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Science in South Africa:a handbook and r
3 1924 012 226 761
Cornell University
Library
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the Cornell University Library.
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the United States on the use of the text.
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PREFACE
At a meeting of the Council, of the South African Association
for the Advancement of Science, held on the 26th February,
1904, Sir David Gill, K.C.B., F.R.S., etc., being in the chair, it
was resolved that a Handbook on scientific work and progress
in South Africa be prepared on the occasion of the visit of the
British Association to South Africa in 1905.
As to the general plan of the work, while the aim has been
to give a review of the various departments of scientific enquiry,
these are not strictly limited by purely theoretical considera-
tions, and considerable latitude has been allowed to the
various writers, some of whom have preferred to treat their
subjects historically or from a practical point of view. Any lack
of uniformity, however, which this entails will, it is considered,
be more than compensated for^ bj' the results of indivi-
dualistic treatment. In order, however, to give a certain
unity and continuity, the various subjects have been classified
according to the arrangement found in the Contents.
Two Editors were appointed by thj Colonial Governments
on the recommendation of the Council of the South African
Association for the Advancement of Science, one to be mainly
responsible for the general editing, and the other for that of
the scientific matter of the work.
The cost of the production of the book has been
defrayed by the various South African Governments, which
have invariably shown an enlightened appreciation of the
value of scientific work.
The plates illustrating the paper on Diamond Mining in
Kimberley have been generously presented by the author, Mr.
Gardner Williams.
The work on the part of the contributors, who are all
actual workers in South Africa, has been entirely voluntary,
and the ready co-operation of the various writers has
lightened in no small degree the task of the Editors, who
desire to express their grateful acknowledgments.
The Editors.
CONTENTS.
PAGE.
iii
Preface
Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
List of Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viU
Introduction, by Sir David Gill, K.C.P., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S.,
H.M. Astronomer, Cape of Good Hope . . , . . . ix
SECTION I.- PHYSICAL.
1. South Africa: An Outline of its Physical Geography, by
H. C. Schunke-HoUway, F.R.G.S., F.S.A., Government
Land Surveyor, Cape Colony and Transvaal
2. The Meteorology of South Africa, by Charles M.
Stevifart, B.Sc, Secretary of the Meteorological Com-
mission, Cape Colony .' . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3. Astronomy and Geodesy in South Africa, by Sir David
Gill, K.C.B., LL.D., D.Sc, F.R.S., H.M. Astronomer,
Cape of Good Hope .. .. .. ,. .. .. 61
4. Earth Magnetism in South Africa, by J. C. Beattie,
D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics, South African
College . . . . ,, .. 74
SECTION II.— ANTHROPOLOGICAL.
1. Uncivilised Man South of the Zambesi, by W. Ham-
mond Tooke, Assistant Under Secretary, Department of
Agriculture, Cape Colony . . . . . , . . . . 79
2. The Stone Age in South Africa, by L. Peringuey,
Assistant Director, South African Museum . . . . 102
3. Rhodesian Antiquities, by R. N. Hall, F.R.G.S., co-
author of " The Ancient Ruins of Rhodesia," and author
of "Great Zimbabwe" .. .. .. .. ., 109
SECTION m.-ZOOLOGICAL.
1. Land Vertebrates of South Africa, by W. L. Sclater,
M. A. , F.Z.S., Director, South African Museum .. .. 122
2. A Brief Sketch of the South African Insect Fauna,
by L. Peringuey, Assistant Director, Soiith African
Museum .. .. .. .. .. .. .. I53
VI CONTENTS.
3. Motes on South African Land and Fresh-Water
Invertebrates, exclusive of Molluscs and Insects,
by F. Purcell, B.A., Ph.D., C.M.Z.S., First Assistant,
South Africa Museum .. .. .. .'. •• I75
4. The South African Marine Fauna and its Environ-
ment, by J. D. F. Gilchrist, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., C.M.Z.S..
F.L.S., Government Biologist, Cape Colony .. .. 182
SECTION IV.— BOTANICAL.
I. Sketch of the Floral Regions of South Africa, by
Harry Bolus, D.Sc, F.L.S 198
SECTION V.-GEOLOGICAL.
1. Geology of Cape Colony, by A. W. Rogers, M.A., F.G.S.,
Director of the Geological Survey, Cape Colony .. 241
2. Geology of Natal and Zulxtland, by William Anderson
F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Government Geologist, Natal . . . . 260 '
3. Geology of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony,
by Herbert Kynaston, B.A., F.G.S., Director of the
Geological Survey, Transvaal . . . . . . . . 273
4. Geology of Rhodesia, by F. P. Mennell, Curator of the
Rhodesia Museum, Buiawayo . . . . . . . . 301
5. The Fossil Reptiles of South Africa, by R. Broom,
M.D., D.Sc, C.M.Z.S., Professor, of Geology and Zoology,
Victoria College, Stellenbosch . . . . . . . . 304
SECTION VI.-MINERALOGICAL.
1. South African Metallurgy, by Edward H. Johnson, Vice
President, Chemical, Metallurgical aild Mining Society of
Sonlh Africa .. .. .. .. .v .. 310
2. The Diamond Mines of, KimeerleY, by Gardner F.
Williams, General Manager'Ce Beers Consolidated Mines,
Ltd .. .. .. ... 318
SECTION VII.- ECONOMIC.
1. Diseases of Stock in South Africa, by D. Hutcheon,
M.R.C.V.S., Chief Veterinary Surgeon, Cape Colony .. 332
2. Insect Pests in South Africa, by Charles P. Lounsbury.
B.Sc, F.E.S., Government Entomologist, Cape Colony.. 362
3. Agricultural Problems at the Cape of Good Hope,
by Eric A. Nobbs, Ph.D., B.Sc, F.H.A.S., Agricultural
Assistant to the Government of Cape Colony ..' .. 375
4. Forestry in South Africa, by D. E. Hutchins,
F.R.Met.Soc, Conservator of Forests, Cape Town 391
5. Viticulture in Cape Colony, 1)\ I'. Daniel Hahn, Ph.D.,
M. A., Professor of Chemistry, South African College ... 414
CONTENTS. Vll
6. The Sugar Industry of Natal, by A. N. Pearson,
Director of Agricultural Experiments and Chemistry,
Natal; and Alex. Pardy, Analyst, Department of Agri-
culture, Natal .. .. .. .. .. .. ., 423
7. Tea Culture in Natal, by A. S. L. Hulett . . . . 439
SECTION VIII.— EDUCATIONAL AND HISTORICAL.
1. Notes on the History and State of Edi'cation in Cape
Colony, by Thomas Walker, M.A., I.L.D., Professor of
Philosophy, Victoria College, Stellenbosch . . . . 44S
2. Education in Natal, by C. J.. Mudie, Superintendent of
Education, Natal .. .. .. .. .. ,. 457
3. Education in the late South African Republic and in
THE Transvaal, by John Robinson, Secretary of the
Technical Institute, Johannesburg . . . . . . . . 462
4. Education in the Orange River Colony, by Johannes
Brill, Lit.D. (Utrecht and Cape), Rector of Grey College,
Bloemfontein . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
5. The Growth of South Africa : Historical and Socio-
logical Data, by Rev. Wm. Flint, D.D., Librarian of
Parliament, Cape Colony . . . . . . . . . , 477
Index .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 491
'Note.— 'flic atiiliors arc alone reifonsibk for staiements of Jad or opinion m
th(ir articles.
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
COLOURED PLATES.
PiKCE OF Blde Ground from De Beers Mine
Author's Collection of Diamonds
PLATES.
Percentage Relative Wind-frequency
Port Nolloth Wind Roses . .
MAPS.
PAGE.
to iace 31,8
330
33-35
41
Coloured Map of South Africa . . . . . . . . Frontispiece,
Index Map to Illustrate "Meteorology of South Africa" 20
Distribution of Rainfall . . . . . . . . . . 29
Map to Illustrate " Uncivilised Man South of the Za.mbesi " 80
„ ,, " Floral Region of South Africa " . . 198
"Geology of Cape Colony" .. i .. 259
DIAGRAMS.
Divisional Rainfall and TEMPEp-ATtiRE, etc., South Africa
Relative Position of De Beers Company's Mines
Geology of Kimberley District
ILLUSTRATIONS IN TEXT.
Temperature Curve to Illustrate "Meteorology in S. Africa"
Rainfall Diagram
Thunderstorm Ciirve
Diagram ,, ,, -•• . ,
Figures Illustrating " Earth Magnetism in South Africa ' 76,
Elliptical Temple Illl'strating " Rhodesian Antiquities '' . .
View of Platfqrm and Steps ,, ,, ^ , .
View of Conical Tower ,,
Another View of Conical Tower ,,
ToKAi Oaks and Homestead
Grass-planting at Agulhas, 1904 . .
Indigenous Yellow-wood Forest . .
Dry Open Forest, Inchlomu Tree on Bank of Rivlk
Sugar Factory, Natal — Exterior
Interior
50-60
319
- 323
27
31
42
1 12
114
ir6
118
394
402
407
'409
429
430
INTRODUCTION.
The Meeting of the British Association to be held in South Aifrica
-in 1905 is an event of no ordinary interest. Never before' has
the Southern Hemisphere been visited by a large body of men
eminent in every department of science.
It is impossible to imagine that such a visit can be made
without a powerful stimulus to the thought and imagination of
the many minds of trained receptivity among our guests. Many
have no doubt primarily undertaken the journey by way of
relaxation and change of scene, but some must find, in the widely
different aspects of Nature which they will encounter, suggestions
for new lines of research, — suggestions which we may hope wiU be
followed by future visits, in circumstances which give time and
opportunity for fuller study. Apart from the Study of Nature,
there must necessarily be problems connected with social and
economic life, which to other minds present even more absorbing
interest.
Under our very eyes certain races of mankind are disappearing
— the pure Bushman is nearly extinct, and the Hottentot is daUy
diminishing in numbers ; whilst other native races, no longer
warring against each other, are rapidly multiplying, and have to
face conditions of life entirely different from those of their
ancestors. Amongst the white races also the conditions of life are
rapidly changing. The isolated farmer, whose chief ambition was
to watch the increase of his flocks and herds and to be removed
as far as possible from the sight of his neighbour's smoke, whose
ideas were limited, and whose education was almogt nil, is
rapidly being replaced by sons and daughters intent on
education, and with ideas and ambitions far beyond those of their
fathers.
The rapid increase of the white population, due in the first
instance to the discovery of the diamond fields ;and many fold
enhanced by that of the gold fields, has created a condition of
things which forms a most interesting study. Take, for example,
the case of Johannesburg. Its gold industry greatly differs from
that of the "new rushes" of other parts of the world. The pursuit
of that' industry, in the form which it necessarily assumes there,
involves the employment on a large scale of men of culture and
high scientific training, of men who are comparatively rich and in
large proportion accustomed to,or aiming at, a kind of life previously
X INTRODUCTION.
almost unknown in South Africa. Thus rapidly — almost in a
decade — has arisen a city of 100,000 inhabitants, demanding schools,
colleges, libraries, museums, hospitals, water supply, drainage,
facilities of travel, amusements, and all the luxuries and conveni-
ences of life, such as in Europe are only to be found in cities
having a growth of centuries. Imperfectly as it has been possible
to meet these demands, the attempts to do so in an adequate
manner offer a most interesting study in sociology and economics.
Not alone in cities do like difficulties occur. It is obvious that
out of the conditions previously mentioned, serious problems in
national education must arise both in relation to whites and
natives. Our fiscal questions, the industries most suitable for the
country and the application of scientific methods in their pursuit,
offer a wide field of problems, and it is to be hoped that some
of our visitors may give valuable contribution towards theiir
solution.
It is,, however, in the cause of pure science that we look' for the
greatest impulse, sympathy and aid. Few countries owe more to
science than does South Afifica. What would be the possibilities of
mining in the Rand without the methods of deep level working and
the economic extraction of gold from low grade ores which science
' has placed at her disposal ? Science has rescued our vineyards
froin the ravages of phylloxera, has kept in, check the inject
pests of our fruit industry, has thrown a flood of light on the
cause and cure of animal diseases, has developed oijr fisheries, a,iid
made possible that , rapid, opening up pi the country which
fenders its resources of value, and -in a thousand ways has
administered to the amenities of life. But in an iniperfpctly
developed country the conditions of life must tend chiefly towards
what men call practical ends! This does not mean— as it is tpo often
understood to mean — that, science itself is a non-practical thing.
When the struggle of life is keen men do not stop to investigate
scientific principles for themselves, and have only time to t>orrow
the results of scientific discovery by others. ior their own immedi?ite
ends. This has certainly hitherto been the casein South Afric^.
We can point, to but an .honoured few who in the past have done
good original scientific reseairch. ,But,,with the recent importation
of men of traiined scientific capacity, as Professors in our colleges,
or Government experts, and now with a few sons of the soil who
have been trained by them, there is evidence of a marked increase
in true scientific work; and a hopeful prosjiect of ptore.
With this explanation and this apology, iive venture to offer the
present volume, by South African writers, to our guests. It r^jay serve
as an index to what has been .done, it may even be useful in the
way of suggestion to those of our visitors who. have come to South
Africa earnestly tent on adding to the store of human knowle4ge.
DAVID GILL. '
SECTION I.— PHYSICAL.
I. SOUTH AFRICA: AN OUTLINE OF ITS
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.
By H. C. Schunke Hollway, F.R.G.S., F.S.A., Government
Land Surveyor, Cape Colony and Transvaal.
It has been truly said that " the gifts of Nature, her land, her
waters and her skies, determine the character of the race's work."
It is evident, then, that to students of South African history, politics
and economics, a general knowledge of the geographical position
of the land, of its surface-relief and climate, and of the rest of the
physical conditions contingent on these, is indispensable.
To obtain an accurate and comprehensive view of the physical
structure of the country we must take account of existing natural
boundaries ; we shall then find that South Africa forms a compact
and well-defined orographical region.
The boundaries to the north, as variously accepted, are arbi-
trary, and from the geographical point of view inconvenient.
Some geographers take the Limpopo as northern limit, others the
Zambesi, whereas in truth the only natural boundary of South
Africa which can be recognised is the great Congo-Zambesi divide.
To clearly bring out the contours of this magnificent belt of High-
land, stretching like a bridge from east to west across the continent
of Africa, from within a short distance of the Atlantic Ocean to the
north end of Lake Nyassa, and also in order to include the northern-
most border of British Territory administered from the South and
reached by southern doorways, it has been considered best for the
purposes of this description to adopt the 8th parallel of S.L. as the
northern limit of Southern Peninsular Africa. Here we have a
sub-continent, which extends over 26 degrees of latitude, and
measures in its widest part, from east to west, nearly 2,000 miles,
covering an extent equal to European Russia, Germany and
France combined.
Such a vast country, three-fourths within the tropics, one-fourth
only in the temperate zone, facing the sea east and west— to wind-
ward and leeward — must present many and remarkable contrasts
of climate and physical surroundings. To the white man, as far as
the portion situated in the tropics is concerned, the question of
2 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
climate must be supreme ; he realises that a bracing, invigorating
atmosphere — at least during part of the year — is essential to hard
and sustained work, he is therefore compelled to seek the more
favoured spots, where a high elevation offers a climate which does
not relax or enfeeble his physical energies.
In the country extending from the Transvaal Highveldt to the
Zambesi it is found that the level of 3,000 feet represents the limit
below which Europeans cannot safely settle ; north of the Zambesi,
however, this limit is higher, and should not be taken
at less than 4,000 feet. The consideration of the vertical as well as
the horizontal distribution of the land becomes thus a matter of
great importance, and we find that, for economic reasons, as also
because they give us most clearly the main feature-lines of the
country, the contour-lines of 3,000 feet and 4,000 feet are the most
valuable. It will be found convenient to call the land at an eleva-
tion between 3,000 and 4,000 feet upland, and the land rising above
4,000 feet highland. The 3,000 feet line gives us the outline of the
South African upland massif, a vast table-land mainly built up of
primary, metamorphic and old sedimentary rocks, little disturbed
since palaeozoic times, in extent 1,615,000 square miles, or two-
thirds of the area of South Africa. At the northern or widest side
it measures 1,400 miles across, thence it gradually narrows towards
the south, its eastern and western sides keeping more or less parallel
to the coast lines, until it measures at its southern front about 400
miles in width. Its greatest length from south to north is over
1,700 miles. The belt of land remaining between the upland and
the sea varies in width from 50 to 300 miles.
Along- its border the widely extended table-land rises into high
plateaux and intermittent mountain ranges which form the water-
parting between the uplands and the coastal belt.
These highland plateaux with their mountains constitute the
dominant features in the physiography of South Africa ; they
reach art elevation of from 4^000 to 8,000 feet, and there are cul-
minating ridges and peaks which climb to over 10,000. Most of
these plateaux have great potentialities, and if we, moreover, con-
sider that their total extent is 533,900 square miles, or equal to the
size of the British Islands, France, Germany and Holland combined,
we realise how kind Nature has been in thus enabling the white man
to colonise right into the heart of Tropical Africa. From the data,
such as are at present available, we obtain 2,600 feet as the mean
altitude of South Africa. It is not, however, pretended that this is a
strictly accurate result ; nevertheless it cannot be far from the truth.
The highland plateaux resting on the great upland massif are as
follows : —
sq. miles.
1. The South-Eastern (Cape-Orange) Highland . . 187,200
2. The Rhodesian (Matabele-Mashona) Plateau . . 23,000
3. The Shire Highlands (Zomba and Mlanje) . . " 600
4. The Namih Plateau (east of Mlanje) j
And other small outliers. \
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 3
sq. miles.
5. The Livingstone Nyasa Highland 9,200
6. The Angoni Plateau 8,000
7. The Nyika Plateau 16,700
8. The Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau . . . . . . 17,000
9. The Great Divide (Congo-Zambesi) Plateau . . 84,100
10. Three outliers of the Great Divide : the Mitumba
Plateaux, the Kundelungu Plateau, and the South
End of the Urungu (Tanganyika) Plateau . . . . 10,000
11. The Angola Highland 107,000
12. The Nama-Damara Highland with the outlying great
Karass Mountains and the Plateau of the North-
ern Kaoko Veldt 70,000
Physiographic facts, such as presented to us in South Africa,
have a fascinating interest when studied in the light of their geo-
logical history. It is certain that our conception of Nature must
become more enlarged if we call upon the sister science to help us
i:o a true knowledge of the evolution of the present land-features.
From what geologists tell us we have reason to infer that the region
of the present Congo-Zambesi Divide consisted in remote geological
limes of very elevated land, uplifted after the formation of the early
palaeozoic rocks, and not since submerged. It may perhaps have
formed part of .the backbone or main watershed of the continental
area called Gondwanaland, which then united Africa with India
and Australia. This watershed was then, far more than now, the
barrier or natural boundary between southern lands and Central
Africa, and has greatly aided in determining the topographical
features of South Africa. It sent its abundant drainage southward
into the shallow inland sea which existed during the Karroo
period and northward into the great Congo inland sea which then
reached right up to the foot of the Nyasa-Tanganyika plateau. It
was, if we accept the theory that the ice-masses which invaded the
Karoo basin during the Dwyka period were of Alpine origin and not
antarctic icebergs, in the great valleys of this highland region that
the glaciers were formed which descended south. It is certain that
at this, or at a somewhat later period, the Loangwa Valley already
existed, and contained an extensive lacustrine basin. Subsequent
±0 the upheaval of the Karroo area, and the formation of the southern
and south-eastern watershed, South Africa assumed the form of
a table-land closed in on all sides by a rim of highland and border
Tidges. The central depression thus formed became the cradle of an
enormous lake or series of lakes, which received the drainage from
the surrounding border highlands.
Probably the Zambesi constituted the original overflow of this
inland lacustrine basin, throwing its waters over the escarpment
of the plateau, in the same manner as the Shire does to-day with
the waters of the Nyasa lake. But gradually it carved its way
backward upstream through the highland belt, until it drained the
lake or lakes. The subsequent degradation of the lower Zambesi
B 2
4 'SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
valley must then have been comparatively rapid ; in its middle
track, however, the erosive action of the Zambesi received an
early check by encountering the resistance of an enormous band
or sheet of basalt, which now forms a natural weir across its course,
and produces the grand Victoria Falls. By thus preventing the
further recession of the Zambesi rapids, excepting by very slow
degrees, the land surface of the Upper Zambesi basin has been saved
from anything but very gradual denudation. Frpm evidence
furnished by the rivers Zambesi, Limpopo, and Okavango,
as well as other minor rivers, the surface level of the great inland
sheet of water, of which Lake Ngami represents the_ shrunken re-
mains, must have stood at not less than 3,200 feet above-
sea-level. The Loangwa Valley, together with the valley of the
middle Zambesi,, may have been part of this great lake, or they may
have contained a separate lake at a lower level, connected with the
upper lake by part of the present Zambesi Valley. The extent of
the great south African lacustrine area must have been more than
twice the size of the United Kingdom and Ireland. It is of course
for geologists to decide whether or no the valley of the Middle
Zambesi was at one time part of the Loangwa Lake. The position
of the axis of the Loangwa-middle Zambesi vaUey, and the close
proximity to the region of volcanic disturbances which produced
the great Rift Valleys, make it appear not unreasonable to conjec-
ture that here we have another of the great subsidences so common
on the line of weakness of the Earth's crust, which evidently exists
along the eastern side of the African upland.
Generally it may be said that there is a great similarity of
geological structure in the highland plateaux which surround the
upland plains. With the exception of the south-eastern highland,
which owes its rocks to the Karroo age, they are built up chiefly
of primary rocks — crystalline sc)iists, clayslate, quartzites and
gneiss, broken through often in considerable masses by granite
and syenite, which form domes and peaks and even whole
mountain systems.
In South Africa, more than in most other countries, the surface
agents of denudation have, since early Mesozoic times, had a long
period for their work of carving the land into the scenic
features as they present themselves to-day. There have, as might
be expected, resulted many varieties of land contour characteristic
of each region, owing to differences in the nature and strength of the
denuding agents, and the lithological and geological structure of
the rocks. In so vast a country, situated as South Africa is, there
also are naturally great contrasts of climate. There is the contrast
between the tropics and the temperate zone, and between the
eastern and the western sides of Peninsular Africa. The east coast,
situated in the way of the Trade winds,, has an abundance of rain,
increasing in quantity as we proceed from the south towards ^he
tropics. Generally speaking, the contrast between east and west
becomes most accentuated at or about the tropic. In the east,
especially in the tropics, we find the denudation of the country has
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 5
made great strides. The natural drains are here very active, and
the rate of erosion in the rainy season is high. The continuity of
the eastern rim of the upland plateau once, as we may infer, parallel
to the coast, has been terribly eroded and broken down. It is the
valleys of the great rivers which most strikingly give evidence as to
-the extent of the denudation now in progress. The Zambesi, and
the Limpopo and Sabi, in the rainy season strengthened by numer-
ous torrential tributaries, have scooped for themselves deep re-
cesses out of the mass of the upland, leaving parts of the plateau
and the border range prominently standing out as a huge peninsula
(the Rhodesia Plateau). Not allowing for the general recession,
■caused by denudation, of the border of the upland, as evidenced by
such outliers as the Murchison Range and the Sutherland Hills, in
the low country of the Transvaal, of the Gorongoza Mountain near
the Pungwe, and even of the Mlanje Plateau, aU at one time prob-
ably part of the original upland massif, but drawing a line from the
north-east end of the Zoutspansberg to the Gazaland Plateau, and
from the Inyanga Plateau to the Zomba Plateau, we find that the
superficial extent of land excavated by the Limpopo and Sabi is
64,000 square mUes, and that removed by the Zambesi 90,000
square miles. These denudation areas are profoundly carved out
— thus the Zambesi, at Zumbo, is only 800 feet above sea-level, and
the Limpopo at the junction of the Shashi hardly more. The
west, the leeside of the subcontinent, shows quite a different condi-
tion of things. Here on both sides of the line of the tropic we have
a dreary waste of arid land ; denudation and erosion, by water,
are replaced by dry weathering, and the accumulation of aeolian
deposits along the sea-board. Extensive disintegration of the
ground takes place, no doubt, on the arid high plateaux inland,
-where great extremes of temperature are experienced, and from
-whence the dust and lighter detritus are carried by frequent and
strong winds towards the coast. The amount of land excavated
from the upland massif by the Cunene and Orange rivers is incon-
siderable compared with the work done by the eastern rivers, thus
the Orange River a short distance above PeUa is still 2,000 feet
above sea-level. The superficial extents of the denudation areas
of the Cunene and Orange. rivers- are respectively 21,000 and 35;q&ip,
square miles.
The Coast Belt. — Of the belt of lowland which stretches round
the subcontinent along the foot of the upland massif the south-
western portion is by far the most interesting. This region, extend-
ing from the Olifants River in the west to the Fish River in the east,
the scene of the earliest settlement in South Africa, is unique in its
character. Its geology, climate and flora are peculiarly its own.
■Geologically it is a region where the readjustments of the Earth's
crust caused great disturbances in late palaeozoic times. Its moun-
tains ranging more or less parallel to the coast round the south-
-western corner of Africa, over a distance of over 600 miles, are all
true mountains, produced by the Earth's crust being thrown into
Tipward folds by thrusts from the south and west, and pressed and
6 SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFlilCA.
dislocated against the solid and immobile mass of the Karoo rocks.
These mountains, showing rock-beds of so much variety of struc-
ture and degree of decay, situated in a region of abundant rainfall,
produce scenery much diversified in, character, and often of most
striking beauty and grandeur. The principal mountain ranges in
the west are the Olifants River Mountains, and east of these the
Cedarbergen. Extending from west to east we have the Hex River
Mountains,' the Langebergen, the Outeniqua and the Long Kloof
Mountains. Inland, parallel with these, the Touwsberg, the
Zwartebergen and the Kammanassie and Kouga Mountains, with
the Zuurbergen stretching still further east. In the south-west, where
the trend of the ranges changes from north-south to west-east, the
mountain system is more complex, with interlacing ridges and knots,
and many prominent peaks. At the junction of the Olifants Ri^-er
Mountains and the Cedarbergen the Great Winterhoek, the highest
mountain in western Cape Colony, rises to a height of 7,600 feet ;
the Du Toit's Kloof Mountain, in the Drakenstein Range, and many
other peaks in this part attain a considerable height. The rivers in
the south-west region run mostly in longitudinal valleys, between
the parallel ridges — the troughs between the uplifted rock-folds —
but ultimately force their drainage through the ridges to the sea,
by transverse gorges, some of them of great depth and grandeur,
such as the Zevenweeks Poort, the Gamka Poort, the Meirings
Poort, the Toverwaters Poort, in the Zwartebergen, and the Gouritz
River and Keurbooms river gorges in the Langebergen and Long
Kloof Mountains. Mr. A. W. Rogers, in his fascinating book on the
geology of the Cape Colony, tells us how these gorges were formed,
not, as is popularly believed, by violent fissure, but by long con-
tinued erosion.
From the Olifants River northward the narrow coast-belt grows
more and more barren and uninteresting until, between the Orange
River and the Cunene, it becomes a desolate, waterless wilderness
of shifting sand-hills, almost devoid of vegetation. North of the
Cunene, along the Angola coast, it is less bare of vegetation, but still
a poor, sterile, sparsely-watered region, exceedingly unhealthy and
uninviting. Northwards along the east coast, from the Fish River
to Zululand, the lowland is narrow — in parts, not above fifty miles
wide — much broken and diversified, with ridges and spurs, from the
upland, extending to the sea-board. Thanks to the plentiful in-
trusions of >'dolerit-e in the Karroo Beds the denudation of the
country has, notwithstanding an abundarit rainfall and an active
drainage-system, been comparatively slow. The country is well-
wooded, productive and exceedingly attractive. Further northwards,
owing to the recession of the Karroo formations with their igneous
intrusions, and the appearance of the older rocks, the coast-belt widens
and becomes less broken. From the Limpopo to the Zambesi the coast
belt is broad, and consists of uninviting, insect-infested bush-
covered plains, unhealthy ' and unsuitable for European occupa-
tion. Beyond the Zambesi the general level of the lowland belt is
much higher and is more broken, but is still exceedingly unhealthy.
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
The Climate.
Four climatic regions may be distinguished in South Africa,
which, however, are not sharply marked off, but gradually merge
one into the other : —
(i) The South-W ester n Region coincides almost entirely
with the " folded belt." Here we have abundant winter-
rains and dry hot summers. This is the country for the cultivation
of European cereals, for viticulture and orchard culture. Botani-
cally it also forms a separate region, being the home of the " Cape
Flora," abounding in heaths, proteas, pelargoniums and beautiful
bulbous plants.
(2) The Temperate Eastern Region, with summer rains, often
accompanied by thunderstorms, and dry winters. Of this climatic
form there are many variations depending upon the relief of the
country, the aspect, and the distance from the sea. Here maize
and millet are grown in abundance, besides tobacco and fruit-trees.
This region supports a la.rge, chiefly native, population. It extends
in its higher inland part to the Northern Transvaal, but in the
coast-belt does not reach beyond Natal. Inland it gradually
merges into the Desert Region.
(3) The Desert Region. — ^This is a large tract of country bounded
south-west by the Olifants and Doom rivers, south by the Touws-
berg and Zwartebergen, east broadly by a line from the Zwarte-
bergen, near Willowmore, to the Diamond Fields, and thence to
Tati and on to the Zambesi above the Victoria Falls. Thence its
northern boundary runs round the southern side of the Ngami
system of river-meanders, along the Okavango to its middle course^
and thence across to the lower Cunene. From this river the dry
belt extends further northwards, along the coast, ranging in width
from 50 miles at Mossamedes, 40 miles at Benguela and 150 miles at
Loanda. Excepting the Cunene and Orange rivers, which traverse
this region on their way from well-watered parts to the sea, no
perennial streams are found. In extent this region measures
700,000 square miles. The rainfall varies from practically nothing
in the arid, sandy wilderness belt, along the coast between the
Orange and the Cunene, and 18 to 20 inches along its southern and
eastern fringe. There must also be a not inconsiderable rainfall in the
Kalahari south of Lake Ngami, and in its north-western part, as
well as in some parts of the Nama-Damara Highland. In the Kala-
hari, surface water, owing to the great permeability of the soil, is
extremely scarce, but there must be abundant supplies of under-
ground water, as witnessed by the vegetation, which consists chiefly
of rank grass (Bushman and Twa grass) growing in tufts, and trees
of the acacia kind ; these are also characteristic of the western and
northern parts of the Desert Region. In the Karoo part, which
begins some little distance south of the Orange River, the flora
changes. There the country is covered with stunted bushes of
greyish-green colour, generally widely spaced, and forming a char-
acteristic feature in the landscape.
8 SCIEN'CE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
(4) The Tropical Eastern Region, with summer rains, varying
from 25 to 100 inches. Of this form of dimate there are also many
varieties. Take, for instance, the contrast between the climate of
the mangrove swamps of the Zambesi delta and of the bamboo zone
of the Livingstone Mountains or of the highland steppe of the
Nyika Plateau ; again, between that of the Pungwe Vall^ and of
the Inyanga Plateau. The temperate eastern and tropical eastern
regions form one botanical region, which on the whole bears the
character of the steppe. It is well-watered and well-wooded, but
its forests are forests of the steppe — true forests, such as are found
in the Equatorial regions of America and Africa, do not exist in
South Africa.
We now proceed to a brief outline sketch of the various highland
areas of South Africa.
The Souths Eastern Highland.— This region, one and a half
times the size of the British Islands, owes its origin to the upheaval
of the Karroo basin. Its length from the Roggeveldt Mountains
^150 miles north-east of Table Bay) to the Zoutpansbergen, in the
Northern Transvaal, is 900 miles, and it measures 400 miles in its
widest part. It is bounded on the south, along its Karroo part, by
the Komsberg, the Nieweveldt escarpment (with the Bulthouders
Bank, 6,270 feet above the sea), and the Sneeuwbergen (with the
Compassberg, 8,500 feet high) ; thence by the Tandjesberg, the
Great Winterberg (7,600 feet), and the Amatola (with Gaika's
Kop, Hogsback, 6,400 feet, and Dohne Peak). On the south-
east the Zuurberg escarpment (with the bold Baziya Headland
and Mount Grant), extending through the Transkeian territories,^
marks the edge of the highland. Towards the interior the plateau
slopes gradually. The main range of the highland, the Storm-
bergen and the Drakensberg or Kahlamba Mountains, is built up
of the'Stormberg beds, capped with volcanic rocks of great thickness.
Extinct volcanic vents still exist along the middle section of thj
range. For 450 miles the main range extends as an unbroken
chain in a north-east direction with a bold, magnificent and
much-varied crest line. Numerous peaks and domes, such as
the Washbank Peak, Kahlamba Peak, Snow Peak or Ben Lomond,
Mount Huxley, Newton Peak, the Three Sisters, rise to a height
of frorti, 8,000 to xpjOoo feet. At and near the knot of the r9.r}ge,'
at the sources of the Orange, Tugela and Caledon Rivers, the
Drakensberg attains its culminating heights in the Mont aiix
Sources, Champagne Castle and Giant Castle, which climb abovie
10,000 feet. For a distance of 250 miles^between Barkly Pass
and Van Reenen's Pass — there are no passes for wagon traffic.
Branches of the main range on the west side are the northern and
the southern Wittebergen (north and south of Basutoland) and the
Maluti Mountains, which latter equal the Drakensberg in grandeur
and height. Near the sources of the Vaal River the inaih range
"becomes much broken, and is called Verzamelbergen, and thence
the plateau is bounded on its north-east side by a bold escarpment
called the Randbergen. From the Verzamelbergen a hogsback-
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 9
■shaped ridge, 5,000 to 6,500 feet in height, runs westward called
the Highveldt and Witwatersrandt, It is on this Highveldt
that the Karroo beds terminate and give place to older formations.
On its south-east and east side the plateau is much eroded, especially
by the Fish, Kei and Tugela Rivers, which break the continuity
of the escarpment. Besides being excellent for agricultural and
stock farming, the South-eastern- Highland is one of the richest
mineral districts in the world, containing the Cape and Transvaal
diamond fields, the Witwatersrandt goldfields, the Transvaal,
Natal and Cape coal mines. The climate is throughout the whole
of the Highland thoroughly healthy and invigorating. An idea
of the general level may be obtained from the altitudes of some of
the towns and villages. Sutherland, 4,776 ; Fraserburg, 4,200 ;
Victoria West, 4,175; De Aar, 4,180; Richmond, 4,700;, Coles-
T^erg, 4,407 ; Steynsburg, 4,750 ; Cyphergat, 5,450 ; Aliwal North,
4,350 ; Herschel, 5,100 ; Dordrecht, 5,389 ; Barkly East, 5,831 ;
Kokstad, 4,300 ; Mooi River (Natal), 4,556 ; Charlestown, 5,385 ;
Bloemfontein, 4,517 ; Kimberley, 4,012 ; Maribogo, 4,320 ; Mafe-
king, 4,190 ; Pitsani, 4,421 ; Viljoensdrift, 4,760 ; Harrismith,
5,322 ; Johannesburg, 5,678 ; Pretoria, 4,532 ; Marabastad,
4,100 ; Pietersburg, 4,000 ; Smitsdorp, 4,750 ; Standerton, 5,022 ;
Balmoral, 4,915 ; Middelburg (Transvaal) 4,971 ; Belfast, 6,463 ;
Machadodorp, 5,379.
The Rhodesia Plateau. — Situated between parallels 20° 40'
and 17° 50' S. and meridians 27° and 35° 20' E. Carved out of the
main massif of South Africa by the erosive action of the Zambesi,
Limpopo and Sabi Rivers, it extends from the confines of the
Kalahari Desert, 90 miles west of Bulawayo, in an E.N.E. direction,
for 480 mUes, with a width not exceeding 90 miles, and a fringe of
upland on its' northern and southern sides, varying from 30 to
70 mUes. At its eastern end the plateau throws off branches
to the northward towards the Zambesi, and southward, presenting
thus an east front, of 180 miles in length, whence it falls abruptly
to the plains of the Pungwe and Buzi, and marked almost
throughout the whole of this distance by high ridges and prominent
crags and peaks. In the north on the beautiful Inyanga plateau
(5,000 feet) the Saunayama Peaks, over 8,000 feet high, are perhaps
the highest points of the highland; -we then have' the Dombo,
a granite crag of 6,700 feet on the Manica plateau (6,000 feet,)
preceding farther South there are the Inyangami Mountains (6,550
feet), Mount Doe 6,725, the Pungwa Mountain 6,870 feet,
the Udza Mountains over 6,000 feet, Chimanimani Mountains
7,450 feet, and finally the Gorima Range 6,250 feet. In the south-
west, near Bulawayo, the Matoppo granite hills, showing a steep
and deeply eroded escarpment towards the south, form a prominent
and rernarkable feature in the topography of the plateau. The
Tock formations are chiefly granite, pre-Cape crystalline
limisstone, and Table Mountain sandstone, with, in parts
volcanic rocks of more recent age. Without doubt the Rhodesia
plateau is one of the oldest goldfields in the world. This is testified
10 SCIEN'CE IN' SOUTH AFRICA.
by the Zimbabwe ruins and other remains of innumerable ancient
settlements and workings. As in olden days, the goldmines of to-
day are scattered all over the plateau. On the whole the country
is well watered, and the climate is temperate and perfectly healthy
for Europeans. Before the ]\Iatabele war the European settlement
on the Mashona plateau led but a precarious existence, its only
roads from the south and east being through fever-stricken lowlands.
At present the railroad from the Cape runs entirely along healthy-
upland parts. The following altitudes give some idea of the
general level of the plateau : — Bulawayo, 4,469 ; Bembesi, 4,482
Inziza, 4,640 ; Somabula, 4,638 ; Gwelo, 4,650 ; Salisbury, 4,700- ;
Marandellas, 5,600 ; Plumtree, 4,561 ; Fort Charter, 4,469.
The Shire Highlands. — These highlands consist of separate small
plateaux, standing on an upland base 100 miles in length,- which
extends from south to north between the middle Shire and Lake
Shirwa. Towards the Shire and Ruo, west and south, the upland
falls steeply, but north and east it gradually slopes towards the
great plain of Nyasa and Shirwa. The Northern Highland, the
Zomba Plateau, reaches a height of 5,625 feet, and extends in a
north-east direction between Shirwa and Nyasa Lakes; Prominent
are the Malosa and Chikala Mountains. At its southern extremity
is situated the Zomba Settlement and seat of the. Administration.
On the south-east side of the Shire upland, the Mlanje Plateau,
one of the grandest and most charming mountain areas in Africa,
stretches its massive structure, 30 miles long and 18 miles wide
from west to east. From its Main Plateau, 6,000 feet high, and
measuring 10 by 15 miles, rises a ridge of rocky peaks, 8,000 to
9,680 feet high. The greater portion of Mlanje consists of gneiss ;
on the south-west, near the edge of the plateau, there are two extinct
craters, showing lava streams and scoriae. Between 4,000 and
5,000 feet ther€ is a belt of iorest, and in the higher parts is found
the Mlanje Cedar, which attains a height of 160 feet. Between
Zomba and Mlanje there is the settlement of Blantyre, and there
are other smaller plateaux and mountains such as Solshi Mountain,
Chigamula Mountain and the Chola Plateau. The climate on the
highlands, especially on Mlanje, is delightful, fresh and bracing.
The Livingstone-Nyasa Highland. — This includes the whole of
the mountainous region east of Lake Nyasa, from the volcanic
area above the Konde Plain, southward. Granite is everywhere
the fundamental rock. In the northern' section, north of the
Ruhuhu River, there is a zone of gneiss which forms the longitudinal
ranges of the Kinga Mountains (8,500 to 9,500 feet). The ridge
nearest the lake falls abruptly to the water from a height of 6,000
feet. South of the Ruhuhu the mountains consist of granite and
gneiss, and gradually diminish in height, the escarpment on the
lake side falling to 4,000 feet. Throughout, the Livingstone
Highland has a purely mountainous character. The upper parts
contain rich pastures and forests, and the climate is excellent.
The Angoni Plateau. — This highland extends along the west
side of the southern half of Nyasa Lake, and further south. With
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 11
the mountainous extension, south, it measures over 150 miles in
lengtl", and in its northern and middle parts 50 to 80 miles in
width. Towards the Nyasa Lake the plateau shows a bold escarp-
ment, 4,000 feet high, with granite peaks of 6,000 to 7,000 feet,
known as the Mafuta or Kirk range, and further south called the
Marurungwi Mountains. On the north and north-west the' plateau
slopes away to the valley of the Bua River. The higher part,
which lies south and south-west, consists of rolling, fertile plains,
but is poorly wooded. There are, however, valuable timber forests
on the slopes of the Kirk range. It is a beautiful country with a
much diversified landscape and a temperate climate — excellent
for European settlement. The rock formations are chiefly granite
and gneiss ; there is gold-bearing quartz in the Lintipi Valley.
Iron is abundant, and there is also lead and graphite. Prominent
points on the high parts are Mount Deza, 7,000 feet. Mount
Chongone, Mount Tambula, Mount Dombwe and the Kongwe Peak.
The Nyika Plateau. — It is bounded north bj' the Nyasa-Tan-
ganyika Plateau and the Konde basin, east b;, Lake Nyasa, west
by the Loangwa Valley, and south by the Bua Valley, and is 200
miles long and about 80 miles wide. The escarpment fronting
Nyasa rises 4,000 to 5,000 feet above sea level. The Grand Plateau
of Nyika (beginning about 30 miles south of Karongo) above
8,000 feet high may be called " the roof of South Africa," it measures
30 by 35 miles, with the Nacheri Mountain (8,518 feet) and Mwan-
emba (8,553 feet) rising above its level. Other high points in the
main highland plateau are the Namitawa, 7,285 ; the Panda
Peaks, 6,381 ; Pirikwamba, over 6,000 . and along the eastern
escarpment Mount Waller, 4,500 ; Mount Samara, 7,000 ; Mount
Mayui, 7,500. In the southern part there are Mount Choma,
5,500; Mount Kuningini, 5,000, and Mount Mbabwa. The plateau
is traversed diagonally, from south-west to north-east by the
South Rukuru (Avenga) Valley. The rocks are chiefly granite.
On the peaks of the Grand Plateau the flora resembles that of
Mlanje. Everywhere there are streams of beautiful clear water
running at all +imes of the year. The average rainfall is 50 to
70 inches, and in June, July and August there is frost at times.
It has the most equable climate in Nyasaland. The soil is good,
and in the deeper valleys there is suitable coffee-land , its undu-
lating steppes are excellent for cattle and sheep farming. The
Scotch mission stations of Ekendeni (4,346) and Kondowi are sit-
uated above the eastern escarpment. The Nyika Plateau — about the
size of Switzerland — is an ideal country for European settlement.
The Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau. — This plateau, situated between
the Nyasa and Tanganyika Lakes, forms the waterparting between
the Indian and Atlantic Oceans. It rises abruptly from the
dead-level flat of the Konde basin, which surrounds the north
end of, Nyasa. Its general level is from 4,500 to 6,000. The
Stevenson Road, which joins Nyasa and Tanganyika, runs a little
to the north-east of the main watershed, and maintains for the
greater length an altitude of over 5,000 feet, with points reaching
12 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
6,000 feet. North-east the plateau extends to the Chigamba
escarpment, overlooking Lake Rukwa. The bare rock-peaks
Memia, Kusa and Nkukwa rise 1,000 feet above the rugged escarp-
ment. From the' main watershed with Mount Sunza (6,889)
the plateau slopes gently south-east towards Lake Bangweolo,
which is only a few hundred feet below the highland level. Aber-
corn, near Tanganyika, is situated on the finest part of the plateau.
At the south-east end of the plateau, above the Konde basin, there
is a volcanic region with crater-lakes, cinder beds and streams
of basaltic lava. Here the Rungwe Mountain (10,200), an extinct
volcano, stands out boldly from the edge of the plateau. The
Nyasa-Tanganyika Plateau consists of grassland interspersed with
trees, and is healthy for Europeans.
The Great Divide (Congo-Zaffibesi) Plateau. — It was the belief,
until a few years ago, that the head waters of the Congo and Zambesi
took their rise from extensive marshes which showed no definite
water-parting. Recent explorations have by no means confirmed
this view : we now know that, excepting in one or two places,
the Great Divide — although it is not majked by any mountainous
relief — is perfectly definite, and there are no interlacings of the
two river systems. Between the Upper Kasai and the Jambeji
the Great Divide drops a little below the highland level, and it is
here that a division may conveniently be made between the Divide
Plateau and the Angola Highland. Measured from here in a
straight line to Moir's Lake, and thence to the head of the Loangwa
River, the length of the plateau is 950 miles. At Serenjie on the
Muchinga it is 100 miles wide, and at the sources of the
Kafue 50 miles. However, the plateau throws out broad extensions
far to the south : thus the distance across from the Lufira head-
waters (near Katanga) to the southern end of the highland between
the Kafue and Kabompo Rivers is over 350 miles. The general
level of the Divide is from 4,200 to 5,500 feet. Facing the Loangwa
Valley, the plateau shows a bold precipitous much broken escarp-
ment, consisting almost entirely of granite. This enormous
tract of highland is destined to play in the near future an irnportant
part in the development of the interior of South -Africa. Un-
doubtedly it is the natural highway from the west to Ihe easti
It is a good farmingf'cotnitry,' weir watered,- well wooded, and thj
climate is healthy.
The Angola Highland. — ^This magnificent Higliland, greater in
extent than Italy, is situated about 150 miles from the Atlantic
Ocean, and presents a front to the coast of over 450 miles. Its
length, measured from the south end of the Cordillera da Chella,
opposite Great Fish Bay, to the Upper Kasai is 700 miles. On the
coast side it is fringed by a belt of much broken country, 100 miles
wide, with foot-hills and spurs, containing a most luxuriant vegeta-
tion, forests of lofty timber trees and a plentiful supply of water.
The border range of the high plateau is in the south called Cordil-
lera da Chella, with Monte Luciano (5,568), opposite Mossamedes.
Serra da Hanha, opposite Benguela, Serra Andrade Corvo, and
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. I3
further north Elongo Mountains (7,329) and Mount Loviti (7,776).
The High Plateau is almost treeless, consisting of undulating steppe.
The soil is excellent, water is abundant, the climate is healthy
and bracing. It is in fact par excellence, a white man's country.
There is a grand array of important rivers which have their sources
on this plateau, viz., north, the Kwanza, Kwango and Kasai ;
east, the Lumaji, Lungwe Bungu ; south, the Kwando, Kwito,
Kubango and Kunene ; and from its west slopes the coast rivers
between Kwanza and Kunene. Some of these rivers attain a fair
size before descending from the plateau. The general level of the
plateau is 4,000 to 6,000 feet. The rock formations are granite,
crystalline schists and red sandstone.
The Nama-Damara Highland. — ^The central part of this Highland
is very mountainous, and is a country of granite and gneiss. About
200 miles east of Walfish Bay the Awas Mountains (6,000 to 7,000
feet) north of which Windhoek is situated, with the great plateau
which extends from them north and north-west, form the main
water-parting of the highland. Here the Swakop, Kuisib, Nosob
and Great Fish — all periodical rivers — take their rise. From the
Awas Mountains the Komab Plateau, with many rugged ridges
and prominent points rising to over 8,000 feet, extends, between
Swakop and Kuisib, towards the coast. From the central mountain
region high table lands and table mountains spread north-west,
north, east and south ; they consist chiefly of sandstone and clay-
slate of the Cape Age, and quartzites and crystalline limestone.
North-west of the Awas Plateau we have the Ombotoza Mountain,
7,300, further north the Omatako Mountain, 8,800, and north-east
of this the Waterberg or Omuveroume Range runs parallel with
the Omuramba ua Matake. From the Amas Range the Hakos
Mountains extend south-west along the Kuisib Valley, from these
again the Hanami Plateau, a high, bare tableland, spreads south
withr its extension (south-west), the Huib Plateau. East of the
Hanami Tableland are the Nunanib and the Urinanib Plateaux.
Considerably to the south of these, between the Great Fish and the
Nosob, but detached from the main highland, are the rugged Karas
Mountains, a complex mass of barren, bare-looking table mountains.
North and north-west the highland gradually slopes towards the
bush-covered plains, which extend to Ovamboland and the Oka-
vango River ; on the east side, towards the Kalahari, it shows a
terraced sandstone scarp. Towards the north-west, in the direction
of the Kunene the plateau extends as a narrow strip of highveldt
which slopes gently to the west, but on the coast side merges into
i very broken mountainous zone, consisting of rugged table moun-
tains and outliers of the main tableland, one of these-, the Enten-
deka Mountain, rises to 4,500 feet. This region is called the Kaoko
veldt. Here the sand-rivers in the deeply-eroded valleys have an
abundant supply of water, and support a considerable vegetation.
Copper is found in many parts of the Nama-Damara Highland,
notably on the Komab Plateau, and at Otavi in the north. The
north-east is by far the best part of the highland, and is considered
M
SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
to be one of the best cattle countries in the world.
of the Awas Mountains are also excellent for cattle farming
The south slopes
The
climate throughout the highland is perfectly healthy, with a uniform
daily range of temperature throughout the year.
Hydrography of South Africa. — Having thus given an outline
of the relief of the South African subcontinent, there remains for
us to give a description of its hydrography. The east and north
are, as already mentioned, by far the best watered parts of South
Africa ; the west is, on the whole, a region of low rainfall and
periodical rivers. The following table of drainage areas has been
constructed from a physical map of South Africa, specially prepared
for this work, of which an enlarged copy will be produced at the
British Association meeting.
Principal River Basins :-
square miles
Zambesi
538,500
Ngami System
305,800
Sabi
36,400
Limpopo
162,000
Orange River
404,400
Kunene
54,200
Kwanza
62,700
Coast Rivers : —
Between Kwanza and Kunene
60,200
„ Kunene and Orange River
101,100
,, Orange River and Limpopo
192,200
,, Limpopo and Sabi
21,500
,, Sabi and Zambesi
37,400
„ Zambesi and
8 ° S.L.
218,700
The Zambesi. — The Zambesi, the largest and most important of
South African rivers, with a drainage area equal in size to the
British Islands, France and Germany coinbiiied, rises on the Great
Divide Plateau in Lat. 11 ° 21 ' S., Long. 24 ° 24 ' E. The distance
from its source to tnouth is, in a straight line, 900 miles, measured
along its course 1,600 miles, with an average declivity of a little
over 3 feet per mile. Its course may be divided into four sections —
the Mountain Track in a south-west direction for 170 miles, from
the source to the Luena Junction, below Kakengi, with a fall of 8
feet per mile ; its Barotse Plain Track, in a general S.E.S. direction
tor 510 miles, across the Great Barotse Plain, which measures about
400 miles in width, to the Victoria Falls. Its fall in this section is
a little less than i foot per mile, and it contains ten rapids within
a distance of 75 miles, beginning with the Gonye Falls, 170 miles
above the Victoria Falls. In the next section, the Middle Zambesi
Valley Track from the Victoria Falls, where the river falls 400 feet,
to Zumbo, a distance of 400 miles, the river flows in a narrow valley
between steep mountains, rising, in parts, over 2,000 feet above the
river. In this section are the Devil's Gorge, with the Sichiwana
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. I5
Cataract, the Alolele Rapids, the Lutala Gorge. Kansala Rapids,
the Kariba Gorge and the Upper Lupata Gorge. The fall
in this section is over 5 feet per mile. In the Lower Track,
from Zumbo to the sea the Zambesi is seriously obstructed'
b}' the Kebrabasa Rapids, 140 miles below Zumbo, which
extend over a distance of 40 miles, and are absolutely un-
navigable. Thence the river widens, and the mountains
recede from its banks. About 50 miles from the sea the river
splits up into numerous ramifications, and forms a delta with a
width, on the sea-shore, of over loo miles. The Chinde Channel
of the Zambesi is at present most frequently used for navigation.
The fall in the Lower Track is i foot 9 inches per mile.
Tributaries of the Zambesi.— On its right bank the Zambesi
receives in its Mountain Track the Luvua, the Kifamaji (which
takes the overflow of Lake Dilolo) and the Luena ; in its Barotse
Valley Track, the formidable Lungwe ' BUngu, which comes frcm
the Angola Highlands, the Luanginga (which enters near Lialui, the
Barotse capital), and at Kazungula (^5 miles above the Victoria
Falls) the Linyante or Kwando, which also rises on the Angola High-
lands. One hundred and twenty miles west of Kazungula the Zam-
Tjesi and Ngami systems are connected by the IMagwekwana which,
during flood-time, discharges the overflow of the Okavango River
into the Kwando. In the Middle Track the Zambesi receives the
Guay, the Sengwe, Umay, Sanyati and Jole coming from the
Rhodesian Plateau, none of them rivers of great volume ; in the
Lower Track, also from the Rhodesian Plateau, the Angwa or Han-
yani, the Umsengusi and the Mazoe. On the left bank the Zam-
l)esi receives in the Mountain Track the Luzabo : in the Barotse
Valley Track it is considerably augmented by the Kabompo which
is formed by the union of the Lunga and Mumbeshe, both rising on
the Great Divide Plateau, and also receives the Luena and the
minor rivers Lui, Lumbi, Kwemba, Machili and Umgwezi ; in the
Middle Track the Zambesi receives the Zongwe from the Matoka
Plateau, and, 100 miles above Zumbo, the only tributary of impor-
tance in this section, the Kafue River, which comes from the Great
Divide Plateau, and is strengthened on its way by the Luanga,
Lufupa and Lukanga" rivers. At Zumbo the Zambesi is joined by
the T.oangwa River which rises 500 miles away on the Nyasa-
Tanganyika Plateau. Not far above the junction the Loangwa
receives the Mulungushe from the Great Divide Plateau. The
Zambesi receives, in its Lower Track, the Luivi and the Revubwe
Rivers from the Angoni Plateau, and about 80 miles from the sea
the important Shire River, the overflow stream of Lake Nyasa,
Ten miles below Nyasa the Shire flows through Lake Pamalombe.
which has a length of 15 miles. In its upper and lower reaches,
which are separated by the series of rapids and falls called the
Murchison Falls, the Shire is navigable, and forms with the Zambesi
the principal highway from the sea to Nyasaland and North-
JEastern Rhodesia. The fall of the Shire between Nyasa and
.Zambesi is over 6 feet per mile, most of the declivity is, however,
l6 SCIENCE INf SOUTH AFRICA.
confined to a distance of less than 50 miles. Lake Nyasa, the feeder
of the Shire, stretching from south to north, has a length of over
350 miles, attains a width of 50 miles, and a greatest depth
(in the northern half) of 386 fathoms. It is hemmed in by high and
steep mountains and plateaux, and has but few and unimportant
afHuents. East of the Shire Highland, Lake Shirwa, unconnected
with any other hydrographical system, but probably formerly
pirt of Lake Nyasa, is now fast disappearing.
The Ngami System. — Livingstone said : " The whole country
between this (the Victoria Falls) and the ridge beyond Lebebe
westwards — Lake Ngami and Zonga (Botletli) southwards —
and eastwards beyond Nchokotsa was one fresh- water lake."
No doubt the Ngami system was at no very distant time part of the
Zambesi basin, but has since, owing to the deepening of the Zambesi
Valley and the general desiccation proceeding in South Africa, be-
come almost separated. Since Livingstone's day, when Lake Ngami
presented an open sheet of water, further changes have taken place ;
Ngami hardly exists, its feeder, the Teoghe, (Taukhe) is blocked
by " sudd," and it is now nothing more than a reed-swamp with
small patches of open water. The main stream of the Ngami
system, the Kubango or Okavango River, rises on the great Burro-
Burro Plain of the Angola Highlands in close proximity to the
sources of the Kunene and Kwanza ; before descending from the
highlands, it is already 84 feet wide and 6 feet deep. It first flaws •
S.E.S. for 450 miles through a country densely covered with bush,
then eastwards for 160 miles to Lebebe. Twenty-five miles south,
of Lebebe it spreads and forms the Okavango Swamp, in width
from ip to 50 miles, and extending over 100 miles to southward.-
The overflow of this extensive reed-swamp discharges north-east
into the Zambesi (by the Magwekwana-Kwando), and south into
the Tamalakan, which feeds the Botletli River, the former outlet
of Lake Ngami ; and this river empties itself into the great pans
of the Kalahari Desert, of which the Makarikari is the largest.
Forty miles above Lebebe the Okavango receives its only but
important tributary the Kwito, which also comes from the Angola
Highlands. Within 12 miles above Lebebe are the Maturu and
Galabe Rapids, at Lebebe the Sekanana (Andara) Rapids, and
further down the Dwai and Popa Rapids.
The Sahi River. — ^The Sabi, which rises on the Manica Plateau
(eastern part of the Rhodesia Plateau) has a total length of course
of 380 miles, and average fall of 14 feet per mile. For 200 miles
it flows south through a very beautiful and mountainous country,
with an average fall of 25 feet per mile. In this section it receives
the Odzi, which has as tributary the Umtali. After receiving the
Lundi from the west, a river half its size, the Sabi turns east and
traverses the low country, here densely wooded, to the sea. Its
average fall in this section is 3 feet per mile, and its width during
the dry season about 250 yards with a depth of 3 feet. At its
larger, with a bar half a mile wide, and 5 feet of water at
low tide. Both the Lundi and the Sabi, some distance above
PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. I7
their junction, have beautiful cataracts. Affluents of the Lundi
rising on the mouth it bifurcates, the northern branch, the
Makau being the middle Rhodesia Plateau are the Tukwe and
Ingwesi.
The Limpopo. — The direct distance from source to mouth of this
river is 350 miles, measured along its course 750 miles. Its average
fall is 6 feet per mile, but in the last 250 miles of its course, its
fall is only about 2 feet per mile. It rises on the Witwatersrand,
and after breaking through the Maghaliesberg it descends for
175 miles through a most beautiful country in a N.W.N, direction to
a little beyond the junction of the Notuane ; thence it flows 210 miles
in a north-east direction through bush-covered country to the
junction of the Shashi, thence 120 miles east to the junction of
the Parfuri or Unvubu, where it has, during the dry season, a
width of 200 yards, and from there south-east to the sea. Its
tributaries are on the left bank, the Elands and Marico Rivers
both from the Witwatersrand, the Notuane, Lotsani, Maclutsie,
Shashi with its tributaries Shashani and Tuli from the Matoppo
Hills, the Bubye and the Nuanetsi. The latter is, in its lower course,
a sand river. On the right bank the affluents are the Zand River,
Palala and Nylstroom or Maghalikweni from the Waterberg.
The Ingalele and Singwedsi from the Zoutpansberg. Finally the
Limpopo is joined by the voluminous Olifants River, which with
its tributaries the Elands and Rhenoster Rivers comes from the
Highveldt. From the Zoutpansberg the Olifants River receives
the Letaba. The country along the middle and lower Limpopo
is densely wooded.
The Orange River. — The Orange River is the principal river
of temperate South Africa. An idea of the vast extent of the
drainage area may be formed, if we consider that the distance
between its extreme east and west boundaries — the north end of
the Drakensberg, 150 miles from the Indian Ocean, and the Awas
Plateau, 200 miles from the Atlantic Ocean — is 900 miles. Of
this enormous basin the greater part belongs to the Desert Region,
and need not here be further described. The Orange rises in Basuto-
land near the Mont aux Sources, in the Drakensberg Range. Its
upper course is along a grand and wildly romantic valley between
the Drakensberg and the Maluti Mountains, which rise to over
10,000 feet. Here it receives the Sengunyana and lower down
the Kornet Spruit and Quthing River. At Aliwal North the Orange
completes its mountain track at an altitude of 4,300 feet above
sea level. Not far below this it receives on the right bank the
Caledon River, which drains the more hilly parts of the Orange
River Colony and the open and populous parts of Basutofand ;
its basin is one of the richest grain-producing districts in South
Africa. At a distance of 450 miles below its source the Orange
is joined by the equally important Vaal River, which rises at the
north end of the Drakensberg Range, and has a length of course of
520 miles. It drains the southern slopes of the Witwatersrand
and Highveldt and the undulatijig grassy plains of the south-
l8 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
western Transvaal and the Orange River Colony, a rich agricul-
tural and pastoral area. Tributaries of the Vaal are on the left
bank, the Valsch, Sand, Modder and Riet Rivers ; on the right
bank the Mooi, Makwasi and Harts Rivers. About 700 miles
above its source the Orange River enters the Desert Region, and
thence receives no more perennial tributaries, excepting the Vaal.
Below Upington the Orange widens and forms numerous islands,
and below these are the great Aughrabies Falls.
The Kunene River. — The most beautiful river of Angola, has
its source on the Great Burro-Burro Plain on the Angola Highlands.
It flows in its upper and middle course through a beautiful and
most promising country. In its lower course it passes over very
broken country, ai^d forms three important cataracts, the upper
one 300 feet high. Its total length of course is about 600 miles.
The Kwanza also rises on the Angola Highlands. Its length
of course is 520 miles. In its lower course it traverses, for 150
miles, a dreary dry, inhospitable region.
Coast Rivers. — The perennial Coast Rivers begin with the
Olifants River, thence round the south and east coasts they get
more and more numerous. Their courses are short and precipitous,
yet some show a considerable volume of water. The most note-
worthy are the Umzimvubu or St. John's, the Tugela, the Pungwe
and, north of the Zambesi, the Rovuma.
The Coast. — The coast line partakes of the uniformity which
characterises the physical structure of South Africa. It is almost
destitute of natural harbours. On the east coast the harbours
consist of river estuaries and lagoons mostly obstructed by sand
or detritus bars. The only natural harbour is Delagoa Bay. At
Durban and East London the harbours have been made safe and
serviceable with a large outlay of capital. On the west coast the
harbours consist of sand spits, enclosing more or less shallow basins,
and formed by the combined action of the south-westerly and
easterly winds which make the sand dunes gradually travel towards
the north. Harbours formed in this way are Saldanha Bay,
Angra Pequena, Sandwich Harbour, Walfish Bay, Tiger Bay and
Lobito Bay.
SECTION I.— PHYSICAL-CctfxM.)
2. THE METEOROLOGY OF SOUTH AFRICA.
By Charles M. Stewart, B.Sc, Secretary, Meteorological
Commission, Cape Colony.
The African Continent extends, roughly, from 35° N. to 35° S. Lat.,
and is the only continent crossed by both the Tropic of Capricorn and
the Tropic of Cancer ; consequently in traversing the continent from
north to south one would pass through a diversity of climates
■ ranging from the hot, moist, equatorial through tropical to the
mild, dry sub-tropical. Owing to its peculiar pear shape only
about one-third of the total land-.surface is situated in the
Southern Hemisphere. The object of the following article is
to give as accurate an idea as possible of the general principles,
so far as they have been investigated, which go to determine
the climatic conditions prevailing over that portion of this
sub-continent generally known as South Africa. This may
be regarded as extending from the valley of the Zambesi in
about 15° S. Lat., to Cape L'Agulhas in about 35° S., and as lying
between the longitudes of Walfish Bay (145°) to 33° E., or about
2° further east than Durban. The area indicated includes the
Cape Colony, Basutoland, Orange River Colony, Transvaal with
Swaziland, Natal with Zululand, Bechuanaland, Rhodesia and
German South-West Africa.
The chief materials used in the preparation of the data
employed in the discussion of this subject were : The Reports
of the Meteorological Commission for the ten years 1891-1900 ;
the Reports of the Government Astronomer, Natal, 1894-1903 ;
and the Appendices (" Meteorology ") to the Report on the
Administration of Rhodesia, 1900-1903. An abstract of the
results is given in tabular form at the end. In the case of those
stations whose records are incomplete for this period, an attempt
has been made to obtain the averages for a period of consecutive
ten years either by falling back on earlier records or by making
use of those from 1901 to 1904.
Wherever possible the preference has been given to the period
1 891-1900, but in some instances it has been necessary to make
use of the observations of earlier or of later years in order to obtain
a ten years' average ; in several cases it has been necessary to be
satisfied with a much shorter period.
c 2
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
METEOROLOGY. 21
[ . Physical Features. — As the climate of a country as a whole is
dependent, to a considerable extent, on its physical configuration,
it is advisable to, give here a brief description of the relief of the
land-surface of South Africa.
Taken as a whole, South Africa may be regarded as consisting
of a series of four elevated plains or plateaux, separated from each
other by steep escarpments which rise to a considerable elevation
above the plains themselves, and appear, when viewed from the
coast sides, as a series of high mountain ranges running roughly
parallel with the coast. This division into plateaux is most dis-
tinctly marked on the southern side of the sub-continent, but is
not so well defined in the west, where the slopes are more gradual,
or in the east where the plateaux partake more of the character
of mere terraces ; these plateaux have been named as follows : —
1. The Coast Plateau, or Coast Flats, having an average
elevation of 500-600 feet, and varying considerably in
width, from about thirty miles in German South- West
Africa to three or four miles or even less in the south-
east of the Cape Colony.
2. The Southern or Little Karoo, a narrow tableland
about fifteen miles in width and of an average eleva-
tion of 1,500 feet ; it is separated from the low coast
area of the south by the Langebergen and Outeniqua
mountain ranges.
3. The Central or Great Karoo, having an average eleva-
tion of between 2,000 and 3,000 feet, bounded on the
west by the Cedarberg and Bokkeveld and on the
south by the Witteberg, Zwartberg and Zuurberg
ranges.
4. The Northern Karoo or High Veld is the innermost
plateau, comprising the remainder of the Cape Colony
the Orange River Colony and the Transvaal. It is
bounded on the south by the Klein Roggeveld,
Nieuweveld, Winterberg, Stormberg and Drakensberg
ranges. This plain has an average elevation of about
4,000 feet, rising in the eastern portions to 6,000 feet,
and forms the main watershed of the country. From
the Drakensberg the land slopes northwards and
westwards towards the Orange River and the Limpopo,
decreasing gradually to an elevation of less than
3,000 feet, but rising again to over 4,000 feet in the
Damara-Namaqua Plateau of German South-West
Africa and the Mashona-Matabele Plateau of Rhodesia.
It will thus be seen that by far the greater portion of South
Africa has an elevation of over 3,000 feet, whilst the area below
1,500 feet forms merely a narro\V fringe around the coast.
Divisions. — For the sake of convenience of reference the four
plateaux mentioned have been sub-divided into twenty-one sections,
according to the plan originally suggested by the late Mr. J, G.
22 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Gamble, Hydraulic Engineer to the Cape Colony. This sub-division
is evidently a compromise between the natural physical features
and the political divisions obtaining in South Africa, but presents,
on the whole, a fairly truthful picture of the various climatic regions
of the country. These sections are as follows : —
(i) Cape Peninsula, (2) South-West, (3) West Coast, (4) South
Coast, (5) Southern Karoo, (6) West-Central Karoo, (7) East-Central
Karoo, (8) Northern Karoo, (g) Northern Border, (10) South-East,
(11) North-East, (12) Kaffraria, (13) Basutoland, (14) Orange River
Colony, (15) Natal, (16) Transvaal, (17) Bechuanaland, (18)
Rhodesia, (19) Damaraland, (20) Swaziland, (21) Zululand. (A key
map to these divisions is inserted on page 20.)
Method adopted in Article. — This article may be said to consist
of two parts : —
r. The body of the actual text is devoted entirely to a
general consideration of the factors which determine the
character of the South African climate as a whole.
Although the exigencies of space forbid a detailed
description of the climates of the 21 Divisions enumer-
ated above, an attempt has been made in Part II. to
extend the scope of the article so as to afford at
least some idea of the climatic characteristics of the
various parts of South Africa. The method adopted
has been to calculate the mean monthly rainfall over
each division, mostly for a ten-year period, and to
present the results in tabular and diagrammatic form.
With regard to temperature, however, it has been
considered preferable to select merely one station
typical of each area for the purpose of illustration,
the mean maximum, minimum and monthly tem-
perature being represented diagrammatically alongside
the rainfall of the same district. Some of the data
on which these are based are also given in the form of
a table.
Part I. Climate — General.
Temperature. — Regarded from the standpoint of temperature
alone, one of the most striking features is a remarkable unifortnity
in the mean annual temperature exhibited by many out of the
hundred stations for which the mean monthly temperatures have
been calculated. Thus stations as wide apart and occupying such
entirely different positions, as regards latitude, as the Royal
Observatory (Lat. 33° 56' S., Long. 18° 29' E.) in the Cape Peninsula,
Cape L'Agulhas (Lat. 34° 50' S., Long. 20° i' E.) on the south coast,
Cradock (Lat. 32° 11' S., Long. 25° 38' E.) in the Great Karoo,
Matatiele (Lat. 30° 15' S., Long. 28° 46' E.) in Kaffraria, Bloem-
fontein (Lat. 29° 7' S., Long. 26° 13' E.) in the Orange River' Colony,
and Johannesburg (Lat. 26° 12 S, Long. 28° 2' E.) at almost the
METEOROLOGY. 23
highest altitude of the High Veld, all possess practically the same
mean annual temperature of 62° Fahr. This equality of mean
temperature is mainly due to decrease of temperature with increase
of elevation above sea-level almost exactly neutralising the increase
of temperature which would otherwise occur with the increased
intensity of solar radiation due to a nearer approach to the Equator.
When, however, we come to examine the mean maximum and
minimum temperatures from which the annual mean temperature
has been derived we are at once struck by the enormous differences
which exist in the mean daily range — at a coast station like Cape
L'Agulhas where it amounts to only 10.4°, and at an inland station
like Bloemfontein with its 25.7°, or Matatiele with its 33.6°, which
is more than treble that at the first-mentioned place. A further
perusal of the temperature tables shows that the two coldest
stations are the mountain station at Disa Head (Table Mountain)
in the Cape Peninsula with a mean annual temperature of 54.7°, at
an elevation of 2,500, and Kilrush in Kaffraria with 54.8° at an
approximate elevation of 6,850 feet ; while the two warmest
stations are Tuli in Rhodesia on the Shashi River, a tributary of
the Limpopo, with a mean annual temperature of 72.4°, at an eleva-
tion of 1,750 feet, and Verulam, in hilly country about nineteen
miles north of Durban (Natal), and about seven miles from the coast
with a mean of 71.8°. There is therefore a mean difference of 17.7°
between the coolest and the warmest stations known in South Africa.
Within the Cape Colony itself the warmest station seems to be Port
St. John's with a mean annual temperature of 66.9°, Kenhardt
coming next with a mean of 66.2°, Clanwilliam being third with
65.4°. Between the first and the last two, however, there is a
considerable difference in the range of temperature — the mean
maximum at Port St. John's being only 75.7° as against 81.6° at
Kenhardt and 80.5° at Clanwilliam, while the mean minima are
58°, 50.5" and 50*^, giving mean diurnal ranges of 17.7^, 31.1'' and
30.5" respectively. The first occupies a coastal position, the
second a continental situation, while the third is situated in a
valley about thirty miles from the nearest coast. It wiU thus be
seen that Clanwilliam,which has been termed the " cauldron of the
Cape Colony " must give place to Kenhardt in this respect.
Although the examples already given seem to indicate a most
irregular distribution of temperature, a more careful examination
of the data available shows that there is an increase of temperature
from west to east along the parallels of latitude, and that further
there is an increase of temperature from north to south along
the west coast, from west to east along the south coast, and from
south to north along the east coast. Thus, starting from the west
coast and crossing the country about the twenty-ninth parallel,
we find Port Nolloth with a mean temperature of 57.5° ; O'okiep,
about 50 miles inland, with 63.0° ; Kimberley, about 500 miles
in the interior, with 64.8° ; and Durban, on the east coast, with
a mean of 70.8 — an average rate of increase of about one degree
(1° F.) for each degree of longitude. Again, Mouille Point on the
24 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
south shore of Table Bay, has an annual mean temperature of
()2.6°, being 3.1° warmer than Port Nollcth, an increase of a little
over i" F. for each degree of latitude ; while Simon's Town, on the
shores of False Bay, has a yearly mean temperature of 64.7°,
giving an increased rate of rise of temperature southwards of about
1.5° for each degree of latitude. Again, in passing eastwards
along the south coast from Cape L'Agulhas (61.5°) to East London
(64.8°), the rate of increase of temperature eastwards is reduced
to 0.4° per degree of longitude ; while between East London and
Durban the rate northwards is again increased to about 1.5° per
degree of latitude.
Ocean Currents. — As directly opposite conditions obtain along
the west and east coasts it is evident that there must be some
controlling factor exercising a depressing effect on temperature
on one side of the continent, and an elevating tendency
on the other. In seeking for at least a partial explanation
of these widely divergent results, attention is at once drawn to the
fact that a warm ocean current, part of the equatorial surface-
drift, washes the shores of Natal and of the south of Cape Colony,
at least as far west as Cape L'Agulhas. This current is known
as the Mozambique Current in the east, and as the Agulhas Current
in the South of the Cape. On the other hand, the western shores of
the Cape Colony are subjected to the cooling influence of the cold
Benguela Current, usually considered part of the Antarctic Drift
but, as pointed out by Hahn, in his book on Climatology, much
more likely the effect of the up-welling of the colder and deeper
waters under the influence of the prevaOing winds.
The mean annual temperature, based on an average of all the
stations, is 62.8° F., practically the same as Sydney, New South
Wales, and about the same as that of the summer months in London.
The mean maximum temperature amounts to 75.0°, and the mean
minimum to 50.5°, giving a mean daily range of 24.5°. This
last oscillates between the maximum of 26.6° in July, and the
minimum of 22.9° in March. When comparing the curves of
mean temperatures shown in Fig. Lb, with those for any European
or other station in the Northern Hemisphere, it is necessary
to bear in mind that the seasons in the Southern Hemisphere
are the reverse of those north of the Equator, the three warmest
months, December — January, corresponding to the European
summer months of June — August ; whilst the three months of the
latter period are the coldest in the southern Hemisphere. It must
further be remembered that during the southern summer,
the earth is in its nearest position to the sun (in perihelion) ;
its motion is then more rapid than when it is at its furthest dis-
tance from the sun (aphelion), so that the southern summer is
shorter than that of the Northern Hemisphere by about eight
days. The shorter duration is, however, counterbalanced by the
greater intensity of the sun's rays.
On examining the mean monthly temperature curve in Fig. Lb,
it will be seen that the warmest month is February, with an average
METEOROLOGY.
25
of 71.4°, after which the temperature falls to the minimum of 53.4°
in July — most rapidly from April to June ; from the minimum
it rises much more slowly to the maximum in February. The
maximum temperature curve is at its highest (83.6°) in February,
and falls to its lowest point (66.3°) in June, to rise again to the
maximum in February. The minimum curve is also at its highest
(59.i°)jin February, but continues to fall till July, when it
averages "40.0°, after which it rises to its maximum in February.
■!Rg.Xt.— Te»nf«-attire.— Average JiI»ximiiT«
JVIl«i*"i^n* arti -Meaw vsXv-tB for S.Jffrte.a,
(JVU/u Hi» VUo-n
This marked divergence of the maximum and mmimum
curves in July (the day temperatures rising whilst the night
temperatures continue to fall) is one of the most interesting
points ■ in Tconnection with the meteorology of South Africa,
being i apparently connected with a peculiar "cold wave
affecting the whole of the country about the middle of the month,
and'attaining its greatest intensity on the i6th to 17th of the
month* Another striking feature is the peculiar flattening of
* On the relations of Temperature and Pressure in South Africa, vide an
extremely interesting paper on "Some Temperature and Pressure Results
for the Great Plateau of South Africa," by J. R.Sutton MA {Tvansac-
Hons of the Philosophical Society of South Africa. Vol. XI., Pt. IV. pp. 243-
318-)
26
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
the maximum (and consequently of the mean) curve in the month
of September, with the subsequent rapid rise in October ; this
seems to be in part due to, or at least is coincident with a marked
increase in the steepness of the cloud curve, which rises from
34 per cent, in August to 38.6 per cent, in September.
The extremes of temperature that have so far been recorded
in South Africa appear to be the exceptionally high maximum of
125.0° recorded at Main during the prevalence of a hot wind on
January 28th 1903, and the extraordinarily low minimum of
6.0° Fahr. registered at Palmietfontein in June, 1902, after the
severe blizzard that occurred over a large part of South Africa
from the 9th to the 12th of that month.*
Frost. — Although severe frosts capable of freezing standing
water are practically unknown over the coastal districts, the
phenomenon of hoar-frost is by no means uncommon, having been
occasionally observed during severe winters at the Royal Observa-
tory and Sea Point in the Cape Peninsula. It is, otherwise, however,
at those stations inside the coast ranges of mountains where frosts
of great severity are of almost daily occurrence during winter.
The frozen water is frequently described as " black ice," occurring
en pools, etc., exposed to nocturnal radiation, but usually disappears
under the heating action of the sun's rays in the course of the day,
to be formed again during the night. Statistics bearing on this
phenomenon have been investigated for only one station in South
Africa, viz., Colonies Plaats in the Division of Graaff-Reinet, in
the eastern portion of the Great Karoo, at an elevation of 4,750 feet.
An excellent weather diary was kept here from March, 1883, to
December, 1902, by the proprietor of the farm, Mr.' C. J. Watermeyer.
This gentleman, although unprovided with any meteorological
instruments except a rain guage, appears to have taken a deep
interest in all matters affecting agriculture, and his data may be
taken as fairly accurate and representative of a goodly portion
of the more elevated parts of the Cape Colony. An examination
of his diary shows that during the nineteen years and ten months
in which his record was kept, there is no month throughout the
year in which frosts are not liable to occur. The actual number
of times of their occurrence during this period are given in tabular
form below : —
" Total number of frosts observed at Colonies Plaats, Lat.
31° 59' S., Long. 24° 57' E.; height, 4,750 feet above sea-level ; from
March, 1883 — December, igo2.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar
Ap.
May.
June.
Jul>.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Total.
5
5
27
91
201
263
341
227
134
66
^9
2
1,391
* Vide "The Blizzard of June gth- 12th, 1902." By C. M. Stewart
Report of the S.A. Association for the Advancement of Science for 1904.
METEOROLOGY.
27
These results agree remarkably well with a temperature curve
of any station in the Karoo, the maximum number occurring in
July, the coldest month of the year ; moreover, their occurrence is in
very close agreement with the mean daily barometric pressure curve
at the Royal Observatory*for the ten years, 1891-igoo, from which it
is seen that they are most liable to occur the morning after a crest
of high pressure has appeared over the Cape Peninsula. They
have been observed during the summer months between the i8th
December and the 21st of February, but may reasonably be ex-
pected to occur between the 27th of April and the i8th September.
The above table yields an average of sixty-seven frosty mornings
throughout the year.
RainfaU.—Aitev temperature, the most important factor in
determining the climate of a country is the distribution of moisture,
more particularly of rainfall, in regard to quantity, time and
place. On taking the average of the 278 stations given in Buchan's
" Rainfall of South Africa," it appears that the mean annual
rainfall for the years 1885-1894 was 23.79 inches, or about the
same as Wagga Wagga in New South Wales, and about an inch
less than Inverness in the North of Scotland. On inspecting
Fig. I., which gives the monthly distri-
bution throughout the year it will be
seen that the rainfall curve is at its
maximum in March, the beginning of
autumn, when 11. 3 per cent. (2.69
inches) of the total falls ; the monthly
quantities then decrease gradually to the
minimum of 5.5 per cent, (r.32 inch) in
July. From August the curve gradually - ^^ t„ .
■'.-', °i . ° J. ■" •Pitl-T»ainf»lj- Average
rises to a secondary maximum of 10. i ' M—fi-iy x>istM%-
per cent. (2.41 inches) in November, to -«t.»T. ..-.r 6.ajf«c«..
fall again slightly in December, after
which it rises to the primary maximum. (The apparent dip
in the curve in February is only apparent and not real, being
due to the month having only 28 to 29 days as against the 31 in
January and March). The greater part of the rainfall occurs during
the six warmest months, October to March, when 59 per cent.,
or about two-thirds of the total falls.
On calculating the percentage quantity of rainfall during the
six warmest months, October to March, and during the six coolest
months, April to September, at all stations, Mr. A. Struben
foundf that South Africa could be conveniently divided into three
distinct areas according to the percentage distribution of the
rainfall falling during the two above-mentioned periods.
* Report of the Meteorological Commission for 1903.
f Vide " Report of the Meteorological Commission for the year 1897.
G.76— 98.
28 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
He accordingly sub-divided the country into the following three
regions. *
(i) Summer Rainfall Area having over 50 per cent, of
the total rainfall from October to March.
(2) Winter Rainfall Area having over 50 per cent, of the
total rainfall from April to September.
(3) Constant Rainfall Area having the rainfall equally
divided between these two periods.
The region of constant rainfall is confined to a comparatively
small area on the south coast, extending from a point some .distance
east of Mossel Bay to Humansdorp, and stretching inland to the
neighbourhood of Uniondale.
It wUl be seen from the "Seasonal Rainfall" Map that the
dividing line of 50 per cent, separating the summer and winter
rainfall areas, starts on the 28th parallel about 17° 40' E.
Longitude, t passes in a sweeping curve (at first convex,
then concave, to the west coast), in a general S.S.E. dir-
ection to the neighbourhood of Ladismith (Lat. 33° 29' S.,
Long. 21° 17' East), whence it turns in a direction a little
south of east to reach the coast about Port Alfred (Lat. 33° 34' S.,
Long. 26° 54' E.). All the land to the north and east of this line
belongs to the summer rainfall area, and all to the south and west
to the winter rainfall area, with the exception of the area of constant
rains already noted.
It must not be forgotten that the above sub-division of the
country into three rainfall areas is based upon the relative quantity
of precipitation, and has no reference to the absolute quantity
which varies considerably over South Africa.
As far as has been ascertained up to the present, the
wettest station in South Africa is at Maclear's Beacon (at
an elevation of 3,478 feet) about 100 yards down the lee
side of the summit of Table Mountain, where the average
annual fall of the seven years, 1894-1900, was 86.81 inches,
varying between 105.85 inches in 1899 and 69.14 inches in
1900. The driest station seems to be Walfish Bay, where
a ten years' average yields the extremely small annual faU of
0.31 inch. As the yearly rainfall of the rest of the country must
oscillate between these two extremes, it is obvious that there
is considerable room for variation in this important meteorological
element which is regarded by some as the chief factor in determining
the climates of the different parts of South Africa. The sub-
division of the country into the twenty-one areas already mentioned,
* See, however, " An Introduction to the Study of South African
Rainfall," by J. R. Sutton, B.A. Trans, S. A. Phil.'Soc. Vol. XV., Part
I. pp. 1-28.
f If the map were made to include the coast-line of German South West
Africa, and the lines extended accordingly, it would be probably found
that the 50°/^ line would emerge on the West Coast about the 25th parallel
2° S. of Walfish Bay.
METEOROLOGY.
39
30 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
is based partly on the average rainfall over these districts, which
shows considerable variation in quantity. Thus, the wettest
districts, so far as the averages calculated enable us to state, are
2ululand, with an annual mean rainfall of 39.66 inches, the Cape-
Peninsula being next with a mean of 38.24 inches for the ten years,
1891-1900. The two driest districts are the West Coast wi"th a
mean annual rainfall of 9.91 inches, and the West Central Karoo
with 9.96 inches. It is therefore apparent that the driest areas
have a rainfall of about only one-quarter that of the wettest areas.
Equally great, if not much greater, contrasts are met with in
comparing the rainfall at places within a few miles of each other.
Thus the South African College (Cape Town), close in to the south-
eS-st side of Signal Hill has an average of 29.77 inches, while
Platteklip, about ij miles to the south-east, also in the Cape Town
valley, on the lower slopes of Table Mountain, has an average
yearly total of 42.41 inches, or almost half as much again ; while
Bishop's Court, also in the Cape Peninsula, about 4 miles from
Cape Town has a mean annual fall of 55.22 inches. Again, at
George, on the south coast, the average yearly rainfall is
31.04 inches, while Ezeljagt, about 9 miles to the north-east
in the Lange Kloof on the north side of the Outeniqua Mountains,
receives only an average of 13.30 inches per annum. Again, the
village of Balfour, at an elevation of 2,100 feet, has an average of
28.96" inches, while the Plantation on the top of the Katberg
{3,380 feet) about 4 miles distant, ,has an average of 43.27 inches.
Evelyn Valley, at an elevation of 4,200 feet, with its average
of 58.95 inches, is apparently the wettest station in the eastern
half of South Africa, having a rainfall almost treble that at Thomas
River Station, with 22.64 inches, situated about 20 miles further
North.
Although the rate of fall of the rains is chiefly light to moderate,
with occasional heavy falls, some exceptionally heavy rains in a
short period have been noted, which were almost tropical in
character. Thus, on the 2nd September, 1897, a total of 9.40
inches was recorded at Port Alfred between 8 a.m. and 11.30 p.m.
(15I hours in all), causing considerable damage to the railway line,
gardens, etc. ; at N'kandhla in Zululand 6.82 inches fell
on one day in January, 1898 ; 4.50 inches at Newlands in
May, 1899 ; 6.29 inches at Grootvader's Bosch,- nth August,
1900, between 9-10 a.m. and 4 p.m.; 4.58 inches at Gwelo
{Rhodesia) in December, 1901 ; 9.25 inches at Flagstaff
{Kaffraria) in 22 hours on the nth and 12th June, 1902 ; and
8.60 inches at Port St. John's in 23 hours on the same dates ; 7.74
inches fell at Van Staaden's River (near Port Elizabeth) between
12th and 13th November, 1903 ; 6.08 inches were registered on
the 26th October, 1904, at Blaauwkrantz in the Knysna Division ;
while more recently the largest fall was recorded at Vogel Vlei
(near Mossel Bay) where the enormous quantity of 10.37 inches
was measured off on the 9th April, 1905, having fallen in the 14
hours between 8 a.m. and 10 p.m.
METEOROLOGY. 3I
An examination of the maps in Dr. Buchan's " Rainfall of
South Africa " shows that the mean annual rainfall decreases
in a general way from east to west and from south to north.
The question naturally arises, what are the conditions that
bring about such a distribution, and what are the factors that
admit of the country being sub-divided into the three areas
of Summer, Winter and Constant Rains ?
Thunderstorms. — A comparison of the Thunderstorm Frequency
Curve shown in Fig. La with that of the Average Rainfall Curve
(Fig. L) for South Africa, shows that there is a general similarity
in the trend of the curves with, however, some marked differences.
Thus, while the rainfall curve is at its
principal maximum in March, and falls
to the minimum in July to rise to the
secondary maximum in November, the
Thunderstorm Curve is throughout a
month in advance of the former, being
at its principal maximum in February,
when, speaking generally, the tempera-
ture over the land is greatest, and
reaches its minimum in June, to rise to a Tigla— T»>unacr-.f.i-~5-
secondary maximum in October. It ^""""^J * "^"V""!*
would, therefore, appear that although
a considerable proportion of the summer rains undoubtedly falls
in connection with these storms, due in many cases to mere local
temperature disturbances, there must be some other cause giving rise
to the heavy rainfall of March and November,* or at least reinforcing
the precipitation caused by thunderstorms. It may be possible
that the increasing dampness of the ground increases the humidity
of the atmosphere by its subsequent evaporation, and thus by
increasing the conductivity of the atmosphere, enable subsequent
storms to part with their moisture without an accompanying
disruptive discharge of electricity.
Rain-bearing Winds. — As all the moisture deposited over a
land-surface must be derived originally from the sea, the question
naturally arises. What are the principal rain-bearing winds of
South Africa ? As a considerable amount of controversy! has
raged round- this point, it seemed desirable to have some reliable
data to work on before attempting to pass any opinion. In order
to answer, at least partially, this question the records of three
anemometers, stationed respectively at the Royal Observatory,
Port Elizabeth and East London, were examined for the months of
January, June and October of 1904, and the resulting percentage
wind-frequencies are given in Table B (see also Plates I., 11. and
ni.).t
*Vide "A Discussion of the Rainfall of South Africa during the 10
years, 1885-94. By Alexander Buchan, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S.E." (Cape
Town, A. 1-98.)
t Vide " Nature " for the early months of 1905.
X The deflecting influence of the land is very apparent in these diagrams.
32 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA
Table B. — Percentage Relative Wind- Frequency.
1904. January. June. October.
Direction.
0
¥0
East London.
Royal
Observatory.
East London.
— C
c
0
T3
C
0
■f.
%
%
%
Yc
%
North
1-3
0^1
2-6
10-9
7-7
4'7
2^8
fb
2-3
X.X.E.
I'l
.V8
1-4
3-4
5"3
0-7
8-,S
N.E.-
0-8
14-8
0-3
2-2
3-6
0-9
18-4:
E.N.E.
2-8
12-4
o-i
?■&
2-1
5-5
,V'
East
0-3
12-9
6-0
...
2-3
0-6
0-1
10-5
3-4
E.S.E.
l-l
18-0
4-2
0-3
7-1
2^6
S.E.
0-9
7-4
1-9
1^2
2'4
i-b
1'5
S.S.E.
10^3
4-4
o-g
4-7
0-3
[2^6
2-4
0^9
South
35-1
Vb
2-2
10^5
0'5
0-7
25-4:
2-6
2-7
S.S.W.
19-3
5-2
.V8
.r.i
1-4
2-»
10 ■b
»■^
7'4
S.W.
27
S'l
13-4
1-6
3-9
9-0
0^1
13-7
J2^2
W.S.W.
0-4
ib^S
II-9
'■4
15-0
14^0
(T 1
24^3
11-7
West
1-6
i6^i
9-9
4-0
18-6
14^2
^■3
8^b
12-9
W.N.W.
V8
3-9
3"9
9-1
ir8
17^5
9-0
+ •2
6-2
X.W.
«-3
0-5
I2^I
.rb
15-7
13-8
2-0
3-0
N.N.W.
4-6
0^1
i-i
Z2i
7-3
8-6
10^ 1
1-2
1-2
Calm
^■2
1-7
2-y
17-4
14- 1
12-4
15-5
12^2
1^0
19-5
10-5
13 '3
5-0
O^ I
Average veloc- |
ity, m. per hour f
15-3
17-9
J7-4
23-2
Table C. — Rainfall at Royal Observatory, Port Elizabeth,
and East London during 1904.
Jan. ;
Feb. 1 Ma
rch.
Apr
ll.
Ma
-.
June.
c
d
^1 .5
c
X
rt
rt rt i rt
a
rt rt : «
ra
rt
K
Q ' X
Q K Q j W
Q i K ; a
ai
0
Royal Obser-
0-.34
4 0^09
2 0^40j 7 5-93; i6' 3-37 14
6-5S
17
vatory
Port Elizabeth
0^22
3
0-9.S
10 1 ■ 45 5; "■22 4 1 '40! 6
■-69
4
(Lighthouse)
i
East London
6^28
14
3-19
8 2^ 14 131 "■^O "r 1'39
5
l-8g
6
(West)
- —
July. Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
\ov.
Dec.
j Year.
.5 t.
c
c
en
c
ui
.5 t.
.-B 1 rt 1 rt
rt
rt c5
a
rt
rt
X \q\ X
Q
X a
X
Q
3i
Q
^>
Q : K jQ
Royal Obser-:2^47 94-64
11
2-4.H 11:2-831 10
I'2I
61-51
531-42 112
vatory |
j
Port Elizabeth 2-41
7'4-5i
7
i^bgi 84-78 11
I -.37
81K261 721-95 80
(Lighthouse) j
i :
East London j- 17
70^78
3
3^i6 82-04 12:0-49
413-57I 1026-30 93
(West) 1
METEOROLOGY.
33
34
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
I
04
•->
is
e
I
METEOROLOGY.
35
M
o
b
cr
Pi
q
■fe
2\
el
Ft
<
W
u
H
^.^
'X^'v^'
^tSv'A
/ ^/ "^^
|A-1
V5 1 ^,^
&
O
w
t
*
o
i^
D 2
3b SCIENXE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
The reason for selecting these three months is that January was the
wettest month at East London, June at the Royal Observatory,
and October at Port Elizabeth, situated within the areas of
summer, winter and constant rainfall respectively. Table C. gives
the monthly rainfall, together with the number of days on which
rain fell at these three stations during last year.
