The workshop manual and compendium of useful information

BOUGHT WITH THE INCOME
FROM THE

SAGE ENDOWMENT FUND

THE GIFT OF

Henrtj W, Sage
1891

A/£JtP.Jl \ ///A/.?',

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Tne .™J»'Jff h °P manual and compendium of us

3 1924 004 401 430

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THE

Workshop Manual

AND

Compendium of Useful Information

COMPILED BY

JOHN J. DAVIES

FOR

Sheet Metal Workers and Mechanics of all kinds,
Business Men, Manufacturers, Etc.

CHICAGO.

THE AMERICAN ARTISAN PRESS,

1896.

% 5*1 B 5"
A. i (hk>i[

Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1895, by

DANIEL STERN,

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C

PREFACE.

""THERE is nothing new under the sun. Every
month sees thousands of books ushered
into the world that merely flail again the thor-
oughly threshed straws of the ages. In a work
of the character of this one, originality is not, of
course, looked for. Judicious or injudicious
selection from the masses of Gradgrindian fact
left us from the labors of generations of calcu-
lators, statisticians and compilers, is the only
factor in determining its success or failure. A
furniture worker, a doctor of veterinary science,
and a sheet metal worker all need books of ready
reference to aid them in a thousand odd ways
in their daily toil, but the data each would post
himself upon are radically different. It is for
the last class and those in kindred lines, such as
hardware, heating, or roofing, that this book is
specially intended. The greatest care has been

taken to make this Manual comprehensive with-
out being voluminous, and compact without be-
ing at all incomplete. Its contents are in the
main of a technical nature, and the few depart-
ures made into the field of general information
will, it is trusted, increase the helpfulness of this
little book to those for whom it was written.

The Author.
Chicago, Nov. 18, 1895.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

Workshop Receipts 9-29

Babbitt Metal, 9; Blue Prints, 9; Cleaning Brass, 10; Cutting
Brass Chemically, 10; Cold Brazing, 10; Enameling Castings,
10; MendingCastIron.il; Cements, 11-15; Tinning Cloth, 15;
.Hardening Files, 15; Fire Grenades, 15; Stamp Ink, 16; Lacquer
for brass, 16— colorless, 16; Lead Coating for Iron or Steel
Plates, 16; Lubricant, 17; Metal Polish, 17; Mucilage, 17;
Nickel Plating, 17; Nickel Polish, 18; Oxidizing, 18; Trans-
parent Paper, 18; Paint for galvanized iron, 19 — for sheet
iron, ."19— for tin or iron roofs, 19 — lead colored, 19; Rust,
19-21 — to prevent iron work from, 19 — to prevent iron and
steel from, 20 — to remove from iron or steel, 20 — to remove
from nickel plate, 20 — to prevent sheet iron pipes from, 21 —
to keep tools from, 21; Cleaning Silver, 21; Soap for Metal
Work, 21; Solders, 21-25; Stove Polish, 25; Tin Bronzing, 25;
Tin Foil, 25; Varnishes, 26-29.

CHAPTER II.

Pattern Cutting , ..30-76

Cone with Oval Base and Round Top, 30-32; To Describe an
Ellipse, 32-35; Pattern for an Oval Tapering Article, 35-37;
Pattern for Hopper by Triangulation, 37-40; Pattern for Cir-
cular Top Boiler Co've», 40-42; Grecian Mouldings, 42-45;
Patterns for a Smoke Stack, 45-49; "String and Nail" Oval,
49; The Side of an Octagon, 50; To Describe Patterns for
Flaring Vessels, 50-52; Pattern for a Wash Boiler Cover, 52;
Pattern for a Can Breast or Pitched Cover, 52-54; Pattern for
a "Y," 54-55; Chimney Top Pattern, 56-57; Rule for Obtaining
the Side of an Octagon of Any Given Square, 57; To Describe
an Oval of Any Length or Width, 58; Pattern for a Prairie

6 CONTENTS.

Chimney, 59; Pattern for a Measure Lip, 60; Pattern for a
Pitched Cover, 62; Method of Describing an Ellipse, 63;
Roman Mouldings, 63-66; Gothic Profiles, 66-68; Tee Pipe
Pattern, 68-70; To Describe a Pattern for a Four-Piece Elbow,
70-71; A Tapering Round-Cornered Square Reservoir, 72-73;
Rule for Round Elbows, 74-75; Pattern for a Metal Ball, 76.

CHAPTER III.
Miscellaneous Tables 77-88

Number Bricks Required to Construct any Building, 77; Interest
Table, 78; Equivalent of British Money in American Money,
78; Weight, Stature, etc. of Man, 79; Carrying Capacity of a
Ten Ton Freight Car, 79; Population of the Larger Cities, 80;
Relative Weights of Metals, 81; The English Mile Compared
with Other European Measures, 82; Weight of a Cubic Foot
of Various Substances, 82-83; Melting Temperature of Alloys,
83; U. S. Mineral Statistics, 1890, 84; Weight of Liquids per
Gallon, 84; The Effect of Heat on Various Substances, 84;
Weight of Water at Different Temperatures, 84; Weight and
Specific Gravities of Liquids, 85; Specific Gravities and
Weights of Stones, etc., 86; Population of the United States
by States, 87; Twelve O'Clock Noon, Greenwich Mean
Time, 88.

CHAPTER IV.

Tables of Measures, Etc 80-102

Dimensions of One Acre, 89; To Compute the Volume of Bricks
and the Number in a Cubic Foot of Masonry, 89; Rule to Find
the Number of Gallons Contained in a Can, 90; Rule to Find
the Horse-Power of a Stationary Engine, 90; Board and Timber
Measure, 90; Estimates of Materials, 91 ; Tables Convenient
for Taking Inside Dimensions, 91 ; Land Measure, 91 ; Circular
Measure, 92; Carpenters', Bricklayers' and Builders' Measure-
ments, 92; Ear Corn Measure, 92; Measures of Length, 93;
Water, 93; Comparative Table of Weight, 93; Cistern
Measure, 94; Grain Measure, 94; Hay Measure, 94; To Find
the Contents of a Corn Crib, 95; Cubic or Solid Measure, 95;
Liquid Measure, 95; Measure of Weight, 95; Metric System,
95-98; Ancient Weights, 98-99; Useful Rules in Mensura-
tion, 09-102.

CONTENTS. 7

CHAPTER V.

Useful Tables for Tinners and Sheet Metal

Workers 103-128

Weight of a Lineal Foot of Flat Bar Iron In Pounds, 103; Bar and
Sheet Brass Weight In Pounds, 104; Sheet Copper, 104-105;
Marks and Weights'of Tinplate, 106: Sheet Iron, 106-107; Net
Cost and Weight of Galvanized Sheet Iron, 108-113; Weight
of One Foot of Bar Steel, 113; Number Pounds of Round and
Square Bar Iron Per Foot, 114; Internal Areas of Wrought
Iron Pipe, 114; Wilson's Table of Dimensions of Chimneys, 115;
Cost of Tin Roofing Per Square and Square Foot, 11 6-1 17;
Slate Table, 118; Weight of Lead Pipe and Tin Lined Lead
Pipe, 118; Registers and Ventilators Vertical Wheel, 119;
Weight of One Foot of Bar Steel, 120; Useful Tables for Tin
Plate Workers, 120-123; Tin Plate, 124-125; Weight Per Foot
of Galvanized Sheet Iron Pipe, 126-127; Weight of Metals, 128.

.' CHAPTER VI.

Miscellaneous Information 129-146

Legal Holidays in the Various States, 129-131; Antidotes to Poi-
sons, 131-132; Useful Suggestions in Cases of Accidents to
Mechanics, 132-135; Useful Shop Hints, 135-137; To Attach
Labels to Tin, 137-I38; Simple Tests for Impure Water, 138-
139; Alloys, 139; Nickel Alloys, 139-140; Cost of a Patent in
Different Countries, 140; Weight of Metals, 140; To Calcu-
late Radiating Surfaces, 141; Shrinkage of Castings, 141;
Wear and Tear of Building Material, 142; A Quick Method of
Finding Interest, 143; Weight of Buildings, 143; Cost of Pub-
lic Buildings, 143-144; Relative Holding Power of Cut and
Wire Nails, 144-145.

CHAPTER VII.

Metals 147-170

Metals and Their Properties, 146-151; Iron and Steel, 151- I5S :
Copper, 155-156; Zinc, 156-157; Lead, 157; Alloys, 157-159;
Alloys of Copper and Tin, 159; Alloys of Copper and Brass;
159-162; Solders, 162-163; Soldering Metals, 163-168; Seams or
Joints, 168-170.

8 CONTENTS.

CHAPTER ;VIII.

Mouldings 171-202

Given Shape and Length of Moulding to Draw Pattern, 172-174;
Given Shape of Moulding to Draw Shape at Any Angle of
Section of Moulding, 174- [79; The Shape of a Moulding
Being Given, to Draw the Pattern for Joining Two Pieces of
It at Any Angle, 179-180; To Draw Pattern for Aquarium,
180-184; Aquarium Pattern, 184-188; Pattern for Raking
Moulding, 188-194; Pattern for Lobster-Back Cowl, 194-198;
Pattern for a Tapering Circular Bend, 198-202.

CHAPTER IX.
Slate 203-229

Pitch of Rodfs, 204; Sheathing Boards, 204-205; Comparative Size
t and Strength of Slate, 205-207; Slate Roofs Damaged by Care-
lessness, 207; Ornamental Slate, 207; Cut Slate, 208; Piling
Slate, 208-210; Selecting Slate, 210; Punching Slate, 210; Ma-
chine Punched Slate, 211-213; Slating Nails, 213-214; Meas-
uring Roofs, 214; Rules for Measuring Roofs, 214-216; Laying
Slate and Felt, 216-218; Flashing and Counter-FJashing, 218-
220; Ridge and Hip Rolls, 220-221; Ridging, 221; How to Use
Several Sizes of Slate, 221-223; Repairing Slate Roofs, 223-
226; Spire Slating, 226-228; The German Style, 228-229.

CHAPTER I.
WORKSHOP RECEIPTS.

For Cementing, Soldering, Varnishing, Painting Metals,
Preventing Rust, Etc.

In the following pages will be found a condensed
and carefully compiled list of receipts. The lists of
■solders, varnishes and cements are unusually complete,
and it has been the aim of the author of this work to
furnish those receipts that are more commonly used,
rather than the rara avis which one sheet metal worker
or storekeeper in 500 may have an occasion to employ
once in a lifetime.

Babbitt fletal — Melt four pounds copper, add by
degrees twelve pounds best Banca tin, eight pounds
regulus of antimony and twelve pounds more of tin.
After four or five pounds tin have been added, reduce
the heat to a dull red, then add the remainder of the
metal as above. This composition is termed "harden-
ing." For lining, take one pound of this hardening
and melt with it two -pounds Banca tin, which produces
the lining ready for use. The proportions, of Babbitt
metal ready for useare, therefore, four pounds copper,
eight pounds regulus of antimony, and ninety-six
pounds tin.

Blue Print— Formula for — (1) 1 oz. of red pot-
ash, 1 oz. of citrate iron of ammonium, I pint of water.

*(2) 1 oz. of red potash, i}( oz. of citrate iron of
ammonium, i}4 pint of water.

*IS?o. 2 gives the clearer print.

10 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

Brass — Formula for Cleaning — (i) Venetian
red finely powdered, 3 troy ozs.; oil of turpentine, 12
fluid ozs.; oleic acid, 1 fluid oz. ; ammonia water, half
fluid oz; alcohol, 1 fluid oz.; oil of sassafras, 10 min-
ims; mix, shake on using. Apply with rag and clean
off, when dry, wjth whiting.

(2) Oxalic acid dissolved in soft water, say half an
ounce to a pint, is one of the best known means for
cleaning and brightening brass work.

Brass — Cut Chemically — To cut sheet brass chem-
ically the following method meets with success:
Make a strong solution of bichloride of mercury in
alcohol. With a quill pen draw a line across the brass
where it is to be cut. Let it dry on, and, with the same
pen, draw over this line with nitric acid. The brass
may then be broken across like glass cut with a dia-
mond.

Brazing — Cold Without Fire or Lamp — Fluoric
acid, 1 ; oxymuriatic acid, 1 ; mix in a lead bottle. Put
a chalk mark each side where you want to braze. This
mixture will keep about six months in one bottle.

Castings— Formula for Enameling — Treat the
castings with dilute hydrochloric acid, which dissolves
a little of the metal, and leaves a skin of homeogene-
ous graphite holding well to the iron. The article is
then washed in a receiver with hot or cold water, or
cooked in steam, so as to remove completely the iron
chloride that has been formed. Finally, the piece is
allowed to dry in the empty receiver, and a solution of
india rubber or gutta percha, in essence of petroleum,
is injected, and the solvent, afterward evaporating,
leaves a hard and solid enamel on the surface of the
iron work. Another plan is to keep the chloride of

WORKSHOP MANUAL. II

iron on the metal instead of washing it off, and to
plunge the piece into a bath of soda silicate and borate.
Thus is formed a silico-borate of iron, very hard and
brilliant, which fills the pores of the metal skin. As
for the chlorine disengaged, it continues with the
soda to form sodium chloride, which remains in the
pickle.

Cast Iron — Mending — Take two ounces of sal
ammoniac, one ounce of sublimed sulphur and one
pound cast-iron fillings; mix in a mortar and keep the
powder perfectly dry. When it is to be used mix it
with twenty times its weight of clean iron fillings, grind
the whole in a mortar, wet with water until it becomes
a paste and apply to the parts to be mended.

Cement — For Castings — Eighty parts of sifted cast
iron turnings, two parts of powdered sal-ammoniac, and
one part sulphur made into a thick paste with water and
mixed fresh tor use, makes a good cement for stopping
holes in castings.

Cement — For Celluloid — A good cement for cellu-
loid is made from one part shellac dissolved in one part
of spirits of camphor, and three to four parts of 90 per
cent alcohol. The cement should be applied warm,
and the broken parts securely held together until the
solvent has entirely evaporated.

Cement — For Glass Letters — To fasten glass let-
ters, figures, etc., on glass (show windows), so that even
when submerged in water for several days they will not
become detached, use an India rubber cement. The
best for this purpose consists of one part India rubber,
three parts of mastic and fifty parts chloroform. Let
it stand for several days at a low temperature to dis-

12 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

solve the cement. It must be applied very rapidly, as
it becomes thick very soon.

Cement — For Iron— Take ten parts of steel filings,
3 parts sal-ammoniac, and 2 parts flowers of sulphur.
This mixture can be preserved any length of time in
dry packages. In order to lute with it, add to one part
of the mixture 12 parts of iron filings, and enough
water, previously acidulated with sulphuric acid, to
form a paste. This is now ready to be applied to the
perfectly clean surfaces of the metal to be luted. For
fine castings and small holes, the pulverized iron {Fer-
rum Pulveratum of apothecaries) can be substituted for
iron filings.

Cement — For Iron — Take equal parts of sulphur and
white lead, with about a sixth of borax; incorporate the
three so as to form one homogeneous mass. When
going to apply it, wet it with strong sulphuric acid and
place a thin layer of it between the two pieces of iron,
which should then be pressed together. In five days it
wjll be perfectly dry, all traces of the cement having
vanished, and the iron will have the appearance of hav-
ing been welded together.

Cement — For Joints— Paris white, ground, four
pounds; litharge, ground, ten pounds; yellow ochre,
fine, half a pound; half ounce of hemp, cut short; mix
well together with linseed to a stiff putty. This
cement is good for joints on steam water pipes. It
will set under water.

Cement-^FoR Kerosene Lamps — Rosin three parts,
caustic soda one part, water five parts, mixed with half
its weight of plaster of paris. This cement sets firmly
iry abeut-three-quarters of an hour and has great adhe-

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 13

sive power. It is not permeable to kerosene, and is a
low conductor of heat.

Cement — Metals to Glass — Take 4 ounces thick
solution of glue, 2 ounces linseed oil varnish, 1 ounce
pure turpentine. Mix and boil them together in a
close vessel. When the cement is applied the metal
and glass to be joined should be clamped and permitted
to remain so for 48 hours, so as to allow the cement to
take strong hold and to harden.

Cement — Rubber to Wood or Metal — As rubber
plates and rings are now almost exclusively used for
making connections between steam and other pipes and
apparatus, much annoyance is often experienced by the
impossibility or imperfections of an air-tight connection.
This is avoided entirely by employing a cement which
fastens alike well to the rubber and to the metal or
wood. Such cement is prepared by a solution of shellac
in ammonia. This is best made by soaking pulverized
shellac in ten times its weight of strong ammonia,, when
a shiny mass is obtained, which in three or' four weeks
will become liquid without the use of hot water. This
softens the rubber, which becomes, after the volatiliza-
tion of the ammonia, hard and impermeable to gases
and fluids.

Cement — Steam Fittings — Take 6 parts of finely
powdered graphite, 3 parts of slacked lime, and 8 parts
of sulphate lime, and mix them well with 7 parts^of
boiled linseed oil. The mass must be well kneaded so
as to become perfectly homogeneous. This cement is
impermeable by air and steam, and is therefore valua
ble to steam and gas fitters.

Cement — Steam Pipes — Take 2 parts of litharge, 1
part dry-slacked lime, and 1 part fine dry sand. Com-

14 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

bine them thoroughly, and add enough hot linseed oil
varnish to form a paste-like mass. This will be found
an excellent cement entirely to be depended upon, for
iron steam pipes. It sets hard quickly, and must be
freshly prepared every time it is required for applica-
tion, which application must be made only when the
cement is quite hot.

Cement — Submarine — Take 2 gills litharge, 2 gills
plaster of paris, 2 gills fine dry white sand, two-thirds
of a gill of finely-powdered resin. Sift and keep them
until required for use, when they should be made into
a putty by mixing them with boiled linseed oil, to
which a little dryer has been added, It should be used
within 12 hours after being mixed.

The above cement is the one employed in con-
structing the tanks of the Zoological Gardens in Lon-
don, and is perfectly free from anything that will injure
animal or vegetable life. It is but little known, but is
entirely reliable. It adheres firmly to glass, metal,
wood, stone, etc., and hardens under water. It can be
used for marine as well as fresh water aquaria, as it
resists the action of salt water. Three or four hours
should be given it to dry before being subjected to the
water.

Cement — Transparent — To make a perfectly white,
transparent and very adhesive cement, mix in a well-
stoppered bottle ten drachms of chloroform with twelve
and a half drachms of non-vulcanized caoutchouc, in
small pieces. When the caoutchouc is dissolved, add
two and a half drachms of mastic, and let the whole
macerate from eight to ten days, shaking the mixture
occasionally.

Cement — Wood Roofing — This composition is
formed of the following materials, viz.: — Mineral coal

WORKSHOP MANUAL. IS

tar, pulverized coal (charcoal is esteemed the best) and
fine well-slacked lime; the coal and lime to be well
mixed together, proportioned at about four-fifths coal,
and one-fifth lime; the tar to be heated, and, while hot,
thickened with the mixture of coal and lime, until it
becomes so hard that it may be easily spread upon the
surface of a board, and not run when hot. The cement
most be applied warm, and should be used with a
trowel.

Cement — Zinc and Glass — An inexpensive cement
for uniting zinc with glass may be made as follows: I
pound of shellac dissolved in I pint alcohol, with one-
twentieth its volume of a solution of gutta percha in
bisulphide of carbon, will dry quickly. A slow-drying
one may be made thus: 2 ounces of thick glue solution,
1 ounce linseed oil varnish, or % ounce Venice turpen-
tine; boil together.

Cloth — To Tin — A mixture of finely pulverized
metallic zinc and albumen, of about the consistency of
a thin paste, is spread with a brush upon linen or cot-
ton cloth, and by means of hot steam coagulated. The
cloth is now immersed in a bath of stannic chloride, well
washed and dried. Running the cloth through a roller
press, the thin film is said to take metallic luster.
Designs cut in stout paper letters, numbers, etc., when
laid between cloth and roller, are impressed upon it. It
can also be cut in strips, corners, etc.

Files — Hardening— Rub a little hard soap across
the teeth to keep from scaling; heat to a cherry red, and
dip endwise in salt water; then dip in hot fresh water
to remove any salt on the teeth, dry over the fire, and
wet slightly with linseed oil on a rag.

Fire Grenades — Solution for — Bicarbonate of am-

l6 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

monia and sulphate of soda in strong solution is the
best solution for hand grenades to extinguish fire. This
compound will keep indefinitely without losing its act-
tive properties if the bottle is kept well corked.

Ink — For Rubber Stamps — For blue ink: Aniline
blue, water sol. i B, 3 parts; Pyroligneous acid, 10 parts;
Glycerine, 70 parts; Distilled Water, 10 parts; Alcohol,
10 parts; Mix them intimately by trituration in a mor-
tar. (The blue should be well rubbed down with the
water, and the glycerine gradually added. When solu-
tion is effected, the other ingredients are added.)

Other colors are produced by substituting for the
blue any one of the following: Methyl violet, 3 B, 3
parts; Methyl green, yellowish, 4 parts; Nigrosin W,
(blue black), 4 parts; Diamond fuchsin I, 2 parts; Ve-
suvin B (brown) 5 parts.

If a bright red ink is required, 3 parts of eosin BBN
are used, but the pyroligneous acid must be omitted, as
this would destroy the eosin. Other aniline colors,
when used for stamping ink, require to be acidulated.

Lacquer — For Brass — One quart of alcohol, 98 per
cent., one and one-half ounce of best orange shellac,
one-quarter ounce gum sandarach, one-quarter ounce
gum elemi. Mix and keep gently warm for two or
three days, stirring occasionally, and strain; give it a
wine color with dragon's blood. Warm the articles be-
fore applying the lacquer.

Lacquer — Colorless — For a colorless lacquer dis-
solve bleached shellac in pure alcohol, settle and de-
cant. Make the laquer very thin. The usual lacquer for
brass is made with ordinary shellac and alcohol made
very thin, settled and decanted.

Lead Coating— For Iron or Steel Plates — The

WORKSHOP MANUAL. IJ

material to be treated is subjected to a series of five
baths. The first is in a pickel, through which a weak
current of electricity is passed. This bath removes the
scales from the surface of the metal, and the electricity
is said to greatly expedite matters. The second bath
is in lime water, which neutralizes the acid. Then comes
the. bath in clear water. The fourth bath is in a neutral
solution of zinc and stannic chlorides. The drying pro-
cess, which follows, leaves on the surface of the plates a
deposit of the mixed metallic chlorides, which protects
the plate from oxidation. The next process consists in
passing the plates through a bath of molten lead, and
when taken from here the metal is found to be coated
with an adherent layer of lead, which, though thin, is
uniformly spread. It is said this process has no de-
creasing effect on the ductility or strength of the iron,
and that a plate may be bent, closed and opened again
without cracking the coating.

Lubricant — Put pure olive oil into a clear glass bottle
with strips of sheet lead and expose it to the sun for
two or three weeks, then pour off the clear oil and the
result is a lubricant which will neither gum nor corrode.
It is used for watches and fine machinery of all kinds.

Metal Polish — Paste — A "paste" metal polish for
cleaning and polishing brass is thus made: Oxalic acid
"i part, iron peroxide 15 parts, powdered rotten stone 20
parts, palm oil 60 parts, petrolatum 4 parts. See that
solids are thoroughly pulverized and sifted, then add
and thoroughly incorporate oil and petrolatum.

Mucilage — Here is the formula for preparing muci-
lage such as is sold in stationery stores: Dextrine 2
parts, acetic acid I part, water 5 parts, alcohol I part.
Nickel Plating — The following process of nickel plat-

1 8 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

ing trailing wheel parts and similar articles, is said to
have given excellent results. The bath is composed of
1,000 g. of pure nickel sulphate, 750 g. of neutral tar-
taric acid- ammonia, 5 g. of gallic acid (tannin), and 20
1. of water. The neutral tartaric acid-ammonia is ob-
tained by saturation of a solution of tartaric acid with
ammonia. The nickel salt must be neutral. For this
purpose the whole is dissolved in 3 to 4 of water, and
allowed to boil a quarter of an hour. Then as much
water is added as wdl_produce altogether 20 1. of fluid,
which is filtered. The precipitate obtained is very white,
soft and uniform, and bears no traces of roughness on
the surface. On the crude or polished castings very
heavy deposits can be obtained, and at a price which
scarcely exceeds that of copper plating. Galvanoplas-
tic impressions may also be obtained in this bath. The
current need only be weak.

Nickel Polish — Take one ounce of oxalic acid, one
pound tripoli and one-half gallon of water, (soft water
preferable). Shake once or twice a day and let stand
until dissolved. Apply with woolen cloth and polish
with woolen cloth or chamois.

Oxidizing— Silver or Copper — To make a liquid
that will oxidize silver a glossy black by dipping small
silver articles in the liquid: Use a solution of sulphide
of potassium; polish metal before, and rub with a soft -
rag or chamois after immersion. To make a liquid that
will oxidize copper or oroide by dipping to imitate
bronze: Use the same bath, but have it quite dilute. If
for outside work simply oil with olive oil, and let the
weather do the rest.

Paper — Transparent — To make paper transparent
for copying, drawing, etc. Place a blank sheet of paper

WORKSHOP MANUAL. I9

over the drawing and rub it lightly with pure benzine.
The tracing can then be readily made, and the benzine,
upon evaporation, leaves the paper as opaque as be-
fore.

Paint — For Galvanized Iron — The best paint where
a dark color is not objectionable is common asphalt
dissolved in turpentine or benzine. It is extremely ten-
acious, dries soon and becomes very hard and. insol-
uble by the action of sunlight. It is flexible and very
durable.

Paint — For Sheet Iron — Good varnish, one-half
gallon; boiled linseed oil one-half gallon; add red lead
sufficient to bring to the consistency of common paint.
Apply with brush. Applicable to any kind of iron
work exposed to the weather.

Paint — For Tin or Iron Roofs — Ten pounds Vene-
tian red, one gallon common asphaltum; mix thor-
oughly and when required take whatever quantity de-
sired and thin with benzine to consistency of cream.

Paint — Lead Colored — Take any sufficient quan-
tity of Common litharge, and place it over a fire in a
shovel; afterwards when sufficiently warm scatter over
it a little flour of brimstone, which will instantly con-
vert it into a blackish color, and which, when ground in
oil, makes a good dark lead color. It dries quickly,
gets remarkably hard and resists the weather better
than any lead color.

Rusting — Preserving Iron Work From — ( i ) The
material required is a cow's horn (the toy trumpets sold
in the shops will answer the purpose). Heat the iron
and rub the edge of the horn over it. If the horn
smokes a little as you rub it on you will know that the
iron is hot enough. This will cause the horn to melt,

20 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

and an imperceptible coating will be left upon the iron
that will afford complete protection from the damp for
a year or more on out-door work. On in-door iron
work it will last indefinitely.

(2) Iron or steel immersed warm in a solution of
carbonate of soda (washing soda) for a few minutes
will not rust.

Rusting — To Prevent Iron and Steel From — The
following mixture forms an excellent brown coating for
preventing iron and steel from rust: Dissolve two
parts crystallized iron chloride, two antimony chloride
and one tannin in four of water, and apply with sponge
or rag and let dry. Then another coat of paint is ap-
plied, and again another if necessary, until the color
becomes dark as desired. When dry it is washed with
water, allowed to dry again, and the surface polished
with boiled linseed oil. The antimony chloride must
be as nearly neutral as possible.

Rust — Removing From Iron or Steel — Cover with
sweet oil well rubbed on. In 48 hours use unslacked
lime powdered very fine. Rub it till the rust disap-
pears. To prevent rust, mix with fat oil varnish four-
fifths of well rectified spirits of turpentine, Apply the
varnish by means of a sponge. Articles varnished in
this manner will retain their brilliancy, and never con-
tract any spots of rust. It may be applied to copper
philosophical instruments, etc.

Ruit — Removing From Nickel Plate — To remove
rust stains from nickel plate, grease the rust stains with
oil, and after a few days rub thoroughly with a cloth
moistened with ammonia. If any spots still remain,
remove them with dilute hydro-chloric acid and polish
with tripoli.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 21

Rusting — Preventing Sheet Iron Pipes From —
The sections should be coated with a coal tar and then
filled with light wood shavings, and the latter set on
fire. It is declared that the effect of this treatment
will be to render the iron practically proof against rust
for an indefinite period, rendering future painting un-
necessary.

Rusting — Keeping Tools From — Take y 2 oz. cam-
phor, dissolve in i lb. melted lard; take off the scum
and mix in as much black lead (graphite) as will give
it an iron color. Clean the tools and smear with this
mixture. After twenty-four hours rub clean with a soft
linen cloth. The tools will keep clean for months
under ordinary circumstances.

Silver — Wash for Cleaning — Take one pound of
common hard soap, three tablespoonfuls of spirit of
turpentine, and half a tumblerful of water. Allow the
soap to dissolve; then boil ten minutes, and before it
cools add six tablespoonfuls of hartshorn. Make a
suds of this preparation and wash the article to be
cleaned with it.

Soap — For Metal Work — The basis is cocoanut
oil. Its ingredients are stated to be cocoanut oil 2.05
kilos, chalk 180 grms., and alum, cream of tartar, and
white lead, of each 87.5 grms. The oil is melted in an
iron vessel containing a little water and the other in-
gredients are added in the order named, while con-
stantly stirring the mixture. The mixture is then
decanted into molds wherein it solidifies. In use it is
made into a paste with water and applied either by
cotton waste or a rag.

Solder — Aluminum — Copper 56 parts, zinc 46 parts '
and tin 2 parts, applied with borax. Some tests made
at Neuhausen showed that with these solders plates of

22 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

aluminum soldered together, edge to edge, required a
tractive effort of from i6y 2 to 18 tons per square inch
to pull them asunder, if the edges overlapped, 22^
tons per square inch were required. Pieces of cast
aluminum bronze, if placed in sand molds, can be joined
together autogenously by running in some of the molten
metal. If this operation is properly carried out the
joint is indistinguishable from the rest of the casting.
Thin cylinders of aluminum are made in this way by
bending the sheets round end to end, and soldering
with molten aluminum.

Solder — Aluminum — For sheet, aluminum an iron-
tin solder may be used with a flux composed of resin,
neutral chloride of zinc, and grease. The metal should
not be cleaned or scraped unless it is absolutely neces-
sary to do so, in which case alcohol, or essence'of tur-
pentine should be used for the purpose. For 5 per
cent, aluminum bronze tin solder may be employed,
but this is not possible with the 10 per cent, alloy, in
which case a preliminary copper plating is to be re-
commended. If it is difficult to dip the ends to be
plated directly into the solution pieces of blotting
paper soaked in a solution of CuS04 may be laid on
them and a current passed. The flux mentioned above
may be used.

Solder — Aluminum — Cadmium, zinc, and tin mixed
in substantially the following proportions: Cadmium,
50 per cent.; zinc, 20 per cent.; tin, the remainder. The
zinc is first melted in any suitable vessel, when the cad-
mium is added, and then the tin in pieces. The mass
must be well heated, stirred, and then poured.

Solder — Bismuth — Tin, 1; lead, 3; bismuth, 3.

Solder — Black — Copper, 2; zinc, 3; tin, 2. Another —
Sheet brass, 20; tin, 6; zinc, 1.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 23

4

Solder — Brass — ( i ) Copper, 3 ; zinc, 1 ; with borax.

(2) Copper, 61 X» zi nc > 38^-

Solder — Brass — that will stand hammering. Brass,
78.26; zinc, 17.41; silver, 4.33; add a little chloride of
potassium to your borax for a flux.

Solder^BRASS, White — Copper, 57.41; tin, 14.60;
zinc, 27.99.

Solder — Brass, Yellow — Copper, 32; zinc, 30; tin, 1.

(2) Copper, 45; zinc, 55.

Solder — For Brittania Ware— Hardening — (To
be mixed separately from the other ingredients) — Cop-
per, 2-; tin, 1.

Solder — For Brittania Ware — Soft — Tin, 8;
lead, 5.

Solder — For Raised Brittania Ware — Whited —
Tin, 100; hardening, 8;*antimony, 8.

Soldering — Cold Without Fire or Lamp — Bis-
muth, % oz.; quicklime, % oz. ; block tin filings, 1 oz.;
muriatic acid, 1 oz.; all mixed together.

Solder — Copper — (1) Tin, 2; lead, 1. When the
copper is thick heat it by a naked fire; if thin, use a
tinned copper tool. Use muriate or chloride of zinc as
a flux. The same solder will do for iron, cast iron or
steel; if the pieces are thick heat by a naked fire, or
immerse in the solder.

(2) Copper, 10; zinc, 9.

(3) Brass, 6; zinc, 1; tin, 1. Melt together well,
and pour out to cool.

(4) When it is desired to solder bright copper and
to have the solder the same color as the copper surface,
it may fbe done in this way: Moisten the solder with
a saturated solution of vitriol of copper and than
touching the solder with an iron or steel wire, a thin

i

24 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

skin of copper is precipitated, which can be thickened
by repeating the process several times.

To make the solder brass-colored, if it is desired to
gild the soldered spot, it is first coated with copper in
the manner indicated above, and then with gum or is-
inglass and powdered with bronze powder. The sur-
face thus obtained may, after drying, be brightly pol-
ished.

Solder— Glaziers — Tin, 3; lead, 1.

Solder— Hard— Copper, 2; zinc, 1. Melt together.

Solder — Iron — The best solder for iron is good
tough brass with a little borax. In soldering, the sur-
faces to be joined are made perfectly clean and smooth
and then covered with sal ammoniac, rosin, or other
flux; the solder is then applied, being melted and
smoothed over by a tinned soldering iron.

Solder — Iron to Steel or Either to Brass — Tin,
3; copper, 39^; zinc, J%. When applied in a molten
state it will firmly unite metals first named to. each
other.

Solder— Pewter — Lead, 1 part; bismuth, 1 to 2
parts.

Solder — Pewterer's Soft — Bismuth, 2; lead, 4;
tin, 3.

Solder — Platinum — Gold with borax.

Solder — Plumbers — (1) Bismuth, 1; lead, 5; tin,
3; is a first-class composition.

(2) Lead, 2 parts; tin, 1 part.

Solder — Spelter — Equal parts copper and zinc.

Soldering — Flux for Steel — Chloride of zinc (mu-
riate of zinc, killed spirit, made by putting ordinary
ainc in spirits of salts — hydro-chloric or muriatic acid —

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 2$

till*action ceases) for use with soldering bit. The above,
or sal-ammoniac (chloride of ammonia), if the job can
be heated and rubbed.

Solder — Steel Joints — Silver, 19; copper, 1; brass,
2. Melt all together.

Solder — Tinners — Lead, 1 part; tin, 1 part.

Solder — Zinc — Tin, 1 part; lead, 1 to 2 parts.

Stove Polish — Grind any non-combustible black
pigment with a sufficient quantity of silicate of potash,
or 'liquid glass,' to make it of a proper consistency for
application. When the polish becomes dry, it will be
found to be smooth and shining, wholly without odor,
and very durable, while it will not soil the whitest cam-
bric if applied to it. The materials are easily obtained,
inexpensive, readily mixed and applied, and the article
will amply repay one for the small amount of trouble
and outlay it involves.

Tin-Bronzing — Tin and tin alloys, after careful
cleansing from oxide and grease, are handsomely and
permanently bronzed if brushed over with a solution of
one part of sulphate copper (bluestone), and one part
of sulphate of iron (copperas) in twenty parts of water.
When this has dried, the surface should be brushed with
a solution of one part of acetate of copper (verdigris)
in acetic acid. After several applications and dryings
of the last named, the surface is polished with a soft
brush and bloodstone powder. The raised portions are
then rubbed off with soft leather moistened with wax
and turpentine, followed by a rubbing with dry leather.

Tin Foil — Crystalline Surface for — Take of
chloride tin, 2 parts; hot water, 4 parts; uriatic
Acid, 2 parts; nitric acid, I part, Mix. The tin foil
is dipped in this mixture and left until the crystals ap-

26 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

pear. Small crystals are obtained when the solution is
applied cold — large when used hot. The most beauti-
ful specimens of this kind are produced with varnishes
colored with the aniline dyes.

Tinning — Copper, Brass and Iron in the Cold
Without Apparatus — Carefully clean the article to be
tinned, seeing fhat it is free of oxide and grease-spots.
Chemical or mechanical means may be employed in
cleaning. Then take the best zinc powder, which may
be readily obtained by melting zinc and pouring it
slowly into water in a thin stream, when it can be easily
pulverized after solidification. It should be about as
fine as writing sand. Next have ready a solution of
protochloride of tin containing about 5 to 10 percent,
of tin salt, to which as much pulverized cream of tar-
tar must be added as will go on the point of a knife.
The object to be tinned may now be moistened with the
tin solution' after which it should be rubbed hard with
the zinc powder. The tinning appears at once. The tin
salt is decomposed by the zinc, metallic tin being de-
posited. When the article tinned is polished brass or
copper, it appears as beautiful as if silvered, and retains
its lustre for a long time. The process is an excellent
one for preserving iron, steel, copper, and brass instru-
ments and apparatus from rust.

Varnish — Black, for Gasolene Stoves — Asphalt-
um, two pounds; boiled linseed oil, one pint; oil of
turpentine, two quarts. Fuse the asphaltum in an iron
pot; boil the linseed oil and add while hot. Stir well
and remove from the fire. When partly cooled add
the oil of turpentine.

Varnish — For Brass — A coat of varnish made in
the proportion of two ounces of shellac to nine ounces
of alcohol, will prevent brass from tarnishing.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 2*>

Varnish— For Bright Iron Work— Dissolve three
pounds of resin in ten pints boiled linseed oil, and add
two pounds of turpentine.

Varnish— Brilliant Black— For cooking and gas-
olene stoves: asphaltum, two pounds; boiled linseed
oil, one pint; oil of turpentine, two quarts. Fuse the
asphaltum in an iron pot, boil the linseed oil and add
while hot; stir well and remove from the fire. When
partially cooled add the oil of turpentine. Some
makers add driers.

Varnish — Coating Metals — One part of copal, one
part of oil of rosemary, in two or three parts of ab-
solute alcohol, supplies a clear varnisji as limpid as
water. It should be applied hot. When dry it will
prove hard and durable.

Varnish — Colored for Tin — Thirty grammes of
acetate of copper are ground into fine powder in a mor-
tar, then spread out in a thin layer on porcelain plate
and left for a few days in a moderately warm place. By
this time the water of crystallization, and most of the
acetic acid will have escaped. The light brown powder
that is left is triturated with some oil of turpentine in
mortar, and then stirred into one hundred grammes of
fine fatty copal varnish warmed to 75 degrees C. If
the acetate of copper is exceedingly fine, the greater
part of it will dissolve by a quarter hour's stirring. The
varnish is then put in a glass bottle and placed for a
few days in a warm place, shaking frequently.
' The small quantity of acetate of copper that settles
can be used in making the next lot. This varnish is
dark green, but when applied to tin it requires four or
five coats to get a fine -lustre, but two coats are suffi-
cient if heated in a drying closet, or on a uniformly

28- WORKSHOP MANUAL.

heated plate to produce a great variety of shades of
gold, a greenish gold, a yellow or dark yellow gold,
then an orange

Varnish — Durable Black for Iron — Mix with a
small quantity of oil turpentine, drop by drop, oil of
vitriol, until it forms a syrupy precipitate which no
longer increases in bulk. The mass is then poured over
with water, stirred well, the water removed, and repeat-
ed as often as it shows trace of acid on litmus paper.
The remaining precipitate is then strained dry, and
when required for use a portion of it is placed on the
iron (stove, etc.) and the stove heated and the powder
burned. If too thick a layer, it must be thinned and
spread out with more turpentine, so as to give a uni-
form coating to the metallic surface. The residue left
after burning is then rubbed in with a rag dipped in
flax-seed oil, until the proper polish has been acquired.

Varnish- Gilded Articles — Gum-lac ingrain, 125
parts; gamboge, 125; dragon's blood, 125; annotto, 125;
saffron, 32. Each resin must be dissolved in 1,000
parts by measure of alcohol of 90 per cent; a separate
tincture must be made of dragon's blood, another of
annotto in 1,000 parts of such alcohol, and a proper pro-
portion of each added to the varnish according to the
shade of golden color wanted.

Varnish — Gold — Turpentine varnish, 2 gallons; tur-
pentine, 1 gallon; asphaltum, 1 gill; umber, 8 ounces;
yellow aniline, 4 ounces; gamboge, 1 pound. Boil and
mix for 10 hours.

Varnish — For Iron and Steel — The following var-
nish will maintain its transparency and the metallic bril-
liancy of the articles will not be obscured: Dissolve
ten parts of clear grains of mastic, five parts of cam-

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 20.

phor, five parts of sandarach and five parts of elemi in
a sufficient quantity of alcohol, and apply without heat.

Varnish — Mordant — One of the simplest of these
varnishes which are chiefly used when a coating of
some other substance, such as gold leaf, is to be entire-
ly or in part laid over them, is that procured by dissolv-
ing a little honey in thick glue. It has the effect of
greatly heightening the color of the gold.

Varnish — Smoke Stack — One of the best varnishes
for smoke-stacks or steam pipes, is good asphaltum
dissolved in oil of turpentine.

Zinc — To Blacken — Zinc may be given a fine black
color by first cleaning its surface with sand and sul-
phuric acid, and afterward immersing it for a moment
in a solution composed of 4 parts each of sulphate of
nickel and ammonia, and 40 parts of water, acidulated
with 1 part of salphuric acid, washing and drying it.
The black coating adheres firmly, and becomes a bronze
color under the burnisher.

Zinc — To Color— A mode of coloring articles of
cast zinc in black is to take a solution of i'8 oz. chloride
of antimonyin a pint of alcohol; add to it 12 oz. hydro-
chloric acid, and apply with a brush to the zinc which
is to be blackened. Now dry the object, and, should
the color not be sufficiently uniform, apply a second
coat, and again dry as rapidly as possible by the aid of
heat. The color is permanent and may be improved
by rubbing with a little linseed oil, which preserves the
object and gives it a beautiful polish.

CHAPTER II.
PATTERN CUTTING.

In the following pages will be found several patterns
for articles in common use, as well as those for rare
and graceful designs. In selecting this list frequent
reference has been made to the Tinshop Department of
The American Artisan and those patterns have been
selected from its pages which have been most fre-
quently requested by its readers in the past.

CONE WITH OVAL BASE AND ROUND TOP.

Fig. I is the plan, or ellipse; this we divide into
equal spaces, not necessarily the entire circumference,
as one-quarter is sufficient. These we number from i
upward.

Fig. 2 is the elevation, which may be as high as cir-
cumstances require, but the higher it is the less of the
arc of blank will be taken up, and the lower the eleva-
tion the more will be required. Fig. 3 is a triangle that

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

31

is required. From A' to B' is equal to A— B Fig. 2,
or elevation of cone. Line'B', Fig. 3, to C is extended
indefinitely. We now set dividers at B, Fig. 1 and
carry distances the number on circumference is located
to line B' C, Fig. 3; and number correspondingly.
Then the distance from A', Fig. 3, to each of these

2 St SO

numbers on line B' C, Fig. 3, equals the distance from
apex of cone to base after being formed up.

