRUIT.
seeds; on the other hand, it may itself serve as an adulterant of genuine
coffee.
The microscopic identification of figs, whether in preserves or fig
coffee, requires a knowledge of the tissues of both the receptacle and
seed. The important elements are the outer epidermis of the recep-
tacle with hairs (Fig. 299), the oxalate crystals of the hypoderm, the
latex tubes (Fig. 300, m), often 30-50 p. broad (in chicory usually less
than 10 /u), and finally the "seeds" (drupelets). The macroscopic appear-
ance of the latter, also the peculiar manner in which they crush between
the teeth, usually suffices for their identification, but in doubtful cases
should be supplemented by an examination of surface preparations (Figs.
301 and 302) and cross sections. The strawberry and fig nutlets are
remarkably similar in macroscopic appearance, and a careful microscopic
examination may be necessary in some cases to distinguish them. The
crystal layer of the pericarp and the reticulated epidermis of the spermo-
derm are characteristic tissues of the strawberry nutlet, with no counter-
parts in the fig.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); Mace" (26);
Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vil-
liers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45).
Marpmann: Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Fruchtmarmeladen.
Ztschr. angew. Mikr. 1896, 2, 97.
Nevinny: Zur Verfalschung des Feigenkaffees. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 85.
DATE.
The date palm (Phcenix dactylifera L. order Palnuz) flourished in
the gardens of the East long before the Christian era. At the present
time it is cultivated in all the countries bordering on the Mediterranean,
particularly in North Africa and Palestine, and also in Arabia and
Persia, the fruit being the chief article of diet in -many regions. The
Arabs of the desert depend on this tree for both food and shelter, and
regard it with special veneration.
Dates are of many varieties, differing in size (4-8 cm.), form, and
color.
The mesocarp is about 1 cm. thick and contains a high percentage
of sugar. A hard endocarp like that of the cocoanut and oil palm is
lacking; on the other hand, the seed (2-3 cm. long and 0.5 cm. broad)
DATE. 39 l
consists almost entirely of hard endosperm resembling that of the ivory-
nut. On the dorsal side of the seed midway between the two ends, a
rounded cavity contains the minute germ, while a groove extends the
entire length of the ventral side. The spermoderm forms a thin brownish
coat about the seed or stone.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp. "Lacking fresh or alcoholic specimens, the dried dates of
commerce may be soaked in water and finally hardened in alcohol. As
noted by Braun, cross sections show five layers.
i. The Epidermal Cells are of isodiametric form (10-30 /*) and color-
less.
2. The Hypoderm consists of two or more layers of cells (20-50 /*),
with yellow or brown contents.
3. Stone Cells, mostly radially elongated, form a layer of variable
thickness.
4. The Mesocarp Cells, proceeding from without inward, pass from
tangentially elongated forms first into isodiametric and finally into radi-
ally elongated forms.
5. An Endocarp of colorless, longitudinally elongated, collapsed ele-
ments forms a white silky-fibrous coat readily sep-
arable from the stone.
Spermoderm. Stones from dried dates are easily
cut with a strong razor.
1. The Epidermis (Fig. 303) is a single layer
of narrow, elongated porous sclerenchyma elements,
ranging in length up to 100 [i or more. On the
middle of the dorsal side their longer diameters run
parallel with the axis of the stone, but in other
parts they are often transversely or diagonally ar-
ranged. They also occur side by side in groups,
5 ' \ 6 F» FlG. 303. Bate (Phoenix
recalling the endocarp of the currant. dactylifera). Epider-
2. The Middle Layer (Fig. 304, g). All the &2j*E£K
cells are tangentially elongated. Directly under the surface view. X160.
epidermis, thick-walled porous elements occur here
and there, but in the remaining two or more layers the cells are
thin-walled, with side walls in interrupted contact, resembling the tube
cells of cereals. These tube cells are often 20-30 ft wide and have
brown contents. As a rule the outermost cells are extended in the same
392
FRUIT.
direction as the epidermal cells; those in the inner layer however are
often at an angle.
3. Inner Layers. One or two layers adjoining the endosperm are
distinguished from the remainder, both in cross section and surface
view, by their smaller dimensions and darker color.
Endosperm (Fig. 305). The reserve material of the stone is largely
in the form of thickened cell-wall, the structure of which closely resembles
that of the ivory-nut. Although varying greatly in thickness, the double
walls are, on the average, 15 /x and seldom exceed 30 fi. Conspicuous
pores, broadest towards the middle lamella, add to the striking appear-
ance of these cells. In the outer layers they are radially elongated, in
the heart, isodiametric. Oil is the only visible cell-contents.
DIAGNOSIS.
The Fruit Flesh enters into many pastries, sweetmeats, and candies.
The epidermis, hypoderm, and stone cells are readily found, but are
not very characteristic.
Date Stones are ground as a substitute or adulterant for coffee. Al-
though both seeds have reserve material largely in the form of cellulose,
Fig. 304. Date Stone. Parenchyma
of spermoderm and g tube cells
in surf ace view. X160. (Moeller.)
Fig. 305. Date Stone. Endo-
sperm with thickened cell walls.
X160. (Moeller.)
it is needless to say that date stones lack the valuable constituents of
coffee.
Sections should be cut for the identification of this material. The
thick walls (Fig. 305) with distinct pores are readily distinguished from
the knotty thickened walls of coffee. The double walls seldom or never
DATE. BANANA. 393
exceed 30 ft in thickness, whereas in the ivory-nut they average 35 ft.
Tissues of the spermoderm (Figs. 303 and 304) are radically unlike any
in coffee, and quite different from those of the ivory-nut.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); Mace (26);
Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
Braun : Ueber das Vorkommen von Spharokrystallen aus Traubenzucker in den yer-
schiedenen Drogen. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1878, 16, 337.
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Anatomie der Dattelkerne. Chem. Ztg. 1886, 10, 701.
Sachs: Zur Keimungsgeschichte der Dattel. Bot. Zeit. 1862.
Zabuckie: Notes on the Structure of the Fruit Stone of the Date; Phoinix dactylijera
L. Jour. N. Y. Micr. Soc. 1892, 8, 107.
BANANA.
The banana tree (Musa sapientum L. order Musacea) is a native
of the Old World, but is very extensively cultivated in tropical America.
It is said to produce more food in a given area than any other plant.
Throughout the tropics the banana is a staple article of diet in many
regions, being of more importance than all other foods taken together.
It is eaten either raw or cooked. ' Bunches of bananas are also shipped
green in enormous quantities to Europe and the United States, where
they are ripened in well-ventilated lofts.
The elongated berry is either red or yellow, more or less angular, and
varies in length from less than 10 to over 20 cm. It separates readily into
a tough rind and a pulpy fruit flesh turning brown on exposure, the
latter showing in cross section three indistinct locules with minute brown
abortive seeds. The plantain (M. sapientum var. paradisiaca Hort.)
has a larger fruit, which, like some varieties of the banana, is picked
green and eaten cooked.
HISTOLOGY.
A green banana will be found much easier to section than one fully
ripe. Transverse, longitudinal, and tangential sections should be pre-
pared, also mounts of the isolated fibers and abortive seeds.
Pericarp. The rind, or so-called peel, containing most of the bundles,
is easily stripped from the fruit pulp, the separation being through the
delicate tissues of the outer mesocarp.
1. The Epicarp Cells are small, polygonal, and thick- walled. Tan-
gential sections show an indistinctly striated cuticle.
394 FRUIT.
2. Hypoderm. The cells of the outer layers of ground tissue are
small, rather thick-walled, and closely arranged; but proceeding inward,
the cells increase in size, the walls decrease in thickness, and the arrange-
ment becomes more loose and spongy. T. F. Hanausek notes that some
of the cells contain bundles of calcium oxalate raphides. The numerous
bundles running through this ground tissue consist in the outer layers
entirely of bast fibers, in the inner layers of the usual fibro-vascular ele-
ments. Especially noticeable are the extraordinary size of the spiral
vessels (often 50 p. in diameter) and their loosely wound spirals. Ac-
companying each bundle are one or more chains of very conspicuous
brown-walled, rounded, giant cells about 250 fi broad, resembling the
oil-ducts of umbelliferous seeds.
3. Mesocarp. The fruit flesh is a mass of rounded pulp cells which,
in the outer layers, are nearly isodiametric, but in the inner layers are
radially greatly elongated and readily separate as chains. Fibro-vas-
cular bundles like those already described occur sparingly in the outer
and also in the inner layers. The curiously shaped starch grains (Fig.
306) are much elongated, mostly 20-40 n, occasionally 75 /* long, and
Fig. 306. Banana Starch. X300. (Moeller.)
have an excentric hilum, mostly in the broader end, and very distinct rings.
Among the grains are fusiform, cigar-shaped, ovoid, rod-shaped, and
other striking forms. Tschirch and Oesterle lay particular stress on the
"sickle-shaped" forms, consisting of two curved grains united end tc
end. The fleshy partitions contain numerous bundles accompanied by
chains of brown giant cells like those in the hypoderm. E. Munrot
Bailey has shown that the starch largely disappears during ripening
4. Endocarp. The inner layer of the pericarp is made up of thin-
walled cells mostly radially elongated.
The Seeds are abortive, of a brown color, and lack distinctive elements.
BANANA. PINEAPPLE. 395
DIAGNOSIS.
Dried Bananas are used whole as a confection and ground as a coffee
substitute.
Banana Flour. The ground dried pulp of the green fruit consists
largely of starch and cellular debris. The starch grains, the broad, loosely
wound spiral vessels and the chains of giant cells are characteristic.
Guiana Arrowroot or Banana Starch. See p. 658.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber Bananenmehl und seine mikroskopische Bestimmung.
Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm., 1910, 20, 215.
Jahkel: Ueber Anatomie und Mikrochemie der Bananenfrucht und ihre Reifungs-
erscheinungen. Diss. Kiel, 1909.
PINEAPPLE.
The pineapple, one of the most delicious of tropical fruits, is the
product of a herbaceous, endogenous plant (Ananassa saliva Schult. f.,
order Bromeliacece), a native of the West Indies and other regions of
the New World. Like oranges and bananas, pineapples are now shipped
to cooler regions in large quantities, but in Europe have not entirely
supplanted the greenhouse product, which is said to have a finer flavor.
The fruit consists of numerous fleshy berries, each with a single fleshy
bract, united with an axis, forming a conical composite fruit shaped
like a pine cone, hence the name pineapple. Surmounting the fruit is
a tuft of sword-shaped saw-toothed leaves. The tapering, more or less
appressed extremities of the bracts are toothed. The chartaceous, per-
sistent perianth lobes form a close, dome-like structure covering a cavity
in which are the remains of the styles and stamens.
HISTOLOGY.
Bracts. 1. The Outer Epidermal Cells are small with wavy outline.
The secondary walls are greatly thickened except for a spherical cavity
scarcely one-third the diameter of the cell, which is entirely filled by a
silicious body.
2. Outer Hypoderm. One or more layers of very thick, sclerenchy-
matized, porous-walled cells underlie the epidermis. Cross sections show
that these cells are thicker than broad, and tangential sections, that they
are somewhat elongated.
396
FRUIT.
3. Mesophyl. The hypodermal cells pass into a thin-walled but por-
ous mesophyl, which, in the fleshy portions, is the same as the fruit flesh.
4. Inner Hypoderm. Beneath the inner epidermis is a second layer
of sclerenchyma elements.
5. Inner Epidermis. This characteristic layer is composed of thin-
walled, nearly square cells with sharply zigzag outline. They resemble
somewhat the outer epidermal cells, but lack the
silicious contents.
Pericarp. No sharp distinction can be
drawn between pericarp, perianth tube, and
fleshy portion of bract, as they all unite to form
the fruit flesh.
1. An Epicarp is present only in the disc sur-
rounding the style. The cells are much like
those of the hypoderm of the bracts, but are
more distinctly porous and consequently in tan-
gential section appear beautifully beaded.
2. Mesocarp. The cells of the fruit flesh are
mostly isodiametric, and although thin- walled,
are often distinctly porous. Beautiful raphides
(Fig. 307), often over 100 p. long, occur in large
numbers both singly and in bundles. The
fibro-vascular bundles consist in large part of
Fig. 307. Pineapple {Ana- ^zst fikers with broad lumen and round pores,
nassa saliva). Cross sec-
tion of fruit flesh showing and broad spiral vessels often 25 fi in diameter.
raphides. X160. (WintonJ ^ £w(W^ The inner two Qr three layers
are of tangentially elongated cells, those in the innermost layer, or endo-
carp proper, being very narrow, usually only 10-20 ji broad. The walls
are thin throughout.
DIAGNOSIS.
In preserves the chief elements are the cells of the parenchymatous
fruit flesh, containing large raphides (Fig. 307), and the fibro-vascular
bundles, consisting chiefly of bast fibers with broad lumen and round pores,
also large spiral vessels. Occasionally one finds fragments of the bracts and
other outer parts, of which the characteristic elements are: first, the small,
square epidermal cells with zigzag walls and, in the case of the outer
epidermis, with silicious contents; ar.d second, the thick- walled, some-
what elongated, sclerenchyma elements.
PART VII.
VEGETABLES.
A number of the common vegetables are seeds and fruits picked while
immature. The mature forms of some of these are described with the
legumes (peas, bean, Lima bean), cereals (green corn), and spices
(peppers) but identification of the vegetables by these descriptions is
often difficult owing to the undeveloped condition of the tissues and
starch grains.
The vegetables here described include most of the fruits used
minced or pulped in commercial products, such as pickles and catsups;
the common roots and tubers used for culinary purposes, cattle feeding,
starch manufacture and adulterating food products; and certain edible
fungi.
CUCURBIT FRUITS {Cucurbttacete.y
The fleshy mesocarp of these fruits contains curious branching latex
tubes. Thin-walled stomata occur in great numbers on the epicarp.
The numerous flattened seeds are borne within the three large locules
on three double-central placentas, but as these placentae extend to the
outer wall before branching, thus forming false partitions, the seeds
appear to be borne on parietal placentas.
Several characteristic tissues are found in the seed, of which the thin-
walled, ribbed palisade cells of the epidermis (Figs. 309 and 310, ep) and
the sclerenchyma cells of the third layer (scl) are much alike in all the
important economic species.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bohmer (6); Collin (8); Hanausek,
T. F. (17); Harz (18); Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers et Collin (42).
Barber: Comparative Histology of Fruits and Seeds of Certain Species of Cucur-
bitacese. Bot. Gaz., 1909, 47, 263.
Braemer: De la localisation des principes actifs des Cucurbitacees. Compt. rend.
1893, 117, 753-
Carles: Nouveau cas de fraude de conserves alimentaires. J. Pharm. chim.,
1885, 11, 547-
1 The descriptions of cucurbit fruits are by Kate Barber Winton.
397
39»
VEGETABLES.
Fickel: Anatomie u. Entwickelungsgesch. der Samenschalen einiger Cucurbitaceen.
Bot. Ztg. 1876, 34, 737.
Fischer: Ueber das Siebrohren System der Cucurbitaceen. Leipag, 1884.
Godfrin: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc.
d. Sci. d. Nancy, 1880, 109.
Hartwich: Semen Cucurbits. Arch, pharm. 1885.
v. Hohnel: Morpholog. Untersuchungungen iiber die Samenschale der Cucurbi-
taceen. Sitzungsber. Wiener Akad. 1876, 73.
Kosutany: Die Kiirbiskernkuchen. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1893, 43, 264.
PUMPKIN.
Wittmack, in his investigation of prehistoric remains in Peru, has
secured evidence that the pumpkin {Cucurbita Pepo L.) is an American
plant and not, as formerly believed, a native of the Old World. This
belief is further substantiated by the statements of early explorers that
the pumpkin was grown in maize fields by the aborigines just as is
practiced to-day by American farmers.
The pumpkin is the largest of all cultivated fruits, in extreme cases
reaching the prodigious weight of nearly 100 kilos. It is apple-shaped,
Fig. 308. Pumpkin (Cucurbita Pepo). Epicarpin
surface view. X300. (Barber.)
Fig. 308a. Pumpkin. Cross section
of mesocarp showing am starch
grains, and lot latex tube. X160.
(Barber.)
smooth, and of an orange or green-orange color. The fleshy rind, con-
sisting of receptacle and pericarp, is several centimeters thick, and is
highly esteemed in America for making pies as well as for feeding. About
the seeds is a tangle of gelatinous, mesocarp fibers, such as occur in
the melon and some other cucurbitaceous plants. Pumpkin seeds are
1.5-2.5 cm. long, elliptical, strongly flattened, and have a narrow
border on both sides. The embryo consists of two flattened cotyle-
dons and a minute radicle.
PUMPKIN.
399
HISTOLOGY.
Receptacle and Pericarp, i. The Epicarp Cells (Fig. 308) are pris-
matic, forming a palisade layer upward of 50 fi thick. In surface view
FIG. 309. Pumpkin. Seed in cross section. 5 spermoderm consists of ep ribbed palisade
cells of epidermis containing am starch grains, hy pitted subepidermal cells, scl scleren-
chyma layer, m1 pitted mesocarp cells, m2 reticulated spongy parenchyma, p1 parenchyma,
p2 spongy parenchyma, and p3 inner epidermis; N perisperm; E endosperm consisting
of aleurone cells; C cotyledon containing al aleurone grains. X160. (Barber.)
they are for the most part polygonal and do not exceed 14 ft in diameter,
but about the stomata they are somewhat elongated and curved. Their
walls are bright yellow, whereas those of the stomata are colorless.
40 o
VEGETABLES.
2. Hypoderm. Exceedingly small cells in several layers form the
hypoderm.
3. Mesocarp. The noteworthy elements of the fruit flesh are the
strongly developed spiral vessels of the fibro-vascular bundles, often 60 ft
broad, some with single strands and turns wide apart, others with 2-4
strands and turns close together; also branching and anastomosing latex
tubes (Fig. 308a, lat). The ground tissue is of large, rounded cells,
containing starch grains up to 10 // in diameter {am).
4. Endocarp. This is evident on the seeds as a thin membrane.
Spermoderm (Figs. 309 and 310). Either fresh or dried seeds may
Fig. 310. Pumpkin. Seed elements in surface view, ep ribbed palisade cells of epider-
mis; ep1 branching rib from epidermal cell; hy pitted subepidermal cells; scl scleren-
chyma layer; ml pitted mesocarp cells; m2 reticulated spongy parenchyma; pl paren-
chyma; p2 spongy parenchyma; p3 inner epidermis of spermoderm; N perisperm;
£ endosperm. X160. (Barber.)
be used for making preparations, which should include transverse and
tangential sections.
1. The Palisade Epidermis (ep) is remarkable not only for the great
height of the cells (often over 200 /x), but also for the longitudinal ribs
with branches at the outer ends which strengthen the radial walls. In
cross section these might easily be mistaken for the walls themselves,
but in tangential section they are seen to be circular rods on a thin cell-
wall. These cells contain small starch grains (am).
2. Pitted Subepidermal Cells (hy). The small polygonal cells with
numerous minute pores are arranged in 3-6 cell-layers.
PUMPKIN. ' 401
3. Sclerenchyma (scl). Cross sections of the cells are often oval,
showing thick walls pierced by numerous pores. In surface view the
cells are elongated with wavy outline, and are arranged end to end in
rows.
4. Pitted Mesocarp Cells (ml). These resemble the cells of the sub-
epidermal coat, but form only one distinct layer.
5. Reticulated Spongy Parenchyma (m2). One or more layers of curi-
ously reticulated cells with large intercellular spaces . form the most
remarkable tissue of the seed. Their appearance is alike striking in
cross section and surface view and reminds one of a prickly pear cactus.
6. Parenchyma (p1). The cells are large, of the usual type.
7. Spongy Parenchyma (p2). The parenchyma passes by degrees
into a remarkable spongy tissue with a large ring evident, in surface
view, in the center of nearly every cell.
8. The Inner Epidermis (p5). The cells resemble those of the pro-
ceeding layer but are smaller. The protuberance in the center of each
cell forming the ring seen in surface view is evident in cross section.
Perisperm (N). This consists of a few layers of thin- walled cells
more or less compressed.
Endosperm (E). A single layer of well-defined aleurone cells forms
the endosperm.
Embryo (C). In sections examined in turpentine, we find numerous
small aleurone grains 3-6 fi in diameter.
DIAGNOSIS.
Pumpkin Pulp is not only used for making pies, but also for adulterat-
ing tomato catsup, jams, and other fruit products.
The microscopic elements of the pulp of chief value in diagnosis,
are the broad vessels, the latex tubes, the yellow epicarp (Fig. 308) with
colorless stomata, and the reticulated spongy parenchyma of the seeds.
These are best found in the coarser material obtained by straining through
a sieve.
Pumpkin-seed Cake is obtained in limited amount as a by-product
in the manufacture of pumpkin-seed oil. The characteristic tissues of
the spermoderm (Fig. 310) include the ribbed palisade epidermis (ep),
the pitted parenchyma of the second layer (hy), the sclerenchyma cells
with wavy outline (scl), and the reticulated spongy parenchyma (m2).
402
VEGETABLES.
SQUASH.
Fruits of numerous varieties of the winter squash (Cucurbita maxima
Duch.) are put to the same uses as the pumpkin. They are widely dif-
ferent in macroscopic characters, and according to Harz are somewhat
*-#
— am
BohAvu
Fig. 31012. Crook-necked Squash (Cucurbita Pepo var. verrucosa). Pericarp in cross sec-
tion, epi epicarp with t hair and sto stoma; hy hypoderm; st outer mesocarp (stone-
cell layer) with x spherical cavity; mes middle mesocarp with/» bundle and am starch
grains. X160. (Barber.)
different in histological structure. In the main, however, their structure
corresponds closely with that of the pumpkin.
Of the summer squashes the crook-necked (C. Pepo. var. verrucosa
Naud.) and the turban squash (var. Melopepo L.) are the best known-
SQUASH. CUCUMBER. 403
The structure of the crook-neck squash (Fig. 3100) differs from that
of the pumpkin chiefly in the persistence of jointed (i) and glandular
hairs until maturity and the presence of a dense stone cell layer (st) in
the outer mesocarp. The epidermal ribs of the seed branch along then-
whole length, whereas in the pumpkin they branch only at the end.
CUCUMBER.
The cucumber or gherkin (Cucumis sativus L.) is a native of the
East Indies, whence in ancient times its culture spread over various
parts of Asia and Europe.
The succulent fruit picked green is prized not only as a fresh vege-
table eaten either raw or cooked, but also for pickling.
Although variable in shape, it is usually elongated, in section rounded
triangular, and has numerous warts on the surface, each capped by a
short, blunt spine, which readily becomes detached on handling. The
fleshy pericarp is green in the outer layers, but white further inward.
Numerous flattened seeds are embedded in a gelatinous substance within
the three locules. The cream-colored seeds are seldom over 2 mm. thick
even when fully ripe, and are not, as in the case of the pumpkin seed,
provided with a distinct border.
HISTOLOGY.
Cucumbers, are often picked for pickling at such an early stage in
their development that they do not show very marked differentiation
of the tissues. When, however, they reach a diameter of 3 cm. or more,
the structure both of the pericarp and seed is sufficiently characteristic
to permit their identification with some degree of certainty.
Pericarp (Fig. 311). A description of the full-grown fruit follows:
1. Epicarp (epi). The cells are prismatic with thickened outer and
radial walls. They reach the height of 75 fi or more and vary from
7-20 fi in breadth. They do not contain chlorophyl grains. Stomata
are absent.
The warts have the same structure as the outer layers of the pericarp.
Each bears an emergence (Fig. 311) consisting of large cells with thickened
sparingly pitted walls. Attached to the apex of the emergence is a broad,,
jointed (up to 10 cells) conical hair (/). The cross walls and the inner
wall of the sunken foot cell are not only thickened but pitted. Occasionally
a second hair, similar in structure but smaller, develops at the side of
4o4
VEGETABLES.
the terminal one. The hairs usually disappear in the early stages of
growth, but the emergence, unless rubbed off, persists as a hyaline spine.
Fig. 311. Cucumber (Cucumis sativus). Pericarp in
cross section, epi epicarp with emergence bearing
t hair; hy hypoderm; st sclerenchyma cells at
base of emergence, X55. (Barber.)
Fig. 3 1 10. Cucumber. Seed in cross
section. 5 spermoderm consists
of ep epidermis, sub subepidermal
layer, scl, sclerenchyma, pl stel-
late parenchyma, p2 spongy par-
enchyma; N perisperm; E en-
dosperm; C cotyledon consists
of ep epidermis and mesophyl
with al aleurone grains. X160.
(Barber.)
Fig. 311&. Cucumber. Isolated subepidermal cell Fig. 311c. Cucumber. One-half of
of spermoderm in surface view. X300. (Bar- isolated cell of sclerenchyma layer
ber.) in surface view. X300. (Barber.)
In addition to the wart hairs, numerous, small capitate hairs, with-
a four-celled head and jointed stalk, cover the immature fruit, but dis-
appear early, leaving no scars.
CUCUMBER. MUSKMELON. 4°5
2. Hypoderm (hy). During the growing stages the several layers of
small, rounded cells contain numerous chlorophyl grains, to which the
fruit owes its green color. Beneath each emergence is a group of pitted
sclerenchyma cells (st).
3. The Mesocarp, or fruit flesh, is a mass of loose parenchyma, with
isolated sieve tubes, latex tubes, and fibro-vascular bundles.
The Spermoderm (Fig. 311a) is best studied in seeds taken directly
from a ripe cucumber, as those obtained from a seedsman often lack
the outer epidermis.
1. The Palisade Epidermis (ep) is thickened by broad, tongue-like
sclerenchymatized rods. The prismatic cells reach a height of 160 n
on the sides of the seed and over 250 ji at the edge.
2. Subepidermal Layer (sub). These cells have thick porous walls
and are arranged end to end in rows. Numerous small intercellular
spaces are evident in surface view (Fig. 3 116). The layer reminds us of
the epidermis of oat chaff, except that only elongated cells are present.
3. Sclerenchyma (scl). In surface view this layer is very striking
even in green cucumbers, owing to the branching, sclerenchymatized
cell-walls (Fig. 311c)-
4. Spongy- Parenchyma. In the outer layers (Fig. 311a, pl) the cells
are star-shaped, in the inner layers typical spongy parenchyma (p2) .
The Perisperm, Endosperm, and Embryo lack distinctive features.
DIAGNOSIS.
Not only whole cucumbers, but quite small pieces are recognized
by the warts on the surface, the thin elliptical seeds, and other macro-
scopic characters.
The microscopic elements of value in diagnosis are the palisade ■
epidermal layers of both the fruit and the seed, the emergences with scler-
enchymatized cells at the base, and the sclerenchyma layer of the seed.
MUSKMELON.
The muskmelon (Cucumis Melo L.) is a native of southern Asia and
tropical Africa.
The hollow fruit is spherical or slightly elongated with 8-12 narrow
longitudinal grooves. The surface is yellow-green with brown reticulations.
40 6
VEGETABLES.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp (Figs. 311^ and sue). 1. Epicarp (epi). On the ribs the
cells are very thick-walled with a flask-shaped lumen and a thick cuticle.
The reticulations are of cork tissues (su) which break through the epi-
carp similar to lenticels. In the grooves the epidermal cells have thinner
walls. Curious stomata (sto) and jointed hairs (t) are present.
2. Hypoderm (hy). Moderately thick-walled pitted cells form this
layer.
Fig. 3iid. Muskmelon (Cucumis Melo). Pericarp in surface view, epi epicarp with t
hair and sto stoma; Ay hypoderm. X160. (Barber.)
3. Mesocarp (mes). Bundles and latex tubes are scattered through
a mass of loose parenchyma.
Spermoderm (Fig. 311^). 1. The Palisade Epidermis (ep) is strength-
ened by slender rods without evident branches.
2. Subepidermal Layer (sub). Pitted cells with thickened walls form
several layers.
3. SclerencKyma (scl). The cells are large with thick branching walls
resembling those of the cucumber. Fig. 311^ shows how the cells fit
together.
4. Spongy Parenchyma (p1, p2) . This consists of 4-5 layers of slightly
thickened porous cells intermediate in characters between the corre-
sponding cells of the pumpkin and the cucumber.
Perisperm, Endosperm, and Embryo are like those of the cucumber.
WATERMELON.
The watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.) comes to us from Africa,
where it is eaten by the natives and the larger animals.
MUSKMELON.
407
mes
Bo/drUu
Fig. 3iie. Muskmelon. Rib of pericarp in cross section, epi epicarp; su cork; hy
hypoderm; mes mesocarp. X50. (Barber.)
Fig. 311/. Muskmelon. Epicarp in
tangential section. X160. (Bar-
ber.)
Fig. 3 1 ih. Muskmelon. Isolated scleren-
chyma cells of spermoderm. X300.
1 -I.)
BtuJrW
Fig. 3iig. Muskmelon. Seed in cross sec-
tion. _ 5 spermoderm consists of ep epi-
dermis, sub subepidermal layer, scl scler-
enchyma, p1 sclerenchymatized spongy
parenchyma, p2 spongy parenchyma;
N perisperm; E endosperm; C cotyle-
don with ep epidermis and mesophyl
containing al aleurone grains. X160.
(Barber.)
408
VEGETABLES.
The large fruit is ellipsoidal with a dark-green surface, often mottled
with light green. The rind or outer portion of the fruit flesh is white
or light green, of firm texture; the inner portion is red, pink or yellow
sto
FlG. 312. Watermelon (Citrullus vulgaris). Pericarp in cross section, ept epicarp with
sto stoma; hy hypoderm; st outer mesocarp (stone-cell layer); x parenchyma between
groups of 'stone cells; mes middle mesocarp. X160. (Barber.)
Fig. 3120. Watermelon. Pericarp in surface view. Epicarp with sto stoma; hy hypo-
derm. X 160. (Barber.)
of looser texture, with numerous bundle fibers. Embedded in the inner
pericarp are the black or light-brown, flat, lustrous seeds.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp (Figs. 312, and 312a). 1. Tlie Epicarp (epi) consists of
cells with thickened outer and radial walls and stomata with thin-walled
accompanying cells.
WATERMELON.
409
2. Hypoderm (hy). This is made up of 10-12 layers of indistinctly
pitted cells.
3. Stone Cells (st) in one or more layers form a distinct zone in the
mature fruit. During the earlier stages of development these stone cells
occur in groups, but later the groups become almost continuous.
Fig. 3125. Watermelon. Seed in cross-section. 5 spermoderm consists of ep epidermis,
sub subepidermal layer, scl sclerenchyma, p1 sclerenchymatized parenchyma, p1 inner
parenchyma; JV perisperm; E endosperm; C cotyledon with ep epidermis and ai
aleurone cells. X160. (Barber.)
4. Mesocarp (mes). This tissue consists of parenchyma cells with
moderately thick, porous walls and intercellular spaces; among these
ramify bundles and latex tubes.
Spermoderm (Fig. 3126). 1. The Epidermis (ep) consists of pris-
matic cells strengthened by slender, often forked rods.
41 o VEGETABLES.
2. Subepidermal Layer (sub). A broad band, several cells thick,
consists of pitted cells of various sizes and shapes.
3. Sclerenchyma (scl). Unlike the other economic cucurbitaceous
seeds, the cells are nearly isodiametric and irregularly arranged.
4. Spongy Parenchyma, and 5. Inner Epidermis complete the sper-
moderm.
Perisperm, Endosperm, and Embryo are similar to the corresponding
layers of the cucumber and the muskmelon.
SOLANACEOUS FRUITS (Solanacea).
This family yields a number of important products, of which the
potato (p. 414) is a tuber, the eggplant and tomato are fleshy fruits, and the
garden peppers are dry fruits. Cayenne pepper and paprika, the latter
being but a variety of our garden peppers, are described under spices
(p. 515). The structure of the tomato is of special interest because of
the adulteration of tomato products.
TOriATO.
There is good evidence that the tomato (Solatium Lycopersicum L.,
Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.) was cultivated in Peru long before the
discovery of America.. A plant believed to be the original form of the
species grows wild in Peru, also on the Pacific coast of Mexico and Cali-
fornia. Numerous varieties are now grown as garden vegetables through-
out the civilized world, except in the coldest regions.
The fleshy fruit varies in the different varieties from the size of a
currant to the size of a cocoanut. Its color is red, pink, or yellow, accord-
ing to the color of the fruit flesh; the smooth, lustrous skin, however, is
bright yellow in all the varieties. Normally the fruit is bilocular, but
as a result of cultivation is multilocular. Numerous seeds (Fig. 313) 3-4
mm. long, inclosed in a gelatinous mantle, partly fill the locules. Freed
from this substance they are dull yellow, ovoid, flattened, 3-4 mm. long
and thickly beset with short, silky hairs. The spirally coiled embryo
with elongated radicle and cotyledons, each about 3 mm. long, is em-
bedded in the endosperm.
HISTOLOGY.
The ripe fruit should be hardened in alcohol before cutting sections.
The skin is separated by plunging the fruit for a moment in boiling
TOMATO.
411
water. Soaking the seeds in a very dilute alkali facilitates the removal
of the gelatinous material, after which they may be held between pieces
of pith and sectioned.
Pericarp. The skin which separates from the fruit
flesh consists of epidermis and hypoderm, the walls
of both being characterized by their golden yellow
color.
1. Epicarp (Fig. 314, epi). The cells, as seen in
surface view, are polygonal, 16-35 f- m diameter.
Their yellow radial walls are thick, 6-8 /£, and dis-
tinctly beaded. At the corners they are often collenchy-
matously thickened.
2. The Hypoderm (Fig. 314, hy) consists of a
single layer of cells larger than those of the epicarp, FlG 3I3 Tomato
but like the latter with thick, yellow, porous walls. {Solanum Lycopersi-
J cum). Seed in cross
3. Mesocarp. The rounded pulp cells of the ground section. (Moel-
tissue have no distinctive characters. The vascular LER-'
elements of most of the bundles are spiral vessels, seldom over 20 fi in
diameter, but those in the strongly developed bundles near the stem
Fig. 314. Tomato, epi epicarp and hy hypoderm of pericarp (skin), X300; ep outer
epidermis of spermoderm with I ribs, from below. X 1 60. (Winton.)
are partly pitted vessels. Bast fibers accompany these latter bundles,
but are lacking elsewhere.
4. Endocarp. This layer is of thin-walled, polygonal elements hardly
distinguishable from the pulp cells.
Spermoderm (Fig. 314; Fig. 315, S). 1. The Outer Epidermis (ep)
is highly characteristic owing to the pronounced ribs (t) on the delicate
radial walls, the latter being evident only under the most favorable con-
ditions. These ribs have hitherto been mistaken for hairs. They vary
412
VEGETABLES.
up to over 500 p. in length. Seen from below the inner walls of the
epidermis are sinuous and strongly thickened.
2. The Middle Layers consist of several layers of small, brown, oblit-
erated cells, which in the ripe seed do not
assume their original form even after treatment
with reagents.
The Perisperm (Fig. 315, N), after treat-
ment of cross sections with Javelle water, is
seen to consist of a distinct layer of thin-walled
cells.
Endosperm (Fig. 315, E). The cells have
rather thick, rigid walls. They contain minute,
rounded aleurone grains seldom over 6 p in
diameter, and fat.
The Embryo consists of typical embryonic
tissues with contents the same as those of the
endosperm.
DIAGNOSIS.
Whole Tomato Products. Under this head
are included canned tomatoes, tomato pre-
serves, and other preparations of the whole
fruit, from which the skin has been removed
by scalding. The chief microscopic elements
Fig. 315. Tomato. Seed in are rounded pulp cells, vascular elements
cross section. 5 spermoderm . . , ,
consists of / epidermal ribs, (chiefly small spiral vessels) and seeds with
N perisperm; E endosperm " hair-like epidermal ribs (Figs. 314
also layers of compressed cells; i-i.
N perisperm; E endosperm
and Ra radicle, both contain- and 3 1 5, t). Fragments of the skin with
(Winton.1)116 grainS' * °' golden yellow porous cells of the epicarp (Fig.
314, epi) and hypoderm (hy) are frequently
present in small amount as an accidental impurity, even in products
made from the pared fruit. The adulterants are dyes, preservatives,
foreign pulp and, in the case of preserves, agar-agar, starch-paste, and
other gelatinous materials.
Tomato Catsup, or Ketchup, a popular sauce in the United States, is
manufactured in enormous quantities, and sold in bottles. Properly
made it consists of a mixture of tomato pulp, freed from seeds, with
sugar, vinegar and spices; but much of the catsup on the market is made
from decomposed tomatoes artificially colored, and preserved with sodium
TOMATO. 413
benzoate. Adulteration with pumpkin and apple pulp and possibly
with other foreign pulps, is also practiced. The coal-tar dyes usually
employed in tomato products do not remain in solution, but are taken
up by the protoplasmic contents of the cells, which ordinarily have little
or no color. Their detection is best effected by Arata's wool test l and
other chemical methods. Preliminary to the usual chemical tests for
salicylic and benzoic acids, Lagerheim's sublimination test (p. 320) should
be employed.
For the detection of foreign pulps it is advisable to examine the coarser
material, consisting of seeds, fragments of skin, and vascular elements,
obtained by washing on a sieve with 1 mm. mesh in a stream of water.
The vessels of the pumpkin are larger than those of the tomato; the
yellow epicarp cells (Fig. 308) are smaller (14 p), non-porous and are
interspersed with colorless stomata. The branched and jointed latex
cells of the mesocarp occur in considerable numbers, but require care
in identification. Of the greatest value, although of less frequent occur-
rence, are the reticulated spongy parenchyma cells of the mesocarp. The
carrot (Fig. 322) is characterized: (1) by the elongated epidermal cells;
(2) by the polygonal cells of the cortical parenchyma containing chro-
moplasts; and (3) by the elements of the bundles, of which the rather
large'' vessels (Often 50 fi broad) with closely crowded reticulations, are
quite different from the vessels of the tomato. The vessels of the beet
(Fig. 321) are mostly 50 /j. broad (sometimes 50-100//), with very large
and open reticulations. A noteworthy peculiarity of the reticulated
vessels of the turnip (Fig. 323), are their short joints, often broader than
long. The meshes are smaller than those of beet vessels.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Mace" (26); Villiers et Collin (42).
Beiosi e Gigli: Intorno alia struttura anatomica ed alia composizione chimica del
frutto del Pomodoro (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.). Rendic. delle sess. della
R. Acad, delle scienze dell'Ist. di Bologna. 1889, 59.
Carles: Nouveau cas de fraude de conserves alimentaires. Journ. pharm. chim.
1885, 11, 547.
Hockauf: Ueber bisher wenig berucksichtigte Merkmale der Solanaceen-Samen.
Ph. Centralh. 1905.
Marpmann: - Beitrage zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Fruchtmarmeladen
Ztschr. angew. Mikr. 1896, 2, 97.
'Ztschr. anal. chem. 1889, 28, 639; Jour. Am. Chem. Soc. 1900, 22, 582.
414
VEGETABLES.
TUBERS AND ROOTS.1
Of the vegetables produced underground some are tubers (potato,
artichoke), others, true roots (beet, carrot, turnip, sweet potato), and
others still, bulbs (onion). Those here described include some that are
used minced or pulped in food products.
The potato and the beet are not only important vegetables, but the
former is a raw material for the manufacture of starch and alcohol, and
the latter is the source of a large part of the world's supply of sugar.
The potato and sweet potato are identified by the starch grains;
the beet, carrot, and turnip by the vessels.
POTATO.
The potato (Solanum tuberosum L. order Solanacem), a native of
South America, was introduced into Europe in 1560-1570, and was
Fig. 316. Potato {Solanum tuberosum). Fig. 317. Potato. Cork tissue in surface
Cross section of tuber showing cork view. X160. (Moeller.)
cells and starch parenchyma. X160.
(Moeller.)
first cultivated on a considerable scale in Italy and Holland. For the
past hundred years it has been one of the most valuable of cultivated
plants throughout the temperate zone, the tubers serving as a vegetable-
1 The descriptions of tubers and roots are by Prof. J. Moeller.
POTATO. JAPANESE POTATO. 415
and for the manufacture of starch, glucose and alcohol. The tubers
differ in form and size, also in the texture, color and flavor of the flesh.
They bear numerous "eyes" or buds in depressions on the surface.
HISTOLOGY.
Cork. The protective coat on the surface is a cork tissue (Fig. 316),
with large cells, which in surface view are polygonal (Fig. 317).
Parenchyma. The outer layers are tangentially elongated, and con-
tain proteid matter in the form of small aleurone grains. Further in-
ward the cells are large, isodiametric, with intercellular spaces. They
are filled with starch grains, most of which are large, irregularly pear-
shaped, with distinct rings and an excentric hilum located in the small
end (See p. 659).
DIAGNOSIS.
The starch grains (Fig. 581) are highly characteristic.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34).
JAPANESE POTATO.
Under this name are known the tubers of an Asiatic plant (Stachys
Sieboldii Miq., order Labiatiz). They are 2-5 cm. long, 1 cm. thick,
Fig. 318. Japanese Potato (Stachys Sieboldii). Epidermis of tuber in surface view.
(Moeller.)
and are divided into joints by constrictions, in each of which are two
opposite membranaceous leaves.
4i 6 VEGETABLES.
HISTOLOGY.
The Epidermis (Fig. 318) consists of irregularly polygonal cells and
a few stomata.
Between the Fibro-vascular Bundles are numerous small sieve tubes.
The Parenchyma of the flesh consists of unusually small cells, con-
taining a soluble carbohydrate, stachyose. In tubers dug in the spring,
starch is present.
JERUSALEH ARTICHOKE.
The tubers of Helianthus tuberosus L. (order Composilce), a North
American plant, are of some importance as food for both man and cattle.
They are red-brown, elongated, often pear-shaped, and bear small roots,
warty sprouts, and transverse rings. The flesh is white or red.
HISTOLOGY.
The bark is scarcely 1 mm. thick.
1. The Epidermis (Fig. 319), which is easily removed, consists of
large, polygonal, slightly thickened cells, and here and there cork tissue
with large cells.
2. Cortex (Fig. 319). The cells are quadrilateral, and often trans-
Fig. 319. Jerusalem Artichoke {Helianthus tuberosus). Epidermis and one of the pareu
chyma layers of tuber in surface view. (Moeller.)
versely elongated. Some of them have somewhat thickened, scleren*
chymatized walls.
3. The Bast contains balsam ducts, but no bast fibers.
4. Xylem. Within the indistinct cambium are irregular groups of
vessels, often in radial rows. The cavity is narrow; the walls have thick
JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE. BEET.
41?
reticulations. Large, rather thick-walled cells containing inulin con-
stitute the medullary rays.
DIAGNOSIS.
The balsam tubes, the quadrilateral stone cells of the cortex and the
narrow reticulated vessels serve for identification.
BEET.
The roots of the common beet (Beta vulgaris L., order Chenopodiacea),
and particularly the exhausted residue from the beet-sugar factories, are
used both as cattle foods and as adulterants of chicory.
HISTOLOGY.
The Cork (Fig. 320) forms a thin outer zone of large cells with thick
walls. By far the
larger part of the root
consists of Parenchyma
(Fig. 321, p), the cells
of which are about
2 50 fi in diameter, with
walls 5 fj. thick. T. F.
Hanausek finds the
presence of crystal
sand cells the only prac-
ticable means of dis-
tinction from chicory.
Fig. 320. Beet (Beta vuU Fig. 321. Beet. Longitudinal section of root, p paren-
garis). Cork layers of root chyma; g reticulated vessels; I bast fibers. X160.
in surface view. X160. (Moeller.)
(Moeixer.)
4i 8 VEGETABLES.
The Vessels (Fig. 321, g) are mostly 50 /*, occasionally up to 100 pt
the reticulations forming broad meshes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (16); Mace1 (26);
Moeller (29); Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (45, 48).
CARROT.
Occasionally the carrot (Daucus Carota L., order Umbellijercs) is em-
ployed as an adulterant of chicory.
HISTOLOGY.
The Cork and Parenchyma are similar to those of the beet, but the
Fig. 322. Carrot {Daucus Carota). Longitudinal section of root showing parenchyma
and reticulated vessels. X160. (Moeller.)
parenchyma consists of smaller cells, which contain yellow chromoplasts
suspended in the cell sap.
The Vessels (Fig. 322, g) are seldom over 50 /i broad, and are charac-
CARROT. TURNIP, 419
terized by their narrow elongated pores, resembling those in the vessels
of the dandelion root.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Beet.
TURNIP.
The white turnip {Brassica Rapa L., order Crucijerce) serves as a
food for man and beast, also as an adulterant of coffee, horseradish, etc.
HISTOLOGY.
The cork is similar to that of the beet, but the cells are smaller. More
characteristic are the cells of the Parenchyma (Fig. 323, p), which are
i^S 9 ,
Fig. 323. White Turnip (Brassica Rapa). Longitudinal section of root, p parenchyma;
g reticulated vessels; a starch grains. X 160. (Moeller.)
exceptionally large (commonly 500 ft) and thin-walled (2 fi). They con-
tain small aleurone grains, and here and there crystal sand (calcium
oxalate).
The Vessels (g) consist of short joints, and have narrow, rounded
pores resembling those of chicory.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Bibliography of Beet.
FUNGI,1
Edible fungi when whole and fresh may usually be distinguished by
their gross appearance. Only in the examination of the dried material
1 The descriptions of the individual fungi are by Prop. J. Moellek.
420 VEGETABLES.
or food products containing sliced or minced fungi is the microscope
essential.
The common species found on the market belong in the following
subclasses and orders :
Ascomycetes: Spores produced within sacs (asci.)
i. Discomycetes : Asci borne on the outer surface of various
shaped fructifications (e.g., Morel).
2. Tuberaceae: Asci borne within a tuberous fructification (e.g.,
Truffles).
Basidiomycetes: Spores produced on the surface of sacs (basidia).
i. Hymenomycetes : Basidia borne within the (usually umbrella-
shaped) fructification on gills (e.g., common mushroom), rods
(e.g., Boletus), etc.
2. Gasteromycetes : Basidia borne within the (often tuber-shaped)
fructification (e.g. puff-balls).
The descriptions which follow are designed merely to aid in detect-
ing adulteration and not to distinguish edible from poisonous species.
TRUFFLES.
Fungi belonging to the order Tuber acea of the Ascomycetes develop
underground tuberous fructifications known as truffles. These bodies
are black or dark brown, with pyramidal or shield-shaped, polygonal
warts. Cross sections show cavities or channels lined with masses of
hypha? tissues (hymenium), in which are borne club-shaped elements
(asci), each containing 1-4 (seldom more) unicellular spores (Fig. 325).
The size, form, color and markings of the spores furnish the best means
for identification of the species. They are obtained for study either by
cutting sections of the inner tissues, or by scraping the inner surface. The
following are the common species.
1. French or Perigord Truffles {Tuber brumale Vitt.) because of their
fine flavor are the most highly prized of the group. They grow mostly
under oaks in France, Northern Italy, and Southern Germany. The fruit
bodies vary from the size of a hazelnut to that of an apple. On the
surface they are black, with well-defined warts ; within they are dark
violet or red-black. The spores are coffee-brown, elliptical, 25-45 n
long, thickly beset with prickles (Fig. 326, d). The true perigord truffle
(var. Melanospermum) has dark, very aromatic flesh, and almost black,
often large spores (Fig. 326, c).
TRUFFLES. 421
2. German or Hanover Truffles {Tuber astivum Vitt, also var. mesen-
tericum and uncinatum) are less aromatic than the preceding. They are
Fig* 324. German Truffles (Tuber (estivum). Vertical section showing rind, air passages
dark veins of compressed hyphae, and masses of asci. Natural size. (Tttlasne.)
obtained from Northern Italy, France, Germany, Switzerland, and
Bohemia. The flesh is lighter than that of French truffles, and the
Fig. 325. French Truffles {Tuber brumale). Section showing hyphae and spore-bearing
asci. X400. (Tulasne.)
yellow or coffee-brown spores (Fig. 326, a, b) are characterized by then-
broad reticulations.
DIAGNOSIS.
Whole truffles cannot be successfully adulterated, but in the dried
condition other fungi are often substituted. Truffled pate's frequently
contain these substitutes. They are detected by their color and the
characters of the spores, although it is difficult or impossible to determine
the exact species.
422
VEGETABLES.
The following are the common substitutes:
i. White Truffles (Choiromyces maeandrijormis Vitt.) are found in
^England and middle Europe. They are light yellow-brown, and re-
semble potatoes in external appearance. The flesh is white to brown,
with brown veins, and is but slightly aromatic. The small (15-20 fi)
globular spores are light brown, beset with numerous prickles of unequal
length (Fig. 326, e).
2. False Truffles (Scleroderma vulgare Hornem. — Gasteromycetes) are
aerial, tuberous bodies about the size of genuine truffles, with a
skin 2-3 mm. thick. Within, the tissues are at first white, later gray to
Fig. 326. Spores of Truffles and Substitutes, a and b German Truffles; c and d French
truffles; e white truffles; / false truffles {Scleroderma); g false truffles (Khizopogoti).
(Mez.)
black. The small spores are globular, black, with prickly warts (Fig.
326,/). They can only be used green, in which state they have a dis-
agreeable flavor quite unlike that of real truffles.
3. Species of Rhizopogon (Gasteromycetes) develop under ground
tuberous bodies, externally similar to those of Scleroderma. They have
a membranous or leathery periderm difficultly separable from the
flesh, and very small, ellipsoidal, smooth, almost colorless spores (Fig.
326> g)-
4. Species of Elaphomyces are closely related to real truffles. Their
fruit bodies develop underground, and on ripening are converted into a
powdery mass. They are not edible.
MORELS. MUSHROOMS.
423
MORELS.
The morels belong to the order Discomycetes, of the sublcass Ascomy
cetes. The fleshy, club-shaped or globular head is borne on a stalk
The hymenium (Fig. 327) covers the reticulated outer
surface of the head, and consists of a palisade-like
layer of asci and paraphyses, each of the former con-
taining eight smooth, mostly ellipsoidal spores.
The following species are of importance :
1. The Common Morel (Morchella esculenta Pers.)
has a hollow stalk, yellow to brown head, and ochre-
colored spores.
2. The Spring Morel (Gyromitra esculenta Ft.) has
a hollow stalk, hollow or collapsed coffee-brown head,
and white spores.
3. The Autumn Morel (Helvella Infula Schaffer)
has a thin brown head united only in the middle with
the stalk, and white spores.
All the species are edible, although the spring
morel and some others must be first treated with
hot water to remove a poisonous principle, which
also disappears slowly on drying.
Fig. 327. Common
Morel (Morchella
esculenta). Cross
section through
hymenium, show-
ing asci and para-
physes. (Mez.)
nusHRoons.
These are umbrella-shaped, and bear the hymenium on the under
surface of the head. They belong to the order Hymenomycetes of the
subclass Basidiomy cetes.
1. The Field Mushroom (Psalliota campestris Fr., Agaricus cam-
pestris—AgaricinecB) has when young a globular head, which later becomes
spreading, reaching 15 cm. in breadth. The upper surface is brownish;
the flesh is white. On the under surface are numerous spore-bearing
gills, which are at first pink, but later are brown, as are also the elliptical
spores (8 : 6 p) . The stalk is white, 6-8 cm. long, with a thick mem-
branous ring (volva) near the center.
Cross sections through the lamellae show in the middle a layer of
broad hyphae (Fig. 329), flanked on both sides by small hyphae from
which spring the basidia; also the sterile bodies known as paraphyses.
The spores are borne on the surface of the basidia.
The poisonous Amanita phalloides Quel (A. bulbosa Bull.) has a
424
VEGETABLES.
bulbous thickening at the base of the stalk, bordered by a sac-like mem-
brane, also white spores. Cross sections of the lamellae show that the
Fig 328. Field Mushroom (Psalliota (Agaricus) campestris). 1 Natural size, showing
I lamellae 2 Cross section of a lamella, magnified. (Sachs.)
Fig. 329. Field Mushroom. Cross, section of a lamella, strongly magnified. (Mez.)
Fig. 330. Poisonous Amanita (-4. phalloides). Cross section of a lamella. (Mez.)
middle - hypliEe layer is surrounded by hyphae spreading out in bows
(Fig. 330).
MUSHROOMS. 425
2. Boletus edulis Bul\.(B.bulbosus Schaff. — Polyporea) and other edible
species of Boletus, are distinguished from the species of the AgaricinecB
by the thick swollen stalk, and the dependent tubes on the under surface
of the head. The brown head is at first semiglobular, later spreading,
reaching 20 cm. Its flesh is white, and does not greatly change in color
on exposure. The tube layer, which is easily removed from the under
side of the head, is at first white, later yellow or green-yellow. The
spores are spindle-shaped, smooth, yellow or brown.
PART VIII.
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS AND THEIR SUB-
STITUTES.
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.i
Savage and civilized nations alike are addicted to the use of alka-
loidal as well as alcoholic stimulants. The American aborigines long before
the discovery of the continent by Columbus were acquainted with the
virtues of the cocoa bean and the tobacco leaf, and the natives of West
Africa have for centuries chewed the cola nut. The products here
described include those containing caffein, theobromin and nicotine, also
certain substitutes free from alkaloids. Opium and other more potent
alkaloidal products are considered in works on pharmacognosy.
COFFEE.
Coffee, next to sugar the most important product imported from
the tropics, is the seed of a small tree or shrub, Cofjea Arabica L. (order
Rubiacea), a native of Abyssinia and other parts of Africa. In the fifteenth
century the tree was introduced into Arabia, where the beverage became
popular with all classes, notwithstanding the opposition of the Moham-
medan priests. Coffee drinking was soon taken up by all the Saracenic
races and later by the European nations.
For over two hundred years the culture of the coffee tree was limited
to Arabia, but in the latter part of the seventeenth century it was suc-
cessfully undertaken by the Dutch in Java, and somewhat later in Surinam,
and the industry soon spread over Sumatra, India, Ceylon, Western
Africa, and other parts of the Eastern Hemisphere, as well as over the
West Indies and the tropical parts of South America. To-day Brazil
leads the world in coffee production, although the choicest grades come
from Arabia (genuine Mocha coffee) and Java.
The white and delightfully fragrant flowers of the coffee tree are
produced in the axils of the leaves. The fruit (Fig. 331) is about the
size of a small cherry, and is red or purple when fully ripe. It normally
1 The descriptions of tea, tobacco, and all other leaves, also of chicory, dandelion,
guarana, and cola nut are by Prof. J. Moeller.
427
428
ALKAL01DAL PRODUCTS.
contains two cells, each with a single plano-convex seed (Figs. 331 and
332) so situated that the flat surfaces of the two seeds adjoin one another,
Mk
, Em
I II
Fig. 331. Coffee (Coftea Arabicd). I cross section of berry, natural size. Pk outer peri-
carp; Mk endocarp; Ek spermoderm; Sa hard endosperm; Sp soft endosperm. II
longitudinal section of berry, natural size; Dis bordered disc; Se remains of sepals;
Em embryo. Ill embryo, enlarged: cot cotyledon; rod radicle. (Tschirch and
Oesteele.)
but in the so-called peaberry coffee, one of the ovules is abortive, the other
developing into a rounded seed filling the single cavity. The outer portion
of the fruit is dark colored and pulpy, lined by a buff, parchment-like
endocarp. The seeds, which before roasting are yellow or light green,
have a longitudinal cleft on the flattened side due
to the folding of the endosperm. A papery spermo-
derm, known as the silver skin, covers not only
the outer surface but penetrates also the cleft.
The minute embryo (Fig. 331, .77 Em, III) is
situated in the endosperm near the base of the
seed.
Various processes, some dry, others wet, are
employed for removing the pericarp and spermo-
derm from the seed. In the West Indies and South
America, the larger part of the fruit flesh is first
Fig. 332. Coffee. Cross- removed by a pulper, after which the pulp still
section of bean showing adhering is loosened by a fermentation process and
folded endosperm with J k
hard and soft tissues, washed away by water. After drying, the spermo-
derm and endocarp are broken away from the seed
and separated by winnowing. The spermoderm is also removed from the
surface but not from the cleft. Roasting swells the seed greatly, changes
its color to dark brown, and develops the characteristic odor and flavor
of roasted coffee by the formation of caffeol and other substances.
COFFEE.
429
gn
HISTOLOGY.
As fresh material is not obtainable in the temperate zone except from
botanical gardens, alcoholic or dried specimens must be used for histo-
logical studies.
Coffee beans, as found on the market, whether unroasted or roasted,
consist only of the endosperm, embryo, and that portion of the spermo-
derm within the cleft, although occa-
sionally fragments of the pericarp
occur with the beans as an acci-
dental impurity. The pericarp may
be sectioned dry, the endosperm
after soaking in water.
The Pericarp after drying is of
a dark color about 0.5 mm. thick.
As the outer layers are soft and
the endocarp hard, no little difficulty
is experienced in preparing sections.
For cutting transverse sections, the
dry material freed from the seed
may be embedded in hard paraffine
and cut with a strong razor or
microtome knife, taking care that
the palisade cells and endocarp,
which are liable to separate from the
outer layers, are not lost. Staining
with safranin, naphthylene blue or
methylene blue is recommended.
1. The Epicarp Cells (Figs. 333
and 334, ep) are 15-35 ," broad,
sharply polygonal, occasionally four- Fig. 333. Coffee. Cross section of hull and
•j j -ix. i_ 11 j bean. Pericarp consists of I epicarp, 2,3
Sided, With brown walls and con" layers Qf mcsocarp with 4 fibro-vascular
tents. Stomata with two accom- bundle, 5 palisade layer, and 6 endocarp;
ss spermoderm consists of 8 sclerenchyma
panymg cells Similar to the guard and" g parenchyma; end endosperm.
cells in form occur here and there. (TscHIRCH and Oesterm.)
2. Mesocarp (Figs. ^3> 334, and 335). Proceeding inward, the
cells increase in size until they reach a maximum of about 100 pt. Their
walls are thick and either brown or yellow. Brown amorphous masses
and occasionally large crystals are noticeable in the outer layers. In
43°
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
the innermost part of the mesocarp, through which ramify the fibro-
vascular bundles, the cells are commonly compressed. The strongly
developed bundles contain bast fibers up to i mm. long and 25 /* broad,
with thick walls and narrow lumen, spiral vessels mostly narrower than
the bast fibers, but with noticeably thick spirals, pitted vessels, and other
less conspicuous elements.
3. Palisade Layer (Fig. 333, 5). These cells are greatly elongated
in radial directions and have walls of mucilaginous structure which swell
FlG. 334. • Coffee. Surface view of ep epicarp Fig. 335. Coffee. Elements of pericarp in
and p outer parenchyma of mesocarp. surface view, p parenchyma; bp paren-
X160. (Moellek.) chyma of nbro-vascular bundle; 6 bast
fiber; sp spiral vessel. X160. (Moeixer.)
in water. Because of these peculiarities, as well as the difficulties of
cutting so soft a tissue when adjoining a hard coat like the endocarp,
special care must be exercised in preparing sections. Safranin stains
the swollen wall carmine, but does not affect the yellowish contents.
Vogl states that naphthylene blue colors both the walls and contents blue-
violet.
4. Endocarp (Fig. 333, 6; Fig. 336). Closely united with the palisade
layer is the thin, but hard, buff -colored endocarp resembling in macro-
scopic and microscopic structure the endocarp of the apple. The fibers
cross one another at various angles, but in the outer layers their general
direction is longitudinal, while in the inner layer it is transverse. The
fibers of the inner layer are thin-walled, whereas those of the other layers
are thick-walled and conspicuously porous.
Spermoderm. Although the spermoderm is removed from the sur-
face of most of the seeds in preparing them for market, fragments suff;
COFFEE.
431
cient for study may often be obtained from unroasted coffee. Within
the cleft the spermoderm is almost always intact, even after roasting,
Fig. 336. Coffee. Sclerenchyma fibers of endocarp. X160. (Moeixer.)
and may be readily removed in one piece after soaking the seed for some
hours in water.
1. Sclerenchyma Cells (Fig. 333, 8; Fig. 337, st) form the character-
istic outer layer. In the early stages of development the coat is uninter-
Fig. 337. Coffee. Spermoderm in surface view, st sclerenchyma; p compressed paren-
chyma. X 160. (Moeller.)
rupted, but in the mature seed, as a result of more rapid growth of adjoin-
ing tissues, they are more or less detached, occurring singly, in pairs or
432
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
in groups, either widely separated or with only small intercellular spaces
between them. They vary from less than ioo n to over i mm. in length
and from 15-50 n in breadth. The longer cells, occurring in groups
within the cleft, are straight and narrow, resembling bast fibers, while
the medium and shorter cells, occurring both on the surface and in the
cleft, are broader and more irregular in outline, vermiform and club-
shaped forms predominating, although triangular and various fantastic
shapes are not uncommon. Great variations in the thickness of the
walls and the size and number of the pores are also noticeable.
2. Parenchyma Cells (Fig. 333, p; Fig. 337, p), more or less obliter-
ated, form the remainder of the spermoderm. Occasionally cells with
beaded walls are distinguishable, but in most parts the cells are not
clearly evident, the tissue appearing like a structureless membrane.
Through this tissue in the cleft runs the raphe, with narrow spiral vessels,
which are best seen after treatment with alkali or chloral hydrate.
Endosperm (Figs. 333 and 338). Coffee, like the date stone and the
ivory-nut, contains only the minutest traces of starch, the carbohydrate
.SHQ^^pBSSSC
Fig. 338. Coffee. Cross section of outer layers of endosperm showing knotty thickenings
of cell walls. X160. (Moeller.)
reserve material being largely in the form of cellulose stored up in the
cell-walls of the endosperm. In sections, the cell-walls, except in the
outer layers, appear to be knotty-thickened, owing to the large pores
by which they are pierced, the double walls in the knots ranging up to
20 (i in thickness. The cells are smallest in the cuticularized outer layer,
where they are 15-50 p in diameter, but in the inner layers they often
reach 100 fi. To the naked eye the central portion of the endosperm
(Fig 332) has a somewhat different appearance from the remainder, due
to the presence of an interrupted scries of tangentially elongated cells,
COFFEE. 433
the walls of which, excepting the middle lamella, are composed of a
mucilaginous substance, and consequently disappear on treatment with
water. It is in this mucilaginous tissue near the base that the minute
embryo is embedded. Tschirch regards this soft tissue as useful in facili-
tating the absorption of the reserve material by the sprouting plantlet.
Treatment with various reagents and stains, such as chlorzinc iodine,
iodine-sulphuric acid, naphthylene blue, and safranin, show that the thick-
ened cell-walls consist of cellulose. Reagents also serve for the identi-
fication of the cell-contents. For example, concentrated sulphuric acid
produces a fine, red color showing the presence of sugars, iron salts give
a green color due to tannic acid, various reagents show the presence
of proteids, sometimes in the form of aleurone grains, while numerous
micro-tests given by Tschirch and Oesterle confirm the presence of caf-
fein. Vogl notes that sections are colored an intense yellow by caustic
potash and soda, and a green-yellow changing to green by ammonia.
Heating with chloral hydrate imparts a blue-green coloration to the
contents, but this reaction, as well as some of the others, is not distinct
in the case of roasted coffee, and is therefore of no practical value.