From Table B it is at once evident that during January the
prevailing wind was south at the Royal Observatory, while at
Port Elizabeth there was a slight excess of east-south-easterly
winds over those from west-south-west and west, and at East
London the north-east winds were 1.4 per cent in excess of those
from the south-west. On comparing the rainfall of January, 1904,
with the average for the same month during, the ten years 1891-
1900, it is found the Royal Observatory was 45 per cent, below.
Port Elizabeth 86 per cent, below and East London 151 per cent,
above the normals, and the number of "rain days " one day at Royal
Observatory less, two days at Port Elizabeth less and five days
at East London more than the average.
During June, however, the prevalent wind-direction was
north-north-west at the Royal Observatory, west at Port
Elizabeth, and west-north-west at East London. The rainfall
during this month was 71 and 63 per cent, above the average
at the Royal Observatory and East London respectively, and 16
per cent, below the average at Port Elziabeth. The " rain
days " were four and three more than usual at Royal Observa-
tory and East London, and one less at Port Elizabeth. During
October the prevailing winds were south at the Royal Obser-
vatory, west-south-west at Port Elizabeth, and north-east
at East London. The rainfall at these stations was 51 and
157 above the normal at Royal Observatory and Port Elizabeth,
and 3 per cent, less at East London, the " rain days " being one,
three and four more than the average at the Royal Observatory,
Port Elizabeth and East London respectively.
It would, therefore, appear from the preceding that the principal
rain-bearing winds are from the north-north-west at the Royal
Observatory, from west-south-west at Port Elizabeth and from
south-west and north-east at East London.
This conclusion is confirmed by an examination of the wind-
directions during the days on which rain fell. Thus during January at
East London the wind was north-easterly on five days and south-
westerly on seven days, varied from south-west to north-east on
one day, and was between south-east and east on one day only out of
the fourteen wet days there. At the Royal Observatory the wind-
direction was mainly between north-north-west and west on fifteen
days and south-westerly on the other two, but veered to the south-
west on seven days. At Port Elizabeth the wind was west-south-
westerly on nine days, varied between east-north-east and north on
one day and from south-south-east to south on one day only. Al-
though this last was the day of the occurrence of the maximum fall
for the month any importance which might be attached to this fact
METEOROLOGY 37
is discounted to a great extent owing to its being associated with
a local thunderstorm.
These data are utterly at variance with the usually accepted
statement that the south-east winds are the main source of
precipitation during the summer months at the Cape, so that any
theories based on such an assumption must be considerably
modified so as to be in accordance with facts.
Again, Mr. Sutton has pointed out* that " a south-west wind
brmgs more rain to Durban than any other direction, the next
most important being the south." -Again, referring to Kimberley,
he states that " heavy thunderclouds mostly advance from the
west or north-west. Other rain-clouds and lighter thunderstorms
from somewhere between north-east and east." Referring to the
rain-bearing winds, he further states that " the resultant direction
is appreciably from north by east, practically nothing coming from
any point having a south-westerly component."
The first part of this statement is confirmed by enquiries made
by the writer during inspection visits along the southern districts
of the Cape Colony.
Anemometric data are wanting for Rhodesia, but Mr. E. G.
Ravenstein states, apparently on the authority of the observers
at Hope Fountain, near Bulawayo, that " The general direction of
the wind is south-east changing into south-west before rain."t
The observers at Port NoUoth and O'okiep state that the rains
come almost wholly from north or north-west.
In all these statements there is little to support the ' south
east rain " theory, while the anemometer records show that it
is only when the winter north-westerly winds over the Cape
Peninsula veer to the south-west — indicating the passage of a
disturbance to the north-east — that rain may be expected at Port
Elizabeth and East London. These facts seem to be capable of
■explaining the distribution of rainfall over South Africa without
calling in the assistance of the idea of a prevalent moist south-east
wind, which, as far as the coast stations are concerned at least,
seems to have little actual foundation. It ought to be noted that
in the only month in which the south-east wind was at all prevalent,
viz., January at Port Elizabeth, the rainfall was 86 per cent, below
the average at that station.
As the month of maximum rainfall over the various divisions
-seems to be closely connected with these wind-results, it is
interesting to note that January was the wettest month in 1904
over the West Central, East Central and Northern Karoos, the
Northern Border, the South-East, the North-East, Basutoland,
the Orange River Colony and Rhodesia ; February at Durban ;
* " An Introduction to the Study of South African Rainfall." Trans.
S.A. Phil. Soc. Vol. XV. Part I.
T Climatological Observations at Colonial and Foreign Stations. I. Trop-
ical Africa. By E.G. Ravenstein, F.R.G.S., F.R.Met. Soc. (Met. Office,
London.)
3^ SCIENXE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
]March in Bechuanaland ; June over the Cape Peninsula and the
\\'est Coast ; August over the South-^^'est ; and October over the
South Coast and the Southern Karoo. (This remark refers only
to the divisions as a whole, and not to the individual stations in
these divisions, among which there is an occasional divergence from,
this general statement — e.g., at Kimberley, in the Northern
Border, the month of maximum precipitation was February and
not January.)
Bearing in mind the configuration of the country, the explana-
tion of the distribution of rainfall seems to be that in the region
of winter rains the north-westerly winds in passing from warmer
to colder latitudes are compelled to part with the greater part of
their moisture by the elevated ground forming the western boundary
of the interior plateaux, and so pass over the greater part of the
country as dry winds. It is important to remember that these
north-west winds pass over the coldest part of the South Atlantic,
and so, being themselves cooled, are unable to absorb any great
quantity of moisture. They are therefore unable to continue as rain-
bearing winds for any great distance inland, which helps to explain
the comparatively small area affected by the " winter rains."
The region of " constant rains " seems to be watered mainly by
the south-westerly winds in the rear of the depressions which pass
over or skirt South Africa. These winds appear to form the main
source also of the precipitation along the south-east and east coasts.
These south-westerly winds are drained of the greater part of
their moisture by the coast ranges, so that they are able to deposit
only a comparatively small quantity of their moisture over the
Karoos.
Moreover, as they are advancing from higher to lower latitudes
they become warmer and hence relatively drier ; so that they can
only be compelled to part with some of the remainder of their
aqueous burden by being considerably cooled. This will take place
only when they are subjected to adiabatic cooling by expansion
on passing over the higher mountain ranges further inland.
The greater part of the interior of the area of " summer rains "
would seem to owe its rainfall principally to the north-easterly
winds which, coming from the warm, moist latitudes of the Indian
Ocean and passing to higher and colder latitudes, are able to carry
their moisture far south and further inland than can the south-
westerly winds. The mountain ranges inside the Drakensberg and the
other high mountain barriers in the east can have but little effect in
causing precipitation from these north-easterly winds as they do not
rise to any great elevation above the interior plateaux ; moreover,
as these winds must be gradually cooled on advancing towards the
south they ought to be fairly moist even on reaching the ocean
again after crossing the interior. Seeing that they must be adiabati-
cally warmed by compression in descending from the high lands in
the interior, it may be necessary for them to be still further cooled
by expansion during ascension in such secondary disturbances as
give rise to thunderstorms, etc., before they are capable of
METEOROLOGY.
39
depositing moisture in the more inland and more southerly parts
of Cape Colony. It is not improbable that they themselves thus
help to give rise to the conditions necessary for the formation of
these storms. This rainfall is, in all probability, further increased
by occasional deposits from south-east winds and thunderstorms from
the Jiorth-west, thus causing the distribution of rainfall shown on
the maps in Buchan's "Rainfall of South Africa," already mentioned.
This leaves unexplained the south-west rain-bearing winds in
Rhodesia, but as the data available are very incomplete it is
inadvisable to attempt any explanation or theory of their action.
Judging from the sudden shifting in the direction of the winds
{e.g., from north-east to south-west) so frequently shown on the
anemometer records at Port Elizabeth and East London and from
other considerations it seems probable that the depressions which
visit South Africa are most generally not fully developed cyclones but
rather V-shaped depressions and wedges, whilst it is undoubtedly
true, as stated by Mr. Howard and Mr. Sutton, that much of our
rain falls in connection with " secondary depressions." Very
rarely indeed does South Africa seem to lie in the track of the fully-
developed cyclones which are supposed to be frequent further south,
or of those which affect Mauritius. In fact, our types of baro-
metric depressions appear to approximate more to those of
Australia than to those of Europe.
Hail precipitation frequently assumes the form of hail, especially
during the summer rrionths, and almost invariably occurs in
connection with thunderstorms. " True haU " is practically
unknown along the coastal districts, but falls commonly in the
interior, stripping trees of their leaves, destroying fruit, beating
crops down to the ground, piercing sheet-iron roofs and occasionally
killing sheep. Some hailstones at Graham's Town on the 27th
October, 1903, were reported to weigh 5J ozs. Again, at Bolotwa,
on the 27th December, 1903, a terrific hailstorm passed over the
station from the north-north-west. On this occasion the largest
stones measured if in. by ij in., many being i J in. Drift hail lay
along the river, 3 feet thick in places, and lasted a week before
melting. The paths usually followed bv thep"^ storr-.s have not been
traced out yet.
Snow is of fairly common oci.,anence at those stations above
3,000 feet, where it may usually be expected three c^r four times in
the course of the year. It is much more frequently seen on the
mountains. As in the case of hail, it is a very rare occurrence for
snow to fall near the coast, although the summits of the coastal
mountain ranges are frequently covered in the course of the winter.
Snow may be seen on the mountain tops from about the end of
March to the end of September, but has been noticed as late as the
24th December, during a comparatively cold spell which is common
about this date and produces the " Christmas rains " over the Cape
Peninsula * The area over which snow fell during the blizzard of
* Vide " Report of the Meteorological Commission for 1903," Cape Town.
40 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
June 1902, extended from Hoachanas in German South-West
Africa (Lat. 22° 30' S., Long. 17° 6' E. ; height 5,315 feet) to the
south coast of the Cape Colony.*
Beyg Winds. — Another factor which considerably modihes the
climates of the coast districts is to be found in the fairly frequent
occurrence of hot, dry Fohn-like winds all along the coast from
Waliish Bay to Durban. The disturbing effect of these " Berg
winds," as they are termed, on the temperature curves is most
marked in the winter months of April to September. These
winds cause at times a practical inversion of the seasons, the
maximum temperatures recorded during the winter months being
frequently 30° or more, higher than in summer, while the mean
temperature is also considerably raised. They may blow for only
a few hours or may continue for two or three days, producing a
feeling of great oppression, after which the wind changes its
direction, bringing cool, cloudy weather and occasionally rain,
greater part of the heat to their being warmed by compression in
with a welcome feeling of relief. As these winds owe the
passing from the elevated fable-land in the interior to the low coast
lands the direction from which they blow depends on the direction
in which the mountain ranges extend. Thus they are easterly at
Walfish Bay,t Port Nolloth, Van Rhyn's Dorp and Clanwilliam,
northerly to north-westerly along the south coast (very seldom
north-easterly) to Stutterheim,t and north-westerly at Durban. §
They mostly (jccur in narrow strips along the coast, with a high
pressure in the interior, and some, at least, are closely associated
with the occurrence of " Secondaries."
During the first nine months of the year 1900 there were alto-
gether 41 days on which the hot east winds blew at Port Nolloth,
distributed as follows : — April, i ; May, 6 ; June, 11 ; July, 12 ;
August, 8 ; September, 3. These constituted the prevalent wind-
direction during June, July and August. The south wind blew
with the greatest frequency during the other six months. The
effect of these east winds on the barometer, thermometer and wet
bulb, together with their mean force and the mean percentage of
cloud during their occurrence, as compared with the averages
for each of the six months and for the whole period, are given in
Table D :—
""The Blizzard of June 9th-i2th, 1902." Report of the 5. A. Assoc.
1904.
f- " The Relation of the Sand-Dune Formation on the South- West Coast
of Africa to the Local Wind Currents," by H. Carringtou Wilmer (Trans
of the S. A. Phil. Society, Vol. V., Pt. II).
+ " Report of the Meteorological Commission for the year 1901."
ii " Pressure and Temperature Results for the Great Plateau " by J R
Sutton, M.A. {Tans, of the S. A.Phil. Society, Vol. XI. Pt. II).
METEOROLOGY.
41
I
s
r-
^
X
";;^
"J
^
1
^
"
«i
2
ft:
*v
'^i
'
11
1;
s
V
*!
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i
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4^
SCIENXE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
Year
1900.
Pressuic.
Dry Bulb.
Depres- '
sion of
,Wet Bulb.
Wind
Force. :
Cloud.
April ...
May ..
June ...
July ...
August
Septeinher
mber
in.
+0-059
+0-001
+0-025
+0-034
+0-067
+0-079
+0-7
+ 1-4
+4-1
— 1-5
-l-o-i
+ 12-8
—0-3 ;
+2-8 1
+ 3-7
-0-3
+0-7
+4-0
—0-07 1
+0-44 '
+0-83 '
+0-10
+0-12
+1-20 '
— 22-0
— 12-H
—22-8
—18-2
-34-3
—40-3
April- Septe
+0-056
+ 1-7
+2-1
+0-39 j
—20-3
From this it will be seen that during the prevalence of " Berg
Winds " at Port XoUoth pressure was, on an average, 0-056 in. higher,
the air- temperature was 1-7° warmer, the depression of the wet
Bulb was 2-1° more, the wind force 0-39 greater and the sky 20-3
per cent, clearer than the corresponding averages for the period
in question. {Vide Plate IV.)
Duststorms. — Undoubtedly the greatest drawback to the climate
of South Africa is to be found in the frequent duststorms which
are to be met with all over the country, from Cape Town to Buia-
wayo and especially in Johannesburg and Kimberley. According
to Sutton these storms herald the approach of the centre of a.
barometric disturbance, and are closely connected with thunder
storms. They are most frequent at the end of Spring, during
Summer and at the beginning of Autumn, when the interior^ of the
country is affected by cyclonic disturbances. The fine dust rises
as an enormous cloud almost blotting out the landscape, and
penetrates everywhere. They seldom last for any length of time,
and are usually followed by rain.
The following account of a duststorm at Graaff-Reinet on the
ist March, 1900, kindly furnished by Mr. W. A. Way, shows some
peculiar features of considerable interest.
METEOROLOGY. 43
" At about 4-30 p.m. the wind, which had been a gale in the
early part of the afternoon, had dropped considerably, but was still
blowing from the north. About this time between Spaudau's Kop
and the Valley Mountain a belt of low, threatening, blue-black
rain-clouds had been gradually gathering.
" In a few minutes this blue-black colour gave place to, or
rather was obscured by, a curtain of red dusty mist, of a brown,
brick-dust colour. This gradually increased in density and came
rolling down on to the town against the ^vind like a huge wave, in
almost solid curves, throwing out huge, rolling feelers of dust
before it, down the townside slopes of Spaudau and the Valley
Mountain.
" Meanwhile a vast mass had disjointed itself from the main
body and swept due west over to the Tantje's Bei-g range, which it
enveloped before the main storm burst on the town.
" The temperature dropped nearly lo degrees in a few minutes,
but, curiously enough, the dust seemed thickest o^^erhead and was
not very dense immediately on the surface of the ground. It
became very dark and a low rumbling was heard as the storm
approached. There was no perceptible earthquake shock, as some
people have imagined from this sound. The wind was bitterly
cold, and threshed heavily through the trees, stripping off green
leaves and blowing them along. The air was impregnated with dust,
but the main body of dust rose above. This may have been due to
the under-current of north wind meeting the south-west storm.
Many of the older inhabitants were greatly alarmed. Dogs and
birds were visibly uneasy. The wind, although violent, was not
such as to root up trees.
" It had been raining in the town and district for the previous
week or so, which made the appearance of the dust all the more
remarkable. The storm lasted some half-an-hour to three-quarters
of an hour, when thunder was heard and steady rain came on, which
did not, however, last more than a few hours.
" The barometer had been falling steadily since the morning,,
but there was no sudden drop as is usual before the ordinary dust
storm. At 8 a.m. the barometer read 27-5 ins. ; by 4 p.m. it had
fallen -15 inch."
Cloud. — That there is good reason for the title of " Sunny
South Africa " being applied to the sub-continent is shown by the
comparatively small percentage of sky obscured throughout the year,,
the mean annual amount of cloud, based on observations at fifty-
seven stations, being only 377 per cent. The mean annual amount
of cloud varies considerably over the different divisions, oscillating
between the maximum of 47-6 per cent, along the south coast,,
and the minimum of 24-5 per cent, in the northern border. Although
at first thought there would seem to be reasonable grounds for
supposing that the rainfall curve and the cloud curve ought to be
practically identical, this supposition is not borne out by a
comparison of their monthly averages. Thus while rainfall is at
the maximum in March, the greatest amount of cloud (42-4 per
44 SCIENXE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
cent.) occurs in October, the month previous to the secondary
rainfall maximum in November, March and November being second
with 2-2 per cent. less. The cloud curve falls from its primary
maximum of 42-4 per cent, in October to a minimum of 39 per
cent, in December ; it rises to the secondary maximum (40.2
per cent.) in March, to fall to the principal minimum in July.
The time of the occurrence of maximum cloudiness, however,
varies considerably over the various sections. Thus, the cloudiest
and wettest months are the same (viz., January) over the south-
east and the north-east. February is the cloudiest month in the
Northern Border and Rhodesia, being respectively one month
before and one month after the time of maximum rainfalls. March
is the month of greatest rainfall and of maximum cloudiness in
the West Central Karoo and the Northern Karoo ; it is also the
cloudiest month in the Orange River Colony, two months later
than that of heaviest rainfall. At Amalienstein, in the Southern
Karoo, the greatest amount of cloud and of rainfall occur in April.
June is the cloudiest month in the Cape Peninsula and over the
West Coast, the heaviest rainfall over these divisions occurring
in July aad May respectively. September is the month of maximum
cloud in the South-West, while the maximum amount of rain falls
there in June. October is the cloudiest month over the South
Coast, where it is one month in advance of, while over the Centra!
Karoo it is two months behind the rainfall maximum. At Durban,
October and November are equally cloudy, and the greatest amount
of precipitation during the same period fell in the former month.
Over Kaffraria the rainfall maximum in January is one month
after the crest of the cloud wave. From these considerations it
appears that there is little connection between the maximum of
cloud and rainfall.
Generally speaking, July is both the clearest and the driest
month of the year. The chief exceptions to this broad statement
are the occurrence of both minima in January along the west coast,
in February over the Cape Peninsula, and June at Durban.
The cloudiest station seems to be Cape L'Agulhas, the meeting
point of the cold Antarctic and warm Mozambique currents, where
the annual average of cloud is 64.8 per cent., the mountain station
of Disa Head coming next with 58.3 per cent., owing to the frequent
fogs and mists during both summer and winter. The clearest
station is Springbokfontein in Namaqualand, with an av rage
of 16.9 per cent., Wagenaar's Kraeil being second with 20.1 per cent.
Sunshine. — Although all meteorological changes are primarily
due to the heat radiated from the sun, mention of this most
important climatic element has been left to the last, purely on
account of the scarcity of measurements of its duration in the
various parts of South Africa. ' Records of the duration of sunshine
were first started at the Royal Observatory, in the west, in July,
1893, with a Campbell-Stokes instrument ; similar records taken
with Jordan twin semi-cylinder photographic instrument are avail-
able for Kimberley in the centre of the Colony, since January, 1898,
METEOROLOGY.
45
and for Stutterheim, in the east, since January, 1900. The
average daily duration of bright sunshine at each of these
stations is given in Table E., all available data employed in the
formation of the Table.
Statiox.
hrs. I hrs. i hrs., hrs. his. hrs. hr^
Royal Obser\-atory .. I1893-U102 10-79 10-87 9-28 7-22 'i-yS 5-34 4-1)0
Kimberley .. .. 1898-1903 10-14 9-369-33, 8-83 8-84,8-72 S-So
Stutterheim .. .. 1900-1903; 6-7g 6-98 Cv5fi'Ci-2o6-oo|5-52 5-92
k;
hrs. hrs. hrs. hrs. hrs. hrs.
5-09(1-76 7-92' 9*19110-147-86
i
9-34 9'''^ 10-20|II-2I| 10 -8h 7-96
7-007-48 7-441 6*72] 6-7i'6-6i
As a matter of fact there are very few days indeed in the course
of the year on which the sun is obscured all the time it is above
the horizon. On the mean of the year the sunniest station is
Kimberley, with a daily average of 7-96 hours, or about 80 per cent,
of the total possible. The smallest average duration of sunshine
is at Stutterheim, where itis only 6-6i hours per day, due partly
to the Amatola Mountains cutting short the daily record before
the sun has sunk below the horizon, but also largely to the greater
percentage of cloud. The sunshine curve is practically the inverse
of the cloud curve ; thus the maximum percentage of sunshine
at the Royal Observatory is 78 in February, with the minimum
amount of cloud (26 per cent.) ; while at Kimberley the greatest
proportion of sunshine (84 per cent.) occurs in June, the average
amount ■ f cloud at 8 a.m. being 21 per cent. The smallest pro-
portion of sunshine (51 per cent.) at the Royal Observatory occurs
in June, with an average cloudiness at 8 a.m. of 56 per cent.,
while at Kimberley the maximum amount of cloud (38 per cent.),
and the minimum proportion of sunshine (7i'7 percent.) occur in
February. As Kimberley is typical of a large proportion of the
High \'eld, these facts have an important bearing on the suitable-
ness of the various stations ever this plateau as health resorts.
In the preceding paragraphs we have dwelt shortly upon all
the most important factors which go to determine the climate
of South Africa, with the exception of humidity, which has been
purposely omitted, owing to the unreliable character of most of the
Wet Bulb readings. These are taken only once a day, and so do not
give an accurate idea of the average or of the daily variation of
this important climatic element.
Part II.
Introduction. — In discussing the variations in mean annual tem-
perature, it was pointed out that the mean coldest station was Disa
Head, with an average of 547°, and the mean warmest station Fort
Tuli, with a mean annual temperature of 72-4°. The former in Lat.
34° S., has an average about the same as Pavia and Boulogne in
.46 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
.45° N. Lat., while the latter (Tuli) in 22° S. Lat. has a mean tempera^
ture corresponding to that of Cairo in 30° N. Lat. It is therefore
evident, that although South Africa, as a whole, has a much milder
climate than stations in the same latitudes in the Northern Hemi-
sphere (due principally to the comparatively small land area being
cooled by the various oceans washing its shores), considerable
variations in temperature are to be met with, producing a diversity
■of climates. This is further accentuated by the enormous differ-
ences in rainfall, which ranges from that of extremely arid to that of
very moist regions.
Some idea of the nature of the variations in the climate over
Scdth Africa may be gathered from a perusal of the following
Tables, and an inspection of the Diagrams of Divisional Rainfall
and of the Temperature curves of the stations which have been
-chosen as representative of each Division.
METEOROLOGY.
47
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48 SCIENCE IN" SOUTH AFRICA.
Table II. — Temperature, &c., at various Places in South Africa.
Place.
]. Cape Pexixsula.
Royal Obsei'vatory* ...
Simonstown
Disa Head (Table Mt.)
II. South-West.
Worcester"
Ceres
III. West Coast.
Clanwilliam*
Port Nolloth
IV. South Coast.
Port Elizabeth*
Dunbrody
V. Southern Karoo.
Amaliensteiii*
VI. West Central Karoo.
Prince Albert*
VII. East Central Karoo.
Graaff-Reinet*
Somerset East
VIII. Northern Karoo,
Hanover*
Cradock
Wagenaar's Kraal
IX. Northern Border.
Kimberley' ...
Kenhardt
X. South-East.
King William's Town*
East London
Stutter heim ...
Grahamstown
OJ
P c
s: T3
d >
o :n
C/D Pi
^5
J
<
^ £1 1^:5:5 ^sf:o£
w
o
►J
Sici
HIcS 5S
< Site
o c
(Up P Tj
O C -rr
ft.
"
r
40 3.S
.=;6
12,34
12
2,4q6,33
59
780 33
39
1,493
33
22
24=;
32
10
40
29
16
18 29162. 0,69 '7 54' 8 loi' 3
64 -7172 -0,58 '4
54-76I-248-8
97"0
97-0
ig 2662-973-052-5 105-5
19 20 59 '4 70 ■2148 0105-0
18 5365-4
j6 S2 57'S
I76;33 5825 37
20033 3025 28
i,570j33 29
2,120:33 n
2,50032 16
2.40032 44
4>5ooi3i 3
2,856^32 II
4,50031 48
4.042'28 43
2,700129 18
1,314
20
2,945
1.800
32 52
33 2
32 34
.33 18
4 32
25 35
24 26
25 38
22 48
24 46
21
27 23
27 55
27 27^
64-0
65 "4
63-8
59-8
75-8
6o-i
)-9
74-
75-5
5I-2'lI2-0 18-036-0
69-6
63-6:74-0
62 -971 •
S7-2
62-2
59 "o
64-8
66-2
65-2
64-8
61-3
26 3262-3
54-2 112-0
54-2104-0
58-8
56-3
47-0
30-5
29-0
24-0
26-0
32-0
7o
46-6
45-9
58-3
33-7
29-9
ins.
25-64
29 '93
39 '84
10-95
41-77
8-37
2-11
105-039-050-4 19-28
Ti2-224-8|46-2'i5-43
50-1
52-4
o
454
11-90
105-028-033-6 9-91
II0-0;20-027-8
i09-o'26-6'42-i
16-79
24 '93
69 -4 42 -9 101-510- 127 -4 13 -52
72-349'9 lio-o'i9-030-4ii6-02
70-746*2 loo-o 18-020-1 11-00
75
78-6
50-2
51-3
73'0
70-0
68-0
70-8
56-6
60 -o
54'4
54'6
108-520-027-2 19-03
112-020-022-4 5-41
115-0
101 -o
105-0
itfo-o
26-5
37-0
27-0
29-0
.38-3
49-0
52-0
41-6
26-08
23-37
31-60
26-72
Temperature Curves shown on Diagrams.
METEOROLOGY.
49
Table II. (contd.]
-Temperature, &c.,
South Africa.
at Various Places in
Place.
1 .
u
"rt
OJ
11
^4
■33
It
1-
aw
<!
t— 1
o £ ,
is
I
f=-q
CJ — ^
<< r
Ji^l
t£ —
ra ^^ 1
i^ 6c
XI. North-East.
Queenstown*
Aliwal North
XII. KAFFRAmA.
Umtata
Port St. John's
Kilrush
Xin. B-iSUTOL.iND.
Mohalie's Hoek*
Moyeni, Quthing
ft. i°
3,500131 54
4.33030 41
2,40031 35
i ^931 .1^
I 6,850 30 23
26 5461-4
2(> 40 .=59 '3
69-9
69-6
6.000
XIV. Orange R. Colony.
Bloemfontein*
Phihppolis ...
2« 4()(13'0
g 35|66-9
29 42 54-S
30 8
30 23
27 2857-8
27 4S'6o-2
4-5io:29 7
4.70030 13
XV. N.\TAL.
Durban (Observatory)*j 26029 51
Verulam ... ...| . . ,29 39
Howick ... ... 3.43929 29
51
46-4
70-6
72-4
6i-4
68-6
72-1
26 13
25 18
5.3-5
61-5
47-0
4.3 'O
46
62-0,72-848
59 -0170 -246
; "„ , ins.
104 - o, ig - 0I36 - 6,26 - 91
97-0'i4-5'33-9i26-34
Eio-o:2i ■0147-226-50
104- o'40- 0^43 -6 45 -38
88-0^3 -0135-631- 15
96-oi g-ol
99-0! 9-0!
i.16-79
1.34 '31
31 070-876-664-6
31 271-878-8,63-4
30 1563-070-552
109-0 16-026-624-72
99-2 i8-2'26-8|20-49
io9-6'42 -345-641 -64
110-0,33-0! . . 36-20
102-021-0 . . '29-45
XVI. TR-4NSV.\AL,
Johannesburg
..5.73526 1228 261 -668-54991 96-o|2i-o; .. .30-64
XVIII. Rhodesia.
Salisbury* ...
Bulawavo
Tuli
XX. Zru'LAXD.
Melmoth
Qudeni
,4,700,17 48
j 4.600,20 9
• • :2i 52
31 564-870-056-0
28 2467-673-857-9
29 12 72-480-358-8
128
6,000
3531 2468-2,73-861-8
'. I .. 56-9^14-548-5
92-632-2 31-7 32-86
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SECTION I.-PHYSICAL -(coiiM.^
3. ASTRONOMY AND GEODESY IN SOUTH AFRICA.
By Sir David Gill, K.C.B., LL.D,, D.Sc, F.R.S.,
H.M. Astronomer, Cape of Good Hope.
The first extensive and accurate catalogue of the stars of the
Southern Hemisphere rests on the observations of the Abbe de
Lacaille, which were made at the Cape of Good Hope in 1752.
The reasons why Lacaille selected the Cape of Good Hope as
the scene of his labours are not far to seek. A glance at the map
•of the world, and some slight knowledge of the history of civilisa-
tion, will show that in 1752 the Cape of Good Hope was perhaps
the only spot situated in a considerable southern latitude which
an unprotected astronomer could visit in safety, and where the
necessary aid of trained artizans to erect his observatory could be
obtained. At the Cape these advantages had existed for a centurj-,
and besides being the most southerly point conveniently available
it is situated nearly in the same meridian as Central Europe, so
that almost simultaneous meridian observations of the moon and
planets could be made in both hemispheres for the purpose of
determining their parallax, or the same phenomena of Jupiter's
satellites could be noted in both hemispheres for the purpose of
determining the longitude of the Cape.
In these days the longitude of the Cape was very imperfectly
known. To secure a fresh and well-determined departure, from
a. point which would be sighted or touched by most vessels bound
to or from the East Indies was a matter of practical importance
so well understood that it furnished the most powerful argument
for smoothing Lacaille's path, and was accepted by Governor
Tulbagh as a sound reason for giving Lacaille a hearty welcome,
building an observatory for him, and affording him every aid.
The Cape may thus be regarded as the birthplace of exact
astronomy in the Southern Hemisphere.
A bronze tablet has been erected by the South African Philo-
sophical Society on the house now built on the site of Lacaille's
Observatory in Cape Town. It bears, as astronomical symbols,
♦Abbreviated and revised from a Presidential Address delivered to the
•South African Philosophical Society, May, 1903 (Transactions of the South
African Philosophical Society, Vol. XIV., Part 2).
62 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
the stars of the Southern Cross and Lacaille's quadrant ; and
geometrical figures represent the plan of Lacaille's measurements
of an arc at the Cape — another of his labours, to which further
reference will presently be made.
The Royal Observatory at the Cape of Good Hope was estab-
lished by an Order in Council on the 20th of October, 1820, and the
cost of its maintenance is borne on the Imperial Navy Estimates.
The first holder of the office of His Majesty's Astronomer was the
Rev. Fearon Fallows, who arrived at the Cape in May, 1821, and,
after some inquiry, selected the site of the present Observatory,
and made preliminary observations with portable instruments
which he had brought with him for the purpose.
In his days the site was practically a bare rocky hill covered
with thistles, infested with snakes (its name was Slang Kop or
Snake Hill), the jackals howled dismally around it at night, and a
guard of soldiers had to be established to protect the property
from theft. To give some idea of the Observatory surroundings,
a member of the Maclear family told me that in Fallows's days a
hippopotamus found its way from the Berg River into the treacher-
ous marsh which then existed, about half-a-mile from the Observa-
tory, near to the site of the present railway bridge at Maitland.
The poor animal sank in the mud so deep as to be unable to get out,
and was killed by neighbouring farmers. The story goes that their
bullets could not penetrate the animal's hide, so they cut holes in
the hide and fired through them.
It was not until December, 1824, that building operations were
commenced, nor until the end of 1828 that the instruments were
mounted and ready for work.
Meanwhile Fallows, to occupy himself, opened a school and
taught the children of neighbouring farmers. His fee was a load
of earth for each lesson, and to this we owe nearly the whole of the
soil and the amenities of the site.
During 1829 and 1830 observing was prosecuted with vigour.
In the latter year Fallows's excellent assistant, Captain Ronald,
fell sick, and Fallows was left alone to do what should have been
the work of four men — a task in which he was most ably assisted
by his wife, whose aptitude. and intelligence were such that, with
very little instruction, she was soon competent to make observa-
tions with the Mural Circle, whilst Fallows himself observed with
the transit instrument.
The cares and anxieties which he endured enfeebled his consti-
tution. Fallows had left England full of high aspiration, full of
strength and energy, which it was his ambition to devote to the
great scientific task before him. The plans for the Observatory,
which he had approved before leaving England, were delayed four
years before he received them at the Cape. The Whigs, in a fit of
economy, suddenly cut £10,000 off the estimates for completing
the Observatory, and the building was left without the necessary
outhouses and servants' accommodation, without roads or easy
means of communication, without sources of food supply — a mere
ASTRONOMY AND GEODESY. 63
block of masonry on a barren hill. His two original assistants
failed him, one suddenly leaving him and the other had to be dis-
missed for misconduct. By a gross oversight on the part of the
maker the great Mural Circle was sent out in an imperfect condition.
The worry and perplexity which this caused him by apparently
anomalous results (which fortunately affect his observations only
in detail but not sensibly in the mean result) are stated on high
authority to have been the means of shortening his life.
In the summer of 1830 he experienced a severe attack of scarlet
fever, from which his enfeebled constitution never rallied. In
March, 1831, he reluctantly went to Simon's Bay for rest, and
there died on the 25th of July, 1831, in the forty- third year of his
age.
His widow conveyed the manuscripts of his observations to
England, and they were finally reduced and published by Sir George
Airy. The catalogue contains the right ascensions of 425 stars
observed with the transit instrument, but of these the declinations
of only 88 were observed with the Mural Circle.
Fallows's successor was Mr. Thomas Henderson, a man who by
his inborn genius raised himself by degrees from the position of a
lawyer's apprentice in Dundee to that of one of the most accom-
plished scientific men of his time. He reached the Cape in April,
1832, and, together with his assistant. Lieutenant Meadows, worked
unremittingly for thirteen months, and then resigned the post.
Henderson was not physically a strong man, and it was impossible
for the strongest adequately to fulfil the duties of his office without
more assistance ; the circumstances pressed too strongly against
him, and he was too honourable a man to accept the emoluments
of an office without the most punctilious discharge of its duties.
In his letter of resignation, addressed to the Secretary of the
Admiralty, he mentioned that not only the state of his health
rendered him unable much longer to support the requisite exer-
tions, but that the Observatory itself, considered as a place of
residence, laboured under so many disadvantages and required a
mode of life so different to what he had been accustomed, that he
found it impracticable to remain longer.
Henderson was rather the refined observer than the pioneer ;
he was a man who, granted the means and appliances, knew how
to turn them to the best effect and to attain to the highest precision
of which his instruments were capable. But he was not the man
to fight an uphill battle with neglect at home, and to compel Fate,
in the shape of official indifference and incapacity, to do his bidding
and raise the status and equipment of the Observatory to the ideal
level which he claimed for it. That required a dogged persistence
and force of character of another kind.
But Henderson, by his own methods, attained results of high
importance in many directions.
His self-sacrifice helped to remove many of the difficulties of
his successors, and he overcame the want of official assistance at
the Cape by taking the observations to Edinburgh with him and
64 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
reducing them there. In 1834 he was appointed Astronomer Royal
for Scotland, but he continued to devote all the time that could be
spared from his other duties to the reduction of his Cape observa-
tionSi They were all ultimately published, and proved how success-
fully and faithfully Henderson had worked. He gave to the world
a catalogue of the principal southern stars of an equal accuracy
with the work of the best Observatories in the Northern Hemi-
sphere, and which will in all time be regarded as the true basis of
the most refined Sidereal Astronomy of the Southern Hemiphere.
His observations gave by far the most accurate determination of
the moon's parallax then available ; they determined the longitude
of the Cape with a precision which refined modern methods, with
the aid of the electric telegraph, have barely changed. Above
all, Henderson was the first man to produce reliable evidence of the
measurable parallax of any fixed star.
Henderson's successor was Mr. (afterwards Sir) Thomas Maclear.
At the time of his appointment to the Cape he was practising his
profession of doctor of medicine at Biggleswade, but was well known
as one of the most competent and energetic amateur astronomers
of his day.
Maclear reached the Cape on January 5th, 1834, and took up
his residence at the still desolate-looking Observatory.
Ten days afterwards Sir John Herschel also arrived at the Cape
and installed himself, his family and his instruments at Feldhausen,
Newlands, within three miles of the Royal Observatory, and the
next four years were spent in happy intercourse between the
astronomers, each assisting with heart and soul the labours of the
other.
Sir John Herschel came to the Cape to catalogue the nebulae of
the Southern Hemisphere on the same plan as that on which his
father had catalogued the nebulae of the Northern Hemisphere.
His expedition was a purely private one, carried out with his own
instruments at his own expense, alike an act of devotion to science
and a notable tribute to the memory of his father. Sir John
Herschel was thus never His Majesty's Astronomer at the Cape,
but it was to Maclear and the Royal Observatory that Herschel
appealed when he desired the exact determination of the place of
a. star, and he never appealed in vain.
Herschel worked at Feldhausen from 1834 to 1838, and during
these busy years collected a mass of observations which on his
return to England he proceeded to reduce ; finally, in 1847, he
published a splendid volume entitled, " Result of Astronomical
Observations made during the years 1834-5-6-7-8 ,at the Cape of
Good Hope, being a completion of a telescopic survey of the whole
surface of the visible heavens — commenced in 1825."
During his stay at the Cape, Herschel also, at the request of the
Cape Government, devoted much time to the problem of education
in the young Colony, and, as the result of his experience, prepared
the scheme of education which was adopted and has been followed
almost to the present time.
ASTRONOMY AND GEODESY. 65
To return to Maclear and his work. Maclear brought to bear
vipon the difficulties which Fallows and Henderson encountered all
the energy and practical talents which distinguished him. By
exchange and sale, and purchase of land, the Observatory property
was consolidated. By the preparation of well-considered plans,
and untiring persistence in urging their execution, he ultimately
succeeded in getting suitable outhouses and other pressing works
carried out ; better communication with the main road to Cape Town
was established, and a windmill was erected for the supply of water
from the then unpolluted Liesbeek River, trees were planted, earth
was carted, and as time went on the barren hill-sides were covered
with verdure ; fruit trees grew in the most favoured spots, and a
wide belt of pine and wattle broke the force of the south-easters.
Maclear grew each day more and more at heart a Colonist. His
bright nature knew no difficulties, no official neglect daunted him,
but he returned again and again to press on the execution of any
scheme which he deemed essential to the welfare of the Observatory.
His frank and cordial manners were peculiarly suited to win him
favour wherever he went, and contributed in an extraordinary
degree to forward some of his great works.
His administrative duties in no way interfered with the scientific
labours of Maclear' s office, for to these no man ever gave himself up
with more untiring energy. From the^date of his arrival the transit
instrument and the mural circle were kept in constant use. Under
the clear skies of the Cape it was inevitable that, with a man of
such a temperament, observations would far exceed the computing
powers of a small staff. The personal establishment of the Obser-
vatory was much too limited to enable the astronomer to reduce and
publish the great mass of observations which he accumulated ; to
do this would have required several assistants and an adequate
staff of computers, and these Maclear had not. The wonder was
not that the observations were not reduced, but that so large a mass
of work was actually done. In this respect Maclear was not fairly
treated, but he did his best under the circumstances, and no man
could do more — few, indeed, would have done as much. He was
also carrying out, as the same time, a long series of observations on
the bright star Alpha Centauri, to test or confirm Henderson's
result for the parallax of that star.
It is an instance of the sanguine and energetic temperament of
the man that he could, in addition to these absorbing occupations,
turn his attention — not as a separate work, but as a work super-
added to the labours of the Observatory — to the measurement of
an arc of meridian. In 1838 the first part of this great work, " The
Verification of Lacaille's Arc of Meridian," was commenced. The
measurement of this arc and its extension was commenced in 1840,
and the field work was finished in 1847. It is impossible to convey
within the limits of this paper an adequate idea of the indomitable
energy and perseverance with which this operation was carried out,
of the difficulties surmounted, and of the extent and value of the
work accomplished with limited means. That all this was fully
F
66 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
recognised at the time is sufficiently testified by the fact that lui
this work he received the Gold Medal of the Royal Society of
London and the Lalande medal of the Institute of France.
In 1847 a 46-inch achromatic telescope by Dolland was mounted
equatorially, and in 1849 an equatorial by Merz, of 7 inches aperture
and 8^ feet focal length, was added to the instrumental equipment
of the Observatory. These instruments were vigorously employed
in the observation of double stars, comets, and nebulae, and of
occultations of stars by the moon. All comets visible in the
Southern Hemisphere were diligently observed by Maclear, and the
results of the observations promptly published through the Royal
Astronomical Society. Simultaneously with these observations,
the meridian instruments were worked with redoubled energy, and
during the years 1849-53 the whole of the stars in the British
Association Catalogue having south declination were observed
generally three times in each co-ordinate. The energy with which
this series of observations was carried on is shown by the fact that
in 1852 between 9,000 and 10,000 observations of right ascension
were made with the transit instrument ; on some nights over 100
stars were observed. These observations, in form of the " Cape
Catalogue for 1850," have been published by the present astrono-
mer. In 1855 the new transit circle (a facsimile of that at Green-
wich) arrived, and was duly mounted with the assistance only of
local masons and labourers, and observations were commenced with
it at the end of the same year.
After i860 Maclear's attention was chiefly directed to the re-
duction of his previous observations. He reduced the valuable
series made in 1835-40, which has since been revised and published
by his successor, Mr. E. J. Stone, as the " Cape Catalogue for
1840." Sir Thomas also partly reduced the observations made
with the new transit circle in the years 1856-60, a work also com-
pleted and published by Mr. Stone, under the title, " Cape Cata-
logue for i860." In addition to all this, he made a long series of
observations of the moon and stars, for the purpose of determining
the longitude of the Observatory and the parallax of the moon.
Maclear was the intimate friend of Livingstone. Their ac-
quaintance commenced in 1850, when Livingstone came to him for
assistance as to the best means of ascertaining his position when
on his travels. Livingstone's quickness and aptitude for the work
won Maclear's heart ; the men were kindred spirits, and their
friendship lasted to the. end. The reduction of Livingstone's
observations was performed at the Observatory, and formed a
serious item in the work undertaken, but the labour was the labour
of love.
Sir Thomas Maclear died on July 14th, 1879, and his remains
were interred in the Observatory grounds beside those of his wife,
not far from the spot where Fallows is buried. The House of
Assembly at Cape Town agreed to the following resolution on
July 17th, 1879 '■—" That this House desires to express its deep
sense of the signal services rendered by the late Sir Thomas Maclear,
ASTRONOMY AND GEODESY. 67
Knt., F.R.S., F.R.A.S., to the general cause of astronomical and
geographical science while in charge of the Royal Observatory,
Cape Town, and also to the material interests of the Colony in the
practical application of his researches ; and, furthermore, its high
appreciation of his devotion for so long a period of years to the
cause of South African exploration and civilisation, and that this
resolution be recorded in the journals of the House." Never was
a like recognition of service better earned. One only regrets that
it was not made on his retiremen*^, when it certainly would have
been not less grateful to him who had so worthily earned it than it
was to his sorrowing family.
Sir T. Maclear's successor, Mr. E. J. Stone, was for many years
Chief Assistant at the Royal Observatory, Greenwich, under Sir
George Airy. An accomplished mathematician, and well known to
astronomers as the author of many admirable and important papers,
he was of all English astronomers of his time the man required at
the Cape. Apart from the plans which he had formed for his work
there, it was known that there existed great stores of observations
partially reduced and entirely unpublished which had been accumu-
lated by Maclear, but which were thus unavailable for the purposes
of science. There certainly was no man in England so well fitted
to complete their reduction and prepare them for press. With a
long training in the rigid and methodical methods of Sir George
Airy, with great powers of his own in the organisation and super-
intendence of large masses of computation, with a clearly-defined
plan in his mind as to the work he meant to do, and a fixed determi-
nation that nothing should interfere to turn him from that purpose,
with the entire sympathy and powerful support of his former chief,
with official instructions consonant with his own wishes, he applied
himself during the whole of his stay at the Cape to two great
objects — (i) the preparation of Maclear's meridian observations
for press ; (2) the re-observation of the stars which had
been observed by Lacaille more than a century before, and the
formation of a catalogue of southern stars complete to the seventh
magnitude.
Unlike Maclear, Stone himself took but little part in observing,
but, having strong sympathy at home, he organised an excellent
staflf and carried out both these great works in a very complete
manner. Stone's Catalogue of 10,000 Southern Stars was printed
after his return to England, the Cape Catalogues of 1840 and i860,
based on Maclear's observations, having been passed through the
press during his stay at the Cape. The whole forms a splendid
memorial to Stone's methodical energy, to the high sense of duty
which actuated him, a proof of his sound judgment as to the needs
of science at the time, and of his concentrated earnestness of pur-
pose in their pursuit.
Stone and his contemporary, Dr. Gould, at Cordoba, in the
Argentine Republic, had accomplished great things for the sidereal
astronomy of the Southern Hemisphere, and it has been said with
truth that for the epoch 1875 from their labours alone we have, on
F 2
68 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
the whole, a more satisfactory knowledge of the positions' of the
stars in the Southern Hemisphere than we have of the same class
of stars in the Northern Hemisphere from the combined labours of
all the observatories of Europe and America.
In 1879 I had the honour to succeed Mr. Stone as the Astronomer
at the Cape.
The limits of space at disposal render it necessary to confine the
conclusion of this article to a brief statement of the work under-
taken and accomplished at the Observatory since that time.
The traditions of the Observatory and the needs of astronomy
demanded a continuance of accurate meridian observations, and
"we have now published the following accurate Star Catalogues as
the result of meridian observations since 1879 : —
The Cape Catalogue of 1,713 stars for the Equinox 1885 fvom
observations 1879 to 1885.
The Cape Catalogue of 3,000 Stars for the Equinox 1890 from
observations 1885 to 1895.
The Cape Catalogue of 8,560 Stars for the Equinox 1900 from
observations 1896 to 1899.
There is now ready for press another General Catalogue of 4,360
Stars from observations 1900 to 1904.
Besides these the outstanding reductions of Maclear's observa-
tions have been reduced and published, viz. : —
The Cape Catalogue of 4,810 Stars for the Equinox 1850 from
observations 1849 to 1852 ; and
The Cape Catalogue of 1,905 Stars for the Equinox 1865 from
observations 1861 to 1870.
It seemed desirable, however, to widen the field of our work.
Nothing whatever was known about the parallaxes (or distances)
of the stars of the Southern Hemisphere, beyond the results of
Henderson's and Maclear's determinations of the parallax of a.
Centauri. As a first step to such extension I secured, by purchase
from Lord Crawford, the Heliometer which he had so kindly lent
for my expedition to Ascension in 1877, and, in conjunction with
Dr. Elkin, a young American friend who spent two years at the
Cape, we determined the parallaxes of nine of the most interesting
of the southern stars.
These results justified the Admiralty in granting the present
Heliometer, which has been successfully applied in further determi-
nations of stellar parallax and, in conjunction with the Observa-
tories of Yale College (New Haven), Leipzig, Gottingeh, Bamberg
and Oxford (Radcliffe) in the Northern Hemisphere, has determined
from observations of the minor planets Iris (7), Victoria (12) and
Sappho (80) the value of the Solar Parallax which has since been
adopted for international use. The Heliometer has latterly been
employed in refined determinations of the plans of the Major
planets near every opposition, and in investigations for determining
the mass of Jupiter and the orbits and masses of its satellites.
On the 8th September, 1882, appeared the great Comet of that
year. So early as October 4th several photographers in South
ASTRONOMY, AND GEODESY. 69
Africa had obtained impressions of the Comet with their ordinary
apparatus. These photographs had no scientific value as repre-
sentations of the, Comet, since they were taken without means
for following the diurnal motion during, exposure. At that time
the Observatory had no suitable lens nor had we any experience in
the development of modern dry plates. Under these circumstances
I cal'ed in the services of Mr, Allis, a skilled photographer
in the neighbouring village of Mowbray. No sooner were the
desired objects and conditions explained to him than Mr. Allis
volunteered all necessary 3.id, and entered heart and soul into the
work. His camera, with a Ross lens of 2^ inches aperture and ii
inches focal length, was attached to a stout board and clamped to
the counterpoise of the axis of the 6-inch equatorial. In this way
the optical axis of the lens was rendered parallel to that of the
6-inch telescope, and thus, under the action of clockwork and with
the aid of slow motions in R.A. and Declination, it was easy to
follow either a star or the nucleus of the Comet duiing any required
length of exposure. Apart from the interest of the photographs
thus obtained as representations of the Comet itself, a still wider
interest attached to them from the fact that, notwithstanding the
small optical power employed, the plates showed so many stars,
and these so well defined over so large an area, as to suggest the
practicability of employing similar but more powerful means for
the construction of star maps, or for cataloguing the stars to any
required order of magnitude. The plan was laid before the
Academy of Sciences in Paris, and proved one of the means which
led in 1887 to the international undertaking of the " Carte du Ciel "
now in progress, in which the Cape takes part. Already half of our
plates, containing over 400,000 stars, have been measured.
Meanwhile, in 1885, the Cape undertook to make photographic
charts, with a Dallmeyer lens-of 6 inches aperture, of all stars to
9J magnitude from 18° South Declination to the South Pole, and in
the end of the same year Professor Kapteyn, of Groningen, under-
took to measure and catalogue the stars ^on the plates. Professor
Kepteyn devoted twelve of the best years of his life to this work ;
the results are published in three volumes constituting the Cape
Photographic Durchmusterung, issued respectively in 1896, 1898
and 1900, giving the places and magnitudes of 454,875 stars, and
thus the Durchmusterung of Argelander and Schonfeld was com-
pleted for the whole sky.
Besides these larger astronomical works, the Cape Observatory
has determined a telegraphic chain of longitudes from Aden, Mozam-
bique, Zanzibar, Delagoa Bay, Durban and Port Elizabeth, and
along the West Coast to Port Nolloth, Mossamedes, Benguela,
St. Paul de Loanda, Sao Thome and Bonny, besides many longitude
determinations connected with the Geodetic Survey.
All comets and predicted occultations have been regularly
observed, and a large number of double and variable stars.
Until the year 1904 there existed neither at the Cape nor in any
Observatory in the Southern Hemisphere an adequate equipment
70 SCIENCE IN' SOUTH AFRICA.
for the' pursuit of Astrophysics — or the study of " what is a
star,", as contrasted with the old astronomy which dealt only with
the position of Celestial objects in space. For forty years the new
astronomy had been vigorously prosecuted in the Northern Hemi-
sphere, the first great harvest of results with moderate means had.
been reaped, and great establishments were founded for research
in the new fields of work. The busy years rolled on, and I had,,
perforce, almost resigned myself to the idea that, during the period
of my directorate at least, the Royal Observatory at the Cape
must limit itself to the pursuit of the old astronomy. But one fine
morning in 1894 there arrived a letter from Mr. Frank McClean
offering to present, for use in the Southern Hemisphere, and pre-
ferably to the Cape, a telescope and observatory specially adapted
for this work. The Lords Commissioners of the Admiralty accepted
with warm appreciation of Mr. McCIean's generosity the offer of
this splendid instrument, and expressed the view that its possession
would greatly increase the utility of the Cape Observatory, and
might be ^expected to result in considerable advancement to science.
The instrument was finally erected in 1898.
It is needless here to enter into a description of it and of the work
which it has done, because it is to be hoped that all members of the
British Association who are sufficiently interested will visit the
Observatoi-y and see for themselves.
The large-minded donor of the Victoria Telescope — as he wished
it named — is alas ! no more ; . otherwise had he been spared in
health and strength there is little doubt that he would have come
to South Africa along with the other members of the British Associa-
tion to see the results of the great pecuniary sacrifices which he
made for the work that he loved. It was at the Cape that McClean,
with his object glass prism of 12 inches aperture attached to our
Astrographic Equatorial, photographed the spectra of the southern
stars to the 3|^ order of magnitude, and discovered conclusive evi-
dence of oxygen lines in the spectra of some of the Helium Stars.
During his stay at the Cape in 1897 he endeared himself to us all ;
his loss is deplored by every member of the staff as that of a kind
and generous friend.
One of the works that appeared to be laid upon His Majesty's
Astronomer, although outside his official duties, was that of the
Geodetic Survey of the Colony. Lacaille in 1752 had measured a
short arc of meridian, and Maclear had remeasured and extended
it from Cape Point northwards nearly to the Orange River ; but
nothing further was done after the year 1848, except a triangula-,
tion along the south coast by Captain Bailey executed in 1859-62.
After several unsuccessful efforts to secure the necessary funds
to set a Geodetic Survey on foot, an agreement was arranged be-
tween the Cape Colony and Natal to carry put the principal tri-
angulation of both Colonies. Between the years 1883 and 1894
the work was completed, under my direction, by Colonel Morris,
and I had the satisfaction of finally preparing the results for press ;
they were printed, and presented to Parliament in 1896. Since
ASTRONOMY AND GEODESY. 7I
then I have superintended the re-reduction of Captain Bailey's
Survey to the system of the Geodetic Survey, and have had the
satisfaction of issuing it in an accurate and homogeneous form as a
second volume of the Geodetic Survey of South Africa.
Having regard to the Geodetic work thus begun in South Africa
and looking for opportunities for its extension, it became evident
that these opportunities were of the most remarkab e and impor-
tant character. Struve's great Russian Arc of the Meridian extends
from the North Cape to the borders of Turkey, and runs nearly
along the 30th Meridian. The Natal Arc is also in the 30th
Meridian, its extension would run through the Transvaal and Rho-
desia to the southern end of Lake Tanganyika, and still further
north along the Valley of the Nile. To carry out such an arc and
to connect it with Struve's arc round the eastern end of the Mediter-
ranean, would form the longest arc of meridian in the world and the
greatest contribution ever made to geodesy. To see this work
executed became one of the objects of my life.
In urging the scheme on the late Mr. Cecil Rhodes in 1894, and
proposing that the work, so far as it referred to Rhodesia, should be
begun at once, Mr. Rhodes at first demurred, but when later (in
1897) Earl Grey in the practical interests of Rhodesia sanctioned
its commencement, Mr. Rhodes promised that funds should be pro-
vided to carry it to Lake Tanganyika. The chain of triangulation
from Bulawayo to Gwelo and thence northwards to the Zambesi
is completed, and the work is now being pushed forward under my
direction by Dr. Rubin northwards from the Zambesi. Under
Colonel Morris the triangles have been measured from the North of
Natal as far as Belfast in the Transvaal ; the points are selected
and beaconed to the Limpopo, and will be measured in the cool
season of the present year.
The Berlin Academy of Science is supporting the proposal to
obtain the necessary funds for carrying the work through the
German Protectorate from the southern end of Lake Tanganyika
to the southern border of the British Protectorate in Egypt — and
I am given to understand that in course of a year the work will be
begun in Egypt proper, so that the possibility of its completion
seems daily nearer to realisation.
Visitors to the Observatory — who are interested in such things —
may see, besides the Victoria Telescope, the Astrographic Telescope
and the Heliometer, the recently-erected Transit Circle with its new
contrivances for increased accuracy in fundamental meridian work,
and the unique new Sidereal Clock with its many adjuncts for in-
suring the greatest possible uniformity of rate.
The Staff of the Observatory at present consists of : —
Sir David Gill, His Majesty's Astronomer.
Mr. S. S. Hough, Chief Assistant.
Messrs. J. Lunt, R. T. Pett, W. H. Cox, J. Power, Assistants.
Mr. A. Pilling, Librarian and Accountant.
Mr. R. Woodgate, Established Computer, Higher Grade.
72 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
, Messrs. J. A. J. Pead, R. W. Cheeseman, A. W. Goatcher,
A. J. Wilkin and C. W. Jeffries.
Six Temporary Computers.'
Six Ladies employed on the measurement of stellar photo-
graphs ; and
, One Lady Typist.
Any account of the history of astronomy in South Africa would
be incomplete without reference to work in the field of Variable
Stars. South Africa has been the chief seat of the study of these
objects in the Southern Hemisphere, and Dr. Roberts of Lovedale
its most accomplished and laborious student. He began observing
variable stars in 1891 with no other equipment than an old theodo-
lite and an opera glass. From 1891 to 1894 he made a rough survey
of the southern sky south of decl. 30° which resulted in the discovery
of twenty variable stars, four of which are of the Algol type. This
large increase in the known number of southern variable stars led
Roberts to devote himself more and more to the study of the light
curves of known variables.
From 1900, with a new equatorial telescope presented to him by
Sir John Usher, and specially designed for this class of work, he
commenced an elaborate series of observations on what are known
as the Algol variables. These constitute a peculiarly interesting
class of objects. For many days together the star shines with
uniform light, suddenly at a particular moment the light of the star
begins to wane, diminishing until a certain minimum is reached
and again increasing in brightness till the normal magnitude is
restored. These periodic fluctuations recur with great regularity.
The obvious conclusion is that two stars revolve about each other
nearly in a plane directed towards the sun, and consequently one
star in the course of its revolution obliterates the other. When the
stars are not in the same line with the sun we see as a single star
their combined light, when in a line we see the light of only one plus
such part of the light of the second as is not obscured by the first.
There are thus two kinds of minima, one when star No. i is in front
of No. 2, and vice versa.
From the light curves expressing the amount of light at each
instant during the waning and waking of the light Roberts finds it
possible to determine the density-and figure of the disc of the com-
ponents, and the elements of the binary system.
Roberts found the accuracy attainable with his new instrument
was such as to warrant investigations of this nature, and these led
to conclusions bearing directly on the cosmical problem of stellar
evolution. He found, for example, that the mean density of eight
southern Algol variables is one-ninth that of the sun. Further,
in the case of those double stars of which components revolve in
contact, he found that the resulting oblateness in the figure of the
component stars agrees in a striking manner with that found by
George Darwin from purely theoretical considerations.
Besides this he has undertaken an independent determination
of the magnitudes of all the stars brighter than 9-2 magnitude
ASTRONOMY AND GEODESY. 73
which are situated south of declination-30°, and also the regular
observation of about 120 variable stars. Roberts has made in all
about 250,000 independent estimations o' stellar magn lude, and
all this as work entirely outside heavy duties in connection with
the Lovedale Institute, of which' he has, in Dr. Stewart's absence,
been the responsible director. I know few instances of more
successful devotion of small means and limited opportunity to the
attainment of great scientific ends than the work of Dr. Roberts.
In the same field a large amount of work and discovery has been
done by Mr. R. T. A. Innes, fori^aerly Secretary at the Royal Obser-
vatory. He undertook the revision of the Cape Durchmusterung
as a labour of love outside the routine of his office. Kapteyn had
naturally found many anomalies between the results of the Cape
photographic plates and those of previous Star Catalogues, of which
he prepared special lists, containing stars existing in other cata-
logues not found on the Cape plates.
Every one of these many hundred cases had been examined,
and in hardly a single instance has an error been found in the Cape
Durchmusterung ; the discrepancies generally arise from misprints
or errors of reduction in the other Catalogues, or the stars have
proved to be variable or so red as not to be photographically bright
enough to produce an impression. A complete account of this
revision together with numerous observations of variable stars has
now been published.
Mr. Innes, previous to his arrival at the Cape, had devoted him-
self to this branch of astronomy and, with comparatively feeble
means, had discovered about forty previously-unknown double
stars and published their estimated distances and position angles.
In the course of his revision of the Durchmusterung, and by making
use of opportunities of exceptional definition, he has now added
about three hundred to the list of known southern double stars, all
of a class that would appear single in our photographic plates. He
has also applied the 18-inch refractor of the new McClean telescope
to that work, and with Mr. Lunt has made many measures of the
position angles and distances of southern double stars. In addition
to this he has prepared a reference catalogue of southern double
stars with a bibliography of the subject, which is published n the
Annals of the Cape Observatory, .Vol. II., part 2.
Mr. Innes is now Director of the new Observatory at Johannes-
burg, which will be open for inspection by the Members of the
British Association on the occasion of their visit to that city. As
yet the Observatory there is equipped only for meteorological work,
but it will doubtless ere long be provided with an astronomical
outfit to enable its Director to pursue the work lor which he has
shown such marked capacity, and for which its admiralle site and
clear sky offer such favourable opportunity.
SECTION I.— PHYSICAL— (coffer/.)
4. EARTH MAGNETISM IN SOUTH AFRICA.
By J. C- Beattie, D.Sc, F.R.S.E., Professor of Physics, South
African College.
I. The Secular Variation of the Different Elements.
The earliest magnetic observations in South Africa date from
about 1600. They were made by the navigators of those days, and
for a study of the magnetic state of this part of the Continent at
that time are unsatisfactory because, firstly, they were made only
at places on the coast such as Saldanha Bay, Table Bay, Mossel Bay,
Algoa Bay, or at the anchorages in the neighbourhood of these
places ; secondly, the instruments of observation — the unsatis-
factory ships' compasses of that time — give results which are not
comparable with one another, and which may be in error because of
the imperfections of the compass itself, and the unsatisfactory
determinations of the longitude ; and thirdly, observations of the
•declination (variation) only were made.
These earlier observations have been collected, and the best of
them published by Sabine and Van Bemmelen. Many of them will
be found in a paper published in the Transactions of the South
African Philosophical Society, Vol. XIV.
In the same paper will be found the results of later observations
of the declination, and of the results obtained for the dip and the
horizontal intensity from observation'; made at Cape Town up to
the year 1900.
In addition to the above data, results have been obtained in
various parts of South Africa away from the coast. These have
been made by surveyors, and the records collected by Mr. Bosman,
Geodetic Officer to the Cape Government, by Colonel Jackson,
Surveyor-General of the Transvaal, and by Mr. Fourcade. The
earliest of these observations is one made at Stellenbosch in 1806.
Other early observations are — one at Malmesbury in 1812, several at
Grahamstown about 1820, at Simonstown in 1823, at Graaff-Reinet
in 1815, at George Town in 1817, Swellendam 1815, Uitenhage 1816,
and a few other places about this time. With the help of these and
the fuller knowledge we now have it will be possible to draw the
isogenic lines for the southern part of Cape Colony for the epoch 1820.
There is also a number of observations of declination made by
Messrs. Bosman and Moorrees between 1870 and 1890, chiefly in
Bechuanaland.
EARTH MAGNETISM. 75
"^n recent years the work carried out by the " Challenger," the
' Discovery," and the " Gauss " and other surveying ships in the
seas around South Africa, will give very valuable information as to
ths present magnetic state of these seas and of the secular variation
of the elements in them.
There is finally the data gathered during the last seven or eight
years in connection with the magnetic survey of South Africa.
Observations have been made at upwards of 400 places in connection
with this survey, the declination, the dip, and the horizontal in-
tensity having been determined at each place. The places are dis-
tributed throughout Cape Colony, the Orange River Colony, the
Transvaal, Natal. Rhodesia and Portuguese East Africa. The
extreme stations are L'Agulhas on the south, the Victoria Falls and
Lo Maghqnda on the north, Saldanha Bay on the west, Beira and
Delagoa Bay on the east. The cost of this survey had been borne
by the London Royal Society and by the various South African
Governments.
The result of the observations for secular variation of declina-
tion shows that about the year 1600 the agonic line passed in a
north-west by north direction through Africa. It touched the
,South African coast at a point a little to the east of L'Agulhas.
The following extract from a letter dated 1579 — written by the
first Englishman known to have reached India by the Cape route,
shows very well the state of the knowledge of the variation of the
compass at that time. After stating that the variation is just north
in the meridian of the Azores, the letter continues : " and thence
swerveth towards the east so much betwixt that meridian aforesaid
and the point of Africa, it carrieth three or four quarters to thirty-
two. And again in the point of Africa a little beyond the point that
is called Cape das Agulias it retiirneth again unto the north and
that place passed it swerveth again towards the west." — (Voyages
and Travels.)
Since that time till about the year 1870 the agonic line has moved
towards the west ; at the latter date it had reached its maximum
westerly position ; at the present day it is moving to the east again
with an accelerated motion. The result, so far as Cape Town is
concerned, is this : the declination has changed between 1605 and
1870 from 0 ° to 30 ° W. of N. ; since 1870 the westerly declination
has been decreasing and the declination at the present time is about
28°30'W. of N.
A rough idea of the secular variation of declination in South
Africa for this period may be obtained by imagining a skin fitted on
to the surface of the Southern Hemisphere with lines approximately
.as in diagram Fig. i .
These lines represent at any epoch the lines of equal declination
■of a part of the Southern Hemisphere. At the end of the sixteenth
and the beginning of the seventeenth century the agonic line —
marked o in the diagram — had the position stated above. As the
years passed by the system of lines moved towards the west till now
the thirty line passes near L'Agulhas. The elbow, which at the time
76
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
of the first observations was in the Indian Ocean passed over South
Africa and is now in the Atlantic Ocean.
The observations of dip show that the S. dip has been increasing
from 1750 to the present day with many fluctuations in its rate of
increase. It is still increasing, and roughly increases at present in
Cape Town about seven minutes per year. Its value in 1750 was
43 ° — now it is over 59 °.
The first observations for horizontal intensity were made in
1843. The value at that time was 0.208 e.g. s. units. Its value at
the present day is about 0.184 c.g.sTunits, and it is decreasing . .
Thp observations for secular variation of dip and of intensity
show that the magnetic pole is slowly approaching South Africa.
I
20 10 o 10 20 30
Fig. I. Secular Variation of Declination in South Africa.
II. Daily Variation.
The data available for the study of the daily variations of the
magnetic elements in South Africa are contained in Sabine's reports
on the magnetic observations at Cape Town and at St. Helena
between 1840-50. Of recent years the only observations bearing on
these matters are those made at the Royal Alfred Observatory, in
Mauritius, and those by Mr. Nevill at the Observatory, Durban,
between 1893 and the present time on the daily variation of the
magnetic declination.
At Cape Town the range of daily variation of magnetic declina-
tion is about six minutes in the summer months, and about four in
winter. The greatest deviation from the mean position is about
9 a.m. Cape Civil time — two hours east of Greenwich — when it is
four minutes west of the mean ; from that time till about 3 p.m.
there is a rapid change, and at the latter hour it attains its most
easterly position. It attains the mean position for the day about
4 a.m. In winter the greatest westerly reading of the needle is
EARTH MAGNETISM.
n
about II a.m. and is then 2 minutes west of the mean position ;
the greatest easterly position is about 7 a.m., also about two minutes
from the mean. About 10 p.m. the needle has its mean position for
the day.
The daily variation of the horizontal intensity is about 14 y in
the summer months and 16 y in the winter months. In summer
the horizontal intensity has its greatest value about 8 a.m., when
it is 9 y above the mean. Its smallest value is at 10 p.m., and is then
5 y below the mean. In the winter months the greatest value is
about 10 a.m., and is 10 y above the mean ; the smallest value is
between 10 p.m. and 11 p.m., and is 6 y below the mean.
8y
Fig. 2 Vector Diagram for tlie Cape of Good Hope. — June.
The daily variation of the dip is small, and not accurately known
for the Cape.
If the magnetic elements are expressed in terms of the geo-
graphical components X, Y, Z, where X ^ H cos D, Y = Hsin D.
H denoting horizontal intensity
D denoting the declination
the daily variation of X and Y may be expressed in the following
■way : —
oX ='cH cos D-HcD sin D
SY = SHsm H + HdDcosD
The vector diagrams for the Cape of Good Hope for the months
of June and December are given in Figs. 2 and 3 respectively.
These diagrams have been drawn from Sabine's data.
7^ SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The complete figures show that X is most below the mean, X, Y,Z^
m the summer months about ii a.m. Cape civil time, and farthest
above the mean about 3 p.m. In the summer it has a maximum
value between 8 and 9 a.m., and is 10 y above the mean ; at this
season its minimum value is about 6 y below the mean between lo-
and II p.m.
I — ky
Fig. 3. Vector Diagram for the Cape of Good Hope. — December.
The maximum value of 7 in the summer months is about 9 a.m
and is 24 y above the mean ; the minimum is about 3 p.m., is I2y
below the mean. In winter the maximum value is about 147
above the mean between 11 a.m. and 12 noon ; the minimum —
6y below the mean — is obtained about 8 a.m.
SECTION 11.— ANTHROPOLOGICAL.
I. UNCIVILISED MAN SOUTH OF THE ZAMBESI.
By W. Hammond Tooke, Assistant Under Secretary,
Department of Agriculture, Cape Colony.
Ethiopes sao todos, mas parece
Que com gente melhor commimicavam.
Camoens Os Lusiadas, V., 76.
It is the object in the following pages to describe the Native'
races situated south of the Zambesi and Cunene rivers as they were
before they were influenced in their character and habits by inter-
course with the white man. To describe them as they now are —
in Reserves, Locations or Compounds — is foreign to the writer's
present purpose.
I. BANTU.
By far the greater number of Native tribes in South Africa
belong to the race called Bant-u.*
This term is, strictly speaking, applied only linguistically to
tribes which show homogeneity of speech ; but as they almost
universally display a marked similarity physically it can fitly be
used to designate one of the great families of mankind.
This statement must, however, be qualified by the remark that
the Bantu differ little, bodily, from the adjoining negroid races in
the Soudan, whose speech is entirely different ; and, further, that
the Bantu tribes, who live, or it is supposed once did live, on fron-
tiers contiguous to districts inhabited by Hamitic, Semitic or Negro
peoples are evidently of a mixed origin due to the infusion of foreign
blood.
Together, therefore, with a general similarity of physical appear-
ance is conjoined considerable variations in detail. In colour the
Bantu are found of all shades of brown, from the sickly sallow of
the Fan or Swaheli to the deep black of the Swasi ; but in almost
all cases can be detected a reddish ground-tint, leading some eth-
nologists to consider the original Bantu to have been a red race,
which has mingled with the Negro, the Nubian and the Arab.
* "Ba-ntu," " aba-ntu,'" plural of mu-ntu, man, is a Bantu word
meaning "people."
8o
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
w
■:s/
M
I T
**-,.■<
lo
i
J
"^.,
4\
o
**
r%:
UNCIVILISED MAN SOUTH OF THE ZAMBESI. 8r
Variety of colour is probably much due to geographical position ; as
a rule the tribes which inhabit low-lying coasts or humid localities
are darker than those on the central plateaux or in arid districts.
The hair is black, rather short, crisp or frizzly rather than woolly.
The skull is generally dolichocephalic ; the jaws moderately prog-
nathous or even orthognathous ; the nose varying from platyrrhine
to leptorrhine ; the eyes large, black and prominent.
In height the Bantu ranges from 5 feet 8 inches to 6 feet. The
bodily proportions are probably determined as much by external
environment as by race. Occupation, food supply, climate, account
for the difference in physique between the serf of the Kalahari, the
trader of the Congo banks, the husbandman of Unyanyembe (the
land of hoes), the man-catching Manyuema, the porters of Bihe and
Zanzibar, the Herero herdsman, and the warriors of Zimba and
Tshaka.
Such is the uniformity of the speech of the various Bantu tribes
that it is really but one language of which there are many dialects.
The vocabularies of these dialects consist of words practically
identical, but subject to general laws of pronunciation, or dialectal
transition of consonants. In some cases, beyond mere loan-words,
terms have evidently been incorporated from Arabic, Hamitic or
Negro sources. Structurally the language is unique, though it is
closely united to the Fula languages, and has affinities with Poly-
nesian and even, according to Bleek, with Papuan and Malay.
Phonetic decay is more noticeable in some dialects than others,
notably the Sechuana and Mpongwe. As to which is the most
archaic, the specialist in each dialect is apt to claim the object of his
study as the oldest and purest, and accordingly the eshi-Congo,
the ci-Tonga, the otyi-Herero and the isi-Zulu and isi-Xosa have
each been cited as most nearly approaching the primitive type.
The Bantu tongue is an agglutinative polysyllabic, prefix-
pronominal language of which the most salient features are the
noun classes and the concord. The nouns are divided into classes
or genders which bear no relation to sex, although some of them
indicate whether the noun is singular or plural, collective or abstract.
This classification is effected by pronominal prefixes which influence
the whole sentence in which the governing noun appears, and estab-
lishes what is called the alliterative concord.
The geographical area of the Bantu at present extends across
the continent of Africa, from the Atlantic to the Indian Ocean.
Its northern limit is defined by a sinuous line drawn from the Bight
of Biafra to the East coast, a little to the north of the Dana River.
The southern boundary starts from the Cunene Mouth, avoiding
the desert sand-belt on the coast ; trends southward until it reaches
the latitude of Walwich Bay (long. 16" E.) ; then, in long. 20° E.,
runs north till it reaches the Botletle at Lake Ngami, when it again
turns southwards through the Kalahari till it reaches Kuruman.
Then south by east it reaches the Orange near Douglas, which it
follows as far as Colesberg. From thence to the coast the boundary
has been modified by the European occupation of South Africa ;
82 . SCIENXE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
but at the time of the Dutch settlement it might be regarded
approximately as being continued to the Great Fish River mouth
by a line not deviating greatly from the present Midland Railway
line.
The territory to the south and west of this boundary, where
inhabited at all, was, at that date, peopled by the Hottentot and
Bushman races.
The original home of the Bantu was undoubtedly to the north
of the present northern limit. Sir H. H. Johnston, than whom
no one has a wider knowledge of the subject, after locating it in
various places, has finally decided in favour of the Uganda Pro-
tectorate.
From this cradle the tribes migrated along two diverging and
separate routes : one, the Western, along the great Congo River
system to the Gaboon, Angola, Damaraland ; the other, the
Eastern, past the Equatorial Lakes to the Eastern coast and so
south of the Zambesi.
Thus did the " distant Ethiopeans " become —
" A race divided, whom with sloping rays
The rising and descending sun surveys " ;
— a fact apparently not unknown to the author of the Odyssey.
Innumerable must have been the wanderings east and west,
north and south, of the tribes which have sprung up and split apart
during the subsequent period of two or three thousand years. In
historic times we n>ay instance the raids of the Jaga or Mazimba
hordes from the realm of Congo to Tette ; from Tette to
" Mombaza and Quiloa and Melind,"
whence the defeated remnants in tJieir flight south scattered terror
through Kafirland, whereby Xosa mothers still frighten their chil-
dren with the man-eating bogey " Zim." A similar dispersion sent
Kafir tribes flying before Tshaka as far south as the Kei, drove the
Bechuana clans from Lebombo to the Langeberg, and even across
the Zambesi ; since when Zulu predatory hordes have continued
to penetrate north, and still further north, until they reached
districts beyond Lake Nyassa and even Lake Tanganyika. Great
" Empires " also in the unrecorded past have doubtless risen and
fallen, like those of Monomotapa and Uganda, Ulunda and Urua.
In the eighth century a.d. the Arabs and Persians had begun to
establish themselves at Kambalu (Pemba) and Magadoxu, and to
carry on a thriving trade between these ports and Maskat, Ormuz
and Surat. The mariners and traders of Yemen and Oman came
into contact with the Bantu tribes who had reached the East coast of
Africa from the interior and called them the people of Zeng* from a
Persian word meaning " black."
• Cosmas Indicopleustes, A.D. 547, says : " Beyond Barbari there stretches
the ocean which has the name Zingion."
UNCIVILISED MAN SOUTH OF THE ZAMBESI. 83
To the staid Oriental they had all the lightheartedness we
we recognise in the Negro :
" Splay feet and flat noses are defects indigenous in the
Soudan ;
And joyousness is the privilege of the inhabitants of Zeng."
For that reason probably, among others, they were held in
abhorrence ;
" Search not for thy parentage among the sons of Tagleb ;
It were better to be kin to the people of Zeng."
El Masudi tells us : " They gave to God the name of Makland-
jalo,'* which means the ' Sovereign Master ' " ; but as they were not
followers of the Prophet they were of course Kafirs— »".e., " infidels "
— a term which was adopted by the Portuguese and has clung to
them to the present day. There is evidence, therefore, to show
that m the tenth century the Bantu clans at Sofala were the ances-
tors m a direct line of the Zulu Kafirs who then, as now, were
m the vanguard of the Bantu march south. Below Sofala
the country was still apparently in the occupation of Hottentots
(Wakwak). ^
The Bantu tribes living within Africa south of the Cunene and
Zambesi are divided by philologists into five language groups ;
these not only are also physically distinct but fall naturally into
the existing politico-geographical areas. They are : —
A . The Zulu-Kafir group, dwelling in Cape Colony (Eastern
Province), Natal, Matabeleland, Gazaland and Swasi-
land ;
B. The Gwamba or Tekeza group, dwelling in Portuguese
East Africa ;
C. The Makalanga group, dwelling in Rhodesia, East and
West ;
D. The Bechuana group, dwelling in Bechuanaland Pro-
tectorate, Basutoland, Transvaal and Cape Colony,
North of the Orange ;
E. The Herero group, dwelling in German South- West
Africa (Damaraland).
A. Zulu-Kafir Group.
As remarked above, the Zulu-Kafir group had in the tenth
century a.d. advanced as far south as Sofala. At the beginning
of the seventeenth century a mixed race of Hottentot and Kafir
(Gonaqua ?) speaking a Bantu tongue were encountered on or near
the mouth of the Umtata River by the shipwrecked mariners of
the San Alberto (1599) and Nossa Senhora de Belem (1633).
In 1688 the crew of the Stavenisse' found north of theUmzim-
kulu River (near the present Port Shepstone) Kafirs bearing the
*Or Maklangalu. Cf. Zulu Unkulunkulu. For El Masudi's description
of the country and people of Zeng see his " Les Prairies d'Or," translated by
De Meynard and De Courteille. Paris, 1841. Tomes, I, II.
G 2
«4 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
now familiar names of " Magosse," " Maponte," " Mapontemousse,"
" Matimbe " " Magossebe " and " Emboa " (or Abambo).*
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, when Tshaka's
precursor, Dingiswayo, was studying the British mihtary system
at Graafi-Reinet, Ngqika (Gaika) and Ndlambe (Tslambie), the
Chiefs of a prominent branch of the Xosa clan, known as the Ama-
Rarabe, were struggling for supremacy in the forests and kloofs
between the Keiskama and Great Fish rivers.
These tribes are now located in the districts of King William's
Town and Stutterheim.
Kawuta, the paramount Xosa Chief whose tribe, the senior
Xosa clan, was afterwards under Hintsa and Sarili (Kreli) known
as the ama-Gcaleka, built his kraals where the tribe is now located,
between the Kei and the Bashu. The aba-Tembu, under Vusani,
were situated between the Bashu and Umtata. They subsequently
fled before Madikani across the Indwe to the present district of
Glen Grey, where some still remain, the others returning to the
north of the Kei. Either a branch of this clan or another tribe of
the same name resided in Natal on the banks of the Buffalo (near
Dundee). The ama-Mpondo under Faku and ama-Mpondumise
were situated in what is known now as " Pondoland," but Faku
had a territory much smaller than that which he subsequently
gained by successful diplomacy after the Zulu invasions.
The chiefs of all these tribes claim a common descent from a
reputed ancester, Zwide.
The ama-Baca and ama-Xesibi were living in the Mount Frere
and Mount Ayliff districts, and in a portion of Pondoland.
Natal in those days was called Embo, or the home of the great
ab-Ambo tribe, which subsequently split up into many large clans,
the amsi-Hlubi, the senior clan ; the ama-Zizi, the ama-Bele, the
aba-Sekunene, the ama-Ngwana, the ama-Nxaxina — in all Sir
Theophilus Shepstone numbers ninety-four tribes. f All these were
either exterminated by Tshaka and his lieutenants, Madikani and
Matiwani, or fled under the name of ama-Fetcani (destroyers) or
ama-Mfengu (wanderers, Fingoes) into the Colonial boundary
within which, in the districts of Victoria East, Peddie and Idutywa,
they have, after much tribulation, since resided — at first the allies,
subsequently the fellow-subjects of the British. Some of these
fugitives straggled through to the West, and were ultimately
located at Bloemfontein and Carnarvon.
The ama-Zulu pursued their career of conquest and devastation
eastward to San Lucia Bay where, under the name of Vatwahs, they
were described by Captain W. F. W. Owen, R.N., in 1820 ; north-
wards as ama-Ntshangana (Shangaans) or aba-Gaza, under the
Chiefs Gaza and Umsila, to " Gazaland," where they lived as a
*Ama, and, aba, are prefixes equally denoting the plural of a tribal name,
but the prefix ama is generally attached to the names of tribes who have
achieved some reputation or notoriety.
t The Lebombo was probably once the country of the Natal tribe,
the aba-Bombo. Cf. Lesuto=Basutoland.
UNCIVILISED MAN SOUTH OF THE ZAMBESI. 85
semi-independent tribe under Portuguese rule until the deposition
of Gungunyama in 1896 ; north-westwards as ama-Ndabili (Mata-
bele) under Umsilikazi (Moselekatje) untilthey crossed the Limpopo
and rendered themselves a dreaded and annual scourge to the
Mashona tribes. From thence still further north have predatory
bands gone forth known as ama-Tshaka (Landeens), ma-Viti, wa-
Viti, wa-Machudi, a-Ngoni, beyond Lake Nyassa and the Rovuma
River.
The invincible ama-Swazi, and the people of the fortunate Faku,
were the only tribes of the Zulu-Kafir who did not feel the wrath of
the great Zulu despots, Tshaka, Dingaan and Cetewayo.
The colour of the Kafir is variable, the Tembu being of a light or
clear brown, while the Zulu and Swazi are an intense black. Tembu
girls, again, are considered the comeliest, while the Zulu men
exhibit the most perfect specimens of manly vigour.
The head is long and high ; the features vary between the Negro
and the Semitic types.
The height and strength are above the mean Bantu standard.
The muscular strength of the Kafir is, however, not so remark-
able as his agility and power of endurance. He is less sensible to
pain than civilised man. With women, again, parturition is easy
and almost painless ; and a Xosa or Tembu mother will
give birth while on a journey and walk for miles with her new-born
child.
The Kafir is generally credited with marvellous powers of sight
and hearing, but he owes his reputation probably not so much to
the development of his sensory organs as to the incessant exercise
of his perceptive faculties, and to the shrewd inferences he deduces
from their use. His voice is powerful, and he can throw the liquid
syllables of his language a great distance over the hills and valleys
when shouting to his neighbour or uttering his war cry.
He is naturally averse to continuous toil, preferring to bask in
the sun with his pipe and blanket while his women hoe the mealie
patch or carry water. Nevertheless, with an incentive before him,
such as the possession of a gun or a young wife, he will work long and
arduously at the docks or in the mines provided he forms one of a
gang or party so that the spirit of emulation may lighten his task.
He can bear torture with considerable fortitude, but will not submit
to it voluntarily to the extent that the Red Indian or Maori does,
as a test of manhood, nor is he as susceptible as they are to such
epidemics as small pox.
Lighthearted and careless, these people have a keen sense of the
ridiculous. By some they are said to be devoid of gratitude, per-
haps by those who have given them least opportunity for cultivating
that virtue. Thieving is with them a laudable achievement and
lying an elegant accomplishment. Notwithstanding, when placed
in posts of trust they have proved themselves exceptionally honest
and faithful.
Inflamed and enraged by actual conflict, they become cruel,
treacherous and bloodthirsty, but this seems to have been less the
86 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
case before Tshaka commenced his wars of extermination, and
awoke and encouraged the ferocity latent in humanity. The old ,
men told Sir Theophilus Shepstone how that in the good old times
they did not fight to shed blood, or burn houses, or capture cattle
or destroy each other, but to settle a quarrel and see which was the
stronger ; how that their women looked on while the men fought ;
that prisoners were taken but not killed, but kept till ransomed ;
and specially how that many a young warrior when the day's strife
was over would hand his shield and assegai to a companion to take
home for him that he might accompany his late foes to renew his
vows to some daughter of the rival tribe.
Next to the disciplined warrior of the Zulu impi and the Swazi,
semper invictus, the Gaika bore the highest reputation for warlike
prowess ; next to him the Gcaleka, the Tembu, and at the bottom
of the list the pacific Pondo.
Before the introduction of maize, millet (Holcus sorghum) and
milk formed the staple food of the Kafirs. " Neque multum pecore,
sed maximam partem lacte atque frumento vivunt." The milk is
kept in a skin bag or calabash and eaten curdled. The millet is
eaten ground and boiled in water Maize was welcomed as a crop
less liable to suffer from the attacks of birds, and the use of millet
is now restricted to making " beer " (t3Avala). Meat Kafirs only
indulge in on special occasions. Women had to do the hard, con-
tinuous work of hoeing the ground, sowing the crops, stamping the
grain, but since the introduction of the ox-drawn plough the men
now break up the soil. It is their work to milk the cow and attend
to the dairywork, the women not being allowed by their presence
or contact to pollute the cattle kraals or milk sack.
The Kafirs of Natal cultivated small patches of pumpkin and a
sort of sugar cane (Holcus saccharatum), and sufficient grain to
supply their beer and porridge ; but they, and more especially those
most to the south, are more of a pastoral than an agricultural
people, cattle forming their principal wealth. — eaeque solae et
gratissimae opes sunt.* Until they came in contact with Hottentots
and Europeans they kept no sheep nor goats.
In his savage state the Kafir wore little except a scanty girdle
round the waist, and to keep himself warm a kaross of buckskin or
ox hide rendered pliable by his arts. The chiefs wore robes of
leopard skins, and the tails of these animals were their insignia of
office. No covering was ever worn on the head, but a circular head
ring of wax moulded into the hair was the sign of manhood. The
face was decorated with white or red clay. The women wore long
karosses bound round under the armpits, concealing the breast ;
in the ample folds of this covering the baby swung from the back.
In times of war the leaders of the tribe wore the plumes of the
blue crane (indwe) bound by a fillet round the head, thus adding to
their height and menacing appearance. The assegais were formid-
able weapons with long trenchant double-edged blades made from
* Vide the " Germania" of Tacitus, from which mutato nomine a faithful
description of the Kaffirs could be extracted..
UNCIVILISED MAN SOUTH OF THE ZAMBESI. 87'
native iron ore. Their javelins could be thrown by a stalwart Kafir
some forty or fifty yards. Tshaka^ taught his regiments to break
off the handle and use the shortened weapons for stabbing at close
quarters. They carried large, oval ox-hide shields and knob-
kerries. Bows and arrows, though used by Bushmen and Hotten-
tots, were never adopted by Kafirs.
Their dwellings were simple bee-hive huts, composed of a wicker
frame constructed of young saplings, and thatched with reed, grass
or skins. In size they were some twenty feet or so in diameter and
seven or eight feet high. They were generally arranged in the form
of a ring on the slope of a hill surrounding the cattle kraal, under
which was kept the store of last year's grain. The huts of the chiefs
or headmen were on the same plan but larger in size.
The scheme of government was simple and patriarchal. The
chieftainship was regarded as herditary, descending from one cele-
brated ancestor, to whom lapse of time had lent divine attributes.
A chief so descended is regarded with a reverence that is sacred in
its character, notwithstanding that it sometimes yields to the
striking personal qualities of a rebel like Rarabe or of a usurper like
Ndhlambe. The Fingoes around Alice and Peddie lamented the
defeat of Langalibalele, the Chief of the Hlubis and de jure para-
mount Chief of the Abambo tribe, which was scattered to the four
winds two generations earlier by the Zulu regiments.
The chief, however, notwithstanding his divine ancestry, did
not, as a rule, act despotically. He was surrounded by a council of
" indunas," who consulted with him and confirmed all matters
which were held to involve the general welfare of the tribe. Absolute
authority conflicted in varying degrees, according to the personal
influence and character of the chief, with the voice of the people.
All land was considered among the Kafirs in theory as the
property of the tribe, for whom the chief merely acted as trustee.
He could not alienate without the consent of the council. In
practice, however, the custom was more honoured in the breach
than in the observance, the chief acting as if the land were his own
property. The arable ground he distributed among his followers.
This land once allotted was rarely or never alienated, so long as it
was cultivated by the occupant. Colunt discreti et diversi, ut fons
ut campus ut nemus placuit. Like the ancient Germans, the Kafirs
did not congregate in large villages.
The Kafir recognises two classes of offences — those against the
chief and those against the individual. The former comprise
witchcraft, murder, assault and injury to persons ; the latter, rape,
adultery, injury to property ; the underlying principle seeming to
be that the person of the tribesman is the property of the chief. In
the first class the fine, if there is one, goes to the chief, in the latter
to the injured individual.
The principle of collective responsibility for criminal actions is
characteristic of Kafir law. This is especially manifest in the
Spoor Law, which is administered on a system closely resembling
the Anglo-Saxon system of frank-pledge.
88 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
When not vitiated by the behests of ceremonial law the medical
practice of the Kafirs is rational, enlightened and scientific. Their
surgery is also not unskilful considering their rude appliances.
Much of their success is owing to their wide and peculiar knowledge
of the medicinal qualities of certain herbs.
The chief ceremonial institution is the initiation of the young
into the privileges of the adult. Circumcision, as in nearly all
South African Bantu, is practised with elaborate rites. It is called
ubukweta, and the corresponding rite among girls intonjane
{intombi, a girl). Tshaka abolished circumcision and made his impis
armies of celibates.
In Kafir marriage the indispensable custom is the lobola or gift
of the bridegroom to the bride's father. This is practically the
purchase money (in oxen) for the bride, who is generally disposed of
to a wealthy suitor. In adultery the fine goes to the injured
husband.
The Kafirs are great believers in fabulous creatures like the
mbulu (tailed man), isandula (lightning bird), etc., and in all sorts
of sprites and hobgoblins. They believe also in the spirits of the
dead (amahlozi, isitongo), in propitiating whom their religion
chiefly consists. Their word for God is Unkulunkulu, denoting
the first man or progenitor ; also Uhlanga and Itongo, the Great
Spirit. He is an ancestral deity from whom all men trace their
origin. Other terms for God are Tixo and Qamata, the former
certainly, the latter probably of Hottentot derivation.
B. GWAMBA OR TeKEZA GROUP.
The word Tekeza was applied by the Zulu to the language of
these people, though it does not differ greatly from their own. Nor
are they dissimilar in physique, occupation, ceremonial and religion,
and they also practice circumcision. The tribes forming this group
comprise the ama-Tonga of San Lucia Bay, the ama-Hlengo around
Inhambane, the Natives residing in the province of Lourenco
Marques and the ama-Gwamba of the Transvaal. Many of these'
tribes formerly resided in Natal, and were invaded by the Zulus
(Vatwahs) under Tshaka. As fugitives the ama-Gwamba fled over
the Lebombo Mountains into the Lydenberg district, where they are
known as " Knobnoses," and have played some part in the Native
affairs of the Republic.
Many individuals of this group are favourably known as labourers
in the Cape Colony, where they are included in the general term
" Mozambiques," applied to all Natives of Portuguese East Africa.
C. Makalanga Group.
It is unlikely that when the Sabaeans or Minagans or Phoenicians
exploited the gold fields lying between the Zambesi and Limpopo
rivers the Bantu tribes had yet reached so far southward ; and it is
supposed that the territory was then occupied by Hottentots and
Bushmen.
UNCIVILISED MAN SOUTH OF THE ZAMBESI. 89
A considerable interval of time must have elapsed between the
final departure of the miners for Arabia (or a more distant country)
and the appearance on the coast of their Mahomedan descendants in
the eighth century a.d. ; and by that time the Bantu had probably
arrived at the region now known as Rhodesia. In the sixteenth
century when the Portuguese visited the territory they found tribes
which, although since then raided by the wa-Zimba, attacked by the
Portuguese and invaded and ravaged by the armies of Umsilikazi,
have clung to the soil to this day.
These tribes are the ma-Kalanga (ma ka Langa or ma-Vumbe),
the ba-Nyai, the ma-Suina (Mashona), located in the west, north
and east respectively of Southern Rhodesia, and the ba-Yeiye, near
Lake Ngami. They are all closely related, and in colour and
physical attributes resemble the Zulu Kafir but are much les^ robust
in form, strength and character. Many of the ba-Nyai are light
cafe au lait, but the Portuguese described the " Mocaranga " as
black with woolly hair, and as being handsome. Nevertheless
they called them a " feeble folk " (gente fraca), the cause
or result of their comparatively peaceful avocations ; for
they preferred agricultural to pastoral pursuits. They reared
sheep, however, and a small breed of cattle, and kept swine and
poultry.