Fig. 4, or blank, we find by setting dividers at A'
and 9, Fig. 3, and with A" as a radius strike arc d e; on
this arc we space on as many spaces as we have in Fig.
1. If we have only one-quarter of Fig. 1 spaced off,
we space off the remaining three-fourths of blank, and
number accordingly (see Fig. 4); then we carry each
line numbered from 1 to 9 in Fig. 3, to corresponding
numbers in Fig. 4, using A', Fig. 3, and A", Fig. 4, as
radii. Then by tracing through each of these lines at
points of cutting, we have the pattern in its entirety.
Should the cone be a large one, of necessity we should

32

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

be obliged to divide our blank into two or four pieces;
if the latter, and we have already spaced our plan only

one-fourth, then the same number of spaces need only
be observed in blank.

TO DESCRIBE AN ELLIPSE.

Let a b, be- the given major axis; bisect a b, ate;
through e, draw c d, at right angles to a b, equal to the
semi-major axis; place one point of dividers at e, the

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

33

other at c, and transfer on line e b, which is f; then di-
vide the space between e f in three -equal parts, and add
one of the parts which is g, the centre of end radius, by
placing the dividers at g a, and transfer it to line c d.
We have the side radius with h as center, and g as cen-
ter of end; we mark line h k, and treat the others in the
same manner; this enables us to find the exact section
of end and side circle by placing foot of compasses on

h and c; describe side circle and with the foot at g, de-
scribe end circle. The dotted lines represent the bot-
tom for a pan. In describing the body, Fig. 2, let a b
be the given center-line; at right angles to a b, marka c,
equal to one-half the diameter of side circle, which is
from h, to d; Fig. 1, the bottom line e d, Fig. 2, is equal
to m n, Fig. 1. From the point c d, mark radius line
cdb, with foot of compasses at b. We describe circle
h a f, equal in length to q r, Fig. i, and having thug

34

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

found side section we mark f g b, Fig, 2, with f g b, as
center line, and at right angles to it mark f i and g j,
equal to g p, and g b, Fig. i , and from the points found,
mark radius line k s m, with m as center mark circle

equal in length to section of circle r b, Fig. i; this
gives one half of body, all edges to be allowed. In Fig-
ure 3, the cover, it is necessary to find the pitch, which
is from e, to 8, and e, to 3. Set compasses at 5, and 4,
Fig. 1, in Fig. 3, with 5 as center, describe circle 4, to 4,

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 35

equal to end circle of Fig. I, and through 5, mark 451;
set compasses from 1, to 2, Fig. I, in Fig. 3, set com-
passes one foot at 4, and the other 1, and describe side
circle equal in length to q r, Fig. 1. Again set com-

Fig. 3

passes for end circle and we describe one half of end
section with one foot of compasses at 4; we divide the
distance between 4, and b, which is the center, then
mark lines 4, 4, to c; add locks and the pattern is found.

PATTERN FOR A TAPERING OVAL VESSEL.

Describe the bottom, the height and breadth as in
Fig. 14: describe the body as in Fig. 15 and 16; describe
the right angle A B C Fig. 15; make B E the altitude;
draw the line D-E at right angle to B C; make F E
equal to G H in Fig. 14; make G B equal to F E and
the taper required on a side; draw a line cutting the
joints G and F and the line B C. On any right line as
A B in Fig. 16, with the radius H F and H G, describe
the arcs C D and E F; set off C D equal to I G F in
Fig. 14; draw the lines E C and F G cutting the center
at G Fig. 15, make D E equahto A B in Fig. 14; make

36

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

A B equal to D E and the taper required on a side;
draw a line cutting the points A and D and the line B
C with the radius C D and in Fig. 16, with I and H as
centers, cut the lines G L and G M as at M and L; with
M and L as centers describe the arcs H I and H I also
the arcs J K and J K; set off H I and H I equal to I B
in Fig. 14; draw the lines J H and K I cutting the cen-
ters Land M Fig. 15; make I E equal to C D in Fig. 14;

Fig.14

make J B equal to I E and the taper required on a side;
draw a line cutting the points J and I and the line B C
with the radius K I, and in Fig. 16, O and N as centers,
cut the lines L B and M B as at B and S with R and S
as centers; describe the arcs N O and N Oalso the arcs
P Q and P Q; set off N O and N O equal to B D in
Fig. 14; draw the lines Q O and P N, cutting the cen-
ters at S and R,

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

37

The taper must be equal on all sides. Edges to be
allowed. The pattern can be cut in any number of sec-
tions.

PATTERN FOR HOPPER BY TRIANGULATION.

TpiHz" „ J 4 » I /

Plan No. 1

Plan No. 8

The first step in developing the form is to draw a
plan as No. i, a, b, c, d, which represents the top of the
hopper. The ellipse E represents the outlet. In order
to determine their relative positions it is necessary to
draw the front and side elevations; having done this
we drop lines x, y, z, x' y' z' x" y" z" at points of in-
tersections. In a' b' c' d' we have the position of
our ellipse; lines z and y" cut and divide the ellipse
into quarters; these we divide into any desired number
of spaces and number as shown by Figs, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6.
We are now ready to construct our triangles on plan,
and by looking over our work and considering our ele-
vations and form of same, we find that points a, b, c, d
are the only proper points at which to concentrate our
lines. We accordingly drop lines from these points to
figures on oval, as shown on plan No. 1. For conven-
ience in developing pattern we number our triangles as

38

WORKSHOP MANUAL

shown, I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8;these numbers also show the
relative position the triangles bear to one another (the
form of hopper we see calls for 8 triangles and every
one is of a different form; these 8 are divided into 4
upper and 4 lower triangles, or 4 with their base down
and 4 up. The base of the 4 upper correspond with the
sides of the article; the hypothenuse corresponds with
those of the adjoining lower triangle; and since the
upper triangles are perfectly flat, and their bases form a

rectangle, we only have use for 4 triangles to work
from. To show to those who are studying pattern
drafting that this is the case, and to avoid confusion I
draft plans No. 2 and triangle No. 5, which if they take
dividers and carry lines 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6 to triangle No. 5
in pattern, they will find that the numbers correspond.
I might add that if the top of the hopper were round or
oval then we would be obliged to make use of this sec-
ond set of triangles). We are now ready to form our

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

39

triangles. We take the depth of the article for the
length of the perpendicular line; draw a line at right
angle.to this indefinitely. These triangles we number
2, 4, 6, 3 respectively, or a, b, c, d, which show us where
they belong and their respective positions. We then
set 'dividers at a in plan and extend to Fig. i, as indi-
cated by line running from a to i'. Carry this to tri-
angle numbered or lettered accordingly, and all the dis-

C

tances to figures on oval we carry to triangles, as shown;
having done this we are ready to describe our pattern.
For this purpose we must determine our starting point,
and there are none better than line y in our plan and
elevation. We will also place our seam on this line; we
draw line y and with our dividers on c extended ton';
this gives us the base of the left portion of triangle No.
I ; this we carry to and at right angles to line y in pat-

40 workshop manual.

tern; now we set dividers at n in triangle No. 2 and ex-
tend to Fig. I ; carry this to pattern set at c6 and at
point of intersection on line y is the depth of pattern at
this point. We now carry all the remaining lines in
triangle No. 2 to pattern and space to correspond with
spaces in oval. We are now ready for triangle No. 3.
Line 6 in triangle No. 2 is the length of one side; from
g to a in plan the length of base and line 6 in triangle
No. 4 the other side, or from a' back to 6. We pro-
ceed from this point on with each of the triangles, in
the same manner, and finish up right portion of triangle
No. 1 in same manner as the left portion and the pat-
tern is the result.

PATTERN FOR A CIRCULAR TOP BOILER COVER.

ABCD, Fig. 1, represents the boiler for which
cover is required, G E the height it is to have when
made. With dividers sweep circle that will touch
points C E D.

At right-angles to A B (which is center line through
the boiler) draw A I — Q 4 — and G G' indefinitely. At
the point G', Fig. 2, erect the line G' I which will be
parallel with the center line of boiler. With the divid-
ers set as G to E, Fig. 1, place one leg on G' and sweep
the quarter-circle as shown on Fig. 2. Divide same
into equal parts (in this case four) and erect lines from
the points thus established till they touch the line
G' E'. Now divide the quarter-circle A, in Fig. 1,
into four equal parts and carry lines parallel with A I
until they meet the line G' I, Fig. 2, and from there to
the points previously obtained on the line G' E, all as
shown in diagram. Now take the distance O 4, Fig. 2,
and transfer same to Fig. 1, as presented by G F, and
sweep circle to strike points C F D as shown.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

41

On the line A I, which has been continued indefi-
nitely, and at any convenient point, as at H, drop the
perpendicular line H K, Fig. 3. Divide the segment
of circle D E, Fig. 1, into four equal parts and transfer

same to Fig. 3, spacing and marking the points on each
side of K. Likewise with the chord of circle repre-
sented by D T, Fig. 1, transferring same distance on
each side of P, Fig. 3, establishing the points Q and R.

42

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

Now sweep a circle which will strike Q H R. Draw
the side lines Q S and R M. Return again to Fig. i
and set dividers same as in spacing off the one-fourth
circle from A to N and on the circle just struck in Fig
3. Commencing at H, mark on each side the points
1234; draw lines from these points on circle to dotted
marks on line S K M indefinitely. Take the distance
from I, to E', Fig. 2, and with one point of dividers on
H, Fig. 3, mark point X, take distance from 1 to corre-
sponding number on line G' E', Fig. 2, and transfer-
irrg to Fig. 3, mark point I on each side of X continu-
ing till all these triangular distances, as also 4 G', are
thus taken from Fig. 2 and marked on Fig. 3. A free-
hand line drawn through the intersecting points com-
pletes the required pattern. Add for seams.

GRECIAN MOULDINGS.

if

No. 1 No. 2

It will be seen that these are sections of mouldings
produced in a perfect form and when combined with a
tasteful selection of others a perfect mould is the re-
sult.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

43

Let A B be the height and B D be the projection;
the point C is one-sixth of A B, the point H is two-
thirds of the distance from C to B. The distance H B
is transferred to H E, a line is drawn from C to E
which is divided into five equal spaces, from C to H is

Oyma recca
d

divided into five equal spaces, and the space is also
placed. From E to F lines are drawn as indicated.
A C G represents a square. Use G as center and strike

Cyma recta

Cyma reverea

quarter circle. The profile line from C to D is traced
through the intersection of the other lines.

No. 2 — Ovolo is on nearly the same principle as
No. I with the exception that A C is divided in half
and the distance C D is the same as B E.

44 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

Let A B be the height and B C the projection. Di-
vide A D into four equal parts; the line A F into four
equal parts, and lines are drawn as shown by drawing.
The point E is equal to A D from F. The profile line
is drawn, free hand, through the points of intersec-
tion.

Scotia
e a

No. 6

No. 4 — Cyma recta is on the same principle as No. 3,
it being shown on a smaller scale.

Let A B be, say, on 30 degrees. A C is very nearly
the width of moutd. We proceed as in the third and
fourth ones. The distance C D is merely an extension
of profile line.

A E and C B are on 60 degrees and the distance
apart of the projection of mould. Now divide E C
and A B into four equal parts each, and the line A E
into eight equal parts. The point D is the same dis-
tance from the mould as the line A B. Then draw
lines as shown. Draw the profile line, free hand,
through the points of intersection, which finishes the
mould.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

45

PATTERNS FOR A SMOKE STACK.

Figure i shows a view of the base for a stack de-
signed according to common-sense principles. The flat

bottom part of the base is made of a size that will fit the
top of a chimney snugly; then to this part is attached
the tapering part b, and to the top of part b the round
pipe can be extended to any height desired. Fig. 2
shows the relative positions that a base made after
the usual style as shown in the figure by dotted lines.

4 6

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

has to one made after the style shown by Fig. i. It will
be seen at a glance wherein the style Fig. I shows many
points that would recommend it over the old style. A few
of these are that v this design leaves no dead space on
the inside of a base, as Fig. 2 shows at a a', as is the
case with the style shown by the dotted lines.

This dead space generally fills up with cold air, which
in turn tends to retard the smoke ascending- through

/ \

i

3

' \

£

C
0/

4

J

S~

/
\

at

/

\

V : •/

A

—i

\- • •:;

& g 3.

the chimney by creating eddies and cooling the hot
gases and smoke passing up. None of these disturban-
ces are present in a stack like Fig. I. Instead, an even
draught is the result, by reason of the smooth surface
which it presents to the ascending column of smoke.
Then this style cap does not require half as much iron
to construct it as one of the other kind does; conse-
quently it can be made cheaper. The base or bottom
part of the joint C, as shown by Fig. 2, should be made

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

47

a trifle wider and longer than the inside of the flue of
the chimney is into which the base is to fit. This will
give a solid bearing for it to rest upon in case the height
and weight of the joints above this joint should demand
a more substantial rest than the square base a, Fig. I,
could give to the same.

The base a of Fig. i can be cut of one piece, as shown
by Fig. 3. From a to b is the size of the top of the
chimney. The square opening, c o d, is cut somewhat

smaller on the four sides, as shown; these are turned'up
and the tapering stack is riveted to them. The sides
of the base are to be cut wide enough so as to cover the
bricks down to the first projection, as shown by X X of
Fig. 2. The four sides are shown in the pattern, Fig.3,
bye, fg and h; e and f have laps allowed at the ends of
each to rivet the sides g and hto when the base, Fig. 3,
is formed up to shape.

Fig. 4 shows one-half of the tapering first-joint lajd

4 8

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

out after the usual methods used for a joint round at
one end and square or rectangular at the other. The
entire tapering joint can for most rases be laid out in
one piece. The dotted lines shown in Fig. 4 are where
the break occurs between the rounding and flat surfaces
of this stack. A, b, c and D is one of the sides; if a
common tinners' square is taken and laid even with the

line b d of Fig. 4, or as shown more plainly by Fig. 5,
at line b d, then the blade of the square cutting, the
center line X X at V establishes V, the point where the
sweep or curve b k cuts the center line X X. This point
is just one-half the distance between points S and P of
line X X. The correct points of intersection of the ra-
dius once established for one side, it becomes a very
simple matter to join the other sides to it. The distance
from point k to point m or n is one quarter the distance

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

49

around the circumference which the round pipe that
fits the tapering joint has. The size that the round pipe
is made usually for ordinary chimneys is from 6 to g"
in diameter, y r being the size most used. Allow forall
locks or laps.

"STRING AND NAIL" OVAL.

Let A C be the long axis; set compasses on A; open
until its radius exceeds one-half the length of long axis.
Mark I 2. Set compass on C and cross I to 2; extend
a line through from 1 to 2 and you have your position
for short axis, which is B E. The distance from B to
L and O and E to L and O is one-half the long axis.
Drive small wire nails in at L and O, over which loop a
string of the exact length of long axis, as shown by
the dotted lines; H is pencil and shows different posi-
tions of string as it is being moved around the oval.

5°

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

THE SIDE OF AN OCTAGON.
Vig.l

Let the outlines of Fig. I represent the given square.
To find one side of octagon: First describe a circle
touching the lines of the square as shown in diagram.
Then with the square or straight edge placed at cor-
ners A B mark line C B running from corner to and
touching circle at C. Next measure line C B, and make
line E D from C to D and from C to E equal to C B in
length; which will make the whole line E D as long
again as line C B. Each corner measured as above
described will form a perfect octagon.

TO DESCRIBE PATTERNS FOR FLARING VESSELS.
Lay off Fig. I, distance from A to B equal to diam-
eter of top, H to F, the height D E diameter of bot-
tom. Draw lines from A B, touching D E till they in-
tersect, which is marked C. ' Stretch compass from C
to A; with compass thus set, draw part of circle and
measure off with a piece of tin bent to suit circle the
required circumference. Draw lines from these points
(i, 2) of measurements to where leg of compass was

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

Si

placed, which is marked 4; stretch compass from C to
D and draw circle between lines 3, 5.

If desired to make in pieces divide the circumfer-
ence of top by the number of pieces wantfed.

52

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

PATTERN FOR A WASH BOILER COVER.

B

Draw circle the size of boiler body measured outside
of rim. Erect line A B. Let the distance from center
C to D be equal to half-length of cover, or body. Mark
off from D, on line K toward B, the pitch intended for
cover. Then with corner of square on horizontal line
D, and the blades touching circle and point E, draw
lines, which gives the pattern.

PATTERN FOR A CAN BREAST OR PITCHED COVER.

The enclosed pattern is my rule for a pitched cover
or can breast, of any given size or pitch, which may be
a somewhat longer way of attaining it, but is much
more simple than any other rule I have seen to produce,
this.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

53

To develop this pattern proceed thus:

Draw A (B, A, C) indefinitely.

Make (A B)= to y 2 diam. of can or article you wish
breast-or cover for.

Make (A C)= to height of pitch you'wish for either
breast or cover.

Draw (ED) indefinitely and at (R) angles to (a c,)
-*-

and distance from-(C) to be y 2 diameter of opening
you wish for can breast or (C E.)

Set compasses on points (C and B) and produce
the circle (B. I. J.) complete to (B) again.

Draw line connecting (B and C) intersecting the line
(ED) at(D.)

Set compasses on points (C and D) and produce the
article (D. F. G. H.) complete to (D) again.

Set compasses on points (A and B) and from the

54 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

point (B), step off six times this space from (A to B)
(or }4 diam. of can), as Figs, (i) (2) (3) (4) (5) ( 6 ):
at the point (6) (J) draw the line (J C), allow for locks
as dotted line is, cut out circle (D F G A H) when for
a can breast, and omit this when a pitched cover is
wanted, also omit line (ED) and circle (D F G H) in
pitched covers, (B. I. J. H. G. F. D.) to (B) again, is
the pattern for can breast.

(B. I. J. H. C. D.) to (B) again, is pattern for
pitched cover.

PATTERN FOR A "Y."

A, D, E, I, K, S and B, Fig. 1, represent the Y and
are shown by the heavy lines. In I is the line dividing
the Y into equal parts and where they are to be joined.
Protract the lines A D and I E upward indefinitely;
span the dividers from D to M and with one leg on D
mark the point G, and also on E mark the point H and
draw a line across. Now continue the lines IE and A
D in the other direction until they meet at the point X,
which will be the center from which to construct the
pattern. With the point C as a center describe a semi-
circle (to touch the points H and G), which divide into
equal parts (in this case eight) and number the same
as in diagram. Drop perpendicular lines from the
points thus established until they strike the line G H
and from thence to the center X. From the points
where these lines cross I M and M A draw lines par-
allel with G H until they meet the line GAD.

On any right line, as X, H, Fig. 2, with the compasses
spanning from Xto G, Fig. 1, sweep a circle indefinitely.
With the compasses set as in dividing the semi-circle
H and G in Fig. 1, and commencing at H, Fig. 2, mark
sixteen spaces on the circular line just struck (or eight
if the pattern is to be made into two pieces). In this

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

55

case it is marked to be in one piece. Draw the line X
H and also from the points thus established to the cen-
ter X and mark and number as in Fig. 2 Now sweep
circles from all the points established on the line D G
in Fig. i, as well as the circle D N, continuing until

they intersect the line X H". A free-hand line drawn
through the intersection of these lines will be the pat-
tern for one-half of Y. The same pattern will answer
for the other half. Seams to be allowed as shown by
the dotted lines.

S6

WORKSHOP MANUAL.
CHIMNEY TOP PATTERN.

Make the horizontal line c d equal to the longest
side of base. Make the line a b at right angles to a d;
let a e be the height minus the flange. Draw the line
f g parallel to c d; letfg be equal in length to one-
fourth the circumference of top. Draw the lines g d
and c e. Make the line k g parallel with a e; make a j
equal to one-half the shortest side of base. Now with
the radii k j describe the arcs 1 and m with f and g as
centers. Draw the lines i d n and h c o and, set off d n
and o c equal to a j ; make b n and b o at right angles

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

57

to d n and o c. With the radii b c describe the arc per
using b as center. Extend so,tc,xd and n y on lines
with o b, c h, i d. and n b; make s o, t c, x d and n y
equal to height of flange (usually four inches). Make
v c and w d at right angles to c d; make v c and w d
equal to height of flange. Draw the lines s t, v w and
x y. All edges on this pattern are to be allowed.

RULE FOR OBTAINING THE SIDE OF AN OCTAGON
OF ANY GIVEN SQUARE.

Let the.outlines of Fig. i represent the given square.
To find one side of octagon: First describe a circle
touching the lines of the square as shown in diagram.
Then with the square or straight edge placed at cor-
ners A B mark line C B running from corner to and
touching circle at C. Next measure line C B, and make
line E D from C to D and from C to E equal to C B in
length, which will make the whole line E D as long
again as line C B. Each corner measured as above
described will form a perfect octagon.

58 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

TO DESCRIBE AN OVAL OF ANY LENGTH OR WIDTH.

K

Make the line A A the desired length of oval. Bi-
sect this with the indefinite line K, and on this line
make B B, the desired width. Then with one point of
dividers at O, the center of oval, mark the C C equal to
three-fourths of the difference between the two diame-
ters; then with one point of compass on points C C with
the radius C A describe the circle R R. Now with A A
as center and the same radius cut these circles at V V
V V, then the V's will be points in the curves. Take
the distance from center O to circle R on line A A and
set off one each side of oval on line K this distance as
X X, then will from the points X X to the opposite B
B be the radius for the sides of the oval.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

59

PATTERN FOR A PRAIRIE CHIMNEY.

1st. Draw elevation as indicated in Fig. i. A rep-
resents pitch of roof for chimney on side of roof. B
represents pitch for chimney on comb of roof; strike arc
as shown from C to D, or from o to 10; divide this arc

into equal spaces; draw lines and number as shown in
plan of elevation.

For the blank, since our elevation shows by its di-

18"

mensions that the arc in blank is greater than our divid-
ers will strike, we will take our diameters 6 and 7x3 =
18 and 21. We strike line E, and with a square strike
*nes F G and H I at right angles with line E and 9 and

60 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

IOJ^ inches on either side of line E, which equals 18"
and 21 " as shown in blank. Strike lines connecting F
H and G I: place square on these latter lines and strike
lines I J — H J — F Kand G K; at right angles to do with
G I and F H; bisect distance between K L and J M.
This gives the point cut by arc, which may be made by
placing a rule, either wood or steel, on F G and spring
to N, and describing along the same H I and springing
to O and describing complete arcs of blank. (If we
take lme H I and add thereto M O we find it equal H
O I or7x 3. 1416 approximately, or near enough to work
by.) Now divide this blank into twice as many spaces
as arc in Fig. 1 and number as shown in Fig. 2. With
dividers carry distance from lines X Yto A B; pitch of
roof respectively to blank and on lines that correspond
in number, trace through these points and we have A',
Fig. 2, for pattern for chimney for side of roof and B'
for pattern for comb of roof. A collar for corner of
chimney may be described in the same manner as the
latter pattern above.

PATTERN FOR MEASURE LIP.
C,

J.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

61

Fig. I represents the measure with lip. Fig. 2. Draw
X Y and lines A B and C P at right angles to it, mak-
ing distance A C equal to dotted line A B, Fig. 1. On
line A B, Fig. 2, lay off from A to M one-half diameter
of top of lip, which is distance C B, Fig. 1. On line C
P lay off from C to M one-half diameter top of measure,
which is distance C G, Fig. 1. Draw line through M

and N until it intersects X Yat L. Now with Las cen-
ter and radii L N strike arc G H I. Span dividers C N
and span twice on arc each side of point H, which will
locate points G and I. Make G D and I T equal to E
D, Fig. 1. Span dividers M N and from H locate
point E. Draw line D E, Fig. 2, and through its cen-

62

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

ter at right angles draw line R K until it intersects X Y
at K. Now with K as center and K E radii strike arc
D E T and you have it. This will give strainer pail lip
by spanning three times each way from point H.

PATTERN FOR A PITCHED COVER.

Draw circle the size of rim; then place square in cen-
ter and draw ABC. If for a two-inch pitch measure
two inches from B down (D represents two inches),
then place one leg of dividers at C and the other at D
and draw line E. Then span dividers from E to B and
space three times on each side of A; mark lines F L
and the pattern is done. Allow for all locks and edges.
Dotted lines show them.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

°3

METHOD OF DESCRIBING AN ELLIPSE.

To develop an ellipse of any given length and width
desired: The outer, or larger circle is the length; the

inner, or smaller, the width. Space off each of the cir-
cles in as many spaces as may be desired.

ROMAN MOULDINGS.

Five methods for obtaining profiles of the simplest
of Roman mouldings.

Divide line a, b into three equal parts; divide one-
third into five equal parts, place two-fifths to the right
and three-fifths to the left of line a, b on c, d; with d
as center, strike arc a, e.

6 4

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

Fig. 2 is square; with a as center the arc b, c is made;
it can be seen that by joining the two together it pro-
duces a correct O, G profile.

M?.':e the square a, b, c, d; mark line a, e, c with e
as center; mark circle touching the- four corners with a
Cyma recta

H

Tig. 3

as center; mark section of circle g, e, h with c as cen-
ter; mark section of circle k, e, f; mark line g, e, f;
with g, and f as center mark the profile line a, e, c.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

65

Mark the line n, c the required height and the line
a, b at 45 degrees passing through f the center from c,

Cvma reversa

H

Kg. 4

d; with f as center mark the large circle; with a, and b
as center mark the section of circles g, f, h and k, f, s;

K

A <

J

Torus

M

r

L

^

Pig. 5
mark the lines g, h and k, 1; with c and n as centers
mark the profile line b, f, a,

66

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

Mark the line a, b, divide it into three equal parts:
divide one of the thirds into five equal parts; lay off on
Jine b, e one of the thirds which will produce the line
c, d; mark the line f, g and h, k; with 1 as center mark
profile line d, m; with c as center mark profile line, n. o

GOTHIC PROFILES.

Fig. i — Let A B, be the height and C D the pro-
jection. Draw the lines A E, C F, B G and C H
all on a 45 degree from centers to intersect the line as
indicated; the lines C H and C I are the same length
as C G, which produces the two squares. With A as
center strike arc D B and with B, as center the arc D
A. A profile line is marked from A to D and from-

1

4

■ilK^ 1'

\ i

X * \

. r-

\i

b

D to E. With F as center strike the dotted line. Di-
vide E B into one-half and strike profile line, E B.

It will be understood that the two squares are pro-
duced in the same manner through all of them, the
height and projection are also known and it is needless
to explain so clearly in the other seven of them.

Fig. 2— Draw the profile line, A B and B C; use H

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

67

as center and strike arc, C D. Divide I J into one-half;
lay off from E to F that distance and strike the circle
DE.

\

\
\

\ 3

c

y^ s k^\

i \

5kS

^\.

^L2s

m
a

n

Fig. 3 — Strike the section of circle which is pro-
duced by spacing up the line A B three times the
height of mold C D. Mark the line I J; use J as center

68 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

and strike the circle L M, which passes through E and
extends down, which produces the center for the circle
M N; the distance O K is the same as K L. With F as
center strike the circle C P.

Fig. 4 — The profile circle A B is produced in the
same way as (No. 3) the point, E is half of B C, a line
drawn from it to point D. The point G is half the dis-
tance of E C. A line drawn to F at 45 degrees, with
D as center strike the circle F H; with L as center
strike the circle F I parallel line D E; mark the line N
M touching the circle F I; now mark the circle from
the point N passing through point O which, when
carried down, gives the center for the circle J C, .

Fig. 5 — Mark the profile line A B, touching the'
square at C, prolong the line J to I; use I as center and
strike the circle which will touch the line at O; extend.
A R which will produce the center for the circle E F,
The horizontal line is marked from the point R to cut
the circle E F. From R is measured down the radius
of the circle E F; mark the line S H, and where the line
.R cuts the circle, drop the line which produces the
center for the circle F G.

Fig. 6 — The lines A B and C are at right angles.
Divide the distance from D to E on blue line, into one-
half which is the center for the profile [circle D E,
which is extended down O'which is half the distance

AD.
4

TEE PIPE PATTERN.

To describe a pattern of a T pipe at any angle:
Draw the line A E; erect the line A B, the angle re-
quired; also the line E D parallel to A B. Make B D
equal to the diameter of the pipe; describe the semi-
circle BCD; draw the line F G parallel to B D; divide

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

eg

the semi-circle into any number of equal parts; from
the points draw lines parallel to A B, as i, 2, 3, etc.

Set off the line ABC equal in length to the circum-
ference of the pipe, and the lines A F, B D and C F at

T5*l. £

right angles to A C. Set off on each side of B D the
same number of equal distances as in the semi-circle
BCD, and from the points draw lines parallel to B D,
as 1 i, 2 2, 3 3, etc. Make B D "equal to A B, and E A
and C F equal to to E D; also each of the parallel lines

bearing the same figures, as 1 1, 2 2, 3 3,etc. Then a
line traced through the points will form the required
pattern.

Allow for edges,

70

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

TO DESCRIBE A PATTERN FOR A FOUR-PIECE
ELBOW.

•2_

lA»8 7 6 4 9 211

Three and four piece elbows have very largely taken
the place of the old right-angled elbow, on account of
their better appearance, and also because they lessen
obstruction to draft. The machine-made article is kept
in stock for all common sizes, but the tinner is liable to
be called upon at any time to make such an elbow, on
account of stock being sold that is of unusual size, or
other cause. Herewith are given diagrams and explana-
tions which will enable any tinner to construct a pattern
for any desired size.

Let ABED, Fig. i, be the given elbow; draw the
line FC; make FM equal in length to one-half the
diameter of the elbow, with F as a center; describe the
arc KL; divide the arc KL into three equal parts; draw
the lines FH and FI; also the line IH; divide the sec-
tion HK into two equal parts, and draw the line FG;
draw the line AB at right angles to BC; describe the
semi-circle ANB; divide the semi-circle into any num-
ber of equal parts; from the points draw lines parallel
to BC, as i, 2, 3, etc.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

7 1

Set off the line ABC, Fig. 2, equal in length to the
circumference of elbow AB; erect the lines AF, BD
and CE; set off on each side of the line BD the
same number of equal distances as in the semi-circle
ANB; from the points draw lines parallel to BD as I, i,
,2, 2, etc.; make BD equal to BG; make AF and CE
equal to AJ; also each of the parallel lines, bearing the
same number as I, I, 2, 2, 3, 3, etc.; then a line traced

i 167664934 81294 6 6 7 8 9

through the points will form the first section; make FG
and EJ equal to HI; reverse section No. i; place E at
G and F at J; trace a line from G to J; make GH and
JI equal to PO, Fig. 67, or to DK, Fig. 68, take Sec.
No. 1, place F at H and E at I, and trace a line from H
to I; this forms Sec. No. 3 and 4,
Edges to be allowed.

72

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

A TAPERING, ROUND-CORNERED SQUARE RESER-
VOIR.

Diagrams and rules for constructing pattern for a
tapering round-cornered square reservoir are herewith
given:
Fig. I the upright height. Take the perpendicular

Fig. I is the size, top and bottom. (A C F H D B G
E is the top, and IKNPLJOMis the bottom), and
height ad, Fig. I, and mark it off from h to k, Fig. III.
Vifl

Take the radius for the corners dC, Fig. I, and mark it
off from h to i, Fig. Ill, also the radius dK; mark off
from K to 1, drawing a line from il to cut the line hK,
which gives the slanting height and the radius required
for striking the corners. Draw the lines IK and AC,
Fig. IV, the same length as IK, Fig. II, and the same
distance apart as 1 to i, Fig. Ill, prolong the lines AI

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

tt

and CK, Fig. IV, till Ac and Cd equals to i m, Fig.III
With radius dC, Fig. IV, using d and c as centers, strike
the curves CF and AE, and with radius dK, Fig. IV,
using the same centers, strike the curves KN and IM.
Take the length of the large quarter circle DH, Fig. II,
and dot off the same distance from C to F, Fig. IV;
make AE equal to CF, and draw lines from E and Fto
the centers c and d; draw EG and MO at right angles
with Ec. Take the distance from A to C and make the
same distance from E to G and M to O, Fig. III. Draw

Fi t . rv g

-n t . m

Ge parallel to Ec. From G mark off point e, the same
length as E to c, then using e as center, strike the curves
GB and OJ, making the curve GB equal to AE; draw
the line from B to center c draw BT and JR at right
angles to Be, taking the distance from B to S, Fig. II,
mark off the same distance from B to S, and J to R,
draw SR parellel with Be, and proceed in the same
manner with the other end; adding on the laps, as shown
will make the pattern complete in one piece, being
joined together at RS.

74

workshop manual.

RULE FOR ROUND ELBOWS.

A quick rule for striking a round elbow pattern with
three or four pieces.

Fig. i represents a three-piece elbow. It is cut the
^following way: First divide your circumference into

1

1
1

1

E

\

1 ^^
1

1

If^

■

1
1
1
1

c

a

js]

/H,

&£/.

four equal parts E and C C, then draw line D. Set di-
viders from A to B, which is I in. more than one- half
the circumference. For instance, we will take a 6 in.

*ig *.

V3

elbow. The circumference is i8^i in. (not including
locks), one half of same is 9 7-16 in.; we set dividers
10 7-16 in. Then set on line and describe from C to C
and from C to B, which gives the pattern; or you can
make a pattern after having the dividers set as Fig. 2

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

75

and cut in half gives you Fig. 3. You can lay on line
D and describe. For a four piece elbow you set divid-
ers I in. more than three-fourths the circumference, and

proceed the same as for three-piece as in Fig. 4. This
■ rule is very handy for all sizes of pipe and very handy
for hot air pipes, etc.

7 6

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

PATTERN FOR A METAL BALL.

Take a 3 in. ball; draw a circle 3 inches in diameter
(Fig. 1), with T as center. Divide it into as many

parts as desired. This is divided into thirds. Raise
pieces to fit your drawing; allow edges for laps./

CHAPTER III.

niSCELLANEOUS TABLES.

NUMBER BRICKS REQUIRED TO CONSTRUCT ANY
BUILDING.

(Reckoning 7 Bricks to each superficial foot.)

Superficial ft.
of wall.

1.
2.
3-
4-
5-
6.

7-
8.

9.
10.

20.

3°

40

50

60.

70.

80

90

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

1000

Number of Bricks to Thickness of

4 inch.

7
15
23
3°
38
45
53
60
68

75
150
225
300

375
450

525
600

675
750
1,500
2,250
3,000
3.750
4,500
5,250
6,000
6,750
7.500

8 inch.

12 inch. 16 inch.

15
30

45
60

75

90

105

120

135

150

300

45o

600

750

900

1,050

1,200

i.35o

1,500

3,000

4,500

6,000

7,500

9,000

10,500

12,000

13.500

15,000

23
45
68

90
113

135
158
180
203

' 225
450

675

900

1,125

1.350

i,575

1,800

2,025

2,25b

4,500

6,750

9,000

11,250

i3»5oo

15,750

1 8,000

20,250

22,500

30 inch. 24 inch.

30
60

90

120

150

180

210

240

270

300

600

900

1,200

1,500

1,800

2,100.

2,400

2,700

3,000

6,000

9,000

12,000

15,000

18,000

2 1 ,000

24,000

27,000

30,000

38

75

113

150

188

225

263

300

338

375

750

1,125

1,500

i,875

2,250

2,625

3,000

3,375

3.750

7,500

11,250

15 000

18750

22,500

26,250

30,000

33,750

37,5oo

45
90*

135
180
225
270

3i5

360

405

450

900

i,35o

1,800

2,250

2,700

3,150

3,600

4,050

4,5oo

9,000

13,500

18,000

22,500

27,000

31,500

36,000

40,000

45,000

78

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

INTEREST TABLE,

At six per cent., in dollars and cents, from one dollar to ten
thousand:

I DAY.

I MO.

3 MOS.

6 MOS.

12 MOS.

$

$ C.

$ c.

$ c.

$ c.

$ c.

I

00

OOj^

oi'A

03

06

2

00

01

C3

06

12

3

00

01K

04 'A

09

18

4

00

02

06

12

24

S

00

02^

07^

15

30

6

00

03

09

18

36

7

00

03'A

10K

21

42

8

00

- 04

12

24

48

9

00

oaA

I3K

27

54

10

00 ,

05

15

30

60

20

00X

10

30

60

I 20

3°

00^

15

45

90

I 80

■40

00 U

20

60

I 20

2 40

50

01

25

75

I 50

3 00

100

oi l A

-~ 1 50

I 50

3 00

6 do

200

03

I 00

3 00

6 00

12 00

300

05

1 50

4 5°

9 00

18 00

400

07

2 00

6 00

12 OO

24 00

500

08

2 50

7 50

15 00

30 00

1,000

17

5 00

15 00

30 00

60 00

2,000

33

10 00

30 00

60 00

120 00

3,000

50

15 00

45 00

90 00

180 00

4,000

67

20 00

60 00

120 00

240 00

5,000

83

25 00

75 00

150 00

300 00

10,000

I 67

50 00

150 00

300 00

600 00

EQUIVALENT OF BRITISH MONEY IN AMERICAN
MONEY.

in

bo

<n

in

ho

in

in

in

a

>-• • .

:-

s

5 c —

rt <3 co

S H 3

t« .2 in

■3 0"

3

•3 n

c
3

■3 c

ug

2

ajr

!5

C/3

5 "S

cu

Q U

O u

I

$ 24 2

7

$1 69 4

n

$3 H 6

I

$4 84

15

$ 72 60

2

48 4

8

1 93 6

14

3 38 8

2

9 68

20

96 80

3

72 6

9

2 17 8

is

3 63

3

14 52

25

121 00

4

96 8

10

2 42

16

3 87 2

4

19 36

30

145 20

5-

1 21

11

2 66 2

18

4 35 6

5

24 20

3?

169 40

6

1 45 2

12

2 90 4

20

4 84

10

48 40

50

242 00

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

79

WEIGHT, STATURE, ETC., OF MAN.

The mean weight and stature of the human body at birth, and
at every subsequent age, together with the expectancy of life-
from 20 to 70 years of age, is as follows:

MALES.

YEARS.

YEARS.

Age.

Feet.

Lbs.

Age.

Expec-
tancy.

Age.

Expec-..
tancy.

1.64

7.06

20

4iK

46

24

2

2

60

25.01

21

40K

47

23X

4

3

04

31-38

22

40

48

■2.2%

6

3

44

38.80

23

39^

49

22

9

4

00

.49-45

24

38^

50

21*

11

4

3b

59-77

25 ,

38

5i

. 20^

13

4

72

75.81

26

37X

52

19U

15

S

07

96.40

27

36^

53

19

17

5

36

116.56

28

35 H

54

i8#

18

5

44

127.59

29

35

55

I7U

20

5

49

132.46

30

34^

56

17

3°

5

52

140.38

31

33K

57

16X

40

5

52

140.42

32

33

58

i5#

50

5

49

139.96

33

32^

59

15

60

5

3«

136.07

34

VM

60

H'A

70

S

32

131.27

35

31

61

14

80

5

29

127.54

36

3°K

62

13*

90

5

29

127.54

37
38

2 9 U

29

63
64

13

12K

39

28X

65

11*

40

VU

66

n#

Mean

41

27

67

10*

42

26^

68

10X

43

25 %

69

9*

44

25X

70

9%

45

24^

1

CARRYING CAPACITY OF

Whiskey 60 barrels

Salt 70 barrels

Lime. 70 barrels

Flour 90 barrels

Eggs 130 to 160 barrels

Flour 200 sacks

Wood 6 cords

Cattle 18 to 20 head

Hogs 50 to 60 head

Sheep 86 to 100 head

i TEN TON FREIGHT CAR.

Lumber 6,000 feet

Barley 300 bushels

Wheat 340 bushels

Flax Seed 360 bushels

Apples 370 bushels

Corn 400 bushels

Potatoes 430 bushels

Oats 680 bushels

Bran 1,000 bushels

Butter 20,000 pounds

8o

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

POPULATION OF THE LARGER CITIES.

OFFICIAL CENSUS OF 189O.

New York, N. Y 1,513,501

Chicago, 111 1,098,576

Philadelphia, Pa 1,044,894

St. Louis, Mo 460,357

Brooklyn, N. Y 806,343

Boston, Mass 446,507

Baltimore, Md 434,151

San Francisco, Cal 297.990

Cincinnati, 296,308

Cleveland, 251,546

Buffalo, N. Y 254,457

New Orleans, La 241,995

Pittsburg, Pa 238,473

Washington, D . C 229,796

Detroit, Mich 205,669

Milwaukee, Wis 204,150

Newark, N. J 181,518

Minneapolis, Minn 164,738

Jersey City, N. J 163,987

Louisville, Ky 161,005

Omaha, Neb 139,526

Rochester,. N. Y 138,327

St. Paul, Minn 133, 156

Kansas City, Mo 132,416

Providence, R. 1 132,043

Indianapolis, Ind 107,445

Allegheny, Pa 106,967

Denver, Col 106,760

Albany, N. Y 94,640

Columbus, O 90,398

Syracuse, N. Y 87,877

Worcester, Mass 84,536

Scranton, Pa 83,450

New Haven, Conn 81,451

Richmond, Va 80,838

Paterson, N. J 78,358

Toledo, O 78,358

Lowell, Mass 77.635

Nashville, Tenn 76,309

Fall River, Mass 74.35 1

Cambridge, Mass 69,837

Atlanta, Ga 65,514

Memphis, Tenn 64,586

Grand Rapids, Mich. . 64,147

Wilmington, Del 61,437

Troy, N. Y 60,605

Reading, Pa 58,926

Payton, O 58,868

Lincoln, Neb

Charleston, S. C

Hartford, Conn

St. Joseph, Mo

Evansville, Ind

Los Angeles, Cal

Des Moines, la

Bridgeport, Conn

Oakland, Cal

Portland, Ore

Saginaw, Mich

Salt Lake City, Utah.

Lawrence, Mass

Springfield, Mass

Utica, N.Y

Manchester, N. H . . .

Seattle, Wash

Hoboken, N.J

Savannah, Ga

Peoria, IIIt

New Bedford, Mass..

Harrisburg, Pa,

Somerville, Mass

Erie, Pa

San Antonio, Tex

Kansas City, Kan...

Dallas, Tex

Sioux City, la

Elizabeth, N. I

Wilkesbarre, Pa

Covington, Ky

Portland, Me

Tacoma, Wash

-Holyoke, Mass

Fort Wayne, Ind

Norfolk, Va

Binghamton, N. Y ...
Wheeling, W. Va....

Youngstown, O

Augusta, Ga

Duluth, Minn

Springfield, 111

Lancaster, Pa

Yonkers, N. Y

Mobile, Ala

Topeka, Kan

Quincy, 111

Salem, Mass

55.491

54.592

53.I&

52,811

50,674

5o.394

50,067

48,856

48,590

48,294

46,169

45.025

44. 164

44,164

44,001

43.983

43.914

43,56i

41,762

40,758

40,705

40, 164

40,117

39,699

38,681 •

38,170

38,140

37,862

37,670

37,651

37.375

^6,608

35.858
35,528
35,349
35.154
35.093
35.052
33.199
33.150
32.725
32.135
32,000

31.945
31,822
31,809
3 '478
30.735

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

Trenton, N. J 58488

Camden, N. J. ....... . 58,274

Lynn, Mass 55,684

Long Island City, N. Y 30,396
Terre Haute, Ind 30,287

Geographical Div. 1890. 1880. 1870.

The United States. 62,622,250 50,155,783 38,558,371

North Atlantic Division 17,401,545 14,507,407 12,298,730

South Atlantic Division 8,857,920 7,597,197 5,853,610

Northern Central Division 22,362,279 17,364,111 12,981,111

Southern Central Division 10,972,893 8,919,371 6,434,410

Western Division 3,027,613 1,767,697 990,510

RELATIVE WEIGHTS OF METALS.

The weight of Bar Iron being 1.