The. Embryo (Fig. 331, III) may be obtained by cutting a bean, previ-
ously soaked overnight in water, through the cleft and carefully splitting
open the endosperm through the mucilage cells.
After longer soaking in water or in dilute alkali,
the embryo bursts through the endosperm at the
basal end. The blunt radicle is 3-4 mm. long,
the heart-shaped cotyledons 1-2 mm. long. After
clearing with alkali, or better with Javelle water Fig. 339. Coffee. Tis-
or chloral hydrate, the cotyledons are seen to have ZL ^^(MceT-
three pairs of sparingly branching nerves. The LEE-)
small cells and procambium bundles filled with protoplasm and fat are
of little diagnostic importance (Fig. 339).
DIAGNOSIS.
Coffee reaches the consumer either "green" (unroasted) or roasted,
and in the latter case either whole or ground. Roasting, as ordinarily
conducted, changes the color of the bean to a rich brown which renders
most' of the microchemical tests of little value, but does not seriously
obscure the structure of either the spermoderm or endosperm.
Whole Coffee, also known as "coffee beans" and "coffee berries,"
is characterized by the form and horny texture of the endosperm, and the
434 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
presence of the spermoderm or "chaff" in the cleft. The spermoderm
without special preparation is readily identified under the microscope by
the more or less isolated sclerenchyma cells; the endosperm, in section,
by the knotty-thickened walls, and the absence of more than the faintest
trace of starch.
The adulteration of genuine coffee with beans previously used for
the manufacture of coffee extract cannot be detected by microscopical
examination, although the coating of these beans, as well as of inferior
grades of unextracted coffee, with various pigments, is sometimes evident
in microscopic sections.
Ground Coffee varies in fineness from coarsely crushed beans to a
powder passing a i mm. sieve. Usually there is an abundance of frag-
ments large enough to section with a razor, either dry or after soaking,
thus permitting an examination of the cell-walls of the endosperm (Fig.
338). The papery flakes of spermoderm (Fig. 337) may be picked out
with forceps.
If a handful is stirred with cold water, true coffee, except for a few
over-ruaa^a tra^menrs; 3oats; whereas the common adulterants, including
peas and other legumes, cereal grains, chicory and other roots, imitation
coffee, etc., sink rapidly to the bottom, their nature being determined by
microscopic examination. Artificial coffee made from oil-seed products
is said to float.
Outer Coffee Hulls, consisting of the epicarp, the mesocarp, and
traces of the palisade layer, are utilized by the Arabians in the prepara-
tion of a fermented liquor, "Kischer" or "Gischr." These hulls are
also exported from coffee- growing regions under the names "Sultan
coffee," and "sacca-coffee," as an adulterant of coffee, the fact that they
are a product of the coffee tree and the claim that they contain a certain
amount of caffein and other valuable constituents being offered as excuses
for their use. These claims are not worthy of consideration, as the
product is even more worthless than most of the common substitutes.
The hulls occur in small amount in genuine coffee, but when the
amount is considerable, adulteration is indicated. They are of a black
color, with a small ring about 2 mm. in diameter at the upper end, in
the middle of which is the scar of the style. Highly characteristic ele-
. ments being absent, it is often difficult to identify the material in pow-
der form. The epicarp (Fig. 334, ep) and brown mesocarp resemble
the corresponding tissues of the carob bean, though the epicarp of coffee
may be distinguished by the stomata with two adjoining cells and the
COFFEE. 435
thicker-walled mesocarp, the contents of which do not give the blue or
violet color on warming with alkali.
Inner Coffee Hulls, consisting of endocarp with particles of the ad-
hering palisade layers, are parchment-like in texture and of a buff color.
Although they have scarcely more value than sawdust, they have been used
in the United States as an adulterant of wheat bran and other cattle foods.
Charred hulls have recently been detected by the writer in ground pepper.
This material is characterized by the groups of crossing fibers (Fig. 336).
Artificial Coffee Beans moulded from dough, sometimes with the
admixture of chicory and other materials, resemble genuine roasted
beans in form and color, but are distinguished by the exact correspon-
dence of beans from the same mould, the shallow cleft, the absence
of chaff in the cleft, the granular texture, and other physical charac-
teristics which can be learned only by experience. As usually prepared,
they sink at once in cold water. Under the microscope, starch and other
elements of the constituents are identified.
Artificial Broken Coffee similar to the artificial beans, but made in
irregular lumps, not moulded in the forms of beans, resembles closely
broken coffee beans and serves as an adulterant both for whole and ground
coffee. Another form of artificial coffee much used in America consists
of pea hulls, cereal matter, and molasses, made into small pellets.
The Fruits and Seeds used most commonly as substitutes or adulter-
ants of coffee are wheat, rye, barley, maize, and other cereals, also cereal
products, such as bran, middlings, bread, etc.; peas, beans, lupines,
cassia seeds, astragalus seeds, Parkia seeds, chick peas, soja beans, pea-
nuts, and other leguminous seeds; dried figs, prunes, pears, bananas, and
carob bean pods; date stones, ivory nuts, acorns, grape seeds, fruit of the
wax palm, cola nut (Mussaende-Kaffee), and false flax.
Roots. Chicory is by far the commonest root used in coffee. It is
gummy, sweet to the taste, colors cold water a deep yellow, and is identi-
fied by the vessels and latex cells. Other roots used are dandelion,
beet, turnip, and carrot, all of these being adulterants of chicory.
Coffee Substitutes (European). Among the hundreds of proprie-
tary articles sold in Europe as substitutes for coffee are the following:
"Kanon" (rye, coffee, chicory); "Datel Kaffee" (wheat, chicory, figs,
and coffee); "Homeopathischer Gesundheitskaffee " (wheat, chicory,
and cocoa shells); "Hygienischer Nahrkaffee" (cereals and acorns);
"German Soda Coffee" (cereals, chicory, and sodium carbonate);
"Jamaika Kaffee" (barley); " Mokka-Sakka- Kaffee " (barley and other
436 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
constituents); " Saladinkaffee " (maize); " Malto-Kaffee " (malt or
mixtures of malt and other cereals); " Kraft-Kaffee, " " Frucht-Kaffee "
and "Allerwelts Kaffee" (lupine seeds); "Mogdad," "Neger," and
" Stephanie-Kaffee " (seeds of Cassia occidentalis and C. sophora);
"Sudan- Kaffee" (seeds of Parkia Ajricana and P biglobosa); "Schwe-
dische Kontinental- Kaffee" (seeds of Astragalus boeticus); "Deutscher"
or "Franzosischer Kaffee" (chick pea); "Ungarischer Kaffee" (coffee,
lupines, and chicory); " Af ricanischer Nussbohnen Kaffee" (peanuts);
"Bayrischer Kaffee" (beets, figs, rye, and legumes); "Mokara" or "Fei-
genkaffee" (figs); "Figine" (figs and chicory); "Melilotin Kaffee" (coffee,
chicory, and date stones); "Almond Coffee" (originally made of the
tubers of Cyperus esculentus L., later of acorns, chicory, and dandelion
root); "Frank Kaffee" (chicory); "Cafe" de Rheims" and "Rations
Coffee" of the French army (coffee and chicory); "Domkaffee"
(chicory).
Coffee Substitutes (American). Among the preparations made in
the United States, the following have been found to consist of various
preparations of cereals: "Ralston Cereal Coffee," "Grain-O," "Postum
Cereal Coffee," "Ayer's Hygienic Substitute for Coffee," "New Era
Hygienic Coffee," "Shredded Cereal Coffee," "J. W. Clark's Phosphi
Cereal Nervine Coffee," and many others. Other preparations are:
"Old Grist Mill Entire Wheat Coffee" (wheat, peas, and real coffee);
"Fischer Mills Fresh Roasted Malt Coffee;" "Kneipp Malt Coffee"
(barley or malt); "Kentucky Coffee" (Caesalpinia pidcherrima).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. F.
(10); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace (26); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Molisch (^)\
Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin
(42); Yogi (43, 45).
Brunotte: A Pseudo-substitute of Coffee. Rev. internat. falsificat. 1896, 9, 48.
Cazeneuve: Artificial Coffee Beans. Petit mon. de !a pharm. 1894, 1513.
Coster, Hoorn u. M azure: Falsifications observers en Holland. Rev. internat.
falsificat. 1887-88, 1, 162. 1890, 4, 7.
Cribb: Note on (1) Samples of Coffee Containing Added Starch; (2) Sample of Artifi-
cial Coffee Berries. Analyst. 1902, 27, 114.
Draper: Detection of Coffee Adulterations. Phil. Mag. 34, 104.
Dustan: Der sogenannte Mussaenda-Kaffee von Reunion. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters.
Hyg. 1890, 4, 13.
Fricke: Sogenannter Congo-Kaffee. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1889, 2, 121.
COFFEE. 437
Gawalowski: Ersatzmittel fur Kaffeebohnen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1896, 9,
123.
Greinert: Ueber Negerkaffee. Pharm. Ztg. 1889, 34, 192.
Gundriser: Ueber ein Kaffeesurrogat aus den Samen der blauen Lupine (Lupinus
angustijolius). Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1892, 6, 373.
Hanausek, E.: Kunstliche Kaffeebohnen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1890, 4, 25,
172.
Hanausek, T. F.: Dattelkeme als Kaffeesurrogat. Chem. Ztg. 1886, 10, 701.
Hanausek, T. F.: Kunstliche Kaffeebohnen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1889,
3,3-
Hanausek, T. F.: Die Entwicklungsgeschichte der Frucht und des Samens von Cofjea,
arabica. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1890, 4, 237, 257. 1891, 5, 185, 218. 1893,
7, 85, 195.
Hanausek, T. F.: Zum Bau der Kaffeebohnen. 66. Vers, deutsch, Naturf. u. Aerzte.
Wien, 1894.
James: Le cafe torrifii?, engrains, factice. Revue d'hyg. 1890, No. 12.
Konig: Kunstkaffee. Chem. Centralbl. 1889, 20, 1, 51.
Konig: Die Friichte der Wachspalme als Kaffeesurrogate. Centr.-Org. f. \Yaarenk.
u. Techn. 1891, 1, 1.
Kornauth: Communications diverses concernant les denrees alimentaires et les
boissons. Rev. internat. falsificat. 1889-90, 3, 195.
Kornauth: Beitrage zur chemischen und mikroskopischen Untersuchung des Kaffees
und der Kaffeesurrogate. Hilger, Mitth. Lab. angew. Chem. Erlangen, III
Heft. Munchen, 1890, 1.
Kornauth: Zur Beurtheilungen der Kaffeesurrogate. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1891,
645-
Mansfeld: Bericht iiber die Thatigkeit der Untersuchungsanstalt des Allgemeinen oster-
reichischen Apothekervereines und des Wiener Apotheker-Hauptgremiums. Ztschr.
Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1896, 10, 336.
Mansfeld: Kaffeesurrogate. Jahresber. Unters. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1901, 10.
Moeixer: Ueber Mogdad-Kaffee. Pharm. Centralh. 22, 133. Dingler's Polytechn.
Jour. 1880, 237, 61.
Morpurgo: Eine einfache Methode zur Entdeckung kiinstlicher Farbungen der Kaffee-
bohnen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1898, 6, 9.
Nevtnny: Die Nahrungs- und Genussmittel Wiens. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887,
1, 21.
Nevinny: Zur Verfalschung des Feigenkaffees. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887,
1, 85.
Pade: Neue Falschungen des Kaffees. Chem. Centralbl. 1889, 20, 2.
Portele: Kunstliche Kaffeebohnen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters Hyg. 1889, 3, 221.
Raumer: Ein neues Kaffeesurrogate. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. 1894, 1, 293.
Raumer: Ueber den Nachweis kiinstlicher Farbungen bei Rohkaffee. Forschber.
Lebensm. Hyg. 1896, 3, 333.
Reuter: Beitrag zur Kenntniss der Bestandtheile des Mogdad-Kaffees. Pharm.
Centralh. 1889, 30, 494.
RoHRiG: Afrikanischer Nussbohnenkaffee. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. 1895, 2, 15.
438 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
Rtjfitn: Fabrikation, Veranderungen und Faischungen der Cichorien. Ann. chim.
anal. 1898, 3, 114.
Samelson: Ueber Kunstkaffee. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1890, 482.
Street: Coffee Hulls. New Jersey Agr. Expt. Sta. Bull. 160, 1902.
Stutzer: Ueber Kunstkaffee. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1888, 1, 699. 1890, 549.
Trillich: Ueber Malzkaffee und Kaffeesurrogate. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1891, 540.
Trillich: Kaffee und Kaffeesurrogate. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1896, 440.
Trillich: Ueber Kaflee mit thranenformigen Tohnen. Ztschr. offentl. Chem. 1898,
54^-
Waage: Ueber kiinstliche Kaffeebohnen. Apoth.-Ztg. 1890, 5, 219.
Wolffenstein: Untersuchung einiger Kaffeepraparate. Ztschr. angew. Chem. 1890,
84.
LIBERIAN COFFEE.
Liberian coffee (Coffea Liberica Bull.) is found wild and cultivated in
Liberia and the whole of the Guinea coast. The limited product is
exported chiefly to England and the Continent.
The fruit is extremely large, averaging 1 toi| inches in length, ellip-
soidal, and pointed at both ends. Compared with C. Arabica the pulp
is thicker, the parchment hard and brittle, never clear, and the spermo-
derm or silver skin stronger, tougher and more tightly rolled into the
deep, narrow furrow. The bean also is unusually large, peculiar in
form, dark brown in color, and heavy in weight. Although coarser
flavored, owing to its strength it is well adapted for admixture with better
sorts.
Hartwich notes that the embryo of C. Liberica is 7.5 mm. long, that
of C. Arabica only 4 mm.; also that the stone cells of the spermoderm
are 880 fi long and 51/4 broad in the former, while they are but 484 fi
long and 41 [i broad in the latter species.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Hartwich: Coffea liberica. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm 1896,34,473.
CHICORY.
The oldest and commonest substitute for coffee is the root of chicory
(Cichorium Intybus L., order Composite), a native of Europe, where
it is also extensively cultivated. The tap root is spindle-shaped, sparingly
branched, while fresh, fleshy with a milky juice, after drying, shriveled,
hard, horny, on the outer surface brown, and often spirally wrinkled.
tMICORY. 439
Cross sections examined under a lens show the radiating pnioem groups,
the xylem elements with broad lumens, and the narrow radiating medul-
lary rays.
The reserve material is largely in the form of inulin.
HISTOLOGY.
•
i. The Cork (Fig. 340) tissue consists of a few layers of rather flat
cells, with thin brown walls. In surface view they are often ill-defined.
2. Cortex (Fig. 341). The parenchymatous ground tissue contains
numerous branching and anastomosing latex tubes
(sch) 6-10 fi broad, with granular contents, which
are especially conspicuous after staining. Inulin
occurs in the parenchyma, but being soluble in
water, is evident only in mounts of alcohol material,
in which it forms sphasro-crystals.
3. Bast (Fig. 341). The sieve tubes (s) are dis-
tinguished from the latex tubes by their occur-
rence in bundles, the absence of branches, and the
,, . , . , -«.t • 1 1 Fig. 340. Chicory (Ci-
callus of the sieve plates. Neither the cortex nor chorium Tntybus). Cork
the bast contains any sclerenchyma elements what- £ssue °li^ot "^i&j"
ever. (Moeixer.)
4. Wood (Fig. 342). The most conspicuous elements of the root
are the vessels (g) made up of short (usually less than 200 ft), moderately
broad, (usually 20-50 fi) members, with diagonal, porous or non-porous
cross walls. The side walls are characterized by numerous moderately
elongated transverse pores. Usually the vessels are in radial rows or
in groups, seldom isolated. Fuchsin stains them an intense red.
Of less diagnostic value are the thickly porous parenchyma cells and
the rather thin- walled wood fibers (/), with diagonal clefts. The narrow
medullary rays consist cf one or two (rarely three) rows of cells.
DIAGNOSIS.
Chicory as used in coffee is in irregular, soft, deep brown grains,
with a sweetish taste. It sinks in water, imparting to it a yellow-brown
coloration. The important elements are the vessels (Fig. 342, g) consisting
of short joints, with moderately elongated, transversely arranged pores,
and the branching latex tubes (Fig. 341, sch) with granular contents. In
some fragments one finds numerous vessels, in others numerous latex tubes
in a mass of brown parenchyma.
44°
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
Common adulterants are the roots of dandelion, carrot, beet, and
turnip, as well as cereal matter. Dandelion (p. 441) and carrot (p. 418)
are distinguished by the elongated narrow pores of the vessels. The
I
m ! g
1^. ,1
sch
rp -
Fig. 341. Chicory. Bark of root in radial
section, rp cortex parenchyma; sch latex
tubes; s sieve tube; bp bast parenchyma;
m medullary rays. X160. (Moellek.)
Fig. 342. Chicory. Wood of root in
tangential section, g pitted vessels
with qu perforation; hp wood pa-
renchyma; Zwood fibers; m medul-
lary ray. X160. (Moelleiu)
former root, like chicory, contains latex tubes. The vessels of the. white
turnip (p. 419) have pores similar to those of chicory; latex tubes, how-
ever, are lacking. Unusually broad meshes characterize the vessels of
the beet (p. 417).
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16);
Hassall(io); Leach (25); Mace" (26); Moeller(2o); Planchonet Collin (34); Tschirch
u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (14, 45).
See also Bibliography of Coffee, pp. 436-438.
DANDELION.
The root of the common dandelion (Leontodon Taraxacum L., order
Composite) is often mixed with chicory. It is thicker and more branched
than the latter, and has a more even fracture. The bark is white, with
delicate concentric rings; the wood yellow, without rays.
DANDELION.
441
HISTOLOGY.
The bark elements (Fig. 343) are practically the same as those of
chicory. The concentric rings are only evident in cross section.
More characteristic is the structure
of the wood (Fig. 344). The vessels
(g) are irregularly distributed, not sep-
arated by the medullary rays into distinct
groups. They are somewhat broader
(up to 80 n) than those of chicory, and
have much longer pores, resembling those
of scalariform vessels. Less noteworthy
is the absence of wood fibers, as these
Fig. 343. Dandelion {Leontodon
Taraxacum) . Bark of root in longi-
tudinal section showing latex tubes.
(Tschirch.) .
Fig. 344. Dandelion. Wood of root in longi-
tudinal section, g reticulated vessels with qu
perforation; hp wood parenchyma; m medul-
lary ray. Xl6o. (MOELLER.)
arc not easily found in chicory. The reserve material exists largely as
inulin, which in alcohol material forms sphsero-crystals.
DIAGNOSIS.
The greater length of the pores in the vessels (Fig. 344 g) serves to
distinguish this root from chicory. Latex tubes (Fig. 343) are present in
both roots.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (29, 32); Planchonet Collin (34);
Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vogl (44, 45).
442 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
COCOA BEAN.
Chocolate and Cocoa are products of the "beans" or seeds of several
small trees, natives of tropical America, of which Theobroma Cacao L.
(order Sterculiacece) is by far the most important. The value of cocoa
beans was known to the aborigines, especially the Aztecs of Mexico and
Peru, who prepared from them beverages and foods. They were brought
to the notice of Europeans by Cortez and other explorers, but were not
extensively imported into Europe until the seventeenth century, about
the time tea and coffee were introduced from the East. Theobroma
(food of the Gods), the generic name assigned by Linnaeus, suggests the
high esteem with which people in his day regarded the seed. At present
the world's supply comes chiefly from Venezuela, Guiana, Ecuador,
Brazil, Trinidad, Cuba, Mexico, and other regions bordering on the
Gulf of Mexico, being gathered in these regions from both wild and
cultivated trees, and also to some extent from Java, Ceylon, Africa and
other parts of the Old World, where the tree has been successfully culti-
vated. Cocoa trees with their large dark-green leaves and clusters of
fragrant red blossoms are among the most beautiful objects of the
Tropics, and the fruit, borne on the trunk and old wood of the tree, is a
never ending source of wonder to travelers.
The yellow or brown cocoa fruit is from 12-18 cm. long, from 5-9
cm. wide, and has 10 ridges passing from the base to the apex, giving
the surface a melon-like appearance (Fig. 345, I and II). It contains
from 35 to 75 seeds in 5 rows, embedded in a mucilaginous substance.
The seeds after being removed from the fruit are dried at once in
some localities, but the better grades are first subjected to a fermenta-
tion process, which destroys certain bitter and acrid constituents.
Cocoa beans (Fig. 345, III-VI) as found on the market consist of the
anatropous seeds, often with more or less of the pulpy inner pericarp
adhering. They are irregularly ellipsoidal, 15-30 mm. long, somewhat
flattened, and vary from reddish brown to dark brown in color. The
hilum at the broader end and the chalaza at the narrower end are con-
nected by the raphe, which runs along one of the narrow sides and divides
into numerous branches at the chalaza. The so-called "shell," consist-
ing of spermoderm with portions of the inner pericarp adhering to the
outer surface and the perisperm to the inner surface, is thin and brittle,
readily breaking away from the cotyledons. There is no endosperm,
the reserve material being entirely in the chocolate-colored embryo con-
COCOA BEAN.
443
sisting of two thick and curiously folded cotyledons and a hard radicle
about one-third the length of the seed situated at the hilum end. On
crushing the seed the radicle separates and the cotyledons break into
FIG. 345. Cocoa {Theobroma Cacao), /entire fruit, Xi; //fruit in cross section. Ill
seed (cocoa bean), natural size; IV seed deprived of spermoderm; V seed in longitu-
dinal section, showing radicle (germ) ; VI seed in cross section. (Winton.)
angular pieces known as cocoa nibs, from which are prepared the choco-
late and cocoa of commerce.
Over 50 per cent of the dry embryo consists of fat, the remaining
constituents being starch* proteids, theobromin, caffein, a tannin sub-
stance known as cocoa red, and other substances in smaller amount.
HISTOLOGY.
Cocoa beans, obtainable from any manufacturer of cocoa products,
are suitable for microscopic study. Transverse sections are conveniently
cut dry, depending on subsequent treatment with reagents to swell out
the tissues. If sections of the shell are soaked for a few minutes in
Javelle water, the collapsed cells, particularly those of the endocarp and
the outer epidermis of the spermoderm, assume their normal form and the
tissues, after washing in dilute acetic acid, are suitably cleared for stain-
ing with safranin or some other dye. Sections of the cotyledons are first
freed from fat by a suitable solvent and afterwards mounted either in
glycerine or water.
Pericarp. Adhering to the surface of most grades of beans is a thin
coat consisting of the cells of the inner layers of the mesocarp or fruit
pulp and the endocarp.
444
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
i. Mesocarp (Fig. 346, mes). The cells are elongated, often branching,
with large intercellular spaces. On soaking in water they become slimy
and, together with the endocarp, separate easily from the spermoderm.
2. The Endocarp (Figs. 346 and 347, end) is made up of narrow elon-
gated cells running transversely or diagonally about the seed and forming
the so-called cross-cell layer. These cells are about 15 // wide and often
reach a length of 200-300 p..
Spermoderm. 1. The Outer Epidermis (Figs. 346 and 347, ep), con-
sisting of longitudinally elongated, polygonal cells (30-50 /j. broad and
Fig. 346. Cocoa. Cross section of outer portion of bean, mes inner layers of mesocarp;
end endocarp; spermoderm consists of ep outer epidermis, muc mucilage cells, p spongy
parenchyma, st stone cells and Ip nutritive layer; N perisperm consists of epidermal
and obliterated layers; C cotyledon. (Tschirch.)
up to 200 ft long), is clearly seen in surface preparations, underlying
the cross cells of the endocarp. Owing to their collapsed condition, this
layer is not distinct in sections mounted in water, but on treatment with
Javelle water, the cells swell to their natural size and the thick cuticle
becomes evident.
COCOA BEAN.
445
2. Mucilage Cells (Fig. 346, muc) underlie the epidermis, forming
what at first sight appears to be a broad hyaline coat. They do not,
however, form a continuous coat, but a series of pockets separated by
tissues of the third layer. Safranin stains the layer in cross section a
clear rose color and makes the radial walls more distinct.
3. Spongy Parenchyma (p). Numerous layers of spongy paren-
chyma cells, through which pass the bundles of the raphe and its branches,
form the third coat. Narrow spiral vessels readily separating from
the other elements, characterize the bundles.
4. Stone Cells (Fig. 346, st; Fig. 349, d). The cells of the next layer
are thickened on the inner and radial walls. In surface view they are
polygonal, often elongated, varying up to 25 fi long. The double walls
are about. 5 /x thick. Here and there groups of these cells are not thick-
FlG. 347. Cocoa. Outer elements of shell.
ep epidermis of spermoderm; end endocarp
(cross cells); p parenchyma of mesocarp.
X160. (Moeller.)
Fig. 348. Cocoa. Cross section of outer
portion of cotyledon, showing hairs
(Mitscherlichian bodies) and starch
parenchyma. (Moeller.)
ened at all, permitting, according to Tschirch and Oesterle, an exchange
of cell liquids.
5. Nutritive Layer (Fig. 346, lp). Several rows of cells of this layer
contain in earlier stages of development cell-contents which later are
employed in building up the seed, leaving at maturity only obliterated
tissues.
446 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
6. The Inner Epidermis is indistinct.
Perisperm. (Fig. 346, N). The "silver" coat, formerly regarded
as endosperm but later shown by Tschirch and Oesterle to be perisperm,
envelops the seed and penetrates between the folds of the cotyledons.
1. Epidermis A single layer of polygonal cells (15-30 fi) with distinct
walls (double walls 3 ft) forms a coat similar to the aleurone cells of
many seeds. The cell contents are yellow or white and consist of
fatty matter in aggregates, and protein. This layer does not penetrate
between the cotyledons.
2. Obliterated Cells comprise the remainder of the perisperm. They
contain fat in numerous large blade-shaped crystals, often in fan-like
clusters, and also dense sphero-aggregates.
Embryo. The bulk of the seed consists of the fleshy cotyledons con-
taining over half their dry weight of fat.
1. The Epidermis (Figs. 348 and 349) is made up of polygonal cells
and remarkable several-celled hairs (tr) named in honor of their discoverer
" Mitscherlichian bodies." These latter consist of a single row of cells
near the base, but expand at the outer end into a club-shaped body often
several cells broad. Vogl has rightly observed that these hairs occur less
often on the surface of the cotyledon adjoining the perisperm than in
the folds, and Tschirch and Oesterle, that they are still more abundant
on the radicle. The perisperm, particularly that portion wkhin the
folds of the cotyledons, often has these hairs adhering to its inner surface.
Both the hairs and the other epidermal cells contain small brown bodies,
which, according to Vogl, are colored blood-red by chloral, olive-brown
by ferric chloride, and bright yellow by ammonia, the latter reagent also
causing the grains to swell. These reactions are not always decisive.
2. Ground Tissue (Fig. 348). The cells in the interior of the cotyle-
dons either contain starch and aleurone grains embedded in fat, or a
pigment varying from violet to brown in color. Fat, the chief constituent
of the embryo, occurs either in rosettes of needle-shaped crystals or in
compact masses. Starch is present in amounts varying up to 10 per
cent, the rounded grains (4-12 ,«), each with a distinct hilum, resembling
closely those of allspice and cinnamon. The grains occur singly, in
pairs, or in triplets. They stain slowly with iodine, even after the re-
moval of the fat. The aleurone grains are usually smaller than the
starch grains and contain several globoids, but larger grains with crystal-
loids are also found here and there. Both the starch and aleurone grains,
the latter being the less abundant, are clearly differentiated by extracting
COCO/1 BEAN.
447
sections with ether and mounting in chlorzinc iodine. Scattered among
these cells are the pigment cells containing a substance varying from
violet to brown in color known as cocoa red, which, together with theo-
bromin, caffein and dextrose, is formed by the action of an enzyme
on a glucoside originally present in the bean. Usually this substance
becomes blood-red with concentrated sulphuric acid, gray-blue with
ammonia, greenish -yellow with caustic soda, and olive with ferric chloride,
although the color reactions vary greatly in different samples, owing
A B
K-.
FlG. 349. Cocoa. A perisperm (silver coat) consisting of epidermis and parenchyma:
K and / crystals; tr adhering hairs (Mitscherlichian bodies) from epidermis of cotyledon.
B elements of cocoa powder, showing c cotyledon tissues with fat cells and pigment
cells, also p parenchyma, sp spiral vessels and d stone cell layer of shell (spermoderm).
X160. (MOELLER.)
possibly to lack of uniformity in the process of fermentation, roasting,
etc. Tschirch and Oesterle describe methods for separating theobromin
gold chloride and theobromin silver nitrate, but these, although of
scientific interest, are of little value in diagnosis. Caffein also occurs in
small amounts in the embryo, but its presence is best demonstrated by
purely chemical means.
DIAGNOSIS.
Plain Chocolate. The first stages in the manufacture of both choco-
late and cocoa are the same.
After removing stones, chips and other impurities, the beans are
roasted, thus developing a desirable flavor and facilitating the processes
448 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
of separation from the shells and grinding. The beans are then crushed
by machinery and separated from the shells. In some factories the hard
"germs" (radicles) are also removed.
The broken cotyledons, free from shells, known as "cocoa nibs,"
are next ground in the chocolate mill. The heat of grinding melts the
fat which makes up about half the weight of the nibs, and the ground
product runs out of the mill as a thin paste. This paste, after cooling
in moulds, is plain or unsweetened chocolate, also known as cocoa mass.
The most characteristic tissues of the embryo are the multi -cellular
bodies of the epidermis (Fig. 349), but these are not numerous and are
largely destroyed in grinding. Of chief value in identification are the starch
grains (Fig- 348), which, although much like the grains of allspice and cin-
namon, do not resemble those of any common adulterant. The violet or
brown contents of the pigment cells are also of some diagnostic impor-
tance, though the reactions are often misleading. Tissues of the spermo-
derm (Fig. 347) are exceedingly rare in cocoa products made from care-
fully shelled beans. Among the adulterants with definite microscopic
characters found in plain chocolate are wheat flour, maize starch, peanut
meal, peas, acorns, arrowroot, and cocoa shells. Other adulterants
which can be identified only by chemical and physical methods are
foreign fats, mineral make-weights, iron salts, various pigments, and
coal-tar dyes.
Sweet Chocolate is prepared by mixing pulverized sugar and flavors
with the warm chocolate paste before moulding. Vanilla beans (or
artificial vanillin) and cinnamon are most commonly employed as flavor-
ing materials, less often cloves, nutmegs, mace, cardamoms, and Peru
balsam. The adulterants are those noted under plain chocolate.
Cocoa is obtained by removing a portion of the fat (cocoa butter),
from warm cocoa mass by pressure and reducing the residue to a powder,
with or without addition of vanilla flavor.
Dutch Process, or "Soluble" Cocoa, is cocoa treated with an alkali,
usually soda or ammonia, to hinder the fat from collecting on the sur-
face of the beverage prepared from it. The microscopic elements are
not altered by this treatment. Various starchy preparations and oil-
seed products such as are noted under chocolate are used as adulterants.
Cocoa Shells, obtained in large quantities in the manufacture -of
chocolate and cocoa, are used to some extent in the preparation of a
beverage, for the manufacture of theobromin, and in mixed cattle foods,
but are most commonly added to cocoa products or spices as an adulterant.
COCOA BE/IN. 449
The striking histological elements are the cross cells or inner epider-
mis (Fig. 347, end) of the pericarp, and the underlying tissues of the
spermoderm, especially the outer epidermis (ep), the numerous narrow
spiral vessels of the bundles, and the stone, cells. The shells contain a
higher percentage of crude fiber than the cotyledons, but much less fat,
starch, and theobromin.
Compound Cocoa Products. Zipperer gives formulas or analyses of
seventy-four preparations of chocolate or cocoa with other materials.
He states, however, that this list is not complete and does not contain
any of the medicinal chocolates. Some of the ingredients named are
oatmeal, barley meal, malt, malt extract, wheat flour, potato flour, rice,
peas, peanuts, acorns, cola nuts, sago, arrowroot, Iceland moss, gum
Arabic, salep, dried meat, meat extract, peptones, milk powder, plas-
mon (casein), eggs, saccharin, vanilla, various spices, and inorganic
salts. Of the products named, only those of vegetable origin can usually
be identified under the microscope.
Malt Chocolate and Malt Cocoa more often contain malt extract than
ground malt, only the latter being distinguishable under the microscope.
Milk Chocolate, a popular mixture of sweet chocolate and milk powder,
has no distinctive microscopic characters but "Plasmon Chocolate,"
"Plasmon Cocoa" and various similar preparations show under the
microscope flakes of casein (Plasmon), which may be tested with reagents
and dyes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Blyth (5); Fliickiger (n); Greenish
(14); Hanausek, T. F. (16, 48); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace" (26); Meyer, A.
(28); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch
u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45); Weigmann (10).
Bastings: Starch Grains in the Different Commercial Varieties of Cocoa Beans.
Amer. Journ. Pharm. 1894, 66, 369.
Beckurts und Hartwich: Beitrage zur chemischen und pharmakognostischen Kent-
niss der Cacaobohnen. Arch. Pharm. 1890, 230, 589.
Bernhard: Ueber Cacao und dessen Praparate. Chem. Ztg. 1888, 12, 445. 1889,
13,32-
Bernhard: Ueber die Untersuchung von Cacao und Chocolade. Vers. Schw. Chem.
12. April, 1890.
Beythien: Casseler Haferkakao. Jahresber. chem. Unters.-Amt. Dresden, 1900, 10.
Beythien und Hempel: Chokoladenmehle. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1901
4. 23-
Coster, Hoorn et Mazure: Falsifications observers en Holland. Rev. internat.
falsificat. 1887-88, 1, 161 .
450 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
Eisner: Rep. analyt. Chem. 1884, 370; 1885, 5, 128, 211.
Filsinger: Die Untersuchung der Kakaofabrikate auf Gehalt an Kakaoschalen.
Ztschr. offentl. Chem. 1899, 5, 27.
Fischer und Grtjnhagen: Untersuchung des Kakao und der Chokolade auf Kakao-
schalen. Jahresber. chem. Unters.-Amt. Breslau, 1899-1900, 34.
Fischer: Nachweis von Kakaoschalen. Jahresber. chem. Unters-Amt. Breslau,
1901-02, 27.
Hager: Ueber Eichelkakao und Chokolade. Pharm. Ztg. 1888, 33, 511.
Hanausek, T. F.: Mikroskopische Untersuchung eines hollandischen Eichelcacaos.
Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 247.
Hanausek, T. F.: Beitrage zur Histochemie der Cacaosamen. Apoth.-Ztg. 1894,
i45-
Hartwich: Ueber die Pigmentzellen des Cacaosamens. Arch. Pharm. 1887, 25, 958.
Hartwich: Zur Nachweisung fremder Starkemehle in der Chokolade. Chem. Ztg.
1888, 12, 375.
Lagerheim: Nachweis von Kakaoschalen. Svensk Kemisk Tidskrift, 1901.
Lagerheim: Om den mikroskopiska undersokningen af kakao och chokolad. Svensk
Farmaceutisk Tidskrift 1902, No. 9.
Legler: Cellulosegehaltes der Kakaobohnen. Rep. analyt. Chem. 1884, 4, 345.
Legler: Zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Cacaobohnen. 14-17 Jahresber.
Chem. Centralstelle. Dresden, 1886-88.
Mansfeld: Kakao-Ersatzmittel. Jahresber. Unters. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1901-02,
14, 5-
Michaelis: Eichelkakao, Eichelchokolade. Pharm. Ztg. 1888, 33, 568.
Mitscherlich: Der Cacao und Die Chocolade. Berlin, 1859.
Nothnagel: Untersuchung von Getreide-Kakao. Apoth.-Ztg. 1900, 15, 181.
Payen: Action de l'iode sur l'amidon du cacao. Jour, pharm. chim. 1862, 41, 367."
Pennetier: Recherche de la farines de bid dans le chocolat. Jour, pharm. chim.
1887, 15, 141.
Pfister: Eine neue Chokoladenfalschung. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. Pharmkgn.
1894, 1, 543-
Spath: Verfalschung von Cacao. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. 1894, 1, 344.
Thiel: Zur Histologic und Physiologie der Kakaosamen. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg.
1894, 1, 219.
Tichomirow: Ueber die Cacaocultur auf Ceylon. Pharm. Ztschr. f. Russl. 1892,
31, 260.
Trojanowsky: Beitr. z. pharmakogn. u. chem. Kenntniss des Cacaos. Inaug.-Diss.
Dorpat, 1875.
Tschirch: Untersuchungen der Eichel-Cacaosorten des Handels. Pharm. Ztg. 1886,
32, 190.
Tschirch: Ueber den anatomischen Bau des Cacaosamens. Arch. Pharm. 1887, 25,
605.
Tschirch: Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Studien. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1897,
35, No. 17.
Welmans: Zur Untersuchung der Kakaofabrikate auf ihren Gehalt an Kakaoschalen.
Ztschr. offentl. Chem. 1899, 5, 479.
GUARANA.
451
Zipperer: Ueber den Werth der mikroskopischen Untersuchung bei Bestimmung
fremden Starkemehls in Chokolade. Chem. Ztg. 1888, 12, 26.
Zipperer: Beitrage zur Mikrochemie des Thees und des Cacao. VII. Vers. d. freien
Vereinig. bayr. Chem. Speyer, 1888.
GUARANA.
The seed of Paullinia sorbilis Mart, (order Sapindacea), like coffee
and the kola nut, contains caffein, and is used in Brazil as a stimulant.
The dried paste in the form of dark brown,
sausage-like cylinders, is used in medi-
cine.
HISTOLOGY.
The epidermis (Fig. 350) of the spermo-
derm consists of characteristic palisade cells
Fig. 350. Guarana (Paidlinia sorbilis).
Palisade epidermis of spermoderm
in surface view. (Moeller.)
Fig. 351. Guarana. Epidermis
and parenchyma of cotyledon.
(Moeller.)
with thick walls. The embryo (Fig. 351) contains small starch grains
of the allspice type.
DIAGNOSIS.
In the commercial product the starch grains are more or less dis-
torted, owing to the heat employed in drying. Although made from
the shelled seeds, fragments of the palisade cells are always present.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (32); Vogl (45).
452 ALKALOID AL PRODUCTS.
KOLA NUT.
The seeds of Cola acuminata R. Br. have long been used by the natives
of West Africa as a stimulant, and have also been introduced into other
countries as a drug. They contain both caffein and theobromin. The
commercial product consists of the dried cotyledons, which resemble
somewhat those of a Spanish chestnut, except that they are of a dark-
brown color.
The starch grains are ovate or reniform, up to 30 p long, and have
an elongated hilum. They are quite like the starch grains of legumes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Vogl (45).
TEA.
Tea is the leaf of a shrub (Camellia Thea Link, order Ternslrcemiacece),
which since time immemorial has been extensively cultivated in China
and Japan, also more recently in India (Assam), Ceylon, and Java. Its
culture in South Carolina, although still in the experimental stage, bids
fair to become an important industry.
The numerous kinds of tea owe their difference in excellence and
trade value to differences in the mother plant on the one hand, and to
the degree of ripeness and method of preparation on the other. As
a rule only the'leaf buds and the youngest leaves, not the flowers, are
gathered. What are known in commerce as "flowers" are the gray,
silky-hairy leaf buds.
Black and green tea owe their peculiar characters to the method of
preparation. In the first the chlorophyl is destroyed, in the latter more
or less preserved.
Brick tea consists of large leaves not suitable for the preparation of
black and green tea, ends of branches and other refuse, compressed into
blocks. It is consumed almost entirely by the Asiatic nomads.
In China tea designed for export is often perfumed by mixing with
it fragrant flowers (of Aurantiacece, Osmanthus fragrans, Jasminum,
Aglaja odorala, Gardenia florida, Chloranthus i neons picuus), which are
removed after they have wilted. The bottom of the chest is sometimes
covered with flowers.
Tea leaves vary more than is commonly stated. They are narrow
TEA.
453
or half as broad as long, pointed or nearly spatulate, serrate or nearly-
entire, entirely smooth or hairy on the under side, more or less leathery.
Grown to full maturity they often reach 10 cm., rarely 15 cm., in length,
but as picked for the market they range from the length of the little finger
down to the tiny leaves of the buds.
The following characters are common to all tea leaves: the firm,
rather thick texture ; the glossy upper surface ; the short stem into which
Fig. 352. Tea {Camellia Thea). Leaf,
natural size. (Moeixer.)
Fig. 353- Tea. Fragment of leaf treated
■with chloral hydrate, showing tooth, veins,
crystal rosettes, and stone cells. Somewhat
enlarged. (Schimper.)
the base of the leaf tapers; the thick margins, rolled a Jittle towards
the inner surface, with cartilaginous teeth; the veins which branch from
the midrib at angles usually greater than 450, and at some distance from
the margin form loops uniting adjoining ribs (Fig. 352). The teeth
(Fig. 353) on the margin of the leaf are shrunken multicellular glands
which break off readily from old leaves.
Tea fruit (Fig. 354), consisting of the pericarp with calyx and
peduncle attached, resembles cloves. The pericarp is globular or trian-
gular, and has three cells, each containing a single seed.
HISTOLOGY.
Microscopic mounts are prepared after soaking or boiling with water.
The Upper Epidermis (Fig. 355) consists of small (50 ft) cells with
L L slightly wavy walls, without stomata or hairs.
454
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
Mesophyl (Fig. 357). The chlorophyl parenchyma adjoining the
upper epidermis is made up of palisade cells which in surface view are
circular in outline (Fig. 355, p)\ that adjoining the lower epidermis is
Fig. 354. Tea Fruit. Natural size. (Winton.)
Fig. 355. Tea. Upper epidermis
of leaf and p group of palisade
cells, seen from below. Xioo.
(MOELLER.)
spongy, with large star-shaped branching cells (Fig. 356, m). Large
colorless stone cells or idioblasts (Fig. 357; Fig. 358, st) which are the most
characteristic elements of the tea leaf, occur here and there in young
leaves and in considerable numbers in mature leaves. They form as it
were braces holding apart the epidermal layers. They are extremely
Fig. 356. Tea. Lower epidermis of leaf with k hair and sp stoma, and m spongy parenchyma
of mesophyl, seen from below. X160. (Moeller.)
variable in form and size, but are usually elongated (up to 150 p),
broadened at the ends, and have simple and forked branches. The
thickness of the porous walls often exceeds the breadth of the cavity.
TEA. 455
Crystal rosettes occur in considerable numbers.
The Lower Epidermis (Fig. 356) consists of large (70 y) irregular
cells with wavy contour, among which are numerous large (40-60 /j.)
broadly elliptical stomata surrounded usually by 3-4 accompanying cells.
The hairs found on this epidermis, like the idioblasts, are highly
characteristic. On old leaves they occur sparingly or not at all, and
their scars, owing to the growth of the neighboring cells, are also seldom
Fi°. 357- Tea. Cross section of leaf showing epidermal cells, palisade cells, fibro-vascular
bundle, spongy parenchyma with crystal rosettes, and large stone cell. (Mez.)
evident. On young leaves, however, they form a dense pubescence.
They are unicellular, thick-walled, often over 1 mm. long, and are usually
geniculate near the base, thus causing them to lie flat on the surface of
the leaf.
DIAGNOSIS.
After heating to boiling in water the leaves may be spread out and
examined.. Even quite small fragments can be recognized by their tex-
ture, venation, dentation and other macroscopic characters. The chief
microscopic elements of value in diagnosis are the epidermal cells, the
geniculate hairs and the idioblasts.
Tea Adulteration. Gross adulteration, such as the addition of
exhausted leaves, foreign leaves and mineral make-weights, is seldom
practiced at the present time. Low-grade teas often contain tea stems,
456
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
and sometimes tea fruit. Facing, although objectionable, is not usually
regarded as an adulteration.1
Exhausted Tea. Leaves which have been used once for the prepara*
tion of the beverage are said to be collected in England, Russia, and
China, impregnated with catechu or caramel, and prepared in imitation
of genuine tea. This worthless product has the same microscopic
appearance as genuine tea, but can often be detected by chemical means,
FlG. 358. Tea. Tissues of leaf isolated by warming in alkali and squeezing with coyer
glass, g spiral vessels of nerves; p chlorophyl parenchyma; st stone cells; h hairs.
X 1 60. (Moeller.)
particularly determinations of hot -water extract, tannin, total and water-
soluble ash.
Tea Fruit. Soltsien has reported several cases of adulteration with
the dried fruit. Winton found in a sample sold in Connecticut 11.5 per
cent of this adulterant.
Tea Stems. Tea often contains a small amount of stems as an acci-
dental impurity. A considerable amount indicates adulteration.
"Lie Tea" consists of tea leaves and other refuse made into lumps
with starch-paste. These lumps fall apart on spaking in water.
Mineral Make-weights, including soapstone, gypsum, iron dust, and
sand, afe detected by chemical analysis. j ^~
Facing. A large part of the green tea and much of the black tea is.
" faced, " or coated, to impart a gloss and an attractive color. Among
the materials employed in facing green tea are Prussian blue (ferric ferro-
1 Except for facing, the tea on the American market at the present time is seldom adul-
terated (A. L. W.).
TEA. 457
cyanide, ultramarine, indigo, turmeric, soapstone, and gypsum. Black
tea is frequently coated with plumbago.
The following microchemical tests for the detection of facing are
from the third edition of Leach's Food Inspection and Analysis, p.
375 :
" The most delicate test for facing is to examine under the microscope
or lens, the dust obtained by sifting the leaves or the sediment obtained
after shaking with water. Plumbago appears glossy black, soapstone
gray, gypsum white, Prussian blue, ultramarine and indigo shades of
blue, turmeric yellow. Prussian blue is decolorized by sodium
hydroxide solution. Ultramarine is not affected by alkali, but is de-
colorized by hydrochloric acid. Indigo is not decolorized by either
reagent."
Foreign Leaves, widely different in form and size from the tea leaf,
can be used as adulterants provided they are not too hairy or too strongly
scented. The adulterator selects not only leaves which outwardly resemble
tea leaves, of which there are an abundance, but, trusting to the indif-
ference of the consumer, uses leaves of the oak, poplar, maple, plane tree,,
and others, which do not have the slightest resemblance to tea leaves, and
which the layman, if he would take the trouble to spread out the spent
leaves, would at once either identify, or at least recognize as foreign.
Most of these leaves on close inspection show peculiarities in texture,
venation, dentation, and other characters, thus rendering microscopic
examination superfluous. Only in cases where absolute proof is required,.,
especially when the leaves are in fragments, is it necessary to resort
to microscopic examination. The leaves described on pp. 458-483 do not
include all that may be used as adulterants of tea, but only those which
resemble tea leaves in form or else are most commonly used either as
adulterants or substitutes.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bell (1); Berg (3); Blyth (5); Greenish
(14); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace" (26); Moeller (29,
30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers
et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45).
Anonymous: Teefalschung in Russland. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1892, 142.
Weidenroschenblatter als Tee. Pharm. Ztg. Russland, 1875.
Batalin: Ein neues Ersatzmittel fiir Tee. Indbltt. 1888, 25, No. 14, 59.
Borkowski: Du faux the- russe. Rev. int. falsific. 1896, 9, 131.
Brunotte: De la determination histologique des falsifications du The". These E*c. de
Ph. de Nancy, 1883.
4s8 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
Collin: Du the" chinois et de quelques-une de ses succe'dane's. Journ. pharm. chim..
1900, 11, 15.
Dragendoref: Falschungen in Russland. P. Tr. (3), 1048.
Hanausek, T. F. . Ueber den kaukasischen Tee, nebst Beitragen zur vergleichenden
Anatomie der Yacciniumblatter. Chem. Ztg. 1897, 21, 115.
Lorenz: Tee aus Blattern der kaukasischen Preiselbeere. Apoth. Ztg. 1902, 16,
694.
Lubelski: Ueber Kultur und Falschungen des Tees. Rep. Fals. intern. 3, 88.
Medhurst: Consular Report. Drog. Ztg. o u. Jahresber. Fortschr. Pharm. 1879, 43.
Meyer, Ad.: Anat. charakt. off. Blatter u. Krauter. Halle, 1882.
Molisch: Histochemie. Jena, 1891.
Netolitzky: Dikotyledonblatter. Wien, 1905.
Riche et Collin: Falsification du the en Chine. Jour, pharm. chim. 1890, 21, 6.
Riche: Gefalschter Tee. Chem. Ztg. 1899, 13, Rep. 19, 155.
Soltsien: Verfalschung des Tees mit Teefrttchten. Pharm. Ztg. 1894, 39, 347. Ztschr
"offentl. Chem. 1902, 8, 254.
Stackmann: Kaukasischer Tee aus Kutais. Ztschr. anal. Chem. 1895, 34, 49.
Tichomirow : Zur Frage iiber die Expertise von gef alschtem und gebrauchtem Tee
Pharm. Ztschr. f. Russl. 1890, 29, No. 29-40.
Winton: The Adulteration of Tea with Tea Fruit. Conn. Agr. Exp. Stat. Rep. 1901,
183.
GROHWELL LEAVES.
The leaves of gromwell (Lithospermum officinale L., order Bor-
raginacea) are entire, sessile, up to 8 cm. long and scarcely 15 mm. broad
(Fig. 359). The veins are few, form sharp angles with
the midrib, and near the margins anastomose, forming
flattened loops. The leaves have rough hairs on both
sides which are evident on passing the fingers from tip
to base, and are seen under a lens to spring from rounded
humps.
The Epidermis on the upper side (Fig. 360) consists
of irregularly polygonal cells, on the lower side (Fig.
361) of thin- walled cells with more or less wavy contour.
The stiff, somewhat curved, sharp-pointed, warty hairs
are 600 /1 or more long, and are often 40 /a broad at the
base. They have thickened walls, and contain cysto-
liths or concretions of calcium carbonate, which are
Fig. 359. Gromwell especially well developed in the retort-shaped bases.
family"'1™"*!, Cystoliths are also present in the cells of the upper
natural size, epidermis. Small stomata, 30 u long, occur in the upper
(MOELLEE.) .... r ° -^r
epidermis in great numbers.
Gromwell leaves prepared like black tea are sold unmixed in
WILLOW HERB LEASES.
45 9
* —
Fig. 360. Gromwell. Upper epidermis of Fig. 361. Gromwell. Lower
leaf. X160. (Moellek.) epidermis of leaf. X160.
(Moeller.)
Bohemia, and a similar product, containing the fruits as well
as the leaves, was at one time made in Styria. The chief
characters are the thin texture of the leaf and the rough hairs.
WILLOW HERB LEAVES.
The narrow-leaved willow herb (Epilobium angusti-
jolium L., Chamanerium angustifolium Scop., order Oeno-
therea) has lanceolate, sharp-pointed leaves which are sessile
or with short petioles, entire or sparingly toothed (Fig. 362).
The numerous veins are at nearly right angles to the mid-
rib, and anastomose at the border in short loops.
Upper Epidermis. (Fig. 363.) The cells are about 50 pt
broad, with slightly wavy, thick, here and there knotty-
thickened walls. Stomata are absent, but water stomata
occur near the apex..
Lower Epidermis. (Fig. 364.) The cells have thinner
and wavier walls than those of the upper epidermis, and
are covered by a wrinkled cuticle with a finely granular de-
posit of wax. The numerous stomata are about 30 fi long
and 20 ji broad. Under each tooth is a water stomata.
Young leaves bear along the veins unicellular, blunt, thin- fig. 3*62. Willow
walled, striated, mostly crooked hairs (Fig. 365). ^erb (EpUo-
The Mesophyl contains numerous raphides (Fig. 364) folium). Leaf,
accompanying the bundles. (MoeIleI!)6'
460
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
Leaves of this species are used in Russia as a substitute for or an
adulterant of tea.
The chief characters are the thin, entire or sparingly toothed leaves with
Fig. 363. Willow Herb. Upper epidermis Fig. 364. Willow Herb. Lower epidermis of
of leaf. X160. (Moeller.) leaf, also K raphides cell and ch chloro-
phyl cells. X 160. (Moeller.)
Fig. 365. Willow Herb. Epidermis of young leaf with hairs. (Moeller.)
numerous veins nearly at right angles to the midrib, the striated lower
epidermis with wavy walls and small stomata, and the raphides.
WILLOW LEAVES.
461
The leaves of the hairy willow herb (Epilobium hirsutum L.) are
clasping, lanceolate, wavy-toothed, with a smooth upper and a hairy
lower surface (Fig. 366). The pronounced branching veins form loops
near the margins. The epidermal cells are similar to those of the foregoing
Fig. 366. Hairy Willow Herb
(Epilobium hirsutum). Leaf,
natural size. (Moeller.)
Fig. 367. Hairy Willow Herb.
Epidermis of leaf with hair.
(Moeller.)
Fig. 368. Willow (5a-
lix sp.). Leaf, natu-
ral size. (Moeller.)
species, but the hairs are smooth, and many of them have characteristic
globular heads (Fig. 367), Pointed hairs, much longer than the preceding,
are also present, being especially abundant at the margins.
WILLOW LEAVES.
The willows (Salix) have long, pointed, entire or toothed, smooth or
hairy, short -petioled, rather thick leaves. They resemble tea leaves, but
the veins are more numerous, and they do not form loops at the margin
(Fig. 368).
462 ALKALOID AL PRODUCTS
The Epidermis (Fig. 369) is much the same on both surfaces, but on
the upper surface is strongly cuticularized and striated. The cells are
small, sharply polygonal or very slightly sinuous in outline. Numerous
small (25 n) stomata, often with two accompanying cells, occur on the
lower epidermis. Both epidermal layers are clothed with hairs, which
resemble those of tea, but are not geniculate. The hairs of young leaves
A
Fig. 369. Willow. A upper epidermis of leaf. B lower epidermis with hairs and stomata.
X160. (Moeller.)
are thin-walled, while those of full-grown leaves often have walls so strongly
thickened as to obliterate the cavities. The marginal teeth end in multi-
cellular glands.
The Mesophyl contains numerous oxalate rosettes and also simple
crystals.
Willow leaves, according to the English consul Medhurst, are collected
in China in great quantities, prepared like tea, and mixed with this product
to the extent of 20 per cent. (See Bibliography of Tea, p. 458.)
This leaf can usually be distinguished from tea by its venation. The
characteristic microscopic elements are the thin-walled hairs and the
four-celled stomata. The crystal rosettes of both leaves are similar,
but simple crystals are not found in tea.
ASH LEAVES. •
The leaflets of the odd-pinnate leaves of the ash (Fraxinus sp., order
Oleacea), are similar to tea leaves in general outline, although they are
often broader and more sharply toothed, and, furthermore, have very
different venation (Fig. 370). The numerous veins, which in young
leaves are especially well marked, anastomose near the margin, and from
ROJVAN LEAVES.
463
the loops arise short veinlets which usually end in the notches between
the teeth.
Epidermis (Fig. 371). On both sides the
cells have sinuous walls. The lower epidermis
bears numerous large stomata (30-40 /*), with-
out accompanying cells. Highly characteristic
are the cuticular thickenings or folds at the
poles of the stomata, which give the latter a
horned appearance. Glandular hairs with
wheel-like multicellular heads, also short one-
to two-celled hairs with striated cuticle, occur
on the lower epidermis.
Mesocarp crystals are absent.
The indescribable but highly characteristic
thin sinuous walls of the upper epidermis, the
elongated and horned stomata and the glandular
hairs are positive means of distinction from tea.
ROWAN LEAVES.
The European rowan or mountain ash (Sor-
bus Aucuparia L., Pyrus Aucuparia Gaertn.,
order Rosacea), is often cultivated because of its
scarlet berries. The odd-pinnate leaves are
pubescent when young, nearly smooth when
old (Fig. 372). The leaflets are lanceolate and
irregularly serrate. The veins pass into the teeth without forming loops
A B
Fig. 370. Ash (Fraxtnus
sp.) . Leaflet, natural size.
(MOELLER.)
Fig. 371. Ash. A upper epidermis of leaf. B lower epidermis with sp stomata and (
glandular hair. X160. (Moeller.)
The Epidermis (Fig. 373) of the under side is like that of the upper
464
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
side except that stomata are present. In outline the cells are partly
polygonal, partly sinuous. Delicate striations mark the cuticle. The
long, unicellular, sinuous hairs with rounded bases are characteristic.
^^^^^r "^^^^
Fig. 372. Rowan (Sorbus Aucuparid).
Leaf, natural size. (Moeller.)
Fig. 373. Rowan. Epidermis of leaf with
stoma, and hair. (Moeller.)
MULBERRY LEAVES.
The white and black mulberry trees (Moms alba L. and Morus nigra L.,
order Moracea), natives of Asia, are grown for their leaves in Southern
Europe and other silk-producing regions, and elsewhere for their fruit
or shade.
The leaves of the white mulberry are light green, ovate heart-shaped,
unequal at the base, long-petioled, nearly smooth on the upper side (Fig.
374) ; those of the black species are dark green, heart-shaped with taper-
ing point, regular at the base, short-petioled, with rough hairs on the
upper side. Soft hairs occur sparingly on the under surface of both species
MULBERRY LEAVES.
465
Epidermis (Figs. 375 and 376). On the upper side the cells are
polygonal, while those of the under side are unusually small and have sin-
mm
wm
if
m 1
m,
48$
KiaSRSSi
lw'
FlG. 374. Mulberry (Morusalba). Leaf, natural size. (Moelxek.)
uous walls. Stomata are present only on the under side. Large epidermal
cells containing cystoliths occur on both sides, the cells about them
forming rosettes. The hairs are unicellular, very long, thin-walled,
Fig. 375.
Mulberry. Section of lower epidermis of leaf showing stoma and cystolith.
(Moellee.)
smooth, more or ess sinuous, but quite rigid. Glandular hairs with a
unicellular base and multicellular head are also present.
The Mesophyl contains crystal rosettes.
466
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
COFFEE LEAVES.
Leaves of the coffee tree (Coffea Arabica L., order Rubiacea), like the
seeds, contain caffein, although in smaller amount. They are used as
Fig. 376. Mulberry. Upper epidermis of leaf (above) ;• lower Fig. 377. Coffee {Coffea
epidermis with hairs, stomata and cystolith (below). Arabica). Leaf, natural
(MOELLEK.) Size. (MoELLER.)
A £
Fig. 378. Coffee. A upper epidermis of leaf. B lower epidermis. X160. (Moeller.).
substitutes for tea in coffee-growing countries, and their introduction
into Europe has been suggested.
CAMELLIA LEAVES.
467
The leathery, smooth, shining, dark-green leaves are elliptical, taper-
ing gradually to a point at the apex and into the short stem at the base
(Fig. 377). Teeth are not present. The veins form sharp angles with
the midrib, and anastomose with the formation of pronounced curves.
Epidermis (Fig. 378). The cells on both sides have sinuous walls.
On the under side large stomata (25-45 ft) to the number of 60 per sq.
mm. are distributed in a peculiar manner among the epidermal cells.
The Mesophyl contains crystal sand.
The leaf is prepared for use by roasting, "and is never rolled like tea.
CAMELLIA LEAVES.
The camellia (Camellia Japonica L., order Temstroemiacem) grows
native in Japan, and is cultivated as a greenhouse plant in Europe and
America. It is closely related to tea, but the
leaves (Fig. 379) contain no caffein. On care-
ful examination geniculate hairs similar to
those of tea may be found on the young
leaves, but only on the margins. These soon
drop off, leaving the mature leaf smooth and lus-
trous. The leaf is similar to the tea leaf in form
and venation, but is larger, broader and thicker.
Fig. 379. Camellia {Camellia
Japonica). Leaf, natural
size. (Moeixer.)
Fig. 380. Camellia. Epidermis of leaf in cross.
section. (Moeller.)
Epidermis (Figs. 380 and 381). Cross-sections show that the strongly
thickened and cuticularized outer walls have wart-like projections on
their inner surfaces. In surface view the cells show broad pores, and
in consequence of the projections are often very irregular in form. The
stomata are often nearly circular, and occur only on the lower epidermis.
468
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS
The Mesophyl contains idioblasts and oxalate crystals similar to
those of tea.
Fig. 381. Camellia. Lower epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.)
The leaves are said to be used as an adulterant
of tea, although poorly suited for the purpose.
The thick-walled epidermis is characteristic.
CHERRY LEAVES.
Leaves of the sweet cherry (Primus avium L.,
order Rosacea?) are seldom over 10 cm. long,
about 5 cm. broad, oblong-ovate, taper-pointed,
petioled, with numerous teeth on the margin,
each with a small gland (Fig. 382). On one or
both sides of the petiole is a brown, glistening
gland.
Fig. 382. Cherry (Primus
avium) . Leaf, natural size.
(Moeller.)
Fig. 383. Cherry. Upper epidermis of leaf.
X 300. (Moeixer.)
SLOE LEAVES. 4<>9
The Upper Epidermis (Fig. 383) is made up of irregularly polygonal
cells averaging 30 //, with a very delicate, finely striated cuticle. Along
the veins are a few unicellular, dagger-shaped hairs about 600 n long
and the same size at the base as the epidermal cells.
The Lower Epidermis (Fig. 384) consists of delicate cells with sinuous
FlG. 384. Cherry. Lower epidermis of leaf. X300. (Moeller.)
walls, numerous circular or elliptical stomata and hairs of the same type
as those on the upper epidermis, but longer and thinner-walled.
Noteworthy are the small oxalate rosettes occurring here and there
in small epidermal cells.
The Mesophyl contains numerous oxalate rosettes,
and accompanying the bundles, simple crystals.
The leaves of the sour cherry (P. Cerasus L.) are
stiff, lustrous, and apparently smooth.
SLOE LEAVES.
The obovate or elliptical-lanceolate leaves of the sloe
or black thorn (Prunus spinosa L.) resemble somewhat
tea leaves. Their borders are sharply and irregularly FlG g * sloe
toothed (Fig. 38O. The veins form sharp angles with (Prunus spi-
.,.,,, , ,. . , , . nosa). Leaf,
the midrib, and do not form distinct loops at the margin. natural size.
The Upper Epidermis (Fig. 386) consists of thick- (MoELI-EE-)
walled, polygonal cells with delicate striations, through which here and
there shimmer simple crystals and rosettes.
47°
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
The Lower Epidermis (Fig. 387) is more delicate than the upper,
and the cuticle is striated only in places. The cells have slightly sinuous
Fig. 386. Sloe. Upper epidermis of
leaf. X160. (Moellee.)
Fig. 387. Sloe. Lower epidermis of leaf,
seen from below. The crystal cells are
not in the epidermis but in the meso-
phyl, accompanying the fibro-vascular
bundles. X160. (Moellee.)
walls, and are interspersed with numerous small (25 p) stomata in groups,
some of which have horns like those of the ash leaf.
The Mesophyl contains numerous crystal cells with rosettes or simple
crystals of considerable size. Accompanying the fibro-vascular bundles,
particularly on the under side, are crystal fibers, some of which on remov-
ing the epidermis adhere to it. Unicellular, rather thick-
walled, often sinuous hairs are found along the veins
and on the margins.
ROSE LEAVES.
The leaflets of the odd-pinnate leaves of the rose
(Rosa canina L., and other species) are easily distin-
guished from tea leaves by their greater breadth, rounded
base, dense and sharp serration, and vein-meshes (Fig.