A sub-tropical climate enabled them to grow orange and lemon
trees, vines and fig trees. These they now cease to cultivate, but
when visited by Livingstone they still planted sugar-cane, millet,
beans, ground nuts, pumpkins, watermelons and cucumbers, and,
in addition, the comparatively lately introduced maize. They
made butter from a vegetable oil, and, from the millet, bread and
the inevitable beer (pombe). Their artificers manufactured
ornaments from the gold collected from the rivers and implements
of iron, hoes, hatchets, arrow heads, assegais and swords, and wove
cotton cloth for the use of their chiefs. Skin robes were worn by
the common people.
Their houses resembled those of the other tribes we have men-
tioned in being round in shape, constructed of wood, but with conical
roofs thatched with grass or reed and furnished with mats ; and
there is no reason to believe that the famous " city " (cidade) of
Zimbaohe or Zimbabwe was much, if at all, superior to Ginginghlovu
— the " great place " of Tshaka. Yet, if the Portuguese accounts
are to be believed, Monomotapa and Kiteve, Sedanda and Tshicanga
were very great monarchs who held an elaborate court and dwelt in
great magnificence ; and it may really have been that intercourse
with the Moors and Arabs of the, coast allowed of these potentates
attaining a degree of civilisation equal to that reached by Mtesa in
the palmy days of Uganda, and excelling the " tawdry empires "
of Congo in the seventeenth, and of Muata Yamvo and Cazembe in
the early days of the last century. The ruins of the ancient temples
and forts were perhaps too mysterious and sacred in their character
to be utilised for secular purposes and on too great a scale to be
imitated. They were the scenes of some of their religious festivals
go SCIEN'CE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
and in some cases the granite blocks have apparently been taken for
their cattle kraals.
The exploits of the " Conquistador dos Reynos," Francisco
Barreto, and his successors, put an end to this splendour and the
civil war between contending chiefs, the slave trade and a gradual
disintegration of the tribes supervened ; through all which the
inoffensive Native continued the cultivation of the kindly fruits of
the earth until Umsilikazi and his hordes burst on the scene and
converted the country into a desert. The timid tribes were subju-
gated by the Matabele, and up to the death of Lo Bengula his impis
raided periodically the grazing grounds and gardens of the hapless
ma-Suina, forcing them to take refuge amid the clefts and crannies
of the granite outcrops of Mashonaland. The ba-Yeiye were driven
into the waterless plains of the Kalahari. The ma-Kalanga enjoy
comparative immunity under the rule of the chiefs of the ba-
Mangwato. Among the ba-Nyai the government is a sort of feudal
republicanism. The chief is not hereditary but selected from the
royal house. The nephew generally is chosen.
The ma-Kalanga (a name supposed to mean " people of the sun —
langa ") shared the usual Kafir belief in a God, " Molungo," who, as
described by Dos Santos, " lived in a heaven of his own." Other
authorities, Pory and GraVenbrock say he was called " Mozimo "
or " Messimo." The ma-Suina of to-day have sacred" lion " gods
or prophets, to each of whom they offer prayer and sacrifice and call
" Mlimo " or "Mondoro." These prophets did much in prolonging
the Mashona insurrection. Among the ba-Nyai lions were never
destroyed, as the people believed that the souls of their chiefs
entered them not only after death but during life. This doubtless
is the fundamental idea of the Mashona " lion " prophet.-
Selous stigmatises the ma-Suina as avaricious, cowardly and
callous. Indeed, he says that if an angel were sent among them
they would kill him for the sake of his wing feathers if they were of
any value. The ma-Kalanga he calls industrious and peaceable.
D. Bechuana Group.
Although it is undoubtedly Bantu in language there exists so
great a difference between the group of Bechuana dialects and those
of other Bantu tribes, in phonology especially, as to lead some
authorities to rank it (with the Makua) as a distinct class of sub-
family. There are further differences in temperament, clothing,
customs and religion which emphasise this distinctive character of
the Bechuana and which lead one to account for their present
position in South Africa by a migration from the north or north-
east by a middle route much more recent than were the earlier
Eastern and Western migrations of the main body.
The various Bechuana tribes seem themselves to have been
conscious of this resemblance between each other and their differ-
ence from other Bantu, since they give themselves, what is unusual
among Bantu, a generic appellation" for their group of clans, viz.,
UNCIVILISED MAN SOUTH OF THE ZAMBESI. 9I
" Bechuana " (the people who are alike), which is rendered in Herero
" Ovatyaona " and " Mationa." The Hottentots and Namaqua
called them Birina or Briqua (goat people).
In height the Bechuana are but little if any shorter than the
Kafirs or Zulus. Like them also there is considerable variety in
tint. Generally they are lighter in colour than the coast tribes,
and the sickly sallow of the ma-Kololo is commented on by Living-
stone. The Zulus call them Abasunda or Abesuta (whence
" Basutu ") from a word meaning dun coloured or brown. In-
variably the red under tint is perceptible.
To quote Ratzel, " der Betschuana stellt in der ausseren
Erscheinung die weichere mildere Auspragung des Kafferntypus."
The body is slenderer than the Kafir's ; the aspect softer and
gentler, the motions less rough and brusque, the strength not so
•great. But while the common people are in no way either physically
or mentally superior to other Bantu, we frequently find in the ruling
caste unusual intellectual power, which leads us to suspect that,
as in the case of the Uganda and Unyoro hereditary chiefs we have
the descendants of a superior race ruling over one inferior. We may
instance the cases of Sebitoane of the ma-Kololo, Sechele of the
ba-Kwena, Khama of the ba-Mangwato, and Moshesh of the ba-
Suto.
The Western tribes, owing doubtless to remoteness from the
coast and its troubled politics, have attained a higher level of civili-
sation than those in the East. The houses, although circular, are
better made, and enclosed with fences to secure privacy. The
conical, thatched roof comes down over the walls in eaves, and the
whole building is more substantial and commodious. These houses
are not clustered in little groups like the kraals of the Kafirs, but
form large towns or " stads," with populations extending to ten
or twenty thousand inhabitants, such as Kolobeng, Shoshong,
Palachwe. Indeed, the mo-Chuana might be said to lead a town
life, and prefers to relegate the duties of herding the cattle at his
distant posts to serfs or slaves like the ba-Kalahari, or ba-Lala, or
ma-Sarwa Bushmen.
Unlike the Kafir, of whom magna est corporis pars aperta, the
mo-Chuana wraps himself up in an ample kaross. The women do
the same, and besmear their hair with a glistening ointment of fat
and mica dust. To the weapons of the Kafir, the mo-Chuana adds
the battle axe. The assegai is smaller, as also the shield, which is
of a dumb-bell pattern, and not the large long oval of the Zulu.
Like most Bantu the be-Chuana practise circumcision (boguera)*
which is performed at the age of puberty. Among some tribes the
novitiates are flogged with rods, like the Spartan youths before the
image of Artemis, and with the same object — to test their fortitude.
The be-Chuana have also a ceremonial initiation of the nubile female
into the household and domestic duties of womanhood (boyale),
which compares very favourably with the repulsive rites of the
Xo a intonjane.
♦According to Livingstone boguera is rather a civil than religious rite.
g2 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Notwithstanding this agreeable feature we are told that among
he Eastern or Mountain be-Chuana sexual immorality is much more
rife and unbridled than among the Coast tribes.*
The be-Chuana are, however, remarkable for their honesty, a
virtue which has been noticed from Livingstone's time (among the
ba-Kwena and ma-Kololo) to the present day among the ba-Tlaro.
They believe in a chief spirit, Morimo, powerful and malicious,
but which unlike the Unkulunkulu of the Kafirs seems to bear no
ancestral relation to his worshippers. They also, like the Kafirs,
believe in the spirits of the dead ba-rimo, with which the priests or
senyaka have intercourse. As might be expected in an arid region,
where the rivers flow underground, the rain-maker holds a more
conspicuous position than the witch-finder. Many tribes bear the
names of animals from which they would seem to claim descent,
and whom they certainly as their sibokof regard as sacred. Thus
the ba-Puti, or " duiker " people, refuse to eat the duiker (cephal-
ophus grimmi), and the ba-Kwena or " crocodile " people hold that
saurian in great reverence.
In the main the Bechuana clans maintain the same geographical
position as they did when first enumerated by Mr. J. Campbell in
1813.
Of the Western group the ba-Mangwato under Sekhomi and his
son Khama ; the ba-Kwena, under Setyeli (Sechele, Livingstone's
friend) ; the ba-Wanketsi, known as Gassisive's tribe, now under
Bathoen ; the ba-Khatla, under Linchwe ; the ba-Malete, under
Ikaneng, have long dwelt in what is now known as the Bechuana-
land Protectorate, the first-named being the most northern, the
others in the order named situated more to the south.
The ba-Rolong have their kraals on both banks of the Molopo
River. Their situation on the Transvaal boundary involved their
Chiefs, Montsiwa and Moshette, in the Boer raids into Stellaland
and Goshen. A branch formerly resided in the Orange Free State
under Moroko, but was broken up by the burgher government.
The ba-Tlaro, under Toto, lie to the west in the Langeberg
(Gordonia). The ba-Tlapi or fish-folk under Mahura, Mankoroane
and his son Molala, are now in the Taung Reserve. The ba-Taung
or "lion " people, whose chief Molitsane used to be a thorn in the
side of Moshesh, are now practically dispersed, a small remnant still
remaining in Herschel. In the Transvaal are located the ba-
Mapela, ba-Makapan and the ba-Pedi or ba-Peri, well known as
Sekukuni's tribe. The followers of Mapoch, Malapoch and Malewa
are probably mixed Matabele and Bechuana, as also the scattered
fragments of clans scattered by -the Zulu and re-united under
Ramapulana, a chief of much ability, in the Zoutpansberg district.
The ba-Suto were originally ba-Kwena according to their chief
Moshesh, who, like the head of the ba-Ramapulana, collected the
waifs and strays of fugitive clans escaping from Tshaka, and by the
*G. Theal. History of the Boers, London, 1887, pp. 15-18.
f Cf. Xosa-Zulu : isibongo, song or title of praise.
UNCIVILISED MAN SOUTH OF THE ZAMBESI. 93
force of his rare intellectual qualities welded them into a homogenous
nation, formidable once to Boer and British, but now wealthy and
prosperous.
Sebitoane, his reputed half-brother, led another horde, the
ba-Tlokwa, better known as ma-Kololo, flying from Moselikatze
(Umsilikazi) as far as the Zambesi, which he crossed close to the
Victoria Falls, and established the Barotse empire, in which most
of the ma-Kololo were finally merged — according on one story, by
the ba-Rotse (ba-Rozwe), on the death of Sebitoane's son and
successor, Sekeletu, from leprosy, rising against their conquerors
and killing all the males but sparing the women and girls whom
they took into their kraals.
However this may be, the Sekololo language was imposed on the
ba-Rotse much more effectually than the Normans' tongue upon the
Saxons, and remains the speech of an alien tribe.
Another such horde, the ba-Tlokwa, sometimes confused with
the ma-Kololo, whom in fact they preceded (1823) under their
chieftainess, Mantitis, swept across the southern portion of the
Transvaal in a north-westerly direction until routed by the Griquas
near Lithako. This tribe, much reduced in number and power,
became ultimately broken into fragments, of which the largest band
was finally exterminated by Moshesh, and the chief Sikonyella, the
son of Ma-Ntitis, ended his days in obscurity near Herschel.
Individual members of this extinct clan, driven as fugitives
hither and thither, are still called by the Boers " Makatees." Hence
probably the Kafir word for Bechuana, " amahadi."
E. The Herero Group.
Of this group the ova-Herero or ova-Tyimba and the ovam-
Bandieru are the type. These two clans really constitute but one
tribe, the Herero. Their speech approaches most nearly what is
considered to be the archetype of the Bantu tongue, and seems of all
its dialects the least influenced by phonetic decay or change of
grammatical structure.
Physically they are one of the finest of the Bantu tribes, having
finely-modelled figures indicative of the strength which they are
known to possess. Their skin is dark and the features good, but
their mental equipment is not of a high order. Indeed, they seem
in disposition rather bovine, as befits their bucolic pursuits. Thus,
notwithstanding their bodily advantages, they have almost invari-
ably been defeated by the Namaquas, by whom they are called
Damap, Damara, or the conquered people. This is accounted for,
however, by the superiority given to the Hottentot by the possession
of horses and guns. That a warlike spirit, hitherto latent, still exists
has been discovered by the German troops, somewhat to their
surprise.
Their clothing is scanty, consisting of a few skins, but, unlike
the Kafir, they abstain from going entirely nude. Their weapons
are a small assegai, light bow and arrow, knobkerrie, and small adze
94 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
or axe. The women wear an extraordinary head-dress with upright
lappets resembhng the eagle wings of a Viking's helmet.
The Herero, as explained, are chiefly pastoral, and keep a good
breed of cattle. Sheep are held in less esteem, and goats are
despised. Their chief food is the ground nut and sour milk.
One striking characteristic of this tribe is that, unlike the Bantu
generally, who circumcise at the age of adolescence, they perform
this operation on children between the ages of four and seven.
Another singular trait is the sacred fire, omurangere, kept burn-
ing at the chief's kraal under the charge of one of his wives (the
ondangere). A further peculiarity is the belief that all living things
emanated from the sacred tree (omumborombonga). Their God
they call Karunga Ondyambi, or " heavenly restorer." He is also
called Mukuru, " whose abode is in the north." From the north,
they say, they came themselves (notwithstanding the tree legend),
and to remind themselves of that fact they, when burying their dead,
place the face of the corpse in that direction. According to Andersson
they must have come from the east or north-east, and probably
arrived at their present habitation not many years ago< The oldest
name that they give themselves is ova-Tyimba, and in view of these
facts considered with their fine physique and lately exhibited
valour, it has occurred to the writer as not unlikely that they are
remnants of that terrible tribe the Jaga or ma-Zimba (Makalanga
pronunciation)* who, starting from the Congo mouth, twice swept
across the continent and disappeared westward about two hundred
and fifty years ago. The disorganisation caused by the rout and
disintegration of these people would account for the Herero chiefs
having little power, and for the tribes being broken up into little
bands ; and this would also furnish another reason for their ill-
success against the Namaqua and Koranna. Kamaherero is the
best known of the chiefs, and was generally recognised as paramount
during his life time, though in Galton's day there were four or five
principal chiefs.
A tribe included in this group as closely akin in speech is the
ov-Ampo or ova-Ndonga, who live north of the Herero, extending
up to the Cunene River. This is also a finely-made race, but more ill-
favoured in feature. Unlike the pastoral Herero, the ov-Ampo are
agricultural, and their country, Ondonga, is described as beautiful
and park-like, covered in season by golden grain interspersed by
fine fruit-bearing trees. They grow two varieties of millet, beans
and peas, which they manure from the cattle kraal. In addition to
oxen and sheep, they keep goats, dogs and poultry. Every homestead
has its milch cows attached, and is supplied with water from wells.
Their word for God is Karunga and Umthithi.
II. THE YELLOW-SKINNED RACES.
The limits of space imposed upon me do not enable me to do
more than make a passing reference to the yellow-skinned races
♦Herero Ndy=Z of Makalanga and other Bantu tribes. Compare
Jfdyambi, God, Herero, Zambi. -i^ ,
UNCIVILISED MAN SOUTH OF THE ZAMBESI. 95
which have inhabited South Africa. Although the similarity of
colour, which varies in both races from pale ivory to cafe au lait,
but which is generally, a dirty yellow — and its contrast with the
dark brown or black of the Bantu leads the cursory observer to
regard the Hottentot and Bushman as nearly related, a closer
examination of their physical and mental qualities, as also of their
customs and life history, reveals the broad gulf that lies between
them. This was recognised by the first Dutch settlers who, while
calling the Hottentots Strand-loopers or Tobacco thieves, and such
like epithets, gave the Bushmen the same names that they had
bestowed in Sumatra on the Orang-utan, " Bosmanniken." The
Kafirs also appreciated the distinction and while calling the
.Hottentots as a race Abalawu, designated the Bushmen Abatwa.
The Bechuana called the Bushmen Baroa, the Kora Hottentots
(Koranna) Bakhotu ; the Herero called the Bushmen Ovatua, the
Nama Hottentots (Namaqua) they called Ovaseranda (red men)
or Ovakuena, a word adapted from the name the Hottentots gave
themselves, Khoi-khoin or men of men. The Hottentot name for
the Bushmen was San, Sonqua and Obiqua or robber.
While the Hottentot is of medium stature, averaging 5 feet 5^
inches, slenderly but well proportioned, the Bushman is dwarfed,
rarely exceeding 4 J feet and ill proportioned, with large head and
pot-belly. In both races there is a tendency to steatopyga, but as
that is observable also among Boer women and even the sheep of
the country this cannot be considered as a racial distinction, and is
probably owing to climate. 'The woolly hair of the Hottentot is a
dense dead black ; the peppercorn tufts of the Bushman are a rusty
brown. In both races the skull is dolichocephalic, but the Hotten-
tot is more prognathous than the Bushman profile.
The dwellings of the Hottentots are beehive huts ranged in
clusters or kraals, like those of the Kafirs, and like theirs also made
of wattles covered with skins. The home of the Bushman is the
shady- cover of a kameeldoorn, a rough " scherm " of branches and
skins on the lee si.de of a clump of bush, or a crevice or cave in the
cliffs overlooking a stream. The ordinary clothing of the Hotten-
tots and Bushmen did not differ much except that the skins worn
by each were better dressed in the Ci3.se of the IJottentot. In cold
weather, however, the Hottentots wrapped themselves up in
karosses described by the Portuguese in the fifteenth century as
made " after the manner of French cloaks " ; those of the Namaqua
were frequently made of leopard or wild cat skin. The women
wore ampler covering, and skin caps decorated with beads and
shells. The weapons of war of the Hottentots were the assegai,
the kiri and the bow and arrow ; the Namaqua also used the battle
axe. The Bushman was only armed with his tiny bow and
poisoned arrow, but having this weapon the " brown serpent of the
rocks " was more formidable than either Kafir or Hottentot.
A few arts were practised by the Hottentot. They made a rude
clay pottery and carved wooden bowls and pipes, and obtained, by
smelting, iron which they beat into spear blades and other articles.
96 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The Namaqua worked up the native copper found in their territory
into beads.
The Bushmen had but one art, in which they far excelled othei
more advanced tribes. Their rude rock paintings displayed not only
much artistic skill, but considerable humour.
The Hottentots were a pastoral race, grazing their large, long-
horned, slab-sided cattle, and their long-haired, fleshy-tailed sheep
over the grass veld and Karroobosch. The Bushman was a hunter
only — a hunter of rats and mice and such small deer. " The count-
less springbok are his flock " when times are prosperous, but in
seasons of short fare he contents himself with the lizard and the
locust. The social organisation of the Hottentot is tribal, of the
Bushman so primitive that it does not even deserve to be called
patriarchal, and might be more fitly described as parental. While
the Hottentot is polygamous and gregarious, the Bushman is mono-
gamous and unsocial. The position of woman is one of equality in
both races, and thus superior to that of the Bantu female.
The language of the Hottentot is agglutinative, sex denoting,
pronominal affixing. In its elaborate grammatical structure it
may be compared with the Greek or German, but, according to
Bleek, its closest affinities are to be found in Northern Africa.
Four dialects are known to have existed — I., the Cape dialect,
spoken by the Goringaikona, Gorachouqua, Cochoqua, Hessequa
and other Western tribes ; H., the Eastern, spoken by the Gonaqua
and probably also the Inqua, Attaqua and Outeniqua ; HI., the
Namaqua, spoken by the tribes north of the lower course of the
Orange ; IV., the Koranna, spoken by tribes ranging along the
Upper Orange and Lower Vaal rivers. Massouw's tribe near Vry-
burg and Goliath Ysterbek's band at Bethanie (O.R.C.) seem to
have reached the extreme eastern limit.
It is doubtful whether we know the real language of the Bush-
man. It was probably rich in clicks, some only of which have
permeated the Hottentot and Xosa dialects. The language they
were known to speak resembles a corrupted patois of Hottentot,
bearing to it the same relation as Koranna or Griqua Dutch does
to the language of Bilderdijk and Beets.
The religion of the Hottentos and Bushmen, like that of the
Bantu and Negro on the West Coast, partook more of the character
of nature worship, astral and animal, than of ancestor worship.
The Hottentots were, as Captain Cowley puts it, " worshippers
of Dame Luna," to whom they danced in the long moonlight nights
as the coloured people still continue to do. They also paid rever-
ence to a mysterious being called Tsui-goab, or Heitsi-eibib, who
wrestled like Jacob with an antagonist, in this case not from the
upper world, but from the realms of darkness, who wounded him in
the knee. Whether this variant of the Penuel incident may be
regarded as another form of the Manichaean principle of the contest
between Good and Evil, or, as the school of Max Muller afiirm it is,
a solar myth representing the struggle of Red Dawn (so Hahn
translates Tsuigoab) with " Blackest Midnight," or whether the
UNCIVIi;,ISED MAN SOUTH OF THE ZAMBESI. 97
euhemeristic visw be, taken, that we have here merely the struggle
of some Namaqua hero with a Bantu or Negrito foe I leave to the
choice of he reader.
The folk-loi;e of both r,aces is rich in star-mythology and beast
fables. Among the Hottentots " Brer Fox," alias the jackal, plays
a leading role, and among the Bushmen the Mantis religiosa or
" Hottentot God." Each anirnal in these tales speaks its own
patois, in which the clicks are an irnportant feature.
The geographical distribution of the Hotten ots when the Dutch
a rived did not extend beyond the Orange River basin, but at one
time must have reached as far north as Angola, Sofala, and perhaps
Kilimanjaro. We have no information as to their original home,
although linguistic affinities point to the Western Sudan. If so
their retreat has been cut off by later Negro and Bantu migrations
from Central or Northern Africa to the West Coast.
I can see nothing to justify the theory held by some ethnologists
that the Hottentot are a mixed race derived from a union of Bush-
men with Bantu, seeing that the latter at the date the Zimbabwe
buildings were erected were not in contact with the races occupying
Southern Africa. The Hottentots had probably established them-
selves then as a distinct race long before the fusion, in the Nile
valley or Lake region of Negro and Hamitic or Negro and Semitic
- into Bantu ever took place. The close conformity to, and per-
sistency of, the type, so different to the variability of the Bantu,
is a strong proof of their purity of strain.
Of the cradle of the Bushmen we can say still less than we can
of the Hottentot, and the question is further complicated by the
sporadic distribution of yellow-skinned dwarf tribes throughout
the Continent from Khartoum to Cape Town. Shell mounds at
the Buffalo mouth, supposed to be formed by this race, date back
to a geologic age coaeval with or equivalent to the River Drift of
Great Britain. Throughout the country south of the Molopo and
Vaal rivers — Stormberg, Stellenbosch, Griqualand West — stone
implements of various ages, rangin'g from the geologic period just
mentioned to the time of European occupation, are found mostly
of Bushman origin, but the spear heads and pottery found in the
sand dunes around Table and Algoa Bays are probably the manu-
facture of the Hottentot " strandloopers."
The Hottentots were by no means a bloodthirsty or warlike
race. Although probably far outnumbering the Bushmen they
were no match for these malicious and audacious marauders. Al-
though the advent of the Dutch hastened their disappearance as an
independent race yet it seems probable that if no European had
landed on South African shores the extermination of the Hottentots
would ultimately have been effected by their insidious and diminu-
tive foes. As it was they were preserved from starvation and
stealthy massacre by being merged into the other races, white or
coloured, of the Cape Colony. The Namaqua and Koranna alone
still maintain, if not their purity of blood, their tribal entity. They
have retained their language, but lost many of their original customs
98 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
and beliefs, and have adopted ftie clothing and other characteristics
of the European.
The admixture of white blood, and the use of the horse and
musket rendered some of the border clans formidable for mischief,
and half-bred bandits like the Bastards and Griquas under Afrikaner,
Barends, Waterboer, and Kok displayed at one time much
active ferocity. They are now, however, sinking into listless apathy
noticeable in the Griquas of Kokstad and Reitfontein, settled by
Government in the Transkeian territory.
The extermination of the Bushman was for a long time regarded
by the Cape Government as a matter of State policy. Neither
peace nor truce was possible with a race so utterly untameable and
aggressive, and commando after commando went forth to destroy
the savage little robbers who swept off the stock of the Boer,as they
had swept off the herds of the Hottentot, and who neither granted
nor sought quarter. The few bands, which have not been scattered
as herdsmen among the Dutchman's farms, lurk in the sands of
Bushmanland and in the crags of the Drakensburg, or are held as
serfs by the Bechuana of the Kalahari.
III. BERG DAMARA.
One tribe remains to be noticed, which except for its stunted
stature is physically undistinguishable from the Bantu, while
mentally it is inferior to the Bushman. I refer to the Ghou Damup
or Berg Damara, who live as neighbours to the Herero and Nam-
aqua. Driven to the hills by the Hottentot Kapteyns. they have
lost their own speech and speak a Hottentot patois. It is a matter of
doubt whether they are a degraded off-shoot from the Ovampo or
the sole remnant of an earlier Negrito (Negrillo) race, the veritable
South African autochthon, the primitive Homo sethiopicus of Keane,
whose traces we see in the neolithic and perhaps palaeolithic remains
of the Transvaal.
UNCIVILISED MAN SOUTH OF THE ZAMBESI.
99
APPENDIX r.
Comparative Table of a Few Bantu Words.
English.
Man
Goat
Ox
Fowl
Snake
Tree
Rain
Water
Moon
Sun
God
Three
Great
Below
To see
River
Ziilii^Kaffir.
u-rauntu
im-buzi
inkomo
inkuku
inyoka
umti, umuti
iravula
omanzi
( nyanga |
( mweze )
( Unkuluukulu
j U Tixo, U Qamata
tatu
kulu
ezantsi
uku-bona
umlambo
Tekeza.
Kalanga.
Hen'iv.
Chnaiia
amuno
munttu
omundu
motho
em-buti
—
ngombe
pudi
omo, homo
ngombe
ongombc
kgomo
inko
nko
ondyuhua
kgogo
—
inyoka
onyoka
noga
mure
muti
—
—
—
ivura
ombura
pula
mati
madzi
omevo
metse
Mulungu
kunsi
nambo
Molungo
Reza, Mozimo
Mukuru
Ondyambi
- Morimo
tatu
tatu
raro
urwana
kuru
golu
kusi
kehi
fa-tla-se
u-woua
oku-muna
go-bona
—
—
molapo
Number of Pronominal Prefixes in
I. Zulu Kaffir
II. Tekeza
III. Makalanga
IV. Hereto
V. Sechuana ..
H
12
15-18
12-13
H 2
■100 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The reader is referred for further information to the following : —
Report of the Government Commission on Native Laws and
Customs, G. 4, 1883. Cape Town, 1883.
Report of a Commission appointed to determine Land Claims and to
effect a Land Settlement in British Bechuanaland. C. 4889,
London, 1886.
Basutoland Records, collected and arranged by Geo. M. Theal.
Cape Town, 1883.
Annals of Natal, by John Bird. Pietermaritzburg, 1888.
Records of South-East Africa. Collected and arranged by George
McCall Theal, LL.D. London, 1898-1903.
Andersson, C. J. " Lake Ngami." London, 1856.
Arbousset, Rev. T., and Rev. F. Daumas. " Narrative of an
Exploratory Tour to the North-East of the Colony of the
Cape of Good Hope." London, 1852.
Bleek, W. H. J. " Comparative Grammar of the South African
Languages." London, 1862.
Calloway, Rev. J. " Religious System of the Amazulu."
London, 1869.
Campbell, Rev. J. " Second Journey in South Africa."
London, 1822.
CusT, R. N. " The Modern Languages of Africa." London, 1883.
El Masudi. " Les Prairies d'Or." Texte et Traduction par
Bathier de Meynard, et Paret de Courteille. Paris, 1846.
Folk Lore Journal, Vols. L and IL Cape Town and London,
1879-1880.
Fritsch, Gustav. " Die Eingeborenen Sud Afrikas. Breslau, 1872.
G^LTON, F. Travels in Sputh Africa (Minerva Library).
London, 1889.
Gardiner, Capt. Allen. " Narrative of a Journey to the Zoolu
Country." London, 1836.
HoLDEN, Rev. W. C. " The Past and Future of the Kafir Race."
London 1866.
HoLUB, Emil. "Seven Years in South-Africa (1872-79), translated
by E. E. Frewer. London, 1881.
Johnston, H. H. " Kihmanjaro Expedition." London, 1886.
Johnston, Sir H. " British Central Africa." London, 1897.
Johnston, Sir H. " Colonisation of Africa by Native Races."
London, 1899.
Johnston, Sir H. Uganda Protectorate. London, 1902.
Keane, a. H. " Ethnology." Cambridge^ 1896.
Keane, a. H. " Man Past and Present." Cambridge, 1899.
KOLBE, Rev. F. W. An English-Herero Dictionary. CapeTownj
1883.'
Livingstone, Dr. D. ' Missionary Travels." London, 1857.
Livingstone, Dr. D. " Missionary Travels." Edited by' F. s!
Arnot. London, 1898.
UNCIVILISED MAN SOUTH OF THE ZAMBESI. lOI
Mackenzie, Rev. J. " Ten Years North of the Orange River."
Edinburgh, 1871.
Ratzel, Dr. F. " Volkerkunde," Vol. I. Leipzig, 1887.
Reade, Winwood. " Savage Africa." London, 1863.
Selous, F. C. " Travels and Adventures in South Africa."
London, 1893.
Selous, F. C. " Sunshine and Storm in Rhodesia." London, 1896.
Theal, Dr. Geo. McCall. " History of South Africa " :
1795-1834. London, 1891.
1834-1854. London, 1893.
" The Republics." London, 1889.
Thompson, Geo. " Travels and Adventures in South Africa. .
London, 1827.
Tooke, W. Hammond. " Certain Resemblances in the Land
Tenure and Criminal Law of the Kafirs and Anglo-Saxons."
Revue Coloniale et Internationale. Tome H. Amsterdam,
1887.
Tooke, W. Hammond. " The God of the Ethiopeans." Cape Illus-
trated Magazine. Cape Town.
Tooke, W. Hammond. "Star Lore of S.A. Natives. S.A. Phil.
Soc. Trans. Cape Town, 1888.
ToRREND, Rev. J., S.J. " A Comparative Grammar of the South
African Bantu Languages." London, 1891.
SECTION II. -ANTHROPOLOGIC AL—(<;o;(M.)
2. THE STONE AGE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
By L. Peringuey, Assistant Director, South African
Museum.
General.
In 1866, the late Sir Langham Dale discovered close to his
residence on the Cape Flats, near Cape Town, stones showing
traces of chipping.
It is worthy of note that some of these implements are the
most perfect of their kind found, as yet, in South Africa.
This discovery was foltowed by others in the Cape Colony, at
K'imberley, where they lay imbedded in the claims " intermixed
with the precious stones of the diamond diggings," East London,
the Orange River Colony, Swaziland, the Transvaal, and Southern
Rhodesia. In fact, these implements of primitive civilisation,
be they lance or arrow heads, scrapers, hatchets or battle axes,
smiting or throwing stones, perforated discs, pounders or mullers,
minute or huge, abound all over South Africa from West to East,
from North to South, exposed on the surface, or occurring in the
" middens " of the sea coast when not ancient, or, when of more
remote antiquity, imbedded often very deeply in alluvial deposits
or the talus of mountains.
That there are two, if not three types of implements, cannot be
doubted.
On the one hand we have some instruments almost puerile in
their aspect and often having no particular shape other than a cutting
edge, such as we know to have been used only yesterday by the
little yellow men of the Khoi Khoin race, or others, better finished,
sometimes of a superior workmanship, but never worked on both
sides, i.e., they have always an unchipped face.
On the other hand, again, we find implements often so large
that only a most powerful race could have made use of them,
weapons more often of rude workmanship, but occasionally also of
a finish that can bear comparison with the best implements of the
St. Acheul type, and which in every case are worked on both
sides, i.e., have both faces chipped into facets. This applies, of
course to weapons of offence or defence.
That we have two periods, a paleolithic and a recent one, is
indubitable, but there is no evidence as to the time when the
THE 5TONE AGE IN SOUTH AFRICA. I03
former was replaced by the lattef, and this point must for long
remain conjectural.
Recent discoveries, however, lead me to think that there has
been a neolithic period evolved from . the palaeolithic, although
not comparable to the evolution of the palaeolithic age into the age
of the polished stone, as instanced, in Europe and elsewhere. If we
assume that the ruder the type the older it is, the better finished
weapoii of the same type mustp^-ove to belong to an exclusively
neolithic age. Yet this neolithic age may be replaced by one of
a recent period, exhibiting distinct traces of retrogression, and
having nothing in common with it, and this is what seems to have
taken place in South Africa.
Neither geology nor palaeontology have enabled us so far to
obtain a clue to the possible age of this quartenary period, in the
case of the first, because material of a palaeolithic type and of the
highest finish, as well as of a ruder kind, have beeri found together
in valleys where no traces of old river terraces could be traced,
whereas material of the same type, but perhaps of a less well-finished
kind, has been found where such terraces are said to exist ; in the
case of the second, because no remains of extinct or still living
animals have as yet been found in connection with the deposits or
" stations " where the implements occur.
Implements of this type, however, have been found made of a
surface quartzite which is forming at the present day ; these in-
struments cannot therefore be very ancient, unless indeed they
belonged to a period of transition, a presumption for which there
is, I think, no foundation.
On the whole, the quartzite implements are wonderfully well
preserved, and the edges as sharp as if they had been made quite
recently.
I have not as yet met with any evidence that the implements
of the palaeolithic type were used for barter, I think that such has
not been the case, because the best finished ones found in the
neighbourhood of Stellenbosch and Paarl differ greatly from the
best finished on£S found elsewhere.
The banded jasper ones of Griqualand West, which, however,
resemble in workmanship, but not in material, the weapons of
Vereeniging, occur only in Griqualand West or its neighbour-
hood.
As for the smaller implements of the recent or, perhaps more
rightly called, present age type, the same cannot be said of them,
and some have been found where the material of which they are
made of is known to be absent. These may have been obtained by
barter, but it is more likely that they were carried by owrers of a
migratory or widely roaming disposition.
For both periods the hardest stone available has been made
use of. Thus, for the implements of palaeolithic type it is the
closely grained Table Mountain sandstone, where that occurs,
or other hard quartzite, where it does not, especially in the South-
western part of the Cape Colony ; dolerite, shale indurated by
104 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRltA. '
dolerite, or quartzite at Vereeniging; jasper in Griqualand West ;
surface quartzite at Darling and on the confines of Namaqtialand ; '
Dwyka chert in the Karroo ; for the neohthic implements it is a
flint-like chert, sometimes obsidian in Swaziland ; the cherty
sandstone of the Cape Flats, quartz crystals, agates in the Cape
and Orange River Colony, Vereeniging, Johannesburg, etc. All
the implements are chipped either on one side or both, but none
have yet been found ground or polished by man.
Recent Period.
It is singular that just as the best finished weapons and imple-
ments referable to a palaeolithic period have been fomid in the
vicinity of Cape Town, a still more restricted locality, the Cape
Town Flats, usually called the Cape Flats, have yielded also the
finest examples of weapons connected with the recent period.
On these Cape Flats are found in addition to, and in conjunction
with flakes, knives, scrapers of the usual type obtaining everywhere,
and upon which no special care was bestowed, implements, mostly
arrow or javelin heads, evincing great care in the making, but
chipped on one side only. They are never large, nor have they at
the base any notches or tangs that could have been of use for
fastening them to a haft, the bulb of concussion is always con-
spicuou'Sly ' bulging. These are made of a cherty sandstone of
extremely close texture, said to be of tertiary age. Imple-
ments of this kind have been obtained from middens and other
places' in the Western Province of the Cape, the Midlands, the
Eastern Proyince, and the Orange River Colony, but the material
differs, and the workmanship is usually of a much ruder kind. But
whatever the material or the degree of workmanship, these imple-
ments do not occur in deposits, nor have they, like those of the
palaeolithic type, accumulated in the alluvial deposits in the
valleys. They are found on the surface, on the edge of the
vleis, on the spots where they have been made ready for use ; the
best finished are found singly, where they have been hurled and
lost by the owner, others are found in or near kitchen middens.
None, to my knowledge, have been met with imbedded in the
laterite or ironstone deposits, and any implement found in" this
situation may safely be ascribed to the palaeolithic age of
South Africa. On the whole, however, these arrow or lance
heads are of rude workmanship, and the chipping process is of a
simple kind ; a face struck at one blow for the reverse, a median
longitudinal facet and one on each side of it on the obverse, this
often suffices for the making of a weapon. But lately, minute
implements showing traces of a secondary chipping on the edge
have been discovered in the Transvaal. '
The chronicles of the early travellers or of the early settlers do
not mention, although they speak of the arms worn by the Natives,
that their arrows or lances were tipped with stone points, and yet
we have proofs that stone implements have been used by some of
the present aborigines until barely a century ago. On the Cape
THE STONE AGE IN SOUTH AFRICA. IO5
Flats is found a midden, partly buried by the sand dunes, where
stone arrow and lance heads, scrapers or knives, arc found inter-
mingled with small brass buttons and bowls of old-fashioned Dutch
clay pipes evidently obtained from the Dutch settlement. This
shows clearly that the use of stone implements was still the custom.
There are also found bone awls, pounders, disks made of ostrich
shells with a hole punched in the middle, flat stones with a depres-
sion in the centre for pounding probably the tough Patella, Haliotis
and Limpets used for food. The contents of this midden are similar,
except for the presence of objects of European manufacture, to
those of similar stations found' so numerously along the whole coast,
and which contain occasionally cooking pots of remarkable shape.
In the Carnarvon District of the Cape Colony there was found lately
in a krantz, the lair possibly of some of tlie last Colonial Bushman,
wooden models, a few inches long, of a gun and a spade cut by means
of sharply-edged flakes found also in situ. In the Museum there is a
club heavily knobbed at the tip and made of iron-wood, {Olea spec.)
"which bears unmistakable traces of having been carved into shape
by means of a stone knife ; the handle of this formidable weapon
is much thinned in order to enable the small hand of a Hottentot
■or Bushman to grasp it firmly. It was found in a cave partly filled
with bat-guano in the Montagu District of the Cape Colony. More
interesting still, because it shows by what mode of attachment these
rude stone implements could be made serviceable, is the discovery
on the coast of the George District of Cape Colony, and on the floor
of a cave, of the skeleton of an aboriginal, either a Bushman or a
Hottentot, wrapped in the remains of a bush-buck skin and a
thick layer of seaweed ; with it were found three tortoise shells, one
imniediately beneath the skull, a lumbar vertebra of a large rumi-
nant, and a stone implement embedded into an ovoid mass of gum
or resinous matter and having a thin, round, wooden handle im-
bedded at the other end. The whole implement is 17 cm. long, and
the stone part of it of a very rude type. The skeleton is very well
preserved, but not so the wooden handle. Yet there is no reason to
suppose that the body had been buried very long, although the
material which covered the floor of the cave — bats' guano — might
have acted as a preservative.
These instances go far to prove that there has been in South
Africa a very " Recent Stone-age Period."
The Paleolithic Period.
No evidence has as yet been forthcoming that in South Africa
the people who manufactured stone implements of the palaeolithic
type were cave-dwellers. No station or workshop having a claim
to be called such beyond doubt has, as yet, been met with. I
thought I had found one when, several years ago, I discovered in
the cutting through the long sloping talus of the Papagai-berg, at
Bosman's Crossing, close to the town of Stellenbosch in the Cape
Colony, a thick layer of great length consisting of broken, plainly
I06 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
water-worn Table Mountain Sandstone boulders mixed with large
flakes and chips, and of partly-worked or remarkably well-finished
stone implements such as axes, sling-stones, etc. This layer rested
on the granite. An inspection of the whole Stellenbosch Valley
revealed almost everywhere the presence of numerous implements
of the same kind and workmanship, even at a very short distance
from the foot of the denuded crags of the mountains. I have since
traced them to the Paarl, Wellington, Drakpnstein, Somerset West,
the slopes of Wynberg Hill near Cape Town, and recorded them
from the Olifants River Valley, Mossel Bay, Knysna, Port Elizabeth,
the Transkei, and other districts.
In the districts of Stellenbosch, Paarl and the Cape, in this
Colony, these implements occur especially in conjunction with and
often deeply imbedded in deposits of laterite, the " ironstone
gravel " used there as road metal. :
So numerous are these relics of a primitive civilisation that they
can be picked up almost anjhvhere by the road-side, and a visit to
the gravel pits will clearly show whence these implements came.
They have been brought down from their once elevated position by
denuding agencies. When the side of the mountain is very abrupt
they must be looked for in the valley, at the foot of the talus ; when
it is gently sloping they will be found resting on the slope itself, and
were cuttings made, layers of these implements would most likely
be found in the valleys, as at Bosman's Crossing.
Deposits of this kind have been found among other places in
Griqualand West, when digging wells, and in Griqua Town, on the
side of a hill I am told ; but all the implements, some of them
beautifully worked, are there made of jasper. Lately also, some
were met with some thirty miles from Vereeniging, and at
Vereeniging itself in the Transvaal. I am indebted to Mr. Ivor
Guest' -for a sketch map of the locality showing the position in
which he had found a number of quartzite implements very
similar to those discovered at Bosman's Crossing, a locality whirh
he subsequently visited. The situation there is the same it appears
as that obtaining in Stellenbosch, Paarl, etc. More recently Mr.
T. N. Leslie, who sent me for examination the many types of his
extensive collection made at Vereeniging, writes that " there is a
talus of 4 or 5 feet in depth and extending some miles along the
banks of the Vaal River and about a mile wide ; implements both
large and small may be found in any part of it."
This accamulation in itself does not necessarily imply a great
lapse of time, because of the rate of denudation in a country bare of
trees and verdure and where torrential rains prevail. The loosened
surface soil is rapidly carried to a lower level, and the stations where
these implements were made would thus be rapidly obliterated, not
only from post pleistocene times, if they dated so far back (and
there is no reason to beheve that climatic conditions have much
changed sinCe then) but equally so from more modern times.
In Stellenbosch and Paarl there are no traces of an old river
terrace ; the implements are found imbedded in the rain-wash of
THE STONE AGE IN SOUTH AFRICA. 10/
weathered granite, in the laterite, or lying on the surface, and no
geological evidence as to their great antiquity has as yet been dis-
covered. At Vereeniging, on the other hand, it is claimed that there
is an old river- ten-ace, and that from their position under the
alluvium the deposits may prove of great antiquity.
The evidence is thus very conflicting, and, until further
discoveries of similar deposits are made, we are not justified on
geological grounds in deciding which is the older of the two.
A comparison, however, of the workmanship and also of the
material used in both deposits leads me to the belief that at all
events some of the Vereeniging implements may prove to belong
to a true neolithic period.
The implements (weapons) of the Stellenbosch-Paarl types
are often of an elaborate manufacture. They consist of axes or
hand-clubs, pick-axes or diggers, adzes or hatchets, sling stones
with very sharp edges, round mullers with several polished facets.
The flakes, scrapers, etc., are scarce ; a few rude sub-orbicular
arrow-heads have been met with. The comparative absence of
flakes, etc., may be due to their having been carried away before
the heavier instruments, owing to their light weight. These imple-
ments are all fashioned from water-worn boulders of Table Mountain
sandstone ; the axes or hand-clubs are sometimes tongue-shaped,
but tapering or even very sharply pointed at one end ; the facets
are numerous and equally distributed in all on both sides ; the
■■edges are sinuously sharp and therefore uneven, pointing out clearly
that they could not have been used as cleavers ; others as broad
at the apex as at the base have a cutting edge, and may be termed
axes ; another type, which may be called hand-pick, has in
many cases retained the rounded part of the water-worn boulder, and
the lower part is fashioned into a sharp sometimes polygonal point.
The Vereeniging types on the other hand are formed from two
kinds of material, one a hard quartz ite, the other dolerite, or
shale indurated by the intrusion of dolerite. The quartzite imple-
ments cannot compare in workmanship with the Stellenbosch
ones ; they are more of the cutting axe type, one of the faces
having been cleaved at one blow, while the other has often only
three broad facets and a few secondary chippings along the edge ;
these bear a great resemblance to the rude implements of nearly-
similar texture found at Mossel Bay, Knysna, the Transkei and
elsewhere. The workmanship of the dolerite or- shale implements
greatly resembles that of the Griqualand West jasper ones, although
somewhat inferior in finish ; some of them have a part of the
contour of the original boulder also retained at the top, but the
instrument so treated is not a hand pick as in Stellenbosch ;
the sling stones in both places, made either of dolerite or quartzite,
have the same shape ; the knives or scrapers of Vereeniging have
the edges much rounded, and several of them are partially
polished, as if by water, but not so the quartzite implements.
The examination and comparison of these Vereeniging types with
those of Stellenbosch would thus go to show that the implements
I08 SCIENXE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
of quartzite, although of a ruder manufacture, have a, clearer
resemblance generally to those of Stellenbosch, or of the Cape.
•Colony, than have the dolerite ones ; "the discrepancy in the
two types might be explained by the hypothesis that the weapons
made of quartzite are of an older type than those made of dolerite
or hardened shale, and are probably contemporaneous wi h the
•Cape Colony ones.
This hypothesis seems to me to be admissible on the following
grounds : — Among the Vereeniging dolerite and shale implements
I found two arrow or lance heads, having a very distinct peduncle,
presumably for haf ting ; in one the peduncle is one third, on the other
half the length of the head ; both are made of dolerite, worked on
•one side only, and are the first implements with a tapering end
so far recorded from South Africa. In addition to these there
are two weapons of dolerite, ii cm. and 8^ cm. respectively, of
an elongated ovoid form, regularly shaped, equally pointed at
both ends and chipped on both sides in the same manner as the
lance heads of the Cape Flats, but the Vereeniging implements are
too thick in the centre to have been used otherwise than axe heads.
These Cape Flats lance heads, made of the same surface sandstone
of a tertiary period as the implements of recent date, are so perfect
in their workmanship that they can only be compared to the best
types of " Laugerie Haute " in the Dordogne, which are figured in
Reliquice aquitanicae, PL A. IV., but of course the material differs.
They are likewise shaped by repeated chippings into a long, ovate
sharply acuminate form. Very scarce indeed are these Cape Flats
lance-heads, and their finish made me for a long time somewhat
doubtful of their genuineness. But quite lately another one has
been found also on the Flats, and, more important still, a perfect
example made of the same material has been discovered on the
surface in the Drakenstein Valley, at the foot of the talus, where
-some highly finished implements of the palaeolithic type have been
also discovered.
Further discoveries may modify the view I now express,
but to my mind the evidence of workmanship of the above mentioned
Vereeniging implements and of the Cape Flats lance-heads, point
strongly towards the existence of a past neolithic period which
-ended without merging into the polished stone or bronze period,
to be replaced by a more barbaric, retrogressive, recent civilisation.
The limit assigned to a paper such as this, in a review of
this kind, does not allow of further disquisitions on the so-called
and certainly extraordinary " eoliths " of Pretoria, of the partially
finished, very much weathered, yet of a superior type sandstone
implements of Port Elizabeth, or of the rude cherty banded Dwyka
ones of the Cape Karroo which could not have obtained a more
water-worn aspect had they been for centuries rolled in the
impetuous waters of a spruit, which they probably never have.
We are only on the fringe of a wide field of discovery ; a
field where very little has been done, and where there remains much
-to do.
SECTION II.— ANTHROPOLOGHCAL-(ct)«W.)
3. RHODESIAN ANTIQUITIES.
By R. N. Hall, F.R.G.S., Co-Author of " The Ancient Ruins
OF Rhodesia " and Author of " Great Zimbabwe.""
Recent Progress in Researches.
Since 1892, when Mr. Theodore Bent pubhshed in " The Ruined
Cities of Mashonaland " what must be admitted to be a valuable
and rehable report on his explorations at Zimbabwe, decided pro-
gress has been made both at Zimbabwe and elsewhere in Rhodesia
in the investigation of the ancient ruins of the area lying between
the Zambesi and Limpopo rivers.
The suggestion that South-East Africa can now be linked up
with the ancient history of the Near East is one of more than passing
interest. It is one that opens out a vast field for research yet to be
investigated by archaologist, antiquarian and ethnologist.
During eight years' examination work of these ruins the writer
has always eschewed discussion of the origin of these monuments,
or rather the origins of the various and obviously distinct types of
ruins so liberally scattered over the area of Southern Rhodesia. In
" The Ancient Ruins of Rhodesia " all opinion of any weight from
all quarters was impartially noted in encyclopaedic form, but with-
out any committal by the authors on any of the points so advanced.
This was done in order to rescue from oblivion any fact or argurnent
which might possibly at a later stage be useful in the discussion of
the question of origin. In " Great Zimbabwe " the same reserve
has been maintained for the reason that the author has aimed at
permitting the actual ruins and relics to relate their own story of
their forgotten past, unweighted by any considerations of the many
traditions, romances and theories which have been woven concerning
these monuments. The same policy of reserve as to the most fasci-
nating topic of origins of the oldest type of ruins will be maintained
in this article, but as to later ruins there is ample evidence to enable
the writer to arrive at some conclusion as to their origin.
The last three years have witnessed the following advance in
these researches : —
(i) The re-examination of Great Zimbabwe including the
unearthing of floors, passages, drains and walls, with a detailed
description of all architectural features, methods of construc-
tion and numerous plans and sections, while three hundred
photographs of every portion of the ruins of all ages of this
no SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
group constitute a permanent record of Zimbabwe, which must
prove of incalculable value in any discussion of these ruins.
(2) The re-examination, in the light of discoveries at
Zimbabwe, of ruins elsewhere in Rhodesia which had previously
been located and described.
(3) The discovery and examination of numerous and alto-
gether fresh ruins of both major and minor importance, the
existence of which was unsuspected, including plans, photo-
graphs and detailed descriptions.
(4) The recent inspection by the writer of the ruins of the
Inyanga area, including {a) Hill Terraces, {b) Hill Foots, (c)
Aqueducts, (d) so-called "Slave Pits," and securing plans,
photographs and reports on explorations and " finds."
(5) The comparisons by means of photographs, plans and
written descriptions of the ruins of the Mount Fura district
with those at Zimbabwe and elsewhere in Rhodesia.
(6) The plans and descriptions carefully prepared by Mr.
Franklin White of certain ruins in Matabeleland, and his recent
survey of the Elliptical Temple at Zimbabwe since the exploration.
(7) The inspection by the writer of some scores of stone-
built villages and stone rampart forts on hills, of the Maka-
langa and Barotsie and other tribes in Mashonaland.
(8) The successful tracing of several additional chains of
forts in several parts of the country, especially in the Motelekwe
and Sabi districts.
(9) The securing of the exact location of some two hundred
relics and " finds," with particulars of their associated articles,
their locations on certain floors, and the associated features of
architecture and construction of the buildings where the relics
were found, which buildings represent distinct periods ex-
tending from prehistoric times to within, in some instances,
but a few score years ago.
(10) The accumulation of a vast fund of opinion of acknow-
ledged expert authorities as to the relative ages and origins of the
relics and "finds," and their parallels and identities in other lands.
While all this internal evidence has been obtained from the
actual ruins, other researches have, within the last few years, been
prosecuted in various quarters from which additional light has been
and may yet further be shed on the origin of the Rhodesian Monu-
ments, and, though these are exceedingly important as bearing on
this subject, yet beyond the mention of them in this paper they will
not be dealt with by the writer. These may briefly be stated as
follows : —
(i) Researches in Arabia and the l^ear East, and further
examination of historical records concerning the peoples who
are believed to have been responsible for the oldest type of
building in Rhodesia, haye distinctly advanced within the last
few years, and these researches are still in active progress.
(2) The same remarks apply also to researches with regard
to the close connections between Arabia and Rhodesia and the
RHODESIAN ANTIQUrXIES. Ill
Mozambique coasts existing in mediaeval times, and these show
that an immense advance has been secured in the knowledge
of this subject.
(3) The recent discoveries, by M. Grandidier and other
savants, of the traces of the influence of Sabaeans, Phoenicians
and Idumean Jews of the Red Sea, on the Mozambique coasts
and Madagascar.
(4) Better knowledge of the extent and methods of ancient
gold-mining in Rhodegia as apart from gold-mining in these
regions by mediaeval Arabs and Portuguese, and still later in-
digenous people, the suggestions made by the late Mr. Telford
Edwards, M.E., as to widely-distinct mining operations at
different periods and by different peoples being confirmed.
(5) A largely-increased fund of information as to the
history of the Makalanga both of Matabeleland and Mashona-
land from earliest mediaeval times to the present day, and the
preparation by Dr. John Helm and Rev. A. A. LoUw of the first
grammar of the Chicaranga language.
(6) The study now in hand of such of the trees and plants
of the ancient mines and ruins area as are not indigenous to
South-East Africa.
From these and other external evidences it may naturally be
anticipated further information will be forthcoming to aid in a full
and conclusive determination of the ruins problem. At present the
increased interest of British, French and German savants in Great
Zimbabwe and its allied monuments leads one to hope that a satis-
factory solution of the enigma mayat an early date be secured.
V.^RiETY OF Ancient Ruins.
It may be taken as a modest estimate that there have been
located in Rhodesia no less than three hundred distinct ruins or
groups of ruins, and these, or such of them as were first known, were
•classed by all writers as " ancient " this term having also been ap-
plied to many of such ruins which are mediaeval and even of later
times. "
A. Probably it would be more correct to say that the term
■" ancient " as relating to the suggested Sabaean occupation of the
country can only be appUed to a few scores of the Rhodesian monu-
ments, though later investigations may show that certain other ruins
are also entitled to rank under the title of " ancient " as so under-
stood. The oldest portions of the Elliptical Temple and of the
Acropolis Ruins, and probably some walls in the Valley of Ruins
may safely be considered as representing the most ancient form of
architecture in Rhodesia.
B. Many ruins showing distinct forms of architecture and
hitherto termed " ancient," and once considered to be such can now
be shown to be "ancient " in a modified sense only, that is, though
they bear evidence of undoubted antiquity the manner of their con-
struction and the nature of the relics yielded on their lowest floors
point to a period much later than any Sabaean period.
112
SCIIiNCE IN SOl'TH AFRICA.
C. From other ruins of certain well-deiined styles of construc-
tion it is altogether impossible to olitain any relic which in the
opinion of the highest ex])ert authorities can date back later than
the ijth, 14th or 15th centuries of this era.
D. Again, ruins exist, also popularly styled ancient, iwhich have
clearly been the work of indigenous people, and the construction of
which does not in the slightest suggest any controlling influence of
a foreign race, and these appear to have been a crude rej)roduction
liy natives. of somewhat similar but a much superior class of buildings
Elliptical Temple.
View of walls (discoxered 1903) which had been buried to the depth of 11 ft.
in the country. In this poorer class of buildings nothing save dis-
tinctly native articles are to be found. Some of these structures
are doubtless several centuries old, but others are of later date,
while some, especially in Mashonaland, are, comparatively speaking'
modern.
In " The Ancient Ruins of Rhodesia " the authors defined two
principal classes and ages of ruins to be found in Rhodesia, and these
were respectively called " First " and "Second Period "buildings.
From the descriptions of these distinctive styles of architecture
RHODESIAN ANTIQUITIES. II3
therein set forth, the writer, after three years' additional explora-
tion work in several types of ruins, has nothing, or hardly anything,
to withdraw, but on the other hand very much information has been
secured to strengthen the argument "which can now be carried much
further, even beyond the reach of controvei'sy.
It is from the type of First-period ruins alone that authorities
advise the writer, that the importation into these regions of the style
of building can be 'demonstrated.
The oldest portions of Zimbabwe and some score, possibly more,
of other ruins in the country represent the First-period class of
building, while Khami and Dhlo-dhlo and quite a hundred other
ruins represent the Second-period class, though both latter ruins
named are much obscured by artificial filling-in process, and by
obviously native built walls and other structures. , What indigenous
races both at Khami and Dhlo-dhlo are responsible for the erection
of portions of the ruins it would be impossible to say, but there are
still later walls at both places for which the Barotsie, from a few
centuries ago down to 1836, are manifestly responsible.
Neither Khami nor Dhlo-dhlo nor any of the associated ruins of
that type have yielded any of the relics suggestive of the antiquity
evidenced by the relics so abundantly discovered at Zimbabwe, nor
will the style of architecture and construction at such ruins com-
pare with those of the undoubtedly oldest portions of Zimbabwe.
No relic so far discovered at Khami or Dhlo-dhlo takes us back
earlier than the 13th or 14th century of this era. On this point the
writer possesses satisfactory proofs.
But probably, as Dr. Schlichter remarked concerning Dhlo-dhlo,
the ruins as seen to-day at both places mark the former sites of
ancient buildings — that is, " ancient " as applied to the older por-
tions of Zimbabwe. Possibly, too, further excavations at both
places may yield evidences of a still older occupation than is shown
by the walls now standing. There exist in certain portions of
Khami some traces of what may be considered as ancient buildings,
but these are very few and somewhat uncertain, and several of such
spots still remain unexplored.
Dr. Schlichter considered the plan of the building at Dhlo-dhlo
to have been ancient, with later structures following generally on
the lines of the original plan. Successions of occupiers appear to
have utilised the old sites of many ruins in the country. The
strategic positions and natural strongholds of many of these ruins
might have led later peoples to erect their poorer buildings on such
positions, especially as the older ruin, probably too dilapidated for
use, would provide building , material without the necessity of
labour. The filling-in process by past generations of natives is
noticeable in almost every ruin in the country, and is an evidence
that the ruins of old structures always possessed an attraction for
later people.
Regarding Khami, the writer, in view of the visit of the British
Association to Bulawayo, would make a further remark. In 1896
it was known to many who took an interest in this group of ruins,
114
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
and it was ivequcntly affirmed that a tribe ot Barotsie had for many
generations hved at Khanu imtil the arrival of the Matabele in 1838,
when they mo\'ed to the Zimbabwe district. The writer in that
year was 'informed that the late Mr. Thomas, a former missionary
at Shiloh in the time of Mozilikatzi, was one of the authorities for
this statement. But this was also affirmed by other pioneers, and
View of ])laUorm and steps recently discovered N.N.W. of conical Tower.
the existence of huge debris mounds on the east side of No. i ruins
at Khami was known to contain sherds of pottery of Barotsie make.
This pottery the .Makalanga, whose pottery is totally different in
make, pattern and ornamentation, were emphatic in disowning.
Some of the smaller walls at Khami cross over extensive beds of
debris containing identical ])ottery.
RHODESIAN ANTIQUITIES. II5
But during 1902-4 a series of conferences with Native Com-
missioners, missionaries, and the older native headmen was held
at Zimbabwe in order to obtain information of anthropological
interest. At these conferences it was ascertained that Jerri's
people, who are Barotsie, migrated from Khami immediately before
the Matabele arrived in the present Matabeleland. Jerri's countr}'
Ues seventy mites south-east of Zimbabwe. Jerri's people never
lived at or near Zimbabwe, but the error is pardonable as any
district not far from Zimbabwe might in those very early
days have been construed as at Zimbabwe. But these authorities
were in all other' respects perfectly correct.
Jerri's people claim to have left what they called " the great
buildings of stones " (Khami) west of where Bulawayo now stands,
in 1836-7, and to have removed direct to Jerri Mountains. They
'state they had left Khami before the Matabele arrived, and they and
the older men of the Makalanga and Amangwa of Zimbabwe who
well remember the circumstances, state that Jerri's people passed
through Zimbabwe on their way to their present country, while the
local natives of Zimbabwe, who also know Khami ruins well, further
declare that Jerri's people lived at Khami. The older men of Jerri's
further state that their people built many walls at Khami. Many
other interesting particulars recently obtained regarding Jerri's
people and the Khami ruins could be given.
A somewhat similar statement can also now be made with regard
to the Barotsie occupation of Thabas Imamba ruins, which place
was until about 1838 the chief centre of the Barotsie, who had
previously been the over lords of the Makalanga in both Matabele-
land and Mashonaland. The dynastic title of the paramount
Barotsie chief at Thabas Imamba was Mambo or Mamba,the tribal
totem — ^as distinct from the racial totem, the baboon — being the
puff-adder. The Zimbabwe natives state that they and all Maka-
langa districts paid tribute to the Mamba at Thabas Imamba.
Mural Decoration.
It has always been popularly understood that the mural decora-
tion at the ruins implied some method adopted by the builders for
reckoning time. This may be the case, as shown later, with regard
to the ruins of First Period, but not at such ruins as are of later date.
Undoubtedly the Chevron and DenteUe are the' oldest patterns,
that is so far as the Rhodesian monuments are concerned, if we may
judge by the very superior class of building in which they are found.
The Herring-bone pattern as seen on certain walls also might come
under the same category, but this is a matter which is still open to
discussion.
Chevron and Dentelle, together with the associated round towers
and monoliths, in some instances define an arc wall which extends
outwards either to the east or to the west. These are admittedly of
splendid workmanship. But there is a Chevron pattern of small
design, irregular and of poor construction to be found associated
I 2
ITfl
SCIEXCH IN SoriU Al-KICA.
with check ])attei"n ami .i poorly- executed liening-t)one pattern in
ill-constructed walls, and clirected to any |)omt of the comj)ass and
connected with which is no arc wall, monolith or tower, and the
construction of the ruins in whicli such arc found is obviously not
" ancient," noi" do the " finds " in sucli ruins take us back earlier
\'iew ot conical tower since exca\'alions, r^howiuy platiorni co\"cred \\^ith
ioapstonc beams recently discoverof^ .
than mediieval times even if so far back as that. These patterns so
introduced at haphazard the writer considers to be j)urely an imita-
tion by natives of the recognised ancient patterns and introduced in
the same way as they are employed by natives in their carvings, in
the decoration of post and other utensils, and in their bearlwork.
RHODESIAN ANTIQUITIES. II7
The writer has been advised that such most probably is the case.
and this coincides with his previously-expressed opinion of such
crude decorative work as is to be seen in ruins of poor construction.
Check, or draxight-board pattern, is not, so far a^ the writer's ex-
perience extends, to be found in any of the oldest type of building.
It is altogether absent from Zimbabwe. It makes its first appear-
ance in the second or B class of building ; it is continued in the C
class of ruins, and practically it is not to be found in the roughly-
built ruins of D class where the general absence of courses and the
irregular size., and shapes of the building material employed would
cause its introduction to be almost a matter of impossibility.
Check is extensively employed in decoration by the Makalanga.
But the well-executed Chevron and Dentelle on the oldest type
of ruins is only placed in certain weU-defincd portions of the walls,
and these are associated with monoliths, or round towers or, in two
instances, carved birds. In no ruin of this type is the pattern
directed either to the north or south, but is always extended either
from £outh-east to north-east or from north-west to south-west.
For instance, at Zimbabwe Chevron pattern of most perfect -and
delicate construction extends along the outer face of the summit of
the main east wall of the Elliptical Temple from north-east to south-
east, and this pattern so directed is only just covered by the sun at
rising at the summer and winter solstices. Associated with the
pattern and only over its length are monoliths and formerly carved
soapstone beams, and, it is believed, smaU round towers similar in
size and position to those on the west arc wall of the Western Temple
on Zimbabwe Hill.
At the Western Temple is an arc wall, the widest ancient wall in
Rhodesia, and on its summits were round towers now shown to have
been conical, and monoliths, these extending from south-west to
north-west.
The main arc wall of the Eastern Temple bears on the summit
of its exterior face a Dentelle pattern, and associated with it were
carved sOapstone monoliths and carved birds on beams, also slate
monoliths. These extended from east-north-east to east-south-east.
At least a score of the ruins of the oldest type can be mentioned
as showing similar features. At other ruins of this class the walls
are greatly dilapidated and any pattern has disappeared with the
walls. It must also be borne in mind that it is only those ruins
which possess a decorated arc wall so directed that have yielded
the religious emblems of nature worship. Philips' Ruins at Zim-
babwe could also be mentioned in this connection, for here the arc
wall facing east was once decorated with soapstone beams, some of
which were delicately carved, and here was found by the writer the
finest bird on beam yet discovered at Zimbabwe, together with
numerous religious emblems.
So uniformly is the decoration positioned that, on approaching
for the first time a ruin of the oldest type and before seeing the
pattern, one is morally certain as to the part of the walls in which it
will be found, that is if the walls are not greatly dilapidated. In the
ii8
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
same way on approaching a ruin of later type it is known that such
patterns so positioned will not be met with.
So distinct are these types of ruins that one is at once aware
that in certain ruins nothing suggesting a remote antiquity will be
discovered within them. The prospectors for relics engaged by
the Ancient Ruins' Coy., Ltd. between 1895-8 met with the same
\'ie\v of conical Towef before 1903.
experience and found it to be but a loss of both time and money to
" work " certain classes of ruins, and so passed'such by while paying
their whole attention to ruins of the earliest type. This fact is
recorded in their official reports. It was an experience they had to
purchase, but it is exactly similar to the experience gained by the
writer.
RHODESIAN ANTIQUITIES. Ilg
ihat at Zimbabwe and similar ruins elsewhere there existed
some means whereby the ancients fixed the seasons and times of
the year is now undoubted. This the writer is advised by authori-
ties who have examined the plans, photographs and descriptions,,
may be taken for granted. This applies only to the oldest type of
ruins.
But whether the ancient builders of Zimbabwe and its associated
ruins elsewhere carried out to their full extent the principles of
geometry and mensuration in their season-reckoning arrangements
is a matter which is for the present sub judice. At any rate it is
obvious that some, at least, of these principles were adopted, but it
is impossible to speak dogmatically as to the method of their appli-
cation. Should it, however, be definitely ascertained beyond all
questioning that Zimbabwe, as it is believed, represents the monu-
ments of a colony of the ancient empire of Saba, then it may be taken
for granted that such principles were more exactly applied at these
ruins.
Inyanga.
Though much information of a general character had previously
been secured regarding the ruins area of the Inyanga district, no
systematic examination of any of these ruins was made until the
writer" in 1904, on the instruction of Mr. Rhodes' trustees, under-
took such operations.
It must be. admitted that the general descriptions given earlier
are practically correct, save that each writer started on his descrip-
tions with a manifest bias in his mind that all he saw pertained to
the most remote period of antiquity, an antiquity covering the most
ancient Zimbabwe period.
In the light of experience gained during eight years' work con-
cerning many classes of ruins throughout the other districts of
Southern Rhodesia, the writer, ignoring all such theories as to
antiquity, resolved that these marvellous remains of quite a
unique character should be permitted to speak for themselves
and relate their own story.
The ruins of Inyanga vary very considerably and cannot be
described as a whole. These consist of {a) Hill Terraces, (6) Hill
Forts, (c) Valley Ruins, (d) stone-lined pits and passages, called
" slave-pits," (e) Aqueducts, (/) stone-built native villages and huts,,
and (g) stone-built cattle kraals.
The area covered by these remains covers about sixty miles
from north to south and forty or fifty miles from east to west.
There is barely an acre of hillside or valley within this area which
does not demonstrate the presence in some past times of teeming
populations.
The Hill Terraces present an extraordinary sight, these com-
pletely covering the faces of many hills from base to summit.
They are very roughly built of stones of all sizes and shapes, and
doubtless were, as many still are, retaining walls nf the soil on the
120 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
sides of the hills. The positions so terraced face from north-east to
north-west, and rarely to the south except where the southern bases
of the hills are shielded by other hills. Frequently a species of
Ficus is found growing in their vicinity. Similar hill terraces,
identical in every respect, are found in Arabia, while others have
recently been discovered in Swazieland. Cuttings in soil still re-
maining behind the retaining walls show abundant traces of a former
vegetable growth. That the terraces, as in Arabia, were used for
horticultural purposes can admit of no doubt, especially in view of
their close associations with the aqueducts.
The Hill Forts command strong strategic positions on the
summits of the larger hills, and several of these buildings can be
seen against the sky-line at the same time in the same line of vision
but on different hills. Though of various sizes the description of
one is that of all. In every feature they are identical. Four of
these forts were surveyed, photographed and explored by the writer.
No article suggestive of foreign occupation, or even of any remote
age, was discovered, all the "finds " being of exceedingly old native
articles. The walls are plumb, the entrances angular ; but the
walls are built upon a plan of curves.
The interesting and peculiar feature of these ruins, as distin-
guished from the ordinary features, presented by ruins in Matabele-
land and elsewhere in Mashonaland, are — covered entrances, loop-
holes thro\igh main walls, banquette walls on the insides of outer
walls, a complete absence of buttresses and of mural decorations,
the presence of stone walls of huts similar to those found in villages
in Mashonaland, while the walls of the forts are built of irregularly-
shaped and sized stones reared up on their ends and sides, that is,
with the fiat and larger surface outwards, the interior of the walls
between the outer and inner faces being filled in with rough stones.
Stone-lined Pits are exceedingly numerous. It is impossible in
some places to walk fifty or a hundred yards without coming on one
of these pits. They are to be found in blocks of three or four or
singly, both in the open and on the gentle slopes of hills, and fre-
quently in lines parallel to the aqueducts. The pits when cleared
showed various depths of from nine to twelve feet with diameters
of from twenty to thirty feet. Covered passages from twenty-six
feet to thirty-six feet in length slope down on to the floor of the pit.
The majority of the pits are either dilapidated or almost com-
pletely filled in with silted soil from higher ground. A pit in an
almost perfect condition is only met with at rare intervals.
Round each pit is a raised rampart some thirty feet wide,
and on this are to be found stone sides of huts and clay granaries.
The floors of pits and passages are paved. Usually a drain
through the outer rampart clears the sloping floor of the pit.
The entrances of the passages at their exterior extremity face in
the opposite direction to the prevailing winds and rains.
The construction, though substantial, is very rough, the stones
being of all sizes and shapes. No article except of obviously native
make has been found in any pit so far explored.
RHODESIAN ANTIQUITIES. 121
The Aqueducts are also a wonderful feature in the Inyanga
district. They run from artificial dams in the hills, cross the
sides of hills and extend in some instances from hill to hill for a
distance of two miles. The writer has examined very many of these
aqueducts throughout their whole length. None appear to have
been driven through rock, shale being the hardest material cut
through. They average two feet in depth and are about two feet
wide. All demonstrate a wonderful skill in engineering and irriga-
tion.
Detailed descriptions of the stone-lined pits, with plans, sections.
and photographs have very recently been supplied by the author
to the Anthropological Institute, and also of the HiU Forts, to the
Proceedings of the South African Association for the Advancement
of Science, while descriptions of these and the other classes of
ruins in Inyanga are now in the press and will shortly be published
together.
The writer does not consider, for the reasons to be stated later,
that the Inyanga ruins are ancient in the fullest sense of the term.
Still his opinion is not final. The style of building and the " finds '
appear to point to more recent times, possibly to the nth and I2th
centuries of this era, when parts of Rhodesia were occupied by very
large numbers of Arabs from Quiloa and other settlements along the
east coast. The arrival of these people at that time is a matter of
history (see " Great Zimbabwe" introduction by Dr. Keane),
SECTION III.— ZOOLOGICAL.
I. LAND VERTEBRATES OF SOUTH AFRICA.
By W. L. Sclater, M.A., F.Z.S., Director, South African
Museum.
In the small space alloted for an account of the vertebrate land
fauna of South Africa it is impossible to give any very complete or
detailed description of the matter. I have, therefore, thought it
best to commence with a short account of the history of South
African Zoological discovery and the former distribution of the
larger animals ; following this is a condensed systematic review
of the more noticeable members of the fauna likely to be met with
by the traveller ; and finally there is a note of the zoogeographical
relations of the Cape Fauna. A bibliography of the more
important works, useful for reference, is appended.
I. History of Zoological Discovery in South Africa.
Our knowledge of some of the larger and more conspicuous
animals of South Africa dates from the founding of the settlement
of the Cape of Good Hope in 1652 by van Riebeek ; his journal,
which has recently been republished in English, contains references
to the abundance of the large game and carnivorous animals found
close to the "Castle of the Cape of Good Hope." Hippopotami
wallowed in the swamp which is now occupied by Church Square in
the centre of Cape Town, while about the mountain slopes were large
herds of hartebeest, elands and kudus. Rhinoceros were not un-
common, and are frequently mentioned in van Riebeek' s diary as
inhabiting the slopes of Table Mountain and also the Flats beyond,
while later on, in 1685, when the Governor, the elder van der Stel,
was proceeding on a, journey northwards towards Namaqualand,
his coach was upset by a charging rhinoceros, and he himself had
a narrow escape.
It was not until the end of the eighteenth century that South
Africa was visited by European naturalists purposely in order to
collect specimens of the fauna and flora and to make scientific
observations. The three names which stand out most pre-eminent
among these early travellers are the Swedes, Sparrman and Thunberg,
and the Frenchman le Vaillant. "Already in their days the larger
animals were getting rare near Cape Town, and it was necessary
to travel a considerable distance to the eastwards in order to meet
with them. The Blaauwbok {Hippotragus leucophceus), an antelope
LAND VERTEBRATES. 123
resembling the Roan, but somewhat smaller and without the black
face markings, was even then on the verge of extinction ; the last
one of which we have any record having been obtained by Lichten-
stein, a German traveller, in 1799. In order to meet with the
elephant, rhinoceros, eland and lion a considerable journey to the
eastwards had to be made to Ihe valleys of the Sunday and Great
Fish Rivers, in what are now the districts of Uitenhage, Somerset
and Albany.
With the advent of the English, in 1795, a fresh stimulus was
given to exploration, both geographical and zoological, with which
the names of Barrow and Burchell must always be associated.
The latter landed at Cape Town in 1810 and made a memorable
journey into the interior, crossing the Orange River near its junc-
tion with the Vaal, and proceeding as far north as Kururaan in
Bechuanaland. He brought back to England very extensive col-
lections of mammals, birds, insects and plants, and published his
observations, which subsequent research has shown to be extra-
ordinarily exact and methodical, in two quarto volumes issued in
1822-4. Owing to unfortunate differences with the authorities of
the British Museum, Burchell never appears to have met with the
recognition due to his extraordinary powers as a collector and
observer ; his collections were dispersed so that no complete
account of them has ever been published ; but it is understood
that Professor Poulton is preparing some account of his life and
of his collections of insects, which now form part of the Hope
Collection in the Museum at Oxford.
Further knowledge of the fauna of South Africa was gained by
the travels and collections of Sir Andrew Smith, who occupied a
position in the Army Medical Service, and who during his sojourn
in Africa in the second and third decades of the last century made a
number of journeys in various parts of the country and acquired
extensive collections in all departments of zoology.
His most important expedition was one to the north of the
Orange River through Basutoland and the Orange River Colony to
Kurrichane, the capital of Moselekatse, the Zulu chieftain, who was
then settled in what is now the north-western part of the Transvaal.
Dming this journey a very large number of new species of mammals
and birds were first discovered. All Sir Andrew Smith's collections
were finally described in four large quarto volumes published in
1849, dealing with mamrnals, birds, reptiles and fishes, including
invertebrates, respectively.
A fresh stimulus was given to the study of South African Zoology
by the founding in 1855 of the South African Museum. The first
Curator, Mr. E. L. Layard, was indefatigable in his efforts,
and quickly amassed large Natural History collections, and by
his correspondence and exchanges with museums in England
and other parts of the world soon brought his institution into
notice among zoologists. He devoted himself chiefly to birds,
and in 1867 published the first complete work of South African
Ornithology. This, notwithstanding a certain number of errors
124 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
and omissions due to the inadequacy of his material and reference
literature, constitutes the foundation of our present knowledge.
He was succeeded in 1872 by Mr. Roland Trimen, who turned his.
attention to the Lepidoptera. In 1889 he published his well-known
Monograph of the South African Butterflies, which remains the
standard work on the subject and constitutes a memorial of his
exact ind careful work.
' Among foreigners who have contributed to the knowledge of
<jur fauna the Swedes appear to be most numerous ; in addition to
Sparrman and Thunberg, who were here in the eighteenth century,
Wahlberg and Victorin must be mentioned ; the former made very
extensive researches in 1838-45 in Natal and inland as far as the
headwaters of the Limpopo. After his untimely death, from the
chaxge of an elephant in Damaraland in 1856, his collections were
worked up by his countrymen in Sweden, Sundevall, Boheman and
Fahraeus. Victorin, who also died young, collected chiefly at
Knysna and in the south of the Colony, about the middle of the last
century.
Another Swedish naturalist, Mr. C. J. Andersson, first came to
South Africa in 1850 as a collector to Mr. Francis Galton ; from
that date till his death in 1867 he spent almost the whole of his life
travelling, exploring and collecting in Damaraland. After his
death his notes on the Ornithology of Damaraland were carefully
edited for publication by Mr. J. H. Gurney, one of his English
correspondents, to whom most of his collections had been sent.
Here we may fitly conclude this brief review of previous workers
in the South African Zoological Field. A bibliographical list of the
more important works dealing with South African Vertebrate
Fauna will be found at the end of this chapter.
II. Review of the Fauna.
(«) Mammalia.
The group of Monkeys is not very numerously represented
in South Africa ; this is easily accounted for by the scarcity of
forest country. The best known and most widely spread form
is undoubtedly the Baboon or Bavian {Papio porcarius), often
called the Chacma in Europe, a name unknown in South Africa,
though said to be derived from its original Hottentot appellation.
Baboons are found throughout the greater part of South Africa,
especially among the rocky hills, which form so prominent a feature
of South African scenery ; here they live in troops, issuing forth
at earliest dawn to rob the farmer's orchards and gardens, for
which they are universally execrated. Baboons still exist in
considerable numbers in the Cape Peninsula, on Table Mountain,
and along the ridge of rocky hills existing southwards to Cape
Point ; they can often be seen and heard on the path between
Simon's Town and Smits Winkel Bay. The other monkeys in
South Africa belong to the genus Cercopithecus, and are confined
to the more wooded districts of the south and east. The most
common (C. lalandii) is abundant in Knysna and Pondoland,
LAND VERTEBRATES. 125
and is frequently seen in captivity ; it has a black face with a
white-frontal band above, and a patch of rufous hair at the ba e
of the tail.
The Lemurs, whose headquarters are in Madagascar, are repre-
sented by two species of Galago, the larger (G. garneiti) found in
Natal, and the smaller [G. mohali) from the more wooded districts
of the Western Transvaal, Bechuanaland and Rhodesia. The latter
was first met with by Sir A. Smith, in what is'now the Rustenburg
district of the Transvaal ; it is an engaging little creature with
large topaz yellow eyes, and a very soft greyish-brown fur, large
rather naked ears and a bushy tail. It is nocturnal in habits,
sleeping during the day in a nest or on the branch of a tree. In
captivity it. is very active towards the evening, taking gigantic
leaps across a comparatively large cage and landing always at the
other side with great sureness of grasp ; the Dutch term it the
Nacht-apje or Night-ape.
Passing now to the Carnivora, we find South Africa very
well provided in this respect. Out of the eleven usually recognised
iamilies we have representatives of seven ; while the Bears {Ursidae),
Racoons {Procyonidae}, Walruses {Trichechidae), and true Seals
(Phocidae) are entirely absent;
The Lion {Felis leo) was formerly abundant over the whole of
South Africa, and in the early days of the settlement was a constant
source of danger and annoyance in the immediate neighbourhood
of the Castle at Cape Town. It has gradually retreated before the
increasing population and the extermination of large game, and
is now quite extinct in Cape Colony south of the Orange River.
It is still, however, comparatively plentiful in parts of Rhodesia
and the Transvaal, and quite recently, I was informed when at
Victoria in Mashonaland, that several donkeys had been carried
off by lions close to the celebrated Zimbabwe ruins.
The Leopard {Felis pardus) commonly known as the Tiger or
Tijger among the Dutch, is a far more plentiful animal, and is found
throughout the whole country. Its preservation is probably
due to the fact that it inhabits the mountains, and is very difficult
to approach and find in its own haunts ; while it is only during the
night that it leaves its rocky fastnesses. The leopard is still
fairly plentiful in the mountains behind Stellenbosch, not thirty
miles from Cape Town, and the South African Museum has received
several specimens from there during the last year or two.
Black varieties of the Leopard are occasionally met with ;
these differ from those of Asia, in which the melanism is caused
by the darkening of the tawny ground colour, and the black
rosettes can still be seen in certain lights ; in the South African
Black Leopard the melanism is caused by a great increase of the
spots, which finally fuse to form a uniform black livery.
Other smaller members of the Cat family are the Serval or
Tijger-bosch-kat {Felis serval), a dark yellow-spotted form of
intermediate size, which is chiefly found in the thick vegetation
near streams and lakes. The Blackfooted Wild Cat {Felis
126 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
nigripes) is a smaller spotted species, about which little is known,
but the skin of which can often be found in the form of karosses.
The Caffer Cat (Felis caffra), found with slight modifications
all over Africa, is probably the ancestor of the ordinary European
domestic Cat, which appears to have been derived from Egypt,
where these animals were formerly held in great reverence.
The Caracal or Rooikat {Felis caracal) found throughout Southern
Asia as well as Africa, approaches in some respects the Lynxes
of the northern hemisphere as regards its pencilled ears and the
absence of the anterior upper premolar, but it has a longer tail
and no ruff round its neck, so characteristic a feature of the northern
animal.
The creature known as the Hunting Leopard, generally called
" Luipard " by the Dutch, (Cynaelurus jubatus) of naturalists,
is rather rare in South Africa. A curious pale variety with fulvous
instead of black spots, was met with some years ago in the neigh- -
bourhood of Beaufort West ; but though it was given a distinct
name it was probably only an example of incomplete albinism.
The second family of the Carnivora is the Viverridae, containing
the Civets, Genets, Mungooses and Meerkats. It is well represented
by eight genera and some twenty species. Most of the members
of this family are nocturnal and seldom seen, those which will pro-
bably come to the notice of visitors are the two Meerkats (Suricata
tetradactyla and Cynictis penicillata), the latter distinguished
by its paler colour and bushy tail, the former by its darker colour,
short and slender tail, and by having only four toes to both fore
and hind limbs.
Both these little animals live on the open Karoo country in
small communities ; like the American Prairie Dog they form
extensive burrows, at the mouths of which they can often be seen
seated even from the passing train, sunning themselves and watch-
ing all that is going on. They make very interesting pets, becoming
exceedingly tame and friendly, more especially the slender-tailed
species. Both the genera S^tr^cata and Cynictis are confined to
South Africa.
One of the most remarkable of the South African Carnivora,
whether we consider its structure or its habits, is the Aard Wolf
{Proteles cristatus) ; the creature externally resembles a miniature
Hyaena, but it has five toes to the fore feet and four to the hind, while
contrary to what is the case in the Hyaena, the auditory bulla is
divided into two chambers. Perhaps, however, the most remarkable
feature of its structure is the degenerate state of the molar teeth,
which are reduced to mere formless stumps placed at some distance
from one another along its gums. This is doubtless correlated
with its diet, which appears to consist entirely of termites and ants.
The Aard- Wolf forms a distinct family by itself, and the range
of the single species extends from Somaliland to Cape Colony,
but does not include the forest region of West Africa or Nyasaland.
It is not uncommon throughout South Africa, and occurs in the
immediate neighbourhood of Cape Town.
LAND VERTEBRATES. 12/
Of Hyaenas, which compose the fourth family of Carnivora, South
Africa possesses two species, the Brown (Hycena brunea) and the
Spotted (H. crocuta), the former confined to South Africa,
the latter spread over the greater part of the Ethiopian region ; both
species have been exterminated by poison and trapping in the more
settled districts. The Brown Hyaena is now generally identified with
the hyaena whose remains. have been found in caves and other com-
paratively recent deposits in manypartsof Europe and Southern Asia.
The cosmopolitan family Canidae has five representatives in South
Africa. Two of these belong to genera peculiar to the Ethiopigm
region. One of them, Delalande's Fox {Otocyon megalotis), is a gentle
and harmless little creature preying chiefly on termites, and distin-
guished externally by its long pointed ears. Its chief title to fame,
however, is the extraordinary number of its teeth, it having from
four to six molars in excess of all other members of its family ;
indeed, in the total number of its teeth it exceeds all other heterodont
mammals.
The Cape Hunting Dog (Lycaon pictus), on the other hand, has
the same number of teeth as the other members of the family, but
has only four toes to both fore and hind limbs ; it is a large wolf-
like animal, curiously marked with patches of brown, white and
yellow, no two individuals being exactly similar. This species,
which is found throughout the greater part of Africa, from Somali-
land southwards, hunts its prey in small packs ; they move rapidly
about the country and hunt antelopes ; even the larger forms, such
as Sable and Wildebeest, do not always escape them. They do
much damage to stock and are consequently dreaded by farmers,
who destroy them whenever they get the chance.
The last of the families of terrestrial Carnivora, the Mus-
telidae, contains five South African species, distributed in four
genera ; two Otters, a larger species, with quite rudimentary claws
[Lutra capensis), and a smaller and rarer form with well-developed
claws (Lutra macuUcoUis) : the Ratel {Mellivora ratel), renowned
for its love of bees and honey though seldom seen, as it is strictly
nocturnal, causes much annoyance to the Colonial apiarist, throw-
ing over the hives and destroying the combs in its efforts to
obtain its favourite food. The Striped Muishond {Zorilla striata),
with its handsome livery of black and white and its skunk-like
and fetid odour emitted from the anal glands, and finally the
curious little Striped Weasel (Pcecilogale albinucha) make up the
tale of this family.
The only member of the marine carnivora found about our
shores is a Fur Seal (Arctocephalus pusilhts) belonging to the family
of Eared Seals or Sealions (Otariidae). This species is quite common
along the western coast of the Colony and of German South- West
Africa and resorts to the small islands for breeding purposes in
November and December. A good number of them are then
clubbed for their skins and oil ; the former fetches a good price on
the London market, though not so valuable as that of the North
Pacific species.
128 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
It is among the members of the order Ungulata that the most
characteristic of African animals are found ; South Africa is ex-
ceedingly rich in this group containing as it does representatives of
no less than forty-eight species, distributed among six out of the-
twelve generally recognised recent families ; the most important
of the absent groups are the Deer (Cervidae), spread all over the rest
■of the world except Australia ; while others are the Peccaries, Camels,
Chevrotains, Prongbucks and Tapirs.
The African Antelopes now number about 150 species, and of
these thirty-three are found in South Africa, an unrivalled assem-
blage ranging from the lordly Eland to the tiny Bluebuck. The
spread of settlement and the increase of population has done its'
work in sadly reducing the number ' of these beautiful creatures ;
but, notwithstanding, only one species has entirely died out ; this is
the Blaauwbok of Swellendam, which appears to have always had
a limited range in the south-west corner of Cape Colony, and which
has been extinct since the commencement of the last century. On
the other hand several species, notably the Bontebok, have survived
through the efforts of individual enthusiasts, to whom all credit is
due. For the last fifty years this species has only existed on two
iarms, the property of Mr. S. D. and Dr. Albertyn respectively,
situated near Bredasdorp, in the south-west of Cape Colony.
The following is a complete list of the South African Antelopes ; —
BuBALis CAAMA — Red Hartebeest.
Formerly common south of the Orange River, now confined
to the Kalahari and Bechuana,laiid as a wild animal, but troops
are preserved on several farms in Griqualand West, the Orange
River Colony and in Natal.
BuBALis LICHTENSTEINI — Lichtenstein's Hartebeest.
Found only in the eastern portion of Mashonaland, the
adjoining Portuguese territory, and along the Zambesi
Valley up to Barotseland.
Damaliscus PYGAkGus — Bontebok.
As stated above, confined to two farms in the Bredasdorp
division of Cape Colony.
Damaliscus albifrons — Blesbok.
Only found on one farm in the Steynburg division of Cape
Colony, but preserved in fenced camps in many parts of the
Orange River Colony and the Transvaal.
Damaliscus lunatus — Sasseby.
Southern Rhodesia, extending westwards to Lake Ngami and
Ovampoland, eastwards to Portuguese East Africa and the low
country of the Transvaal.
CoNNOCHAETES GNU — Black Wildebeest.
Never extended north of the Vaal River ; now found only on
a few farms, where carefully preserved, in the Orange River
Colony.
LAND VERTEBRATES.
129
CoNNOCHAETES TAURiNUS^Blue Wildebeest.
Found in Zululand, the Eastern Transvaal, Rhodesia and
Northern Bechuanaland as far as Lake Ngami and" German
South- West Africa.
Cephalophus grimmi— Duiker.
Universally distributed in suitable localities, and often very
common.
Cephalophus NATALENSis^-Red Duiker.
Natal and Zululand; extending northwards as far as Zanzibar.
Cephalophus monticola — Blue Duiker.
Smallest South African Antelope, about the size of a hare ;
confined to the forest districts along the coast, from Knysna to
Mozambique.
Oreotragus saltator — Klipspringer.
Only found at or near the summits of mountains, of extra-
ordinary activity ; universally distributed where suitable con-
ditions exist from near Cape Town to the Zambesi.
OuREBiA scoPARiA — Oribi.
Confined to the eastern portion of the Colony, Natal and
Mozambique, and not at all common as a rule.
Raphicerus campestris — Steenbok.
The commonest and most widely spread of all South African
Antelopes, from Cape Town and Natal to the Zambesi.
Raphicerus melanotis — Grysbok.
A common little animal in the neighbourhood of Cape Town,
where it is very partial to the young vine shoots. In other
parts of South Africa somewhat locally distributed, and un-
known in most parts of the Karroo and the high veld of the
interior.
Nesotragus livingstonianus — Livingstone's Antelope.
Confined to Zululand and the low country northwards to the
Zambesi.
Madoqua damarensis — Damaraland Dik-dik.
Only known from the rocky hills of Damaraland, from
Walvisch Bay northwards.
CoBUS ELLiPSiPRYMNUS — Watcrbuck.
Never found south of the Vaal River, but from the Limpopo
northwards fairly common ; the female of this and the other
members of the genus is hornless.
CoBus LECHE — Lechwe.
First discovered by Oswell and Livingstone on the banks of
the Botletli River, which flows out of Lake Ngami ; it is also to
be met with on the upper waters of the Zambesi.
K
130 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA. ■ .
COBUS VARDONI — Puku.
A smaller species than the Lechwe, also first discovered by
Livingstone on the upper Zambesi, above the Victoria Falls.
Cervicapra arundinum — Reedbuck.
Found in the low country and along the river valleys of
the eastern coast from Komgha in the Colony, through Natal
and Zululand to the Zambesi.
Cervicapra fulvorufula — Rooi Rhebok.
A mountain form found in the eastern half of Cape Colony,
and extending northwards as far as the Limpopo River.
Pelea capreola — Vaal Rhebok.
Another mountain Antelope spread all over the Colony,
Orange River Colony and Transvaal. The genus, of which
this is the only species, is confined to South Africa.
Aepyceros melampus — Pallah.
This species is not met with till the Limpopo Valley is
reached, north of which it is fairly common as far as the
Zambesi.
Aepyceros petersi — Angolan Pallah.
This species replaces the ordinary Pallah in Ovampoland
and Angola.
Antidorcas euchore — Springbok.
This is perhaps the most characteristic of South African
Antelopes, and is still exceedingly abundant in some districts.
The genus, which contains only the single species, is confined
to South Africa. It is distinguished by the curious erectile
white fan of long hairs along the middle of the back, and by
the absence of the anterior premolar teeth in the jaw.
HiPPOTRAGUS LEUCOPHAEUS — Blaauwbok.
A small form somewhat resembling the Roan, found formerly
in the south-western districts of the Colony, and exterminated
at the commencement of the last century.
HiPPOTRAGUS EQUiNUS — Roan.
Never found south of the Orange River ; still fairly abundant
in Rhodesia and the Eastern Transvaal.
HiPPOTRAGUS NIGER — Sable.
First obtained by Cornwallis Harris in the Magaliesberg,
near Pretoria ; still fairly numerous in Eastern Rhodesia,
Mozambique and the North-Eastern Transvaal. On the
whole the handsomest of all South African Antelopes.
Oryx gazella — Gemsbok.
A desert-loving form, formerly widespread over the central
plains of the Colony, now confined to Bushmanland, south of
the Orange River, and the Kalahari and German South-
West Africa, north of that river.
LAND VERTEBRATES. I jl
Tragelaphus sylvaticus— Bushbuck.