' Cast Iron = .95

Steel = 1.02

Copper = 1. 16

Brass -. .= 1.09

Lead = 1.48

The weight of Cast Iron being 1.

Bar Iron = 1.07

Steel = 1.08

Brass = 1.16

Copper = 1.21

Lead ,.= 1.56

The weight of Yellow Pine being r.

Cast Iron = 16.

Steel = 17.2

Copper = 19.3

Brass = 18.4

Lead = 24.

The weight of Brass being 1.

Bar Iron = .92

Cast Iron = .86

Steel = .93

Copper = 1.05

Lead = 1.35

The weight of Copper being. . . . ." 1 .

Bar Iron = .87

Cast Iron = .82

Steel = .88

Brass = .93

Lead = 1.28

The weight of Lead being 1.

Bar Iron.

Cast Iron

Steel

Brass

vopper , , . 1 , , 1 1 1 1 $ 1 , , f f 1 1 1 f • f 1

.68
.64
.69

•74

•7$

82

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

THE ENGLISH MILE COMPARED WITH OTHER
EUROPEAN MEASURES.

English Statute Mile
English Geog. Mill .

Kilometre

German Geog. Mile.

Russia Verst

Austrian Mile

Dutch Ure

Norwegian Mile

Swedish Mile

Danish Mile

Swiss Stunde

(A V

5si

1 R

3 at

.

a*

w

■§>§?

Wo

£3

1 bij

v 8

«**

I'OOO

0867

1-609

0217

1-508

ii53

I'OOO

1-855

0-250

1-738

0*621

0540

1 -ooo

0135

0937

4*6io

4 000

7-420

i-ooo

6-953

0663

o'S75

1-067

0-144

I'OOO

4*7'4

4-089

7-586

1-022

7-112

3'45«

3000

5-565

0-750

5215

7'02I

6-091

11-299

I-523

10-589

6-644

5-764

10*692

1-441

10*019

4-682

4-062

7'536

1*016

7-078

2-987

2-592

4-808

0648

4-505

0'212

0-245
0132
0978
0*141
i-ooo
0-734
1 489
1 409
0994
0-634

English Statute Mile
English Geog. Mile.

Kilometre

German Geog. Mile

Russian Verst

Austrian Mile

Dutch Ure '..

Norwegian Mile...

Swedish Mile

Danish Mile.

Swiss Stunde

U 4>

S *-

0-289

0-333
0-180

1 333
0-192

1-363
i-ooo
2-035
1-921
i'354
0-864

£ 3
o g

S5

0*142
0M64
o'o88
0657
0-094
0-672

493
i-ooo
0-948
0-667
0-425

0-151
0-169
0*004
0-694

0*100

0-710
0-520
rc57

I'OOO

0*705
0-449

"S*"3
■rt5!

C213

0'24§

0*133
0985

0*142
I '006

0*738

1 '499
1-419

I'OOO

0638

to ^

en

o*335
0386
0*208
1-543

0'222

I-S78
1*157

2-350
2*224
I-567

i-ooo

WEIGHT OF A CUBIC FOOT OF VARIOUS
SUBSTANCES.

METALS.

Platinum lbs., 1,218 — oz.,

Pure gold*.

Mercury

Lead

Pure silverf.
Steel

1,203
848
709
625

487

Tin lbs., 455— oz.,

Cast iron...... " 450 "

Copper " 547 "

Brass " 543 "

Zinc *' 428 "

11
7
4

12

13

*The value of a ton of pure gold is g602.799.21. $1,000,000
gold coin weighs 3,685.8 pounds avoirdupois . j The value of a ton
of silver is $37,704.84. $1,000,000 silver com weigh 58,929.9
pounds avoirdupois.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

83

MISCELLANEOUS.

Indian rubber. . .lbs., 56— oz., 7 I Pressed cotton. ..lbs., 25
Pressed hay "25 |

EARTH, STONE, ETC.

Italian marble, .lbs., 169 — oz., 4
Vermont marble " 165 " 9
Window glass . . " 165 " 2
Common glass. . " 157 " 8

Moist sand

Clay

Brick

128
120

118

2
10
12

Mortar lbs., 109— oz., 6

Mud «

Loose earth "

Lehigh coal,

loose "

Lackawanna,

loose "

101

" 14

93

" 12

56

" 4

48

" 10

WOODS.

Lignum vitae lbs., 83— oz., 5

Ebony " 83 " 5

Boxwood " 75 " 2

Mlhogany " 66 " 7

White o'ak " 53 " 12

Ash " 52 " 13

Red hickory " 52 " 6

Apple " 49 " 9

Maple " 46 " 14

Cherry " 44 " n

Shellbark hick'ry. lbs., 43— oz., 2

Pitch pine " 41 "4

Chestnut " 38 " 2

Birch " 35 " 7

Cedar " 35 " 1

White poplar " 33 " 1

Spruce " 31 " 4

Yellow pine " 28 " 13

Butternut " 23 " 8

Cork " 15

GROCERIES.

Sugar

Beeswax .
Lard ....

.lbs., 100 — oz., 5
. " 60 " 5
• " 59 " 3

Butter lbs., 58— oz., 14

Tallow " 58 " 13

Castile soap " 56 " 15

MELTING TEMPERATURE OF ALLOYS.

Lead 1, Tin 1, Bismuth 4, melts at 155 degrees

Lead 3, Tin 5, Bismuth 8, " 208 "

Lead 1, Tin 3, Bismuth 5, " , 212 "

Lead 1, Tin 4, Bismuth 5, " 240 "

Tin 1, Bismuth 1, " 286 "

Lead 2, Tin 3 " 334 "

Tin 2, Bismuth 1, " 336 "

Lead 1, Tin 2, " 360 «

Tin 8, Bismuth 1, " 392 "

Lead 2, Tin 1, " 475 "

84 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

U. S. MINERAL STATISTICS, 1890.

METALLIC PRODUCTS.

Pig iron, long tons

Silver; troy ounces ,

Gold, troy ounces

Copper, pounds

Lead, short tons

Zinc, short tons ,

Quicksilver, flasks

Nickel, pounds

Aluminum, and alurninum in

pounds

Antimony, short tons

Platinum, troy ounces

Total

alloys,

QUANTITY.

VALUE.

9,202,703

$151,200,410

54,500,000

70,454.645

1,588,88c

32,845,000

265,115,133

30,848,797

161,754

14,266,703

63,683

6,266,407

22,926

1,203,615

223,488

134,093

61,281

61,281

129

40,756

600

2,500

• 8307.334,207

WEIGHT OF LIQUIDS PER GALLON.

Sulphuric acid in lbs.

Nitric acid "

Muriatic acid "

Alcohol of commerce "

Alcohol proof spirit. "

Naphtha "

Linseed oil "

Whale oil in lbs. 9.2

Oil of turpentine. . . " 8.7

Petroleum « 8.8

Tar " 10. 1

Vinegar " 10. 1

Water distilled « 10.

Saltwater " 10.3

THE EFFECT OF HEAT ON VARIOUS SUBSTANCES.

Antimony melts at. . 951

Bismuth " . . 476

Brass " . . 1900

Copper " ..2548

Glass " ..2377

Gold " . .2590

Cast Iron " -.3479

Lead " .. 594

deg

Zinc melts at 740. deg.

Ice " 32. "

Mercury boils at 662. "

Naphtha " - 186. "

Fresh water boils at . . 2 1 2 . "
Sea water " . .213.2 "

Ether " ..100. ■

WEIGHT OF WATER AT DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES.

Temperature,
Fahr.

3 2
40
50
69

Weight in Pounds
per Cubic Foot

62.417

62.423

62.409

...... 62.367

Temperature
Fahr.

Weight in Pounds
per Cubic Foot.

70 62.302

80 62.218

90 62.II9

212 ;... S9./OO

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

85

WEIGHT AND SPECIFIC GRAVITIES OF LIQUIDS.

Liquids at 32 deg. Fahr.

Mercury

Bromine

Sulphuric acid, max. con- r )
centratn. $

Nitrous acid.

Chloroform

Water of the Dead Sea

Nitric acid, of commerce

Acetic acid, maximum con- )
centratn. ]

Milk

Sea water, ordinary

Pure water (distild.) at 39 o 1 . F .

Wine of Bordeaux

Wine of Burgundy

Linseed oil

Poppy oil

Rape seed oil

Whale oil

Olive oil

1 urpentine oil

Potato oil

Petroleum

Naphtha ^

Ether, nitric

" sulphurous

" nitrous

" acetic

" hydrochloric

" sulphuric ,

Alcohol, proof spirit

Alcohol, pure

Benzine

Wood spirit

§3

S3

(j, re s

a>

G<ra

Crq era'

S- C b*

p cr

" tfS

j '. *+■

g,

8 °

Pounds.

Pounds.

848.7

• 136-0

185. 1

29.7

11 4.9

18.4

96.8

15-5

95-5

15-3

774

12.4

76.2

12.2

67.4

10.8

64-3

10.3

64.05

10.5

62.425

10.0

62.1

9.9

61.9

99

58.7

94

58.1

9-3

574

9.2

574

9.2

57-i

9.15

54-3

8-7

51.2

8.2

54-9

8.8

53-i

8.5

693

11. 1

67.4

10.8

55.6

8.Q

55.6

8.9

54-3

8.7

44.9

7.2

574

9.2

49-3

I 9

53-1

8.5

49.9

. „ 8.0

org in

»-t no
< n

Water=l.

I3-596

2.966

1.84

i-55
i-53
1.24
1.22

1.08

1.06

1.026

1. 000

0.994

0.991

0.94

o-93

0.92

0.92

0.915

0.87

0.82

0.88

0.85

1. 11

1.08

0.89

0.89

0.87

0.72

0.92

0.79

0.85

0.80

86

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES BY STATES.

Maine

New Hampshire

Vermont

Massachusetts

Rhode Island

Connecticut

New York

New Jersey

Pennsylvania

Delaware

Maryland

District of Columbia

Virginia

West Virginia

North Carolina

South Carolina

Georgia

Florida

Ohio

Indiana

Illinois

Michigan

Wisconsin

Minnesota

Iowa

Missouri

North Dakota

South Dakota

Nebraska

Kansas

Kentucky

Tennessee

Alabama

Mississippi

Louisiana

Texas

Oklahoma

Arkansas

1890. 1880. 1870.

661,086

376,530

332,422

2,238,943

345,506

746,258

5.997,853

1,444,933

5,258,014

648,936

346,99'

332,286

1,783,085

276,531

622,700

5,082,871

1,131,116

4,282,891

626,915
318,300
330,55'

1,457,35'
217,353
537,454

4,382,759
906,096

3,521,95'

>
3

168,493
1 ,042,390

230,392
1,655,980

762,794
1,617,947
1,151,149

1,837,353
391,422

146,608

934,943

177,624
1,512,565

618,457
1,399,750

995,577
1,542,180

269,493

125,015
780,894
131,700

1,225,163
442,014

1,071,361
705,606

1,184,109
187,748

S3
d

3,672,316
2,192,404
3,826,351
2,093,889
1,686,880
1,301,826
I,9M,8o6
2,679,184
182,719
328,808
1,058,910
I,427,006

3,198,062
1,978,301
3,077,87'
1,636,937
1,315,497
780,773
1,624,615
2,168,380

36,909

98,268!

452,402|

996,096!

2,665,26b
1,680,637

2,539,891
1,184,059
1,054,670
439>706
1,194,020
1,721,295

l I4,l8l
122,993
484,471

C/5

O

n

1,858,635
1,767,518
1,513,017
1,289,600
1,118,587!
2,235,523
61,834
1,128,179

1,648,690

1,542,359
1,262,505

1,131.597

939.946

I.59I.749

1,321,011
1 ,258,520
996,992
827,922
726,915
818,579

802,525 4,47148

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

87

POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES BY STATES.

(Continued.)

Montana
Wyoming . . .
Colorado
New Mexico

Arizona

Utah

Nevada

Idaho

.Washington ,

Oregon

California . .

1890.

132,159

60,705

412,198

153.593
59,620

207,905
45.761
84,385

349.39°

3 '3.767
1,208,130

1880.

39.159
20,789

194,327

119,565

40,440

143,963

62,266

32,610

75,116

174,768

864,694

1870.

20,595
9,118
39,864
91,874
9,658
86,786
42,491
14,999

23-955

90,923

560,247

TWELVE O'CLOCK NOON GREENWICH MEAN TIME.

AS COMPARED WITH THE CLOCK IN THE FOLLOWING PLACES :

H. M.

Boston, U.S 7 16 a.m.

Chicago 6 8 a.m.

Dublin 11 35 A.M.

Edinburgh 11 47 A.m.

Glasgow. 11 43 A.M.

Lisbon n 23 A.M.

Madrid 1 1 45 a.m.

Newfoundland, St. Jns 8 29 a.m.

New York 7 4 a.m.

Penzance 11 37 a.m.

Philadelphia 6 59 a.m.

Calcutta 5 53P-M.

Cape of Good Hope.. 1 14 p.m.

Constantinople 1 56 p.m.

Florence 045 p.m.

Hobart, Tasmania ... 9 49 p.m.

Jerusalem 2 2 1 p.m.

Madras' 5 21 p.m.

Malta o 58 p.m.

Melbourne, Australia. 9 40 p.m.

Moscow 2 30 P.M.

Paris o 9 P.M.

H. M.

Quebec 7 15 a.m.

San Francisco Port. . 4 23 a.m.

Toronto 6 42 a.m.

Vancouver 3 38 a.m.

Adelaide 9 14 p.m.

Auckland, N. Z 11 39 p.m.

Berlin o 54 p.m.

Berne o 30 p m.

Bombay 4 51 p.m.

Brisbane, Queensland. 10 12 p.m.

Brussels o 17 p.m.

Pekin 7 46 p.m.

Perth, W. Australia. . 8 44 p.m.

Port Moresby 2 40 p.m.

Prague o 58 p.m.

Rome o 50 p.m.

Rotterdam o 18 p.m.

St. Petersburg 2 1 p.m.

Stockholm 1 12 p.m.

Suez 2 10 p.m.

Sydney 10 5 p.e.

Vienna 1 6 p.m.

Variation of Time depends upon Longitude; every degree east
of Greenwich is four minutes earlier, and every degree west four
minutes later. Note the variations in the United States or in
British America.

88

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

SPECIFIC GRAVITIES AND WEIGHTS OF STONES,

ETC.

Stones, Earths,
Etc.

Amber

Asbestos

Asphalte, gritted . .

Basalt

Bathstone

Bermuda stone,

hard

Bermuda stone,

soft

Beryl, Oriental . . .

Bitumen

Brick, common

stock

Brick, red facing.

Brick, fire

Cement, Portland.
Cement, Roman . .

Chalk, solid \

Chalk in lumps . .

Clay, potters'

Clay with gravel . .

Clay, ordinary

Coal, anthracite . .
Coal, bitumi- (

nous I

Coke

Concrete

Concrete, lime

Coral

Crystal, rock

Diamond

Emerald, Peru

Emery

Feldspar

Flint

Freestone, hewn.

O

1.078
2.996

2.5

2.864

1.97

2.62

1.47

3-549
1.

1.8
2.

2.4

1.2

•9
1.8

2.8

1.9

2.

'•9
1.602
1.24
1.44
• 7

1:1
2.68
2 653
3-536

2 -775

4.

2.6

2-594

2.2

"3

p 2.
crot?

off

►-h O

67
187
156
180
123

164

92

221

62

"5
130

87
60
112
175
87
120
130
120
100

77
90

47
120
118
167
165
221

173
250
162
162
140

Stones, Earths,
Etc.

Glass, white flint..

Glass, plate

Glass, crown

Granite

Gypsum

Jargon, Ceylon . . .

Kentish rag ......

Lime, Chalk,
ground

Limestone, lias . . .
" magnesian .

Marble (average).

Marl

Masonry, rubble. .
" ashlar, Port'd
" " granite

Millstone

Mortar, old

Mortar, new

Mud

Opal

Peat, hard

Pitch

Quartz

Rotten stone . . .

Sand, river

Sandstone

Shale

Shingle

Slate

Slates, Cornish . . .

Spar

Sulphur, melted

Tiles, average ....

Topaz

Trap

White lead

en

rig
3 3;

3-

2.94

2-53

2.625

2.28

4.416

2.66

■83

2-5

2.3
2.7

1-9

2.2

2.2

2-5

2-5

1-4

1-7

1

2

I

I

2

2.

1-9

2-3

2.6

63
114
3
1

64

2.9
2-5
2-594

2

i'8
3-8

2.7
3.16

p <

m C 2.

• cut)

O HiO

188
184
158
164
140
276
166

52
156

M4
170
120
140
140
160

155
90
no
102
132
83
79
166
124
118

'I 5
162

§5
181

160
162
U4
115
237
172
197

CHAPTER IV.

TABLES OF MEASURES, ETC.

DIMENSIONS OF ONE ACRE.

A square, whose sides are 12,649 rods, or 69.57 rods, or 208.71
feet long, contains one acre. Table of dimensions of rectangle
containing one acre:

RODS.

1 X 160

1^X106%

2X80

2^X64

3 X 53K

3^X 45 5-7

4X40

4^X35 5-9

S X 32

S'AX 29 i-ii

6X26%

6^X24 8-13

7 X 22 6-7

7KX 21K

8X20

8^X18 14-17

9 X 17 7-9

<)%X 16 16-19

10X16

10KX15 5-21

11 X 14 6-1 1

u'AX 13 7-1 1

12X13K

12^X12 4-5

TO COMPUTE THE VOLUME OF BRICKS, AND THE
NUMBER IN A CUBIC FOOT OF MASONRY.

Rule. — To the face dimensions of the particular bricffs used, add
one half of the thickness of the mortar or the cement in which
they are laid and compute the area; divide the width of the wall
by the number of brick of which it is composed^ multiply this area
by the quotient thus obtained, and the product will give the volume
of the mass of brick and its mortar in inches. Divide 1 ,728 by this
volume, and the quotient will give the number of bricks in a cubic
foot.

Example. — The width of a wall is to be 12^ inches, and the
1 front of it laid with Philadelphia brick in courses % of an inch in
depth; how many bricks will there be in face and backing in a
cubic foot? Proceed thus:

Philadelphia front brick 8^X2^.

We first red uce all o ur common fractions to decimals.

Then 8.25+.25X2-H2=8.5 length of brick and joint.

Again, 2.375+.25X2H-2=2.625 width of brick and joint.

Then, 8.5X2.625=22.3125 inches area of face.
. Then, 12.75-7-3 (numberof bricks in width of wall)=4.25 inches.

Hence, 22.3125X4.25=94.83 cubic feet.

And 1728-1-94.83=18.22, number of bricks in a cubic foot.

gO WORKSHOP MANUAL.

RULE TO FIND THE NUMBER OF GALLONS
CONTAINED IN A CAN.

Multiply the diameter by the diameter and then the height.

Then multiply by .0034 which will give the number of gallons.

Example: «

6" diameter

36
8" high

288
.0034

1 152
864

97.92
There is the old rule — instead of .0034 multiply by .7854 and
divide by 231".

RULE TO FIND THE HORSE-POWER OF A STATION-
ARY ENGINE.

Multiply the area of the piston by the average pressure in
pounds pe* square inch. Multiply this product by the travel of
the piston in feet per minute; divide by 33000, this will give the
horse-power. Proper example:

Diameter of cylinder, 12

12

144
7854

1130976

BOARD AND TIMBER MEASURE.

Rule. — Multiply the length by the breadth, and the product
will give the surface required.

If the dimensions are given in inches, multiply as above and
divide by 12. When all the dimensions are in inches, multiply as
before and divide the product by 144.

Example. — What are the number of square feet in a board 15
feet in length and 16 inches in width?

15 Xl6=240-h 12=20 feet.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. Qt

ESTIMATES OF MATERIALS.

y/i barrels of lime will do ioo sq. yards plastering, two coats.
2 " " « ioo " « one coat,

i yi bushels of hair " ioo " "

i X yards good sand " ioo " "

Y$ barrel plaster (stucco), will hard finish ioo square yards plas-
tering,
i barrel of lime will lay 1,000 brick. It takes good lime to do it.
2 " ■ i cord rubble stone.

Yz " " i perch " (es. #c'd to perch.)

To every barrel of lime estimate about % yards of good sand
for plastering and brick work.

TABLES CONVENIENT FOR TAKING INSIDE DIMEN-
SIONS.

A box 24 in.x24 111.XI4.7 in. will hold a barrel of 31^ gallons.
A box 15 in.xi4 in.xn in. will hold 10 gallons.
A box %% in.x7 in.x4 in. will hold a gallon.
A box 4 in.x4 in.x3.6 in. will hold a quart.
A box 24 in.x28 in.xi6 in will hold five bushels.
A box 16 in xi2 in.xn.2 in. will hold a bushel.
A box 12 in.xn.2 in. x 8 in. will hold a half bushel.
A box 7 in.x6.4 inxi2 in. will hold a peck..
A box 8 4 in.x8 in.x4 in. will hold a half peck, or four dry
quarts.

A box 6 inx5 3-5 in. and 4 in deep will hold a half gallon.
A box 4 in.x4 in. and 2 1-10 deep will hold a pint.

LAND MEASURE.

To find the number of acres in a body of land, multiply the
length by the width (in rods), and divide the prbduct by 160. When
the opposite sides are unequal, add them, and take half the sum
for the mean length or width.

Find how many acres in a field, 96 rods long and 40 rods wide
at one end and 45 at the other. Ans. 25^ acres.
2)85 5= 40 X 45 96 length.

• 42^

42^ mean width,

160)4080(25^ acres.

92 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

CIRCULAR MEASURE.

The Diameter is a straight line passing through the centre
from opposite parts of the Circumference, or Perimeter.

The Radius is half the Diameter, or a straight line from the
centre to the Circumference.

The Diameter is to the Circumference about as 7 is to 22, or
more nearly as I is to 3'Hl6.

The Diameter X 3'i4i6 gives the Circumference.

The Radius squared X 3"i4i6 gives the Area.

The Diameter squared X 3'i4i6 gives the Area of a Sphere or
Globe.

One-sixth of the Cube of the Diameter X 3'i4i6 gives the
Solidity of a Sphere.

A Circular Acre is 235-504 feet, a Circular Rood U77S 2 leet in
Diameter. The Circumference of the Globe is about 24,855 miles,
and the Diameter about 7,900 miles.

CARPENTERS', BRICKLAYERS" AND BUILDERS'

MEASUREMENTS.

Stock or kiln bricks &H inches X4XX2^

Welsh fire-bricks 9 " X4K X2J4

Pavingbricks -.: 9 " X4^Xi^

Square tiles g% " XgU X I

6 ■ X6 Xi

Dutch clinker bricks g% " X3 Xi^

A Rod of Brickwork \b%. feet X 16^ feet X \%. brick thick =
306 cubic feet, or n)A, cubic yards, and contains about 4,500 bricks
with about 75'cubic feet of mo:tar.

A Square of Flooring is 100 square feet.

Ordinary bricks weigh about 7 lbs. each; a load of 500 weigh
over 1% tons.

EAR CORN MEASURE.

To find the contents of a corn crib multiply the cubic feet by 4
and divide the product by 9.*

Find the contents of a corn crib 18 feet
long, 7 feet wide and 8 feet high.

This allows 2% cubic feet for a bus.
It is the rule most generally used, and will
hold out in ordinary good corn, even if
measured at the time it is cribbed. Ans. 448 bus.

7X8X18=1,008 cu. ft.
4

9)4032

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 93

MEASURES OF LENGTH.

Inch, in = 72 Points, or 12 Lines.

Nail, 1-16 ■ = 2j< Inches.

Palm = 3 Inches.

Hand = 4 Inches.

Link = 7-92 Inches.

Quarter (or a Span) =9 Inches.

Foot = 12 Inches.

Cubit = 18 Inches.

Yard = 36 Inches.

Pace, Military =2 Feet 6 Inches.

Pace, Geometrical = 5 Feet.

Fathom ' = 6 Feet. *

Rod, Pole, or Perch = 5^ Yards.

Chain (100 Links) =22 Yards (4 Poles).

Cable's Length = 120 Fathoms, 720 Feet.

Furlong = 40 Rods, 220 Yards.

Mile =8 Furlongs, 80 Chains, 320 Rods,

1,760 Yards, 5,280 Feet, 63,360 Inches.

Mile, Geographical, or Nautical Knot = 6,o82 - 66 Feet.

Admiralty Knot or Nautical Mile, 6,080 Feet = ri5i Mile
Statute Degree.

League — 3 Miles.

Degree = 60 Geographical, or 69T21 Statute Miles.

WATER.

Cubic inch = '0361 lb.

Gallon — lo'oooo "

35'943 cubic feet (210 gallons) = 1 ton.

The gallon is = 277 # cubic inches, = o - i6 cubic feet, = 10 lb.
distilled water.

Water for Ships: Ton 210 gals., Butt no, Puncheon 72, Barrel
36, Kilderkin 18.

Cisterns: 1 cubic foot, is equal to about 6% gallons, or 62'32i
lb. A cistern 4 feet by 1)A and 3 deep will hold about 187 gallons,
and weigh nearly 16 cwt. in additjon to its own weight.

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF WEIGHTS.

Troy. Apothecaries. Avoirdupois.

1 lb. equals 5,760 grains, equals 5,760 grains, equals 7,000 grains.
I oz. " 480 " " 480 " " 437.5 "

175 lbs. " 175 lbs. " 144 lbs.

The half peck, or dry gallon, contains 268.8 cubic inches. Six
quarts, dry measure, are equal to nearly 7 quarts liquid measure,

94 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

CISTERN MEASURE.

To find the capacity of a round cistern or tank, multiply the
square of the average diameter by the depth, and take 3-16 of the
product. For great accuracy, multiply by 1865 instead of tak-
ing 3-16.

For square cisterns or tanks, multiply the cubic feet by .2}i
(tenths).

Find the capacity of a round cistern, 6 feet in diameter and 8
feet in deep.

6 X 6 X 8 = 288
• _3

16)864(54 barrels.
Ans. 54 barrels of y% gallons.

How many barrels will a square tank hold, 10 feet long, 7 feet
wide, and 6 feet deep?

6 X 7 X 10 = 420 (cubic feet) X 2 3 /i = <^)H barrels. Ans.

GRAIN MEASURE.

To find the capacity of a bin or wagon-bed; multiply the cubic
feet by .8 (tenths). For great accuracy, add l /$ of a bushel for
every 100 cubic feet.

To find the cubic feet, multiply the length, width and depth
together.

Find the capacity of a bin 4X5 X 15=300 cubic ft.
4 ft. wide, 5 ft. deep and 15 ft.
long.

To get the exact ans. 1 bu.
is added for the 300 cu. ft.

How many bus. will a wagon bed
hold, 10 ft. long, 3 ft. wide, 18 in. or 1 %
ft. deep?

A bed 10 ft. long and 3 ft. wide, will
hold 2 bus. for every inch in depth.

Ans. 240.0 bus.
240-4- 1 =24 1 bus. exact ans.

1^X3X10=45 cubic feet.
.8

Ans. 36.0 bus.

HAY MEASURE.

About 500 cubic feet of well settled hay, or about 700 of new
mown hay, will make a ton. To estimate amount of hay in mow —
Ten cubic yards of meadow hay weigh a ton. When the hay is
taken out of old stacks, 8 or 9 yards will make a ton. Eleven or
twelve cubic yards of clover, when dry, make a ton.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 95

TO FIND THE CONTENTS OF A CORN CRIB.

Multiply the number of cubic feet by 4>£ and point off one
decimal place; the result will be the answer in bushels. How
many bushels will a crib hold that is 48 feet long, 7^ feet wide,
and %y z feet high? 48x7^X8^=3,060 cubic feet; 3,060X4^ =
13,770, Ans.

CUBIC OR SOLID MEASURE.

Cubic Foot = 1,728 Cubic Inches.

Cubic Yard =27 Cubic Feet, 21033 bushels.

Stack of Wood .' = 108 Cubic Feet.

Shipping Ton =40 Cubic Feet Merchandise.

Shipping Ton =42 Cubic Feet of Timber.

Ton of displacement of a ship. . . , =35 Cubic Feet.

LIQUID MEASURE.

The United States standard for measurement of all liquid is
the "wine'' or "Winchester" gallon, containing 231 cubic inches.

4 gills make one pint.
2 pints " quart.
4 quarts " gallon.

31 Yz gallons make one barrel.
2 barrels make one hogshead.

MEASURE OF WEIGHT.

The Pound is the United States standard of weight as applied
to general purposes, and is the weight of 277015 cubic inches of
distilled water, at its greatest density (/. e. at 39.83° Fahrenheit,
the barometer being at 30 inches), and is equivalent to 1000 Troy
grains.

27 1 1-32 grains make one dram.
16 drams " ounce.

16 ounces " pound.

25 lbs. make one quarter.
4 quarters make one cwt.
20 cwt. " ton.

In some cases the following table for gross weight is used:
28 lb.=i quar.; 4 quar.=i cwt.; 20 cwt, or 2240 lbs.=i ton.

*
THE METRIC SYSTEM.

The metric system is a system of weights and measures based
upon a unit called a meter.

The meter is one ten- millionth part of the distance from the
equator to either Pole, measured on the earth's surface .at the level
of the sea.

g6 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

The names of derived metric denominations are formed by pre-
fixing to the name of the primary unit of a measure -

Hecto (hek'to), one hundred.
Kilo (kil'o), a thousand.
Myria (mir'ea), ten thousand.

Milli (mill ' e), a thousandth,
Centi (sent'e), a hundredth,
Deci (des ' e), a tenth,
Deka (dek'a), ten,

This system, first adopted by France, has been extensively
adopted by other countries, and is much used in the sciences and
the arts. It was legalized in 1866 by Congress to be used in the
United States, and is already employed by the Coast Survey, and
to some extent, by the Mint and the General Postoffice.

Linear Measures.
The meter is the primary unit of lengths.

10 millimeters (mm.) = 1 centimeter (cm.) = o . 3937 in.

10 centimeters = 1 decimeter — 3.937 in.

10 decimeters = 1 meter = 39-37 in.

10 meters = 1 dekameter ,. =393.37 in.

10 dekameters =1 hectometer =328 ft. 1 in.

10 hectometers =1 kilometer (km.). .= 0.62137 mi.

iokilometers = 1 myriameter. = 6.2137 mi.

The meter is used in ordinary measurements; the centimeter or
millimeter, in reckoning very small distances; and the kilometer
for roads or great distances.

A centimeter is about Y% of an inch ; a meter is about 3 feet 3
inches and Y% ; a kilometer is about 200 rods, or % of a mile.

Surface Measures.

The square meter is the primary unit of ordinary surfaces.
The are (air), a square, each of whose sides is ten meters, is the
unit of land measures.

100 square millimeters (sq. mm.)=i square ) ,. ,

centimeter (sq. cm.) . ................ .\ =°- ^ s * lnch -

100 square centimeters . . — 1 square decimeter .. = 15.5 sq. inches.

100 square decimeters= 1 square ) .„,. . , ,

' meter (sq. m.) 5=iS5osq. in., or i.itfsq. yds.

joo centiares, or sq. meters = 1 are (ar.) = 1 19 . 6 sq. yds.

joo ares = 1 hectare (ha.). .=2.471 acres.

A square meter, or one centiare, is about \q% square feet, or 3
square yards, and a hectare is about 2/£ acres,

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 97

Cubic Measures.

The cubic meter or stere (stair), is the primary unit of a volume,
iooo cubic millimeters (cu. mm.)=i cubic centimeter (cu. cm.)=

[0.061 cubic inch.
1000 cubic centimeters= 1 cubic decimeter=6i.o22 cubic inches.
1000 cubic decimeters. = 1 cubic meter (cu. m.)=3S.3i4 cu. ft.

The stere is the name given to the cubic meter in measuring
wood and timber. A tenth of a stere is a decistere, and ten steres
are a dekastere.

A cubic meter, or stere, is about l}$ cubic yards, or about 2 1-5
cord feet.

Liquid and Dry Measures.

The liter (leeter) is the primary unit of measures of capacity
and is a cube, each of whose edges is a tenth of a meter in length.

The hectoliter is the unit in measuring large quantities of grain,
fruits, roots and liquids.

10 millimeters (ml. ) . = 1 centiliter (cl.) =0 . 338 fluid ounce.

10 centiliters =1 deciliter =0.845 liquid gill.

10 deciliters =1 liter (1.) =1.0567 liquid quarts.

10 liters = 1 dekaliter =2.6417 gallons.

10 dekaliters = 1 hectoliter (hi.) =2 bushels 3.35 pecks .

10 hectoliters = 1 kiloliter =28 bushels 1 JS£ pecks .

A centiliter is about y % of a fluid ounce; a liter is about 1 1-18
liquid quarts, or 9-10 of a dry quart; a hectoliter is about 2 5-6
bushels; and a kiloliter is one cubic meter, or stere.

Weights.

The gram is the primary unit of weights, and is the weight in
a vacuum of a cubic centimeter of distilled water at the tempera-
ture of 39.2 degrees Fahrenheit.

10 milligrams (mg.) = 1 centigram = 0.1543 troy grain.

10 centigrams = 1 decigram.. = 1.543 troygrains.

lodecigrams = 1 gram (g.) = 15.432 troygrains.

10 grams = 1 dekagram = 0.3527 avoir, oz.

10 dekagrams = 1 hectogram = 3.5274 avoir, ozs.

10 hectograms =1 kilogram (k.). . = 2.2046 avoir, lbs.

10 kilograms = 1 myriagram = 22.046 avoir, lbs.

10 myriagrams. . . . = 1 quintal = 220.46 avoir, lbs.

jo quintals =1 TONNEAU (t.) . . . = 2204.6 avoir, lbs,

98 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

The gram is used in weighing gold, jewels, letters, and small
quantities of things. The kilogram, or, for brevity, kilo, is used
by grocers; and the tonneau (tonno), or metric ton, is used in find-
ing the weight of very heavy articles.

A gram is about 15 j£ grains troy; the kilo about 2j£ pounds
avoirdupois; and the metric ton, about 2205 pound?.

A kilo is the weight of a liter of water at its greatest density;
and the metric ton, of a cubic meter of water .

Metric numbers are written with the decimal-point (.) at the
right of the figures denoting the unit; thus, 15 meters and 3 centi-
meters are written, 15 03 m.

When metric numbers are expressed by figures, the part of
the expression at the left of the decimal-point is read as the num-
ber of the unit, and the part at the right, if any, as a number of
the lowest denomination indicated, or as a decimal part of the
unit; thus, 46.525 m. is read 46 meters and 525 millimeters, or 46
and 525 thousandths meters.

In writing and reading metric numbers, according as the scale
is 10, 100, or 1000, each denomination should be allowed one, two,
or three orders of figures.

SCRIPTURE AND ANCIENT WEIGHTS AND
MEASURES.

Inches.
Digit = 0.912

Scripture Long Measures.

Feet. Inches.

Cubit = 1 9.888

Fathom...- = 7 3.552

Palm = 3.648

Span = 10.944

Egyptian Long; Measures.

Nahud cubit. . = 1 foot 5.71 in. | Royal cubit. . = 1 foot 8.66 in.

Grecian Long: Measures

Feet. Inches.

Digit = 0.7554

Pous (foot) = 1 0.0875

Cubit =1 1.598434

Feet. Inches

Stadium = 604 4.5

Mile = 4835

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

99

Digit

Uncia (inch).
Pes (foot)

Roman Long Measures.

Inches.

= 0.72575
= 0.967
= 11.604

Feet

Cubit =

Passus

Mile(millar'm) >

Inches.
1 5.406
4 10.02

4842

Attic obolus.

Attic drachma =

Ancient Weights.

Troy Grains,
8 2

Q.I

51.9
54-6

Alexandrian mina =
Denarius (Roman)
Denarius Nero. .'.

Troy Grains.
9.992
61 .9
62.5

54

4I5-I
437-2
43 r -2
146.5

Egyptian mina. . . . = 8.326 Ounce
Ptolemaic mina . . . = 8.985

Lesser mina = 3 892 Drachm

Greater mina = 1-10 of drachma.

Talent =60 minse = 56 pounds avoirdupois.

Tound = 12 Roman ounces.

In this last table, where two or more values are given for the
same weight, they are from different authorities on the subject.

USEFUL RULES IN MENSURATION.

To find the circumference of a circle, the diameter being given.

Multiply the diameter by 3 1-7. In other words, multiply the
diameter by 22 and divide by 7.

Or, should closer accuracy be required, multiply the diameter
by 3-1416.

Example I. — The diameter of a circle is 8 inches; to find the
circumference.

8 X 22 = 176, which divided by 7 gives 25 t-7 inches, the cir-
cumference required.

Or, 8 X 3-1416 -h- 25-13 inches.

To find the area of a circle, the diameter being given.

Multiply one-quarter of the diameter, or, which is the same
thing, half the radius, by the circumference.

Example II. — The diameter of a circle is 8 inches; to find its
area.

100 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

One-quarter of the diameter is 2 inches; the circumference is
25 1-7 inches.

2 X 25 1-7 = 50 2-7 square inches, the area required.

To find the area of an ellipse, the axes being given.
Multiply the axes together, and multiply the result by 7854.
Example III. — The major axis of an ellipse is 6 inches and
the minor 4 inches; to find its area.

6 X 4 = 24, "which multiplied by 7854, gives 18*85 square
inches nearly.

To find the area of a rectangle.

Multiply the length by the breadth.

Example IV. — The length of a rectangle is 16 inches and the
breadth 9 inches; to find its area.

i6X9-=I44 square inches, that is, one square foot the area re-
quired.

To find' the volume of a circular, elliptical, rectangular, or other
tank, or vessel, of which the sides are perpendicular to the base.

Multiply the area of the base by the height .

If the answer is required in cubic inches, all the dimensions
must be multiplied in inches. If in cubic feet, the dimensions
must be in feet. (See Examples.)

Example Va. — The height of a circular tank is 6 feet, and the
diameter of the base 8 feet; to find its volume.

By Example II. the area of the base is 50 2-7 square feet,
which multiplied by 6 feet gives 301 5-7 cubic feet, the volume re-
quired.

Example Vb. — The height of an elliptical tank is 1 foot 6
inches, the base is 6 inches by 4 inches; to find its volume.

By Example III. the area of the base Js 18*85 square inches,
which multiplied by 18 inches (that is to say, by the height in
inches, as the answer is to be in cubic inches) gives 339*3 cubic
inches, the volume required.

Example Vc. — The height of a rectangular vessel is 2 feet 3
inches, the length 1 foot 4 inches, and the breadth 9 inches; to find
its volume.

We will suppose the answer is required in cubic feet. This
being so, it is in feet that the dimensions must be muitiplied.
Stated in feet, the height is 2 # feet, the length 1 j4 feet, and the
breadth U foot.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. IOI

By Example IV. the area of the base is \% feet multiplied
by ^ foot, that is, is 4-3X^=12-12=1 square foot, which multi-
plied by 2% feet gives 2% cubic feet, the volume required.

To find the volume of a right cone.

Multiply the area of the base by the height and divide by 3.
Example VI. — The height of a cone is 6 inches, and the diam-
eter of the base 3>£ inches to find the volume.

The circumference of the base is 3/£X22 _ I l i ncnes#

7

The area of the base is one-half of 1% inches (the radius)
X 1 i=H X 1 1=74-8=926 square inches.

And the area 9^X6 inches (the height)=57J£, which divided
by 3 gives 19X cubic inches, the volume required.

To find the volume of a frustum of a right cone.

From the volume of the complete cone of which the frustum
is a part subtract the volume of the cone cut off.

For example, the volume of the frustum C A B D is equal
to the volume of the complete cone O A B less the volume of
O C D the cone cut off.

The height of the complete cone and that of the cone cut
off from it to form the frustum can be found by Problem V.

To find the volume of a sphere, the diameter being given.

Multiply the diameter of the sphere by the area of a circle of
same diameter, and take two-thirds of the product.

Example VII. — The diameter of a sphere is 8 inches. The
area of a circle of same diameter is 50 2-7 (see Example II.);
which multiplied by 8 gives 402 2-7 cubic inches, two-thirds of
which (268 1-5 about) is the volume required.

Or, Multiply the cube of the diameter by "5236.

Given the volume of a vessel, any vessel, to find the number of
gallons, quarts, or pints that it will hold.

If the volume is in cubic feet, as in Example V a, then, to
bring it to gallons, multiply by 6%, there being in a cubic
foot of water 6% gallons, about. If the volume is in cubic
inches, divide by 277. The number of cubic inches in a
gallon of water is 277X nearly; but in ordinary calculations,
the quarter may be omitted.

102 workshop manual.

If the volume is required in quarts, multiply it, if in cubic
feet, by 25; if in cubic inches, divide it by 69. The number
of cubic inches in a quart of water is about 69X; in our ex-
amples here we have disregarded the fraction.

If the volume is required in pints, multiply it, if in cubic
feet, by 50; if in cubic inches, divide it by 35. The number
of cubic inches in a pint of water is rather more than 34^;
in our examples we have taken it as 35.

Example VIII. — To find the number of gallons, quarts, or
pints, contained in the tank of Example Va.

Gallons. — 301 5-7X6X=i885 5-7 gallons.

Quarts. — 301 5-7X25=7542 6-7 quarts.

Pints. — 301 5-7x50=15085 5-7 pints.

Example IX. — To find the number of gallons, quarts, or
pints, contained in the tank of Example Vb.

Gallons. — 339 -3-=- 277=1 '22 gallons about.

Quarts. — 339 3 -=-69=4. 92 quarts about.

Pints.— 339' 3-5-35=9' 7 pints about. .
Given the number of gallons, quarts, or pints, that a tank or other-
vessel contains, any vessel, of which the sides are perpendicular
to the base, also the dimensions of the base, to find its height.
. Divide the number of gallons by 6% ; this will give the volume
of the required tank in cubic feet. If the quantity is given in
quarts, then to ascertain the required volume, multiply by 69. If
the quantity is given in pints, multiply by 35.

To find the required height for the tank, divide the volume
found as just shown, by the area of the base.

CHAM ER V.

USEFUL TABLES FOR TINNERS AND
SHEET flETAL WORKERS.

WEIGHT OF A LINEAL FOOT OF FLAT BAR IRON,
IN LBS.

BIRMINGHAM GAUGE.

a
■Sfi

THICKNESS IN

FRACTIONS OF INCHES.

»-i i — I

%

5-16

H

7-16

%

H

X

H

1

i

■83

1.04

1.25

1.46

1.67

2.08

2.50

2.92

3-34

\%

■93

1. 17

1.40

1.64

1.87

2.34

2.81

3-28

375

iX

1.04

1.30

1.56

1.82

2.08

2.60

3-13

3.65

4-17

iH

1. 14

1-43

1.72

2.00

2.29

2.87

344

4.01

4-59

i#

1. 25

1.56

1.87

2.19

2.50

3-13

3-75

4.38

5-00

i#

i-35

1.69

2.03

2-37

2.71

3-39

4.07

4.70

5-43

iK

1.46

1.82

2.19

2-55

2.92

3-65

4-38

5.11

5.84

i#

1.56

1.9;

2.34

2.74

3-13

3-9i

4.69

5-47

6.26

2

1.67

2.08

2.50

292

3-34

4.17

5.01

5.86

6.68

2^

1.77

2.21

2.66

3.10

3-55

443

5-32

6.21

7.10

2#

1.87

2-34

2.81

3.28

3-76

4.69

5 63

6-57

7.52

2J4

1.98

2.47

2.97

347

3 96

4-95

5-95

6.94

7-93

2^

2.08

2.60

3-13

3-65

4-i?