Fig. 388 Rose (Rosa ,gg). Each tooth ends in a multicellular gland.
canina). Leaf- .
let, natural size. The Epidermis (Fig. 389) is similar to that of the
(Moellee.) ^oe, but the cuticle is smooth, and the walls are in
many parts knotty and thickened. Many of the cells, along the veins,
are filled with a homogeneous brown substance. The stomata on the
STRAWBERRY LEAVES.
471
lower epidermis are rounded elliptical, of considerable size (35-40 /«)
without accompanying cells.
Tig. 389. Rose. A Upper epidermis of leaf. B lower epidermis seen from below; also
crystals from mesophyl. X160. (Moeller.)
STRAWBERRY LEAVES.
The wood strawberry (Fragaria vesca L., order Rosacea), has long-
petioled, trifoliate leaves with coarsely serrate leaflets irregular at the
Fig. 390. Strawberry (Fragaria vesca). Leaflet, natural size. (Moeller.)
base and hairy underneath (Fig. 390). There are as many veins as
teeth, each vein ending in a tooth.
The Epidermis (Figs. 391 and 392) of both sides is similar, except that
472 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
the cells on the under side have thinner walls, which are sinuous. Two
FIG. 391. Strawberry. Upper epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.)
Fig. 392. Strawberry. Lower epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.)
forms of hairs occur on both surfaces: (1) very long, unicellular, rigid
MEADOWSWEET LEAVES.
473
and mostly straight, with thick porous base, and (2) multicellular, with
globular heads, the thin walls swelling greatly in alkali.
The Mesophyl contains great numbers of large simple crystals.
riEADOWSWEET LEAVES.
Meadowsweet (Spircea Ulmaria L., order Rosacea) grows wild in
Europe and Asia and is also cultivated for its flowers, which were once
used in medicine.
The interruptedly pinnate leaves have irregularly pointed, ovate side
F10- 393- Meadowsweet (Spiraa Ulmaria). Leaflet, natural size. (Moellee.)
leaflets, and 3-5 lobed end leaflets (Fig. 393). Both forms are com-
pbundly serrate. The ribs and veins are prominent on the under surface,
and bear rough hairs. The veins anastomose some distance from the
edge and send off branches into the teeth.
474 ALKALOID AL PRODUCTS.
The Epidermis (Figs. 394 and 395) of both sides is delicate, and not
Fig. 394. Meadowsweet. Upper epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.)
easily separated from the leaf. On the upper
side the walls are slightly wavy, on the under
side deeply wavy. Stomata occur only on the
under side, hairs of three forms on both sides,
but chiefly along the veins on the under side.
The hairs on the body of the leaf are mostly
unicellular, dagger-shaped, often sinuous, with
Fig. 395. Meadowsweet. Lower Fie. 396. Meadowsweet. G landular hairs of leaf.
epidermis of leaf. (Moei.ler.) (Moeixer.)
WISTARIA LEAVES.
475
deeply-planted, rounded-angular base. On the veins, glandular hairs,
some with short jointed stems, others with long two-rowed stems,
predominate (Fig. 396). The heads of both
forms are multicellular and globular.
The Mesophyl contains a few crystal rosettes
chiefly along the midrib.
WISTARIA LEAVES.
In Japan the odd-pinnate leaves of Wistaria '
Sinensis DC. (Kraunhia floribunda Taubert,
order Papilipnacece) are used as an adulterant
of tea. The leaflets are ovate-lanceolate, entire,
slightly plaited at the margins, not petioled
(Fig. 397). The prominent veins form near
the margin indistinct loops.
Fig. 397. Wistaria {Wistaria
Sinensis) Leaflet natura.
(MOELLER.)
Fig. 398. Wistaria. Upper epidermis of leaf Fig. 399. Wistaria. Lower epidermis of
in cross section and surface view. (Moeller.) leaf. (Moeller.)
The Epidermis (Figs. 398 and 399) consists of cells with thin wavy
walls and curious hairs, made up of a short basal cell, a short thick-walled
476
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
middle cell and a long, straight or sickle-shaped, thin walled, pointed end
cell. Stomata occur only on the under
side.
Simple crystals accompany the bundles.
Fig. 400. Hydrangea {Hydrangea
Hortensia). Leaf, natural size.
(Moellee.)
Fig. 401. Hydrangea. Epidermis of leaf
with hairs. (Moeixer.)
HYDRANGEA LEAVES.
This shrub (Hydrangea Hortensia DC, order Saxijragacea), is a native
of Japan and northern China. In Japan the leaves are employed as a tea
Fig. 402. Hydrangea. Lower epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.)
substitute under the name of "Ama-cha." x They reach the size of the
1 Kellner; Hayakawa, and Kamoshita: Mittlg. d. deutsch Ges. f. Nat. u. Volkerk. Os-
tasiens. IV.
MAPLE LEAVES.
477
hand and are short-petioled, pointed-ovate, entire below, unequally
dentate above (Fig. 400). The veins extend in gentle curves almost
to the margin, where they anastomose and send off branches into
the teeth.
Epidermis (Figs. 401 and 402). The cells are polygonal or sinuous
in outline. Unicellular hairs with rounded base and apex occur only
along the veins.
The Mesophyl contains raphides.
MAPLE LEAVES.
The leaves of most maples are palmately lobed, but in the ash-leaved
species {Acer Negundo L., or Negundo fraxinifolium Nutt, order Acer-
acece) they are odd-pinnate, somewhat resembling
tea. Each leaflet is short-petioled, ovate-lanceo-
late, coarsely but sparingly toothed (Fig. 403).
The veins form indistinct loops near the margin.
To the naked eye they appear smooth, but under
the lens they are hairy on the margins.
Epidermis (Fig. 404). The cells are irregu-
larly polygonal. Stomata occur on both surfaces,
also: (1) unicellular smooth or warty hairs with
rounded base, blunt point and slightly thickened
walls, swelling and becoming stratified with
alkali; (2) glandular hairs with 2-3 celled stem
and unusually large head.
The Mesophyl contains large simple crystals.
OAK LEAVES.
Oak leaves of different species are widely
different in form and size. The description
here given applies to two European species
(Quercus pedunculated Ehrh., and Q. sessiliflora
Sm., order Fagacece).
Epidermis (Figs. 406 and 407). Polygonal
cells and 2-3 celled hairs with rounded apex
and, often, broad base, are found on both surfaces; stomata only on
the lower surface.
Fig. 403. Ash-leafed Maple
{Acer Negundo). Leaf,
natural size. (Moeller.)
478
ALKALOIDAI PRODUCTS.
Fig. 404. Ash-leafed Maple. Upper epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.)
Mesophyl. The bundles are accom-
panied by simple crystals.
AKEBIA LEAVES.
According to Kellner 1 the leaves of
"Fagi-Kadsura-Akebi" (Akebia quinata
(Thbg.) Decaisne, order Lardizabalacem),
a perennial climbing plant, are used in
Japan as a tea substitute. The plant is
cultivated in the Occident for ornament.
The obovate, entire, petioled leaflets
are smooth, with four or less deli-
cate veins, forming broad loops (Fig.
408).
Epidermis (Figs. 409 and 410). On
the upper side the cells are large, with
pronounced wavy walls; on the under side
they are smaller and more nearly poly-
gonal, and usually have papillae similar
^r^ttiuo^i^ to *** °f coc°a leaves> althou§h not so
1 Loc. cit.
AKEB1A LEAVES. 479
strongly thickened. These papillae are not found on the four or more
cells adjoining the stomata.
Fig. 406. Oak. Upper epidermis of leaf. (Moeixer.)
Fig. 407. Oak. Lower epidermis of leaf. (Moeixer.) Fig. 408. Akebia (Akebia
quinala). Leaflet, natural
size. (Moeixer.)
Fig. 409. Akebia. Upper epidermis of leaf. (Moeixer.)
480
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
Fig. 410. Akebia. Lower epidermis of leaf. (Moellek.)
Mesophyl. A few simple crystals accompany the bundles.
BLUEBERRY LEAVES.
Of the numerous species of blueberries, the common European
species {Vaccinium Myrtillus L., order Ericacem) is here described. The
leaves are ovate, finely serrate and lustrous (Fig. 411). The veins are not
Fig. 411. European Blueberry
{Vaccinium Myrtillus). Leaf,
natural size. (Moeller.)
Fig. 412. European Blueberry. Margin of
leaf with teeth, under a lens. (Moeller.)
prominent, but form a beautiful network. Under a lens each tooth is
seen to end in a stalked gland (Fig. 412).
Epidermis (Figs. 413 and 414). On the upper side stomata are absent,
and the cells are either isodiametric, deeply sinuous, or, along the veins,
elongated, slightly sinuous. Unicellular, warty, sickle-shaped hairs and
multicellular glandular hairs like those of the teeth, accompany the elon-
gated cells. The lower epidermis consists of deeply sinuous cells, stomata
CAUCASIAN TEA.
481
with 4-5 accompanying cells, and glandular hairs like those described.
Hanausek finds that if the margin is boiled with dilute potash, numerous
Flo. 413. European Blueberry. Upper epidermis of leaf. fMoELLER.)
fine crystals, soluble in acetic acid, separate from the glandular
secretion.
Mesophyl. Simple crystals occur in crystal fibers or singly.
CAUCASIAN TEA.
In Russia the leaves of V actinium Arctostaphylos L. are prepared
like tea. Leaves of this species are considerably larger than the preced-
ing species, leathery, finely serrate, appearing smooth to the naked eye.
The veins on the under side are prominent, forming indistinct loops
distant from the margin. Under the lens hairs are evident along these
veins, also a glandular hair on each tooth.
Epidermis (Figs. 415 and 416). The upper epidermal cells are poly-
gonal, thick- walled, often porous, with a striated cuticle; those of the
482 ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
lower epidermis are sinuous, with thin walls. Unicellular, thick-walled
Fig. 414. European Blueberry. Lower epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.)
Fig. 415. Caucasian Tea {Vaccinium Fig. 416. Caucasian Tea. Lower epidermis
Arctostaphylos). Upper epidermis of leaf. (Moeller.)
of leaf. (Moeller.)
warty hairs occur on both surfaces, but in the greatest numbers along the
midrib on the under side. Glandular hairs occur not only on the teeth
MATE.
483
but also, sparingly, on the surface. Hanausek notes a third form,
designated "bladder hairs. "
Mesophyl. Crystal rosettes and simple crystals are present, the latter
along the bundles.
OTHER TEA SUBSTITUTES.
Mate", the only substitute for tea containing caffein, is described
below. Leaves of the following plants are or have been used as sub-
stitutes in the regions named:
North America: Species of Ledum (Labrador Tea); Ceanothus
Americanus L. (New Jersey Tea); species of Monarda (Oswego Tea);
Chenopodium ambrosioides L. (Mexican Tea).
South America: Lantana pseudothea, Stachytarpheta Jamaicensis,
Psoralia glandula, Myrtus Ugni, Alstonia theceformis, Capraria biflora,
Angrecum fragrans, and Eritrichium gnaphaloides.
China: Sageretia theezans.
Australia: Species Myrtacece.
MATE.
Mate, Paraguay tea, or Jesuit tea, is prepared
from the leaves of Ilex Paraguariensis St. Hil.
(order Aquijoliacece), a small tree growing in South
America. The leafy branches are cut from the tree
and dried by artificial heat, after which the leaves
are stripped off and ground to a coarse powder.
In this form it is placed on the market as a sub-
stitute for tea. It is quite commonly used in South
America, but not to any extent in other regions,
notwithstanding repeated efforts of promoters. The
product contains as high as 20 per cent of tannin
and a considerable amount of caffein (0.5-0.9 per
cent).
The leaves are up to 13 cm. or more long and 4
cm. broad, ovate or nearly spatulate, tapering to the
short petiole, blunt or rounded at the apex. They
are dentate, smooth but only slightly lustrous, and
leathery (Fig. 417). The veins form sharp loops at some distance from
the margin. The secondary veins are also distinct.
Fig. 417. Mat<5 {Ilex
Paraguariensis). Leaf,
natural size. (Moel-
LER.)
484
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
HISTOLOGY.
Epidermis (Figs. 418 and 419). On both sides the cells are more or
less polygonal, with striated cuticle. Along the veins they are arranged
Fig. 418. Male\ Upper epidermis of leaf, from one of the veins. (Moeller.)
side by side in rows. Numerous stomata, larger than the surrounding
cells, occur on the lower epidermis.
The Mesophyl contains oxalate rosettes. Thick strands of fibers
accompany the bundles.
FIG. 419. Mati. Lower epidermis of leaf. (Moeixek.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin
(34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vogl (44).
Cadoe: Anatomische Untersuchungen der Matebiatter unter Beriicksichtigung ihres
Gehaltes an Tern. Bot. Centralbl. 1900.
COCA.
'485
Collin: Du mate" ou the" du Paraguay. Journ. pharm. chim., 1891.
Collin: Journ. pharm. 1886.
Doublet: Le mate. Paris, 7885.
Loesener: Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Matepflanzen. Ber. deutsch. pharm. Ges.
1896. Notizbl. d. konigl. Bot. Gartens u. Museums in Berlin, 1897. Verh. d.
bot. Ver. d. Provinz Brandenburg, 1891.
Neger und Vanino: Der Paraguay-Tee. Stuttgart, 1903.
Polenske u. Busse: Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Matesorten des Handels. Arb. des
kaiserl. Gesundheitsamtes, 1898.
COCA.
The leaves of the coca shrub (Erythroxylon Coca Lam., order Ery-
throxylacea) have been chewed by South American natives for genera-
tions. Of late years they have been in demand for
the preparation of cocaine, the well-known an-
aesthetic. The full-grown leaves (Fig. 420) are 6-8
cm. long, half as broad, ovate, blunt or rounded
at the apex, short-petioled, smooth, light green
beneath. The midrib extended beyond the apex
forms a short prickle. The veins anastomose some
distance from the entire but slightly revolute mar-
gin, while the veinlets form a delicate network
with wide meshes. On holding a leaf to the light,
two slender curved ribs running each side of the
midrib from base to apex are evident. These are
not at all connected with the venation, but serve
to stiffen the leaf.
HISTOLOGY.
Fig. 420. Coca (Ery-
throxylonCoca). Leaf,
natural size. (Moel-
lee.)
Cross sections show a small-celled upper epi-
dermis with a thin cuticle, a single layer of mod-
erately elongated palisade cells, a loose spongy parenchyma pierced by
vascular bundles, and finally the lower epidermis of curiously humped
cells (Fig. 421).
The Upper Epidermis (Fig. 422) consists of somewhat thick, polygonal
cells with a finely granular cuticle.
The Lower Epidermis (Fig. 423) has walls similar to those of the upper,
but somewhat wavy. In the middle of each is a hump-like papilla which
486
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS
in surface view appears like a circle with double contour. The stomata
are very small (20-30 (i), and are flanked by two accompanying cells
without papillae.
Mesophyl. Monoclinic crystals are abundant, particularly on the
under side of the bundles. In the false ribs the subepidermal tissue is
not spongy but collenchymatous, thus strengthening the leaf.
The venation and the lower epidermis are characteristic.
Fig. 421. Coca. Leaf in cross section, epa upper epidermis; p palisade cells; m
spongy parenchyma with bundle and K crystal cell; epi lower epidermis with sp
stoma. X160. (Moeller.)
r— J»
Fig. 422. Coca. Upper epidermis of
leaf and p palisade cells, from below.
X 160. (MOELLER.)
Fig. 423. Coca. Lower epidermis of leaf
with sp stoma. X160. (Moeller.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Koch, L. (22); Moeller (30,31,32); Plan-
chon und Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vogl (44).
Hartwich: Beitr. z. Kenntnis d. Cocablatter. Arch. d. Pharm. 1903.
Hartwich: Beitr. z. Kenntnis d. Cocablatter. Pharm. Praxis, 1904.
Hartwich: "Coca" in Realenzykl. d. ges. Pharm. 2. Aufl., III. 1904.
Moeller: Die Falten des Cocablattes. Pharm. Post, 1891.
Nevinny: Das Cocablatt. Wien, 1866.
TOBACCO.
487
Fig. 424. Tobacco (Nicotiana Tabacum). Small leaf, natural size. (MoELLEE.)
488,
ALKALOIDAL PRODUCTS.
TOBACCO.
Two species (Nicotiana Tabacum L., N. rustica L., order Solanacea)
and their varieties, yield the tobacco of commerce. These plants, natives
of the New World, were first introduced into Europe in 1586 by Francis
Drake.
Tobacco leaves are ovate or ovate-lanceolate, entire, up to £ meter
long, broad or rather narrow, petioled or sessile (Fig. 424). They are
glandular-hairy. The veins form loops near the margins.
HISTOLOGY.
The general structure of the leaf is learned from cross-sections (Fig.
425); the details of chief value in diagnosis from surface preparations
of the epidermis (Figs. 426 and 427).
Epidermis. The cells are large, and on the lower surface have dis-
Fig. 425. Tobacco. Cross section through midrib, epo upper epidermis; p palisadt
cells; m spongy perenchyma; c collenchyma; epi lower epidermis; g fibro-vascular
bundle; K crystal sand; h jointed hair; dk glandular hairs. X 100. (Moellf.r.) '■.--
TOBACCO.
489
tinctly wavy walls. Stomata are about three times as numerous on the
under surface as on the upper. The clammy hairs are all multicellular,
Fig. 426. Tobacco. Upper epidermis. X160. (Moellek).*
Fig. 427. Tobacco. Lower Epidermis. X160. (Moeixer.)
with thin walls and a broad base, but are of four forms: (1) jointed
with pointed or blunt apex; (2) like the first, but branching. (3) glandu-
49o ALKAL01DAL PRGDUCTS.
lar with multicellular head and jointed stem; (4) like the last, but with
short unicellular stem. The first three forms reach an extraordinary
length, and are usually evident to the naked eye. The cuticle is striated
and often granular on the surface.
Mesophyl. The chlorophyl parenchyma is brown. Numerous cells
filled with crystal sand are present.
DIAGNOSIS.
The characteristic elements are the epidermis with the four forms
of multicellular hairs, also the mesocarp cells with crystal sand. The
epidermal cells with hairs are readily found in surface preparations of
fragments from cigars, smoking and chewing tobacco, also in powder
mounts of snuff. The latter, being made from the coarser part of the
leaf, contains a preponderance of vascular elements. Before searching
for adulterants the material should be boiled with dilute alkali, filtered
and washed.
Hauenschild states that leaves of the following are used in tobacco:
Cherry, artichoke, linden, acacia, walnut, sunflower, arnica, watercress,
hemp, rose, oak, dock, betony, chestnut, melilot, and especially beet,
cabbage, chicory, and potato. In the manufacture of plug tobacco
the following materials are employed: Common salt, sirup, sugar,
licorice, rum, sal-ammoniac, prunes, tamarinds, vanilla, essential oils,
benzoic acid, carob beans, saltpetre, potash, cloves, anise, violet root,
gum, dextrine, etc. Various materials, in powder form, may be used as
adulterants.
In Germany the revenue law allows the addition to tobacco of a cer-
tain percentage of cherry and rose leaves (see pp. 468-471). English laws
prohibit the use of the following: Sugar, sirup, molasses, honey, malt
sprouts, roasted seeds, . chicory, lime, sand, umber, ocher or other earths,
seaweed, roots, moss, and all leaves and herbs.
Some of the leaves used as adulterants are described elsewhere in
this work; others must be learned by experience. Usually all that is
necessary is to prove that the leaf is not tobacco.
TOBACCO. 491
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (30, 31, 32); Molisch (33);
Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (44); Krasser(48).
Koning: Der Tabak. Leipzig, 1900.
Kissling: Der Tabak. Berlin, 1893.
\
PART IX.
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.*
Under the head of spices and condiments are here grouped all products
used merely for flavoring. They include certain fruits (pepper, cayenne,
allspice, anise, vanilla, etc.), seeds (nutmeg, mustard, etc.), roots (gin-
ger, horseradish, etc.), barks (cassia, cinnamon, and clove bark), flower
buds (cloves, capers, cassia buds), leaves and herbs (sage, savory, bay
leaf, etc.).
Mustard seeds are described for convenience with other cruciferous
seeds in the section on oil seeds.
Turmeric, a root allied to ginger, and saffron, the stigmas of Crocus
sativus, although chiefly valuable as dyes, are also classed as spices.
The valuable constituents of most spices are essential oils, although
the pungent principles of mustard and horseradish are sulphur com-
pounds, and the capsicin of cayenne pepper and paprika, as well as
the vanillin of the vanilla bean, are crystalline solids. The tissues and
other elements, although useless for seasoning, are of chief service
in diagnosis.
The Impurities of spices introduced through accident or through
faulty methods of collecting, curing, cleaning, and handling, include
dirt, small stones, woody matter, extraneous parts of the plant, weed
seeds, and insect contamination.
Mineral Matter. Dirt in the form of dust is deposited during the
growing or ripening periods on fruits, barks and leaves, but not, of course,
on seeds protected by the pericarp. It is washed off to some extent by
rains, but, on the other hand, rains often spatter mud on low-growing
plants, thus seriously injuring the quality of the product. It is well
known in the trade that, for this reason alone, cayenne pepper, sage,
and other spices, differ greatly from year to year in cleanness.
Certain commercial varieties of black pepper, such as Acheen,
1 The descriptions of barks (excepting cassia), rhizomes, leaves, and flowers are by
Prof. J. Moeixer.
493
494 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Lampong, Tellicherry, etc., are sun-dried on the ground, and as a con-
sequence are contaminated with lumps of dirt, stones, sticks, etc., while
Singapore pepper, being a fire-dried product, is much cleaner.
Ginger and other roots are freed from adhering soil by washing, but
the undecorticated sorts, such as African and Calcutta, are seldom abso-
lutely clean when placed on the market.
Scraped cassia and Ceylon cinnamon are usually quite clean, while
unscraped cassia, and particularly cassia chips, are often more or less
contaminated with adhering dirt. Low grade or broken China cassia
is particularly dirty.
Limed nutmegs and " bleached " ginger are coated with a thin layer
of calcium carbonate which is said to prevent the ravages of insects, and
is not, therefore, regarded as an adulteration.
Penang white pepper is invariably coated with a brown-gray layer
consisting largely of calcium carbonate.
Extraneous Matter from the plant itself, such as stems in cayenne
pepper, cloves, allspice, umbelliferous fruits, and various leaves, also
shells in nutmegs and pepper, should be present only in very small quanti-
ties in properly cleaned spices. The fact that the impurity is produced
by the same plant as yields the spice is no valid excuse for not removing
such an impurity or for its willful addition. Clove stems, for example,
are as much an adulterant in ground cloves, as would be sawdust made
from the clove tree.
Weed Seeds are accidental impurities of mustard and umbelliferous
seeds, from, which they can be largely removed by sifting. Most of the
other common spices, are not subject to this kind of contamination.
Insects, although avoiding certain spices rich in essential oil, cause
great havoc in certain others. The drug-store beetle is almost sure to
make its appearance in whole unlimed ginger, if stored for a long time,
burrowing through the roots and transforming nearly the whole product
into an unappetizing powder. Cayenne pepper and paprika, both whole
and ground, are attacked by a small moth which spins a dense web through
the material. Nutmegs used for grinding are often light-weight kernels
from which the starchy matter has been almost entirely eaten out by insects,
leaving only the brown resinous veins. Mites and other insects infesting
cereal products, also occur in mustard flour mixed with wheat flour, corn
meal, and other cereal adulterants.
Adulterants. Probably no class of food products has been so grossly
adulterated as ground spices. The incentive is unusually great owing
ADULTERANTS. 495
to their high cost and their strong odor, which conceals a considerable
admixture of worthless material.
A list of the adulterants includes a great variety of cheap materials
in powder form, and also certain dyes and pigments, added to conceal the
makeweights.
Inorganic Materials. These are partly diluents, such as calcium
sulphate, calcium carbonate, brick-dust, coal-ashes, sand and clay, and
partly pigments, such as Venetian red and chrome yellow. Because of
their greater weight they are used less often than vegetable materials.
Calcium sulphate (piaster of Paris or gypsum) is occasionally added to
mustard flour and ground ginger, but not to the dark-colored spices.
Brick-dust has been found in cayenne pepper, coal-ashes in white pepper,
and sand in various spices. Venetian red (iron oxide) is used in imitating
the color of cloves, allspice, cinnamon, and nutmeg, while chrome yellow
formerly was used in mustard.
Organic Material. Among the numerous diluents of vegetable origin
are flour, bran and chaff of the cereals ; hulls, bran, and other products of
buckwheat; screenings; peas, beans, and other legumes; linseed meal,
cottonseed meal, ground cocoanut cake, and other oil cakes; cocoanut
shells (raw and charred), almond shells, and other nut shells ; olive stones ;
sawdust, red sandalwood, and other woody materials; clove stems,
mustard hulls, pepper shells, exhausted spices, and other waste products
from spices. Other adulterants are : cayenne pepper, added to adulterated
black pepper to reinforce its pungency; turmeric and other dyes used to
color mustard; red coal-tar dyes added to cayenne pepper; and finally
Bombay mace, a worthless substitute for true mace. This list is far from
complete, but includes the materials most commonly employed.
The analyst will be greatly aided in his search by a knowledge of the
available materials and commercial practices in his own country. For
example, ground hazelnut shells is a distinctively European adulterant,
while ground cocoanut shells is distinctively American; also rape, sun-
flower, and several other oil cakes are used in Europe, while only linseed
and cottonseed cakes are commonly available in America.
Hints on the detection of foreign materials are given in the final section
under each spice.
Identification of Ground Spices in spice mixtures or other food products
is sometimes desirable, and for this purpose the key on p. 498 may be
found useful.
496 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Methods of Examination.
Preliminary Examination. The odor and especially the taste of the
different spices is, as a rule, so characteristic, that complete substitution
of other products would be recognized even by a layman. But adulterations
with inert substances are not so readily detected by either the sense of
smell or of taste, although one with experience will often find cause for
suspicion.
The color is a valuable guide, as it is no easy matter to color fraudulent
mixtures so as to exactly imitate the genuine. For example, colored
mustard flour is almost always much yellower than the uncolored, and.
colored cayenne pepper is of a somewhat different shade from the genuine.
Texture and "grain" are also altered by the addition of foreign sub-
stances.
After removing the finer material by sifting, or separating into strata
by jarring on a sheet of paper, suspicious fragments may often be picked
out under a lens. These are first examined as to their color, texture,
hardness and similar physical characters and then crushed or macerated
for microscopic examination.
Chemical Analysis. The following determinations, applicable to most
of the spices, are of value in diagnosis: total ash, ash soluble in water,
sand (ash insoluble in hydrochloric acid), fixed oil (non-volatile ether
extract), essential oil (volatile ether extract), alcohol extract, crude fiber,
crude starch (copper- reducing matters by direct inversion), pure starch
(by the diastase method), and total nitrogen.
If the quantity of ash is excessive, it should be examined for sand,
calcium sulphate, iron oxide, and similar impurities.
Determination of essential oil is especially valuable in the examination
of cloves, as this spice normally contains as high as 20 per cent of this
constituent, but in the examination of other spices is of lesser importance,
the percentage being usually small and exceedingly variable.
Although possessing no pungent qualities, certain fixed oils are char-
acteristic constituents of mustard, mace, cayenne, and other spic es.
Determination of crude fiber aids greatly in detecting nut shells, saw-
dust and similar woody adulterants, while determination of starch serves
both to detect starchy adulterants in non-starchy spices, and non-starchy
adulterants in starchy spices.
Among the processes applicable only to certain spices are the determina-
tion of crude piperine (nitrogen in the non-volatile ether extract) in black
METHODS OF EXAMINATION. 497
and white pepper; of cold-water extract in ginger (to detect exhausted
ginger); of tannin in cloves and allspice; also the qualitative tests for
Bombay mace, turmeric, coal-tar colors, etc.
Microscopical Examination is by far the most valuable, and in many
cases the only, means of detecting vegetable adulterants in spices. Even
in cases where chemical analysis furnishes evidences of foreign admixtures,
microscopic examination is usually essential to determine the nature and
origin of that admixture. As a rule this examination coupled with a
determination of ash is all that is needed in pronouncing on a suspected
sample.
The microscopist who undertakes this work should have at his command
for comparison authenticated samples of whole and ground spices as well
as of spice adulterants.
Direct Examination in water of the finely ground material and of sus-
pected fragments picked out under the lens, also a second examination,
after the addition of iodine, serves for the identification of the starch
grains and some of the tissues. The same portion should afterward be
treated with a small drop of alkali, thus rendering the tissues more dis-
tinct. Another valuable clearing agent is chloral hydrate solution, in
a few drops of which a small portion of the material is allowed to soak
for some hours.
Of the characteristic reactions for the detection of particular spices
only two need here be mentioned, namely, the change from yellow to
brown-red of fragments of turmeric on treatment with ammonia, potash
or soda, and the red color imparted to hulls of charlock on heating with
chloral.
In the simple manner described most of the adulterants can be de-
tected by one familiar with the elements of the spices themselves and
of the adulterants. Treatment with other reagents is sometimes useful
but seldom essential.
The Special Methods of preparing the material for microscopic
examination described under flour (p. 52), and cereal feeds (p. 58)
ere applicable for starchy spices, or spices containing an admixture of
starchy matter, while those described under oil seeds products (p. 171)
are applicable for spices free from starch. The crude fiber process is
one of the most useful of these methods. It is, however, seldom necessary
to resort to preliminary treatment, as direct examination in water or some
other medium, and treatment with reagents on the slide, are usually
quite as satisfactory.
498 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Analytical Key to the Common Spices used in Powder Form.
A. Starch present; epidermal tissues with stomata absent.
(a) Starch grains minute (2-10 /i), polygonal, forming compact masses.
* Stone cells present, those of the hypodermal layer small, thick -walled.
1. Endocarp of small stone cells (less than 50 fi) with broad cavity. . .Pepper.
2. Endocarp of large stone cells (over 50 /1) with narrow cavity Cubebs.
3. Endocarp of very large, porous, elongated cells Long Pepper.
** Stone cells absent.
4. Mosaic of brown, thick -walled palisade cells Cardamom.
(b) Starch grains medium size (up to 20 n), rounded, often in small aggregates;
hilum distinct.
5. Stone cells and bast fibers present Cinnamon ' and Cassia.
6. Stone-cells present; bast fibers absent; tissues of spermoderm port-wine
color Allspice.
7. Neither stone cells nor bast fibers present; tissues of perisperm brown.
Nutmeg.
(c) Starch grains large (mostly over 20 /1), pear-shaped; hilum excentric; reticulated
vessels present.
8. Starch grains perfect; bast fibers present; tissues nearly colorless. -Ginger.
9. Starch grains mostly in formless masses; bast fibers absent; tissues bright
vellow, becoming brown-red with alkali Turmeric.
B. Starch absent; epidermal tissues with stomata absent except on calyx of 12 and 13.
10. Palisade cells of spermoderm form a brown mosaic with darker reticulations.
Brown Mustard.
11. Palisade cells of spermoderm form a yellow mosaic without reticulations.
White Mustard.
12. Epidermal cells of pericarp polygonal, with yellow walls; ground tissue
contains yellow or red oil drops Paprika.
13. Same as last, but epidermal cells quadrilateral, in rows. . . Cayenne Pepper.
14. Epidermis of large elongated cells; ground tissue contains amylodextrine-
starch grains (red with iodine) Mace.
15. Yellow color soluble in water; pollen grains often present ; Saffron.
C. Starch grains absent (except in chlorophyl grains); epidermal tissues with stomata
present.
(a) Chlorophyl absent.
16. Numerous oil cells; crystal cells in rows beside spiral vessels Cloves.
17. Brown jointed oil ducts present Umbelliferous Fniits (p. 551).
(b) Chlorophyl present.
* Hairs absent.
18. Epidermal cells with thick, wavy walls Bay Leaf.
** Epidermis with simple, jointed and disk-shaped (glandular) hairs.
t Hairs smooth.
1 Cassia buds have small starch grains, epidermal hairs, and numerous bundles.
CONDIMENT AL C/tTTLE AND POULTRY FOODS, 499
19. Jointed hairs very numerous, long, narrow, pointed Sage-
tt Hairs warty or smooth.
20. Jointed hairs numerous, long, broad, straight, thin-walled Marjoram.
21. Hairs very numerous, mostly short, conical Thyme.
22. Hairs few, those with joints bent near the end, thin-walled Savory.
Condimental Cattle and Poultry Foods.
Numerous proprietary mixtures of cereal or oil-seed products, with
aromatic substances, simple drugs and other materials, are extensively
advertised as food auxiliaries, appetizers and tonics for bovine cattle,
horses, swine and poultry. They occupy a place between ordinary
cattle foods on one hand and condition powders on the other, and are
sold at prices out of proportion to the value of their constituents, with
extravagant claims as to their nutritive and curative properties. As
foods they are of no greater value than the common feeds of which they
are largely composed, while as tonics they are counterparts of numerous
patent medicines for human use.
As various aromatic substances are characteristic ingredients, they
are properly considered with the spices.
The Constituents may be classed under three heads : (1) food materials,
(2) spices, including fenugreek, and (3) drugs.
The food materials include a number of common feeds of greater or
lesser value, such as bran and other by-products of wheat, maize meal,
gluten meal, linseed meal, bean meal, carob-bean meal, malt -sprouts,
cocoa shells, etc. With these should be classed salt, ground bone, ground
meat, crushed sea shells and ground quartz (the last four being con-
stituents of poultry foods), all of which are useful in the animal economy.
Of the spices, fenugreek is probably the most extensively employed,
the characteristic odor of many preparations being due to this constituent.
Ginger, cayenne pepper and mustard hulls are also common ingredients,
while anise and fennel are stated to be present in some mixtures.
The drugs are partly vegetable and partly mineral.
The bitter taste of most of the mixtures is due to ground gentian root,
the cheapest of the bitter drugs, although wormwood is sometimes em-
ployed. Charcoal serves not only as a- remedy, but also to give the mix-
ture a gray color, thus concealing other constituents. Licorice, lobelia,
bloodroot, elecampane, and other drugs are less often used.
Among the mineral drugs reported by analysts are sulphur, Epsom
salts (magnesium sulphate), Glauber's salts (sodium sulphate), potassium
chlorate, and Venetian red (iron oxide).
goo SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Methods of Examination.
Preliminary Examination. The hints given under cereal cattle foods
(p. 58), oil-seed products (p. 170), and spices (p. 496) apply also to con-
dimental foods.
Fenugreek, ginger, cayenne pepper, and umbelliferous seeds are
characterized by their odor and taste; gentian, common salt, and other
salts by their taste; charcoal and Venetian red by their color; ground
quartz by its gritty nature.
Vegetable constituents can often be picked out for microscopic exami-
nation, and small crystals of Epsom and Glauber's salts, lumps of sulphur,
fragments of sea shells and other mineral constituents, for chemical
tests.
Chemical Examination. Qualitative Tests are made for chlorine
(common salt), sulphuric acid (Epsom and Glauber's salt:), magnesia
(Epsom salts), carbonic acid (calcium carbonate), lime (calcium carbon-
ate and phosphate), phosphoric acid (calcium phosphate), iron (Venetian
red), sulphur, etc.
These tests can all be made on quite small particles picked out from
the material. Those soluble in water are conveniently dissolved in a
minute drop of water and a drop of the reagent added from a stirring
rod. In this way we can detect in fragments weighing less than a milli-
gram, chlorine by silver nitrate, sulphuric acid by barium chloride, mag-
nesia by sodium phosphate. Carbonic acid of calcium carbonate is
recognized by the effervescence with dilute hydrochloric acid, while
lime is detected in the same portion, after making alkaline with ammonia,
on addition of ammonium oxalate. The phosphoric acid of bone in a
nitric acid solution gives, on heating with ammonium molybdate solu-
tion a bright-yellow precipitate. Sulphur burns with a blue flame
giving off sulphurous vapors. Iron is best detected in the ash by its
red-brown color and the red-brown precipitate of ferric hydrate ob-
tained after dissolving in hydrochloric acid and addition of ammonia.
Powdered charcoal is recognized by the fact that it is not bleached
by boiling with aqua regia or a mixture of potassium chlorate and nitric
acid, also by the gray color of the crude fiber obtained by the usual
process.
Quantitative Analyses. The usual proximate constituents (water,
ash, protein, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, and fat, or rather ether
extract) are determined, and if mineral drugs are present their constitu-
COND1MENTAL CATTLE AND POULTRY FOODS. 501
ents are also quantitatively determined. Carbonic acid is determined
in the original material: Chlorine in the water solution; sulphuric acid,
and magnesia, either in the water solution of the original material or the
acid solution of the ash; phosphoric acid, calcium oxide and iron oxide
in the acid solution of the ash, and sulphur in the ether extract after
oxidation to sulphate.
Microscopic Examination. The special methods described on pp. 497
may be used in preparing the material for examination, although as a
rule the finely ground material and fragments picked out under a lens
may be suitably examined in water, and again after treatment with iodine,
alkali, or other reagents.
Cereal products are recognized by the characteristic starch grains
and the tissues of the bran and chaff; starchy leguminous seeds by
the ellipsoidal starch grains with elongated hilum, also by the tissues of
the spermoderm; linseed meal by the rectangular pigment cells with
deep brown contents, and yeUow-brown fragments consisting of the
superimposed fibers and subepidermal cells; cottonseed meal by the
yellow cell-contents of the embryo, the brown resin particles becoming
red with sulphuric acid, and the remarkable- elements of the black
spermoderm.
Fenugreek is usually present in relatively small amount, and it is
often a tedious search to find fragments showing the characteristic pointed
palisade cells and the broad column cells with ribs. This is especially
true if linseed meal is present, as the spermoderm of this seed is also of
a brown color. Of some aid in the search is the bright-yellow color
imparted to the spermoderm by alkali.
The most characteristic elements of umbelliferous seeds are the oil
ducts.
Cayenne is identified by the characteristic rectangular cells of the
epicarp, with thick yellow walls, the intestine cells of the spermoderm, and
the yellow or red oil drops.
The chief elements of ginger are the large pear-shaped starch grains
with excentric hilum, although the reticulated vessels and long bast fibers
occur in small amount.
Gentian, unfortunately, has no characteristic tissues, but in the absence
of ginger the reticulated vessels, coupled with the bitter taste, furnish
an indication of its presence.
Charcoal in powder form appears under the microscope as black
opaque particles, which are not affected by any of the ordinary reagents.
S02 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
These particles may be found unchanged in the crude fiber obtained
by the ordinary acid and alkaline treatment, also in the residue after
bleaching, as already described.
PIPERACEOUS FRUITS {Piperacece).
Black pepper, long pepper, and cubebs are single-seeded berries with
the reserve material largely in the bulky perisperm.
Hypodermal stone cells of the usual type are found in the pericarp
of all three berries, while the endocarp of each is characteristic of the
species, consisting in cubebs of several layers of large stone cells, in black
pepper, of a single layer of small cells thickened in the inner part (beaker
cells), and in long pepper of large elongated cells with moderately thick
walls. In all three species very small, polygonal starch grains fill the
cells of the perisperm. The largest grains occur in long peppe r.
PEPPER.
Both the black and the white peppercorns of commerce are berries
of Piper nigrum L., a climbing perennial indigenous to Malabar and
Travencore, and cultivated in Sumatra, Siam, Borneo, Java, Ceylon, the
Philippines, and tropical America.
The vine reaches a length of 1 5 meters, and attaches itself to trees,
rocks, or trellises by means of aerial roots thrown out from the joints.
The inflorescence is in spikes up to 10 cm. 'long, either terminal, or oppo-
site leaves, bearing 20-50 flowers, each nearly hidden from view by two
bracts. The flowers appear in May or June, and the fruit, a one-seeded
berry, ripens six months later, changing during ripening from green to
red and finally to yellow.
Black peppercorns are the green berries dried without shelling, either
in the sun or over fires. Owing to the shrinking of the meat during
drying, the black or green shell, consisting of pericarp and spermoderm,
is strongly wrinkled.
White peppercorns are the berries, picked usually when fully ripe,
which have been freed from the outer shell. The process commonly
employed consists in soaking the berries in salt water or lime water,
rubbing off the shell either with the fingers or by machinery, and drying;
— FS
PEPPER. S°3
but in some regions the shell is removed dry. The corns are of a light
gray color, and while not so pungent as black pepper, have a finer flavor.
Pepper is a notable example of a seed with reserve material almost
entirely in the perisperm (Fig. 428). This perisperm forms the body
of the seed, and has a cavity in the center one mm.
or more in diameter and a smaller cavity in the
apex containing traces of embryo and endosperm.
The outer portion of the perisperm is horny, the
inner portion floury.
The grades of pepper on the market are desig- Tl°p^eSrnigf^ LcSJ!
nated according to their places of growth, or oftener tudinal section of fruit.
.,. _. f t- 4. c- c- ^ n- E endosperm; N pen-
their ports of shipment, as Singapore, biam, 1 elli- sperm; FS pericarp and
cherry, Trang, Lampong, Acheen, Penang, etc. $£££jerm- X3"
Singapore black pepper, one of the best grades, is
fire-dried, and consequently has a smoky odor and taste. Most of the
other peppers, being sun-dried on the ground, do not have this quality, but
are more or less contaminated with stems, earth, small stones, and in
the case of Acheen, the poorest sort, with empty and light-weight kernels.
Acheen pepper is sifted free of coarse shells before shipment and sepa-
rated into grades A, B, C, D, according to the specific gravity; but the
empty or light-weight kernels are more or less broken up during the sea
voyage and handling, so that the product is invariably contaminated with
more or less shells. Penang white pepper is coated with a gray substance
consisting chiefly of carbonate of lime.
The characteristic constituents of pepper are: (1) Piperine, an inert,
non- volatile, crystalline substance, (5-8 per cent) ; (2) piperidine, a vola-
tile alkaloid; (3) clavacin, a pungent resin; and (4) an aromatic vola-
tile oil. Starch varies up to 40 per cent in black pepper and up to 60 per
cent in white pepper.
HISTOLOGY.
Black peppercorns, sectioned either dry or after soaking in water,
serve for the study of all the elements of the fruit; white peppercorns
for all the elements but the outer pericarp. Clearing of the tissues may
be effected either by heating with dilute alkali, or better by soaking in
Javelle water.
Pericarp (Figs. 429 and 430). To the naked eye the pericarp in black
pepper is black or gray-black throughout, but in white pepper all that
remains of the pericarp, namely the inner layer, is light gray.
504 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
i. The Epicarp (ep) consists of polygonal cells (15-30 (i) and occasional
stomata, covered by a cuticle 5 fi thick. In the dried berries the contents
are dark brown or black.
2. Hypoderm (ast). Small thin-walled cells, intermingled with strongly
thickened, often radially elongated, porous, yellow stone cells, form the
hypodermal layer. Both forms of cells often contain a dark-brown
material, which takes on a reddish color with alkali. The stone cells
vary greatly in size and are among the most conspicuous elements of the
fruit, but are of course absent in white pepper, while pepper shells, removed
in the preparation of white pepper, contain them in extraordinarily large
numbers.
3. Outer Mesocarp. The mesocarp is differentiated into four more or
less distinct layers. In the outer layers most of the cells are of moderate
size, and contain minute starch grains or chlorophyl; but here and there
larger cells with suberized walls contain oil or resin. This is the innermost
of the layers removed in preparing white pepper.
4. Bundle Layer (fv). In the next layer, consisting of smaller, more
or less compressed cells, ramify the nbro-vascular bundles.
5. Oil Cells (p). An interrupted layer of large cells with suberized
walls and oily contents is evident in cross-section.
6. An Inner Mesocarp of thin-walled but porous cells completes the
pulpy part of the pericarp.
7. Endocarp (ist). Beaker Cells, so called because of their thickened,
sclerenchymatized inner and radial walls, form the inner stone cell layer
or endocarp. As seen in cross-section, they are horseshoe-shaped with
distinct pores. Surface preparations are also characteristic, the double
porous walls being thinner than in the stone cells of the outer layers.
Spermoderm (Figs. 429 and 430). This forms a thin layer of little
diagnostic importance.
1. Outer Epidermis (is). Vogl and some other authorities cons'der
the elongated cells of this layer as belonging to the spermoderm; Tschirch
and Oesterle, however, who have studied its development, believe that
it is a portion of the pericarp. Its connection with the spermoderm is
best seen in the vicinity of the micropyle, where the cells are largest and
thickest-walled. Over the body of the seed they are much compressed and
are scarcely evident except after heating with alkali, or bleaching with
Javelle water, washing in dilute acetic acid and staining. This latter
treatment not only causes the compressed cells to assume their original
shape, but also greatly swells the walls.
PEPPER.
5°5
2. Middle Coat. This consists of one or two layers of elongated cells
similar to those of the epidermis.
Fig. 429. Black Pepper. Cross section of outer layers of fruit. Pericarp consists of ep
epicarp, ast hypodermal stone cells, oil outer mesocarp with oil cells, jv bundle zone,
* oil cells, and ist endocarp ; spermoderm consists of is outer epidermis, and inner layers
(not- shown) ; perisperm consists of al aleurone cells, am starch masses, res resin cells,
and pip piperin crystals. (Moellee.)
3. Pigment Layer. Owing to the dark-brown tannin substance, the
elongated cells of this layer are conspicuous both in cross section and
5°6
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
surface view, although their cell-structure is not clearly seen except after
treatment with alkali or some other reagent. Under favorable conditions
the walls appear distinctly beaded. Iron salts impart a blue color to the
contents.
Perisperm (Figs. 429 and 430). 1. Hyaline Layer. This is evident
in cross section as a hyaline band inclosing not only the inner layers of
am
1st-
¥
** ^ > 9»
3 <*&
Fig. 430. Black Pepper. Elements of powder, ep epicarp; ast hypodermal stone cells;
bf bast fibers; bp bast sclerenchyma ; sp vessels; p oil cells; ist endocarp; ij,ojlayers
of spermoderm; am starch masses. X160. A starch grains, X600. (Moeller.)
the perisperm, but also the embryo and endosperm at the end of the seed.
As it does not show evidences of being pierced by the micropyle, it is
here classed with the perisperm. Evidences of the cellular structure
appear on treatment of cross sections with alkali. In surface view the
cells are elongated polygonal with thin walls.
2. Aleurone Cells (al). Macroscopic examinations of a kernel cut in
half show that the outer portion is horny, while the inner portion, sur-
rounding the central cavity, is mealy. If cross sections are treated with
iodine solution and examined under the microscope, it is evident that the
cells of the two or more outer layers are small and contain aleurone
grains, but no starch.
PEPPER. 5°7
3. Starch Cells {am). The inner portion of the perisperm consists
of large, radially elongated cells, up to 150 pt long, filled with masses
of minute starch grains embedded in proteid matter. The starchy con-
tents of the inner cells separate as compact masses conforming to the
shape of the cells, in which are evident not only the individual grains, but
sometimes also oval aggregates of grains such as occur in rice and oats.
Pepper starch grains are among the smallest in the vegetable kingdom,
being usually 2-4 ft in diameter and never exceeding 6 p.. They are
polygonal or rounded and have an evident hilum. Strikingly different from
the polygonal cells containing aleurone grains and starch are the rounded
resin cells (res) distributed here and there among these. In these are con-
tained yellow globules of oil, also lumps of resinous matter, and often
needle-shaped crystals of piperin (^>). These latter are seen in greater
numbers after mounting in alcohol, allowing the alcohol to evaporate
slowly, and remounting in water. The piperin is soluble in alcohol and
ether, but insoluble in water. If sections are placed in a drop of
concentrated sulphuric acid a deep-red solution is obtained.
Endosperm and Embryo are minute and are of no diagnostic importance.
DIAGNOSIS.
Black Pepper, although prepared from the green berry, contains all
the microscopic elements of the fruit in practically full development. Of
greatest importance in identification are the outer stone cells (Fig. 430,
ast), the beaker cells (ist), and the masses (am) consisting.of minute starch
grains (^4). Sulphuric acid dissolves the piperin to a deep-red solution,
but other members of the genus give the same reaction, and its value is
further impaired by the fact that similar red solutions are obtained with
cottonseed and other products.
Ground Black Pepper, since it contains both the dark tissues of the
pericarp and spermoderm and the light -colored starchy perisperm, is of a
dark-gray or brown-gray color. It is more pungent than white pepper,
although the natural flavor is often mingled with an earthy or, in the case
of fire-dried varieties, with a smoky flavor.
The adulterants of pepper are probably more numerous and varied
than those of any other food product, not excepting coffee. They include
linseed meal, buckwheat hulls, nutshells (cocoanut, walnut, almond,
hazelnut, etc.), mustard hulls, screenings, charcoal, cereal - products,
peas and other leguminous seeds, poppy seeds, olive stones, sawdust,
cocoa shells, pepper hulls, mineral diluents and colors, exhausted pepper,
508
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Fig. 431
Hairs from
(Moeller.)
Black Pepper.
exhausted spices, — in fact any waste material with a not too pro-
nounced flavor that can be easily reduced to a powder. It is a common
practice to mix light- and dark-colored adulterants in order to better
imitate the color of the genuine product, and also to
add a little cayenne pepper to give pungency to
fraudulent mixtures which otherwise would be
nearly tasteless. Nutshells, sawdust, buckwheat
hulls, cocoa shells, pepper shells, and other fibrous
or woody materials have much higher amounts of
crude fiber but less starch than genuine pepper,
while the reverse is true of most starchy adulterants.
The ether extract of pepper consists largely of pip-
erin, a nitrogenous substance, whereas the extract
of some of the adulterants contains no appreciable
amounts of nitrogen. As Acheen pepper contains
a considerable amount of loose shells and conse-
quently a high percentage of ash and fiber, it is
frequently not possible either by microscopic exami-
spindie. nation or chemical analysis to distinguish this
grade in powder form from a better grade adul-
terated with pepper shells. Legal standards of composition are designed
to exclude pepper unfit for consumption, whether ground from a very
low grade of berry or willfully mixed with shells.
White Pepper is usually prepared from the ripe berry, the globular
corns, although deprived of the outer layers of the pericarp, being usually
somewhat larger than black peppercorns and free from wrinkles. They
are light gray, lusterless, and delicately veined with the pericarp bundles.
Penang white pepper is coated with a gray substance consisting largely
of carbonate of lime. The portion of the pericarp removed consists of
the epicarp, the hypodermal stone cells, and the outer mesocarp up to
the bundles. Except for these layers, the microscopic elements are the
same as in black pepper, any difference due to degree of ripeness being
too slight for detection. As the powder is of a light -gray color, the adul-
terants used are light-colored materials, such as wheat flour, maize meal,
ground rice, buckwheat flour, and various other cereal products, ground
peas and other legumes, white poppy seeds, ground olive stones, cayenne
pepper, also gypsum and other white mineral substances. Cereal adul-
terants do not greatly alter the percentage of starch, but are readily de-
tected by the characters of the starch granules and the tissues. Olive
PEPPER. 5°9
stones increase the crude fiber and diminish the starch. White and
black pepper are both characterized by the nitrogen of the ether extract,
due to piperin.
Decorticated White Pepper, consisting of peppercorns deprived of all
the coats of the pericarp and spermoderm, is made from black pepper in
machines of special construction. The powder is light yellow, of a deli-
cate fragrance, and contains, in appreciable amount, only the elements
of the perisperm. Because of the lack of other elements, adulteration
is the more readily detected.
Pepper Shells, obtained in the manufacture of white pepper, being
cheap, pungent, and difficult of detection, are frequently mixed with
ground black spepper. They show a preponderance of stone cells under
the microscope, and contain a high percentage of fiber and ash, the latter
being due largely to adhering dirt.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Blyth (5); Fluckiger (11);
Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. F. (io, 16); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace (26);
Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37) ; Tschirch u. Oesterle
(40); Villiers et Collin (42); VogI (43, 45)-
Andouard: Falsification du poivreparle Galanga. Jour, pharm. chim. 1890, 21, 585.
Eeythien: Ueber Gewiirze. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1903, 6, 957.
Bertarelli: Verfiilschung von weissen Pfefferkornern. Atti della Societa Piemontese
d'Igiene. 1900-01, 7.
Bertschinger: Kunstliche Pfefferkomer. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1901, 39, 215,
Eonnet: Du poivre et de ses falsifications. These E. de Ph. de Paris. 1886, 19.
Erown: On Another New Pepper Adulterant. Analyst. 1887, 12, 89.
Brunotti: Des fruits utiles des Piperitees. These d'agregation. Concours, 1889, 31.
Chevreau: Recherche de la falsification du poivre par le grignon d'olives au moyen
des sels d'aniline. Rep. de Pharm. 1889, 17, 203.
Daels: Falsification du poivre blanc en poudre. Journ. Pharm. d' An vers. 1904, 60, 1.
Giixet: Method nouvelle pour reconnaitre la falsification des poivres par addition de
grignons d'olives. Bull. soc. chim. 1888, 50, 173.
Gladhill: Commercial Pepper. Amer. Jour. Pharm. 1904, 76, 71.
Grimaldi: Sopra una falsificazione del pepe in grani. Staz. sperim. agrar. Ital. 1901,
34, 705.
Hanausek, E.: Schwarzer Tellicherrypfeffer. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1888, 2, 5.
Hanausek, T. F. : Ueber die Harz- und Oelraume in der Pfefferfrucht. Sep.-Abdr.
aus Programm der k. k. Staatsrealschule am Schottenfelde, Wien, 1886.
Hanausek, T. F. : Ueber die Matta. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters, Hyg. 1887, 1, 24.
Hanausek, T. F. : Kunstlicher Pfeffer. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1887, 12, 180.
Hanausek, T. F.: Im Budapester Handel beobachtete Pfefferfalschungen. Ztschr.
" Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1889, 3, 33, 58. '
510 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Hanausek, T. F.: Kiinstliche Pfefferkorner. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1889,3,31.
Hanausek, T. F.: Die Pfefferfruchtspindeln. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1889, 3, 59.
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber einige, gegenwartig im Wiener Handel Vorkommende
Gewurzfalschungen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1894, 8, 95.
Hanausek, T. F. : Ueber den schwarzen Pfeffer von Mangalore. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-
Genussm. 1898, 1, 153.
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber eine neue Pfefferfalschung. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm.
1898, 1, 490.
Hanausek, T. F. : Olivenkerne und ihre Erkennung im Pfefferpulver. Pharm. Cen-
tralh. 1885, 25, 261.
Hebert: Moyen facile et rapide de reconnaitre la falsification du poivre. Joum.
pharm. chim. 1891, 23, 283.
Jumeau: Note sur les falsification du poivre en poudre. Journ. pharm. chim. 1889,
20, 442.
Kundrat: Das neueste Verfalschungsmittel fiir Pfeffer. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg.
1895, 9, 104.
Landrin: Falsification du poivre a l'aide des grignons d'olive. Jour. Pharm. 10, 194.
Mainsbrecq: Falsification du poivre. Bull. Assoc. Beige Chim. 1901, 15, 335.
Martelli: Nachweis der Yerfaschungen des gemahlenen Pfeffers. Ztschr. Nahr.-
Unters. Hyg. 1895, 9, 205.
Mennechet: Sur une falsification du poivre par les fruits du Myrsine Ajricana L. et
Embelia ribes Burm. Jour, pharm. chim. 1901, 14, 557.
Meyer, Arthur: Die mikroskopische Untersuchung von Pflanzenpulver, speziell tiber
den Nachweis von Buchweizenmehl in Pfefferpulver und iiber die Unterscheidung
des Maismehls von dem Buchweizenmehl. Arch. Pharm. 1883, 21, 911.
Moeller: Ein neues Verfalschungsmittel fiir Pfeffer. Rep. anal. Chem. 1886, 409.
Moeixer: Matta. Pharm. Post, 1886, 365.
Molinari: Nachweis von Olivenkernen im Pfeffer. Rev. chim. anal. appl. 1898, 6, 6.
Morpurgo: Delle Spezie. Trieste, 1904.
Nestler: Ueber Verfalschungen von Macis, Pfeffer und Safran. Ztschr. Unters.
Nahr. Genussm. 1903, G, 1033.
Neuss: Zur Pfefferuntersuchung. Pharm. Ztg. 1885, 30, 26.
Pabst: Nachweis einer Pfefferfalschung durch Olivenkerne mittels Anilinsalzen. Rev.
internat. falsificat. 1889, 3, 8.
Pabst: Recherches des grignons d'olives dans le poivre. Journ. pharm. chim. 1890,
21, 645.
Paolini: Sopra una nuova falsificazione del pepe comune. Staz. sperim. agrar. Ital.
1901, 34, 966.
Petnemann: Beitriige zur pharmakognostischen und chemischen Kenntniss derCubeben
und der als Verfalschung derselben beobachteten Piperaceenfruchte. Arch.
Pharm. 1896, 234, 204.
Planchon: Note sur le poivre et les grignons d'olive. Jour, pharm. chim. 1885, 11, 641.
Rau: Ueber neuere Verfalschungen des gemahlenen Pfeffers. Ztschr. offentl. Chem.
1900, 6, 243.
Raumer und Spaeth: Falschungen von Gewiirzen und anderen Nahrungsmitteln.
Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1902, 5, 409.
PEPPER. LONG PEPPER. S11
Rimmington: Pepper Adulteration and Pepper Analysis. Analyst. 1888, 13, 81.
Spaeth: Ueber ein neues Verfalschungsmittel des gemahlenen Pfeffers. Forschber.
Lebensm. Hyg. 1893, 1, 37.
Teyxeira e Ferruccio: Pepe naturale ed artificiale. Boll. Chim. Farm. 1900,
39, 534-
Uhl: Zur Untersuchung des Pfeffers. Forschungsb. Lebensm. Hyg. 1886, 127.
Wender: Kunstpfeffer. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1887, 25, 145.
LONG PEPPER.
Two species yield the long pepper of commerce, Piper officinarum
DC, grown in Java, the Philippines, India, and other parts of the East
and P. longum L., sparingly cultivated in India, the former species being
by far the most important.
The inflorescence is in a dense spike which ripens into a dark-gray
or black compound elongated catkin-like fruit consisting of numerous
consolidated berries. The surface bears spiral rows of small protuber-
ances, which are the exposed outer ends of the individual berries. Each
compound fruit is 2-6 cm. long and 4-7 mm. broad in the case of P. offici-
narum, somewhat shorter and thicker in the case of P. longum.
HISTOLOGY.
After soaking over night in water, the compound fruit is in excellent
condition for cutting longitudinal and transverse sections, corresponding
respectively to transverse and longitudinal sections of the individual
berries. These sections should be soaked in Javelle water to swell out
the layers of the spermoderm and stained.
Pericarp. Owing to the consolidation of the lower portions of adjoin-
ing pericarps, the epicarp and hypoderm are developed only on the outer
end of each individual.
1. The Epicarp is of polygonal cells with no distinctive characters.
2. Hypodermal Stone Cells do not form a continuous layer, but are
scattered here and there through the outer cell layers. A few of these
stone cells also occur in the middle layers of the consolidated pericarp
tissue.
3. The Outer Mesocarp, composed of parenchyma cells (no oil cells),
contains numerous small starch grains and traces of chlorophyl.
4. Inner Mesocarp. The mesocarp cells show little differentiation up
to the inner two or three layers, where they grade into the sclerenchy-
matized, thickened, porous cells of the endocarp. This transition is
512 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
brought out by safranin after bleaching with Javelle water. The inner
layers contain no starch and are none of them typical oil cells.
5. Endocarp. Most characteristic of all the tissues are the large,
longitudinally elongated, porous, sclerenchyma cells of this layer, which
are radically different from the small beaker cells of pepper or the
strongly thickened stone cells of cubebs. They form striking objects
in tangential or surface sections, especially after staining, and in trans-
verse or longitudinal section are conspicuous because of the thickened
inner walls and the decrease in thickness of the radial walls from within
outward.
6. An Inner Layer of beaded cells with slightly undulating walls may
be found by examining the inner surface or the fragments obtained by
scraping. These cells or their inner portions also occur on the spermo-
derm. It is probable that this layer belongs to the pericarp and corre-
sponds to the cells Tschirch and Oesterle find in unripe black pepper.
Those cells of ripe black pepper which they regard as these pericarp
cells in a later stage of development appear to belong to the spermo-
derm.
Spermoderm. Cross-sections show little detail until treated with
Javelle water, after which the structure is clearly analogous to that of
black pepper and cubebs.
1. The Outer Epidermis, as may be seen after treating either cross-
sections or surface preparations as described, has swollen outer and
radial walls even more striking than those of black pepper and cubebs.
Surface preparations show that the cells are longitudinally elongated,
12-20 fi broad.
2. The Middle Coal, consisting mostly of one or two layers, but at the
base of a number of layers, has cells with swollen walls much like those
of the outer epidermis.
3. The Pigment Cells are readily found in transverse or surface sec-
tions, and after removal of the pigment by Javelle water, are seen to be
distinctly reticulated, the radial walls appearing beaded in surface view.
Perisperm. 1. Hyaline Layer. The swollen, structureless outer
membrane, the so-called " hyaline layer " regarded by many authors
as the inner spermoderm, is the same as is found in pepper and other
members of the genus.
2. The Aleurone Cells are small and contain little or no starch.
3. Starch Parenchyma, with no evidence of oil cells, form the inner
perisperm. The polygonal or rounded starch grains vary from 2-10 fi,
LONG PEPPER. CUBEBS. 5S3
being usually about 4 //, or a little larger than those of black pepper.
Concentrated sulphuric acid produces a deep carmine color due to piperin.
DIAGNOSIS.
Long pepper has been repeatedly detected by English analysts as an
adulterant or substitute for black pepper. It is distinguished by the
somewhat larger starch grains, and especially by the large, elongated,
moderately sclerenchymatized cells of the endocarp, and the absence
of beaker cells and oil cells. The powder also has a distinctive odor.
CUBEBS.
Cubebs, the fruit of a vine (Piper Cubeba L.), although properly classed
with the drugs, are of interest to the food microscopist because they are
analogous in structure to the fruits of black and long pepper. At the
present time cubebs are seldom used as spices, but the exhausted berries
are sometimes mixed with black pepper as an adulterant.
The plant grows in Sumatra, Java, and other islands of the East Indies.
The dark-brown, wrinkled berry is about the same size as a black
peppercorn, which it further resembles in morphological structure. Unlike
black pepper, the berry is borne on a stem 6-8 mm. long, and the seed,
often only partially developed, is not united with the sides of the peri-
carp. Among the constituents are volatile aromatic principles, and cube-
bin, a non-volatile crystalline substance related to piperin.
HISTOLOGY.
Although cubeb and pepper berries are analogous in microscopic
structure, certain of the elements are strikingly different.
Pericarp. 1. The Epicarp of small polygonal cells is hardly dis-
tinguishable from the corresponding coat of pepper, although the cell-
contents are usually of a lighter color.
2.' The Hypodermal Stone Cells, 24-40 ji in diameter, are not usually
radially elongated and are for the most part in a single layer.
3. The Outer Mesocarp is composed of parenchyma cells contain-
ing small starch granules (2-6 ft) and oil cells containing crystals of
cubebin in addition to fatty matter.
4. Compressed Cells form that portion of the mesocarp through which
ramify the bundles.
514 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
5. The Inner Mesocarp of several layers of parenchyma cells inter-
spersed with oil cells contains no starch grains.