Confined to the wooded districts of the south and east
from Knysna to the Limpopo. This form is only a geographical
sub-species of the widely spread Tregelaphus scriptus, found
throughout the greater part of Africa.
Tragelaphus angasi — Inyala.
A rare and handsome species confined to the swampy
forest districts of Zululand and Southern Mozambique.
Tragelaphus selousi — Sitatunga.
The most aquatic of Antelopes found only in the swamps
of Lake Ngami and the Chobe River.
Strepsiceros capensis — Kudu.
A forest-haunting species found in a good many districts
of Cape Colony, and perhaps the most widely spread of all
the larger Antelopes. Its range extends northwards to
Somaliland.
Taurotragus oryx — Eland.
The largest of the African Antelopes, formerly abundant
all over South Africa, now found only in the Kalahari and
perhaps . along the Drakensberg in Natal. Elands from the
Zambesi Valley and Mozambique are distinguished by having
white transverse markings, and may be considered as a sub-
species {T. oryx livingstonii) of the typical form.
The only other representative of the Bovidae to which the
Antelopes belong is the Cape Buffalo {Bos caffer). At the present
time a small number of these animals are still to be found within
the limits of the Colony in the Addo Bush, near Port Elizabeth ;
elsewhere they are now becoming very scarce, chiefly owing to
the ravages of rinderpest which swept through Africa from north
to south some years ago, destroying not only the domestic cattle,
but many of the wild bovine animals as well.
Here may be mentioned one of the very few hitherto described
fossil Mammals of South Africa, this is the long-horned Bubalus baini
of Seeley. The original specimen was found on the banks of the
Modder River in the Orange River Colony, by Mr. A. G. Bain,
and is preserved in the South African Museum. Its most noticeable
characteristic is the great length of the horn cores, each of which
measures 5 feet 2 inches. The species is supposed to be closely
allied to Bos antiquus Duvernoy, from the Pleistocene beds of Algeria.
The second family of the Ungulata contains only the Giraffes,
and perhaps the recently discovered Okapi. The Giraffe of South
Africa (Giraffa capensis) is distinguished from the northern species
by its spotted legs and blotchy body markings ; it appears never
to have been found to the south of the Orange, but was abundant
to the north as far as the Zambesi, and is still to be met with in
the Northern Kalahari, and perhaps in Zululand and along the
Sabi River in the Eastern Transvaal.
K 2
132 SCIENCE IN SOUTF AFRICA.
The Hippopotamus or Zeekoe, as it is invariably termed by
the Dutch, is still to be found on some of the more unfrequented
and remote rivers of Zululand and Portuguese East Africa ; while
it is comparatively common on the Zambesi near the Victoria
Falls, and has there been the cause of a good many accidents to
canoes and boats on the river. The last survivor of those which
formerly inhabited the Colony is said to have mysteriously dis-
appeared about the year 1874 from the Berg River, about seventy
miles north of Cape Town, while the skull of one killed on the
same river in 1856 is still preserved in the South African Museum.
No wild pigs of the genus Sus exist in the Ethiopian region.
Two other genera of the same family take their place ; of each
of these South Africa possesses one representative, the Bosch
vark [Potamochoerus choeropotamus), a nocturnal, forest-haunting
creature, not uncommon in the wooded districts along the south-
west coast of the Colony and in Natal ; and the Wart Hog (Pkaco-
choerus aethiopicus), distinguished by the possession of fleshy
warts on its face and by its long lower canines, which often pro-
trude ten or twelve inches beyond the long sockets. It does not
now occur south of the Vaal River.
One of the most characteristic of South African animals is the
Zebra, the several species of which form a distinct section of the
Equidae. Three species are South African, one of_which is now
extinct — the Quagga {Equus quagga) ; this animal was formerly
very abundant all over the Karoo plains of the interior of Cape
Colony and the Orange River Colony, where it consorted with
Black Wildebeeste and Ostrich in considerable herds. What evi-
dence there is, seems to point to the fact that it became extinct in
Cape Colony about i860, and in the Orange Free State in about 1878.
There are a few mounted specimens existing in the English
and Continental museums, while in its old home there is only one
survivor, a foal, preserved in the South African Museum at Cape
Town.
The Mountain Zebra (Equus zebra,), no doubt owing to its
attachment to inaccessible mountain ranges, still survives in fair
numbers in Cape Colony. The latest returns of the Agricultural
Department state that there are about 340 individuals found in
the divisions of Cradock, George, Oudtshoorn, Uniondale and
Ladismith ; while in Kaokoland in the north of German South-
West Africa there, exists a Zebra recently described by Herr
Matchie, of the Berlin Museum, as distinct (Equus hartmannae)
which very closely resembles the Cape Colony Mountain Zebra..
The third South African species is Burchell's Zebra., a widely
spread form, ranging from the Orange River Colony northwards
to Masailand in East Africa ; this species shows a series of pro-
gressive modifications throughout its range, chiefly in the matter
of the amount of the striping on the legs, and the presence or absence
of faint stripes, called shadow stripes, between the primary ones
on the body. In consequence of this a very large number of sub-
species or geographical races have been described of late years by
LAND VERTEBRATES. I33
Matchie and Pocock, and there are now recognised by these authors
no less than seven sub-species from north of the Zambesi alone.
That there is a certain amount of progressive variation from south
to north is certainly the case ; but there is also without any doubt
a certain amount of individual variation in animals found in the
same herd, as well as variation due to age and season, and I cannot
help thinking that a good many of the seven sub-species abov^
mentioned will be found to have no true geographical significance,
the only justification for their existence.
Both the species of Rhinoceros found in Africa belong to the
Atelodine group of the genus, distinguished by their single horns,
comparatively smooth skins, their thick rounded and truncated nasal
bones, and by the absence of incisor and canine teeth in the adults.
The larger species (R. simus) generally called the White, but better
termed the Square-lipped Rhinoceros is, after the Elephant, the
bulkiest of land animals now existing. It was formerly found in
large numbers all over the grass country north of the Orange
River; now it is on the verge of extinction, only a few examples
being still to be met with in Zululand,where, however, it is to be hoped
that they may slowly increase under the strict laws and fostering
care of the Administration. A very fine male, fhot in Mashona-
land in 1895 and presented to the South African Museum by
Mr. Cecil Rhodes, is exhibited in the galleries of that institution ;
while another shot by Mr. C. R. Varndell in Zululand in 1894,
was presented to the Transvaal Museum at Pretoria by Mr. Carl
Jeppe. The White Rhinoceros was, up till recently, supposed
to be confined to the country south of the Zambesi, but recently
the skull and horns of an undoubted specimen fhot by Major
Gibbons on the Upper Nile, near Lado, were exhibited at a meeting
of the Zoological Society of London.
The Common or Black Rhinoceros is a smaller species, and can
at once be distinguished by its prehensile upper lip, which has a sort
of medial prolongation resembling a small proboscis. It is a browser
and not a grass-eater like the other species. The Black Rhinoceros
has a much more extended range than the White, being found
from the Upper Nile Valley and Somaliland southwards. It is
now only met with in a few out of the way parts of South Africa,
such as Lydenburg in the Transvaal, Zululand, and perhaps parts
of Rhodesia.
The Dassies (Hyracoidea), of which some twenty species are
known, form a family confined to Africa and Arabia. They have
no near affinities to any particular group, nor has paleontology
thrown much light on their origin tip to now.
South Africa possesses representatives of three species, the best
known of which (Procavia capensis) is very common throughout the
greater part of the country wherever there are rocky cliffs or stony
hills. The Dassie externally resembles a large guinea pig ; it lives
in small family parties in the crannies and cracks in the
rocks, and can often be seen sunning itself there in the middle of
the day. J _i_^'i '_ -_! 1 ■■ ■
134 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The last family of the Ungulata contains the Indian and African
Elephants, the latter of which was formerly widely spread all over
South Africa from the immediate neighbourhood of Cape Town north-
wards. Within the boundaries of Cape Colony there are still two wild
herds, one said to number about forty individuals, in the Knysna
forest, and the other, about 350 in number, in the Addo bush, near
Port Elizabeth. The skeleton of a male and the mounted skin of a
female, both from Addo, are exhibited in the South African Museum.
Eight families of the Rodents are represented in our fauna, but
the number of species, about seventy, is not very numerous, and
does not form so preponderating a proportion of the fauna as in
most other parts of the world. Two of the families are confined to
the Ethiopian region — Bathyergidae and Pedetidae.
The best known of the ^representatives of the Squirrel family is
the Ground Squirrel {Xerus capensis), distinguished by its rudimen-
tary external ears and its coarse, harsh fur ; it lives in burrows in
the open country and feeds on bulbous roots; it is frequently confused
by the colonists with the Meerkats, in whose company it is often
found, and to whom it has a slight superficial resemblance. Two or
three other species of arboreal squirrels inhabit the more wooded
districts. The Dormice [Gliridae) and the true mice (Muridae) are
fairly abundant but are little known, and probably a good many
forms still remain to be discovered.
To the family -Bathyergidae belong the Rodent-Moles ; there
, are seven or eight species described, the best known being the large
Sand Mole {Bathyergus maritimus), which forms long burrows all
over the sand-hills in the neighbourhood of Cape Town ; so com-
pletely is the ground riddled in some places that riding becomes
positively dangerous. The eyes are very small and rudimentary and
the ear conch is absent, while the limbs are short and powerful and
armed with long, strong claws for burrowing. A somewhat smaller
species (B. janetta) has recently been described from Namaqualand by
Mr. Thomas. The Blesmol (Georychus capensis) still smaller,
is common in gardens where it ravages bulbs and potato tubers ;
it is so called from the " bles" or white spot on the top of its head.
Another curious and rather anomalous rodent, for which a
special family has been created, is the Spring-haas (Pedetes caffer),
a fair-sized animal, about as large as a rabbit, with short fore and
long hind limbs, on which it rests in kangaroo fashion ; when pressed
it progresses by a series of great bounds ; it is nocturnal in habits,
spending the day in deep and complex burrows, in which several
families live together. The Porcupines have a single representative
(Hystrix africae-australis), not very different from that of Europe ;
and the Hares, known as the Vlackte haas [Lepus capensis), Rhebok
haas (L. saxatilis) and Roode haas (L. crassicandatus), together with
several other species recently discriminated by Mr. Thomas are
spread all over the country.
As is the case in other parts of the world, but little attention has
been paid to the Bats of South Africa ; about thirty species are
described, but there are probably a good many more still awaiting
LAND VERTEBRATES. I35
discovery by anyone who devotes himself to the study of these very
interesting little creatures. Representatives of five out of the six
usually recognised families are found within our limits, the Phyl-
lostamatidae or bloodsucking bats, which are confined to the New
World, alone being absent.
There are two fruit bats commonly met with ; Rousetfus collaris,
which is abundant in. the neighbourhood of Cape Town and also
throughout the whole country ; they are specially devoted to loquats,
and when this fruit is ripe they assemble in large numbers
among the trees during the night time and do a good deal of damage ;
next morning nothing will be seen of the bats, but a crop of loquat
stones will be found lying underneath the tree. The other species,
Epomophorus -wahlbergi, confined to the eastern half of the Colony
and to Natal, is remarkable for the very expansible and pendulous
lips of the male ; these appear to be used as a kind of sucking organ
for extracting the soft interior of such fruits as figs, on which it
chiefly feeds. Of the commoner insectivorous species, the Horse-
shoe Bat (Rhinolophus capensis), the Slit-faced Bat [Nycteris
capensis), and the Cape Serotine {Eptesicus capensis) are most
frequently met with.
The animals which form the next order, the Insectivora, though
not very numerous and all of small size and inconspicuous, are of
considerable interest morphologically and from the standpoint of
distribution. Out of ten families usually recognised, four are repre-
sented in our fauna ; two of these, the Chrysochloridae (Golden
Moles) and the Macroscelidae (Elephant Shrews), though not con-
fined to South Africa, are restricted to the Continent, and apparently
have their headquarters in the south.
The commonest species of the former family at the Cape [Chryso-
chloris aurea) is abundant everywhere ; in almost every garden its
runs, made just underneath the soil, can be seen ; it destroys worms
and subterranean insect larvae, and in this it is of great service, but
in the pursuit of its prey it often disturbs bulbs and freshly-sown
seeds, so that gardeners are not very fond of it. It derives its name
from the beautiful golden metallic sheen on its fur, which is much
increased when the creature is preserved in spirit.
Although resembling the true Moles {Talpidae) in its habits and
general modification for underground life, the members of this
family are structurally more closely allied to the Tenrecs {Cente-
tidae), a family of Shrew-like animals found in the Island of Mada-
gascar. The Elephant Shrews (Macroscelides) are met with mostly
among the rocky kopjes and on the dry open Karroo ; they sit up
on their hind legs like a kangaroo and progress by leaps. The snout is
long and tapering, resembling an elephant's trunk, whence the name.
A single species of Hedgehog {Erin "xeus frontalis) and some five
or six shrews referred to the j enera Crocidura and Myosorex com-
plete the list of South African Insectivora.
The Order Edentata consists of five families, three of which are
confined to the New World, while two are exclusively found in the
Old. Representatives of both these latter are meet with in South
Africa.
136 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The Scaly Anteater (Manis temmincki) is not found in Cape
Colony proper, but from the Valley of the Orange River northwards
is fairly common,- though, as it is nocturnal and lives in burrows, it
is seldom seen ; its food consists of ants and termites, which it
obtains by breaking open the ant-hills with powerful claws and
catching the outswarming ants on its sticky tongue.
The Aard-vark {Oryderopus afer) constitutes with its con-
gener (0. aethiopicus) of North-East Africa, a family so distinct
from the others of the order, as in the opinion of many to require
separate ordinal accommodation. The most remarkable feature
of these creatures is the structure of their molar teeth — they have
no others ; these are made up of a number of columns of dentine,
each with its separate pulp cavity, from which radiate outwards
the dentinal tubes. • These are tightly packed together to form
a solid tooth, so that in section the polygonal outlines of the separate
columns can be seen. No other Mammal has teeth in any way
comparable to the Aard-vark,which stands quite alone in this respect.
This creature is found throughout the length and breadth of
South Africa, but is seldom seen or procured owing to its nocturnal
habits ; it spends the day in very large and capacious burrows,
which are a constant danger to the unwary rider, and which
owing to the openings being often concealed by bushes, are very
difficult to avoid.
Finally, a few words may be added in regard to the marine
Mammals which form the order Cetacea, and which are fairly
numerous in South African seas. Of Whales, the Southern Right
Whale (Balaena australis) visits our coasts in June and July for
the purpose of calving. It is then often pursued by whale boats
of which there are several stationed in both Table and False Bays,
anj is much valued, as the Baleen is long and of great value.
Humpbacks and Finners, as well as the Sperm Whale, are all
occasionally met with, though not so often molested.
One of the most curious members of this order is Layard's
Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon layardi) the jaws of which are eden-
tulous, except for a single pair of strap-shaped teeth springing
from the lower jaw and growing upwards and inwards so as to
cross each other above the rostrum of the upper jaw. This arrange-
ment must almost entirely preclude the animal from opening its
mouth at all, and it is difficult to understand how such a state of
things could have originated.
A number of different kinds of porpoises and dolphins, all
belonging to the family Delphinidae have been met with from
time to time, but very little is known either about their structure
or habits.
(6) Ave;.
With the exception of perhaps the Butterflies, the birds form
the best known and most studied components of the South African
fauna, frhe number of species hitherto recorded as occurring in
South Africa is about 820, and it is hardly probable that many
LAND VERTEBRATES. I37
more remain to be discovered, though doubtless the ingenuity
of the modern ornithologist will be able to detect a good many
new sub-species or geographical races among the more widely
spread forms. ^ While, however, our knowledge of the species
jfound_ in South Africa is tolerably complete, we are stilll very
ignorant of the nidification and migratory habits of many of the
birds. With regard to the latter, we have in South Africa two
_very dis|m£rg[rpTipsiof Mrds- Oii^ the one hand_-Such_birds as the
Tree Pipit (Anthus •trivialis), the Lesser Grey Shrike (Lanius
minor), the Garden Warber (Sylvia simplex), the Willow Wren
~{Pkylloscoi>us trochilus), several of the Reed Warblers, the European
Swallow (Hirundo rustica), the Goat-sucker (Ca-priinulgMS euro.pa£,us),
tEejloller (Coracias^ garrula), the Bee Eater (Merops apiaster),
the Cuckoo (Cucidus canorus), and a large number of the Sandpipers
and Plovers, are European birds which breed in the Northern
^Hemispliere during the northern summer, and only come to South
Africa during the northern winter (October to March) to escape
the coldT With one or two exceptions these birds, although
present^ here in South Africa during the breeding time of other native
birds, do not themselves nest here. On the other hand there
are a number of birds such as the Stripe-breasted Swallow {Hirundo
cucullata), several of the Cuckoos (Cuculus gularis and C. solitarius)
which are ^breeding birds with us during our summer months
{October to March), and which disappear altogether in our winter
probably into Central Afficai.
As is usually_the case, the greatsr number of the-South African
bir^^e comprised in the^)rder Passeres ; these species are about
'380 in number, divided ^among^ twenty-one families! IFTs' only
possible m the ITmited^ace at my disposal to enumerate a few
of the more common or striking members of the larger families.
/ Among the Starlings or Spreuws (Sturnidae) are the curious
Oxpeckers, also called Tick birds {Buphaga africana), which are
usually associated with the larger animals, such as the wild buffalo
and antelopes or the domestic cattle and donkeys, whom they
benefit by removing the adhering ticks and other parasites. The
Wattled Starling {Dilophus carunculatus), the male of which has an
entirely naked head, from which project huge black wattles, is
generally found in large flocks, pursuing the swarms of locusts
which devastate parts of the country from time to time.
/' The other South African Starlings are mostly distinguished by
/ the possession of a beautiful metallic black or purple livery ; while
'' the English Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is the only European bird,
so far as I am aware, which has thoroughly established itself in
South Africa. Unknown six or seven years ago, it is now found
throughout Cape Town and the Suburbs in very large numbers,
and is rapidly extending its range into the interior.
, Another large and very characteristic family are the Weaver
'birds (Ploceidae). The bulk of the representatives of the family
•are found in the Ethiopian region, and about sixty species in
South Africa. The common Cape Weaver bird (Sitagra capensis)
138 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
is a species most likely to be observed in or near Cape Town ; it
is generally to be found in the neighbourhood of water, and builds
its large retort-shaped nests in colonies usually on a willow or
other tree overhanging the water ; the entrance is a long tunnel
pointing vertically upwards, and the work of building falls entirely
to the male, the female looking on and criticising, and even, if she
•disapproves, pulling the nest to pieces and forcing the cock to
^ commence again. To this family also belong the Waxbills, generally
known in South Africa as " Rooibekjes." Most of the species
are brightly coloured, and as they are all seed eaters they
are easy to keep in captivity, and favourite denizens in an
aviary.
The commonest species is Estrilda astrilda, commonly seen
among the cornlands and grass pastures in large and noisy flocks
looking for grass seeds. The third group of this family comprises the
Widow birds and Bishop birds. Among these the males during the
breeding season have a brilliant livery of black usually combined
with yellow or scarlet, while the females and the males in the non-
breeding season are dull tawny brown and quite inconspicuous.
The commonest species in Western Cape Colony are the Yellow
and the Red Bishop Birds (Pyromelana capensis and P. oryx), while
on the grassy downs of the Orange River Colony and the Transvaal
the Great-tailed Widow Bird {Coliopasser procne) is sure to attract
attention. It is called " Sakabuli " by the Kafirs and often by the
English, and has a tail sometimes reaching a length of 20 inches
although the body of the bird only measures three or four. This
last-named species is very remarkable in its domestic habits, as it
is one of the very few polygamous passerine birds. In the spring
each male, accompanied by ten to fifteen females, selects a suitable
spot for nesting ; here each hen builds a separate nest while the
cock watches the proceedings from some vantage point ready to
warn the hens of approaching danger and to drive off other
"intruding cocks. The next family, the true Finches {Fringillidae) is
not a dominant one in South Africa. It includes the Cape Sparrow
[Passer arcuatus) which, though closely resembling the familiar
English bird in appearance and ways, is really distinct, its back
being cinnamon-red without any trace of the darker brown streaks
characteristic of the European form. It is exceedingly common in
Cape Town and has become completely acclimatised to town life ;
so much is this the case that the English Sparrow, though it must,
have been introduced, has never obtained a footing in Cape Colony,
so far as I am aware.
The only other member of this family which need be mentioned
is the Cape Canary {Serinus canicollis), a common resident every-
where in South Africa and a very favourite cage bird. As would
naturally be expected. Larks (Alaudidae) abound in South Africa
on the wide karoo and grassy plains which cover so much of its area.
Some thirty species, most of them confined to South Africa, have
been enumerated, though none of these appear to possess the sweet
song of our English bird.
LAND VERTEBRATES. I39
Pipits and Wagtails are fairly numerous ; the species most often \
seen is perhaps the little Cape Wagtail or Quicksteftje (Motacilla j
capensis), one of the tamest and most familiar birds in South Africa,,
which can be observed everywhere running swiftly along the
ground or taking short flights in search of flies and other insects.
The Longtailed Sugar birds (Promerops), two species of which'
are generally recognised, form a distinct family, the range of which
is confined to South Africa. These remarkable bir^ds are nearly
coterminous in their distribution with certain plants of the Natural
Order Proteacese which form a very characteristic feature of the
south-western districts of South Africa and are found elsewhere only
in Australia. The Cape Long-tailed Sugar Bird {Promerops cafer}
is very common about the slopes of Table Mountain and can be seen
flitting about in small companies of about a dozen or more among the
Protea bushes and Silver trees which clothe the hill-sides. They
have very long tails, which they flirt up and down during flight,,
and long bills by means of which they suck the honey from the
Protea blossoms ; this, together with insects, forms their food.
' Closely allied to the last-named family are the Sunbirds (Nectari-
niidae), distinguished by their bright metallic plumage and rivalling in
their gorgeous colouring the humming birds of the New World. Some
sixteen species of the family inhabit South Africa, the commonest and
one of the most beautiful being the Malachite Sunbird {Nedarinia
famosa), which is spread all over the country south of the Limpopo-
and which is distinguished by its pure metallic green plumage.
The Shirkes (Laniidae) are a fairly numerous and conspicuous^
family. The Fiscal or Johnny Hangman (Lanius collaris), with its^
sombre livery of black and grey, is found everywhere, and is a blood- |
thirsty and rapacious criminal. It impales its prey on thorns or even
on a barbed wire fence until it has acquired sufficient flavour for its-
palate. The Bush Shrikes, on the other hand, are much less formid-
able, but are frequently brightly coloured ; the best known species,,
the Backbakiri (Laniarius gutturalis), derives its name from its loud,
clear note ; the male and female are seldom apart and constantly
answer one another's call ; they can be heard at a great distance.
The Warblers (Sylviidae) comprise a number of birds generally
of small size and plain plumage ; they are very abundantly repre-
sented in South Africa, both by European migrants and local resi-
dents, to the number of over sixty species.
The rem.aining families of the Order Passeres, the Thrushes-
(Turdidae), the Flycatchers (Muscicapidae), and the Swallows-
(Hirundinidae) are all adequately represented in our fauna, the
last-named particularly so.
The second order of birds, the Picarians, contains a number of "
well-marked families, and are mostly distinguished for their bright
plumage or grotesque and bizarre forms. The South African species,
about one hundred in number, are comprised in sixteen families,.
among which the Swifts, Nightjars, Rollers, Bee-eaters, Kingfishers,.
Mousebirds, Hornbills, Woodpeckers, Cuckoos and Plaintain-eaters-
predominate.
140 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Among the more interesting forms is the Standard-wing Night-
jar {Cosmetornis vexillarius), the male of which has the ninth
primary feather of the wing enormously elongated to about three
times the length of the whole bird forming a kind of streamer or
standard ; only the males carry this curious adornment and they
only in the breeding season. This species is not found in the Colony
but only further north in Rhodesia, where it is by no means
uncommon.
The Rollers or Blue Jays, as they are generally called by the
Colonists, are very conspicuous birds in the more tropical portions
of South Africa such as the northern part of the Transvaal and
Rhodesia ; in addition to the European species (Coracias garrula),
which only visits South Africa in the southern summer season and
does not breed with us, there is Moselikatze's Roller (C caudatus)
with its elongated tail feathers, bright plumage and bold ways,
very commonly seen throughout Rhodesia.
Of Kingfishers we possess one of the largest species (Ceryle maxima),
about 17 inches in length with a handsome livery of black and white ;
it is found along most of the larger rivers and even on the sea coast,
where it can be seen poised in the air quite stationary to all appear-
ances, with its head and beak pointing straight downwards ready to
strike like an arrow on the fish below. A contrast to this is the
little Natal Kingfisher (Ispidina natalensis) with coral red legs and
beak contrasting with its metallic ultramarine plumage ; it haunts
the bush and forest, and feeds chiefly on insects, which it captures on
the wing.
A small though interesting family is the Coliidae or Mousebirds,
strictly confined to the Ethiopian region, and remarkable for their
pamprodactylous toes — that is, all four toes are normally turned
forwards, although both hallux and fourth toe can be turned back-
wards at will. All three species of Mousebird (Coitus striatus, C.
capensis and C. erythromelon) are found about Cape Town, and can
often be seen in small parties of six or seven birds flying from tree
to tree in the gardens of the suburbs, especially when the fruit is
ripe, to which they do a good deal of damage.
The Kornhills (Bucerotidae) are often mis-called " Toucans" by
the Colonists, a name properly apphcable to a purely American family,
but which share with the true Hornbills the character of a grotesque
and enlarged bill. A curious habit among these is that the male at
the breeding season plasters up the female inside a hollow tree ;
only a small aperture is left, through which protrudes the bill
of the imprisoned female ; through this hole the male feeds her,
and here she remains and moults her feathers for some six weeks
until the eggs are hatched and the young ones have assumed their
feathers. One species (Lophoceros melanoleucus) is common enough
in the eastern half of Cape Colony, while there are several others
found further north in Bechuanaland and Rhodesia.
Of Woodpeckers (Picidae), South Africa possesses a sufficiency ;
perhaps the most curious modification is the Ground Woodpecker
(Geocolaptes olivaceus), a species which, unlike all other woodpeckers.
] AND VERTEBRATES. I4I
lives almost entirely on the ground ; it is usually seen on the
mountain sides and tops, wandering about in small parties among
the rocks and boulders.
An interesting family are the Honey guides (Indicatoridae), \
several species of which "are widely spread throughout South .
Africa ; of dull plumage and appearance, they are remarkable i
for the fact that they will lead the traveller to the situation of \
bees' nests in the hope of sharing with him some of the spoil in the (
shape of honey or wax. In addition to this they are undoubtedly^ I
like Cuckoos, parasitic in their breeding habits, and deposit their^^
eggs in the nests of other birds.
The English Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus) visits South Africa during
the northern winter months, though seldom coming so far south
as Cape Colony, where however, its place is taken by other species,
and especially by the Red-chested Cuckoo (C. solitarius) called
the " Piet myn Vrouw " by the Dutch from its voice, which consists
of three clear notes in the descending chromatic scale. Mention
must also be made of the beautiful green Cuckoo {Chrysococcyx),
of which there are three species, all with an intense metallic green
or bronzy green dress.
The last family of the Picarian birds are the Plantain-eaters^l
or Touracos (Musophagidae). The commonest species (Turacus ;
corythaix), commonly known as the "Lourie," is a green-plumaged '
bird with a fine white- tipped crest; the wing feathers are bright!
crimson, and the pigment causing this colour named Turacin^by'
Prof. Church, is of great interest for two reasons ; in the first i
place it is soluble in water, so that when it rains, the bird, unless
it obtains a good shelter, is liable to have its colouring matter :
washed out, and in the second place the pigment contains a very
large proportion of copper (about 7 per cent.) in its composition,
a substance very seldom met with in organic compounds. It has i
always been a mystery whence the Lourie obtains its supply of J
this metal. \
South Africa is badly off for Parrots, there are only some half]
dozen found within our limits, and there are none of these common. '
The next order — the Accipitres — containing the diurnal Birds''
of Prey, forms a very marked feature of our fauna. While
many of the familiar European genera are represented by similar
or closely allied species, there a number of distinct and peculiar
forms confined to the Ethiopian region. Among the former are
the Peregrine, Hobby, Kestrel, Red-legged Kestrel, Tawny Eagle,
Lammergeyer, Buzzard, Kite, and several species of Sparrowhawk
and Harrier. Conspicuous among the latter group is the Bateleur
(Helotarsus ecaudatus), common enough north of the Limpopo, but
not so oiten met with in Cape Colony ; it can easily be recognised
even when on the wing, by its short stumpy tail and its coral-red
legs. It is an exceedingly handsome bird with a black head and
underparts, and a rich maroon-chesnut back and tail. Verreaux's
Eagle (Aquila veneauxi) is also a handsome and powerful bird,
black throughout, except for a white patch in the centre of the
142 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
back ; it is not at all uncommon in mountainous districts. I was
once fortunate enough to come upon three or four within 20 yards
of me at Smitwinkel Bay, a few miles south of Simonstown.
Contrasting with the Eagles is the Pigmy Falcon (Poliohierax
semitorquatus), a little bird hardly larger than a Sparrow. A
curious feature of this species is that the female is distinguished
from its mate by having a patch of rich maroon red in the centre
of the back.
Vultures are represented by seven species, the commonest of
which is Kolbe's {Gyps kolhii), while one species (Lophogyps occi-
pitalis) is the unique species of the genus which is confined to
tropical and South Africa.
/" The Secretary bird (Serpentarius secretarius), though very
unlike one's idea of a Hawk, is undoubtedly an aberrant member
of the Accipitrine Order. Only the single species is known, and
it ranges over the greater part of the Ethiopian region and forms
a special family.
The Secretary bird has long had a somewhat undeserved
reputation as a destroyer of snakes, and is popularly supposed
to be strictly preserved by the law of the land. This, however,
is not the case, indeed many sportsmen would like to see the
extinction of the Secretary bird encouraged, as it undoubtedly
destroys numbers of the young of partridges and hares ; indeed
its appetite is varied and somewhat indiscriminating ; the stomach
of a female specimen killed not long ago on the Cape Flats was
found to contain one tortoise (Homopus), eight chameleons, twelve
hzards of two species, three frogs, one adder {Bitis inornata), two
locusts, two quails, besides other less recognisable remains.
f South Africa possesses an average allowance of Owls though
none of them present any very special features of interest. Perhaps
the commonest species are the nearly cosmopolitan Barn Owl
(Strix flammea), and the Spotted Eagle Owl (Bubo maculosus),
while the Swamp Owl {Asio capensis) is often seen about in broad
daylight.
One of the most characteristic sounds in Cape Town, and more
especially in the wooded suburbs, is the monotonous and weari-
some coo of the Cape Turtle Dove (Turtur capicola), a handsome
species with a distinctly marked black collar round its neck. The
little Laughing Dove (Turtur senegalensis) is also common in places,
especially in the Municipal Gardens in Cape Town ; its coo is much
more musical than that of the Cape Turtle Dove, and closely
resembles a human laugh.
In addition to these. South Africa possesses one Green Pigeon
(Vinago delalandi) found in the forest districts, and several other
species, the most noticeable of which perhaps is the Namaqua
Dove, in which, contrary to what is usually the case, the sexes
differ from one another, and which are very common on the Karoo
and the " high veld " of the interior.
Of the Game birds, the largest genus is Francolinus, containing
about ten species in South Africa alone. In the south-western
LAND VERTEBRATES, I43
part of Cape Colony two of these commonly occur, a larger one
(F. capensis) commonly known as the Cape Pheasant, met with
in bushy localities ; and a smaller one (F. africanus) generally
known as the Partridge, which frequents open country, especially
the sides of the hills.
The Guinea Fowl {Nuniida coronata) is also found throxighout
(South Africa, except in the south-western districts, and is common
, along the river valleys where there is a good shelter of thick bush.
\ The domesticated race appears to have been originally derived
. from the allied West African species, and can generally be dis-
tinguished by its white wing feathers. The only other Game-birds
which need be mentioned are the Sand-grouse {Pteroclidae), by
some authors considered to be sufficiently distinct to form a
separate order. Of these typical desert-haunting birds we possess
four species, the commonest of which is the co-called Namaqua
Partridge (Pteroclurus namaqua) often seen in enormous flocks
in the dryer districts.
Restriction of space hardly allows me to do more than mention
the remaining Orders, the Geranomorphae, with three handsome
species of Cranes, the Wattled {Bugeranus carunculatus) the Mahem
or Crowned Crane {Balearica chrysofelargus), and the Blue Crane
.{Tetrapteryx paradisea) ; while the Bustards [Otidae) are represented '"
j by no less than twelve species, ranging from the large Gom Paauw
! {Otis kori), the male of which sometimes weighs as much as 40 lbs.;
I to the smaller Knorhaan {Otis afra), about the same size as a.
Ipartridge.
Among the Waders are a considerable number of European
species, migrants from the north only visiting our shores
during the southern summer ; such are the Grey Plover, Ringed
Plover, Curlew, Whimbrel, Ruff, Little Stint, Sanderling, Common
Sandpiper, Greenshank and Green Sandpiper.
Only two Gulls are found about our coasts ; these are the
; Southern Blackbacked [Lams dominicanus) and Hartlaub's (L.
j hartlaubi) ; both are very common in Table Bay, and the latter
i can at once be distinguished by his pure white dress and smaller
V size.
The Petrels (Tubinares) are essentially birds of the Southern
Ocean and are numerous in Cape seas though, so far as I am aware,
not a single species nests on our coasts ; among them are
the gigantic Wandering Albatross {Diomedea exulans), sometimes
reaching as much as 12 feet across the wings, and the other rather
smaller species known locally as the Mollymauk {Diomedea melan-
. ophrys) ; the former is not often seen near the coast, but the latter
is very common about bays and harbours and is a magnificent
j spectacle when soaring along behind a ship seeking for refuse thrown
overboard. Passing over the Herodiones, Steganopodes and
i Anseres, we come to the last two orders, both highly characteristic
but both only represented by a single species.
The Jackass Penguin (Spheniscus demursus) is quite common
along our coasts and nests in the numerous rocky and sandy islands
144 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
especially off the south-western shores of Cape Colony. So numerous
is it, that its eggs, which are collected specially for the purpose,
form an appreciable addition to the foodstuffs of the poorer classes
of Cape Town. The Order Impennes to which the Penguins are
referred, is entirely confined to the southern seas.
Finally, South Africa contains one representative of the Ratitae
or wingless birds — the Southern Ostrich [Struthio australis),
apparently confined to Africa south of the Zambesiand Cunene rivers;
north of this line, so far as is known, no ostrich occurs till the
Rufiji River, about 7° S. lat. in German East Africa, is crossed,
beyond which occurs Struthio massaicus, distinguished by it
reddish neck.
The Ostrich is now a domesticated bird throughout the greater
part of Cape Colony, and is bred and kept for the sake of its plumes,
which are annually pulled or cut. In 1903 nearly half a million
pounds of feathers were exported, valued at £945,000, and the
amount and value seems to be slowly increasing year by year.
(c) Reptilia.
In a list of the South African reptiles drawn up a few years ago
some 250 species were included ; to these a certain number of addi-
tional species since described must now be added.
Of the Crocodiles only one species has been met with ; this is the
common Crocodilus niloticus of the Nile and other parts of tropical
Africa. It is confined to the rivers flowing eastwards into the
Indian Ocean, from the Zambesi to Pondoland, and never seems to
have reached the south and westwardly-flowing streams. It is stated
to reach a length of 20 feet, but probably its size has been a good
deal exaggerated. There is an example in the South African
Museum from Mozambique, measuring between 14 and 15 feet,
and this appears to be a very large example.
The Chelonia number nineteen ; fourteen of these belong to the
Testudinidae, of which the common land tortoise of South Europe
may be taken as a type. The largest of them is the Leopard Tor-
toise {Tesiudo pardalis), which attains a length of about 2 to 3 feet,
not a great size as compared with the giants of the Aldabra and
Galapagos, but the largest of all the continental terrestrial forms.
This species and some of the others belonging to the same family are
frequently to be seen wandering about on the Karroo and are often
kept as pets by the farmers, who call them "schildpad." In addition
to these there are two fresh-water tortoises not infrequently found
in the streams and pools — Sternothaerus sinuatus and Pelomedusa
galeata — both included in the family Pelomednsidae ; the first-named
of these remarkable for the fact that the front part of the plastron
is hinged and can close up the front opening of the bony box into
which the head and limbs are retracted.
Three of the marine Turtles have occasionally been
met with on our coast — the Leathery Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea),
the Hawksbill Turtle (Chelone imbricata), and the Loggerhead
LAND VERTEBRATES. I45
{Thalassochelys caretta), but none of these are anything but occa-
sional visitors.
The lizards are the most numerous in species of the South African
orders of reptiles. One hundred and eighteen are included in the
list drawn up by the writer in 1898. They are referred to ten
families out of the twenty-one recognised by Mr. Boulengerin his
catalogue.
Geckos are numerous, especially on the Karroo. As would be
inferred from their narrow, vertical pupils they are mostly nocturnal
in their habits, while a large number of the species have their toes
swollen and provided with adhesive lamellae on the lower surface
which enable them to cling to vertical or overhanging rocks.
One species {Pienopus garrulus), common on the Karoo, has a
curious dry, monotonous note to which it gives vent when seated
at the moijth of its burrow.
The Agamidae have eight representatives, all assigned to the
typical genus ; they are spiny lizards and bask in full sunlight on
smooth rocks often nodding their head, and have thus gained the
name of " Kokkelmanetje " or Little Bowing Man among the
Dutch.
Among the Zonuridae we have the large and formidable-looking
Zonurus giganteus which attains a length of from 2 to 3 feet ; the
body is covered with bony plate-like scales the horny coverings of
which are produced into sharp spikes especially about the back of
the head and on the tail. This species is common in the northern
portion of the Orange River Colony and lives in burrows under-
ground ; large numbers of them were obtained when the railway was
being extended between Bloemfontein and the Vaal River. Another
interesting form of the same family is Chamaesaura with its long
snake-shaped body and tail ; among the species of this genus there
is an interesting progressive degeneration from Ch. cenea, which has
both pairs of limbs present and pentadactyle though small, through
several intermediate forms where the limbs are reduced to mere
stumps, to Ch. macrolepis where they are altogether absent. The
members of this family are confined to tropical and South Africa.
Among the Varanidae are to be found the largest of existing
lizards, some of which attain a length of from 6 to 7 feet ; two species
only inhabit South Africa, the larger V. niloticus and the smaller
V. alhigularis ; the former is the largest of the two, and haunting as
it does the banks of rivers, is often mistaken for a crocodile ; both
species are generally known among the Dutch by the name of
Laguvan or Leguan, a corruption of Iguana, a term more usually
applied to the members of an American family, the Iguanidae.
The curious worm-shaped lizards known as Amphisbaenas are
more numerous in tropical Africa, but two or three species do occur
within our limits ; they are remarkable worm-like creatures,
covered with soft skin which forms numerous rings each of which
is again divided into a number of little squares ; the eyes and ears
are concealed and the limbs absent. These lizards are entirely
subterranean and are generally found in ant-heaps.
L
146 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The Lacertidae comprise a number of Old World genera of no
very special interest ; there are about seventeen species found in
South Africa. The next family, Gerrhosauridae are somewhat
intermediate between the Lacertidae and the Scincidae ; as in the
latter family, the scales are underlaid by bony plates, but, on the
other hand, they have a slightly-forked tongue and a row of femoral
pores ; the Gerrhosauridae are strictly confined to the Ethiopian
region, while one genus Teiradactylus is purely South African.
The Scinks {Scincidae) form the largest single family in South
Africa, some twenty-eight species being recorded. They are
typical sand lizards, being found abundantly on the dry and
rocky Karoo of South Africa. This family also offers an example
of the gradual reduction from a fully developed and functional
pentadactyle limb to a complete absence of those, .appendages ;
this is specially the case in the genus Scelotes,v/hi[e Acontias meleagris,
a common species usually found under rocks and stones, has all
the appearance of the English slowworm.
The last family of the Lizards are the Chameleons, one of the
most characteristic of African types ; though extending beyond
the limits of Africa to Southern Europe and Asia, the bulk of
the forms are confined to the Ethiopian region proper, including
Madagascar. So markedly do they differ from other lizards that
many authors are inclined to place them in a separate Order of
Reptiles. Very characteristic are the compressed body, the
prominent crests and tubercles on the head, the club-shaped
projectile tongue, the prehensile tail, the curious grasping feet,
in which two of the toes are opposed to the other three ; in the fore
limb the outer two are opposed to the inner three ; while in the
hind limb the outer three are opposed by the inner two.
Nine species are known to inhabit South Africa. About Cape
Town the little Ch. pumilus is the commonest form ; unlike most
of the other species it is viviparous, producing as many as thirteen
fully formed young ones at birth ; whereas the larger Ch. parvilobus
of the Transvaal and Rhodesia lays eggs. Most Chameleons are
arboreal in habits, but one South African species Ch. namaquesis,
is specially modified for "Karoo life;" its limbs are stouter and
it is more active on the ground, while its colour is an inconspicuous
greyish brown, and shows no trace of the prevailing greens of the
other forms.
South Africa certainly contains its fair share of snakes, eighty-
one species are recorded, out of which twenty-two are reported
to be poisonous. Five of the nine families recognised by Boulenger
are repre ented, though as is generally the case, far the greater
proportion of the species, about fifty-seven, belong to the great
family Colubridae.
The worm-like burrowing Snakes of the families Typhlopidae
and Gla.uconiidae are fairly numerous though not often met with.
One of the largest species is Typhlops schlegelii, which attains a length
of more than two feet; it is found at Delagoa Bay and further
north in the low country. Both these families are probably
LAND VERTEBRATES.
147
•degenerate descendants of formerly cosmopolitan and rather
archaic snakes, which have adopted a burrowing life and
insectivorous diet.
Contrasting very strikingly with these degenerate forms are
the powerful Pythons and Boas (Boidae). A noticeable character
of this group is the presence of the extremities of the rudimentary
hind limbs on either side at the base of the tail. Only one species
occurs with us (Python sebae), by far the largest of our native
Snakes, often attaining a length of fifteen feet, and said sometimes
to reach twenty to twenty-five. The Rock Snake, as it is often
called,' is confined to the Natal, Zululand, and the low country
of the Transvaal and Rhodesia ; it is not met with in Western
Cape Colony or on the high veld.
The immense family of Colubridae is conveniently divided
into three parallel series. First, the Aglypha, with all the teeth
solid and non-poisonous ; and secondly, the Opisthoglypha, with
some of the hinder maxillary teeth grooved and poisonous to a
certain extent, as they paralyse their prey before deglutition, but
not dangerous to man ; thirdly, the Proteroglypha, with the
anterior maxillary teeth grooved or perforated, and distinctly
venomous. To the Aglypha belongs the common Water Snake
(Ahlahophus rufulus) found always near streams and vleis, the
Aurora, of somewhat similar habits, and at once known by a bright
yellow narrow line running down the back,and the Mole Snake {Pseu-
daspis cana) mottled when young, but becoming a uniform blackish
when older, and often attaining a length of 6 or 7 feet. Forming
a distinct sub-family is the Egg-eating Snake (Dasypeltis scabra)
widely distributed in Africa. The teeth in the jaws and on the
palate are much reduced and degenerate, while some of the vertibrae
of the lower neck have strongly developed hypapophyses, which
are directed forwards and- pierce the aesophagus and are tipped
with enamel substance. The egg is swallowed whole, but on
reaching the hypapophysial teeth is broken and crushed ; the
sucked-out egg shell is then vomited out as a crumpled up mass.
Among the Opisthoglypha, the commonest forms are the so-called
night adder (Leptodeira hotamboeia), easily distinguished by the
black patch on the sides of the head, and the Schaap-stikker or
sheep stinger (Trimerorhinus rhomheatus), a handsome species
with rhomboid brown markings on the back and sides. Its ver-
nacular name is quite undeserved, and it probably has gained it
through its active habits.
Among the truly venomous Snakes are included the curious
Sea Snakes, forming a distinct sub-family, Hydrophiinae. Most
of the species are found along the tropical shores of the Indian
and Pacific Oceans ; one, however, the wide ranging Hydrus platurus
has been occasionally met with in both False and Table Bays.
These Snakes may be known by their curious flattened oar-like
tails and greyish blue colour, and are all excessively poisonous
though they naturally do not often have an opportunity of exercising
their dangerous powers on human beings.
148 SCIENCE IX SOCTH AFRICA.
The other sub-family, the Elapinae, include the Cobras and
their allies ; the commonest species is Naia flava, the Yellow
Cobra, widely distributed throughout South Africa and common
enough in the neighbourhood of Cape Town. Like the more
familiar Indian Cobra the neck region can be flattened out and
widened to form the so-called hood, but it can be at once
distinguished by the absence of the so-called spectacle marks. This
species not infrequently attains a length of ten feet, and needless
to add its bite is almost invariably fatal. Closely allied to it is
the Ringhals [Sepedon haemachaetes), a very handsome Snake
with black and yellow mottled back, and black below with yellow
transverse bands near the neck. It is hooded like the Cobra,
and when roused, it not only strikes but spits out to a considerable
distance a very acrid saUva, with which a certain proportion of
venom is probably mingled. This habit has gained for it the
name of the " Spugh-slang " among the Dutch farmers.
The justly-dreaded Mamba (Dendraspis angusticeps) is only
found in Natal and the low country in the east. It is more of a
tree-snake than the others, and sometimes reaches a length of
10 feet. The younger specimens are green, but as they grow older
they get darker ; there is no ground, however, for distinguishing
the black from the green Mamba specifically. The other common
Elapine Snakes, the larger and smaller Garter Snakes (Aspidelaps
lubricus and Homorelaps ladeus) are sluggish and have very
small mouths and fangs. They are probably not very dangerous;
they are conspicuous forms the coloration consisting of alternate
rings of black and red.
The other poisonous snakes belong to a distinct family, the
Viperidae, in which there is only one maxillary tooth, the large
and perforated poison fang. The most common South African
member of this family is undoubtedly the Puff Adder (Bitis arietans),
an ugly brute of yellowish and orange brown, with regular chevron
shaped da.rk markings on the back ; it seldom reaches a length of
more than 4 feet, but is of very stout girth ; it is inert and sluggish,
but is justly held in great fear on account of its generally fatal
bite. Other species are the Berg Adder {Bitis atropos) and the
Horned Adder {B. cornuta) ; while Causus rhombeatus, the
Night Adder, is not uncommon in the eastern portion of Cape
Colony.
{d) Batrachia.
South Africa is not rich in Batrachians. Of the three Orders
only the Anura are represented. They number thirty-four
species, distributed in four families, i.e., Ranidae with twenty-three,
Engystomatidae with six, Bubondae with four, and Dactylethridae
with one species respectively.
The largest of our South African frogs is Rana adspersa, which
sometimes reaches a considerable size ; an average specimen in the
South African Museum measures between 7 and 8 inches in length.
LAND VERTEBRATES. I49
It is common in the eastern half of Cape Colony and in the Trans-
vaal, and has a very loud voice. Like other large species in other
parts of the world it is generally known as the Bull-frog. The
commonest representative of the curious digging family Engys-
tomatidae is Breviceps gibbosus, commonly known as the " regen
padda." It is the most comical little figure imaginable, with its
globular body, very short stout legs and blunt little face hardly
projecting beyond the general rotund outline. It is generally
found below a damp sod, and gives out a weird and shrill squeak
when handled.
Of the Toads (Bufonidae) South Africa possesses four species.
The commonest, Bufo regularis, a large and extremely handsome
form with bright yellow spots and markings, is generally known
as the leopard toad.
Finally, the last family, Dactylethridae, are sufficiently distinct
to form a separate sub-order ; they have no tongue, and are further
unique in possessing claws on three of the hind toes. Only one
species Xenopus laevis extends to South Africa, where, however,
it is very common throughout the country, flourishing in almost
every pool. It is far more aquatic in its habits than any other
frog, and seldom leaves the water. The Orders of Tailed and
Limbless Batrachians {Urodela and Apodi) are not, so far as we
know, represented in South Africa.
iii. zoogeographical relations of the south african
Fauna.
South Africa, which, for the purpose of this article, is taken to
mean that portion of the continent lying south of the Zambesi and
Cunene rivers, forms part of the Ethiopian region as now generally
understood by students of the geographical distribution of animals.
The splitting up of this region into sub-regions is, however, a
difficult task and is a subject on which authors have differed
considerably. Some time ago I divided the Ethiopian region into
four sub-regions. These were the Saharan, West African, Malagasy
and Cape sub-regions respectively. South Africa, as defined by me
for the purpose of this article, is rather a political than a natural
section of the continent, and in the work above referred to the
Cape sub-region extended north of the Zambesi Valley as far as the
■Congo watershed on the west and the Tana watershed on the east.
Whether this line forms a really natural faunal boundary is at
present uncertain, as our knowledge of the distribution of the faunal
elements of those regions is at present in a very vague state, but
there can be no doubt that a good many genera and even families
formerly supposed to be confined to SouthAfrica proper have of late
years been met with much further north, and it is increasingly diffi-
cult to draw any dividing line between the Saharan and Cape sub-
regions. On going through the revised lists of the vertebrate land
fauna of South Africa, the following figures of the percentage of
peculiarities result : —
150 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Mammals.
Birds.
Reptiles.
Batra-
chians.
Total number of Families
35
67
18
4
Total number of Genera . .
.. 96
315
82
14
Number of Peculiar Genera
7
15
19
2
Percentage of Peculiarities
7
4
23
14
Only one family, so far as I am aware, is strictly confined to
South Africa — the Promeropidae or Long-tailed Sugar Birds, which
have never been found hitherto north of the Limpopo.
The following are the peculiar genera : — Cynictis and Suricata,
the Meerkats among the Carnivora ; Pelea the Rhebok and Anti-
dorcas the Springbok, among the Antelopes ; Malacothrix, Bathy-
ergus and Petromys, among the Rodents. Of the birds, Alario-
(Fringillidae), Callendula Spizocorys, Hetercorys and Certhilaiida
{Alaudidae), Promerops (Promeropidae), Anthrohaphes {Nectari-
niidae), Urolestes and Lanioturdus {Laniidae), Phlexis, Euryptila,
Pinarornis and Chaetops (Sylviidae), Emarginata (Ttirdidae),.
Geocolaptes [Picidae) ; among the Reptiles — Ablahophis, Lam-
prophis, Pseudaspis, Macrelaps, Sepedon, Aspidelaps and Homore-
laps (Ophidia), Chondrodactylus, Ptenopus, HomophoUs, Colopus,.
RhoptropJms, Pseudocordylus, Platysaurus Chamaesaura, Tro-
pidos-aura, Tetradactylus, Cordylosaurus and Herpetoseps (Lacer-
tilia); a.ndima.lly Helophryne andCacosternum, among the Batrachia.
From these lists and figures it is quite evident that South Africa
has not such a specialised fauna as was formerly attributed to it,.
and that it has comparatively little to distinguish it from the rest
of the Ethiopian region, which however, as a whole, presents a
number of very interesting problems to the student of geographical
distribution.
The recent discovery in deposits of Eocene age in the -Fayoum
of Upper Egypt of the remains of a number of extinct mammals
has introduced into the problem of the origin of the African mammal
fauna an entirely new set of data. What may be called the
Huxleyan theory of radiation has hitherto held sway. According
to this theory the Ethiopian region has been colonised from the north
by two great immigrations ; the earlier one in eocene or early miocene
times while Madagascar still formed part of the continent, brought in
the Lemurs and other primitive forms which make up the present
fauna of that island, while only a few scattered remnants have sur-
vived in Africa proper ; while a later one which took place in pliocene
times, introduced the Antelopes, Hippopotamus,Rhinoceros, Zebras,
Ostriches, Apes and higher Carnivora which now form so conspicu-
ous a feature of our fauna, and which have still living, or but recently
living, representatives in Southern Asia. Most of the ancestors of
these forms have been traced back in the earlier tertiary deposits of
the Northern Hemisphere, but hitherto no ancestral forms of the
Proboscidea have been met with of earlier date than the Mastodons
of miocene and pliocene times, which have been found in South and
North America as well as in Europe and Asia.
LAND VERTEBRATES. 15I
Recent exploration in the Fayoum district in Egypt by Mr.
Andrews of the British Museum has resulted in the discovery of
a number of interesting eocene mammals which throw a good deal
of fresh light on the earlier evolutionary stages of several mammalian
orders . Perhaps the most remarkable form is one named by him Moeri-
therium, a very generalised type of Proboscidean with a full series
of front teeth and an almost complete set of molars all in use at the
same time, thus differing widely from the modern living forms.
Nevertheless the modern type is foreshadowed not only in the shape
and structure of the teeth but also by the enlargement of the secor'd
pair of incisors in each jaw ; an enlargement which continues to be
more and more marked until it culminates in the tusks of the modern
elephant.
From these and other facts it appears probable that although
some components of the Ethiopian fauna may have been evolved
in the northern continents and have reached Africa by migration,
other groups such as the Proboscidea have probably originated in
Africa itself.
Hitherto except for this recent discovery in the Fayoum, no
tertiary mammals have, so far as I am aware, been unearthed in
Africa. In fact, apart from the reptiles of the Karoo beds of Cape
Colony, which are dealt with in a special chapter by Dr. Broom,
we know nothing of the Palaeontological history of South Africa,
and until our knowledge in this respect is largely increased no com-
prehensive theory of the origin and derivation of the African fauna
can be arrived at.
IV. Literature.
(a) General.
1849. Smith, Sir A. Illustrations of the Zoology of South Africa.
Vol. I., Mammalia, with 53 plates ; Vol. II., Aves, with
114 plates ; Vol. III., Reptilia, with 78 plates ; Vol. IV.,
Pisces, 31 plates, Invertebrata, 4 plates. London. 4to.
1900-1905. Sclater, W. L. [Edited by]. The Fauna of South Africa.
Mammals by W. L. Sclater, in two volumes complete ;
Birds by the late Dr. A. C. Stark and W. L. Sclater, in four
volumes. London. 8vo.
[b) Mammkls.
1832. Smuts, J. Dissertatio Zoologica, enumerationem Mammal-
lium Capensium continens. Tribus tabulis adjunctis.
Leyden. 4to.
1862. Layard, E. L. Catalogue of the Specimens in the Collection
of the South African Museum. Part I., MammaHa.
Cape Town. sm. 8vo.
1894-1900. Sclater, P. L., and Thomas, 0. The Book of Ante-
lopes. 4 volumes. London. 4to.
1899. Bryden, H. a. [Edited by]. Great and Small Game of
Africa. London. 4to.
152 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
(c) Birds.
1799. Levaillant, F. Histoire naturelle des Oiseaux d'Afrique.
6 volumes. Paris. 4to.
1867. Layard, E. L. The Birds of South Africa. A Descriptive
Catalogue of all the known Species occurring south of the
28th Parallel of South Latitude. Caps Town. 8vo.
1872. Andersson, C. J. Notes on the Birds of Damara Land and
the adjacent countries of South- West Africa. Edited by
J. H. Gurney. London. 8vo.
1875-84. Layard, E. L. The Birds of South Africa. New edition
thoroughly revised and augmented by R. Bowdler Sharpe.
London. 8vo.
1896-1905. Shelley, G. E. The Birds of Africa. Vols. L, IL, IIL
To be completed in six volumes. London. 8vo.
1900-1905. Reichenow, a. Die Vogel Afrikas. Vols. I., II. and
III. Neudamm. 8vo.
(d) Reptiles and Batrachians.
Apart from Smith's Illustrations, already alluded to, no special
works on South African Reptiles and Batrachians have hitherto
been published. Reference must be made to the series of British
Museum Catalogues of the groups prepared by Mr. G. A. Boulenger.
SECTION III.— ZOOLOGICAL-(<;(;».M.)
2. A BRIEF SKETCH OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSECT
FAUNA.
By L. Peringuey, Assistant Director, South African
Museum.
South Africa is taken here to mean that part of Africa lying
south of the sixteenth parallel. The collections made of late years
prove that this is the natural limit dividing South Africa from
the other two great African sub-regions (western and eastern),
as nearly as conterminous lines, without marked natural boundaries,
can prove to be a natural limit. This fauna assumes a much more
distinct character the further south it goes, but from that northern
limit must be excluded the coast belt of low land extending in
the east as far as Beira, and probably further south, because this
belt belongs unmistakably to the eastern sub-region ; in the
north-west such is not the case, and the fauna of Omrromba, Umbe,
Umpata is much more closely related to that of N'Gamiland than
to that of Angola. There is, on the whole, no well-marked natural
boundary, because there are no insurmountable physical barriers.
In Natal the insect fauna of the tropical coast belt is undoubtedly
of a more Ethiopian character than that of the high veld of that
Colony or of the Transvaal, but it is not more Ethiopian than
that of the low country of the Transvaal. If we compare the
fauna of Namaqualand and that of Natal, lying both along the
thirtieth parallel, tlie difference is indeed striking, and it is doubtful
if more than one genus in ten, or one species in fifty are denizens
of both these localities, yet there are no insurmountable barriers
bstween them. But in Namaqualand the climatic and physical
influences of the adjoining sandy and stony desert localities make
themselves felt ; while in Natal the forest and thorn bush, the
more humid climate and greater rainfall have a distinct influence.
The penetration westward of the ultimately mingling yet gradually
modified fauna is in the north, along the Zambesi and through the
Transvaal, and southward along the Drakensberg range. The
distribution of the different orders of insects does not, however,
proceed on quite simUar lines, and one .should not lay hard and
fast rules for all of them ; but the limitation of this South African
sub-region holds good for two of the best known orders, the Coleop-
tera and the diurnal Lepidoptera, orders so diametrically different
in habits as well as mode of locomotion ; it is a somewhat doubtful
154 SCIENXE IN" SOUTH AFRICA.
one for the Orthoptera, unless endemic species only are taken jnto
consideration ; it does not apply to the Hymenoptera, mostly
all great rovers ; certainly not to the Odonata, which dwell along
water courses, nor strictly speaking to the remainder of the Neu-
roptera ; and it cannot be said to be a true one for the Hemiptera-
Homoptera, and yet, taken as a whole, the insects of this sub-region
have a much more varied facies of their own, and are much less
homogenous than those of the eastern and western sub-regions
of the Ethiopian fauna. This character, totally wanting in the
two sub-regions aforesaid, is due to the presence in this South
African sub-region of a fauna, or faunule, which may be termed
the Cape or Karrooid fauna, and is restricted to that part of the
Cape Colony bounded on the east by the twenty-sixth meridian,
on the north by the thirty-third parallel, extending westward
along the Roggeveld mountains as far as the Kamiesberg, and
ending in the neighbourhood of Port Nolloth ; beyond this limit
the influence of the Kalahari region predominates. To this Cape
fauna are restricted most of the endemic forms, generic and specific,
of the Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Orthoptera, and of many Neuroptera
and Hymenoptera.
To correctly estimate the number of species of the insects
inhabiting the South African sub-region will be impossible for
many years to come ; but from records and observations made
by the author during the last thirty years, taking as a basis the
ratio of increase in the number of published species, as well as
that of the non- described species known to Jiim ; remembering
also that minute or obscure species have been, and are still completely
neglected by the collector or the specialist, he is of opinion that
this number will prove to be more than 40,000, of which the
Coleoptera alone will have more than 15,000 representatives.
The habits, distribution, and number of species of such a host
are so varied that it is considered best to take the different orders
systematically, and to give of each as brief an account as possible.
Orthoptera.
Blattidae. — The collecting of these somewhat fragile and
not specially inviting insects has been considerably neglected,
and the number of South African species, which is, however, con-
siderable, will be probably greatly increased. When comparing
the South African kinds with those recorded from Abyssinia,
the Galla country and Somaliland, or neighbouring parts, one
is greatly struck by the great conformity in the distribution of
the genera ; the species are also closely allied, and in many cases
identical. One hundred and thirty-two South African species
included in forty- two genera are described, but the difference's
in the sexes have probably caused in several instances the same
species to be described anew, and larval forms have been taken for
adults. The proportion of species belonging to genera, in which
the adult male alone bears wings, while the female is without
any rudimentary traces of them, is a peculiar feature of the South
INSECT FAUNA. 155
African Blattidae. In the Perisphaerini, of which fortj'-nine
kinds of females, probably half the number of the existing ones,
are known to the author, the males have retained their Blattidous
appearance, but not so the females which have undergone such a
striking alteration in the shape of the prothorax, that it is not safe
to ascribe a male to a female unless the two have been taken together.
Near seaports are found such ubiquitous species as Periflaneta
americana and Dorylaea rhombifolia ; Blatta germanica is also here
with us. In the Phyllodromiinae, the genera Edobia and Aphlebia
have representatives, and the delicate species belonging to Phyllo-
dromia and Ceratinoptera are far from uncommon ; Ischnoptera has
four representatives known to the author : Deropeltis numbers several
species ; Oxyhaloa deusta, first described from the Cape by Thun-
berg, reaches Abyssinia ; in the tufts of reeds {Restio sp., sp.)
dwells Aptera cingulata, the large apterous female of which stains
the captor's fingers with a fluid which, as in other cases, may
prove to be its blood. This remarkable insect, which the author
suspects to be viviparous, does watch over and rear its young.
Under stones, or under the accumulated leaves of bushes are met
the numerous representatives of the genera Pilema, the males of
which have the appearance of winged termites, of Stenopilema^
Cyrtotria, Glomeris, Melanohlatta, Derocalymma, Poeciloblatta, etc.,
etc. Thlyptoblatta is perhaps the flattest of all Blattidae, and was
discovered in Namaqualand by the author, not under bark, as
its depressed appearance might lead one to believe, but under stones.
Mantodea. — Numerous are the representatives of this family :
i.e., 102 species included in forty-six genera. It is doubtful if this
number will be materially increased; many species haveawiderange,
and I think that very few are restricted to the limits of the South
African area. These wolves in sheep's clothing are marvellously
adapted to the colour of their surroundings, and some have assumed
fantastic shapes, always more striking, and presumably more
effective in the female. Both sexes of Pyrgomantis nasuta have
the fades of a harmless herbivorous Pyrgomorphid insect ; Solygia
sulcatifroHs is almost the reproduction of a pacific Phasmid, Badro-
dema by name ; Popa undata is not to be distinguished from
broken bits of dry greyish wood ; Oxypilus nasutus harmonises
50 well with the grey and white sandy soil over which it roams,
that it is undistinguishable when not in motion ; Anieles meridionalis
and Empusa delalandei are the colour of the plains ; in these
three species the females are apterous, hence their assimilation to
the colour of the soil, and it is useless to search for them where
other colours prevail, because they are not to be found there, any
more than the green-robed species of the genera Mantis, Hierodnla,
Polyspilota, Miomantis are to be met with anywhere else but in a
green bowery. On the white and grey flowers of umbellifers is to be
seen Harpagomantis tricolor harmonising so well with the surrounding
tints that it is difficult of detection even to the practised eye ; Galin-
thias amoena is quite its equal in that respect ; and Pseudocreobotra
wahlbergi surpasses even these two at that kind of dissimulation,having
156 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
had developed on each wing a large circular yellow ring edged
with black with a green border, imitating absolutely the corolla
of a yellow flower, but it is surpassed by the disguise of Phyl-
locrania paradoxa, which looks so much like a partly eaten withered
leaf, as to call forth an expression of admiration and wonder at the
disguise. Add that the young of the species of the Phyllocranini,
Harpagini and Empusinae have a differently coloured foliated
abdomen which they carry flat over their back, the better to
imitate a flower or a bud, that they, like the adults, keep a pendulous
motion like that of a leaf agitated by the wind, and it will thus
be seen that the mimicry of surroundings for predaceous purposes
is as well illustrated in South Africa as in any other part of the world.
Phasmodea. — Not numerous here are the genera and species
of these harmless creatures, the Stick Irisects, but the author
knows of several undescribed species. They cannot compare
in quaintness of shape with those occurring in the east, although
they are most marvellously protected by their twig-like or herbaceous
appearance. Bactrodema tiaratum and B. aculiferum are the
largest South African representatives of this family ; Clonaria,
Maransia and Macinia have several representatives, some of them
very large, but all slender.
Gryllidae. — The Gryllidae are fairly numerous, especially the
troglodytous forms, but not so the kinds occurring in foliage or trees.
Locustidae. — Not very plentiful either in species or genera
are the green, leaf-like members of this family, and these are,
of course, to be found only where green vegetation abounds ;
some genera of the Phaneropteridae, Horastophaga, Terpnistria,
St'lpnothorax are, however, peculiar to Sou'h Africa, and Arantia
and Cymaiomera' a.re as good instances of verisimilitude to a green
or brown leaf as any found in the East, or in South America. Very
few are the representatives of the Decticinae, but the Conocepha-
linae number several species ; numerous in kinds, as well as in
individuals, are the Hetrodinae with their obese appearance enhanced
by the complete obliteration of wings : more singular are the also
wingless local members of Stenopelmatinae, these pugnacious
dwellers in caves which have completely lost the power of pro-
ducing music, although they still retain on the forelegs an auditory
organ. It is this fighting instinct which has probably led to the
enormous development of the head and jaws of the males, and if
we take their size into consideration, nothing in the animal kingdom
can be said to look so formidable as the male of Mimnenmis mons-
trosus, M. pattersoni, or of Nasidius truncatifrons, and Platysiagon
signatifrons is not much inferior to them in that respect. The
Gryllacrinae, so numerous elsewhere, have very few representatives
in South Africa, where, however, the sanguinary Saginae are repre-
'^ented by four species of Clonia, the rod-like Peringueyella-jocosa,
and the curious Hemisaga praedatoria.
):- -' A crididiodea. — It is when we turn to this numerous f amfly that the
peculiar features of the South African Orthopterous fauna become
apparent. To this part of the African continent are restricted these
INSECT FAUNA, 157
extraordinary insects, included in the genera Cystocaelia, Bulla,
Pneumora, forming the sub-family Pneumorincs, and in the males
of which the abdomen has become distended into a large vesicle,
the better to act as a sounding board, while the female, normally
shaped, but wingless or incapable of flight, is usually maculated with
silvery patches which hn ak in the twilight the contour of the body
to enable her to escape detection more effectually. No less than
thirty-six species of Xiphocera, Acocera and Haplolopha, genera
belonging to the Pamphaginae, are recorded from South Africa ;
these genera do not seem to reach westward higher north than
Angola, but eastward they occur as far as Abyssinia, yet it would
seem that there is no connecting link in the distribution of the Euro-
pean or circa-Mediterranean representatives of this sub-family, as
they are not known to have been met with beyond Egypt proper.
Few Orthoptera are more singular in their appearance than the
apterous Schinzia horrida, Geloiomimus nasicus, Thrinestropts caffra,
Charilaus brunneri, all peculiar to South Africa, and inhabiting the
arid localities of Namaqualand and the Karroo. Peculiar also to
South Africa are the representatives of Eremobiinae, belonging to
the genera Batrachornis, Batrachotettix, Methoue, the so-called
Toad-locusts, the adaptation of which to the contour and colour
of the soil is so perfect that it attracted the attention of Burchell so
far back as 1811. Most of the species are restricted to the Karroo,
but the enormous Methoue andersoni is also met with as far as
Walfiish Bay, and the wastes of N'Gami land will probably be found
to harbour more new species.
When Orthopterous insects are so gorgeously coloured that they
can be discerned at a great distance by man or beast, when they
display richly- coloured under wings in their slow, lazy flight, or hop
clumsily and without haste before you, one may at once conclude
that for one or more reasons these insects are protected against
molestation. These colours are, in fact, danger signals, and they
give warning that the owners are malodorous or unpalatable. South
Africa possesses more species of these peculiarly- endowed Phyin-
atincB than occur in the other parts of Africa, Madagascar and
India. Phymateus morbillosus with its vermillion thorax and legs
and red under wings, P. leprosus with its green, tessellated wings, are
conspicuous in the western and midland parts of the Cape Colony,
while the several species of Pcecilocera and Zonocenis are quite as
conspicuous objects in the eastern parts of the Colony, in Natal or
in the Transvaal. Petasia spumans is a most clumsy insect with
aborted wings ; it is also conspicuously marked, but its means of
protection is the fetid foam-like spittle, which it exudes in profusion
when seized. Numerous are the South African CEdipodi, but they
do not call for any special comment.
Neuroptera.
Most interesting perhaps of all the Neuropterous insects are the
Termitidae, not only on account of their social habits, but also owing
to the character that the large or moderate sized mounds made by
158 SCIENXE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
most of them impart to the South African landscape. All the species
are not mound-builders, but the Termitaria prove very important
factors in the economy of many other insects which feed upon them,
which areattracted by the fungus beds which certain species are known
to cultivate, or which undergo their development in the accumulation of
foeces or detritus carefully brought outside the abode of the colony.
Formicaria are also known to be attractive to certain commen-
sals, or mess-mates, which, however, are in many cases turned to
advantage by the host ; but it is doubtful if the Termites derive
any benefit from these Termitobious animals, the list of which is
increasing daily. Other animals, besides the Cape Ant-eater and
the Cape Armadillo, feed on them in the Termitaria ; several
examples of the huge " blind snake," Typhlops schegelli, probably
the larger of its kind (it reaches 70 cm.), were found together in
Rhodesia in the heart of a termite-mound, across which it was found
necessary to make a railway cutting. Only those who have wit-
nessed the swarming out, after the early summer rains, of the count-
less myriads of winged termites can realise the importance of a
termite colony. As already said, certain species cultivate fungus
beds. The royal cell of Termes natalensis is an oblong chamber
varying in length from 11 to 14 cm., with a flat floor- and an arched
roof from 4 to 6 cm. at its highest point, enclosed in a large lump of
cornpressed clay perforated with numerous narrow galleries, and
situated in the termitariam immediately above the fungus bed,
All the species do not, however, have a royal chamber : such are
Termes hastatus, T. trinervius, etc. Termites are as a rule eyeless
and lucifugous, but we have here also, and ranging from east to
west, a subterranean, eyed, grass or twig-cutting one, Hodoiermes
viator, which works in the open in the daytime. Owing to its
habit of piling up at the entrance little heaps of twigs of grass or
dry wood cut to a short length, it has received here the cognomen
of " Hout-kapper," or wood-cutter. Its underground nest
is of considerable extent, but I am not aware that the queen's
quarters have as yet been discovered ; it does not build mounds,
although it occasionally takes possession of those made by another
kind. One species, also a subterranean eyeless one, builds hollow,
cylindrical towers above the ground, etc, etc.
The South African Odonata or Dragon Flies are not very
numerous, nor varied, and they do not differ much from their
congeners elsewhere. Palpopleura lucia, P. portia, P jucunda
throw a gay note on the neighbourhood of running waters. Orth-
etrum suh-fasciatum is probably the most common of our local
species ; Pantala flavescens prefers copses, but not very far from
water ; huge species of Anax soar high in the sky, and the slender,
fragile-looking Allocnemis nigrosticta, Chlorolestes conspicua, C.
tessellata, etc., are found wherever brooks are babbling. Ephemeri-
dae or May-Flies are never abundant, either in species or in
individuals, nor are the Sialidae or Alder-Flies. A large Corydalid, a
genus recorded from South America, is apparently very rare. But if
unlike what obtains in the Palsearctic Region, the representatives of
INSECT FAUNA. 159
these two families are neither numerous nor particularly singular; the
same cannot be said of the HemeroUidae, the Ant-Lions and the
Lace-wing Flies. From among the tufts of " reeds " (Restio)
occurring so frequently in the sandy soils of the south-western
parts surges suddenly, when alarmed, the yellow and black winged
species oiPalpares, their short, jerky, bizarre, noiseless flight making
you wonder as to the identity of the insect that you have flushed.
It has not gone far, and you can perceive it clinging flat against the
reed, its long, hairy wings folded convexly above the body.
Plentiful in such locality are the sand pits at the bottom of which
its huge larva awaits its victims. To the light of houses, to the camp
fires, come numerous species of Acanthaclysis, Myrmeleon, Creagris
and Formicaleo ; but they, unlike Palpares, Tomaderes, and Panexis
which,being diurnal, have a yellow and black livery, are modestly clad
in grey. Glenurus excentrus is an exception in that respect. On the
white walls of houses one meets in the morning several species of
Ascalaphid which, so far as known to the author, are crepuscular or
nocturnal. Proctarrelabris has three species, Nephoneura three,
Encyoposis and Melambrotus several, some of which are still undes-
scribed. Tmesihasis lacerata is brightly coloured, and may prove
to be less crepuscular in its habits than its congeners from which
it differs also in not having the long antennae knobbed at tip.
Characteristic of the South African Neuropterous fauna as are the
Ascalaphidae, they must nevertheless take second place to the
Nemopterides, not that the genus Nemoptera is restricted to that
part of Africa, but owing to the quaintness and also to the number
of species of its local representatives. In the genus Nemoptera,
which some' purists would have us write Nematoptera, the hind wings
have been reduced to a long narrow appendage, sometimes absolutely
filiform {N. setacea), shaped like an oar at the end (A'', africana,
remiformis, hacillaris) or spatulate and bi-sectate before the apex
(.4. dilatata, egregia, etc.). Although mostly caught at the lights, I
have seen in early morning Nemoptera africana skipping along in the
manner of a Daddy-Long-Legs, and the lacteous end of the hind wing
only was visible. Three kinds of Mantispa occur in South Africa.
The habits of one, M. grandis are not quite those of the European
M. styriaca, for the larva undergoes its whole metamorphosis
inside the egg-bag of a spider of the genus Palystes, and there are two
Mantispa cocoons in the said bag. The South African Hemero-
biidae and Phryganidae are, as yet, very little known.
Hymenoptera.
A typical feature of the South African Hymenoptera sessili-
ventres, is the complete absence of the Siricidae, while the Tenth-
redinidae or Saw-flies are represented by very few species of Arge
(Helitoma) which are extremely rare in the western and midland
parts of the South African area, but are found more numerously
in Natal, the Transvaal and Rhodesia, where vegetation is more
abundant. Ichneumonidae are fairly plentiful, and Bracoiiidae
l60 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
very numerous. The local representatives of these two families
have not as yet been systematically worked out, and the inference
of the author is based mainly on the contents of the collections
of the South African Museum.
If we turn, however, to the Hymenoptera fetioliventres, we find
that on the whole they are of a purely African type, yet they
present characteristics which, although they are not as strongly
distinctive as in the South African Coleoptera and certain Neurop-
tera, have still a certain imprint of their own. In the Anthophila,
both the honey bees Apis mellifica and A. caffra occur everywhere,
and in the Western Transvaal a minute honey-bee of the genus
Trigona, possibly identical with T. madecassa, is met with ; Halictus,
Andrena, Nomia are fairly abundant ; Megachile are numerous
in species ; Chalicodoma is represented by two kinds ; the nests
of the sixteen species of Anthidium known to the author are seem-
ingly different in shape, size and material, according to the species ;
Podalirius {Anthophora) makes here the same shrill humming
noise as elsewhere, and although far less numerous individually
than their congeners in Northern Africa (Algeria) they are equally
well adapted to the fertilisation of flowers by means of the long,
shaggy hairs with which their body is clothed, or their broadly
dilated, thickly hairy legs, and Anthophora advena, plumipes,.
bi-partita, basalis, stand second to none in that respect. Bumble-
bees (Bombus), entirely wanting in the Ethiopian region, are replaced
here by the Carpenter Bees (Xylocopa). These, the largest and
most powerful of bees, have a very wide distribution. They
make their nest mostly in dry stumps of trees or fencing poles,,
but Xylocopa sicheli, and perhaps more South African species,
use the stems of Aloe plants for that purpose. In spite of their
hairy covering, these bees are as often as not useless for fertilisation
purposes, as they bite off the flower above the nectar when their
tongue is too short to lap it.
Eumenidae. — The solitary wasps are fairly numerous. The
genera Rhaphiglossus, Smithia, Zethus, Eumenes, Synagris have
some thirty kinds of representatives. Eumenes caffra and E.
tinctor, especially the former, builds a nest made of clay, somewhat
resembling that of Synagris calida, but sometimes made, by
the former, of quartz pebbles cemented together ; Synagris
mirabilis and S. calida, range from the Cape to Abyssinia,
but the local number of Odynerus species is considerable,
and Pterochilus insignis, P. capensis, ' etc., are among
the most conspicuous insects of this sub-family. -Social
Vespidae are not many ; Belenogaster junceus and B. rufipennis are
probably most in evidence. The papyraceous nests of the latter
consist only of half a dozen cells ; those of Polistes marginalis
and of P- rubidus are multicellular, but never attain a great size.
The true hornet (genus Vespa) has no African representative,
but those of the Masaridae are numerous. The genera Ceramius,
Quartinia, Masariella, Coelonites, Masaris, are a distinct feature
of the Hymenopterous fauna. The first three genera are also
INSECT FAUNA. l6l
represented on the circa-Mediterranean fauna, but their habits
do not seem to be better known there than those of their congeners
here. The author has as yet met with only one species of the
Masaridae outside the Karrooid part of the Cape Colony, Namaqua-
Jand, and Western Damaraland. The number of species of Larra
and Stizus is somewhat large ; Larra fenestratus, L. fiiscipennis, L.
grandis, L. atrox are very conspicuous, but somewhat rare in
individuals ; representatives of Gorytes, Nysson are also to be met
with. Among the Fossores, species of the genera Liris, Tachytes,
Miscophus are very numerous, and the number of described species
probably does not represent a twentieth of the existing ones ;
the genus Palarus has several species, one of which, P latifrons,
makes in places apiculture impossible in the western part of
the Cape Colony. Ammophila shows a great variety of forms
from A. capensis to A. hottentota. Very common indeed is Pelo-
paeus (Scelifrons) quqrtinae, and its mud nest, stored with cater-
pillars, is to be seen almost everywhere. From one the author has
bred no less than three kinds of parasites ; the steel-blue species
C. chalybcBus and C. tibialis are handsome representatives of this
genus. The species of the genus Bemhex are more than fairly
common, thejresemblance in the livery of the South African species
to that of the European ones is indeed extreme. Crabro, Cerceris,
Philanthus occur in plenty ; and Oxybelus, with its curiously
shaped metanotum has several representatives. Ampiilex and
Pronaeus, Sphex and Harpactopus are individually fairly numerous.
Harpadopus tyrannus has been found storing its nest with a very
large Orthopteron of the genus Acridium. It is not certain that all
the local species of Ampulex store theirs with Blattidae. More
conspicuous perhaps than any other kind of Hymenoptera are the
Ceropalidae (olim Pompilidae), these keen hunters of spiders.
Great indeed is the variation in size between the small Ctenocerus
vitripennis and the huge Mygnimia capensis, or M. vindex, but they
are all equally fearless, and attack and paralyse, when successful,
animals superior in size, and of great ferocity ; the smaller kind
choose Lycosids, the larger the huge ground-spiders of the genus
Harpactira. But it is when we consider the great number of
South African species of the Scoliidae and Mutillidae, all inquinal
(parasitic) Fossorial Hymenoptera, that we can realise how very
numerous and varied must perforce be the number of their victims.
The Mutillidae alone number more than 240 kinds, and it is not
at all unlikely that every species sticks to one kind of host. Con-
siderable also is the number of Scoliidae, especially the species
of Mezia and Cosila, the two sexes of which are so seldom taken
together, the huge Scolia and the less sombre Elis, but in a country
where the Coleopterous Cetoninae and some kinds oiDynastinae, which
are the ordinary prey of Scolia, abound, it is not surprising to meet
with such a variety in kinds, and such an abundance in individuals.
Formicidae. — Noticeable among the ants are Camponotus macul-
atus and C. fulvopilosus. The former is seldom seen outside its
galleries ; the latter with its large fulvous abdomen is always a
M
l52 SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
conspicuous object ; abundant ever3rwhere is Plagiolepis natalensis,
which is so hospitable to many sorts of mess-mates. In Natal we
have a species of the same genus, Plagiolepis trimeni, which imitates
the " honey-pot " ant of the United States and Mexico. A number
of the workers are so gorged with a sort of honey that the abdomen
is inflated into a large sphere ; it is not, however, in the abdomen,
but in the gizzard of the ant that the honey is stored, and the insect
is nothing less than an ambulating honey-pot, disgorging at will its
sweet contents. The Ponerinae are well represented by Paltoihyrea
pestilentia, Plectrotena mandibularis, Bothroponera pumicosa, and
others ; in the Myrmicinae, Tetramorium, Monomorium, Cremasto-
gaster have several representatives, the papyraceous nests of the
latter being often very abundant ; the herbivorous Aphcenogaster
barbara treads slowly here the narrow paths which it makes in
search of provisions, just as it does in Northern Africa ; the huge
females of Carebara vidua emerge in great numbers after rains have
begun. To the street lamps in Cape Town, fly countless numbers
of Dorylus helvolus, and of D. badius in the Transyaal, Natal and
Rhodesia. Strikingly singular is the male of these species in general
appearance, but it is much less extraordinary, however, than that
of the large, eyeless, almost termite-like female ; both are again
ridiculously different from the workers, which are nothing less than
one sort of the African " driver-ants," but with a much less evil
reputation than that of their congeners of the West Coast. This
Dorylus helvolus has a retinue of many species of Coleopterous-
Staphylinidae of the most extraordinary and degraded, or perhaps
appropriate, forms.
Tubulifera. — Only thirty-six kinds of Chrysidae are known t&
the author. Stilbum amurum, which has spread all over the world,
is here a parasite of Scelifrons quartinae or 5. spirifex, which have
themselves a very wide range ; Parnopes flscheri is met with in
Egypt as well as at the Cape. On the whole the South African
species of Ruby-tailed Flies are not as brilliantly coloured as their
European congeners, but it is worthy of note that the species
occurring in the western part of South Africa are more gorgeously
dressed than those met with in the eastern part.
The Bethyllidae and other kindred minute South African Hymen-
optera are very little known as yet, but a species of the curious genus
Gonatopus has lately been discovered.
COLEOPTERA.
CicindelidcB. — The species of the genus Mantichora, the largest
and most powerful of all Cicindelidae, were until lately looked upon
as being restricted to the South African sub-region, but one kind
has been met with in Angola and the Congo Free State, and M.
latipennis occurs also in Nyassaland. Their appearance is of very
short duration, and they roam on the Karroo plains of the Cape
Colony as far south as Robertson, but they are not found in the.
INSECT FAUNA. 163
western belt of the Colony where winter rains occur. The plains
of Griqualand West, Bechuana and the Transvaal teem with them
at times ; rare in Southern Rhodesia, they are plentiful in the
eastern part of Mozambique, but they are not known to the author
to have been found in Natal. Platychile pallida, a nocturnal species,
like those of Megacephala, hides in the daytime in the sand-dunes,
from Cape Town to Mossamedes, but it has not been met with as yet
on the eastern littoral ; Styphloderma, the Central African form of
Tetracha, penetrates into the South African sub-region through
Mashonaland ; four species of Megacephala, one of which ranges from
east to west, are recorded. Cicindela regalis, C. dongolensis, melan-
cholica, vicina, niloticd, luxeri, are found in Senegambia as well as
in South Africa, but an iniportant feature of the Cicindelidae of this
sub-region is the great number of the wingless species of the genus
Dromica (Cosmema, Myrmecoptera) which may be said to vary in
sculpture and colouring in every district where they occur. They
only appear for a very short period, and they are very agile ; a
good number of species of this genus have been found in eastern
Africa, where they are also very local, but they have not been met
with in Senegambia.
Carabidae. — The carabidous fauna is essentially an African one,
except in the sub-family Scaritinae, in which the genera Ophthal-
mus, Haplotrachelus, Passaliditis, Pachyodontus a.nd Acanthoscelis are
endemic. Pachyodontus inhabits the high mountain ranges of the
south-western part of the Cape Colony, and Acanthoscelis is found
only under the decaying sea-weeds washed along the shores on the
western side, as far as Walfisch Bay. The Lehiinae are very numer-
ously represented, especially the genus Phlceozetus which, however,
was founded on a species from Egypt ; in the Cymindince the genus
Hystrichopus seems to be endemic, and certain species are met only
at very high altitudes. Orthogonius is not restricted to Africa, but
the author strongly suspects the five local species to be termitobious.
The great number of species of Graphipterincs is the principal feature
of the South African Carabidae ; they are found everywhere, from
the immediate neighbourhood of Cape Town to the confines of the
sub-region, and ninety species are now recorded ; in the Anthiinae
the species of Polyhirma are also very numerous (31), but this
genus is still more numerously represented in the eastern sub-region,
where forty-one species are found ; they do not, however, occur in
the western part of the Cape Colony comprised between Long. 26°
and Lat. 31, where the genus Microlestia takes its place, and where
one meets also with the white spotted Anthia decemguttata and its
endless varieties ; spread from east to west are the large Anthia
maxillosa, thoracica, circumscripta ; more local is A . pachyoma ;
A . andersoni occurs only in the Kalahari region ; the true A .
burchelli would seem to be limited to the grassy plains of Bechuana-
land, while A . petersi inhabits Rhodesia and Mozambique. Numer-
ous are the Chloeniince which comprise also a small number of species
originally described from Senegambia ; the singular Rhopalomehis
angusticollis, which would seem to be an aberrant form of this
M2
164 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
sub-family, is a termitobious species. Among the PterosHchinae are
very local forms such as Pterostichus undulatorugosus, Teratotarsus
schouberti, and other species with a facies not unlike that of some
European species of the genus Abax. Abacetus are comparatively
scarce in the western part, but they become more numerous as Natal
and the eastern part are reached, and the same may be said of the
Platyninae and the Panagceince, these denizens of moist, low-lying
lands which are found more numerously eastward than to the west of
the 28th parallel.
Dytiscidae. — The Dytiscid and Gyrinid fauna presents no
peculiarity, and is hardly different from that of the other two
sub- regions.
Paussidae. — The representatives of this singular family, all the
members of which would seem to be myrmecobioiis, are very numer-
ous. They belong to the genera Cerapterus, Arthropterus, Pleurop-
terus, Pentaplatarihrus, Paussus and Hylotorus. Pentaplatarthnis
is fouiid in great numbers in the galleries of the ant Plagiolepis
natalensis. In the nest of the ubiquitous Pheidole ants several
species are met with. Paussus lineatus is captured in the formi-
carium of Acantholepis capensis only. Owing, it is presumed, to
their mode of life, most of the species are greatly localised, yet such
species as Paussus curtisi, Afzelii, etc., are also inhabiting Abys-
sinia, and P. spinicoxis has a very wide range. The South African
species total fifty-two, but that number will be probably increased.
Staphylinae. — The species of this family are much less numerous
than in the Palaearctic region, but they have not been much studied
as yet ; myrmecobious and termitobioiis species of Myrmedonia
are fairly abundant ; the large, handsome Hasumiiis validus has
bfeen found living in Termites' nests ; Staphylinus fauveli or S.
erichsoni have as handsome a livery as any of their congeners, and
they may also prove to be termitobious.
PselapMd(B.~— These minute beetles have not yet been collected
in a sufficient number of localities to afford a true appreciation of
their distribution ;. so far as is now known the species number 106,
included into 29 genera, 17 of which are endemic.
Scydmcenidae.—The Scydmsenids await a patient worker. The
species are fairly numerous, although their collecting has been
greatly neglected. Mastigus in particular is numerously repre-
sented.
Histeridae. — The distribution of many of the species is extremely
wide in Africa, but to the South African sub-region seems to be
restricted the genus Monoplius with several species, the adult and
larvcC of which are found nowhere else but in the accumulation of
detritus heaped outside the termitarium of Hodotermes ; the very
large Hister validus has been found devouring the burrowing
dung-beetle Onitis alexis.
Scarabaeidae. — In a country where numberless herds of ruminants
or other herbivorous animals used to roam, and are now replaced by
domestic kinds, it is to be expected that coprophagous beetles will
be numerous, and truly plentiful in kinds as well as in individuals
INSECT FAUNA. 165
are the species of Scarahceus, Gymnopleurus, etc. ; but to the
western half of the South African region are restricted the wingless
species of Pachysoma; still more local is Circellium bacchus; Epirinits
is also endemic. Near Cape Town is found a minute Epilissus, the
habits of which differ, however, from those of the Madagascar species ;
plentiful in species and individuals is the genus Onitis, and Neonitis
porcuhis and Cheironitis are endemic forms ; the genus Ontho-
phagus numbers some 150 species, which cannot, however, be said
to have special features of their own ; the kinds are very rare in wes-
tern South Africa, south of the Orange River, but they become more
numerous towards the eastern part where they are gradually con-
necting with the Central African and Abyssinian species. Heliocopris
abound, and the species of Copris and Catharshts are without end ;
Odontoloma is an endemic genus, and so are Saproeciiis and Hetero-
ditopus, the nearest ally of which is Onthocharis, inhabiting Brazil,
and this is also the case with Parapinotus dewitzi, a Natal species.
Strictly South African are the species of Macroderes, which the
author suspects to be termitobious. Aphodiinae swarm almost
everywhere, but Harmogaster and Coptochirus, Liparochiriis , Dre-
panocanthus are endemic genera of that old-world spread family,
and there is also here a representative of the singular termitobious
genus Corythoderes. Trox abound, and Bolbocenis are numerous,
but rare individually. In the Dynastinae several species are known
to be termitobious in their early and adult stages, such as Pycnos-
chenia and Pseudocyphonistes, Syrichthomorphus and Syrichthus ;
Orvctes monoceros of Senegambia reaches Natal and even the Cape
Colony, and the west coast genus and species Archon centauriis has
been also met with in Natal. Adoretus and Anomala have extremely
numerous representatives, all of them uncommonly alike. It is, how-
ever, in the Hopliinae that the number of endemic genera and species
give to the coleopterous fauna of the South African sub-region such
a. distinct character of its own. Chasme, Anisonyx, Peritrichia,
Lepitrix, owing to their shaggy clothing, are especially adapted tO'
the cross- fertilisation of flowers, and during the period of their
appearance they are most abundant individually. Eriesthis is also
shaggy, but it is no longer a suctorial insect only, nor are the numer-
ous species of Pachycnema, the males of which have such extra-
ordinarily-developed legs that they can be rivalled in that respect only
by those of the also endemic, anomalous genus Hoplocnemis, which is
probably termitobious. It is as one proceeds towards Namaqualand
within the belt which winter-rains reach, that one meets with an
almost incredible number of species and varieties of this group ;
beyond this boundary two or three species only are recorded from
Great Namaqualand and Damaraland, while eastward two species
only occur in Southern Rhodesia. The long series of species of the
genera Dichclus, Heterochihis, Monochdus, Omocrates, Goniaspidius,
Dicranocnemtis are spread over east and west, Monocheltis being,
however, more numerous in species in Natal and the Transvaal ;
in the second group of this sub-family the affinities of nearly all the
genera are with the Madagascar fauna, and it is worthy of note
l66 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
that most of the species of which this group consists are found
to be restricted to the eastern part of the South African
sub-region.
Numerous are the genera and species of the Cetoninae ; certainly
as handsome as any of the Western and Eastern African Goliathid
beetles are Amaurodes passerinii, Etidicella smithi the numerous
varieties of which reach Abyssinia, Ceratorrhina hurkei, Dicranor-
rhina derhyana, Ranzania petersii ; the limit of distribution of some
of these species is, however, as yet uncertain, even Hypselogenia
geotrupina, which of all the Goliathid beetles is the only one occur-
ring also in the western parts of the Cape Colony, is now found to
have a congener, if not a varietal form, in German East Africa.