5.21

6.26

7-30

8-35

2^

2.19

2.74

3.28

3-83

4.38

547

6.57

7.67

877

2^

2.29

2.87

344

4.01

4-59

5-74

6.88

8.03

9.18

2^

2.40

3.00

3.60

4.20

4.80

6.00

7.20

8.40

9.60

3

2.50

3-'3

3-75

4-38

5.01

6.26

Z- 51

8.76

10.02

3X

2.71

3-39

4.07

4-74

543

6.78

8.14

9-49

10.85

3^

2.92

3-65

4.38

5.11

5.84

7-3°

8.76

10.23

11.69

3^

3-i3

3-91

4.68

547

6.26

7.82

9-39

10.95

12.52

4

3-34

4.17

5.00

5.84

6.68

8-35

10.02

11.69

I3-36

4X

3-54

4-43

5-32

6.21

7.09

8.87

10.64

12.42

14.19

4^

3-75

4.69

5-63

6.57

7-5i

9-39

11.27

13-15

15-03

4#

3.06

4-95

5-94

6.94

7-93

9.91

11.89

13.88

15.86

5

4.17

5-21

6.26

7-3°

£ 3 5

10.44

12.52

14.61

16.70

5#

4.38

547

6.57

7.67

8.76

11.96

13-14

15-34

17-53

S l A

4-59

5-73

6.88

8.03

9.18

11.48

13-77

16.07

18.37

su

4.80

6.00

7.20

8.40

9.60

12.00

14.40

16.80

Ig.20

6

5.01

6.25

7-5i

8.76

10.02

12.53

15-03

17-53

20.05

104

Workshop MANUAL:

BAR AND SHEET BRASS-WEIGHT IN POUNDS.

Thickness, or
Diameter, or
Size; inches..

~t n.
n 5T

J»

« en

O C

Off

^3

® S

O 3

3 P>
. w

Thickness, or
Diameter, or
Size; inches.

C/3
•£ W

tt

« in

O 3

§ a-

M,0

c

as

&

3 IS

"PS

1-16

i.f

.Si 5

.Oil

1 1-16

45-95

4.07

3.20

'A

541

.055

.045

%

49.69

4-55

3-57

i-16

8.12

.I2|

.1

316

51.4

5.08

3-97

'A

10.76

.225

■175

X

54-18

5.65

4.41

S-16

13-47

•350

.275

5-16

56.85

6.22

4.86

n

16.25

•51

•395

#

59-55

6.31

4-35

7-16

19.

.69

•54

7-16

62.25

745

5-85

K

21.65

.905

.71

X

65.

f-13

6.37

9-16

24-3

1.15

•9

9-16

57-75

8.83

6.92

X

27.12

1.4

1.1

#

70-35

9-55

7-48

11-16

29.77

1.72

i-35

II 16

73-

10.27

8.05

X

32.46

2.05

1.60

X

75-86

11.

8.65

13-16

35-18

2.4

1.85

13-16

78.52

11.82

9.29

%

37-85

2.75

2.15

*

71.25

72.68

9-95

15-16

40.55

3.15

2.48

I5-I6

84.

'3-5

10.58

I

43 29

3.65

2.85

2

86.75

'4 35

11.25

SHEET COPPER.

Weight of sheet copper per square foot and per sheet and
thickness for American wire gauge.

Wt.

14x48

24x48

30x60

36x72

48x72

No.

per sq.

lbs. per

lbs. per

lbs. per

lbs. per

lbs. per

gauge.

foot.

sheet.

sheet.

sheet.

sheet.

sheet.

12

3.660

29.280

45.750

65.880

87.840

13

3-259

26.072

40.737

58.662

78.216

14

2.003

23.224

36.287

52.254

69.672

15

2.585

20.680

32.312

46.530

62.040

16

2.302

18.416

28.775

41.436

55.248

17

2.050

16.400

25.625

36.000
32.850

49.200

18

1.825

14.600

22.812

43.800

19

1.625

13.000

20.312

29.850

36.000

20

1.447

11.576.

18.087

26.046

34.728

21

1.289

10.312

16.112

23.192

30.936

22

1. 148

5-357

9.184

14.360

20.664

27.552

23

1.022

4.769

8.176

12.775

18.396

24,528
21.840

24

.910
.810

4.246

7.280

"•375

16.380

2 I

3.780

6.480

10.125

14.580

19.440

26

.722

3-369

5-776

0.025
8.037

12.996

17-328

27

•643

3.000

5.144

11.574

15432

28

.572

2.669

4.576

7.150

10.296

13.728

Vv6rkshop MANUAL.

i&$

TINNED SHEATHING COPPER.

Thickness
Wire Gauge

Weight per
sheet.

Size of Sheet

Weight per
Square foot.

No.
24

25

Lbs.
4
4

Ozs.
9

4

Inches.
14x48
14x48

Ounces.
14
'7

GUTTER COPPER — 20X72

INCHES.

Thickness
Wire Gauge

Thickness of 30x60
sheet.

Sheet of same thick-
ness 20x72

No.

' 27

24

23

Lbs.
10
12

14

Size.
30x60
30x60
30x60

Lbs.

9

10

13

Ozs.
2
8

2

BAR AND SHEET COPPER. — WEIGHT IN POUNDS.

WfJH

Ulm

K. W

KOH

c/i

« C/3

S c

X 5>"eT.
"3£

c
p

«*9
c

™ a "
5 w

.a in
S n

k*/ 2
^

ness,

eter,

inches

n

go-

c-t- H

2 &
crq 1

^0 p

s •-* w

t^ -
™

2 ^

t-hT3
O ft
O "1

^0>

So-

1-16

2.88

015

.011

1 1-16

49.

4.35

3-41

H

5-75

.06

.056

X

52.

4.86

3-«5

3-16

8.65

•134

.105

3-16

54-9

5.40

4.29

X

11.48

.235

.187

X

57-65

6.

4-73

S-16

14.36

.375

•295

5-16

60.5

6.60

5.20

H

17.28

•54

.424

H

53-45

7.27

5.70

7-16

20.19

■735

•575

7-16

66.35

7.90

6.28

a

23.1

.960

•75

%

69-3

8.64

6.80

0-16

26.

1.21

•95

9-16

72.15

9.28

7-3°

*

28.85

1.51

1. 17

#

75-i

10.15

8.

11-16

31.68

1.81

1.42

11-16

77-95

10.95

8.6

H

34-57

2.15

1-7

X

80.75

11.70

9.24

13-16

36.46

2.54

2.

13-16

83.60

12.60

9.85

#

40.39

2.95

2-3

H

86.58

13.46

10.55

is-16

43-27

3-37

2.64

15-16

89.45

14-35

11.25

1

46.15

3-84

3.01

2

92.25

15-35

12.

106 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

MARKS AND WEIGHTS OF TIN-PLATE.

No,

Marks on

NAMES.

SIZES.

in

Weight

OF

the

Box.

Each Box.

Boxes.

Inches.

cts.

qrs.

lbs.

13^x10
13XX 9%

225

1

3

21

CI

CII

I2^x, 9 y 2
13^x10

u u

u

tt
u

1
1

3
1

1

16

21

CHI

XI

XXI.

Three Crosses No. I

tt K

tt

1

2

14

XXXI,

u a

a

1

3

7

XXXXI

16^X12^

IOO

3

21

CD

« a

«

1

14

XD

a a

«

1

1

7

XXD

Three " "

ft u ~

"

1

2

XXXD

Four ■ "

a u

u

1

2

21

XXXXD

Common Small Doubles

15 XII

200

1

2

CSD

Cross

a tt

1

2

21

XSD

Two Cross " "

tt tt

1

3

U

XXSD

Three « "

u tt

2

7

XXXSD

Four " « «

U U

2

1

XXXXSD

Waster's Common No. i

13^X10

225

1

WCI

" Cross No. i . . .

U tt

H

1

1

WXI

SHEET IRON.

Black and galvanized sheet iron; weight and measurement per
square foot.

Roof

Weight

Square
foot

No. of

Weight

Square
foot

wire

per

wire

per

gauge.

Sq. foot.

per ton.

gauge.

Sq. foot.

per ton.

2

12 oz.

2,987

20

28 oz.

1.327

13

2,757

s

30

I.I95

27

14

2,560

35

1,054

26

~. is

2,389

17

36

t

25

16

2,240

16

42

24

17

1,991

15

46

779

23

19

1,792

14

53

677

22

21

1,629

13

6i

588

21

24

1.493

12

70

512

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

107

Sheet Iron.— Continued.

COMMON SHEET IRON.

Thickness and weight per square foot of any kind, sheets
usually 24 in. wide and 28 in. long.

71 ho
<u 3
C ol
-M bo

« u

J3 1-

'53

3

ojoo
00*.-

S3 3°
2.K

Weight

per
uare foot.

r.

.SPtf

h is

CI

Hg

en

No.

lbs.

OZ.

lbs.

OZ.

No.

lbs.

OZ.

lbs.

OZ.

14

3

12

S2

24

1

I

14

1

16

3

42

25

1

14

18

2

5

32

6

26

15

13

2

20

1

9

21

27

14

12

4

22

1

5

18

6

28

12

10

8

WEIGHT OF GALVANIZED SHEET IRON.

No.

Width in

Weight per
sheet — lbs.

No.

Width in

Weight per

inches.

inches.

sheet — lbs.

16

24

42

24

28

18

16

30

54

24

30

20

18

24

35

26

24

14

18

28

4i

26

28

17

18

3°

4 3

26

30

18 *

20

24

26

27

24

13

20

28

30

27

28

16

20

3°

33

27

3°

17

22

24

20

28

24

13

22

28

25

28

28

15

22

3°

27

28

30

16

24

24

16

to8

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

NET COST AND WEIGHT OF GALVANIZED SHEET
IRON.

The following table shows gauges of galvanized sheet iron
with weights per square foot; list price per pound; cost per square
foot at list, together with cost per pound and per square foot at
different discounts. The prices are calculated to three places of
decimals, which is sufficiently accurate for all practical purposes.

Gauge Number.

H

16

17

18

19

Weight per square foot, oz.,

Light price per pound

Cost per square foot at List..

per lb. . .
persq. ft.
per lb. . .
persq. ft.
per lb. .
per lb. ft.

{ per lb. .

f— •"■■
persq. ft.

, persq. ft.
( per lb. . .

per lb. . .
persq. ft.
per lb. . .
persq. ft.
per lb. . .
persq. ft.
per lt>.. .
persq. ft.
per lb. . .
persq. ft.
per lb.. .
per sq. ft.
per lb. . .
persq. ft.
per lb...
persq. ft.
per lb. . .
persq. ft.
per lb. . .
persq. ft.
per lb...
per sq. ft
per lb...
per sq. ft

60

48

43

38

.12
■36

12
323

285

33

.12
.248

"4
428
in
416
108
405
105

394
102

383
099

37i

096

36

°93

349

09

338

087

326

084

315

081

304

08

30

078

293

°75

281

72

27

069

259

.114

• 342
. in

■333
.108

■ 324
.105

•315
. 102
.306
.009
.297
.096
.288
•093

• 279
.09
.27
.087
.261
.084
.252
.081

.243
.08

.24
.078

■ 234
.075
.225
.072
.216
.069
.207

114
306
in

.21

:o8

290

105

282

102

.274

.099

.266

.096

.258

.093

•25
.09
.242
.087
234
.084
226
081
218
08
215
078
21
075
202
072
194
069
185

.114
.278
.111
.264
.108
.257
.105
.249
.102
.242
,099

235
.096
.228
.093
.221
.09
.214
.087
,207
,084
.20
.081

192

08

I9 „
078

185

075

178

072

171

069

164

.114

•235

.111

.229

.108

.223

.105

.217

.102

.21

.099

.204

.096

.198

• 093
.192
.09
.186
.087

.179
.084

• "73
.081
.167
.08
.165
.078
.161
.075

• 155
.072

.149
.069

.142

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

IO9

Net Cost and Weight of Galvanized Sheet Iron.

(Continued.)

Gauge number 14

Gauge Number.

Weight per sq. ft., oz .

List price per pound. .
Cost per sq. ft. at List.

Cost at Sperct.Dis.jP^g;- f ;

iz%

per lb.

per sq. ft

per lb

per sq. ft

per lb

per sq. ft. ......

20 21 22 23 24

28

114
20
in
.194
.108
189
105
.184

24

•13

.195

124

1 85

12

18

117

176

114

171

13

171

.124

.162

.12

.158

.117

• 154

.114

.149

19

13
154

124

147
12

143
117

139
114

'35

17

I3 „
138

.124

• 131

.12

.128

.117

.124

.114

■ 121

no

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

Net Cost and Weight of Galvanized Sheet- Iron.

(Continued,)

Gauge number.

23

24

Weight per square foot, oz

List price per pound

Cost per square foot at List

28

24

19

■13

.105

13
171

13
154

17

13
138

Cost at 15 perc. Dis

» 17/2 " «

« 20 " "

« 22^ " "
"25 « ■

« 27 ^ « «

"30 " "

« 32 ^ « «

" 33'A " "

" 3?

" 7>VA

' 40

" 42K

" 45

' 47^

" 5°

* 52^

" 55

' STA

" 60

-.1

per lb. . ..
per sq. ft.
per lb. . . .
per sq. ft.

per lb

per sq. ft.
per lb. . . .
per sq. ft.

per lb

per sq. ft.
per lb. . . .
per sq. ft.

per lb

per sq. ft.

per lb

per sq. ft.

per lb

per sq. ft.
per lb. . . .
per sq. ft.

per lb

per sq. ft.

per lb

per sq. ft.

per lb

per sq. ft.

per lb

per sq. ft.
per lb. . . .
per sq. ft.
per lb ... .
per sq. ft.
per lb. . . .
per sq. ft.
per lb. . . .
per sq. ft.
per lb. . . .
per sq. ft.
per lb. . . .
per sq. ft.

.102
.179
•099
'73
.096
,168
093
'63
09
158
087
152
084
147
081
142
98

14
078

137
075

131

072

126

069

121

066

116

063

11

06

105

057

10

054

095

051

089

048

084

11
166
107
161
104
156
.101

151
.098
.146

.094
141
091

137

088

132

.087

13

.085
127
c8i
122

.078

.117
075
112
072
107
068
102

.065
098

.062

■093
059
.088

055
.083
052
078

. in

145
107
141
104

137
101
132
098
128
094
124
091
119
088

. in

■131

.107

.127

.104

.124

.101

.12

.098

.116

.094

. 112

.091

.108

.088

115 .104
087 087
114 .103

085
in
081
107

.085
.10I

.081

096

078 .078

102'. 093

075'. 075

098 .089
072 .072

094

068

09

065

085

062

081

059

077

055

073

052

068

.085
.068
.081
.065

.077

.G62

■073
.059

.069

.055
.066

.052
.062

.III

.117

.107

.114

.104
.III

.101

.107

.098

.104

•094

.10
.091

.097
.088

•093
.087

.092

.085

.09

.081

.086

.078

.083

•075
.079

.072
.076

.068

•073
.065
.069
.062

.066
.059

.062

.055
.059

.052

.055

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

Ill

Net Cost and Weight of Galvanized Sheet Iron.

( Continued.)

Gauge number.

23

24

Weight per square foot, oz.

List price per pound

Cost per square foot at List

28

24

19

17

•13
.105

•13
.171

•13

■154

I3 „
138

Cost at 62^% Dis.

"65 " "

" 67^ " «

"70 « «

" 72K " "

per lb

per sq. ft.
per lb. . . .
per sq. ft.

per lb

per sq. ft.

iper lb. . . .
per sq. ft.
per lb. . . .
per sq. ft.
\ per lb. . . .
/ per sq. ft.

.045

079
042

073
039
068
036
063

033
058

03
052

.049
• 073
.045
.068
.042
.063

•039
.058
.036
.054
.032
.049

.049
.064
.045
.060
.042
.056

039
.051
.036
.047
.032
.042

.049
.058
.045
.054
.042
.050

•°39
.046
.036
.042
.032
.038

■ 049
.052
.045
.048
.042
.045

■039
.041
.036
.038
.032
.034

Gauge Number.

Weight per square foot, oz.

List price per pound

Cost per square foot at List.

lb.

Costat 5 perct.Dis.jP^;- f -;

_ . , « « \ per lb

j per sq. ft .

i per lb

i per sq. ft.

. . . per lb.
( per sq.
\ per lb .
( per sq,
\ per lb

" 16 «

" 12J4 "

" 15 "

" 17V2 "

". 20 "

" 22^ "

« 25 "'

" 27^ "

" 30 "

f~- '"■ ■-■■

per sq. ft.

1 per lb

1 per sq. ft.

( per lb

/ per sq. ft.

I per lb

/ per sq. ft.

( per lb

I per sq. ft.

per lb.. . .

per sq. ft.

per lb

per sq. ft.

per lb

per sq. ft,

„ i per lb

/ per sq,

« j per lb

25 26

16

■'33

•133

■13

13

. 126
.126
.123
.123
.119
.119
.116
.116
,112
,112
,109
,109
105
105
102

102
O98
O98

iS

• 14

• 131

• 133
.125

• 13

.121
.126
.118
.123

.IIS
.119
.112
.116
.108
.112
.105
.109
.102
.105

.og8
.102

.095
.098
.092

27 28 29

14

15
131

■143
.125
■139
.121

■ I3 §
.118

■131

.115

.128

. 112

. 124

.108

.12

.105

,116

102

"3
098
109
095
105
092

13

.16

■13 -135

.152

.124

.148

. 120

.144

.117

.14

.114

.136

.111

.132

.107

.128

.104

.124

.101

.12

.098

.116

.094

.112

.094

.171
.128
.167
.125
.162
.122
.158
.118

■ 153

.115

.149

.111

.144

.108

.14

.105

■135
.101
..38
.096
.125
.092

112

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

Net Cost and Weight of Galvanized Sheet Iron.

(Continued.)

Gauge Number 25

Weight per square foot, oz.

List price per pound ,

Cost per square foot at List .

Cost at32^p.c.

" 33M "

" 35 "

- yjy z «

" 40 "

« 42^ «

" 45 "

* . M% "

" 50 •

" S*% "

" 55 *

« 57^ «

« 60 "

" 62^ "

" 65 «

" 67^ -

" 70 "

" 72^ "

« 75 .

Dis

■ !

• !

per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
pei lb.
per sq.
pei lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq,
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.
per lb.
per sq.

ft.

ft

ft.

ft..

ft.

ft.

16

095

095

093

°93

091

091

088

688

084

084

081

081

,077

077

074

074

.07

.07

067

067

063

063

06

06

056

056

052

052

049

049

045

045
.042
.042
038
038
035
035

26

15

H
131

.095
.089

093
088
091
085
088
082
084
079
081
075
077
072
.074
069
.07
066
067
062
.063
.059
06
.056
056
052
052
049
049
046
.045

043
.042

039
.038
.036
•°35
■033

27

14

•15
•131

.101

.089

.10

.088

.098

.085

.094

.082

.09

.079

.086

.075

.083

.072

.079

.069

.075

.066

.071

.062

.068

•°59

.064

.056

.06

.052

.056

.049

.052

.046

.049

■ 043

.045

■°39

.041

.036

•037

•033

28

29

13

.16
•13

.108

.088

. 107

.087

.104

.085

.10

.081

.096

.078

.092

.075

.088

.072

.084

.068

.08

.065

.076

.062

.072

•055
.06I
.055
.064
.052
.060
.049
.056
.045
.052
.042
.048

■°39
.044
.036
.040
.032

.18
•135

.121

.09

.12

.097

.118

.083

.114

.088

.101

.084

.108/

.079'

■ 094.

.075

.091

.07

.098

.066

.084

.061

.081

.C87

.077

.056

.072

.054

.067

.051

.063

.047

.058

.044

.054

.040

.049'

•037

.045

• 034

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

"3

REGISTERS AND VENTILATORS, VERTICAL WHEEL.

Sizes
as given
on List

4X* £>A

n.

4

x 8

n.

4

XIO

n.

4

XI?

n.

4

XI8

n.

6

x 8

n.

6

x 9

n.

6

XIO

n.

6

XI4

n.

6

xi6

n.

6

xi8

n.

6

X24

n.

7

x 7

n.

7

XIO

n.

8

x 8

n.

8

XIO

n.

8

XI2

n.

8

XI5

n.

8

Xl8

n.

9

x 9

n.

9

XI2

n.

9

XI4

n.

10

XIO

n.

10

XI2

n.

10

XI4

n.

10

Xl6

n.

IOj

ixi6A

n.

12

XI2

n.

12

XI?

n.

12

XI7

n.

12

XI9

n.

14

XI4

n.

14

Xl8

n.

14

X22

n.

16

Xl6

n.

16

X20

n.

16

X24

n.

20

X20

n.

20

X26

n.

21

X29

n.

30

X30

n.

Opening to
admit Body
of Register.

4^x t%
4^x 8X
4^xioX
4^x15
4^x1
(>Ax &H
6%x 9%
6%yLlo l / 2

6/ 2 xhX

6}ixi6

6%xi%y s

6^x24^

7%x 7H

7 3 Axl°'A

%%x 8%

8^xio|^

8Xxn^

8Hxi5rt

&%xi8X

9%x 9%

9^x12

9 l AxHA

io^xioX

io}ixi2.'A

ioAxH%

loyixiSys

io#xi6>£

12 xi2

12 X15

12 X17X

i2y s xi9'A
14^x14^

I4^xi8X
nYixmys
l6ygxl6yg

IS%X20>|

i6^x24X

2I^X2lX

20^x26

2 1 X29

30 X30

Extreme

Dimensions

of Register

Face.

5Xx 7K
SAx 9'A
SUxiiU
5%xi6y s

S%*i9 l A
.7 7 A* 9 3 A
8 xioX
8 xi2
8#xi5#

8'Axi7 3 A
8^x20
8 X26
8J^x 8#
8^xnM
9^x 9%
9^x11^
9^x13%
9%xi6iA

10 xi9%
10^x10^

loUxnU

11 x 6}i

12 XI2
nj<xi4
I2^xi6X
12 xi8
I2|ixi8^
14 xi4
13^x16^
14 XI9

I4XX2IJ^

16AX16A

i6Ax2oj4

16^x24

i8%xi8^

17^x21^

18^x26^

22^X22^
22^x28^
23>^X3lX
32f^X32|^

Depth of the
Register.

Clos'd Open

iA

iyk

i%

i 7 A

iH

iA

iyk

i%

iA

i%

iA

iA

2

2

2A

2A

2A

2A

2A

2%
2%
2%
2A
2%
2A
2%
2A
2%
2A
2A
2%
2%
2%
2U
2A
2A
2A
lA

3%
3H
lA

2

2%

iA.
*A
2A
2A
iA
2A
2A
2A
2A
2A

2%
2%

3
3
3
3

k

3X
3%
3%
lU
3H

3%

*,%

4X

VA

iA

4

4

4

iA 1

iA

\A

VA*

5A

f

Opening to

admit Iron

Border.

I0^XI2#
I0KXI3X

I0^xi4ji

uAxi8A
\\Ax20U

\\A.X22%

\\A,x2%A
nAxnA
hAxhA
\2Ax\2A

12'AxHA
12^X16^

12^x19^

12^X22^
13^X13^
I2Axl6A
I3AXI9A

hUxhU
15AX17H
15^x19^

15 x2l 'A
15AX21A

i6^xi6X
16^x19^

17^X22^

17^8X24
19AX19U

\9%x2zA

19AX27A

2\Y%X2\%
20%X2$A
22 X30X

27^x27^

27XX33X
28^x36^
37^X37^

H4

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

NO. POUNDS OF ROUND AND SQUARE
PER FOOT.

BAR IRON

tn

V

•a
lo

O

U5

>-<

it

SI

V)

(3

pa

a

5

3
CO

13
C
3
O

(5

V

3
CT
CO

T3

a
3

rt.H

5

u

a

3

CO

•0

a

3

ft*

%

.20g

.164

I

3-34

2.62

2#

27.6l

21.68

5-ib

.326

.256

i'A

4.22

3

32

3

30.07

23.60

^

.470

■369

i'A

S-25

4

09

3*

35-28

27.70

7-16

.640

.502

iH

6-35

4

96

VA

40.91

32.23

K

■«3S

.656

iy 2

7-5i

5

90

*u

46.97

36.89

9-16

1.057

.831

1^

8.82

6

92

4

53-44

41-97

H

1-305

I .025

i«

10.29

8

03

4X

60.32

47-38

11-16

1-579

I .241

1^

11.74

22

4^

67.63

53-12

H

1.879

1.476

2

I3-36

10

49

4*<

75-35

59.18

13-16

2.205

1.732

2^

15.08

11

84

5

83-5i

65-58

H

2.556

2. Oil

2X

16.91

n

27

SX

92.46

72-33"

15-16

2.936

2.306

2^8

18.84

14

79

5/ 2

101 .03

79-35

2K

20.87

16

39

5&

114-43

86.73

2^

23.11

18

07

6

120.24

94-43

2M

25.26

19

84

INTERNAL AREAS OF WROUGHT IRON PIPE.

Size sf Pipe.

Internal Area.

Length per foot
of Surface.

Gallons per foot

in Length.

'A in.

0.3648 in.

4 . 502 ft.

0.0102 gal.

U "

0-5333 "

3.637 "

-0.0230 "

1 "

0.8627 "

2.903 «

0.0408 "

1% «

1 . 496 "

2.301 "

0.0638 «

iK "

2.038 "

2.01 «

0.0918 "

2 "

3-355 "

1. 611 "

0. 1632 "

2% «

4.783 "

1.328 "

0.2550 *

3 , :

7.388 "

1. 091 "

0.3673 ■

3K «

9.887 «

0.955 «
0.849 "

0.4998 "

4 "

12.730 "

0.6528 ■

4^ •

15 -939 "

0.765 "

0.8263 "

1 "

19.900 "
28.889 "

0.629 "

1 .020 "

6 "

0.577 «

1.469 «

7 "

38.737 "

0-535 "

1.099 "

8 «

50.039 «

0.444 "

2. 611 «

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

"5

WILSON'S TABLE OF DIMENSIONS OF CHIMNEYS.

<u

a

c

O
•G Q,

S 2

s of column
alanced by
re.

each sq. ft.
Assuming 7
horse power.

■« O

5

U 5=

iimney in ft.

r where sev-

working to-

ui
U
O
S3
u
O

a.

6
u

O
■4-J

Is

oj n 3
y i_ <"

a ^ t.

■" u p,

C -" 4-.

K oxi

° .S3

* s a

S

u °
!= "

u-. D.
O •

"•« S2""
°S.-3

° Q.W

?««

.2 T2

M-< O 2 ^

Oj3^ «J

a

O OJ

.bp

3^c

<U .rQ

5 p-u ho

Jf

<

30

78.24

.218

7-3

.146

.091

.182

40

90-35

296

8

4

.126

.077

■155

So

101.01

364

9

4

•113

.070

.140

60

110.65

437

10

3

.103

- .064

. I29

70

119.52

5 o

11

2

■095

•059

.119

80

127.77

58

11

9

.089

■055

.III

90

135-52

65b

12

6

.084

.052

.105

100

142.85

729

13

3

.08

.05

.01

125

159.71

911

14

9

.071

.054

.089

150

174.96

I

OQ

16

3

.065

.04

.082

175

188.98

I

26

17

6

.060

.038

■075

200

202 . 03

I

45

18

8

.056

•035

.07

225

214.28

I

64

20

■053

•033

.066

250

225.87

I

82

"^21

.05

.031

.063

275

236.90

I

99

22

.048

.03

.06

300

247-43'

2

18

23

.046

.028

.057

SPUN BRASS KETTLES-WEIGHT AND CAPACITY OF.

Diameter

Weight.

Capacity.

Diameter.

Weight.

Capacity

Inches.

Pounds.

Gallons.

Inches.

Pounds.

Gallons.

7

1

%

18

10^

10

8

1%

1

19

12%

12

9

2H

iH

20

16%

14

10

3

2

21

18

17

11

3'A

2/2

22

20

18

12

4

3

23

23

23

13

5 ,

4

24

27^

25

14

iU

A%

25

29

30

15

6y 2

5

26

32

32

16

TA

6

27

37

37

17

9

8

28

40

42

u6

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

COST OF TIN ROOFING PER SQUARE AND SQUARE

FOOT.

FLAT SEAM ROOFING — COST WITH 20X28 TIN.

Price of

Tin per

box.

$8.00...

Cost pe

square t

flat roo:

20x28 Ti

. .$ 2.01

r

)f

Cost per

a. sq. foot.

0201

0213

0226

0238

0251

0263

0276

0288

0300

0313

0325

0338

0350

0363

0375

0388

Price of
Tin per

box.
$16.00...

16.50...

17.00...

17.50...

18.00. . .

18.50...

19.00...

19.50...

20.00. ..

20 . 50 . . .

21.00...

21.50. ..

22.00. . .

22.50...

23.00...

Cost per

square of

flat roof Cost per
20x28 Tin. sq. foot.
..Sd.oi odoi

8.50
. 00 . . .

. . 2 . 26

4-13

4.26

4.38

4.5i

4-63

4-76

4.88

5-01

S-H

5.26

5-38

5-5i

5-63

s.76

■0413
.0426

9.50...

10. CO. . .

.. 2.38
.. 2.51

.0438
.0451

10.50...

.. 2.63
. . 2 . 76

.0463
.0476

1 1 . 50 . . .

2.88
3 . 00

.0488
.0501

12.50. ..
13.00. . .

13.50...

14 00 .

14.50...

15.00. . .

•■ 313
•■ 3- =5

• • 338
•• 3-5°
•• 3'63

• • 3 75

•0513
.0526
.0538
.0551
■ 0563
.0576

15.50...

.. 3-88

STANDING SEAM ROOFING — COST WITH 20X28 TIN.

Price

of Tin

per box

$8.00..

8.50...

9.00..,

9.50..

10.00...

10.50...

11.00...

11.50..

12.00..
12.50..
13.00..
I3-50-.
14.00..

I4.50--
15.00..
15.50..
16.00. .,

Cost per

square of

standing seam

roof with

Cost per

20x28 Tin.

sq. foot.

...$ 2.15...

... .0215

2.28...

. .. .0228

2.41...

... .0241

2.55...

... .0255

2.68...

... .0268

2.82...

. . . .0282

2.95...

... .0295

3.09...

. . . .0309

3.21...

... .0321

3-35-.-

... -0335

3.48...

. . . .0348

3.62...

. . . .0362

3-75...

. . . .0375

3.89...

. . . .0389

4.02...

. .. .0402

4.15...

. .. .0415

4.29...

. . . .0429

Cost per

square of

Price standing seam

of Tin

roof with

2ost per

per box. 20x28 Tin.

sq. foot.

$16.50. . .

- -S4-42

.0442

17.00...

4-5°

.0456

17.50...

4-69

.0469

18.00...

4.82

.0482

18.50...

4-96

.0496

19.00...

5-09

.0509

19.50...

5-23

.0523

20.00. ..

5.36

.0536

20 . 50 . . .

5-49

.0549

21 .00. ..

5-63

.0563

^1 .50. . .

5-76

. .0576

22.00. . .

5-90

.0590

22.50...

6.03

. .0603

23.00...

6.17

. .0617

23.50...

6.30

.0630

24.00,.,

•

6-43

.0643

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

117

Cost of Tin Roofing per Square and Square Foot.

(Continued.)

FLAT SEAM ROOFING— COST WITH 14x20 TIN.

Price of

Tin per

box.

$4-25....
4.50...,

4.75....
5.00...,
5- 25....
5.50...

5.75...

6.00

6.25

6.50

6.75...

7.00

7.25...
7.50...
7-75-.-.
8.00....

Cost per

square of

flat roof

14x20 Tin.

Cost per

sq. foot.

. .0221
■ • "0234
. . -0247

. .0260

2.21...

2.34...

2.47...

2.60...

2.73 0273

2.86 0286

.0299
.0312
.0325
• 0338
■0351
.0364

■0377

3-9° 0390

4-03 0403

4.16 0416

2.99.
3.12.
3-25-
3-38.
3-5I-
3-64-
3-77-

Price of

Tin per

box.

£8.25
8.50

8-75
9.00
9.25
9.50

9-75
10.00
10.25
10.50
10.75
11.00
11.25
11.50
11.75
12.00

Cost per

square of

flat roof

14x20 Tin,

$4.29

4.42

4-55

4.68

4.81

4-94

5.07

5.20

5-33

5.46

5-59
5.72
5.85
5.98
6. 11
6.24

Cost per _
sq. foot. "

.0429
.0442

■0455
.0468
.0481
.0494
.0507
.0520

•0533
.0546
.0559
.0572
.0585
.0598
.0611
.0624

STANDING SEAM ROOFING — COST WITH 14X20 TIN.

Price of

Tin per

box,

$4-25
4.50

4-75
5.00

5-25
5 So

6.00
6.25
6.50
6.75
7.00

Cost per

square of

stand'g seam

roof with

14x20 Tin

2.37

2.65
2.79

2-93
.06
.20
■34

62
3.76
3-9°

Cost per
sq. foot.
.0237
.0251
.0265
.0279
.0293
.0306
.0320
■0334
.0348
.0362
.0376
■ 0390

Price of

Tin per

box.

$7
7
7

■25
.50

■75
.00

■ 25
■50

•75
.00

■ 25
■50

•75
.00

Cost per

square of

stand'g seam

roof with

Cost per

14x20 Tin.

sq. foot.

.$4.03....

. .0403

• 4.17

. .0417

• 4-31

■ .0431

■ 4.45

■ .0445

• 4-59

. .0459

• 4-73

• .0473

• 4.87

. .0487

. 5.01

. .0501

• 5-'5

• -0515

■ 5-29

. .0529

• 5-43

■ -0543

• 5-57

• .0557

n8

Workshop manual.

SLATE

TABLE.

Size of Slate.

Nails to

Exposed When

Number in

Square.

Laid.

Square.

14x24

1 lb 3d

loyi in.

98

13x24

VA "

10K "

106

12x24

1% *

10A "

ii5

12x2*2

1% "

9K B

127

11x22

lYz "

9% '

138

12x20

1% '

&A "

141

11x20

1% "

&'A "

154

10x20

1% "

S'A "

170

10x18

1 •

VA "

192

9x18

■2.% *

VA "

214

10x16

2% -

6A «

222

9x16

3 "

6A '

247

8x16

3 '

6'A "

277

10x14

3 *

SA "

262

8x14

3% '

SA "

327

7x14

4 "

SA "

374

8x12

4X «

\A "

400

7x12

A% '

aA "

457

6x12

SA "

AA '

533

WEIGHT OF LEAD PIPE AND TIN-LINED LEAD PIPE.

STANDARD WEIGHT PER FOOT.

Calibre

n

a

h

W

04

C
O

u5

<

S

3

"3

9

4-J

3

■a

3q
w

'3

3

&i

J O

I 8
3

3 8

4 8
6
6 12
9

10 12

J3 N

hJ O

1 5

2

2 12

3 8

4 12

5 12
8

1

1
2
3
4
4
6

N

O

2
12
8
O
O
12

4

.n

1
1
2
2
3
3

6

4

T

O

13

12

8

4
4

J

10

13

1 8

1 12

2

2 8

3 8

4

-1 O

8

U

11

U

T

1

%

4 2

1 4
1 8

1

4
12

2
3

4

5

1 J/

2

lV 2

3 4

9

7

WIRE GAUGE STANDARDS.

3*

re 3

*1 S*

p re

c M

re t-h

o

n o S?

n B p

RP

CB ff B

egg
S3 B

ej ~ s
en n B

5-8 8

•i fit "^
t/>Oq po

►7 "t o <-t

■ Z! S B B

1-°
3?>

i-h3 CL
33 HH

000000

ooooo
oooo
ooo

00

o
I

2

3

4

i

7
8

9

IO

II

12

13

H

\ S 6

»7
18

19

20
21
22
23

24

25
26

27
28

29
3°

31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
- 40

.46

.40964

.3648

•32495
.2893
.25763
. 22942
.20431
.18194
.16202
. 14428
. 12849

■1 1443

.10189

.090742

.080808

.071961

.064084

.057068

.05082

.045257
.040303

■03589

.031961

.028462

■025347

.022571

.0201

■0179

.01594

.014195

.012641

.011257

.010025

.008928

.00795

.00708

.006304

.005614

,005

,004453
003965
003531
003144

• 454
.425
.38
■34

^84

.259

.238

.22

.203

.18

.165

.148

•134

.12

.109

■ 095
.083
.072
.065
.058

.049
.042

■035

.032

.028

.025

.022

.02

.018

.016

.014

.013

.012

.OI

.OO9

.008

.007

.005

.004

• 46

•43

•393

.362

•331
•307

• 283
.263
.244
.225
.207
.192
.177
.162
.148

•135

.12

.105

.092

.08

.072

.063

■054

.047

.041

•035

.032,

.028

.025

.023

.02

.018

.017

.016

.015

.014

• 0135
.013
.011
.01
.009
.009
.008
.008
.007
.007

• 45

• 4
•36
•33
•305
.285
.265

• 245
.225
.205
.19

• 175
.16

•145

• 13
.1175
.105
.0925
.08
.07
.061
.0525
.045
.04

• 035
.031
.028
.025
.0225
.02
.018
.017
.016
.015
.014
.013
.012
.011
.01
.0095
.009
.0085
.008
.0075
.007

•3586

.3282

.2994

.2777

.2591

.2401

.223

.2047

.1885

.1758

.1605

.1471

• i35i
.1205
.1965
.0928
.0816
.0726
.0627
.0546
.0478
.0411

■ 0351

.0321

.029

.0261

.0231

.0212

.0194

.0182

,017

.0163

,0156

.0146

0136

013

0118

0109

01

0095'
009
0083
0078

.083
.072
.065
.058
.049

■ 04
•°35

■ 0315
.0295
.027
.025
.023
.0205
.01875
.0165
.0155
•oi375
.01225
.01125
.01025
.0095
.009
.0075
.0065
.00575
.005

■ 0045

000000

ooooo

0000

000

00

o
I

2

3
4
5
6

7
8

9
10
11

12

13
14
15
16

17
18

19

20
21
22

23

24

25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34

36
37
38
39

40

119

120 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

WEIGHT OF ONE FOOT OF BAR STEEL.

ROUND.

SQUARE.

OCTAGON.

Diam. In.

Pounds.

Side In.

Pounds.

Diam. In.

Pounds.

ft

.166

H

.213

A

.84

x

• 375

x

■479

X

1.23

A

.667

A

.855

%

i-75

X

1.04

H

i-33

n

2.25

%

1.50

H

I.QI

I

2.75

X

2 05

X

2.61

iX

3-66

i

2.67

1

3-4o

iH

4-55

i%

3-38

1%

434

iX

5-50

i'A

4.17

iV

5-32

»*

6.45

ix

S-05

irt

6.44

iX

7-75

i>A

6.00

iA

7.67

iX

9.20

iH

7°S

IX

9.00

iX

10.04

itf

8.17

1%

10.44

2

11.60

m

9-38

IX

11.58

2X

I3-H

2

10.68

2

1363

2%

14-75

2%

12.04

2%

15-35

2X

16.40

2%

13-51

2%

17.20

2A

17.85

2tt

15.05

2H

19.17

2X

19.50

7.%.

16.68

2A

21.20

2%

21.25

2%

18.43

2%

23 -3°

2%

22.69

iy*

20. ig

2H

25.70

3

25.00

2Ji

22.00

2%

27.74

3 ,

24.03

3

30.60

3%

28.20

3X

35-9°

USEFUL TABLES FOR TIN-PLATE WORKERS.

List of abbreviations used: W. No. — Wire number. Pat. No.
— Pattern number. No. — Number. B. W. G. — Birmingham wire
gauge.

Note on table No. I: Length and sizes of B. G. wire. — This
little table is very useful for finding how much wire you will re-
quire to make given number of articles, and will be found a very
useful table for reference.

Note on table No. 2: Oil Bottles. — These sizes after being
made with cone-shaped top and neck will hold rather more than
quantities given.so as ts hold the quantity after rebottoming and
repairs.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

121

Water Pots sec. 3. — All these sizes are so arranged as to cut
best out of the different sizes of tinplates.

Note on table No. 4, Dripping Tins. — They are turned up at
an angle of go degrees to sizes given in table.

Saucepans and Paint Kettles, see 5 and 6. — These sizes are ar-
ranged so they will hold quantity stated after rebottoming.

Note on tables 7: Baking Tins. — You can see you will get six
sides of a No. 1 from a single sheet, six sides of a No. 2 from a
small double sheet without any waste. Numbers 9 and 10 are
self-explanatory.

Funnels No. 8. — These are so arranged as to cut as nicely as
possible, and can be wired with or without rim as desired.

Note on table 10: Oval Breakfast Bottles. — This is an article
made oval with lock seam, top being funnel-shape with round
neck. The sizes given will be found to cut as nicely as can be
arranged. The handle is both riveted and soldered on and top and
bottom clasped on, or bottom can be panned down and turned up
and top panned on as desired. Some people make them one
way and others the other.

Fish Kettles and Round Boilers, See 11 and 12. — The bodies

of round and oval boilers differ very much in depth. An oval

boiler is mostly known as a fish kettle and a round boiler jis a pea

boiler.

1

YARDS OF WIRE PER BUNDLE.

Wires all weigh 63 pounds to the bundle.

Wire

Gauge.

o...

1. . .

2.. .

4...
5...

Yds. Per
Bundle.

... 71

... 91

... 105

... 121

... 143
.. 170
. . 203

Wire
Gauge.
7...

Yds. Per
Bundle.

9-
10.
11.
12.
13-

239
286
342
420

529
700

893

Wire
Gauge.
14...

\t:

17...
18...
19...
20...

Yds. Per
Bundle.

,.. 1,142
, . . 1 ,468
...1,954
...2,540
...3,150
. . . 4,085
...4,912

OIL BOTTLES.

Capacity. Size.
Half pint VA in. 3% in-
One pint 10 " 4# "

One quart 14 " 5 "

Capacity. Size.

Half gallon 18^ in. $% in.

One gallon 22 " 7}4 "

Two gallons 28 " 10 "

122

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

WATER POTS.

No. Capacity. Size,

ooo About i pint. . .
oo About 2 pints. .

About 4 pints. .

1 About 6 pints. .17 in. &% in.

2 About 8 pints.. 20 « 7 «

No. Capacity. Size.

3 About I y 2 gals . . 24 in. 9

About 2
About 3
About 4
About 5

gals.. 28 '
gals. .30 "
gals.. 34 "
gals . . 40 "

10
n

14

W. No. Finished Size.

13
12
11
9

ijfin.
2 "

2X "
2#,«

DRIPPING TINS.

Size.

14 in.

15 "
17 "
20 "

10
10

I2#

14

in.

Remarks.
Turn up an angle of 90°

SAUCEPANS.

W. No. Capacity. Size.
13 I pint... 13 in. 3^ in.
12 ' 2 pints. .14 "5 "
11 3 pints.. 18^ " l% «

W. No. Capacity. Size.
10 2 quarts. ..20 in. 7 in.

3 quarts. . .22 " 7% "

4 quarts... 25 * %% "

PAINT KETTLES.

W. No. Capacity. Size.

12 1 pt., 3 lbs. . .14 in. 5 in

11 2 » 4 « ...ijyi " 5 "

10 3 " 5 " ...20 " 5 "

W. No. Capacity. Size.

9 2 qts., 6 lbs...22^in.5Xin

3 " 7 " ..25 « 6X *

4 " 8 " ..