6. The Endocarp, or inner stone-cell layer, is much more strongly
developed than the corresponding beaker cells of pepper. It consists
of one or more layers of large isodiametric or radially elongated stone
cells (often 80 ft) with walls thickened on all sides.
7. An Inner Layer of irregular cells lies between the endocarp and
spermoderm. In cross-section this layer is scarcely distinguishable, but
on examining the inner surface of the pericarp or the outer surface of
the spermoderm, the thin beaded side walls are clearly evident.
Spermoderm. Cross-sections show the same number of layers as is
found in black pepper.
1. Outer Epidermis. The longitudinally elongated cells, often 150-
200 fi long and 25-50 /x wide, are much larger than any of the elements
of the spermoderm of pepper. In surface view they are recognized, after
heating with alkali or after bleaching with Javelle water and staining
with safranin, by their size, more or less rectangular form, and swollen
brown walls (double walls 10-15 //).
2. A Middle Coat of one or two cell layers is present in most parts
of the seed. The narrow cells are elongated and the walls are swollen
after treatment with the reagents named.
3. Inner Epidermis. Irregular cells, often longitudinally elongated,
with walls of even thickness or faintly beaded, form a dark-brown pig-
ment layer not unlike the corresponding cells of both black and long
pepper. Like these latter, as may be seen in longitudinal section, they
are tabular except near the micropyle, where they are radially elongated.
Perisperm. 1. A Hyaline Layer forms a thickened, apparently struc-
tureless membrane enclosing the perisperm, the embryo, and endosperm;
the two latter being situated in a small hollow at the apex.
2. Aleurone Cells constitute several outer layers.
3. Starch Parenchyma intermingled with yellow-green oil cells make
up the heart of the perisperm. The starch grains are rounded or polyg-
onal, 3-12 jj. in diameter, and are closely packed in the cells. Sections
mounted in concentrated sulphuric acid take on a deep carmine color.
DIAGNOSIS.
The powder is distinguished from ground pepper by the larger starch
grains, the presence of large stone cells in place of beaker cells, and the
large cells of the middle spermoderm. The elements of the stem are
CUBEBS. PAPRIKA. 5 ' 5
also present, the large sclerenchymatized bast parenchyma being espe-
cially noteworthy.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (31, 32);
Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40).
Dewere: Recherches sur le cubebe, etc. Ann. Soc. roy. sci. m£d. nat. de Bruxelles,
1894, 3.
Hastwich: Weitere Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Cubeben. Arch. Pharm. 1898, 236,
172.
Hartwich: Cubeba Real-Enzykl. d. ges. Pharm. 2 Aufl. IV, 1905.
Peinemann: Beitrage zur pharmakognostischen und chemischen Kenntniss der Cubeben
und der als Verfalschung derselben beobachteten Piperaceenfriichte. Arch
Pharm. 1896, 234, 204.
Vogl: Falsche Cubeben. Pharm. Centralh. 1895, 36, 11.
Wevre: Ueber Cubeben und ihre Verfalschungen. Apoth.-Ztg. 1895, 10, 345.
SOLANACEOUS FRUITS (Solanacea).
Cayenne pepper and paprika, the two species of capsicum used as
spices, are characterized by the sclerenchyma cells of the epicarp and
endocarp, the yellow or red oil drops of the mesocarp, and the curious
intestine cells of the spermoderm. Starch in appreciable amount is
absent.
PAPRIKA.
Various species of the genus Capsicum yield pungent fruits widely
different in form, size, and color, which serve both for seasoning food and
in medicine. Throughout the Continent, the large fruit of C. annuum L.
is much used as a spice and is coming into use in the United States.
The Hungarian product, which is most highly esteemed, is known as
paprika, the Spanish as pimiento. The latter serves to color catsup and sau-
sage. As it is practically without pungency it hardly deserves to be classed
as a spice. Pungent varieties are also grown in Mexico and South
America.
The conspicuous red or yellow shining fruit of paprika is inflated)
5-10 cm. long, and from half to three-fourths as broad. The pericarp,
even before drying, is but a few millimeters thick, the bulk of the fruit
consisting of the fruit cavity divided at the base into two or three com-
partments. Numerous flattened seeds (3-5 mm.), shaped much like the
human ear, are borne in the lower part of the fruit on the central placenta,
and in the upper part on the partitions which here only extend part way to
5i6
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
the center. The embryo, with a long radicle and still longer, narrow
cotyledons, is coiled within the endosperm in such a way that the radicle
points toward the elongated (2 mm.) hilum. The hollow stem, 3-4 mm.
in diameter, and the small, green, pentagonal or hexagonal calyx aie at-
tached to the dried fruit as found on the market.
HISTOLOGY.
Any of the large garden peppers or the dried whole paprika fruit
may be employed for studying the histology.
The Fruit Stem (Fig. 432) has an epidermis and outer cortical layer,
like the corresponding layers of the calyx in structure. Wood elements
I
Fig. 432 Paprika (Capsicum an- Fig. 433. Paprika. Surface view of calvx show-
nuum) Elements of stem, b ing outer epidermis with st stoma, and > spongy
bast fiber; bp bast parenchyma; parenchyma. X160. (Moeller.)
/ wood fibers; hp wood paren-
chyma; spitted vessels. X160.
(Moeller.)
form a continuous hollow cylinder surrounded by a narrow, interrupted
bast ring. The elements of the wood, consisting of pitted and reticulated
vessels, libriform fibers, and wood parenchyma, are strongly thickened,
while the bast contains a characteristic element in the form of broad (up
to 50 ji), flexible fibers with wide cavities.
PAPRIKA.
517
Calyx. Sections of the dry material swell considerably in water, dis-
playing an uncommonly large-celled tissue.
1. The Outer Epidermis (Fig. 433), as seen in surface view, consists
of large, flat, moderately thick- walled, sharply-polygonal cells, with a few
stomata.
2. Mesophyl (Fig. 434). Adjoining the outer epidermis is a single
layer of cells in close contact with each other, and a similar layer adjoins
the inner epidermis, but in the middle layers the cells are larger and thinner-
Fig. 434. Paprika. I cross section of calyx showing t hairs of inner (upper) epidermis
and gjb fibro-vascular bundle. II inner (upper) epidermis of calyx, in surface view.
(Tschirch and Oesterle.)
walled, forming a spongy parenchyma. Through the inner layers run
the fibro-vascular bundles. Chlorophyl is present in the hypodermal
layers, but not in the spongy parenchyma.
3. The Inner Epidermis (Fig. 434) has moderately large cells with wavy
walls but no stomata. Characteristic are the peculiar glandular hairs.
These are short, two or more celled, with single or compound end cells
containing red-brown resinous bodies. Noteworthy is the fact that they
are not, like, most hairs, simply epidermal cells prolonged beyond the
surface, but they spring from the middle of much broader cells after the
manner of root-hairs.
Pericarp, Outer Wall. In cutting sections, the material should be
5*8
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
held between pieces of pith or embedded in paraffine and care taken to
avoid tearing away the inner layers.
i. Epicarp (Fig. 435, epi; Fig. 436). This layer, in cross-section,
has a cuticularized and thickened outer wall 15-20 ft thick. In surface
view the cells are polygonal, moderately thin-walled (double walls 3-8 fi)
Fig. 435. Paprika. Pericarp in cross section, epi epicarp; mes mesocarp with oil glo-
bules, and jv fibro-vascular bundle; g giant cells; end endocarp. (Moeller.)
beaded, 45-95 fi in diameter. They are not, as in Cayenne pepper,
rectangular and arranged in rows.
2. Hypoderm. Several layers of collenchyma further distinguish
paprika from Cayenne pepper. As was first shown by Molisch, the walls
of these layers, as well as of the epicarp, are suberized, and become yellow
with alkali. Contained in both the hypoderm and mesocarp in the fresh
condition are oil drops and red chromoplastids which give the fruit its
PAPRIKA.
S'9
characteristic color. Viewed in water, the oil drops from the dried fruit
are of a bright orange or red color due to the solution of the coloring
Fig. 436. Paprika. Epicarp in surface view, showing narrow grooves. (Moeller.)
matter of the chromoplastids, and are of great aid in diagnosis. Concen-
trated sulphuric acid imparts an indigo-blue color to the globules, a reaction
due to the action of the acid on the coloring matter. Exceedingly minute
Fig. 437. Paprika. 'Elements of pericarp in surface view, ep epicarp; coll collenchyma;
en endocarp with si sclerenchyma cells. X160. (Moeller.)
starch grains are occasionally found in some of the cells, particularly if
the fruit is not fully ripe.
S20
SPICES AND^CONDIMENTS.
3. Mesocarp (Fig. 435, mes). The cells in the middle portion of the
pericarp are thin-walled and not characteristic except for their contents.
Through these cells run the bundles.
4. Giant Cells (Fig. 435, g). Adjoining the endocarp is a layer of,
cells of enormous size, often 1-2 mm., separated from each other by smaller
cells. They are best seen in carefully prepared transverse sections.
These cells are evident to the naked eye
on the inner surface of the pericarp as
longitudinally elongated blisters (Fig.
438)-
5. Endocarp (Figs. 435 and 437)-
The most characteristic layer of the
pericarp is the endocarp, made up over
the giant cells of groups of scleren-
chyma elements and in other parts of
thin-walled cells, both kinds of cells be-
ing more or less elongated and quadri-
lateral with wavy outline. Penetrating
the radial walls of the sclerenchyma
cells are distinct pores which broaden
at the middle lamella.
Pericarp, Partition Walls. Cross-
sections of the partition walls show that the mesocarp consists of thin-
walled elements of no especial interest, while the endocarp cells are more
or less thickened. As was discovered by Arthur Meyer, the cuticle here
and there separates from the cells, forming blister-like cavities in which
are tabular or prismatic crystals of capsaicin, the pungent principle of
the fruit. If alkali is run under the cover-glass, the crystals at first dis-
appear, but others of octahedral form, the alkali compound, take their
place. If these blisters are opened and the minutest portion of the con-
tents transferred to the tongue by means of a needle, an intense
burning sensation is experienced. In the fully ripe fruit this pungent
principle is distributed throughout the pericarp and also the seeds.
The Spermoderm (Figs. 439 and 440) has an outer and inner epidermis,
and between them a parenchymatous layer several cells thick, all of which
are evident in sections cut from the dry seed.
1. The Outer Epidermis (ep) of highly characteristic elements, has
been carefully studied by Arthur Meyer, T. F. Hanausek, and others.
Seen in cross-section, the outer wall is a cellulose band of even thick-
Fig. 438. Paprika . Endocarp and giant
cells in surface view. (Moeller.)
PAPRIKA.
52i
ness (12-50 fi), covered without by a thin cuticle and within by an equally
thin sclerenchymatiaed lining, while the radial and inner walls are enor-
mously but irregularly thickened and sclerenchymatized. From the inner
wall wart-like protuberances extend into the cell cavity. The radial
walls diminish in thickness from within outward, resembling buttresses.
Where they meet the outer wall, they are pierced by pores which, in
cross-section, appear as slits between finger-like divisions. At the edges
of the seed, where the cells often have a radial diameter upwards of
200 ft, these pores occur in the greatest
numbers. In surface view the appear-
ance differs according to the depth of the
focus. On the inner wall we see warts,
pores, and wrinkles ; on the outer, an even
structure bounded by the curiously sinuous
and porous radial walls. The appear-
Fio. 439. Paprika. Outer portion of seed in cross Fig. 440. Paprika. Spermoderm
section. Spermoderm consists of ep epidermis, p in surface view. ep epider-
parenchyma, and inner layers of compressed paren- mis; p parenchyma. X160.
chyma; £ endosperm. X160. (Moeixer.) (Moeller.)
ance of the latter is best described by the term "intestine cells," first
applied to this layer by Moeller. *
2. Middle Layers (p). Thin- walled cells, in the dry seed more or
less compressed, form several indistinct layers.
3. An Inner Epidermis, also of thin-walled elements, in cross-section,
is clearly seen to be in close contact with the endosperm.
The Endosperm (Fig. 439, E) consists of moderately thick-walled
cells containing aleurone grains and fat as reserve material. A crystal-
loid is present in each of the aleurone grains.
Embryo. Of little interest to us are the delicate tissues of the em-
bryo. The cell-contents are the same as in the endosperm, except that
the aleurone grains are somewhat smaller.
522 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
DIAGNOSIS.
The powder is either red, yellow, or brown, according to the variety
or the method of preparation, and the oil drops, seen under the micro-
scope, are of the same color as the fruit. Treatment with concentrated
sulphuric acid imparts a blue color to the oil drops.
The endocarp (Fig. 437) of elongated, sinuous cells, some scleren-
chymatized (st), others thin-walled (en), and the curious intestine cells
(Fig. 440, ep) of the outer epidermis of the spermoderm, are the tissue ele-
ments most easily found and identified. Starch is seldom present in
noticeable amount, and never in the form of large grains. Tissues of
the stem and calyx should not be overlooked. The epicarp cells (Fig. 436)
are polygonal, have moderately thick, beaded walls, and are easily dis-
tinguished from the quadrilateral cells in rows of the corresponding layer
of Cayenne pepper.
The adulterants of paprika are various products of cereals and oil
seeds, nutshells, sawdust (particularly of red sandalwood (Fig. 28) and
other red or brown woods), turmeric, brick-dust, etc. If the material
is not of a suitable color it is often dyed with coal-tar colors, or mixed
with a pigment. Addition of oil darkens the color.
The color of red sandalwood is extracted by treatment with alkali;
the coal-tar dyes commonly employed are readily transferred to a bit
of woollen cloth, previously heated with very dilute soda, by boiling with
1 per cent solution of potassium bisulphate — a method first devised by
Arata for testing wines.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Greenish (14); Hanausek, T.
F. (10, 16, 17, 48); Harz (18); Hassall (19); Leach (25); Mace" (26); Meyer, A. (27, 28);
Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schirnpcr (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle
(40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45).
Hartwich: Ueber die Epidermis der Samenschale von Capsicum. Pharm Post. 1894
27, 609, 633.
Hartwich: Ueber die Samenschale der Solanaceen. Vjschr. d. naturf. Ges. in Zurich.
1896, 41, Jubelband II, 366.
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber die Samenhautepidermis der Capsicum-Arten. Ber. d.
deutsch. botan. Ges. 1888, 6, 329.
Lohde: Ueber die Entwicklungsgesch. und den Bau einiger Samenschalcn. Dissertation,
Leipzig, 1874, 26.
Meyer, Arthur: Der Sitz der scharfschmeckenden Substanz im spanischen Pfeffet.
Pharm. Ztg. 1889, 34, 130.
PAPRIKA. CAYENNE PEPPER.
523
Miklown: Adulteration of Spanish Pepper. Weekly Drug News. 1886, 215.
Molisch: Collenchymatische Korke. Ber. d. deutsch. botan. Ges. 1889, 7, 364.
Morptjrgo: Delle Spezie. Trieste, 1904.
Vedrodi : Untersuchung des Paprikapfeffers. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1893, 7.
CAYENNE PEPPER.
This spice, also known as red pepper and chillies, is much more pun-
gent than paprika and is preferred to the latter in England and the
United States. It is obtained from Capsicum fastigiatum Bl. (C. mini-
num Roxb.), C. frutescens L. and other small-fruited species grown in
various parts of Africa, the East Indies, and tropical America.
Zanzibar Cayenne pepper, one of the best grades, consists of small
pods 0.5 to 2 cm. long, of a dull-red color, together with slender, more
or less detached stems. The seeds are but 3-4 mm. in diameter.
Bombay peppers, known also as capsicums, are an inferior grade
of Cayenne pepper, said to come from the vicinity of the river Niger in
Africa, not as the name would indicate, from India. The dull yellow
Fig. 441. Cayenne Pepper {Capsicum frutescens). Epicarp in surface view. x~x, x'-x'
rows of cells; h thickened horizontal walls; v abnormally thickened cell. (T. F.
Hanausek.)
or brown fruits are larger than Zanzibar peppers (2-3 cm. long and nearly
1 cm. broad), but do not differ from them in structure.
Japan Cayenne peppers are about the same size as the Zanzibar
product, but are brighter in color and more glossy, although not so pun-
gent. Their anatomical structure would indicate that they* are fruits
of a different species.
524
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
HISTOLOGY.
While the structure is analogous to that of paprika, certain elements
are strikingly different, thus enabling the microscopist to distinguish
sharply between the two species.
The Pericarp of the dry fruit is hardly thicker than a sheet of writing-
paper.
i. Epicarp (Figs. 441 and 442). In surface view this coat is radically
different from that of paprika. The cells are usually quadrilateral, more
or less wavy in outline, and what is most noticeable, are arranged in dis-
tinct longitudinal rows. They are smaller than those of paprika, being
but 20-55 P- m diameter, and have indistinctly beaded walls, which (double)
are 3-5 fi thick.
2. Hypoderm. Cross-sections show that a hypodermal collenchyma
of suberised cells is entirely absent, the character of the tissues chang-
FlG. 442. Cayenne Pepper {Capsicum jastigiatitm). Epicarp in surface view. Xn°
(Leach.)
ing abruptly from the thick, sclerenchymatous epidermis to the thin-
walled tissues of the mesocarp. This distinction, however marked in
cross-section, is not of service in the examination of the powder.
3. The Mesocarp, and 4. The Giant Cells are quite like the corre-
sponding layers of paprika.
5. The Endocarp Cells of the two species are also very similar, but
are somewhat smaller in Cayenne pepper.
CAYENNE PEPPER. 525
Spermoderm. i. The Epidermal Cells are of the same general form
as those of paprika, but the inner sclerenchymatized lamella of the
outer wall is more strongly developed than the middle lamella, whereas in
paprika the middle lamella alone is conspicuous. In surface view the
cells are somewhat smaller than the epidermal cells of paprika.
2. The Middle Layer, and 3. The Inner Epidermis are not character-
istic.
The Endosperm and Embryo agree in structure with the correspond-
ing parts of paprika.
• DIAGNOSIS.
In cross-sections the lack of sclerenchymatized collenchyma in the
hypoderm, the thinner mesocarp, and the broader inner lamella of the
outer wall of the spermoderm serve to distinguish this fruit from paprika.
These distinctions are of no service in the examination of the powder,
but the highly characteristic epicarp cells (Figs. 441 and 442) suffice for
positive identification.
Characteristic elements common to both fruits are the oil drops of
a red or orange color, the, thick- and thin-walled cells of the endocarp
(Fig. 437, st, en), and the outer epidermal cells (Fig. 440, ep) of the sper-
moderm (intestine cells). ^
The adulterants of both powders are the same and are enumerated
under paprika.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16
17, 48); Hassal (19); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (43, 45)!
See also Bibliography of Paprika p. 522
Hanausek, T. F.: Zur Charakteristik des Cayennepfeffers. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters Hyg.
1893, 297-
Istvanffi: Zur Charakteristik des Cayennepfeffers. Bot. Centralbl. 1893, 3, 468.
Wallis: The Structure of Capsicum minimum. Pharm. Jour. 1901, 13, 552.
Waixis: The Structure of Japanese Chillies. Pharm. Jour. 1902, 69, 3.
Wallis: Capsici Fructus. Pharm. Jour. 1897, 59, 467.
526 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
MYRTACEOUS FRUITS {Myrtacecs).
Allspice is the only fruit of this family of importance as a spice. Cloves,
the leaf bud of a myrtaceous plant, is described on p. 397.
ALLSPICE
Although most of the plants producing spices are natives of the East,
the tree yielding allspice, pimenta, or Jamaica pepper, {Pimenta offi-
cinalis Lindl.), is an American species, growing wild in the West Indies,
South America and Mexico, and extensively cultivated in Jamaica. Its
fine form, abundant, shining evergreen foliage, and delightful fragrance
combine to make it an attractive object in tropical gardens.
Tobasco or Mexican allspice, is a large-berried variety of P. officinalis,
regarded by some as a separate species. Crown allspice (Poivre de The-
bet), the fruit of Pimenta acris Sw., with berries 8-10 mm. long, is also
gathered in tropical America. Both of these have practically the same
• structure as common allspice.
The fruit at full maturity is a two-celled, less often one- or three-celled,
dark purple berry 5-8 mm. in diameter, crowned with a four-toothed
calyx; each cell contains a plano-convex, chocolate-colored seed. The
spice of commerce consists of the berries picked when fully formed, but
still green, and dried in the sun. The berries are dark brown with a
rough surface and have a flavor supposed to resemble a mixture of cloves
with other spices, hence the English name allspice.
The seeds consist of a brown spermoderm and a snail-like, spirally-
coiled embryo with a long thick radicle and minute cotyledons. They
contain from 3-6 per cent of a volatile oil, and are therefore but about
one-quarter as strong as cloves, the product of a tree of the same family.
HISTOLOGY.
After soaking in water, whole berries and seeds removed from the
berries, separate sections are prepared of the pericarp and spermoderm.
Pericarp (Figs. 443-445). The outer wall of the pericarp, which
differs somewhat in structure from the partitions between the cells, is
first examined.
1. Epicarp Cells (Fig. 444, ep) of notably small size, containing a
dark-brown material, and here and there well developed stomata, form
ALLSPICE.
527
the outer layers of the pericarp. Hairs up to 200 ft long, characterized
by their thick walls, and in their outer portions by their exceedingly
narrow lumens, are scattered over the surface, particularly in the neigh-
borhood of the calyx teeth.
2. The Outer Mesocarp with Oil Cavities, forming about one-quarter
of the thickness of the pericarp, should first be studied in cross-section.
The ground tissue consists of small thin-walled cells somewhat larger
Fig. 443. Allspice (Pimenla officinalis). Outer wall of pericarp in cross section, oil
oil cells; st stone cells of mesocarp. (Moeller.)
than those in the epicarp, those about the oil cavities forming one or
more concentric layers. The oil cavities (Fig. 443, oil) are rounded sacs,
up to 200 /i in diameter, similar to those occurring in cloves. Over
these the epicarp and mesocarp are somewhat distended, forming the
wart-like irregularities seen on the surface of the fruit.
528
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
3. The Inner Mesocarp with numerous Stone-Cells (Fig. 443, st) makes
up the major part of the pericarp. The cells of the ground tissue increase
in size from without inward, and are either empty or contain formless
brown masses or else crystal clusters of cal-
cium oxalate. The stone cells are irregular
in shape and have colorless walls more or
less strongly thickened, in which branching
pores and concentric markings are conspicu-
ous. They are distributed through the par-
enchymatous ground tissue, being especially
numerous in the inner layers, where they
form a nearly continuous coat one or more
cells thick.
4. Compressed Cells in several layers line
the cavity of the berry. In surface view
these cells, particularly those in the inner
layer, are polygonal in form.
We find in the parchment -like partition walls epidermal layers of
polygonal cells, a more or less obliterated ground tissue containing crys-
tal clusters, and distributed through the ground tissue numerous fibro-
vascular bundles and occasional stone cells (Fig. 445).
Spermoderm (Fig. 446). Cross-sections show that this layer is thin
on the edges of the seed, but on the broad sides forms thick cushions.
Fig. 444. Allspice. Surface view
of ep epicarp and st oil cells.
X160. (MOELLER.)
Fig. 445. Allspice. Elements of partition wall in surface view. X 160. (Moellee.)
. i. The Outer Epidermis (ep) is of narrow elongated cells.
2. The Middle Layers (p) are characterized by the pigment cells of
irregular form with contents of a clear port-wine color, which are readily
ALLSPICE.
529
found in the powdered spice. It is these cells that form the greater part
of the thickened portion on the sides of the seed. Fibro-vascular bundles
of the raphe and its branches ramify in the inner layers.
3. An Inner Epidermis of elongated cells is seen in surface view.
Vogl notes that the spermoderm is divided into an outer coat including
the pigment cells and bundles, and an inner coat of but a few cell layers.
As the inner coat is not evident in all seeds or in all parts of the same
Fig. 446. Allspice. Spermoderm in surface view, ep epidermis; p brown parenchyma
(port wine cells). (Moeller.)
seed, it is possible that it does not belong to the spermoderm, but is a
remnant of the endosperm or perisperm.
Embryo (Fig. 447). On soaking seeds for a day or two in if per cent
caustic-soda solution, the spermoderm may be removed from the em-
bryo. Under a lens the latter is seen to consist of a long radicle coiled
in a snail-like spiral of two turns, diminishing in size from the thick lower
end near the hilum of the seed to the upper end bearing the minute coty-
ledons. Cross-sections of the seed pass through the radicle in two or
more places and may also pass through the cotyledons. By far the
larger part of the seed is radicle.
1. The Epidermal Cells contain coloring matter but no starch.
53° SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
2. Oil Cavities in a ground tissue of parenchyma, similar to those
of the pericarp, form a ring about the radicle.
3. Starch Cells make up the great mass of tissues. The rounded"
starch grains (up to 12 pi) have a distinct hilum and are often united
into twins or triplets. They resemble closely the starch of nutmeg and
cinnamon.
DIAGNOSIS.
The chief elements of allspice powder are rounded starch grains
(Fig. 447), occurring singly, in pairs, or triplets, each with a distinct
hilum; pigment cells (Fig. 446, p) of the spermoderm with port-wine-
colored contents (blue or green with ferric chloride) ; white stone cells of
the mesocarp; oil cavities of both the mesocarp and embryo; small epicarp
cells; and hairs with walls strongly thickened toward the apex.
Ground allspice is adulterated with various cheap materials, some
of which, such as clove stems, allspice stems, ground cocoanut and other
o
Fig. 447. Allspice. Starch parenchyma of cotyledon. (Moeller.)
nut shells, cocoa shells, dried pears and red sandalwood, are naturally
of a brownish color, and others, including cereal preparations, legumes
etc., are colored brown either by roasting or by the addition of iron oxide,
dyes, etc.
Cocoanut shells are distinguished by the isodiametric and slender elon-
gated stone cells with brown walls, occurring either isolated or in dense
masses; cocoa shells by the epidermis, the numerous small spiral vessels,
and the sclerenchyma cells of the spermoderm; sandalwood by the char-
acteristic wood elements, and the red color extracted by alkali. Other
adulterants, such as cereal products, legumes, oil seeds, are detected by
the characters noted under the several seeds.
ALLSPICE. TRUE NUTMEG AND MACE. 53*
Allspice stems are present in small amount as an accidental impurity
in the genuine allspice of commerce; but when the amount is large, will-
ful adulteration is to be suspected. A much more common adulterant
of ground allspice is clove stems, which closely resemble the genuine pro-
duct in composition and appearance. Spaeth, who has studied the com-
parative anatomy of the stems of the two plants, finds : (i) allspice stems
have one-celled hairs of various forms, with a globular thickening on
one side, while clove stems are not hairy; (2) the bast fibers and wood
elements of allspice stems are less strongly developed and of a lighter
color than those of clove stems; (3) the stone cells of allspice stems are
not abundant, and for the most part are small, light-colored, and uni-
formly thickened, whereas those of clove stems are more numerous,
mostly yellow in color, and often thickened only on one side; (4) con-
spicuous epidermal cells occur only in clove stems.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T- F. (ro, 16); Hassall (19);
Leach (25); Mace" (26); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (54); Schimper
(37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45).
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber einige, gegenwartig im Wiener Handel vorkommende
Gewiirzfalschungen. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1894, 8, 95.
Morptjrgo: Delle Spezie. Trieste, 1904.
Nevinny: Die Piment-Matta. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1887, 1, 46.
Spaeth: Zur mikroskopischen Priifung des Pimentes. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg.
1895, 2, 419.
NUTMEGS AND MACE (Myristicaceai).
The terms nutmeg and mace in the legal sense include only the pro-
ducts of Myristica fragrans. The products of M. argentea are inferior
substitutes, while Bombay mace is a worthless adulterant.
TRUE NUTMEG AND MACE.
True nutmeg is the seed freed from the spermoderm, and true mace
the arillus or seed mantle, of a tree (Myristica jragrans Houtt.) indige-
nous to the Moluccas and introduced into Java, Borneo, Sumatra, and
other regions of the East Indies, as well as into Trinidad, Jamaica, St.
Vincent and other West Indian Islands. To-day, as in colonial times,
the Banda Islands produce a large part of the world's supply of these
532
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
spices, particularly the better grades, the term "Banda" as applied to
either nutmeg or mace being a mark of superiority.
In general appearance the tree resembles the orange tree, having
shining deep-green leaves. It is dioecious, but to facilitate fertilization
it is a common practice to graft staminate branches on the pistillate trees.
The nutmeg fruit resembles a peach in shape and size. On ripening
the fleshy pericarp splits into two halves, disclosing the dark-brown seed
closely clasped by the deep-red branching arillus (Fig. 448).
The mace is removed whole, dried in the sun, and sometimes sprinkled
Fig. 448. Nutmeg (Myri-
stica jra grans), enclosed
in mace or arillus and
shell or spermoderm.
Natural size. (Moeller.)
Fig . 449. Nut-
meg. Seed,
natural size.
(Moeller.)
Fig. 450. Nutmeg. Cross sec-
tion showing shell (spermo-
derm), dark veins (peris-
perm) and starch tissue
(endosperm). Slightly en-
larged. (Berg.)
with salt to insure its keeping. When ready for the market it varies from
a buff to a brown color according to the variety and the care taken in
curing. The seed is also dried, after which the loose nutmeg is removed
from the hard, dark-brown, shining spermoderm. The latter is 1-2 mm.
in thickness, furrowed on the outer surface with the imprint of the mace,
and marked with a band-like raphe running from the hilum at the base to
the chalaza at the apex. The nutmeg (Fig. 449) is oval, of a cinnamon-
brown color, and bears numerous longitudinal wrinkles on the surface,
as well as a groove corresponding to the position of the raphe. Cross-
sections (Fig. 450) show a beautiful marbled appearance caused by the
dark-brown branches of the perisperm penetrating into the starchy endo-
sperm. The relatively small embryo is situated at the base.
It is the common practice to steep nutmegs in lime-water to prevent
the ravages of insects as well as to improve their appearance. These
TRUE NUTMEG AND MACE.
533
limed nutmegs have a coat of carbonate of lime which may be removed
in large part by friction. Penang nutmegs are usually shipped without
liming.
HISTOLOGY.
Only nutmeg and mace are usually available for study, although the
entire fruit preserved in alcohol, and the dried seeds, including the hard
shell or spermoderm surrounded by the mace, are sometimes obtainable
from spice importers.
Pericarp, i. The Epicarp consists of small polygonal cells and
curious multicellular star-shaped and jointed hairs, or their scars.
2. Hypoderm. Several layers of small stone cells underlie the epicarp.
3. The Mesocarp consists of rather thick-walled parenchyma, oil
cells and numerous branching secretion tubes with brown contents.
4. The Endocarp is of soft tissues.
Arillus (Mace) (Figs. 451 and 452). The seed-mantle is a formation
intermediate between a true arillus (aril) and an arillodium (arillode).
Near the base, where it is cup-shaped, it divides into flattened branching
Fig. 451. Mace (Myristica fragrans). Cross section of outer layers, ep epidermis; p
parenchyma with o oil cells. X160. (Moeller.)
arms which form an irregular network clasping the seed. As found in
the market, mace is buff or brown, translucent, brittle, and agreeably
aromatic, owing to the essential oil present in amounts varying from
6-15 per cent. Because of the large amount of fat (20-25 Per cent),
sections should be extracted with ether for the microscopic study of the
other elements.
1. Epidermis (ep). The cells are longitudinally extended, some-
times reaching a length of nearly 1 mm., and vary from 20-40 [i in width.
534
SP/CbX AND CONDIMENTS.
At the ends they are either sharply pointed or truncated. From cross-
sections it appears that the cuticularized outer walls are greatly thickened
(6-8 pi), and that the other walls are moderately thick and swell con-
siderably in water. Chlorzinc iodine stains the walls blue, the cuticle
yellow. These cells are almost always wider than thick, thus differing
V
Fig. 452. Mace. Surface view of ep outer epidermis and p parenchyma. X160.
(Moellee.)
from the corresponding cells of Bombay mace, which in cross-section
are radially elongated.
2. A Hypoderm of collenchyma cells is found in some parts, par-
ticularly near the base.
3. Ground Tissue (p) of thin-walled, isodiametric cells 25-50 ft, large
oil cells up to 80 ft, and nbro-vascular bundles, constitutes the bulk of
the material. In sections previously extracted with ether, the cells of
the ground tissue are seen to contain numerous curious, irregular, carbo-
hydrate bodies with rounded excrescences, ranging in length up to 12 [i,
which become red or red-brown on addition of iodine. These bodies,
to which Tschirch has given the name amylodextrin starch, consist of
a substance intermediate between starch and dextrine, convertible, like
starch, into a soluble form by malt extract, and into dextrose by heating
with acid. By the diastase method mace yields 20-30 per cent of so-
called "starch," or, strictly speaking, amylodextrin starch. The oil
cells contain a light yellow mixture of essential oil, resin, and fat. Addi-
TRUE NUTMEG AND MACE.
535
tion of alkali does not produce a marked coloration — never a blood-red
color, as in the case of Bombay mace.
Spermoderm (Fig. 453). During drying the hard, chocolate-brown
shell, consisting of the spermoderm with a portion of the outer or primary
perisperm, separates from the nutmeg. Cross sections may be cut dry
iV
Fig. 453. Nutmeg. Shell in cross section. 5 spermoderm consists of ep epidermis with
st starch grains, p parenchyma with g bundle, pal1 outer palisade layer, and pap inner
palisade layer with kr crystals; N perisperm with qfs fiber layer. (Hallstrom.)
and cleared with chloral, potash, or, best of all, Javelle water. Tan-
gential sections should also be cut of both the outer and inner layers.
i. Epidermis (ep). Tangential sections show clearly the sharply
polygonal epidermal cells 20-40 fi in diameter with double walls 3 ft
thick; also robustly developed stomata. Brownish, amorphous cell-
contents, and often starch grains are the visible contents.
S3«
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
2. Parenchyma (p). The cells are thin-walled and contain clear,
port-wine colored masses readily separating from the cells, also occasional
crystals of oxalate of lime. Fibro-vascular bundles of the raphe and
its branches ramify through this layer.
3. Outer Palisade Layer {pal 2). These cells are narrow, thin-walled,
and about 150/1 high.
4. Inner Palisade Layer (pal2). By far the larger part of the spermo-
derm consists of the sclerenchymatized, enormously elongated cells of
this layer, which vary in height up to 1 mm. and in breadth up to 20 ft.
The radial walls are remarkably straight, but the narrow lumen is irregu-
lar in outline, owing to the spiral thickening of the walls. A large crystal
of calcium oxalate is often present in either end of the cell or in the
central portion. As seen in cross-section, the cells of both palisade
layers are wavy in outline, owing to the irregularities of the surface of
the seed, formed by the pressure of the mace during growth.
Primary Perisperm (Fig. 453, qfs). 1. Fiber Layer. Tschirch and
Oesterle have shown that the fibers of this layer are developed from the outer
layer of the nucellus, and there-
fore belong with the perisperm.
_s Seen in tangential section of
the inner surface of the shell,
f they form an interrupted layer
am
Fig. 454. Nutmeg. Cross section of kernel. 5
primary perisperm; F secondary perisperm of
veins; E endosperm with am starch grains, al
aleurone grains and / pigment cells. X 160.
(Moellee.)
Fig. 455. Nutmeg. Tissues of
perisperm from surface of kernel
with brown masses and crystals.
X160. (Moeller.)
reminding us in their arrangement of the tube-cells of the cereals. The
individual fibers are about 15 n broad, but vary greatly in length and
have irregular outlines.
TRUE NUTMEG AND MACE. 537
2. Inner Layers (Fig. 454, s; Fig. 455). A portion of this tissue clings
to the inner surface of the shell; the remainder forms the outer coat of
the nutmeg. In tangential section the cells are rounded, 12-30 [x in
diameter, with small intercellular spaces. Dark contents, also crystals,
usually prismatic, less often tabular, which, according to Tschirch and
Oesterle, have the reactions of bitartrate of potash, are present in the
cells. The cell- walls are sclerenchymatized.
The Secondary Perispermm (Fig. 454, F) forms not only the inner
portion of the enveloping layers of nutmegs, but also the dark fatty folds
penetrating into the heart of the kernel. The cells are polygonal, for
the most part smaller than in the primary perisperm, and contain more
abundant brown contents. The cell-walls are of cellulose. Large
secretion cells occur in the folds, in some parts in such numbers as to
form nearly the whole tissue.
Endosperm (Fig. 454, E). The light-colored portion of the kernel
constitutes the endosperm, a parenchymatous tissue consisting of starch
cells and occasional pigment cells. The starch grains range up to 20 li
in diameter and occur singly, in twins, triplets, and in larger aggre-
gates. Except for the surfaces of contact, they are rounded. Each
has a distinct hilum and often radiating clefts. In addition to the starch
grains, each cell contains an aleurone grain with a large crystalloid. The
pigment cells contain starch grains embedded in a brown medium. These
cells are lacking in the central portion of the endosperm (the "conduct-
ing tissue" of Tschirch and Oesterle) into which the arms of the cotyle-
dons penetrate during germination.
The Embryo is located in the basal portion of the seed and has branch-
ing cotyledons for absorbing the reserve material in the endosperm.
DIAGNOSIS.
Whole Nutmegs. By far the larger part of the nutmegs of commerce
reach the consumer whole, either limed, that is with a loose coat of lime
adhering, or unlimed, the so-called brown or Penang nutmegs. It is
customary in the trade to separate each consignment according to size,
designating the different grades by the number required to weigh a pound.
It is a well-known tradition that in Colonial times, when spices
were expensive luxuries, Connecticut Yankees were wont to manufacture
imitation nutmegs from basswood. Whether or not this story is based
on facts is uncertain, but a fraud of this kind is no more remarkable than
538 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
molded nutmegs, molded coffee beans, and many other forms of sophis-
tication practiced at the present time. The name "Nutmeg State,"
at first jokingly applied to the State of Connecticut, is now fixed in the
language, and will doubtless persist through all time. It is needless to
say that imitation nutmegs of all kinds, including the molded kernels
described by Vanderplanken, Ranwez and others, can be quickly identi-
fied by the appearance and odor on cutting open the kernel.
Ground Nutmegs appear only in small amount on the market. It
is no easy task to reduce a sound nutmeg to a powder because of the
high percentage of oily matter; furthermore, the whole nutmeg keeps
its flavor better and is readily grated as needed. Immature, worm-eaten
and other inferior nutmegs are generally used for grinding; in fact, they
are known in the trade as " grinding nutmegs." Certain insects devour
the starchy endosperm, but avoid the resinous perisperm. We have
seen kernels which had been visited by insects that lacked almost entirely
the endosperm and were readily crushed between the fingers. Chemical
analysis and microscopic examination showed an almost complete absence
of starch, but an excess of resinous matter.
The elements of ground nutmegs especially worthy of notice are the
rounded starch grains (Fig. 454, am) with distinct hilum, often in twins,
triplets, and larger aggregates; the oil cells, pale yellow even after
treatment with caustic alkali; the primary perisperm with crystals;
and the brown secondary perisperm.
The adulterants include every imaginable cheap material which is,
or may be made, brown in color. The materials which have been detected
include nutmeg shells (spermoderm), cocoanut shells and other nutshells,
cocoa shells, linseed meal, cereal matter, etc.
Whole Mace. The dried arillus, like the nutmeg, is often used whole
in the household. The characters of importance in diagnosis are the
longitudinally elongated epidermal cells (Fig. 452, ep), cross-sections
of which (Fig. 451, ep) are tangentially elongated; the amylodextrin
starch grains (seen after extraction of the fat); and the light yellow oil
cells, which do not become orange with alkali. As the blades are more
or less broken, it is an easy matter to adulterate with mace from inferior
species.
Bombay mace (Fig. 457) has narrower blades, forming a dense
tangle at the end of the arillus. If chewed, it sticks to the teeth, colors the
saliva orange, and does not have a spicy flavor. Cross-sections show
that the epidermal cells (Fig. 458, ep) are radially elongated. Treat-
TRUE NUTMEG AND MACE. 539
ment with alkali dissolves the dull-yellow contents of the numerous oil
cells (/) to a blood-red liquid. The high percentage of non-volatile
ether extract, as well as the deportment of the alcoholic extract toward
reagents, also aids in diagnosis.
Macassar or Papua mace is identified by the broad, dark-brown
blades, the peculiar wintergreen odor, and the high percentage of fat.
Unfortunately it cannot be distinguished with certainty from true mace
by its microscopic structure.
Ground Mace is a buff or brown greasy powder with an aroma resem-
bling that of nutmegs, but more delicate. The noticeable microscopic
characters are the amylodextrin starch grains becoming red with iodine,
the elongated epidermal cells, and the oil cells. In detecting Bombay
mace, the large numbers of oil-cells and the color of their contents before
and after adding alkali are of chief importance, coupled, of course, with
qualitative chemical tests and determinations of ether extract. Chemical
analysis must be relied on to detect Macassar mace. Starchy matter,
nutshells, and other foreign materials used as adulterants may usually
be detected by the microscope.
Nutmeg Shells have no real value but serve as an adulterant. The
powder is identified by the enormously elongated palisade cells (Fig. 453,
pal 2), and the detached fibers of the outer layer of the perisperm.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16, 48);
Mace" (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (29, 30, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper
(37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Viliiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45).
Baillon: Sur Porigine du maces de la muscade et des arilles en generale. Comptes
rendus de l'academie, 78, 779. Adansonia, 1876, 11, 329.
Btjsse: Ueber Gewiirze. Muskatnusse. Arb. Kaiserl. Ges.-Amte. 1895, 11, 390, 628.
Busse: Notez betreffend den Nachweis von Bombay Macis in Macispulver. Ztschr.
Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1904, 7, 590.
Hallstrom: Anatomische Studien tiber die Samen der Myristicaceen und ihre Arillen.
Arch. Pharm. 1895, 233, 441.
Hanausek, T. F.: Verfalschte Macis. Ztschr. Nahr. -Unters. Hyg. 1890, 4, 77.
Moeller: Ueber Muskatnusse. Pharm. Centralh. 1880, 453.
Morptjrgo: Delle Spezie. Trieste, 1904.
Pfehter: Die Arillargebilde der Pflanzensamen. Inaug.-Diss. Berlin, 1891.
Ranvez: Verfalschung des Muskatpulvers durch die Muskatschalen. Ann. Pharm.
1900, 6, 139.
Tschirch: Ucuhuba, die Samen von Myristica surinamensis. Arch. Pharm. 1887,
66, 619.
540 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Tschirch: Inhaltsstoffe derZellen des Samens und des Arillus von Myristica jragrans
Houttuyn. Tageblatt der 58 Versammlung deutscher Naturforscher u. Aertze
in Strassburg, 1888.
Voigt: Ueber den Bau und die Entwickelung des Samens und Samenmantels von
Myristica jragrans. Inaug.-Diss. Gottingen, 1885, 365.
Waage: Banda- und Bombay -Macis. Pharm. Centralh. 1892, 33, 372.
MACASSAR NUTMEG AND MACE.
Myristica argentea Warb. yields Macassar or Papua nutmeg and
mace, products ranking next to true nutmeg and mace in importance.
The nutmegs (Fig. 456), often known as long
nutmegs, are 25-40 mm. long and 15-25 mm. broad,
but by microscopical or chemical methods are not
distinguishable from true nutmegs. The shell, as
emphasized by Tschirch and Oesterle, lacks the
fiber layer, a characteristic of no value in the dia-
gnosis of the commercial product, as that is free
from the shell.
Macassar Mace is darker colored than true
mace and has broader blades. In its microscopic
Nutmeg" (Myristica structure and chemical reactions it is much the
argentea) Natural same as true mace; in percentage composition,
size. (Warburg.) > r o r-
more like Bombay mace. It contains over 50 per
cent of non- volatile ether extract, but less than 10 per cent of " starch."
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (32); Yogi (45).
Also see Bibliography of nutmeg and mace p. 539.
Waage: Papua-Macis. Pharm. Centralh. 1893. X. F. 14, 131.
BOMBAY MACE.
The chief adulterant of true mace is the arillus of Myristica Mala-
barica Lam., known as Bombay mace. Although this product is obtained
from a tree belonging to the same genus as true mace, it is nearly taste-
less and has absolutely no value as a spice. The elongated nutmeg
of this species does not come into Europe or America.
Bombay mace has much narrower and more numerous blades than
the true mace. These at the apex are vermiform, forming a tangled,
conical mass (Fig. 457). The color is usually a deep red-brown, although
sometimes it is yellow.
BOMBAY MACE.
541
HISTOLOGY.
Viewed in cross-setions (Fig. 458), the radial diameter of the epi-
dermal cells {ep) is greater than the tangential, whereas in true mace
the reverse is the case. So far as the cell-structure is concerned, this
distinction is the most important, though it is not of use except in the
examination of whole mace, or at least broken mace, having fragments
large enough for cutting sections. Of greater value are the reactions
of the material contained in the oil cells (/). Ex-
amined in water, these cells are not only more nu-
merous than in true mace, but the contents are of an
Fig. 457. Bombay Mace
(Myristica M a lab a -
rica). Natural size.
(Warburg.)
Fig. 458. Bombay Mace. Cross section of outer
layers, ep epidermis; p parenchyma; / pigment
cells; g bundle. (T. F. Hanatjsek.)
orange-red color. On treatment with alkali the color dissolves to a
blood-red liquid, whereas in the case of true mace the color is not
greatly changed.
Chemical Examination.
Chemical analysis shows that Bombay mace contains nearly 60 per
cent of non-volatile ether extract, or over twice as much as true mace,
but only 15 per cent of " starch."
Several qualitative methods of detection have been described, of
which Busse found Waage's test and the capillary test the most reliable.
The tests employing lead acetate and chrom alum are stated by the same
author to be entirely unreliable, and those employing basic lead acetate
(Hefelmann's test), iron alum and iron acetate were unsatisfactory.
Waage's test consists in adding potassium chromate to the alcoholic
542 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
extract (one part of mace to ten parts of alcohol). In the case of Bom-
bay mace the solution becomes more or less blood-red and the precipitate,
at first yellow, becomes red on standing. If only true mace is present
both the solution and precipitate are yellow and do not greatly change
on standing.
In making the capillary test strips of filter-paper 15 mm. broad are
soaked in the alcoholic extract for 30 minutes, dried, dipped in boiling
saturated baryta water, and spread on clean paper to dry. Bombay
mace gives a brick-red color, but true mace and Macassar mace, a brown-
ish yellow, faintly red in the lower part of the strip.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (30, 32); Tschirch u. Oesterle
(40); Vogl (45).
Also see Bibliography of Nutmeg and Mace, p. 539.
Tschirch: Bombay-Macis. Pharm. Ztg. 1881, 556.
CARDAMOMS {Zingiber acece). *
The various plants yielding the cardamoms of commerce are all peren-
nial, rush-like herbs, natives of southeastern Asia.
Two varieties of this spice are exported; the small or Malabar
cardamom, and the less important long or Ceylon variety. Although
the plants producing these fruits were formerly regarded as separate
species, both are now classed as Elettaria Cardamomum White et Maton.
Rarely other varieties reach the markets of Europe or America, such
as Siam or round cardamom {Antomum Cardamomum L.), wild or bas-
tard cardamom (A. xanthloides Wall), Bengal cardamom (A. subulatum
Roxb.), and Java cardamom (A. maximum Roxb.).
The fruit is a three-celled capsule, often ending in a short beak,
the remains of the perianth. Each cell contains two rows of closely-
crowded seeds, each enveloped and cemented to its neighbor by a deli-
cate transparent membrane, the arillus. The form of the capsule, its
size and color, as well as the number and structure of the seeds, vary
greatly.
MALABAR CARDAMOM.
Malabar cardamoms are rounded triangular, more or less elongated,
somewhat over 1 cm. long. The leathery pericarp is light brown, yellow,
MALABAR CARDAMOM.
543
or nearly colorless, longitudinally striated, and only slightly aromatic.
Colorless, membranous partitions separate the fruit cavities. The seeds,
usually 6-8 in number, form a coherent mass, from which, however, the
individuals, each enveloped by its delicate arillus, are easily separated.
They are red-brown, 2-3 mm. long, irregularly angular, transversely
wrinkled, and have a sunken hilum and a raphe in a groove running
Tiearly the length of the seed (Fig. 459). A bulky perisperm surrounds
Fig. 459. Malabai Cardamom (Elet- Fig. 460. Malabar Cardamom. / longitudinal
(aria Cardamomum) . Seed with a section, X 3. II cross section, X 8. p perisperm;
arillus. X3. (Luerssen.) e endosperm; em embryo. (Luerssen.)
the endosperm and this in turn the minute embryo (Fig. 460).
odor is agreeably aromatic, suggesting camphor, the taste biting.
The
HISTOLOGY.
The Pericarp when dry is less than 1 mm. thick, but swells some-
what in water. Cross- and tangential-sections are cut either wet or dry;
surface preparations of the outer and inner layers are obtained by scraping.
Fig. 461. Malabar Cardamom. Outer layers of shell (pericarp), ep epicarp, p parenchyma
with h resin cells. X160. (Moeller.)
i. Epicarp (Fig. 461, ep). The rounded polygonal cells often show
marked evidence of their formation by the division of mother cells.
2. Mesocarp (p). A thin-walled, large-celled parenchyma forms the
544
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
ground tissue, in which are numerous smaller cells containing lemon-
yellow or red-brown resin lumps (50 /t). The nbro-vascular bundles
have thin- walled spiral vessels (60 //), and
moderately thickened bast fibers of about the
same diameter as the vessels. In the inner
layers the tissue is a spongy parenchyma
(Fig. 462).
3. Endocarp (Fig. 462). The cells are
usually longitudinally extended, but some
times are irregularly arranged.
Fig. 462. Malabar Cardamom. Inner layers of shell Fig. 463. Malabar Carda-
(pericarp) showing spongy parenchyma and endocarp. mom. Arillus in surface
X160. (Moeller.) view. X160. (Moeixek.)
Arillus (Fig. 463). The membranous, colorless seed-mantle covers
the seed loosely and is attached to it at the base. At first glance it appears
structureless, but on careful observation we see that it is composed of
several layers of delicate, greatly elongated cells, containing strongly
refractive drops and here and there crystals, either singly or in rows.
Spennoderm (Figs. 464 and 465). To cut sections it is necessary to
have the hard seed firmly fixed either between corks or embedded in
hard paraffine. The first and fifth layers are highly characteristic. '
1. Outer Epidermis (0). This layer, like several already described,
has longitudinally extended cells, but here they are very striking, because
of their thicker walls, sharp outline and frequent arrangement side by
side. The cells are mostly 35 p. broad and have either pointed or blun*-
ends.
MALABAR CARDAMOM. 545
2. Cross Cells (qu), often with brown contents giving the reactions
for tannin, are indistinctly seen in cross-section, more readily in surface
view.
3. Oil Cells (oil). These are large, thick cells containing the essen-
tial oil, present in the fruit to the amount of 4 per cent, and also other
substances.
4. Parenchyma (p). One or two layers of cells are seen in cross-
Fig. 464. Malabar Cardamom. Cross section of arillus and seed, ar arillus; spermo-
derm consists of 0 outer epidermis, qu cross cells, oil oil cells, p parenchyma and st
palisade cells; perisperm consists of al aleurone cells and am starch cells. (Moeixer.)
section after swelling with reagents. In surface view they are readily
found.
5. Palisade Cells (st). Because of the enormous thickening of the
walls and their intense brown color, these cells form the most character-
istic layer of the entire fruit. So greatly are the walls thickened that
only a tiny cavity, at the outer end of each cell, remains. This cavity
contains a crystal-like body. The cells are 8-20 fi broad and about
25 ft high. Focusing on the outer wall, the cells appear moderately
thin-walled, much thinner than the corresponding cells of Ceylon carda-
mom; but focusing on the inner wall, no lumen is evident, only a com-
pact brown mass with the sharply defined outline of the cell.
Perisperm. The outer layer contains aleurone grains, the remaining
cells starch grains. The latter are minute, usually 2-3 /< and seldom
over 4 fi, rounded or polygonal, and, like pepper and buckwheat starch,
form dense masses conforming in shape to the cell. In the center of
546
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
each mass is a hollow space containing a large crystal or several small
crystals of calcium oxalate. After treatment with cold alkali, although
the starch dissolves, the masses do not disappear, but form at first a
granular, later a homogeneous mass, indicating the presence of a material
in which the starch grains are embedded.
The Endosperm is relatively small and contains in its small, thin-
walled cells aleurone grains and fat but no starch.
The Embryo has been carefully studied in various stages of growth
by Tschirch, who found that it consists of an axially arranged absorptive
o —
~wnt
gu —
Fig. 465. Malabar Cardamom. Elements of seed in surface view, o outer epidermis;
qu cross cells; ^parenchyma; st palisade cells; e perisperm; am starch cells. X160
(Moeller.)
organ, surrounding at its basal end a minute plantlet which shows before
sprouting little differentiation. The cells are small and contain the
same materials as the endosperm, namely proteids and fat.
DIAGNOSIS.
Malabar or small cardamoms serve as a spice, especially as an ingre-
dient of curry powder, and also in the making of various aromatic pharma-
ceutical preparations. For these only the seeds should be employed,
as the shells contain little or no essential oil. It is, however, difficult to
MALABAR CARDAMOM. CEYLON CARDAMOM. 547
effect a complete separation, and commercial cardamom seeds invariably
contain a certain amount of shell fragments. In the case of the ground
seed, the presence of a large amount of shells indicates willful adultera-
tion.
Many fragments found in the ground seed have distinctive characters.
Of the perisperm elements, the masses of minute starch grains offer an
excellent means of identification. The characteristic tissues of the sper-
moderm are the elongated epidermal cells (Fig. 465, 0), often with adhering
cross cells (qu), and the brown mosaic of palisade cells (st). The epidermal
cells have the same form as the inner epidermis of the pericarp and the
cells of the arillus, but have much thicker and more rigid walls. The
elements of the pericarp worthy of especial notice are the yellow or brown
resin masses.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674 Berg (3); Greenish (14); Hanausek, T-
F. (16); Hassall (19); Meyer, A. (10, 27); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et
Collin (34); Schimper (37) ; Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
Bttsse: Ueber eine neue Kardamomen-Art aus Kamerun. Arb. Kais. Gesundh. 1898,
14. 139-
Hartwich und Swanxund: Ueber Kardamomen von Kolombo, das Rhizom von
Zingiber Mioga und Galanga major. Ber. deutsch. pharm. Ges. 1903, 13, 141.
Morpurgo: Delle Spezie. Trieste, 1904
Niederstadt: Die im Handel vorkommenden Cardamom-Arten. ' Chem.-Ztg. 1897,
21, 831.
Schade: Entwicklungsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen iiber die Malabar-Cardamomen
und vergleichend-anatomische Studien iiber die Samen einiger anderer Amomum-
und Elettaria Arten. Inaug.-Diss. Bern, 1897.
Soltsien: Verfalschung von Cardamomenpulver. Pharm. Ztg. 1892, 373.
Tschirch: Beitrage zur Pharmakobotanik und Pharmakochemie. Schw. Woch. Chem.
Pharm. 1897, No. 17.
Tschirch: Ueber Cardamomen. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1897, 35, 481.
Tschirch: Diagnose der Cardamomen. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm. 1897, No. 43.
Waage: Fructus Cardamomi. Ber. pharm. Ges. 3, 162.
CEYLON CARDAMOM.
Long or Ceylon cardamoms are the fruit of a variety of Elettaria
Cardamomum White et Maton, which is still classed by some as a dis-
tinct species.
The capsules are much longer than those of the Malabar variety,
often reaching 4 cm., and the seeds, of which there are about 20 in each
of the three cells, are twice as large, but are less aromatic.
548
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
HISTOLOGY.
Of the several distinctions from Malabar cardamoms, the presence
* —
FlG. 466. Ceylon Cardamom (Elettaria Cariamomum). Epicarp with hairs and hair
scars in surface view. X160. (Moeller.)
Fig. 467. Ceylon Cardamom {Ekttaria Cardamomum). Tissues of inner pericarp in
(Mo V1£T' Wlng Parenchvma. spongy parenchyma and endocarp (<•/>). X160.
of hairs on the epicarp deserves first mention (Fig. 466). It is true
UMBELLIFEROUS FRUITS.
549
that these are seldom found on the commercial product, but the scars
with radiating cells about them are quite as useful in diagnosis. The
outer epidermis of the spermoderm
(Fig. 468, 0) has much thicker walls
(double walls 6 /i), than in the Malabar
species, although the cells themselves
are narrower. Other differences are
too slight to be of practical use.
UMBELLIFEROUS FRUITS
( Umbellifercs) .
The inflorescence of the plants
belonging to the Umbellijerce is in
flattened heads or umbels, a word de-
rived from the Latin umbella, mean-
ing umbrella. The flowers are small
with two-celled ovaries crowned by $-*
five petals, five stamens, and usually
five minute calyx teeth. The two
carpels, or mericarps, are plano-con-
vex, joined On the inner flattened side FlG: 4^8. Ceylon Cardamom. Tissues
' J of spermoderm in surface view, o outer
known as the commissure. On the
epidermis; , st palisade cells.
(Moellee.)
X160.
convex or dorsal side they bear five
primary ribs and sometimes four secondary ribs. When ripe the
mericarps readily separate, disclosing the carpophore or prolongation
of the stem to which the carpels are attached at their upper ends. In
cross-section the mericarps are either semicircular or kidney -shaped.
Running longitudinally through the dry pericarp, are brown, essential
oil ducts or vittm, which are evident to the naked eye both in cross-sec-
tion and, after boiling with dilute caustic alkali, in surface view.
The epicarp is either smooth or hairy, the hairs being unicellular
(anise) or multicellular (cumin).
The mesocarp has outer and inner parenchymatous layers, between
which is a middle zone traversed by the fibro-vascular bundles of the
ribs, and by the oil ducts, the latter being jointed and encased in a single
layer of parenchyma. The ground tissue of this middle zone is largely
parenchymatous, except on the dorsal side of coriander fruit, where it
55° SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
forms a dense sclerenchyma layer. The cells of the inner layer of the
mesocarp are either isodiametric or transversely elongated, conspicuous
or indistinct.
The endocarp cells are, for the most part, transversely elongated,
forming a cross-cell layer, although in some species groups of cells extend
in other directions, giving the layer a parqueted appearance. In breadth
the cells differ greatly according to the species.
The anatropous seed consists of a thin spermoderm, usually of one
distinctly cellular layer and of several obliterated layers, a bulky endo-
sperm and a minute embryo embedded in the upper end of the endo-
sperm. Aleurone grains 2-15 [i in diameter, containing crystal rosettes
of calcium oxalate, or globoids, also fat, are the only -visible contents of
the endosperm. The minute radicle of the embryo is directed upward.
The fruits contain essential oils, which give them their value as flavor-
ing materials for food products, or in medicine.
COHPARATIVE HISTOLOGY OF UflBELLIFEROUS
FRUITS.
Pericarp. Epicarp Cells marked with delicate striations. Unicell-
ular, warty hairs in anise; prickles (emergences) in cumin; papillae
more or less evident in celery. Epicarp smooth in all the other species.
Mesocarp. Ou^- ^yers parenchymatous in all the species and not
distinctive. Middle layers of coriander on dorsal side composed of
sclerenchyma tized fibtis with bundles but without oil ducts. In all
the other species the ground tissue is parenchyma, through which pass
bundles and oil ducts.
Oil Ducts. One in each groove in fennel, dill, caraway, and cumin;
one to three in celery; three to six in anise.
Ribs of each fruit uniform, except in dill, where the lateral ones have
wings of sclerenchyma cells perpendicular to the bundles.
Reticulated Cells accompany the bundles of fennel and dill.
The Inner Mesocarp pronounced in fennel, dill, celery, and coriander;
inconspicuous in the other species. In coriander, cell-walls thickened,
those of innermost layer porous; cells of inner layer in celery transversely
elongated, broader than those of endocarp, more or less parqueted.
Endocarp cells narrow (mostly less than 7 /<) in fennel, dill, celery,
and coriander; broader (mostly over 7 /x) in caraway, anise, and cumin.
€ells parqueted in fennel, dill, and celery.
UMBELLIFEROUS FRUITS. 55 x
Spermodenn. Much the same in all species. Outer layer of isodia-
metric or transversely elongated cells. Inner layers of obliterated cells.
Endosperm. Walls thick. Cell-contents fat and aleurone grains
3-15 (i, containing oxalate crystals or globoids.
Embryo minute, of no diagnostic value.
Carpophore and Stem of woody elements.
Analytical Key to Umbelliferous Fruits.
I. Ground tissue of mesocarp parenchymatous throughout, or sclerenchymatized near
the bundles only. Oil ducts on both dorsal and commissural sides.
(a) Endocarp cells mostly less than 7^ broad, often parqueted.
* One oil duct in each groove.
1. Ribs of uniform size Fennel.
2. Lateral ribs with wings Dill.
** One to three oil ducts in each groove.
3. Ribs and bundles small, inner mesocarp of transversely elongated cells.
Celery.
(J) Endocarp cells mostly more than 7/1 broad, seldom parqueted.
■ * One oil duct in each groove.
4. Epicarp smooth ., Caraway.
5. Epicarp with emergences Cumin.
** Several oil ducts in each groove.
6. Epicarp with warty unicellular hairs Anise.
II. Middle layers of mesocarp on dorsal side strongly sclerenchymatized. Oil ducts
present only pn commissural side.
7. Inner mesocarp thick -walled and porous. Endocarp cells mostly less than
IP broad Coriander.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Baetsch: Beitrage zur Entwicklung d. Umbelliferenfriichte. Diss. Breslau, 1882.
Kayser: Ueber das Verhaltniss der Integumente der Samenanjagen zu den Samendecken
der reifen Samen. Ber. pharm. Ges. 1891, 1, 157.
Kayser: Beitrage zur Kenntniss der Entwicklungsgeschichte der Samen mit besonderer
Berucksichtigung des histogenetischen Aufbaues der Samenschalen. Pringsheims
Jahrb. wissenschaft. Bot. 1893, 25, 79.
de Lanessan: Observations surle developpement du fruit des Ombelliferes. Bull, de
la Soc. Linneenne, 1874, No. 3.
Lange: Ueber Die Entwicklung der Oelbehalter in den Friichten der Umbelliferen.
Diss. Konigsberg, 1884.
Meyer, A. : Ueber die Entstehung der Scheidewande in dem sekretfuhrenden, plasma-
freien Intercellularraume der Vittae der Umbelliferen. Bot. Ztg. 1889, 341.
Moeixer: Das Pulver der Umbelliferenfruchte. Pharm. Post. 1892, 25, 24.
v. Mohl: Eine Kurze Bemerkung iiber das Carpophorum der Umbelliferenfrucht.
Bot. Ztg. 1863, 264.
552
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Tatjfani: Nota preliminare sul frutto e sul seme delle Apiacee. Nuovo giorn. bot. ital.
1888, 20, 307.
Tautani: Morfologia ed istologia del frutto e sul seme delle Apiacee. Nuovo. giorn.
bot. ital. 1891, 23, 451.
Uhlitzsch: Riickstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1893,
42. 215.