Owing to their diet, which consists of sap or gum exuding from
trees or climbing plants, these insects resort to where forests or
agglomeration of trees occur ; on the south-western part, in the
Karroo, where trees are very rare, one meets with the curious species
of that purely-endemic genus Ischnostoma, one species of which
reaches, however, British Bechuanaland ; Rhinocceta cornuta, be-
longing also to a genus restricted to South Africa, lives in Rraal dung,
in the manner of Copris, and is also crepuscular ; R. cornuta and
R. armata have probably the same habits. Xiphoscelis gariepina,
belonging to the most distinct of all the South African endemic
genera, is termitobious, and so is probably its congener X. hopei, the
habitat of both these species does not seem to extend beyond the
boundaries of the Cape Colony, and Odontorrhina hispida and
0. pubescens, the two species of a purely endemic genus, are restricted
like the two species of Xiphoscelis to the Cape faunule ; Anoplo-
chikis rusticus and A. variabilis drag themselves clumsily on the
ground more in the manner of a Dynastid than of a fioricolous
insect, which their local congener Anoplochihis tomentosus is. Rose-
chafers do not necessarily take to flowers or juicy exudation only
for food, thus Diplognatha gagates is now known to breed in the
nests of hawks, the larvae feeding on the fceces and making their
cocoon of the same material. Spilophorus lugubris breeds also in
the nests of birds ; this latter species belong to the Cremastochilides,
many members of which, like all the species of Trichoplus
and Scaptobius, and possibly also Trogodes and Lissogenius, are
known to be m57rmecobious ; some kinds of Coenochilus, an allied
genus, are also myrmecobious, while others are termitobious ; the
genus Stegopterus is purely endemic, and most of the species of the
genus A genius are indigenous.
BuprestidcB. — A notable feature of the South African entomo-
logical fauna is the great number of species and varieties of the
genera Julodis and Neojulodis, the great majority of which belong
to the Cape faunule, but unlike their congeners of the Palsearctic
region, from which they are separated by enormous distances, they
have a strikingly different livery. The genus, if it can be termed
so, Neojulodis includes species absolutely restricted to the Cape
fauna, but one kind, N. vittipennis, is distributed all over Natal,
the Orange River Colony, the Transvaal and Rhodesia, but is
INSECT FAUNA. 167
replaced from Beira to Nyassaland and probably to Central Africa
by its close ally A^. sub-vittata. The genera Oedisterna and
Aristosoma are strictly endemic, and as such, limited to the Cape
fauna; in the case of the former, the larva lives in the fleshy stems
of Mesemhryanthemum.
Elateridae. — The Elateridae present no special feature. The
giants of these " click-beetles," Tetralobus, flabellicornis, rondanii
rotundifrous, range from Abyssinia to Port^St. John, in the Cape
Colony, wherever dying or decomposed timber is to be found.
Rhipiceridae have for representatives several species of Sandahis,
and also the endemic genus Ptyocems, belonging to the Cape fauna.
x\inong the Malacodermidae the Lycini are most numerous, and their
palliate elytra assume a diversity of forms ; the Lampyrini have a
fair number of representatives ; the Telephorini are abundant, and
in the Melyrini, the species of which are very numerous and
varied, the sexual differences are as great as in the Palsearctic
species, and their livery equally brilliant in many cases.
Cleridae are known to have a wide range, and thus the South
African ones have, with a few exceptions, no special feature of their
own, but Notosienus is also a Cape fauna endemic form, and is to
be found only in the white spathe of the aroid plant Richardia
aethiopica.
The Ptinidae have several representatives, not the least interest-
ing perhaps being the myrmecophilous Damarus singularis, and
Diplocotidus formicola, the latter being most closely allied to an
Australian genus.
The Bostrichidae being all lovers of wood, have a wide range in
Africa, and therefore no very distinctive characters of their own in
the South African sub-region.
The Tenebrionidae, which number here 1,099 described
species distributed into 152 genera, have, even in the genera
which are represented elsewhere, a facies peculiarly South
African. Being in the majority of cases wingless and mostly
of slow motion, they do not mingle much with their congeneric
neighbours, and have thus crystallised into local forms. This is
strikingly illustrated in the genera Moluris and Psammodes which
comprise together 228 species and seem to be as abundantly repre-
sented in the west as in the east or intervening parts. On the sand
dunes extending along the western coast run with extreme rapidity
a number of species of Adesmia, all long legged and armed with very
long tibial spurs ; some are black, others have white elytra but
black thorax. Many of the arenaceous species are covered with a
pulverulence similar to that of the soil on which they run, and
Zophosis testudinaria or Trachynohis lightfooti have altogether a
different aspect when this protective cover has come off.
Mylabridae.— The species of Mylabris and Lytta are extremely
numerous and varied ; Meloe, of which four species are South Afri-
can, is occasionally seen dragging its tumid body along the ground ;
Horia, a parasite of the Carpenter-bees (Xylocopa) has two local
representatives.
l68 SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
CurcidionidcB. — It is a moot point if the Weevils are not more
numerously represented in South Africa than any of the other
families ; the ground weevils are probably in majority. Typical
of South Africa is the great number in species of the genera Brachy-
cerus, Episits, Microcerus, Sciobins ; the Hipforrhinides are divided
into five genera, three of which are confined to the Cape Colony,
but Hipporrhinns has a range extending on the eastern side from
Natal to Abyssinia, and on the western from Cape Town to Angola ;
this genus numbers now 137 South African species. It is worthy
of note that the nearest allies of both Hipporrhinus and Somatodes
are Australian genera.
The Zygopinae, Baridiinae, Cryptorrhynchinae are more numerous
towards the eastern side than in the western, where trees are much
rarer, and lately some curious forms belonging to degraded Tanyr-
rhynchidae and Cossoninae, and closely allied to genera occurring
in St. Helena, have been met with near Cape Town.
Anthribidce, being lovers of timber, are rare in kinds and
individuals in the western part, but fairly common in the eastern.
Longicornia follow the same rule, and the species fo\md in the
south western part, south of the Orange River are very few, the
most notable being Zographus oculator, 3 kinds of Ceroplesis, the
beautiful Dorcasomus ehulinus, also rare examples of Cacosceles
aedipus, and on the banks of the water-courses where some trees
are still to be found a few Prionids are met with, but in Natal and
the Transvaal, in Rhodesia and Mozambique species abound,
especially the Callichrominae ; yet on the whole, very few genera
are restricted to South Africa.
Chrysomelinae. — The extreme abundance of Clythrinae • and
Cryptocephalinae, of Galerucinae, Halticinae, Cassidinae, etc., seem to
be a distinctive feature of the eastern part of the South African sub-
region, but this is possibly due to more attention having been paid
lately to the collecting of the representatives of this family.
Lepidopteea.
The day-flying Butterflies (Rhopalocera) are the best known
of all the sub-divisions of the South African insects, and it is very
doubtful if subsequent researches or discoveries will materially
alter the character of the fauna or the number of genera. and species.
Mr. R. Trimen, in his well-known work on the South African Butter-
flies took the tropic of the Capricorn as a northern limit. The
country lying to the north of this line was then very little known,
but subsequent investigations have shown that this arbitrary
line did not give a true idea of the real distribution. Aurivilius,
in his Rhopalocera aethiopica, after dividing the continent into
four sub-regions, the West African, East African, Madecasse and
South African, limits the latter eastward to the upper reaches
of the Limpopo, where it emits, however, a broad slanting spur
into Mashonaland, as far as Salisbury, and curves westwards
from the Victoria Falls to Mossamedes ; this curve includes the
upper reaches of the O'Kovango River.
INSECT FAUNA. 169
This zone of distribution is a very natural one, and if carried
eastward a little further north it would apply to almost all the
orders of South African insects. Although the configuration of
Aurivilius' area differs much from that of Trimen, the number of
endemic genera and species is very little modified. The genera
known to be restricted to the South African region were Meneris,
Coenyra, Capys, Arrugia, D'Urbania, Delonettra, and to these six
Trimen added later on two more, viz., Desmolyccsna and Erikssonia,
but as Capys has since been met with north of the African limit,
and as on the other hand the species of the genus Phasis (Zeritis,
part.) are pronounced to be all South African, the number of purely
endemic genera is now nine. If we exclude the Hesperidae from
the Rhopalocera, a view which is now partially accepted, we find
that Trimen, in the work quoted, gave the number of genera
at sixty, and that of the species as 344. Aurivilius, in 1898,
gives it at seventy-one genera, and 361 species, and only very
few species have been described from that time. Of this number,
forty genera, including 125 species he calls endemic, and thirty-one
genera with 236 species non-endemic. Further, the proportion
of species occurring in the West African region is 146, in the Eastern
African 218, and in the Madecasse 18. It is thus with the East
African region that the greater affinity of the South African region
lies. The most fully represented among the endemic forms are the
Lyccenidae (178 species) with a percentage of 40.3 per cent. ; while
in West Africa this percentage is only 21.4 ; in East Africa 25, and
in Madagascar 13.3. Next come the Nyinphalidae (65) with 18 per
cent. ; the Pieridae (48) with 13.3, the Acraeidae (36) with 10 per
cent., and the Satyridae (34) with 9.4.
Aurivilius has also divided this South African sub-region into
four parts, in which the following number of species and genera
have been recorded ; —
German South- West Africa
Cape Colony and Transkei
Natal, Delagoa and Transvaal . .
Bechuanaland and Matabeleland
Subsequent records have not modified materially this distribu-
tion.
There is no doubt whatever that except in the immediate vicinity
of the forest belt extending along the coast from Knysna eastwards,
butteriiies in the Cape Colony are scarce both in species and indi-
viduals. In the south-western parts, in the Karroo, the monotony
and paucity of insect life is relieved by the appearance of a few
Danais chrysippus flitting lazily round the sparsely-scattered wild
cotton plants {Gomphocarpus arborescens) ; on the ground rest the
low-fijdng Phasis pierus, thyra, xeuxe, while along the sea-board
Phasis p'yrceis, thisbe and osbecki, less soberly clad, flit gaily over
the sand dunes ; Phasis thero is found round the bushes of Rhus, and
also in waste, sandy places. Phasis argyraspis and P. sardonyx are
37 genera
104 species,
52 ^ „
192
67 „
273 .:
47 ..
135
170 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
met with in the dry uplands from Griqualand West to Namaqua-
land, to which part also Pkasis barklyi seems to be restricted ;
on bare rocks and in secluded mountain nooks Durhania saga basks
in the sun. The splendid Capys alphceus frequents hill-ridges and
mountain sides, where the Proteas grow. Pieris hellica, the ubiqui-
tous painted lady Pyrameis cardui, Colias elecira are found every-
where ; in the meadows or on the veld are seen the weak flyers
of the Satyrinid genus Pseudonympha, while the superb Meneris
tidbaghia flits or soars over mountains or dales, and even condescends
to be admired in the precincts of Cape Town city.
But the Rhopalocera increase in number and beauty as we pro-
gress eastward along the forest belt which fringes the coast, and
also extends partly inland, until Durban, this South African para-
dise of the Lepidopterist, is reached, and even further north, as far
as Delagoa Bay, where the East African sxib-region infringes so
remarkably on the Western. Abundant are the Nymphalids
Amauris echeria, ochlea, dominicanus, naturally-protected species,
the colouring of which other species imitate ; from the copses surge
suddenly from among the underwood Melanitis leda, libya, diversa,
the underside of wings of which is painted so wonderfully like dry
or brown leaves ; numerous everywhere in species as in individuals
are the slow, lazy fliers belonging to the genus Acrcsa, said to be
nauseous to the taste, and thus made unpalatable to would-be
devourers of the bird or lizard tribes ; there one meets also the gaily
or conspicuously-coloured Njmiphalid Eurema schaeneia, Atalanta
phalantha, Junonia clelia, cebrene, boopis, the last three spread all
over Africa and the Mascarene Islands, the numerous species of
Precis, P- octavia, with its varieties, natalensis and sesamus which
not only differ in colouring of wings but also in habits, and yet
prove to be seasonal varieties of one species, P. tugela, which when
at rest mimics a dry leaf as accurately as any of the eastern Callima
butterflies ;, the gorgeous P. artaxia roams northward from Manica
to the Cunene, and one miist see Salamis anacardii gliding
with extended wings to realise whaf a beautiful object this " mother
of pearl " butterfly is ; Eur alia wahlbergi and ntima, Diadema
misippus, etc., which are palatable to birds or other enemies go.
about under the colour disguise of Danais and Amauris, said to be
distasteful to birds and animals ; Pseudacrcea, as its name implies,
does the same ; Godartia wakefieldi, Eiiphaedra neophron add a
touch of beauty to the landscape, while high, near the top of trees,
hover these beautiful objects Charaxes varanes, candiope, jahlusa,
saturnus, castor, brut/is, etc. Among the numerous species of the.
genus Lycaena is to be found probably the smallest of all butterflies,
Lycaena barberae, very nearly equalled in size by L. stellata ; lolaus
Silas and Myrina ficedula hide the splendour of the under side of
their wings when at rest by clinging to the bark of the wild fig trees.
Few species are more beautiful than ApJincBiis hutchinsoni, few more
■delicate-looking than Pontia alasta, while the Pierinae with their
white and creamy livery relieved by black dots or patches, red or
violet tips, enliven the landscape ; Papilio cenea with its protean
INSECT FAUNA. I71
iemale is far from uncommon, and the black and grey Papilio
lyaeus, as well as P. demodocus (P. demoleus, olim), prove unfortu-
nately too numerous a pest for the citrus orchardist.
The Heterocera or moths, including the Hesperidae or skippers,
are far from being as well known as the Rhopalocera. But good,
although necessarily slow, progress is being made in the Descriptive
Catalogue of Lepidoptera phalenae. The Hesperidae are not well
represented in the African region, but they are more numerous in
the Western African sub-region than in the southern, where in turn
they number more species than in the eastern. Trimen grouped
the South African ones (South of the tropic of Capricorn) into
sixty-four species included in nine genera, two of which were
restricted to that part of Africa, but Mabille in his Genera
-of the Hesperidae (1903) records in what corresponds to
AurivUius' .South African region, seventy-three species com-
prised in twenty-five genera, seven of which are endemic.
For the most part these species are not brightly coloured,
but the pattern of Caprona canopus is a most delicate one,
and Abantis 'paradisea and .4. zamhesina are very gaily tinted.
The number of South African Syntomidae, Arctiadae and Agaristidae
recorded or described by Hampson is 131 included in forty genera,
and that oi Noctuidae ^y^. sp. comprised into 134 genera. Rots-
child and Jordan in their Monograph of the Sphingidae (1903) say
that contrary, to that of the diurnal Lepidoptera, the separation
of the African continent into western, southern and eastern sub-
regions is not very distinct in the case of Hawk Moths. This is
■easily explained by the fact that these insects are very powerful
flyers, and are thus able to roam over great distances. According
to these two authors the number of African species is 179 included
in fifty-two genera : of this number fifty-nine species and twenty-
four genera are represented in the South African sub-region, but
only two genera are endemic, and these two occur in Southern
Rhodesia, on the northern limit of this sub-region ; it is therefore
most likely that they will eventually be found in the adjoining
eastern sub-region ; as for the species, the author opines that no
more than six will prove to be absolutely endemic. But although
not restricted to South Africa, Cephonodes (Sesia) hylas, Macro-
glossum trochilus, Basiothia medea, Euchloron megaera, Lophostethiis
demolini, Poliana natalensis, could be hardly surpassed in beauty of
form, and they enliven the stillness of our short twilight by their
light humming noise ; Acherontia airopos, the death-liead, robs
here, as elsewhere, the bees of their honey , while Ccelonia solani,
Deilephila nerii, Hippotion celerio, these denizens of the Palcearctic
region, have also found here a home. The Bombycidae have huge
representatives ; paramount are the long-tailed Argema miinosae,
the pretty Ludia delegorguei, the numerous species of Nttdaiirelia,
Belina, Angelica, Melanocera ; in the south-western part of the
Cape Colony are found the extremely rare Henucha grimmia and
H. dewitzi; and in Namaqualand the gorgeous Euchroa trimeni.
Tew are the described species of Psychidae, but the cases which
172 SCIENXE I\ SOUTH AFRICA.
they use as their homes assume most fantastic shapes, resembling
thorns of acacia, faggots, pellets, seeds, aborted inflorescences ;
and no wonder that sheep farmers, seeing occasionally these objects
deambulating, look upon them with awe, and attribute to them
the loss of their stock. The South African representatives
of the other families of Heterocera are not sufficiently known to be
dilated upon, and probably not one twentieth of their number has,
as yet, been described.
DiPTERA.
This order has been more neglected than any other, and although
a considerable number of South African species have been described,
it may be asserted with safety that the species unknown are hundred-
fold those described, but as the diptera of the other sub-regions of
the Ethiopean fauna are less known still, a comparison with the
South African sub-region is im.possible at present. In the Nemocera,
very few Cea'ifowyi^ae are known to the author, in the Culicidaeseveral
species of the dreaded Anopheles, these carriers of fever, have been
described. Of the Tipulidae nine species only are recorded ; the
Tabanidae are numerous and much varied, and Pangonia angulata,
chrysaor, tricolor, Mycteromia rostrata, the female of which has a
proboscis one inch long, are great helpers in the cross-fertilisation of
flowers, while the numerous species of Tahanus are suckers of bloody
and the ten local species of Haeniatopota make their presence felt.
Chrysops has a few fine representatives ; but numerous here are
the Nemestridae, with very long proboscis ; their diet consists of
nectar, and of great importance indeed must be the influence in
the cross-fertilisation of flowers having a long or deep perianth, of
flies such as Megistorrhynchus longirostris which has an extended
proboscis reaching sometimes to a length of four inches, and of
others with a shorter, but still fconsiderably extended, similar organ.
The Bombylidae, with their humped thorax covered as they are
with a rigid pile of yellow or white hairs, are especially beautiful
objects as they hover on these spots where they will eventually
deposit their eggs, and our local Bombylius styliconiis, mixtus,.
argentifer, servillei, are among the prettiest and most delicate
looking of their congeners ; Bombylius analis and B. fulvonotatiis
seem to range all over South Africa ; Anthracidae are especially
numerous in kind and individuals; this is perhaps due to the abimd-
ance of locusts, because the larvae of some species are known to feed
on the contents of the egg- cases of certain Acridii. We have a few
representatives of the Mydasidae, but very abundant are the
" Robber- Flies " Asilidae, and much varied are their forms ; butter-
flies or wasps on the wings are mastered with incredible facUity by
these insect-devourers, of which ninety-eight South African species
inchrded in thirty-five genera have been described ; but this is only
a small proportion of the actual number. Pipunculidae, Conopidae
and Syyphidae- are well represented ; the syrphidous larvje of the
genus Microdon live also here in an ant's nest. In Diopsis apicaUs
INSECT FAUNA. 173
■the eyes are inserted at the extremity of a long stalk ; one
species of the extremely curious Celyphus, in which the scutellum
•covers the upper part of the abdomen has been lately discovered ;
one of the Anthomyiidae, Bengueyella depressa deposits its eggs on
or under the skin of man, and, it is said, also of dogs ; it is at times
very common in Natal and Mozambique, and it has been met with in
Pretoria, in the Transvaal. Among the Tachinidae, Cynomia
pictifacies proves most destructive to the migratory locusts on the
body of which the eggs have been laid by the mother fly ; and so do
several other representatives of the Sarcophagidae ; one of the
Muscidac, Glossina nwrsitans, the dreaded "Tsetse." is the cause of
the "Nagana disease, in the same manner as its congener G. palpalis
found in Eastern and Western Africa causes in Uganda the " sleeping-
sickness " ; Mstridae, Hippoboscidae, NyderihicB are fairly well
represented. But, as already stated, the Ethiopean Diptera have
been too little worked as yet to treat here of the analogies of the
genera and species, or of their distribution in the three African sub -
regions.
Hemiptera-Homoptera.
Want of space precludes the author from enlarging on the
representatives of this order, which are characterised by their very
wide range in South Africa or beyond this limit. Thus the brightly-
coloured Odontopus sexpmidatus occurs in Abyssinia, Senegal,
Mozambique, and punctures in German South- West Africa that
extraordinary plant Welwischia mirabilis. Too numerous indeed
in kinds and individuals are, from the agriculturist's point of view,
the species of Aspongopus and other Pentatomidae, as well as Hol-
opterna alata with its pungent smell, easily discernible from a dis-
tance ; Petascelis remipes, the largest of South African Bugs, except
the huge water one Belostoma nilotica, is abundant everywhere
but in the Cape Colony ; Pephricus capensis, Craspedmn phyllo-
morphum are as beautiful imitations of a partly-eaten dry leaf as
any occurring among the order Orthoptera, and Physorrhynchus
principalis or Platymeris rhadamanthus are amongst the largest of
the blood-thirsty Reduviidae. The quaintly-shaped local repre-
sentatives of the Tingidae will prove to be numerous.
In summer one's attention cannot fail to be attracted by the
shrill, piercing noise made by the Homopterous Cicads of the genus
Platypleura and Pcecilopsaltria, and P. siridula in the south-western
part of the Colony is as noisy as P- divisa and P. semidara in the
eastern, or in Natal, Pcecilopsaltria trimeni in Namaqualand, or
Pcecilopsaltria Icopardina in Southern Rhodesia ; the male of
Tympanistria utters a clicking noise as it flies jerkily. Among the
Cercopidae, Ptyeltis grossus and Endara euchroma cling to the bark
of trees and are surrounded by a white waxy material, the better
perhaps to escape detection, and the exudation of the peculiar fluid
emitted by- some of these species drip like water from the branches
to which the insects are adhering. On the whole the species are
174 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
fairly numerous, and as the number of individuals naturally follows
the increase iti vegetation they are more numerous in the east
than in the west.
In concluding this very short sketch the author would like to
point out that it is to the climatic and not to the physical con-
ditions obtaining in the South African Sub- Region that the great
diversity in the entomological fauna is mainly due, and that
nowhere else is to be found an area of equal size presenting
such a diversity of climatic conditions.
SECTION III.— ZOOLOGICAL-(co«W.)
3. NOTES ON SOUTH AFRICAN LAND AND FRESH-WATER
INVERTEBRATES, EXCLUSIVE OF MOLLUSCS
AND INSECTS.
By W. F. Purcell, B.A., Ph.D., C.M.Z.S., First Assistant,
South. African Museum.
Land and Freshwater Crustaceans.
A large brachyurous land-crab {Thelphusa perlata) is common
in all streams and ponds throughout South Africa, and many
species of Oniscidae are common under stones, etc.
Amongst the purely aquatic forms a very large ostracod
(Megalocypris princeps), some large copepods (Broteas falcifer), and
a number of large species of Branchipodidae (Streptocephahis,
Branchipodopsis) and Estheriidae {Leptestheria, Estheria) are very
common everywhere. Several very large species of Apiis occur in
the Karroo and along the South-east Coast districts. All these
aquatic forms have been very fuUy described and figured by Pro-
fessor G. O. Sars. They are easily transported alive by simply collect-
ing some of the dried mud of an old pool and adding some water to
the mud some months later, when the Crustacea will soon develop.
Land and Freshwater Earthworms, Planarians and Leeches.
The South African earthworms are comparatively little known,
and there is no doubt that the majority of the species still remain
undescribed. They fall principally into three groups, namely,
{a) the imported species of Lumbricus and Allolobophora, which
are very common everywhere, not only in the immediate vicinity
of dwelhngs and cultivated lands, but also in the native woods on
the slopes of Table Mountain, etc. L. rubellus is a common large
species, (b) The giant earthworms of the genus Microchaeta,
which occur more especially in the eastern districts, and attain a
length of 5 feet, (c) Numerous smaller forms of the family
Acanthodrilidae, into which the bulk of the native earthworms
fall. These latter may be obtained, together with imported
Lumbricidae, under stones or in rotten wood in the ravines on the
slopes of mountains and hills, in the native forests of the Knysna
and eastern districts, and on the sandy flats under the hottentot
fig (Mesembryanthemum edule) and particularly in the wet sand on
the edges of the numerous small ponds which form during the
winter months.
176 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
A few species of land planarians have been described from
South Africa. They are not very uncommonly met with under
stones and in rotten wood in the Peninsula, etc., during the winter
months. The widely distributed Bipalium kewense is common in
gardens in Cape Town. A few freshwater planarians are plentiful
in the streams on the summit of Table Mountain, but they do not
appear to have been described.
Leeches are rare, but one rather large species was discovered
in fresh water on the Cape Flats by the naturalists of the " Novara."
Arachnida.
The most striking feature of this class in South Africa is the
abundance of scorpions, Soliftigae and trap-door spiders. Except
as regards the scorpions, however, our knowledge is still very in-
complete, for although a large number of Solifugae and tetra-
pneumonous spiders have been described, the majority of the dip-
neumojious spiders, Acari, Opiliones and pseudoscorpions still
remain undescribed, as the collections in the South African Museum
show.*
Scorpions.
About eighty-five South African species of scorpions may be
distinguished (being more than one-fifth of the total number
known), and of these two-thirds occur within Cape Colony alone.
Of the six scorpion families only the Buthidae and Scorpionidae
are represented in South Africa, and each again by two sub-
families, as follows : —
I. The Buthinae contain all the native species of Buthidae,
and are represented principally by the genera Parabuthus and
Uroplectes, although a , few species of Buthus and Lychas occur
here and there. Parabuthus includes all the larger South African
forms with very thick tails and slender hands or chelae (about
twelve species in all), and is distributed all over South Africa,
with the exception perhaps of Natal. Some of the species have
an evil reputation among country folk, and I am acquainted with
an apparently well-authenticated case of the death of a man due
to the sting of P. gramdatus. This genus also occurs in Central
and North Africa and in Arabia, where it exists side by side with
the large and closely allied genus Buthus. In South Africa, however,
it practically entirely displaces the genus Buthus, of which only
two or three South African specimens have as yet been recorded.
Uroplectes includes the smaller South African forms with small
nippers (about twenty-one in number), and may be distinguished
from Parabuthus by the black marks and stripes on the back and tail.
This genus is evenly distributed throughout South Africa, to which
* The Scorpions, Pedipalpi & Solifugae are diagnosed by Kraepelin in
Das Tierreich : Scorp. & Pedip., 1899; & Palpigradi & Solif., 1901. The
genera of Aranece may be ascertained from E. Simon's Hist. Nat. Araign^es,
2 Edit. 1892-1903. Since these publications, however, many other species
and genera have been described.
LA\D AND FRESH^WATER INVERTEBRATES. I77
it is almost entirely confined, only about three of the species
occurring outside of the South African limit. The sting is com-
paratively harmless. Lychas {Archisometrus), which is mainly
Asiatic, is represented in South Africa by a single species, which
is, however, rarely met with.
2. The Centrurinae are represented by the cosmopolitan species
Isometrus maculatus, which is occasionally found at seaports, and
has no doubt been introduced by ships.
3. The Scorpioninae are represented by the single genus Opisthoph-
thalmus, which replaces the large scorpions of North Africa and
Asia belonging to the genera Pandinus and Heterometriis. Opis-
thophthalmns is the largest as well as the most characteristic South
African genus of scorpions, for of its thirty species only one (from
Mossamedes) has not been recorded from within the South African
limit, and it is quite possible that even this species may occur
south of the Cunene. One or two of the species extend from Cape
Colony northwards beyond the Zambesi. Many, however, have
a very limited distribution area, and this is particularly the case
in the western part of Cape Colony, where the genus finds its greatest
development. The genus is distributed oyer the whole of South
Africa, and most of the species may be easily recognised by the
position of the median pair of eyes, which are generally placed behind
the centre of the cephalothorax. All stridulate by rubbing the
mandibles (chelicerae) against the lower side of the anterior edge
of the cephalothorax, by which means a hissing sound is produced.
Most of the species construct deep burrows in the ground, while
other South African scorpions usually live under stones or bark.
The sting does not appear to be fatal.
4. The Ischnurinae. are blackish or dark green forms with
broad strong nippers like those of an Opisthophthalmits, but with the
eyes in the centre of the cephalothorax. They differ from the latter
too in habit, being always found, so far as I have observed, clinging
to the underside of the stone or other object under which they
take refuge, or else in cracks in rocks or under bark. None of
the genera are distributed over the whole of South Africa, and
nothing is known regarding their sting. The genus Hadogenes is
remarkable for the length of the slender tail of the adult male,
which in some cases exceeds ii cm. There are about eleven
South African species, as well as some tropical African and Mada-
gascar ones. Opisthacanthus is found principally in the eastern
parts and along the South Coast districts. There are about six
South African forms as well as several tropical African and Mada-
gascar forms, and one Mexican one. Cheloctomis with three species
is peculiar to South Africa.
SOLIFUGAE.
Africa is the home of the Solifugae, two-thirds of the known
genera being found in this continent, and nearly half the known
genera also occur in South Africa. Of the three families into which
the order is divided, the Galeodidae are entirely absent from South
178 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Africa, which is rather remarkable, as they are numerous in North
Africa.
The Solpugidae. which include the bulk of the species, are
widely distributed, and most of the South African genera, which
number eleven in all, are distributed over the continent. Only
four genera of this family have hitherto been obtained from South
Africa alone, while Solpuga, Zeriassa, Daesia, Blossia, Gluviopsis,
Ceroma, and doubtless also Hemiblossia occur north of the Zambesi
as well. The large nocturnal yellow and black species of Solpuga,
measuring sometimes over 6J cm. in length from the tip of the
jaws, occur throughout the country, and are well known to fre-
quenters of the country districts. They come into houses at night
and present a most alarming appearance, although they are in
reality quite harmless. They are variously known locally by the
name of Romans, J agd-spinnekoppen (Hunting Spiders) or Haar-
scheerders (Hair-cutters), and there is a current belief that they
cut off the hair of a sleeping person at night. Most Solpugidae
attain maturity in summer (say from November to February),
except the Karschiinae, which are met with in the winter months
only. The brightly-coloured species of Solpugidae are generally
diurnal in habit, running about with extraordinary rapidity during
the hottest part of the day.
The curious Hexisopodidae, so rare in collections, are confined
exclusively to the dry regions of South Africa. Unlike the rest of
the order, they are slow runners, with very short and stout hind
legs, and with the three posterior thoracic and the abdominal
segments greatly distended dorsally to form a single large thoraco-
abdomen overhanging the hind part of the cephalo thorax. There
are two genera, Hexisopus and Chelipus.
Araneae.
Of recent years many species of South African spiders have
been described by Simon, Pocock and O. P. Cambridge, and some
also by myself, but no comprehensive account of them exists.
Moreover, only a few of the groups have been at all extensively
investigated, such as the Tetrapneumones, the Cribellatae, the Ecribel-
latae haplogynae and the Lycosidae ; while several of the larger
families, such as the Drassidae, have hardly been touched at all,
Of the thirty-eight families into which Simon divides the Araneae.
no less than twenty-seven have representatives in South Africa,
but of these only one, the Ammoxenidae, is exclusively South Afri;an.
Tetrapneumones. — Most interesting are the numerous tetra-
pneumonous or four-lunged forms, which in South Africa belong
to the five subfamilies (or families) Avictilariinae, Barychelinae,
Ctenizinae, Miginae and Diplurinae. The first includes the large
so-called " bird-catching " spiders, all the South African forms
of which fall into the group Harpactireae, a group distributed
over South and East Africa only. The members of the principal
genus, Harpactira, are locally known as " Baviaan Spinnekoppen "
LAND AND FRESH-WATER INVERTEBRATES. I79
(Baboon spiders), either because baboons are supposed to be fond
of them or on account of the resemblance of the velvet-padded
feet to the fingers of a monkey. Some species attain a length of
over 5 cm. They live in deep burrows with or without a turret of
sticks, etc., at the entrance, and one species of Pterinochilus con-
structs a perfect trap-door. The Barychdinae are smaller, but
resemble the foregoing and build similar nests. The commonest
genus is Harpactirella. The Ctenizinae include many species,
whose burrows have either trap-doors or are open like those of
Harpactira. They are extremely local. The principal genera
are Spiroctenus, Hermacha and Stasimopus, and the large nests of
the latter with their strong and beautifully constructed lids, some-
times an inch across, are met with in many places. The Miginae
are a small group of spiders which construct sack-like nests, with
one or two trap-doors, on trees, etc. ; a few species, however, build
ordinary trap-door burrows in the ground. The principal South
African genus is Moggridgea.
Dipneumones. — Amongst the cribellate spiders of special interest
are the social spiders (Stegodyphus), which have the unusual habit
■of living together, often in hundreds, in a huge nest of leaves spun
together and suspended by strong cables on or between low bushes.
When an insect strikes the web the little spiders sally forth in
numbers, lay hold of the insect and kill it, and afterwards carry
it off and devour it. Social spiders are found all over South Africa,
and also in the Indian region, but most of the species of the genus
live singly. Another genus, Seothyra, of the same family (Eresidae)
constructs a most remarkable nest in the sand of the Karoo and
Kalahari, the narrow burrow being closed above by a large four-
lobed flexible carpet-like lid from beneath which the spider creeps
at will.
The Zodariidae are a small group of ecribellate spiders, and are
interesting on account of the habits of some of the species. Some
forms of Caesetius live under loose sand without constructing
regular burrows, the sand closing in behind them as they move
along, while a species of Cydrela on Lion's Hill builds regular trap-
door-burrows.
Some of the Theridiidae of the genus Latrodectus have here, as
■elsewhere, an evil reputation amongst the country people, who,
in certain districts, believe them to be very dangerous and sometimes
fatal.
Amongst the Argiopidae (Orb-spinners) the large yellow and
silvery or yellow and black females of Argiope and Nephila form
very conspicuous objects, when sitting in the centres of their large
spiral webs. The males, on the other hand, are quite tiny, being
many times smaller than their mates, and may be found hiding in
some corner of the same web. , The silk oi Nephila is so strong that
attempts have been made in several countries to weave fabric of it.
The large forms of Caerostris, which are grey, brown or greenish,
and have curious protuberances, on the abdomen, -are equally con-
spicuous in their webs, but when crouching against the bark of a
N 2
l80 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
branch with their legs tucked up would hardly be taken for a live
spider. The species of Nemoscolus are small but remarkable for
constructing tubular nests in the form of trumpets, horns or snail-
shells, composed of sticks or stones and suspended in bushes.
Some of the hard-shelled species are very striking, such as the
spiny Gasteracantha and the curious Paraplectana, which closely
resembles a common coccinellid beetle in shape and colour.
Very large species of Clubionidae belonging to the genus Palystes
are frequently met with on the walls in houses and present a some-
what terrifying appearance. They are brown or grey above with
black and pale bands on the legs below and rush sideways or back-
wards at will. Some of the hard-skinned genera of Rhodesia-
mimic Mutilla wasps in form and colour in a remarkable manner. ~.
Among the Agelenidae the marine spider Bests, which lives on the
shores of False Bay between tide-marks, may be mentioned.
Numerous Lycosidae are conspicuous everywhere, rushing over
open ground in summer with their egg-sacks attached to their
bodies. Some {L. darlingi, etc.) construct open burrows with
turrets of sticks at the entrance, like those of a Harpadira, while a
few (L. domicola, etc.) construct neat round lids for closing the
burrow. Some Karroo forms (Evippa) are remarkably swift
runners.
The Attidae or jumping spiders are very numerous, and many
have recently been described by M. Simon and Mr. and Mrs. Peck-
ham.
Onychophora.
The species of Peripatus found in the Cape Peninsula have an
interesting history. The first specimen was found by M. Goudot on
Table Mountain, and was described by De Blainville as long ago as
1837 under the name of P. hrevis. The next specimens recorded
were obtained by the naturalists of the " Novara " Expedition, and
included two species which were confused together by Grube, who
named them P. capensis in 1868. During the visit of the " Chal-
lenger " Expedition in 1872 Moseley obtained and dissected speci-
mens of the same two forms and discovered the tracheae. In 1882
Balfour investigated the embryology of some specimens sent by
Lloyd Morgan, but his researches were interrupted by his death.
In 1883 Sedgwick came to the Cape and commenced his well-
known investigations on the embryology. He first separated the
smaller Cape species, P. balfouri, from the larger form, retaining
Grube's name, capensis, for the latter. Quite recently Bouvier
ascertained that De Blainville's P hrevis is evidently identical with
p. capensis (Grube) Sedgw., and from the evidence he adduces I
do not doubt but that this is the case. Finally in 1895 Mr. R. M.
Lightfoot pointed out to me the existence of a Peripatus on Signal
Hill (Lion's Hill) on the immediate outskirts of Cape Town, and on
investigation this proved to be a new species which had apparently
not been observed by previous collectors — a circumstance perhaps
LAND AND FRESH-WATER INVERTEBRATES. l8l
accounted for by the fact that this species appears to occur only on
Signal Hill, where neither of the two other species have as yet been
found. P- halfouri has also afforded material for a valuable paper
on the spermatogenesis by Montgomery in 1900 (Zool. Jahb. Anat.
v. 14).
R. I. Pocock in subdividing the old genus Peripatus created the
genus Peripatopsis for the Cape forms, and I have subsequently
added another genus, Opisthopatus, for a recently discovered South
African form. While the genus Peripatopsis is confined to South
Africa, where six species are now known to occur, the genus Opistho-
patus has, according to Bouvier, a second species on the west coast of
South America, namely, 0. blainvillei (Gerv.) from Chili.
Owing to the remarkable combination of annelid and tracheate
arthropod characters in Peripatus, the latter has long been an object
of the greatest interest to zoologists, and it is often looked upon as a
kind of phylogenetic connecting link between the worms and the
myriapods and insects.
Peripatus is an animal which perishes within a few hours if
exposed continuously to dry air,- and this must be borne in mind
in searching for specimens. In the Cape Peninsula they may be
found under stones or leaves or in rotten wood alongside any moun-
tain stream, in the woods on the southern slopes of Table Mountain,
and in the valleys on the southern side of Signal Hill. They are
naturally most abundant in such places as afford a safe retreat
from the dry heat of summer, such as dense forests or open hill
slopes where a thick layer of loosely-packed stones lies beneath the
surface. Peripatus makes its first appearance after the first rains
in March and remains out for about six months until the end of the
rainy season.
SECTION III. -ZOOLOGICAL— (6«/;W0
4. THE SOUTH AFRICAN MARINE FAUNA AND ITS
ENVIRONMENT.
By J. D. F. Gilchrist, M.A., D.Sc, Ph.D., C.M.Z.S., F.L.S.
Government Biologist, Cape Colony.
Historical.
From the time when Bartholomew Diaz ended his long and
venturous voyage by rounding the " Cape of Storms," the South
African seas have continued to attract the attention and interest
of the civilised world if only as an important point in the voyage
to the regions beyond. It was in this way that a closer scrutiny
into the forms of marine life to be met with began, for the intelli-
gent voyagers of those early days were constantly on the look out
for some marvel or wonderful fact to be recounted to their fellow
countrymen at home. Thus we find that one of the first notices
of the marine fauna of the Cape is contained incidentally in an
account of the " Old and New East Indies," by Valentyn, where,
amongst other notes and weird illustrations there is some mention of
the Cape marine fauna. Somewhat later appeared a book, Kolben's
" Present State of Good Hope," containing a more detailed account.
Subsequently to this, material for more careful and reliable
examination and description gradually found its way to Europe
through the early Dutch merchants, and at a later date this was
augmented by travellers and by exploring expeditions such as the
" Novara," " Gazelle," and " Challenger," which called at the Cape.
It was not, however, until recently that a systematic study of
this subject was possible, when a few years ago the Cape Govern-
ment, realising the need for a more accurate knowledge of the
marine fauna of its coasts, both from a scientific and a practical point
of view, began a systematic investigation which is still in progress.
Certain general characteristics are beginning to appear more
clearly from the facts now ascertained,, but it is still premature to
state them in any definite or limited manner.
One of the main objects of this paper is to indicate the necessity
for further investigation, not only as a means of adding new and
interesting genera and species to the known lists, but in order to
throw light upon the relationships of the Cape marine fauna to the
fauna of the seas in general, for it may at once be said that the
MARINE FAUNA. 183
feature of greatest interest and importance is not to be found in
any characteristic peculiar to the South African marine fauna but
in the general geographical distribution of its constituents.
This being so, it is obvious that the study of the marine fauna
of the Cape is closely bound up with that of the physical conditions
and geographical situation of the Cape Seas, though this has re-
ceived even less detailed attention than the study of its fauna.
A general outline, however, of what is known in regard to this
subject is a necessary preliminary, and we may briefly review the
outstanding facts in connection therewith before proceeding to
zoological detail.
2. General Physical and Geographical Features of
Environment.
The chief feature of oceanic circulation is that due to prevailing
winds which give rise to a surface movement of the waters over
which they pass, so that there is a general movement from the Poles
in corresponding directions towards the Equator where they meet
and flow in a westward direction parallel to each other, forming the
great Equatorial currents of the Northern and Southern Hemi-
spheres. There are, however, two great continuous land barriers
interposed in the course of these currents, Europe, Asia and Africa
forming one. North and South America forming the other. In
addition there is another barrier (with gaps however) viz., that
formed by discontinuous land masses in the meridian of Australia,
the East Indies and China. This third barrier is mentioned
separately for a reason which shall appear later.
The result of the interpolation of these land masses is that the
bodies of water, which are thus set in motion and which must find
an outlet somewhere in order to jnaintain the general oceanic equi-
librium, are directed towards the Poles again. This is,of course,
most clearly marked in the parts of the Indian, Pacific and the
Atlantic Oceans situated in the Southern Hemisphere, for there the
movements of the waters are less interrupted by land masses, and,
inasmuch as the Pacific is comparatively shallow, and the movement
of its water is much influenced by islands, and coral reefs, it
is in the Indian and South Atlantic oceans that this phenomenon
is best illustrated.
There is one striking difference in the course of the two currents
in these regions. In the Indian Ocean there is no outlet towards
the north, and the whole mass of water is turned down the South
African coast, where it is known successively as the Mozambique,
the Natal and the Agulhas current. The South Atlantic current,
on the other hand, is met in its course by the projecting portion of
South America, and is split up into a branch which flows to the
south along the coast of Brazil, and another which is directed north-
wards into the Carribean Sea and the Gulf of Mexico, the origm of
that great current of the North Atlantic— the Gulf Stream. A
possible connection is thus established between the waters of the
temperate regions of the Southern and the Northern Hemispheres.
184 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
These are the outstanding features of circulation of the surface
waters of the ocean. There is yet another to be considered before
we can be in a position to reahse the peculiar features of the seas
round South Africa. It is found that there is a constant drift of
the waters of the Southern Hemisphere from the Pole in an easterly
and northerly direction, forming a South Polar drift current
or the west wind drift current, and this mighty current moves be-
tween the Antarctic Circle and the parallel of 45° S., round the open
waters of the southern seas unimpeded, except by the tongues of
land projecting into those regions, viz., the continent of South
America, that of Africa, and, to a less marked degree, that of
Australia. The continent of South America projects far south
beyond the parallel of 50 °, consequently a great portion of the
current is caught and deflected northwards along its western coast,
while the whole of its southern portion is laved by the cold water.
In the case of South Africa, however, which is situated in a much
lower latitude, a smaller portion of the current is caught and deflected
northwards along its western side, and it is not strong enough to
completely force back the warm Equatorial current which is coming
south along its eastern side, though strong enough, however, at
times to bring icebergs from the Antarctic to within a short distance
of the South African coast. The main portion of the warm current
is turned back into the Indian Ocean and is partly carried on with
the Antarctic current m its circum-Polar course (c.f. page 194).
It will thus readily be seen that the sea round the South African .
coast exhibits an almost unique character and one of fundamental
importance, not only in oceanic circulation but in the distribution
of marine life. On the one hand it is connected by currents with-
the seas to the eastwards, directly to the Indian Ocean arid more
indirectly to the Pacific, while on the other it is directly connected
to the South Atlantic by the deflected northwards-going branch of
the Antartic drift, and more indirectly to the North Atlantic, as
this branch in its course northwards becomes mirtgled with the
return current of the South Atlantic equatorial to form the Ben-
guela Stream which is ultimately carried over, perhaps partly as a
cold undercurrent, to the coast of South America, part passing
through the Carribean Sea into the North Atlantic.
If, then, marine pelagic fauna is determined by its environment
like other faunas, and if, like other environments, there are great
factors within it determining the geographical distribution of the
contained forms of life, it will be readily understood that the key
to the character of the marine fauna of the Cape is to be ultimately
found in the peculiar features of its sea, which have just been
enumerated. Before, however, passing on to this it will be neces-
sary to consider some of these features in more detail.
Some years ago, in view mainly of the great importance of the
currents and changing character of the sea for a determination of
the laws which regulate the occurrence, migration and habits of
fish and other forms of sea-life, a series of temperature observations
was begun at about twelve different stations roimd the coast ;
MARINE FAUNA.
l8 =
and it has been observed that while there is a gradual cooling of
the Agulhas current as it proceeds southwards and westwards there
is a very abrupt difference between the stations in False Bay and
MEAN MONTHLY TEMPERATURE
AT
SIMON'S BAY AND TABLE BAY,
For the Period 1898 — 1900.
DEC.
FAHR
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Table Bay, showing that this is the meeting place of two great
bodies of water of different origin.
The details of the transition at this point are of special interest
and can be shown by the result of a series of observations of sea
temperatures taken for a number of years at the Roman Rock
Lighthouse in Simon's Bay and at Robben Island in Table Bay,
The above diagram constructed from these data shows the mean
i86
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
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MARINE FAUNA.
I«7
monthly temperature of the respective places for a period of three
years. It will be observed that in summer there is a difference of
about 6°, while in winter there is a close approximation of the
curves of temperature. - The diagram on the opposite page (p. i86)
shows the details of the variation of temperature at points between
these two stations at practically the same time. It is drawn up'
from observations taken every ten minutes on board the Pieter
Faure when oh passage from Table Bay to False Bay. In conjunc-
tion with the temperature.^ curve is -shown one indicating the
variation in salinity of the se^-water.
MEAN TEMPERATURE AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF
SEA WATER
BETWEEN TABLE BAY AND FALSE BAY.
DEC
FAHT
II 1 1
SEA HO UT SLANG CAPE GMIT5WINKEL
POINT BAY KOP POINT BAY
33° 54'S.54 45. 34 14.'S.34 24's. 34 145.
1 1 1 1 1
SPECIFIC
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188
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
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MARINE FAUNA. Ifig-
Another diagram (p. 187), drawn up from a series of observa-
tions made by the mail steamer, between Cape Town and Cape
Hangkhp, illustrates the same phenomenon.
This variation in temperature, conjoined with a corresponding
variation in saHnity, is of interest as indicating that the cold waters
of the west coast of the Cape are not merely the welling up of the
deeper waters when the warmer upper layers are driven away from
the shore by winds ; no doubt much of the variation in temperature
can be brought about by such an agency, but this very marked
difference of temperature and salinity combined with current
observations can most satisfactorily be explained by the close
proximity of the southern drift current.
As might be expected there is, however, no hard and fast line
of demarcation between the two bodies of water. Recent investi-
gations on this point by means of drift bottles have shown that part
at least of the warm current may escape past the Cape Peninsula
to the west coast. That the courses of the drift bottles were not
influenced merely by local winds was indicated by the fact that in
several instances the wind at the time was in an opposite direction.
This was further confirmed by a series of temperature observations
made at different stations (VI. -XI.) off the western side of the
Cape Peninsula. The section of the sea in this region (p. 188) is
^drawn up from these observations and indicates an interesting
problem for further investigation. The column on the left indicates
depth in fathoms ; the Roman numerals indicate stations, about
ten miles apart.
3. Local Features : Configuration of Coast,
Deposits, etc.
The foregoing are the main physical features of South African
waters as they are modified by the great ocean currents which meet
in this region ; the more local peculiarities are also important
features in the moulding of the character of South African marine
fauna, but not to the same extent as in many other regions, for a
feature of the South African coast is its want of bays, natural
harbours or inlets, and of islands or large fresh-water inlets, all of
which in other countries give rise to peculiar modifications of sea-
life. Although, however, there is not a single large river which does
not admit the sea for several miles inland, all are capable of swelling
into floods of great volume, bringing down with them, to be de-
posited on the sea bottom, much mud and debris of all sorts. Thus
it has been found that there are extensive areas of mud in St. Helena
Bay into which the Berg River opens, at Sebastian Bay near the
mouth of the Breede River, at Mossel Bay near the mouth of the
Gouritz River, and at Bird Island near the Sundays River.
Another feature of the sea bottom is a deposit of a totally
different character and origin. It has been found on the west
coast from St. Helena Bay to Cape Point, and over the western
side of the Agulhas Bank, but not beyond on the eastern side of
igO SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
the bank nor on the eastern side of South Africa. This is a kind of
green mud or sand, apparently of organic origin, to which attention
will be directed further on.
The remainder of the area of the sea bottom consists, on the
east and west coasts, of sand and sand and shells interspersed with
rock within a short distance from the shore, where there is an abrupt
shelving off into deeper water. The extensive Agulhas Bank off
the south coast has, besides mud and green sand,, large areas with
often very abrupt transitions from coarse and fine sand to rock.
4. Diversity of Faunas of East, South-East and West
Coasts.*
As has been already indicated it is from a distributional rather
than a systematic point of view that the Cape marine fauna is most
profitably studied, and it is chiefly this aspect that is therefore con-
sidered here.
In the first place it has become evident from recent investiga-
tions that there is well-marked difference in the character of the
fauna at different localities on the South African coast, so that it
can even with convenience be divided roughly into a number of
characteristic regions. This can most readily be illustrated by the
distribution of the flat fishes which have been found at different
points on the coast during the trawling operations of the Govern-
ment steamer, the Pieter Faure. The great economic importance
of these fishes called for special attention, so that their distribution
is now fairly well known as well as the number of species (twenty-
five in all, of which fifteen have proved new species).
Trawling operations were first commenced on the west coast,
and it was found that in a stretch of ground between Dassen Island
and Saldanha Bay a species of sole (Synaptura microlefis) occurred.
On proceeding further north the same sole was found, some of the
specimens being of a remarkably large size, several of them weighing
about g lbs. In neither of these places, however, did it occur in
great abundance. Another species of flat fish was found near
Dassen Island {Cynoglossus capensis), but only occasionally. On
extending operations to False Bay it was found that the first-
mentioned was not to be found, while the second was in fair abund-
ance. Further to the east another species {Synaptura pectoralis)
was found in great abundance — in such abundance that it now
forms the chief item in the catch of three large trawlers which
shortly afterwards commenced operations in this area. The same
sole was found in abundance on a large area of mud near Bird Islands
and at a spot several miles beyond East London. The attention of
the Natal Government was attracted by these results (a Natal
trawler was the first on the new ground after its discovery), and at
their request the Cape Government surveyed their coast for trawling
* For a detailed account of the S. African Marine Fauna see " Marine
Investigations" published by the Cape Government.
MARINE FAUNA. I9I
ground. Here, however, an entirely different state of things pre-
vailed. Suitable ground, with a deposit of fine mud, was indeed
found off the Tugela River, and several species of flat fish were
discovered, but all of a small size. There was no trace whatever
.of the sole so abundant on the east and south coasts of Cape Colony.
Another example from the group of the fishes illustrates just as
forcibly the effect of the different conditions to be found on the
■east and west coasts of South Africa. This is the " snoek " (Thry-
sites atun), which, being of great commercial importance, is better
known than most of the other fishes with respect to its places of
■occurrence and relative abundance. It is a migratory fish, and
during the season appears in immense shoals* on the west coast.
It is known to occur as far north as Sandwich Harbour, which was
formerly open to fishing boats, though now inaccessible through
accumulation of sand. Here a fishing station was at one time
•established for the special purpose of snoek fishing, so that it must
have been found in fair abundance. It is found further south in
the neighbourhood of St. Helena and Saldanha Bays, where also a
fishery has been carried on for many years, and a large export
trade to Mauritius and other places carried on. In Table Bay it is
not so abundant, though at one time it was found in almost incred-
ible numbers. In False Bay on the other hand it is less seldom
■seen, though in good fishing seasons it occurs very abundantly.
Further to the east the supply falls off rapidly. It has, however,
occasionally been known to visit Mossel Bay. There is no record
of its having ever been seen at Algoa Bay, and it is quite unknown
on the east coast. Its distribution is, therefore, intimately
associated with the colder waters of the west coast. It is indeed
probable that some light might be thrown on its relative abund-
ance or scarcity at different periods by a more intimate know-
ledge of the temperature conditions prevailing in different years.
An example, from the group of the Crustacea, illustrates,
perhaps even more forcibly tJhan the last two, the effect
of the changing environment we meet in passing round the South
African coast : this is the large crawfish (Jasus lalandii). This
crustacean occurs in such quantities in Table Bay that the supply
was sufficient to keep a large canning factory at work, and it seems
practically inexhaustible. It is found in the same abundance
northwards to beyond Angra Pequena. It occurs also in quantity
in Hout Bay, but only now and again in False Bay, and it falls off
rapidly towards the east, both in number and size.
Though in both the above-named instances of distribution —
that of flat fish and crustacean — the species become more numerous
and the individuals of a smaller size toward the region of the warmer
waters (the east coast), another instance may be mentioned to show
that this is not valid for all forms. The pearl oyster {Avicula) has
not been found on the west coast, nor on the south coast westwards
•of Cape Agulhas. It is met with, however, in fair abundance just
* Though of recent years somewhat scarcer, there is evidence of late that
it is again reappearing in the same abundance in some places.
192 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
beyond (eastwards) of this point ; indeed at one time it was-
thought a valuable industry might be developed there owing to-
the finding of the beds of this bivalve, and a few valuable pearls. It
is known to occur at several localities to the eastward of this, and is
found on the east coast as far as the Mozambique Channel where it
is larger and more abundant, so much so that a profitable trade can
be carried on there,
A final instance from the group of the Ascidians is also striking,
and may be classed with the preceding. One of the features of the
rocky parts of the coast line from Cape Point eastwards is the
clusters of " rooias " or " red bait " (a large Ascidian) which cover
the rocks. It is not now to be seen in abundance except at low
tides as it has been used extensively by the fishermen for bait, but
on favourable opportunities masses of rock thickly carpeted with it
may be observed.
We, see, therefore, that the different physical conditions on the
east and west coast are reflected in the character of the fauna, the
general rule seeming to be that in the colder waters the species ii>
certain groups are fewer, and the individuals more numerous, while
the warm waters are characterised by greater variety of species
and fewer individuals of any one species ; in other groups the
reverse is the case. In some of the cases cited the cold-water forms
grow to a much larger size, in others the warm-water forms. It is
a significant fact that the latter — to which may be added the
sponges — are more directly dependent on the floating minute forms
of the plankton which has been found to be richer in the warmer
waters. This, however, raises a question which cannot be dealt
with here beyond these general statements.
5. Relation of South African to other Marine
Faunas.
The character of the water does not, however, account for the
variety of species ; for light on this point we must go elsewhere.
A key to a fuller explanation is found when we consider the general
distribution of this marine fauna, and the affinities of its component
elements to the general marine fauna of the globe. For this pur-
pose we must turn attention more to the distribution of the strictly
pelagic or oceanic forms. One of the most obvious instances is
found in the general distribution of the snoek (Thrysites atun),
which we have already taken to illustrate another poirit. It is
found in abundance on the Chilian coast of South America, at
Tristan de Cunha, on the west coast, of South Africa, and on the
west coast of Australia — that is, on those coasts on which the
Antarctic drift current impinges. It is therefore a form which is
characteristic of the west wind current. There are other forms of
the South African fish fauna such as the genera Bdellostoma, Agri-
opus, Callorhynchus, Clinus, which link it on to the regions traversed
by the Antarctic current ; and those genera in South African waters,
like the snoek, seem to be most characteristic of the west and south
MARINE FAUNA. I93
coast.* On the other hand, there are a number of forms, growing
more numerous towards the west, which show a great affinity with
the warmer waters of the Indian Ocean. Thus the well-known
Blaasop (Tetrodon honckenii) is a representative of the tropical
Gymnodontes. It is found in abundance in False Bay, but seldom
in Table Bay, though it is found in Hout Bay. One or two other
members of the group are occasionally found in False Bay, and they
become much more abundant towards the east coast. There also
such forms as Pterois, Apistus, etc., have been found, while the
Squamipinnes increase in numbers and species. The same fact is
illustrated in the flat fishes.
The affinity with tropical Indian Ocean forms is, like the previous
case, readily understood by the intimate connection with that region
brought about by the warm current of the east coast, and we are not
surprised to find that regions of the same latitude on the west coast
are entirely devoid of these forms. When, however, we find in the
Cape seas such forms as Zeus japonims, Monocentris japonicus, and
■even a flat fish, identical with Japanese species, it is more difficult to
realise that the distribution can be accounted for by currents con-
necting the two regions, though it is to be remembered that there
are no insuperable land barriers between the northern Pacific coast
and that of South Africa.
There is, however, another element in the South African marine
fauna much more difficult to account for, and one which from evi-
dence now accumulating, seems to be a characteristic feature.
This is the presence of forms specifically identical with some that
occur in European waters. Such anomalies of distribution are not
rare. For instance, Giinther has drawn attention to the fact that
several of the genera, and even species, in Japanese waters are
identical with Mediterranean forms, and similarly Alcock has shown
that the same phenomenon occurs in the Indian seas. To account
for the first case Giinther has advanced the hypothesis that at some
time in the geological history of continents there was a direct sea
communication between Japan and the Mediterranean, and Alcock
has had recourse to the same convenient and not improbable ex-
planation. The familiar Stock-fish {Merlucius vulgaris) and the
Maasbanker [Caranx trachurus) are examples from the group of
the fishes illustrating identity of Cape and European forms, and
several other species recently found in South African waters have
proved to be identical. Even in the group of marine annelids and
other invertebrates the same agreement has been observed. In the
fishes the affinity to the Mediterranean forms has been specially
noted. In drawing attention to the similarity of the Japanese and
Mediterranean forms Giinther has given a list of Japanese shore
fishes, of which fifty-four genera are identical in both places ; of
these, thirty-five have now been found at the Cape, where also three
* The shore forms might be taken as additional evidence of the former
existence of an Antarctic continent. An explanation, however, postulating the
existence or removal of continents is to be regarded as a last resource.
194 SCIEN'CE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
genera, described in the list as peculiar to Japanese waters, have
been found. How is the presence of Mediterranean forms in South
Africa to be accounted for ? Unfortunately we cannot have re-.
course to an explanation that would postulate a former direct
communication in past geological times, elastic as such explanations
are, and we are compelled to look about for further information with
regard to the existing means of distribution. I have said " unfortu-
nately " ; perhaps, however, the necessity of a further enquiry into
the facts will, in the long run, lead to a truer solution. As has been
indicated, the direction in which the solution may be looked for is
iri a more intimate knowledge of the connection between the waters
of the North and South Atlantic, and perhaps between the Northern
Pacific and Indian Oceans, and it is in this direction also we may
first look for a solution of the much greater but cognate problem of
bipolarity, or the identity of Arctic and Antarctic forms, and that
only after looking nearer home into the specific diagnosis of authors.
Before leaving this subject two suggestive cases may be men-
tioned. A certain Gasteropod occurs in comparatively shallow
water in Iceland. It has also been found in deep waters near the
Equator, and recently has been found in comparatively shallow
waters in South Africa.* Still more instructive in this respect are
the results of a recent examination of the different species of Cope-
poda found in South African waters. It has been shown that of
the species found south and west of Cape Colony a considerable
number occur also in the Northern Hemisphere. Professor Cleve,
who made this discovery,* from an examination of material supplied
by the Cape Government, finds in it a confirmation of his hypothesis
that the waters of the temperate Atlantic in the Northern Hemi-
sphere originate not in the Gulf Stream but in the Benguela current,
which is supposed to pass as an under-current below the waters of
the tropical Atlantic. He further finds evidence in the plankton
that some of the forms found on the east coast of Africa may be
carried in the mingled waters of the Agulhas and Antarctic currents
to the west coast of America. Along with these examples is to be
noted also the presence in South African waters of the ubiquitous
Teredo navalis and Limnoria lignomm.
6. Deep-Sea Fauna of South Africa.
Within a few miles of Cape Point is to be found a fauna totally
different from the forms we have been considering, but which must
be glanced at ev.en in this short review. At the locality in question
is to be found deep water from lOO to i,ooo fathoms. Recent in-
vestigation has shown that this region contains forms which, on the
whole, are characteristic of deep waters throughout the world.
Considering the fishes alone we find, in contrast to the shallow-
water forms of the South African seas, which are distinguished by a
preponderance of the family of the Sparidae, Or fishes provided with:
* Vide Marine Investigations, S. Africa.
MARINE FAUNA. IQS
cutting and grinding teeth, that in deeper water there is a preponder-
ance of forms belonging to the cod tribe, of which only three or four
representatives are found in the shore forms — a fact which seems to
suggest that in the more strenuous existence on the South African
coast the process of specialisation and the driving off of older forms
into deep waters has been carried a step further than in other regions.
The deep-water fish fauna is not, however, without some special
feature. It is a noteworthy and yet unexplained fact that the
family of the Cyttidae are here well represented. To this somewhat
restricted group three new genera have been added from this region
as the result of a few hauls" of the net. The other groups, with
perhaps the exception of that represented by a new genus (Triptero-
phycis) in the Gadidae, present no outstanding feature, bepth of
water forms an even more effective barrier than difference of
temperature, and these two factors being well illustrated in this
region, we have the interesting phenomenon of three different
marine faunas occurring within thirty miles of one point — the Cape
of Good Hope.
7 Early Stages of some South African Fishes.
Next to a knowledge of the kinds, numbers and localities of the
different marine forms is that of their individual growth or stages of
development — both from a strictly scientific as well as a practical
point of view. The necessity of a knowledge of the spawning
habits and early stages of Cape fishes has been forced upon the
attention of the Cape Government on several occasions in the most
unmistakable way. About twenty years ago an enterprising
American schooner was practically driven away by the Colonial
Government on the representation of the native fishermen that
damage was being done to the spawn and young of fish. On the
advent of trawling these representations were vigorously renewed,
and about the same time petitions were presented praying for the
abolition of netting in rivers and lagoons on the ground of damage
done to eggs and spawn.
As a result of this certain facilities were afforded by the Govern-
ment for making the necessary investigations into the subject, and
some reliable information has now been procured wnich, to a cer-
tain extent, meets the practical difficulties. These we can only
briefly note here.
It has been found that, as in the Northern Hemisphere, most of
the edible fishes have floating eggs. Two or three species of fish
have eggs which are deposited on stones, shells, etc. Only one of
these first have as yet been determined with certainty, and it is a
small fish of no direct economic importance. Concerning the
nature of the eggs and young of some fish, such as the Cape salmon
of the east coast, on which a great deal of dispute has taken place,
no definite information has yet been obtained. A number of species
of the genus Clinus are viviparous, and the male of the Barger
{GaleicUhys feliceps) has the curious habit of carrying the eggs and
o 2
196 SCIENXE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
young in its mouth. The eggs of some species of Macrurus have
been procured from ripe specimens and also in fine nets at about
100 fathoms. One deep-sea fish (Cataetyx) has been found to be
viviparous, and shows evidence that the embryos live at the
expense of each other during the ovarian period of their development.
8. Character and Significance of Green Mud and Sand
Deposit.
We now return to a subject which may prove on further
investigation to indicate a characteristic feature of marine life here,
and which I just touched upon previously, viz., the occurrence of
a peculiar deposit, commonly known as green sand or mud, which,
as recent soundings have shown, is to be found very extensively
over the bed of the sea off the south and west coast of the Cape. The
green colour has been found to be due to phosphate of lime ; it coats
thecoarse grains of sand inshore, and, where these terrigenous deposits
are absent in deep water, it is found encrusting and filling up
the shells of foraminifera and other characteristic deep-sea deposits.
It is often also found as nodules formed round a central nucleus.
It is therefore a formation of comparatively recent date, and can
hardly be derived from the common mineralogical forms — apatite —
which are found in volcanic rocks ; it might be thought to be de-
rived from submarine mineral springs, but its great extent is against
such a supposition. Finally it might be derived from the phosphates
found in sea-water, but the small quantity thus found and the mode
of its occurrence are against this. The distinguished oceanographer.
Sir John Murray, has devoted particular attention to this problem,
and he suggested that it is derived from the phosphate of lime stored
up in the living organisms (especially in their bony tissue) which
inhabit the sea. He has observed that these deposits of green mud
or sand are characteristic of the regions where currents of different
character meet, and suggests that it is there that a great mortality
amongst sea animals may occur. It is of course difficult to procure
direct and reliable evidence on such a point, but some recent occur-
rences in South African waters and others of an earlier date appear
to confirm this supposition in a remarkable manner ; for instance,
some months ago the captain of the trawler which started fishing
operations recently on the Agulhas Bank was startled to find one
day that instead of fresh fish he hauled on board a net full of dead
fish in an advanced stage of decomposition, and an observer at
Knysna near this same region states that it is a not unusual occur-
rence to find dead and dying fish on the shore. There are also
traditions of extensive mortality among the fish in the neighbour-
hood of Table Bay and on the west and south coasts. If the inter-
pretation, then, of these facts be correct the deposit of green mud
is to be regarded as a great ocean graveyard, and constitutes another
striking feature of the sea and sea life on the South African coast.
The question is one worthy of further investigation and careful
observation both from a scientific and practical point of view.
MARINE FAUNA. I97
The foregoing is a slight short of the main features of the South
African marine fauna. It will have become apparent that for an
adequate solution of the scientific and practical problems connected
therewith due consideration must be given to the peculiar environ-
ment by which it is linked on to the two great oceans of the world,
the Indo- Pacific and the Atlantic, as well as to the Antarctic. The
most outstanding problems are those connected with the distribu-
tion of its diverse forms of life, and these are as yet but vaguely
defined and understood.
As the Cape of Good Hope has been, and always will be, the
main natural highway between the east and west, and is conse-
quently characterised by the possession of a cosmopolitan popula-
tion, the result of incursions from the most diverse races, so the sea
surrounding its coasts for the same reason, viz., its geographical
position, is characterized by forms of life from the most remote
regions — from the North Atlantic, the Antarctic and the Indian
Ocean, and even an element from the far East.
igS
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
SECTION IV —BOTANICAL.
I. SKETCH OF THE FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA.
By Harry Bolus, D.Sc, F.L.S.
That branch of botany which is termed plant-geography may be
said to be divided into two subordinate parts — (i) the investiga-
tion of the distribution of plants, i.e., as to what plants grow in the
■different countries of the world ; and, therefrom, the division of
the earth's surface into floristic regions or geographical groups of
similar or related plants. This is termed Geographical Botany. (2)
Oecological Botany, or the enquiry into the environment, or the
factors of the life-history of plants (in respect of water, heat, light,
winds, soils, etc.) ; and the investigation of their influence, abso-
lutely and comparatively, upon plants in different parts of the
world. The latter part can be scarcely touched upon here, except
indirectly or in general terms ; because it is only in recent years
that it has been much worked, its pursuit requiring much time and
skill, and many workers ; and very little has hitherto been done
in South Africa. The recent publication of Schimper's* great work,
which will constitute an epoch in this branch of science, will no doubt
stimulate research and progress here and everywhere in this
respect.
The Flora of South Africa cannot be treated or regarded as a
whole. The diversified character of the surface of the country and
the difference in the distribution and in the amount of the rainfall
are so considerable as to have caused corresponding important
differences both in the aspect of the vegetable landscape and in its
systematic constituents.
Methods^of Investigation.
What is ultimately desired is to present a view of regions,
districts or other groups, convenient in size and sufficiently homo-
geneous in character to facilitate comparison, and to enable the
student who cannot visit them all to gather the chief character-
istics of each, to pursue further the problems of the local vegetable
world, and to investigate its relations to its chief factors. The
first step is the taking of a proper botanical census, not, of course,
of individual plants, but of the occurrence and stations of those more
or less definite forms which we call families or orders, genera and
* Bibl. App. 47. This and all similar references are to the numbers cited
in' the Bibliographical Appendix at the end of this paper.
200 SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
species. Such a census being merely a means to an end may be
made upon arbitrary divisions — the smaller the better, compatible
with practical possibilities. Fiscal divisions might serve, as coun-
ties have been adopted in England, but for the objection that in a
new country these are so frequently sub-divided or re-arranged ;
while to ideal divisions, such as those into squares of one or more
degrees of latitude and longitude, there is opposed the difficulty
that it would be almost impossible so to demarcate them that the
ordinary observer should recognise them. A second requisite is
available maps, contoured, if possible, or, at least, of sufficient
accuracy and topographical detail. Both censuses and such maps
have been or are still imperfect or nearly wanting in South Africa.
There remains another method, viz., to mark out certain areas
which, on a rough survey, appear to form or contain natural groups,
and to use them, hypothetically, as census-areas. This was the course
adopted by Meyer* andDrege.f It is open to the obvious objection
which lies in the danger of the tendency to make the facts fit the
hypothesis. But it has some countervailing advantages : the
larger areas it adopts are better suited to the state of our know-
ledge, and lend themselves more easily to census-making than
smaller divisions ; besides that they will probably in the end necessi-
tate fewer or less important changes, though changes must be in-
evitable in our schemes of plant-distribution in South Africa. Par-
tial censuses of such areas have been made and are still being
carried on, but the workers are few. An ideal system of investiga-
tion would be the adoption by the schools of the country throughout
its whole extent of a series of plant-collections of each fiscal division.
These being sent to a central bureau would be tabulated, and would
in the course of years, by the stimulus of the love of knowledge and
the zeal begotten of a wholesome rivalry, soon yield the richest
results. There is no investigator in natural history like the resident.
Much as science is indebted to travellers, it is often because they
were first in the field and, ceteris farihus, it must be evident that
the resident in a given district throughout a number of years must
have great advantages over the traveller who passes through it once
or twice only during a few days or weeks in the year.
Beyond and outside of the difficulties mentioned above is one
which is inherent in the subject, viz., that of drawing a line between
two adjacent regions which overlap, and where no hard and fast
boundary line exists. Thus, to give an example : it seems probable
that there are very few regions upon the face of the globe which are
adjacent to each other and which yet differ more fundamentally in
their constituent elements than do the Floras of the South-western
and South-eastern regions of this country. Yet wherever we draw
the line between them Nature overleaps it. Let the line be taken
at the Van Stadensbergen, we still find south-western types such as
Erica, Protea, Leucadendron and others occur, though sparingly,
up to and even beyond Kaffraria ; on the other hand, many south-
■ Bibl. App. 6 and 7. f Bibl. App. 7.
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA. 201
eastern forms, such as Euphorbia grandidens, Encephalartos caffer^
Strelitziae, Angraecum, Habenaria, etc., pass beyond the Van
Stadens westward. The search can only be for a hne which will
give greatest differences on each side of it.
Progress of Investigation.
But in spite of these drawbacks attempts have been made, and
must necessarily continue, to form a general estimate of the Flora
from the observations of botanical explorers and travellers. We
may pass over the fragmentary passages in the writings of Thunberg
and Lichtenstein. Burchell* was one of the scientific travellers in
this country best equipped by his numerous gifts for careful research.
But his results, except plant descriptions, were never worked up,
and a valuable " Catalogus Geographicus Plantarum '' recording
during his extensive journeys the stations and dates of about 8,700-
plants, remains to this day in fourteen small volumes of neat manu-
script in the Kew Library.
The first to undertake a systematic investigation of the country
in this .respect was J. F. Drege,t who travelled throughout the
Colony from 1826 to 1834, and carefully recorded the stations of a
large number of collected plants. These were named and tabulated
by Professor Ernst Meyer, J and published together with Drege's
arrangement of the Colony into regions, with sub-divisions and a
map ; the whole preceded by a most valuable introductory essay
by ]\Ieyer. Drege did not travel beyond the limits of the old Cape
Xolony ; his groups require to be extended, and his sub-divisions,
although excellent, are too numerous to be treated of in a brief and
general survey such as the present. But his work was more system-
atic than that of any previous or subsequent explorer ; it is char-
acterised by clearness of view, thoroughness and honest exactitude,
and will probably remain as the foundation of all future investiga-
tion.
Other valuable, though less extensive, contributors to our
knowledge of the South African Flora were the travellers and
collectors Ecklon and Zeyher§ (1826-1836), Kraussj] (1844) and
Bunbury** (1838-1840).
Grisebachft regarded the Colony proper as far eastward as the
Kei River as forming one region, which he treated as one, under the
name of the " Kap Flora." Eastward of this he brought down the
vast "Soudan Region," including the whole of tropical Africa;
north of the Orange River he constituted his " Kalahari Region."
It is impossible, in my opinion, for reasons which will appear
further on, to accept this arrangement as a natural one, more
especially as regards his first division.
A. Rehmann,JJ an Austrian traveller and botanical collector in
South Africa during the years 1875-1880, proposed a division of
*Bibl. App. I.
II Bibl. App. 8.
t Bibl. App. 6 and 7.
**Bibl. App. II.
1 Bibl. App. 6 and 7.
■f Bibl. App. 13.
§Bibl. App. 5.
{{ Bibl. App. 24.
202 SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
South Africa which consisted chiefly in the redintegration of Drege's
regions, and in the erection of the country about the Knysna and
Zitzikamma into a separate " Forest Region." This is by no
means an unnatural arrangement ; but the tract thus treated is
relatively a very small one ; other isolated forests occur along the
coast eastward ; and the author himself appears to admit that,
from a systematic point of view, this forest region is more closely
allied to the South-western than to the South-eastern (termed by
him the " Monsoon ") region. Rehmann's collections which were
chiefly from Natal and the Transvaal, have been in part worked up
and published by Szyszylowicz.*
In i886f appeared ray first attempt to treat the South African
Flora as a whole.
In 1894 J-. Medley WoodJ and T. R. Sim § greatly increased our
knowledge of the Flora of the South-eastern region by their almost
simultaneous publication of catalogues of Natal and Kaffrarian
plants, both indispensable to the student of this branch of botany.
Drege indeed, and after him Krauss, travelled as far as Natal ; but
the recorded collections of Wood and Sim are far larger, and shoVv
the superiority of the observations of resident collectors over those
•of travellers.
R. Schlechter,|| made very extensive explorations and large
collections throughout South Africa from 1892-1898, from near the
mouth of the Orange River on the west to Delagoa Bay on the east,
and inland almost to the Limpopo River. He has published
descriptions of large numbers of new species, and these are inter-
spersed with much information on the subject of their stations and
distribution. •
Justus ThodeTI has well investigated the Flora of Kaffraria,
Kiatal and the neighbouring high mountain region of the Drakens-
bergen, penetrating some of the more difficult country previously
untrodden by European botanists, of which he has given a very
graphic account. He published the results of his explorations in
1891, 1893, 1901, and gives valuable general views on the natural
floral divisions of that region. He divides it into three districts,
according to longitude, and each of these into three vertical zones,
based on three successive steps of elevation from the coast to the
highest plateaux of the last mountain range (the Drakensbergen).
He includes these plateaux in the South-eastern Region, of which
they are actually on the very boundary. But his observations on
the great predominance of the Compositae (27 per cent, of the
whole Flora) lead to a doubt whether these mountain-summits
should not be more properly included either in our Upper Region,
which is referred to subsequently, and of which this predominance
forms one of the most marked characteristics ; or in the Kalahari
Region.
* Bibl. App. 23. § Bibl. App. 37.
■f Bibl. App. 18. II Bibl. App. 39, 41, 42.
t Bibl. App. 38. H Bibl. App. 32, 36, 52.
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA. 203
Engler,* in 1902, made a short visit to South Africa and the next
year published his views on the distribution of the Flora. He pro-
posed five divisions, of which, however, neither the boundaries nor
the relative rank are clearly defined. These are— (i) the South-
western Coast ; (2) the South and South-eastern Coast ; (3) the
Karroo and Roggeveld ; (4) the South African Highlands, Orange,
Transvaal and Kalahari ; (5) the Western Namaqua and Herero-
land.
This approaches very nearly to the groups adopted for the
arrangement of stations in the later volumes of the Flora Capensis,
under the editorship of Sir W. T. Dyer.f
Dr. Siegfried PassargeJ made, in 1896-1898, extensive journeys
in the middle Kalahari. Though the official object of his travel was
■of an economic-geological character, he made a large series of
strictly scientific investigations which have been published in two
portly volumes of text and numerous maps. These are chiefly
geological ; but there is added a considerable chapter on the plant-
geography of that region, which is replete with observations, and
bears witness to the remarkable energy and industry of the author
under circumstances of great difficulty and hardship. In this he
treats of the distribution-areas of the whole of Southern Africa,
following Engler substantially in his divisions (though
under a modified nomenclature). The chief difference is
that he unites Engler's sub-province of the " Karroo and
Roggeveld " with the vast Kalahari Region — the latter being again
sub-divided.
O. Stapfll has proposed (1904) as a result of his masterly study
of South African grasses,§ the division of the country into five
provinces. The arrangement of these is in several respects very
different from any previously put forward. The author, however,
expressly states that the grouping is made " so far as regards the
grasses," and that each province " possesses, on the whole, a
characteristic Grass-flora." The investigation, therefore, although
a contribution to the knowledge of our Flora of the greatest value,
must be regarded as supplying the data for one element only out
of many necessary for the consideration of the Flora as a whole ; and
must be correlated with other facts — the relative importance of
which is as yet unknown.
During 1884-1886 Dr. H. Schinz^f travelled in German West
Africa, and even extended beyond it eastward as far as Lake Ngami.
He has since published a series of numerous papers upon the general
features of that country, and descriptions and lists of a large number
of plants collected therein. These, of which the publication
dates extend from 1887-1904, form the most important con-
tribution to our knowledge of the western part of the Kalahari
Region.
* Bibl. App. 53. IIBibl. App. 56.
t Bibl. App. 37. § Bibl. App. 48.
+ Bibl. App. 59. iJBibl. App. 17, 21, 22, 25, 30, 44-
204 science ix south africa.
Divisions Proposed.
I propose to arrange the South African Floral Regions as follows r
I. The Western Coast Region.
II. The South- Western Coast Region.
III. The South-Eastern Coast Region.
IV. The Karroo Region.
V. The Upper Region.
VI. The Kalahari Region.
I. The Western Coast Region.
This consists of a littoral strip along the west coast beginning at
the Olifant's River, and with a width of probably from 40 to 60
miles, northward as far as the tropic, or beyond our limits. Its
width is to be determined by the distance of the higher mountains
from the coast, which varies. In Little Namaland the coast rises
gradually from Port Nolloth to Annenous, a distance of some 45
miles, and then ascends the mountains somewhat steeply to Klip-
fontein, which is about 3,000 feet above the sea. Here we have a
different Flora, and these mountains form there the eastern boun-
dary of the region. This is given as an instance, within my own
knowledge, of what is probably the case, in a general sense, through-
out the whole tract ; for we know that there, as elsewhere, through-
out South Africa, the country rises from the coast towards a range,
or successive ranges, of mountains, which are not, however, always
continuous, nor always equidistant from the coast.
The intervening country, in the part I have mentioned, is com-
posed of low rolling hills, sandy near the sea coast and more clayey
or of reddish sand nearer the mountains. According to the geo-
logical maps these are of the Schistose rocks of the " Pre-Cape
Series " (Rogers), with gneiss.
Very little is known of the climate of the region except in the
Colonial part between the Olifant's and Orange rivers. We have
rain returns from three stations (Buchan*).
Rain-Fall, Western Region.
Port Nolloth
Van Rhyn's Dorp
Ebenezer
Altitude
above Sea.
metresi feet
12 , (40)
123 ; (400)
30 (100)
Mean Anniial
Fall for 10 Teal's.'
Mean Annual
Fall during 0
winter months.
milli-
metres
inches
milli-
inches
62
158
117
(2-45)
(6.24)
(4.64)
48
129
97'
Mean Annual
Fall during 6
summer
months.
milli
metres
(I-9I) 13
(5-ll)l 28
(3.84) 20
inches
(0.54)-
.(I-I3)
(0.80)
* Bibl. App. 46.
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA.
205
These show the rainy period, poor as it is, to be chiefly in the
winter. But the whole coast in this part is subject to frequent
fogs, which probably would not condense into a raingauge, but
would collect upon the vegetation. When I visited Port Nolloth
in August, and again in September, 1883, I found the atmosphere
very humid, although there was no rain.
Temperature.
Our data for this are few : —
Port Nolloth
Van Rhyn's Dorp
Altitude.
metres.
12
12.^
Number i Absolute
of years. 1 Maximum.
Absolute
Minimum.
C. (Fahr.) I C. (Fahr.)
40.0 (104.0) 0.0 (32.0)
42.4 (108.4) 1.6 (34.9)
The aspect of the country between Port Nolloth and the moun-
tains is, in most years, extremely desert-like, and very similar to
that of the drier parts of the Karroo Region. Nevertheless there
are occasional good seasons, with rain considerably above the
average, every seven or ten years. In such years (as when I was
there) the spring flowers, and especially annuals, are numerous ;
the small shrubs, mostly from 4 to 6 feet high, flower also ; but
the stunted growth and many dead branches of the latter bear
evidence of the severity of many years of drought.
The plant-forms of the Region do not seem to be very numerous.
But there is one which is of special interest, viz., the celebrated
Welwitschia mirabilis Hook. f. (of the Order Gnetaceas), of which
little need be said, since so many writers have dwelt upon its re-
markable characters.* Trees are extremely few, so far as we know,
certainly there were none near Port Nolloth ; Tamarix nsneoides
is said only to begin to appear near the Orange River ; while Acacia
albida and A. giraffae, Combretum frimigenium and Euclea pseude-
bemim, are reported as occurring in the waterless-bed of the Kuisib
River, near Walwich Bay (Englerf).
Systematic Constituents of the Flora.
Our records of the systematic elements of the Flora of the
Region are almost too scanty for publication. This is partly owing
to the insufficient localisation of their plants by collectors ; partly
to the smallness of the area really explored, and partly to our own
defective records. Such as they are they are presented here, until
better material shall become available : —
* Christ (Bibl. App. 43) writes of it as the " oldest imaginable Phanero-
gam " ; but, by other authorities, it is regarded as younger than the Cycads
or even, perhaps, than the Conifers.
t Bibl. App. 53 (p. 57).
206
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Native Phanerogamia :
Dicotyledons
Gymnosperms
Monocotyledons
Orders. Genera. Species.
55 193 541
III
7 45 114
Total . . 63 239 656
Proportion of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons, i : 4.7.
Proportion of genera to species, i : 2.7.
Predominating Orders' — Western Region.
1. Compositae
2. Scrophulariacea;
3. Gramineas
4. Ficoides
5. Leguminosae
6. Liliaceje
7. Geraniaceas
8. Iridaceae
9. Acanthaceae
10. Selaginacese
1 1 . Euphorbiaceae
12. Labiatae
13. Crassulaceae
14. Campanulaceae
1 5 . Cyperaceae
16. Zygophyllaceae
17. Boraginaceae
18. Amarantaces
19. Sterculiaceae
20. Asclepiadaces
21. Chenopodiaceae
22. Cruciferae
The following are the remaining Orders arranged according to
the number of species of each,: — Loranthacese (6 species) ; Sola-
naceae, Thymelaeaceae, Amaryllidacese (5 each) ; Anacardiaceas,
Ebenaceae (4 each) ; Sapiridaceae, Rosaceae, UmbeUiferae, Santa-
laceae, Verbenaceae, Rubiaceae (3 each) ; Hydrophyllaceae, Lenti-
bulariaceae, Cucurbitaceae, Polygonaceae, Capparidaceae (2 each) ;
Menispermaceae, Papaveraceae, Frankeniaceae, CaryophyUaceae,
Tamaricaceae, Elatinaceae, Malvaceae, Burseraceas, Saxifragaceae,
Onagraceae, Loasacea;, Geraniaceae, Celastraceae, Combretaceae,
Plumbaginaceae, Gentianaceae, Bignoniaceae, Pedalinaceae, Plan-
taginaceae, Cytinaceae, Urticaceae, Gnetaceae, Haemgdoraceas, Jun-
caceae (i each).
The following is a list of the larger genera arranged in numerical
order : — Senecio (16) ; Othonna, Sutera (15 each) ; Manulea,
Euphorbia (13 each) ; Pelargonium, Crassula, Mesembrianthemum,
Nemesia (11 each) ; Oxalis (10) ; Hermannia, Selago, Ornitho-
galum (9 each) ; ZygophyUum, Lotononis, Helichrysum, Erio-
cephalus, Aristida, Eragrostis (8 each).
Number
Per cent, of
of Species.
the whole.
150
22.9
76
II
.6
44
6
7
34
5
2
30
4
9
29
4
4
23
3
6
23
3
6
18
2
7
18
2
7
17
2
6
14
2
I
12
8
12
8
II
7
II
7
10
S
10
5
9
4
9
4
8
2
7
I
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA. 20/
II. The South-Western Coast Region.
The South-western Region comprises the oldest part of liie
Colony, and has been more explored, botanicaUy, than an}' other.
A glance at the index map will show that it is an angular littoral
strip of about 500 mUes in length, by an average width of about 50
miles, beginning at the Olifant's River on the north-west and ter-
minating at the Van Staden's Mountains on the extreme east.
Inland from the coast the whole area rises by successive steps
marked by mountain ranges. Each range by its effect upon the
rainfall, in the sense of a diminution, causes a successive change in
the vegetation. The higher mountain ranges, called successively
(beginning at the north and proceeding southward and then east-
ward) the Giftberg, Nardouw, Cederbergen, Cold Bokkeveld, Hex
River-bergen, Zwartbergen, Baviaan's Kloof-bergen, Elandsbergen
and Van Stadensbergen form the inland boundary which divides
this Region from the Karroo.
Drege carried its eastern boundary as far as the Sundays River,
about 35 miles further eastward than the Van Staden's range. The
difference is not a very important one, but I have preferred on this
point to follow the views of Ecklon,* Krauss| and Bunbury,J who
all dwell upon the striking change in the floristic character of the
vegetation in the country in that neighbourhood, which I can con-
firm from personal observations and collections in the field. §
Climate.
In this region, as elsewhere throughout South Africa, the pre-
dominant factor of the vegetation is water, i.e., the rainfall, both in
regard to its quantity and its periodicity. The following table,
compiled from the reports of the Meteorological Commission, in-
cludes stations of some of the chief towns of the Region. Their
order begins from the north and proceeds towards the south and
east. The record is for a period of ten years, showing the total
mean fall ; and also the mean fall during the six summer months
(October — ^March, inclusive) and during the six winter months.
The altitude of each station is appended : —
*Bibl. App. S. t Bibl. App. 8. | Bibl. App. 11.
§ Amongst the Regions adopted for the purpose of grouping the stations
of plants in the 6th vol. of Dyer's "Flora Capensis " (1896-1897) is the
"Coast Region," which answers to our South-western Region, except that
it, extends very much further eastward, viz., to the Kei River. It is true that
the grouping there adopted makes no pretension to be a natural one, and has
apparently been chosen as affording the convenience of a well-marked river
course. But its import may, and probably will, be misunderstood and lead
to erroneous ideas ; and, in any case, it is to be regretted as uniting under one
name two such completely distinct Floras as that of the western extremity of
the Colony, and that of King William's Town and Komgha, which appi-oach
closely to that of Natal.
208
SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
Rainfall — South-Western Region.
Mean Annual
Mean Annual
Altitude jjiean .innuai ■p.-n ,i,,„-„„ c
above Sea. Fall for 10 year. ,,^S'/,f^SftlL
Clanwilliam
Piquetberg
Ceres
Worcester
Paarl
Cape Peninsula :
Town House . .
Platteklip
Table Mountain
R. Observatory
Rondebosch
Wynberg
Caledon . . . . ■
Swellendam
Ladismith . .
Riversdale . . '
Oudtshoorn
George.
Knysna
Humansdorp
Van Staden's Riverl
feet
75! (245)
215 ■ (700)
459 j (1,493)
240 (780)
153 j {500)
27 , (88)
169: (550)
953 j {3.100)
12 I (40)
™'ll*" inehes i ™''^'" inches
metres ™^"'^-^ metres "'<'»^"
30;
76,
233
153
(100)
(250)
(760)
(500)
5691(1,850)
129 j (420)
335 I (1.090)
246 ' {800)
9
no
304
(30)
(360)
(988)
239
567
1,057
296
887
605
1,184
1,574
709
1,126
1.077
296
519
393
494
364
899
713
691
830
(9-41)
22.36)
41.65)
11.69)
34-95)
23-84)
46.65)
61.97)
27-95)
44-34)
42-43)
20.44)
35-09)
15.48)
19-47)
10.42)
35-43)
28.09)
27.21)
32.70)
Mean Annual
Fall during li
summer
months.
milli-
metres I
inches
188
(7-43)
445
(17-55)
851
(33-54)
214
(8.44)
724
(28.54)
474
(18.70)
926
(36-48)
,168
{46.00)
562
(22.14)
909
(35-79)
893
(35.16)
348
(13-73)
437
(17-32)
191
(7-52)
254
(10.01)
145
(5-71)
413
(16.29)
342
(13-47)
347
(13-69)
405
(15-96)
50
122
205
82
162
(1.98)
(4-81)
(8. II)
(3-25)
(6.41)
130 ; (5.14)
258 :(io.i7)
405 (15.97)
(5.81)
(8.55)
' (7-27)
: (6.71)
(17-77)
(7-96)
(9-46)
(4.71)
(19-14)
:( 14.62)
:(i3-52)
(16.74)
147
217
184
170
451
202
240
119
486
371
343
4-5
The foregoing table exhibits clearly, first, the gradual change
in the periodicity of the rainfall as we proceed from the west towards
the east. Whereas in the west the winter fall largely predominates,
in the east the fall of the two seasons is nearly equal.* Secondly,
it will be noted by consulting the map annexed, that every station
northward, or further inland, shows a much reduced rainfall as com-
pared with that of the Cape Peninsula, and the southern coast
generally.
Temperature. — The following table shows in a condensed form
the most important facts under this head. The altitude of each
each station above the sea has, of course, an important influence ;
but in this Region, the distance from the coast has probably a still
* In the map accompanying Stapf's paper already cited, f th^ author has
, applied to the tract of country lying between Mossel Bay and Humansdorp
the term " Vorwiegend Sommerregen " (preponderating summer rains). To
a certain extent this is literally true. ' But in how small a degree will be seen
in the following list of stations throughout that tract, showing the proportion
of the summer rainfall to the winter fall, expressed in millimeters : George,
486 to 413 ; Knysna, 371 to 342 ; Humansdorp, 343 to 347 ; Van Staden's
River, 425 to 405 ; and at Port Elizabeth, 25 miles further eastward, the
summer rains again decrease, being as 242 to 283 (based upon Buchan's ten-
year period).
t Bibl. App. 56.
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA.
209
greater. The absolute maximum and minimum, as is observed by
Schimper, are of greater moment to the hfe of plants than the mean
annual temperature, which is usually cited.
Temperature — South- Western Region .
Altitude.
metres.
Clanwilliam . . . . I 75
Ceres . . . . | 459
Worcester . . . . ' 240
Hopefield . . . . 42
Cape Towii . . . . 34
Royal Observatory | 12
-Wynberg . . . . j 76
Caledon . . . . ' 233
Oudtslioorn . . 335
Knysna . . . . 9
Van Staden's River I 304
Number
of-years.
12
12
12
6
II
18
6
4
Absolute
Maximum.
Absolute
Minimum.
44
40
40
43
40
39
42
39
42
36
40,
(Fahr.)
C.
(112. 0)
-1-9
(105.0)
-3-3
(I05-5)
-I.I
(iio.o)
-I.I
(104.0)
^•3
(103.5)
--55
(108.0)
2-7
(103.0)
.05
(109.0)
-2.7
(97-S)
3-«
(105-5)
0.0
(Fahr.)
(28.5)
(26.0)
(30.0)
(30.0)
(34-5)
(31-0)
(37-0)
(32-1)
(27.0)
(39-0)
(32-0)
Edaphic Infitiencei upon ]'egetation.
The influence of the nature of the soil upon the vegetation in
South Africa has, as yet, been very little investigated. That indi-
vidual plants, or even species, are, in certain respects, so affected, is
undoubted. But I speak of it here in a wider sense, viz., as to it^
influence upon the distribution of the larger groups such as genera
and natural Orders. The Proteacese, for instance, seem chiefly to
prefer the geological formation known as the Table Mountain Sand-
stone. This formation traverses, more or less interruptedly, the
whole Colony, from the Bokkeveld Mountains to the Cape Peninsula
and thence to Port Elizabeth. Throughout its entire length the
Proteaceae appear at short intervals, and often accompanied by
other plants (Rutaceae, Ericaceee, Restionaceae) which are char-
acteristic of the Cape Peninsular Flora or of that of the South-
western Region. At Port Elizabeth, however, the formation enters
the sea, and with a wide curve re-appears at the mouth of the
St. John's River (Rogers*), and thence extends eastward through
Pondoland towards Natal. Upon this Rogerst observes ;— " The
change in the character of the vegetation on passing from the Table
Mountain Series to another formation is usually very sharply
defined. From the Bokkeveld Mountains right round the great
sandstone mountains of the folded belt, the same or similar shrubs
and flowers are found. A most striking contrast to anyone who is
even slightly acquainted with the vegetation of the western moun-
tains is seen on passing from the KarrooJ formation in Pondoland
* Bibl. App. 60 (p. 106).
t Bibl. App. 60 (p. 118).
i This refers to the Karroo in a geological, not in a botanical, sense.-
-H.B.