BAKING TINS.

No. W. No. Side. End. Deep. Remarks.

Top. Bottom. Top. Bottom.

1 13 7 in. 6 in. 5 in. 4 in. 3% in. 6 sides of a No. I

from an S sheet.

2 12 7K " 6^ " S'A » 4^ " 3% " 6 sides of a No. 2

from an SD sheet.

3 10 Z'A ' 7% " 6X " 5X " 4X " 6 sides of a No. 3

from a D sheet.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

123

FUNNELS

Bot-

W.

Bot-

W.

Bot-

w

Top.

tom.

No.

Top. torn.

No.

Top.

tom,

No

2 in.

Vs in.

IS

4 in. 1 in.

13

8 in.

1% in.

10

2^ "

% "

IS

5 " 1% "

13

10 "

iyi "

°

3 "

H "

14

6 « ij£ «

12

TINPLATES.

S single 14 in

S D small double. . 15 "

D double 17 "

Twenties 20 "

DD double doubles25 "
Twenty-eights .... 28 "
There are 17 in., 18 in.

o in.
u "

12% «
14 "
17 "
20 "
, 19 in.

and 20 in. sq. sheets.
Tinned iron sheets, 26 B. W. G.

72 in., 24 in.
Tinned iron sheets, 24 B. W. G.

72 in., 30 in.
Tinned iron sheets, 22 B. W. G.

72 in., 22 in.

10

OVAL BREAKFAST BOTTLES.

Capacity. Size.

1 pint 10 in. 4^ in.

\ X A pints 12 « \% '

Capacity. Size.

2 pints 13 in.

3 pints 13^ "

5 in.

6 «

11

FISH KETTLES.

W.No. No.

Size.

. 1 40 in.

.2 44 "

7 in.
VA "

W.No. No.

5 3

]4 in. rod 4 ,

Size.
.50 in. yi in.

•56

10

W.No.

12

ROUND BOILERS.

No.

Size.

W.No.

No.

Size.

..1 .. .

...28 in. 10 in.

6 ....

■ •3 ••

...33^ in. 10 in

..2 ...

...31 " 10 "

5 ....

..4 ..

...36 " 11 "

124

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

TIN-PLATE.

MARKS, WEIGHTS AND NUMBERS.
' TIN PLATES.

Mark.

Size.

X

o

J3
CO

IC 10 X14

IX 10 xi4

IXX 10 X14

IXXX 10 X14

IXXXX ...10 X14

IC 14 X20

IX 14 X20

IXX 14 X20

IXXX 14 X20

IXXXX ... 14 X20

IC 20 X28

IX 20 X28

IXX 20 X28

IXXX 20 X28

IXXXX... 20 X28

DC ..12^x17

DX 12^x17

DXX 12^x17

DXXX 12^x17

DXXXX... 12^x17

DC 17 X25

DX 17 X25

DXX 17 X25

DXXX. ...»I7 X25

DXXXX...I7 X2S

IC 11 xii

IX 11 xii

IXX 11 xii

IC 12 XI2

IX 12 XI2

IXX 12 XI2

IC 13 XI3

IX 13 xn

IXX 13 X13

CJ O

CO
.— « h

rt u

a a,

63

Lb.

108

156

1 7 8
198

108

I5 £
178

198

112 216

112 270

112 320

112 360

112 400

100
100
100
100
100

225
225
225
225
225

112
112
112
112
112

100
100
100
100

100

225
225
225

225
225
225

225
225
225

94
122

143

164

185

188
244
286
328
37°

97
121

139
112
140
161

'35
169
194

Mark.

Size.

XI

a

xi

CO

IC 14 X14 225

IX 14 X14 225

IXX 14 xi4 225

IC 15 X15 225

IX 15 X15 225

IXX 15 X15 225

IC 16 xi6 225

IX 16 xi6 225

IXX 16 xi6 225

IC 17 XI7 112

IX 17 XI7 112

IXX 17 X17 112

IC 18 Xl8 112

IX 18 Xl8 112

IXX 18 Xl8 112

IC I9 XI9 112

IX 19 XI9 112

IXX 19 XI9 112

IC 20 X20 112

IX 20 X20 112

IXX 20 X20 112

IC 21 X2I 112

IX 21 X2I 112

IXX 21 X2I 112

IC 22 X22 112

IX 22 X22 112

IXX 22 X22 112

IC » 24 X24 112

IX 24 X24 112

IXX 24 X24 112

IXXX 24 X24 112

IXXXX.. ..24 X24 112

IC . . , 10 X20 225

■!-> X

0) o

ox

•-* u,

a o

.5 ^
&£

£*>
is
Lb.
156
196
225 1
180 ;
225
259

'■■SP1
256^
294

Hi d

144

166

130
162
186

144
180
207

160
200
230

176
220
253
194
242
278

231
288
331
374
417
160

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

125

Tin Plate-Continued.

MARKS, WEIGHTS AND NUMBERS.
TIN PLATE.

Mark.

IX....
IXX.

IC...

IX....

IXX.

Size.

x
o

.a
in

. 10
. 10

. 11
.11
. 11

IC 12

IX 12

IXX 12

IC 13

IX 13

IXX 13

IC 14

IX 14

IXX 14

IC 14

X20 225

X20 225

x22 225

X22 225

X22 225

X24 112

X24 112

X24 112

X26 1 12

X26 112

X26 112

X28 1 12

X28 112

X28 112

X3I 112

4-. X
V o

e a.

E£
Obi

Lb.
200

230

194
242
278

112
140
161

169
194

156
196
225

174

Mark.

Size.

IX 14 X31

IXX 14 X31

IC 14 X22

IX 14 X22

IC 14 X22

IX 14 ' X22

IXX 20 X72

IXXXX....20 X72

IXX 30 X72

IXXX 30 X72

IXXXX....30 X72

IXXX 36 X72

IXXXX....36 X72

IXXXX...38 X84

IXXXX....40 X84

■u M

O

V

.n

*—i •—

rt 4)

c

C Oh

%"'

(/J

&

Lb.

112

217

112

250

112

123

112

154

112

126

H2

157

46

1%

37

9 l A

30

li%

.27

12M

25

14

3S

iSX

20

i7/ 2

16

io#

H

25

IC.
IX.

TERNE PLATES.

.14 X20 112
.14 X20 112

108
135

IC.

.20 X28 112 2l6

TAGGERS TIN AND TAGGERS IRON.

Size.

10X14
10X14
10X14
14X20
14x20
14X20

Wire
Gauge. Sheets.

No. 38
No. 36
No. 34
No. 38
No. 36
No. 3-4

450 112 lb.

360 112 "

300 112 "

225 112 "

180 112 «

150 112 "

Size.

20x28

20x36

20x28

20x36

20x40

Wire
Gauge.
No. 30
No. 30
No. 32
No. 32
No. 37

Sheets.

112 224 "
87 224 "

112 180 "
87 180 "
78 180 «

126

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

a bo
— a

J3 O

la

.". •* e
111 N —

d. o a

Z S >-

— o o

E 8. "8

ja .H

z so
5 '3 ■

3 ^a

o fi -s

O °*§

L - 6 c
(c '" '5

ft- t3 pa

t »

si

a S

* a

<D O

m

«t pd ? g a;

£ $.£

41 a
S jg

O CO f covo in r*s.\0 M in t^.'O CO f rovo "*iNOoO

N OOO MD "tPl OOO NirifOn OOO \D <tN O O^O
Oi w i-i i-< i-i « .-.OOOOO OOOOO OOO CO

in*0 t^co o^O h m rn^t u-vo o rv.oo oo -n ro

MM- i — i ■— i i-i — ,™-h~ ij— i 0J CS N IN

O 'O N m

Ot^mrofCOsO-3-oi owmn H o^Mnmo
tJ- ■«*• m\0 tv.00 00 O O ft n M co ■**■ u-> mvO l>»00 O

r-^CO f moo ON t^O cnvO t^. — «d-co f" W in O O
CO CO ■'d" **J- "d" -*j- U"HJ-» mvO O'O NN tN.00 CO CO CO O

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m ft in ft r^.^d-O'O m o w >— Nno^O csco ft- —
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00 r-- k\0 wincornrx n f 000 Oco r^. t-*.so *-n -+

O ■rt-CC M"0 O *+00 M'O O ^N" m^fON" in

N w m fnm-^--*^J-in invo ^O "O t^. r>- i>*co co o O

N(><ONw mr-^o inOfOinOcnr^-fi <tr\»

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CO f inco « inco NmON\OONvO~
f N M M COCOcOTd-Tj-Td-u-iu-) u-i\0 'O 1 >

r^H tJ- u-wO vOt^.r^.OOffN-^ iovO ^O t^OO CO
\r\\0 t-^00 O O f M CO uOMD t^OO O O - 1 M CO ** in
VO O M in^o cs loco h -tNO comD O co^O O N i-n
f •-< N M N t^ CO rO ^ "t tJ- umj^ u~i\0 "O 'O VO t^ t^.

00 ttco-oo Nt+fOM o r-^^o -^t co -t 00 r-^vo m

t^ u-i ro — O^O ■* N OOO^O cO-h ONintS 000^0
•tNO n inco -h fi-NO^n inco O co\o o m -i- r\
f. I n n n M cncomcoTi-'d-'ti^iniri u-tO ^o <:

M co in r-*. O O N co\0 CO O ft nmNOO n -+ u-.
Oin — ' r-^cOOMD MCO •^-— ' r^coOin-HOO -fO'O
co\0 O— -tNON ■^■tv.O N mNO co inco — co
_ hi i-i M N N 04 CO CO CO ^t "* tt tt UMH in urtO VD

■^■OinfO ft , o -co nO'tCMciO'O -1 vo cs r^.

O -=*■ O -rt-00 cotN-M^O f inO -3-0 ^d-CO rONM^O
nmNO W WNO M lANO N ■* tv. O CS -* f-* O

ft ft ft <n n m n cncomco'ttt^-t^-Lnirimin

COUDin-rl-^N ■- O O OOO t^-MD VD ^t -i- M — — C

f ■«*■ r-v Q COMD O (N in r^ o co^o CO M 1000 —■ -*\o

M -^-MD Of COinoO O n inNC"- -t^co — coin

_ _i <-h i-i m M M ri cocococOco-^-^t--^--^rLnLrMO

i-h ■* u-»0O f COM3 CO ■— in ia O co loco — rOO O •—
co ■<* mM3 CO O O f co "+OO I^CO OO M co -rf in t^.
fi coinrv,Of 't^OCO O N -+vO CO f coint-^Of
■_, hh ^-> >- i-t N M M (S cocococOcO'^-^-Tj-Tj-T^-tn

f> t^-d-ft « cnO^O COO t^co OO co O in N O in

O t>.yD m-tN h 000 t^. m ■<+ N f Q 00 t^MD ^t- co

Of cOintN.Of M rj-vC 00 O M •^-MO r-^ O f coin

_ _ _ ,-, «m mm MCSCOCOCOCOCOCO^I-'^-'^-

•adlj }0 J3J3UIBIQ

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

127

Z

o
oc

\-
u
111

I

</)

z
o

2

s
o
o
li.

o

I-
o
o

a ho

— a

in 'S
.8 1

X °

.S *a

-* s

o E
in

e l*
ft .3

d «
o en

1-1 ■!-•

-■3
8.S
•9 S
§0
a .

p V

§3

TO

8 I

ft.2

en ha

t: a-

ft E

DC
bl
0.

(!)

U «d

> ^ Z

"O o

Li. d -5

o rt «

in ^
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< ft E .

1_ c O b£

~ .5 ^ d

bo a >

£ 2

- ft
E «

1— 1

VO Q ^t-00 NO OCO00 O ■sKOOOO TfCO CO O **• -±
N^OO'tO 1 COOO 000 ^00 00 is.o> O wt 000 00

•"-« CS ^- 10O CO O "h CS loO O-OO O CS -=t" 10O OO O

O t^co — es -^ lt\\q r^oo o* m n m-t 100 n

CO

1-. M 10 -* 10O NNO NOO O CS •-* <-* CS CO "* COO

ir»vMnvnmuMr; OMAmmnO "*oo coco 00 cs 00

100 tsOO O O — CS CO tS- tnMD IS.OO O O ** CS co *3-

1— 1

O tscO OO -* 01 N ■<+ CS CO ■* CS O) — CS cO ^tCO O
iA N OO t1-— iCOCO CS O rOO **•■<* 10 cs OO O O

vo >-o co cs — 00 is.o "Ttn- O O00 ^o "-* ^- m
■^t- u-j*o r^co 000 <-t m m ■«*• "^vo ^0 t^-co O'O >-

10

1— (

00 CO t^.\0 lo -* ^ M <N O O20 CO'O i^^fON "h 1-1
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OCOUICOOOO^O Tj-i-i 0<NTtH ONi^N OOO i^
CO -^ is\\D t^. 1>^00 (>0 O h N cOfTt u-tvo t->. r-^oo

CD

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CO ■«* \r\ u-iMD r-N. t->-00 OOO »-< "-" N CO'*^- mO ^O

t-

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m co co -3- ■«* ir\ u-tvo O r-^ r-vco 00000000-''-*

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1-4
IN

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CO

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OQ

N 'J*- w OO COOO **0 NtKNOO Th--00O cs
\QO'tN-iinO COO CS lti O CS O — LOCO M NO

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1-1 -• tn ■-. cs cs cs cs conrnrn-*'+'t'*mtriLftun

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CM

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U319UI-GIQ Ul SatpiII

128

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

WEIGHT OF METALS.

Weight in lbs. of a square foot of different metals, in thick-
nesses varying by 1-16 of an inch.

Thickness

in

inches.

h

en 5

13

V

Jh"

<v
0,
a.

u

e

in
in

1-1

OS

a
H

■a"

1-16

2-3

2-3

2-5

n

2-3

2.6

2.7

2.4

3-7

v%

5.0

4.7

5-J

4-7

§•3

5-5

4.8

74

3-16

7-5

7.0

7.6

8.7

7.0

8.2

8.2

7.2

11.2

K

1 0.0

94

10.2

1 1.6

94

1 1.0

10.9

9.6

14.9

5-16

12.5

11.7

12.8

14.5

11.7

13-7

i3-7

12.0

18.6

n

15.0

14.1

15-3

17.2

14.0

16.4

16.4

14.4

22.3

7-16

i7-5

16.4

17.9

20.0

16.4

19.2

19.1

16.8

26.0

%

20.0

18.7

20.4

22.9

18.7

21.9

21.9

19.3

29.7

9-16

22.5

21. 1

25.0

25.7

21. 1

24.6

24.6

21.7

334

H

25.0

23-5

25-5

28.6

234

27.4

27-3

24.1

37-i

11-16

27.5

25.8

28.1

314

25.7

30.1

30.0

26.5

40.9

H .

30.0

28.1

30.6

34-3

28.1

32.9

32.8

28.9

44.6

13-16

32-5

30-5

33-2

37-2

304

35-6

35°

3i-3

48.3

%

35-o

32.8

35-7

40.0

32.8

38.3

38.2

33-7

52.0

15-16

37-5

35-2

38-3

42.9

35-i

41.2

41.0

36.1

55-7

1

40.0

37-5

40.8

45.8

37-5

43-9

43-7

38.5

594

Note. — The weight per square foot to any gauge can easily be
obtained from the above table by multiplying the weight of a
square foot of the metal one inch thick by the thickness of the
gauge in inches or parts of an inch.

CHAPTER VI.
MISCELLANEOUS INFORMATION.

LEGAL HOLIDAYS IN THE VARIOUS STATES.

January I. New Year's Day. — In Alabama, Arkan-
sas, California, Colorada, Connecticut, Dakota, Georgia,
Idaho, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Louisiana, Maine,
Maryland, Michigan, Nevada, New Jersey, New York,
North Carolina, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South
Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Vermont, Wisconsin,
and Wyoming.

January 8. Anniversary of the Battle of -New Or-
leans. — In Louisiana.

February 22. Washington's Birthday. — In Alabama,
California, Colorado, Connecticut, Dakota, Georgia,
Idaho, Illinois, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maine, Maryland,
Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Nevada,
New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North Car-
olia, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Carolina,
Texas, Utah, Virginia, Wisconsin, and Wyoming.

February 14. Mardi Gras. — In Louisiana.

March 2. Anniversary of Texan Independence. —
In Texas.

March 4. Firemen's Anniversary. — In New Or-
leans, La.

April 19. Good Friday. — In Louisiana, Marylandi
and Pennsylvania.

April 21. Anniversary of the Battle of Jacinto. —
In Texas.

130 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

April 29. Memorial Day. — In Georgia.

May 30. Decoration Day. — In Arizona, California,
Colorado, Connecticut, Dakota, Iowa, Illinois, Kansas,
Kentucky, Massachusetts, Michigan, Nevada, New
Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon,
Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Utah, Vermont, Wisconsin
Washington, and Wyoming.

June 1. Labor Day. — In Oregon.

July 4. Independence Day. — In all the States.

September (First Monday.) Labor Day. — In
Alabama, California, Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware,
Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Maine,
Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Montana, Ne-
braska, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio,
Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, South Dako-
ta, Tennessee, Texas, Utah, Virginia, and Wash-
ington.

November 5. General Election Day.— In California,
Dakota, Kansas, Maryland, Missouri, New Hampshire,
New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina,
and Wisconsin.

November (last Thursday), Thanksgiving Day. — Is
observed in all the States, though in Nebraska and
some others it is not a statutory holiday.

December 25. Christmas Day. — In all the States,
and in South Carolina the two succeeding days in ad-
dition.

Sundays and Fast Days (whenever appointed) are
legal holidays in nearly all the States.

Arbor Day is a legal holiday in Idaho and Kansas,
the day being set by the Governor. Arbor Day is also
a legal holiday in Rhode Island, but does not affect
the payment of notes, etc.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. I3I

In Nebraska there are no legal holidays established
by statute. The same is the case in New Mexico.

Every Saturday after 12 o'clock noon is a legal hol-
iday in New York.

ANTIDOTES TO POISONS.

In nearly all cases of poisoning the first thing to do
is to excite copious vomiting by means of a powerful
emetic, the action being promoted by large draughts of
lukewarm water, tickling the throat with the finger, etc.
If the vomiting can not be brought on by this means
the stomach-pump must be resorted to, but not till the
simple methods have been tried. The vomiting should
be kept up by giving albuminous liquids such as milk
and water, barley water, or similar substances, always
administered when lukewarm. • After the vomiting has
removed the poisonous substance, a mild aperient
draught may be given, and nervous exhaustion allayed
by very small doses of ether or ammonia, or draughts
of wine or hot spirits and water. Generally speaking,
a tablespoonful of the flourof mustard mixed with warm
water will serve as an effective emetic. Whenever med-
ical aid is accessible it should be called immediately to
a case of poisoning. "For special antidotes, we take the
following directions from a chemical journal, givingthe
substances most useful in counteracting the effects of
poisonous chemicals: "For phenic, sulphuric, muriatic,
nitric or nitro-muriaticacids, creosote, tincture of iodine,
or phosphorus, use the white of an egg well beaten up
in water, and a teaspoonful of mustard in warm water.
In case sulphuric, nitric, or muriatic acid has been swal-
lowed, it is necessary to take lime mixed with as small
a quantity of water as possible. For chronic acid, the

132 Workshop manual.

chromates and colors that have chromium for a base,
the compounds of copper, and such preparations as
have antimony for a base (such as tartar emetic), and
the compounds of murcury and zinc, use the white of
eggs in abundance, and as an emetic mustard, which,
however, is useless if the poisoning has been done by
tartar emetic. For ammonia, soda, potassa, the sili-
cates and the alkaline hydrosulphates, use vinegar, and
afterward oil or milk. For prussic acid and its salts,
the cyanides of potassium and mercury, the sulpho-cyan-
ides, oil of bitter almonds, or nitrobenzine, pour water
on the patient's head or spinal column, and put mustard
plasters on the feet and the stomach. Do not let the
patient go to sleep. For ether, petroleum, benzole,
fruit essences, and concentrated alcohol, take strong
mustard as an emetic, with much warm water, cold
baths, and fresh air. Keep the patient awake. For the
compounds of baryta or lead, use mustard as an emetic,
with warm water, Epsom salts or Glauber's salts in
water. For arsenic and its compounds, use mustard
and dialyzed iron with magnesia, and afterward oil,
milk, or mucilaginous liquids. For oxalic acid and its
salts, use lime or lime water, and afterward castor oil.
For nitrate of silver, use kitchen salt dissolved in water,
and mustard as an emetic. For the nitrous fumes from
the manufacture of the nitrate of iron, or of sulphuric
acid, take acetic acid as strong as can be endured, in
small quantities at a time.

USEFUL SUGGESTIONS IN CASES OF ACCIDENT
TO MECHANICS.

Bleeding. — If blood spurts from wound, an artery is
divided; bind limb tightly above wound with India-
rubber tubing, strap, handkerchief, or scarf, or bend the

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 1 33

limb forcibly at next joint above wound; or press fiat
hand or stone where blood is flowing. If blood flows
freely, but does not spurt, a vein is divided; then apply
same measures as in case of wounded artery, but below
the wound. If scalp wounded, make a pad of cloth or
waste, and bandage very tightly over wound with folded
pocket handkerchief.

Burns and Scalds. — Apply lint, cotton wool, or waste,
soaked in oil, or oil and lime water, and bind the same
on with handkerchief. If necessary to remove clothes,
cut them off t>y running knife or scissors along seams.

Broken Leg. — Pull on leg steadily and firmly until it
is of same length as sound one. Roll up a coat or
empty sack into form of a cushion; ca'refully place leg
upon it; then bind the .two together with scarfs or
handkerchiefs. Do not lift patient from the ground
until stretcher is close at hand. Take great pains,' by
careful lifting, to prevent broken bone coming through
skin.

Broken Thigh. — Take hold of ankle, and, by steady
traction, pull limb to same length as sound one; another
person must then tie knees together, and afterward the
ankles. Both limbs should then be laid over a sack of
straw, or folded coat, so as to bend the knees. Patient
should on no account be moved until stretcher is close
at hand.

Broken Arm. — Pull arm to length of sound one.
Apply two splints, one outside, and other inside, bind-
ing them firmly on with pocket handkerchiefs. The
best splints are made by folding newspapers to neces-
sary length, binding them above and below seat of frac-
ture; anything hard and light, of suitable size, would
act equally well, for instance, wood, pasteboard, twigs,
leather, etc.

134 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

Broken Ribs. — Cause intense pain when patient
breathes; bind roller towel firmly round chest, fasten-
ing with pins, or sewing.

Broken Collar-bone. — Bend arm over front of chest;
place it in a sling; bind it in that position by scarf
going round chest, outside sling.

Dog Bites. — Tie a handkerchief or cord tightly
round limb above wound; suck the wound.

Flesh Wounds. — Uncover wound; wash it with
clean water; wring out a clean handkerchief, or some'
lint, in cold water, and lay it over the wound. Then,
bind in position with handkerchief.

Fainting. — From heat, exhaustion, or loss of blood.
Keep head low; undo clothing about neck; plenty of
fresh air; dash cold water oq face and chest; smelling
salts, carefully used; a little brandy, when sensibility
has returned, excepting in cases of sunstroke, and where
means have not been taken to prevent further bleeding.

Insensibility. — From blows or wounds on head.
Send at once for doctor or take patient to hospital,
keeping him on his back, with head raised; undo cloth-
ing round neck; do not give brandy.

Insensibility. — From being buried in falls of earth,
or breathing foul gas; proceed as in drowning.

Fits. — i. If snoring and face flushed, undo clothing
found neck, keep head raised, and dash cold water on
top of head; hot water bottles to feet. Do not give
brandy.

2. If foaming at mouth and convulsed, undo cloth-
ing, apply smelling salts, and prevent patient hurting
himself until conscious again.

Drowning. — Send for doctor, blankets, and dry
clothing. Take off wet clothes from upper part of
body. Lay patient on his back, with his head on a

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 135

folded coat for cushion. Draw tongue out of mouth
and hold it there. A second person kneels at patient's
head and takes hold of both his arms just below the
elbows. He then draws them upward over the patient's
head, and holds them in that position until he counts
two; this draws air into the lungs. He then lowers
arms to sides again and presses them firmly inwards,
holding them there until he has again counted two;
this forces air out of the lungs. Go on doing this until
doctor arrives, or until patient breathes naturally. As
soon as he does so, rub the limbs in an upward direc-
tion with the dry hands, or better still with hot flannels.
Put patient to bed between blankets, surrounded with
hot water bottles. May give him wine or brandy when
quite sensible.

Rupture, or "break of the body." — Try and push it
back with flat hand: keep man on his back. Cold wet
clothes laid over rupture will, perhaps, aid its return.

USEFUL SHOP HINTS.

In brazing file the edges clean and bright, cover with
spelter and powdered borax, and expose in a clear fire
to a heat sufficient to melt the solder.

To bronze copper, clean the surface, then brush it
over with a solution of sulphate of iron, acetate of cop-
per, or peroxide of iron; heat it cautiously and gradu-
ally, rub off the powder and examine. If not a good
bronze color repeat the process.

For bronze paint for iron take ivory black one ounce,
crome yellow one ounce, crome green two pounds. Mix
with raw linseed oil- and add a little Japan to dry it.

For brassing small articles take one quart of water
and add half an ounce each of sulphate copper and pro-

I36 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

tochloride of tin. Stir the articles in the solution until
the desired color is obtained. Use the sulphate of cop-
per alone for copper color.

To frost brass work, boil in caustic potash, rinse in
clean water, and dip in nitric acid till all oxide is re-
moved; then wash quickly, dry in boxwood sawdust,
and lacquer while warm. This will give brass an orna-
mental finish.

For washing brass with tin boil together six pounds
of cream tartar, four gallons of water and eight pounds
of grain tin or tin shavings, for half an hour in porce-
lain-lined vessel; put the clean brassware in the boiling
liquid for a few minutes or until properly coated.

Tin and tin alloys, after careful cleansing from ox-
ide andgrease.are handsomely and permanently bronzed
if brushed over with a solution of one part of sulphate
copper (bluestone), and one part of sulphate of iron
(copperas) in twenty parts of water. When this has
dried, the surface should be brushed with a solution of
one part of acetate of copper (verdigris) in acetic acid.
After several applications and dryings of the last named,
the surface is polished with a soft brush and bloodstone
powder. The raised portions are then rubbed off with
soft leather moistened with wax and turpentine, followed
by a rubbing with dry leather.

The best paint for galvanized iron where dark color
is not objectionable is common asphalt dissolved in
turpentine or benzine. It is extremely tenacious, dries
soon and becomes very hard and insoluble by action of
sunlight. It is flexible and very durable.

Good varnish, one-half gallon; boiled linseed oil,
one-half gallon; add red lead sufficient to bring to the
consistency of common paint. Apply with brush. Ap-
plicable to any kind of iron work exposed to the
weather.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 1 37

For varnish for bright iron work, dissolve three
pounds of rosin in ten pints boiled linseed oil, and add
two pounds of turpentine.

A coat of varnish .made in the proportion of two
ounces of shellac to nine ounces of alcohol, will prevent
brass from tarnishing.

TO ATTACH LABELS TO TIN.

i. If the paper is well sized and will resume its ori-
ginal color when the paste is dry use a solution of bal-
sam of fir, I part, in oil of turpentine, 2 or 3 parts.

2. Soften I part of good glue in water, then pour off
the excess, and boil it with 8 parts of strong vinegar
(about 8 per cent). Thicken the liquid, while boiling,
with enough of fine wheat flour or dextrin.

3. Make starch paste and add to it while warm a lit-
tle Venice turpentine, so that the latter will become
evenly distributed through it.

4. Add to starch paste, or any other similar aqueous
paste (except that made from gum Arabic) some solu-
tion of shellac in borax. The quantity may be easily
determined by trial.

5. Paint the spot where the label is to be put with a
solution of tannin and let it dry. Affix the label pre-
viously gummed and wetted.

6. Paint the spot over lightly with a camel's hair
brush dipped into chloride of antimony.

7. Make a dilute solution of white gelatine, or, bet-
ter, of isinglass, about I in 20. This is said to adhere
without the addition of anything else.

8. To mucilage of acacia, starch, dextrin, or traga-
canth paste add a little ammonia.

9. Or add a little tartaric acid. A trifle of glycerine
may be added besides.

I38 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

10. Mucilage of gum Arabic maybe made much more
adhesive by heating 100 parts of it with 2 parts of sul-
phate of aluminum, previously dissolved in hot water,to
boiling, and then allowing to settle. A little tartaric acid
and some glycerine added to the clear liquid after it is
decanted will improve it.

11. Make a mixture of mucilage of tragacanth, 10
parts, and flour, 1 part.

SIMPLE TESTS FOR IMPURE WATER.

The presence of organic impurity in water can be
detected by dissolving some loaf sugar in it, and then,
after putting in a tight stopper, allowing it to stand in a
warm,- well-lighted room for a few days. If it becomes
turbid, there are certainly organic impurities in it; if it
remains clear it is pure and safe to drink. To test the
presence of earthy matters, take litmus paper dipped
in vinegar, and if, on immersion, the paper returns to its
true shade, the water does not contain earthy matter or
alkali. If a few drops of sirup be added to water con-
taining an earthy matter, it will turn green. To ascer-
tain if the water contains iron, boil a little nut gall and
add to the water. If it turns gray or slate black iron is
present. Or dissolve a little prussiate of potash, and
if iron is present it will turn blue. The presence of
carbonic acid may be ascertained, even in very small
quantities, thus: Take equal parts of water and clear
lime water. If combined or free carbonic acid is pres-
ent, a precipitate is formed, to which, if a few drops of
muriatic acid be added, an effervescence commences.
To detect magnesia, boil the water to a twentieth part
of its weight, and then drop a few grains of neutral car-
bonate of ammonia into a glass of it, and a few drops

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 139

of phosphate of soda. If magnesia be present it will
fall to the bottom. We can ascertain the presence of
even a very small quantity of lime if into a glass of
water we put two drops of oxalic acid and blow upon
it. If it gets milky lime is present. The presence of
any acid can be shown by dipping into the water a
piece of litmus paper. If it turns red there must be
acid. If it precipitates on adding lime water it is car-
bonic acid. The unfailing test for hard or soft water is
to take a little good soap and dissolve it in alcohol. A
few drops of this i,n a vessel of water will turn it quite
milky if it is hard; if it is soft it will remain clear.

ALLOYS.

A combination of copper and tin makes bath metal;
of copper and zinc makes bell metal; of tin and copper
makes bronze metal; of tin, antimony, copper and bis-
muth makes britannia metal; of tin and copper makes
cannon metal; of copper and zinc makes Dutch gold;
of copper, nickel and zinc with sometimes a little' iron
and tin, makes German silver; of gold and copper
makes standard gold; of gold, copper and silver makes
old standard gold; of tin and copper makes gun metal;
of copper and zinc makes mosaic gold; of tin and zinc
makes pewter; of lead and a little arsenic makes sheet
metal; of silver and copper makes standard silver; of
tin and lead makes solder; of lead and antimony makes
type metal; of copper and arsenic makes white copper.

NICKEL ALLOYS.

The following alloys have been found useful: Nickel
aluminum, composed of 20 parts nickel and 8 parts
aluminum, used for decorative purposes; rosin, com-

146 Workshop manual.

posed of 40 parts nickel, 10 parts silver, 30 parts alu-
minum, and 20 parts tin, for jewelers' work; sun-bronze
composed of 60 parts cobalt, 10 parts aluminum, 40
parts copper; metalline, 35 parts cobalt, 25 parts alu-
minum, 10 parts iron and 30 parts copper.

COST OF A PATENT IN DIFFERENT COUNTRIES.

United States:

Preliminary examination $ 5 00

Cost of drawing 5 00

First Government fee (in every case the same) 15 00

Total outlay to secure filing of an appli-
cation $25 00

Final Government fee 20 00

Attorney's fee 20 00

Total minimum cost of patent $65 00

Canada $40 00

German 60 00

Great Britain 60 00

France 60 00

Italy 60 00

Austria ". 60 00

Belgium 60 00

WEIGHT OF METAIlS.

Zinc weighs .253 pounds per cubic inch,
Cast iron weighs .26 pounds per cubic inch.
Tin weighs .263 pounds per cubic inch.
Wrought iron weighs .28 pounds per cubic inch.
Steel weighs .282 pounds per cubic inch.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 141

Brass weighs .3 pounds per cubic inch.
Copper weighs .32 pounds per cubic inch.
Lead weighs .41 pounds per cubic inch.

TO CALCULATE RADIATING SURFACE.

Add together the square feet of glass in the win-
dows; the number of cubic feet of air required to be
charged per minute, and one-twentieth the surface of
external wall and roof; multiply this sum by the differ-
ence between the required temperature of the room and
that of the external air at its lowest point, and divide
the product by the difference in temperature between
the steam in the pipes and the required temperature of
the room. The quotient is the required radiating sur-
face in square feet. Each square foot of radiating sur-
face may be depended upon in average practice to give
out three heat units per hour for each degree of differ-
ence in temperature between the steam inside and the
air outside, the range under different conditions being
about 50 per cent above or below that figure.

SHRINKAGE OF CASTINGS.

The allowance for shrinking in castings should be
for each foot in length: —

Parts of an inch.

For cast iron pipes 125 — %

" beams and girders 1 — 1-10

" cylinders, large 094 — 3-32

" " small 06— 1-16

Brass 17 — 3-16

Lead 31 — 5-16

Zinc 25— %

Copper 17— 3-16

142

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

THE WEAR AND TEAR OF BUILDING MATERIALS.

At the tenth annual meeting of the Fire Under-
writers' Association of the Northwest, held at Chicago
in September, 1879, Mr. A. W. Spaulding read a paper
on the wear and tear of building materials, and tabu-
lated the result of his investigations in the following
form:

Material

IN

Building.

Frame
dwelling.

<

S v 5

(U ID

<

Brick

dwelling

(shingle

roof.)

fi « §

U (j 5

o " rt

fti-

Frame
store.

DC )-

a ti

„ rt 3

Cog

<u £ C
u " «

1) <u

0) u "-"

;ss*l

bo »-

Brick store

(shingle

roof.)

<4-l £ .

|°.2 B

-r"»

*r

. «f

S3-

T3 5.

Brick

Plastering

Painting, outside...
Painting, inside. . . .

Shingles

Cornice

Weather-boarding .

Sheathing

Flooring

Doors, complete...
Windows, complete
Stairs and newel.

Base

Inside blinds

Building hardware.
Piazzas and porches
Outside blinds. . .
Sills and first floor

joints

Dimension lumber

5
20

14
6

2'A

3'A
2

5

3'A
3'A
3'A

2'A

3'A
5
5
6

4
2

3'A
14
14

6

2%
2

5

3'A
3'A
3'A

2'A

3A
5
5
6

6
20
20

6

3'A
3'A
i'A
8

4

4

5

3'A

3'A

8

S
6

40 2 l/ 2 25 4
75 1 M 40 2^

16
16
6

2K

3K

3'A

5

3K

3M

8

5
6

3M

These figures represent the averages deduced from
the replies made by eighty- three competent builders
unconnected with fire insurance companies in twenty-
seven cities and towns of the eleven Western States.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 143

A QUICK METHOD OF FINDING INTEREST.

Rule. — ist. Divide the principal by 12, and multiply
the result by the rate per cent, expressed decimally;
this gives the interest for one month. 2d. Multiply
the years by 12, and add the number of months, then
place Yi of the number of days to the right as a deci-
mal.

Multiply ist and 2d results, gives the interest.

WEIGHT OF BUILDINGS.

It has been calculated that the pressure per square
foot of the superstructure upon the foundation- walls of
a few of the best known buildings is as follows:

Dome of United States Capitol at Washington 13,477 pounds

Girard College, Philadelphia 13,440 "

St. Peter's, Rome 33,33° "

St. Paul's, London. 39,45° "

St. Genevieve, Paris 60,000 "

Le Toussaint, Angers «... 90,000 "

while the pressure upon the earth per square foot in
the case of St. Paul's, London, is 42,950 pounds.

COST OF PUBLIC BUILDINGS.

An experienced architect and surveyor, on the 19th
of February, 1879, prepared, and presented to Gen.
Meigs, Quartermaster-General, the estimate which fol-
lows of the cost of various- public and private buildings
in this country, the comparison being by cubic feet,
external dimensions:

Sub-Treasury and Postoffice, Boston, Mass $2,080,507

United States Branch Mint, San Francisco, Cal » 1,500,000

Custom and Cfourt House and Postoffice, Cairo, 111 271,081

Custom and Court House and Postoffice, Columbia, S.C. 381,900
United States building, Des Moines, Iowa 221,437

144 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

United States building* Knoxville, Tenn 398,847

United States building, Madison, Wis 3 2 9>3 8 9

United States building, Ogdensburg, N. Y 216,576

United States building, Omaha, Neb 334,9°°

United States building, Portland, Me 39 2 > 2I 5

German Bank, Fourteenth street, Newport, R. 1 475,000

Staats Zeitung, New York City 475.1°°

Western Union Telegraph, New York City 1,400,000

Masonic Temple, New York City 1,900,000

Centennial building, Shepherd's, corner Twelfth and

Pennsylvania Avenues, Washington, D. C 246,073

Add to this the United States National Museum, fire-
proof building, at Washington, D. C = . 250,000

RELATIVE HOLDING POWER OF WIRE AND CUT
NAILS.

Test made by a committee appointed by the Wheel-
ing Nail Manufacturers.

NUMBER OF NAILS IN

POUNDS REQUIRED TO

POUND.

PULL NAILS OUT.

Cut.

Wire.

Cut.

Wire.

20d.

23

35

1.593

7°3

iod.

60

86

908

315

8d.

go

126

597

227

6d.

160

206

383

200

4d.

280

3i6

286

123

This test showed the relative value of a pound of

each kind to be as follows:

1 lb. of 2od. cut nails equals 1.40 lbs. of wire nails.
1 " iod. « " 2.01 " "

1 " 8d. " 1.87 ■

1 " 6d. « " 1.49 « <•

1 " 4d. ° « 2.06 "

In obtaining the above results, two tests were made
of the 8d. cut nails, and four of the 8d. wire nails; three
tests each were made of the 6d. and 4d. cut nails, and
6d. and 4d. wire nails, and the average is shown.

The committee report as the result of their experi-

WORKSHOP MANUAL. I4J

ments that $1.00 of cut nails will give the same service
as $1.78 in wire nails, if at the same price per pound.

Very thorough tests of the comparative holding
power of wire nails and cut nails of equal lengths and
weights were made at the United States arsenal, Water-
town, Mass., in November and December, 1892, and
January, 1893. Fifty-eight series of tests were made,
each series comprising ten pairs cut nails and wire nails
making a total of 1,160 nails tested. From forty series
comprising forty sizes of nails driven in spruce wood,
it was found that the cut nails showed an average
superiority of 60.50 per cent.;,the common nails show-
ing an average superiority of 47.51 per cent., and the
finishing nails an average of 72.22 "per cent.

In eighteen series, comprising six sizes of box nails
driven into pine wood, in three ways the cut nails
showed an average superiority of 99.93 per cent.

In no series of tests did the wire nails hold as much
as the cut nails.

CHAPTER VII.
HETALS.

METALS AND THEIR PROPERTIES; ALLOYS; SOLDERS;
SOLDERING FLUXES.

In the following pages a mass of valuable data wiJU.
be given concerning those metals used most largely in
plate or sheet.

As it is necessary to frequently refer to the various .
paragraphs of this chapter, each paragraph is numbered.

(i) Metals are natural elementary substances, as
far as is known. They are opaque (not transparent),
reflect light from their polished surfaces, and have a
characteristic lustre, known as the metallic lustre. With
the exception of mercury, they are all solid at the or-
dinary temperature of the atmosphere.

(2) Silver, tin, lead, mercury, antimony, zinc, cad
mium, and bismuth, have a whitish or grayish color.
Gold stands alone as a metal having a yellow color;
copper is the only red metal.

( 3 ) Metals differ widely in their behavior under the
influence of heat; some, as tin and lead, are fusible be-
low red heat; others, as copper, gold, and silver, fuse
readily in ordinary furnaces; nickel, iron, and manganese
fuse with great difficulty; platinum is practically infusi*
ble. Arsenic, cadmium, zinc, and mercury are volatile,
that is, vaporise easily. An interesting example of vol-
atility is that of zinc, which when at a bright red heat
takes fire, burns with a greenish flame, and oxidises

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 147

(unites with the oxygen gas of the atmosphere), being
thereby converted into a dense white flocculent sub-
stance called formerly 'philosopher's wool.'

(4) The fracture of metals is often characteristic;
we get crystalline, granular, fibrous, silky, and other
fractures.

properties; specific gravity; melting-points.

Metals have various properties. Some remarks on
these, and other particulars respecting metals, now
follow.

(5) Malleability. — A property which is possessed
by metals in varying degree is that of malleability, that
is, of permitting extension of surface without rupture,
by, for example, hammering, pressure, or rolling. Gold,
which is capable of being hammered into leaves of
extreme thinness, is the most malleable of all metals.
Other metals, though malleable to a considerable de-
gree, require to be annealed (heated red and allowed to
cool down slowly) once or even several times during
the operation of rolling out, or extending by the ham-
mer as in raising and stretching. Copper is an ex-
ample; 'though, curiously enough, copper is equally
malleable whether, after heating, it is allowed to cool
slowly or is cooled suddenly by dipping while at red
heat in cold water. Zinc is in its most malleable con-
dition at a temperature a little above the boiling-point
of water; when less than half as hot again as this, it is
brittle and unworkable.

(6) Of the theory of annealing nothing definite ap-
pears to be known; but it is supposed that on rolling
out or hammering a piece of metal the particles or
molecules of which the metal is composed, become
strained and disarranged ('the grain closed'), and the

I48 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

metal is hardened; and that on heating, the metal ex-
pands, and the strain being removed, the molecules re-
arrange themselves. This, however, does not explain
many matters connected with annealing; for example,
why one heated metal is hardened by being suddenly
dipped in cold water, and another metal softened when
treated in the same manner.

The following, which illustrates the effect of 'ham-
mer hardening' on iron, may be of interest: —

(7) In 1854, at the meeting of the British Associa-
tion in Liverpool, a paper on the crystallisation of iron
under certain circumstances was read by Mr. Clay
(Mersey Iron and Steel Works), who stated that he
selected a piece of good, tough, fibrous bar-iron, which
he heated to a full red heat, and then hammered_by
light, rapid, tapping blows, until it was what is called
'black-cold.' After complete cooling he broke it, and
found that the structure of the iron was entirely
changed, and that, instead of bending nearly double
without fracture, as it should have done, and breaking
with a fine silky fibre when fracture did occur, an entire
alteration had taken place, and the bar was rigid, brit-
tle, and sonorous, incapable of bending in the slightest
degree, and breaking with a glassy, crystallised appear-
ance. By simply heating the bar to full red-heat again,
the fibre was restored exactly as before.

(8) Tenacity. — The property in metals of resisting
being torn asunder by a tensile or stretching force, is
called tenacity.

The tenacity of metals varies with their purity and
molecular condition, as due to modes of treatment or
preparation: for example, the tenacity of steel is much
influenced by its 'temper,' and that of cast iron made
by the cold-blast process is greater than when the pro-
ves s is that of the hot-blast.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

(9) Ductility. — The property of being permanently
lengthened by a tensile or stretching force, as in wire
drawing, is called ductility. All the malleable metals
are more or less ductile, though the most malleable
metals are not necessarily the most ductile; ductility
being influenced more by tenacity than by malleability.