Villepoix: Recherches sur les canaux secrdteurs du fruit des Ombelliftres. Ann.
sci. natur. VI Sir. 5, 350.
VAN Wisselingh : Over de vittae der Umbelliferen. Gew. vergadering der afdeel.
Natuurk. op. 30. Juni, 1894, 36.
FENNEL.
Fennel {Faniculum capillaceum Gilb.) grows wild in various parts
of Europe and Asia, and is also a common garden plant in both the Old
and the New World. In Colonial times in America it was a common
custom among the Puritans to carry to church a sprig of green fennel,
known as " Meetin' Seed," at which they nibbled during the service.
Fruits of the cultivated varieties are from 3-10 mm. long, 1-2 mm,
broad; those from the wild plant somewhat smaller. Roman or sweet
fennel (F. duke DC), grown in Mediter-
ranean countries, yields a larger fruit (Fig.
469), but with a smaller percentage of
essential oil.
Fennel fruit is composed of two plano-
convex carpels united on the flat com-
Fig. 469. Fennel (Foeniculum capillaceum).
a German fennel X3; 6 Roman fennel X ii;
c Macedonian fennel X ij. (Hagee.)
Fig. 470. Fennel. Cross section of
fruit. (Tschirch.)
missural side, but separating easily when ripe. The commercial
product consists partly of entire fruits and partly of detached car-
pels, the latter being bowed so that the commissure becomes concave.
On the dorsal side each carpel bears five pronounced ribs. As in other
FENNEL. 553
umbelliferous fruits, the dry pericarp incloses a hard seed consisting
largely of endosperm. The carpophore, or stem of the fruit prolonged
between the carpels, is divided. The dry fruit contains 2-7 per cent
of an essential oil, consisting largely of anethol, to which it owes its value
as a drug and flavoring material.
HISTOLOGY.
Cross-sections are cut with a razor or microtome without special
preparation other than soaking in water. After boiling with dilute alkali,
the pericarp may be easily separated from the seed, and the spermoderm
from the endosperm.
Pericarp (Fig. 470). In each of the five ribs on the dorsal side of
the carpel is a fibro-vascular bundle, while in the tissues between adjoin-
ing ribs is a large resin duct. Two resin ducts run through the tissues
of the commissure.
1. The Epicarp Cells (12-25 f1) in surface view are polygonal or
quadrilateral, -arranged often in longitudinal rows. Their walls are
colorless and sharply defined. Small stomata occur here and there.
2. Mesocarp (Fig. 472). Several layers of colorless, thin-walled
isodiametric cells (20-50 /<) underlie the epicarp, and two or more layers
of thicker-walled isodiametric or transversely elongated cells with brown
walls form the innermost layers (b, c). Between these outer and inner
layers is an ill-defined zone of ground tissue, through which run the
oil-ducts and fibro-vascular bundles. The oil-ducts, usually 200 /z or
more broad and about half as thick, are incased by a single layer of polyg-
onal cells of an intensely brown color (a). Because of this sheath,,
the ducts in surface view form broad brown bands in the lighter-colored
ground tissue.
Quite as striking as the ducts, although lacking all color, are the
bundles, of which there are six in each carpel, a large one in each of the
five ribs, and a small one in the middle of the commissure, the large
bundles being about the same size as the oil ducts. The bast strand
is not only strongly developed on the outer side of the bundle, but extends
inward to the xylem, bisecting the phloem. Adjoining each side of the
bundle and extending into the ground tissue separating the bundle from
the neighboring oil duct, is a group of reticulated, sclerenchyma cells,
(Fig. 471), those nearest the bundle being longitudinally elongated, the
others isodiametric. These reticulated cells are characteristic of fennel.
554
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
3. The Endocarp (Fig. 472, d) is made up of exceedingly narrow
cross cells from 4-6 fi broad, those derived from the same mother cell
being arranged side by side in groups. As a rule the cells are trans-
versely elongated, except over the
bundles where the members of
different groups extend in different
directions, giving the coat a par-
queted appearance peculiar to this
species. In cross-section the layer
is about 15 /£ thick.
Spermoderm. This is firmly
Fig. 471. Fennel. Porous paren- Fig. 472. Fennel. Elements of the pericarp in
chyma of mesocarp. (Moeixer.) surface view. u. brown cells encasing the oil
ducts; b, c brown parenchyma of mesocarp; d
endocarp. (Moellee.)
attached to the endocarp on one side and the endosperm on the other,
but can be separated by boiling with dilute alkali.
1. The Outer Epidermal Cells are often transversely elongated, but
are readily distinguished from the cross cells of the endocarp by their
greater breadth (12-25 <") and their arrangement side by side in long
rows, not in small groups.
2. The Inner Layers over most of the seed form a collapsed, structure-
less tissue, and it is only about the raphe running through the middle
of the commissure that the cells are well defined.
Endosperm. The hard, ivory-like endosperm consists of quadri-
lateral or polygonal, thick-walled (double walls 3-6 p), colorless cells
FENNEL. CARAWAY. 555
containing aleurone grains and fat. Examined in glycerine or tur-
pentine, the aleurone grains are seen to be 2-8 p. in diameter, and
contain one or two globoids or a calcium oxalate rosette, the latter being
evident after mounting in chloral.
The Embryo is embedded in the upper part of the endosperm with its
radicle directed upward.
DIAGNOSIS.
Fennel is used whole and ground, both as a drug and in cookery.
The residue from the manufacture of the essential oil is fed to cattle.
Aside from the oil ducts three elements are of value in diagnosis:
(1) the reticulated cells (Fig. 471) of the mesocarp; (2) the parenchyma
cells of the inner mesocarp, with brown walls (Fig. 472, b, c); (3) the par-
queted groups of exceedingly narrow (4-6 (i) endocarp cells (d). The
epidermis lacks all hairs. Starch-free endosperm, with characters like-
those of other members of the family, forms the bulk of the fruit.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674. Berg (3); Bohmer(23); Collin (8); Han-
ausek, T. F. (16); Harz (18); Mace (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (31, 32); Planchon
et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
Jtjckenack u. Sendtner: Zur Untersuchung und Charakteristik der Fenchelsamen.
Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1899, 2, 69, 329.
Moeller: Das Pulver der Umbelliferenfruchte. Pharm. Post. 1892, 25, 24.
Neumann-Wender: Ueber gefiirbten Fenchel. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1897,
11, 369.
Neumann-Wender: Zur Verfalschung von Fenchelsamen. Oesterr. Chem -Ztg
1899, 2, S88.
Uhlitzsch: Ruckstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw Vers -Stat 180?
42, 21s. ' ' 93'
Umney: Japan Fennel. The Chem. and Drugg. 1896, 49, 850.
Umney: The Commercial Varieties of Fennel. Pharm. Jour. 1897, 58, 225.
CARAWAY.
The so-called caraway seed, used in bread and cakes as well as in
medicine, is the fruit of Carum Carvi L., a native of Europe, where it
is also extensively cultivated. It is also grown to a limited extent in
American gardens.
The fruit reminds one of fennel in appearance, but is shorter and
more slender, being seldom over 5 mm. long and 1.5 mm. broad. The
light-colored ribs contrast sharply with the nearly black channels between
SS6
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
them. Cross sections of the five-ribbed carpels are nearly equilateral
pentagons, the inner face, or commissure, being
scarcely broader than each of the four exposed
faces (Fig. 473)-
HISTOLOGY.
Fig. 473. Caraway (Carum 1^.1
Corvii Cross section of The Pericarp (Fig. 474) is not so robustly
fruits, enlarged. (Moel- developed as that of fennel.
1. Epicarp. The cells on the .faces are
polygonal, or more often quadrilateral, 15-45 P in diameter, arranged
in longitudinal rows. Over the ribs they are elongated. Stomata are
present.
2. The Mesocarp is not so thick as in fennel and the bundles are nar-
rower, seldom exceeding 125 /t in diameter, but on the other hand the
Fig. 474. Caraway. F pericarp and E endosperm in cross section; / fibers of bundles;
oil oil ducts covered above with sclerenchyma. (Moeixer.)
oil ducts (oil) are considerably larger, the tangential diameter reaching
350 /«■
The Inner Mesocarp, as seen in cross section, is of compressed cells
which are scarcely evident at all in surface view. After boiling in dilute
alkali, we are able to separate out from the bundles narrow spiral vesselSj
somewhat broader bast fibers, and also, at the edges of the bundle near
the apex of the fruit, groups of isodiametric, sclerenchyma cells. Reticu-
lated cells such as occur near the bundles of fennel are entirely want-
CARAWAY. 557
ing. Over the broad oil ducts is an envelope of brown polygonal paren-
chyma cells.
3. Endocarp. The cells are transversely elongated, forming a cross-
cell layer. Their breadth (15-25 fi) is much greater than in fennel.
Although commonly placed side by side in rows, they are not parqueted.
Spermoderm. The structure is obscure owing, in cross section, to
the compressed condition of the elements, and in surface view, to the
hyaline nature of the walls. Preparations obtained by boiling with dilute
alkali, removing the pericarp, and scraping the seed, show, with careful
illumination, that the thin-walled cells of the outer layer are mostly
transversely elongated. Cell-structure in the inner layers is scarcely
recognizable.
The Endosperm and Embryo agree in structure with the correspond-
ing parts of fennel.
DIAGNOSIS.
This fruit, whole or ground, is an ingredient of foods and medicines;
the residue from the manufacture of caraway oil is a cattle food and
adulterant.
As the structure resembles more nearly fennel than any of the other
common umbelliferous fruits, it is important to note the points of differ-
ence between these two. Reticulated cells adjoining the bundles, brown
polygonal parenchyma cells in the inner mesocarp, both characteristic
tissues of fennel, are lacking in caraway ; on the other hand,- isodia-
metric sclerenchyma cells, such as occur near the apex of caraway, are
lacking in fennel. The bundles are narrower, the oil cells larger in cara-
way. A most important distinction lies in the size and arrangement
of the elongated endocarp cells. In caraway they are much broader
than in fennel and are transversely arranged throughout — never par-
queted. The epicarp (without hairs), spermoderm, endosperm, and
embryo are practically the same in both fruits.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Collin (8); Hanausek, T. F.
{16); Harz (18); Mace" (23); Moeller (31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers et
Collin (42); Vogl (45).
Matthews: The Vittae of Caraway Fruits. Pharm. Jour. 1898, 60, 259.
Moeller: Das Pulver der Umbelliferenfruchte. Pharm. Post. 1892, 25, 24.
Uhlitzsch: Riickstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1893,
42, 215.
558
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
ANISE.
The fruit of anise (Pimpinella Anisum L.), the anise "seed" of com-
merce, is the most delightfully aromatic of the umbelliferous fruits em-
ployed in medicine and cookery. The plant is a native of Egypt and
Asia Minor, where it was cultivated in very early times. It is now grown
in various parts of Europe, particularly in Spain, Italy, France, Germany,
and southern Russia, also in the Orient and sparingly in America. Spain
supplies the market with one of the finest grades, Russia with a grade
largely used for the manufacture of the essential oil, of which the fruit
contains from 1.5 to 3 per cent. Anise oil is an ingredient of various
medicinal preparations (paregoric, etc.), cordials, and candies.
As found on the market the fruit is obovoid, 2-4 mm. long, 1.5-2
mm. broad, of a dull-brown color (Fig. 475). Slender stems somewhat
longer than the fruit are attached to many of them. On breaking apart
Fig. 475. Anise {Pimpinella Anisum).
1 Spanish or Italian; 2 German or
Russian. (Moeller.)
Fig. 476.
Anise. Cross section, enlarged.
(MOELLER.)
the carpels the inner surface is often found to be sunken in the middle.
The carpophore is parted.
HISTOLOGY.
Each of the carpels in cross section (Fig. 476) reminds one of a gam-
brel roof, the rib on the middle of the dorsal side corresponding to the
ridge-pole.
The Pericarp (Fig. 477) is characterized by the hairy epicarp and
the numerous oil ducts.
1. Epicarp. The peculiar warty hairs (Fig. 478) which characterize
this layer vary up to 200 p. in length, the longer ones being about 15 ft
broad in the middle. At the apex they are blunt, at the base expanded
into a polygonal cell similar in shape and size to the other epidermal
cells. Some of these hairs are divided by cross partitions into two cells.
ANISE.
559
2. Mesocarp (Fig. 479). Running through the ground tissue on the
convex side of each carpel are 20 to 45 oil ducts ranging in diameter
Fig. 477. Anise. Outer portion of fruit in cross section, r rib; t hairs; P mesocarp;
st oil ducts; 5 endosperm. (Vogl.)
from 10-150 fi. It should be noted that the larger ducts frequently
branch. Only two ducts are found in that portion of the pericarp cover-
ing the commissural face of each carpel, but these are of great breadth,
reaching 300-400 ji. The bundles are small, 30-50 /* in diameter.
3. Endocarp. Cross cells from 7-20 fi broad form the inner layer
Fig. 478. Anise. Epicarp with hairs and Flo. 479. Anise. Surface view of oil oil
stoma. (Moeller.) ducts and tr cross cells. (Moeller.)
of the pericarp, except on the flattened face, where they grade into iso-
diametric cells often somewhat sclerenchymatized.
Spermoderm, Endosperm, and Embryo are practically the same as
in fennel and caraway.
560 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
DIAGNOSIS.
Highly characteristic are the blunt, warty hairs (Fig. 478) of the epi.
carp. The large number of oil ducts (Fig. 479, oil), their branching
tendency and their variable size also the cross cells of the endocarp (tr)
further characterize the pericarp. The odor of the fruit is sweeter
and more highly aromatic than that of other members of the family.
Italian anise has been found by Lochmann to contain the poisonous
fruits of Conium maculatum L. These have a smooth epicarp, and the
mesocarp contains no oil ducts. On rubbing in a mortar with potash
solution a mouse-like odor is noticeable. The micro-tests for Conium
described by Tschirch and Oesterle may also be applied. Volkart gives
botanical analyses of Dutch anise containing fruits of Conium, Setaria
glauca, and S. viridis.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Bohmer (23); Collin (8);
Hanausek, T. F. (16); Harz (18); Mace (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (31, 32);
Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
Lochmann: A Common and Dangerous Admixture of Conium Fruit with Italian
Anise. Amer. Drugg. 1887, 16, 81.
Modrakowski: Vergleichende Untersuchung der dem Conium maculatum ahnlichen
Umbelliferen. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1903, 41, 1215.
Moeller: Das Pulver der Umbelliferenfruchte. Pharm. Post. 1892, 25, 24.
Uhlitzsch: Riickstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1893,
42, 215.
Volkart: Ueber das Vorkommen von Schierlingsfruchten im Anis. Schw. Woch.
Chem. Pharm. 1897, 614.
cuniN.
Among the spices mentioned in the Old Testament is cumin, the
fruit of Cuminum Cyminum L., an annual umbelliferous plant indige-
nous to Egypt and introduced into India, Asia Minor, and southern
Europe.
The hairy carpels are 6 mm. or less in length, and have five primary
and four secondary ribs (Fig. 480). In cross section they are kidney-
shaped. The carpophore is divided.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp. 1. The Epicarp (Fig. 481) bears on the ribs remarkable
prickles (emergences) varying up to 200 fi in length and from 25-40 /x in
CUMIN.
56*
breadth in the middle portion, broadening at the base. Each consists
of a bundle of elongated cells ending usually in a single rounded cell.
These prickles are highly characteristic.
The other epidermal cells have wavy walls,
and in places are"' longitudinally elongated.
Stomata occur in considerable numbers.
2. Mesocarp. A bundle about 50 fi in
diameter is present in each of the five
primary nerves, and a large oil duct, 200
fi or less broad, in each of the four second-
ary nerves. Still larger oil ducts, two for
each carpel, are found in the commissure.
3. Endocarp. The cross cells of this
layer are 7-18 // broad.
Spermoderm. The cells in all but the outer layer are strongly conv
a
Fig. 480. Cumin (Cuminum
Cyminum). a fruit, natural
size; b dorsal side of fruit, en-
larged; c commissural side of
fruit, enlarged; d cross section.
(Hagee.)
Fig. 481. Cumin. Prickle from fruit. (Moellee.)
pressed. Vogl notes that each cell contains either a single crystal or
a sheaf-like bundle of crystals.
Endosperm. The aleurone grains are 15 p. or less in diameter, and
562 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
contain oxalate rosettes or globoids. After dissolving the proteid mat-
ter in dilute alkali, the crystals are easily seen.
DIAGNOSIS.
The prickles (Fig. 481) of the epicarp furnish the chief means of
identification. The cross cells are intermediate in size between those
of fennel and caraway.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hanausek, T. F. (16); Harz
(18); Hassall (19); Mace" (26); Moeller (32); Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers et Collin
(42);Vogl(45).
Uhlitzsch: Riickstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1893
42, 215.
CORIANDER.
The coriander fruit (Coriandrum sativum L.) is a native of Italy and
other countries bordering on the Mediterranean. It is cultivated in
many regions for its fruit, the coriander seed
of commerce, which bears little resemblance
either in external appearance, histology, or
flavor to the other umbelliferous fruits used
as foods.
Fig. 482. Coriander (Corian- r^, t . ,r- n . . , , ,
drum sativum). Surface view ine Irmt (blE- 4°2J IS globular 2-4 mm.
and cross section enlarged. m diameter, and is crowned with the remains
of the fine calyx teeth and the small pyramidal
base of the style. It consists of two closely united carpels, each with five
main ribs and between them four secondary ribs, but only two oil ducts,
both on the commissural side. As the carpels are strongly concave on the
commissural side, the fruit is hollow and readily crushes between the
teeth. The flavor of coriander is mild and agreeable. Coriandrol is
the chief constituent of the essential oil.
HISTOLOGY.
Owing to the sclerenchyma layer of the mesocarp peculiar to this
species, coriander is easily identified.
Pericarp (Fig. 483). For surface preparations it is recommended to
boil in 1 1 per cent alkali, remove the pericarp and scrape both the outer
and inner surface.
CORIANDER. 563
i. Epicarp. The sharply polygonal cells, 15-30 /t, contain crystals
and crystal clusters of calcium oxalate also remains of chlorophyl grains.
2. The Hypodermal Cells, of which there . are two or three layers,
are somewhat larger than those of the epicarp, and in cross-section are
tangentially elongated.
3. Parenchyma. Between the ribs this layer consists of large, iso-
diametric, thin-walled cells, and in the ribs, of longitudinally elongated,
Fig 483. Coriander. Cross sec- Fig. 484. Coriander. Sclerenchyma and paren-
tion through portion of the two chyma of mesocarp in surface view. (Moel-
fruits showing where they are LER.)
grown together. (Berg.)
moderately thick-walled cells. Between this and the next layer are
the insignificant fibro- vascular bundles.
4. Fiber Layer (Fig. 484). Tangentially extended fibers, crossing
one another in different directions, form a continuous coat on the dorsal
side of each carpel, but are entirely lacking on the commissure ; on the
other hand, two oil ducts' 300-400 ft in diameter occur on the commissural
side, but none are present on the dorsal side. The fiber coat is from
5-10 fibers thick (50-175 /*), being thickest in the ribs. The fibers have
strongly thickened, sclerenchymatized, porous walls. A similar fiber
layer occurs in the endocarp of the apple and coffee bean.
5. Inner Mesocarp. Isodiametric or somewhat elongated rounded
parenchyma cells 25-60 fi in diameter make up two or more layers.
They have yellow walls 4-8 ji thick, which, in the innermost layer, are
distinctly porous.
6. Endocarp. Narrow cross cells 3-10 /x broad, often parqueted,
remind one of the endocarp of fennel.
564 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Spermoderm. After removal of the pericarp as above described,
the spermoderm may be separated from the seed by scraping. The
cells in the outer layer are polygonal, 15-25 fi in diameter, and contain
a brown-green substance.
Endosperm. This, in cross-section, is narrow kidney-shaped. It
contains aleurone grains like those found in other members of the family.
The Embryo presents no distinctive features.
DIAGNOSIS.
Whole coriander fruits are much used in confectionery, and also to
some extent in mixtures of whole spices; the ground fruits enter into
the composition of various spice mixtures and drugs.
From all other fruits of the family they are distinguished by the dense
fiber layer (Fig. 484) and the presence of oil ducts only on the com-
missural side. The endocarp is much like that of fennel, dill, and celery,
but seen in combination with the thick and porous-walled inner mesocarp
cells is useful in identification.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hanausek, T. F. (16); Harz
(18); Mac6(26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller(32); Planchon et Collin (34); Villiers et
Collin (42); Vogl (45).
Perrot: Sur l'anatomie du fruit de coriandre. Bui. Sci. Pharm. 1901, 3, 385.
Uhlitzsch: Ruckstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers.-Stat. 1893,
42, 2x5.
DILL.
Like most of the umbelliferous plants yielding fruits used for culinary
purposes, dill (Anethum graveolens L.) is a native of parts of Europe,
Asia, and Africa bordering on the Mediterranean.
The carpels (Fig. 485) are plano-convex, 3-5 mm. long, and 2-3 mm.
broad. Of the five ribs, the two on the edges form wings about 0.5 mm.
broad, while the remaining three on the convex surface are not pro-
nounced. The carpophore is divided nearly to the base.
HISTOLOGY.
This fruit is distinguished from fennel by the wings on the edges.
While the bundles in the other ribs are not usually over 100 /1 in diameter,
those in the wings reach 300 /x. The thin, chaffy edges of the wings,
about 300 [i broad, consist of porous, sclerenchyma cells, in the outer layers
DILL. CELERY SEED. 56S
isodiametric, in the inner layers greatly elongated (often 150 /z) and
arranged perpendicular to the bundle.
On the side of the bundle nearest the seed are reticulated elements,
which are either isodiametric or axially elongated.
Epicarp, Endocarp, Spermoderm, and Embryo are
similar in structure to the corresponding parts of
fennel.
DIAGNOSIS.
Fig. 485. Dill (Ane-
Dill fruits are employed both in foods and medi- thum graveoiens).
cines. They are distinguished from fennel by the
broad wings, each with a large bundle (300 /x), and adjoining the bundle,
porous, sclerenchyma elements. On the outer side these sclerenchyma
cells are elongated perpendicularly to trie bundle, and are distinctly but
finely porous, whereas on the inner side of the bundle they are longi-
tudinally elongated and reticulated.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (16); Harz (18).
Uhlitzsch: Riickstande der Fabrikation atherischer Oele. Landw. Vers. -Stat. 1893,
42, 215.
Umney: Some Commercial Varieties of Dill Fruits. Pharm. Jour. 1898, 61, 176.
CELERY SEED.
Celery (Apium graveoiens L.) is grown throughout the temperate
regions of Europe and America for its succulent leaf-stalks or fleshy
roots, and in France for its spicy fruits.
These are minute, 0.8-1.5 mm- l°ng; and are shaped much like anise
seed. The carpophore is entire nearly to the apex. Cross-sections of
the carpels are nearly regular pentagons.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp. After boiling or soaking for some hours in i£ per cent
alkali the pericarp separates from- the seed.
1. The Epicarp Cells in surface view are sinuous in outline, the outer
walls being delicately striated, and in parts extended beyond the surface
in the form of warts.
2. Mesocarp. One, two, or three oil ducts occur in each groove
on the dorsal side, while two are present on the commissural side. They
566 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
are surrounded by a layer of polygonal cells. The bundles are small,
and at the apex of the seed are accompanied by groups of sclerenchyma
cells.
The inner layers of the mesocarp consist of elongated cells broader
than those of the endocarp (10-16 ft), but otherwise very much like them.
They are for the most part transversely arranged, but groups of cells
extended in other directions are not uncommon.
3. Endocarp. Narrow cross cells (4-10 fi), such as are found in
fennel and dill, make up this layer. Although mostly transversely ex-
tended, a parqueted arrangement is not uncommon.
Spermoderm, Endosperm, and Embryo conform in structure to the
usual type of umbelliferous seed.
DIAGNOSIS.
Celery seed has a limited use for seasoning soups, gravies, etc., and
celery salt, a mixture of the ground seeds with common salt, is a table
condiment. Before examination the latter should be freed from the
salt by stirring with water, allowing the insoluble matter to settle.
Mustard seed and other cheaper spices are common admixtures.
Although none of the elements are characteristic, the presence of
two cross-cell layers, one of cells 10-16 n broad belonging to the inner
mesocarp, the other of narrow endocarp cells such as are found in fennel,
is of service in diagnosis. The epicarp is delicately striated and some-
times warty, but is difficult to find.
MISCELLANEOUS FRUITS AND SEEDS.
Mustards are described with the oil seeds (pp. 176-185), tonka
bean with the legumes (p. 273). The following are unclassified:
STAR-ANISE.
Aside from its anise-like aroma, star-anise bears no resemblance to
umbelliferous fruits. It is the fruit of a tree (Illicium verum Hook, fil.,
order Magnoliacem), indigenous to southern China and cultivated in
Japan, the Philippines and other parts of the Orient. After blooming
the 6-8 (rarely 9-12) independent upright carpels assume horizontal
positions, forming a flat expanded rosette (Fig. 486, 1) radiating from
ST/IR-/INISE.
567
a central column and borne on a slender stem. The ripe carpels, 12-20
mm. long and 6-10 mm. high, are laterally somewhat flattened, pointed
on the free end, and dehiscent on the upper (before expansion, the inner)
side, thus making them boat-shaped. The outer surface of the pericarp
is dark brown and roughened; the surface of dehiscence and the lining
of the cavity are smooth and lustrous. Still more lustrous are the light-
brown, obovoid, anatropous seeds, 5-8 mm. long, each containing a
bulky endosperm and a minute embryo. Star-anise owes its agreeable
— mes
Fig. 486. Star- Anise (Illicium verum) . i aggre- Fig. 487, Star-Anise. Cross section
gate fruit; 3 single fruit; 4 (left) stem; 6 seed. of fruit, d dehiscence slit; / fiber
Shikimi (Illiciuni religiosum). 2 aggregate group; epi epicarp; mes mesocarp;
fruit; s" single fruit; 4 (right) stem; 7 seed. end endocarp; jv ribro-vascular
(Vogl.) bundle. (Vogl.)
aroma to an essential oil situated in the pericarp, which, like anise oil,
consists largely of anethol.
HISTOLOGY.
The microscopic structure is somewhat complicated, and includes a
number of beautiful and highly characteristic elements.
Pericarp (Fig. 487). The hard pericarp should be soaked in water
before making preparations. Cross sections should be cut of the whole
pericarp, also longitudinal sections through the dehiscence surface. Prepa-
568
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
rations obtained by scraping the outer and inner portions of the peri-
carp, and tangential sections from the surfaces of dehiscence are also
instructive.
i. Epicarp (epi). The roughened outer surface of the pericarp is
covered with an epicarp of large cells (40-100 ft) with wavy side walls
pierced by numerous pores, and greatly thickened outer walls (10-15 ft)
covered with a striated cuticle. Interspersed among these cells are
large stomata. Highly characteristic are the narrow, more or less paral-
Fic. 488. Star-Anise. Elements of powder in cross section and surface view, ep epi-
carp with c cuticle and sp stoma ; p parenchyma of mesocarp with oe oil cell; sir branched
stone cell; sts stone cells; st stone cells from beneath dehiscence surface; s palisade
cells of endocarp; w parenchmya of spermoderm; en spqrmoderm. X120. (Moeller).
lel, branching and anastomosing striations of the cuticle (Fig. 488, c),
which in cross-section appear like teeth. The contents of these cells
is a red-brown material, either in homogeneous masses or globules,
changing to a green color on addition of ferric chloride.
2. Mesocarp (mes). This is thickest in the dorsal (under) side of the
pericarp, diminishing gradually toward the cleft of dehiscence. The
cells are variable in size, and have thin, brown, wavy walls and brown
ST/lR-s4NlSE. 569
contents. Here and there are found large, rounded cells, containing
essential oil, which in the ripe fruit are more or less shrunken, but assume
their original form on treating tangential sections with dilute alkali.
The walls of the oil cells are- cuticularized and, as noted by Vogl, become
intensely red on the addition of alcoholic fuchsin. Scattered through
the mesocarp and more abundantly through the tissues of the fruit stem,
are branching stone cells of various fantastic shapes, denominated by
Tschirch " astrosclereids. "- These are best obtained by maceration.
Through the middle layers of the mesocarp run the bundles, of which
the narrow spiral vessels, the broad reticulated vessels, and the bast
fibers of various breadth, are the noticeable elements. The cells in the
inner layers are smaller than in the outer and, as may be seen in cross-
section, are collenchymatously thickened.
Adjoining the endocarp on each of the dehiscence surfaces (d) is a
dense layer, 500 ji or more thick, of longitudinally arranged scleren-
chyma fibers. These fibers vary greatly as to the thickness of the walls,
and the breadth of the cavity.
3. Endocarp {end). A layer of sclerenchymatized but thin- walled
palisade cells, reaching 600 ji in height and 60 li in breadth, -lines the
seed cavity. Their shape in cross-section is sharply rectangular. In
surface view they are polygonal, but the isolated cells or groups of cells
obtained from the powder fall on their side, presenting the same appear-
ance as in cross-section. Their great length and prismatic form is
very noticeable. These cells pass by degrees into short, strongly thick-
ened, porous stone cells on the dehiscence surfaces. Toward the edge
of these surfaces they have thinner walls, elegantly marked with parallel
reticulations.
Spermoderm (Fig. 489). Quite as striking as the elements of the
pericarp are those of the spermoderm.
1. The Outer Epidermis (ep) may be separated as yellow, brittle,
glassy fragments from the inner layers which are firmly attached to the
endosperm. As appears "*in cross-section, the layer is composed of
sclerenchyma palisade cells 150-200 /x high and 30-70 ll broad, the
radial walls of which are very strongly thickened in the outer portion,
but narrow near the inner wall, forming an inverted funnel-shaped lumen.
Round and very distinct pores pierce both the radial and tangential
walls.
. 2. Sclerenchymatized Spongy Parenchyma (sub) forms the brown
subepidermal layer. The cells are large, often longitudinally elongated,
570
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
flat, and exceedingly irregular in shape (Fig. 488 m). Their porous
membrane is impregnated with brown coloring matter.
3. Middle Layers (p). Proceeding inward, the intercellular spaces
become less numerous and the walls, although still somewhat thickened,
Fig. 489. Star-Anise. Cross section of outer portion of seed. Spermoderm consists of
ep outer epidermis, sub supepidermal layer and p parenchyma; en inner obliterated
tissue (perisperm ?) ; E endosperm. (Moeller.)
lose their sclerenchymatous character and their brown color. Elongated
elements form the inner layers.
4. Hyaline Layer (en). By scraping are disclosed still other cells
forming the colorless inner membrane. They appear as an indistinct
layer in cross-section and are easily overlooked. Their contents are
numerous, large, prismatic crystals of calcium oxalate. Some of these
cells may belong to the perisperm.
Endosperm. Thin-walled cells containing fat and protein make up
the endosperm. At first glance the contents appear as an amorphous,
colorless mass, but after extracting the fat and treatment with alcoholic
STAR-ANISE. S71
iodine a clear differentiation of the aleurone grains is obtained. These
have roughened surfaces and occur to some extent singly, reaching in
extreme cases 25 n; but more often are combined to form compact masses.
The individual grains contain globoids, less often single crystalloids.
The Embryo is too minute to form any considerable portion of the
product, and possesses no elements worthy of notice.
The Fruit Column and Fruit Stem contain, among other woody
elements, numerous astrosclereids.
DIAGNOSIS.
The fruit is seldom found in the kitchen, but is largely employed
in the manufacture of medicinal preparations, cordials, and perfumes,
as well as essential oil.
The histological elements resemble closely those of the poisonous
fruit of shikimi (Illicium religiosum Siebold), but exhibit some differ-
ences noted in the subsequent chapter. Distinction from other materials
is simple, owing to the highly characteristic elements of the pericarp,
the spermoderm, and the fruit stem. Of especial diagnostic importance
are the striated cells of the epicarp (Fig. 488, ep), the long, non-porous,
rather thin-walled prismatic cells of the endocarp (s), the thick- walled,
porous elements from beneath the dehiscence surface, the epidermal
stone cells of the. spermoderm with funnel-shaped cavities, the scleren-
chymatized subepidermal spongy parenchyma (m), and the inner crystal-
bearing layers, and finally the astrosclereids (str) of the mesocarp and
stem. It is hardly necessary to undertake the somewhat difficult task
of examining the aleurone grains except in cases where the presence of
shikimi is suspected.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Fliickiger (11); Hanausek, T.
F. (16, 48); Mace" (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin
(34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
Blondel: L'industrie de la Badiane au Tonkin. Jour, pharm. chim. 1889, 20, 567.
Godfrin: Etude histologique sur les tegument seminaux des Angiospermes. Soc. d.
Sci. d. Nancy, 1880, 109.
Hartwich: Giftiger Sternanis. Schw. Woch. f. Chem. u. Pharm. 1900, 39, 104.
Lauren: Giftiger und echter Sternanis. Apoth.-Ztg. 1896, 11, 650.
Lenz: Zur anatomischen Unterscheidung der Friichte von Illicium religiosum Siebold
und /. varum Hook. fil. Archiv. d. Pharm. 1899, 237, 241.
Lenz: Ueber die Erkennung der giftigen Sikkimifruchte im Sternanis. Pharm. Ztg.
1899, 44, 44.
572 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Pfister: Zur Kenntniss des echten und des giftigen Sternanis. Vjschr. d. Naturf. Ges.
in Zurich, 1892, 37, 313.
Pfister: Zur Unterscheidung von echtem und giftigem Sternanis. Schw. Woch. f.
Chem. u. Pharm. 1899.
Pfister: Japanischer Sternanis. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1897, 351.
SHIKIMI.
Shikimi (also spelled sikimi, sikkimi, sikimmi, skimmi) (Illicium
religiosum Siebold) grows in Japan, especially about the Buddhist tem-
ples, hence the specific name religiosum.
The poisonous fruit resembles star-anise in morphological and histoil
logical structure, but in chemical composition is characterized by the
absence of anethol and the presence of a poisonous principle, " shi-
kimin." The carpels (Fig. 486) are somewhat smaller than those of
star-anise, less compressed, and have a thinner beak, usually curved
upward; but these distinctions are not sufficiently marked to render
identification, especially in mixtures, absolutely certain. Their odor is
not like that of anise.
The following are the chief distinctions from star-anise:
Star-anise. Endocarp cells highest (up to 600 /1) near the dehiscence
surface, gradually passing into the cells of that surface; astrosclereids
in the fruit column; aleurone grains roughened on the surface, contain-
ing globoids, rarely single crystalloids.
Shikimi. Endocarp cells highest (up to 400 fi) on under side of
the fruit cavity (the side furthest from the dehiscence surface), abruptly
passing into cells of dehiscence surface; rounded stone cells in the fruit
column; aleurone grains distinct, smooth, and lustrous, containing
1 to 3 distinct crystalloids and many globoids.
Tschirch and Oesterle describe the following test: Grind a single
carpel from which the seed has been previously removed, and boil a
few minutes with 1-2 cc. of alcohol. Decant off the liquid and add water.
If the material is shikimi, the liquid remains clear; if star-anise, it becomes
cloudy, owing to the presence of anethol. If the alcoholic extract from
shikimi is allowed to evaporate on a watch-glass, a large number of beau-
tiful crystals of shikiminic acid appear, but the extract from star-anise
yields only a few indistinct crystals.
Lenz shakes the diluted alcoholic liquid with freshly rectified petro-
leum ether boiling below 6o°, and evaporates the ethereal solution. From
SHIKIMI. VANILLA. 573
star-anise a yellow oil with an anise odor is obtained, from shikimi a
scarcely visible residue with a bedbug odor.
Vogl and some other authors find the shikiminic acid test unreliable.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Star-anise, p. 571.
VANILLA.
An epiphytic orchid {Vanilla planifolia Andrew, order Orchidacea),
yields the so-called vanilla beans of commerce. The term " bean "
as applied to this fruit is a misnomer, as the plant is not a legume, and
both the fruit and seeds are radically unlike those of legumes. The
plant is a native of Mexico, whence the finest grade of vanilla is still
obtained, but it is cultivated in South America, Reunion (Bourbon
vanilla), the East African Islands, Tahiti, Java, Ceylon, and various
tropical regions.
Mexican vanilla is almost entirely consumed in the United States,
the European market being largely supplied from Reunion and Mauri-
tius. Tahiti vanilla has a rank flavor which quite unfits it for use as a
condiment.
The ripe fruits are from 12-20 mm. long, in cross-section rounded
triangular, about the size of a small lead pencil. They are one-celled
capsules formed by the union of three fruit leaves, but dehiscing into
two longitudinal valves of unequal size. The fruits ripen in from seven
to nine months; they are picked, however, when fully formed but only
partially matured. The drying is effected either by sunshine, artificial
heat, or calcium chloride, and is supplemented by a sweating process,
which develops the delightful aroma so characteristic of the commercial
product. When ready for the market the fruits are tough, flexible, dark
brown, nearly black, with an oily luster, and are often coated with a bloom
of fine crystals. They are marked by numerous longitudinal furrows
and taper toward both ends, bearing at the apex a small head with a
shallow depression. After soaking in water they swell to their original
triangular shape. In cross-section (Fig. 490) the fruit is one-celled,
containing great numbers of minute black seeds borne on six forked
placentae and embedded in a clear yellow balsam.
The chief flavoring principle of vanilla is not an essential oil but a
crystalline solid, vanillin, present in amounts ranging from 1.5 to 3.0
per cent. In V. pompona Schiede, V. Guyanensis Split., V. palmarum
574 SPJCES AND CONDIMENTS.
Lindl., and V. aromatica Sw., the content of vanillin is much smaller, while
in V. inodora it is entirely absent. Vanillin occurs in considerable amount
in the sap of coniferous and other woods, from which formerly it was
FlG. 490. Vanilla (Vanilla planijolia). Cross section of fruit. X8. (BERG;)
prepared. It has also been found in Siam benzoin and in raw beet sugar.
Synthetic vanillin is now made in large quantities from oil of cloves.
HISTOLOGY.
The beans,- after soaking in water, serve for studying not only the
macroscopic structure, but for cutting microscopic cross-sections and
preparing surface mounts.
Pericarp. 1. The Epicarp (Figs. 491 and 492, ep) consists of thick-
walled, finely porous cells, 40-80 ft in diameter, arranged in longitudinal
rows. Small stomata of elliptical, often nearly circular, form occur
sparingly. In cross-section a thin, yellow cuticle is evident. Brown
bodies (10 /*) embedded in a granular ground substance, also short pris-
matic crystals of calcium oxalate, and less often crystals of vanillin, are
the cell-contents.
2. The Hypoderm Cells are larger and thicker-walled than those of
the epicarp. They are more or less collenchymatously thickened and
longitudinally elongated and have distinctly beaded walls. In Mexican,
Panama, Honduras, and some other Central American varieties, the
pores are greatly elongated, usually spirally, less often longitudinally
or transversely, giving the tissue a highly characteristic appearance.
This peculiar structure is not found in Bourbon, South American, or the
other common varieties, the pores being either round or oval.
VANILLA.
575
3. Mesocarp (Figs. 491 and 493, p). This is a loose parenchyma
of large, thin- walled cells often 150 (x in diameter, with dark-colored
contents. Here and there narrow but elongated cells, commonly arranged
end to end in longitudinal rows, contain large bundles of extraordinarily
long raphides of calcium oxalate reaching 500 // in length, which, in
the preparation of the specimen, are often broken into short pieces.
They are best seen after treating tangential sections with alkali. To
demonstrate the presence of vanillin, mount a cross-section in 5 per cent
phloroglucin solution and draw a drop of sulphuric acid under the
ep-
i>~~
-R"
j._
Fig. 491. Vanilla. Cross section of pericarp, ep epicarp; p mesocarp with K crystals;
pi inner layers of mesocarp; s papillse of endocarp. X160. (Moellee.)
cover-glass. A magnificent carmine color appears immediately. The
numerous bundles running through the mesocarp are of the collateral
or endogenous type, consisting of spiral and reticulated vessels, jointed
porous elements, sieve tubes, and bast fibers. Tschirch and Oesterle have
noted that the pores of the latter are oval and are not accompanied by
the diagonal fissures characteristic of most bast fibers. The cells of
the inner mesocarp are smaller than in the outer and middle layers.
4. The Inner Epidermis between the three pairs of placentae bears
numerous thin-walled, glandular papillae (s) about 300 /* long, filled with
576
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
balsam. Tschirch and Oesterle find that the secretion is formed between
the cuticle and the cell-wall proper. The epidermis on the placentae is
ft"*
Fig. 492. Vanilla. Outer layers of fruit in surface view, ep epicarp with v crystals of
calcium oxalate; p parenchyma. X160. (Moeller.)
of thin-walled, elongated elements. On the surface between the mem-
bers of each pair of placentae, the epidermal and subepidermal layers
Fig. 493. Vanilla. Longitudinal section of fruit flesh, p parenchyma with 0 raphides;
sp spiral vessel; n pitted vessel. X160. (Moeller.)
are made up of longitudinal bundles of thread-like mucilaginous cells
which serve as a conducting tissue for, the pollen tubes. They have
been studied by Busse, Tschirch, and others.
VANILLA. *77
Spermoderm (Fig. 494). The exceedingly minute black seeds (less
than 0.5 mm. long and about two-thirds as broad) have been aptly com-
Fig. 494. Vanilla. Elements of seed. S whole seed, under a lens; ep epidermis; p
parenchyma; E embryo. (Moellee.)
pared by T. F. Hanausek to gunpowder. Owing to the dark-colored
pigment in the spermoderm, the seeds must be boiled with alkali and
crushed before any structure whatever is evident.
1. The Outer Epidermal Cells {ep) are polygonal, 15-30 fi broad
and reach 75 /z in length. After boiling with alkali, they are still dark
brown, but are sufficiently transparent to show that the cavity is reduced
to a narrow slit, owing to the thickened outer and side walls.
2. The Inner Layers (p) are of elongated, parenchymatous cells, which,
like those of the epidermis, are of a brown color.
Embryo (£). The endosperm being absent, the kernel of the seed
consists entirely of the embryo, which is usually undeveloped.
DIAGNOSIS.
W'hole Vanilla seldom reaches the consumer, but is used by manu-
facturers and apothecaries in the preparation of tincture or extract of
vanilla. Although the vanilla may not be of the grade represented, or
may have been previously robbed of a portion of its flavoring principles,
the fruits themselves cannot be successfully imitated. Chemical means
must be resorted to. for the detection of Peru balsam, benzoic acid, and
other materials with which the fruits are sometimes treated, also to secure
evidence of exhaustion. Substitution of Pompona vanilla or the fruits
of other inferior species may be detected by macroscopic examination.
Ground Vanilla is an article of commerce used by some manufacturers,
who find it more easily extracted than the whole fruit. A preparation
of the ground fruit with sugar is also on the market for domestic use.
Both of these are subjects for microscopic examination. In certain dry
preparations, no vanilla product at all is present, the flavor being due
S;S SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
to artificial vanillin or coumarin, or both. In such cases the absence of
the histological elements of true vanilla is established by microscopical
examination, and the presence of vanillin or coumarin is determined
by chemical analysis.
The identification of vanilla in powder form requires great care on
the part of the microscopist. The balsam papillae (Fig. 491, s), although
the most characteristic of the fruit tissues, owing to their delicate structure,
are seldom found intact in the powder. By far the greater part of the
fruit flesh is of parenchyma with no distinctive characters, which, like the
epidermis, might easily be confounded with the corresponding tissues
of other fruits. Of value in identification are the exceedingly long,
although often broken, raphides (Fig. 493, 0), also in lesser degree the
elements of the bundles (Fig. 493, sp, n).
Whole seeds (Fig. 494, S) occur in large numbers in the ground
product. After boiling with alkali, the epidermal cells (ep) are recognized
by their brown color and thick walls.
Tonka beans (p. 273) are detected by their characteristic palisade
cells and column cells.
Vanilla Extracts are grossly adulterated with tonka-bean extract,
synthetic vanillin, and coumarin, caramel being employed to imitate the
appearance of the genuine extract. Obviously the detection of these
forms of adulteration falls to the chemist and not the microscopist.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16, 48);
Mace" (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (29, 30, 32); Molisch (3^); Planchon et Collin
(34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45).
Btjsse: Studien iiber die Vanille. Arb. Kaiserl. Ges. 1898, 15, 1.
Hartwich: Ueber die Frucht der Vanilla Guianensis. Ber. pharm. Ges. 1895, 5,381.
Jellipfe: Vanilla, Microscopy of Fruit. Journ. Pharm. 1898, 5, 35.
Tschirch: Die Tela conductrix der Vanillefrucht. Schw. Woch. Chem. Pharm.
1889.
•
VANILLON.
The fruits of Vanilla pompona Schiede, known in the trade as pom-
pona or La Guayra vanilla, also as vanillon, are shorter than those of
genuine vanilla (maximum length 15 cm.) and much thicker (maximum
25 mm.). Their odor is different from true vanilla, resembling more
that of the tonka bean and benzoin. The pods of Guiana vanilla (V.
Guyanensis Split.) are as long as the genuine, but three or four times
VAWLLON. BAYBERRY.
579
as broad, while those of palm vanilla (V. palmarum Lindl.), also
obtained from Guiana, are but 5 cm. long and 15 mm. broad. Of
these only pompona vanilla is of commercial importance.
HISTOLOGY.
This species is characterized by the large cells of both the pericarp
and hypoderm. The epicarp cells (Fig. 495) are about 400 fi long and
P
FlG. 495. Vanillon (Vanilla Pompona). Surface view of ep epicarp and p hypoderm.
X 160. (Moeller.)
150 [i broad; the stomata, however, are small (60 /*). Even larger
than the epicarp cells are those of the hypoderm, which never have
spirally elongated pores.
BAYBERRY.
The bay -tree or laurel of the ancients (Laurus nobilis L., order Laura-
cecs) is still grown in the Levant. It should
not be confused with Myrica acris Schwarz,
the leaves of which are used for the prepara-
tion of bay rum.
The dried fruit (Fig. 496) is ovate or glob-
ular, 8-12 mm. in diameter, lustrous, dark
brown or green, with numerous wrinkles on
the surface. It has a brittle shell, consisting of united pericarp and sper-
moderm, within which is an embryo with two fleshy cotyledons.
Fig. 496. Bayberries (Lau-
rus nobilis), natural size.
58o
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
HISTOLOGY.
Pericarp (Fig. 497). 1. The Epicarp (epi) consists of small polyg-
onal cells with a reticulated cuticle, and occasional stomata.
Fig. 497. Bayberry. Shell in cross section. Pericarp consists of epi epicarp; mes
mesocarp with oil oil cells, and end endocarp; 5 spermoderm. (Moeller.)
2. Hypoderm. This consists of small cells similar to those of the
epicarp.
3. Mesocarp (mes). Numerous oil cells (oil) are distributed through
the parenchymatous ground tissue. They contain either essential oil
or resin.
4. Endocarp (end). The colorless stone cells are radially elongated
BAY BERRY.
581
upward of 80 (i high. In surface view they are deeply sinuous in out-
line (Fig. 498).
Fig. 498. Bayberry. Endocarp in surface view. - (Moeller.)
Spennodenn (Fig. 497, S). The cells are thin-walled, and more or
less compressed. Through this tissue pass the raphe and its branches.
Embryo (Fig. 499). The epidermal cells are small; those further
inward larger (up to 100 /*). Most of the cells contain starch grains
FlO. 499. Bayberry. Cotyledon in cross section, showing starch grains. (Moeller. j
up to 8 fi, occurring singly or in small aggregates; some however are
filled with colorless essential oil.
582 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
DIAGNOSIS.
The palisade stone cells of the endocarp, sinuous in surface view (Fig.
498), and the small starch grains CFig. 499) are the important elements.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (30, 31); Planchon et Collin
(34); Vogl(4S).
JUNIPER BERRY.
The juniper [Juniperus communis L.) is a well-known forest tree
growing in Europe, Asia, and America. It does not, like most gymno-
sperms, bear a cone, but a round berry
about the size of a large blueberry, which
it further resembles in having a bloom of
a gray-blue color. Strictly speaking, it is
not a fruit. At the time of fertilization
the three ovules, like those of all other
1 I* gymnosperms, are naked in the axils of
Fig. soo. Juniper Berry {Juniperus h t hnt rhirino- n latPr Ktacr(, r.tAp
communis). 7 surface view, natural Drafts, out during a later Stage 01 de-
size. II cross section, enlarged, velopment the bracts close about the
ovules and coalesce at the edges, form-
ing the globular berry (Fig. 500).
At the apex of the berry three radiating lines mark where the three
bracts meet, while midway between these lines the small extremities of
the bracts are evident as three minute protuberances.
Tschirch and Oesterle observe that these berries are morphologically
closely related to true fruits, the chief difference being that in the latter
the metamorphosed leaves which form the ovary are united from the
first, whereas in the former this union does not take place until after
fertilization. Each seed is united with the fruit on the outer side except
at the apex, but is free on the. inner side. The fruit has an agreeable
resinous odor and taste.
HISTOLOGY.
Dried juniper berries, as obtained from the apothecary, may be used
for studying the gross anatomy of the fruit, also the microscopic structure
of the principal tissues, although more satisfactory results are obtained
with fresh berries, especially if picked at different stages of ripeness.
JUNIPER BERRY.
S«3
For convenience, the tissues are here designated by the same terms
as are employed for true fruits.
Pericarp (Fig. 501). The Epicarp Cells (Fig. 502, ep) in surface
view are rounded polygonal, with thick walls pierced here and there
by pores. Division into daughter cells is often apparent. A brown
granular substance fills the cells. On the edges where the bracts meet,
these epidermal cells are extended so as to form blunt papillae.
2. Fruit Flesh (p). The rounded, sac-like cells of the ground tissue
are so loosely united that they separate readily on pressing with the cover-
glass. In this tissue are large resin cavities often 1 mm. broad and twice
as long, lined on the inner surface by a layer of secreting cells. On
Fig. 501. Juniper Berry. Cross section of -seed, and enveloping tissues. (Tschirch.)
removing the angular seeds from the fruit, one or more of these sacs
filled with solid resin often remain attached to the surface. The con-
spicuous elements of the fibro-vascular bundles are numerous bast fibers
and reticulated vessels, also a few spiral vessels.
Spermoderm. On the outer side where the seed is united with the
fruit flesh no demarcation between the tissues of the two is evident;
but on the free inner surface there are five distinct layers.
1. The Outer Epidermis and 2. The Subepidermal Coat each con-
sists of a single layer of thin-walled cells, the former separating readily
from the latter in cross-section.
3. Sclerenchyma (Fig. 502, sc). The dense stone-cell tissue varies
in thickness from two to over ten cell layers. Each of the thick-walled,
5»4
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
porous stone cells contains in its narrow cavity a beautiful crystal of
calcium oxalate.
4. Conipressed Cells form the fourth layer, and
5. An Inner Epidermis of longitudinally elongated, thin- walled cells
completes the spermoderm.
Perisperm. This is a thin membrane of several layers of parenchyma,
ep
Fig. 502.
Juniper Berry. Elements in surface view, ep epicarp; p cells from fruit flesh;
sc stone cells with crystals, from spermoderm. (Moellee.)
of which only the longitudinally-elongated cells of the outer layer are
well preserved.
Endosperm. Tschirch and Oesterle have noted that the outer wall of
the outer cell layer consists of: (1) an outer cuticularized lamella of
minute rod-like elements appearing granular in surface view; (2) a yellow
middle lamella, also cuticularized, and (3) an inner membrane of cellu-
lose. The endosperm cells contain aleurone grains up to 8 ji and fat.
The Embryo is axially located and consists of a radicle about 2 mm.
long and two flattened cotyledons about half the length of the radicle.
The cell-contents are the same as those of the endosperm.
JUNIPER BERRY. CASSIA. 585
DIAGNOSIS.
Juniper berries are used in medicine and very extensively in making
gin. The residue from the distilleries is a pepper adulterant.
Theepicarp cells (Fig. 502, ep), especially the papillae from the sutures,
the rounded pulp cells (p), and the stone cells (sc) of the spermoderm each
containing a crystal, are the elements worthy of special notice.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Meyer (24); Moeller (28, 29); Planchon
et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (37); Villiers et Collin (39).
BARKS.
The only barks of importance as food products are cinnamon, cassia,
and a few others used occasionally as spices.
All of these contain conspicuous stone cells and most of them charac-
teristic starch grains, also bast fibers and cork cells.
The general structure of barks is discussed on p. 40.
CASSIA (CINNAMON).
Cassia (known in retail trade as cinnamon) is the bark of various
species of Cinnamomum (order Lauracea).
Three leading sorts, each with distinct physical characters, are recog-
nized by English and American importers: (1) China or Canton, (2)
Batavia, and (3) Saigon.
Malabar, Indian and other cassias are of comparatively small im-
portance.
China or Canton Cassia, the Cassia lignea of the pharmacists, is the
commonest and also the cheapest grade. The average wholesale price
is about half that of Batavia and one-fifth that of Saigon. The tree
from which it is obtained (C. Cassia BL, C. aromaticum Nees.) is a small
evergreen growing in southeastern China. The commercial bark is
unscraped or only partially scraped, brown-gray, 0.2-3.0 mm. thick,
more or less convolute. It is commonly packed in mats containing two
bundles about 50 cm. long, weighing 1 kg. each. The outer part of the
bundles consists of long pieces; the inner part of chips and often a con-
siderable amount of dirt. Broken cassia or chips consisting of short
pieces with more or less dirt and other impurities is packed in bales.
586 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Winton, Ogden and Mitchell found in samples of whole China cassia
from American importers 3.01-5.58 per cent of ash and 0.93-1.64 per
cent of essential oil. One sample of chips obviously unfit for consump-
tion contained 20 per cent of ash and 15.7 per cent of sand.
Batavia Cassia is probably obtained from C. Burmanni Bl. The
tightly-rolled quills are light buff or red-brown, 0.5-2 mm. thick, often
50-75 cm. long. Light-colored thread-like bast-fiber groups are evident
on close inspection of the outer surface. This grade is distinguished
frcm China and Saigon by the slimy, glutinous mass formed on treat-
ment of the powdered material with water, also by the higher percentage
of alcohol extract (n-17 per cent). The flavor is moderately pungent
and distinctly mucilaginous.
Saigon Cassia, the most pungent and expensive of all cassia and
cinnamon barks, is obtained from a tree grown in Cochin-China, stated
to be C. Loureirii {Laurus cinnamomum Lour.). The bark varies
from a fraction of a millimeter to over 5 mm. in thickness; the thin
being chocolate-brown, the thick, gray-brown. Usually it is put up in
bundles about 30 cm. long, and weighing 1.5-2 kg., each consisting
entirely of thick, medium or thin bark. Broken Saigon (chips) often con-
tains pieces 5-10 mm. thick.
The samples examined by Winton, Ogden and Mitchell contained
on the average over 4 per cent of essential oil, and in some cases over
5 per cent.
Malabar Cassia and Cassia Vera are terms loosely applied to inferior
grades of uncertain origin.
Indian Cassia comes into the market in small amount from Tra van-
core and other regions.
HISTOLOGY.
Transverse and longitudinal sections are readily cut after soaking
over night in water. These, as well as the powdered material, are ex-
amined directly in water (noting especially the starch grains) and again
after treatment with alkali.
China Cassia. 1. The Epidermis, which is found only in young bark
is strongly cuticularized.
2. Cork (Fig. 503, su). The cells of the outer layers are of the usual
thin-walled type, those further inward are stone cork with uniformly
thickened porous walls, while those in the layer adjoining the phellogen
are thickened on the outer and radial sides in such a manner as to form
CASSIA.
587
in cross-section a series of arches. The phellogen or active layer is
recognized by the thin walls. Brown contents are often present in the
cork cells, particularly those with thick walls.
3. Cortex (cor). The ground parenchyma is of flattened cells with
su
•cor
scl
ph
Fig. 503. China Cassia (Cinnamomum Cassia). Cross section of bark, su cork cells;
cor cortex; scl stone-cell ring (pericycle) ; ph bast. (Moeller.)
rather thick, brown walls. Radial partitions often divide the cells into
daughter cells. Distributed through this ground tissue are stone cells,
many of which are thickened only on the inner side. Both the
parenchyma and the stone cells contain rounded starch grains (Fig.
505, B) ranging up to 20 fi in diameter (mostly over 10 /*), with a
588
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
more or less distinct hilum. Most of the grains are in aggregates of 2-4
individuals
4. The Pericycle (scl) in the young stem consists of groups of bast
fibers (Fig. 504, b) and separating parenchyma, but later numerous stone
Fig. 504. China Cassia. Radial longitudinal section of bark, pr parenchyma of cortex;
bp parenchyma of bast; b bast fibers; st stone cells; sch mucilage cells; s sieve tubes;
m medullary rays. X r6o. (Moeller.)
cells are formed, which after a time make up the greater part of the ring.
The bast fibers are longer and thinner-walled than those of the bast;
the stone cells are larger and thicker- walled than those of the cortex.
5. The Bast Zone (ph), as seen in cross-section, consists of broad
radial bands of phloem elements separated by narrow medullary rays.
The ground tissue of the phloem is a parenchyma of narrow, longitudi-
nally elongated cells, among which are distributed larger cells containing
mucilage or oil, also bast fibers. Numerous starch grains like those of
the cortex occur in the parenchyma. The inner membrane of the oil
CASSIA 589
cells secretes essential oil and resin, which either forms brown masses
in the cells or impregnates the tissues. Sections mounted in glycerine
or alcohol often show the thick, colorless, stratified secondary membrane
of the mucilage cells, which dissolves on addition of water. Character-
istic of the bast fibers are their moderate length (seldom over 600 /x),
spindle shape, thick homogeneous walls, and narrow cavity. In the
middle they vary up to 45 p. in diameter. The sieve tubes are collapsed
and are arranged in tangential rows. The medullary rays are usually
two cells broad except at the more or less funnel-shaped outer ends. They
contain starch grains and numerous oxalate needles.
Batavia Cassia, being scraped, contains little cork and cortex tissues.
The mucilage cells, though rather small, are numerous. The most
characteristic elements are the starch grains, which are smaller (usually
less than 10 n) and less numerous than those of China and Saigon, and
the numerous oxalate crystals, chiefly in the medullary rays, which, as
may be seen after treatment with alkali, are tabular or prismatic, not
needle-shaped. These characters, with the peculiar taste and the slimy
mass formed on treating the powder with water, are well marked.
' Saigon Cassia. The thin bark has practically the same structure as
that of China cassia; the thick bark (2-10 mm.) is characterized by
the presence of large, tangentially elongated, thick-walled stone cells
of the bast, which are arranged side by side in enormous radial groups,
often 1-2 mm. long. Two or more cork systems, each with its phellogen,
are often present.
DIAGNOSIS.
Whole Cassia of the three common sorts may be distinguished by
the general appearance and the characters given in the following analyt-
ical key:
(a) Needle-shaped crystals in medullary rays; starch grains abundant^ mostly over
10 /i; alcohol extract under 10%.
1. Few or no stone cells in bast; flavor mild; essential oil under 2% China.
2. Numerous stone cells in bast of thick bark; very pungent; essential oil 2-6%.
Saigon.
(6) Prismatic crystals in medullary rays; starch grains not abundant, mostly under
10 fi; alcohol extract over 10%.
3. Flavor mild, distinctly mucilaginous; essential oil under 3% Batavia.
It should be remembered that the microscopic characters of the thick
and thin bark are somewhat different, and that the chemical composi-
tion is changed by exhaustion. •
59°
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Other species of Cinnamomum yielding inferior barks are occasionally
substituted for real cinnamon. One of these described by Micko closely
resembled Batavia cassia in its structure as well as its mucilaginous prop-
erties, but was scarcely at all pungent.
Ground Cassia (" Cinnamon ") may be prepared from one variety
of cassia, or from a mixture of several varieties, often with the addition
of cassia buds. The conspicuous elements common to all the cassia
barks are rounded starch grains (Fig. 505, B), usually in aggregates of 2
Fig. 505. China Cassia. A elements of the powdered bark: bj bast fibers; st pericycle
stone cells; stp cprtex stone cells; pr cortex parenchyma; bp bast parenchyma; P
sclerenchymatized cork. X160. B starch grains, X 600. (Moellee.)
to 4: spindle-shaped bast fibers (bf) with narrow lumen; stone cells (st),
often thickened only on one side (stp) ; and brown parenchyma. Cork
cells (P) are present if the bark is unscraped. Oxalate needles (China,
Saigon) or prisms (Batavia) may be seen on careful examination. All
the elements named but the starch grains are best studied after treat-
ment with alkali.
The elements of cassia buds are described in the following section.
Adulterants. Exhausted cassia; cassia chips, containing wood, leaves,
and dirt; bran; biscuit; millet; oil cakes; nutshells; foreign barks; saw-
dust; mineral matter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Greenish (14); Hanausek, T.
F. (10, 16); Hassall (19); v. Hohnel (48); Leach (25); Mace" (26); Meyer, A. (27,
28); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u.
Oesterle (40); Villiers at Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45).
CASSIA. CASSIA BUDS 591
Bischoff: Vjschr. offent. Gesundheits. 1870, 22, 395.
Garnier: &ude microscopique et chimique de diverses poudres de cannelle. Jour.
Pharm. 9, 473.
Gichard: Verfalschung von Zimmtrindenpulver. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1895,
9, 281.
Hanausek, T. F.: Chips. Ztschr. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1896, 34.
Hartwich: Beitrage zur Kenntniss des Zimmt. Arch. Pharm. 1901, 181.
Malfatti: Eine neue Verfalschung des Zimmtpulvers. Ztschr. Nahr.-tJnters. Hyg.
1891, 5, 5.
Micko: Ueber eine falsche Zimmtrinde. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-Genussm. 1900,
3, 3°5-
Perrot: Sur l'origine de l'anneau sclereux des canelles. Jour, pharm. chim. 1890, 2,
426.
Pfister: Zur Kenntniss der Zimmtrinden. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. 1894, 1, 1.
Pfister: Zur Zimmtuntersuchung. Forschber. Lebensm. Hyg. 1894, 1, 540.
Schmitz-Dumont : Ueber eine vermeintliche Zimtfalschung. Ztschr. off. Chem. 1904.
CASSIA BUDS.
The flowers of a. Chinese tree (probably Cinnamomum Cassia Bl.,
which also yields cassia bark), gathered shortly after blooming, are known
in commerce as cassia buds. They are dark brown, woody, club- or
top-shaped, 5-10 mm. in diameter, with a short stem or pedicel. The
perianth forms a wrinkled, urn-shaped capsule, turned in at the top,
in which is the lighter-colored, thick, smooth, one-celled ovary. In the
small circular opening between the six indistinct perianth lobes is the
smooth exposed surface of the ovary with the style or its scar.
HISTOLOGY.
The Pedicel, or flower stem, may or may not be attached to the bud.
It should not be confused with the narrow under portion of the perianth.
1. The Epidermis consists of strongly cuticularized cells, with color-
less walls, similar to the epidermal cells of cloves, and thick-walled, often
crooked, unicellular hairs, seldom over 120 ft long (Fig. 506, h).