210 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
to the strip of country near the coast formed by the Table Mountain
Sandstone ; leaving the monotonous grass-veld of the interior of
Pondoland one meets with the same flowers and smaU shrubs that
are abundantly found on the western mountains. It is difficult
to understand how such an outlier can be clothed with the same
vegetation as the main area by a process of colonisation and selection
by the soil ; probably the plants of the Pondoland coastal plateau
arrived there when the sandstone was still connected with the
western ranges by the more or less rectangular strip, corresponding
to the bent ranges round the Warm Bokkeveld, that may still exist
off the south-east coast between the Gualana and St. John's rivers."
The author's supposition of the origin of the Flora of that tract is
probably correct. But the question remains, do the Proteacese and
other associates not grow indifferently upon some other geological
formation ? Marloth has found them upon the Witteberg Series
near Matjesfontein in the Karroo ; and they extend to the Drakens-
bergen in Natal, but on what geological formation or soil is not
stated. Respecting the former, Rogers* remarks : — " The resem-
blance between the Witteberg quartzites and the Table Mountain
Beds was the cause of much confusion in the early days of Cape
geology, but it is more apparent than real."
Other instances have been seen by the writer, of identical species
growing on the same geological formation, separated by intervals
of 100-200 miles, as Gazania sp., and Aristida brevifolia, Steud.
(the Twa-Grass),f which occur in Bushmanland and near Prince
Albert, in both cases on the Ecca Beds. Again, Hyobanche atropur-
purea mihi, a rare species, has only been collected in three specimens
in three distant stations — Table Mountain, Winterhoeksberg, and
on the Zwartberg range near Prince Albert, all on the Table Moun-
tain Sandstone. But though it may be possible, or even probable,
that these plants are confined to the geological areas mentioned,
yet it is far from certain.
The whole subject needs far more thorough investigation, and
even experimental observation by cultivation.
Plant Formations.
The chief formation of the Region is what is termed by Schim-
per, woodland of the " shrub- wood " or " bush- wood " type, in
some parts the two are intermingled. Here and there occur tracts
of grass-lands, but of no great extent. The height and size of the
bush increases generally towards the eastern extremity. The
true small forest tract is reached near - the Knysna and the
Zitzikamma.
* Bibl. App. 60 (p. 138).
f Of this grass, Drege droUy observes that it is a " grass afiording plea-
sant nutriment equally to cattle and sheep, termites and Bushmen. There
is no grass on which the first-named fatten more quickly ; while the ants
collect the grain, of which they are robbed by the Bushmen."
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA 211
Thousands of square miles are covered by more or less detached
clumps of dwarf shrubs or small bushes, ranging in height from 2 to
8 feet. For the most part the foliage of these is of the sclerophyllous
type, is of a mournful dark green or greyish hue, and is characterised
by " a smaller surface but proportionately thicker, more leathery,
fleshy, or rudimentary and caducous " (Schimper,* who also speaks
of the strong resemblance in this respect of our coast Flora to that
of the sclerophyllous Wood-land of the Mediterranean coast). The
majority of these shrubs have leaves of the pinoid or of the ericoid
type, often with revolute margins, as is so frequent in the Ericaceae ;
but there are also some with broader leaves, in that case usually
either leathery or clothed with so dense a pubescence on one or both
surfaces that transpiration is greatly hindered or retarded {e.g.
Leiicadendron argenteum, Helichrysum and Helipteruvi, many
species). The leaves also, when broader, are often not " placed
with their flat surfaces perpendicular to the strongest light, but
usually avoid it by assuming an oblique or parallel position "
(Schimper)-}-. This is strikingly illustrated in many of our Pro-
teaceae, as in Proiea grandiflora and others ; the " set " of the leaves
is almost exactly as in the Australian Eucalypti and Acaciae so
commonly planted in the Colony, and wKich inhabit a similar
climate.
The shrubs of this Formation are of numerous and very diverse
Orders and genera, of which only a few can be mentioned, as Poly-
galacecB (Polygala, Muraltia) ; RutacecB (Macrostylis, Diosma,
Coleonema, Agathosma, many) ; RhamnacecB (Phylica, many) ;
LeguminoscB (Cyclopia, Borbonia, Amphithalea, Lebeckia, Aspa-
lathus, many, Indigofera) ; Rosacece (Cliffortia) ; BruniacecB (Ber-
zelia, Brunia, Staavia) ; Ficoidece (Acrosanthes, Pharnaceum,
Coelanthium, Adenogramma, Mesembrianthemum) ; RubiacecB (An-
thospermum, Nenax, Carpacoce) ; Compositae (many genera and
species ; the most abundant are Pteronia, Aster, Felicia, Helichry-
sum, Metalasia, Eriocephalus, Athanasia) ; Ericacea (Erica, large
numbers of species and individuals ; also Grisebachia, Simochilus,
Sympieza, Scyphogyne, Salaxis) ; Selaginacece (Selago, etc) ; Pro-
teacece (several species of seven genera) ; Thymelaeacece (Passerina,
Chymococca, Cryptadenia, Lachnaea, Struthiola, Gnidia) ; Santa-
lacem (Thesium, many species) ; EnphorbiacecB (a few species).
Intermingled with these shrubs is a great variety of other plant-
forms : annuals, herbaceous perennials, succulents, monocotyledons
with conspicuous or small petaloid flowers, glumaceous plants, etc.
Inland, and especially in the long valleys which lie between the
parallel ranges of mountains grows in great abundance, sometimes
subsocially, the notorious Elytropappus rhinocerotis Less (Vern.
" Rhenosterbosch "), a plant which no animal seems to touch,
covering vast stretches of country, hated by the farmers, yet
characterised by DregeJ as " that index of a more fertile and
Bibl. App. 47 (pp. 507-5^7}- t Bibl. App. 47 (p. 510).
I Bibl. App. 6 (pp. xxi., xxvi.).
P 2
212 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
iundamen tally moist soU," and, again, as " by its greater luxuri-
ance presaging future harvests to the Colonists." StQl further
inland, the country becomes gradually drier, approaching the Karroo
in appearance, with an increasing number of succulent plant-forms ;
until ascending the higher mountain ranges forming the boundary
lines of the Region (the Zwartbergen and others) we again meet,
often in abundance, as on the Zwartberg Pass, with the last of the
Ericae, Proteaceje, Restiaceae and other typical south-western
plants ; and, descending northward, finally leave them and enter
the true Karroo.
In certain parts of the Region, about or between Caledon and
Swellendam, there are considerable grassy tracts with thinner bush,
yet hardly Grass-land proper ; and possibly due, in part at least, to
edaphic influences.
A feature of some importance is the number of clumps of tall
Restionacere (Restio, Thamnochortus, etc.) which occur at intervals,
chiefly however more prominent towards the west. Cannamois
ceplialotes, Beanv, and Elegia verticillaris, Kunth, attain a height of
8 to 12 feet or more in mountain ravines, and the former, growing
subsocially, forms thickets sometimes difficult of penetration.
Annuals are less abundant in individuals than in European
countries, not being everywhere prominent. This seems to be
chiefly due in many cases to their small size, as well as to their
smaller numbers ; nevertheless there are exceptions, and nowhere
are they entirely absent. Schimper,* on the authority of Scott-
Elliot,! says that " Annuals appear to be wanting." But this is a
grave error. I have compiled a list of annuals growing on the
Cape Peninsula only, all undoubtedly indigenous. It reaches 197
species, out of a total of 2,117 species of flowering plants on the
Peninsula; and, of course, would be much larger for the whole South-
western region. It includes eighty genera of twenty different
Orders. Amongst the genera with more than six species are : —
Heliophila (16) ; Crassula and Sebaea (each 12) ; Senecio and
Nemesia (each 9) ; Lobelia, Harveya and Scirpus (each 7). The
more abundant and prominent species are Heliophila pusilla and
dissecta, Grammanthes gentianoides, M esembrianthemum criniflorum
and pyropaeimi, Charieis heterophylla, Felicia tenella, Cotula tur-
binata, Senecio arenarius, Gymnodiscus capillaris, Venidium hir-
sutum, Dimorphotheca pluvialis, Sebma aurea and S. albens, Bel-
montia cordata, Hemimeris montana, Nemesia barbata, Manulea
Cheiranthus.
Further eastward in this Region are many more, but considera-
tions of space forbid detail.
Forests occur only in the extreme eastern portion of the Region,
viz., in the districts of Knysna and Humansdorp (Zitzikamma).
* Bibl. App. 47, p. 526.
t Bibl. App. 27 (p. 243), Scott-Elliot's words are even more emphatic.
He says : — " There is apparently not a single undoubtedly indigenous annual
in the South-western Flora."
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA. 213
The trees forming them are chiefly of the genera Scolopia, Doryalis,
Kiggelaria, Vepris, Ekebergia, Apodytes, Ilex, Gymnosporia,
Cassine, Pterocelastrus, Elaeodendron, Scutia, Ptaeroxylon, Rhus,
VirgiHa, Cunonia, OUnia, Cussonia, Curtisia, Canthium, Burchelha,
Rapanea, Sideroxylon, Olea, Nuxia, Chihanthus, Ocotea, Celtis,
Podocarpus (the most abundant). Small forests are found in most
of the deep mountain ravines facing the sea, along the whole Region,
but these are, for the most part, of small extent and little economic
importance. In the extreme north-west on the Cederbergen, Clan-
william, are still found a few trees of Callitris piniperoides L, the
sole remains of a thin, but once extensive, forest. It had been
nearly exterminated, but has since been largely replanted by the
Government. Another species (C. Schivarzii Marloth) has lately
been discovered in the Uniondale district on the Kouga Mountains,
where it is said to attain a height of 40-50 feet.
Aquatic plants are not numerous, since surface water throughout
the whole area is deficient, as compared with many other countries.
The following species may be mentioned, somewhat in the order of
their frequency : — Prionium palmita, E. Mey. ; Aponogeton dis-
tachyon, Linn, f., and .4. angnstifoUum, Ait. ; Cyperus fastigiatus,
Rottb., and C. textilis, Thunb. ; Qrassxila natans, Thunb. ; Typha
capensis, Rohrb., and T. australis, Schum. ; Oxalis natans, L.f. ;
Dipidax triquetra. Baker ; Hypoxis aquatica, L.f. ; Scirpus fluitans,
Linn., and S. capillifolius. Pari. ; Wachendorffia thyrsiflora, Linn. ;
Nymphaea stellata, Willd. ; Limnanthemum Ecklonianum, Griseb. ;
and a few others.
Sociable Plants.
These, in a strict sense — i.e., growing to the exclusion of all
others — are, so far as is known to me, absent from South Africa.
A few of those, which, from their numbers and contiguity, may be
called sub-social may be named as Podalyria calyptrafa, Elytropappus
rhinocerotis. Erica hirtiflora, Protea incomta, Leucadendron argen-
teum, Bobartia filiformis, Watsonia rosea, and W. augusta, Apono-
geton distachyon, Elegia parvi flora.
Plant Forms.
The numerous plant-forms of the Region cannot all be enumer-
ated here. It must suffice to intimate that the Olive-, Protea-, Myrtle-,
and Heath-forms are the most prevalent forms of shrubs and bushes ;
that succulents, in various forms, abound ; the Agave-form in
numerous aloes ; the Aroid-form in the wide-spread Zantedeschia
aethiopica, Spreng. (Richardia) only ; the Thorn-bush-form is not
abundant, but occurs occasionally. The Bulb-form is ubiquitous—
in water and on land, on mountains, valleys and plains, isolated or
occasionally (as in Bobartia and Watsonia) in dense masses ; they
chiefly belong to the Orders Iridaces, Amaryllidaceas and Lihaceae.
The Reed-Grass-form is abundant in the larger Restiaceae, Phrag-
mites, Typha, etc. ; the Bromelia-form in the Prionium.; the
214 ' SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Dwarf-Palm-form in the Cycad Encephalartos, which just makes its
appearance on the eastern edge of this Region, near Jagersbosch.
Lianes are few, chiefly of the Orders Ampelidaceas and Asclepia-
dacese (Secamone).
Epiphytes, confined to Orchidaceae, only occur in the forest
country from Swellendam eastward. They consist of but one
Polystachya and three small species of Angraecum.
Parasites. — Amongst these are three species of Cuscuta, five
species of Viscum, widely distributed, and one Loranthus.
Root-parasites. — These are numerous both in species and indi-
viduals. They occur chiefly in the Scrophulariaceae : Melasma, 4
species ; Striga, i species ; Harveya, 13 species, of which some, as
H. stenosiphon (abundant on the Langebergen near Swellendam)
and H. Bodkinii (on the Skurfdebergen) are of striking beauty and
brilliancy ; Hyobanche, 4 species. In RaiHesiaceae : Cytinus
dioicus, Juss.
Alpine* Plant-Forms — Perennial Rosette-Plants. — This is Schim-
per'sf term for a well-marked and familiar form which, in South
Africa also, occurs on many of the higher mountains. Marlothf
has drawn attention to these in an interesting paper. He mentions
several species and figures two {Psammotropha frigida, Schltr., and
Felicia hellidioides, Schltr.). A more widely-distributed one is
Mairea crenata, Nees ; another, recently found, is Leyssera, n.sp.,
on Matroosberg at 6,500 feet.
Alpine Plant-Forms. — Cushion Plants. — Marloth§ enumerates
several, of which the most singular is Bryomorphe Zeyheri, Harv.,
which is by no means restricted to Matroosberg. Few plants are
more striking than the large cushions of Pelargonium violareum,
Jacq., which are from 1-2 feet or more, in diameter, and covered
with scores of the most brilliant flowers.
Pollination of Plants.
The great majority of the plants of this Region are without doubt
anemophilous ; next in order are the entomophilous. The subject
is only mentioned here to record some interesting recent observa-
tions on ornithophily. Darwin suggested the fertilisation of
Strelitzia reginae by birds. Scott-Elliott|| has given a list of twenty-
five plants visited by various species of sun-birds. Evans** has
observed it in two species of Loranthus in Natal ; and Marlothff in
several other species in this Region.
* The general reader is cautioned against the supposition that the term
" Alpine " is here used to indicate any systematic relationship with the
Flora of the European Alps. It is used simply to identify a common plant-
form produced upon many mountains in different parts of the globe, resulting
from similar or identical climatic factors. Speaking broadly, the absence of
European species and the rarity even of European genera is one of the most
striking characteristics of the mountain Flora of South Africa.
t Bibl. App. 47, pp. 705-7. II Bibl. App. 28, 29.
X Bibl. App. 50. ** Bibl. App. 34.
§Bibl. App. ;o. ft Bibl. App. 51.
FL&EAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA.
215
Introdtcced Plants.
There is no adequate record of the number of these throughout
the Region. Most of those which occur are European weeds of
cultivation. On the Cape Peninsula alone (where the greatest con-
centration of all species of the Region appears to exist), 179 species
of introduced plants, including all which are in any degree
doubtful, have been recorded,* out of a total of 2,296 flowering
plants. This proportion is probably much larger than that of the
whole Region. The number of those which, by their multiplication
or noxious character, have become harmful is comparatively small.
Systematic Constituents of the Flora.
For the discussion of any Flora, either absolutely or for the
purpose of comparison with other Regions, it is necessary to present
statistics. The following lists of the plants of this and of the other
Regions to be treated have been in preparation during many years.
They are not and, of course, cannot be complete, but they are
doubtless more comprehensive than any yet published. They are
here necessarily restricted to summaries of Orders, of the largest
genera, and of totals of recorded species : —
Native Phanerogamia :
Orders. Genera
Specie ■■
Dicotyledons . . . . 92 548
4.279
Gymnosperms . . . . i 2
5
Monocotyledons . . • ■ 17 i55
1,301
Total . . no 705
5.585
Proportion of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons i
: 3.29.
Proportion of genera to species . . . . i
7.9.
Predominant Orders — South-Western Regioi
Number
Per cent, of
of species.
the whole.
t.
Compositae
821
14
7
2.
Ericaceae
489
8
8
3-
Leguminosae
468
8
4
4-
IridacecB
282
5
0
T-
Proteaceae
254
4
5
r>.
Restionaceee
210
3
8
7-
Liliaceae
209
3
7
8.
Ficoideac
194
3
5
9-
Gramin'iae
193
3
5
lO.
Geraniaceaj
188
3
4
r I.
Scropliulariaceic
179
2
I 2.
CyperaceaB
179
-
13-
Orchidaceae
175
I
14.
Rutacese
160
Q
IS-
Campanulacea;
i39
.^
16.
Crassulacea;
104
9
17-
Selaginaceae
95
7
18.
Thymelaeaceffi
«3
5
19-
Cruciferje
82
5
20.
Polygalacea;
81
5
21.
Umbellifera;
69
2
22.
RhamnacesE
69
2
23-
Rosacea"
rm
I .0
* Bib!. App
2l6 SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
The following are the remaining Orders arranged according to
number of species of each : — Amaryllidacese (56 species) ; Boragi-
naceje (54) ; Santalaceae (53) ; Bruniaceae, Asclepiadaceae (51
each) ; Sterculiaceae (43) ; Euphorbiacese (42) ; Labiatse (41) ;
Gentianacese (38) : Anacardiaceee, Rubiacese (33 each) ; Celastracese
(27) ; Solanaceae (24) ; Juncaceee (22) ; Ebenacese, Malvaceae,
Acanthaceae (20 each) ; Zygophyllacese, Caryophyllaceae (19 each) ;
Naiadacese (17) ; Verbenaceae (16) ; Penaeaceas (15) ; Plumbagi-
nacese, Convolvulacese (14 each) ; Haemodoraceas (11) ; Polygo-
naceae, Ranunculacese (10 each) : Droseraceae (9) ; Chenopodiaceae,
Oleacete (8 each) ; Dipsaceae, Loranthaceas, Sapindaceae, Urticaceas,
Myricaceae (6 each) ; Papaveracese, Bixaceae, Apocynacceae, Plan-
taginacefe, Coniferae (5 each) ; Lauraceae, Onagraceae, CucurbitacejE
(4 each) ; Capparidaceae, Violaceae, Linacese, Saxifragaceae, Halor-
rhagidaceae, Lentibulariacese, Dioscoreaceae, Commelinaceae (3 each) ;
Menispermaceae, Frankeniaceae, Tiliaceas, Ampelidaceae, Hamameli-
daceae, Valerianaceae, Myrsinaceae, Amarantacete, Cytinaceae, Bala-
nophoraceae, Scitamineae (2 each) ; Nymphasacese, Resedaceae,
Pittosporacese, Elatinaceae, Hypericinaceje, Meliacese, Combretaceae,
Myrtaceae, Lythraceae, Araliaceae, Cornaceae, Primulaceae, Hydro-
phyllaceas, Orobanchaceae, Gesneriaceae, Bignoniaceae, Myoporacefe,
Nyctaginacese, Illecebraceae, Piperaceae, Salicaceje, Hydrochari-
daceae, Xyridaceae, Typhaceee, Aracea, Cycadaceae (i each).
It will be at once noticed that the facts which distinguish this list;
and the Flora of this Region are, first, the prominent position
of the Orders Ericaceae, Proteaceae, Restionaceae, Geraniaceae,
Rutaceae, Ficoideae ; secondly, the comparatively low position of
Gramineae and Cyperaceae ; thirdly, the great scarcity of Rubiaceae,
Myrtaceae, Asclepiadaceae and Acanthaceae, as compared with the
neighbouring Regions.
It is to be noted that there are many species of South African
plants which have been published without any adduced locality
beyond " South Africa " or " Cap Bonae Spei." In the majority
of cases it has been impossible to place these in any Region. They
are most numerous in Liliacese, and though the species in this Order
appear to have been unduly multiplied, yet its rank in the foregoing
list, if all localities were known, would probably be raised to the
fifth or sixth place.
The considerable number of large genera is noteworthy. The
following are arranged in numerical order : — Erica (405 species) ;
Aspalathus (154) ; Mesembrianthemum (128) ; Senecio (98) ; Oxalis
(96) ; Restio (91) ; Pelargonium (84) ; Crassula (81) ; Agathosma
(78) ; Helichrysum (76) ; Disa (72) ; Phylica (67) ; Heliophila (61) ;
Protea (60) ; Muraltia (58) ; Ficinia (57) ; Serruria (54).
Comparisons with other Regions.
The affinities of the Flora of this Region with that of Australia,
especially of South-Western Australia, are very striking, and have
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA. 217
already been pointed out by Sir. J. D. Hooker.* The reader must be
referred to his work for further details, and I may perhaps be per-
mitted also to refer to some notes of my own on the subject in
previous essays.j Bentham also points out the remarkable affini-
ties in the Compositse in his well-known revision of that Order
[Joiirn. Linnean Soc, vol. 13, pp. 552 ff.). The hypothesis of
Hooker of a common origin of the Australian and South- West
African Floras, derived from ancestors inhabiting a vast antarctic
continent of which the greater part has been submerged ; and that
during the ages which have succeeded the severance of the continents
the two Floras have become differentiated as we now know them,
does not appear to have attracted the attention it deserves, even
from those botanists who have perceived the close relationship of
these two Floras. Yet some additional evidence has been accumu-
lated in its favour since it was put forward. In reading the remarks
of Rogers cited above (p. 209) on the occurrence of South-western
Cape plants in Pondoland at a distance from their centre, one is
involuntarily struck by the partial analogy between the facts there
stated and the case of Australia. If the South-western Region
were further removed or entirely separated by sea, and time allowed
for the effects of changes of climate, we should see a Flora in Pondo-
land strikingly different from that of the neighbouring country,
but recalling in its peculiar natural Orders that of a more distant
region.
The affinity with the Karroo Region consists chiefly in the
presence of considerable numbers of succulents, especially in
Ficoideae and Crassulae. These abound in some of the drier, inland
semi-Karroid valleys, as, e.g., near Montagu, but they are not con-
fined to them. They penetrate to the coast, and on the Cape
Peninsula alone there are sixty-two species of Mesembrianthemum,
twenty-nine species of Crassula, and even the very Karroid Cotyledon
fascicnlata has established itself in a dry, rocky nook close to the
sea. It is like the Karroo, too, in its deficiency in Rubiaceae and
Acanthaceae. But the differences are far more striking, and seem
to point to a quite different origin of the two Floras. Almost the
same may be said of the South-eastern Region, as may be seen by a
comparison of the predominant Orders of each, as well as by
noting the deficiency or total absence of certain Orders in the one
which are well represented in the other.
III. The South-Eastern Coast Region.
This Region is bounded on the south-east by the Van Staden's
Mountains, thence by an uncertain line it passes north-eastward
towards the Zuurberg Range, the lower slopes of the Boschberg,
Kagaberg, Katberg, Amatola, thence across to the Stormbergen,
and following the great range of the Drakensbei'gen, Quathlamba,
* BibL App. 12. t Bibl. App. 18 and 55.
2l8
SCIENCE IK SOUTH AFRICA.
etc., to the northern boundary of the Transvaal. No more accurate
definition is as yet possible ; for the line should keep to a contour
of about 3.500 feet of altitude, above which the vegetation begins to
assume the character of the steppes of the Kalahari Region, but no
such contour-line is marked on any map. The country thus in-
cludes Kaffraria, Tembuland, Griqualand East, Pondoland, Natal
and Zululand, finally continuing up to the tropic, where it may be
said to join the great Tropical African Region. Its width may
vary from 80 to 160 kilom. (50-100 miles).
The Region is probably, in its origin, a southern and maritime
extension of the Tropical Region just named, modified by two
factors, viz., the increasing cold of a higher latitude, and the closer
approach of lofty mountain ranges towards the coast. Its surface,
like that of the whole South African coast-line, is highly diversified,
being much eroded into valleys by the steeply-descending streams
from the mountains. For the most part it consists of intermingled
Wood-land, Grass-land and Savannah formations. As already
stated, the country has been divided by Thode* into three zones
of successive altitude. His descriptions of these and of the Flora
generally are very valuable, and form the most complete account
that we possess of the Kaffrarian and Natal vegetation ; and the
reader is referred to his pages for more detailed information. It
may be briefly stated that the vegetation generally is of a xero-
philous type, like that of the South-western Region ; but that the
vegetative characters are usually of a more luxuriant growth.
Rainfall of the South-Eastern Region.
The following table exhibits the rainfall of eight stations through-
out the Region : —
Altitude
above Sea.
Mean Annual
Fall for t years.
inches
Port Elizabeth . .
Grahamstown
King William's Tn.
East London
Umtata
Maritzburg
Umzimkulu
Durban
55
553
403
10
738
1,070
769
80
(181)
(1,800)
(I. 314)
(33)
(2,400)
(2,200)
(2,500)
(260)
524
754
697
648
696
743
721
1,078
(20.66)
(29.72)
(27-47)
(25-52)
(27-41)
(29.27)
(28.40)
(42.46)
Mean Annual
Fall during B
winter montliF!.
inches
283
294
263
266
214
"5
163
347
(II. 14)
(11.60)
(10.38)
(10.51)
(8.46)
(4-54)
(6.45)
(13-68)
Mean Annual
Fall durlnj;
6 summer
months.
ruilli-
inches
242
460
434
381
481
628
557
731
(9-52)
,(18.12)
(17.09)
(15-01)
(18.95)
(24-73)
'(21-95)
(28.78)
* Bibl. App. 36.
■f The period was 10 years' records (Buchan) ; except in the case of the
tliree last stations which were for nine, nine and six years respectively.
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA.
219
Temperature — South-Eastern Region.
The following table shows the temperature at six stations in this
Region, but we have no records beyond Durban. It will be seen
that the inland stations are greatly affected by their altitude.
Port Elizabeth
Grahamstown
King William's Town
East London
Umtata
Durban . . . .,
Altitude.
metres.
.S5
553
403
10
738
80
Number
of years.
14
12
12
12
12
->
Absolute
Maximum.
C
40.
4^
4^
38
43
41
(Fahr.)
(105.0)
(109.0)
(109.0)
(lOI.O)
(iio.o)
(105.8)
Absolute
Minimum.
C.
3-3
-4.0
-3.0
2.2
-6.1
5-5
(Fahr.)
(38.0)
(24-7)
(26.5)
(36.0)
(21.0)
(41-9)
Plant Formations.
The chief differences between the plant-formations of this and
the preceding Region consist in the gradual transition from the
lower dull-green bushes of the former to more frequent and larger
shrubs and trees, with more extensive grass-land of a livelier hue,
between them. They are mostly in clumps, but here and there
are more aggregated and have larger foliage of a less decidedly
sclerophyllous character. Droughts are perhaps less prevalent, but
when they do occur, as occasionally in the more western tracts,
their effects are, temporarily at least, more disastrous than in the
more bushy veld of the South-western Region. The grasses are
rapidly withered, and when these are dead there is little sustenance
for flocks and herds. The constituents of this " zuur-veld " (or
sour- veld), as it is called by the colonists, are of a coarser character,
and include large numbers of Iridacese, Amaryllidaceae and Liliacese,
which are of little use to live-stock ; just as they, and also the
rhenoster-bush (Elytropappus rhinocerotis) and the RestionaccEe, are
the great drawbacks of the grazing grounds in the South-west
Region. Sim* has well pointed out the differences between the
" sweet- veld " of the tracts further removed from the coast and the
" sour-veld " of this Region. He says : — " In the former the pas-
turage is mostly composed of small but very nutritious grasses,
having abundant prostrate, wiry or somewhat bulbous stolons or
creeping stems rooting at every joint, and capable of retaining life
through months of most intense drought. The sour-veld, on the
other hand, is composed of rank, strong-growing grasses, of tufted
habit, without stolons, having in themselves low feeding qualities,
but always well intermixed with strong-growing succulent com-
posites." He omits, however, to mention the admixture of many
coarse monocotyledonous plants of no use as pasture.
* Bibl. App. 37, p. 14.
220 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Forests occur at intervals throughout the Region, but chiefly
near the coast. Sim, who has more particularly made these his study,
thinks that these were formerly more extensive, but that even now
they cover about 300,000 acres (within the eastern part of the Cape
Colony only), consisting " for the most part of slow-growing, hard-
grained timber." Amongst the chief genera are Podocarpus (as in
the Knysna forests, the most frequent), Vepris, Olea, Apodytes,
Olinia, Scolopia, Mimusops, Sideroxylon, Ekebergia, Ocotea, etc.
In some of the larger river- valleys, as the Fish River, Kei River.
etc., the rainfall is apparently deficient. There a sub-Karroid Flora
makes its appearance on the dry ground ; succulents. Euphorbias
and Aloes abound, and the contrast with the vegetation of the more
elevated tracts on either side is strongly marked.
Plant Forms.
The most frequent plant-forms are the same as those mentioned
under the preceding Region, with the addition of the Cactus-form
in the large tree Euphorbia [E. grandidens), besides smaller shrubby
ones ; of the dwarf Palm-form in Phanix reclinata (which is said to
attain a height in Zululand of 12-15 feet), Hyphaene coriacea and
several species of Encephalartos, which sometimes form dense
thickets.
Almost all those natural Orders, Rutacese, Bruniacese, Ericaceae,
Proteaceae and Restiaceae, which stamp by their abundance the
character of the Flora of the South-western Region, diminish rapidly
throughout this Region the further we go eastward. Eight species
of Rutacese are recorded by Sim, in the more westerly portion ; seven
by Wood, in Natal (six of these being common to both), and two since
described, being eleven species in all. Of Bruniaceae there is one in
Natal. Ericaceae (excluding those found only at a greater altitude
than 3,500 feet) are represented by about forty-two species.*
Proteaceas by six or seven species (besides three on the mountains
of the bordering Kalahari Region). Of Penaeaceae none, so far as
known to me, have yet been recorded.
On the other hand the great tropical African and Indian Orders
— Myrtaceae, Rubiaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Apocynaceae, Acanthaceae —
which are so small in number in the South-west Region, begin here
to assume much more important or even prominent positions in
the constituent elements of the Flora.
These form the chief differences between the two Regions. As
before stated the transition from the one to the other is not abrupt,
but gradual. Nevertheless if one compares the vegetation near
Swellendam with that of Albany or King William's Town the con-
trast is striking.
Foreign plants which have more or less established themselves
in this Region do not appear to be numerous. Sim has included
* Those of the higher mountains being included in the eastern mountain
division of the Kalahari Region.
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA.
221
sixty-one species in his list of Kaffrarian plants ; and Wood, in his
Natal list, forty species. These are not to be added together, many
being the same. But there are doubtless others. Most are Euro-
pean weeds of cultivation, and on the whole they form but an in-
significant proportion of the Flora, either in species or in individuals.
Systematic Constituents of the Flora.
The following statistics are compiled chiefly from the publica-
tions of Wood, Sim and Thode, also from their collections and others
less extensive, and from the records in various other botanical
works. These show : —
Native Phanerogamia ;
Dicotyledons
Gymnosperms
Monocotyledons
Orders.
114
2
21
Genera.
548
4
246
Species.
3,495
12
1-257
4-764
2.78
5-97
Total 137 798
Proportion of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons i
Proportion of genera to species i
The following are the
Predominating Orders — South- Eastern Region.
1. Compositae
2. Legumiuosae
3. Liliaceae
4. Gramineae
5. Asclepiadaceae
6. Orchidacese
7. Scrophulariaceae
8. Iridaceae
9. Acanthaceae
10. Rubiaceae
1 1 . Labiatje
12. Amaryllidacese
13. Crassulaceat
14. EuphorbiaccE
15. Cyperacese
16. Ficoideae
17. Geraniaceae
18. Campanulacea;
ig. Selaginaceae
20. Sterculiaceae
21. Convolvulaceae
22. Umbelliferae
23. Anacardiaceae
The following are the remaining Orders arranged according to
number of species of each :— Polygalaceae (47) ; Celastracese, Mal-
vaceae (46 each) ; Gentianacese (43) ; Ericaceae (42) ; Cucurbitacese
Number
Per cent, of
of species.
the whole.
633
13-3
400
8.4
363
7.6
251
5-3
195
4.0
182
3-8
163
3-4
140
2.9
122
2.6
114
2.4
III
2'3
106
2.2
104
2.2
91
1.9
88
1.8
85
1.8
76
1.6
68
1.4
61
1-3
56
1 .2
55
1 .2
52
1 .0
, 48
1 .0
222 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA
(40) ; Thymelaeaceae (38) ; Solanaceas (36) ; Rutacese (27) ; Cruci-
ferae, Boraginaceas, Verbenacese (26) each ; Ebenacese, Sapindaceae
(23 each) ; Capparidaceae (22) ; Bixacese, Ampelidaceae, Rosaceae,
Naiadacese (21 each) ; Amarantaceae, Santalaceas (19 each) ; Apo-
cynaceae, Loganiaceae, Restionaceae (18 each) ; Ranunculaceae (17) ;
Caryophyllaceae, Tihaceae, Gesneriaceae, Juncaceae (16 each) ;
Rhamnaceae, Loranthaceae, Commelinaceae (15 each) ; Polygo-
naceae, Dioscoreaceae (14 each) ; Combretaceae, Oleacea (12 each) ;
Chenopodiaceae, Proteaceae (11 each) ; MeUacese, Moraceae (10 each) ;
Myrtaceae, Lythraceae, Onagraceae, Arahaceae, Sapotaceae, Lenti-
bulariaceae, Urticaceas, Cycadaceae (9 each) ; Menispermaceae,
Myrsinaceae, Haemodoraceae, Araceae (8 each) ; Begoniaceae, Dip-
saceae, Primulaceae, Eriocaulaceae (7 each) ; Papaveraceae, Linaceae,
Bruniaceae, Melastomaceas, Passifloraceae, Ulmaceae (6 each) ;
Violaceae, Portulacaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Burseraceae, Olacaceae,
Hippocrataceae, Rhizophoraceae, Bignoniaceae, Xyridaceae (5 each) ;
Anonaceae, Hypericaceae, Halorrhagidaceae, Lauraceae, Scitamineae
(4 each) ; Malphigiaceae, Saxifragaceae, Samydaceae, Pedahnaceae,
Piperaceae, Myricaceae, Coniferae, Zingiberaceae, Typhaceae (3 each) ;
Frankeniaceae, Elatinaceae, Ochnaceae, Droseraceae, Hamameli-
daceae, Plumbaginaceae, Plantaginaceae, Phytolaccaceae, Podo-
stemaceae, SaUcaceae, Palmae, Lemnaceae (2 each) ; Nymphaeaceae,
Resedaceae, Pittosporaceae, Guttiferae, Connaraceae, Cactaceae,
Cornaceae, Valerianaceae, Goodeniaceae, Salvadoraceae, Nyctagi-
naceas, Illecebraceae, Cytinaceae, Monimiaceae, Balanophoraceae,
Ceratophyllaceae, Flagellariaceae (i each).
The following are the largest genera : — Senecio (121 species) ;
Helichrysum (93) ; Crassula (81) ; Indigofera (69) ; Mesembrian-
themum (51) ; Hermannia (48) ; Asclepias (incl. Gomphocarpus)
(48) ; Gladiolus (45) ; Schizoglossum (44) ; Pelargonium (42) ; Eul-
ophia (40) ; Berkheya (40) ; Erica (42) ; Ornithogalum (38) ; Rhus
(38) ; Asparagus (35) ; Cyperus (34 ); Aloe (34) ; Polygala (33) ;
Lotononis (30) ; Ipomaea (28) ; Disa (26).
Comparison with other Regions.
The Flora of this Region may be regarded as derivative from
the great Tropical African Flora with, of course, many modifications.
This view appears to have been generally adopted, but it is impos-
sible in so condensed a review as this to cite statistical evidence in
support of it.
It has also affinities, though not very close, with the Indian and
Madagascar Floras.
Such affinities as it shows with the South-western Region are
probably due to the intermingling across the border on either side
of it. For the further we proceed to the eastward in the Region
the fewer do the typical plants of the South-western Region be-
come ; conversely, the further westward we travel the fewer are
the more characteristic plants of this Region. Thus Phoenix
recUnata gets down to the Albany district and then stops. En-
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA. 223
cephalartos, of which there are in this Region some eight or nine
species, decrease so rapidly westward that only one {E. caffer)
succeeds in just crossing the border, as far as Jagersbosch and
Swanepoel's Poort. On the other hand, the typical western Leuca-
dendron and Leucospermum reach in a single species each as far
as Kaffraria, while in Natal not a single species is recorded.
IV. The Karroo Region.
This Region is bounded, if we begin from the west, at Karroo
Poort (Ceres district), on the south, by the long mountain range
described above as the northern limit of the South-west Region.
About the Elandsbergen (Uitenhage) the line curves upward to-
wards the Zuurbergen, and follows them nearly to Grahamstown.
There it again curves northward along the Fish River Heights,
ascends the Fish River Valley for some distance northward, then
returns and passes westward, skirting the chain of mountains
known as the Boschberg, Sneeuwbergen, Nieuwveld's-bergen,
Roggeveldsbergen ; then the boundary crosses by an uncertain
line to the Cederbergen Range and along them southward towards
Ceres.
The Region is, broadly speaking, a vast shallow basin, which
appears to have formed, in earlier ages, the bed of a large lake,
which at length broke through the various " poorts " of the southern
mountain-range to the sea. Its altitude ranges from 1,800-2,500
feet above the sea. The mountains which surround it reach to a
considerable height on the northern margin (4,000-8,000 feet), but
are much lower, sometimes even a mere rim on the southern side.
For the purposes of floristic computations only those parts below
about 3,750 feet are considered as belonging to this Region, all
above that altitude being regarded as in the Upper Region. It is
traversed by numerous river-beds or torrents, mostly dry or nearly
so, except when filled by the summer thunderstorms, when the
channels suddenly fill, carry off a great quantity of muddy water
for a few days, and soon again become dry. Water generally is
scarce ; springs are infrequent ; cultivation is impossible without
irrigation, and the Region as a whole is considered, if we except
some parts of Little Namaland, as the poorest part of the Cape
Colony. Nevertheless the soil is fertile, and after good rains,
especially in the more eastern portions, there is in such seasons
excellent grazing for sheep, and flocks rapidly increase. The vege-
tation is of an intensely xerophilous character ; succulents and
thorn-bushes, tubers and bulbs abound, while trees are deficient
except along the river banks, where Acacia horrida and a very few
other fringe the margins.
i The exposed rocks are mostly the sandstones of the " Karroo
System " (Rogers*), chiefly yielding a fertile and friable red soil,
* Bibl. App. 60.
224
SCIENCE IN SOUTH iVFRICA.
but sometimes shaly and harder. These are traversed by numer-
ous doleritic dykes. Only on the southern and western margins do
the Ecca and Dwyka series make their appearance.
For a more detailed description of the aspects of the country
(in which I spent some years) and of some of the more remarkable
plants in it, I must be allowed to refer to my essay already cited.
Rainfall — Karroo Region.
AltitucU'
above Sfji.
Mean annual Mean annual
Fall for 111 Fall during 6
vears. -wintermonths
milli-
metres
inches
milli- \
metres
inches
Mean annual
lall duiingO
mnmior mohtlif
milli-
metres
inches
Prince Albert
652
Willowmore
840
Steytlerville
Beaufort West . .
876
Aberdeen
7^8
Graaflf-Reinet
769
Jansenville
Cookhouse (4 years)
584
(2,120) '
{2,760)
(2,850)
(2,400)
(2,500)
(1.900)
291
280
JI9
247
359
476
331
381
(11-49)
(11.04)
(8.65)
(9-74)
(14-15)
((8.76)
(13-07)
(15.00)
147
94
71
66
100
155
98
114
(5-79)
(3-73)
(2.81)
(2.63)
(3-94)
(6.14)
(3-86)
(4-50)
144
185
148
180
^59
320
233
2 66
(5-70)
(7-31)
(5-84)
(7-II)
(10.21)
(12.62)
(9.21)
(10.50)
The above are from Buchan's tables (Meteorological Commission)
and all for ten years, except the last. It should be noted, however,
in the case of Graaff-Reinet, that a record of twenty-three previous
years gave a mean fall of 14.5 inches ; and I do not think it less
accurate than the above, which I suspect, from grounds of personal
knowledge of the subject, involves some error.
The table shows that with the exception of one station (Prince
Albert) on the southern edge of the Region, and affected by its
proximity to the lofty Zwartebergen, by far the greater part of the
fall takes place in the summer months. It is also well known that
the rains are usually accompanied by thunderstorms which invari-
ably travel from west to east. Occasionally, in the eastern por-
tions, a strong south-east monsoon-wind brings up a general rain ;
but this is rate, the clouds being usually discharged on the inter-
vening mountain ranges between them and the South-east Coast
Region.
Temperature — Karroo Region.
Prince Albert
Graafi-Reinet
Altitude.
metres.
652
769
' Number
j of years.
13
Absolute
Maximum.
c.
(Fahr.)
C.
42.7
(109.0)
-2.2
43.3
(IIO.O)
-6.6
1
Absolute
Minimum.
(Fahr.',
(28.0)
(20.0)
These are the only records we have been able to obtain ; they
probably present a fair average of the Region.
FLORA!, REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA.
225
Systematic Constituents.
The following is a summary of the records compiled by me : —
Native Phanerogamia : Orders. Genera. Species.
Dicotyledons . . • - 71 281 1,013
Gymnosperms . . . . i i i
Monocotyledons . . . . 12 107 330
Total
Proportion of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons
Proportion of genera to species
1 . Compositas
2. Leguminosas
3. Ficoideas
4. Liliaceae
5. Gramineae
6. Geraniaceje
7. Crassulacea;
8. Iridaceas
9. ScrophulariacesE
10. Sterculiaceae
1 1 . Asclepiadaceaj
12. Cruciferse
13. Cyperaceae
14. Amaryllidaceae
15. Zygophyllaceae
16. Euphorbiaceae
17. Anacardiaceae
18. Umbelliferse
19. Boraginaceas
The following are the remaining Orders, arranged according to
the number of species of each : — Polygalacese (14) ; Malvaceae (13) ;
Rubiaceae, Labiatae (12 each) ; Convolvulaceae, Solanaceae, Re-
stionaceae (ir each) ; Portulacaceae, Acanthaceae (10 each) ; Cucur-
bitaceae, Juncaceae (9 each) ; Rutaceae, Ericaceae, Loranthaceae
(8 each) ; Caryophyllaceae, Celastraceae, Campanulaceae, Cheno-
podiaceae (7 each) ; Rosaceae (6) ; Capparidaceae, Rhamnaceae,
Thymelaeaceae, Haemodoraceae (5 each) ; Selaginaceae (4) ; Ranuncu-
laceae, Papaveraceae, Olacaceae, Santalaceae, Commelinaceae (3
each) ; Menispermacea, Frankeniaceae, Tiliaceae, Onagraceas, Plum-
baginaceae, Moraceae, Naiadaceae (2 each) ; Resedaceae, Bixaceae,
Pittosporaceae, Tamaricaceae, Elatinaceae, Linaceae, Burseracea^,
Ampelidaceae, Sapindaceae, Saxifragaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Halor-
rhagidaceae, Lythraceae, Loasaceae, Valerianaceae,~ Dipsaceae, Primu-
laceae, Ebenaceae, Salvadoraceae, Apocynaceae, Lentibulariaceae,
Amarantaceae, Cytinaceae, Lauraceas, Urticaceae, Salicaceae, Cyca-
daceae, Dioscoreacea^, Typhaceae ( i each).
4 389
i>344
icotyledons
I : 3.07
I : 3-45
roo Region.
Number
Per cent, of
of species.
the whole.
205
15.2
112
8
3
III
8
3
99
7
4
90
6
7
77
5
7
73
5
4
59
4
4
34
2
5
33
2
5
29
2
2
28
2
0
26
9
24
8
21
6
17
3,
16
2
16
2
15
I
226 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The following is the list of the largest genera : — Mesembrian-
themum (70 species) ; Crassula (54) ; Pelargonium (39) ; Pteronia
(32) ; Oxalis (30) ; Senecio (23) ; Indigofera (20) ; Cotyledon (18) ;
Heliophila (17) ; Helichrysum (16) ; Othonna (14) ; Euphorbia (14).
The afifinities of this Region appear to be strongest with those
of the Upper, and next with those of the Kalahari Region. Its
great characteristic is the predominance of succulents and other
extreme xerophilous types. The strength of the Flora to maintain
itself under the difficult conditions of a desert-like environment is
shown by its ability to push outward in every dry valley of the
neighbouring Regions.
The only marked exception to its general strength to resist
foreign invaders is also a tribute to its age-long adaptation to the
severity of its environment. For the one plant which has success-
fully invaded this Region, and has spread to such an extent as to
become its greatest pest, is a species of Opuntia (perhaps 0. tuna,
Mill.), from the drier desert parts of Mexico and Central America.
The connection with the South-western Region is but a slight
one. For while many typical Karroo plants have apparently in-
vaded the latter, there are but few of the peculiar South-western
types to be found here. The few Rutacese, Ericaceae and Restion-
acese which appear are mere stragglers on the nearer mountains ;
while Bruniaceffi, Proteaceae and Penaeaceae are, so far as we know,
entirely absent.
V. The Upper Region.
This Region forms the next ascending step northward from the
Karroo Region, and on the south its boundary is conterminous with
it, taking in all the mountains above 3,500 to 3,750 feet. On the
south-east it takes in the loftier tracts lying northward of the Fish
River Heights, and the Winterberg and Amatola Mountains, in-
cluding Queenstown ; thence round the loftier mountains which
form the commencement of the Stormberg Range, avoiding them,
and going northward towards Aliwal North. From this point the
line is an uncertain one, there being apparently no natural boun-
dary, but the vegetation passes over by a wide transition towards
the Kalahari. For convenience sake, and provisionally, a line has
been drawn running north-westward until, south of Kimberley, it
reaches the curve of the Dwyka conglomerate and the Ecca beds
which here come up from the south-westward and stretch north-
eastward right across the Orange River Colony and the Transvaal
(Rogers). These formations (which are probably synonymous with
the " red-sand " and " pan-veld " of the Hope Town district)
appear to exercise a marked edaphic influence on the character of
the Flora, which was first pointed out to me by the late Dr. E. B.
Muskett, of Hope Town. They pass by curves south of the Orange
River near Hope Town and thence near to Prieska and Kenhardt,
then still further westward, through the tract known as Bushman-
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA.
227
land, next by a wide curve southward to the high mountains west
of Calvinia.where it oins the northern boundary of the Karroo Region.
This Region is thus an elevated, rather flat tract of from 3,500
feet to 4,000 feet in altitude, of which the waters, with the exception
of some depressed valleys of the Great Fish River and the Kei River,
are drained by the Orange River.
By far the greater part of the surface consists of the Beaufort
series of the Karroo System (Rogers), and, like that, is generally of
a reddish hue and fertile when watered.
The climate is more severe than that of the Karroo, the extremes
of heat and cold showing a greater difference. Severe frosts are
common, with occasional snow in winter (or frequent on the higher
mountains) and hailstorms in summer. The rains are almost
entirely during the summer rnonths, and usually accompanied by
thunderstorms.
Rainfall — Upper Region*.
Kenhardt
Carnarvon
Fraserburg
Victoria West
Richmond
Hanover
De Aar
Colesberg
Middelburg
Cradock
Tarkastad
■Queenstown
Aliv/al North
Altitude
above Sea.
1
Mean annual ' Mean annual MeanannualFall
Fall for 10 Fall during 6 j during 6 sum-
years, wintermonths. i mer months.
( milli-
metres
S30
1,249
1,292
1,261
1.444
1,384
1,476
i>375
1,230
878
1,323
1,080
1,332
(2,700)
(4,060)
(4,200)
(4,100)
(4,700)
(4.500)
(4,800)
(4,470)
(4,000)
(2,856)
(4,300)
(3.544)
(4.330)
171
251
209
306
357
423
414
462
448
437
580
699
671
(6.74)
(9-90)
(8.24)
(12.06)
(14.06)
(16.66)
(16.33)
(18.21)
(17-67)
(17.21)
(22.86)
(27-53)
(26.44)
(4-78)
(7-04)
(4-98)
(7-45)
(10.06)
(11.70)
(11.98)
(13-07)
(13-28)
(12-63)
(16.55)
(20.39)
(18.61)
From the above there are deducible two general curves though
by no means regular, viz., i, showing the increase in the total rainfall
from west to east ; and 2, showing the increasing predominance,
from west to east, of the summer rainfall over that of the winter
months.
Temperature — Upper Region.
Number
Absolute
Absolute
Altitude.
of years.
Maximum.
[
Minimum.
metres.
' C. 1 (Fahr.)
C.
(Fahr.
Xenhardt
830
6
44.4 i (112.0)
-6.6
(20.0)
Victoria West
1,261
4
43-0 1 (109.5)
-8.0
(17-5)
Aliwal North
1,332
15
36-3
(97-5)
-9-7
(14-5)
<3ueen3tov/n
1,080
12
40.0
(104.0)
-7-2 (19 )
* Buchan's Tables (Meteorolog. Commission).
Q2
228
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The general aspect of the country in the central portion is that
of a vast, tree-less, monotonous plain, interspersed at considerable
distances by a few isolated and flat-topped mountains, or short
ranges ; or lower, and then very rugged, rocky hills. On these
hills, or in the few ravines of the mountain sides, may be seen a few
stunted bushes. In moister and more fertile shallow valleys
(" vleis ") grassy patches, with more luxuriant bushes 6 to 8 feet
high, may be seen ; but trees never, except such few as have been
planted by the hand of man, or except the few (chiefly Salix capensis
and Rhus spp.) which fringe the banks of the Orange River where,
for a certain distance, it flows through this Region. The usual
appearance of the plains is that of a heathy or dry, elevated moor-
land, covered with small shrublets of a dull green hue (chiefly Com-
positae), the few intervening plants of different growth which occur
being too small or too few to alter or modify the general appearance
above described.
The Flora, like that of the Karroo, is of a decidedly xerophilous
type ; more extreme and desert-like in the west, and becoming
gradually less so towards the east.
For some further details of the more remarkable plants of this
Region I must refer to my previous essay above-cited, and proceed
to an account'of the systematic elements of the Flora, so far as we
know it.
Systematic Elements of the Flora.
'Native Phanerogamia
Orders. Genera
Species
Dicotyledons . . • • 77
365
1,426
Gymnosperms
, .
Monocotyledons . . • • I5
140
420
Total 92
505
1,846
Proportion of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons
I : 3-4
Proportion of genera to species
I : 3.66
Predominant Orders — Upper
Region.
Number
Per cent, of
of
species.
the whole.
I . CompositsE
525
28.4
2. Liliaceae
152
8.2
3. Scrophulariaceas
139
7-5
4. Gramineae
93
S-o
5. Asclepiadaceae
71
3-8
6. Crassulaces
56
3-0
7. Leguminosae
55
2.9
8. Ficoideae
51
2.8
9. Cyperaceae
46
2.5
0. Campanulaceae | .
45
2.4
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA.
229
on — (continued.)
Number
of species.
Per cent, of
the whole.
44
33
32
30
29
26
2
4
8
7
6
6
4
24
22
3
2
20
0
20
0
19
0
Predominant Orders — Upper Region
1 1 . Iridaceae
12. Selaginaceae
i.^ Amaryllidacese
14. Boraginaceae
15. Orchidace."e
16. Acanthaceae
17. Geraniace^e
18. Sterculiaceas
19. Solanaceae
20. Labiatas
21. Umbellifera:
The following are the remaining Orders, arranged according to
number of species of each : — Rubiacese {18) ; Cruciferae (17) ;
Euphorbiacese (15) ; Ericaceae (14) ; Convolvulaceje (13) ; Cucur-
bitaceje, Anacardiaceae, Thymelseaceas (11 each) ; Santalaceae (lo) ;
Chenopodiaceae, Polygalaceae, Malvaceae (9 each) ; Ebenacese,
Rosaceae, Proteaceae (8 each) ; Verbenaceae, Juncaceae (7 each) ;
Restionaceae, Gentianaceae (6 each) ; Urticaceae, Loganiaceae, Plan-
taginaceae, Zygophyllaceae, Rutaceas (5 each) ; Amarantacese,
Polygonaceas {4 each) ; Ranunculaceae, Portulacaceae, Ampeli-
daceas. Sapindaceae, Araliaceae, Dipsaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Apo-
cynaceae, Lentibulariaceae, Loranthaceae, Commelinaceae (3 each) ;
Papaveraceae, Resedaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Hypericaceae, Cela-
straceae, Rhamnaceae, Onagraceae, Passifioraceae, Primulaceae,
Bignoniaceae, Pedalinaceae, Piperacese, Haemodoraceae, Naiadaceae
(2 each) ; Capparidaceae, Bixaceae, Tiliaceas, Linaceae, Saxifragaceae,
Halorrhagidaceae, Valerianaceae, Myrsinaceae, Oleaceae, Gesneriaceae,
Myoporaceae, Nyctaginaceae, Phytolaccaceae, Cytinaceae, Lauraceae,
Dioscoreaceae, Xyridaceae, Aroideae, Eriocaulaceae (i each).
The following are the largest genera : — Senecio (86 species) ;
Helichrysum (71) ; Crassula (40) ; Sutera (31) ; Pelargonium (25) ;
Pteronia (24) ; Mesembrianthemum (23) ; Wahlenbergia (23) ;
Othonna (23) ; Berkheya (21) ; Ornithogalum (19) ; Diascia (19) ;
Asparagus (19) ; Felicia (17) ; Indigofera (17) ; Cotyledon (15).
This Region is of an intermediate character between that of the
Karroo and the Kalahari. Yet it is stamped by two features
peculiarly its own — the marked predominance of Compositae, and
the deficiency, in individuals at least, of succulents, as compared
with the Karroo. It may hereafter be annexed to the eastern
mountain-province of the Kalahari, when this province comes to be
more fully explored.
VI. The Kalahari Region.
It must at once be stated that this vast Region is as yet so im-
perfectly explored as to its physical divisions, its aspect, its climate,
and the systematic constituents of its vegetation, that it is impos-
sible at present to do more than offer a very general view of a
230 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
country which will need many years of study and which will here-
after almost certainly require to be divided into several Regions,
or, at least, to be sub-divided into provinces.
As now treated it is bounded on the west by the still less explored
Western Region, on the south by the Upper Region, on the south-
east and east by the mountains of the South-eastern Coast Region,
on the north by the great Tropical Region, which is beyond the
scope of our inquiry.
It thus includes : —
1. The higher eastern mountain country, forming parts of
Cape Colony, Natal and Basutoland, with an altitude
higher than 3,500 or 4,000 feet. (This, in our view,
wUl probably hereafter require separation as a Region
or Province.)
2. Almost the whole of the Orange River Colony, of the
Transvaal and Bechuanaland.
Generally speaking, it is a wide inland basin, drained by the
Orange River and its tributaries ; with some exceptions towards
the east and south-east, where numerous rivers from the high
mountains empty themselves into the Indian Ocean.
The rspect of the country is very varied. The high mountain
tract his bare grassy summits, rising from 6,000-10,500 feet above
the sea ; on the south and east of these there are forests in the
lower ravines. The " high-veld," which succeeds the mountains to
the west, is virtually a grass-steppe, yet with numerous interspersed
small shrublets. Further to the west and north we reach the so-
called " bush-veld," a Savannah, which extends over a considerable
area. Westward of this a gradual transition is effected to the great
desert-tract of the Kalahari, concerning which, botanically, our
knowledge is comparatively small, only a few explorers — (Burchell,
Schinz, Marloth and Passarge) — having collected or published
accounts of their journeys. But Damaraland is excluded from
our calculations by its inter-tropical position. The largest collectors
in the eastern Kalahari have been Rehmann, Galpin, Wilms,
Schlechter and Burtt-Davy. My own experience and collections
have been chiefly between Delagoa Bay, Barberton and Pretoria ;
and, more recently, about Pietersburg and Houtbosch. Hence our
knowledge of the Flora of the eastern Kalahari isfar greater than
that of. the western part.
The vegetation, as in that of all the other Regions, is of the
xerophilous type. Nevertheless there are certain tracts in the
eastern mountains where the climate during the summer months
almost approaches that of the " rain-forest." But in the centre,
and in the extreme west, the country is of a desert or semi-desert
character ; and to such an extent is this the case that even its
exploration is rendered extremely difficult. Yet in the present
state of our knowledge no precise line can be drawn between the
two regions of such widely differing character.
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA.
231
The data available respecting the dimate are few. The follow-
ing table exhibits the
Pella . .
Calvin ia
Upington
Prieska
Kimberley
Vryburg
Mafeking
Pretoria
Johannesburg
Kroonstad
Bloemfontein
Kokstad
Pilgrim's iiest
Barberton
Rain-fall — Kalahari Region.
-Vltitude
abov(; Sea.
feet
Mean Annual
Fall for 10 years
Mean Annual
i Fall durins (j
Iwinter months.
553
953
861
1,015
1.243
1.323
1,290
1.375
1,764
1.384
1.387
1.318
1,200
'"'"'" inches '"'"'"
metres "■'-"'-'' metres
1,800)
96
(3-79)
3.100)
220
(8.69)
2,800)
220
(8.67)
3.300)
289
(11.41)
4,042)
519
(20.44)
4.300)
647
(25-50)
4.194)
685
(26.98)
4.471)
677
(26.66)
5.735)
768
(30.26)
4,500)
690
(27.17)
4.510)
644
(25-39)
4,284)
755
(29.76)
3.900)
1.043
(41.10)
2,920)
702
(27.65)
26
145
56
77
117
97
90
115
140
166
159
150
inuhes
mi Hi
metres
03)
72)
24)
07)
62)
85)
57)
56)
53)
57)
28)
91)
Mean Annual
Fall during 6
summer
month?.
inches
70
(2.76)
75
(2.97)
I6,S
(6.43)
211
(8.34)
401
(15-82)
549
(21.65)
594
(23-41)
652
(25.70)
549
(21.64)
478
(18.82)
596
(23-48)
893
(35-19)
The rainfall in the west is shown to be very small, increasing
greatly as we proceed eastward. The summer fall largely pre-
dominates, the only exception being Calvinia which is on the very
margin of our boundary, and which may hereafter be rather re-
garded as an outlier of the South-western Region. The rains are
most usually accompanied by thunderstorms, and these are some-
times of great severity.
Temperature — Kalahari Region.
Kenhardt
Prieska
Kimberley
Johannesburg
Kroonstad
Bloemfontein
Kokstad
Altitude.
metres.
830
1,015
1.243
1.764
1.384
1,387
1,318
Number
of years.
Absolute
Maximum.
Absolute
Minimum.
6
I
12
5
I
12
3
i C-
I 44-4
41.0
*4i-7
35-5
I 41-0
; 42-7
1 33-3
(Fahr.)
C.
(112.0)
-6.6
(105.8)
-3-8
(107.2)
-5-8
(96.0)
-6.1
(105-8)
-3-8
(109.0)
-8.8
(92.0)
-6.1
(Fahr.)
(20.0)
(25.0)
(21.5)
(21.0)
(25.0)
(16.0)
(21.0)
It will be seen from the above that the temperature is by no
means extreme nor the range excessively large. On the whole it
probably does not differ greatly from that of our Upper Region, of
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
which, however, the data are even fewer than the above. It is to
be remembered that there are no records Irom what we have termed
the Eastern Mountain Province, which would certainly be subject
to much greater extremes of cold.
Systematic Constituents of the Flora.
Native Phanerogamia
Dicotyledons
Gymnosperms
Monocotyledons
Orders.
Genera.
Specie
io6
578
2,111
I
I
2
19
204
923
Total
126
783
3-036
Proportion of Monocotyledons to Dicotyledons i : 2.88
Proportion of genera to species . i : 3-9
Predominating Orders — Kalahari Region.
1. CompositEe
2. Gramineae
3. Leguminosae
4. Liliaceae
5. Scrophulariaceae
6. Asclepiadace^e
7. OrchidaceEB
8. Cyperaceas
9. Acanthaceae
10. Iridaceae
1 1 . Labiatae
1 2 . Amaryllidaceje
13. Convolvulaceae
14. Sterculiaceae
15. Rubiaceae
16. Selaginaceae
17. Campanulaceae
18. Euphorbiaceae
19. Verbenaceae
20. Anacardiaceae
21. Crassulaceae
22. Gentianaceae
23. Ficoides
The following are the remaining Orders, arranged according to
number of species of each : — Capparidacese, Malvaceae, Geraniacese
(28 each) ; Cucurbitaceje, Boraginaceae, Amarantaceae (26 each) ;
Tiliaceae (24) ; Santalaceae, Ebenaceae, Cruciferae (17 each) ; Thy-
melaeaceae, Umbelliferse, Polygalaceae {16 each) ; Combretaceae,
Solanaceae (15 each) ; Naiadaceae (14) ; Ericaceae, Loganiaceae (13
each) ; Celastracese, Commelinacese, Caryophyllacese, Gesneriaceae,
Loranthaceae (12 each) ; Ranunculaceae, Rosaceae, Polygonaceae
(11 each) ; Lentibulariaceae, Chenopodiaceae (10 each) ; Proteacea?
Number
Per cent. oi.
of species.
the whole.
302
9-9
251
8
3
247
8
I
202
6
7
152
5
0
148
4
9
140
4
6
121
3
9
115
3
8
89
2
9
74
2
4
6i
2
0
55
8
55
8
52
7
41
4
38
3
37
2
35
2-
35
2
33
0
32
0
31
0
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA. 233
(9) ; Lythraceae, Zygophyllacese, Pedalinaceae, Juncaceee (8 each) ;
Sapindaceee, Oleaceje, Nyctaginacese (7 each) ; Passifloracece,
Ampelidaceffi (6 each) ; Apocynacete, Menispermaceas, Malpighi-
aceae, Rhamnaceae, Sapotacese, Dioscoreaceas (5 each) ; Eriocau-
lacese, Urticaceae, Mehacese, Resedaceas, Bixacese, Portulacaceae.
Olaceag; JMyrsinacese, Bignoniaces, Xyridacese (4 each) ; Papaver-
acese, Hypericinaceje, Rutacese, Ochnaceae, Bur&eraces, Myrtaceas,
Turneraceae, Dipsaceae, Plumbaginaceae, Moraceae, Sahcaceae,
Araceas (3 each) ; Linaces, Hippocrataceas, Saxifragaceae, Droser-
aceae, Halorrhagidaceae, Melastomaceae, Ulmaceae, Coniferae, Hasmc-
doraceae, (2 each) : Anonaceae, Nymphaeaceae, Pittosporaceae,
Elatinaceae, Guttiferae, Chailletiaceae, Hamamelidaceae, Onagraceae,
Samydaceae, Loasaceae, Begoniaceas, Araliaceae, Cornaceae, Valeria-
naceas, Vacciniacefe, Primulareae, Hydrophyllacese, Plantaginaceae,
Illecebraceae, Phytolaccaceae, Cytinaceae, Piperaceas, Balanophor-
aceae, Hydrocharidaceae, Zingiberaceae, Pontederiaceae, Typhaceae,
Lemnaceae (i each).
The following are the laigest genera : — Helichrysura (61 species) ;
Asclepias (inch Gomphocarpus) (47) ; Sutera (38) ; Hermannia
(36) : Eragrostis (36) ; Ipomaea (33) ; Eulophia (32) ; Indigcfera
(32) : Senecio (32) ; Gladiolus (31) ; Rhus {29) ; Cyperus (26)
Habenaria (26) ; Aristida (25) ; Schizoglossum (25) ; Selago (22) ;
Scilla (21) ; Andropogon (21) ; Acacia (19) ; Lotononis (18).
Affinities of the Flora.
The Region is far too little explored botanically to warrant any
opinion as to its affinity with other Floras. So far as known it
seems more nearly allied to the great Tropical African Flora than
to any other. But it wDl certainly require sub-division. For in the
central portion it is practically a sandy desert, with very little
surface-water, though it is probable that underground water exists
in many parts, and that, hereafter, means may be devised for raising
this for pastoral, or even for agricultural, purposes ; whereas in the
eastern portion the climate is of a warm, temperate character, the
soil fertile and water moderately plentiful. The eastern portion
of the Orange River Colony is probably as fertile and as capable of
supporting a large population as any in the world. The eastern
slopes and spurs of the Drakensbergen, above 3,000 feet, are also
extremely rich in a floristic sense. Basutoland, which lies mostly at
an elevation of from 4,500 to 10,000 feet, is also very little explored
botanically '; though cold in winter, it yields fine crops in the
valleys and the lower-lying country.
234
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
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floral regions of south africa. 235
The Migration of the Floras.
A recent writer, who has apparently overlooked or does not
accept Hooker's hypothesis as to the origin of the South-western
Flora referred to above, speaks of this origin as " an enigma. "~
But much more enigmatical and even more tantalising, because the
problem meets us daily, is the question of the drift, or present
movement, of the two Floras — the South-western and the South-
eastern. For as with animal so with plant life, the struggle for
existence is incessant. Some observers in the Colony, and also some
European botanists, have thought that the Western Flora is en-
croaching upon the Eastern (e.g., Elytropappus rhinoceroHs, D.C.,.
Chrysocoma tenuifolia. Berg, etc.), and support their arguments by
the fact of the wider spread of certain other westerly forms along
the mountain ranges of the east coast, northward, as e.g., Ericaceae,
appearing on the Milanji Highlands, on Kilimandjaro Mountain,
and (as E. arborea) even to the Mediterranean Region ; also an
Ericinella ; Myrsine africana, common in Abyssinia ; Psoralea
pinnata, reaching from the Cape right across the continent, also, to-
Abyssinia ; Oxalis cernua, to the Mediterranean, where it is now
widely spread ; and on Mount Sinai, Lasiospermum brachyglossum,
D.C. (which I have myself gathered in Nama'land) has been
-found (Christ*), and many others. It is true that there does not
seem to be any compensatory movement of any considerable extent
in the opposite direction. Nothing is more remarkable than the
absence or rarity of European t3'pes on the higher mountains of
Southern Africa. It might have been expected that if African
types could travel northward along the great mountain ranges of
the east, so European tj'pes might have been enabled to penetrate
south by the same path. But this is so rarely the case that the
exceptions are striking. There are certainly some representative
European genera, with Cape species, such as Astragalus, Rubus,
Potentilla, Geum, Alchemilla, Vaccinium, etc., but the only identi-
cal species I can recall as being found on the eastern mountains is
Agrimonia Eupatoria. This, however, does not affect the possi-
bility of a movement southward and westward of African types
from the Natal country towards the Cape. Nor is there any in-
herent necessity for the movement being only in one direction.
It may be, reciprocally, in both directions. Yet, if we may step
for a moment from the firm ground of facts to the airy region of
imagination, it may be said that few botanists who, like the present
writer, have spent many years in South Africa, and especially in
the south-western districts, have not been penetrated by a gloomy
impression that the South-western Flora is dying out, and is doomed
to extinction. The idea is not quite baseless. Many species
collected by Thunberg, Masson and Burchell have never, or but
very rarely, been seen since. Some of the finest Ericas have dis-
appeared, often doubtless destroyed by bush-fires ; and, in general, .
Bibl. App. 43 (p. 14).
236 SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
species of the Bruniacese, Proteaceae and Penseaceae, so peculiar to
this Region, seem to have become much more rare. No weight can
be attached to this, for it is wanting in adequate evidence. Absit
omen !
Summary.
1. The South African Flora, broadly speaking, consists of two
chief types : one, the smaller, South-western, older in its main
features, and presenting striking marks of a similar origin to that
of Australia. The other, an African type, covering all the re-
mainder of the sub-continent, and presenting no affinities or very
slight (as outliers) marks of affinity with the Australian region.
2. The whole of the Regions are of a well-marked xerophilous
character, and the coast districts especially strongly resemble in
appearance the Flora of the Mediterranean, in many parts markedly
that of Sicily and Greece.
3. The two larger coast Regions (the South-western and South-
eastern) are distinguished by their highly-differentiated character
or by the narrow distribution-area of many species.
4. There is in general a marked deficiency of trees ;
5. Also a want of luxuriance of growth, chiefly, however, in the
"western portions ;
6. Also a paucity of sociable plants.
7. That there appears to be a strong inherent power to resist
the aggression of foreign invaders.
8. That the prevalence of bush-fires is exercising a marked
influence upon the Flora, in a manner not yet fully understood, but
probably has, as one of its effects, the diminution in the number of
■species.
APPENDIX.
Selected Bibliography.
(Arranged Chronologically.)
1. BuRCHELL, W. J. Travels in the Interior of Southern Africa
[in 1810-1815]. London, 1822-1824. 2 vols.
2. EcKLON, C. F. Topographisches Verzeichniss der Pflanzen-
sammlung. Esslingen, 1827.
3. Bowie, James. Indigenous Plants in the Cape Dis-
trict. [Cape Town, n.d., circa, 1829 ?]
4. Bowie, James. Sketches of the Botany of South Africa ; in
the S. Afr. Quarterly Journal, Vol. i (1830), p. 27.
5. ECKLON, C. F. List of Plants found in the district of Uitenhage ;
in the 5. A. Quart. Journ., Vol. i (1830), p. 359.
6. Meyer, Ernst. Commentariorum de Plantis Afr. Austr. . . .
coll J. F. Drege. Vol. i, fasc. i, Lipsiae, 1835 ;
fasc. 2, 1837. — English ed. trans. H. Bolus, Cape Town,
1875-
FLORAL REGIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA. 237
7. Drege, J. F., and Meyer, E. Zwei Pflanzengeographische
Documente nebst einer Einleitung von Dr. E. Meyer.
Besondere Beigabe zur Flora (1843), Band II. — English
ed. trans. H. Bolus, Cape Town, 1875.
8. Krauss, F. Beitraege zur Flora des Cap und Natal-landes
(Abegedruckt aus Flora, 1844, Band i und 2), Regens-
burg, 1846.
9. Drege, J. F. Standoerter Verzeichniss der von C. L. Zeyher
in S. Afrika gesammelten Pflanzen. In Linnaea, Bd. 19
(1847), p. 583. — Nachtrag in do., Bd. 20, p. 258.
10. Drege, J. F. Vergleichungen der von Ecklon u. Zeyher und
von Drege gesammelten S. Afr. Pflanzen .... in
Linnaea, Bd. 19 (1847), pp. 599-680. — Fortsetzung in
do., Bd. 20 (1847), PP- 183-257.
11. BuNBURY, Sir C. Journal of a Residence at the Cape [in 1838-
1840], London, 1848, p. 118. — Portions of this work
appeared successively in Hooker's Lond. Journ. of Bat.
for the years 1842-3-4.
12. Hooker, Sir J. D. On the Flora of Austraha, being an Intro-
ductory Essay to the Flora of Tasmania. — Off-print
from the Botany of the Antarctic Expedition, Part III.,
London, 1859.
13. Grisebach, A. Die Vegetation der Erde. 2 vols. Leipzig,
1872. — French translation by P. Tchihatcheff, Paris,
1875.
14. Darwin, C. Effects of Cross and Self Fertilisation in the
Vegetable Kingdom. London, 1876.
15. Engler, a. Versuch einer Entwicklungsgeschichte der ex-
tratropischen Florengebiete der suedlichen Hemis-
phaere. Leipzig, 1882.
16. Drude, O. Die Florenreiche der Erde. In Petermann's
Mittheihmgen, 1884.
17. ScHiNZ, H. Deutsch-Sudwest Afrika. Oldenburg and Leipzig,
1884-1887.
18. Bolus, H. Sketch of the Flora of S. Africa. In the Official
Handbook of the Cape of Good Hope, Cape Town, 1886. —
German translation by O. Kersten, Leipzig, 1888.
19. Hooker, Sir J. D. Review of "Sketch of the Flora of S.
Africa," by H. Bolus, in Nature, May 27th, 1886.
20. Drude, 0. Atlas der Pflanzenverbreitung. Gotha, 1887.
21. SCHiNZ, H. Exploration dans le Sud-Ouest de I'Afrique (avec
carte). Geneve, 1887.
22. ScHiNZ, H. Das Sued-oestliche Kalahari-Gebiet in Engler's
Bot. Jahrbuecher, Band 8 (1887), Beiblatt, No. 18.
23. SzYSZYLOWicz, J. Polypetalae Thalamiflorae Rehmannianae,
Cracow, 1887. — Polypetalae Disciflorae Rehmannianae,
Cracow, 1888.
238 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
24. Rehmann, a. Geo-botaniczne stosunhi poludniowy Afryki.
[Geo-botanical conditions of S. Africa, in Trans, of the
Academy of Sciences of Cracow, Vol. 5, 69 pp., with map
and 2 plates. — I have only seen the map and a condensed
transcript of the paper in Engler's Bat. Jahrbuecher,
Band I (1888), p. 551-552.1
25. SCHINZ, H. Beitraege zur Kenntniss der Flora von Deutsch-
Suedwest-Afrika u. d. angrenz. Gebiete aus d. Abhandl.
d. Bot. Vereins Brandenh, Bde. 29 (1887), 30 (1888), 31
(1890).
26. Rolfe, R. a. Matabele Land and the Victoria Falls, by F.
Gates, ed. 2, London, 1889. Botany of , Appendix
V. pp. 390 and foil, by R. A. Rolfe.
27. Scott-Elliot, G. F. Notes on the Regional Distribution of the
Cape Flora. Trans, of the Edinburgh Botanical Society,
Vol. 18 (1889), pp. 241 and foU.
•28. Scott-Elliot, G. F. Note on the Fertilisation of Musa,
Strelitzia, etc. Annals of Bot., Vol. 4 (1890), p. 259.
29. Scott-Elliot, G. F. Ornithophilous Flowers in S. Africa.
Annals of Bot., Vol. 4 (1890), p. 265 and foil.
30. ScHiNZ, H. Die Deutsche-Interessensphaere in S.-W.-Afrika.
In " Fernschau," Band 4, Aarau, 1890.
31. Drude, O. Handbuch der Pflanzengeographie. Stuttgart,
1890.
32. Thode, J. Die Kuestenvegetation von Britisch-Kaffrarien
und .... Nachbarfloren. Engler's Bot. Jahrbuecher,
Band 12 (1891), pp. 589-607.
33. Guthrie, F. Evolution as illustrated by the Geographical
Distribution of Plants. In Trans, of the S.A. Philo-
sophical Soc, Vol. 5, Part 2 (1893), p. 275.
34. Evans, M. S. The Fertilisation of Flowers with some illustra-
tions from the Natal Flora. Durban, Natal, 1894, pp.
10, 17, 18.
35. Evans, M. S. The Fertilisation of Loranthus Kraussianus and
L. Dregei, in Nature, January, 1895.
36. Thode, J. Die Botanischen Hoehenregionen Natals. Engler's
Bot. Jahrbuecher, Band 18 (1894), Beiblatt 43.
37. Sim, T. R. Sketch and check-list of the Flora- of Kaffraria.
Cape Town, 1894.
38. Wood, J. M. Catalogue of Indigenous Natal Plants. Durban,
Natal, 1894.
39. Schlechter, R. Aufzaehlung der durch Natal u.
Transvaal gesammelten Orchideen. Engler's Bot.
Jahrbuecher, Vol. 20 (1895), .Beiblatt No. 50, p. 20.
40. Warming, E. Plantesamfund, etc. [Plant-groups, Character-
istic features of CEcologicaL Plant-geography.] Copen-
hagen, 1895. — This work has not been seen by the writer;
FLORAL REGIONS OF SOUTH AFRICA. 239
41. SCHLECHTER, R. Revision of Extra-tropical South African
Asclepiadacefe. [With an introduction on their geo-
graphical distribution.] In Journal of Botany, Vol. 34
(1896), p. 311.
42. ScHLECHTER, R. Beitraege zur Kenntnis neuer und Krit scher
Orchideen aus Sued-afrika. In Engl. Bot. Jahrbuech,
Vol. 20 (1895), Beibl. 50 ; contains a geographical ac-
count of the author's last journey through Natal and
Transvaal, on p. 20.
43. Christ, H. Ueber afrikanische Bestandtheile in der Schweizer
Flora. Bern, 1896.
44. ScHiNZ, H. Die Pflanzenwelt Deutsch-S.W. Afrikas (mit
Einschluss d. westl. Kalachari). Bull. Herb. Boissier,
Vol. 4 {1896).
45. Dyer, Sir W. T. T. Flora Capensis. Vol. 6, p. vi-. London,
1896-0:897.
46. BuCHAN, A. Rain-fall of S. Africa, 1885-1894. Meteoro-
logical Commission, Cape Town, 1897.
47. ScHiMPER, A. F. W. Pflanzen-Geographie auf Physiologischer
Grundlage, Jena, 1898. — Translation in English by
Groom and Balfour : Plant Geography upon a Physio-
logical Basis. Oxford, 1903.
48. Staff, O. Graminese, in Dyer's Flora Capensis, Vol. 7, pp. 310-
750. London, 1898-1900.
49. Churchill, F. F. Notes on the Geology of the Drakensbergen,
Natal. Trans, of the S.A . Philosoph. Soc, Vol. 10, Part
3, p. 419. Cape Town, 1899.
50. Marloth, R. Notes on the occurrence of Alpine Types in the
S.W. Region of the Cape. Trans. S.A.
Philosoph. Soc, Vol. II (1901). p. 161.
51. Marloth, R. Die Ornithophilie in der Flora Sued-Afrikas.
Berichten der Deutschen Bot. Gesellschaft, Band 19 (1901),
heft 3.
52. Thode, J. The Botanical Regions of S. Africa determined by
altitude. Durban, 1901.
53. Exgler, a. Ueber die Fruehlingsflora des Tafelberges bei
Kapstadt, nebst Bemerkungen ueber die Flora Sued-
Afrikas, u.s.w. Abdruck aus den Notizblatt des Koenigl.
bot. Gartens, Appendix XL, Leipzig, 1903.
54. Marloth, R. The Historical development of the geographical
botany of Southern Africa. Presidential address of the
S.A. Association for the Advancement of Science,
Section B Report. Cape Town, 1903.
55. Bolus, H., and Wolley-Dod, A. H. List of the flowering
Plants and Ferns of the Cape Peninsula, wtih an Intro-
duction. Trans, of the S.A. Philosophical Soc, Vol. 14.
Part 3. Cape Town, 1903.
240 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
56. Staff, O. Die Gliederung der Graeser-flora von Suedafrika_
Eine pflanzengeographische Skizze. Mit einer Karte.
Sonder-Abdruck aus der Festschrift zu P. Ascherson's
siebzigstem Geburtstage. Berlin, 1904.
57. Davy, Jos. Burtt. Alien plants spontaneous in the Transvaal.
In Report of the S.A. Assoc, for the advancement of
Science, p. 252. Cape Town, 1904.
58. Marloth, R. Notes on the Vegetation of Southern Rhodesia.
Report of the S.A. Assoc, for the Advancement of Science^
p. 300. Cape Town, 1904.
59. Passarge, S. Die Kalahari. Versuch einer physich-geo-
graphischen Darstellung der Saijd-felder des sued-
afrikanischen Beckens. Berlin, 1904.
60. Rogers, A. W. An introduction to the Geology of Cape Colony.
London, 1904.
SECTION v.— GEOLOGICAL.
I. GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY.
By a. W. Rogers, M.A., F.G.S., Director of the Geological
Survey, Cape Colony.
In structure the Colony is comparable to a shallow basin, which
is filled with deposits belonging to the Karroo formation ; the basin
is breached on the south-eastern side, between the Gualana and St.
John's rivers, by the Indian Ocean. On the noi'th-east, between
Kimberley and Pondoland, the Colony is bounded by an irregular
line that passes across the basin, which extends through Basutoland,
the Orange River Colony, Natal, and the eastern poi'tion of the
Transvaal. The beds of the Karroo formation along the southern
and south-western edges of the basin dip at high angles towards its
interior, but from the Tanqua Karroo northwards to Bushmanland,
and thence eastwards to Hopetown, and again north-east to the
Orange River Colony border they are very gently inclined towards
the interior, and similar conditions obtain in Pondoland, though
near St. John's the lower divisions of the Karroo formation are
faulted down against a block (horst) of Table Mountain sandstone,
a feature which has no counterpart in the west of the Colony. The
Great Karroo, Upper Karroo, and the grass-covered plateaux of the
east, as well as the Stormberg and Drakensberg, are all composed
of nearly horizontal strata belonging to the Karroo system.
The area occupied by the Karroo formation is sharply defined by
the outcrops of the Dwyka series, of which the well-known glacial
conglomerate is the most important member. Though this group
is thinner in the north than in the south the belt of country occupied
by it is much wider in the former region on account of its lying
horizontally there, while in the south the thicker (2,300 feet) repre-
sentatives of the group present their edges at the surface.
There is a cardinal difference between the relationship of the
Karroo formation to the undei-lying strata in the northern and
southern areas. In the northern the conglomerate lies unconform-
ably upon very much older rocks which had been metamorphosed
by great granitic intrusions and folded into mountain ranges, of
which the Asbestos Mountains and Langebergen are mere remnants,
long before the Dwyka period commenced. In the southern dis-
242 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
tricts, between Karroo Poort and the Gualana River, a thick band
of shale and sandstone (the Lower Dwyka shales) intervenes
between the conglomerate and the uppermost member of the Cape
system, and no sign of discordance has been met with in traversing
the upturned edges of the two formations. North of Karroo Poort
the Lower Dwyka shales gradually disappear and the conglomerate
comes to rest directly upon the Witteberg series,- which in its turn
disappears as it is followed northwards, and the two other members
of the Cape system, the Bokkeveld and Table Mountain series, thin
out in a similar manner, so that north of the Bokkeveld Mountain
in Calvinia the conglomerate lies upon rocks of Pre-Cape age. This
thinning out of the Cape formation as it is followed northwards along
the western edge of the Karroo basin is mainly due to denudation in
Dwyka and pre-Dwyka times. Whether it may be in part ascribed
to lack of deposition towards the north is still doubtful. In neither
the north nor south is the original position of the limit of the Dwyka
series at the time of its maximum extension known. In the north,
outliers have been found in the Kalahari Desert, and in the south the
outlier south of the Worcester fault, along which it has been let down
at least 10,000 feet against the Pre-.Cape rocks, bears exactly the
same relation to the Cape formation as in the southern part of the
Karroo, viz., the Lower Dwyka shales intervene between the Witte-
berg beds and the conglomerate, and there is no discordance in the
succession. It is probable that the Dwyka series once stretched
further south than the present coast ; the position of the outcrop
of the series along the south of the Karroo is due to denudation
having laid bare the strata involved in the folding that took place
long after the deposition of the Dwyka series, probably some time
during the Beaufort and Stormberg periods. The southern and
south-western limits of the Karroo basin are defined by the great
ridges produced by this late Karroo folding, but the northern edge
of the basin is unaffected by these earth movements, and is a sinuous
line whose position at any place marks the stage reached by denuda-
tion acting on horizontal or southerly-inclined strata which rest
discordantly upon the ancient rocks of the north.
The Karroo basin, as we now see it, is therefore essentially due to
deformation of the earth's crust at a period later than the deposition
of the lower and most widely distributed of the rock series that
occupy it. How far, if at all, the slight southerly dip of these strata
in the northern portion of the basin is due to the circumstances of
original deposition is uncertain.
The mountainous country round the south and south-west of the
interior basin is a fairly- well-defined belt of folded rocks belonging-
chiefly to the' Cape formation. Although the lower part of the
Karroo formation is involved in the folds it is Only preserved wlftiin-
the folded areas in a few synclines and where deeply sunk on the-
downthrow side of the Worcester fault ; elsewhere, though it prob-
ably once stretched over the whole region', it has been swept away
by denudation. The folded rocks have, broadly speaking; an east
and west strike south of the Karroo basin, and north' and south
GfiOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY. 243
strike west of it, and the two systems of folds, called respectively
the Zwartberg and Cederberg systems, from prominent mountain
ranges produced by them, meet in the country between Karroo
Poort and Cape Hangklip. This region where the two groups of
folds meet is distinguished from other parts of the folded belt by
diagonal ranges trending nearly north-east, and a less conspicuous
set running north-west ; these ranges represent the resultants of the
two sets of forces which crumpled the strata in the south and west.
The chief examples of the north (or rather north-north-west) trend-
ing ranges are the Cederbergen, Schurftebergen and Oliphant's •
River mountains ; of the east trending ranges, the Zwartebergen,
Langebergen, and Kouga mountains ; of the resultant north-east
ranges, the Hex River and Bier River mountains ; and of the north-
. west ranges, the Groenland and Houwhoek mountains. The Ceder-
berg folds are more or less symmetrical anticlines and synclines. and
the Bokkeveld beds are still present in the Ohphant's River and
Cold Bokkeveld synclines ; the Zwartberg folds are much more
pronounced, and overfolds and small thrust faults are frequent, so
that inversion of the normal order of the strata involved is a con-
spicuous feature in the region in which they prevail.
The youngest strata found to have been involved in the Zwart-
berg folding are the Ecca beds, which lie at high angles along the
northern flank of the northernmost ranges, and which occur on the
downthrow (south) side of the Worcester fault in contact with the
Malmesbury beds on the northern side. The oldest beds lying un-
conformably upon the folded rocks are the conglomerates of the
Uitenhage series, and they are unaffected by the great fault near
Worcester and by the analogous fault on the southern flank of the
Zwartebergen ; the Uitenhage beds pass undisturbed from the Pre-
Cape rocks across the faults on to the Bokkeveld, Witteberg, Dwyka
or Ecca beds, as the case may be, on the southern side of the dislo-
cations, proving that before their deposition denudation had re-
moved the whole of the Cape formation and the lower Karroo beds,
some 14,000 feet of rock, from parts of the area. The Ecca beds are
probably the equivalent of the upper Carboniferous and part of the
Permian, and the Uitenhage conglomerates are not younger than the
Wealden, according to the evidence given by the plant remains ; so
that during the Triassic and Jurassic periods the southern mountains
•came into existence and suffered a great amount of denudation.
There is no direct evidence that any portion of the ranges south of
the Karroo was' exposed to the air before Ecca times : > the large
tracts of granite and other Pre-Cape rocks immediately underlying
the Uitenhage conglomerates in the southeirn and south-western
districts might-be regarded as pointing in that 'direction; but thes
proof obtained in the Worcester area that the mountain building'
and the exposure of the Pre-Cape- rocks in that district took place
during the time interval between the- Ecca and Uitenhage periods,,
renders it unnecessary to postulate a longer era for the. production •
■of similar results in distriets-wher^ the^chain of evidence is less>eom-;
plete. Neither the Beaufort 'libr theStormberg'-'beds have been
R 2
244 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
recorded from the folded belt, and in the central basin these strata
are only affected by small disturbances that cannot with certainty
be correlated with the great earth-movements that gave rise to the
southern ranges.
In the Cederberg region no outliers of the Uitenhage series have
been met with, and though it is possible that the movements which
culminated in the formation of the great anticline of the Cederberg
commenced as far back as the Dwyka period, for evidence of the
movement of ice, from west to east, over the lower portion of the
'Dwyka conglomerate, has been found in the western Karroo, the
comparatively slight amount of rock removed from the anticlines
negatives the idea that the area has been exposed to denudation
from Triassic times to the present day. A satisfactory explanation
of this question has not yet been found.
The overfolding and thrusting along the southern edge of the
Karroo is towards the north ; when any fold, or group of folds, is
followed from an area where the disturljance is slight to one where
it is great, as in the Zwartebergen from the symmetrical anticline
of Anysberg eastwards to the complicated area between Prince
Albert and Klaarstroom, the arches are found to turn over north-
wards, so that most of the strata have a southerly dip and the
younger are overlain by the older. This indicates a thrust or move-
ment in the earth's crust from the south towards the north against a
comparatively immovable block, the Karroo. In the west the
movements did not reach such a magnitude, but the force probably
acted in a similar manner, i.e., towards the Karroo. It is interesting
to note that the great dolerite intrusions, which occupy such a great
extent of country within the Karroo basin, and which probably
reached their present positions in late Stormberg times, barely en-
croach upon the folded belt. The only three dykes of dolerite of
this type met with in the folded belt occur in the less-disturbed part
of the Cederberg area ; others have been found in the Table Moun-
tain sandstone of the Cape Peninsula, Van Rhyn's Dorp, and Pondo-
land, which lie outside the folded belt.
Though there is abundant evidence that the main portion of
the movements that produced the southern ranges had taken place
before the Uitenhage beds were formed, yet there are numerous
localities known, from SweUendam in the west to Uniondale and
Willowmore in the east, where the Uitenhage beds have been
considerably disturbed along lines following approximately the
direction of the earlier movements. These later disturbances
manifest themselves in the northerly dips and faults with down-
throw to the south affecting the Uitenhage beds as well as the
older rocks, but the great crumpling and overfolding characteristic
of the earlier period have not been detected in the Uitenhage beds,
which were involved in the later disturbances alone. Beyond
the fact that they are younger than the Uitenhage beds (Lower
Cretaceous) and older than the highest gravel plateau (Sub-recent),
the age of these later movements is unknown. As yet there is
no evidence by which to correlate them with the Pondoland faults.
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY. 245
that let down the Dwyka and Ecca beds, and the Embotyi and
Umzamba beds (Upper Cretaceous), respectively, against the Table
Mountain sandstone.
That part of the south-east coast along which the sea has en-
croached upon the central basin is geologically similar to the
tract stretching north- west from a point some miles east of. Karroo
Poort to the Bokkeveld escarpment west of Calvinia. The Pondo-
land coast belt, with the exception of the faults mentioned above,
has the same structure as the Bokkeveld Mountain region ; in
each case the Dwyka conglomerate rests upon the Table Mountain
series. In the Albany district, as in the Ceres and Worcester
areas, the Bokkeveld and Witteberg series intervene . between
these two formations, so that there is a conformable succession
throughout. This short statement of the facts shows that there
is a much greater symmetry in the east and west sides of the extreme
south end of the continent than appears to be the case from an
inspection of a geological map^ The greatest difference between the
east and west is due to the faults in the east which run parallel
to the coast and have the effect of dropping the strata towards
the ocean. No similar feature has been found in the broad area
between the Karroo basin and the Atlantic in the west, and, though
that part of the Colony is not well known, we have sufficient
information to make the occurrence of such faults very improbable.
The known faults in the north-west are older than the Cape
formation.
The Cape formation is the chief member of the rock systems
in the folded belt, but inliers of the Malmesbury and Cango beds
occur in the Worcester, Oudtshoorn, Mossel Bay, and Caledon
Divisions south of the great ranges, and outliers of the Uitenhage
series are of great importance in the same area. The Cape forma-
tion is divided up into three groups. The lowest or Table Mountain
series consists of some 5,000 feet of sandstones, shales and con-
glomerates, of which the sandstones are by far the most important.
One band of shale lies about 1,000 feet below the top of the group,
and although it is only 300 feet thick it is of great interest on
account of the well striated boulders that have been obtained
from its lower part in Clanwilliam. These stones doubtless owe
their peculiarities to glacial action, and probably reached their
present position by means of floating ice ; they are scattered at
random through unbedded mudstone and shale. The other bands
of argillaceous beds are of small extent. Conglomerates are seldom
met with in the sandstones, though thick layers of conglomerate
with a quartzitic matrix are known in Willowmore and Uniondale,
and in the west coast districts. Well rounded white quartz pebbles
irregularly scattered through the sandstone are a characteristic
feature, but they occur at such wide intervals that the rock cannot
be called a conglomerate. The Bokkeveld series follows the
Table Mountain sandstone conformably, and contains the onJLy
Palaeozoic marine fauna known in South Africa. The fossils are of
a Devonian type, and are more nearly related to those in the
246 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
lower part of the Devonian beds of. America than to those of later
stages of that or of other countries.