The table shows how some of the metals, starting
from gold(see 'Malleability', above § 6), rank under
the headings given.

Malleability.

Ductility.

Tenacity,

Gold

Gold

Steel

Silver

Silver

Iron

Copper

Platinum

Copper

Tin

Iron

Platinum

Platinum

Copper

Silver

Lead

Aluminum

Gold

Zinc

Zinc

Zinc

Iron

Tin

Tin

Nickel

Lead

Lead

(10) Conductivity. — Of all solids, metals are the
best conductors of heat. The order of conductivity
for a few. important metals, beginning with the best
conductors is — silver, copper, gold, tin, iron, lead, plat-
inum, and bismuth.

(12) Welding. — An important property of some of
the metals is that pieces can be 'welded' together, that
is, incorporated with each other. Iron at a white heat
is in a pasty condition and can be 'welded'; that is, if
two white-hot and clean surfaces of iron be brought
into contact and pressed or hammered together, they
thus are 'welded,' that is, become part of oneand the
same mass. If lead and gold in a fine state of division
be strongly pressed together at the ordinary tempera-
ture of the atmosphere, they will form one mass.

150 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

(12) Hardness. — The comparative hardness of
metals is usually estimated by the force required to
draw the metals into wires of equal diameter. In
order of hardness we have — steel, iron, copper, silver
tin, antimony, and lead.

(13) Specific Gravity. Some substances are, in
their nature, more weighty bulk for bulk than others.
Thus, a cubic inch of lead is heavier than a cubic inch
of iron; and a cubic inch of iron than a cubic inch of
water.

By their specific gravity, the weights, relatively to
each other, of substances, are known. The standard of
comparison is an equal bu.'k of pure distilled water, and
if the specific gravity of a body is, say 2, this means
that it is twice as heavy as the same bulk of water.

The specific gravity of platinum is 21; platinum
therefore bulk for bulk is 21 times heavier than water.

The specific gravity of antimony is 6 "], and a cubic
foot of pure distilled water weighs very nearly 1000
ounces. Therefore a cubic foot of antimony weighs
6*7 times 1000 ounces, that is 6700 ounces.

Knowing the specific gravity of a substance, we can
find the weight of any volume of it, by multiplying the
given volume in cubic inches, by its specific gravity,
and by 62 -4 the weight in lbs. of a cubic foot (1728
cubic inches) of water, and dividing by 1728. Thus
the weight of 48 cubic inches of cast copper, the. spe-
cific gravity of which is 8'6, is
48 X 8-6 X 62-4

— , is, that is to say, 14*9 lbs.

1728

As the relative weights of equal volumes of metals
have often to be taken into consideration in using
metals for constructive purposes, for example, in the

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 1 5 1

Covering of roofs, where weight is sometimes a matter
of importance, a table of specific gravities follows:

TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITIES AND MELTING-POINTS.

Specific Melting-points. Authority for

Metals. Gravities. (Centigrade.) Melting-points.

Antimony 67 432 Buillet.

Bismuth o-8 2683 Reimsdyk.

Copper (cast) 86 ) vi]1

« (wrought) 8-8 \ Io54 Vlolle -

( 1300 )
Steel 7'8 j to [ Buillet.

Cadmium 8 - 6 3207 Person.

, ( 1500 )

Iron (wrought) 78 j to V Buillet.

( 1600 )

Lead 11 -36 3262 Person.

Tin 7-29 2327 Person.

Zinc 7 - io, 433 '3 Person.

Aluminum 267 1045 Violle.

Nickel 8-30 1450 Pictel.

PUtinum 2121; 1775 Violle.

The melting-points of the metals named are added
to the table, as it is often useful to be able to refer to'
these. The degrees of heat are according to the Cen-
tigrade thermometer. This portion of the table is taken
from 'Melting and Boiling Point Tables,' by Thos. Car-'
nelley, 1885.

We now proceed to notice more particularly the
metals iron (including cast iron and steel), tin, zinc and
copper.

IRON AND STEEL.

(14) Iron in a state of purity is comparatively ,

little known: the ores of it are various and abundant. '".

In its commercial forms, as plate or sheet, bar, and cast" .

■ i
iron, it is well known. As sheet it can be cut into pat;- .

terns and bent into desired forms; as bar it can be made

hot and 'wrought,' that .is, shaped by means of the

hammer; and when molten it can be run or cast into all I

1$2 WORKSHOP MANUAL,

sorts of shapes. Cast ifon is brittle, crystallite in frac-
ture (§4), and not workable by the hammer. In sheet
and bar form, iron is malleable, mostly (fibrous in frac-
ture, and capable of being welded (§u)- The presence
of impurities in bar iron, that is, the presence of sub-
stances not wanted in it_ at the time being, seriously
affects its malleability. Thus the presence of phos-
phorus, or tin, renders it brittle when cold ('cold-
short'), and the presence of sulphur makes it unworka-
ble when hot ('hot-short'). Iron quickly rusts (oxi-
dises, §3) if exposed to damp air, as in the case of iron
exposed to all weathers; or to air and water, as with
Vessels in which barely sufficient water is left to cover
the bottoms, the rusting (oxidation) being then much
more rapid than when the vessels are kept full. Heated
to redness and above, 'scale' (oxide of iron^ rapidly
forms and interferes greatly with welding. It is im-
possible to enter here into any consideration of the
processes by which iron is prepared from its ores. To
two modern processes, however, we shall presently have
particularly to refer.

(15) The effects of the presence of several foreign
substances in iron as impurities has just been alluded to,
but the presence in it of 'carbon' we have not spoken
of. This is a substance which in its crystalline form is
known as the diamond, and in its uncrystalline form as
charcoal. The presence of charcoal in iron destroys
its malleability, but at the same time gives to it proper-
ties various, so remarkable and useful to mankind, that
to say, as a defect, of a piece of iron with carbon in it,
that it is not malleable, is simply equivalent to saying
when we have a piece of brass, that it is not a piece of
copper. Quite the reverse of being 'matter in the wrong
place,' carbon in iron furnishes a compound so valuable

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 153

on its own account, so entirely of its-own kinds (in the
plural because its kinds are several), that, if there were
other substances not metals, the compounding of which
with a metal gave products at all resembling those of
iron and carbon, then all such compounds would form
a class of their own. The iron and carbon compound,
so valuable on its own account, so entirely of its own
however, stands inconveniently alone. There we shall
not leave it, but as aiding the full comprehension of it,
notwithstanding that we define alloys (§4) as compounds
of metals, shall consider it not as outside but as within
this class of substances, as well as also shall speak of
iron as befng alloyed with it. We shall deal with it,
however, under the present heading, treating com-
pounds of actual methods later on.

(16) Iron is alloyed with carbon in proportions
varying from say y 2 to 5 per cent. When in the pro-
portion of from 2 per cent, upwards, the compound is
cast iron, that is, iron suitable for casting purposes; in
other proportions it is known as steel. In cast iron the
metallic appearance is somewhat modified; in steel it is
maintained. Originally steel was made by the addition
of carbon to manufactured iron, and the word had then
a fairly definite signification; meaning a material of a
high tensile strength; that by being heated dull red and
suddenly cooled could be made so hard that a file would
not 'touch' it, that is, would slide over it without mark-
ing it; and that could have that hardness modified or
'tempered' by further application of heat. But with
the introduction of the Bessemer process of steel
making, and of the Siemens' process of making steel
direct from the ores, processes by which any desired
percentage of carbon can be given, the signification of
the word has become enlarged, and now includes all

154 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

alloys of iron and carbon between malleable iron and
cast iron; except that the term 'mild steel is sometimes
applied to those alloys that approach in qualities to
malleable iron. Steel plates are now produced equal
in toughness, and it is said even excelling the best
'charcoal' plates, and as they are much cheaper, the old
charcoal;plate-making process is very generally giving
way to the direct process. In practice, however, these
plates are found to be more springy than good charcoal
plates, and not so soft and easy to work.

(17) As iron is very liable to rust, surface protec-
tion is given to it by a coating of tin, or of an alloy of
lead and tin, (lead predominating), or of zinc. Plates
coated with tin are termed 'tin' plates; with lead and tin
have the name of teme plates, and if coated with zinc
are said to be 'galvanised.' Terne plates are used for
lining packing-cases, also for work to be japanned.
Usual sizes of tin and terne plates are 14" X 10", 20° X
14", 20"X28", and they are made up to 4o"X28 r .

(18) Large iron sheets of various gauges coated
with tin and having the same appearance as a 'tin' plate
are called Manchester plates, and sometimes tinned iron.
But the latter is more generally applied to sheets of
iron which are coated with lead and tin, and are dull
like terne plates.

(19) Iron coated with zinc is not so easily worked
as when ungalvanised. In galvanising, the zinc 'alloys'
with the surface of the iron, and this has a tendency to
make the iron brittle. Galvanised iron is useful for
water tanks as the zinc coating prevents rust better than
a tin coating. Owing to the ease with which zinc is
attacked by acids, galvanised iron is not suitable for
vessels exposed to acids or acid vapours.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 1^5

COPPER.

(20) This, the-only red metal (§ 3), is malleable,
tenacious, soft, ductile, sonorous, and an excellent con-
ductor of heat. For this reason, and because of its
durability, it is largely made use of for cooking utensils.
It is found in numerous states of combination with
other constituents, as well as 'native' (uncombined).
Its most important ore is copper pyrites. Copper melts
at a dull white heat and becomes then covered with a
a black crust (oxide). It burns when at a bright
white heat with a greenish flame. No attempt explan-
ation of its manufacture will here be made, as any de-
scription not lengthy would be simply a bewilderment.
For the production of sheet copper it is first cast in the
forms of slabs, which are rolled, and then annealed and
re-rolled, this annealing and re-rolling being repeated
until the copper sheet is brought down to the desired
thickness. In working ordinary sheet copper, it is
hammered to stiffen it, and 'close the grain.' Hand-
rolled copper is, however, produced that does not re-
quire hammering.

(21) In the course of the manufacture of copper
it undergoes a process termed 'poling to get rid of im-
purities. We mention this because we shall find (§ 38)
a similar process gone through in preparing solders.
The poling of copper consists in plunging the end of a
pole of green wood, preferably birch, beneath the sur-
face of the molten metal, and stirring the mass with it.
Violent ebullition takes place, large quantities of gases
are liberated, and the copper is thoroughly agitated.
It is doubtful if this poling process is fully understood,
for, though it is quite obvious that there may be insuffi-
cient poling {'underpoling 1 ), it is not easy to explain

I56 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

'overpoling.' But overpoling, as a fact, is fully recog-
nised in the manufacture of copper, and the metal is
brittle both if the polling is too long continued or not
long enough. If duly poled, the' cast slab when set
displays a comparatively level surface; if underpoled a
longitudinal furrow forms on the surface of a slab as it
cools; if overpoled, instead of a furrow, the surface ex-
hibits a longitudinal ridge. Copper, duly poled, is
known as 'best selected,' and as 'tough cake' copper.

ZINC.

(22) Of this metal, known also very commonly as
'spelter,' calamine is a very abundant ore; another
abundant ore is blende. The metal is extracted from its
ores by a process of distillation, the metal volatilising
(§3) at a bright red heat, and the vapour, passing into
tubes, condenses, and is collected from the tubes in
powder and in solid condition. If required pure, further
process is necessary. This metal does not appear to
have been known until the sixteenth century. Henkel,
in 1741, was the first, at least in Europe, who succeeded
in obtaining zinc from calamine. Zinc is hardened by
rolling, and requires to be annealed at a low tempera-
ture to restore its malleability. Until the discovery of
the malleability of zinc when a little hotter than boiling
water, it was only used to alloy copper with, and sheet
zinc was unknown. Zinc expands i-340th by heat-
ing from the freezing to the boiling point of water.
The zinc of commerce dissolves readily in hydrochloric
and in sulphuric acid; pure zinc only slowly. If zinc is
exposed to the air, a film of dull grey oxide forms on
the surface. It suffers afterward little further change.
Zinc alloys with copper and tin, but not with lead; it

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 1 57

also alloys with iron, for which it is largely used as a
coating; iron so coated being known as 'galvanised'
iron (§ 17).

LEAD.

(23) Another metal that is prepared in sheet is
lead . This metal was known in the earliest ages of the
world; it is soft, flexible, and has but little tenacity.
One of its principal ores is galena. Being a soft metal,
it is worked ('dossed') by the plumber into various
shapes by means of special tools, which often saves the
making of joints. As it is comparatively indestructible
under ordinary conditions, it is largely used for roofing
purposes and for water cisterns. It is also used for the
lining of cisterns for strong acids, in which case the
joints are not soldered in the ordinary way with plumb-
er's solder, but made by a process termed 'autogenous
soldering* or Head burning' Lead prepared in sheet by
casting is known as cast lead, but when prepared by the
more modern method of casting a small slab of the
metal and then rolling it to any desired thickness is
called milled lead.

ALLOYS.

(24) An alloy is a compound of two or more
metals. Alloys retain the metallic appearance, and
whilst closely approximating in properties to the metals
compounded, often possess in addition valuable proper-
ties which do not exist in either of the constituent
metals forming the alloy. An alloy of copper and zinc
has a metallic appearance and working properties some-
what similar to those of the individual metals it is made
up of, and so with an alloy of gold, or silver, and a
small percentageof copper. But the latter alloys have

158 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

the further property of hardness, making them suit-
able for coinage, for which gold, or silver, unalloyed, is
too soft. Like to this addition of copper to gold or
silver is the addition of antimony to lead and to tin, by
which alloys are obtained harder though more brittle
than ether lead or tin by itself. The alloy of lead and
antimony is used for printer's type, for which lead
alone is too soft.

(25) Alloys are often more fusible than the in-
dividual metals of which they are composed. Thus
while lead melts at 326 C, tin at 233" C, bismuth at
268 C, and cadmium at 321" C, an alloy of 8 .parts
bismuth, 4 tin, and 4 lead, forms what is technically
known as a 'fusible' alloy, meaning an alloy very read-
ily fusible, the particular alloy stated melting indeed
at 95°C, that is, below the boiling-point of water. The
addition of a little cadmium to the above forms a still
more 'fusible' alloy, called Wood's alloy, which melts
at about 65° C.

(26) We give here the names of some of the more
important alloys, with those of the metals of which
they are made up.

Bronze

Copper and tin.

Bull-metal

Gun-metal

Speculum-metal

Brass

Dutch-metal

Muntz' metal : . . f Co PP er and Zinc "

Hard solders ,

German silver Copper, zinc, and nickel.

Britannia metal i Tin ' . antimony copper,

( bismuth, and zinc.

Soft aiders' .* .'.'." .'.'.'.'.'.'.". } Lead and tin.
Type metal , Lead and antimony.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. I 59

ALLOYS OF COPPER AND TIN.

(27) Alloys of copper and tin are known as bronze,

gun-metal, speculum-metal, etc. Some of these alloys

possess the property of becoming soft and malleable

when cooled suddenly while red-hot, by dipping into

cold water, but of being hard and brittle when cooled

slowly.

Name of Alloy. Composition per cent.

1 Copper. Tin.

Bell-metal ,.. 780 250

Gun-metal 90 o io'o

Speculum-metal 95'6 33'o

Bronze coinage 950 4'o and 1 zinc.

(28) Speculum-metal is a very hard, brittle, steel-
grey alloy, capable of receiving a very smooth and
highly-polished surface.

ALLOYS OF COPPER AND ZINC.

(29) Brass. — Brass is the general name given to
alloys of copper and zinc (ordinary brass consists of
two of copper to one of zinc); by some writers also to
alloys of copper and tin, now better known as bronze.
Brass was known to the ancients, who prepared it from
copper and calamine (§22), as they were unacquainted
with the metal contained in calamine. We are said to
have learned the fusing of copper with calamine from
the Germans, and until a comparatively recent date
brass, called calamine brass, was thus prepared in this
country. Between 1780 and 1800, various patents were
taken out for improving the manufacture of brass, by
fusing copper and zinc direct instead of employing cal-
amine. The calamine method, however, did not at
once die out, as it was thought by some that calamine
brass was better than that made direct.

In the manufacture of brass, the copper is first

160 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

melted, because of its high melting-point, and the zinc
warmed, is then let down by tongs into the crucible
containing the molten copper, plunged under its sur-
face, and held there till melted. The mass is then
stirred with a hot brass or iron rod, so as to mix the
metals, great care being taken not to introduce any
cold or damp matter. A little sulphate of sodium
'salt-cake', or carbonate of sodium 'soda-ash,' thrown
into the crucible at the moment of pouring, assists in
raising any impurities to the surface, which can then
be skimmed off as the mass is poured. With proper
management, the loss of zinc is not so great as might
be expected, considering the comparatively low tem-
perature at which it volatilises, and the relatively high
temperature necessary to melt the copper.

(30) Brass is harder than copper, and therefore
stands wear better; it is very malleable and ductile,
may be rolled into thin sheets, shaped into vessels by
'spinning^, (see § 33) stamping, or by the hammer,
and may be drawn into fine wire. It is well adapted
for casting, as it melts easily at a lower temperature
than copper and is capable of receiving very delicate
impressions from the mould. It is said to resist at-
mospheric influences better than copper, but when its
surface is unprotected by lacquer, it rapidly tarnishes
and becomes black. It has a pleasing color, takes a
high polish, and is cheaper than copper.

(31) The malleability of brass varies with its com-
position, and the heat at which it is worked. The mal-
leability is also affected in a very decided degree by the
presence of various foreign metals in its composition,
even though these are present in but minute quantity.
Brass intended for door-plate engraving is improved by
the presence of a little tin; or by the presence of a little

WORKSHOP MANUAL. l6l

lead if to be used in the lathe or for casting. Brass for
wire-drawing, however, must not contain lead; nor must
brass intended for rolling contain antimony, which ren-
ders it brittle. Some kinds of brass are only malleable,
while cold, others only while hot, others are not mal-
leable at all. A good example of the remarkable mal-
leability of certain kinds is furnished by Dutch Metal,
which contains a large proportion of copper, and which
can be hammered into leaves of less than 1-57000 of an
inch in thickness.

Though extremely tenacious, brass loses its tenacity
in course of time by molecular change, especially if
subject to vibration or continued tension. It is there-
fore unfitted for chains or for the suspension of weights.
Chandelier chains have been known to lose their ten-
acity, become brittle, and break; and fine brass wire,
which is of course brass in a state of tension, will, in
time, become quite brittle, merely hanging in a coil.

(32) Munis' Metal is a variety of brass consisting of
about three parts of copper or two of zinc, with about
one per cent, of lead. The alloy is yellow, and admits
of being rolled at a red-heat. It is extensively applied
for the sheathing of ships, as it is said to keep a cleaner
surface than copper sheathing.

Hard Solders. — These are treated further on.

The number of alloys of copper and zinc is consid*
erable, and there is great confusion in respect of their
names and composition. The table on opposite page,
showing the proportions of some alloys of copper and
zinc, is an extract from a table by Dr. Percy.

(33) Britannia Metal. — We follow on with this
alloy although not an alloy of copper and zinc alone.
Britannia metal is highly malleable and one of the best
of the substitutes for silver. It is composed oj tin, an-

162 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

timony, copper, bismuth, and zinc, in various propor-
tions, according to the purpose for which it is required.
If the alloy is to be 'spun,' that is, worked into shape by
specially formed tools whilst revolving in a lathe, a
greater proportion of tin is used than when the alloy is
only to be rolled. If it is to be cast, the proportion of
tin is much less.

(34) Alloys of Tin and Lead. — Alloys of tin and lead
furnish us with our soft solders, and are therefore of
great practical value.

(35) Pewter The composition of pewter varies

considerably. Common pewter consists of tin and lead
alone; the best contains also small percentages of an-
timony, copper, and bismuth; varying indeed but little
from Britannia metal.

SOLDERS.

(36) A solder is a metallic composition, by the
fusion of which metals are united. The requirements
of a good solder are twofold. (1) Its melting point
must be below that of whatever metal is to be joined;
(2) it must run easily when melted. It is comparatively
easy (§25) to fulfil the first condition of a good solder.
To fulfil the second requirement, one of the constituents
of the solder must be either the same metal as that to
be soldered, or a metal which will readily alloy with it,
or which will readily coat its surface.

(37) Soiders are 'soft' or 'hard,' according to the
temperature at which they melt. Hard solders fuse at
a red heat. Soft solders are those which can be applied
with a 'soldering iron,' that is to say, a 'copper bit.' or
■plumber's iron,' or with a mouth blowpipe; these sol-
ders melt below 300 C. Hard solders have a much
higher fusing point, and require either a forge or a blast

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 163

blowpipe to apply them. Soldering with hard solders
is termed 'brazing.'

(38) An important particular in the preparation of
solders is that they should be well stirred before pour-
ing, preferably with a piece of green wood (§21) and
the surface of the molten metal exposed as little as
possible to the air, so that 'dross' (oxide) shall not^ form
on the surface. A few knobs of charcoal on the mol-
ten metal will to a very great extent prevent the form-
ation of dross.

(39) Examining the soft solders, we see that
plumber's solder melts at 227 C, that is to say, at a
lower melting point than the metal (lead pipe), for
soldering which it is used. Further, it is largely com-
posed of lead. It thus fulfils both the requirements of
a good solden Tinman's solder melts at 160 C. It is
used for soldering tin-plate, which, remember, is iron
coated with tin. Tin melts at 230°- C, a higher tem-
perature than that of its solder, and tin is a constituent
of the solder. Again the conditions of a good solder
are fulfilled. Tinman's solder is also used for soft-sol-
dering copper, because an alloy of lead and tin will
readily coat copper, as also readily alloy with it.

SOLDERING METALS.

(40) Substances that 'flux' or aid the flow of metals
when melting or melted are termed 'fluxes' The gen-
eral subject of fluxes is outside our province; we are,
however, specially interested in what we have desig-
nated 'soldering fluxes' namely those fluxes that facili-
tate the flow of the solders and of the metals of which
they are composed.

(41) Essentially this 'fluxing' consists in the pre-
vention of the formation of oxide (§3) to which metals

1 64

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

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WORKSHOP MANUAL. 165

are very prone when highly heated or molten. The
black scale (§ 20) that forms on the surface of cop-
per, for instance on copper 'bits,' when highly heated,
is an oxide; also the scale that falls off red-hot iron
when hammered (§ 14); and also the 'dross' that forms
on the surface of molten lead or molten solder (§ 38).

(42) The employment of charcoal (carbon) for the
purpose of preventing the formation of dross we have
already alluded to in speaking of the preparation of
solders. Sometimes a layer of it is spread over the
surface of the molten metal to keep it from contact
with the air; sometimes a layer of grease.

In their character of aiding the flow of metals, fluxes
are further applied to the surface of the metals to be
soldered, which they clean, as well as aiding the flow
of the molten solder when that is applied.

(43) 'Spirits of Salts' (hydrochloric of muriatic
acid) when 'killed' is a most useful flux for soft solders,
The 'killing' is done by dissolving zinc in the acid till
gas is no longer given off, As the gas is most offensive,
the dissolution of the zinc should be effected in the
open air. This flux is not one to be used where rust
would be serious; though there is very little danger of
this, if, after soldering, the joint is wiped with a clean
damp rag, and further cleaning and whiting.

(44) Resin, orresin.ajidoilisa.good flux for almost any
kind of soft soldering. The surface to be soldered
must, however, be well cleaned before applying the
flux.

(45) 'Killed spirits' (chemically, chloride of zinc) is
specially useful for tin-plate soldering, because it assists
in cleaning the edges to be joined; whereas if resin, or
resin and oil,is used, the edge must, as stated, be cleaned
previously.

i66

WORKSHOP MANUAL,

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workshop manual. 167

(46) Spirits of salts not killed is used for soldering
zinc because it cleans the surface of the zinc; it acts
indeed as chloride of zinc, for this is what it becomes
on the application to the zinc, in fact the cleaning is
the result of this action. The killed spirits, however*
answers equally well as the strong acid if the zinc is
bright and clean, so far as the experience of the writer
has gone. The 'raw' (unkilled) spirits of salts is im-
proved, as a flux for soldering zinc, by adding a small
piece of soda- to it.

(47) Powdered resin, or resin and oil, as a flux, pos-
sesses the great advantage over chloride of zinc, that
there is no risk of rust afterwards. For this reason
resin, or resin and oil, is much used in the manufacture
of gas-meters. It is also used, or should be, for the
bottoms and seams of oil bottles. The resin and oil
flux can easily be wiped off joints immediately after
soldering; it is for this reason better than dry resin
which has to be scraped off. Even this trouble, how-
ever, can be got over if the hot copper bit is dipped in
oil before application to the joint to be soldered.

(48) In 'tinning' a copper bit, that is, coating its
point with solder before using it in soldering (a piece
of manipulation of much importance as regards the
easy working of the bit), the best thing to use is a lump
of sal-ammoniac. In a small hollow made in the sal-
ammoniac, the point of the bit, after having been filed
smooth and bright, should be well rubbed, while hot,
along with some solder; the point of the bit will then
become coated with solder ('tinned'). For 'tinning'
copper utensils, that is, coating them with tin, sal-am-
moniac, both in powder and lump is largely used. Sal-
ammoniac water is also used for cleaning copper bits;
the hot bits being dipped into it prior to being used for

l68 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

soldering. Killed spirits, however, act better. Sal-ammo-
niac and resin, mixed, is'used as a flux for soldering
'sights' on gun-barrels.

(49) As a flux for lead soldering, plumbers use
tallow ('touch'). For pewter, Gallipoli oil is the ordi-
nary flux.

(50) For hard soldering, the flux is borax. This
flux is also made use of in steel welding.

SEAMS OR JOINTS.

Wl illustrate herewith the more important seams or
joints used in sheet metal work. The drawings are in-
tended to aid in the intelligent comprehension of the
formation of joints, and not as exact representations
of them.

Lap Seam. — In No. 1 is shown how metal plates are
arranged for a lap seam which is to be soldered.

Circular Lap Seam. — No. 11 shows how the edge of
the bottom of a cylindrical article is bent up previous
to soldering. It is evident that this seam is essentially
No. 1 seam adapted to the fitting a. bottom to a cylin-
der. Such bottom is called a 'snuffed on' or 'slipped
on' bottom.

Countersunk Lap Seam. — This is represented in No. 2.
It will be seen that the edge of one of the plates is
bent down, so that the edge of the plate to be joined
to it may lie in the part bent down, and that the two
plates when joined may present an unbroken surface.

Riveted Lap Seam. — This is shown in No. 8. The
amount of lap should not be less than three times the
diameter of the rivet.

Folded Seam. — No. 3 shows how the edges of plates
are prepared for folded seam.

Circular Folded Seams.— With a circular article the

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

I69

folded seam is'sometimes in the form of No. 12, which
shows a 'paned down' bottom to a cylinder. This
seam is essentially No. 13.

Another form of circular folded seam is shown in
No. 13. It is really No. 12 seam turned up, so as to lie
close against the cylinder (see reference letter A in
/ 2

-SV.

5

to

ill

34

Nos. 12 and 13). A bottom thus fitted is called a
'knocked up' bottom . Here again comparison with
No. 3 should be made.

Double Folded Seam. — This is shown in No. 6, and
needs no explanation. It is used with thick plates,

I ;o workshop manual.

where these when joined have to present to the eye art
unbroken surface; as in the hot-plates of large steam-
closets.

Grooved Seam. — This is represented in No. 4. It
will be seen that the seam is the same as No. 3, but one
plate is countersunk. In fact No. 3 shows the seam as
prepared for countersinking ('grooving') with a
'groover.' Seam No. 6 is used where plates are too
thick for grooving.

Countersunk Grooved Seam. — This seam (No. 5) is
used when an unbroken surface is required on the out-
side of an article, for example, in toilet-cans, railway-
carriage warmers. It is prepared as No. 3 and then
countersunk the reverse way to No. 4.

Box Grooved Seam. — This seam, shown in No. 14, is
used for joining plates in 'square work,' as for example
where the ends and sides of a deed-box are joined to-
gether. It is essentially No. 3 seam.

Zinc-roofing Joint. — The arrangement for this joint
is seen in No. 7. This joint admits of the expansion
and contraction of the zinc sheets. The edges of two
sheets, the wood 'roll,' and the 'roll cap' are shown.
The zinc 'clip,' by which usually the sheets of zinc are
held down, is not represented.

Brazing Joints. — A brazing joint for thin metal is
shown in Fig. 9. The edge of plate A is cut to form
laps as represented, and these laps are arranged alter-
nately over and under the edge of plate B.

For thick metal the brazing joint is shown in Fig.
10. It is essentially the same thing as the 'dovetail'
joint of the carpenter.

CHAPTER VIII.
MOULDINGS,

(i) The following chapter treats of mouldings.
With these, the essential condition for the formation,
with two pieces of moulding, of a joint at any angle, is
that the section or end-shape of each piece at the
"mitre" or junction shall be the same. This condition
should always be borne in mind, and it is fulfilled when,
in the plan of the joined pieces on the horizontal plane,
the mitre-joint shows as a line bisecting the angle that
the two pieces make with one another; for then, as a
little consideration will show, there is the same section
or cut on each piece. Thus, if this angle is a right
angle, that is, if the two pieces of moulding meet
"square, ' the joint line makes an angle in plan of 45
degrees with the internal and external edges of each of
the pieces; if the angle of meeting is of 120 degrees, as
with six pieces of moulding forming a regular hexagon
in plan, each joint line makes an angle of 60 degrees
with the internal and external edges of either adjacent
piece, and so on.

(2) In dealing for pattern-making purposes with
the section or shape of a moulding (§ 3), it is conveni-
ent to draw it on two straight lines at right angles, the
extremities falling one on either line, and the shape
being arranged in respect of one of the lines just as the
moulding itself is disposed to the surface to which it is
applied; this line is thus part plan line — or part eleva-

172 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

tion line — of that surface. . Looking to Fig. 1 (Problem
I) the section or shape KIHEDCBAis drawn on
the indefinite lines A K', K' K, at right angles, one
extremity of the shape standing at a point A in A K',
and the other extremity at a point K in K' K. The
plane of the paper being the plane of the section, then,
if A K' represent the surface to which the moulding
is applied, A K' is the depth of the moulding, and
K' K its outstretch or span. If.K' K represent that
surface, then K' K is the depth of the moulding and
K' A its span. Thus, that plane of section of a mould-
ing which gives its shape is a plane that contains the
lines both of its depth and span.

(4) It is necessary to observe that when the section
of a moulding or shape of it is spoken of, with no quali-
fying words, the section is supposed to be on the plane
just referred to.

(5) In some of the figures that follow, with a view
of helping the student, the space contained between
the line of shape, and the lines of depth and span, is
shaded, as in representing a solid moulding; our readers
will however remember that only the shaded line is the
moulding.

Problem I.

Given the shape and length of apiece of moulding
to draw the pattern for it.

Fig. 1 is the shape of a piece of moulding drawn on
the lines AK',K' and A L (Fig. 2) its length. Ob-
viously the pattern for the piece of moulding will be a
rectangle marked with certain lines upon which, with
the given shape as a guide the rectangle has to be bent
and formed, so as, at its end, to present that shape.

Draw (Fig. 3) any line X X, and from any point A
in it draw A Y at right angles to X X. From A along

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

173

Fig. ,1.

Fig. a.

Y

V

K
1

K'
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Fig. 3-

174 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

X X draw off A L equal to A L (Fig. 2), and from L
draw L Y' parallel to A Y. On A Y successively dis-
tances AB,BC,CD,DE,EF,FG,GH, HI, and
I K, equal respectively to AB,BC,CD,DE, E F,
F G, G H (F find G are any points in E H, the curved
portion of the shape), H I, and I K of Fig. 1. From
the points B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and K draw
lines parallel to A L and terminating in L Y' in the
points B', C, D', E', F', G', H', I' and K' respec-
tively; A K K' L will be the rectangle pattern required,
and the several lines parallel to A L will be the lines
by which the pattern is to be bent up and formed to
the given shape.

In setting off on A Y the distances E F, F G.and G
H, the mechanic must bear in mind that the distances
he sets off are chords and hot arcs, and that it may be
necessary to make allowance for this.

Problem II.

The shape of a moulding being given, to draw the shape at any
angle of section of the moulding, and the pattern for a piece
of the moulding cut at that angle. Also, conversely, the sec-
tion of a moulding at any angle being given to draw the
shape of the moulding.

The cases of this problem that usually occur in
practice are where the plane of section contains the
line of span of the moulding, but not the line of its
depth, or contains the line of its depth, but not that
of its span, and one particular example of where that
plane contains neither line of depth nor line of span.

(6) Here are seemingly two cases, they are how-
ever one and the same, as will be seen from this. Let
kg' f e'd' c' b' a' (Fig. 4), drawn on the lines a h,
a N, be the given shape of the moulding, one extremity

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

175

of it falling on the line a h at h, and the other at a' on
a N. If of the lines a h, aa' , the line misrepresents
in plan the surface to which the moulding applies - (§ 3),

Fig. 4.
then a h is the depth of the moulding, and a a' its
span. If aa' represents that plan line, then a a' is
the depth of the moulding, and a h is its span. Thus
the lines a h, a a', will be respectively depth and

I76 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

►

span, or span and depth, according to which of them
represents the surface for the moulding, and the plane
of section will be described correspondingly. The
working drawing for a section at an angle is that which
shows the angle.

(7) Producing the lines a' a and^-' h indefinitely,
lines which are perpendicular to a h by construction,
and by the given nature of the moulding a k H A will
represent in plan, a piece of the moulding lug' f e' d'
c : b' a' . A plane of section of the moulding at any
angle N A Q is represented by the line A Q cutting the
indefinite lines a A and h H in the points A and H.
This plane is perpendicular to the plane of the plan,
but does not contain both its lines of span and depth,.
The plan line of a plane passing through the point A,
and containing the lines both of span and depth, would
be the line A Y.

(8) To get the shape of the moulding on the plane
of A Q. Produce the line e'f (also perpendicular to
ah by the. given nature of the moulding), cutting a h
and A Q in/and F respectively, and from the point d'
draw a line parallel to the line just drawn, cutting a h
and A Q in d and D respectively. In d' a' , the curved
part of the moulding, take any points c' ,b' , and from
these points draw lines c' C, and b' B, parallel to a' A,
cutting a h in c and b, and A Q in C and B, respectively.
From A, B, C, D, F, and H, draw lines perpendicular
to A H, and A A', B B', CC, D D', F E', F F', and
HG' equal respectively to aa' , bb' , c c' , dd' ' ,fe' ,ff ',
and kg' . Join G'F' and E'D' by straight lines, and
D'C'B'A' by an unbroken curved line; the line
HG'F'E'D'C'B'A' will be shape required of the
moulding on the plane of section A Q. This shape is
often useful as a template.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

177

To draw the pattern for the shape. Draw (Fig. 5)
any line a k, and from a point a in it set off distances
ab, be, c d, de, ef,fg, and gh, respectively equal to the
distances a'b' ,b'c', c' d' , d' e' , e'f',fg',auAg'h (Fig.
4). Through a draw a line perpendicular to ah; make
a A equal to a A (Fig. 4), and from A draw a line
parallel to ah terminating at a point Y in an indefinite
line drawn from h perpendicular to a h. Through b, c,
d, e,f, and^ - , draw indefinite lines bB, cC, dD, *E,/F,
and^-G perpendicular to ah and cutting the line A Y,
then the rectangle a A Y h, with its guide lines between

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Fig. 5-
a A and h Y parallel to those lines, is the pattern of the
length of moulding (see last problem) aAYh (Fig. 4).
On bB, cC, and dD, set off distances b B, c C, and d D,
equal respectively to b B, c C, and d D ( Fig. 4) ; on e E
and/F distances eK and/F each equal to/F (Fig. 4)
(the points e' and/' coinciding with each other in plan
of the moulding), and on £-G, and AH distances gG
and h H, each equal to /zG (Fig. 4) (the points^-' and
h' coinciding with each other in plan of the moulding).
Through the points A, B, C, D, draw an unbroken
Curved line, and join DE, E F, F G, and G H by

I78 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

straight lines. Then ABCDEFGH will be the
pattern required.

(9) The pattern for the piece of moulding cut at
the angle NAQ (Fig. 4) is also found; it is a A H h of
(Fig. 4); which pattern, if bent up to the lines dT>,e E,
/F, and g G, and rounded up between the lines a A and
dD, will form the moulding required.

(10) In respect to the curve A B C D the caution
given in the last problem should be borne in mind. In
choosing division points on curves of mouldings, from
which, by means of lines to find points for any required
section, the workman must be guided by the length and
style of a curve. Lines from angular points of a shape
such as h, g' ,f , e' , and d' , must always be drawn, as
these not only give the angular points in the required
section, but are lines on which the pattern of a piece of
moulding must be angled up to form the moulding.

The pattern piece of a moulding may be made of
any desired length. Length is obtained by simply
producing the lines A a, B b, C c, D d, E e, ¥ /, G g,
and H h. If length is not required, but the mitre-line
end only of the pattern, this could be found by taking
measurements from the line A Y (Fig. 4) instead of a
k; the pattern thus obtained would beABCDEFG
HY(Fig. s).

( 1 1 ) What has been done in this first Case should
be noted by the student. The angular points of the
moulding, and other chosen points are projected on to
one of the lines, a h (Fig. 11) on which the shape is
drawn, and thence on to the line in which the moulding
is cut. The plane of the cut, whatever its angle, being
perpendicular to the surface to which the moulding is
applied, span lengths are not affected, but remain un-
altered. Depth lengths, however, such as g'f,e'd'

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 1 79

(Fig, 4), and the perpendicular length from d' to the
line a a' are altered, and the true lengths that these
become in the shape of the moulding in the plane of
the cut appears in the line H A as H F, F D, and D A
respectively.

Converse Problem — The section of a moulding at any angle
being given, to draw the shape of the moulding.

Let A D'E'F'G'H (Fig. 4) be section of a mould-
ing N A H h cut at the angle NAQ. Divide A'D'
into any number of equal parts, here three, in the
points B' and C, and from the points A', B', C, D',
and E' draw lines perpendicular to A Q, cutting that
line in the points A, B, C, D, and F. The point F' is,
by the nature of the section, a point in E' F; and the
line G' H is already perpendicular to A Q. From any
point a in N A draw a h perpendicular to N A, cutting
H h in h, and from B, C,,D, and F draw lines parallel
to N A, cutting a h in b, c, d and/ From aonAN
set off a a ' equal A A ' ; from b, c and d set off b b' , c
c' , and d d' respectively equal to B B', C C, and D
D'; from/set off//' and/*?' respectively equal to F
F' and F E'; and from h set off kg equal to H G'.
Join a' to d' , through b' and c' , by an unbroken
curved line, and join <a?' e'andfg'. Then a'b'c'd'e'
fg'h will be the shape required.

Problem III.

The shape of a moulding being given, to draw the pattern for
joining two pieces of it at any angle.

Let h g'e'd'a' (Fig. 4), drawn on the lines ah, a
a' , be the given shape of the moulding, and KAN the
angle at which the two pieces of it are to meet; Bisect
the angle KAN, then A Q is the direction of
the mitre line, and the two pieces are represented by

180 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

K A H and a A Ilk. As there is the same section or
cut on each piece, the problem now becomes that of
drawing the pattern for the piece of moulding, say a A
H h, cut at the angle AB. h. This is done by means
of the problem preceding.

(12) A method used in practice for finding the line
A Q, that is for bisecting the angle K A N, is to set
off from A equal distances along A K and A N, to join
the points thus found by a straight line, and then by
means of a square applied to this line to draw a line
perpendicular to (square with it) and passing through
the point A. This is a perfectly correct procedure.

Problem IV.

To draw the pattern for an aquarium {or other) base formed of a
moulding of one and the same design.

Let A' B' CD' (Fig/7) be the plan of the inside
edge of the aquarium (or other) base, and E F (Fig.
6), the shape of the moulding, drawn on the lines G F
and G E; G E representing the surface on which the
aquarium stands. Bisect each of the angles of the plan
by the lines A ' A, B ' B, C ' C, D ' D. Through either of
tbe angular points, here D', draw a line perpendicular
to A'D'; and on it set off D/ equal to G E (Fig. 6).
Through f~ draw a line parallel to A'D', and in-
tersecting A' A and D'D in A and D respectively.
Through D and A draw lines parallel to D' C, and in-
tersecting C'C and B'B in C and B, and join C B.
Then ABCD will be the plan of the outer edge of the
aquarium stand or other base, and A 'A, B'B, C'C, and
D'D, the plans of the mitre joints (§ 6).

If the plans of the outside edge of the aquarium (or
other) base be given or first drawn, as A B C D, the

WORKSHOP MANUAL. I»I

plan of the inside edge will be thus found. Bisect,
first of all, the angles A, B, C and D. Next draw a line
(no.t shown in the Fig.) perpendicular to one of the
edges, say A D, on its inner side, from any point in it
(the line/' D' is such a line, if/' be regarded as not a
particular point in A D but as any-point in it); on this
line setoff a distance equal to E G (Fig. 6), and through
the extreme point of this draw a line parallel to A D,
intersecting the bisecting lines of the angles at D and
A in the points D' and A'. Through D' and A' draw
lines parallel to D C, intersecting the bisecting lines of
the angles C and B in the points C and B' and join
C B'. Then A' B' C"D' is the plan of the inner
edge of the stand.

Fig. 6.

The problem is now essentially completed, and is
simply that of drawing the pattern for the E F (Fig. 6)
moulding on either mitre plane, which is done by Prob-
lem III. It will be a help to the student, however, to
work the problem in detail right through. We already
have the line D' /' if the inner edge was first drawn; if
the outer edge was first drawn, let fall now from D' a
line perpendicular to A D, meeting this line in/; then
D'/, being parallel to the line, not shown, drawn per-
pendicular to A D on which the distance E G was set
off, will be itself equal to E G. Now on D' /, D' A',

182

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

draw/' d" the required shape of the moulding, disposed
towards D' f as to the surface on which the moulding
-stands; and divide it into any number of parts, equal or
unequal (see § 10). The division is here into six equal
parts, in the points a' ,b' , c„', d' , and e' , through which
points draw lines i to i, 2 to 2, 3 to 3, 4 to 4, and 5 to 5

€'/

A

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s

s

f

Fig. 7-

parallel to A D, and terminating in A' A and D' D,
and from points 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, in the line D' D draw
lines parallel to D C and terminating- in C C.

To draw the pattern for the A' D' A D portion of
th^base. Draw (Fig. 8) any line K L; and from any

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

183

point D' in it set off D' a, a b, b c, c d, d e, and e f
equal respectively to the distances d' ' a', a' b' , b' c' ,
c' d',d' <?',and*' f around the curve d" c' f (Fig. 7);
and through the points D' , a, b,c, d, e, and/* draw
lines perpendicular to K L. Make a 1 equal to. a I
(Fig. 7), and b 2, c 3, d 4, e 5, and /' D respectively
equal to b 2, c^,d 4, e 5, and/' D (Fig. 7); and through
the points D', 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and D draw an unbroken

Vi'

21

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V

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27

Fig. 8.
curved line. Now from D' set off D' A' equal to
D' A' (Fig. 7), and through A' draw A' M parallel to
K L. From the points in A' M, where the lines a,b,
c,d,e,a.ndf cut A' M, set off distances to the left
of A' M corresponding to the distances a I, b 2, c 3, d 4,
e 5, and/' D to the right of the line K L, and through
the points there found draw an unbroken curved line.
Then A' D' AD will be the pattern required.