2. Cortex. In the outer layers this is made up of large parenchyma
cells and oil cells; in the inner layers, of smaller cells. The parenchyma
has brown walls and contains small ovate or spindle-shaped simple starch
grains and needles of calcium oxalate, The oil cells often have muci-
laginous contents.
3. Sclerenchyma Ring (Pericycle). The elements are bast fibers
and stone cells. The bast fibers are in closely crowded groups. Some
are broad, blunt, unicellular, with broad cavities (/), others sharp-pointed
592
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
and jointed (bf). Both forms are very different from the bast fibers
of the bark. The stone cells (st) in cross section appear much like the
bast fibers, but are usually larger (up to 90 ji). They are irregular in
form, and often thickened more on one side than on the other.
(4) Bundles. The vessels are narrow (15 /i), mostly reticulated or
scalariform, less often spiral, and are arranged in radial rows.
(5) The Pith is narrow.
Perianth. This has much the same structure as the pedicel, but
the xylem and phloem are more separated, and the pith in the basal part
Fig. 506. Cassia Buds (Cinnamomum Cassia).
Elements of pedicel: bj bast fibers; / elongated sclerenchyma cells; st stone cells; g
vessels; st starch.
Elements of perianth: ep epidermis; h hairs; rp cortex parenchyma; 0 oil cells; bp
bast parenchyma.
Elements of ovary: epf epicarp in cross section and surface view, with c cuticle; fp
sclerenchyma of mesocarp; end endocarp.
Xl6o. (MOELLER.)
is much broader. The cortex parenchyma has rather thick walls and
red-brown contents, becoming blue with iron chloride. The oil cells are
30-80 fi in diameter, and contain red-brown resinous oil. A colorless,
mucilaginous parenchyma with small crystal rosettes and occasional
large crystals forms the inner epidermis of the cavity.
Ovary. The epicarp (epf) is well developed on the smooth, yellow,
exposed surface. The cuticle is thick, and penetrates between the cells,
giving them the appearance of being thick-walled. It is distinguished
CASSIA BUDS. CEYLON CINNAMON. 593
from the brown cell walls by its lighter color. Beneath the epidermis
is a layer of sclerenchyma (jp). The seeds are undeveloped.
DIAGNOSIS.
Ground cinnamon often contains both cassia bark and cassia buds.
The buds cost more than China and Batavia cassia, and are more pun-
gent. Several elements serve to distinguish the buds from the bark:
(i) thick-walled crooked hairs (Fig. 506, h) ; (2) reticulated and scalari-
form vessels ;. (3) broad, blunt bast fibers (/) with broad cavities ; (4)
jointed fibers (bj). Hairs and vessels are not found in the bark, and the
bast fibers are of a very different type. The bark has no tissues like
the epidermal layers of the pedicel, perianth (ep) and ovary (epj). The
sclerenchyma of the ovary (jp) is also characteristic. Stone cells of
much the same type occur in both the bark and the buds. The starch
grains of the buds are not in aggregates as in the bark, but are not
distinguishable from the single grains of the latter.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Cassia, p. 590.
CEYLON CINNAMON.
True cinnamon is obtained from the young branches of Cinnamomum
Ceylonicum Breyne, a small tree cultivated in Ceylon and parts of India.
The bark is carefully separated from the branches, scraped, dried, and
the thin pieces, scarcely 0.5 mm. thick, are curled one within another
so as to form sticks, 5-15 mm. in diameter and often 1-2 meters long.
On the outer surface the scraped bark is buff, streaked with lighter-colored
bast-fiber bundles. The flavor suggests a mixture of cassia and calamus.
HISTOLOGY AND DIAGNOSIS.
In structure cinnamon (Fig. 507) closely resembles cassia, but the
stone cells of the pericycle are longer and more uniformly thickened,
the bast fibers are narrower and more numerous, the parenchyma cells
of the bast are smaller, and the starch grains are only about half as large
(usually 6-8 //). The resemblance between cinnamon and Batavia
cassia in these details is much closer, particularly as regards the starch
grains, which are practically identical in the two species. Unlike Batavia,
but like China cassia, the crystals in the bast are needle-shaped.
594
SPICES AND, CONDIMENTS.
Fortunately it is seldom necessary to resort to microscopic examination,
as the product is usually sold whole, and can be readily identified by
its general appearance and its peculiar flavor.
sch m s to
FlG. 507. Ceylon Cinnamon (Cinnamomum Ceylonicum). Cross section of bark, pr
inner layers of cortex with pb primary bast-fiber bundle; st stone-cell ring (pericycle);
bast consists of 6 bast fibers, J sieve tubes, sch mucilage cells, k parenchyma with raphides,
and m medullary rays. X160. (Moeller.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See Cassia, p. 590.
CLOVE BARK.
The bark of a small Brazilian tree (Dicypellium caryophyllalum
Nees., order Lauracem) is variously known as clove bark, clove cassia,
clove cinnamon, and (in pharmacy) Cortex cassia caryophyllatus.
Like Ceylon cinnamon it comes into the market in compound quills-
The bark is 1-2 mm. thick, more or less flaky on the outer surface, finely
striate on the inner. It is brittle, and breaks with a smooth fracture.
Cross sections examined with the naked eye show a thin yellow outer
ring and a broad inner zone with yellow dots in a red-brown ground.
CLOVE BARK.
595
HISTOLOGY.
i. Cork. The cells in most of the layers are thin-walled, but in
two or more layers are thickened on the outer side. Only traces of the
cork tissue are found on the commercial bark.
Fig. 508. Ceylon Cinnamon. Tangential section of bark, p bast parenchyma; sch
mucilage cells; b bast fibers; s sieve tubes; m medullary rays. X160. (Moeller.)
2: Phelloderm (Fig. 509, P). The inner walls of the cells are strongly
thickened and pQrous.
3. Cortex. The tissue is of parenchyma cells with a few oil cells.
4. Pericycle. A ring of stone cells (st) thickened chiefly on the inner
side separates the cortex from the bast.
5. Bast. Tangential layers of parenchyma cells with occasional
.oil cells (oe) alternate with groups of sieve tubes (s). In old bark the
parenchyma is replaced here and there by stone-cell groups (5c). Bast
fibers are absent. The primary medullary rays broaden greatly at the
- outer ends, separating the phloem into wedge-shaped groups, which
extend as far as the pericycle. The parenchyma of the bast and the
596
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
medullary rays contains numerous oxalate needles, also formless lumps
of starch.
DIAGNOSIS.
Starch occurs only in small amount and not in well-formed grains.
The cells of the pericycle (Fig. 509, st) and phelloderm (P), both thickened
Fig. 509. Clove Bark (Dicypellium caryophyllatum). P sclerenchymatized cork; rp
cortex; st stone-cell ring (pericycle); bast consists, of s sieve .tubes, bp parenchyma,
sc stone cells, oe oil cells, K raphides cells, m primary and m? secondary medullary rays.
X160. (MoelleR.)
on one side, also the oil cells and oxalate needles, are evident after
treatment with alkali.
Vogl describes a substitute which he regards as a variety of Cinna-
momum Culilawan. The structure is much like that of other species of
cinnamon.
Another substitute described by Moeller, known as Cortex caryo-
phyttata (Fig. 511), is characterized by the intensely red-brown con-
CLOVE BARK. CANELLA BARK.
597
tents of the parenchyma elements, and the tangential rows of fibers in
the bast.
S lp
— oe
FlG. 510. Clove Bark. Radial longi-
tudinal section through a stone-cell
group of the bast, sc stone cells;
oe oil cells; bp bast parenchyma;
j sieve tubes. X160. (Moellee.)
FlG. 51 i. False Cinnamon ("Cortex caryophyl-
lata"). Cross section of bark. K', K", K">
three layers of cork; rp cortex parenchyma with
oe oil cell and j crystal sand cell; bj bast fibers;
bp sclerenchymatized bast parenchyma; k crystal
cell; m medullary rays. (Moeller.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (26); Planchon et Collin (34);
Tschirch u. Oesterle (37); Vogl (41).
CANELLA BARK.
Canella alba Mussay (order Canellacetz) grows wild in the West Indies
and Florida. The bark, known as white bark or white cinnamon, is a
well-known drug, the commercial supply coming largely from the Bahama
Islands. It is also used in the West Indies as a spice.
598
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS
The bark is hard, 2-5 mm. thick, light buff or reddish, pitted on the
outer surface, striated on the inner. In cross section numerous yellow
oil cells are evident, also in the inner bark delicate radiating lines.
HISTOLOGY.
1. Cork (Fig. 512, K). Typical cork cells form the outer layers of
the bark.
Fig. 512. Canella Bark {Canella alba). Cross section, su outer bark consists of K cork
and ph sclerenchymatized cork; cor cortex with starch cells, and o oil cells; ph bast
with s sieve tubes and m medullary rays containing Kr crystal rossettes. (Tschirch.)
2. The Phelloderm (ph), separated by the phellogen from the outer
cork, consists of several layers of quadrilateral stone cells intermixed
with cork-like cells, all arranged in radial rows.
CAN ELLA BARK. GINGER. 599
3. Cortex {cor). The parenchyma contains simple or compound
starch grains, mostly 6-8 p. (maximum 20 ft), also rosettes of calcium
oxalate. Large oil cells with rather thick cuticularized walls occur here
and there.
4. Bast {ph). Tissues like those of the cortex, also sieve tubes and
single-rowed medullary rays (m) are conspicuous. An oxalate rosette
occurs in nearly every medullary cell. Bast fibers are found only between
the primary and secondary bast, and there but sparingly.
DIAGNOSIS.
The large yellow oil cells (Fig. 512, 0), the yellow sclerenchymatized
cork cells {ph) of the phelloderm, the small starch grains, and the oxalate
rosettes are ■ the important elements. Sieve plates are often evident in
the sieve tubes. Bast fibers are almost entirely absent.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10); v. Hohnel (48);
Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (45).
Greenish: Canella Bark, Pharm. Jour. 1894.
RHIZOMES.
The rhizomes of Zingiberaceous plants (ginger, turmeric, zedoary,
and galangal) contain about half their weight of starch in the form of
large elongated grains with excentric hilum and distinct rings. Reticu-
lated vessels are notable elements.
Sweet flag, the only other rhizome of importance as a spice, contains
very small rounded starch grains.
The general structure of rhizomes is discussed on p. 44.
QINQER.
The ginger plant {Zingiber officinale Roscoe, order Zingiberacece), a
native of Southern Asia, is cultivated throughout the tropics. The rhi-
zomes (so-called roots) are dug in January or February, washed and
sun-dried either directly or after scraping. They are often bleached
with chlorinated lime or sulphurous acid, also coated with chalk or gypsum.
Chalk not only improves the appearance of the product, but in addition
protects it from the ravages of the drug-store beetle and other insects.
The rhizomes are flattened somewhat, and branched on one or both
of the narrow sides. They vary in breadth from 10-25 mm- and in
6oo
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
length up to 10 cm. The fracture is uneven, with protruding fibers.
Cross sections examined under a lens show numerous yellow oil cells.
Jamaica, the finest sort, has a rather slender rhizome. It is com-
monly bleached, and often coated in addition. The rhizomes of Cochin
are thicker, and come into the market either scraped or bleached. Cal-
cutta and African are unscraped sorts, distinguished from the preceding
by their dark -colored corky rind. Japan resembles Cochin in appear-
ance, but is usually obtained from other species (Z. Zerumbet Roscoe,
Z. Cassumunar Rxb., Z. Mioga Roscoe, Z. Cemenda Rxb., etc.).
HISTOLOGY.
i. Cork. In a rind 0.4 mm. thick about 20 cell-layers are present.
The cells are large, somewhat flattened, and have thin brown walls, but
no content.
FIG. 513. Ginger (Zingiher officinale). Cross section of rhizome, en endodermis; h
nbro-vascular bundles; ol oil cell. (Moeixer.)
2. Cortex. Inside the cork zone is a zone of about the same thick-
ness, consisting of small collapsed parenchyma cells interspersed with
GINGER.
60 1
oil cells. Further inward the parenchyma cells are larger, and contain
numerous starch grains while the oil cells are less abundant. The con-
tents of each oil cell are contracted into a resin lump. Bundles occur
sparingly in the cortex.
3. Endodermis (Fig. 513, en). The cells resemble transversely elon-
gated parenchyma cells, but their walls are suberized, and they con-
tain no starch.
4. Bundle Zone (}v). Inside the endodermis the bundles are arranged
close together in a circle. The vessels are broad (50 //), with reticulated
FlG. 514. Ginger. Longitudinal section of rhizome, h oil cells; p starch parenchyma;
£ vessels; 6/ bast fibers. X160. (Moellee.)
or scalariform thickenings (Fig. 514, g). They are accompanied by
long (up to 6 mm.), broad (up to 60 n) fibers, often divided by cross par-
titions into compartments. The walls are rather thin, and have pores
crossed by diagonal fissures.
5. The Parenchyma cells, like those of the inner cortex, are closely
packed with starch grains. Oil cells (h) occur here and there.
The starch grains (except in Japan ginger) are simple, flattened,
ovate, with either a rounded angle or a tapering point at the smaller
end. Being flattened, they appear narrow when viewed on edge. The
excentric hilum is always in the pointed end. Rings are numerous, but
indistinct. Most of the grains are 20-30 (i long, although smaller grains
as well as larger (up to 50 p.) occur sparingly. T. F. Hanausek was the
6oz SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
first to note that the starch grains in Japan ginger (or at least certain
kinds known under that name) are very different from the type.
They are partly large, simple, broadly ovate, with very distinct rings,
and partly small, in twins, triplets, and larger aggregates. The small
grains are particularly numerous.
DIAGNOSIS.
Ground, Ginger prepared from African and Calcutta rhizomes is brown,
while -that prepared from Jamaica, Cochin, Japan, and other scraped
or bleached sorts is white or light buff. The chief elements are the
characteristic starch grains (which make up fully half of the powder),
reticulated or scalariform vessels (Fig. 514, g), broad bast fibers (bf) with
rather thin walls, and, in the case of undecorticated sorts, cork cells.
Large ovate starch grains (Fig. 513) with excentric hilum in the rounded-
angular or pointed, smaller end occur in all varieties ; small grains in
twins, triplets, and larger aggregates only in Japan ginger.
The common adulterants are exhausted ginger, cereal products, lin-
seed meal, and other ground oil cakes, nutshells, gypsum, and other
mineral substances. In America rice bran, consisting of spermoderm
with more or less starchy matter (p. no), is often used.
Exhausted Ginger is the residue after treatment with water in the
manufacture of ginger ale or after exhaustion with alcohol for the prepa-
ration of ginger extract. In the former case the product is deficient in
cold-water extract, in the latter case it is deficient in alcohol extract.
Microscopic examination is of no service in detecting these residues.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hassall (19); Mace" (26);
• Meyer, A. (10, 27); Moeller (29, 30,31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37);
Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45, 48).
Barthelat: Tanninzellen der Zingiberaceen. Jahr. Pharm. 1894.
Buchwald: Ingwer. Arb. Kais. Gesundh. 1899, 15, 229.
Hanausek, T. F. : Eine neue Ingwersorte. Ztschr. allg. osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1883, 465.
Meyer, A.: Ueber die Rhiz. d. offic. Zingiberaceen. Arch. Pharm. 1881, 401.
Tschirch: Zur Untersuchung von Rhiz. Zingiberis und Rhiz. Zedoarie. Schw. Woch.
Pharm. Chem. 1905.
TURMERIC.
Curcuma, or turmeric, is the rhizome of Curcuma longa L. (order
Zingiber acea), a plant closely related to ginger, grown in India, China,
Cochin China, Java, and other tropical countries.
TURMERIC. 603
The main rhizome (round turmeric) is ovate or pear-shaped, up to
4 cm. long and 3 cm. thick (Fig. 515). The upper part is encircled by
leaf-scars, the lower part is marked by scars of the secondary rhizomes
and roots. It is sliced before drying. The secondary rhizomes (long
turmeric) are 0.5-1.5 cm. thick, elongated, indistinctly ringed, simple
or sparingly branched.
The vitality of the rhizomes is destroyed by scalding previous to drying,
thus converting the grains into lumps, to which the mixture of oil and
m
Fig. 515. Turmeric (Curcuma longa). Primary (round) and secondary (long) rhizomes.
(Hager.)
curcumin liberated from the oil cells imparts a deep-yellow color. As
found on the market, the product is hard, tough, and sinks in water.
The fractured surface is smooth, waxy, of an orange-yellow color. As
appears in cross section, the rind is thicker than in ginger, constituting
almost one-quarter of the thickness of the rhizome. It cannot be removed
by scraping.
HISTOLOGY.
Turmeric (Fig. 516) closely resembles ginger in structure, but is
distinguished by the absence of bast fibers. The epidermis, which in
parts is well preserved, resembles that of Curcuma Zedoaria, and like
the latter bears thick-walled unicellular hairs. The yellow lumps (h),
consisting largely of starch-paste, are colored blue by iodine. On addi-
tion of dilute alkali the yellow coloring substance (curcumin) with which
they are impregnated becomes brown-red. Concentrated sulphuric acid
imparts a crimson color. In addition to the starch lumps, perfect starch
604
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
grains are often present. These resemble the grains of ginger, but are
usually longer (65 fi) and narrower, although some are broader than
long. The parenchymatous ground tissue, as well as the oil cells, is
colored deep yellow. Neither the vessels (g) nor the cork-cells (K) are
characteristic.
DIAGNOSIS.
Turmeric has a characteristic pungent taste, and must be classed
as a spice as well as a coloring substance. Curry powder is a mixture
of turmeric, pepper, ginger, coriander, cardamoms, cloves, allspice, cara-
Fig. 516. Turmeric. Cross section of rhizome.
K cork; p parenchyma filled with starch paste;
h oil cell; g vessel. X 160. (Moeller.)
Fig. 517. Turmeric. Cork cells
in surface view. X160.
(Moeller.)
way, and fenugreek. Aside from its use in the arts, turmeric is exten-
sively employed for coloring mustard, noodles, and other food products,
often with the purpose of deceiving the consumer.
It is detected by the yellow starch lumps, which become red-brown
with alkali, crimson with strong sulphuric acid, and blue with iodine.
The vessels are like those of ginger; bast fibers, however, are not present.
A piece of filter-paper impregnated with a concentrated alcoholic extract
of the material and dried gives on moistening with a dilute solution of
boric acid (containing in each 10 cc. about six drops of concentrated
hydrochloric acid) and drying, a cherry-red color, becoming deep blue
with ammonia.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Greenish (14); Hanausek, T. F.(i6, 17);
Leach (25); Mace" (26); Meyer, A. (27); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et
Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43).
ZEDOARY.
605
ZEDOARY.
The zedoary plant (Curcuma Zedoaria Roscoe, order Zingiber acea),
although belonging in the same genus as turmeric, has much larger rhi-
zomes, which are cut into transverse or longitudinal slices before drying.
The rind is easily removed by scraping. Numerous oil cells are evident
in cross section.
HISTOLOGY.
The structure (Figs. 518 and 519) resembles that of ginger and tur-
meric. Like the latter, the epidermis, with thick-walled or unicellular
FlG. 518. Zedoaiy (Curcuma Zedoaria). Epider- Fig. 519. Zedoary. Parenchyma of
mis and starch grains of rhizome. (Moeixer.) rhizome showing starch grains and h
resin lump. X 160. (Moeller.)
hairs, is here and there well preserved. The cork cells are large and
thin-walled. Although the starch grains are of the same type as those
of turmeric, they are distinguished by their more rounded form and more
uniform size (maximum 80 //). Many of the grains are ovate, with scarcely
any evidence of a point. Bast fibers are absent.
DIAGNOSIS.
Zedoary is now seldom used either as a spice or a drug outside of the
countries where it is produced. It has a milder taste than turmeric,
606 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
with a suggestion of camphor. The powder (Figs. 518 and 519) resembles
ginger in color, but bast fibers are absent.
GALANGAL.
Common or small galangal is the rhizome of Alpinia officinarum
Hance (order Zingiber acea), a plant growing on the island of Hainan
and the neighboring Chinese coast. Alpinia calcarata Roscoe, a closely
related species, yields a rhizome used in India. Large galangal, obtained
from a Javanese species {A. Galanga Sw.), is seldom exported.
The finger-like rhizomes of the common sort are encircled by fringed
leaf-scars, and bear also here and there root-scars. They are brown-red
inside and out, somewhat hard, and have an uneven fracture. The
thickness of the rind exceeds the diameter of the central cylinder. Cross
sections are dotted with dark oil cells and light bundles.
HISTOLOGY.
1. The Epidermis (Fig. 520, ep) consists of small polygonal cells
and stomata. T. F. Hanausek notes that several cell-layers are often
present. Cork tissue is absent.
2. Cortex. In the outer layers the parenchyma cells are small, with
thin dark-red walls, and contain a brown substance in granules and
Fig. 520. Galangal (Alpinia officinarum). Outer Iavers of rhizome in surface view ep
epidermis; rp brown parenchyma; g tannin grains; h oil cell. X160. (Moeixer.)
lumps, but no starch. Further inward the cells have thick porous walls,
and contain starch grains.
3. Endodermis (Fig. 521, end). The cells have suberized walls, and
GALANGAL.
607
end-
Fig. 521. Galangal. Cross section of rhizome, pa parenchyma, oe oil cells, and end endo-
dermis of the cortex; ba bast fibers and ge vessels of a bundle. (Gilg.)
Fig. 522. Galangal. Longitudinal section of rhizome, p thick-walled parenchyma;
bf bast fibers; g vessel; am starch. X160. (Moeller.)
6o8
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
are further distinguished from the adjoining layers by the absence of
starch.
4. Central Cylinder. The thick-walled, porous parenchyma is usu-
ally rich in starch (Fig. 522, am), but the grains differ markedly from
those of turmeric. As a rule they are simple, club-shaped, with the hilum
in the larger end. Curious hammer-shaped and other irregular forms
are also present. They are mostly 20-35 fi long, but sometimes exceed
80 ft. Some rhizomes contain no starch. Distributed among the paren-
chyma cells are typical oil cells with brown contents. The bundles
are always accompanied and often surrounded
by broad bast fibers with walls of medium
thickness (double 12 fi). The vessels are
broad (45 ji) and have noticeably thicker
walls than the parenchyma.
DIAGNOSIS.
The irregular starch grains (Fig. 522, am)
with hilum in the broad end, the parenchyma
(p) with thick porous walls, and the bast
fibers (bj) are the noteworthy elements.
v4<
Fig. 523. Sweet Flag (Acorns
Calamus). A upper side of
rhizome, showing leaf scars,
internodes, and two stumps of
flower stalks. B lower side
showing root scars. Natural
size. (Vogl.)
SWEET FLAG.
The sweet flag, or calamus root, is the dried
rhizome of Acorus Calamus L. (order Aracece),
a plant growing in shallow water and swamps.
The scars of the roots form zigzag markings
on the under surface (Fig. 523). The unde-
corticated rhizome is dark red-brown, the
decorticated cream-colored.
HISTOLOGY.
1. Epidermis (Fig. 524, ep). The brown skin consists of polygonal
epidermal cells with cork cells on the root scars.
2. The Hypoderm cells are collenchymatous, arranged in several
layers.
3. Cortex (Fig. 525). The collenchyma passes by degrees into a
highly characteristic loose parenchyma, consisting of chains of small
rounded polygonal starch cells (s) and oil cells (0) forming a network,
with large intercellular spaces (i) in the meshes.
SIVEET FLAG.
609
The starch grains are rounded, 3-6 /z in diameter, and usually occur
singly, seldom in aggregates of 2-4. Accompanying them in the cell
ep —
FlG. 524. Sweet Flag. Elements of rhizome, ep epidermis; o oil cell. (Moeller.)
are proteid matter and lumps with the reactions of tannin. According
to Hartwich the contents of many cells is a substance colored red by
aniline and hydrochloric acid.
FlG. 525. Sweet Flag. Cross section of rhizome, s starch parenchyma forming network
about i intercellular spaces; 0 oil cells; gjb fibro-vascular bundle; k endodermis.
(Tschirch.)
The oil cells are usually larger than the starch cells (30-T90 /a), and
occur mostly at the knots of the network. Each contains a drop of yel-
low oil or a lump of resin, which often falls out from sections. In the
610 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
outer part of the cortex the bundles consist solely of bast fibers accom-
panied sometimes by crystal fibers ; further inward they are true fibro-
vascular bundles of the collateral type with a sheath of bast fibers.
4. Endodermis. The cells are suberized, and contain starch.
5. Central Cylinder. The ground tissue is a network of starch
and oil cells like that of the cortex. The bundles are concentric, with
the xylem elements forming a ring about the phloem.
DIAGNOSIS.
The powder contains a large amount of small rounded starch grains
(Fig. 524). Chains of starch cells and oil cells (Fig. 525) from the
spongy parenchyma are found intact even in the finest powder. The
walls separating the starch cells are knotty-thickened, but those adjoining
the intercellular spaces are thin, non-porous. Vessels occur in consid-
erable numbers.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See pp. 671-674: Moeller (30, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Tschirch u. Oesterle
(40); Vogl (44).
LEAVES.
Of the leaves used as spices, those of labiates, including sage, mar-
joram, savory, thyme, and hyssop, are the most important. They are
characterized by the presence of jointed hairs, multicellular glands and
glandular hairs. Bay-leaf has thick-walled, porous, sinuous, epidermal
cells. Other leaves of lesser importance are wormwood, tarragon, and
sorrel.
The general structure of leaves is discussed on p. 28.
SAGE.
Sage (Salvia officinalis L., order Labiate) grows wild in Mediterranean
countries and is cultivated in many regions for use as a drug and pot herb.
The leaves (Fig. 526) are petioled, frequently lobed at the base,
ovate to lanceolate, blunt or pointed, finely scolloped, on the surface finely
reticulated. When young they are covered with a white or gray felt of
hairs, later they become almost smooth.
SAGE.
611
HISTOLOGY.
The Epidermis (Fig. 527) is much the same on both sides, con-
sisting of polygonal, wavy, or sinuous cells, hairs and stomata, the latter
being most numerous on the lower side. In addition to the disk-shaped
glands characteristic of labiates are present
glands with unicellular or multicellular stems
and globular heads divided below by a
vertical partition. Characteristic are the
whip-like hairs, which are often so abun-
dant as to form a felt. They are very
long, narrow, thick-walled, one or more
celled, with peculiarly thickened partition
walls.
Mesophyl crystals are absent.
Fig. 526. Sage (Salvia officinalis). Leaf,
enlarged. (Moellee.)
Fig. 527. Sage. Epidermis of leaf with
jointed hairs and glands. (Moeixer.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller (30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin
(34); Vogl (44).
Meyer, Ad.: Off. Blatter u. Krauter. Halle, 1882.
6l2
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
MARJORAM.
Marjoram {Origanum Major ana L., order Labiates), a native of northern
Africa and middle Asia, is a common pot herb in Europe. The dried
product consists of the leaves, flowers, and branches.
The leaves (Fig. 528) are petioled, ovate-spatulate, blunt, entire,
soft-downy on both sides, with veins forming indis-
tinct loops.
HISTOLOGY.
Fig. 528. Marjoram Epidermis. On both sides the cells have un-
ratu^Lta.i, natural equally knotty-thickened walls, which on the upper
size. (MoEixER.) side (Fig. 529) are slightly wavy, on the under side
(Fig. 530), deeply sinuous. Small stomata, with two adjacent cells,
occur in large numbers on the under surface, sparingly on the upper.
FlG. 5 29- Marjoram. Upper epidermis of leaf in surface view. (Moeller.)
Three forms of hairs are found on both sides : (1) long, broad, multi-
cellular, thin-walled, often finely warty hairs, mostly curved at the apex;
MARJORAM. SAVORY.
613
(2) glandular hairs with 2-4 celled stalks and 1-2 celled heads; (3) disk-
shaped glands with cells arranged in a rosette, about which the epidermal
cells also form a rosette.
Mesophyl crystals are absent.
Fig. 530. Marjoram. Lower epidermis of leaf in surface view. (Moeixer.)
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (44).
Meyer, Ad.: Off. Blatter u. Krauter. Halle, 1882.
Mitlacher: Pharm. Post. 1902.
SAVORY.
Savory or summer savory (Salureja hortensis L., order Labiate)
is a native of southern Europe, and is cultivated over a wide area. The
leaves, flowers, and branches are used dried as a pot herb.
The leaves (Fig. 531) are linear lanceolate, tapering into a short
petiole, pointed, entire, with glands on the edges and on both sides. Only ■
the midrib is prominent.
614
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
HISTOLOGY.
The Epidermis (Fig. 532) is much the same on both sides. The
cell-walls are irregularly sinuous, distinctly porous.-
The numerous stomata have an adjacent cell at each
pole. Hairs occur sparingly and are of three forms:
(1) jointed hairs, gradually tapering from the broad
base to the apex, with smooth or warty, somewhat
thick walls, some very long (visible to the naked
eye), of four or more joints, others short, conical,
2-3 celled; (2) typical disk-shaped glands occurring
in great numbers in depressions; (3) glandular hairs,
with short stalks and globular 1-2 celled heads.
Fig. 531. Savory
{Satureja horlensis).
Leaf, natural size.
(Moellee.)
Fie. 532. Savory. Epidermis of leaf in surface view. (Moellek.)
Mesophyl crystals are absent.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (44).
THYME. HYSSOP. 615
THYME.
This herb {Thymus vulgaris L., order Labiatce) is used both for culi-
nary and medicinal purposes. It is a native of
Europe, where it is also cultivated. The leaves
are strongly revolute, 10 mm. or less long. Short
hairs and brown glands are visible under a lens.
HISTOLOGY.
Stomata occur on both epidermal layers. The
very numerous hairs are mostly 1-2 celled, short
(under 75 p), conical, distinctly warty. Hairs with
globular heads are also present.
Fig. 533. Hyssop (Hys-
BIBLIOGRAPHY. S0PUS officinalis).
Leaf, natural size.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Vogl (45). (Moeller.)
HYSSOP.
This herb (Hyssopus officinalis L., order Labiatce), a semi -shrubby
Fig. 534. Hyssop. Upper epidermis of leaf in surface view. (Moeller.)
plant with small leaves, is a native of southern Europe and a common
garden plant in other parts of the Old World.
6i6
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
The leaves (Fig. 533) are sessile, lanceolate, entire, finely reticulated,
when dry rolled up and wrinkled on the edges. The side veins are not
prominent.
HISTOLOGY.
Epidermis. Stomata, disk-shaped glands, and short unicellular warty
hairs are found on both surfaces. The cell-walls on the upper side are
Fig. 535. Hyssop. Lower epidermis of leaf in surface view. (Moeixee.)
slightly wavy (Fig. 534), those of the under side sharply sinuous (Fig-
535). Two'adjacent cells, one at each pole, surround each stoma.
Mesophyl crystals. are absent.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (44).
BAY-LEAF. !
Numerous varieties of the laurel (Laurus nobilis L., order Lauracea)
are cultivated in Mediterranean countries. The leaves and fruit serve
as spices; the fruit also yields a medicinal aromatic fat.
The leaves (Fig. 536) are short-petioled, lanceolate, at the margin
faintly undulate, leathery, smooth, lustrous above, dull and of a lighter
BAY-LEAF. TARRAGON.
617
color beneath. From the prominent midrib branch off 6 to 8 veins, form-
ing loops near the margin.
HISTOLOGY.
The Epidermis (Fig. 538) on both sides
bears a thick cuticle. The cells have thick,
sinuous, porous walls. Stomata are numerous
on the lower epidermis, but do not occur on
the upper. They are mostly sunken below
the surface, and are surrounded by 4 to 5
cells.
Mesophyl. In cross section (Fig. 537) the
oil cells of the mesophyl are conspicuous.
These are globular (30-40 /1), and often con-
tain a drop of essential oil. Characteristic
also are the collenchyma cells accompanying
the bundles, which, like columns, hold the two
epidermal layers apart.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Moeller
(31. 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Vogl (44, 45).
Fig. 536. Bay-leaf (Laurus-
nobilis) . Natural size.
(Moeller.)
TARRAGON.
This herb (Artemisia Dracunculus L., order Composite), a native of
Asia, is much grown in England and on the Continent. It is used fresh
as a pot herb and for making tarragon vinegar.
Fig. 537. Bay-leaf. Cross section, slightly magnified. (Moeller.)
The leaves (Fig. 539) are mostly linear lanceolate, entire, not petioled,.
thick, smooth, with indistinct venation..
6i8
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
HISTOLOGY.
Epidermis (Fig. 540). Both surfaces have the same structure. The
young leaves bear short-stalked multicellular glands ; the mature leaves
Fig. 538. Bay-leaf. Lower epidermis in surface view. (Moeller.;
Fig. 539. Tarragon {Artemisia Fig. 540, Tarragon. Epidermis of leaf in surface view.
Dracunculus). Leaf, natural (Moeller.)
size. (Moeller.)
are smooth. The cells are isodiametric with sinuous walls, or elongated
with straight walls. Three or more adjacent cells surround each stoma.
TARRAGON. WORMWOOD.
619
Mesophyl crystals are absent.
Other species of Artemisia are downy-hairy. Each hair is T-shaped,
bearing on a short, jointed stalk a long transversely arranged end cell.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Koch (22); Moeller (30, 31); Planchon
et Collin (34); Tschirch (39); Vogl (44).
Meyer, Ad.: Off. Blatter u. Krauter. Halle, 1882.
WORMWOOD.
The European wormwood {Artemisia vulgaris L., order Composites)
has pinnately-cleft leaves with irregular, deeply lobed, dentate divisions
(Fig. 541). They are dark green above, white or gray, woolly-hairy
Fig. 541. Wormwood (Artemisia vulgaris). Leaf, natural size. (Moeiler.)
beneath. In the region of the flowers the leaves are entire. The divi-
sions are lanceolate, prickle-pointed, sparingly veined.
620
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
HISTOLOGY.
The Epidermis (Fig. 542) on both sides consists of cells with wavy
Fig. 542. Wormwood. Epidermis of leaf with hairs. (Moeller.)
Fig. 543. Sorrel {Rumex scutatus). Leaf, natural size. (Moeller.)
walls, stomata (most abundant beneath), and remarkable T-shaped haiis
WORMWOOD. SORREL.
621
made up of a 3-4 celled stalk and a long (up to 400 /i) transversely
arranged, thin-walled, often collapsed end cell. Glands with several
tiers of cells occur sparingly.
See Tarragon, p. 619.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
SORREL.
; French sorrel (Rumex scutatus L., order Polygonacea) is a native of
central and southern Europe, where it is also cultivated.
The palmately-veined leaves (Fig. 543)
are long-petioled, rounded-cordate or rounded-
hastate, with a broad upper lobe and two
smaller lobes at the base. They are rather
thick, smooth, hoary sea-green, reddish below.
Epidermis (Fig. 544). The cells on both
Fig. 544. Sorrel. Epidermis of leaf in surface view. Fig. 545. Sorrel (Rumex Acelosa).
(Moeixer.) Leaf, natural size. (Moeller.)
surfaces are large, with thin, wavy walls. Usually three cells adjoin
each stoma.
The Mesophyl contains oxalate rosettes.
Missing Page
SAFFRON.
623
SAFFRON.
Genuine saffron is the dried stigmas of a small bulbous plant (Crocus
sativus L., order Iridacea) indigenous to Greece and Asia Minor.1 In
early times the plant was introduced into Italy, from whence it was dis-
tributed over central and western Europe as far as England. At present
it is grown chiefly in Spain, France, Egypt, Persia, and India. Its cul-
ture, although profitable, requires a large outlay of labor in gathering
the flowers, which appear during October, and are picked from day
to day by hand. The flower consists of a light-colored tube about 10 cm.
long and 2-3 cm. broad, which expands at the top and divides into
six beautiful violet lobes, corresponding to petals and sepals. A mem-
branous spathe surrounds the tube. The slender yellow style (Fig. 547)
FlG. 547. Saffron {Crocus sativus). Style
and stigmas. (Planchon.)
Fig. 548. Spring Crocus {Crocus vernus).
Style and stigmas. (Planchon.)
divides in the crown of the flower into three fleshy, lustrous, revolute,
trumpet-shaped, bright orange-red stigmas, 2-3 cm. long, with scolloped
edges.
1 This species should not be confounded with Crocus vernus L., numerous varieties of
which are cultivated for their spring flowers. The stigmas (Fig. 548) of this species have
neither odor nor taste and but little tinctorial power.
624 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
In the preparation of commercial saffron the stigmas are separated
as completely as possible from the styles, and dried in sieves over fires.
The product is characterized by its intense orange-red color, penetrating
odor, and peculiar taste.
HISTOLOGY.
After soaking in water, which extracts the larger part of the coloring
matter, the form and structure of the stigmas may be studied. The walls
of the stigma, although very soft and scarcely more than 0.4 mm. thick,
may be held between pieces of pith and sectioned with a razor.
The structure is very simple (Fig. 549). The ground tissue con-
ep
^
-a
9~ *W&Sfes
Fig. 549. Saffron. Cross section of stigma at margin, ep epidermis; g fibro-vascular
bundle; c separated cuticle; P pollen grain. (Moeller.)
sists of delicate, loosely arranged parenchyma with a few small bundles,
between two epidermal layers. Seen in surface view all the cells are
elongated up to 200 fi long and 15 /x broad.
Outer Epidermis (Fig. 550, ep; Fig. 551). The cuticle is glassy, stri-
ated, much stiffer than the cell- walls. The cells are more or less elongated,
and each usually bears a short papilla (p). These papillae on the edges
of the stigma, where they are especially numerous, are both short and
long (up to 400 /j.), 20-40 fi broad. On the surface both cells and papillae
are finely granular.
The coloring matter, which is found in all the cells, is fiery red, or
in thin sections, yellow. It is insoluble in oil, but dissolves in water and
alkalies to a yellow solution, leaving undissolved only a colorless crumbling
substance and an occasional oil drop. In glycerine and alcohol it dis-
solves more slowly. The cell-contents form with concentrated sulphuric
acid a blue solution, changing through violet and red into brown. After
SAFFRON.
625
this treatment fine needles, insoluble in water, separate. Rudolf Muller
notes that oxalate crystals are absent, but here and there crystals insoluble
in hydrochloric acid are present.
Pollen Grains (Fig. 549, P) are often found on the stigmas. They are
globular, 120 [i in diameter, and have a thick membrane and colorless
granular contents.
DIAGNOSIS.
Saffron is not in such demand as formerly, either as a spice, a drug,
or a dyestuff. Although its color is intense, one part imparting a dis-
tinct yellow to 200,000 parts of water, the coal-tar colors have largely
replaced it as a dye.
Whole Saffron, the form in which the product is usually placed on
the market, is readily identified by the macroscopic characters and the
Fig. 550. Saffron. Surface view of stigma, ep epidermis; g spiral vessel; p papillae.
X300. (Moeller.)
reactions of the coloring matter, especially its solubility in water, and
the blue color imparted by sulphuric acid.
The chief microscopic characters are the elongated parenchyma cells
of the epidermis and ground tissue, the former with papillae (Figs.
550 and 551), and the smooth globular pollen grains (Fig. 549, P).
Powdered Saffron is seldom found on -the market. The reactions of
the coloring matter and the histological characters as given above serve
in identification.
626
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
Adulterants. Owing to its high cost saffron is often grossly adulterated.
The adulterations are chiefly of five classes :
(i) Saffron Styles, being yellow, are strikingly different from the
orange-red stigmas. If, however, the product is artificially colored,
it must be soaked in water, after which the cylindrical styles may be
readily distinguished from the, trumpet-shaped stigmas. In powder form
it is difficult to detect this form of adulteration, owing to the similarity
in structure of the two parts. Papillae such as are present on the edges
of the stigma are not found on the style, but failure to find them is no.
FlG. SSL Saffron. Epidermis of stigma with papilla;. (MoELLER.)
proof of adulteration, since they form but a small portion of the tissues,
and are not readily found in the debris. Of greater value in diagnosis
are the epidermal cells, which in the style are wavy, and lack papillae
(Vogl). If in oil mounts one finds a considerable amount of homoge-
neous yellow parenchyma, either styles or extracted stigmas are probably
present. Stamens are identified by the spirally thickened cells.
(2) Parts 0} Foreign Plants. The most common adulterants of this
class are marigold flowers (p. 627), safflower (p. 629), maize silk (p. 632),
red sandalwood (p. 44), and paprika (p. 516). Others occasionally
used are : Flowers of Scolymus hispanicus, flowers of pomegranate (Punica
granatum L.), stigmas and stamens of other species of Crocus, chopped
SAFFRON. MARIGOLD FLOWERS. 627
grass leaves colored with cochineal and weighted with lime,1 leaves colored
with carmine and weighted with heavy spar,2 rootlets of chives (Allium
Schosnoprasum L.),3 petals of peony (Pceonia)* petals of poppy (Papaver
RhczasL.), garlic rootlets, onion scales, malt sprouts, the etiolated sprouts
of vetches, an alga,5 etc.
(3) Artificially Colored Saffron. The exhausted product is sometimes
colored with coal-tar dyes. These do not penetrate into the cells, but
are deposited on the surface. The material should be examined in water
and in oil, and the extracted dye subjected to chemical tests.
(4) Weighted Saffron is prepared by soaking in oil, glycerine, sirup,
or gelatine, and stirring with mineral substances. Saffron is also said
to be soaked in a solution of a barium salt and afterwards in a solution
of a sulphate, thus depositing barium sulphate in the cells. These adul-
terants are detected by" determinations of ash and analyses of the ash.
(5) Coal-tar Dyes with no vegetable matter whatever are substi-
tuted for genuine saffron.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16); Linsbauer
(48); Mace" (26);. "Meyer (27); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34);
Schimper (37); Tschirch u. Oesterle (40); Vogl (43, 45).
Chicote: Unenovelle falsification du safran. Jour, pharm. chim. 1896, 3, 116.
Hanausek, T. F.: Safranfalscliung. Rev. internat. scient. et popul. 1887, 1, 24.
Hanausek, T. F.: Ueber eine neue Safranfals'chung. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg.
1888, 2, 19.
Kaiser: Ueber Safranfalschung. Fiinfte Versammlung der freien Vereinigung,
bayer. Vertr. der angew. Chemie.
Kirkby: Saffron adulteration. Pharm. Jour. Transact. 337.
Muixer, R.: Ueber die vermeintlichen Oxakitkristalle im Safran. Ztschr. allgem.
osterr. Apoth.-Ver. 1903.
Nestler: Eigenttimliche Kristalle auf den "Safrannarben. Ztschr. Unters. Nahr.-
Genussm. 1903, 6, 1034.
Ranvez: Falschung von Safran. Ann. Pharm. 1895.
flARIQOLD FLOWERS.
The tasteless and odorless ray-flowers of the marigold (Calendula
officinalis L., order Composite), often artificially colored, serve as an
adulterant of saffron. The ovary is small, spindle-shaped; the strap-
shaped corolla, orange-colored, 4-veined, 3-toothed, upward of 25 mm.
long, contracted into a channeled hairy base.
1 W. Brandes-. 2 A. Meyer. 3 Gehe. 4 Jandous. 6 Kanoldt.
628
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
HISTOLOGY.
Corolla. The thin blades may be mounted directly in water. -
Epidermis (Fig. 552). The cells are elongated, finely striate, arranged
end to end in rows. Each contains one or more drops of fatty oil, in
Fig. 552. Marigold {Calendula officinalis). Surface view of petal showing ep epidermis
with h hairs and p parenchyma with oil globules. X160. (Moeller.)
which is dissolved a yellow dye. The numerous hairs (h) on the channeled
base are over 1 mm. long, and usually consist of two parallel rows of cells,
the end cells being often deep yellow and shrunken.
DIAGNOSIS.
Although the dried product somewhat resembles saffron, on soaking
in water the difference in microscopic structure is striking. The strap-
shaped, 4-veined, 3-toothed corolla narrowed into a channeled hairy
base is characteristic. In the ground product the long hairs (Fig. 552, h),
made up usually of two rows of cells, are readily identified. Water
extracts only a trace of color from the uncolored flowers.
SAFFLOWER.
629
SAFFLOWER.
The orange-red flowers of Carthamus tinctorius L. (order Composites),
known as safflower, are obtained from India and the Levant. Before
marketing they are usually washed to remove the yellow coloring matter,
pressed in the hands, and finally dried. The commercial, product has
little odor or taste.
The red corolla consists of a slender tube over 2 cm. long, ending in
five lanceolate lobes (Fig. 553). The yellow anthers are united into a
tube 5 mm. long, projecting beyond the corolla, and out of this in turn
Fig. 553. Safflower (Carthamus tincto-
rius), P corolla; A anthers; IV stig-
ma; jk ovary. Enlarged. (Tschirch
and Oesterle.)
Fig. 554. Safflower. Cross section through
the margin of petal. G fibro-vascular
bundle; s resin tube. (Tschirch and
Oesterle.)
projects the club-shaped red stigma. The corolla tube is united below
with the pistil. Narrow, white, silky bractlets of the receptacle are often
present with the flowers.
HISTOLOGY.
The Corolla (Figs. 554 and 555) is much thinner than the stigmas of
saffron, and of a deeper color.
Epidermis (ep). The cells are elongated, more or less wavy in con-
tour. Papillae (p) similar to those of saffron are limited to the ends of
the lobes.
The Middle Layers consist of elongated cells, uncommonly narrow
spiral vessels, and, accompanying the latter, tubes containing a dark-
630
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
brown resin-like material, often in detached cylindrical masses (s). In
the smaller tubes the interstices between these masses might be mis-
taken for crystals.
The Stamens (Fig. 556) are still more characteristic in structure.
They consist of fibrous cells, many of which are beautifully reticulated
s sp
Fig. 555. Saffiower. Tissues of petal Fig. 556. Safflower. Tissues of stamen in
in surface view, ep epidermis with surface view. / reticulated and porpus fibers.
* p papillae; sp spiral vessels; s resin X300. (Moeller.)
tubes. X300. (Moeller.)
or else pierced with numerous, uncommonly broad pores. At the place
where the filaments join the anthers the cells are isodiametric. Short
papillae occur oa the ends of the anthers.
Stigmas (Fig. 557). The numerous thin-walled papillae are very
striking. The Pollen Grains (p) which are often found on the stigma
are triangular, roughened, 40-60 fi, with three excrescences.
The Bracts (Fig. 558) are made up of long (up to 500 pi), narrow
(20 n), parenchymatous cells with reticulated end walls.
The coloring matter exists in the cells as a red, homogeneous or
indistinctly granular mass, insoluble in both water and oil. Alkalies
turn it yellow.
DIAGNOSIS.
Safflower is used in medicine, and occasionally as an adulterant of
saffron. Microscopic examination of the soaked material suffices for the
SAFFLOWER. CAPE SAFFRON.
631
identification of the whole flowers. The characters of chief value in
the examination of the powder are the wavy-walled epidermal cells (Fig.
Fig. 557
len grains,
Safflower. Stigma and p pol-
ins. X 300. (Moellee.)
Fig. 558. Safflower. Bract in surface
view. X 300. (Moeller.)
555, ep) and the resin tubes (s) of the red corolla, the elongated reticu-
lated cells of the filaments and bracts (Fig. 558), the papillae of the stigmas
(Fig. 557), and the roughened triangular pollen grains (Fig. 557, p) each
with three excrescences. The product imparts little color to water.
CAPE SAFFRON.
The flowers of Lyperia crocea Eckl. (order Scrophulariacea), known
in commerce as Cape saffron, resemble true saffron in odor, taste, and
dyeing properites, although the two plants belong to widely different
families. The calyx is greenish, somewhat inflated, with five linear
lobes; the corolla is superior, fugaceous, 25 mm. long, with a long tube,
and five spreading, rounded, somewhat revolute lobes. Two short and
two long stamens are inserted on the corolla tube. Distributed over
the corolla and calyx are large, regularly formed glandular scales, con-
sisting of four cells with a blister-like enlargement of the cuticle. The
contents are a colorless substance soluble in alcohol and alkali. The
color of the dried flowers is dark brown, becoming lighter on soaking
in water (Vogl).
63a
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
SOUTH AFRICAN SAFFRON.
The flowers of Trilonia aurea Pappe (Crocosma aurea PL, Babiana
aurea Ketsch., order Iridacea) are used in South Africa as a substitute
for saffron. The corolla tube is cylindrical, broadening into a funnel-
shaped lobed extremity. The stigma branches are thick, club-shaped
at the ends. According to Heine the flowers contain a coloring sub-
stance soluble in hot water which is similar to the crocin of saffron.
nAIZE SILK.
The dried thread-like styles and stigmas of Zea Mays L., known as
maize or corn silk, are used in medicine and chopped into short pieces
as an adulterant of saffron. The threads are distinguished from saffron
by their flattened, strap-shaped form. Under a low power two parallel
bundles, one near each margin, are evident. Multicellular hairs similar
to those of marigold, but smaller (0.4-0.8 mm.), occur on the epidermis.
The cell contents dissolve in alkali to a brown liquid.
CLOVES.
Cloves are the flower-buds of a small evergreen tree (Eugenia caryo-
phyllata Thbg., Jambosa Caryophyllus Ndz., Caryophyllus aromaticus
Fig. 559. Cloves (Eugenia caryofhyllata). A flower bud in longitudinal section, X3
B fruit, natural size. C fruit in longitudinal section, X2. D embrvo, natural
size. (Luerssen.)
L., order Myrtacea), a native of the Molucca Islands, but now exten-
sively cultivated in the Philippines, the Sunda Islands, Southern India,
GLOMES. 633
Zanzibar and the neighboring islands, the Antilles, and tropical South
America. The thrice-forked corymbs, with flowers in groups of three,
appear twice a year, in June and December. The buds are either picked
by hand or beaten from the tree with reeds and collected on cloths beneath.
They are usually dried in the sun, during which process the color changes
to brown.
Dried cloves (Fig. 559) have a rounded or somewhat flattened, wrinkled,
adherent calyx tube, about 1 cm. long and 3 mm. in diameter, which
expands somewhat at the end, and divides into four thick, blunt lobes.
In the calyx tube towards the top are two small cavities containing numer-
FlG. 560. Cloves. Cross section through calyx tube. X25. (Moellee.)
ous ovules. The four^petals alternate with the sepals, and overlap to
form a globular head, jvithin which are numerous curved stamens about
a single style.
Cloves contain 15-25 per cent of essential oil, which exudes in minute
drops on pressing with the finger nail.
HISTOLOGY.
Calyx. A cross section of the calyx tube slightly magnified (Fig. 560)
shows an outer ring of oil cavities, an inner ring of bundles, and a slender
634
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
axis. The structure seen with higher magnification (Fig. 561) is as
follows :
1. Epidermis {ep). The wrinkled epidermis consists of very small
cells with uncommonly thick cuticle (15 fi). In surface view (Fig. 563, A)
the cells are sharply polygonal. Stomata occur here and there.
2. Parenchyma. In the outer layers (p 1) the cells are somewhat
radially elongated, with thin walls. Proceeding inwards the cells become
isodiametric and the walls increase in thickness (p 2)- Yellow masses
Fig. 561. Cloves. Cross section through calyx tube, ep epidermis wi the cuticle; plt p2,p3
three forms of parenchyma; o oil cavity; g fibro-vascular bundle with narrow spiral
vessel and thick-walled bast fibers. X160. (Moeller.)
becoming blue-black with iron chloride are the visible contents. The
oil cavities are in 2 to 3 irregular rows, and, being commonly over 200 ;i
in diameter, are visible to the naked eye.
3. The Bundles (Fig. 561, g; Fig. 562) contain very small spiral vessels
arranged in radial rows, and a few strikingly broad bast fibers (50 fi).
These latter are the only sclerenchyma elements in cloves. Numerous
rosettes of calcium oxalate occur in crystal fibers in the bundles and in
small groups elsewhere.
CLONES.
635
4. Spongy Parenchyma (p3). Chains of small parenchyma cells
about large intercellular spaces form a ring inside the bundle ring.
The calyx lobes are composed of much the same elements as the tube.
The Corolla is similar in structure to the calyx. The epidermal
cells of the outer surface (Fig. 563, B) are isodiametric, with wavy walls ;
those of the inner surface (C) isodiametric or
elongated, with straight or curved walls. A
concentric arrangement of the latter about grow-
ing centers is here and there evident. Large
oil cavities form a layer near the outer surface,
while smaller ones adjoin the inner surface
(Fig. 563, C). The bundles are narrow (50 /i).
The Stamens and Styles contain elements
much like those described, but more delicate.
The Pollen Grains (Fig. 564) occur in great
numbers in the anthers. They are rounded-
triangular, and have distinct pores in the blunt
corners.
sp cr
DIAGNOSIS.
Whole Cloves should contain the full amount
of essential oil and be free from- dirt and con-
siderable amounts of stems. When pressed with
the ringer nail small drops of oil should exude,
the cleaned cloves indicates either that the product has lost strength
st A
Fig. 562. Cloves. Longi-
tudinal section through
fibro-vascular bundle, sp
spiral vessel; b bast fiber
with broad cavity ; cr crys-
tal fibers. (Moellee.)
A deficiency of oil in
*^&
V"
Kt£P
ouicr burid.ce
iderrnal tissues from various parts. A from calyx tube; B from
tal; C from inner surface of petal with underlying oil cavity and
crystal rosettes. ~Xi6o. (Moellee.)
by long exposure, or that exhausted cloves, the by-product from the dis-
tillation of oil of cloves, have been added. T. F. Hanausek describes
artificial cloves made from dough, powdered bark, and clove powder,
636 SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
and Koenig another moulded product made from starch, gum, and oil
of cloves. Such products disintegrate on soaking in water.
Ground Cloves. The chief elements are the blunt triangular pollen
grains (Fig. 564), the epidermal layers (Fig. 563),
the bundles (Fig. 562) with crystal chamber
fibers (cr), and the thick- walled bast fibers (b).
Molisch calls attention to the needle crystals of
an eugenol salt often found after treating with
alkali. Starch is absent, also stone cells.
Fig. 564. Cloves. Pollen The adulterants include clove stems (yellow
lee!) ' en arge ' L" stone cells, reticulated vessels, small starch grains,
cork), cocoanut shells (brown stone cells of curi-
ous forms), red sandalwood (wood elements with red color, soluble in
alkali), also various starchy and non-starchy products.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Berg (3); Hanausek, T. F. (10, 16);
Hassall (19); Hilger (10); Leach (25); Linsbauer (48); Mace" (26); Meyer, A.
(27); Moeller (29, 30, 31, 32); Planchon et Collin (34); Schimper (37); Tschirch u.
Oesterle (40); Villiers et Collin (42); Vogl (43, 45).
Hanausek, T. F. : Kiinstliche Gewiirznelken. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg. 1889, 3.
Kraemer: A Chemical and Microscopical Examination of Cloves. Am. J. Phar.
1894, 66, 479.
CLOVE STEHS.
Clove stems, the pedicels removed from the flower-buds in harvesting,
are used for the manufacture of oil of cloves and as an adulterant of
ground cloves and allspice. They vary in diameter (1-4 mm.) accord-
ing as they are stems of the first, second, or third grade, and have a
smooth yellow or wrinkled brown surface. The product contains about
5 per cent of essential oil.
HISTOLOGY.
1. The Epidermis, like that of the calyx tube, consists of polygonal
cells and stomata. Sometimes the epidermis is replaced by small cork
cells.
2. Cortex. The ground tissue is parenchyma containing a brown sub-
stance partly soluble in water and alkali, with the reactions of tannin,
small starch grains (3-5 fi), and rosettes and simple crystals of calcium
oxalate. Oil cavities occur beneath the epidermis, and yellow stone
CLOVE STEMS. CLOVE FRUIT.
637
cells (Fig. 565, st) both there and in the inner layers. The stone cells
in the outer layers are small, thickened only on the inner side; those
further inward are large (up to 1 mm.), tangentially elongated, uniformly
thickened, faintly stratified, pierced by branching pores.
3. The Bundles consist of narrow (25 [i) reticulated and scalariform
vessels (Fig. 565, g) with phloem and bast fibers on both the outer and
Fig. 565. Clove Stems, st stone cells from cortex; m star-shaped stone cell from pith;
g fibro-vascular bundle; 6 bast fibers and stone cells from bast. X160. (Moeller.)
inner sides. The bast fibers (6) are 700 /x long, 45 ft or less broad, with
very narrow lumen and few pores.
4. Pith. The parenchyma contains small starch grains and oxalate
crystals like those of the cortex. Regularly formed stone cells, often
star-shaped (m), are also present.
DIAGNOSIS.
The most important elements are the yellow stone cells (Fig. 565, st,
m) and the reticulated and scalariform vessels (g). Less noticeable are
starch grains, simple crystals, and cork cells. None of these elements
occur in the flower-buds.
CLOVE FRUIT.
Mother cloves, the fully ripened fruit of the clove tree, are employed
in limited amount in the manufacture of medicines and liquors.
Although the ovary in its early stages of development has two cells
638
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
and numerous ovules, only one cell and one seed are found in the ripe
fruit (Fig. 559, C). The latter is but a swollen and ripened clove, 25 mm.
long, 8 mm. thick, crowned with the incurved calyx teeth and the remains
of the style, but lacking the corolla and stamens.
The seed fills the fruit cavity completely and resembles a small date
stone.
HISTOLOGY.
The Pericarp is not materially altered in structure during ripening
except that sclerenchyma elements (Fig. 566, st) are developed about
Fig. 566. Clove Fruit. Tissues of pericarp in surface view, sp spiral vessels and epicarp;
p brown parenchyma with underlying oil cavity; st stone cells and fibers; s endocarp.
X 160. (Moeller.)
the bundles. These vary from bast fibers 800 jx long to isodiametric
stone cells, and display a great variety of curious knotty forms. They
are easily prepared for study by crushing a piece of the soaked peri-
carp on a slide and treating with a drop of alkali.
The Embryo (Fig. 567) consists of two dark red-brown, wrinkled
cotyledons on a radicle upward of 1 cm. long. The outer surface of
the cotyledons is finely granular.
1. Epidermis {ep). A layer of small cells (12 n) makes up the epi-
dermal layer.
2. Oil Cells (200 [i or less), containing essential oil and a brown
pigment, are distributed in the subepidermal layers of ground parenchyma.
3. Starch Cells of large size (45 ft) and rounded form, with thick
porous walls and intercellular spaces, resemble in their cell-structure the
CLOVE FRUIT. CAPERS. 639
cotyledon tissues of some of the leguminous seeds, though the starch grains
(am) are very different, being pear-shaped or truncated with a small
hilum at the broader end and delicate markings. The starch grains
are seldom more than 40 n and quite as seldom less than 10 [t. Not-
withstanding the truncated ends, suggesting contact with other grains,
compound grains are not evident. Fissures occur in some of the grains.
DIAGNOSIS.
The pear-shaped starch grains (Fig. 567, am), knotty bast fibers,
and stone cells (Fig. 566, st) are highly characteristic, the latter being
am
Fig. 567. Clove Fruit. Elements of seed, ep epidermis and E ground tissue of cotyledon;
am starch grains. X300. (Moeller.)
quite different from the sclerenchyma elements of cloves or clove stems.
Banana, yam, sago, and some other tropical starches resemble that
of mother cloves ; still these are seldom added to spices, and if present
there is little fear of confusion, as the stone cells and other tissues of the
latter are characteristic.
CAPERS.
Capers are the flower-buds of a shrub (Capparis spinosa L., order
Capparidacea), a native of Mediterranean countries, where it is also
extensively cultivated. The flowers have four green, thickish, tough
sepals, inconspicuous delicate_ petals, numerous stamens, and a stalked
ovary. They are preserved in vinegar and salt, and are much esteemed
as a condiment.
HISTOLOGY.
Sepals. The Epidermis is characterized by the large cells with stri-
ated cuticle (Fig. 568), In the Mesophyl are groups of cells containing
640
SPICES AND CONDIMENTS.
numerous yellow crystalline needles of a glucoside (rutin) embedded in
formless masses. These dissolve in alkali to a yellow liquid.
Petals. The epidermis consists of smaller cells than those of the
sepals, and almost circular stomata. On the inner surface are curious
Fig. 568. Capers (Capparis spinosa\. Epidermis of calyx in surface view. (Moeller.)
club-shaped hairs (Fig. 569) with irregular constrictions. They are
easily removed by scraping.
DIAGNOSIS.
Preserved capers should be small,
round, and unexpanded. If old they are
soft and discolored. A bright-green color
indicates that they have been greened
with copper. The following are adul-
erants.
German Capers, the flower-buds of
Spar Hum scoparium L. (Papilionacece)
are prepared in Holland. They have a
two-lipped calyx, papilionaceous corolla,
ten stamens in a bundle, and a coiled
style.
Flower-buds of Marsh Marigold (Cal-
tha palustris L. — Ranunculacea) have five
yellow sepals, no petals, and 5-10 pistils.
Fig. 569. Capers. Hairs from inner
surface of petal. QVIoeller.)
C/tPERS. 641
The flower-buds of the garden Nasturtium (Tropaolum majus L. —
TropcBolacecB) have a spurred calyx, five petals with claws, eight stamens
and a three-celled ovary. The green fruit is irregularly trefoil-shaped
and ribbed. Both buds and fruit are substituted for capers.
Caper Fruits (Cornichons de cdprier) are elongated, many-seeded
berries. They are sometimes mixed with the buds.
PART X.
COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
Although starch is found in enormous quantities in leaves as the
first visible product of assimilation (assimilation starch), no great amount
accumulates in these organs, as it is continually being converted into
sugars or other soluble carbohydrates and translocated to different parts
of the plant to build up tissues and form cell-contents. For this reason
as well as the small size of the grains and the difficulty of removing the
enveloping chlorophyl, the starch of leaves cannot be profitably extracted
on a commercial scale.
Transitory Starch, that is, starch temporarily deposited in growing
points, barks, and immature fruits and seeds, like the starch of assimilation,
has small grains and does not accumulate in considerable quantities.
Reserve Starch. The only form of starch available for the manu-
facture of the commercial product is the reserve supply stored up in
roots, rhizomes, tubers, and stems for the needs of the plants themselves
or else in fruits and seeds for the needs of the young offspring. The
reserve starch of the cassava plant (Manihot) and yam (Dioscorea) is stored
in the fleshy roots, of Bermuda arrowroot (Maranta) and turmeric (Cur-
cuma) in the rhizomes or rootstocks, of the potato (Solarium) in the tubers,
of the sago palm (Metroxylori) in the stem, of the banana (Musa) in the
pericarp or fruit.
It is, however, questionable whether the starch of the banana should
be classed under this head, for reasons given on p. 658.
Among seeds, the reserve starch of the legumes (Leguminosce) is stored
in the cotyledons, of the cereals (Graminia) and buckwheats (Polygo-
nacece) in the endosperm, and of pepper and cubebs (Piperacece) in the
perisperm. By selection, crossing, and cultivation, the size of these
natural storehouses as well as their starch content are greatly increased
beyond what the needs of the plant demand.
Formation of Reserve Starch. Schimper was the first to demonstrate
that reserve starch does not separate directly from the protoplasm of the
643
644
COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
cell, but is formed through the agency of starch-forming bodies (leuco-
plasts), physiologically similar to chlorophyl grains (chloroplasts), but
differing from them in that they perform their function in the dark.