The chief genera found in the Bokkeveld, beds are Phaccps,
Cryphaeiis, Homalonotiis, Dalmanites, Proeius, Stropheodonta, Ortho-
thetes, Chonetes, Rensselaeria, Trig?ria, Cryptonella, Spiriler,
Ambocoelia Leptocoelia, VituUna, Orthoceras, Bellerophon, Conularia,
Palaeoneilo, Nuctdites, Leda, Grammysia, Actinopteria, Modio-
morpha. TJie marine fossils are restricted to the lower half of
the series ; the higher beds only contain a few poorly preserved
plants.. The Bokkeveld beds are mainly argillaceous, but there
are alsO. thick bands of sandstones which occur regularly over
wide areas, but south of the Langebergen these sandstone bands
are not so easily recognised as to the north, and the series becomes
more a.rgillaceous. The Witteberg series consists of quartzitic -
sandstones and shales from which a few plant remains are the
only known fossils. The evidence obtained from the Cape forma-
tion shows that during the later half of Palaeozoic times the southern
part. of the Colonial area was undergoing slow depression and that
great thicknesses of sands and muds were deposited under fiuviatile
and perhaps lacustrine conditions ; and also that at one stage
the ocean gained access to this area, but soon gave place to fresh
water. The fresh water conditions under which the Witteberg
beds were deposited appear to have been maintained during the
time represented by the Karroo formation. This great and con-
tinuous period represented by non-marine deposits probably
lasted from well within the Devonian epoch to the early part of
the Jurassic.
West of the folded belt and north of the Karroo basin the only
rocks met with, except recent deposits and a few outliers of the
Cape and Karroo formations, are older than the Cape system.
On stratigraphical and lithological grounds these rocks have been
divided into several series ; in the west we have the Malmesbury
beds, a great group of phyllites, quartzitic rocks and limestones,
about which there is but little known ; these beds have been
greatly disturbed by earth movements and invaded by immense
masses of granite. The metamorphism exhibited by the beds
round the south end of the Namaqualand granite proves that the
latter, perhaps the largest mass of granite in South Africa, is
intrusive in the Malmesbury series. There are at least two other
groups of Pre-Cape rocks, the Ibiquas and Nieuwerust series, in
the west. The Ibiquas group consists of conglomerates, slates,
shales, and sandstones ; the conglomerates contain boulders
derived from the Malmesbury beds and from the granite. The
Nieuwerust beds are quartzite, arkose, and shales ; the arkose
is made up of fragments of the Namaqualand granite upon which
these beds rest at certain places, but in other localities they lie
upon the Ibiquas beds, and in others again on the Malmesbury.
The areas of Nieuwerust beds at present known are characterised
by the comparatively low dips of their strata and by the existence
of numerous faults with downthrows towards the east. These
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY. 247
faults, are members of a group of dislocations surrounding the north
and north-western sides of the Ibiquas area of Van Rhyn's Dorp
and Calvinia, and they ^re certainly older than the Dwyka con-
glomerate, which overlies the rocks on either side of the fault on
Ezel Kop Vlak^e and Klomp Boomen. and they are very probably
of PreTCape age.
The Cango beds are only known from the Cango district south of
the Zwartebergen ; they consist of conglomerates, porphyroids and
felspathic grits, slates and limestones. The conglomerates contain
many varieties of rocks in the form of pebbles, including granite,
but the source whence these came is uncertain. The Cango beds
have been invaded by many dykes of basic and intermediate com-
position, but no intrusion of granite occurs in them.
In the northern divisions, from Prieska and Kenhardt to the
borders of Rhodesia, there is an entirely different succession of pre-
Cape rocks from those known in the south and west and it is still
uncertain whether any one series of beds is common to the two areas.
The oldest of the northern . groups is probably the 'Keis series,
quartzites and quartz-schists, which form some hills in Prieska, and
which are unconforraably overlain by the, Campbell Rand group in
Griqualand West. The quartzites and cherty limestones of the
Campbell Rand series build up the escarpment of that name in
Griqualand West, and are probably, the direct continuation of the
Black. Reef and dolomite formations of the Transvaal. In Prieska
the Campbell Rand beds are overlain conformably by the Griqua-
town beds, a series of banded quartzites and jaspers containing mag-
netite, and heavy ferruginous rocks in which the iron is not in the
form of magnetite ; these beds form the Doornbergen in Prieska
and the Asbestos and other ranges in Griqualand West. The well-
known amphibole, crocidolite, and its various altered forms occur
in veins in this series. It is probable that the Griquatown beds are
the equivalents of the Pretoria series. Overlying the Campbell
Rand rocks unconformably are the conglomerates and quartzites
of the Matsap series ; they contain fragments of the magnetite rocks
probably derived from the Griquatown beds. There is an impor-
tant group of amygdaloidal lavas in Prieska and Griqualand West,
which probably belong to the Ventersdorp series of the Transvaal,
but in Prieska evidence has not yet been obtained to prove that the
Zeekoe Baard amygdaloids underlie the Campbell Rand beds. A
somewhat remarkable breccia in connection with these lavas was
found at Ezel Klauw in Prieska during the survey of that Division,
and the recent work in the Transvaal and Bechuanaland has shown
that a similar breccia is associated with the Ventersdorp lavas below
the Black Reef series.
There are many varieties of igneous rocks associated with the
ancient sedimentary beds of Prieska and Griqualand West. Granite
and gneiss are the most abundant, and they were apparently
intruded after the Griquatown beds were laid down. Ampibolites,
augite-granulites serpentines, and gabbros also occur. The
Namaqualand granite is remarkable in being traversed by bodies
248 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
of enstatite-bearing rock which contains copper Ore as one of its
constituent minerals.
The Pre-Cape rocks of the north form several' important hill
ranges whose trend is in the direction of the strike of the rocks, but
these hills are evidently very much smaller than the mountains, of
which they are the remnants. This great denudation took place
mainly before the deposition of the Dwyka conglomerate, for out-
liers and tongues of the latter are found partially filling valleys in
the hilly country, and the proportion of the rock removed
since the old hills were again laid bare by the removal
of the unconformably overlying beds is clearly insignificant
compared with the results of the earlier denudation. The
Dwyka conglomerate and the overlying shales are qiiite
unaffected by the earth movements that folded the old
rocks, though in the south of the Colony the conglomerate is
involved in the folds that aiiect the Cape formation ; hence- we see
that the folded strata in the north, were disturbed at a much earlier
period than the Cape formation in the south, and a consideration of
all the evidence leads to the belief that the northern folded rocks
are themselves much older than the Cape formation.
In the southern districts the Pre-Cape sedimentary rocks do not
make conspicuous features in the landscape. There the granite
masses form the only conspicuous hills, with the exception of outliers
of Table Mountain sandstone, in the area chiefly occupied by the
Pre-Cape rocks outside the folded belt ; the Paarl Mountain is an
example of these granite hills.
The Karroo formation is from some points of view the most
interesting in the country. At its base are found the glacial deposits
which afford more obvious evidence of glaciation on a grand scale
in comparatively early times (Carboniferous) than any other known
strata ; and the higher series contain a weadth of reptilian remains
that are the more valuable on account of their preservation in a great
vertical succession of strata probably laid down under more or less
constant conditions. When one considers the results hitherto ob-
tained by comparative anatomists from the material already col-
lected, in many cases imperfectly and without sufficient record of
stratigraphical position, it is certain that much greater results will
be arrived at in the near future from the more systematic collecting
that will probably be carried out.
The general distribution of the Dwyka series has already been
described. The most important member of the series is the con-
glomerate which is both underlain and overlain by thinner groups
of shale and sandstone south of the Karroo. The conglomerate
has a dark bluish matrix in the southern districts, where the rock
has been considerably altered from its original condition by harden-
ing due to earth movements, but in the north and north-west the
matrix is usually a grey mudstone. The matrix has been found to
be laminated in places in each district where the conglomerate has been
examined, but both in the north and south there are of ten considerable
thicknesses of conglomerate without noticeable lamination ;
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY. 249
these thin-bedded portions are not known to be confined to
particular horizons. It is rarely that definite bands of boulders
occur ; as a rule both the large and small boulders are scattered
without any apparent arrangement through the matrix whether the
latter be laminated or not. In the western Karroo a layer about
•eight feet thick of large boulders has been followed for several miles,
and south of Laingsburg there is a similar bed. In the southern
Karroo the lowest part of the conglomerate contains small pebbles
■only, and it differs from the upper part of the Lower Dwyka shales
merely by the presence of these pebbles. The conglomerate in the
50uth gives rise to outcrops of a peculiar appearance owing to the
roughly-developed cleavage, which causes the outcrops to assume
pillowy forms. The more or less lenticular masses bounded by
•curved cleavage cracks lie parallel to the strike of the beds and of
the rocks forming the ranges south of the Karroo. Near Karroo
Poort, where the east and west folds meet those which trend north
.and south, the conglomerate has no longer the usual pillow structure
but a modification of it, and weathers out into conical masses with
jnore or less circular sections instead of the elliptical sections given
by the pillowy rock. Northwards from Karroo Poort the con-
iglomerate loses this rough cleavage and becomes more and more
Jike the rock seen near Prieska and Hopetown, a somewhat hardened
mudstone. The pebbles and boulders were derived from a great
variety of rocks of sedimentary, metamorphic, and' igneous origin.
In the south, south-west, and north there are amongst the boulders
many varieties of rocks recognisable as belonging to groups that
•occur in Griqualand West, Prieska and Namaqualand. In the case
•of the Pondoland conglomerate there are fewer rocks whose sources
are known, but some of the boulders may have come from the north
•of the Colony or the Transvaal. In every district where the con-
glomerate has been observed by the officers of the Geological Survey
typically scratchec} blocks, such as are found in modern and Pleisto-
•cene glacial deposits in the northern hemisphere, have been obtained
from it. These striated stones are more numerous, or rather, more
easily found, to the north and west of the Karroo, where the con-
glomerate is a comparatively soft rock, than in the south, where
■earth movements have affected it, and where the pebbles usually
break in the attempt to free them from their matrix. In Pondo-
land-, again, the matrix becomes less hard, and well-striated boulders
■can be obtained with ease. In the country near the Orange and
Vaal rivers the old rock surface on which the conglomerate rests is
•exposed at several places, and well preserved roches moutonnees have
been found at Jackal's Water in Prieska, Vilet's Kuil in Hopetown,
and at the junction of the Orange and Vaal rivers ; these rock
surfaces are of quartzite, volcanic rocks, and limestones respectively.
In these localities the form of the surfaces and the direction of the
striae on them show that the ice moved southwards ; this evidence
is in agreement with that of a similar nature obtained in the Trans-
-vaal, and with our knowledge as to the probable sources of certain
of the boulders in the conglomerate round the Karroo. In the west
250 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
of the Karroo, at Eland's Vley, there is preserved a surface oi
previously^deposited conglomerate over which solid ice travelled;
the superficial boulders were pressed down flush with this surface
and striated in a direction parallel with well-marked shallow furrows
on the matrix. This "boulder-pavement" is covered by a con-
siderable thickness of later conglomerate.
The conglomerate is overlain by the so-called Upper Dwyka
shales, which always include black shales that appear white at
their outcrop owing to the oxidation of the carbonaceous matter
in them. These beds are probably on the horizon of the coal
measures of Vereeniging, but in spite of the numerous exposures
round the Colonial portion of the Karroo basin and the labours
of prospectors, no coal has been found in them within Ca,pe Colony.
At Vereeniging a fairly rich flora occurs in these beds or close
above them, but in Cape Colony the only fossil that is certainly
known from them is Mesosaurus, though several plants belonging
to species that occur at Vereeniging have been found in the over-
lying Ecca beds in the north of the Karroo and at Worcester. In
the south of the Colony the uppermost bed of black, white-weather-
ing chert is taken as the top of the Upper Dwyka shales, but north-
east of the Calvinia district this means of separating the two series
has not yet been, found. It has been found convenient to limit
the term " Ecca beds " to the rocks that lie between the Upper
Dwyka shales and the Iqwest beds that contain Pareiasaurus ■
thus defined the Ecca beds in the southern Karroo. include a con-
siderable (some 2,600 feet) thickness of sandstone and shale con-
taining Glossopteris, Gangamopteris. and Phyllotheca, but the first
and last named plants extend upwards into the Beaufort series.
Calcareous nodules are abundant in many of the shales. The Ecca
beds occupy the great ■ Karroo south of a line drawn east and
west near Prince Albert Road ; near Laingsburg the thick sand-
stones belonging to the middle part of the series are conspicuous
on account of their having been folded, and they appear jn long
high hog-back ridges on either side of the railway line. There
is no obvious change in the country where the Beaufort beds
come in. The chief interest of the Beaufort beds lies in the abund-
ance of fossil reptiles contained in them. An account of these
and of the Stormberg reptiles will be found in another chapter
of this handbook, so we need here touch upon their stratigraphical
value only. The exact position from which many of the species
came is not known, but there is little doubt that the Beaufort
and Stormberg beds will be divided up into definite groups by
their help, At present it is known that Pareiasaurus, Oudenod&n,
and large Dinocephalians occur in the lowest part of the Beaufort
series, and that these beds are followed by strata containing
Anomodonts, of which DicynoAon is one of the more important,,
many Therocephalians and some other reptiles, as well as fish,
Palaeoniscus, two genera of Larriellibranchs, Palaeomutela and
Palaeanodonta, and the plants Schizoneura and Glossopteris ; the
uppermost (Burghersdorp) group of the - Beaufort series is
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY. 25 1
characterised by. Cynognaihus, Microgomphodon, Batrachosaurus,.
and Diaynodon latifrons, and the fishes Ssmionotus., Ckithrolepis also'
occur in them and not in the Storniberg beds, as was formerly
thought to be the case. These groups of strata are ill-defined,
and their exact limits, both vertical and horizontal, are unknown ;
Glossopteris occurs in the Burghersdorp beds, but it has not been
found in the succeeding Molteno group, where the chief plants
are Thinnfeldia, Cladophlebis, Taeniopteris, Chiropteris, Baiera,
Phoenicopsis, and Stenopteris.
Some Phyllocarid crustaceans and wings of orthopterous insects
allied to cockroaches have recently been found in shales included
in the Cave sandstone, and a crocodile,- Noiochampsa, has been
obtained from the Cave sandstone and Red beds ; Ceratodus is
found in the Red beds ; Dinosaurs also occur in Cave sandstone
and Red beds.
From the base of the Ecca to the top of the Burghersdorp
beds there is little variation in the nature of the shales and sand-
stones, often slightly calcareous, that succeed each other in monoto-
nous regularity. The thicker groups of sandstone strata in the
Beaufort series give rise to- more or less extensive plateaux and
terraces on the face of the great Nieuweveld escarpment and its
analogues. In the Molteno beds coal seams are of importance,
but in the Beaufort series the only .known coals are thin and not
payable. The coarse sandstones in .the Molteno beds differ fronx
the sandstones at lower horizons in the larger size of their con-
stituent grains and in the extensive deposition of quartz on the
original quartz-grains, which has often produced small pyramidal
crystals. The occurrence of pebbles; occasionally in sufficient
abundance to form beds of conglomerate, is. much more frequent
than in the Beaufort or Ecca series. These facts prove that in
Stormberg times the area of deposition within, our borders was
narrower than previously, and that the land was nearer the north-
eastern part of the present Colonial watershed. It is very probable
that the southern mountain belt was in existence during the
deposition , of the Molteno beds, and that it was connected with
land which lay off the present coast of Pondoland and Natal.
Slight local unconformities are frequently met with throughout
the beds above the Dwyka series ; usually a hollow in shale or
mudstone is filled in with sandstone belonging to the overlying
bed. The sandstone is often underlain by a few inches of clay-
pellet conglomerate, in which lumps of shale or mudstone are
embedded in a sandy matrix ; pebbles of granite or other rock
are very rarely met with in these conglomerates but rolled pieces
of bone are not infrequently seen. False bedding and ripple-
marked surfaces recur again and again throughout the Karroo
formation. The rocks were evidently deposited in shallow
water, and as the maximum thickness of the Karroo formation,
excluding the Dwyka and volcanic beds, is probably not less
than 14,000 feet, the area of deposition must have undergone;
slow depression. The numerous local unconformities may mean
252 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
that parts of the area were above the water for short periods in
the form of mud islands, which sank or were washed away after a
short existence.
The Red beds and Cave sandstoiie have different characters
from the lower strata. The Red beds comprise a varying thickness
of red shales and sandstones, and the Cave sandstone is a very
peculiar thick-bedded yellowish-white sandstone. During the
deposition of the Cave sandstone volcanic activity commenced
in the Drakensberg region, for both lava and ash beds are inter-
calated with the sandstone, and at places the volcanic beds lie
directly upon the Red beds, the Cave sandstone having been
locally removed by denudation before the volcanic outburst.
The volcanoes were spread broadcast over a large area, including
Basutoland, lying north-west of the Drakensberg escarpment,
■only a few necks have been found on the coast side of the escarp-
ment, and they lie within a few miles of it. Lavas were the chief
product of the volcanoes, and they are basic andesites, basalts
and dolerites. The necks are filled with volcanic tuff, breccias
containing much material of non-volcanic origin, and lava. For
a considerable time the lavas were poured out under water. The
thickness of the volcanic series reaches 4,000 feet in the Colony,
but a considerable part of the group must have been removed
by denudation.
The Karroo formation cannot yet be correlated at all closely
with European strata, but recent discoveries in Russia point to
the Pareiasaurus and Dicynodon beds being of Permian age ; this
is in agreement with the conclusion drawn by Seward from the
Ecca plants, that they are probably of Upper Carboniferous age.
The Dwyka series must therefore be regarded as of Carboniferous
age. The Molteno plants are considered by Seward to belong to
the Rhaetic, and the recently discovered Notochampsa from the
Red beds and Cave sandstone is a crocodile according to Broom,
and its nearest ally is Pelagosaurus of the Upper Lias : true croco-
•diles are not known from the Trias. It is probable, therefore,
that the upper part of the Stormberg series is of Jurassic age,
and that the volcanic outbursts belong to that period.
The great similarity in palaeontological and lithological
•characters between the Karroo formation and the Gondwana
beds of India and the related beds of Australia is one of the facts that
point to very material differences between the distribution of land
in former times, and that which now exists.
It is worthy of nbtice that though from the base of the Cape to
the top of the Karroo formatiorl a thickness of over 26,000 feet
of sediment, marine fossils are known from only about 1,500 feet
of the Bokkeveld series, and consequently the bulk of these beds
was laid down in a non-marine area, yet there are no beds of soluble
salts, such as gypsum and common salt, in them. The gypsum
and other salts which are met with in the country occupied by
the Dwyka series are products of weathering and not original
■constituents of the strata. We have, therefore, no evidence that
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY. 253.
any part of this body of rock \yas formed in a region without an
outlet to the sea.
The volcanic beds of the Stormberg are traversed by dykes of
dolerite, which apparently belong to the great group of dolerite
intrusions that are very widely distributed north of the Great
Karroo. Sheets belonging to these intrusions crown a great
part of the Roggeveld-Nieuweveld escarpment and many of
the flat-topped hills behind it. Their northern boundary is not
known, but, with the exception of a few dykes in the less disturbed
part of the folded belt and the Cape Peninsula, they no not occur
south of the hne marked on the accompanying map (p. 259).
Individual sheets have been traced more than 100 miles through the
country, and they may attain a thickness of 900 feet. The intrusion
of these great masses of dolerite was not accompanied by great
disturbances of the rocks ; the dolerite seems to have welled up
and along planes that offered but slight resistance to its passage.
The Cretaceous rocks occur only near the coast ; they are not
found north of the Zwartebergen. They are easily divided into
two groups, an older and a younger. The older group is known
as the Uitenhage formation ; in the Uitenhage district it is com-
posed of three members : the Enon beds, consisting of conglomerates
and sands, at the base ; the Wood beds, clays, sands and limestones,
containing a number of fossil plants and a few mollusca ; and the
Sunday's River beds with a rich marine fauna. The maximum
thickness of these beds is unknown, but it must be over 2,000 feet.
There are important outliers of the series in Oudtshoorn, Knysna,
Willowmore, Mossel Bay, Riversdale, Swellendam and Worcester.
In all these cases the Uitenhage beds occupy old valleys excavated
in the Pre-Cape, Cape and lower part of the Karroo formations ;
but the valleys have been deepened by earth movements, either
in the form of a synclinal fold as in Uitenhage, or by normal faults
with southern downthrow as in Willowmore, and probably also
in several of the other outliers. These movements took place
in post-Uitenhage times and followed the directions of the pre-
Uitenhage disturbances, though they were on a much smaller
scale. The plants of the Uitenhage beds have closer relation-
ship to those of the Wealden of England than to those of Jurassic
strata ; the chief genera are Onychiopsis, Cladophlebis, Sphenopteris,
and Zamites. The age of the marine fauna of the Sunday's River
beds is shown by the genera Hamites, Baculites, Crioceras, Olcoste-
phanus, certain Trigoniae, and Ptychomya to be Neocomian (Lower
Cretaceous). These molluscs are almost restricted to the beds
in the Uitenhage district, for Trigonia conocardiiformis is the
only member of the fauna yet found elsewhere in the Colony,
in the sandstones and conglomerate of Plettenberg Bay.
The Pondoland Cretaceous beds are found only on the coast
north-east of St. John's River. They are faulted down against
the Table Mountain series, below the Egossa Forest the Ecca
beds, lying unconformably under the Embotyi beds, intervene
for a short distance between them and the fault. The Umzamba,
254 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
or marine series, is a groap of sandy limestones, containing a large
number of moUusca which point to the age of the beds being Upper
Senonian. The Embotyi beds are conglomerates and sands ;
their chief interest lies in the boulders of dolerite contained in them,
for the source of the boulders was evidently the intrusions of late
or post-Stormberg age, and a later limit to the date of the intrusions
is thus fixed.
Within the Colony there are many volcanic pipes of peculiar
<;haracter scattered irregularly through the country. They occur
between Matatiele on the east and Van Rhyn's Dorp on the west,
and from Heidelberg in the south to Griqualand West. They are
of various dimensions, and some are elongated and resemble dykes
more than the usual form of volcanic pipes. The contents vary
greatly ; at Spiegel River in Riversdale, and in Sutherland melilite-
basalt fills pipes and dykes, at places entirely, and at others only
partly, the rest of the contents beiiig breccia or tuff. Other pipes
in Sutherland are filled with a serpentinous breccia which contains
large pieces of ilmenite, augite, hornblende, mica, and of several
varieties of igneous and sedimentary rocks. At Kimberley a
somewhat similar serpentinous breccia contains diamond in addi-
tion to many minerals common to it and other pipes of this group.
At Saltpetre Kop in Sutherland both the pipes and dykes are
filled with breccia that was chiefly derived from sedimentary rocks,
but some of the minerals found in the serpentinous breccia occur
in these rocks also. Near Van Rhyn's Dorp there is a large pipe
filled entirely with breccia made up of non-volcanic rocks. As
to the age of these pipes there is not much known ; the Spiegel
River pipe is younger than the Uitenhage beds through which
it passes ; the other pipes traverse the Karroo or Pre-Cape forma-
tions. There are many intermediate stages between the extreme
types of Spiegel River and Van Rhyn's Dorp, and all the pipes are
characterised by a complete independence of the known tectonic
structure of the country ; they often, but not invariably, occur
in groups, but their distribution seems to be quite sporadic.
The superficial sub-recent deposits of the southern part of the
Colony are widely spread and include many varieties of rock,
but a connected history of them has not yet been made out. The
high-level gravels are of great importance in the country south
of the great Karroo ; they occur at levels of from 600 to 2,000 feet
above the sea, and traces of stiE higher terraces have been observed.
These are usually unfossiliferous gravels and quartzites ; the
quartzites have probably been formed in fresh water marshy
places. Similar quartzites occur at very slight elevations in the
Cape and ]\Ialmesbury Divisions. Along the coast raised beaches
and hardened sand-dunes exist in many localities, and there is
evidence to connect the oldest of these with the gravels and quart-
zites of the 600—1,200 feet plateau just behind the coast.
The most interesting fossil from the recent deposits is'Bubalus
baini, a gigantic ox, obtained from alluvial loam near the Modder
River.
g£ology of cape colony. 255
The chief conclusions to be drawn from the recent deposits is
that the whole of the Colony, south of the main watershed at least,
and probably the drainage basin of the Orange River also, has
risen more or less continuously for a long period ; a conclusion
that is in agreement with the fact that many of the rivers have
steep gradients to within a few miles of the sea ; some fall through
J, 000 feet in the last two miles of their courses.
List of Books and Papers from which further Information
AND References are obtainable, relating to : —
(i) The Colony generally :
Bain, A. G. On the geology of Southern Africa. Trans. Geol.
Soc, London, Vol. VII., pp. 175-192, 1856.
Corstorphine, G. S. The history of stratigraphical investiga-
tion in South Africa., Report of the S. African Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, Second Meeting, 1904,
pp. 145-181.
Feistmantel, O. Uebersichtliche Darstellung der geologisch-
palaeontologischen Verhaltnisse Siid-Afrikas. /. Theil.
Ahh. der Kon. hohm. ges der Wiss, VII., Folge, 3 Bd.,
pp. 6-89, 1889.
Green, A. H. A contribution to the geology and physical
geography of the Cape Colony. Quart. Joiirn. Geol.
Soc, Vol. XLIV., 1888, pp. 53-72.
Rogers, A. W. Introduction to the geology of Cape Colony,
with a chapter on the fossil reptiles of the Karroo forma-
tion by R. Broom, M.D., London, 1905.
Schenck, a. Die geologische entwickelung Siid-Afrikas. Pet.
Mitt., 34 Bd., pp. 225-232, Gotha, 1888.
Wilman, M. Catalogue of printed books, papers and maps
relating to the geology and mineralogy of South Africa.
Trans. S.A. Phil. Soc, Vol. XV., 1905.
Wyley, a. Report of the Geological Surveyor, etc., with an
appendix. Parliamentary Report, G. 5,4, CapeTown, 1859.
(2) Pre-Cape Rocks :
Cohen, E. Geognostisch-petrographische skizzen ans Siid-
Afrika. Neues Jahrbuch fur Min., etc., 1874.
Dunn, E. J. Report on a gold-prospecting expedition in Nama-
qualand. Parliamentary Report, Q. 21, Qa.Y>Qi:6v^n, iSy?.
Geological Commission, Annual Reports of, for 1896-1904.
256 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
KuxTz, J. Kupfererz Vorkomnisse in Siid-west-afrika. Zeit..
f.prakt. Geol., 1904, p. 199.
KuNTZ, J. Copper ore in South-West Africa. Trans. Geol.
Soc. of S. Africa, Vol. VII., p. 70.
Stow, G. W. Geological notes upon Griqualand West, with
descriptions of the specimens by T. R. Jones. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc, Vol. XXX, pp. 581-680, 1874.
(3) Cape Formation :
Geological Commission, Annual Reports of, for 1896-1904.
Lake, P. The trilobites of the Bokkeveld Beds. Ann. S.A.
Museum, Vol. IV., p. 201, 190.
Reed, F. R. C. Brachiopoda from the Bokkeveld Beds. Ann..
S.A. Museum, Vol. IV., p. 165.
Reed, F. R. C. MoUusca from the Bokkeveld Beds. Ann..
S.A. Museum, Vol. IV., p. 239.
(4) Karroo Formation :
Amalitzky, W. a .comparison of the Permian Freshwater
Lamellibranchiata from Russia with those from the
Karroo System of South Africa. Quart. Journ. Geol.
Soc, Lond., Vol. LI., p. 337, 1895.
Dunn, E. J. Report on the Stormberg Coal Fields. Parlia-
mentary Report, G. 4, Cape Town, 1878.
Dunn, E. J. Report on a supposed extensive deposit of coal
underlying the central districts of the Colony. Parlia-
mentary Report, G. 8, Cape Town, 1886.
Feistmantel, O. Op. cit.
Geological Commission, Annual Reports of, for 1896-1904.
ScHWARZ, E. H. L. The volcanoes of Griqualand East. Trans.
S.A. Phil. Soc,\o\. XIV.
Seward, A. C. Fossil Floras of Cape Colony, Parts II. and III.
Ann. S.A. Museum, Vol. IV., pp. 47-101.
DU Toit, a. L. The formation of the Drakensberg. Trans.
S.A.Phil. Soc, Yo\. XV.
(5) Uitenhage Formation :
Atherstone, W. G. Geology of Uitenhage. Eastern Province
Monthly Magazine, Vol. I., pp. 518-532 and pp. 580-595,
GrahamstoWn, 1857.
Geological Commission, Annual Reports of, for 1897-1904.
HOLUB, E., AND Neumayr, M. Ueber einige Fossilien aus der
Uitenhage Formation in Stid-Afrika. Denkschr. d.
Math, naturwiss. Classe der K. Akad. der Wiss., Bd.
XLIV., Vienna, 1881.
Krauss, F. Ueber einige Petrefacten aus der untern Kreide
des Kaplandes. Nov. Act. Acad. Caes. Leop.-Car. Nat.
Cur., Vol. XXII., pp. 441-464, 1845.
Seward. Op. cit, pp. 1-46.
Stow, G. W. On some points in South African geology. Quart.
• Journ. Geol. Soc, Lond., Vol. XXVII. , pp. 497-548, 187I.
GEOLOGY OF CAPE COLONY. 257
Tate, R. On some secondary fossils from South Africa. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc, Lond., Vol.. XXIII., pp. 139-175,
1867.
(6) Cretaceous of Pondoland :
Chapman, F. Foraminifera and Ostracoda from the Cre-
taceous of East Pondoland, South Africa. Ann. S.A.
Museum, Vol. IV., pp. 221-236, 1904.
Geological Commission, Annual Report of, for 1901.
Garden, R. J., and Baily, W. H. Notice of some cretaceous
rocks near Natal, South Africa; and descriptions of
some cretaceous fossils from South Africa, etc. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc, Lond., Vol. XL, pp. 453-463, 1855.
Griesbach, C. L. On the geology of Natal, in South Africa.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, Lond., Vol. XXVII., pp. 53-72.
(7) Volcanic Pipes of Kimberley, Sutherland, etc. :
Bonney, T. G. The Parent-rock of the Diamond in South
Africa. Geol. Mag., 1899, p. 309.
DE Launay, L. Les Diamants du Cap. Paris, 1897.
Lewis, H. Carvill. Papers and notes on the genesis and
matrix of the diamond. London, 1897.
Rogers, A. W., and du Toit, A. L. The Sutherland Volcanic
Pipes and their relationship to other vents in South
Africa. Trans. S.A. Phil. Soc, Vol. XY.
Williams, G. F. The Diamond Mines of South Africa, New
York, 1902.
(8) Recent Deposits :
Geological Commission, Cape of Good Hope, Annual Reports of,
for 1896-1904.
ScHWARZ, E. H. L. Tiie High-level Gravels of the Cape and
the Problem of the Karroo Gold. Trans. S.A. Phil.
Soc, Vol. XV.
258
SCIENCE I\ SOUTH AFRICA.
Table of Formations.
£ . i,
rt g ^ « = -
B = j! 3 S i^
•S S 5 f= &■=
f Alluvial and estuarine deposits of modern rivers.
Recent De- J Dune sands and limestones derived from them,
posits. I Sands of the Western Sandveld, and laterites.
L High-Jevel gravels and surface quartzites.
Cretaceous
System.
Karroo
System.
Cape
System.
C Pondoland Ci e- t Umzamba (marine) beds,
taceous Series. ( Embotyi beds.
I f Sunday River (marine) beds
L Uitenhage Series \ Wood beds
1_ Enon beds
r Volcanic beds
r ,,. , o • I Cave sandstone
f Stormberg Ser.es { ^^^ ^^^^
L Molteno beds
f Burghersdorp beds
Beaufort Series \ Dicynodon beds
L Pareiasaurus beds
Ecca Series
Dwyka Series
f Shales and thin sandstones
-{ Laingsburg beds
L Shales
f Upper Shales
\ Conglomerates
l_ Lower Shales
Witteberg Series
Bokkeveld Series
[ Table Mountain Series
, 1,400 ft.
500 ft.
. 4,000 ft.
. 800 ft.
. 1,400 ft.
. 2,000 ft.
5,000 ft. ?
2,600 ft.
. 600 ft.
, 1,000 ft.
, 700 ft.
.2.500 ft.
. 2,500 ft.
. 5,000 ft.
O
H
O
(In Xorth.)
C Matsap Series.
Pre-Cape J Griquatown Series.
Rocks. 1 Campbell Rand Series.
\ Ventersdorp beds. ?
i_ Keis Series.
(In West.)
Nieuwcrust beds.
Ibiquas beds.
Mahnesbury beds.
(In South.)
Cango beds.
Malmesburv beds.
S2
SECTION v.— GEOLOG-ICAL-(co»<(/.)
2. GEOLOGY OF NATAL AND ZULULAND.*
By William Anderson, F.R.S.E., F.G.S., Government
Geologist, Natal.
A resume of the papers dealing with the geology of Natal is
published in the first report of the Geological Survey (1901). The
earliest geological observations, recorded in 1855,1 occur as far
back as 1824, when Mr. H. F. Fynn discovered the fossUiferous
Cretaceous deposits on the south-east coast of Natal, at the mouths
of the Umtamvuna, JJmzambani ,and Impenyati rivers. Up to
the end of the century reference to Natal geology were not of
frequent occurrence. The most important of these are papers by
Mr. C. L. Griesbach ^ .and Dr. Sutherland.' In the case of the
former an admirable sketch of Natal geology, accompanied by a
geological map was ptiblished in the Journal of the Geological
Society of London. Dr., Sutherland, during his tenure of office as
Surveyor-Gi^eral, produced a number of valuable papers, dealing
with subjecl^.of special interest in the geology of South Africa.
Within later years Natal has received much more attention from
South African geologists, owiijg to the interest which has been
taken in her coal resources, together with the fact that during the
war the country became known^as a feasibly-accessible airea.
The physical configuration of Natal and Zululand results from a
series of plateaux, occurringjat various levels between the coast and
the high plateaux of the Orange River Colony and -the Southern
Transvaal. The principal irivers have their sources ^6n the eastern
slopes of the Drakensberg Range, which culihinates w^hin 160
miles of the coast in Mont-aux-sources, 11,500 feet above ^ea level.
In their course to the ocean they have carved the main valleys in a
more or less south-easterly direction, throi^gh the series of plateaux,
and therefore across the various formations, whose outcrops gener-
ally run parallel to the coast. In the majority of cases they are
deeply cut, and present, particularly in the lower part of their
courses, extremely rugged features, where they have been eroded
through the Palaeozoic formations and the granites. The moun-
tains are, in all cases, mountains of denudation, while the sand
dunes of the littoral are hills of accumulation. They are very
diverse in form, but a prevailing feature, which occurs in almost
every district, is the flat, table-topped mountain or hill, usually
resulting from the presence of sandstone or basalt as a capping.
* For List of Authorities see end of Paper.
GEOLOGY OF NATAL AND 2ULULAND. 261
In Zululand the interior does not rise to so great a height, the
highest point in the Province being the Qudeni Mountain in the
Nkandhla district, which is about 6,000 feet above sea level. The
flat, sandy littoral varies from 5 to 50 miles in width, while some of
the sand hills fringing the coast line are said to attain a height of
600 feet. The principal river, the Umfolosi, which enters the sea
at the outlet of Saint Lucia Lake, drains nearly half the area of the
Province. Lakes of large size occur along the littoral, of which St.
Lucia, Kosi and Sibayi are the largest. The two first are salt, while
the last-mentioned is quite fresh and has no surface opening to the
sea. The Umhlatuzi lagoon at the mouth of the river of that
name has been proposed as a harbour for Zululand.
The general geology is of a very simple character. It consists of
an axis of granitic and metamorphic rocks; which are exposed by
denudation, at a varying distance from the coast, from St. John's
River mouth through Natal, Western Zululand into Swaziland.
This outcrop gradually widens as it is followed northwards, until it
forms the chief rock exposure in Swaziland. Flanking both sides
of this axis, geologically the most ancient portion of the East Coast,
the oldest sedimentary formations rest unconf ormably against each
other. These are representatives of the Lower Witwatersrand
Series, the Table Mountain Sandstones, and the Ecca Glacial Con-
glomerate. To the west of this axis the oldei: Palaeozoic rocks are
covered by a conformable series, beginning with the Ecca Shales, the
Beaufort Beds, the Stormberg Beds, the Red Beds, the Cave Sand-
stones, and finishing, on the top of the Drakensberg Range, with the
basaltic lavas, which rest unconformably on the top of the whole
Karoo Series. The newer Secondary and Tertiary rocks only occur
as isolated outliers fringing the coast of Natal, and in Zululand form,
below the Pleistocene sands, the rocks of the littoral, which, in the
north, extend 50 miles inland. These younger rocks never occur
on the higher plateaux of the uplands, while rocks of more recent
age are only present on the coast as sand dunes, raised beaches, etc.,
and inland as lake and alluvial deposits.
The following is a list of the geological formations which, up to
the present, I have observed in this Colony and Zululand. In
reference to the Cretaceous, the beds from the three different locali-
ties are not arranged chronologically : —
( Cave deposits with remains of primitive man.
Recent and J river and lake alluvial deposits, diatomaceous
_ Pleistocene. 1 earth, surface ironstone, raised beaches and
( wind-blown sands -of coast.
f Calcareous marls,clays and lignites with variously
coloured sands, sandstones and conglomerates
containing a marine fauna ; Foraminifera,
Tertiary. i Mollusca, Crustacea, Pisces, Reptilia and
Mammalia.
Calcareous sandstones of the Bluff, Durban (prob-
ably here).
262 SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
( Umtamvuna Beds, South- East Coast, Natal.
Cretaceous. ■) Littoral of Zululand.
( The Bluff, Durban (in bore).
( Plateaux Basalts, top of Drakensberg Range.
Upper Karoo. < Cave Sandstones, Drakensberg Range.
( Red Beds, Drakensberg Range.
Lower Karoo {Stormberg Series, Drakensberg Range.
( Beaufort Beds, west centre of Colony.
p rEcca Coal-bearing Series.
/- u f } Ecca Shales.
Carboniferous. ) s ; — . .
CEcca glacial conglomerate.
Silurian. Table Mountain Sandstones.
Lower (Hospital Hill Series, Nkandhla District and Um-
Transvaal. ( folosi River, south of Ulundi, Zululand.
Swaziland (Gneisses, schists, marbles, etc.
Series. (Granites.
(The black lines show unconformities.)
The oldest series of rocks on the East Coast consist of granites,
gneisses and schists, which outcrop over large areas in each of the
three divisions of this Colony. They form a wide north-east and
south-west belt, extending through Natal and crossing the Tugela
River into Nqutu, Nkandhla and the Melmoth districts of Zululand,
while in Vryheid and Utrecht districts, their exposures are very
extensive.
The granites are usually porphyritic, hornblendic or micaceous,
and either grey or red in colour. The grey granites are more
common than the red, and among both there is great variety, as
regards texture and composition. A large mass of red granite
appears to the south of Park Rynie in the Umzinto district, which
has been used in Durban as a building stone. In the Glendale
Valley in Victoria County they are much sheared and garnetiferous,
and contain a pinkish felspar. At Inchanga they are grey and
porphyritic. Inland from Umzinto, in the neighbourhood of
Dumisa, gold-bearing quartz reefs have been worked in the granite,
but without payable results. The degradation of these granites
often produces, locally, many remarkably-shaped monoliths of
enormous size, which are in some instances grouped together so as
to present a wonderful likeness (although on a much larger scale)
to the Druidical remains of Europe. One such group occurs near
Isidumbeni Police Camp, a few miles to the east of the Noodsberg
Mountains, close to the main road between Pietermaritzburg and
Stanger.
The gneisses and schists usually occur in close association with
the granites. They vary greatly in composition, being hornblendic
or micaceous or contain sericite, andalusite and many other minerals.
GEOLOGY OF NATAL AND ZULULAND. 263
In some districts the presence of felspathic veins is a marked feature.
This is so in the Engoye Mountains, near Eshowe, in Zululand,
where these rocks appear to be seamed with them in a most extra-
ordinary manner. In most of the granitic areas the exposures of
the gneisses and schists are of no great extent, but in the Engoye
Mountains, in the valley of the Tugela River below its junction
with the Buffalo, and in the lower reaches of the""Umzimkulu River
in Natal they outcrop very extensively. In the two last-named
localities metamorphic limestones occur among them. These should
be of considerable value, as calcareous rocks of this kind are seldom
or never present in any of the other formations of the Colony ; with
the exception of the limited outcrops of the calcareous sandstones
and limestones associated with the Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks of
the coast.
These rocks are entirely distinct from the less metamorphosed
rocks, which will be mentioned later on and which usually occur
resting upon them. In fact, it has always seemed to me, since I
began the study of the metamorphic rocks of the East Coast, that
it was more than probable that this series of gneisses and schists
with inter-bedded marbles would prove to be a distinct series
between the Lower Witwatersrand Beds and the granites. They
are probably equivalent to the Swaziland Series of Mr. Hatch,*
which he describes from Mont Mare, near Pietersburg.
In the north-western part of the Melmoth district, which chiefly
consists of the ancient granites, gneisses and schists, overlaid by
Table Mountain Sandstones and local patches of Ecca Glacial Con-
glomerate, the next youngest series of rocks appears. They occur
on the Umhlatuzi River, between Melmoth and Nkandhla, and also
on the White Umfolosi River, above Ulundi Plains. They are
usually highly tilted and consist of quartzites, altered conglomerates
and jasperoid slates. They are only exposed over a very small area
in Zululand but across the border, in the Vryheid district, they are
extensively developed. Both the quartzites and conglomerates,
the latter of which are true banket in character, have been known
to carry gold, but not, so far, in payable quantities. It is prob-
able, as Dr. Molengraaff has suggested, that they represent some
portion of the Witwatersrand Series, probably about the horizon
of the Hospital Hill Series. They have not, however, yet been
worked up, but there is little doubt that their study will prove of
a most interesting character, as it has been suggested, by some
Transvaal geologists, that the Witwatersrand Series may prove to
be the equivalents of the Table Mountain Sandstones, so well
developed in this district, which therefore lends itself to the
investigation of a very important and interesting problem.
Some of the most important formations in the Transvaal and
Cape Colony are absent in Natal and Zululand. The chief among
these is the upper Witwatersrand Beds and the Klip River Amygda-
loid, the whole Transvaal System, consisting of the Black Reef
Series, the Dolomites, the Gatsrand and Magahesberg Series, Red
Granites and Waterberg Sandstones. Of the Cape Colony
264 SCIEN'CE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
formations the omissions are the Ibiquas and Cango Series, and
above the Table Mountain Sandstones the Bokkeveld and Witteberg
Series.
The Table Mountain Sandstones rest unconformably upon the
more ancient granites and metamorphic rocks. Their outcrop is
very extensive, chiefly close to the coast, but it extends inland as
far as Table Mountain near Pietermaritzburg and further north to
the Noodsberg and Krantz .Kop districts and to the western border
of Zululand near Melmoth. To the east of the latter place the beds
attain a thickness of about 2,000 feet but, as a rule, there are only
a few hundred feet of the basement beds left. The formation is
characterised by the almost complete absence of shales and it is
very rarely quartzitic. The beds are usually thin and false bedded.
This can be well seen at the railway ballast quarry near Pinetown.
The section exposed in the railway station at Inchanga exhibits a
typical example of the occurrence of the shales, when they are
present among these sandstones. In all cases they are horizontal,
and often the basement conglomerates of the series are, to a certain
extent, gold-bearing. This is the case iii Victoria County near
Umhlali where there has lately been an effort to establish a gold-
field. These beds have been confounded by the uninitiated with
the banket of the Witwatersrand Series, but the differences are very
wide. In the first place the former are still in their original hori-
zontal position and are entirely unmetamorphosed ; while the
latter, the Rand banket, are usually highly tilted, and have under-
gone extensive metamorphism. Again, the gold in the former is
entirely alluvial gold, derived from the degradation of the granites
and metamorphic rocks on which they rest, and froni which the
material was derived to form them ; while in the latter case, be-
sides the original alluvial gold, there has been subsequently intro-
duced into the banket, probably during its metamorphism, quanti-
ties of gold in solution, which has entered into_ chemical combination
with the pyrites, so plentifully distributed through the banket.
In many other districts similar occurrences have been met with,
but none of them have ever turned out to be paying concerns,
purely from the fact that the gold is distributed widely in patches
througJi the conglomerate and not concentrated, as it would be if
found in the alluvial of an old river channel.
' A magnificent example of, the effects of denudation on, and the
occurrence of the Table Mountain Sandstones in their relation to
the gra'nites and gneisses, is to be seen from the main line of railway
immediately to the south of Botha's Hill Station, which is situated
on the narrow neck forming the watershed between the Umgeni
and Umlaas rivers. Immediately the train leaves this station going
toward* Durban, the railway line descends a cutting in the lowest
beds of the Table Mountain Sandstones. For about a mUe the view
to. the north-east is marvellous in its comprehensiveness ; for 30
miles the eye wanders over the valley of the Umgeni River and the
Inanda division, over a thousand feet below, formed of low, beauti-
fully-rounded hills, and many similar Jiills of some magnitude, while
GEOLOGY OF NATAL AND ZULULAND. 265
away on the sky line the Table Mountain, the Noodsberg and the
coastal plateau of Victoria County show up as precipitous scarps,
as if enclosing this immense area of well-rounded hills of granite
with an encircling wall of Table Mountain Sandstones. The view
is an example of the most picturesque scenery of Natal and of the
most important kind of the effects of denudation, for over the entire
area of exposed granitic hills the Table Mountain Sandstones have
been at one time continuous.
A huge unconformity exists between the Table Mountain Sand-
stones and the succeeding formation present in Natal, the Ecca
Glacial Conglomerate. " This gap in the succession is represented
by the Witteberg and Bokkeveld Series of Cape Colony, and indi-
cates an extended period of time when the East Coast area was not
submerged. These terrestrial conditions obtained right through
the Ecca glacial period, except that most of the land surface became
covered with ice, the evidences of whose presence is still well seen
in the beautifully-striated pavements and roche moutonnee so fre-
quently present on exposed surfaces of Table Mountain Sandstones,
and the relics of whose action are the extensive deposits of morainic
material which we now know as the Ecca Glacial Conglomerate.
This glacial deposit occupies extensive areas in all three divisions
of the Colony. It is present from near the coast of Zululand right
across that Province to the north-west part of the Vryheid district.
In Natal its western limit is roughly a line parallel to the coast
drawn through Pietermaritzburg. Further westward it is covered
by the younger Karoo formations. Its outcrop flanks both sides
of the metamorphic area from St. John's River mouth to the Tugela
River, and isolated outliers of it are dotted along the coast, as far
north as the latter river. It rarely attains any great thickness, but
in some cases, owing to the position it occupies with regard^ to the
old land surface, where it rests upon a slope, it simulates great thick-
ness. A case in point occurs at the junction of the Umquabane and
Umkomaas rivers to the west of Richmond where it outcrops over
the whole of the hill in the fork formed by their junction. It seems
as if its thickness was equal to the height of the hill, but it is quite
evident that it is only a comparatively thin deposit resting upon an
old Palseozoic slope. With regard to the relative positions in which
the outcrops in one district occupy to one another, it is an exceed-
ingly common thing to find that the various outcrops occur at many
different. levels. A case in point occurs some miles to the north of
Eshowe, in the Umhlatuzi River valley, where the river is now
cutting its couESQ through the Ecca Glacial Conglomerate, while the
hills of Table Mountain Sandstone on its southern side are capped by
the same conglomerate. The distance between the two is only a
few miles and the difference of level over 1,500 feet. Shaky de-
posits never occur either below or in the conglomerate ; occasionally
sandy deposits of local and limited extent are present in it, as at
Ulundi. No coal or carbonaceous depQsits arelcnown to o.cur in
immediate association with it, as they do at Vereeniging on the
Vaal River. In fact, no carbonaceous beds are present until near
266 • SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
the top of the overlying Ecca Shales. One of the finest outcrops of
the Ecca Glacial Conglomerate is in the Umgeni Quarries, the stone
of which is used by the Corporation of Durban for street work and
harbour purposes. The quarries are some 3 miles above the mouth*
of the Umgeni River. On the south side they are cut into the north
end of the Berea ridge which consists entirely of glacial conglomerate.
The thickness of the deposit is here considerable, and on the northern
bank of the river, where the other quarry has been opened, the face
presented some time ago an interesting section, where there was
passing diagonally across it, at a low angle, a layer over a foot thick
of boulders, very uniform in size, but much teSgger than the ordinary
pebble and with very little fine material forming a matrix, thus con-
trasting with the ordinary conglomerate where the matrix usually
predominates.
The Ecca Series, with the Beaufort Beds above, are the most
widely distributed of all the formations in Natal, occupying over
two-thirds of the western portion of the Colony. This is also the
case in Zululand and the Vryheid district. The upper portion of
the Ecca Series contains our productive coal measures. There is a
slight unconformity between the glacial conglomerate and the Ecca
Shales. These are barren of fossils and pass up conformably into
the Upper Ecca Coal-bearing Sandstone Series. The following
fossil remains have been obtained from the Natal Coal-bearing
Series (Ecca), proving it to be of Permo-Carboniferous age : —
Glossopteris Browniana var Indica, Bunbury.
Glossopteris Browniana var angustifolia, Brong.
Glossopteris damudica var stenoneura, Feist.
Glossopteris retifera. Feist.
Glossopteris acuta. Dun.
Glossopteris spatulo-cordata, Feist.
Phyllotheca Zeilleri, Eth. fil.
Angiopteridium spatulatum, McClelland.
Estheria Greyii, Jones.
Ganoid scales and teeth.
Although these beds have a very extensive development it is
only in certain districts that payable coal occurs. The same horizon
exists on the coast of Natal, the town hill at Pietermaritzburg, in the
Dundee and Newcastle districts further north, in many parts of the
Vryheid district, and at the Somkele coal-field in Zululand, but only
in the three latter areas has payable coal been met with. In many
other localities not mentioned here, thin, impure seams of coal are
known to occur, but they are useless for marketable purposes. The
quality of the seams varies much, in Zululand they are almost en-
tirely anthracitic, while the best quality comes from Dundee and
Newcastle where they are bituminous. In i88g the coal produc-
tion of the Colony was only 25,609 tons, which has steadily increased
to 713,548 tons for the year 1903. The entire output from the
Somkele Mine in Zululand from December, 1903, to the end of
February, 1905, was 7,354 tons. The major portion of this coal
GEOLOGY OF NATAL AXD ZULULAND. 267
was won from development work alone. This semi-anthracitic
coal has found a ready market in Durban for household purposes.
The investigation into the coal industry of this Colony is one of
the most important from a financial and economic point of view of
any of the mining ventures at present being developed, because it is
by far the largest and probably the most lucrative. The areas in
which payable coal is known to occur are extensive in the three
divisions of the Colony. Besides the Dundee and Newcastle districts in
Natal, large areas of coal-bearing rocks, with good coal among them,
are present in the new territory (the Vryheid and Utrecht districts),
and already we have the knowledge of the payable character of the
semi-anthracitic coal of the St. Lucia coal-field in Zululand. At
Somkele, where this coal is worked, the known portion of the field
occupies only a very limited area of the coal-bearing series, so
extensively developed in Zululand, but which has only been
prospected in the most desultory manner, and therefore the practical
knowledge of the presence or absence of payable coal-seams is at
present quite hypothetical. At the same time now that there is a
chance of an influx of Europeans into the Province we may, I think,
look, with justice, to a much more intimate knowledge of a country
which even at the present day is little known except to a few officials
and isolated store-keepers. This knowledge is certain to produce a
more accurate knowledge of such things as outcrops of coal-seams,,
or other deposits of value, which, when locally known, have a chance
of development which at present they have not.
A similar development should result from the attention which
has been directed, since the close of the war, to the coal-bearing areas
of the Vryheid and Utrecht districts, where the Upper Ecca Shales
are known to carry, in numbers of localities, coal-seams, which there
is no reason to suppose would not prove, if developed, as remunera- •
tive as the Natal coal-seams. In many cases the analysis of indi-
vidual seams and their extent geologically would encourage the idea,
that there seems no reason why, with the investment of the neces-
sary capital and the energetic carrying out of the necessary work,
they should not be of a payable character. This would certainly
obtain locally, but until the advent of railway communication with
the localities in which they occur, a wider market would be impos-
sible. It is certainly the fact that many of the best qualities of coal
over this area are at present beyond the limits of practical mining,
when competing with the Natal coals, because of the outlying
districts in which they occur, and therefore the want of facilities for
developing an outside market.
Besides the local consumption, the chief outlet for Natal coal is
Cape Colony, where it is largely used on the Government Railways,
while considerable quantities are taken by the Transvaal and
Orange River Colonies. The shipping from Durban is extensive.
During the year 1904, 12,431 tons were shipped from Durban, while
383,147 tons were bunkered at the Point and 99,514 tons were ex-
ported overland. Coal is put on the wharf at the Point at 15s. 6d.
per ton, but with greater facilities, improved appliances and
268
SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
expedition in loading, even this price may quite likely be reduced,
while it is certain that the amount of exported coal will increase
enormously.
In most of the districts where the Ecca coal-measures are de-
veloped, iron ores occur, sometimes in large quantities and of good
quality. The only desideratum is the presence of lime in some form
suitable for iron smelting. Iron ore of exceptionally good quality
is known in the Natal coal-field where the analysis is exceptionally
high, but the position of the deposit is not located sufficiently close
to the railway and the limestone to make the development even
feasible, at least, at present. In very many districts in Vryheid
and Zululand large superficial areas are covered with pisolitic iron-
stone which has been derived from the ferruginous material, of the
decomposed rocks, chiefly basalts, etc., of these areas. These
secondarily-deposited pisolitic ironstones are often of considerable
thickness, but the percentage of iron is usually low, and they also
contain a large amount of earthy matter.
There is no well established line of demarcation between the
Ecca Series and the Beaufort Beds immediately above. The latter
consist of highly-coloured shales and sandstones and are char-
acterised by the abundance of fossil Reptilian remains, chiefly
Dicynodont. Their principal development is in the western part
of Natal, where they outcrop from the base of the Drakensberg
Range and extend for an irregular distance eastward, in some
instances crossing the main railway line, as in the Mooi River
district, where at Weston, Dr. Sutherland records the presence of
Dicynodon remains which were discovered by Dr. Addison in 1854.
In Zululand these beds are not nearly so extensively developed, as
the highest sedimentary series exposed in the uplands is the coal-
bearing Ecca Series.
In the higher portions of the Biggarsberg, in the Newcastle
district, and on the middle and upper slopes of the Drakensberg,
along the entire length of its Natal aspect the Stormberg Series
outcrops. It consists of shales and sandstones with occasional
coal-seams, containing a fossil flora entirely distinct from the Ecca
flora. Little has yet been done either as regards its fossil-flora or
its coal-seams, but the chief forms that occur are Thinnfeldia odont-
opteroides, Morr., and a Pterophyllum sp., which point to a Rhaetic
or Lower Jurassic age. Hitherto no reptilian remains have been
noted from these beds, but there is no doubt they occur, as they do
in the Stormberg Beds of Cape Colony.
The sequence from the Stormberg Beds through the Red Beds
and Cave Sandstones to the basaltic lavas capping the Drakensberg
can be well seen along the upper part of the eastern flank of the
range. There are, however, very few positions, particularly along
the Basuto border, where it is possible, because of the ruggedness
of the country to approach the outcrops of these series ; and,
therefore, little is known about them on this side of the mountain
range. There are a few passes through these mountains, such as
the three Bushman passes, which are, however, exceedingly difficult
GEOLOGY OF NATAL AND ZULULAND. 269
of access. In the Harrismith district, where the Natal Railway
passes into the Orange River Colony, there are good exposures of
the Red Beds and Cave Sandstones, owing to the extensive denuda-
tion of the overlying basalt. These rocks occur in no other part
of the Colony or Zululand. The fossil remains obtained from them
are chiefly Reptilian, which are occasionally very plentiful locally.
In both the Stormberg and Cave' Sandstones, Bushman rock-shelters
are frequent, and some fine representations of the life of these people
are reproduced with great fidelity on the walls and roofs of the
shelters. It is, however, often very difficult to distinguish the
authentic Bushman paintings from the reproduced copies of later
days.
The Cretaceous rocks of Natal possess a particular
interest from the fact that they werethe first rocks which
were recorded from this Colony. In 1855 W; H. Baily
described a collection of fossils from them. Since that
time little or nothing has been done on them, until the Geological
Survey discovered that they cover a large area of the littoral of
Zululand. They are entirely littoral in their occurrence as small
outliers, but in the northern portion of Zululand they are present in
more than one locality — at the base of the Lebombo Range, at
Umtini close to the junction of the Inguavumaand Pongola Rivers,
and also where the Mkusi River breaks through the range, about 50
miles from the coast. In no case has a trace of Cretaceous rocks
been met with anywhere on the uplands of the Colony.
The localities where they occur in Natal are at the mouths of
Umtamvuna and Impenyati rivers on the south coast. Lately
they have been cut in a bore which was sunk on the sea aspect of
the Bluff, Durban. The core showed undoubted Cretaceous fossils,
and the series was passed through at nearly 800 feet from the sur-
face. In all cases they rest unconformably on the rocks below,
usually Ecca Shales, Table Mountain Sandstones or granites. 1
In Zululand the Cretaceous formation is extensively developed.
Below the Pleistocene sands of the littoral it occupies the whole area
from the Umlalaas River mouth north to Portuguese Territory,
bounded by the sea-coast on the east and the rising uplands on the
west. The outcrops over this area are few and far between, but in
almost all cases they are fossiliferous and rest unconformably on the
rocks below.
A list of fossils, identified by Mr. R. Etheridge, from the Cre-
taceous deposits of Umkwelane Hill, Zululand, is given below : — •
Pelecypoda.
Ostrea, sp.
Exogyra, sp.
Neithea, sp.
Melina Andersoni, Etheridge, sp. nov.
Gervillia, sp.
Pinna, sp.
Mytilus, sp.
270 SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
Pelecypoda — (continued).
Trigonia umkwelanensis, Etheridge, sp. nov.
Trigonarca umzambaniensis, Baily, sp.
Latiarca (?) Natalensis, Baily, sp.
Cardium BuUen-Newtoni, Etheridge, sp. nov.
Protocardium Hillanum, /. Sby, sp. var. ; umkwelanensis,
Etheridge, var. nov.
Eriphyla lenticularis, Goldfuss.
Eriphyla Rupert Jonesi, Etheridge, sp. nov.
Cytherea kaffraria, Etheridge, sp. nov.
Cicatrea, sp.
Tapes, sp.
Donax Andersoni, Etheridge, sp. nov.
Mactra Zulu, Etheridge, sp. nov.
Corbula, sp.
Gasteropoda.
Alaria (?) Bailyi, Etheridge, sp. nov.
Fulguraria, sp.
Zaria Bonei, Baily.
Pyropsis, sp.
Patella, sp.
Cylichna Griesbachii, Etheridge, sp. nov.
Cylichna fusuliniformis, Etheridge, sp. nov.
Actseonina Atherstonei, Sharpe, var. ; umkwelanensis,
Etheridge, var. nov.
Gyrodus, sp.
Chemnitzia, sp.
Solarium, sp.
Cephalopoda.
Placenticeras kaffrarium, Etheridge, sp. nov.
Placenticeras umkwelanensis, Etheridge, sp. nov.
Creniceras (?), sp.
Hamites, sp. "
Baculites, sp.
Pisces.
Lamna, sp.
Fish spine indeterminable.
This list is only the first and a small one of the fossils from the
Cretaceous of Zululand. It represents only a limited portion of the
collection already in hand, but there is no doubt that the Cretaceous
deposits will prove exceedingly prolific in fossil remains.
Rocks of Tertiary age are unknown from Natal, unless the cal-
careous sandstone forming the Bluff, Durban, prove to be of this age.
It rests upon Cretaceous rocks which are not exposed at the surface.
During last year's field season I discovered, at certain points on the
Zululand coast, a series of marls, sands, shales, calcareous rocks and
lignites of considerable thickness, some members of which contain
GEOLOGY OF NATAL AND ZULULAND. 27I
abundant fossil remains, consisting of marine Mollusca, Foramini-
fera, Crustacea, Pisces and Mammalia, the last including Rhinoceros,
Elephant, etc. These beds are, unfortunately, only exposed at very
low tides and are difficult of access, but will eventually prove ex-
ceedingly interesting from a palaeontological point of view.
Igneous rocks are present in almost every district. They are
intrusive in all the formations above the Cretaceous, in which I have
never seen evidences of intrusive rocks. They are in the form of
dykes and sills and are always basaltic. If any section of the
country were taken the sedimentary rocks would be seen to be
traversed by a perfect network of them. Denudation has exposed
these rocks much more plentifully in some districts than in others.
Two districts which are typical of this are the Impendhla and Lady-
smith districts. In the latter the presence of the denuded boulders
of basalt provided the natural protection to the Boers during the
siege of that town. The presence of these rocks can readily be
recognised by the chocolate colour their decomposition gives to the
soil. In texture they vary from glassy tachylites to coarse por-
phyritic dolerites, while in composition there is great diversity.
In aU our rivers the waterfalls are usually produced by the presence
of either a sill or dyke of this rock. The Umgeni Falls at Howick,
the Edendale Falls near Pietermaritzburg, the Tugela Falls near
Colenso, are good examples. In Zululand and the New Territory
similar sills and dykes occur. The only example of a volcanic lava
known from Natal is that which caps the Drakensberg Range. Of
other igneous and volcanic rocks there are few representatives. In
the northern part of Zululand the Lebombo Range is formed of a
Rhyolitic lava which can be traced for a long distance northwards
through Portuguese and German territory into the interior of
Central Africa. To the south of the Lebombo Range a series of
mountains, called the Queme Range, consists of a set of igneous
rocks which are unlike anything else we have in the Colony. They
are chiefly felspar, augite rocks, with many varieties, and are evi-
dently old rocks, as the Lower Ecca shales rest unconformably
against them.
There are many problems, both of a purely scientific and
economic kind which await solution in the geology of the East Coast
of Africa. Not one of the least important will be the working out
of the stratigraphy an^l the correlation of the East Coast formations,
particularly the older, with those of the Transvaal and other parts
of South Africa, thus ensuring an accurate knowledge of the proba-
bilities and prospects of analogous economic developments. Another
of these, of great importance to the Colony, is the investigation ot
the local occurrences, extent and variations of the coal-bearing areas
of our coal-fields. Numbers of other problems present themselves,
many of them of minor and local interest. Investigations as to the
intrusive rocks will, in many cases, be of great utility in the eluci-
dation of many obscure points in the superficial and economic
geology of the Colony. The solution of many of these will also
have an important bearing on the larger questions which are being
272 SCIENCE I\ SOUTH AFRICA.
worked out with regard to South African economic geology as a
whole. As yet East African geology has only been touched upon,
and the little knowledge we have been able to bring together merely
shows us what a vast amount of geological work there is still to be
done before a thorough understanding of the economic possibilities
of this part of Africa is obtained. The work is slow and laborious
for want of workers, but there is no doubt that ultimately this
initial work will bear fruit, in the realisation of the fact that without
a foundation no superstructure can be built, that will last.
Referen'ces to Papers Quoted.
(i) Garden, R. J. Notice of some Cretaceous Rocks near Natal,
South Africa. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, London, Vol.
XI., Pt. I, pp. 453-454- London, 1855.
Baily, W. H. Description of some Cretaceous Fossils from South
Africa, collected by Captain Garden of the 45th Regi-
ment. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, London, Vol. XI., Pt. i,
PP- 454-465- London, 1855.
(2) Griesbach, C. L. Petrefacten funde in Siid-Afrika. Verhand-
lungen der kaiserlich-konigUchen geologischen Reichsan-
stalt, pp. 75-76. Vienna, 1870.
Griesbach, C. L. Briefliche MittheUungen iiber Slid und Ost
Afrika. V erhandlungen der kaiserlich-konigUchen geo-
logischen Reichsanstalt, pp. 269-270. Vienna, 1870.
Griesbach, C. L. On the Geology of Natal, in South Africa. Geol.
Mag., Dec. ist. Vol. VIII., p. 83. London, 1871.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, London, Vol. XXVII., Pt. i,
pp. 53-72. London, 1871.
(3) Sutherland, P. C. Notes on the Geology of Natal. Quart.
Journ. Geol. Soc, London, Vol. XL, Pt. i, pp. 465-468,
London, 1855 ; and Vol. XII., p. cvii., London, 1856.
Sutherland, P. C. On the Geology of Natal. Nat. Hist. Assoc.
of Natal, 1868.
Sutherland, P. C. Note on the Auriferous Rocks of South-
Eastern Africa. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, London, Vol.
XXV., Pt. 1, pp. 169-171. London, 1869.
Sutherland, P. C. Notes on an Ancient Boulder Clay of Na'al.
Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc, London, Vol. XXVL, Pt. i,
pp. 514-517, London, 1870 ; and Vol. XXVIL, p. xxxix.,
London, 1872.
(4) 'Hatch, F. H. The Oldest Sedimentary Rocks of the Transvaal.
Trans. Geol. Soc, South^frica, Vol. VII., Pt. Ill p. 147,
1905
SECTION v.— GEOLOGICAL— (cr>//W.-)
3. GEOLOGY OF THE TRANSVAAL AND THE ORANGE
RIVER COLONY.
By Herbert Kynaston, B.A., F.G.S., Director of the
Geological Survey, Transvaal.
Introductory. — In the following account of the geological features
of the Transvaal and Orange River Colony it has naturally only been
possible to treat the subject in a very general manner, and it has
seemed advisable only to enter into detailed description, where
well-known centres are concerned, such as Johannesburg and
Pretoria. As regards the Orange River Colony, very little recent
geological work has been done, and our information is exceedingly
scanty. The broad outlines of the geology of the Transvaal, how-
ever, are now, thanks to the labours more especially of Dr. G. A. F.
Molengraaff and Dr. F. H. Hatch, pretty well known, though there
are still extensive tracts, chiefly in the central and northern portions
of the Colony, about which geologists as yet know very little.
Moreover, in the present state of geological enquiry in this country,
it is not easy to set down any scheme of classification of the geologi-
cal sequence that would be generally acceptable. Dr. Molengraaff,
the main lines of whose classification have been followed in the
following pages, recognises in the Transvaal the following four main
divisions in ascending order :* —
1. The South African Primary System, Rand System, or
Archsean Sysfem.
2. The Vaal River System.
3. The Transvaal System.
4. The Karroo System.
These may be sub-divided as follows : —
1. 1' Crystalline schists and granite, j ^Archaean
South African ) Barberton and Swaziland > (Hatch). t
Primary System, &c. ] Series. 1
( Witwatersrand Series. j
(Unconformity). /Heidelberg
2. j Khpriversberg 1 \' enters- ' System
Vaal River System. ) Amygdaloid. (^ dorp f ^jjatch).
■^ j Ventersdorp Boul- 1 Series \
I der Beds, &c. ) (Hatch). ;
* See Molengraaff, Geology of the Transvaal, p. 3.
f Hatch " The Oldest Sedimentary Rocks of the Transvaal," Trans. (Jeol.
Soc. S.A., Vol. VJI., p. 147.
274 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
3- Unconformity,
i Black Reef Series.
Transvaal Dolomite
System. i Pretoria
/ Strong unconformity.
\ Waterberg Series.
-\ Strong unconformity .
c Glacial Conglomerate.
Karroo System. < ^^^^ Series.
) Beaufort Series.
' Stormberg Series, in Orange River Colony.
In the present state of our knowledge, it has not been thought
advisable to attempt any general scheme of correlation with the
formations of the neighbouring colonies. With certain formations,
such as those of the Karroo System, we are on fairly safe ground,
but on the whole the writer considers that, though all such attempts
are suggestive and useful as incentives for further enquiry, we have
still much to learn and many gaps to fill up before complete corre-
lation can be satisfactorily established. In cases, however, where
there is substantial evidence for correlation, the representative of
any Transvaal formation ir adiacent territories has of course been
pointed out.
It has been the writer's endeavour to give the reader a general
idea of the present condition of geological investigation in the
Transvaal and Orange River Colony. No historical review of this
investigation has been attempted, and only the most recent litera-
ture has been made use of, references to which wiU be found in the
text.
The account of the Karroo System has been written by Mr. E.
T. Mellor, of the Geological Survey, and I am further indebted to
the writings of Dr. Molengraaff, Dr. Hatch, and various members
of the South African Geological Society, for much of the information
relating to the more recent additions to our knowledge of Transvaal
geology.
For maps the reader is referred to Dr. Molengraaff's sketch map
of the Colony, accompanying the recent English edition of his
geology of the Transvaal, Dr. Hatch's Geological Map of the
Southern Transvaal, and the maps and sections published in the
Annual Reports of the Geological Survey.
We are now at the commencement of a new era of geological
activity and systematic investigation, and we may be fully assured
that it is one full of promise of fresh discoveries and progress.
The Older Rocks.
In dealing with the older rocks of the Transvaal, that is to say,
with those rocks older than the Black Reef Series or lowest division
of the Transvaal System, it is to be regretted that there is still a
GEOLOGY OF THE TRANSVAAL AND O.R.C. 275
want of a definite and complete agreement as to the relationships
which the different series or groups bear to one another. Geological
enquiry in the Transvaal has certainly been pushed forward with
great and renewed vigour during the last few years, but with regard
to these older rocks it is still in somewhat the same position as Cape
Colony geologists find themselves with regard to the" so-called Pre-
Cape rocks.
In the Transvaal, as is well known, attention has mainly been
directed, and for obvious reasons, to the Witwatersrand Series, and
our knowledge of that series, as developed in the more favoured
areas, has most certainly been very much increased, but sufficient
work has hardly yet been accomplished in other areas, such for
instance as the Barberton district, Swaziland, and the Zoutpansberg
district, to enable us to group all the older rocks from all parts of the
Transvaal into a systematically correlated and classified sequence.
Various opinions have naturally been advanced as to the relative
ages and relationships of the different series, but unanimity of
opinion among geologists has not yet been secured.
It will be sufficient for our present purpose to point out that
below the Black Reef Series we find the following groups : —
(i) A series of crystalline schists, sheared quartzites, phyl-
lites, altered shales, and conglomerates, with intrusive
granite. This includes the Barberton Series of Molen-
graaff and the Swaziland Series of Hatch.
(2) The Witwatersrand Series, consisting of a lower division
or the Hospital Hill Series, and an upper division,
which includes the auriferous Conglomerate Series of
the Rand.
(3) The Vaal River Series. This is the Vaal River System
of Molengraaff or the Ventersdorp Series of Hatch.
According to Dr. Molengraaff* there is no sharp line of demarca-
tion between Groups i and 2. Together they make up his South
African Primary System, Rand System, or Archaean System, and
he considers the Barberton Series as, at least in part, the equivalent
of the Hospital Hill or Lower Witwatersrand Series. Dr. Hatch,t
however, classifies the Barberton or Swaziland Series as an older
group altogether than the Hospital Hill Series, since he considers
that the older granite is intrusive in the former, but not in the latter.
It is quite possible, however, that some of the various separate
masses of the older granite, although of the same general petro-
lo-^ical type, niay belong to different periods of intrusion.
Apart from their well-known development in the southern and
south-western Transvaal, the older rocks occupy extensive areas in
♦Molengraaff, Report of State Geologist for 1898, pp. 4 and 5.
f Hatch, " The Oldest Sedimentary Rocks of the Transvaal," Trans,
Geol. Soc. S A., Vol. VIT., p. 147.
T2
276 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
the Zoutpansberg District, in the eastern low country, and in Swazi-
land, but as our knowledge of these latter areas is still very im-
perfect it will perhaps be as well for our present purpose to confine
our attention to the better known districts.
Throughout the Central and Southern Transvaal the Witwaters-
rand Series, together with boss-like protrusions of the older granite,
is overlain unconformably either by the Transvaal System or by
rocks of Karroo age, and crops out more or less in the form of inliers
surrounded by the younger rocks. It occupies a considerable
extent of country, which may conveniently be divided into the
following geological areas : —
1. The Witwatersrand area.
2. The Heidelberg area.
3. The Klerksdorp area.
4. The Venterskroon or Vaal River area. (Here the Wit-
watersrand Series is found forming a semi-circle about
the Vredefort granite, and extending across the Vaal
River into the Orange River Colony.)
Of these areas the Witwatersrand is by far the best known to
geologists, and we will therefore give a short account of the succes-
sion of strata that are there met with. In this area two divisions
are generally recognised in the Witwatersrand Series, the Lower, or
Hospital Hill Series (lower quartzite and shale group of Gibson),*
comprising the strata from the Main Reef Series downwards, and
the Upper Witwatersrand Series, comprising the beds from the base
of the Main Reef Series upwards. The strata of both divisions in
this area, appear to be free from any folding on a large scale, though
in certain beds minor contortions occur, for example in the contorted
bed of the Hospital Hill slates, and further, the general succession of
the entire series, if we except the Elsburg Beds, apart from local
duplications caused by faulting, is apparently uniform and conform-
able.
Starting from the granite, north of Johannesburg, and proceeding
in a southerly direction across the strike of the series and in the
direction of the dip, we traverse the following beds in ascending order.
Firstly:
Sericitic and talcose schists. — These are found between the
granite and the lowest quartzite of the Rand. It is doubtful, how-
ever, whether these rocks represent highly- altered shales and form
part of the Lower Witwatersrand Series, or whether they belong to
an older series of rocks. Sometimes they are absent, in which case
we find immediately upon the granite the quartzite of the Rand
proper or, as it is usually called, the
Orange Grove Quartzite. — This quartzite constitutes a strikingly
conspicuous ridge, which may be followed for a considerable dis-
tance along the northern edge of the Witwatersrand. Its northern
*W. Gibson, " Geologv of the Gold-bearing and Associated Rocks of the
S. Transvaal." Q.J.G.S.'Vol. XI.VIIT., p. 404.
GEOLOGY OF THE TRANSVAAL AND O.R.C. 277
face forms an abrupt and very steep escarpment, from the summit
of which the Magaliesberg and other ranges of the Pretoria Series,
to the north of the granite, are often clearly visible. The ridge
consists of two thick belts of hard whitish quartzite, with an inter-
vening band of indurated shale. The average thickness of the
whole is about 500 feet.
The Orange Grove quartzites are followed by a series of ferrugi-
nous shales, often rich in magnetite, termed by Drs. Hatch and
Corstorphine* the Water Tower Slates, from the fact that in Park-
town, one of the northern suburbs of Johannesburg, the two
service water towers are situated upon these beds. These are
followed by a comparatively thin band of quartzite, termed the
Ripple-marked Bed, which is easily recognisable to the north of
Johannesburg by its forming a peculiar wall-like outcrop coinciding
with the steep dip-slope. Overlying this bed is a considerable
thickness of ferruginous shales, somewhat soft and usually of a
reddish colour at the surface — the Red Shales — separated from the
overljdng series by a thin quartzitic band, known as the Speckled
Bed. This latter is remarkably persistent, and is characterised
by the presence of small reddish or brown patches due to the
weathering of kaolinised felspar fragments. Above this lie the
Hospital Hill Slates, containing near their base the well known
banded and contorted bed, composed of alternating layers of jasper,
quartz, specular iron, and magnetite. This is one of the most
characteristic and leading beds of the Witwatersrand, and is
especially well exposed at the entrance of the Agricultural Society's
show-ground.
South of the Hospital Hill Slates we have another and important
zone of quartzites, known as the Green Quartzites, owing to their
frequently showing a greenish colour at the surface ; but as this
feature is not always very apparent, perhaps the term Hospital Hill
Quartzite, adopted by Dr. Hatch, is more appropriate. This zone
forms the conspicuous ridge on which the Meteorological Observatory
and the Indian Monument stand, and is largely developed in the
West Rand, in the Roodepoort and Krugersdorp areas. Over-
lying these quartzites we have shales with subordinate quartzites,
the Doornfontein Beds of Drs. Hatch and Corstorphine,! passing
to the south into the Red Bar, a reddish sandstone, which imme-
diately underlies the Main Reef Series. To the east of Johannes-
burg all the strata from the Ripple-marked quartzite to the Doorn-
fontein Beds, inclusive, are duplicated by an oblique fault, which
coincides with the general trend of the Bezuidenhout Valley,
namely north-east and south-west. We thus find these strata
repeated on the south side of the valley.
The Upper Witwatersrand Beds, which commence with the
Main Reef Series, consist mainly of quartzites and thin conglome-
rates with some shales. It is these conglomerates which constitute
♦Hatch and Corstorphine, " The Geology of the Bezuidenhout Valley
and District East of Johannesburg," Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A., Vol. VII., p. 99.
fOp. Cit., p. loi.
~7^ SCIENXE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
the auriferous bankets, which have made the Witwatersrand so
famous throughout the world. The gold is found principally
in these conglomerates, only rarely and to a less degree in the
quartzites, and in the conglomerates it appears to be mainly con-
fined to the pyritic matrix in the immediate neighbourhood of the
contained pebbles.
The Main Reef Series of auriferous bankets is so far the most
important from an economic point of view. It lies on the south
side of Johannesburg, and is followed in ascending order by the
Livingstone and Bird Series, the Kimberley Series, and the Elsburg
Series. The Elsburg Series, however, is very different from the
others ; the conglomerates are thicker and coarser, and contain
a greater variety of pebbles, those of the lower series being thin,
well defined, and consisting mostly of small or medium-sized
quartz pebbles. Recent researches, moreover, make it extremely
probable that this series is uncomformable to those below, and it
may very possibly belong, as suggested by Dr. Hatch,* rather to
the succeeding group of the Vaal River Series than to the Wit-
watersrand Beds.
The exact relation of the Lower Witwatersrand Series to the
boss-like masses of granite of the southern Transvaal, on which
the lowest beds almost invariably appear to rest, has not yet been
demonstrated beyond all room for doubt. In the Witwatersrand
and in the Heidelberg district, the evidence so far available tends
rather to show that the granite is not intrusive in these beds.
The evidence from the Venterskroon district, however, would seem
on the other hand to be opposed to this view. The different
masses of granite, although petrologicaUy similar, may be, however,
not all of the same age.
A roughly circular exposure of this granite lies between Johannes-
burg and Pretoria. It is generally a biotite or hornblende-biotite-
granite, occasionally with muscovite. Microcline is also a common
constituent, and pegmatite veins are of frequent occurrence.
Vaal River Series.
It is only quite recently that a series of rocks, occurring in
different parts of the southern Transvaal, whose relationships had
always been somewhat obscure, have finally been awarded a
position in the geological sequence, and grouped, together with
the well-known Klipriversberg Amygdaloid, into one formation
lying between the Witwatersrand Beds and the Black Reef.
Dr. Molengraafff was the first to refer (in September, 1903)
to these rocks as an independent and distinct formation, and to
assign them to their proper position ; while Dr. Hatch, J in a brief
*Hatch and Corstorphine, Op. Cit., p. 108.
fMolengraaff, " Preliminary Note on a hitherto unrecognised Formation
underlying the Black Reef Series," Trans. Oeol. See. S.A. Vol VI toqj
p. 68. ■' •''
+Hatch, Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A., Vol. VI., p. 69.
GEOLOGY OF THE TRANSVAAL AND O.R.C. 279
note of the same date described a section, showing rocks identical
with some of those mentioned by Molengraaff, from near Reitsburg
in the Orange River Colony, as an unusual basal development of
the Black Reef. Later in the same year Dr. Hatch* gave an ad-
mirable description of the same series from the neighbourhood
of Ventersdorp, where he was able to recognise its unconformable
relations both to the Witwatersrand Series below and to the Black
Reef above. He at the same time proposed the term " Venters-
dorp Beds " to include both these rocks and the Klipriversberg
Amygdaloid. Dr. Corstorphinej described similar beds belonging
to the same geological horizon in the Heidelberg district, and
Mr. Luttman-JohnsonJ noticed them in the Fortuna Valley in
the same area. Dr. Dorffel§ described the boulder beds of Krom-
draai, north of Krugersdorp, with reference to their true position
as a member of this formation, and still more recently, Drs. Hatch
and Corstorphine** have assigned the ElsburgBeds, usually regarded
as constituting the uppermost member of the Upper Witwaters-
rand Beds, to the same formation.
Dr. Molengraaff It in his "Geology of the Transvaal" describes
these rocks under the' term Vaal River System, and points out
that the amygdaloidal rocks of the Vaal River were originally
referred to by the name of " Vaalgesteine " by Cohen. As a local
name. Dr. Molengraaff's term certainly seems more appropriate
for this formation than Dr. Hatch's term " Ventersdorp Beds,"
but the advisability of assigning these rocks to the rank of a separate
system seems from certain considerations, somewhat doubtful.
The Vaal River Series, as we would prefer to call it, consists
largely of rocks of igneous origin. The principal types are amygda-
loidal diabase, of which the rock of the Klipriversberg, south of
Johannesburg, may be taken as an example, basalt, porphyrite,
quartz-porphyry, felsitic rocks, tuffs, chert, igneous breccia, shales,
very coarse conglomerates or boulder beds, and grits. The most
remarkable of these rocks are the coarse conglomerates, which
occasionally attain an enormous thickness, for instance, 400 feet,
nopLi Reitsburg in the Orange River Colony, and about 500 feet
at Kroomdraai,. north of Krugersdorp. In the neighbourhood of
Ventersdorp, where they are admirably exposed. Dr. Hatchjf
recognises " two distinct types of the boulder formation
♦Hatch, ■'The Boulder Beds of Ventersdorp," Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A.,
Vol. VI., p. 91;.
fCorstorphine, " The Volcanic Series underlying the Black Reef," Trans.
Geol. Soc. 3.A., VoL VI., p. 99.
JLuttman-Johnson, " On the Geology of the Fortuna Valley, Heidel-
berg," Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A., Vol. VII., p. 136.
§Dorffel, "The Kromdraai Quartz Reef," Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A., Vol.
VI., p. loi.
**Hatch and Corstorphine, " The Geology of the Bezuidenhout Valley
and the district East of Johannesburg," Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A.. Vol. VII.,
P- 97-
tf Molengraaff, " Geology of the Transvaal," 1904, pp. 19-23-
JJHatch, " The Boulder Beds of Ventersdorp," p. 96.
280 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
namely, a conglomerate type and a breccia type. In the con-
glomerate type the boulders are completely rounded or water-worn,
and consist chiefly of Witwatersrand conglomerates, quartzites
and slates, while the matrix consists of an aggregate of sub-angular
grains of quartz. ... In the breccia type the boulders are angular
blocks, showing no signs of abrasion." This rock Dr. Hatch
classes as an igneous breccia, both from microscopial evidence
and from the fact that it is. associated with basaltic flows. There
is little doubt that the whole formation is essentially a volcanic
one, and indicates a great volcanic period which partially bridges
over the gap between the Witwatersrand Series and the Black
Reef. Its commencement was marked by the tremendous out-
pourings of basic vesicular lavas, exemplified by the Klipriversberg
rocks, and so extensively developed in many parts of the southern
Iransvaal
The Vaal River Series occupies considerable, though usually
detached areas, in the Southern Transvaal. Towards the south-
west, however, it becomes more continuous and covers a large
portion of the districts of Lichtenburg, Wolmaranstad and Bloem-
hof, and extends into the north-west part of the Orange River
Colony and Cape Colony, and into Griqualand West and Bechuana-
land. Dr. Hatch* describes its distribution in the Marico district
and along the Bechuanaland border, and includes in this formation
the boulder beds of Maf eking, hitherto regarded as Dwyka con-
glomerate. These latter rocks have been described recently by
Dr. Siegfried Passargej who, however, still prefers to regard them,
though with some hesitation, as Dwyka. Further south, Mr. G. G.
HolmesJ has found amygdaloidal diabases and volcanic breccias,
belonging to the Vaal> River Series^ lying between the Black Reef
and the older granite in the neighbourhood of Yryburg. In Griqua-
land West the amygdaloids, quartzites and quartz-porphyries, found
in the Kimberley Mines beneath the Lower Karroo, very probably
belong to the same series.
Transvaal System.
We now come to the consideration of a series of formations
which occupy considerable areas in the central and southern Trans-
vaal, and which were laid down unconformably upon the older
rocks already described. These formations consist of the Black
Reef, the Dolomite, and the Pretoria Series, and constitute the
system formerly erroneously designated Cape System by Dr. Molen-
graaff, but now termed Transvaal System by that author and Dr.
♦Hatch. " The Geology of the Marico District," Trans. Geol. Soc. .S.A.,
Vol. VII., p. 2.
fPassarge, " Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Geologie von Britisch Betschuana-
land," Zeitsch. der Ges. fur Erdkunde zu Berlin, Bd. XXXVI., 1901.
p. 22.
JHolmes, Geology of part of Bechuanaland west of Vryburg. Trans.
Geol. Soc. S.A., Vol. VII., p. 130.
GEOLOGY OF THE TRANSVAAL AND O.R.C. 281
Hatch. The former also includes the Waterberg Sandstone forma-
tion in the same system, and formerly regarded it as overlying the
Pretoria Series in a conformable manner. But it has now been
shown by the work of the Geological Survey, and from the observa-
tions of independent workers,* that there is a considerable break
between these two formations, and moreover the distribution of
the Waterberg Sandstone, taken in connection with this unconform-
able relation, indicates that it was deposited under somewhat
different geographical conditions.
The Black Reef, Dolomite, and Pretoria Series almost invariably
occur in close association and show a continuous and uninterrupted
sequence in their constituent strata. The outcrop of these three
series, taken together, appears to form, to the north of the Wit-
watersrand, the margin of a gigantic basin, occupied mainly by
igneous rocks, and constituting the greater portion of the Central
Transvaal. To the south, however, the distribution of these series
is more complicated, and they have been thrown into minor anti-
clines and synclines. which are apparently intimately related to the
axes of elevation of the older rocks of the Witwatersrand.
The south-eastern margin of the central basin is hidden by the
overlying beds of the Karroo System, which here constitute the
typical high veld country of the Standerton, Ermelo and Middel-
burg districts. On the north-west, again, in the Waterberg district,
the outcrop and behaviour of the Black Reef, Dolomite and Pretoria
Series, appear to indicate the existence of a subordinate basin, the
central portion of which is covered by the Waterberg sandstones of
the Palala Plateau.
On the southern boundary of the Transvaal, the rocks of this
system may be traced across^ the Vaal River, on the east and west
sides of the Vredefort granite, for some distance into the Orange
River Colony. To the west and south-west of the Transvaal this
system -has an extensive development in Bechuanaland and in
Griqualand West.
The Black Reef Series.
The Black Reef Series is composed of varying thicknesses of grey
quartzite, sandstone, arkose. slates and conglomerate. Formerly
this series was known by various names in different parts of
the country, before it had been ascertained that these different
portions could be connected together and correlated. The term
•'Black Reef" was originally given by the Rand miners to the
*See Ann. Report Geol. Survey of Transvaal for 1903, pp. i and 11-13.
Also D. Dorffel, " The Balmoral Cobalt Lodes," Trans. Geol. Soc.
S.A., Vol. VI., p. 04.
E. T. Mellor, " The Waterberg Sandstone Formation, &c.," Op
Cit., Vol. VII., p. A?..
E. Jorissen, "The Dolomite and Chert Series m the N.E. part
of the Rustenburg district," Op. Cit., Vol. VII., p. 37.
G. G. Holmes, "Notes on the Geology of the Northern. Trans-
vaal," Op. Cit., Vol. VII., p. :;6.
282
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
auriferous conglomerate at the base of this series south of Johannes-
burg, as it was of a darker colour at the surface than the auriferous
conglomerates or bankets of the Rand. In the Klerksdorp district
this series was called the Boschrand Series, to the north of the
Witwatersrand the Kromdraai Series, while in the Eastern Trans-
vaal it was referred to as the Kantoor sandstone and the Drakens-
berg sandstone. Later, in 1898, the name of Black Reef was ex-
tended by Dr. Molengraaff to apply to this formation throughout
the whole country.
The Black Reef series lies directly upon various members of the
older rocks, with a well-marked unconformity and overlap. To
the south of Johannesburg, however, where the Black Reef series
overlies the Klipriversberg amygdaloid, the strike and dip of this
series are so nearly identical with those of the older rocks below ,^
that it was not until other areas had been investigated that the un-
conformity was recognised. In the Potchefstroom district it rests
upon 'various beds, belonging to the Witwatersrand Series or to the
Vaal River Series, and similar relations are found in the Krugersdorp
district. To the south of Pretoria the Black Reef is seen resting
immediately upon the older granite. Along the eastern escarpment
of the central plateau, and to the south of Pietersburg, it rests
sometimes upon the granite, sometimes upon crystalline schists,
and sometimes upon the upturned edges of the strata of the Bar-
berton Series.
The Black Reef series varies greatly in thickness. Thus, to the
south of Pietersburg, in the mountains of Makapan and Chunie,
where it forms the northern escarpment of the mountainous belt
bounding the northern portion of the great central basin, or Bush
Veld, its thickness may be roughly estimated at about 1,600 feet,
and at Lydenburg it attains an average thickness of 1,000 feet.
Further south, at the Devil's Kantoor, the thickness decreases to
about 200 feet, while in the Southern Transvaal it probably nowhere
exceeds 100 feet, and in certain localities it may be represented
merely by a comparatively slight development of quartzose
material, associated with the base of the dolomite.
At the base of the Black Reef there is frequently developed a
bed, or several thin bands, of conglomerate, more or less auriferous.
This conglomerate is of no great thickness, and consists of small
pebbles of the various older rocks enclosed in a quartzose matrix.
It has been worked for gold to the south of the Klipriversberg and
in the Klerksdorp and Lydenburg districts, but the gold was found
to be very unequally distributed. Between Johannesburg and
Pretoria the conglomerate is very poorly developed and only con-
tains small traces of gold, the basement beds, which rest against
the granite, consisting frequently of a coarse arkose containing frag-
ments of vein quartz and granite. The line of junction with the
older granite is again well exposed in certain localities on the
northern slopes of the Chunie Mountains, south of Pietersburg, and
here, too, it is easy to see that the lower beds are almost entirely
made up of derived fragments of the underlying rocks.
GEOLOGY OF THE TRANSVAAL AND O.R.C. 283
The Black Reef Series passes gradually upwards into the dolo-
mite, in fact, from some points of view it may be regarded as con-
stituting the basement beds of that formation. Messrs. Rogers
and Schwarz, in their interesting account of the Prieska District,*
speak of beds of quartzite conformably underlying the limestone
portion of the Campbell Rand Series in the Doornbergen, and there
is good reason to consider this limestone of the Campbell Rand
Series in the Prieska district and Griqualand West as the equivalent
of the Dolomite of the Transvaal. The quartzite is seen on the
south-west side of the Doornbergen, " forming a belt nearly a mile
in width," dipping under the limestone, and the authors further
remark that " the thickness of the quartzite below the limestone
varies very much," for in one locality is it probably only 200 feet
thick, while in another " there must be at least 2,000 feet." It is.
probable that in this quartzite we have the representative of
the Transvaal Black Reef Series.
The Dolomite.
This formation consists of beds of a dark bluish grey magnesian
limestone, alternating with thin bands of chert. The rock is known
as " Olifants Klip " by the Boers on account of the general resem-
blance of the weathered surface of the limestone to the hide of an
elephant.
The numerous layers of chert form a very characteristic feature
of this formation, and being very much harder and less easily
attacked by denudation than the dolomite, they often stand out as
sharp ridges parallel to the planes of stratification. In the lower
portion of the formation the beds of dolomite are often thick and
massive and comparatively free from chert, while in the upper
portion the layers of chert are exceedingly numerous and often tend
to predominate over the limestone. This predominance of the
chert is often apparently enormously increased by the solvent
action of surface and sub-surface waters upon the dolomite, the
latter being gradually removed while the chert remains. It is
doubtless owing to the results of this process that previous observer?
have tended to exaggerate the importance of the chert as a geo-
logical member of this series, for frequently kopjes and ridges,
consisting almost entirely of blocks and masses of chert, overlying
the more massive portions of the formation, are conspicuous features
in the dolomite country. For instance, a few mi'es south of Pre-
toria extensive areas belonging to the upper portion of the series
are often covered with cherty debris, which may occasionally
extend to some depth without any accompanying limestone.
Thus, to this formation Penningf gave the name of " Chalcedolite."