1 84 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

To draw the pattern for the D' C D C (Fig. 7)
portion of the base. It will be at once seen from the
plan that this differs from the A' D' A D portion,
only in that the distance D' C ' is less than the distance
A' D'; and thus that, if the lines A' M and L K
(Fig. 8) are brought closer together, so that A' D' is
equal to D' C (Fig. 7), the pattern so obtained will
be the pattern required..

Problem V.

To draw the pattern for an aquarium (or other) base formed
of mouldings not of one and the same design .

The problem now iefore us is that of fitting to a
given aquarium or other body, which has to stand in a
given position, a position, that is to say, of which the
dimensions are fixed, a base made up of mouldings.
In the last problem there are no restrictions as to the
dimensions of the base.

(13) Let A' B' C D' (Fig. 9) be the plan of the
aquarium or other body to which a moulding base has
to be fitted, and A B C D the plan of the position the
body has to stand in. Join A' A, B' B, C C, and D'
D; these Hnes last drawn will be the plans of the mitre
joints (§6). Looking at the plan, it is at once seen
that the pieces of moulding on the B' A' and CD'
sides of the body, though equal to each other, are not
of the same dimensions as the pieces, also equal to
each other, on the B' C, and A' D' sides. An im-
perative condition of two pieces of moulding properly
joining is that the sections of the pieces shall be the
same on the mitre-plane (§ 1). That is to say, that
here, for the pieces A' D' DA, C D' DC to prop-
erly join notwithstanding the difference of their di-

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

i8 S

mensions, their sections on the mitre plane of D' D
must be the same. When two pieces to be joined are
of one and the same design, this condition of same
section on the mitre-plane is fulfilled when the mitre
line bisects in plan the angle that the pieces of mould-
ing, as joined, make with one another (§ i). That
condition has now to be fulfilled when, the two pieces
being unequal in dimensions, the mitre does not in plan

bisect the ang'.e made with each other by the pieces;
the line D' D, for example, does not bisect the angle
A' D' C.

The shape for one of the mouldings may be given or
chosen; let it be, say, that for the moulding piece D'C
C D, or the piece B'A' A B, which is equal to it; and
let that shape be g e' c' a' , drawn on the lines D' ' g (a
continuation of the line A' D'), and D'a' part of D'
C ). Regarding D'g as the line of span of the mould-
ing, D'a' is the line of its depth, that is, of the distance

1 86

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

the moulding reaches up on the side of the aquarium or
other body. The depth of all four pieces of moulding
round the body is the same; it is not affected by the
want of correspondence between the plan A'B'C'D'
and the plan A B C D. From C on C'B' set off this
depth, C'a' , equal to D'a' and draw C'g perpendicular
to C'B' and meeting the plan line B C of the outer
edge of the piece of moulding B'C CB in a pointy.
The line C'g then is the span of this mouldings and we
shall now be able to draw on the lines C'g, C'a, the
shape for it.

g

Fig. 10.

Divide ge'c'a', the chosen shape for the moulding
D'C CD, into any number of parts, here six, equal or
unequal, in the points b' , c' , d' , e',f. Through these
points draw lines parallel to C D, terminating in the
mitre plan, lines C'C and D'D, and cutting D ' g in b, c,
d, e, and/; the drawn lines being the lines i to i, 2 to 2,
3 to 3, 4 to 4, and 5 to 5. From the points 1, 2, 3, 4, and
5 on the line C'C draw lines parallel to B C, terminat-
ing B'B, and cutting C'g in b, c,d, e, and / From
these last points b, c, d, c, and/ set off distances bb' ,
cc' , dd', ee', and //', respectively equal to the
distances of same letters from the line D'g, and
through the points a' (on C'B' ),b',c' , d' , e',f, and

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

I8 7

g on C B draw an unbroken curved line; this line will be
the shape for the moulding B'C C B.

Having the shapes of each of the mouldings, to draw
the patterns for the pieces. First that for the D ' C ' C D
pieces. Draw (Fig. 10) any line T>'g, and from the
point D' set off distances D'b, bc,cd, de, ef and fg,
equal respectively to the distances a'b' ,b'c' , c'd' ,d'e' ,
e'f , a.ad/'g' of the shape drawn on the lines T)'g, T>' a
(Fig. 9) and through the points D', b, c, d, e,f and^-
draw lines perpendicular to D ' g. Make g D equal to
g D (Fig. 9), and make/5, Mi <^3. c2,bi respectively
equal to/5, e 4> d 3< c 2 > and<5 1 from the WneD'g (Fig.

B*

<

h

c

A?

A

V»

e

>?

f

Y>

Fig. 11.

9); and from the point D' through the points I, 2, 3, 4,
5 to D draw an unbroken curved line. Now make gj
equal to gj, (Fig. 9) and through / draw/ C parallel
to gD'. Set off jC equal to^D' and then obtain
points for and draw the curve C ' C exactly as with the
curve D ' 3 D, the two curves being alike. The pattern
required will be CD' DC.

To draw the pattern for the B' C C B (Fig. 9)
piece of moulding. Draw ( Fig. 1 1 ) any line C ' g, and
from the point C set off distances C b, b c, c d, d e,
ef, and fg, equal respectively to the distances a' b' ,
b' c' , c' d' , d' e' f and/ g of the shape drawn on the
lines C g, C a' (Fig. 9), and from the points C b, c,

l88 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

d, e,f, and g draw lines perpendicular to C g. Make
g C equal to g C (Fig. 9) and make/5, e 4, d 3, c 2, ,b 1
respectively equal to f$, e 4, </ 3, c 2, and £ 1 from the
line C £■ (Fig. 9); and from the point C through the
points I, 2, 3, 4, 5, to C draw an unbroken curved line.
Now make^ equal to g h (Fig. 9), and through h
draw h B' parallel to C g. Set off h B equal to g C,
and then obtain points for and draw the curve B ' B
exactly as with the curve C 3 C; or copy the curve B'
B from the curve C 3 C, the two curve lines being
alike. The pattern B' C C B will be the pattern re-
quired.

The section or shape of either piece of moulding at
the mitre plane is obtained as in Problem II, by draw-
ing (Fig. 9) through the points D', and 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 on
the line D' D, lines perpendicular to that line, and
making D' D", 11', 22', 33', 44', and 55', equal re-
spectively to D' a' , b b' , c c' , dd' ,e e' , and f f , and
drawing from the point D" through the extremities of
these lines u', 22', 33', 44', and 55' to Dan unbroken
curved line. This section, however, is not needed for
the problem.

Problem VI.

To draw the pattern for an inclined (raking) moulding, to mitre
or join with a given horizontal moulding.

(14) This is the case closely allied to Problem II,
being that of section of a moulding by a mitre plane
which contains neither the line of depth of the mould-
ing, nor the line of its span. It is easy to work because
the mitre plane, so far as the given horizontal mould-
ing is concerned, contains both of those lines. The
case is not one, the student must notice, of joining two
pieces of moulding of the same shape at any angle, one

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

l8g

of the pieces being inclined, but of so fitting to one
shape of moulding a moulding of another shape that the
plane of their junction shall contain the line of inter-
section of the two surfaces to which the mouldings are
to apply. As a typical instance of the problem, sup-

pose the mouldings to be gutters, fitting say on a dor-
mer window, or some part of a roof where one gutter is
inclined and the other horizontal. The walls or sur-
faces (see Fig. 12) to which the mouldings fit are in this
instance assumed to be perpendicular to each other,
they may however be at any angle; this does not affect

1 90 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

the work of the problem. The plane of junction of
the mouldings, however, must contain the line of junction
of the surfaces of the walls.

Letf,e',d',c',b', a (Fig. 13) drawn on the lines
A' /', A' a be the given shape of the horizontal
moulding, the lines A' a being part of elevation line of
the surface to which the horizontal moulding applies;
it may in fact be regarded as representing the line of
junction of the two flat faces or surfaces of the walls to
which the mouldings are to fit. The shape given is not
chosen as a good one for a gutter only, but rather as a
useful shape to illustrate principles. Hence also the
term mouldings is employed instead of gutters, all gut-
ters being mouldings (§ 5). Perpendicular to A' a
draw any line X X, produce A' a indefinitely, as a N

A, and from any point A' in the produced line draw
A K at an angle in plan equal to that at which the two
pieces of moulding are to meet, now a square or right
angle as above stated. Bisect the angle K A N by a
line A Q, through f draw /' M F perpendicular to
X X, and intersecting A Q in F, and let M be the point
in/' F in which a line from any point N in A' A and
perpendicular to it cuts f F, and through F draw a
line parallel to A K. Next choose division points in
the curve d' a as most convenient (§ 10), the points
here taken being c' and b' ; from the-points b' c' , and
d' draw lines, each perpendicular to X X, to meet the
line A Q, the lines namely b'B, c' C, d' D, and through

B, C, and D draw lines parallel to K A. Then N M F
A will be the plan of the horizontal moulding, and F
K A that of the inclined moulding, and A F the plan
of the mitre joint (§ 6). To draw the elevation of
the inclined or raking moulding. From A' draw A'
P at an angle to X X equal to the inclination of the

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

I 9 I

L F

Fig. 13.

192 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

moulding, and from the points f, e' , and d' (§ 10),
c' , b', and a', draw lines parallel to A' P, the/L<z (L
being a point in the line drawn from/' ) is the elevation
'required.

To draw the shape of the raking moulding. From
any point A" in the line from a parallel to A' P draw
a line perpendicular to a A", meeting/ 7 L in 4" and
cutting the lines drawn parallel to A' P from e' , d' , c 1 ,
and b' in the points respectively 4', 3', 2'. and 1', and
continue the line K A to cut the lines b' B, c'C, d' D,
and f¥ in the points respectively 1, 2,3, and 4. As
the inclination of the moulding does not affect span
dimensions, set off 1' B" equal to 1 B, 2' C equal
to 2C, 3' D" equal to 3D, and 4' E", 4" F" each
equal to 4 F, the points f and e' coinciding with each
other, in the point F, in plan. Joining the points F",
E", D\ C", B", A" as shown, gives the shape for
the inclined moulding, the shape that will mitre ac-
curately in mitre plan A Q with the horizontal mould-
ing.

To draw the pattern for the horizontal moulding
N M F A. This is done by Problem III; in detail it is
as follows: — Draw (Fig. T4) any line Af, and from
A set off distances A b' b' c' , c' d' , d' e'~ , and e' f re-
spectively equal to ab',b' c', c' d' , d' V, and e' f
(Fig. 13), and through the points A, b' , c' , d' , e' , and
/', draw lines perpendicular to A/ . Makey F, and
e' E each equal to 4 F (Fig. 13), and aT D, c' C, b' B,
equal respectively to 3 D,2C,and 1 B (Fig. 13). From
A through the points B, C, and D draw an unbroken
curved line, and join D E, E F. Then A B C D E F is
the pattern required. The line N M corresponding to
the line N M from any point N in A A' (Fig. 13) is
drawn to indicate that the moulding may be of any
length.

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

193

To draw the pattern for the inclined moulding F
K A. Draw (Fig. 15) any line A" 4," and from A" set
off A" 1', 1' 2', 2' 3', 3' 4', 4' 4" equal respectively
to A" B", B" C", C" D", D" E", E" F", (Fig. 13), and
through the points A", 1', 2', 3', 4', and4", draw lines

A N

r/

b'

\

q/

c

J

d'

J

W

e'

3

f

[

Fig. 14.

Fig. IS-
perpendicular to A" 4". Make A' a equal to A"a
(Fig. 13), and 1' b', 2' c' , 3' rf',4' *', and 4"/ re-
spectively equal to 1' £', 2' c', 3' d' , 4' ^ and 4"/
( Fig. 13). Through the a, b ' , c ' , d' , draw an unbroken
curved line', and join d' e' , e' f ; then a b' c' d' e' f
is the pattern required.

194 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

■ In the instance where the mouldings form a gutter
a straight piece equal in depth to a A' (Fig. 13) is
necessary, with the horizontal moulding, to form a
back to the gutter to fit against the wall (see Fig. 12).
To the raking gutter also a back piece is required (see
Fig. 12). The "wall-line," against which thetop of the
gutter would have to fit, is A' P. The straight piece
for the back would therefore be equal in depth to P'
A" (Fig. 13), P' being the point of intersection of A r
P with A" 4". The highest point at the back of the
gutter is P', the highest point in front is F"; the litke
F" P' is drawn to make this clear; and the workman
in drawing the pattern must be careful not to use the
line A' P except as it has been used in the working- of
the problem.

Although not needed it will be useful to show how
td obtain the mitre section of the mouldings at A F
(Fig. 13). Draw through point a a line *z/ perpen-
dicular to A' a, cutting b' B, c' C, d' D, and e' Fin
the points b, c, d, and/ Through A, B, C, D, and F
draw lines perpendicular to A F, and set off distances
FF\ FE\ DD\ CC, B B'. equal respectively to
ff',fe',dd',cc' , and 6 6'. Join F' E', E' D\ ana
from D' through C and B' to A draw an unbroken
curve; the section sought isF'E'D'C'B'A'. The
lines AG and G F' represent the lines of depth and
span of the horizontal moulding on the plane of junc-
tion of the walls or surfaces to which the gutter fixes.

Problem VII.
To draw the pattern for a lobster-back cowl.

Draw an indefinite line A O (Fig. 16), and from any
point O in it draw a perpendicular O T. With O as

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

195

centre and radius equal to the diameter of cowl re-
quired, describe an arc A A' T, cutting O T in T. Pro-
duce- O T downwards, and make O Q equal to the depth
of the rim required; through Q draw Q P, parallel to
A O, and from A draw A P perpendicular to A O and
cutting QPinP; AOQPis the elevation of the rim.
To draw the hood T S R O, draw T S perpendicular to

a"

Fig. 16.

O T, make T S and O R of the required dimensions tor
the hood, and join S R. This completes the elevation
P A' S R O Q of the cowl. Now divide the arc A T
into the same number of equal parts that the shell of
the lobster-back is to have segments. Here we take
the number of segments as three; A' and G are the
points of division of the arc. Joining these points to

ig6

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

O we have in G O T, A' O G, and A O A' the eleva.
tions of the segments of the shell.

To draw the pattern for the segments.

On either of the lines AO,A'0,GO,TO describe
a semi-circle, it is here described on A O, and divide it

into any convenient number of equal parts, here six, in
the points b, c, d, e, and f. Through b, c, d, e, and /
draw lines perpendicular to A O, and cutting it in
points B, C, D, E, and F respectively. With O as
centre and radii OB,OC,OD,OE, and O F success-

WORKSHOP MANUAL. I97

ively, describe arcs BB'H,CC K',DD'L,EE' M,
and FF' N, cutting A' Gin the points B',C, D', E\
and F' respectively, andT O in the points H, K, L, M,
and N respectively. We now find the pattern for the
segment A O A ' ; the pattern for that segment, the seg-
ments being all equal, will be the pattern for all.

Bisect the arc A A' in k and join k O. Join A A',
B B', C C',DD',E E', and F F by straight lines,
cutting k O in points a' , b' ', c' , d' ' , e 1 ' , and /', respec-
tively. Next draw an indefinite line a' O (Fig. 17), and
.on it set off a' b' , b' c' , c' d' , d' e' , e' /', and/' O,
each equal to A3 (Fig. i), one of the equal parts into
which the semicircle A d O is divided, and through each
of the points a', b' , c' , d' , e' , and/', draw lines per-
pendicular to a' O. Make a' A',b' B', c' C , d' D',
e' E', and/ F' respectively equal to a' A', b' B', c'
C',d' DV E',and/ F' (Fig. 16); also make a' A,
b' B, c' C, d' D, e' E' and/' F respectively equal to
a' &',b' B',c' C, d' D» e 1 E, and/' F (Fig. 16). -Join
A, B, C, D, E, F, and O, and also A', B', C, D', E',
F', and O by unbroken curved lines, then A O A will
be half the pattern required, which can be completed
by drawing A A' a figure exactly the same as A O A'.

To draw the pattern for the hood T S R O.

Draw (Fig. 18) an indefinite line T O, and on it set
off T H, H K, K L, L, M, M N, and N O, each equal to
A b (Fig. 16), one of the equal parts of semi-circle A d
O. Through each of the points T, H, K, L, M, N, and
O draw lines perpendicular to TO; and make T S, H
H',K K',L D', M M',N N' and O R respectively
equal to T S, H H', K K', LL\ M M', N N\ andO R
(Fig. 16). Join S,H', K', L', M\ N', and R by an
unbroken curved line; TS RO will be the pattern for
one-half of the hood; duplicating this on the line T S
will complete the pattern.

I98 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

If closer approximation is necessary the lines a' O
(Fig. 17) and T O (Fig. 18) should each of them be
made equal to half the circumference of a circle having
A O (Fig. 10) for its diameter, and then divided into as
many equal parts as semi circle A dO (Fig. 16) is di-
vided into. In practice, for convenience in making up,
it is necessary to cut off the point O (Fig. 17) of the
pattern. How much shall be cut off must be left to the
experience of the workman; it varies according to the
size of the "boss" used to cover the throat. Also, in
practice, to ensure neatness of fitting, the rim at O
(Fig. 16) is notched out a little. This, again, is a mat-
ter in which experience must be the workman's guide.

The rim being cylindrical, its pattern needs no de-
scription beyond saying that it is a rectangle, one side
of which is equal to the depth of the rim, and the other
sides equal to the circumference of a circle having A
for its diameter.

Note.— In practice the usual sizes of rim AOQP

and hood T S R O are as follows:

_.. , „ Size of Hood at Widest and

Diameter of Cowl. Depth of Rim. Narrowest Parts.

8inches 2 inches 4 inches and 1 inch.

9 " 2X " \%. • ijf ■

10 " 2^ - i% - lH .

11 I *K m 5 IK "

12 ' ■... 3 « 5'A " iX '

Problem VIII.
Pattern for a tapering circular bend.

The method here given is approximate, as indeed
all ordinary practical methods must be for problems of
this description.

LetK' KB'BHH'/ Q' (Fig. 19) represent in
elevation the side of the ship's ventilator or fog horn.

WORfcSHOiP MANUAL.

199

Divide each of the curves BB'KK'andHH'QQ'
into as many equal parts as it is determined there shall
be segments, here say three parts, the points of division
being B', K, and H' Q, respectively. Joining B' to
H', and K to Q we have in B B' H' H, B' K Q H',
and K K' Q' Q elevations of the three segments of

Fig. 19.

which the ventilator is to be made up; T R H B is an
elevation of the mouthpiece of the ventilator.

To draw the pattern for the segment B B ' H ' H.

Bisect the arc B' B in a' and H' H in h' , and join
a'k'; also join B' B. On a' h' describe a semi-circle a'
e'h' and divide it into any number of equal parts — here

200 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

six— in the points c'd'e'f and^-'. From these points
draw lines perpendicular to a' k' , cutting a' h' in the
points c, d, e, f and g respectively (to avoid confusion
these lines are not shown in the figure), and through c,
d, e, f and g draw C C, D' D, E' E, F' F, and G' G
parallel respectively to B ' B.

Next draw (Fig. 20) an indefinite line b h' , and set
off on it distances b c, c d, d e, e f, f g, a.ndg h' , each
equal to a' c' (Fig. 19), that is to one of the divisions of
the semi circle a' c' h' , and through b draw B' B at
the same angle to b h' that B' B (Fig, 19) is to b h' .
Now 'through c, d, e, f, £*and h' (Fig. 20) draw C C, /
D' D, E' E, F' F, G' G and H' H, parallel respec- '
tively to B' B. Make b B, c C,dD,eE,/F,g G, and
h' H equal respectively to b B, c C, d D, e E, /F, g G,
and h' H (Fig. 19). Also b B', c C, d D', e E',/F\
g- G', and h' H' equal respectively to b B', c C'.^D',
e E\ / F', g G\ and h' H' (Fig. 19). Joining B,
D, E, F, G, and H, and B', C, D\ E', F', G', ai
H' by unbroken curved lines gives in B H H' B' th
pattern required.

To draw the pattern for the segment K' KQQ'.

Bisect the arc K' K in/ and Q' Q in q' , and join j
q' ; also join K' K. On J' q' describe a semi-circle j
n' q' and divide it into any number of equal parts —
here six — in the points /', m' , n' , o' , and/'. From
these points draw lines perpendicular to _/' q' ' , cutting
j q' in the points /, m, n, o, and p respectively (these
lines are not shown in the figure), and through /, m, n,
0, and/- draw L' L, M' M, N' N, O' O, and P' P, par-
allel respectively to K' K.

Next draw (Fig 21) an indefinite line k q' and set
off on it distances k /, / m, m n, n o, p, and p q' each
equal to/' /' (Fig. 19), that is, to one of the divisions

I

workshop manual.

201

of the semi-circle/ ri q' , and through k draw K' K at
the same angle to k q' that K' K (Fig. 19) is to k q' .
Now through /, m, n, o,p, and q' (Fig. 21) draw LL',
MM',NN',0 0\ P P', and Q Q' parallel respec-
tively to K K'. Make k K, / L, m M, n N, o O, p P,
and q Q, equal respectively to k K, / L, m M, n N, O,

Fig. 20.

Fig. 21.

pP,g'Q (Fig. 19). Also make k K',l'L',m M',»N',
o O' ,p P', and q' Q' equal respectively to k K', /L',
»z M', n N',0 O',/ P', and ^ ' Q' (Fig. 19). Joining
K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q, and K', L\ M', N', O', P',
and Q' by unbroken curved lines gives in KQQ' K'
the pattern required.

202 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

In practice it is found desirable to leave the ends
H' H (Fig. 20) and Q' Q (Fig. 21) of the patterns
full long. It is easier to cut a piece off if a pattern
is too long than to add a piece if too short.

The pattern for the segment KB' H' Q need not
be drawn here. To do so would make a confusion of
lines in the figure. It can be obtained in similar man-
ner exactly to that by which the patterns are obtained
of the other two segments.

The mouthpiece of the ventilator can be stretched
out of a disc, or can be made from a part cone and
stretched.

CHAPTER IX.
SLATE.

Strength of Building for Slate.

It is the prevailing opinion of people not familiar
with the use of slate for roofing purposes, that a build-
ing should be constructed very much stronger for slate
than for other roofing materials. This is a great mis-
take, as any building strong e?iough for shingles, tin or iron
is strong enough for slate , for the following reasons: The
weak points of any roof are the valleys or other breaks
in the roof where snow drifts in and lodges, and when
the snow melts with rain the weight at points where
the snow has drifted is much heavier than any two slate
roofs. It is well known that snow will not stick on a
slate roof as it will on shingles or on a metal roof, as
the slate being of a warmer nature causes the snow to
melt and slide off; while with shingles or metal it
freezes on, causing greater weight than a slate roof is
ever called on to bear. Two by six rafters, eighteen
feet long, two feet from centers, gives a roof all the
strength necessary for a slate roof. The writer has
seen hundreds of houses roofed with slate where the
rafters were two by four, two feet from centers, sixteen
feet long, with collar beam nailed across-one-third of
the way down from the top.

204 workshop manual.

Pitch of Roofs.

Slate can be depended upon to make a roof perfectly
water tight on any pitch down to one-fifth. Half pitch
or steeper makes the best roof both for looks and

The above shows the different pilch of roofs on which slate is usually
laid. Slate should not be laid on a roof of less than one-6fth pilch.

strength, as it throws the weight on the walls more than
the rafters, and causes the snow to slide off clean,
thereby never overloading any one part of the roof.

Sheathing Boards.

Matched lumber is best for sheathing for any roof,
surfaced boards from six inches to ten inches wide make
a good job and are used on a large majority of the
buildings now being put up. Sheathing boards, when
not matched, should be nailed at both edges on rafters,
which should not be over two feet apart. Wide boards
when used for sheathing are liable to warp and curl up
at the edge, thus affecting the slate. While it may not
break the slate it raises the courses, marring the appear-
ance of the roof. Very often a roof that lays well and
smooth when done apparently gets rough and the slates
stick up. The roofer is often blamed for this when the

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 205

cause is really in the sheathing. Great care should be
used in putting on sheathing that there are no lumps
or uneven thicknesses in the boards, as they will surely
show after the slate is put on. This especially applies
on curved roofs or round towers, dormers, etc. In al.
such, the rafters shouldbe close together and the sheath-
ing perfectly solid and smooth. Where the sheathing
is not solid it is almost impossible to make a good
smooth job, for the reason that in driving one nail it
jars the next slate loose. Laths or strips are often used
instead of sheathing boards on which to lay slate, but
in such case the lath should be at least one and one-
quarter by two and one-half inches, and must be spaced
to suit the size of the slate used. They shouldbe placed
so that the upper end of each slate will rest in the cen-
ter of the lath. This plan is a good one for barn roofs,
as it allows some ventilation between the slate; but
where a perfectly snow-tight roof is wanted, the slate
should be pointed with hair mortar on the underside
of the slate at the upper end of each course, also the
joints between the slate. Tarred or other water-
proofed paper should be used under slate where the
same is laid on sheathing boards. This will insure a
roof perfectly tight against fine snow.

Comparative Size and Strength of Slate.

A wide and short slate makes the strongest and
best roof, and looks much better than the long narrow
slate after one is accustomed to the appearance of
roofs finished in this style. Slate 10 X 14 is 40 per
cent, stronger than that 7 X 14; 12 X 16 is 50 per cent,
stronger than 8 X 16; 10 X 16 is 25 per cent, stronger
than 8 X 16; 12 X 18 is 33 per cent, stronger than

206 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

9X18, and the same applies to other sizes both larger
and smaller. The above sizes refer more particularly
to dwellings, and the figures are based on facts which
you can easily demonstrate by actual test. By the use
of the above sizes the actual strength and wear of a
roof can be increased from 25 to 33 per cent., while
the cost is no more. The above should be thoroughly
impressed upon all who intend using slate or going
into the business. For barns, shops and other large
buildings 14 X 24, 14 X 22 and 14 X 20 make the best;
12 X 24, 11 X 22 and 12 X 22 make a fine roof. As is
well known, the best material in the quarry is split and
worked into the larger sized slate; the latter also takes
less nails and can be put on much faster than the,
smaller sizes. About four-fifths of all the slate speci-
fied by architects are either 8 X 16, 9 X 18 or 10 X 20;
while not much more than one-tenth of all the slate
made is cut to these sizes. This being the case, it is
evident that a great many must use slate of a size
different from that called for in the specifications.

There is always a scarcity of medium sizes. The
smaller the slate the more nails and time required to
lay them on the roof, and the more small pieces are
needed on hips and valleys. In quarrying and making
the slate the rock is blasted out in large blocks, then
broken and split up into blocks to as near the size of
the slate as possible, then split with thin chisels and
mallet to the thickness of the slate, then dressed square
on a machine, each splitter and dresser making about
thirty different sizes of slate, the size being regulated
by the size of the blocks and sheets of slate split from
the same — the dresser always trimming the piece to
the largest size it will make. There is a great waste

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 207

and extra expense in making any special size of slate
in a larger quantity than the usual average.

How Slate Roofs Are Damaged By Carelessness.

After a roof is finished the slater should insist that
tinners, painters, carpenters and others keep off the
slate or lay boards or ladders to walk on, and if they
will trample them and break the slate, they should pay
for the repairing. It is a notorious fact that tinners,
carpenters, painters, masons, and, worst of all, lightning-
rod men, damage slate roofs more before the building
is finished than will ten years' wear. This can only be
stopped by the slaters insisting on their rights and not
allowing themselves to be robbed by coming back and
repairing a roof three or four times after the slate has
been trampled up and broken by careless workmen.

Ornamental Slate.

Slate of one color with cut belts is very much used.

The old style of red, green, black and purple spots
and stripes is fast going out of date, as it should. A
gaudy striped and spotted roof may attract the eye
when new, but a plain, neat roof of all one color, or not
more than two colors,' always looks well. Black and
gVeen make the best contrast where more than one
color is used. They should be run in belts, either
through the center of roof or a belt at top and bottom.
The less gaudy figures put in the better the roof will
look. It is much less difficult to get at the amount of
slate necessary to ornament a roof if belts are used in-
stead of figures.

The custom which prevailed several years ago.

208 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

of using gaudy ornaments of different colored slate,
has entirely changed and it is now very seldom that
even two colors of slate are put on the same roof, but
the custom of cutting the slate has increased with
the decrease of colors. Many fine buildings now are
roofed with all cut slate. Whole roofs of small red,
or black slate, all cut, are very effective, and much
used and admired by the best judges of such work.

Cut Slate Make The Neatest Roof.

It is much easier to make a smooth roof with cut
slate, or with alternate belts of cut and plain slate, than
with all plain. The reason of this is that the eye always
detects a slight defect or unevenness oh a plain surface
much quicker than on broken surfaces. It is better to
use from yi to ^ of the slate cut to pattern for the
best class of work. This adds little or nothing to the
cost of the roof, as with the improved machines, now
used by all leading roofers, the slate can be cut to
almost any conceivable pattern. A great variety not
shown here can be made according to the taste and
skill of the workmen, and there is room for the display
of a great amount of taste and judgment in laying out
the cut slate for a roof, cut up by hips, valleys, gables,
dormers, etc. The appearance of the whole building is
often greatly improved by a neat, tasty arrangement of
the cut slate in the roof.

Piling Slate.

It may appear, to a casual observer, of very little
consequence how roofing slate are piled, either at the
quarry or when hauled to the building ready for use.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 200.

It is not necessary to tell quarrymen how to pile slate
except to caution them not to pile so high as is usually
done, especially where room on the banks is scarce.
The piles should in no case be more than three feet six
inches high; if piled more than this height and allowed

■

The proper way to Pile and Cover Slate.

to stand over winter there will be a heavy loss in break-
age in the bottom row's of the piles.

These remarks are intended more for beginners than
for old hands, whether quarrymen or slaters, and should
be carefully studied and followed. It is necessary to
have a solid dry place to pile slate; then a plank or

The improper way to Pileand Cover Slate.

strips should be laid down (the first named being pref-
erable), and there should be lath or strips between the
piles. Where there is no wall to pile against there
should be bulkheads built, as shown in the following cut:
The above method of covering is intended for«use in

210 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

the fall when much rain or snow is expected, to pre-
vent the slate from freezing together, which makes it
very disagreeable work handling, besides causing much
waste.

I am sorry to say this plan is the one more often
followed than the first. This plan is very expensive in
broken slate, the piles very often falling down or get-
ting out of shape. The slate in a pile exert a great
pressure in the direction of the slant at the top, and the
more they settle the heavier the pressure.

Selecting Slate.

Much time can be saved in laying slate by carefully
selecting when punching. Where there are corners off,
thin corners or other imperfections, the slate should be
punctured so the imperfect part will be the head of the
slate when laid, unless the imperfection is of such a nature
that it will damage the roof; in which case the imper-
fect slate should be laid out to use on hips or valleys.
The slate should be selected in two thicknesses; the
thick slate to be laid at the eaves and the thin ones at
top of the roof. Finishers, however, should be thick
and all perfect slate. It is a great advantage in dress-
ing to use a machihe.as it makes a very much stronger job
and neater hole.

Punching Slate.

Slate punched by hand is more liable to come loose
than machine punched, for the reason that in punching
by hand the slate is only supported on one side of the
hole at the time the point of the hammer strikes the
slate; and in consequence a large piece usually scales
off, often leaving not more than one-half of the thick-

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 211

ness of the slate to hold the nail. The result is the
slate is so weak the nail head pulls through and the
slate comes off. See the following cuts showing both
hand and machine punched slate.

Machine Punched Slate.

The following cut shows a section through the slate
at nail hole when punched with machine. It can read-
ily be seen that this form of nail hole gives the greatest
possible strength to the slate and the least possible
chance for the nail pulling through, while the slate

.Machine Punched Slate.

punched by hand are greatly weakened, as nearly every
slate is scaled off around the hole, reducing the slate
nearly, if not one-half its thickness. This is the prin-
cipal cause of so much repairing being required on
roofs put on before the introduction of machines for
punching.

The following cut shows a section through the
nail hole in hand punched slate. A comparison of the
above cuts will quickly convince any man with rea-
sonable judgment which method is preferable, and that
as a matter of economy and durability the first is far
in advance of the latter,

212

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

Hand Punched Slate.

Nails Driven too Tight.

jEi_2>

Nails not Driven Par Enough.

workshop manual. 213

Nailing.

Nails driven too tight produce the effect shown in
the above cut and should be carefully avoided by
slaters; this applies more particularly to slate punched
by hand, as the slate does not have much strength to
hold the nail and consequently pulls through and al-
lows the slate to slide out.

Nails not driven far enough are nearly as bad and
produce the effect seen in the above cut; while it does
not allow the slate to slide off, it punches holes through
the slate above the nail; this is caused by the weight
of the bracket or by walking on the roof; nails should
be driven down until the head is level with top surface
of the slate but not tight enough to draw or spring the
slate.

Slating Nails.

'■■■*;..

During the last few years there has been a change
in this line from cut nails to wire nails. The principal
reason for this has been the poor quality of the cut
nails, nearly all makers producing clumsy, heavy nails
with thick, ragged heads, while the wire nail is gener-
ally clean cut, well made, with countersunk head. A
clean, well made, cut steel nail with countersunk head
is better than wire nails for the purpose of laying slate,
for the reason that it is almost impossible to cut or
break a wire nail in repairing, while a cut nail readily
breaks or cuts with the ripper, making it much "easier
to repair. Another advantage in cut nails is that it re-
quires more force to start a cut nail than a wire, al-
though the wire nails hold more after starting to pull
than the cut. Both make a good job. Galvanized or
tinned nails are less liable to rust. Either cut steel or
steel wire nails rust much less than iron nails. Copper

214 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

nails are often used on fine work, but they cost much
more and pull out of the sheathing very much easier
than steel. 3 d nails are large enough for all sizes of
slate up to and including 20 inches; unless the slate are
extra thick above 20 inches 4 d should be used.

Measuring Roofs. **

It is very essential that a slater should be able to
understand and measure architects' drawings, as many
of the largest and best jobs of slate roofing are let by
contract from the architect's office. The greatest
advantage derived by the slater, in being able to
measure drawings, is the fact that his competitor does
not know every job he bids on; just how much per
square he figures at, as the variation in prices may be
caused by measure and not price. Where the competi-
tion bidding is all by the square, the result is generally
to run the price down gradually but surely until there is
no profit, and often an actual loss in many of the jobs
done. Some roofers adopt the mistaken plan of not
measuring hips and valleys extra; this is wrong, for
while it may give a small margin of profits on a plain
roof, at the same price per square it will cause consider-
able actual loss on a roof badly cut up by hips and
valleys. There is no more reason or sense in leaving
off the measure of hips and valleys than there would be
to leave it off the measure of the porches, as both take
a great amount of extra time and material which the
owner gets the benefit of, and should pay for, as he does
for windows, doors, or any other part of his house.

Rules For Measuring Slate Roofs.

The following are the standard rules for measuring
slate work. These rules are recognized and followed

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 2T$

by roofefs, architects and engineers wherever slate
roofing is used, and in all standard works on the sub-
ject:

For Plain Roof. — Measure the length of the roof
and multiply by the length of the rafter.

For Roof with Hips, Valleys, Gables, Dormers,
Etc. — Measure each section through the center and
multiply by the length of rafter; and in addition to the
actual surface of roof measure the length of all hips and
valleys by one foot wide, also what the first, or eave
course, shows to the weather by the length of eaves.
In some localities this rule is not adhered to strictly, but hips
and valleys are always measured wherever slate is used.
The extra measure on eave course is to compensate for
lost time in standing and laying the under-eave course,
which does not show or count in the surface measure.
The extra measure on hips and valleys is intended to
compensate for extra labor and loss of material in cut-
ting, fitting and laying same. No deduction is made
for dormer windows, skylights, "chimneys, etc., unless
they measure more than four feet square. If more than
four feet square and less than eight feet square, one-
half is to be deducted. If more than eight feet square,
deduct the whole. The reason for not deducting the
whole of the openings is the extra work in cutting and
fitting the slate, and putting in the flashings. Hips and
valleys on spires are measured extra, same as above. If
hips are mitred and flashed they should be charged for
extra. If ridge-roll is put on it is charged extra.
Gutters, valleys and all flashings are charged extra.

It should always be remembered, in measuring roofs,
that if the pitch of the roof is the same, size of building
and projections the same, the mere fact that there are
hips and valleys does not add to the surface of roof.

2l6 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

As an example: Two buildings of the same size may
be roofed — one with plain pitch and gable roof (this is,
two plain sides), and the other may have four hips,
four gables and eight valleys. If both 'roofs are the
same pitch, the roofs will measure exactly the same,
and two measures is all that is necessary in measuring
either — that is, the length of one eave and the length
over both rafters, except that the extra measure on hips
and valleys would have to be added on the cut up roof.

Laying Slate and Felt.

Before starting, the slater should be sure the roof is
ready. The carpenter should put on a cant strip about
one-quarter inch thick, nailed about two inches above
the eave line of the slate. Carpenters often refuse to
do this, saying it is the slater's work. This is not true.
It is as much a part of the carpenter work as the sheath-
ing. There should be cant boards put in behind all
chimneys before the chimney back or gutter is put in.
The cant board should fall to each end so that no water
will stand in the gutter, as is the case where no cant
board is used. This is the cause of more bad leaks on
slate roofs than any other one thing; it is worse than
broken slate, as the water will, where the end of a
chimney gutter is higher than in the center, run over
and follow along the under side of the tin to the lowest
point, then drop off and run down, often allowing gal-
lons of water to run into the building in a few hours. It
is a good plan to keep small sea green slate on hand for
under-eaves, as they are cheap and strong, making the
very best for the purpose. When chimneys require
braces they should be put on where practicable, so that
the end that is fastened to the roof will be higher than

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

217

the end fastened to the chimney; this will prevent water
from following the iron rod down through the slate,
but where the braces must be lower at the end next to
the roof, then the brace should be built so that there
will be a drip formed near the roof.

Braces.

The slaters should be very particular to put boards
in the gutters, so that the metal cannot be injured by
tramping or by pieces of slate. In nailing slate on,
great care should be used that the nails should not be
driven down too tight, as they will pull through, and
on the other hand they should be driven down even

2l8

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

with the slate, so that the nail will not punch the slate
above when pressure is put on from above by stepping
on the slate, or by the scaffolding.

'Finishers.

3d Course.

2tl Course.

ist Course.

Unrtcr-
eaves.

Starting ami Finishing.

The above shows how to start and finish a roof.
The lap is the amount the tail of the third course
laps over the head of the first course.

Flashing and Counter-Flashing.
Flashing and counter-flashing should always be
separate. The single-flashing should be laid in with
the courses of slate, one piece under the lower end of
the first slate or half slate intersecting any wall or
chimney, and should be two inches longer than the
gauge of the slate (the slate are laid to weather), and
six or seven inches wide. Turn up square two and one-
half to three inches. The part turned up against a
chimney or wall should never be nailed to same, for
the reason that the wood work of the roof will settle
more than brick or stone work in chimneys or walls
and cause the flashings, if nailed, to tear up the slate.
The counter-flashings should be let into the brick or

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

219

Head Lines on Felt.

Flashing and Counterflashing.

220

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

stone joints one inch, well wedged in and pointed with
mortar. The pointing is a part of the masons' work.
If grooves have to be cut in the stone or brick work to
receive counter-flashing, it is the masons' work to cut
them. Counter-flashing is usually done by the tinner.
If lead is used for flashing, no heavier than two and
one-half pounds to the square foot should be used for
the part interlapping with slate. If thicker is used it
makes the slate lay badly. Flashing should never be
put in in long strips, but always cut and laid in with
the courses. A great source of trouble and leaks is the
manner in which chimney backs are usually put in.

Ridge and Hip Rolls.

Galvanized iron ridge and hip rolls make a much
better job than slate finish, as they hold the finishers
and pieces to hips so that wind cannot catch them.

Whenever possible, a wood strip should be nailed on
each side of hips and along comb, to nail ridging to.
The ridging should be so shaped that it will press down
tight on the slate when nailed on.

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 221

Neither hips nor ridge should ever be finished with-
out ridging, as it is inexpensive and adds so much to
appearance and durability of the work. Ridge and hip
rolls are always figured separate from the slate and
charged for at so much per foot. The reason for this
is that often a large job has very little hips or ridges,
while often a few squares, such as spires, may have
hundreds of feet of ridge or hip roll.

Ridging.

Ridge and hip rolls used on plain work should be
put on by the slater, so that when the slate are broken
they can be ""replaced, leaving the roof complete;
another reason why the slater should put the ridging
on is, that a slater knows where to drive a nail so as
not to break the slate better than other mechanics who
are not accustomed to doing such work. Two inch
steel wire nails are the best for fastening ridgings.
Great care is necessary in nailing on ridging not to
drive the nails too tight, thereby cracking the slate or
making kinks in the flange of the ridging.

Ridging, flashing, etc., is not considered a part of a
slate roof and is charged extra per foot, according to
the amount of the same.

How to Use Several Sizes of Slate on One Roof.

On account of the long distance that slate has to be
shipped and the length of time it takes to get a car
load through, it often happens that the slater may
have slate enough for a job but not enough of one size,
or even for one side of the roof. We have prepared the
accompanying cut to show the manner of using different

222

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

sizes of slate on the same section of roof. The cut
shows four sizes, but more can be worked the same
way; for example: take a roof twenty feet long and
twenty feet rafter— there are 'four squares — now sup-
pose-you have one square 10 X 16, one square 8 X 16,
one square 10 X 14, one square 8 X 14. Start with

Sizes of Slate.

10 X 16, when half way across the eave run 8 X 16 the
other half, then run up ten feet on the roof with these
two sizes, the two sizes joining in the center; then start
on the 10 X 16 with 10 X 14, and over the 8 X 16 lay
8 X 14. If more than four sizes are to be used divide
the roof into sections according to the slate \o be used,

workshop manual.. 223

Round Tower.

In some classes of work it is necessary to also cut
the upper end of the slate. This is called shoulder
cutting, and makes the slate lay down much better
than will slate with full corners. This especially ap-
plies to slating round towers, which is now coming
into much favor. It is really impossible to make nice
close job on round towers or dormers without shoulder
cutting. In slating a round tower or dormer it is best
to start with wide slate, 10 X 12, 10 X 14 or 10 X 16
are good for starting them. As each course narrows
down you get up much higher. Before the slate gets
too narrow to cover the nails below, after running up
until the slate gets down to 3^ to 4 inches, it is best
to start again with a course double the width of the
last course, and thus have the width to narrow down
on again, as two inches is about as narrow as it is safe
to make the last course, arid even then it is well to
carefully double felt and lay several of the last courses
in oil cement.

Repairing of Slate Roofs.

Many slaters think. they have a perfect right to
charge a ruinous price for repairing because they do it
by the day. This class of so-called slaters never suc-
ceed in building up a permanent business and are
almost certain to finally bring up in the hands of the
sheriff, no matter how prosperous they may appear at
first. They do more damage to the slate business than
any other one thing known. They do a poor job of
roofing and depend on making money by repairing. In
putting on a new roof every slate should be left whole
and perfect, both nails should have their full hold, and

224

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

the slater should feel that each slate is right before
covering it up with the next. The same care should
be used in repairing. Take out every slate that can
possibly cause a leak, and carefully replace it. If the
roof is steep and the slate twenty inch or larger, put in
two nails — the upper one as close up in center joint as
possible, the other two inches lower down. Over the
head of the nails slip a. piece of painted tin, about
3X6 inches; bend the tin so it will bind and not slip

Repairing a Slate Roof.

out. Putty or cement is sometimes used for the nail
heads, but neither is good. Leaks are often caused by
cracks in the slate above the gauge line, so that it is
only by close scrutiny the leak is found. Leaks are
also caused by a rough surface on the slate near the
head, causing the water to run across the slate. This
is very often the case with hand punched slate, as "large
pieces are frequently scaled off, which catch the water,
running it in around the nail,

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

225

The dotted lines show the piece of tin over the nail;
the light shaded space shows where the broken slate is
taken out and replaced.