Closely related morphologically to both leucoplasts and chloroplasts are
the chromoplasts or color bodies of flowers and fruits.
Leucoplasts are not easily found in most reservoirs of starch, but
may be studied in sections of the pseudo-bulb of Phajus grandiflorus
Fig. 570. Starch Grains and Leucoplasts from the pseudo-bulb of Phajus grandiflorus. A
fully developed grains; a partially developed grains with L adhering leucoplasts; A'
starch grain with layers deposited on one side; V leucoplasts arranged about the cell
nucleus in which are granular bodies. (Vogl.)
(Fig. 570), a well-known greenhouse orchid, also in the rhizome of Iris
Germanica.
Arthur Meyer explains some interesting relations between the shape
of the starch grains and the method of formation. If a single grain is
formed within the leucoplast it will grow uniformly on all sides and
have a round outline, a central hilum, and concentric rings. If, how-
ever, the grain is formed on the sides of the leucoplast it will grow only
on the side of attachment, and as a consequence will be elongated and
have an excentric hilum and excentric rings. If several grains are formed
within a leucoplast, the sides in contact will be flattened; the grains on
the surface of the aggregate will have both rounded and flattened sur-
faces, while those in the inner part, in contact with grains on all sides,
will be polygonal.
COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 645
Chemical Composition. Although starch from . different plants has
the same percentage composition, the formula being C6Hi0O5, or some
multiple, it is not one single substance. Three isomeric carbohydrates
occurring in varying proportions have been described: (1) granulose
or /?-amylose, colored blue with iodine ; (2) starch cellulose or a-amylose,
colored yellow with iodine, and (3) amylodextrine, colored red with
iodine. True starch consists of granulose with a small amount of starch
cellulose and is colored blue with iodine. The amylodextrine starch of
mace, first described by Tschirch, contains, however, only small amounts
of these substances, but consists largely of amylodextrine, and conse-
quently is colored red by iodine. Starch cellulose is obtained as deli-
cate skeletons by treating starch grains with saliva.
Starch is converted into a paste by boiling with water. It passes
successively into soluble starch, dextrine, and dextrose on boiling with
dilute sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. The diastase of malt and the ptyalin
of saliva convert it into maltose. By heating at 150-1600 C. it is con-
verted into dextrine. It is soluble in caustic soda or potash, and for
this reason these alkalies are used to clear starchy mounts for the obser-
vation of the tissues.
The Microscopic Characters of starch differ greatly in the different
varieties, especially as to the presence or absence of aggregates, the form
and size of the grains, their deportment with polarized light, the form,
position, distinctness of the hilum or nucleus, the form and distinct-
ness of the rings (Fig. 571).
Aggregates. The grains may be separate or more or less united into
aggregates which may consist of any number of individuals from two to
several hundred. In the mature organ, the aggregates may be either intact
or largely broken up into their component grains.
The Forms of the grains are so numerous even in the same variety as
to forbid accurate classification, but the following are the most striking:
1. Globular. The starch of the peanut and some grains of maize.
2. Lenticular. The large grains of wheat, rye, and barley.
3. Ellipsoidal. The starch of legumes.
4. Ovoid or pear-shaped. The starch of potato, canna, Bermuda
arrowroot, yam, and banana.
5. Truncated. Most of the grains of cassava, batata, and sago.
6. Polygonal. The starch of maize, rice, oats, and buckwheat.
Globular and lenticular grains ordinarily appear the same, but if,
as recommended by Tschirch and Oesterle, the grains are made to move
646
COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
under the cover-glass by drawing the liquid to one side by means of a
bit of filter-paper, lenticular grains alternately appear circular or elliptical
according as their position. When viewed on edge, lenticular grains
are very similar in appearance to ellipsoidal grains. Pear-shaped grains
differ greatly, often passing into globular, rod-shaped, sickle-shaped,
and various irregular forms.
The term truncated grain as here used includes not only kettledrum
forms but forms with two or even three plain surfaces; when, however,
Fig. 571. Forms of Starch Grains. 1 wheat; 2 pea; 3 curcuma; 4 potato; 5 sago; 6 oats;
•jColchicum; 8 cockle; ga Euphorbia resinifera; 96 Euphorbia Helioscopia; 10 banana;
11 maize; 12 Iris Germanica (with adhering leucoplasts). X300. (Vogl.)
several plain surfaces are present, the form is more nearly polygonal.
Truncated forms with one and two plain surfaces are separated members
of twins and triplets, while polygonal grains are the inner members of
larger aggregates.
' The Size of starch grains, measured through the longest diameter,
ranges from less than 1 fi to over 150 ft. In some varieties the grains
are nearly all large (canna), in others all small (rice, buckwheat), in
others still, large and small (wheat, rye, and barley). Not only should
COMMERCIAL STARCHES. 647
the maximum and minimum sizes be noted, but also the commonest
(not the average) size.
The Hilum or organic center of the grain is conspicuous in some
grains (maize, legumes), hardly noticeable in others (wheat, rye, and
barley). It may be isodiametric (in most cases a mere point, in maize,
however, of considerable size) or else strongly elongated, appearing like
a narrow cleft (legumes).
Of great importance is its position, which may be central or nearly
so (cereals, cassava), or else excentric, (potato, Bermuda arrowroot,
turmeric, canna). The rings of the grain are circular or excentric,
according to the location of the hilum about which they are arranged.
Polarized light is of great value in locating the position of the hilum,
since the dark crosses which appear on the bright grains with crossed
Nicol prisms', intersect at that point (Fig. 572). In grains with central
Fig. 572. Starch Grains viewed with Polarized Light. T potato. II curcuma. Ill
wheat; IV bean. X 300. (Winton.)
hilum, the dark lines intersect at the center, forming X-shaped crosses.
In grains with excentric hilum they often intersect so near one end
that they appear to be V-shaped. The crosses in leguminous grains
(if they can be so termed) are the shape of two Y's, united thus : Y*
Since the hilum contains more water than other parts of the grain,
clefts appear on drying, which in the cereals radiate from the center,
in legumes form branches on both sides of the elongated hilum, and in
Bermuda arrowroot form double curves resembling the wings of a soar-
ing bird.
648 COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
The Rings vary greatly in distinctness. They are best seen with
oblique illumination, and may be rendered more distinct by treatment
with dilute chromic acid, as recommended by Weiss and Wiesner, or
by heating the dry starch. They are not evident in wheat, rye, or barley
starch except under favorable conditions.
As has been stated, they are circular or excentric according to the
location of the hilum. Some authorities regard these rings as due lo
differences in water content of alternate layers, the hilum containing
the highest percentage.
The Crystalline Structure of starch grains is shown by their deport-
ment with polarized light. Viewed with crossed Nicol prisms, the
grains form in the dark field luminous objects with more or less distinct
crosses. These crosses are very distinct in some varieties (canna, potato,
maize), indistinct in others (wheat, rye, barley).
If the selenite plate is added to the polarizing apparatus, a beautiful
play of colors is obtained in many varieties.
Various theories have been advanced as to the crystalline structure
of the grains, but at present they are regarded as double refractive sphaero-
crystals or sphaerocrystalloids.
Certain Enzymes, particularly those of sprouting grain, act slowly
on starch grains, the partially dissolved grains showing very distinct
rings and branching, grooves resembling the burrows of insects (Fig. 30).
Heating, whether dry as in the manufacture of dextrine and the roast-
ing of seeds for coffee substitutes, or wet as in the baking of bread, causes
the grains to swell and assume greatly distorted forms. Notwithstanding
this distortion, a considerable number of the grains usually preserve
enough of their characteristics to permit of identification (Fig. 31).
Commerical Starch. Wiesner describes twenty distinct starches
which are made on a commercial scale, but at least half of these are
of only local importance.
Wheat and potato starch are mostly made on the Continent; rice
starch in England; curcuma and sago starch in the East Indies; Ber-
muda arrowroot in the West Indies and other warm regions; cassava
starch in Brazil and other tropical countries; canna starch in Australia;
and maize starch in the United States.
Process of Manufacture. Starch differs from flour in that it is a product
of elutriation rather than of milling, and consists almost entirely of one
chemical substance, whereas flour contains proteids, fat, cellular matter
and ash constituents as well as starch.
ANALYTICAL KEY. 649
The processes employed for making different kinds of starch and in
. different factories for making the same kind of starch differ in details,
but are in general principle the same. The starchy material is reduced
to a pulp or powder, with or without previous soaking in water, and the
starch washed out from the tissues on sieves. After settling the super-
natant liquid is poured off and the residue is further purified by washing,
and is finally dried.
In making wheat starch either the whole grain is subjected to a fer-
mentation process, thus forming acetic, lactic and other organic acids
in which the gluten is soluble, or else wheat flour is made into a dough
and the starch is washed away from the gluten on sieves.
Agitation with dilute alkali is often employed in purifying starch,
the nitrogenous substances and some other impurities being soluble
in alkaline solutions. Thorough washing of the starch after this treat-
ment is essential, otherwise the finished product is liable to have a slight
alkaline reaction which unfits it for certain uses.
Uses. Starch is used in preparing various articles of food, especially
puddings and confectionery, also as an ingredient of baking-powders.
Enormous quantities are used in the manufacture of glucose and alcoholic
liquors. It is a common adulterant of wheat flour, chocolate, cocoa,
spices, jellies, and other foods.
Starch is also employed in medicine, as a cosmetic, and still more
extensively for laundry purposes and in the arts. Starch paste is a product
of no little commercial importance.
Microscopic Examination. The technique of preparing starch for
examination is exceedingly simple, and consists merely in mounting in a
drop of water or other medium, taking care not to use too much of the
material. Oblique illumination aids in making the rings distinct. The
shape and size of the grains, the form and position of the hilum and rings,
and the presence or absence of aggregates should all be carefully noted.
The micropolariscope is of no little assistance not only in locating the
hilum, but in differentiating strongly and feebly active starches.
Moeller's Analytical Key to Commercial Starches.
A. All or most of the grains rounded, not from aggregates.
(a) Large grains, rounded, with central hilum; small grains globular or angular.
1. Large grains, mostly 28-40 /< Wheat.
(6) Large grains of various shapes (never lenticular), with excentric hilum.
* Many grains over 70 /« long.
650 COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
2. Grains under 100 ft, mostly oyster-shell shaped; hilum in the narrow,
pointed end; here and there aggregates and grains with two
hilums Potato.
3. Many grains over 100 ft, broadly elliptical with a blunt point; hilum
in the pointed end ".Canna,
** Few grains over 70 /*, much elongated.
+Many grains over 50 fi; rings distinct.
4. Grains with pointed end, uniform in size (50-60 fi), flattened (seen
on edge narrow); hilum in- pointed end Curcuma.
5. Grains not pointed; hilum in the narrow but rounded end Yam.
6. Grains not pointed; hilum in broad, seldom in narrow end. .Banana.
+ + Grains always under 50 /*, ovate or pear-shaped, not flattened or only
slightly.
7. Grains nearly uniform in size (40 ji); hilum central or in the broad
end, often with cleft Maranta.
8. Large grains 25-40 ji, club-shaped; hilum in narrow rounded end;
clefts absent Erythronium.
+ + + Grains under 30 /j, mostly pear-shaped, seldom in aggregates; hilum
and rings indistinct or lacking.
9. Similar to sago, but grains smaller and without rings. Horse-chestnut.
10. Many rounded angular grains Chestnut.
B. Grains polygonal or rounded, with one or more facets (mostly from aggregates).
(a) Grains mostly polygonal; hilum central.
n. Grains very small (mostly 6 p), sharply angular Rice.
12. Large grains (often 20 [i), polygonal or rounded; hilum with clefts.
Maize.
(6) Grains mostly kettle-drum-shaped (from twins) or with two facets (from
aggregates of three)'.
* Aggregates of one large and two or more small grains.
13. Large grains, often with two separated (not adjacent) facets; hilum
excentric Sago.
** Aggregates of equal-sized grains.
14. Grains kettle-drum-shaped, seldom over 20 fi; hilum central; rings
indistinct Cassava.
15. Grains sugar-loaf-shaped, often up to 50 fi; hilum excentric; rings
distinct Sweet potato.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
See General Bibliography, pp. 671-674: Bell (1); Berg (3); Blyth(s); Greenish
(14); Hassall(ia); Mace (26); Moeller (29); Tscbirch (12); Tschirch u. Oesterle
(40); Villiers et Collin (42, 45); Wiesner (49); Witmack (10).
v. Hohnel: Die Starke und die Mahlproducte. Kassel u. Berlin, 1882.
Nageli, C: Die Starkekorner. 1858.
Nageli, W.: Beitrage zur naheren Kenntniss der Starkegruppe. Leipzig, 1874.
MAIZE STARCH. 651
MAIZE STARCH.
By far the larger part of the starch used in the United States is made
from maize or Indian corn (Zea Mays). Maize starch is also coming
into use in Europe.
In manufacturing this product either the whole grain is ground with
water and the milky liquid separated from the cellular matter on sieves
or the germs and bran are first separated mechanically, and only the
starchy endosperm is treated with water to remove the starch. The
starch is allowed to settle from the milky liquid and is washed several
times by decantation. In some factories it is agitated with very dilute
caustic soda, sulphurous acid or other chemicals, to remove nitrogenous
constituents, traces of fat and other impurities.
Commercial starch, glucose, dextrines and other starch products
are frequently made in the same factory, the process of separation of
the starch from the grain being the same whatever the final product.
Maize starch as found on the market is either in coarse granules or
a fine powder. The so-called " cornstarch " used in making confec-
tionery and deserts is purified maize starch in powder form.
Adulteration with potato, cassava, and other starches is occasionally
practiced.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 573). Maize starch is the only commer-
cial variety with polygonal grains over 15 fi in diameter. Sorghum starch
Fig. 573- Maize Starch. X300. (Moeixer.)
is hardly distinguishable from maize starch, but is not as yet prepared
on a commercial scale.
Aggregates. Several polygonal or irregularly rounded grains are
652 COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
often united, but round or oval aggregates, such as are characteristic
of rice and oat starch, are not present.
Forms. The grains from the horny endosperm are skarply polygonal
and stand out in bold relief. In the floury part of the kernel the grains
are irregularly globular.
Size. Both forms of grains range up to 30 /j. in diameter, most of
them being over 15 fi. Small grains occur in limited numbers.
The Hilum is central and usually very distinct. Radiating clefts are
present in many of the grains.
Rings are not evident.
Polarization Crosses. The grains are very brilliant with distinct
crosses, but display no marked play of colors with the selenite plate.
RICE STARCH.
Rice starch is the most important starch in England, where it is made
in large quantities from Indian paddy. It is also manufactured on the
Continent, but not to such an extent as wheat and potato starch.
Although rice (Oryza saliva) contains a larger percentage of starch
than any of the other common cereals, this starch, like that of the horny
endosperm of maize, cannot be separated mechanically until the pro-
teid matter is removed. This is accomplished commonly by soaking
with very diulte alkali both before and after grinding, less often by
treatment with sodium carbonate, hydrochloric acid or other chemicals,
or by fermentation.
The commercial product is of a pure white or yellowish color, accord-
ing to its purity, and is either in lumps or in powder form. It is used in
England chiefly for laundry purposes, as a cosmetic, and in the arts, other
kinds being generally preferred for culinary purposes.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 574). The small polygonal grains dis-
tinguish this starch from the other common commercial varieties.
Aggregates, consisting of from two to upwards of a hundred grains,
occur in great numbers in the kernel, but are largely disintegrated in the
process of manufacture.
Forms. As the grains exist in the kernel chiefly in aggregates the
isolated individuals are either polygonal (from the interior of aggregates)
or else are rounded on some sides and flattened on others (from the sur-
face of aggregates). Sharply polygonal grains predominate; spindle-
RICE ST/IRCH. IVHE/tT STARCH. 653
shaped forms such as occur in oat starch, or perfectly round grains, are
seldom present.
Fig. 574. Rice Starch. X300. (Moeixer.)
Size. The grains are 2-10 p. in diameter, but seldom reach the latter
size.
The Hilum is central but is not always evident.
Rings are not evident.
Polarization Crosses. The grains are brilliant with distinct crosses.
No play of color is evident with the selenite plate.
WHEAT STARCH.
On the Continent wheat and potatoes are the chief raw materials
for the manufacture of starch. Wheat starch. is made usually from com-
mon wheat (Triticum sativum vulgare), although, according to Wiesner,
spelt (T. sat. spelta) yields an especially fine product, and English wheat
(7\. sat. turgidum) gives a larger yield than common wheat. Macaroni
wheat, because of its horny structure and high content of gluten, is entirely
unsuited for starch manufacture, and other varieties and species, although
occasionally employed, are of minor importance.
The oldest process of separating the starch is to soak the whole or
coarsely ground grain in water until soft, crush between rollers and
remove the starch by water. The product obtained by this process has
a gray color and contains more or less gluten. A purer product is obtained
by subjecting the starchy liquid to a fermentation process, which generates
organic acids in which the gluten is soluble. The Martin process con-
sists in making flour into a dough and washing out the starch on sieves
with continual kneading. The gluten obtained as a by-product in this
process is valuable as a cattle food and for various technical purposes.
654 COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
The starch appears on the market either as lumps, angular granules,
or a fine powder.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 575). The large lenticular grains char-
acterize this starch.
Fig. 575. Wheat Starch. X300. (Moellee.)
Aggregates. The large grains are never united, the small grains only
rarely.
Forms. The large grains are lenticular, more or less regularly cir-
cular in outline. If mounted in considerable water and drawn across
the field by means of a piece of filter-paper they appear alternately cir-
cular and elliptical, according as they rest on their sides or their edges.
The small grains are usually globular, less often polygonal.
Size. The large grains are commonly 28-40 ti in diameter, but in
rare instances reach . 50 p.. The small grains are seldom over 6 fi in
diameter.
The Hilum is central, appearing usually as a mere dot. Clefts are
rare.
The Rings are indistinct.
Polarization Crosses. The large grains are feebly illuminated and
show indistinct crosses. No play of colors is evident with the selenite
plate.
BUCKWHEAT STARCH.
Common buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculenlum) is used by certain
English manufacturers for making starch, although as yet the product
is not of considerable commercial importance.
BUCKWHEAT STARCH. LEGUMINOUS STARCHES. 655
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 576). Although this starch is similar to
rice starch, the rod-shaped aggregates furnish a means of distinction.
Fig. 576. Buckwheat Starch. X300. (Moeixer.)
Rod-shaped Aggregates, consisting of several grains but with no evi-
dent lines of demarcation, are highly characteristic. They are irregular
in shape and have numerous constrictions.
Forms. Polygonal, or rounded polygonal.
Size. The diameters range from less than 2 « to over 15 //, but are
commonly 6-12 ft.
The Hilum is conspicuous.
Rings are not evident even after treatment with chromic acid.
Polarization Crosses. These are distinct but not striking.
LEGUMINOUS STARCHES.
Starch is occasionally made from beans, peas, and other legumes,
although seldom on a commercial scale.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 577). Leguminous starches are mostly of
Fig. 577. Lentil Starch. X300. (Moeller.)
the same type, although differing somewhat in form and size. The ellip-
soidal grains with elongated hilum are highly characteristic.
Aggregates are rare.
656 COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
Forms. Ellipsoidal grains predominate, although reniform, trefoil-
shaped and various irregular forms are not uncommon.
Size. In some species the length of the grain reaches 100 p., but in
most of the common species is about 50 fi.
Hilum. The elongated hilum, often with branching clefts, is char-
acteristic. In some grains the hilum and branches being filled with
air appear black; in other grains both are indistinct.
Rings distinct.
Polarization Crosses, because of the elongated hilum, are shaped thus : Y
CHESTNUT STARCH.
In southern Europe the chestnut (Castanea saliva Mill.) is used
for the preparation of both flour and starch. Vogl states that chestnut
starch is often described as horse-chestnut starch.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 578). The large grains of curious
shapes characterize this starch.
Fig. 5,78. Chesmut Starch. (Moellee.)
Aggregates of two or three grains occur here and there, but are not
abundant.
Forms. The grains are ellipsoidal, pear-shaped, kidney-shaped,
heart-shaped, etc. They are often quite sharp-pointed.
Size. The large grains are 15-30 ft long, the small grains 1-3 /t.
Intermediate forms are rare.
CHESTNUT STARCH. HORSE-CHESTNUT STARCH. (>S1
Hilum. This is sometimes round, sometimes elongated, forming a
cleft much as in leguminous starches.
Rings are indistinct or wanting.
Polarization Crosses are distinct but not striking. With the selenite
plate a dull play of colors is evident.
HORSE-CHESTNUT STARCH.
In France a starch is made from the horse-chestnut (Aesculus Hippo-
castanum L., order Sapindaceaz), which, although unfit for food because
of its bitter taste, is useful in the arts. According to Vogl it is gray-
white, whereas chestnut starch is pure white.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 579). Especially noticeable are the
grotesque shapes.
» m Jutli • m.
"^ ■' B
ms
^ -
^/Hr
Pi
1
■J/
• ' *
9
.A ^ ■'&
-^~
— "
# ■
Jm- " ^¥
**#:
t W
1
9 > "
£--:$
-7\v
' i
1 >-M #'
**" *
ggfc^
•4
fll-'-"
St
> » i
*>
, /•
J
Fig. 579. Horse-chestnut Starch. X3°°- (Moeller.)
Aggregates. Quite often two or more grains are united to form irregu-
larly shaped aggregates. Suppantschitsch (see Wiesner) rightly notes
that the individuals of these aggregates are so closely consolidated that
they can be distinguished only by the aid of the polariscOpe.
Forms. Among the grains are numerous pear-shaped reniform, and
irregularly swollen forms.
Size. The large grains are mostly 20-30 ft long, but occasionally
reach 40 /*. The small grains are often scarcely measurable.
Hilum. This is distinct and is situated at the broader end. A longi-
tudinal cleft passing through the hilum is sometimes present.
Rings are indistinct.
Polarization Crosses are distinct in the large grains. A play of colors
is obtained with the selenite plate.
658 COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
BEAN-TREE STARCH.
The seed of Castanospermum Ausirale Cunn. are used to some extent
in New South Wales for the production of starch.
Microscopic Characters. The following description is on Wiesner's
authority:
Aggregates. Most of the grains are in aggregates, the number of
grains thus united being usually 2-5, less often up to 15.
Forms. Truncated forms from aggregates similar to those of cassava
starch predominate. Round grains occur rarely.
Size. The individuals are 2.7-17 ft, but most of them are 5-12 fi.
The Hilum is distinct.
Rings are not evident even after treatment with chromic acid.
BANANA STARCH.
The banana, plantain, and other fruits of the genus Musa are remark-
able for the large amount of starch stored up in the green pericarp. This,
is usually regarded as reserve material, but its function is quite different
from that of starch stored up in seeds, as it is not utilized by the young
plantlet, but like the starch of most green fruits is gradually converted
Fig. 580. Banana Starch. X300. (Moeller.)
into sugars during ripening, and in this form is either moved back into
the tree, or is lost by fermentation and rotting. Its function is more
nearly that of transitory starch.
The green fruit used for starch-making is grown chiefly in tropical1
regions of America, particularly in Guiana.
According to Wiesner only the flour is made in the regions of produc-
tion, the starch being separated from the flour in European factories.
BREAD-FRUIT STARCH. POTATO STARCH. 659
The Microscopic Characters (Fig. 580) resemble those of subterranean
starches. In addition to the starch grains Vogl finds raphides.
Aggregates. Tschirch and Oesterle call attention to the sickle-shaped
forms, consisting of two large grains united end to end.
Forms. Fusiform, cigar-shaped, ovoid, rod-shaped, and other elongated
forms are very striking.
Size. Most of the grains are 20-40 fi long; some few however reach
75 M-
The Hilum is usually situated in the broader end.
The Rings are very distinct.
Polarization Crosses. Distinct crosses are seen with crossed Nicols
and a play of colors with the selenite plate.
BREAD-FRUIT STARCH.
The bread-fruit tree (Artocarpus incisa L., order Artocarpece) yields
a fruit from which starch has been made in small quantities in South
America, Reunion, and other tropical regions.
The Microscopic Characters, according to Wiesner, are as follows:
Aggregates. All of the grains are in aggregates of from 2-20 members.
Forms. Polygonal grains predominate.
Size. 2.5-13 n, usually about 7 jx.
Hilum and Rings are lacking.
Polarization Crosses, although never sharp, may be seen with high
power.
POTATO STARCH.
The potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) is one of the most valuable sources
of commercial starch, although the product is not much used as food,
but is chiefly employed in the manufacture of paper and fabrics, for con-
version into dextrine and glucose, and for other technical purposes. It is
made chiefly on the Continent. In the United States it formerly was an
important product, but of late years has been largely replaced by maize
starch. The process of manufacture is quite simple. The thoroughly
cleaned tubers are ground or grated, the pulp is washed on sieves, and
the starch is allowed to settle from the milky liquid.
The commercial product is in lumps, irregular prisms, or a fine powder.
The grains are so large as to be visible to the naked eye.
660 COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 581). This starch is recognized by the
large, oyster-shell-like grains, each with the hilum in the small end.
Fig. 581. Potato Starch. X300. (Moeixer.)
Aggregates are rare but curious. They are either true aggregates,
usually twins or triplets, or compound grains consisting of two individuals,
each with its own hilum and rings, encircled by layers common to both.
Forms. The large grains remind us of oyster-shells. Egg-shaped,
pear-shaped, and broadly spindle-shaped forms are common. The
small grains are nearly round.
Size. The large grains range up to ioo ft in length, most of them
being about 70 fi. The small grains are but a few micromillimeters in
diameter.
The Hilum is in the small end, the excentricity being $-£.
The Rings are very distinct and are evident without special illumination.
Polarization Crosses are very distinct. With the selenite plate a fine
play of colors is obtained.
HARANTA STARCH (WEST INDIA ARROWROOT).
The starch obtained from the rhizome of Maranta arundinacea L.
(order Marantacece) and other species of the same genus originally had
the undisputed claim to the term " arrowroot," but more recently other
tropical starches, particularly those made from roots and rhizomes, have
been designated by the same term. Maranta starch is now variously
MARANTA STARCH. 661
known in commerce as West India, Jamaica, Bermuda, St. Vincent, and
Natal arrowroot.
The process of manufacture is essentially the same as is used for
making potato starch, — in fact all the varieties of starch made from tubers,
rhizomes, and roots are obtained in much the same manner.
West India arrowroot is highly prized for making various dietetic
preparations.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 582). The grains resemble those of
potato starch, but are distinguished by their somewhat smaller size, the
Fig. 582. Maranta Starch. X300. (Moeller.)
location of the hilum in the broad end and the wing-like fissures through
the hilum.
Aggregates are rare or absent.
Forms. Ovoid, pear-shaped, and broadly spindle-shaped grains pre-
dominate.
Size. The large grains are mostly 30-50 fi long, but occasionally
reach 75/1.
The Hilum is in the broad end and is usually marked by fissures
which either form crosses or more commonly extend in two curves resem-
bling the wings of a soaring bird.
The Rings, although distinct, are not so prominent as in potato starch.
The Polarization Crosses and the play of colors with the selenite plate
are very striking.
662 COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
CURCUMA STARCH (EAST INDIA ARROWROOT).
East India, curcuma, or Travencore starch, also known as Tik, Tikor,
and Tikur flour, is obtained from the rhizomes of several species of Cur-
cuma (order Zingiber aceee), notably, C. angustifolia Rxb., C- Leucorrhiza
Rxb., and C. rubescens Rxb. These plants are closely related to tur-
meric (C longa), and together with ginger belong to the family Zingi-
beracecB.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 583) . The grains resemble those of ginger,
Fig. 583. Curcuma Starch. X300. (Moeller.)
but are more elongated. Like ginger starch they have a curious blunt
point in which is located the hilum
Aggregates are rare or absent.
Forms. The grains are much elongated, the length being usually
over twice the breadth. The hilum end is distinguished by the curious
blunt point.
Size. The grains from C. Leucorrhiza sometimes reach 145 (i, but
those from the other species seldom exceed 75 ft and are mostly under 60 ft.
The Hilum is a small dot in the point. The excentricity is $— rV
Polarization Crosses are distinct, and a beautiful play of colors is
obtained with the selenite plate.
CANNA STARCH (QUEENSLAND ARROWROOT).
Queensland, New South Wales, East Indian, or tous les mois arrow-
root is obtained from the rhizomes of Canna edulis Edw., C. coccinea
Rose, C Indica L., C- Achiras Gill (order Marantacea), and other
CANNA STARCH. YAM STARCH. 663
species growing not only in Australia and the East Indies but also in
Brazil, Venezuela, Reunion, and other tropical regions. It is a glistening
white powder with individual grains so large that they are evident to
the naked eye.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 584). This starch, because of the large
Fig. 584. Carina Starch. X 300. (Moeller.)
size of the grains and the distinctness of the rings, is the most beautiful
of all the commercial starches.
Aggregates are wanting or rare.
Forms. The grains are flattened, in outline broadly elliptical or
ovate, with a more or less pronounced point or obtuse angle at one end.
Size. Most of the grains are 50 to 70 n long, but some are over 100 /*,
reaching in exceptional cases 135 ft.
The Hilum is in the end with the obtuse angle. Excentricity usually
Rings are very distinct.
Polarization Crosses are beautiful, as is also the play of colors with
the selenite plate.
YAM STARCH (QUIANA ARROWROOT).
Yam starch, or Guiana arrowroot, is made in the tropics from the tuber-
ous roots of Dioscorea alata L., D. saliva L., D. aculeata L., D. glabra
Roxb., D. Japonica Thbg., D. nummularia Lam., D. tomentosa Koenig
(order Bioscoracea), and other species of this genus.
664 COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 585). This starch resembles curcuma
starch, but the grains are not as distinctly pointed. The product is quite
variable, owing probably to the different species from which it is derived.
■©
%
oJW>„
if
Ulvii^B
Sit
§
%
n
HH
% i
v"^^*
#
•*■ *■
UPt?
wp i
m /
' '
jS^,,
m
W
1
0
#
Fig. 585. Yam Starch. X300. (Moeller.)
*
Forms. The grains are flattened, in outline irregularly ovate or
reniform. At the broad end they are often truncated; at the narrow
or hilum end, rounded or very indistinctly pointed.
Size. Usually the grains are 30-50 p. long, but occasionally reach
80 ft.
The Hilum is in the narrow end. Excentricity £-^.
The Rings are evident.
Polarization Crosses are distinct, as is true of most subterranean
starches.
CASSAVA STARCH.
The thickened roots of the bitter cassava (Manihot utilissima Pohl,
order Euphorbiacea) and the sweet cassava (M. aipi Pohl) are used for
the production not only of flour, tapioca, and cattle foods, but also of a
valuable commercial starch known as cassava, tapioca, or manioca starch,
and as Bahia, Rio or Para arrowroot. The starch is made in large
quantities in Brazil, and to some extent in other tropical regions, from
the root of the bitter cassava, the poisonous prussic acid contained in the
fresh root being entirely eliminated by the processes of washing and dry-
ing. This product is sold in the United States at a price below that of
maize starch, and is used chiefly in the arts. In Florida considerable
starch is made from the sweet cassava for use as a size for cotton fabrics.
*& 3 i?
J *•"■
© W H0j
; #1
3) <§>
A
JSf s "•"" ■-= '
w
^
@ & 4S
fl * . ?
# ^ u
*9 3»
CASSAVA STARCH. SWEET-POTATO STARCH. 665
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 586). This starch is the most important
of the commercial varieties with rounded grains truncated on one side.
Although in tapioca the grains are more or less distorted, owing to the
heating during manufacture, they often retain enough of their characters
to permit of identification.
Aggregates, usually of 2-3 grains, less often of 4-8 grains, may be
seen in great numbers in sections of the root. In the manufacture of
commercial starch these aggregates are
mostly broken up into their constituent
grains.
Forms. The grains are usually kettle-
drum- or sugar-loaf-shaped, the flattened
surfaces corresponding to the surfaces of
contact of twin aggregates. Round grains
are rare, those that have that appearance
being merely truncated forms resting on
the flattened side. Grains with two
flattened surfaces (from triplets) are not FlG- s86- c^^^dl- X3°°-
uncommon, but with more than two sur-
faces (from aggregates of more than three members) are rare.
Size. The grains occasionally reach 35 /*, but most of the large
grains are 20 /* or less. Tbc small grains are less than 15 fi. Grains
50 ft in diameter, such as occur in sweet-potato starch, are never
present.
-The Hilum is central, and is usually very distinct. Often a triangular
enlargement of the hilum extends to the flattened surface. Clefts radia-
ting from the hilum are sometimes present.
Rings are indistinct.
Polarization Crosses are very striking.
SWEET-POTATO STARCH (BRAZILIAN ARROWROOT).
Although the sweet-potato plant (Batatas edulis Chois., Ipomeea
Batatas Lam., order Convolvulacece) is a native of India, it is grown
chiefly in South America, Central America, and the Southern States of
the United States. The tuberous roots contain reserve material in the
form of both starch and sugar. Wiesner states that sweet potatoes grown
in the tropics contain 10 per cent of sugar and only 9 per cent of starch,,
whereas those grown in subtropical countries contain only 3-4 per cent
666 COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
of sugar and as high as 15 per cent of starch. From these figures it is
evident that the roots from the cooler regions are best adapted for the
manufacture of starch.
The commercial product is known as Brazilian arrowroot, or sweet-
potato starch.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 587). This starch resembles that of
tapioca, but the grains are larger and have an excentric hilum.
Fig. 587. Sweet-potato Starch. X 300. (Moeixer.)
The Aggregates consist mostly of twins and triplets, although some
contain as high as six individuals. In the commercial product the grains
are mostly detached.
Forms. The grains have one or two, less often more, flat or slightly
concave surfaces. Bell-shaped forms are particularly abundant.
Size. Most of the larger grains are 25-35 t1 hi diameter; some,
however, reach 55 ft. The small grains are chiefly 5-15 ft.
The Hilum is distinct, and is frequently marked by radiating fissures.
The excentricity is usually about \, but sometimes reaches \.
Rings are indistinct.
Polarization Crosses. These are striking.
ARUM STARCH (PORTLAND ARROWROOT).
Portland arrowroot and some other varieties of commercial starch
of local importance are obtained from the corms of various species of
Arum (order Aracece), of which A. esculenlum L., A. Italicum Lam.,
and A. maculalum L. are the most important.
Microscopic Characters. Aggregates occur in the root, but not in
considerable numbers in the commercial product.
TACCA STARCH. SAGO. 66j
Forms. The grains are either polygonal or rounded, with one or
more facets.
Size. The maximum diameter is 20 /t, the usual diameter less than
The Hilum is central.
Rings are indistinct.
TACCA STARCH (TAHITI ARROWROOT).
This starch, also known as Williams' arrowroot and feculp de pia, is
made from the roots of Tacca pinnatifida Forst., order Taccacece, a plant
grown not only in Tahiti and neighboring islands, but alsp in Brazil
and India. ,'
Microscopic Characters. According to the description of Tschirch
and Oesterle the grains are irregularly egg-shaped, with excentric hilum
and distinct rings. The large grains are usually 38-50 fi, but vary
up to 85 fi. Wiesner states that the largest grains measure 45 /1, and
further notes the presence of polygonal grains of somewhat smaller size
from aggregates.
Further observations on authentic material are desirable.
SAGO.
Reserve starch is deposited in large amounts during certain periods
of growth in the pith of palms and cycads for use during the fruiting
season. In India and the East Indies this starch is extracted in
enormous quantities from two palms, Metroxylon Rumphii Mart. (Sagus
Rumphii Willd.) and M. lave Mart. (S. Icevis Rumph.), and in consider-
able quantities from M. Sagus, M. Koenigii Rumph., Arenga saccharifera
Labill, Borassus flabellijormis L., Caryota urens L., and other allied species.
Sago is also obtained from Cycas revoluta L., and other cycads.
The processes of manufacture of sago starch and pearl sago are much
the same as are employed in making starch and tapioca from the cassava
root. The pith of the tree, separated from the hard outer layers, is reduced
to a pulp, and the starch is washed out on sieves. Soluble impurities
and matters in suspension are removed by repeated agitation with water
and decantation. The moist starch after drying yields sago flour or
sago arrowroot.
In the preparation of pearl sago the moist starch is converted into
668 COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
coarse granules by rubbing through sieves, and these granules are dried,
rounded by agitation in bags, and finally heated until the s-tarch grains
are partially destroyed. The granules are from 1-4 mm. in diameter,
horny in texture, and semitransparent.
Microscopic Characters (Fig. 588). The starch is highly characteristic
Fig. 588. Sago. X300. (Mokllee.)
in microscopic appearance, even in pearl sago and other partially cooked
products.
Aggregates of one large irregular grain, with one or two (rarely
three or more) small grains, make up the larger part of the original
material, but in the process of manufacture many of these aggregates are
broken up.
Forms. The large detached grains from the aggregates are irregular
in shape, arid show the surfaces of contact. When two of these surfaces
are present they are usually at different corners of the grain, and not adja-
cent, as in the starch grains of tapioca. A few of the large grains, and
many of the small grains, do not bear evidences of being members of
aggregates.
The small grains from aggregates are plano-convex.
Size. The large grains are mostly 30-50 fi long, but sometimes
range up to 80 /i ; the small grains are 20 ,ti or less long.
The Hilum has usually an excentricity of ■£-£, and is frequently
crossed by fissures.
The Rings and Polarization Crosses are distinct.
SAGO. MISCELLANEOUS ST/IRCHES.
669
In pearl sago and other cooked products the above characters are
more or less indistinct.
As formerly prepared sago flour usually contained considerable amounts
of tissues and cell-contents, especially stone cells, hairs, raphides, and
Q ^|}..rfn»
it
'f 4
§»
"SI
(3»
m
Fig. 585. Erythronium Starch. (Moeller.)
crystal clusters, but at present these impurities are largely removed by
the improved processes of manufacture.
MISCELLANEOUS STARCHES.
The starches described in the foregoing sections are those best known
in commerce. Others of local importance are obtained from the plants
given in the following table:
Order and Species. Part Used. Locality.
Amary'lidem:
Alstmmeria pallida Grah Bulb Chili
Bomarea sp
Pancratium maritimum L Italy
Anacardiacece:
Mangifera Indica L. (mango) Seed West Indie3
Aracear.
Amorphophallus sp Corm
Colocasia antiquorum Schott (taro). Martinique
Dracontium sp West Indies
Typhonium sp
Araucariacem:
Araucaria sp * Brazil
670 COMMERCIAL STARCHES.
Order and Species. Part Used. Locality.
Cucurbitacea :
Bryonia epigaa Rottl Root East Indies
Sechium edule Sw " West Indies
Sicyos angulatus D.C " Reunion
GraminecE :
Eleusine Coracana Gaertn Seed West Indies
Hypoxidea, :
Hypoxis aurea Lam Bulb East Indies
Leguminosos :
Dolichos bulbosus L Root Japan
Parkia biglandulosa Pod East Indies
Pueraria Thunbergiana Kuntb Seed Japan, China
Liliacecs :
■ Erythronium Dens-canis L Bulb Japan
Fritillaria imperialis L France
Gloriosa superba L East Indies
Yucca gloriosa L Bulbous root Central America
Malvacea :
Pachira aquatica Aubl Seed Guiana
NymphaacecB :
Nelumbium speciosum Willd. . Root China
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
1. Bell: The Chemistry of Foods. With Microscopic Illustrations. London. Part
I, 1881; Part II, 1883.
2. Benecke: Anleitung zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Kraftfuttermittel
auf Verfalschungen und "Verunreinigungen. Mit 44 in den Text gedruckten
Abbildungen. Berlin, 1886.
3. Berg: Anatomischer Atlas zur Pharmazeutischen Waarenkunde in Illustrationen
auf fiinfzig in Kreidemanier lithograph ierten Tafeln nebst erlauterndem
Texte. Berlin, 1865.
4. Berg und Schmidt: Darstellung und Beschreibung samtlicher in der Pharmac.
Borussica aufgefiihrten officinellen Gewachse. Leipzig, 1859.
5. Blyth: Foods: Their Composition and Analysis. A Manual for the Use of
Analytic Chemists and Others. With an Introductory Essay on the History
of Adulteration. With Numerous Tables and Illustrations. London. 2d
Ed. 1882, 5th Ed. 1903.
6. Bohmer: Die Kraftfuttermittel, ihre Rohstoffe, Herstellung, Zusammensetzung,
Verdaulichkeit und Verwendung, mit besonderer Beriicksichtigung der Ver-
falschungen und der mikroskopischen Untersuchung. Berlin, 1903.
7. Entwiirfe fiir den Codex alimentarius Austriacus. Ztschr. Nahr.-Unters. Hyg.
1891 u. ff.
8. Collin: Guide pratique pour la determination des poudres officinales. Paris,
1893.
9. Collin et Perrot: Les residus industriels de la fabrication des huiles et essences,
utilises par 1'agriculture. Paris, 1904.
10. Dammer: Illustriertes Lexikon der Verfalschungen und Verunreinigungen der
Nahrungs- und Genussmittel u.s.w. Unter Mitwirkung von Fachgelehrten
und Sachverstandigen herausgegeben. Leipzig. I. Band, 1885; II. Band,
mit 5 Farbendrucktafeln und 734 in den Text gedruckten Abbildungen, 1887.
Bohmer : Oelkuchen.
Hanausek, T. F.: Kaffee; Thee; Safran; Pfeffergewiirze; Muskatnussj
Zimmt.
Hilger: Gewurznelken.
Meyer, Arthur: Ingwer; Senf; Kardamomen.
Weigmann: Kakao.
Wittmack: Brot; Mehle; Starke.
671
672 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
11. Fluckiger: Pharmakognosie des Pflanzenreiches. Berlin, 1876. Zweite Aufl.,
1881; Dritte Aufl., 1891.
12. Geissler-Moeller: Real-Encyclopadie der gesammten Pharmacie. Wien, 1.
Aufl. 1886-91; 2. Aufl. (Moeller- Thorns), 1904 u. ff.
13. Glrard et Dotre: Analyse des matieres alimentaires et recherche de leurs falsi-
fications. Paris, 1894.
14. Greenish: The Microscopical Examination of Foods and Drugs. A Practical
Introduction of the Methods Adopted in the Microscopical Examination of
Foods and Drugs, in the Entire, Crushed and Powdered States. London, 1910.
15. Greenish and Collin: An Anatomical Atlas of Vegetable Powders. Designed
as an Aid to the Microscopic Analysis of Powdered Foods and Drugs. London,
1904.
16. Hanausek, T. F.: Die Nahrungs- und Genussmittel aus dem Pflanzenreiche.
Nach den Grundsatzen der wissenschaftlichen Waarenkunde fur die Praxis
und zum Studium. Mit 100 in den Text eingedruckten meist anatomischen
Holzschnitten. Kassel, 1884.
17. Hanausek, T. F.: Lehrbuch der technischen Mikroskopie. Stuttgart, 1901.
Trans, by Winton. The Microscopy of Technical Products. New York, 1907.
18. Harz: Landwirthschaftliche Samenkunde. Handbuch fur Botaniker, Land-
wirthe, Gartner, Droguisten, Hygieniker. Mit 201 in den Text gedruckten
Originalholzschnitten. 2 Bande. Berlin, 1885.
19. Hassall: Food: Its Adulterations, and the Methods for Their Detection.
Illustrated by upwards of 200 Wood Engravings. London, 1876. Second
ed. of Microscopic Sections, by E. G. Clayton (A Compendium of Food
Microscopy) . 1 909.
20. Jelllffe: An Introduction to Pharmakognosy. Philadelphia, 1904.
21. Klenke: Die Verfalschungen der Nahrungsmittel und Getranke. Leipzig, 1858.
22. Koch: Die mikroskopische Analyse der Drogenpulver. Ein Atlas fiir Apotheker,
Drogisten und Studierende der Pharmazie. Berlin, 1900 u. ff.
23. Konig: Die Untersuchung landwirtschaftlich und gewerblich wichtiger Stoffe.
Praktisches Handbuch. Mit 202 Textabbildungen und einer farbigen Tafel.
Berlin, 1891. Zweite, neubearbeitete Auflage, mit 248 Textabbildungen und
einer farbigen Tafel, 1898.
Bohmer: Mikroskopische Untersuchung der Hulsenfrtichte, Oelsamen
und Unkrautsamen.
24. Kraemer: A Textbook of Botany and Pharmacognosy. Philadelphia, 1910.
25. Leach: Food Inspection and Analysis. For the Use of the Public Analysts
Health Officers, Sanitary Chemists and Food Economists. New York, 1914.
26. Mace: Les substances alimentaires e'tudie'es au microscope surtout au point de
vue de leurs alterations et.de leurs falsifications. Avec vingt-quatre planches
coloriees dont huit reproduces d'apres les dtudes sur le vin de M. L. Pasteur
et 408 figures dans le texte. Paris, 1891.
27. Meyer, Arthur: Wissenschaftliche Drogenkunde. Ein illustriertes Lehrbuch
der Pharmakognosie und eine wissenschaftliche Anleitung zur eingehenden
botanischen Untersuchung pflanzlicher Drogen fiir Apotheker. Erster Teil
mit 269 Abbildungen. Berlin, 1891. Zweiter Teil (Schluss des Werkes)
mit 387 Abbildungen. Berlin, 1892^.
GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY. 673
28. Meyer, Arthur: Die Grundlagen und die Methoden fur die mikroskopische Unter-
suchung von Pflanzenpulvern. Eine Einfiihrung in die wissenschaftlichen
Methoden der mikroskopischen Untersuchung von Gewiirzen, pfianzlichen
Arzneimitteln, Nahrungsmitteln, Futte-rmitteln, Papieren, Geweben u.s.w.
Zum Gebrauche in den Laboratorien der Hochschulen und zum Selbstunter-
richte. Fur Nahrungsmittelchemiker, Apotheker, Techniker u.s.w. Mit
8 Tafeln und 18 Figuren im Texte. Jena, 1901.
29. Moeller: Mikroskopie der Nahrungs- und Genussmittel aus dem Pflanzenreiche.
Berlin/iSSe. 2. Aufl. (unter Mitwirkung A. L. Wintons). 1905.
30. Moeller: Lehrbuch der Pharmakognosie. Mit 237 Abbildungen. Wien, 1889.
31. Moeller: Pharmakognostischer Atlas. Mikroskopische Darstellung und Beschrei-
bung der in Pulverform gebrauchlichen Drogen. Mit no Tafeln in Licht-
druck nach Zeichnungen des Verfassers. Berlin, 1892.
32. Moeller: Leitfaden zu mikroskopisch-pharmakognostischen Uebungen fiir Studie-
rende und zum Selbstunterricht. Mit 409, zumeist vom Verfasser gezeichne-
ten Figuren im Texte. Wien, 1901.
33. Molisch: Grundriss einer Histochemie der pfianzlichen Genussmittel. Jena, 1892.
34. Planchon et Collin: Les drogues simples d'origine vegetale. Paris. T. I. 1895;
T. II. 1896.
35. Rosen: Anatomische Wandtafeln der vegetabilischen Nahrungs- und Genussmittel.
Breslau, 1897.
36. Rupp: Die Untersuchung von Nahrungsmitteln, Genussmitteln und Gebrauchs-
gegenstanden. Praktisches Handbuch fiir Chemiker, Medicinalbeamte,
Pharmazeuten, Verwaltungs- und Justizbehorden u.s.w. Mit 115 in den Text
gedruckten Abbildungen. Heidelberg, 1894.
37. Schtmper: Anleitung zur mikroskopischen Untersuchung der Nahrungs und
Genussmittel. Jena. Erste Aufl. mit 79 Holzschnitten, 1886. Zweite
umgearbeitete Aufl. mit 134 Abbildungen, 1900.
38. Tichomtrow: Lehrbuch der Pharmakognosie. Moscow, 1900.
39. Tschtrch: Angewandte Pflanzenanatomie. Ein Handbuch zum Studium des
anatomischen Baues der in der Pharmacie, den Gewerben, der Landwirth-
schaft und dem Haushalte benutzten pfianzlichen Rohstoffe. Erster Band.
Allgemeiner Theil : Grundriss der Anatomie. Mit 614 in den Text gedruckten
Holzschnitten. Wien und Leipzig, 1889.
40. Tschtrch u. Oesterle: Anatomischer Atlas der Pharmakognosie und Nahrungs-
mittelkunde. Ca. 2000 Originalzeichnungen auf 81 Tafeln mit begleitendem
Text. Leipzig, 1900.
41. Vereinbarungen zur einheitlichen Untersuchung und Beurtheilung von Nahrungs-
und Genussmitteln sowie Gebrauchsgegenstanden fiir das Deutsche Reich.
Berlin, 1897. Heft II, 1899; Heft III, 1902.
42. VnxiERS et Collin: Traite des alterations et falsifications des substances alimen-
taires. Avec 633 figures dans le texte. Paris, 1900.
43. Vogl: Nahrungs- und Genussmittel aus dem Pflanzenreiche. Anleitung zum
richtigen Erkennen und Priifen der wichtigsten im Handel vorkommenden
Nahrungsmittel, Genussmittel und Gewurze mit Hilfe des Mikroskops. Mit
116 feinen Holzschnittbildern. Wien, 1872.
674 GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY.
44. Vogl: Arzneikorper aus den drei Naturreichen in pharmakognostischer Hinsicht.
Commentar zur osterr. , Pharmacopoe. Wien. Dritte Aufl. ,1880; siebente
Aufl. 1892.
45. Vogl: Die wichtigsten vegetabilischen Nahnmgs- und Genussmittel mit besonderer
Berticksichtigung der mikroskopischen Untersuchung auf ihre Echtheit,
ihre Verunreinigungen und Verfalschungen. Mit 271 Holzschnitten.
Berlin und Wien, 1899.
46. Wigand: Lehrbuch der Pharmakognosie. Berlin, 1863; vierte Aufl. 1887.
47. Wiesner: Einleitung in die technische Mikroskopie nebst mikroskopisch-tech-
nischen Untersuchungen. Wien, 1867.
48. Wiesner: Die Rohstoffe des Pflanzenreiches. Versuch einer technischen Rohstoff-
lehre des Pflanzenreiches. Leipzig, 1873. Zweite ganzlich umgearbeit.
und erweit. Aufl. I. Bd. mit 153 Textfiguren, 1900; II. Bd. mit 297 Text-
figuren, 1903.
Hanausek, T. F. : Samen und Friichte.
Hohnel: Rinden.
Krasser: Blatter und Krauter.
Linsbatjer: Bliithen und Bliithentheile.
Vogl: Unterirdische Pflanzentheile.
Wiesner: Starke.
Dritte Aufl. I Bd., 1914.
49. Wiley et al. : Foods and Food Adulterants. U. S. Department of Agriculture,
Division of Chemistry, Bulletin No. 13, Washington, 1887.
GLOSSARY.
Accompanying Cells. The cells adjoining the guard-cells of a stoma.
Accumbent. Applied to seeds with radicle against the edges of the cotyledons (p. 173).
Achene. A small dry, indehiscent, one-seeded carp;l with a leathery pericarp.
Adnate. Grown to another part.
Aerial Stem. A stem formed above ground as distinguished from rhizomes and other
subterranean stems (p. 39).
Aggregate. Used of starch grains united to form a body of definite shape.
Aggregate Fruit. A fruit formed by the ripening of a flower with several ovaries
(P- 33'< FiS- 256)-
Aleurone Cells, or Aleurone Layer. Strictly, cells of the endosperm or embryo,
containing aleurone grains and fat, but no starch. The so-called aleurone or
gluten cells of the cereals coritain fat in an amorphous protein network, but
neither aleurone grains not gluten (p. 62; Figs. 33 and 38).
Aleurone Grains. Protein bodies of various forms occurring chiefly in seeds
(p. 24; Fig. 7).
Alkaloids. A group of nitrogenous substances with marked toxic or stimulating prop-
erties (p. 25).
Amphitropous. See Hemitropous.
Amylodextrin. A carbohydrate intermediate between dextrin and starch.
Amylodextrin Starch (p. 534).
Anastomosis. The joining of veins by cross-veins, forming a network.
Anatropous. Inverted; applied to ovules and seeds with foramen or micropyle at the
hilum, connected by the raphe with the chalaza at the opposite end (Fig. 19).
Angiosperms, or Angiospermous Plants. Phenogams with ovules inclosed in an ovary.
Annular Vessels. Vessels with thickened rings (Fig. 25).
Anther. The body at the extremity of the stamen, containing the pollen grains (p. 31).
Apex. The end farthest from the point of attachment or base of an organ.
Arillode. An appendage of a seed growing out of the micropyle.
Arillus, or Seed Mantle. An appendage of a seed growing out of the hilum (Fig. 448).
Ascus, pi. Asci. A sac producing spores within (p. 420; Fig. 325).
Assimilation. See Photosynthesis.
Assimilation Starch. The starch formed in chlorophyl grains.
Astroscelereid. Star-shaped stone-cell.
675
676 GLOSSARY.
Awn. A bristle borne on the glume or palet of a grass.
Axil. The upper angle between a leaf and a stem.
Bark. All the tissues of perennial stems outside of the cambium layer (p. 40;
Fig. 24).
Basidium, pi. Basidia. A sac producing spores on its surface (p. 420).
Bast. See Phloem.
Bast Fibers. Greatly elongated, pointed cells with thick porous walls (p. 21; Fig. 5).
Beaker Cells. Cells with thickened radial and inner walls (p. 174; Fig. 144).
Bracts. The small leaves or scales subtending a flower or its pedicel.
Bulb. A leaf bud (usually subterranean) surrounded by thickened scales.
Bundle Sheath. A group of bast fibers surrounding or adjoining a bundle (Figs. 23r
and 232).
Calyx. The outer floral envelope, consisting of sepals.
Cambiform Cells. Elongated elements of the phloem with non-porous cross partitions
(Fig. 6).
Cambium Layer. The active tissue of exogenous stems and roots, forming phloem on
the outside and xylem on the inside (p. 39).
Campylotropous. Applied to ovules and seeds with the hilum and chalaza at the
point of attachment, but with the body so curved as to bring the foramen or micro-
pyle also near this point.
Cane Sugar, or Sucrose. Common sugar, GsHkOu.
Carpel. A simple pistil or an element of a compound pistil.
Carpophore. The prolongation of the pedicel between the carpels of umbelliferous
plants, from which the carpels are suspended (p. 549; Fig. 480).
Caruncle. A wart-like excrescence formed on the micropyle of a seed.
Caryopsis. A dry, one-seeded, indehiscent fruit in which the seed adheres to the thin
pericarp throughout, as in wheat and other grains.
Cell Nucleus. A globular protoplasmic body in the cell, instrumental in cell division
(p- 23)-
Cellulose. The carbohydrate forming the larger part of the cell-walls of young tissues.
Chaff. The glumes and palets of grasses.
Chalaza. The part of an ovule or seed where the integuments and nucellus unite
(P- 35; FiS- I9)-
Chartaceous. Paper)-.
Chlorophyl Grains. See Chloroplasts.
Chloroplasts, Chloroplastids, or Chlorophyl Grains. The characteristic bodies of
green tissues, essential for photosynthesis (p. 29).
Cnromatophores. See Plastids.
Chromoplasts, or Chromoplastids Orange or yellow plastids, to which certain organs
owe their color (p. 24).
Cleft. With narrow or acute divisions or sinuses extending half way or more to the
midrib or base.
Collateral Fibro-vascular Bundle. With phloem and xylem in the same radial plane
<P- 39)-
Collenchyma. A tissue with conspicuous thickenings at the cell angles (p. 20;
F'g- 3)-
GLOSSARY. 677
Column Cells. The subepidermal cells of the spermoderm of legumes, usually
I-shaped or hour-glass-shaped (p. 239; Fig. 189).
Commissure. The surfaces of contact of the two fruits (merciarps) of the Umbelliferce
(P- 54°)-
Compound or Multiple Fruit. A fruit consisting of the ripened ovaries of several
flowers.
Compressed Cells. See Obliterated Cells.
Concentric Fibro-vascular Bundle. With xylem encircling the phloem or vice versa
(P- 44)-
Conduplicate. Applied to seeds with cotyledons folded lengthwise about the radicle.
(P- J73)-
Conidium. See Gonidium.
Coniferous Plants, or Conifers. Gymnosperms bearing cones.
Convolute. Rolled up longitudinally from one margin.
Coriaceous. Leathery.
Cork. A protective tissue formed beneath the epidermis, especially of stems (p. 22;
Fig. 512).
Conn. A short and thick, fleshy, subterranean stem, often broader than high, with
roots on the lower side.
Corolla. The inner floral envelope, consisting of petals.
Cortex. The zone between the epidermis and phloem of annual stems, and between
the cork and phloem of perennial stems (pp. 39, 40).
Cotyledons. The seed-leaves of the embryo.
Crenate. With margin having rounded teeth.
Cross Cells. Transversely elongated cells (p. 68; Fig. 37).
Cryptogamous Plants, or Cryptogams. The lower plants without stamens and
pistils.
Crystalloids. Protein crystals occurring in aleurone grains (p. 24).
Crystal Rosettes, or Crystal Clusters. Aggregates of crystals, particularly of calcium
oxalate (p. 26; Fig. 8).
Crystal Sand. Deposits of minute crystals (p. 26; Fig. 10).
Cupule. The cup (involucre) of the acorn and similar fruits (p. 299).
Cuticle. The non-cellular membrane covering the epidermis (p. 21).
Cutin. The chief constituent of the cuticle.
Cystolith. A concretion of calcium carbonate occurring in special cells (Fig. 169).
Cytoplasm.- The semi-fluid portion of the protoplasm (p. 23).
Dehiscent Opening by valves, pores, or along regular lines.
Dentate. With margin having teeth pointing outwards.
Dextrin. A water-soluble carbohydrate intermediate between dextrose and starch.
Dextrose, or Grape Sugar. A sugar with the formula CjH^O,, which turns the plane
of polarized light to the right.
Dicotyledonous Plants, or Dicotyledons. Plants with embryo having two cotyledons.
See Exogenous Plants.
Dioecious. With staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants.
Dissepiment. A partition in an ovary or pericarp.
Divided. With divisions extending quite to the midrib or base.
Dorsal Side. The outer side or back.
678 GLOSSARY.
Drupe, or Stone Fruit. A fruit with a fleshy mesocarp and a hard endocarp or stone,
such as the peach.
Drupelet. A small drupe.
Ellipsoidal. Applied to a solid elliptical in longitudinal section.
Elliptical. With the outline of an ellipse.
Emergence. A multicellular excrescence or hair with tissues derived from both the
epidermal and hypodermal layers.
Embryo. The undeveloped plantlet in a seed (p. 38).
Embryo Sac. The sac in the nucellus in which fertilization is effected (p. 35; Fig. 19).
Empty Glumes. The two chaffy envelopes subtending a spikelet (Fig. 66).
Endocarp. The innermost layer of a pericarp (p. 35; Figs. 17 and 18).
Endodermis. The layer encircling the bundle zone (pp. 39, 45).
Endogenous Plants, or Endogens. Plants with bundles irregularly distributed through
a parenchymatous tissue. The seeds have monocotyledonous embryos and the
leaves are usually parallel-veined.
Endosperm. The albumen of the seed which, like the embryo, is developed in the
embryo sac (p. 35).
Entire. Unbroken by divisions.
Epicarp. The outer epidermis of a fruit (p. 35; Figs. 17 and 18).
Epidermis. The outermost or innermost cell layer of an organ. See Epicarp.
Essential or Volatile Oils. Alcohol soluble mixtures of turpenes with other substances
(p. 26).
Exogenous Plants, or Exogens. Plants with fibro-vascular bundles in a ring, forming
new wood on the outside of the old. The seeds have dicotyledonous or poly-
cotyledonous embryos and the leaves are usually netted-veined.
Fats and Oils. Compounds of fatty acids with glycerine (p. 26).
Fibro-vascular Bundle, or Vascular Bundle. A group of conducting elements con-
sisting of xylem and phloem, with often a sheath of bast fibers (pp. 22, 30-45;
Figs. 6, 231, and 232).
Filament. The slender stalk of the stamen bearing the anther.
Flowering Glume. The outer (lower) of the two envelopes subtending each flower
of a spikelet of a grass (p. 60; Fig. 32).
Foramen. The opening at one end of an ovule through which the pollen tubes enter
(P- 35; Fig. 19).
Fruit. The matured ovary and all it contains or that is connected with it (p. ^i).
Fruit Coat. See Pericarp.
Fugaceous. Lasting but a short time.
Funiculus. The stem of an ovule.
Geniculate. Bent abruptly.
Glabrous. Smooth, i.e., free from hairs or bristles.
Gland. A modified cell secreting different substances. Loosely used for any slight
swelling.
Glandular Hairs. See Hairs.
Glaucous. Covered with a bloom.
Globoids. Globular bodies occurring in aleurone grains (p. 25).
Glucosides. Compounds of sugars with organic acids.
GLOSSARY. 679
Gluten Cells. See Aleurone Cells.
Gonidium, pi. Gonidia. Same as Conidium, pi. Conidia. An asexual reproductive
cell (p. 164).
Ground Substance. The material in which are embedded specially differentiated
bodies, as the ground substance of aleurone grains (p. 24).
Ground Tissue. A tissue, usually parenchyma, in which others are embedded.
Guard Cells. The two crescent-shaped cells surrounding a stoma (p. 29; Figs. 11 and 12).
Gums. Mucilaginous substances soluble in water but precipitated by alcohol.
Gymnospermous Plants, or Gymnosperms. Phenogams having naked ovules.
Hadrome. See Phloem.
Hairs, or Trichomes. Unicellular or multicellular outgrowths of the epidermis (p. 29).
Hairs, Glandular. Hairs with a secretion chamber at the apex (Figs. 11 and 425).
Hastate. Halbert-shaped; with lobes at the base turned outwards.
Hemitropous, or Amphitropous. Applied to ovules or seeds with hilum midway be-
tween the chalaza and foramen (micropyle).
Hermaphrodite. With stamens and pistils in the same flower.
Hilum, pi. Hilums or Hila. (1) The scar or place of attachment of an ovule or seed
to its funiculus or stalk; (2) the organic center of a starch grain (p. 647).
Hirsute. Rough hairy.
Hour-glass Cells. See Column Cells.
Hyaline. Transparent or translucent.
Hymenium. An aggregation of reproductive cells in a fungus (p. 420).
Hypha, pi. Hyphae. A vegetative thread of a fungus.
Hypoderm. The layer or layers of cells immediately underlying the epidermis; here
used chiefly for the hypoderm of fruits.
I Cells. See 'Column Cells.
Idioblast. A cell which differs greatly, in form, size, or contents, from the tissue in
which it occurs.
Imbricated. Overlapping one another.
Incumbent. Applied to seeds with radicle against the back of one of the cotyledons
(P- i73)-
Indebiscent. Not opening by valves, pores, or along regular lines.
Inferior. Growing below some other organ. An inferior calyx is free from the ovary.
An inferior ovary is united with the calyx tube.
Inflorescence. The arrangement of flowers on the stem, or a flower cluster itself.
Intercellular Spaces. Cavities between cells (Fig. 1).
Inulin. A water-soluble carbohydrate found in various roots. It forms sphaero-crystals
in alcohol.
Invert Sugar. A mixture of equal parts of dextrose and levulose obtained by the inver-
sion of cane sugar.
Involucre. A circle of bracts surrounding the base of a compound flower or a cluster
of flowers.
Involute. Rolled longitudinally on the upper side from both margins.
Isodiametric. Having approximately equal dimensions.
Lanceolate. Much longer than broad, and tapering at the apex, or at both the apex
and the base.
680 GLOSSARY.
Latex Tubes. Branching tubes containing a milky secretion (Figs. 341 and 343).
Leptome. See Phloem.
Leucoplasts, or Leucoplastids. Colorless plastids instrumental in the formation of
starch (p. 644; Fig. 570).
Levulose, or Fruit Sugar. A sugar with the formula C6Hi20e, which turns the plane
of polarized light to the left.
Light Line. A bright line perpendicular to the axis of the cell seen in the palisade
cells of legumes and other seeds (p. 234; Fig. 200).
Lignin. The characteristic constituent of woody or sclerenchymatized tissues.
Lobed. With rounded divisions or sinuses extending not more than half way to the-
midrib or base.
Locules. The cavities or macroscopic cells of a fruit or other organ.
Lodicules. Two small hyaline scales between the base of a flower and its glume (p. 60).
Lumen, pi. Lumens or Lumina. The cavity enclosed by the walls of a cell.
Malpighian Cells. The palisade epidermis of leguminous seeds (p. 233; Fig. 200).
Medullary Rays. Plates of tissue radiating from the pith outward.
Mericarp. One carpel of the fruit of an umbelliferous plant (p. 549).
Meristem. A tissue, usually in a zone, forming other tissues by cell division.
Mesocarp. The middle layers of a pericarp (p. 35) .
Mesophyl. The middle layers of a leaf (p. 29; Fig. n).
Micropyle. The opening of a seed corresponding to the foramen of the ovule (Fig. 19).
Middle Lamella. The primary or middle layer between cells.
Midrib. The central nerve of a leaf.
Mitscherlichian Bodies. Multicellular hairs occurring on the epidermis of the embryo
of the cocoa bean (p. 446; Fig. 348).
Monocotyledonous Plants, or Monocotyledons. Plants with embryos having one
cotyledon. See Endogenous Plants.
Monoecious. With staminate and pistillate flowers on the same plant.
Morphology. The study of vegetable parts with reference to their form, origin, and
metamorphoses.
Mycelium, pi. Mycelia. The vegetative portion of a fungus consisting of hyphs.
Naked Fruit. A fruit readily separating from its envelopes.
Nucellus. The body of the ovule (p. 3s; Fig. 19).
Nucleus. See Cell Nucleus.
Nutritive Layer. A layer of the spermoderm, several cells thick, containing starch or
other contents which are translocated to other parts during ripening.
Obliterated Cells. Compressed cells with little or no evidence of their cellular structure.
Obovate. With the outline of a longitudinal section of a hen's egg; attachment at the
smaller end.
Obovoid. Egg-shaped with attachment at the smaller end; solid obovate.
Oil Cells. Cells secreting fatty or essential oil.
Oil Ducts. Ducts containing essential oil, as the vitts of umbelliferous fruits
(P- 549)-
Orthotropous. Applied to ovules and seeds with both hilum and chalaza at the point
of attachment, and the foramen or micropyle at the opposite end.
Oval. Broadly elliptical.
GLOSSARY. 68 1
Ovary. The body of the pistil in which are contained the ovules and which later
develops into the fruit (Fig. 19).
Ovate. With the outline of a longitudinal section of a hen's egg; attachment at the
larger end.
Ovoid. Egg-shaped with attachment at the larger end; solid ovate.
Ovule. A body contained in the ovary which, after fertilization, develops into a seed.
Palet, or Palea. The upper (inner) of the two envelopes subtending each flower of a
spikelet of a grass (p. 60, Fig. 32).
Palisade Cells. Elongated cells arranged perpendicular to the surface, resembling in
cross section a palisade (Fig. 166).
Palmate. With divisions radiating from the end of the stem, like the fingers of a hand.
Panicle. A loose, branching flower cluster.
Papilionaceous. Butterfly-shaped, such as the flowers of the pea.
Papilla, pi. Papillae. Soft nipple- or club-shaped protuberances.
Pappus. The modified calyx lobes, consisting of bristles, hairs, teeth, or a cup, which
crown the achenes of the Composites.
Parenchyma. The simplest form of tissue, such as pith, mesophyl, etc. (p. 20; Fig. 1).
Parenchyma, Spongy. A loose parenchyma with pronounced intercellular spaces
(p. 20; Fig. 2).
Parqueted Cells. Elongated cells arranged in groups, those*in the same group side
by side and extended in a different direction from those in other groups (Fig. 472).
Parted. With divisions extending almost to the midrib or base.
Pedicel. The stem of a single flower of a group.
Peduncle. The stem of a solitary flower or a group of flowers.
Perianth. The floral envelopes, consisting of calyx, or calyx and corolla.
Pericambium. See Pericycle.
Pericarp, or Fruit Coat. The matured ovary wall (p. 33; Figs. 17 and 18).
Pericycle. The outer layer of the stele, adjoining the endodermis (p. 40).
Periderm. The outer bark, consisting chiefly of cork cells.
Perisperm. The part of a seed developed from the nucellus of an ovule (p. 38; Fig. 20).
Petals. See Corolla.
Petiole. The stem of a leaf.'
Phanerogamous Plants, or Phanerogams. The higher plants having true flowers
with stamens and pistils.
Phelloderm. The tissue formed on the inner side of the phellogen.
Phellogen. The meristematic layer forming cork on the outside and phelloderm or
secondary cortex on the inside.
Phenogamous Plants, or Phenogams (also spelled Phznogams). See Phanerogams.
Phloem, Bast, or Leptone. The softer part of a fibro-vascular bundle, consisting of
sieve-tubes, cambiform cells, and other non-lignified elements (p. 22).
Photosynthesis, or Assimilation. The formation through the agency of light of organic
* matter in chlorophyl tissues from carbonic acid and water (p. 28).
Pigment Cells. Cells containing coloring matter.
Pinnate. Arranged on both sides of an axis, like the vanes of a feather.
Pistil. The female element of the flower, consisting of ovary, style, and stigma.
Pith. The central parenchymatous core of exogenous roots and stems.
682 GLOSSARY.
Pits. See Pores.
Placentae. The parts of the ovary bearing the ovules.
Plastids, or Chromatophores. Protoplasmic grains, including .chloroplasts, leucoplasts,
and chromoplasts (p. 23).
Plumule. The bud or growing point of the embryo above the cotyledons (p. 61).
Polarization Crosses. Dark crosses seen on starch grains when examined under the
micro-polariscope with crossed Nicol prisms.
Pollen Grains. The fecundating powder formed in the anthers.
Pollen Tubes. The tubes formed on pollen grains which penetrate the ovule and
effect fertilization (Fig. 19).
Pome. A fleshy fruit with united receptacle and pericarp, such as the apple.
Pores, or Pits. Openings or depressions in cell walls, affording communication between
adjoining cells.
Procambium. The elongated cells of the embryo from which the fibro-vascular
bundles are developed.
Proteins, or Albuminoids. A class of substances containing about 16 per cent of nitrogen,
to which belong gluten, legumen, etc. (p. 24).
Protoplasm. The living matter of the cell, consisting of cytoplasm, cell nucleus, and
plastids (p. 23).
Pubescent. Soft hairy.'*
Raceme. A flower cluster with one-flowered pedicels arranged along a common axis.
Rachis. The axis of a spike or of a compound leaf.
Radial Fibro-vascular Bundle. With phloem and xylem in different radial planes
alternating with each other (p. 45).
Radial Walls. Walls perpendicular to the surface of an organ.
Radicle. The stem of the embryo, from the lower end of which develops the root.
Raphe. The strand of vascular elements joining the hilum of a seed with the chalaza
(P- 35; Fig- r9)-
Rap hides. Needle-shaped crystals (Fig. 9).
Receptacle. The immediate support of a group of flowers or other organs.
Reniform. Kidney-shaped.
Reserve Material. Starch, oil, proteid, or other materials stored for future use in
seeds, stems, rhizomes, tubers, and other organs.
Reserve Starch. Starch deposited in seeds, rhizomes, tubers, and other organs for
future use (p. 643).
Resins. Solid oxygenated hydrocarbons related to the essential oils, insoluble in water
but soluble in ether, essential oils, etc.
Respiration. The oxidation of organic matter in the leaf with exhalation of carbonic
acid (p. 28).
Reticulated. Netted.
Reticulated Vessels. With thickenings forming reticulations. Intermediate forms
occur between these and spiral vessels. *
Revolute. Rolled longitudinally on the under side from both margins.
Rhizomes, or Rootstocks. Stems or branches growing beneath or partly covered by
the soil.
Sagittate. Arrow-shaped; with lobes at the base turned downwards.
GLOSSARY. 683
Scalariform Vessels With transversely arranged ribs in rows like the rounds of a
ladder (Fig. 6).
Sclerenchyma. A tissue with thickened and lignified walls, such as stone cells and
bast fibers.
Sclerotic Cells. See Stone Cells.
Sclerotium, pi. Sclerotla. A compacted mass of sterile hyphas forming the resting stage
of certain fungi (p. 164; Fig. 141).
Scutellum. A shield-like sucker (cotyledon) on the side of the embryo in grasses
(p. 61; Fig. 62).
Secondary Cortex. The cortex formed by the phellogen outside of the primary cortex.
Seed. The fertilized and matured ovule.
Seed Coat. See Spermoderm.
Sepals. See Calyx.
Serrate. With margin having sharp teeth pointed forwards.
Sieve Plates. The perforated plates forming the cross partitions of sieve tubes and
occurring also on the side walls.
Sieve Tubes. The characteristic elements of the phloem, consisting of soft tubes with
perforated cross partitions (p. 23; Figs. 6 and 25).
Silica Cells. Conical cells, corresponding to hairs, found on the epidermis of the
glumes and palets of certain cereals (p. 61; Fig. 45).
Silicic A short silique.
Silique. . The pod of the Crucijem, opening from below by two longitudinal valves,
leaving the seeds attached to the placentas.
Sinuous, or Sinuate. With deeply wavy margins.
Sinus. A cove or re-entrant angle.
Spathe. A large bract encircling a flower cluster.
Spatulate. With rounded apex and narrow, tapering base.
Spermoderm, Testa, or Seed Coat. That portion of the skin or shell of a seed
developed from the integuments of the ovule (p. 37).
Sphacelia, the active stage of ergot (p. 164).
Spike. A group of sessile flowers on a common axis.
Spikelet. In grasses, a group of flowers subtended by two empty glumes (p. 60; Fig. 32).
Spiral Vessels. Vessels with spiral thickenings, resembling a spiral spring (Fig. 6).
Spongy Parenchyma. See Parenchyma.
Spores. The reproductive bodies of cryptogams, analogous to the seeds of phanero-
gams.
Stamens. The male elements of the flower, made up of filament and anther.
Starch (Latin Amylum). A carbohydrate with the formula (C6Hio05)n, occurring as
grains insoluble in water.
Stegmata, pi. Cells, containing silicious bodies (Fig. 232).
Stele. The central cylinder of a stem or root within the endodermis (p. 40).
Stigma. The end portion of the pistil on which are deposited the pollen grains.
Stoma, pi. Stomata; or Stomate, pi. Stomates. The openings or breathing pores of
epidermal tissues, particularly of leaves (p. 29; Figs, n and 12).
Stone Cells, or Sclerotic Cells. Sclerenchyma elements, either isodiametric or moder-
ately elongated, with thick, porous walls (p. 21; Fig. 4).
684 GLOSSARY.
Stone Fruit. See Drupe.
Style. The neck of the pistil connecting the stigma with the ovary.
Subepidermal Layer. The layer of cells immediately underlying the epidermis. Here
used chiefly for the subepidermal layer of seeds.
Suberin. The characteristic constituent of cork tissues.
Subtend. To extend underneath.
Sucrose, or Cane Sugar. Ordinary sugar with the formula Ci2H22Oii.
Superior. Growing above some other organ. A superior calyx is grown to the ovary,
i.e. adnate. A superior ovary is free from the perianth.
Suture. A seam of union, or line of dehiscence.
Tannins. Colorless astringent substances, becoming brown on drying, which are
colored blue or green by iron salts.
Testa. See Spermoderm.
Terrete. Circular in cross section.
Tracheas. See Vessels.
Tracheids. Elongated, lignified cells of the xylem, distinguished from vessels by
their cross partitions (Fig. 232).
Transitory Starch. Starch temporarily deposited in an organ (p. 643).
Transpiration. Exhalation of water through the leaf.
Trichomes. See Hairs.
Tube Cells. Longitudinally arranged vermiform cells, especially those forming the
endocarp of cereals (p. 62; Fig. 34).
Tuber. A thickened portion of a subterranean stem.
Twin Cells? Pairs of oval or crescent-shaped cells found on the epidermis of the
glumes and palets of certain cereals (p. 61; Fig. 45).
Ventral Side. The inner side, facing the axis.
Versatile. Swinging freely on its support.
Vessels, or Tracheae. The lignified ducts or tubes of a. fibro-vascular bundle, dis-
tinguished from tracheids by the absence of transverse partitions (p. 22; Figs. 6
and 25).
Vittas. Oil ducts of umbelliferous fruits (p. 549).
Volatile Oils. See Essential Oils.
Water Pores, or Water Stomata. Epidermal openings situated at the ends of the nerves
of leaves, through which water is discharged.
Wavy. Curving gently in and out.
Xylem, Wood, or Hadrome. The portion of a fibro-vascular bundle containing the
vessels and tracheids (p. 22; Figs. 6, 231, and 232).
INDEX.
Abientinea, 316
Acarus farina, 48
plumiger, 48
Accompanying cells, 29
Acer Negundo, 477
Aceracea, 477
Acetic acid, 8
Acid, acetic, 8
hydrochloric, 9
nitric, 9
picric, 25
Acorn, 302
coffee, 305
flour, 306
shells, 306
Acorus Calamus, 608 «.
Adonis aestivalis, 154
Flammea, 154
Adzuki bean, 241
Aerial stems, 39
JEscuhis Hippocastanum, 657
Afrikanischer Nussbohnen-Kaffee, 436
Agar-agar, 320
Agaricinece, 423
Agaricus campestris, 423
Aggregate fruit, 33
Aglaja odorata, 452
Agrostemma Githago, 145, 148
Akebia leaves, 478
Akebia quinata, 478
Albumen fixative, Meyer's, 17
Alcanna tincture, 8, 26
Alcohol, 8
Alcohol-hydrochloric acid test of flour,
Vogl's, 52
Alectorolophus hirsutiis, 145
Aleurites Moluccana, 224
triloba, 224
Aleurone grains, 24
Alfalfa, 265
Alkali, 10, 16
Alkaloidal products, 427
Alkaloids, 25
Allerwelts-Kaffee, 436
Allium Schmnoprasum, 627
Allspice, 526
ground; 530
Almond, 332
cake, 336
coffee, 436
flour, 336
paste, 336
shells, 336
Alpinia calcarata, 606
Galanga, 606
officinarum, 606
Alstonia thewformis, 483
Alstrameria pallida, 669
Amanita bulbosa, 423
phalloides, 423
■Amaryttidea, 669
Ammonia-water, 8
Ammoniacal copper solution, 10
Amomum Cardamomum, 542
maximum, 542
subidatum, 542
xanthioides, 542
Amorphophallus sp., 669
Anarcardiacetz, 315, 669
Ananassa sativa, 395
Andropogon Sorghum, 97; 104
var. durra., 104
var. saccharatus, 103
var. technicus, 98
Anethum graveolens, 564
Angiosperms, wood of, 42
Angrecnm fragrans, 483
Anguillula tritici, 48
Aniline dyes, 24, 318, 413, 522
Anise, 558
Annual stems, 39
Annular vessels, 22
Anthers, 31
Anlhoxanthum odoratum, 276
Apium graveolens, 565
Apple, 321
pomace, 326
preserves, 325
Apricot, 339
pits, 334, 34°
preserves, 340
Aqnifoliacea , 483
Aracea, 608, 666, 669
Arachis hypogaa, 269
68s
686
INDEX.
Arata's wool test, 413, 522
Araucaria sp., 669
Araucariacece, 669
Arenga saccharifera, 66 7
Arillode, 38
Arillus, 37
Arrowroot, Brazilian, 665
East India, 662
Guiana, 39s, 658, 663
Portland, 666
Queensland, 662
Tahiti, 667
tous les mois, 662
West India, 660
Artemisia vulgaris, 619
Artichoke, Jerusalem, 416
Artificial flavors in jam, etc., 318
Artocarpea, 386, 659
Artocarpus incisa, 659
Arum starch, 666
Arum esculcntum, 666
Italicum, 666
maculatum, 666
Asci, 420
Ascomyceles, 420
Ash leaves, 462
mountain, 463
Asi-rai, 183, 189
Asperula odorata, 276
Asphodelus tenuifolius, 188
Assimilation, 28
Astragalus, 264
baeticus, 264, 436
AurantiacecB, 452
Autumn morel, 423
Aiiena fatua, 111, 145, 146
orientalis, in
saliva, in
Awns, 60
Ayer's hygienic substitute for coffee, 436
Babiana aurea, 632
Balsam, Canada, in xylol, 8
mounting in, 19
Bamihl's test of flour, 55, 70
Banana, 393
flour, 39s
starch, 394, 658
Barbarea vulgaris, 194
Bark, 38, 40
Barks, microscopic elements of, 41
used as spices, 585
Barley, 80
by-products, 85
farina, 85
flour, 85
pearl, 85 -.
products, 84
roasted, 85
Basidiomycetes, 420
Bast, 22, 41
fibers, 21, 23
Batatas ediilis, 665
Batavia cassia, 586, 589
Bayberry, 570
Bay-leaf, 616
Bayrischer Kaffee, 436
Bean, adzuki, 24r
black-eyed, 247
broad, 250
carob, 277
Chickasaw Lima, 258
China, 247
common, 238
Dutch case-knife, 240
Egyptian, 249
horse, 250
hyacinth, 249
Jack, 258
Lima, 241
Sieva, 241
soja, 248
soy, 248
Spanish, 240
Tonka, 275
Tonquin, 275
Windsor, 250
Bean-tree starch, 658
Bed straws, 145, 161
Beech-nut, 307
cake, 308, 309
Beet, 417
Beneke's chloroform test of flour, 51
method For clearing, 172
Benzoic acid in fruit, 320
Bertholletia excelsa, 312
nobilis, 312
Beta vulgaris, 417
Bi-collateral bundles, 39
Bifora radians, 145, 159
Bindweed, black, 138, 145, 188
small, 145, 157
Black bindweed, 138, 145, 188
caraway, 156
currant, 362
preserves, 363
mustard, 180
pea, 247
pepper, 507
ground, 507
raspberry, 354
walnut, 298
Black-eyed bean, 247
Blackberry, 354
preserves, 356
Blue lupine, 255
Blueberry, 370
leaves, 480
preserves, 372
Boletus, 423
Bomarea sp., 669
Bombacece, 213
Borassus fiabelliformis, 667
Bran, barley, 86
flax, 205
maize, 71, 96
INDEX.
687
Bran, rice, no
rye, 79
wheat, 71, 96
Brassica alba, 177
arvensis, 184, 187
' Besseriana, 183
campestris, var. Sarson, 179, 188
dissecta, 189
Iberifolia, 188
juncea, 183, 189
Napus, 186
var. dicholoma, 188
nigra, 180
Rapa, 187, 419
rugosa, 189
Sinapistrum, 184
Brazilian arrowroot, 665
Brazilnut, 312
Bread, 55
Breadfruit starch, 659 •
Breakfast foods, 70, 116
Brewers' grains, 85
Brick tea, 452
Broad bean, 250
Bromeliacem, 395
Bromus secalinus, 130, 145
Broom corn, 97
Brown mustard, 183
Bryonia epigma, 670
Buckwheat, common, 132
flour, 137
grits, 137
hulls, 137
middlings, 137
products, 137
starch, 135, 654
Tartary, 138
Buckwheats, 132
Bundle zone, 40, 45
Bundles, fibro-vascular, 22, 30, 39, 44, 45
bi-collateral, 39
collateral, 39, 44
concentric, 44
radial, 45
Buttercup, 145
fruit, 153
Butternut, 298
By-products, barley, 85
brewery, 57
buckwheat, 137
distillery, 57
glucose, 57
maize, 96
oat, 116
rye, 79
starch, 57
Cadelle, 48
Ccesalpinia pulcherrima, 436
Casalpiniea, 233
CaK de Rheims, 436
Caillettet's chloroform test of flour, 51
Cake, almond, 336
Cake, beechnut, 308, 309
black mustard, 182
Brazilnut, 314
candlenut, 225
cocoanut, 288
cottonseed, 2ri, 212
false flax, 191
hazelnut, 31T
hemp-seed, 218
linseed, 205, 206
madia, 199
niger seed, 201
palm, 292
peanut, 275
poppy seed, 228
pumpkin seed, 401
rape, 186
sesame, 219
sunflower, 197
white mustard, 179
Calamus root, 608
Calandra granaria, 48
oryza, 48
Calcium carbonate, 2r, 27
oxalate, 2r, 25, 26
Calendula officinalis, 627
Caltha palustris, 640 •
Calyx, 30
Cambiform cells, 22, 4*
Cambium, 39, 40, 45
Camelina sativa, 187, 190
Camellia, leaves, 467
Camellia Japonica, 467
Thea, 452
Camera Iucida, 7
Canada balsam in xylol, 8
mounting in, 19
Canavalia ensiformis, 258
obtusifolia, 258
Candlenut, 224
Cane sugar, 25
Canella bark, 597
Canella alba, 597
Canellacea, 597
Canna starch, 662
Canna Achiras, 662
coccinea, 662
edulis, 662
Indica, 662
Cannabinecs, 214 ..
Cannabis saliva, 214
Canton cassia, 585
Cape saffron, 631
Caper fruits, 64T
Capers, 639
German, 640
Capparidacew, 639
Capparis spinosa, 639
Capraria bijlora, 483
Caprifig, 386
Capsella Bursa-Pasloris, 187, 192
. Capsicum annuum, 515
fastigiatum, 515, 523
688
INDEX.
Capsicum frulescens, 515, 523
minimum, 523
Caraway, 555
black, 156
Cardamoms, 542
Ceylon, 547
Malabar, 542
Carob bean, 277
Carrot, 418
Carthamus tinctorius, 629
Carum Cariri, 555
Caruncle, 38
Carya alba, 299
• olivaformis, 298
Caryophyllacea, 148
Caryophyllaceous seeds, 148
Caryophyllus aromaticus, 632
Caryota urens, 667
Cassava starch, 664
Cassia, 585
buds, 591
coffee, 262
ground, 590
lignea, 585
vera, 586
Cassia occidentalis , 262, 436
sophori, 436
Castanea crenala, 299
saliva, 299
var. Americana, 299
Castanea-nut, 312
Castanospermum Auslrale, 658
Castor bean, 222
pomace, 169, 222
Cathartus advena, 48
gemallalus, 48
Catsup, tomato, 412
Cattle foods, cereal, 56
methods of examination
of, 58
condimental, 499
methods of exam-
ination of, 500
Caucasian tea, 481
Cayenne pepper, 523
ground, 52s
Ceanothus Americamis, 483
Ceibo pentandra, 213
Celery seed, 565
Cells, accompanying, 29
cross, 62
guard, 29
palisade, 29, 208, 233
tube, 62
Cellulose, 20
Cembra pine, 316
Centaurea Cyanus, 145, 160
Ceratonia, 233
Siliqua, 277
Cereal cattle foods, 56
methods of examination
of, 58
Cereals, 60
Cereals, microscopic characters of, 61
analytical keys to, 62
Ceylon cardamom, 547
cinnamon, 593
Chmlochloa glauca, 124
viridis, 118
Chaff, 57
Chalaza, 35
Chamanerium angustifolium, 459
Charlock, 146, 182, 184, 187
Chemical examination
of cereal cattle foods, 58
of condimental cattle and poultry foods,
500
of flour and meal, 52
of fruit products, 319
of oil-seed products, 171
of spices and condiments, 496
Chenopodiacem, 417
Chenopodium-ambrosioides, 483
Cherry, 341
leaves, 468
Mazzard, 341
Morello, 341
Chess, 130, 145
Chestnut, 299
meal, 301
shells, 302
starch, 301, 656
Chick pea, 256
Chickasaw Lima bean, 258
Chicory, 438
Chili sauce, 318
Chillies, 523
China bean, 247
cassia, 585
Chloral hydrate solution, 8, 16
Cldoranthus inconspicuus, 452
Chloroform, 8
test of flour, Beneke's, 51
Caillettet's, 51
Chlorophyl grains, 23, 29, 30
Chloroplasts, 23
Chlorzinc iodine solution, 8
Chocolate, 442, 447
malt, 449
milk, 449
sweet, 448
Choiromyccs mmandriformis, 422
Chromatophores, 23
Chromoplasts, 24
Ckcr arietinum, 256
Ciclwrium Intybus, 438
Cinnainomum aromaticum, 585
Burmanni, 5S0
Cassia, 385, 591
Ceyloiticum, 593
C11I Hawaii, 596
Loureirii, 586
Cinnamon, 585, 590
Ceylon, 59 3
Citric acid, 318
Citron, 381
INDEX.
68.
Citrullus vulgaris, 406
Citrus fruits, 376
Citrus Aurantium, var. amara, 376
var. Sinensis, 376
medica, var. genuina, 381
var. Limon, 381
Clark's phosphi cereal nervine coffee, 436
Claviceps purpurea, 164
Clearing, 16
Cleavers, 161
Clove bark, 594
fruit, 637
stems, 636
Clovers, 268
Cloves, 632
ground, 636
Cob meal, 95
Cobnut, 309
Coca, 485
Cockle, 52, 145, 148
Cockle-wheat, 48
Cocoa, 442
bean, 44(2
shells, 448
Cocoanut, 281
cake, 288
shells, 289
shredded, 288
Cocos'nucifera, 281
Ccelococcus, 295
Cojfea Arabica, 427, 466
Liberica, 438
Coffee, 427
acorn, 305
adulternats of, 43 s
artificial, 435
astragalus, 264
cassia, 262
fig, 389
ground, 434
hulls, 434, 43S
leaves, 466
Liberian, 438
Mogdad, 262
Soudan, 257
substitutes, 435
Swedish continental, 264
Cola acuminata, 452
Cold-water test of oil-seeds, 170
Collateral bundles, 39, 44
Collections, n
Collsnchyma, 20, 21
Collin & Perrot's method for oil-seeds, 170
Colocasia antiqu'orum, 669
Color test of flour, 50
Commercial powders, 14
starches, 643
Composite, 160, 19S, 4i6, 438. 440, 619, 627
629
Composite oil fruits, 19S
Compound fruit, 33
microscope, 5
Condimental cattle and poultry foods, 499
Condimental cattle and poultry foods'
methods of examination of, 500
Condiments, see Spices
Conium maculatum, 560
Conwlvulacew, 157, 665
Convolvulus arvensis, 145, 157
Copernica cerifera, 292
Copper solution, ammoniacal, 10
Coriander, 562
Coriandrum sativum, 562
Cork, 40
cells, 22
Corms, 43
Corn bran, 71
cob in wheat bran, 71
flakes, 96
flower, 145, 160
Jerusalem, 104
Kaffir, 104
poppy, 145
starch, 96, 651
Cornichons de c&prier, 641
Corolla, 30
Cortex, 39, 45
caryophyllata, 596
cassiae caryophyllatus, 594
primary, 40
secondary, 40
Corylus Americana, 309
Avellana, 309
Californica, 309
colurna, 309
pontica, 309
rostrata, 309
tubulosa, 309
Corypha cerifera, 292
Cotton seed, 207
and Kapok seed, comparative
table of, 213
Sea Island, 207
cake, 2ii, 212
hulls, 212
meal, 212
Cotyledons, 38
Coumarin, 277
Coumarouna odorata, 275
oppositifolia, 276
Cover-glasses, 6
Cow herb, 145, 151
pea, 247
wheat, 52, 145, 156
Cowberry, 366
Crab-apple, 322
Cracked corn, 95
Cranberry, 366
preserves, 370
Cream of wheat, 71
Cress, winter, 194
Crocosma aurea, 632
Crocus sativus, 623
vernus, 623
Cross-sections, 12
Crown allspice, 5*6
690
INDEX.
Crucifera, 173, 419
Cruciferous seeds, 173
analytical key to, 175
microscopy of, 173
Crude fiber method, 17, 59
Crystal clusters, 26
fibers, 42
rosettes, 24, 25, 26
sand, 26, 27
Crystals, single, of calcium oxalate, 25, 26
Crystalloids, 24
Cubebs, 513
Cucumber, 403
Cucumis Melo, 405
sativus, 403
Cucurbit fruits, 397
Cucurbita maxima, 402
Pepo, 398
var. melopepo, 402
verrucosa, 402
Cucurbitacea, 397, 670
Cumin, 560
Cuminum Cyminum, 560
Cuoxam, 10
Cup nuts, 299
Cuprammonia, 10
Cupulifera, 299
Curcuma starch, 662
Curcuma angustifolia, 662
Leucorrkiza, 662
longa, 602, 662
rubescens, 662
Zedoaria, 603, 605
Currant, black, 362
red, 3S7
Currants, Xanti, 382, 385
Curry powder, 604
Cuticle, 21, 29
Cutin, 21
Cycas revolula, 667
Cydonia vulgaris, 330
Cyperus esculenhis, 436
Cystoliths, 27
Cytoplasm, 23
Dandelion, 440
Darnel, 52, 125, 145, 146, 251
Date, 390
stones, 392
Datel-Kaffee, 435
Daucus Car ota, 158, 418
Decorticated white pepper, 509
Delphinium Consolida, 145, 155
Staphysagria, 155
Deutscher Kaffee, 436
Diastase method for flour, Steinbusch's, 53
Dicypellium caryophyllatum, 594
Dill, 564
DioscoracecE, 663
Dioscorea acnleala, 663
alata, 663
glabra, 663
Japonica, 663
Dioscorea nummularia, 663
sativa, 663
iomentosa, 663
Dipteryx odorata, 275
Discomycetes , 420, 423
Dissected mustard, 189
Dolichos bulbosus, 670
Lablab, 249
Sinensis, 247
Domkaffee, 436
Draconlium sp., 669
Drupes, 321
Ducts, 22
Dulcit, 25
Durrha, 104
Dutch case-knife bean, 240
Dyes, in jam, etc., 318
East India arrowroot, 662
Echocerus cornutus, 48
maxillosus, 48
Egyptian bean, 249
Elmis Guineensis, 290
Elaphomyces, 422
Elements, principal histological, 20
Eleltaria Cardamomum, 542, 547
Eleusine Coracana, 670
Embedding. 13
Embryo, 35, 38, 61
sac, 3S
Emergences, 29
Emmer, 75
Endocarp, 35
Endodermis, 39, 45
Endosperm, 35, 38, 61
Endothecium, 31
English plantain, 163
walnuts, 296
Ephestia KuehnieUa, 48
Epicarp, 35
Epidermal tissues, 21
Epidermis, 21, 29, 30, 39, 45
EpUobium angustifolium, 459
hirsutum, 461
Episporium, 166
Ergot, 49, 52, 164
Ericacea, 366, 480, 481
Ericaceous fruits, 366
Eriodendron anfractuosum, 213
Eritrichium gnaphaloides, 483
Eruca sativa, 190
Ervum Lens, 245
Erysimum orientate, 187, 194
Erythronium Dens-canis, 670
Erythroxylaceas, 485
Erythroxylon Coca, 485
Essential oils, 26
Ether, 8
Eugenia caryophyllata, 632
Euphorbiacea , 222, 224, 664
European walnut, 295
Eye-pieces, 5
INDEX.
691
Faba vulgaris, 250
Facing ot tea, 456
Fagacea, 477
Fagi-Kadsura-akebi, 478
Fagopyrum esculentum, 132, 654
Tartaricum, 132, 138
Fagus ferruginea, 307
sylvatica, 307
False flax, 187, 190
Fats, 26
Fatty oils, 26
Fecule de pia, 667
Fehling solution, 8, 25
Feigenkaffee, 436
Fennel, 552
Fenugreek, 259
Ferric chloride, 8
Fibro-vascular bundles, 22, 30, 39, 44, 45
bi-collateral, 39
collateral, 39, 44
concentric, 44
radial, 45
Ficus Carica, 386
Field pennycress, 193
Fig, 386
coffee, 389
goat, 386
preserves, 389
Figine, 436
Filbert, 309
Fischer Mills malt coffee, 436
Fixative, Meyer's albumen, r7
Flag, sweet, 608
Flax bran, 205
Flour, 47
acorn, 306
almond, 336
banana, 39s
black mustard, 182
buckwheat, 137
prepared or self-raising
137
cryptogamic contaminations of, 49
insect contaminations of, 48
maize, 95
methods of examination of, 50
mineral adulterants of, 47
pea, 242
rice, no
rye, 79
wheat, 70
white mustard, 179
Flour-beetle, broad-horned, 48
confused, 48
rust red, 48
slender-horned, 48
small-eyed, 48
Flour-mite, common, 48
feathered, 48
Flower, 30
Flowers used as spices, 622
Fmniculum capillaceum, 552
duke, 552
Foramen, 35
Force, 70
Fould's wheat germ, 71
Foxtail, green, 118
yellow, 124
Fragaria Chiloensis, 343
vesca, 343, 47 r
Virginiana, 343
Frank-Kaffee, 436
Franzosischer Kaffee, 436
Fraxinus sp., 462
French truffles, 420
Frilillaria imperialis, 670
Frucht-Kaffee, 436
Fruit, 33. 317
aggregate, 33
compound, 33
multiple, 33
products, 317
methods of examination of,
318
Fruits, citrus, 376
cucurbit, 397
ericaceous, 366
miscellaneous, 382
myrtaceous, 526
rosaceous, 321
saxifragaceous, 357
solanaceous, 410, 515
umbelliferous, 549
analytical key to, 551
comparative histology
of, 55°
Fungi, 164, 419
edible, 419
Fungus impurities of grain, 164
layer in darnel, r 29 [
Funiculus, 35
Galangal, 606
Galium Aparine, 161
Gardenia florida, 452
Gasleromycetes , 420, 422
Gaylussacia resinosa, 373
German millet, 118
rape, 187
soda coffee, 435
truffles, 421
Gesneracea, 219
Gherkin, 403
Ginger, 599
exhausted, 602
ground, 602
Glands, 21, 29, 30
Globoids, 25
Gloriosa superba, 670
Glucosides, 25
Glumes, empty, 60
flowering, 60
Gluten feed, 96
meal, 96
, test of flour, 52
Glycerine, 9
692
INDEX.
Glycerine, gum, 9
jelly, Kaiser's, 9
mounting in, 18
mounting in, 18
Glycine hispida, 248
Goat fig, 386
Gonidia, 164
Gooseberry, 363
preseves, 365
Gossypium arboreum, 207
barbadense, 207, 212
herbaceum, 207
Graham flour, 70
Grain, 47
Grain-beetle, European, 48
red or square-necked, 48
saw-toothed, 48
Grain-o, 436
Graminece, 60, 670
Grape, 382
pomace, 385
preserves, 385
Green foxtail, 118
Grits, barley, 85
buckwheat, 137
spelt, 75
wheat, 71
Gromwell leaves, 458
Ground substance, 24
Guarana, 451
Guard cells, 29
Guiana arrowroot, 395, 663
vanilla, 578
Guizotia Abyssinica, 200
oleifera, 200
Gums, 25
Guzerat Raps, 188
Gymnosperms, wood of, 42
Gyromitra esculenla, 423
Hadrome, 22
Hairs, 21, 29
root, 45
Hairy vetch, 252
Hanover truffles, 421
Hazelnut, 309
cake, 311
meal, 311
shells, 311
Hebebrand's method of clearing, 172
Helianthus annuus, 195
luberosus, 416
Helvetia Infula, 423
Hemp, Indian, 214
Hemp-seed, 214
Herb patience, 622
Hickory-nut, 299
Hilum, 35
Histological elements, principal, 20'
Hollow seed, 159
Homeopathischer Gesundheitskaffee, 435
Hominy, 96
feed, 96
Honey, 32
pollen grains in, 32
Hordeum sativum, 80
var. distichon, 80
var. hexaslichon, 80
var. vulgare, 80
Horse bean, 250
Horse-chestnut starch, 657
Huckleberry, 373
preserves, 376
Hulls, bean, 240
black mustard, 182
buckwheat, 137
coffee, 434, 435
cottonseed, 212
oat, 116
rice, no
white mustard, 1 79
Hungarian grass, 118
Hyacinth bean, 249
Hydrangea leaves, 476
Hydrangea Hortensia, 476
Hydrochloric acid, concentrated, 9
method for flour, 54
Hygienischer Nahrkaffee, 435
Hymenium, 420
Hymenomycetes, 420, 423
Hypoderm, 35
Hypoxidece, 670
Hypoxis aurea, 670
Hyssop, 615
Hyssopus officinalis, 615
Ilex Paraguariensis, 483
Illicium religiosum, 571, 572
verum, 566
Impregnating and embedding, 13
Indian cassia, 586
colza, 188
hemp, 214
mustard, 183, 189
rape, brown, 188
Integuments, 35
Inulin, 25
Inversion, 25
Invert sugar, 25
Iodine in potassium iodide, 9
tincture, 9
treatment with, 16
Ipomwa Batatas, 665
Iridacecc, 623, 632
Ivory-nut, 293
Polynesian, 295
Jack bean, 258
Jamaica pepper, 526
Jamaika-Kaffee, 435
Jambosa Caryophyllns, 632
Jams, 317
adulterants of, 317
Japanese potato, 415
Jasminum, 452
Javelle water, 9
INDEX.
693
Jerusalem artichoke, 416
corn, 104
Jesuit tea, 483
Juglandacem, 295
Juglans cinerea, 298
nigra, 298
regia, 295
Juniper berry, 582
Juniperus communis, 582
Kaffir corn, 104
Kaiser's glycerine jelly, 9
Kanon, 435
Kapok seed, 2r3
and cottonseed, comparative
table of, 213
Kentucky coffee, 436
Kneipp malt cofiee, 436
Kola nut, 452
Kraft-Kaffee, 436
Kraunhia floribunda, 475
La Guayra vanilla, 578
Labarraque's solution, 9, 16
Labiates, 415, 610, 612, 613, 615
Lablab vulgaris, 249
Labrador tea, 483
Lagerheim's test for benzoic acid, 320
Lambert's hazelnut, 309
Lantana pseudothea, 483
Lapisma saccharina, 48
Lardizabalacetz, 478
Larkspur seed, 145, 155
Latex tubes, 23
Lauck's method for flour, 54
Lauracea, 579, 585, 594, 616
Laurus cinnamomum, 586
nobilis, 579, 616
Leaf, 28
Lecylhis usitata, 314
Ledum, 483
Legumes, 233
analytical key to, 235
chief characters of, 235
microscopic characters of, 233
Leguminosce, 233, 670
Lemon, 381
Lens esculenta, 245
Lentil, 245
Leontodon Taraxacum, 440
Lepidium campestre, 187, 193
sativum, 193
Virginicum, 193
Leptome, 22
Leucoplasts, 23, 644
Liberian coffee, 438
Lie tea, 456
Lignin, 20, 21
Liliacea, 670
Lima bean, 241
Linacem, 202
Linseed, 202
cake, 206
Linseed meal, 206
Linum usiiatissimum, 202
Lithospermum arwnse, 145
officinale, 458
Lodicules, 60
Lolium temulentum, 125, 145, 146, 251
Long cardamom, 547
pepper, 511
Longitudinal sections, 12
Louse seed, 155
Lucerne, 265
Lupine, blue, 255
yellow, 253
white, 255
Lupinus albus, 255
angustifolius, 255
var. leucospermus, 255
luteus, 253
Lycoper-sicum esculentum, 410
Lyperia crocea, 631
Macaroni wheat, 65
Macassar nutmeg and mace, 540
Mace, Bombay, 540
Macassar, 540
true, 531
Macerating mixture, Schultze's, 10
Maceration, 15
Madi, 198
Madia seed, 198
Madia saliva, 198
Magnoliacea, 566
Maize, 86
bran, 96
cake,-96
cob, 50, 96
flour, 95
meal, 96
products, 95
silk, 626, 632
smut, 166
starch, 95, 651
white milo, 104
yellow milo, 104
Malabar cardamom, 542
cassia, 586
Malt, 84
chocolate, 449
sprouts, 86
Malta-Vita, 70
Malto-Kaffee, 436
Malvacece, 207, 670
Mangifera Indica, 669 •
Mango, 669
Manihot aipi, 664
utilissima, 664
Mannit, 25
Maple leaves, 477
Maranta starch, 660
Maranta arundinacea, 660
Marantacea, 660, 662
Marigold flowers, 626, 627
Marjoram, 612
694
INDEX.
Marmalades, 317
adulterants of, 317
Marsh marigcld, 640
Mate, 483
Meadowsweet leaves, 473
Meal, bean, 239
chestnut, 301
corn and cob, 95
cottonseed, 212
hazelnut, 311
linseed, 206
maize, 96
Meal-worm, dark, 48
yellow, 48
Mechanical stage, 6
Medica saliva, 265
Medicago saliva, 265
Medullary rays, 40
Melanpyrum arvense, 52, 145, 156
Melilotm Kaffee, 436
Melilotus officinalis, 276
Melitose, 25
Mesocarp, 35
Mesophyl, 29
Methods of examination, 12
of cereal cattle foods, S8
of flour, 52
of fruit products, 318
of meal, 52
of oil-seed products, 1 70
of powders, 14
of spices and condiments, 496
Melroxylon Koenigii, 667
lave, 667
Rumphii, 667
Sagus, 667
Mexican allspice, 52,6
. tea, 483
Meyer's albumen fixative, 17
Micrometer, 5
Micropyle, 37
Microscope, compound, 5
simple, 6
Microscopic examination
of cereal cattle foods, 58
of condimental cattle foods, 501
of flour and meal, 52
of fruit products, 319
of oil-seed products, 171
of spices and condiments, 497
Microscopic mounts, n
Microtome, 6
Middlings, buckwheat, 137
rye, 79
wheat, 71
Milk chocolate, 449
Millet, common, ir6
German, 118
Millons' reagent, 9, 24
Mince meat, 325
Mogdad coffee, 262, 436
Mokara Kaffee, 436
Mokka-Sakka-Kaffee, 435
Monarda, 483
Moracetz, 464
Morschella esculenta, 423
Morels, 423
Morphology of organs, 28
Morus alba, 464
nigra, 464
Moth, Angoumois grain, 48
Indian meal, 48
meal snout-, 48
Mediterranean flour, 48
wolf, 48
Mountain ash-leaves, 463
Mounting in Canada balsam, 19
in glycerine, 18
in glycerine jelly, 18
in water, 15
permanent, 18
Mounts, microscopic, n
Mulberry leaves, 464
Multiple fruit, 33
Alusa sapientum, 393
var. paradisiaca, 393
Musacete, 393
Mushrooms, 423
Muskmelon, 40?
Mussaende Kaffee, 435
Mustard, black, 180
brown, 183
dissected, 189
flour, black, 182
white, 179
hedge, 187, 192
hulls, black, 182
white, 179
Indian, 183, 189
prepared, 182
Sarepta, 183
treacle, 187, 194
white, 177
yellow, 177
Mycelium, 164
Myrica acris, 579
Hyristica argentea, 531, 540
fragrans, 531
Malabarica, 540
Myristicacem, 531
Myrosin cells, 179
MyrtacecB, 312, 526, 632
Myrtaceous fruits, 526
Myrlus Ugni, 483
Naphthalene-blue method for flour, Vogl's,
54
Nasturtium, 641
Nectaries, 30
Negar-Kaffee, 436
Negundo fraxinifolium, 477
Nelumbium spcciosum, 670
New era hygienic coffee, 436
New Jersey tea, 483
Niootiana rustica, 488
Tabaatm, 488
INDEX.
695
Nigella arvensis, 156
Niger seed, 200
Nitric acid, concentrated, 9
Ncse-piece, 5
Nucellar tissue, 38
Nucellus, 35
Nucleus, 23
Nutmeg and mace, 531
Macassar, 540
true, 531
Nut-oil, 309
Nutritive layer, 37
Nuts, 281
miscellaneous, 312
Nymphtzacew, 670
Oak leaves, 477
Oatmeal, 116
Oats, in
rolled, 116
Objectives, 5
CEnotherea, 459
Oil seeds, 169
composite, 195
cruciferous, 173
methods of examination, of 170
miscellaneous, 202
products, 169
Oil solvents, treatment with, 16
Old grist-mill entire-wheat coffee, 436
Olea Europea, 228
Oleacea, 228, 462
Olive, 228
Olive-oil, 9
Olive-pomace, 231
Olive-stones, 231
Orange, 376
marmalade, 380
Orchidacew, 573 •
Oriental pear, 326
Origanum Majorana, 612
Oryza sativa, 105, 652
Osmanthus fragrans, 452
Oswego tea, 483
Ovary, 32
Ovules, 32, 35
Pachira aquatica, 670
Pahari rai, 189
Palai, 189
Palangi, 189
Palet, 60
Palisade cells, 29, 233
Palm cake, 292
fruits, 281
nut, 290
vanilla, 579
Palmm, 281, 390
Palorus ratteburgi, 48
Pancratium maritimum, 669
Panicum miliaceum, 116, 124
Papaver Rhwas, 145, 627
somniferum, 225
Papaveracece, 225
Papilionacem, 233, 475, 640
Paprika, 515, 626
ground, 522
Para-nut, 312
Paraffine, 9
bath, 7
impregnating and embedding, 13
Paradise nut, 314
Paraguay tea, 483
Paraphyses, 423
Parenchyma, 20
spongy, 20, 21
Parkia Africana, 257, 436
biglandulosa, 670
biglobosa, 436
Roxburgii, 257
Paullinia sorbilis, 451
Pea, black, 247
chick, 256
cow, 247
field, 242
flour, 243
garden, 242
Peach, 337
pits, 334, 339
preserves, 339
Peanut, 269
butter, 275
cake, 275
shells, 275
Pear, 32*6
oriental, 326
Pearl barley, 85
Pecan nut, 298
Pekar color test, 50
Penny-cress, 187, 193
Peony, 627
Pepper, 502
black, 507
Cayenne, 523
Jamaica, 526
long, 511
red, 523
shells, 509
white, 508
decorticated, 509
Peppergrass, wild, 187, 193
Perennial roots, 45
stems, 40
Pericambium, 45
Pericarp, 33, 61
Pericycle, 40, 45
Perigord truffles, 420
Perisperm, 35, 38
Permanent mounting, 18
Phaseolus lunatus, 241
var. macrocarpus, 241
multiflorus, 240
Phaseolus Mungo var. glaber, 241
vulgaris, 238
Phellogen, 40
Phloem, 22, 40
6p6
INDEX.
Phmnix dactylifera, 390
Phoroglucin tincture, 9
Photomicrographic apparatus, 7
Photosynthesis, 28
Phytelephas macrocarpa, 293
Picric acid, 25
Pimento, acris, 526
officinalis, 526
Pimpinella Anisum, 558
Pine-nut, 316
Pineapple, 395
Pinus Cembra, 316
var. Siberica, 316
Pinea, 316
Pi^er Cubeba, 513
longum, 511
nigrum, 502
officinarum, 511
Piperaceous fruits, 502
Piperacem, 502
Pistacia vera, 315
Pistachio-nut, 315
Pistil, 32
Pisum arvense, 242
sativum, 242
Pith, 40, 45
Pits, bordered, 42
Plantaginacece, 163
Plantago lanceolata, 163
major, 163
Plantain, 163
Plasmon Chocolate, 449
Plastids, 23
Plodia inter punctella , 48
Plum, 340
Pits, 334, 34i
preserves, 341
Plumule, 38, 61
Poivre de Thebet, 526
Polarizing apparatus, 6
•Pollen, 31, 32, 35
sacs, 31
tubes, 35
Polygonacea, 132, 621
Polygonaceous seeds, miscellaneous, 144
Polygonum avicutare, 146
Convolvulus, 138, 145, 188
Polynesian ivory-nut, 295
PolyporetB, 425
Pomace, apple, 326
castor, 222
grape, 385
olive, 231
Pomes, 321
Poppy seed, 225
Portland arrowroot, 666
Postum cereal coffee, 436
Potash solution, 9
Potassium iodide, iodine in, g
Potato, 414
Japanese, 415
starch, 659
Poultry foods, condimental, 499
Powders, commercial, 14
examination of, 14
Preliminary examination
of cereal cattle foods, 58
of condimental cattle and poultry foods, 500
of flour and meal, 50
of fruit products, 318
of oil-seed products, 170
of spices and condiments, 496
Prepared mustard, 182
Preservatives, chemical, in jam, etc., 320
Primary cortex, 40
Proteins, 24
Protoplasm, 23
Prunus amygdalus, 332
Armeniaca, 339
avium, 341, 468
cerasus, 341
domestica, 340
Persica, 337
spinosa, 469
Iriflora, 340
Psalliota campestris, 423
Psoralia glandula, 483
Pterocarpus santalinus, 44
Pueraria Tkunbergiana, 670
Puffed rice, no
wheat, 70
Pulps, 15
Pumpkin, 398
Punica granatum, 626
Pyralis farinalis, 48
Pyrenomyceles , 164
Pyrus Aucuparia, 463
baccata, 322
communis, 326
Cydonia, 330
Mains, 321
Sinensis, 326
Queensland arrowroot, 662
Quercus Ccrris, 302
pedunculata, 302, 477
pubescens, 302
sessiliflora, 302, 477
Quince, 330
Radial bundles, 45
Radicle, 38, 61
Radish, wild, 187, 194
Rafinose, 25
Raisins, 385
Ralston cereal coffee, 436
Ranunculacew, 152, 640
Ranunculaceous seeds, 152
Ranunculus arvensis, 145, 153
Rape, brown Indian, 188
common, 186
German, 187
palai, 189
Raphanus Raphanistrum, 187, 194
Raphe, 35, 37
I Raphides, 26, 27
INDEX.
697
Raspberry, black, 354
red, 349
preserves, 353
Rations Coffee, 436
Razor, section, 6
Reagent bottles, 6
Reagents, 8
treatment with, 15
Receptacle, 33
Red currant, 357
preserves, 361
raspberry, 349
preserves, 353
sandalwood, 44
Reserve material, 36, 37
Resins, 26
Respiration, 28
Reticulated vessels, 22
Rhizomes, 43
Rhisopogon, 422
Ribes Grossularia , 363
nigrum, 362
oxyacanthoidcs , 363
rubrum, 357
Rice, 105
bran, no
by-products, no
flaked, no
flour, no
hulls, no
mill-products of, no
puffed, no
starch, 109, no, 652
Ricinus communis, 222
Rolled wheat, 70
Root, 44
annual, 44
hairs, 45
stalks, 43
Roots and tubers used as vegetables, 414
Roots, perennial woody, 45
Rosa canina, 342, 470
Rosacea, 321, 463, 468, 470, 471, 473
Rosaceous fruits, 321
Rose fruit, 342
leaves, 470
Rowan leaves, 463
Rubiacca, 161, 427, 466
Rubus fructicosus, 354
Idceus, 349
nigrobaccus, 354
var. salivas, 354
occidenlalis , 354
strigosus, 349
villosus, 354
Rumcx acetosa, 622
paticntia, 622
scutatus, 621
Rutacece, 376
Rye, 77
Rye bran, 79
by-products, 79
flour, 79
Rye middlings, 79
products, 78, 79
smut, 166
Sacca-Coffee, 434
Saccharine, 318
Safflower, 626, 629
Saffron, 623
cape, 631
South African, 632
Safranin solution, 10, 17
Sage, 610
Sageretia theezans, 483
Sago, 667
Sagus lavis, 667
Rumphii, 667
Saigon cassia, 586, 589
Saladinkaffee, 436
Salicylic acid, 318
Salix, 461
Salvia officinalis, 610
Sandalwood, red, 44, 495, 626
Sapindacea, 451, 657
Saponaria officinalis, 151
Vaccaria, 151
Sarepta mustard, 183
Sarkogen layer of strawberry, 345
Satureja hortensis, 613
Savory, 613
Sawdust, 42, 43, 50
in flour, 50
Saxifragacea, 357, 476
Saxifragaceous fruits, 357
Scalariform vessels, 22
Scarlet runner, 240
Schimper's scum method for flour, 53
Schultze's macerating mixture, 10
Schweitzer's reagent, 10
Sclerenchyma, 20
fibers, 21
Scleroderma vulgare, 422
Sclerotium, 164
Scolymus Hispanicus, 626
Screenings, 145-
European, 145
American, 146
uses of, 146
examination of, 148
botanical analyses of, 147
Scrophulariacea, T56, 631
Scum method for flour, Schimper's, 53
Scutellum, 61
Sea Island cotton, 207
Secale cereale, 77
Sechium edule, 670
Secondary cortex, 40
Section razor, 6
Sections, cross-, 12
longitudinal, 12
surface, 13
tangential, 12
Seed, 33
coat, 37
698
INDEX.
Sesame, common, 219
black, 221
Sesamum Indicum, 219
radialum, 221
Setaria glauca, 124, 560
Italica, 118
s, no, 124
viridis, 118, 560
Shagbark hickory-nut, 299
Shells, acorn, 306
almond, 336
Brazil-nut, 314
chestnut, 302
cocoa, 448
cocoanut, 289
hazelnut, 311
nutmeg, 539
pepper, 509
walnut, 297
Shepherd's purse, 187, 192
Shikimi, 572
Shredded cereal coffee, 436
cocoanut, 288
wheat, 70
Sicyos angulatus, 670
Sieva bean, 241
Sieve plates, 23
tubes, 22, 23
Silica, 21, 27
Silk-cotton trees, 213
Silvanus surinamensis, 48
Simple microscope, 6
Sinapis alba, 177
arvensis, 184
dissecta, 189
glauca, 188
Sisymbrium officinale, 187, 192
Sophia, 187, 192
Sitotroga cerealella, 48
Slides, 6
Sloe leaves, 469
Smut, maize, 166
rye, 166
Smuts, 49, 166
loose, 166
stinking, 166
Snap beans, 238
Soapwort, 151
Soda solution, 10
Sodium benzoate, 318
phosphate, solution, 25
Soja bean, 248
Soja kispida, 248
Solanacece, 410, 414, 486, 515
Solanaceous fruits, 410, 515
Solatium Lycopersicum, 410
tuberosum, 414, 659
Sorbus Aumparia, 463
Sorghum Caffrorum, 97
ccrnuum, 97
nigrum, 97
sacckaratum, 97
■vulgarc, 97
Sorrel, 621
Soudan coffee, 257, 436
South African saffron, 632
Soy bean, 248
Spanish bean, 240
hazelnut, 309
pepper, 515
Spartium scoparium, 640
Spelt, 73
Spergula arvensis, 152
Spermoderm, 35, 37
Sphacelia, 164
Spices and condiments, 493
adulterants of, 494
inorganic, 49s
organic, 495
analytical key to, 498
identification of, 495
impurities of, 493
insects in, 494
methods of examination of, 496
chemical, 500
microscopical, 497
preliminary, 500
weed seeds in, 494
Spircea Ulmaria, 473
Spiral vessels, 22
Spongy parenchyma, 20, 21
Spring morel, 423
vetch, 251
Sprouted grain, 49
in flour, 49
Spurrey, 152
Squash, 402
Stachys Sieboldii, 41$
Stachytarpheta Jamaicensis, 483
Staining, 17
Stamens, 31
Standard materials, n
Star-anise, 566
compared with Shikimi, 572
Starch, arum, 666
banana, 39s, 646, 658
bean, 239
bean-tree, 658
bread-fruit, 659
buckwheat, 135, 654
canna, 662
cassava, 664
chemical composition of, 645
chestnut, 301, 656
cockle, 150, 646
Colchicum, 646
commercial, 648
curcuma, 646, 662
Erythronium, 669, 670
Euphorbia, 646
feed, 96
formation of, by leucoplasts, 643
horse-chestnut, 657
Iris, 646
leguminous, 235, 655
maize, 95, 646, 651
INDEX.
699
Starch, maranta, 660
microscopic characters of, 645
examination of, 649
miscellaneous, 669
oat, 115, 646
pea, 243, 646
potato, 414, 646, 659
process of manufacture of, 648
reserve, 643
rice, 109, 652
sago, 646, 667
sweet-potato, 665
Tacca, 667
tapioca, 664
transitory, 643
uses of, 649
wheat, 69, 646, 647, 653
with polarized light, 647, 648
yam, 663
Starch grains, aggregates of, 645
crystalline structure of, 648
forms of, 645
hilum of, 647
size of, 646
with polarized light, 647, 64S
Starches, analytical key to, 649
commercial, 643
Stegmata, 23, 27
Steinbusch's diastase method for flour, 53
Stele, 40
Stem, 38
Stems, aerial, 39
annual, 39
perennial, 40
subterranean, 43
Stephani-Kaffee, 436
Sterculiacea, 442
Stigma, 32
Stomata, 21, 29
water, 29
Stone cells, 21
Strawberry, 343
leaves, 471
preserves, 348
String-beans, 238
Style, 32
Suberin, 21
Substage condenser, 6
diaphragm, 5
Subterranean stems, 43
Sugar, cane, 25
invert, 25
Sugar sorghum, 103
Sugars, 25
Sulphuric acid, 10
Sultan coffee, 434
Sunflower, 19s
Surface sections, 13
Swedish continental coffee, 264, 436
Sweet chocolate, 448
clover, 276
flag, 608
vernal grass, 276
Sweet woodruff, 276
Sweet-potato starch, 66;
Swiss pine, 316
Tacca starch, 667
Tacca pinnatifida, 667
Taccacece, 667
Tahiti arrowroot, 667
Tangential sections, 12
Tannins, 26
Tapioca, 664
Tare, 251
Tarragon, 617
Tartary buckwheat, 138
Tea, 452
Caucasian, 481
exhausted, 456
facing of, 456
foreign leaves in, 457
fruit, 456
lie, 456
mineral make weights in, 456
stems, 456
substitutes, miscellaneous, 483
Tenebrio molitor, 48
obsciirus, 48
Tenebroides maurilanicus, 48
Temstrozmiacece, 452, 467
Testa, 37
Theobroma Cacao, 442
Thlaspi arvense, 187, 193
Thyme, 615
Thymus vulgaris, 615
Tik, tikor, or tikur flour, 662
Tilletia Caries, 166
fcetens, 166
lams, 166
Secalis, 166
Trilici, 166
Tinea granella, 48
Tissues, 20
epidermal, 21
Tobacco, 488
Tobasco allspice, 526
Tomato, 410
catsup, 318, 412
Tonka bean, 275
Tonquin bean, 275
Tori, 188
Tous les mois arrowroot, 662
Trachea?, 22
Tracheids, 22
Transpiration, 28
Travencore starch, 662
Treacle mustard, 1,94
Treatment with iodine, 16
with oil solvents, 16
with reagents, 15
Tribolium confusmn, 48
ferrugineiim, 48
Trigonella Fcemtm-Gmcum, 259
Triticum monococcum, 76
Polonicum, 65
700
INDEX.
Triticum sativum var. compactum, 65
var. dicoccum, 75
var. durum, 65
var. Spelta, 73, 653
var. turgidum, 65, 653
var. mlgare, 65, 653
Trilonia aurea, 632
Tropaolacece, 641
Tropceolum majus, 641
Truffles, 420
false, 422
French, 420
German, 421
Hanover, 421
Perigord, 420
white, 422
Tuber cestivum, 421
brumale, 420
var. 31 clanospermum, 420
Tuberacece, 420
Tubers, 43, 414
used as vegetables, 414
Turkish hazelnut, 309
Turmeric, 602
Turn-table, 6
Turnip, 419
Turpentine, 10, 24, 26
Tylenchus scandens, 48
Typhonium sp., 669
Umbellifem, 158, 159, 418, 549
Umbelliferous fruits used as spices, 549
analytical key to, 551
comparative histology of, 550
Ungarischer Kaffee, 436
Ustilaginem, 166
Ustilago Avena, 166
Carbo, 166
Maidis, 166
nuda, 166
Tritici, 166
Zeffi, 166
Vaccaria parviflora, 145, 15T .
V actinium Arctoslaphylos, 481
Canadense, 370
macrocarpon, 366
Myrtittus, 370, 480
Pennsylvanicum, 370
Vitis-Idaa, 366
Vanilla, 573
extract, 578
ground, 577
Vanilla aromatica, 574
Guyanensis, 573, 578
inodora, 574
palmarum, 573, 579
planifolia, 573
pompona, 573, 578
Vanillon, 578
Vascular bundles, 22
Vegetable ivory, 293
Vegetables, 397
Vessels, annular, 22
reticulated, 22
scalariform, 22 .
spiral, 22
Vetch, hairy, 252
spring, 251
winter, 252
Vicia Faba, 250
hirsuta, 252
sativa, 251
villosa, 252
Vzgraa Catjang, 247
Sinensis, 247
Vitacea, 382
Fife's czstivalis, 382
Labrusca, 382
rotundifolia, 382
vinifera, 382
var. apyrena, 382
Vogl's alcohol-hydrochloric acid test of
flour, 52
naphthylene-blue method for flour, 54
Waage's test of mace, 541
Walnut, black, 298
English, 296
European, 295
Walnuts, 295
Watch-glasses, 6
Water stomata, 29
Watermelon, 406
Wax, 21
Wax-palm, 292
Waxes, 26
Weed seeds, 145
Weevil, granary, 48
rice, 48
West India arrowroot, 660
Wheat, 65
bran, 71, 96
dwarf, 65
English, 65
flour, 70
germs, 71
glass, 65
gluten, 72
hard, 65
hedge-hog, 65
macaroni, 65
middlings, 71
one-grained, 76
Polish, 65
puffed, 70
screenings, 145
spring, 65
starch, 653
winter, 65
worm, 48
White lupine, 25s
mustard, 177
pepper, 308.
decorticated, 309
ground, 508
INDEX.
701
Whole-wheat products, 70
Wild carrot, 158
oats, in, 145, 146
Williams' arrowroot, 667
Willow herb leaves, 459
leaves, 461
Windsor bean, 250
Winter cress, 194
vetch, 252
wheat, 65
Wistaria leaves, 475
Wistaria Sinensis, 475
Wood, 22, 38, 41
of Angiosperms, 42
of Gymnosperms, 42
Woods, microscopic characters of, 42
Woody roots, 45
stems, 40
Wormwood, 619
Xanti currants, 382, 385
Xylem, 22, 40
Xylol, 10, 26
balsam, 19
Yam starch, 663
Yellow foxtail, 124
lupine, 253
Yucca gloriosa, 670
Zea Mays, 86, 632, 651
Zedoary, 605
Zest, 70
Zingiber Cassmnunar \ 600
Cemenda, 600
Mioga, 600
officinale, 599
Zerumbet, 600
Zingiberacem, 542, 599, 602, 605, 606, 662
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