Tin slipped over nail head.

This shows the shape of the piece of tin before
being slipped in over nail head. Putty or cement
should never be used in repairing to cover nail head,
as they will not last. ,

Slaters' Scaffold Bracket. •

The above cut shows the method now generally
adopted by slaters for scaffolding a roof. The scaffold
can be made in two ways, the old way being to nail up
a bracket at the building from pieces of board. This
is a slow, expensive plan and often very dangerous.
The safer and better plan is to have adjustable brackets

226 WORKSHOP MANUAL.

that can be changed to any pitch or roof instantly and
folded up when not in use. The above cuts shows a
very convenient bracket and the plan of using the same
on the roof. A light and convenient extension ladder
is the most convenient way to get slate upon small
buildings; for buildings more than two stories it is bet-

Bracket Closed when uot in Use,

ter to use a rope pulley and pull the slate up to the
gutter, using a ladder to carry the slate from the gutter
up to the scaffold where slaters are at work.

Spire Slating

Is done in two different ways. The first and usual
way being to use the carpenters' scaffold for putting
on the slate, leaving out slate where the scaffold
timbers come through until done; then take the scaf-
fold down from the top, finishing the ridge and repair-
ing as you come down. The other and more difficult
plan is to put the slate on from a chair or swinging
scaffold, as shown in the engraving. This is the plan
used when there is no carpenters' scaffold. When this
plan is used it is customars to build a small scaffold
around the spire at the highest point that can be

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

227

reached from the inside through an opening. It is
very handy to have a scaffold around the base of spire
from which to start.

Swinging Scaffold.

228

WORKSHOP MANUAL.

The German Style,

In which the slate are laid horizontal instead of verti
cal, is often used on convex roofs, towers, etc., and
makes a very fine appearing roof, as the slate lay down

German Style.

much closer op curved roofs than if laid in the ordinary
way. For this plan a short, wide slate works and
looks best; 8 X 10, 10 X 12, 10 X 14 and similar sizes
being preferable. The slate should lap about three

WORKSHOP MANUAL. 229

inches on the end and about 2 inches on the side,
which would be at the top. One hole is punched at
the top and one in the end, as shown in engraving
The slate can be laid square or one corner can be cut
as shown. Nothing but the best and strongest slate
should be laid in this way, as a broken slate leaves the
roof exposed. This plan is not suitable for large slate
and when the same are used they make a very poor
roof.

INDEX.

Accidents to Mechanics, Suggestions for 132

Acre, Dimensions of 89

Alloys 139, 153, 157-161

Fusible 158

" Melting Temperature of 83

" of Copper and Tin 1 59

" of Copper and Zinc 159-162

" of Tin and Lead 162

Aluminum, Solder for 21-22

Ancient Weights 99

Angle of Section of the Moulding, to Draw, Having Shape

of Moulding Given 174-179

Annealing 1 47

Antidotes to Poisons 1 31-132

Apple, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Aquarium Pattern for 180, [84-188

Area of Circle 99

Area of Ellipse 100

Area of Rectangle 100

Areas Internal of Wrought Iron Pipe 114

Arm, Broken Treatment of : 133

Ash, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Austrian Mile in English Miles 82

Autogenous Soldering 157

Babbitt Metal 9

Ball, Metal Pattern for 76

Bar Brass, Weight of 104

Bar Copper 105

Bar, Iron Round No. Pounds per Foot 114

Bar Iron, Weight of Foot of 103

Barn Roofs. 205

Bar Steel, Weight of 113

Bar Steel, Weight of Foot of 120

Beeswax, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Bessemer Process of Making Steel 153

Birch, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Birmingham Gauge Iron, Weight of 103

Bismuth Solder 22

Bites, Dog, Treatment of 134

Blackening Zinc 29

Black Solder 22

232 INDEX.

Black Varnish 26-57

" for Iron 28

Bleeding, To Stop 132

Blende 156

Blue Print, Formula for 9

Board Measure 90

Boards, Sheathing 204-205

Boiler Cover, Pattern for 52

" " with Circular Top 40-42

Borax 168

Bossing Lead 157

Box, Grooved Seam 170

Boxwood, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Bracket, Scaffold 226

Brass 158, 159-161

" Bar Weight of ; 104

" Cut Chemically 10

" Formula for Cleaning 10

" Kettles Spun 115

" Lacquer for 16

" Sheet Weight of 104

" Solder '. 23

" To Tin in the Cold 26

" Varnish for 26

" Weight of Cubic Foot of 82

Brazing, Cold Without Fire or Lamp 10

" Joint 170

Breast, Can Pattern for 52-54

Bricklayers' Measurements 92

Bricks, Number of in a Cubic Foot of Masonry 89

" Number Required to Construct Any Building 77

" Volume of in a Cubic Foot of Masonry 89

Brick, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Bright Iron Work, Varnish for • 27

Brilliant Black Varnish 27

Britannia Metal 1 58-161

" Ware, Solder for Hardening 23

" « Solder for Soft 23

" " Raised Solder for..' 23

Broken Arm, Treatment of 133

" Collar Bone, Treatment of 134

" Leg, Treatment of 133

" Ribs, Treatment of 134

" Thigh, Treatment of 133

Bronze *. , 158

Bronzing for Tin 25

Builders' Measurements 02

Building Material, Wear of 142-143

Buildings, Weight of 143

Bull Metal 1^8

Burns, Treatment for , , . . , , 1 Vj

INDEX. 233

Butternut, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Butter, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Calamine 1 56

" Brass 159

Calculating Radiating Surface 141

Can Breast, Pattern for 52-54

" Number of Gallons in 90

Capacity, Carrying of a Ten Ton Freight Car 79

" of Spun Brass Kettles 115

Carbon in Iron 152

Carpenters' Measurements 92

Carrying Capacity of a Ten Ton Freight Car , 79

Castile Soap, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Casting Brass 160

Castings, Cement for 11

" Formulas for Enameling 10

" Shrinkage of .- 141

Cast Iron, Mending : 11

" " Weight of Cubic Foot of 82

" ' " Square " 128

Cause of Leaks in Slate 224

Cedar, Weight of Cubic Foot of - 83

Celluloid, Cement for .' 11

Cement for Castings 11

" for Celluloid 11

" for Glass Letters n

" for Iron 12

" for Joints 12

" for Kerosene Lamps 12

" —Metals to Glass : '.. 13

" Rubber to Metal 13

" Rubber to Wood 13

" — Steam Fittings 13

" Steam Pipes 13

" Submarine 14

" Transparent 14

" Wood Roofing. 14

" for Zinc and Glass 15

Chemical Method for Cutting Brass 10

Cherry, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Chestnut, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Chimney, Prairie Pattern for 59-60

Chimneys, Dimensions, Wilson's Table of 115

Chimney Top, Pattern 56-57

Chloride of Zinc 165

Circle, Area of 99

" Circumference of 99

Circular Bend, Tapering, Pattern for 198-202

" Folded Seam 168

" Lap Seam 168

" Measure , , . ,...,,.,.. 92

234 INDEX.

Circular Tank, Volume of 100

Top, Boiler Cover 40-42

Circumference of Circle • 99

Cistern Measure 94

Cities, Population of 80

Clay, On Crystallization of Iron 148

" Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Cleaning Brass, Formula for 10

Silver, Wash for 21

Cloth, To Tin '. 15

Coal, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Coating, Lead for Iron or Steel Plates . . . : 16

" Metals, Varnish for 27

Cold Brazing : 10

" Soldering Without Fire or Lamp 23

" Tinning for Brass 26

" " for Copper 26

for Iron 26

Collar Bone Broken, Treatment of 134

Colored Varnish for Tin 27

Coloring Zinc r 29

Colorless Lacquer 16

Comparative Size of Slate 205-207

Table of Weights 93

Conductivity of Metals 149

Cone, Right Volume of ioi

" Volume of Frustrum of 101

" With Oval Base and Round Top 30-32

Contents of Vessel 101

Copper 155-156

" and Tin, Alloys of 159

" and Zinc, Alloys of 159-162

" Gutter 105

" Hand Rolled 155

" Overpoling 155

" Oxidizing 18

" Poling 155

" Pyrites 155

" Sheathing, Tinned -105

" Sheet 104

" Solder for 23

" To Tin in the Cold 126

" Tough Cake 156

" Underpoling 155

" Weight of Cubic Foot of 82

" " Square " 28

Corn Crib, Contents of 95

Corn, Ear, Measure for 92

Cost of a Patent in Different Countries 140

Cost of Public Buildings 143

Cost of Tin Roofing per Square 116-117

INDEX. 235

Cotton, Pressed Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Counter-flashing 218

Countersunk Lap Seam 168

Cover for Boiler with Circular Top 40

Covering Tin for Slate Nails 225

Cover, Pitched Pattern for 52, 54-62

Cover for Wash Boiler, Pattern for 52

Cowl, Lobster Back, Pattern for 194-198

Crib, Corn, Contents of 95

Crystalline Surface for Tin Foil ; 25

Crystallization of Iron 148

Cubic Foot of Various "Substances, Weight of 82

Cubic Measure 95

Cubic Metric Measure 97

Cut and Wire Nails, Relative Holding Power of 144-145

Cut Slate 208

Cutting Brass Chemically 10

Damaging Slate lioofs 207

Danish Mile in English Miles 82

Dimensions, Inside Tables for Taking 91

" *• of an Acre 89

" of Chimneys, Wilson's Tables of 115

Dog Bites, Treatment of 134

Dormer Slating 223

Double Folded Seam 169

Drowning, What to Do in Case of 134

Dry Metric Measure 97

Ductility of Metals 149

Dutch Metal 158-161

Ear Corn Measure 92

Earth, Loose Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Ebony, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Effect of Heat on Various Substances 84

Elbow, Four Piece, Pattern for 70-71

Elbows, Round Rule for 74-75

Ellipse, Area of 100

" Description of 63

" Pattern for 32-35

Enameling Castings, Formula for 10

Engine, Stationary, Horse Power of 90

English Mile Compared with other European Measures 82

Equivalent of British Money in American Money 78

Estimates of Materials 91

Fainting, Treatment of 134

Feet Laying 216

Files Hardening 15

Fire Grenades, Solution for 15

Fits, Treatment of '. . . 134

Fittings, Steam Cement for 13

Flaring Vessel, Pattern for 50-51

plashing , 318

236 INDEX.

Flat Seam Roofing, Cost of 117

Flesh Wounds, Treatment of 134

Fluxes Soldering-.. 163

Flux, Soldering for Steel .' 24

Folded Seam 168

Foot of Flat Bar Iron, Weight of '. 103

Formation of Mouldings 170

Four-Piece Elbow, Pattern for 70-71

Freight Car, Carrying Capacity of 79

Frustium of Right Cone, Volume of 101

Fusible Alloys 158

Galena 157

GallipoliOil : 168

Galvanized Iron 154

" " Paint for 19

" Sheet Iron Pipe, Table of Weights Per Foot of . . . 126

" " " Net Cost and Weight of 108-113

" " " Weight of 107

German Silver 158

Style Roof 228

Gilded Articles, Varnish for ; 28

Given Square, To Obtain Side of Octagon of 57

Glass and Metals, Cement for 13

Zinc " 15

" Letters, Cement for 11

" Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

" Window, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Glazier's Solder 24

Gold, Value of Ton of 82

" Varnish 28

" Weight of Cubic Foot of 82

" " $1,000,000 Worth 82

Gothic Profiles 66-68

Grain Measure q4

Grecian Long Measure 9 8

" Mouldings 42-44

Greenwich Mean Time 87

Grenades, Fire, Solution for 15

Grooved Seam 1 70

Gun-Metal " .". ! 158

" Weight of Square Foot of 128

Gutter Copper 1 c

Hammer Hardening on Iron .. ....148

Hand-Rolled Copper [cc

Hardening Files 1 c

" Solder for Britannia Ware 23

Hardness of Metals, How Estimated 150

Hard Solder 15^' I61-24

Hay Measure '. __ 04

Hay Pressed, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Height of Tank, To Find from Contents , '.'.'.'.',[ 19?

Henkcl's Discovery of Zinc 156

Hickory, Red, Weight of Cubic Foot of '. ...... 83

" Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Hips on Roofs, To be Measured Extra 214

Hip Rolls 220

Holding Power of Wire and Cut Nails 144-145

Holidays Legal in the Various States 129-131

Hopper, Pattern of by Triangulation 37-4°

Horse Power of a Stationary Engine go

Impure Water, Tests Jor 138-139

Inclined Moulding, Pattern for 188-194

India Rubber, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Ink for Rubber Stamps 16

Insensibility, Treatment of 134

Inside Dimensions, Tables for Taking 91

Interest, Method of Finding 143

Interest Table 78

Internal Areas of Wrought Iron Pipe 114

Iron 15 1 -153

" Bar Round, No. lbs. per Foot 114

" Bar, Weight of Foot of 103

" Black Varnish for 28

" Carbon in 152

" Cast, Mending 11

" Cement for ". 12

" Coated with Zinc 154

" Galvanized 154

" Galvanized, Paint for 19

" Hammer Hardening 148

" or Steel Plates, Lead Coating for 16

" Oxide of 152

" Roofs, Paint for 19

" Solder .• 24

" Sheet, Measurement of 106

" " .Paint for 19

" To Prevent from Rusting 20

" To Remove Rust from 20

« To Tin in the Cold 26

" Varnish for 28

" Work, Bright Varnish for 27

" " ' To Preserve from Rust 19

" " Varnish for 137

Italian Marble, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Joining Two Pieces of Moulding at any Angle,
Pattern for Shape of Moulding Being Given . 1 79-180

Joint, Brazing 170

" Zinc Roofing 170

Joints 168

" Cement for 12

" Steel Solder for 25

Kerosene Lamps, Cement for 13

238 INDEX.

Kettles, Brass Spun, Weight of 115

Killed Spirits .* 165

Kilometer, In English Miles 82

Labels, To Attach to Tin 137

Lackawanna Coal, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Lacquer, Colorless 16

" for Brass 16

Lamps, Kerosene, Cement for 12

Land Measure 9 1

Lap Seam 108

Lard, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Laying Felt 216

« Slate 216

Lead 157

" and Tin, Alloy of 162

" Burning 157

" Coating for Iron or Steel Plates 16

" Colored Paint ig

" Pipe, Weight of 118

" Weight of Cubic Foot ot 82

" Weight of Square Foot of 120

Leaks in Slate 224

Legal Holidays inthe Various States 129-131

Leg Broken, Treatment of 133

Lehigh Coal, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Length, Measures of 93

Letters, Glass, Cement for 11

Lignum Vitse, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Linear Metric Measure 96

Lip Measure, Pattern for 60-62

Liquid Measure 95

" Metric Measure 97

Liquids, Specified Quantity of 85

'Weights of 85

" Weight of per Gallon 84.

Lobster-Back Cowl, "Pattern for 194-198

Loose Earth, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Lubricant 17

Lustre, Metallic 146

Machine-Punched Slate 211

Mahogany, Weight of Cubic Foot of , 83

Malleability 147

" of Brass 160

Manchester Plates 154

Man, Stature of 70

« Weight of 7 g

Maple, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Marble, Italian, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

" Vermont, « " • 83

Marks and Weights of Tinplates 106

Materials, Estimate of 91

INDEX. 235

Mean Greenwich Time 87

Measure for Ear Corn 92

" " Land 91

" Lip, Pattern for 60-62

Measurements for Bricklayers : 92

Builders 92

" Carpenters 92

Measures of Weight 95

" Length 93

" Water 93

" Scriptural , . . , 98

Measuring Roofs 214

" Roof with Hips, etc 214

" Slate Roofs, Rules tor 214

Mechanics, How to Treat in Case of Accident 132-135

Melting Points of Metals 158-151

Melting Temperature of Alloys 83

Mending Cast Iron 11

Mensuration, Useful Rules in 99-102

Mercury, Weight of Cubic Foot of 82

Metal Ball, Pattern for 7 6

Metallic Lustre 146

Metal Polish Paste 17

Metals and Glass, Cement for 13

Metals ,. 146

" Conductivity of ' '49

" Ductility of 149

" Hardness of 15°

" Melting Points of 158

" Relative Weights of 81

• Specific Gravity of 170

" Table of Melting Points of 151

« Tenacity of H8

" Varnish for Coating 27

« Weight of 128

" Welding of H9

Metal Work, Soap for 21

Method of Describing an Ellipse 63

Method of Finding Interest H3

Metric Measure, Liquid 97

" " Cubic 97

" " Dry 97

" " Linear 9 6

" " of Weight 97

" System ' 95"98

Mild Steel 154

Milled Lead >57

Mineral Statistics, U. S 84

Mitre-Joint "7°

Moist Sand, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Mordant Varnish 2 9

^40 INDEX.

Mortar, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Moulding, Inclinea Pattern for 188-194

Mouldings 170-194

" Grecian 42-44

" Roman 63-66

Moulding, To Draw Angle of Section of Having Given the

Shape of Moulding 174-179

Moulding, To Draw Pattern for Joining Two Pieces of it at

any Angle, the Shape of the Moulding being-Given (70-180

Moulding, To Draw Pattern for with Shape and Length

Given ,172-174

Moulding, To Draw Shape of, Having Given the Section of a

Moulding at any Angle 174-179

Mucilage 17

Muntz Metal 158-161

Nails, Slating 2 IS

Net Cost and Weight of Galvanized Sheet Iron 108-113

Nickel Alloys 139

" Plate, to Remove Rust from 20

Plating 17

Polish 18

Norwegian Mile in English Miles 82

Number of Bricks in a Cubic Foot of Masonry 89

" of Bricks Required to Construct any Building 77

" of Gallons in a Can 90

Oak, White, Weight of Cubic Font or 83

Octagon, Side of 50

" to Obtain Side of one <f sny given Square 57 -

Ornamental Slate ; 207"

Oval of any Length or Width 58

" "String and Nail" 49

" Vessel, Tapering Pattern for 35-37

Overpoling Copper 155

Oxide of Iron 152

Oxidization of Metals 147

Oxidizing Copper 18

" Silver 18

Paint for Galvanized Iron lis

Paint for Iron Roofs m

" for Sheet Iron ir>

" for Tin Roofs 10

" Lead-Colored jg

Paper, Tarred 205

" Transparent 18

Paste, Metal Polish ] . . j 7

Patent, Cost of in Different Countries 140

Pattern for Aquarium 180, 184-188

" Can Breast 52-54

" Chimney Top 56-57

" Circular Top Boiler Cover 40-42

" Cone with Oval Base and Round Top 30-30

INDEX. 241

Pattern for Ellipse 32-35

" Flaring Vessel 50-5 1

Four-Piece Elbow 70-71

Hopper by Triangulation 37-40

Inclined Moulding 188-194

" Lobster Back Cowl 194-198

" Measure Lip 60-62

Metal Ball 76

Piece of Moulding " , 172-174

Pitched Cover 52-54

" « " 62

" Prairie Chimney 59-60

" Raking Moulding 188-194

Smoke Stack 45-49

" Tapering Circular Bend 198-202

Tapering Oval Vessel 35-37

Tee Pipe 68-69

- " " Y " 54-55

Pewter 162-158

Pewterer's Soft Solder 24

Pewter Solder 24

Philosophers' Wool 147

Piling Slate 208

Pine, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Pipe, Lead, Weight of 118

Pipes, Sheet Iron, To Prevent from Rusting 21

" Steam, Cement for 13

Pipe, Tee, Pattern for 68-69

" Wrought Iron, Internal Areas of 114

Pitched Cover Pattern 52, 54-62

Pitch of Roofs 204

" Pine, Weight of Cubic Foot of , 83

Plating, Nickel 17

Platinum Solder 24

" Weight of Cubic Foot of 82

Plumbers' Solder 24-163

Poisons, Antidotes to 131-132

Poling, Copper 155

Polish for 'Stoves 25

" Metal Paste 17

" Nickel 18

Poplar, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Population of The Large Cities 80

" of U. S. by States 86

Prairie Chimney, Pattern for 59~6o

Pressed Cotton, Weight of Cubic Foot 83

Hay, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Print Blue, Formula for 9

Printers Type 158

Production of Sheet Copper 155

Profiles, Gothic 66-68

242 INDEX.

Public Buildings, Cost of '. 143

Punching Slate 210

Quarryiug Slate 206

Kadiatiug Surface, To Calculate 141

Raised Britannia Ware, Solderfor 23

Raking Moulding, Pattern for 188-194

Reaching Roofs , 226

Rectangle, Area of 100

Rectangular Tank, Volume of 100

" " Vessel, Volume of 100

Red Hickory,. Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Registers and Ventilators Vertical Wheel 1 19

Relative Weights of Metals 81

Repairing Slate Roof 223

Reservoir, Square 7 2 ~73

Resin 165

Ribs, Broken, Treatment of 134

Ridge Rolls 220

Ridging 221

" Strip 220

Right Cone, Volume of f . 101

Riveted Lap Seam 168

Rolls, Ridge and Hip ' 220

Roman Long Measure , 99

" Mouldings 1 63-66

Roof, German Style 228

Roofing, Tin, Cost per Square 1 16— 1 17

" Wood, Cement for 14

Roof Scaffolding 225

Roofs, Iron, Paint for 19

" Measuring 214

" Pitch of . 204

" Slate Repairing 223

" Tin, Paint for 19

Round Bar Iron, No. lbs. per Foot 114.

" Cornered, Tapering Square Reservoir 72-73

Round Elbows, Rule for .- 74-75

Round Tower Slating 223

Rubber and Metal, Cement for 13

" and Wood, Cement for 13

" Stamps, Ink for 16

Rule forObtaming the Side of an Octagon of any given Square 57

Rule for Round Elbows ; 74-75

Rules for Measuring Slate Roofs .!.'!.. 214

Rules in Mensuration 99-102

Rule to Find the Horse-Power of a Stationary Engine..!!.. 90

Rule to Find the Number of Gallons Contained in a Can 90

Rupture, What to do in Case of.". 135

Rusting, To Prevent Sheet Iron Pipes from ! ! 21

" To Keep Tools from 21

" To Preserve Steel from... ,\ 20

243

Rusting, To Prevent Iron from 20

Rust 152

" Preserving Iron Work from 19

" To Remove from Iron 20

" To Remove from Nickel Plate 15-20

" To Remove from Steel .. 20

Sal- Ammoniac .- 167

Salts, Spirits of ; 165

Sand, Moist, Weight of Cubic Foot of. 83

Scaffold Bracket 226

Scaffolding a Roof 225

Scalds, Treatment for 133

Scale 152

Scripture, Long Measure 98

" Measures : 98

« Weights 98

Seam, Box Grooved ,■ 170

" Circular Folded 168

« Lap : 168

" Countersunk Lap 168

" Double Folded 169

" Folded 168

" Grooved 170

" Grooved Countersunk ; •. 170

" Lap i. 168

" Riveted Lap 168

Seams .- 168

Selecting Slate '. 210

Shape of Moulding, To Draw, having given the Section of a

Moulding at any Angle I74-I79

Sheathing Boards 204-205

" Copper Tinned 105

Sheet Brass, Weight of ...:... 104

" Copper 105

" Copper, Its Production 155

" Iron, Measurement of 106

« Iron, Paint for 19

" Iron Pipes, to Prevent from Rusting. 21

- Iron, Table of Weights of 127

Shellbark Hickory, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Shop Hints, Useful :.. 135

Shoulder Cutting 223

Shrinkage of Castings 141

Side of an Octagon 5°

Side of an Octagon of any Given Square. 57

Siemens Process of Making Steel : 153

Silver Oxidizing *.'. 18

" ValueofTonof 82

" Wash for Cleaning 21

" Weight of CubicFoot of 82

" Weight of $1,000,000 in Silver Dollars 82

244 INDEX.

Size of Slate 205-207

Slate 203-229

" Comparative Strength of 205-207

" Laying 2l6

" Leaks in 22 4

" Machine Punched 2I 1

" Nails, Tin Covering for • 22 5

" Ornamental 2 °7

" Piling 2o8

" Punching 2I0

" Roofs, How Damaged by Carelessness 207

" Roofs, Repairing. 223

" Selecting 210

■ Size of 205-207

" Tables "»

Slating Nails 213

■ Round Tower 223

" Spire 22 6

Smokestack, Patterns 45~49

■ Varnish for 29

Soap, Castile, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

" for Metal Work 21

Soft Solder 158

" for Britannia Ware 23

" for Pewterers 24

Solder 162-163

" Bismuth 22

" Black 22

" Brass 23

Solder for Aluminum 21-22

" " Britannia Ware, Hardening 23

" " ' " Soft 23

" " Copper 23

" " Iron 24

" " Iron and Brass 24

" " Iron and Steel 24

" " Raised Britannia Ware 23

" " Steel and Brass 24

" " Steel Joints 25

" " Zinc 24

" Glazier's 24

" Hard 25

Soldering, Autogenous 157

" Cold, Without Fire or Lamp 23

" Fluxes 163

Flux for Steel 24

Solder Pewter 24

" Pewterer's 24

" Platinum 24

" Plumbers' 24, 163

" Spelter 24

INDEX. 245

Solders, Table of 164

Solder, Tinner's 25-163

Solid Measure 95

Solution for .Fire Grenades 15

Specific Gravities of Liquids 85

" Gravity of Metals i 150

" " Stones 88

Speculum, Metal 158

Spelter '(. 156

" Solder 24

Sphere, Volume of 101

Spinning Brass 160

Spire Slating 226

Spirits, Killed 165

" of Salts 165

Springy Steel Plates 154

Spruce, Weieht of Cubic Foot of 83

Spun Brass Kettles 115

Square Reservoir 72-73

" Rule to Obtain Side of Octagon of 57

Stack, Varnish for 29

Stamps, Rubber, Ink for 16

Standards, Wire Gauge '. 119

Standing Seam, Roofing Cost of 117

States, Legal Holidays in Various Ones 129-131

Stationary Engine, Horse Power of 90

Statistics of U. S Minerals 84

Stature of Man 79

Steam Fittings, Cement for 13

" Pipes, " " 13

Steel 151-153

" Bar, Weight of 113

" Joints, Solder for 25

" Mild 154

" Soldering, Flux for 24

" Temper of 148

" To Prevent from Rusting 20

" • To Remove Rust from 20

" Varnish for 28

" Weight of Cubic Foot of : 82

" Weight of Square Foot of 128

Stones, Specific Gravity of 88

" Weightsof 88

Stove Polish 25

String and Nail, Oval 49

Strip to Nail Ridging to 220

Submarine Cement 14

Sugar, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Suggestions Useful in Cases of Accident to Mechanics 132

Surface Metric Measure = 96

Swedish Mile in English Miles 82

246 INDEX.

Swiss Stunde in English Miles 82

System, Metric 95-98

Table for Tinplate Workers 120

" of Interest : 78

" Melting Points of Metals 151

" Solders 164

" Weights per Foot of Common Sheet Iron 127

" " " Galvanized « " Pipe 126

" Wilson's Dimensions of Chimneys 115

Tables for Taking Inside Dimensions 91

Taggers, Tin 125

Tallow, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Tank, Circular Volume of 7 100

" Elliptical, Volume of 100

" Height of, To Find from Contents. . : ir2

" Rectangular, Volume of 100

Tapering Circular Bend, Pattern for 198-202

* Oval Vessel, Pattern for 35-37

" Round Cornered Square Reservoir 72-73

Tarred Paper 205

Tee Pipe Pattern 68-69

Temperature Melting of Alloys 83

Temperatures, Weight of Water at Different 84

Tempering Steel 153

Temper of Steel : < . 148

Tenacity of Metals - : 148

Terne Plates 1 54-125

Tests for Impure Water 138-139

Thigh Broken, Treatment of 133

Timber Measure go

Tin and Copper, Alloys of 1 59

" and Lead, Alloys of 162

" Bronzing 25

" Colored Varnish for 27

" Covering for Slate Nails 225

" Foil, Crystalline Surface for 25

" Lined Lead Pipe, Weight of 118

Tinned Iron _ 1^

" Sheathing Copper . k 105

Tinner's Solder 25-163

Tinning, Cold for Brass 26

" " for Copper 26

" " for Iron -75

cloth ;'.'.'.;'.'.*.; i$

Tin Plates r c «

" Marks and Weights of 106

" Marks, Weights and Numbers ' 124-125

« Workers, Tables for \ I20

Tin Roofing, Cost of per Square 11 6-1 17

" Roofs, Paint for I0

" To Attach Labels to '.'.'.'. lyj

INDEX. 247

Tin, Weight of Cubic Foot of 82

" " Square Foot of 128

To Attach Labels to Tin 137

" Compute the Volume of Bricks in a Cubic Foot of Masonry 89

" Describe an Oval of Any Length or Width 58

" " Pattern for a Four-Piece Elbow 70-71

" " Patterns for a Flaring Vessel 50-5 1

• Draw Angle of Section of the Moulding, Having Shape of

Moulding Given 174-179

" Draw Shape of the Moulding, Having Given the Section

of a Moulding at Any Angle 174-179

" Find Contents of a Corn Crib v 95

Tools, To Keep from Rusting 21

"Tough Cake" Copper 156

Transparent Cement 14

• Paper 18

Triangulation, Hopper Pattern by 37-40

Type Metal 158

Underpoling, Copper 155

United States Mineral Statistics , 84

" Population of by States 86

Ure in English Miles 82

Useful Rules in Mensuration 99-102

" Shop Hints 135

" Suggestions in Cases of Accident to Mechanics 132

Valleys on Boots to be Measured Extra 214

Value of Ton of Gold 82

" of Ton of Silver 82

Varnish, Black 26

" Black for Iron 28

" Brilliant Black : 27

" Colored for Tin 27

" for Brass 26

" Bright Iron Works 137-27

" Coating Metals 27

" Gilded Articles 28

• Iron ,\ 28

Steel 28

Gold '., 28

" Mordant 29

" Smoke Stack 29

Ventilators, Vertical Wheel 119

Vermont Marble, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Verst in. English Miles 82

Vertical Wheel Registers 119

Vessel, Circular, Volume of 100

Elliptical, " 100

" Pattern for Flaring : 50-51

" Rectangular, Volume of 100

" To Find Contents of 101

Volatile Metals 147

248 INDEX.

Volume of Bricks in a Cubic Foot of Masonry 89

« Circular Tank 1°°

« Elliptical Vessel 100

■ Frustum of Right Cone 101

" Right Cone '°'

" Sphere 101

Wash Boiler Cover, Pattern for 52

" for Cleaning Silver 21

Water, Impure, Tests for 138-139

" Measures of 93

" Proofed Paper 205

" Weight of at Different Temperatures 84

Weight, Metric, Measure of 97

" of Ba,r Steel "3

" " Buildings H3

" " Cubic Foot of Various Substances 82

" " Foot of Flat Bar Iron 103

" " Galvanized Sheet Iron 108-113

« " Lead Pipe 118

" " Liquids 85

« « « Per Gallon 84

" " Man 79

" " Metals 128

" " gl,ooo,ooo Worth of Gold 82

" " 1,000,000 Silver Dollars 82

* " One Foot of Bar Steel 120

" " Tin-Lined Lead Pipe 118

" " Water at Different Temperatures 84

Weights, Ancient 99

" Comparative Table of 93

" Scriptural 98

" of Metals, Relative 81

Stones 88

" Tinplates 100

" Per Foot of Common Sheet Iron 127

" " Galvanized Sheet Iron Pipe 126

Welding of Metals 149

White Brass Solder \ 23

" Oak, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

" Poplar, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Wilson's Tables of Dimensions of Chimneys 115

Window Glass, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Wire and Cut Nails, Relative Holding Power of 144-145

Wire Gauge Standards 1 [9

Wood Roofing Cement 14

Wood's Alloy 158

Workers, Tinplate Tables for 120-123

Wounds, Flesh, Treatment of , 134

Wrought Iron Pipe, Internal Areas of 114

Wrought Iron, Weight of Square Foot of 128

"Y" Pattern 54-55

INDEX. 249

Yellow Brass Solder 23

Pine, Weight of Cubic Foot of 83

Ziuc 166- 157

" and Copper Alloys of 159-162

" and Glass, Cement for 15

" Chloride of 165

" Coating for Iron 154

" Discovered by Henkel. 156

" Roofing Joint 170

« Solder 25

" To Blacken 29

" Color 29

" Weight of Cubic Foot of 82

Paragon Hot Air Furnaces

satisfy the purchaser because they do their work
easily, thoroughly and ECONOMICALLY.

Small first cost, small fuel cost, SMALL REPAIR COST.

With
Steel
Radiator
for
Hard
Coal

SIX POINTS and Their Meaning:

i. FEWEST JOINTS:— No leakage of gas or dust.
2 EQUALIZED DRAFT:— Perfect combustion throughout
entire mass of fuel. I

3. LARGEST RADIATING SURFACE: — Plenty of Pure,

Warm Air, — Not Parched Air.

4 . ABSOLUTELY SELF-CLEANING :— Flues always clear-

no bother about it.

5. BALL-BEARING GRATE:— Shakes so easily that a child

can manage it.

6. PERFECT ADAPTABILITY:— Any kind of fuel, hard or

soft coal, or coke, can be used.

Every PARAGON sold sells another. If you want
A CROWING TRADE

this is the furnace for you to handle. Exclusive rights given.

Isaac A. Sheppard & Co., ntrs.

1801 N. Fourth St., Philadelphia, Pa.

250

Fidelity Ranges

Have more selling points, and yield more profit to the dealer
than/he common every-day sort. When sold, they stay sold.
No complaints, no worry, no after-expense in satisfying cus-
tomers.

HOYRli
piDEMTY
SRflGES

pon

IiHt?GE
HOUSES

FIDEIilTY

f?flj!GES

FOH

SmHItliEH
HOUSES

"' W' m ~ 1 "; - » *

1 ^^ Ml! " ^° :

fl FEW ^BRSOfiS WHV:

Fidelity Manges possess ,

i. COMPACTNESS :— Take up less room in kitchen.

2. CAPACITY :— Large Ovens. Large Flues.

3. CONVENIENCE :— Best form of Grate. Best Dust Flue.
4.- ECONOMY : — Large saving in cost of plumbing.

5. NOVELTY: — "Eclipse Covers" — the most meritorious in-

, vention in stove-making of late years.
6 : EFFICIENCY : — Water heated twice as fast as by ordinary
ranges.
Many more good things about them. Exclusive territory given
- to live dealers.

Isaac A. Sheppard & Co., "frs.

1801 N Fourth St., Philadelphia, Pa.

251

w

E publish at the price of S3. 50 each, three of the
best technical books extant.
These are:

Tinsmiths' Pattern f^aqual.

THE. leading sheet metal work in the market. 238
pages, 97 illustrations. Warmly endorsed by the
trade and trade press.

Furnace # Work # fy^anual.

TELLS everything the furnace worker desires to
know about his business, 249 pages, 230 illus-
trations. No other book covers this particular field as
this one does.

House Warding IV^anual.

(in print.)

CONTAINING the $300 essays in The American
Artisan House Warming Competition for cash
prizes. The latest and most up-to-date practical
articles on steam heating, hot water heating and warm
air heating by the brightest minds in the trade.

Sent postpaid for $3.54) each.

For sale by all book sellers.

DANIEL STERN, Publisher,

69 Dearborn St., CHICAGO.

252

lOO Tinners' Patterns.

The American Artisan Full Size Patterns

Comprise patterns for a full line of tinware, in numerous sizes, square and
round elbows, cut-offs, etc. These full-size patterns, numbering upward
ot | OOf are printed on manilla paper, from which they are readily trans-
ferred to heavy sheets and cut out ready for use.

The list contains the following - patterns:

Tea Steeper

Two-pint Tea Pot

Three-pint Tea Pot

Four-pint Tea Pot

Five-pint Tea Pot

One-auart Coffee Pot

Two-quart Coffee Pot

Three-quart Coffee Pot

Four-quait Coffee Pot

Five-quart Coffee Pot

No. 1 Coffee Boiler

No. 2 Coffee Boiler

No. 3 Coffee Boiler

Lamp Filler

One-pint Dipper

One-quart Dipper

Two-quart Dipper

Four-quart Flaring Pail

Six-quart Flaring Pail

Eight-quart Flaring Pail

Ten-quart Flaring Pail

Twelve-quart Flaring Pail

Four teen-quart Flaring Pail

Ten- quart Dish Pan

Twelve quart Dish Pan

Fourteen-quart Dish Pan

Sixteen-quart Dish Pan

Dinner Bucket

Five-inch T-Joint

Six-inch T-Joint

Eave Trough Mitre Joint

"Snap" 2-inch Conductor Elbow

Cullender

Two-inch Square Elbow

Two-and-a-halMnch Square Elbow

Three-and-a-half-inch Square Elbow

Four-and-a-half-inch Square Elbow

Five-and-a-half-inch Square Elbow

Six-and-a-half-inch Square Elbow

Seven-and-a-half-inch Square Elbow

One-pint Funnel

Two-pint Funnel

Three-pint Funnel

Four-pint Funnel

Large Milk Strainer

Small Milk Strainer

Ten-quart Milk Pail Breast

Fourteen-quart Milk Pail Breast

Two-inch Four-Piece Round Elbow

Three-inch Four-Piece Round Elbow

Four-inch Four-Piece Round Elbow

Five-inch Four-Piece Kound. Elbow

Five-and-a-half-inch Round Elbow

Six-and-a-h alt-inch Round Elbow

Seven-and-a-half-inch Round Elbow

Small Grocers' Scoop

Medium Grocers' Scoop

Large Grocers' Scoop

Apple Corer

Oval Foot Bath

Oval Pudding Pan

Half-gallon Can Breast

One-gallon Can Breast

Two-gallon Can Breast

Three-gallon Cau Breast

Half-pint Measure

One-pint Measure

One-quart Measure

Half-gallon Measure

One-pint Basin

Two-pint Basin

Ihree-pint Basin

Four-pint Pan

Six-quart Pan

Ten-quart Pan

Small-Cake Pan

Medium Cake Pan

Large Cake Pan

Small Wash Basin

Large Wash Basin

Sprinkler Breast

Four-gallon Churn

Five-gallon Churn

Small Dust Pan

Large Dust Pati

Five sizes Funnel Patterns

Oval Dinner Bucket

Rain Water Cut-off

No. 7 Boiler Cover

No. 8 Boiler Cover

No. 9 Boiler Cover

No. 7 Boiler Bottoms

No. 8 Boiler Bottoms

No. 9 Boiler Bottoms

THE AMERICAN ARTISAN full-size patterns are a great convenience, and in no
other way can they be obtained at so small a cost. Price, sent post-paid for the

FULL SET OF 100 PATTERNS $1.00.

D^KriEL STERN,
69 DEARBORN STREET, - CHICAQO.ILL.

253

Formerly James B. Scott & Co.

: Tin Plate, Sheet Iron, Metals.

Manufacturers of

Kdfinmnvn mrnin i finimnn"

Guaranteed Roofing Tin.

Made by the strictly PALM OIL PROCESS AND
THOROUGHLY SQUARED AND RESQUARED.

Each sheet is SEPARATELY DIPPED BY HAND and

remains in the metal bath under boiling Palm Oil until the pores
are opened and the metal is absorbed into the iron as well as
heavily coating it.

Afterwards each sheet is SEPARATELY RE DIPPED BY
HAND and separately inspected. Only perfect sheets are
stamped with the

Registered frade fv\ark.

Offices and Warehouses:

328, 330 and 332 Second Ave.,

PITTSBURGH, PA.

254

Roofing Slate.

"BANGOR UNION,"
Black.

The finest genuine
Bangor Slate in the
Market, very strong
and durable, a beauti-
ful black in color.

MAMMOTH VEIN
POULTNEY, Sea
Green.

Finest Sea Green
Slate ever produced.

THE LIGHTNING .

SLATE DRESSER.

Will cut and punch
slate at one opera-
tion.

Can furnish

Roofing Slate of all kinds,
Slate Blackboards,
Roofers' Supplies, Tools, etc.

"THE SLATE ROOFER," a book for Roofers.

BY MAIL, 91.00.

AuiaD & Conger,

IOO Euclid Avenue, - CLEVELAND.

255

MeClure's

REDIPPED

ROOFING

TIN

American flade

Guaranteed to be more evenly

and heavily coated than any $fc

Old Style or Redipped Plate

made. .....

Every sheet perfect
■Jf£ and stamped with

brand and thickness.

c®.

\\n Plates and petals
PITTSBURG PA.

Office and Warehouse:

211-213-215 SECOND RVH.

25G

Sipe's ]apar\ OUs.

Over twelve hundred tinners ^

are now using .....

SIPE'S JAPAN OILS

for painting Tin and
Iron Roofs.

, They are .

QUICK DRYING, ELASTIC, AND
HOLD THE TAINT ON TIN
OR OTHER METALLIC SUR-
FACES

better than any other oil known.

Cheaper and Getter than Linseed Oil for
tinners use.

SIPE'S JAPAN OIL has been used FOR
OVER TEN YEARS by leading tin roofers all over
the United States.

SEND FOR PRICES AND TESTIMONIALS.

James B. Sipe & Co.

Allegheny, Pa.

Sole
Manufacturers

257

THE FOX FURNACES.

FOR RHY FUEL...

You should have oup eaialogue.

THE fOX FURN/KE QO.

CLEVELAND, OHIO.

258

mm

The.

Chicago

Stove

Works

Promises the Trade many new Patterns in Gold Coin Stoves for
1896. Prominent among these, the Handsomest and most
complete Line of Steel Ranges ever offered. Bear this in
mind and see our new Lines before placing your orders for
Spring Trade.

Leading Tpade Mark Line
Every Stove Fully Warranted
Send fop Illustrated Catalogue

ChfQago Stov^ WorJ(s.

BLUE ISLAND AVENUE AND 22ND STREET.

259

A NEW ROOF PLATE.

Turner's
flexible
Venetian
fy^etal Roof
plate.

Handsome, durable and absolutely rain and storm proof.
Made in tin and copper. For prices, etc., write to the manufacturer,

JOHN HAMILTON, Pittsburgh, Pa.

Hamilton's Best Redipped American Roofing Tin.

WE GUARANTEE THIS PLATE TO BE

Strictly Hand Ooated.
Strictly Palm Oil Coated

with best refined tin and lead and to be evenly coated over the
entire surface of the sheet. A trial of this plate will convince
anybody of its merits.

MADE BY

JOHN HAMILTON,

PITTSBURGH. PA-

260,

Tii*Msrii*rHS'

AND

SHEET

riETAL

WORKERS'

POCKET

REFERENCE

BOOK.

A collection of practical in-
formation including rules,tables,
receipts, explanations, etc.used
daily by the tinsmith at his
work. Presented in a compact
form convenient to carry in
the pocket, by C. E. Bodley.
This work is substantially bound
in cloth and is sent postage pre-
paid for 50 cents.

FOR SALE BY

69 DEARBORN ST. CHICA G O.

■ ■■■: -'■■■ '■' ; -