*See Ann. Report GeoL Comm. C.C. for 1899, pp. 77 and 80.
tPenning, Sketch of the Goldfields of Lydenburg and De Kaap, Q.J.G.S.,
Vol. XLI. 1885, p. 569.
284
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
A nodular mode of occurrence of the chert, in parallel rows, resem-
bling the arrangement of the flint in the chalk of Europe, has
occasionally been observed.*
The lower beds of the Dolomite, being comparatively unpro-
tected by the hard layers of chert, usually form a gently rolling
country in which the actual rock is more or less concealed by
superficial deposits, whereas the upper beds, containing the chert
layers, tend to stand out in more elevated ground and characteristic
escarpments. These features are well seen in a traverse of the
Dolomite formation to the south of Pretoria. The surface soil
covering a Dolomite area is, moreover, always distinctive and
characteristic, and is of a dark red colour, tinged with black streaks
and patches of oxide of manganese. The chert blocks lying loose
in the soil are also frequently coloured black by a coating of the
same material.
The landscape of an area occupied by the Dolomite shows
many characteristic features, recalling those so well known in
the limestone districts of many other parts of the world. Thus,
sink-holes or swallow-holes (the so-called " Wondergaten " of
the Boers) gorges, and caverns abound. The streams often dis-
appear from the surface to continue their course in subterranean
channels and extensive caverns. Thus, the Mooi River, of the
Southern Transvaal, disappears near Wonderfontein to re-appear
with increased volume owing to the supply from underground
tributaries, about twenty miles further on. In this way, owing
to the chemical action of natural waters, and to the consequent
formation of extensive caverns and ramifying subterranean channels,
the Dolomite affords natural conditions for the accumulation and
storage of underground waters of enormous capacity, and of the
greatest economic value to the country. Natural reservoirs
are thus formed for the storage of waters derived from the heavy
rains, which fall during the summer months. The surplus of the
collected waters finds its way again to the surface and forms the
strong and constant springs to which so many of the perennial
rivers of the Transvaal owe their origin, as for instance the MaLmani,
the Marico, the Klip, Mooi, Schoonspruit, and the Aapies rivers.
The Dolomite as a rule shows constant and uniform characters
over enormous distances, and is easy to recognise on the surface.
It therefore affords a convenient and reliable starting point from
which to study the stratigraphy of different parts of the country.
It lies with perfect conformability upon the Black Reef and covers
extensive areas in the Southern and Western Transvaal. In the
east it forms a broad belt stretching north and south through
the Lydenburg district, disappearing to the south beneath the
Coal Measure rocks of the High Veld, and on the north gradually
bending round westwards towards Pietpotgietersrust, and forming
part of the mountainous country on the north side of the Great
Oliphants River.
♦Molengraaff, Geology of the Transvaal, Johannesburg, 1904, p. 29.
GEOLOGY OF THE TRANSVAAL AND O.R.C. 285
Interstratified shales and slates sometimes occur near the base,
and in the upper portion of the series, e.g., the Tweefontein slates,
occurring near the base of the series south of Krugersdorp. In
the northern area south and south-east of Pietersburg, a zone of
banded ferruginous quartzite is persistent in the Dolomite for a
considerable distance.
Dr. Molengraaff* gives the following thicknesses for the Dolo-
mite formation in different parts of the country : —
In the basin of the Witwatersrand . . 2,600 feet
In the neighbourhood of Pretoria . . . . 5,000 „ f
Near Godwan, on the eastern railway line.. 1,650 ,,
Near Lydenburg . . 2,600 ,,
In the Makapan Mountains . . . . . 4,000 „
Outside the Transvaal the Dolomite has been shown by
Mr. G. G. HolmesI to have an extensive development in Bechuana-
land, and further south in Griqualand West we may safely correlate
the Dolomite of the Transvaal with the Campbell Rand Series of
Stow, and in the Prieska district of the north-west provinces of
Cape Colony with the limestone series of the Doornbergen, described
by Messrs. Rogers and Schwarz.§ [According to these latter
authors " the greatest thickness of the limestone series, measured
from the quartzites below which no limestone is seen to the lowest
jaspers or magnetite quartzites of the Griqua Town Beds, must be
about 5,000 feet. This thickness is largely made up of quartzites
interbedded with the limestone, and to a much smaller extent of
cherts."
Considerable numbers of metalliferous veins occur in the Dolo-
mite in certain districts. An interstratified quartz vein, con-
taining gold, associated with pyrites and manganese, is found in
the zone of slates, known as the Tweefontein slates, to the north
of Krugersdorp. The auriferous deposits of Barretts Berlin, in
the Eastern Transvaal, also belong to one of the lower horizons
of the Dolomite. In the Lydenburg district auriferous quartz
veins are fairly numerous and contain, besides gold, ores of iron,
copper and manganese. These veins lie parallel to the bedding
planes of the Dolomite. In the Marico district, however, the
metaliferous deposits in the Dolomite occur in true vertical reefs.
The quartz here carries a variable quantity of gold together with
small quantities of copper ores. Lead ores also occur in veins
and pockets in the Dolomite in certain districts.
Igneous Rocks. — Dykes and intrusive sheets of basic and inter-
mediate rocks are of not uncommon occurrence in the Dolomite.
The large Dyke which traverses the Dolomite at Wonderfontein,
south-west of Krugersdorp, is described by Dr. Molengraaf£|f
as a " nepheline-syenite-porphyry, a kind of foyaite," and the same
*Molengraafl:, Op. Cit., p. 34.
fThis is probably considerably overestimated.
JTrans. Geol. Soc. S.A., Vol. VII., p. 130.
§Annual Report Geol. Comm. C.C. for 1899, P- 78.
^Molengraaff, Op. Cit., p. 35.
286 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
author also describes a dyke of quartz-gabbro from near Ottoshoop.
In the Lydenburg district intrusive sheets are a common feature,
and several occurrences have been met with in the lower portion
of the Doloniite south of Pretoria. These latter consist of gabbro
and rocks of a dioritic type allied to tonalite.
The Pretoria Series.
The strata which succeed the Dolomite formation consist
■essentially of alternations of shales, flagstones, and quartzites, with
numerous intrusive sheets of diabase. These rocks have formerly
been referred to by the local names of Gatsrand Series, from
the Gatsrand district south of the Witwatersrand, and Magaliesberg
Beds, from the range of hills of that name north of Pretoria. The
name Pretoria Series, however, adopted by Dr. Molengraaiif,
appears to be the most suitable, as these beds are perhaps more
typically developed at and in the neighbourhood of the capital
than anywhere else in the Transvaal.
The Pretoria Series rests conformably upon the Dolomite,
and in the central Transvaal constitutes the innermost of the three
series belonging to the Transvaal System, which almost encircle
and dip towards the great basin of the Bush Veld.
In the immediate neighbourhood of Pretoria the beds dip to
the north and strike east and west. This strike is maintained
with very slight modification for a considerable distance to the
■west of the town. A few miles to the east, however, the strata
are bent round somewhat abruptly to the south-east. This change
of strike is accompanied by considerable faulting, the strata being
repeatedly shifted by oblique lines of dislocation, so as to produce
frequent duplications at the surface.*
In the Gatsrand, between the Witwatersrand and Potchefstroom,
the Pretoria Series is again exposed, overlying the Dolomite with
a southerly dip, and is here part of the southern limb of the great
anticline, of which the beds at Pretoria represent part of the
northern limb.
Since the Pretoria Series may be said to be typically developed
at Pretoria, a short description of the succession in that neighbour-
hood will be of interest. On the west side of the town the beds
are exposed in their normal undisturbed sequence. On the east
side, however, the whole series, as already pointed out, is cut up
by oblique faults, which have produced very marked features in
the landscape, owing to the repetition at the surface of some of the
harder and more important series of strata.
To an observer stationed on the summit of one of the con-
spicuous eminences to the south of the town a most striking pano-
rama is presented by the surface features of the Pretoria Beds,
*These faults are admirably illustrated on the Geological Map of the
environs of Pretoria, recently published by the Geological Survey.
For a description see explanatory Memoir to this Map.
GEOLOGY OF THE TRANSVAAL AND O.R.C. 287
illustrating in an admirable manner the close dependence of these
features upon geological structure. To the west of the town
three conspicuous and parallel ranges of hills, separated by broad
valleys, at once arrest the eye. These ranges are the escarpments
formed by the three main quartzite zones of the series, and are
respectively, from south to north, the Timeball Hill Range, the
Daspoort, and the Magaliesberg Range. The intervening hollows
and valleys are occupied by the less durable and more easily dis-
integrated shales, flags, and intrusive basic rocks. On the west
side of the town the regularity of these features is very marked.
On the east side, however, the quartzite ranges, although still
showing a general parallelism, are frequently interrupted or abruptly
terminated, to re -appear in different positions, the eastern area
in this way showing very clearly the effect o* the displacements
due to the faulting already referred to.
Resting upon the uppermost chert layers of the Dolomite
formation, there is often found a thin bed of breccia or con-
glomerate, consisting of angular and som'etimes well-rounded
fragments of chert in a somewhat sandy matrix. This bed is
followed by banded sandy flags and shales passing gradually into
a well-marked zone of dark grey argillaceous flagstones, which
are quarried at several places to the south and south-east of Pretoria.
Shales, weathering to yellowish and purplish colours, succeed these
flags, associated with one or more quartzite bands of a bro-^nish
or purplish colour at the surface. We then find two well-marked
bands of black magnetite quartzite, separated by paler quartzite
and thin shales. These magnetite quartzites are of no great
thickness, but form a very conspicuous feature among the strata
of the Timeball Hill Range, their black outcrops contrasting
strongly with that of the pale quartzite which immediately overlies
them. The rock is rich in magnetite, which constitutes the cement-
ing material between the quartz grains.
Overlying the Timeball Hill Series and forming the hollow, lying
between that hill and the Daspoort range, and in which the town
of Pretoria and its principal suburbs are situated, we find a series of
shales and intrusive sheets of Diabase. On the southern slopes of
the Daspoort range some thin bands of hard ferruginous shales are
seen, and above these some beds of indurated, banded shales are
quarried for building material. The crest and northern slopes
of the range are formed by a hard yellowish quartzite,
immediately overlying a rather coarse diabase. The succeeding
hollow to the north is again occupied by shales and diabases, until we
reach the conspicuous Magaliesberg escarpment, consisting of some
600 to 800 feet of massive yellowish and pale grey quartzites. A
short distance beyond the Magaliesberg range the quartzites are
succeeded by diabasic rocks which, when traced northwards, gradu-
ally merge into an extensive area of gabbro and norite, which forms
part of the great igneous series of the Bush Veld.
The Pretoria Series shows fairly constant characters in the
central and eastern part of the country. Thus, some of the
288 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
characteristic and leading beds may be identified as far distant as the
Lydenburg district, about 150 miles from the capital, by the same
features which they show near Pretoria. In the Gatsrand area the
quartzites apparently predominate largely over the shales, and there
is an extensive development of diabase. If, however, we follow
the series westwards from Pretoria into the Marico district, the
shales are found to become more and more ferruginous and some-
times show a strong general resemblance to the banded ferruginous
slates of the Hospital Hill Series. Beyond the south-western border,
in Griqualand West, the Pretoria Series is represented by the Griqua
Town Series of Stow, which succeeds the dolomite of the Campbell
Rand. The beds are here very hard and ferruginous, and in places
consist largely of jasper. In the Prieska district of Cape Colony*
there is a continuous outcrop of the Griqua Town Series for a dis-
tance of nearly sixty miles, and they cover all the higher parts of
the Doornbergen and much of the low ground between that range
and the Orange River. The whole series is extraordinarily rich in
magnetite, which in the lower part of the series is associated with
quartzite generally rich in haematite, and in the upper part usually
with jasper. The top of the Griqua Town Series is not seen in the
Prieska district, but, according to Messrs. Rogers and Schwarz, it
must be some thousands of feet in thickness. In the neighbourhood
of Pretoria Dr. Molengraaff has estimated the thickness of the
Pretoria Series at nearly 10,000 feet, and along the eastern railway
line at about 4,000 feet.
The Waterberg Series.
The Waterberg Series, although it plays an important part in
the geology of the Northern Transvaal, has hardly as yet received
the attention which it undoubtedly deserves. The first reference-
to the Waterberg sandstones as an independent formation is found
in a short note by Mr. Harger in the Transactions of the South Afri-
can Geological Society for November, 1897. f Dr. Molengraaff, in
his report for 1898, describes the development and the relationships
of this formation in the Waterberg district ; and the same author
gives a short general description of the formation in the last edition
of his Geology of the Transvaal. J In 1903 considerable addi-
tions to our knowledge of these rocks were derived from the field-
work of the Geological Survey to the east and north-east of Pre-
toria, the main results of which were embodied in a paper by Mi-.
E. T. Mellor, read before the Geological Society in May, 1904.! In
this paper Mr. Mellor describes very clearly the unconformity,
already referred to, between the Waterberg Sandstone and the
*See Ann. Report Geol. Comm. C.C. for 1899, p. 80.
fHarger, Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A., Vol. III., pp. 107-108.
JMolengraaff, Report for 1898, pp. 20-26, and Geol. of Transvaal, pp.
SS-So and 89-90.
§Mellor, E. T., Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A., Vol. VII., p. 39.
Also Ann. Report of Geol. Survey for 1903, pp. 4, 10-17, and 31.
GEOLOGY OF THE ' TRANSVAAL AND O.R.C. 289
Pretoria Series, and also points out that the red granite at Balmoral,
which is identical in character with that of the Bush Veld, has been
intruded in the from of a laccolite into the lowest beds of the Water-
berg Series.
The general features of this formation are, on the whole, strik-
ingly characteristic, uniform and persistent. Mr. Mellor describes
these features as follows : — " The Waterberg Series .... consists
essentially of an extensive succession of fine to coarse-grained,
usually massive, sandstones and grits. The sandstones are usually
moderately soft, but harder quartzitic beds and quartzites are
frequently met with. Near the base of the series very coarse and
irregular conglomerates and breccias are usually met with. Higher
up in the series, and associated with the sandstones, more regular
conglomerates, persistent over large areas and consisting of well-
rounded pebbles, rarely exceeding 4 or 5 inches in diameter, are
common. Shales are not usually much in evidence, but occasionally
occur and may reach 30 feet or more in thickness Perhaps
the most striking feature of the Waterberg Series is its very char-
acteristic coloration. In this respect it is comparable with such
formations as the Old Red Sandstone or the Triassic Sandstones of
European geology, closely resembling the latter both in the suite
of prevailing colours and in lithological characters The
most prevalent colour of the Waterberg Series is a brownish red
similar to that of the Old Red Sandstone. This colour frequently
varies to a deep-chocolate brown on the one hand, or to a brownish
purple on the other, a purple tinge being rarely absent in rocks of
the Waterberg Series."
The hill features in a Waterberg area, owing to the average low
dip of the rocks, generally have a plateau-like form and terminate
in abrupt escarpments, while outlying masses of the sandstone often
form characteristic, almost flat-topped kopjes, such as the Krans-
kop near Nylstroom. The valleys are deeply dissected, and the
streams flow frequently in narrow gorges or kloofs of considerable
depth. These features, combined with the deep red colour of the
rocks lend a striking character to the landscape.
In the Northern Transvaal and especially In the Waterberg
district extensive areas are occupied by rocks belonging to this
series. They rest here usually upon red granite or upon felsite.
In the Zoutpansberg district Waterberg sandstone has been noticed
by Dr. Corstorphine resting upon the older grey granite. The great
plateau of the Waterberg district, known as the Palala Plateau,
consists of Waterberg sandstones, which here have an average
thickness, as estimated by Dr. Molengraaff, of 3,300 feet. Still
further north somewhat similar sandstones have been noted and
may very possibly belong to the same formation.
To the south-west of the Transvaal it seems highly probable, as
has been suggested by Dr. Corstorphine* and Mr. A. W. Rogers,t
♦Corstorphine, "History of Stratigraphical Investigation in S. Africa,"
Rep. S.A.A.A.S. for 1904, p. I45-
f Rogers, Geology of Cape Colony, 1905, p. 78.
U
29<J SCIEXCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
that the Waterberg Series is represented by the Matsap Series of
Stow, which forms the Langebergen in Griqualand West, and the
Ezel Rand in the Prieska district of Cape Colony. The geological
position of the Matsap Series lies between the Glacial Conglomerate
and the Griqua Town Series (the equivalent of the Pretoria Series
of the Transvaal), and there are some important points of resem-
blance between it and the Waterberg sandstone. Thus, according
to Messrs. Rogers and Schwarz,* the Matsap rocks consist essen-
tially of quartzites and grits with a conglomerate below. The
conglomerate contains numerous fragments of typical rocks of the
Griqua Town Series in a deep reddish purple matrix, and is overlain
by " beds of grey and purple mottled grits with pebbles of quartz,
quartzite, and jasper scattered through them."
The Igneous Series of the Bush Veld.
Under this head we will describe briefly the great series of plu-
tonic and volcanic rocks which occupy the greater part of the great
central basin of the Transvaal, known as the Bush Veld, which
includes large portions of the Pretoria, Rustenburg, Middelburg,
Lydenburg and Waterberg districts. In this area we have a vast
petrographical province occupied by a complex of igneous rocks,
which have played a most important role in the geological and
physical history of this portion of South Africa. These rocks con-
sist of granites, syenites, gabbros, norites and other closely allied
varieties, together with volcanic rocks mainly of acid types.
Taking, first of all, the more plutonic types, we find that a
general survey of the area which they occupy shows that in the
more central portions of that area the more acid types predominate,
while the more intermediate and basic types tend rather to appear
. at or near the margin. Thus the granites occupy the centre and by
far the- greater portion of this vast igneous area, while the syenites,
gabbros and norites occur in the more peripheral region. We have
here, therefore, an additional illustration of an igneous phenomenon,
already recorded in many other parts of the world, namely, an
intrusive magma showing increasing basicity from centre to margin.
It should be stated, however, that up to the present time, apart
from numerous isolated observations, only a very small portion of
this vast area has been examined in any detail. It is probable,
therefore, that many new and important facts will be brought to
light, as systematic and connected geological work advances, and
it is also therefore very possible that many of our present views
may in the future require modification.
The Basic Rocks. — In travelling northwards from Pretoria,
after traversing the quartzitic beds of the Magaliesberg range,
forming here the highest visible members of the Pretoria Series,
one finds to the north of, the quartzite escarpment an extensive
*See Rogers and Schwartz, " On Geology of the Orange River Valley in
the Hope Town and Prieska Districts," Ann. Report Geol. Comm. Cape
Colony for 1899, p. 82.
GEOLOGY OF THE TRANSVAAL AND O.R.C. 29I
belt of basic rocks. Close to the Magaliesberg quartzite these ap-
pear to consist of exactly similar rocks to those which form the
numerous intrusive sheets, so characteristic of the Pretoria Series.
They are in fact rocks of diabasic type, between which and the
intrusions to the south of the Magaliesberg little or no distinction
can be drawn. Further north, however, at a distance of about a
mile from the boundary of the quartzite, the diabase gradually
passes into varieties of gabbro and norite, which constitute a belt
of about six miles in breadth, with a general east and west trend.
This belt is succeeded on the north by the syenites and granites.
An especially characteristic feature of this basic zone is the line
of rugged and often nearly pyramidally shaped kopjes (the Pyra-
mids, Zwartkopjes, etc.) which are so prominent in the otherwise
somewhat monotonous landscape to the north of the Magaliesberg.
This type of kopje is easily recognisable at considerable distances,
and forms a reliable indication of the occurrence of these basic rocks.
On either side of this line of kopjes, to the north of Pretoria, the
basic rocks form flat or gently-sloping ground, covered with a deep
red soil, and showing occasional rounded boulder-like outcrops.
To the north-east of Pretoria the basic zone dies out to the north of
Hatherley, and the norites appear again to pass into gabbro and
diabase. When traced to the west, however, the basic rocks are
found to follow the general trend of the Magaliesberg range, as far
as the neighbourhood of Rustenburg and Zeerust. They are again
found near the eastern margin of the plutonic basin in the Middle-
burg and Lydenburg districts, and along the northern margin in the
valley of the Oliphants River, and in the neighbourhood of Piet-
potgietersrust.
These basic rocks have been studied in detail by Henderson.*
The normal rock is a diallage-norite, consisting essentially of a basic
plagioclase, diallage, hypersthene, and frequently also a pale augite,
and magnetite. Biotite and a small quantity of interstitial quartz
are also sometimes present. A very characteristic feature of this
rock is the frequent intergrowth of the diallage and the hypersthene.
Enstatite is present in some varieties. Pyroxenites, composed
entirely of enstatite, are found associated with the norite, in the
Marico district and near Potgietersrust. In the latter locaUty
another variety of, the norite also occurs consisting mainly of dial-
lage and enstatite, together with some greenish hornblende and
biotite, and only a very small quantity of felspar. A dark mottled
serpentine is also of fairly common occurrence in the same district.
Of special interest in connection with these norites is the occur-
rence in them of narrow zones of magnetite which may often be
traced for considerable distances across country. To the north of
Pretoria, and on the north side of the Zwartkopjes range, the out-
*Henderson, " Certain Transvaal Norites, Gabbros, and Pyroxenites,"
London, 1898.
For further references see Ann. Report Geol. Survey, Transvaal, for
1903, P- 32- ....
V2
2g2 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
crops of two and sometimes three distinct parallel bands of
magnetite may be followed with great clearness. They vary in thick-
ness from about lo to 20 feet, and follow the same trend as the belt of
norite in which they occur. These magnetite bands are evidently
the result of a process of differentiation from the norite magma.
Deposits of iron-opal and chromite are also occasionally found
associated with the norite.
Intermediate Rocks. — Syenitic rocks are frequently found at or
near the periphery of the huge central mass of the red granite of the
Bush Veld, and in certain cases appear to constitute a tran-
sitional phase between the granite and the norite. But by far the
most interesting types connected with this series are elaeolite and
anorthoclase-syenites,* which occur as bosses, intrusive either in the
Magaliesberg quartzites or in other igneous rocks belonging to the
Bush Veld Series. The best known example of this variety of
syenite forms a complex, boss-like intrusion, situated on the farms
Leeuwfontein and Zeekoegat, a few miles north of Hatherley and
aorth-east of Pretoria. A large portion of this intrusion consists
if elaeolite-syenite, which, according to Molengraaff, is of the
foyaite type. Another portion constitutes the anorthoclase-
syenite, for which Henderson proposed the name Hatherlitef (the
term being unsuitable, however, owing to an error of locality).
The foyaite type is also found in the Pilandsberg to the north of
Rustenburg.
The Acid Rocks. — These consist mainly of granite and closely
allied varieties, and occupy a vast area to the north of the Magalies-
berg, in the Bush Veld. The granite is usually a coarse reddish
rock, consisting of orthoclase, some plagioclase, quartz, and horn-
blende or biotite in varying proportions. A highly perfect micro-
graphic structure is very characteristic, many of the rocks, and
especially the finer-grained varieties, being granophyres rather
than granites. A porphyritic structure is also common.
In the granite country the more low-lying ground is usually
Dccupied by the coarse facies, while on the higher ground we more
usually find the finer-grained varieties, such as granophyre, micro-
granite, granite-porphyry, etc., and these in certain localities appear
to pass gradually into a rock which might almost be designated a
felsite. It is possible that these fine-grained modifications may
represent a marginal facies.
In the earlier geological descriptions of the Transvaal no clear
distinction was made between the red granite of the Bush Veld and
the much older and usually grey granites, such as are found between
Pretoria and Johannesburg, near Heidelberg, near Klerksdorp, at
Vredefort in the Orange River Colony, and in the Low Country.
*For detailed description see Henderson, Op. Cit., p. 45.
Also Wulfing. Untersuchung eines Nephelin-syenit aiis dem raittlerea
Transvaal, Sud-Afrika, Neues Jahrb., 1888, p. 16.
,, Molengraaff, Geology of the Transvaal, p. 45.
,, Ann. Rep. Geol. Survey, Transvaal, for 1903, p. 33.
■fHenderson, Op. Cit., p. 46.
GEOLOGY IN THE TRANSVAAL AND O.R.C. 293
But in 1898 Dr. Molengraaff,* in his annual report as State
Geologist, very clearly pointed out the differences in character and
geological position between these two groups of granitic rocks, the
older grey granites being clearly of earlier date than the deposition
of the Black Reef, while the red granite, according to the latest
evidence, was intruded subsequently to the formation of the Water-
berg Series, but considerably prior to that of the Glacial Conglomer-
ate at the base of the Karroo System.
Volcanic Rocks. — These have so far not received very special
attention from geologists. They consist mainly of felsitic rocks
and are well developed in the hilly country of the Waterberg district,
to the north-west of Warmbaths and north of Nylstroom, and in the
Pienaai's and Elands River valleys to the north-east of Pretoria.!
A. most interesting series is found in the vaUey of the Pienaars River,
.md is well exposed on the farm Roodeplaat, due east of Waterval
Station. Here we find a series of bedded felsites, often showing a
well-marked iiow-structure, andesitic rocks, banded ashes or tuffs
3nd agglomerates, resting upon quartzites belonging to the upper
Pretoria Series and succeeded by a series of dark shales. These
rocks are occasionally traversed by dykes of felspar-porphyry and
basic rocks. Further- north, on the farm Walmansthal, the felsites
have been invaded by an intrusion of elaeolite-syenite. To the east
they are overlain, by Waterberg sandstones.
The geological position of these felsites is still a matter of some
uncertainty, especially owing to the liability of confusing them with
the felsitic and probably marginal modifications of the granite. In
the Pienaars . River Valley they would appear to belong to the
base of the Waterberg Series. In the Waterberg district a some-
what similar series of felsites is found underlying the Waterberg
sandstone, and the conglomerates at the base of the latter often
contain numerous pebbles of felsite of precisely similar character.
The Karroo System.
From a purely geological point of view the Karroo System
may perhaps be considered one of the most interesting of those
occurring in the Transvaal. It is the only series of rocks in the
Colony which has so far yielded determinable fossils, and conse-
quently the only one whose geological position as compared with
European formations can be definitely stated. It is also the only
one which can as yet be correlated with certainty with any of the
formations occurring in the sister colonies of South Africa. It
further shows a close agreement with corresponding formations
in other parts of the Southern Hemisphere, notably in India,
Australia, and in South America.
*Molengraafi, Ann. Rep. State Geologist, 1898, p. 3, and Geology of
of Transvaal, pp. 42-45.
fMolengraaff, Ann. Rep. for 1898, pp. 4 and 5, and Geol. Transvaal,
p. 48.
Also Ann. Report Geol. Survey of Transvaal for 1903, p., 34.
294 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Although not so extensively developed in the Transvaal as in
the Orange River Colony, and in the region from which it takes
its name, it still occupies a very large proportion of the surface,
occuiTing, not only as a more or less continuous sheet covering
much of the south-eastern Transvaal, but also in smaller detached
areas scattered throughout the greater part of the remainder
of the Colony. Over a wide area to the north of the eastern railway
line it occurs as extensive outliers on the Waterberg Sandstones
and the Red Granite, and includes probably certain sandstones
occurring on the Springbok Flats.
Near the Portuguese border along the course of the " Great
Eastern Fault," a long strip of Karroo rocks, including beds of coal
of economic importance, has been preserved in the Eastern Trans-
vaal. Associated with the sedimentary rocks are extensive volcanic
flows consisting largely of amygdaloidal basalts.
In the Orange River Colony the Karroo System also attains
a very wide development, occupying almost the whole of the surface.
In that portion of the Transvaal where it attains its most
extensive development, the Karroo System of rocks is the main
factor in the production of a special type of country known as
" High Veld," possessing scenic and physical characteristics more
or less peculiar to itself, and dependent partly on its exceptional
elevation and partly upon its geologic structure.
The enormous unbroken stretches of soft horizontal sandy
strata give rise to vast and gently undulating expanses of country
usually unbroken by any sharply marked surface features. Trees
are of rare occurrence, and the thick growth of high grass which
clothes the High Veld during the greater part of the year tends
still further to accentuate its uniformity of colour and outline.
In common with much of South African scenery the High Veld,
in spite of its monotony, possesses a special charm of its own in its
magnificent simplicity, the full appreciation of which is aided by
the prevalent clearness of the atmosphere, which helps to in-
tensify the impression of illimitable space upon which so much of
the charm of the South African veld depends.
Along the great eastern escarpment of the High Veld more
active and more advanced denudation has produced types of
country at once more varied, both in their physical aspects and
in their geological interest. The deeply dissected country traversed
by the eastern rivers offers a strong contrast to the almost unbroken
surface of the High Veld, and affords magnificent sections of ex-
tensive series of strata forming part of this system. In its western,
and particularly in its northern extension, the Karroo System
diminishes very considerably in thickness. It is here, however,
very interesting to the geologist from the fact that the progressive
denudation of the Karroo rocks leads to the re-appearance of a
land surface, whose main features date back as far as Carboniferous
times.
In the classification of the Karroo Rocks as developed in the
Transvaal, geologists are still far from unanimity, especially
GEOLOGY OF THE TRANSVAAL AND O.R.C. 295
regarding the upper portion of the system, and in particular with
regard to the coal-bearing horizon.
On account of its more extensive development, the occurrence
of more complete natural sections, and tlie longer period over
which the study of this system has extended in Cape Colony and
Natal, a more or less complete classification has been established
in these neighbouring colonies. The attempt to adjust the classifi-
cation of the Karroo System of the Transvaal to these more com-
plete classifications has not yet met with complete success. There
is a very great thinning out of the whole series of rocks from east
to west, and the complete correlation with the more comprehensive
eastern sections of the compai"atively feeble, or possibly incom-
plete development of the system in those parts of the Transvaal
where it has as yet been most studied, will perhaps only be settled
when fuller data with regard to the intervening phases are available.
The correlation of the Transvaal coal-bearing rocks with portions
of the Sformberg Series of Cape Colony having been eliminated
by the recent work of Seward,* Zeiller,t and others, on their respec-
tive fossil floras, the question remains as to where between the
Stormberg Series and the Glacial Conglomerates the Transvaal
coal horizon is to find a place.
From the consideration of certain sections at Vereeniging,
Dr. G. S. Corstorphine has advocated an interglacial position for
the Transvaal coal horizon.} Dr. Molengraaff's later views** are
represented in the classi-fication given in the recently published
English edition of his " Geology of the Transvaal " which is as
follows : —
Upper Karroo : Fluviatile and Lacustrine.
Stormberg Beds, not developed in the Transvaal,
containing coal seams in the Cape Colony.
Hoogeveld Series, probably Beaufort Beds, con-
taining coal seams in the Eastern Transvaal ; thins out
towards the west.
Lower Karroo : Glacial and Interglacial.
Ecca shales, very well developed in the Eastern
Transvaal, thinning out towards the west, and not developed
at Vereeniging.
Dwyka- conglomerate, containing locally (interglacial)
sandstones, with coal seams at Vereeniging.
In the following description the formation will be treated
chiefly with reference to its more characteristic Transvaal develop-
ments.
*A. C. Seward, " On the association of Sigillaria and Glossopteris in
S. Africa," Q.J.G.S., Vol. 53, p. 315. i»97-
•fR. Zeiller, " Etudes sur quelques fossiles des environs de Johannes-
burg," Bull. Soc. Gaol, de France, 1896," Vol. 54, p. 315.
+G. S. Corstorphine, " Note on the Age of the Central South African
Coalfield," Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A., Vol. VI., 1903.
**Molengraafi, G. A. F., "Geology of the Transvaal," English trans-
lation, 1904, p. 82.
296 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The Glacial Conglomerates {Dwyka).—\n the eastern sections
the Dwyka Conglomerate, both in its mode of occurrence and in
its petrological characters, resembles closely the better known
occurrences in the north-eastern portion of Cape Colony, and in
Natal.
Though probably very generally present at the base of the
Karroo System throughout the higher portions of the Transvaal,
the Glacial Conglomerate participates in the general thinning out
of the whole system from east to west. Good natural exposures
are comparatively rare, and the rock frequently shows marked
local modifications : its constitution being largely influenced
by the formations upon which it lies or from which its materials
have been derived.
Extensive areas covered by the conglomerate have recently
been described and mapped in the district lying north and south
of the Eastern Railway line between Pretoria and Middleburg,*
where, owing to the almost complete removal by denudation of the .
overlying sandstones and grits of the High Veld Series, the Glacial
Conglomerate remains in broad patches which, "were the conditions
prevailing in other parts of the country unknown, might easily,
by their mode of distribution and general relationships to the
underlying formations, convey the impression of belonging to a
period of comparatively recent glaciation.
The former wide extension of the Glacial Conglomerate is shown
by the occurrence of isolated patches 80 miles further north than
Johannesburg.!
In the southern portions of Cape Colony the Dwyka Conglomerate
has the characters of a sub-aqueous deposit composed of materials
of glacial origin, J while in the northern portions it represents
a true ground-moraine, which is also the case in the Transvaal, §
including the district referred to above. Here the Glacial Con-
glomerate presents all the characters of a deposit, produced, not
by the action of a number of separate glaciers, but rather of an
ice-sheet of very great dimensions. ||
The conglomerate contains an abundance of typical glacial
boulders of very miscellaneous composition and often of very
large size. In nearly all cases the rocks of which the boulders
are composed are only met with in situ to the north of their present
position. Thus the Red Granite and the hardest quartzites and
conglomerates of the Waterberg Series have furnished the rnajority
of the boulders occurring in a belt lying to the south of the area
*Ann. Reports Geol. Survey of Transvaal, 1903, 1904.
fE. T. Mellor, " Outliers of the Karoo System near the junction of the
Elands and Olifants Rivers in the Transvaal," Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A., Vol.
VII., 1904, p. 133-
JAnn. Report Geol. Comm., Cape of Good Hope, 1899.
§G. A. F. Molengraaff, " The Glacial Origin of the Dwyka Conglomerate, ' '
Trans: Geol; Soc. S.A., Vol; IV., 1898, p. 103.
|!E. T. Mellor, "Glaciated Land Surfaces in the district between Pretoria
and Balmoral," Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A., Vol. VII., 1904, p. 8.
GEOLOGY OF THE TRANSVAAL AND O.R.C. 297
mainly occupied by those rocks, while south of the long escarp-
ments of the eastward extension of the Magaliesberg quartzites,
Jiuge boulders derived from these beds play a very prominent
part wherever exposures of the Glacial Conglomerate occur.
The progress of denudation of these more northerly occurrences
of the Glacial Conglomerate frequently lays bare the striated
surfaces of the underlying rocks. Many fine examples have recently
been found among the outcrops of hard quartzites in the Waterberg
and Pretoria Series.* Distributed over an area of 300 square
miles, these striations show a remarkable consistency of direction,
pointing to an ice-movement from N.N.W. to S.S.E.
The general appearance of the Glacial Conglomerate and the
character of its matrix in these more northerly districts differs
somewhat from that of the eastern examples.
The rock is usually of much softer character and Of a yellowish
colour, and the matrix contains a large proportion of sandy and
quartzitic material, and further shows less induration and
crystallisation. These effects are probably in great measure due,
partly to the materials of the conglomerate having been largely
gathered from an area in which the prevailing rocks are sandstones,
quartzites and granites, and partly to the lesser weight of super-
incumbent strata to which the conglomerate has been subjected.
The Ecca Shales. — The series of shales which succeeds the
Dvvyka Conglomerate and which is well represented in practically
all the eastern sections is, in the more central portions of the Trans-
vaal, very poorly developed or frequently apparently absent alto-
gether, as at Vereeniging.
Small local developments of shales quite similar to the typical
examples of the eastern districts occur in various localities, as at
the Douglas Colliery, 45 miles east of Pretoria, where about 6 feet
of such shales succeed the Glacial Conglomerate. f
In the present state of our knowledge, however, it is difhuclt to
say how far this portion of the Karroo System is represented in
various portions of the Transvaal.
Upper Karroo (High Veld Series).
In the central portions of the Transvaal the Upper Karroo is
represented by the series of shales, sandstones and grits which
occur in immediate association with the coal seams. The thickness
of this series now present in any particular locality varies consider-
ably according to the extent to which the local denudation of the
series has progressed. Usually the thickness is from 100 to 400 feet.
The prevailing rocks are shales, often carbonaceous, and fine and
coarse sandstones. Very coarse, massive grits composed almost
entirely of somewhat angular quartz grains also frequently occur,
and are very characteristic of the coal districts between Pretoria
and Middelburg, where by weathering they give rise to small
*Loc. Cit. Also An. Reports, GeoL Surv. Transvaal, 1903, 1904.
|Ann. Report Geol. Survey of Transvaal, 1903, p. 23.
298 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
" kranzes," and striking groups of huge blocks forming conspicuous
surface features. '
In the more continuous areas covered by this series it gives rise
to the rolhng, somewhat sandy, high-veld country already referred
to, a characteristic feature of which is the occurrence of numerous
more or less circular shallow depressions, known as " pans," the
origin of which has given rise to much discussion. In comparison
with the Karroo System in Cape Colony and Natal, igneous intru-
sions, whether in the form of dykes or sheets, are perhaps not so
conspicuously developed, especially in the more northerly districts.
The disposition of the coal-measures is almost everywhere
horizontal, with a tendency to a slight undulation of the beds,
rarely giving rise to dips exceeding 5°. Faulting except on a small
scale is infrequent.
The Coal Seams* — The general thinning out of the Karroo
System in the Transvaal fortunately does not apply to the coal
seams which are often of great thickness, most of the seams at
present worked being from 6 to 20 feet thick.
Like most South African coals, those of the Transvaal appear
to be mainly of drift origin, and to have been deposited by current
action in more or less extensive basins. To this mode of- origin is
probably due the frequently banded appearance of most of the
Transvaal coals, as well as the somewhat high percentage of ash.
Hitherto no good examples of typical underclays or of fossil trees
in situ have been found, although boulders of the Dwyka Con-
glomerate at Vereeniging frequently show markings apparently
due to the roots of coal-measure plants.
The coal is at present mainly worked in the following localities : at
Vereeniging, near the border of the Orange River Colony ; at Boks-
burgandSprings, east of Johannesburg ; at a large group of collieries
situated near Witbank Station, west of Middelburg ; and at Belfast.
The shales and sandstones accompanying the Transvaal coal-
seams contain abundant fossil plants.
Many of the best specimens have been obtained from Vereen-
iging,! and have been described by Seward and Zeiller, by whom
the coal horizon is assigned to a Permo-carboniferous ■ age. Char-
acteristic members of the fossihflora of the Transvaal coal measures
include Glossopteris browniana, Gangamopteris cyclopteroides,
Noeggeratheopsis Hislopi, Sphenopteris, Sigillaria Brardi, etc.
Owing, however, to the rarity of natural outcrops of these fossi-
liferous beds, and to the comparative ease with which the coal is
obtained, obviating the necessity for any extensive workings in
beds other than the coal itself, the collections of fossils hitherto
made in this Colony have not been very extensive.
*For descriptions of Transvaal Coalfields see also : —
M. E. Frames, Trans. Geol. Soc. S.A., Vol. II., p. 87.
D. Draper, „ „ „ „ „ III., p. 128.
A. R. Sawyer, Trans. Inst. Min. Eng., 1898.
tT. N. Leslie, " The Fossil Flora of Vereeniging," Trans. Geol. Soc.
S.A., Vol. VI., p. 82.
geology of the transvaal and o.r.c. 299
' The Diamond Pipes.
In concluding this very incomplete description, a short reference
to the diamondiferous vents or pipes will not be out of place, especi-
ally as one of these, the Premier, has now deservedly attained a
world-wide celebrity and interest. Several diamondiferous vents
are now known to the east of Pretoria, and are situated on the
elevated ground, lying between the upper waters of the Plena ars
and Elands rivers, and occupied by some of the uppermost quartzites,
shales, and diabases of the Pretoria Series. Of these the Premier
pipe is not only by far the largest known diamondiferous vent in the
world, but, as everyone knows, it has produced a most marvellous
record in diamonds.
This pipe is situated on the farm Elandsfontein (85), about
7 miles north of Van der Merwe Station and about 22 miles E.N.E.
of Pretoria. At the surface the outline of the pipe forms an irregu-
lar oval, the longer diameter of which measures just over half a mile.
The area of diamondiferous ground at the surface has been calcu-
lated at 350,006 square yards (equal to 3,280 claims of 30 by 30
Cape feet). The pipe is almost entirely surrounded at the surface
by felsitic rocks, which form the upper portion of a large sheet
intrusive in quartzites of the Pretoria Series. In addition to the
felsite a small patch of quartzite is found cropping out on the
northern edge of the vent.
Nine bore-holes have been put down into the pipe to depths
varying-from 300 to 1,001 feet, and these have all traversed typical
blue'ground or Kimberlite of excellent quality. The level of the
blue-ground varies in different parts of the pipes. In the open
workings it is seen within fifteen feet of the surface, but usually it
is struck at a depth of about 35 to 40 feet. Nearly all the blue
matrix is soft and weathers rapidly, and no hard blue, or " hardi-
bank," has been met with except in one of the bore-holes at a denth
of slightly over 500 feet.
A considerable amount of foreign material also occurs in the
vent in the form of " floating reef." This consists of masses, up
to over 100 feet in thickness, consisting mainly of purple quartzite,
with some conglomerate, breccia, and a reddish felsitic rock. In
the open workings masses of purple quartzite, indurated grit, and
conglomerate are well exposed. An interesting point in this con-
nection is the close resemblance which these masses of conglomerate
and quartzite bear to similar types of the Waterberg Sandstone
Series, the nearest outcrop of which to the Mine lies about 3 miles
to the north-east. It is quite possible that the Waterberg rocks
may at one time have extended over the area where the pipe is
situated, and that the included masses within the vent represent
fragments of these Waterberg rocks, broken from the former higher
portions of its walls.
Apart from the Premier pipe, we may mention the following
vents, all however of comparatively small size, occurring in the same
district :^the Schuller, Kaalfontein, Montrose, Zonderwater, and
300 SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
Pienaarspoort. Of these the Schuller and Kaalfontein pipes are
the most interesting geologically, and show very clearly the junction
between the diamondiferous ground and the country rock. The
walls are well defined and often show traces of slickensiding. In
connection with the Kaalfontein pipe, a tendency of the quartzite
beds to curve upwards at their contact with the vent has also been
observed.
The Schuller No. i pipe consists to a great extent of very hard
blue-ground, resembling the Kimbei^ley " hardibank," and- this
may be seen cropping out at the surface as a hard dark bluish-black
rock, containing angular fragments and the characteristic minerals
usually associated with the diamond. A microscopic and chemical
examination of the rock has shown it to be a highly serpentinised
peridotite-breccia. More detailed information regarding these
interesting vents will be found in the report of the- Geological
Survey of the Transvaal for 1903, and in a paper by Messrs. Kyn-
aston and Hall, read before the Johannesburg meeting of the South
African Association for the Advancement of Science.*
In the Orange River Colony several vents occur in the western
and north-western portions of the Colony, the Lac3 Mine, in the
neighbourhood of Kronstad, being especially interesting. There
vents have pierced strata belonging to the Upper Karroo System.
There appears to be very little doubt that the Transvaal and
Orange River Colony vents belong to the same class as those of
Kimberley, and are probably all of approximately the same age.
The Transvaal vents, disregarding superficial formations, would
represent, therefore, the most geologically recent rock in that
country, of which we have any record.
The Pretoria Diamond Fields are situated in an area which has
been one of considerable earth-movement and disturbance. There
may be good reason, therefore, for supposing that the faulting,
which has taken place in this area, has set up lines of weakness,
which have finally been taken advantage of by the volcanic forces
to which the vents owe their origin.
* See Annual Rep. Geol. Survey of 'i'ransvaal tor 1903, pp. 43-48.
Also Kynaston and Hall, '• The Geological Features of it e
Diamond Pipe:^ of ttie Pretoria district," R^p S A.A A S;, 1904, pp, 182-
196 and P.ates VII. and VIII:
SECTION V.-GEOLOGICAL-(co»M.)
4. GEOLOGY OF RHODESIA.
By F. p. Mennell, Curator of the Rhodesia Museum,
bulawayo.
The geological features of Rhodesia are not at present known
in any great detail, and the unravelling of the intricacies of the
metamorphic rocks presents a problem at least as complicated as
that of the Scottish highlands, the solution of which is only now
being attempted. If, however, the schists are looked upon as one
big group, though they include both truly " archsean " and
" eparchsean " types, the broad outlines of the geology of Rho-
desia appear to be of comparative simplicity, and may be sum-
marised in a few words.
North-east by south-west there runs through the country a
narrow tableland which marks the axis of a huge anticline falling
away to the Limpopo and the Sabi on the south and stretching
towards the Zambesi on the north. The plateau, or " high veld,"
reaches a height of about a mile above sea-level, and is composed
almost entirely of igneous and metamorphic rocks, showing the
extent to which the axiai portion of the anticline has been denuded,
though it stiU maintains its position to the extent of forming the
highest ground. The plateau was probably outlined at the time
the Rhodesian coal beds were laid down, as it does not seem likely
that their distance from the anticlinal axis is to be attributed to
subsequent erosion. That the present elevation of the plateau is,
however, due to comparatively recent earth-movements is con-
clusively shown by the outliers of forest sandstone which occur
upon it, such as the conspicuous hills of Taba-z-Induna and Um-
fazumiti, which are prominent features in the landscape near
BulaWayo. It may be mentioned that no rock of marine origin
is known to occur in Rhodesia, unless among those of Archaean age.
The stratigraphy may be roughly summed up as follows : —
Laterite, hot spring deposits, etc. Recent.
Forest Sandstom ? Tertiary.
Coal Series Permian.
PDwyka Conglomerate ) , ^ Paleozoic.
Sandstones and b nates ] ^^
(great unconformity)
Conglomerate, ' etc. ]
Banded Ironstone series > Archaean.
Bulfiwayo schists j
302 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The rocks classed as Archaean are no doubt equivalent to the
Malmesbury beds of the Cape. The true schists are probably,
from their composition, in part old sediments and in part of igneous
origin ; the eparchaean rocks, on the other hand, are obviously as
a rule of sedimentary origin. The slaty beds seen at Cape Town
are, in fact, lithologically almost identical with the less-altered
portions of the rocks here termed Banded Ironstone. These
banded rocks are the northward extension of beds called Griqua-
town series by the Cape Geological Survey and Hospital Hill Beds
in the Transvaal. They are now usually sUicified to such an extent
as to resemble chertS; but the least metamorphosed parts are
obviously fine-grained mechanical sediments. They are Some-
times transformed in the granite contact zones into andalusite and
other schists, but these in no way resemble the normal hornblende,
mica, talc and chlorite schists which unconformably underlie them,
and their progressive alteration is well shown. The conglomerates
and coarse sandstones which overlie the banded ironstones often
approximate in structure to true schists ; in fact, a microscopical
examination of the matrix, disregarding the pebbles, would often
result in the rock being set down as a hornblende schist, or even
sometimes as an igneous rock. The pebbles, which are sometimes
large and in other cases small and beautifully rounded, like river
gravel, include quartz, " haUefiinta," granite, granophyres, talc and
chlorite schist, and sometimes much banded ironstone. The con-
glomerate, as first pointed out by the writer, is evidently the strati-
graphical equivalent of the Rand banket ; and it has lately been
discovered to contain payable gold in several localities, notably at
Lomagundi.
The oldest ordinary sediments are much yoimger than even the
granites which are " intrusive " in the archsean rocks, and which
are now exposed at the surface over great part of Rhodesia. They
probably include equivalents of the Pretoria beds, etc., of the Trans-
vaal, but have so far been little studied owing to their remote situa-
tion in basins of the Sabi, Sengwe and Tuli rivers.
The Coal Beds are underlain in the Tuli district by what is al-
most certainly the Dwyka conglomerate, so well known in the
Transvaal and Cape Colony, and usually considered to be of glacial
origin. The coal series is itself presumably of Permian age, and is
the oldest f ossiferous formation in Rhodesia, having yielded the
fish Acrolepis molyneuxi, the freshwater mollusc PalcBomutela, and
the plants Glossopheris and Calamites, as well as a few indeterminate
reptilian bones. It consists of sandstones with some shales and
rare bands of limestone, besides seams of coal which are thick and
of good quality, and appears to extend, though not in unbroken
continuity, all through the north of Matabeleland and near the
Limpopo from Tuli to the Sabi River.
Overlying the coal beds are series" of red and white sandstones,
partly of desert and partly of lacustrine origin, which contain
numerous inter-bedded sheets of basalt and other lavas. From
the freshness of these latter, and other considerations, it is probable
GEOLOGY OF RHODESIA. 3O3
that the beds are of Tertiary age. The " Forest Sandstones "
cover most of the lower-lying parts of the country, and outliers
occur, as already noted, even on the plateau.
The remaining rocks are those whose formation is even now in
progress. The laterite so common in all tropical countries, is here
often found over-lying the igneous and metamorphic rocks, and the
hot springs of the Zambesi basin form interesting calcareous and
siliceous sinters. The rivers, however, may be almost left out of
account, as, owing to the recent elevation of the plateau and their
consequently almost torrential nature, they give rise to few accumu-
lations of gravel or sand. The soil of the country, too, owes nottiing
to " drift " deposits, but is purely the result of disintegration in
situ of the underlying rocks.
References ;—
F. P. Mennell : The Geology of Southern Rhodesia.
A. J. C. MOLYNEUX : The Sedimentary Deposits of Rho-
desia. Quart. Joiirn. Geol. Soc, LIX., pp. 226-291.
SECTION V.-GEOLOGICAL~(co»M.)
5. THE FOSSIL REPTILES OF SOUTH AFRICA.
By R. Broom, M.D., D.Sc, C.M.Z.S., Professor of Geology
AND Zoology, Victoria College, Stellenbosch.
The conditions which prevailed in South Africa during Permian
and Triassic times must have been for the most part singularly
suitable for reptilian life ; and the remains of the reptiles have
on the whole been beautifully preserved in the extensive
shale beds which were laid down during these long epochs. It
thus happens that, probably in no part of the world, have we such
an uninterrupted history of the land vertebrates of Permian and
Triassic times ; and as it was in these times that the great radiation
took place which gave rise to the various reptilian orders and
even to mammals and possibly birds, there is no period in reptilian
history of which it is more important that we should have a thorough
knowledge.
The oldest rocks from which reptilian remains have been
obtained are the Upper Dwyka shales of possibly Lower Permian
ages, and these have yielded so far only a single form, Mesosaurus.
This was a slender aquatic reptile about 2 feet long, and of a very
primitive type. The jaws were long and pointed, and armed with
numerous long slender teeth. The limbs were feeble, and, though
no doubt mainly used for swimming, were probably still strong
enough to enable the animal to move on land without much diffi-
culty. The ribs were very thick and heavy, and but loosely
attached to the vertebrae. Though there is some difference of
opinion as to the relationships of the form, it seems probable
that it was an aquatic modification of a primitive land reptile some-
what allied to PalcBohatteria and Procolophon. A very similar
form, Stereosternum is known from the Permian beds of Brazil.
About 2,000 or 3,000 feet above the beds in which Mesosaurus
occurs, we come to strata in which reptilian remains are abundant,
and which are called the Beaufort Beds. From the lowest stratum
in which land reptiles occur there is a continuous series of shale
and sandstone beds measuring about 10,000 feet, and possibly
containing the records of at least two millions of years. In this long
period there can be traced a number of fairly distinct faunas, and
a clearer idea of the life may be gained by the consideration of
the different faunas than by considering the reptiles systematically
FOSSIL REPTILES. 3U5
In the lowest of the Beaufort Beds the fauna is characterised
by the presence of a number of large heavily built land reptiles,
of which the most prominent and best known form is Pareiasaurus.
This large reptile measured about 9 feet in length and stood about
3i feet in height. The head is broad and moderately flat above
with the temporal region completely roofed over. The orbits
are small and round. There are fourteen to sixteen fairly equal
flattened teeth, with notched edges, on each jaw. The limb bones
and vertebrae are very massive, and are specially interesting,
in that they resemble the bones of mammals more than they do
those of reptiles. Pareiasaurus was probably a slow moving
animal that lived in the marshes of the great inland sea of the
time. A species of Pareiasaurus has recently been discovered
in North Russia ; and Elginia and Sclerosaurus of Europe are
aUied forms.
Associated with Pareiasaurus is another possibly allied form
of even larger size, Tapinocephalus. Unfortunately, it is very
imperfectly known. More is known, however, of one or two
large carnivorous reptiles which probably preyed on the slow
moving Pareiasaurus. Of these, Titanosuchus and Scapanodon
probably stood about 5 feet in height. They were armed with
large and powerful incisors and canines. A smaller allied car-
nivorous form was Delphinognathus. With this peculiar fauna
of large types, which may be called the Pareiasaurus fauna, we
have a few forerunners of the next- — the Dicynodon fauna.
The Dicynodon fauna is the richest of the Karroo faunas,
and lasted for a very long period. It differs from the preceding
in that aU the members of it are of comparatively small size, the
largest being probably under 3 feet in height. The herbivorous
forms, which are by far the most numerous in individuals, belong
to the order of Anomodonts, of which Dicynodon is the typical genus.
Dicynodon- is a genus of mammal-like reptiles, of which there
are many species, varying in size from forms under a foot in length
to others as large as a wild boar. Though heavily built animals,
the bones of the skeleton are strikingly like those of mammals,
and even the skull is fundamentally of the mammalian type.
The resemblance, however, is much obscured by the fact that the
upper canines are developed as tusks, while the rest of the margin
of the jaws have been covered with horn as in the tortoise. The
Dicynodons were probably sluggish animals that lived in the
marshes and fed after the manner of tortoises.
Allied to Dicynodon and associated with it were many species
of Oudenodon, a somewhat more slenderly built genus which
differed in being devoid of any trace of tusks. Oudenodon appeared
in South Africa a little earlier than Dicynodon, and is only met
with in the lower Beaufort Beds.
A considerable number of other genera are met with allied to
Dicynodon and Oudenodon, but with a number of molar teeth.
These are placed in the family of the Endothiodonts, and the best
known genera are Endothiodon, an animal about the size of a
w
306 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
moderate-sized pig, but with a disproportionately large head ;
and Opisthoctenodon, a slenderly-built little form about the size
of a rat.
Living with the Anomodonts and no doubt preying on them,
were large numbers of carnivorous reptiles, varying in size from
forms smaller than a cat to others as large as a hyaena. These
all belong to a group of primitive mammal-like reptiles called the
Therocephalia. They are characterised by having the teeth
divided into incisors, canines and molars, as in mammals. The
skull is fairly mammal-like, but differs in having a single occipital
condyle, a well-developed quadrate bone, and a palate of the
Rhynchocephalian type. The Therocephalians were active animals,
and unlike the Anomodonts had ,the toes armed with powerful
sharp curved claws. The best known members of the group are
Cynodraco, Lycosuchus, and Ictidosuchus.
Towards the close of this period a number of curious small
Anomodonts appear — the Kistecephalians — but they survived
only a short time.
In the strata above those in which Dicynodon and Oudenodon
are so abundant, we find an entire change in the fauna, but whether
this is due to the old forms having died off, or merely to the fact
that the rocks preserved, represent deep water conditions rather
than littoral, cannot at present be decided with certainty. In
these rocks the principal and almost the only reptile is an aquatic
form of Anomodont called Lystrosaurus. It is characterised by
having large eyes placed near the top of the head, and the nostrils
also placed high. The limbs are short, and the joints cartilaginous.
Lystrosaurus may be regarded as a reptilian seal. The remains are
so very nurtierous that specimens are to be found in every collection.
Above the Lystrosaurus beds a very distinct land fauna is
met with quite unlike the old Dicynodon fauna. This for con-
venience may be called the Procolophon fauna.
Procolophon is a lizard-like reptile, about i8 inches in length.
Though the beds in which it is found are probably Middle Triassic,
it is apparently a survival from Lower Permian times and is one
of the most primitive types of reptile known. The skull is broad,
with large orbits and with a roofed temporal region. There are
on each jaw from nine to twelve fairly uniform teeth, the incisors
pointed and the molars broad topped. As in Sphenodon and many
lizards, the teeth are anchylosed to the bone. The palate resembles
that of Sphenodon. The shoulder girdle retains a well-developed
precoracoid, but has lost the cleithrum. The pubis and ischium
are plate-like. The digital formula is as in Sphenodon, and there
is a further resemblance in the presence of abdominal ribs. The
vertebrae are notochordal. Procolophon may be regarded as a
form intermediate between the American Cotylosaurs and the
primitive Rhynchocephalians, such as Palceohatteria of Europe.
With Procolophon are associated one or two other small forms,
among them a small Stegocephalian, Micropholis and the earliest
known true lizard, Paliguana.
FOSSIL REPTILES. 3O7
In the same beds occur the earliest Cynodont reptile Galesaurus,
a small carnivore which doubtless preyed on Procolophon.
Another most interesting form occurring here is the imperfectly
known Proterosuchus. This is regarded by some as belonging
to the same group as Belodon and other primitive crocodile-like
forms, and by others as a Rhynchocephalian. The truth probably
is that it is intermediate between the two groups. The skull is
about a foot in length.
In the uppermost of the Beaufort Beds we again get a fairly
distinct fauna which may be called the Cynognathus fauna. It
is exceeding rich, and as the result of the researches of Kannemeyer
and Brown it is fortunately now pretty well known. The most
striking and characteristic members of the fauna are the extremely
mammal-like Cynodonts, or as they are usually called " Theriodonts."
Cynognathus, which may be taken as the type of the Cynodonts,
was a large carnivorous form about the size of a hyaena, but with
a proportionately larger head. The skull and most of the bones
of the skeleton are almost typically mammalian- The teeth
are divided into incisors, canines, pre-molars and molars.' There
is a well-developed secondary palate, and the lower jaw is formed
almost entirely by the dentary. The quadrate bone is rudimentary,
and though the hinge is still between the articular and the quadrate,
the dentary almost reaches the articulation. The skull is
supported by condyles as in manuals. The shoulder girdle still
retains the precoracoid, and the pelvis is more mammal-like than in
any other reptilian group, there being a large obturator foramen.
Closely allied to the truly carnivorous Cynognathus are a number
of other genera which differ in having fiat-topped molars. The
best known of those are Gomphognathus, an animal of about the
size of a Collie dog ; Diademodon, a slightly smaller allied form ;
and Trirachodon, an animal about the size of a cat. These have
well-developed incisors and canines, and crushing but apparently
not grinding molars. As they were also provided with large
temporal muscles, it seems more probable that they were carrion-
eating forms than herbivorous, as has been suggested.
Two other genera, Sesamodon and Melinodon, though closely
resembling the Cynodonts proper, have been provided with grinding
molars and must thus have had a loose articulation for the jaw, and
probably belong to a group intermediate between the Cynodonts
and Mammals.
One or two species of a Procolophon-like genus, Thelegnatkus,
occur in fair numbers, but they are very imperfectly known.
Better known is a very interesting Gnathodont or Rhyncho-
cephalian reptile called Howesia. This is a little form about
2 feet in length somewhat allied to Sphenodon, but differing in
having four or five rows of small teeth on the jaws. In this it
agrees with the European and Indian genus Hyperodapedon, of
which it may possibly prove to be the ancestor.
A few Anomodonts of large size reappear in these upper Beau-
fort 'Beds. There is a large species of Dicynodon, D. latifrons,
w 2
308 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
and a very large imperfectly known form which probably belongs
to a new genus.
A considerable number of Stegocephalians are met with, possibly
belonging to five or six genera. The best known are Rhytidosteus,
Batrachosuckus, Cyclotosaurus and Bothriceps.
It seems remarkable that in this Upper Triassic fauna there are
apparently no Dinosaurs or Phytosaurs.
Above the Beaufort Beds are the Stormberg Beds, and here
we find again an entirely distinct fauna. There is some difference
of opinion as to the age of the Stormberg Beds, but recent evidence
points to their being Lower Jurassic.
The Stormberg fauna is at present not very thoroughly known,
and Dinosaurs are the most prominent types. Remains have
been discovered of two or three small carnivorous forms, the
best known being Hortalotarsus, an animal which stood about
4 feet high, and which is allied to the American Anchisaurus.
A much larger carnivorous Dinosaur is the imperfectly known
Massospondylus. Orinosaurus is possibly a gigantic Dinosaur
allied to Megalosaurus, but is very imperfectly known. Another
large form is Euskelesaurus, but there are different opinions as to
its affinities. Prof. Marsh believed it to be a Stegosaurian.
A number of bones have recently been discovered which appear
to be those of a large species of Belodon or an allied genus.
There have also recently been found the remains of a small
true crocodile, Noiochampsa. This is a little animal about 2 feet
in length, with sharp snout and with long legs. Its nearest ally
seems to be Pelagosaurus, but it is much specialised and probably
lived mainly on land.
Another interesting form which was apparently discovered
in Stormberg Beds is Tritylodon. By Seeley and others it is
believed to be a reptile, but it was originally described by Owen
as a mammal, and Owen's view is still supported by some anatomists.
The Uitenhage Beds, which are considered to be of Wealden
age, have so far yielded very few vertebrate remains. The greater
part of a Plesiosaurian was discovered a number of years ago,
but has not yet been described. Recently a moderate-sized
Opisthocoelian Dinosaur, Algoasaurus, has been found. It closely
resembles the American forms, but is of much smaller size. There
are also evidences of carnivorous Dinosaurs and other reptiles.
In the Pondoland Beds, which are believed to be Senonian,
there have been discovered the remains of Chelonians and Pythono-
morphs, but they have not as yet been described.
The majority of the types of the South African reptiles are in
the British Museum, London, but though the collections in South
Africa contain fewer types they are perhaps of greater interest
to the comparative anatomists.
In the South African Museum, Cape Town, is an almost perfect
skeleton of Pareiasaurus, and a number of imperfect skeletons,
and also skulls and portions of the skeletons of Titanosuchus and
Delphinognathus. The types of most of the Therocephalians
FOSSIL REPTILES. 3O9
recently described are also to be seen here, including the fine
skulls of Glanosuchus and Scylacosaurus. Among Anomodonts,
the most interesting specimen is the fairly complete skeleton of
Endothiodon bathystoma. Here also are the very interesting
though imperfect skull of Proierosuchus, and one of the three
wellpreserved specimens of Mesosaurus. The Stormberg reptiles
are better represented than in any other collection, there being
here the only known specimens of the crocodilian Notochampsa,
the portions of the South African Phytosaur and a large part of the
skeleton of Hortalotarsus, and other Dinosaurian remains.
In the Albany Museum, Grahamstown, are a large number of
Cynodont remains, including the types of Gom-phognathtis kanne-
meyeri and Trirachodon kannemeyeri. The most valuable series
of specimens from the point of view of the comparative anatomist
is the large collection of the remains of Procolophon. The museum
also contains the types of Hortalotarsus, and of the primitive lizard,
Paliguana. There is also a fine series of Lystrosaurus remains.
In the Port Elizabeth Museum are the remains of the Cretaceous
Dinosaur, Algoasaurus.
The private collection of Mr. Alfred Brown, of Aliwal North,
is one of the most valuable in South Africa from the scientific
point of view. Its most noteworthy specimens are the types of
Batrachosuchus, of the small Triassic mammal, Karoomys, of
Howesia, and of Sesamodon and Melinodon. Mr. Brown has also
a very fine coDection of fossil plants, and by far the best collection
of South African fossil fish.
At Stellenbosch, either in the museum of the Victoria College
or in Dr. Broom's private collection are a few noteworthy specimens,
especially almost complete skeletons and many skulls of Oudenodon,
the type of Iptidosuchus primcevus, the type of Lycosuchus van-
derrieti — the most perfectly preserved Therocephalian skull at
present known — a fine specimen of Mesosaurus, and the type of
Cyclotosaurus albertyni.
In Bloemfontein Museum are two or three good specimens of
Bothriceps and some Dinosaurian remains.
SECTION VI.-MlNERALOGICAL.
I. SOUTH AFRICAN METALLURGY.
By Edward H. Johnson, Vice-President Chemical,
Metallurgical and Mining Society of South Africa
Considering the lavish manner in which Nature has distributed
mineral wealth throughout South Africa, it is somewhat disappoint-
ing that the metallurgy of gold only has, so far, developed to any
considerable dimensions. The great diamond industry — although
of the greatest mineralogical interest — scarcely enters the domain
of metallurgy. The methods of separation of the diamonds, how-
ever, are entirely analogous to the metallurgical operations of con-
centration, and the grease method of detaining the diamonds during
washing, which has come into extensive use in Kimberley, resembles
the Elmore process which has proved so successful on certain ores
of copper.
The constant value of gold, and the ever-growing area of^ex-
ploitation, have proved too attractive to the capital and energy
available to permit any considerable development of the baser
metals, but a growing interest is being taken in these metals, and
they will undoubtedly assume considerable economic importance as
the supply of labour increases and means of communication improve.
Of the metals other than gold which have received metallurgical
attention and, what is perhaps of equal importance, which are of
potential economic value, the following are the most important : —
Notes ox Base Metals Found in the Transvaal.
Lead. — Lead exists in the form of galena in many parts of the
Transvaal, and in three mines at least it has actually been worked.
From various causes all are now shut down except one in the neigh-
bourhood of the Premier Mine, almost due east of Pretoria. The
name of the mine is Edendale, and the galena — which is sent to
Europe for smelting — carries from lo to 20 ozs. of silver. From this
same neighbourhood a considerable quantity of galepa was sent to
the Rand Central Ore Reduction Co., and by them made into pipes,
sheets, etc., etc.
Zinc. — Zinc is also found in various parts of the country, but the
only deposit of any consequence is the Malmani one, on the farrn
Witkop. The blende is exceedingly pure, and the width of the reef
varies from 2 to 3-I feet. Proposals have been made to reduce it in
the Transvaal itself, where there is a very large market for zinc.
METALLURGY. 3II
Copper. — Copper occurs in nearly every part of the Transvaal,
but nowhere in sufficient quantities to warrant the erection of ex-
traction plant. Most of the deposits are too far removed from the
railway to justify exploitation, but, as the country is better served
with railways, this drawback will be remedied. Copper has been
worked for the last half century in Namaqualand, originally con-
centrated by jigs and buddies, but latterly matte smelting has been
adopted, obtaining a matte for shipment containing about 40 per
cent, copper.
Iron. — North of the Delagoa Bay Railway there are enormous
tracts of pure haematite upon which experts have expressed the most
favourable opinion. Adjoining these deposits, coal and lime of
good quality are generally found, so that there is a potential industry
of incalculable magnitude. Immediately the railway is extended
to the district, it is the intention to erect blast furnaces for pig iron
manufacture, but it is bound to be several years before this consum-
mation is reached.
Tin. — Owing to the high prices for tin which have been pre-
vailing during the last few years, considerable interest has been
taken in the prospecting for this metal on the eastern borders of the
Transvaal. Several large pegmatite veins have been discovered
carrying a varying percentage of tin. With very favourable mining
conditions payable properties may be found. These pegmatite
veins have so far been found at the head waters of rivers which flow
into Swaziland, and in some of these rivers, especially the Babaan
and the Little Usutu, alluvial tin in large quantities has been found.
The creeks in the neighbourhood of these rivers have been pros-
spected, and previous to 1899 about 700 tons of cassiterite had been
shipped. Work has been resumed, and it is hoped that a profitable
industry will be started. It is interesting to note that with the
cassiterite several rare metals have been found, such as monazite
and euxenite, but sufficient work has not yet been done to prove
whether these minerals exist in payable quantities.
Bordering on the Congo Free State and Rhodesia is a tract of
country known as the Tanganyika Concessions, where platinum,
palladium and the associated metals are said to be found in con-
siderable quantities. On the same concession gold, tin and copper
are being found. Nature apparently once formed a mineralogical
museum about this region.
Gold. — ^The metallurgy of gold must necessarily be of paramount
interest in South Africa for some considerable time to come, not only
from the magnitude of existing and prospective operations, but also
from its being largely of local growth. The history of the develop-
ment of the gold industry up to 1890 followed much the lines of
similar industries in other countries, beginning with the alluvial of
Pilgrim's Rest and Devil's Kantoor, followed by the mining of rich
leaders on a small scale around Barberton and in the Lydenberg
districts. A small stamp-mill was taken up to Tati (now part of
Rhodesia) as early as 1868. The true metallurgical interest com-
menced with the larger mills erected by the Sheba and Oriental
312 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Companies in the Barberton district in about 1887, followed so
closely by the rapid development of the Witwatersrand. With the
larger mills came the desire for closer saving of the values. To the
plate amalgamation various concentrating devices were added, such
as blanket strakes, buddies and later the more scientific Embry and
Frue vanners. In the first instance amalgamation in grinding pans
was resorted to (following the practice then in common use in Aus-
tralia) for the recovery of the gold from the concentrated product.
This did not prove entirely satisfactory, about (it was a very variable
quantity, generally not checked by assay) 50 per cent, of the value
being obtained, with a considerable loss of mercury. The Newberry-
Vautin barrel chlorination process was introduced on the Rand in
1.889, b^t was commercially unsuccessful. In May, 1890, the
Mc. Arthur-Forrest process of extraction by cyanide was introduced
by the South African Gold Recovery Syndicate, and after some
demonstration and experimental work at the Salisbury G. M. Co.
larger works were erected for the treatment of tailings at the Robin-
son G.M. Co., Witwatersrand, and the Sheba G.M. Co., Barberton,
in December, 1890, and February, 1891, respectively. Both works
proved the eminent commercial value of the process,and works soon
commenced to be erected at other mines.
A large Plattner Chlorination plant (vat system, with chlorine gas
under pressure) was also erected during 1890 at the Robinson G.M.
Co. for the treatment of the pyritic product from the Frue-Vanner
concentrating . plant, it being then generally believed that the
cyanide process, so successful on oxidized ore, would be ineffec-
tive on auriferous pyrite. The chlorination works at the Robinson
Co. are still in active operation.
From the introduction of the cyanide process the metallurgical
history of South Africa has been a steady record of progress, and
during the whole period investigation and experiment, with a view
to improvement, have been unceasing. That these efforts have
been effective the modern Rand metallurgical plant, which has
influenced the world's gold metallurgy, plainly testifies.
After the successful demonstration of the process in treating the
tailings sand, two problems still confronted the local metallurgist,
viz., the treatment of the rich pyritic portion of the ore (concen-
trates) and the poor, clayey portion, slime. The possibility of the
successful treatment of the concentrates on a commercial scale was
first demonstrated at the Langlaagte Estate on vanner concen-
trates by Mr. J. R. WiUiams in 1892. Mr. Williams, in conjunction
with Mr. Herman Jennings, at the Crown Reef, subsequently intro-
duced the far cheaper method of hydraulic classification to effect
concentration, which yielded a product peculiarly suited to a perco-
lation process. The latter method is now in general use on the Rand.
The slime problem presented greater difficulties, and it was not
until 1896 that it was finally demonstrated on a commercial scale
at the Crown Reef G.M. Co. (v. Chem. and Met. Socy. Trans., Vol. II.,
p. 92). The principal difficulty was the low value of the slime,
which necessitated extremely economical treatment to be profitable.
METALLURGY. 3I3
Another difficulty was that the settled slime was impermeable to
solution except under pressure. These difficulties were eventually
overcome by utilising the flocculating effect of lime in solution to
cause rapid settlement to enable decantation of the solution from
above the settled slime. This involved the use of a much larger
volume of cyanide solution than was customary in sands treatment.
To avoid excessive loss of cyanide this large quantity of solution
required to be kept very low in cyanide contents. The zinc process
of precipitation at first proved ineffective to deal with solutions low
in cyanide, and consequently the electrolytic process invented by
Dr. Wm. Siemens was adopted. In this process the anode is of
sheet iron and the cathode of lead foil. The current density used
is 0.05 amp. per square foot of anode surface, and the voltage 4 to
4.5. The gold is precipitated as a thin adherent film on the lead
foil, which is periodically removed from the boxes and melted into
bars, which are subsequently cupelled. The iron anodes gradually
decompose, forming Prussian blue in combination with the cyanogen.
This remains in the boxes, carrying with it some gold.
There is considerable waste of electrical energy as evinced by the
evolution of hydrogen, showing much decomposition of water.
This is almost inevitable considering the low metallic contei^ts of the
solution — rarely more than 0.0007 P^"^ cent. The electrolytic pro-
cess did not prove entirely successful in this connection, and in 1898
the method of forming a zinc-lead couple was adopted by Mr. W.
K. Betty for dealing with these low-grade solutions (v. C. and M.
Soc. Trans., Vol. II., p. 446), which has since come into general use.
This method — originally patented by McArthur in 1894, but subse-
quently abandoned — consists in bringing the zinc into contact with a
lead-salt in solution, thereby forming a porous coating of lead on the
filiform zinc which is electrically active in contact with cyanide
solution. This method has proved, commercially, extremely effective.
Other precipitation processes that have been tried locally, but
have not gone beyond the experimental stage, have been : the
Molloy electrolytic production of sodium amalgam in contact with
auriferous solution, the Zerener — similar to MoUoy's, but applied
as a sodium -mercurial shower through the solution, and the
Moldenhauer — aluminium in the presence of caustic alkali, or
aluminium-mercury couples.
The usually-accepted equation for the solution of the gold is
Eisner's
4KCy+Au2-HOi-HH20=2KAuCy2 + 2KOH
Boedlander suggests the following : —
2 Au + 4KCy -I- 2H2O -1-20= 2 AuCyKCy -\- 2KOH + H2O2
the hydrogen-peroxide acting on further gold as
2Au4-KCy + H303=2 AuCyKCy-H2K0H
That oxygen is essential for solution of the gold is evident from
either equation, hence all reducers in the ore — ferrous compounds
are the most common — are the particular " bete-noir " of cyaniders.
314 SCIENCE IN' SOUTH AFRICA.
The halogens serve as substitutes for oxygen as shown in the success-
ful applications of the Bromo-Cyanogen process. The original
McArthur theory was that solution was effected by nascent cyanogen.
The precipitation of the gold from cyanide solution by zincj^is
generally expressed —
zKAuCya + Zn=KiZnCyi + 2Au
The actual consumption of zinc is largely in excess of this equation,
and the following (nascent hydrogen theory) has been suggested as
a more satisfactory explanation, which would also explain the
precipitating efficiency of sodium-amalgam (Mniloy and Zerener's
process), aluminium-mercury couple (Moldenhauer), and the zinc-
lead, zinc-copper and other zinc couples : —
Zn -t- 4KCy -I- 2H2O =K2ZnCy4 + 2KOH -I- 2H1
2KAuCy2 -I- 2KOH -I- 2Hi= Au2 + 4KCy -I- 2H2O
The evolution of molecular hydrogen is evidence of excess
energy as in the electrolytic process.
The solution of gold is essentially an oxidation process, and the pre-
cipitation one of reduction (v. Chem. and Met. Journal, Vol. I V.,p. 51),
The production of bullion from the copious precipitate obtained
in the zinc process was for a considerable time very unsatisfactory.
Up to 1895 the -method adopted was calcination of the zinc precipi-
tate to oxidise the zinc, and subsequent smelting in plumbago
crucibles with borax, sand and carbonate of soda. The reducing
action of the plumbago caused a considerable amount of
the zinc and practically all the lead to pass into the bullion — the
lead derived from the 1% to 1^% usually contained in commercial
zinc. The bullion obtained usually did not exceed 60% to 70%
fine gold. Liquation of the base metal also rendered satisfactory
sampling of this bullion difficult. In 1895 solution of the zinc con-
tained in the precipitate was obtained by means of sulphuric acid.
This brought the bullion value to 80% to 83% fine gold, the lead
contents still remaining, however. At the end of 1897 the lead was
successfully eliminated by using manganese-dioxide in the flux
which oxidizes the lead causing it to pass into the slag. This also
necessitated the use of clay liners within the plumbago crucibles to
avoid the reducing action of the latter. This brought the bullion
value equal to that produced by amalgamation. Some silver was
lost by oxidation into the slag, but the slag value was materially
lowered as compared with previous results. During the past two
years a method, originahy in use in dealing with the zinc-crusts
formed in the PaAes desilverization of lead process, and applied to the
zinc-gold precipitate by Mr. Tavener at the Bonanza G.M. Co. has
come into use. This consists in melting the zinc-precipitate down
with litharge (Pb 0) and reducers in a reverbertory pan furnace,
forming auriferous-lead bullion, which is subsequently cupelled.
A useful application of the cyanide process to certain very friable,
oxidized ores has been in use for some time at Barrett's Berlyn
METALLURGY. 315
G.M. Co. (Transvaal) and the Little Wanderer Mine (Rhodesia).
This consists in coarsely crushing the ore through a rock-breaker
(a large proportion of the ore is pulverant as it leaves the mine) to,
roughly, walnut size, and treating it directly with cyanide solution.
This method is, of course, only applicable to certain naturally-
porous ores containing very finely-divided gold, but where applicable
is extremely economical, as shown by the Barrett's working costs of
9s. per ton, including mining and all expenses. This enables profits
to be made on very low-grade ores, where applicable.
Modern Metallurgical Equipment (Witwatersrand).
we consider the metallurgical work as a gradual process of
concentration of the gold contents of the ore by a number of suc-
cessive and differing methods, the sequence of operations will be
more easily understood.
The main operations are : —
1. Hand-sorting to remove barren rock.
2. Stamp-milling of the ore to pass screen of 600 to 900
holes to the sq. ins.
Amalgamation of the free gold.
3. Hydraulic separation of the pulps leaving the mill into
three classes :
(a) Concentrates, gold dissolved by cyanide (perco-
lation).
(b) Sand, gold dissolved by cyanide (percolation).
(c) Slime, gold dissolved by cyanide (agitation and
decantation).
I. The ore on being raised from the mine is carried to a consider-
able height above ground-level and automatically " tipped " over a
grizzly — i.e., a strong iron grating of flat iron bars placed edgewise
about xi inches to 2 inches apart, and at an angle of 45° to 50°.
This device serves to separate all ore fine enough to pass direct to
the stamp mill, the fines falling through the grating to a bin beneath,
and the coarse rock passing over the grating to the sorting table.
Several forms of this device are in use. One, a circular sheet-iron
table about 30 feet in diameter, on which the ore falls and which
slowly rotates passing a number of natives who pick out the lumps
of barren rock in passing ; the pebble constituent of the conglomerate
forming an admirable indicator to the native sorter. Another form
is a continuously- travelling belt on which the same operation is
performed. In either case means are provided for the ore to be
automatically removed to be fed into crushers to reduce the size to
a maximum of 2-inch cube to pass to the stamp mill.
2. The stamp-mill is an archaic institution which has passed
through many modifications, but in which the original conception
has been maintained — i.e., the crushing effect of a pestle being al-
lowed to fall on material fed into a mortar in which the falling
pestle operates.
3l6 SCIENXE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
A modern stamp-mill will have stamps weighing 1,300 lbs. each,
and each stamp will drop 8 inches 95 times per minute. The
crushing force exerted therefore by a 200 stamp mill is in the neigh-
bourhood of 16^ million foot pounds per minute. This force is not
exerted by any direct mechanical pressure, but by the direct force
of gravity, the power being utilised in lifting the stamp. The
motive force required is slightly in excess of the gravity foot-pounds
developed. The crushing efficiency of a mill is largely limited by
the fineness of the screen used, height of discharge {i.e., water-level
in mortar box above die [anvil]), amount of water used per ton of
or& crushed, weight of stamp and height of drop of stamp.
Immediately below the discharge from the mortar-box screen of
each unit of five stamps is placed an amalgamated copper plate,
over which the ore-pulp (consisting of one of ore to seven to eight of
water) is passed, the free gold uniting with the amalgam on the
plate. Mercury is periodically added to the plate to maintain the
necessary plasticity of the amalgam to retain further gold.
The gold caught in the miU amounts to, roughly, 60 per cent, of
the total obtained. This is in the form of amalgam containing 33
per cent, of gold. The amalgam is retorted in closed cast-iron
retorts, and the distilled mercury condensed and re-used. The
spongy gold is smelted into ingots in plumbago crucibles.
3. The pulp on leaving the mill is usually again elevated by
means of a " tailings-wheel " — a modern development of the
ancient Egyptian irrigation wheel. The pulp then passes through a
series of hydraulic classifiers (based on Rittinger's spitzkasten)
which deliver the coarser and heavier material to special tanks
arranged for their reception. The pulp then freed from the pyritic
and coarse product runs to collecting tanks where the sands are
collected and the slimes eliminated. The effluent water from the
collecting tanks then runs to the slime-collecting tanks, where the
slime is collected and the clear, overflow water returned for re-use
to the miU. The respective products will consist of 10 to 12 per cent,
concentrates, 60 to 65 per cent, sand, and 30 per cent, to 23 per cent,
slime, and the respective values, approximately, to 12 dwt. concen-
trates, 4 dwts. sand and 2 dwts. slime. The concentrates are given
treatment by cyanide lasting over eighteen to twenty-one days,
the sands six to eight days. Both these by percolation. The
slimes are successively agitated in cyanide solution by two washes,
the unprecipitated solution of the second wash being used for the
agitation of the first, thereby enhancing the value of the solution
before precipitation.
All solutions (excepting the second wash of the slimes) are passed
through the zinc boxes, and a 200 stamp plant wL'l require to deal
with 2,200 tons of solution per day. The precipitate from this
amounts to a considerable bulk and is,usually, cleaned up twice to
three times per month. This entails considerable labour in collec-
tion and treatment by a,cid to remove zinc and subsequent smelting.
The total cost per ton for metallurgical treatment of the ore on
the Rand, including sorting, milling and cyaniding, is under 7s,,
METALLURGY. 3I7
and the total extraction on modernly - equipped plants slightly
over 90 per cent.
Future Development.
It has long been recognised ariiong local metallurgists that the
higher values in residues were coptained in the coarsest product
leaving the mill. In 1895 the author demonstrated that on re-
grinding the residues of spitzliitte product (hydraulic classifiers)
after three weeks' treatment by cyanide, free gold could be
exposed, showing the existence of gold enclosed in matrix which
was unexposed to the solvent. Earnest efforts were commenced
in 1899 to overcome this difficulty and the late Major Seymour
(then consulting mechanical engineer of the Eckstein and Rand
Mines group) was engaged on devising regrinding machinery to
cope with this difficulty. The war intervened and Major Seymour
was killed at Zand River. The work was recommenced in 1903
by the introduction of tube-mills, which had in the meantime
proved successful in dealing with the Westralian tellurides.
Tube-miUs wUl, undoubtedly prove effective, and raise the
total extraction some 4 per cent, to 5 per cent., but whether
they are the most economical method of dealing with the
difficulty is still to be proved. In the meantime Mr. Caldecott,
Consulting Metallurgist of the Consolidated Gold Fields Corpora-
tion, has shown that practically the same results may be obtained
in the stamp miU at a sacrifice of 10 per cent, of the milling effi-
ciency, but with the same result as far as total recovery is con-
cerned. It then remains an economical problem as to whether an
increase of miU by 10 per cent, or introduction of tube mills will
be the more effective. With the characteristic courage of the Rand
financier there is no lack of funds forthcoming to demonstrate the
most desirable method.
There are still advocates of close concentration by mechanical
means, and the East Rand Proprietary Group are experimenting
with Wilfley concentration tables, with a view to subsequent fine
grinding in tube-miUs or chlorination. Also in slime treatment
the General Mining and Finance Group are breaking away from the
customary decantation process and substituting the filter-press
process in use in Westralia, but originally tried and abandoned in
1893 on the Rand.
All these varied views and experiments, involving large ex-
penditure of capital, where only a residual value of one pennyweight
is concerned, show that the metallurgical interest of the Rand of
South Africa is by no means moribund, and with the free inter-
change of ideas obtained through the means of the local technical
societies, something very near finality in the economic treatment
of local ores should eventually be reached.
The metallurgy of iron, copper, lead, silver and tin should soon
be added to the acti-<^e metallurgical interests of South Africa.
Given railway facilities and the necessary labour they will un-
doubtedly soon be in evidence.
SECTION VI.-MINERALOGICAL-(co«<<^.)
2. THE DIAMOND MINES OF KIMBERLEY.
By Gardner F. Williams, General Manager, De Beers
Consolidated Mines, Ltd.*
It is not my intention to go into the history of the discovery of
diamonds in the alluvial soil along the Vaal river followed by the
finding of diamonds in the " dry " mines, as the discoveries at
Kimberley were called. The history of these mines has been
written and re-written, besides the space allotted for this article
is too small to give more than a cursory sketch of the formation
of the mines and the occurrence of diamonds.
The mines are situate between longitudes 24 " 45 ' — 24 ° 50 ' E.
and between latitudes 28 ° 42 ' — 28 ° 45 ' S., and are distant by rail
647 miles from Cape Town and 485 miles from Port Elizabeth.
The elevation of De Beers and Kimberley mines is about 4,000 feet
above tide level, and the elevations of Dutoitspan, Bultfontein and
Wesselton mines are 3,975, 3,958 and 3,936 feet respectively.
The geological sections of the rocks through which the diamond-
bearing pipes pass are as follows : — ^The surface is covered with
either a few feet of red soil or of calcareous tufa. Underlying
these we find diabases and basalts which are, in places, worn away
down to the shale. There is no great difference between these
two rocks ; some are diabasic in structure, some are olivine, others
quartz diabases. The basalt varies in thickness from a few feet to
a little more than 100 feet. It rests upon bituminous shale, which
is from 200 to 280 feet in thickness. The constituents of the shale
are small clastic grains of feldspar and quartz and much opaque
or dark brown translucent material, probably of organic origin.
The minerals of secondary development are kaolin, serpentine,
white mica, and calcite. This is known as the Kimberley shale.
Below the shale and resting on an amygdaloidal rock is a layer of
small angular, or more or less rounded boulders, known as the
Dwyka or glacial conglomerate, which varies from 3 to 10 feet in
thickness as determined in various shafts in the Kimberley mines.
It is composed of fragments of quartz, feldspar, chert, shale, quartz-
ite, quartz, porphyry, and other rocks. The amygdaloidal rock is
melaphyre (or olivine-diabase of Stelzner) and is about 400 feet thick.
* Author of " The Diamond Mines of South Africa," New York, The lyfac-
millan Co. ; London, The Macmillan Co., Ltd., 1902, Revised edition, New
York, B. F. Buch & Company, 1905.
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DIAMOND MINES OF KIMBERLEY.
319
Relative Position of De Beers Company's' Mines.
320 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The amygdules are filled with granular and chalcedonic quartz.
The malaphyre rests upon quartzite, which is 722 feet thick where
De Beers- mine rock shaft passes through it. The constituents of
the quartzite are partly rounded or subangular grains of quartz,
microcline and other plagioclastic feldspars and chert. The cement
consists of shreds of sericite together with calcite in places. Some
of the feldspars are replaced by calcite and a little p5rrite. The
quartzite was evidently derived from a granite by rapid erosion,
for, if it had been by slow disintegration, the feldspars would be
decomposed. The Kimberley mine rock shaft was sunk through
about 400 feet of quartzite and 260 feet of mixed quartzite and
shaly material, some pieces of which show organic matter. Under-
lying the quartzite is quartz porphyry, which has been proved to
the depth of 2,600 feet.
Upon the information at hand it may be assumed that all
diamonds found prior to the discovery of the Kimberley pipes, or
craters, came from alluvial deposits.
In the case of the Kimberley mines, the diamond-bearing rock
or blue ground has been forced up through the geological strata
mentioned above. This rock was described by Professor Henry
Carvill Lewis as "a phorphyritic volcanic peridotite of basaltic
structure," which he named kimberlite* — a name now generally
accepted by geologists.
In De Beers mine a dyke of igneous rock appeared and, owing
to its taking a serpentine course across the mine, it received the
local name of " snake." It stands like a vein, nearly vertical,
varying in thickness from 2 to 7 feet. No diamonds have been found
in it, yet investigations show that its composition is substantially
the same as the surrounding diamond-bearing rock. The late
Dr. Stelzner described the blue ground and snake as follows : —
" The main body of the blue ground is entirely analogous
to the snake rock, naturally more decomposed ; but in essential
points the microscopic features of blue ground and snake (not
taking into consideration the numerous little slate fra,gments
in the blue ground) are in an extraordinary degree alike. It
therefore impresses upon one's mind that the ' snake ' is a
younger eruption formation coming from the same volcanic
source as the blue ground, "f
The blue ground must be designated as a breccia. There is no
doubt that it is of volcanic origin, and was forced up from below ;
it consists of olivine with fragments of other rocks. The writer
has lately had slides made of pieces of blue ground from the several
mines. These show it to be very similar in all the five mines. It
consists of a clastic mass of rounded and angular olivine which is
*" The Matrix of the Diamond," Henry Carvill Lewis, M.A., F.G.S., Pro-
fessor of Mineralogy in the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia,
"U.S.A., at meeting of the British Association at Manchester, August and
September, 1887.
f Dr. A. W. Stelzner, Professor of Geology at the Freiberg, Saxony, Mining
Academy, in a letter to the writer.
DIAMOND MINES OF KIMBERLEY. 32I
almost entirely converted to serpentine. This alteration appears
to have taken place down to the lowest depths from which the
samples were taken, i.e., 2,520 feet. The following minerals are
to be found in the blue ground : augite, biotite, bronzite, calcite,
chlorite, chrom-iron, cyanite, garnet, hornblende, magnesite,
magnetite, mica, olivine, perofskite, smaragdite, titanic iron (il-
menite or menaccanite), and zircon.* Corundum is said to have
been found in Jagersfontein mine, in the Orange River Colony,
and in the Frank Smith mine, situated about 50 miles west of
Kimberley. Iron pyrites and barite are found in the deposit
resulting from the washing of the blue ground. The pyrites come,
for the most part, from the country rocks, which become more or
less mixed with the blue ground during the process of mining.
The barite is a secondary formation of small veins in the blue
ground at its junction with the country rock. Beautiful crystals
of doubly refracting or Iceland spar are occasionally found also
near the boundary of the blue ground. The shale fragments which
are contained in the blue ground are altered very little, in fact
most of them are unaltered. The pieces of shale, which show any
alteration, have probably been changed by recrystallization to minerals
of a micaceous or calcareous character. There is not the slightest
evidence that the carbon of the shale has crystallized to diamonds.*
As to the origin of the diamond-bearing pipes themselves, I have
always held that they were filled by aqueous rather than igneous
agencies, possibly by something of the nature of mud-volcanoes.
It is a noteworthy fact that all the craters are fiUed just even
with, or slightly above the surface of the surrounding country.
Would this have been the case if the pipes were of igneous origin ?
I think not. It has been claimed that the surface of the country,
as it existed when the craters were filled with the diamond-bearing
breccia, was not the same as at present, but that it has been denuded
or washed away. There is not the least particle of evidence to bear
out such a contention. If the country rock and diamond-bearing
ground had been washed away, then diamonds would have been
found in the " wash " or in ravines and water-courses in the
vicinity of the mines. Such is not the case ; no diamonds have
been found in alluvial soil nearer than the Vaal river, some 20 miles
distant, and these diamonds are totally different in character from
the Kimberley stones. The Kimberley mines lie in basins from
which no water flows into any stream, but runs into pans or vleis
where it evaporates or is used for mining purposes.
In this connection it may be stated that Dutoitspan mine is
situate within a few hundred feet of Du Toit's pan, a pond, which
is fed by small water courses during the rainy season. The bottom
of the pan was probably 30 feet lower than the edge of the mine,
where the yellow diamond-bearing ground joined the basalt, yet it
is a significant fact that no diamonds have been found in the pan.
*Waldemar Lindgren, U.S. Geological Survey, in a letter to the writer,
Dec, 1904.
X
322 SCIEN'CE IN SOUTH AFRICA
Bultfoiitein mine is also quite as near this pan and lies at a con-
siderable elevation above it.
At Kimberley and De Beers mines the same conditions exist,
but the drainage from these mines is to the north into Diebel's
Vlei, which is one hundred or more feet below the mines and nearly
4 miles distant therefrom. No diamonds have been found between
the mines and the vlei nor in the vlei itself, and I repeat that this
is a significant fact. By what laws of nature would it be possible
to obliterate a large section of these mines and leave no diamonds
behind in these depressions. In case the depressions have been
made since the formation of the pipes, would it not be reasonable
to expect that the forces that made them would have washed a
portion of the diamond pipes into them ?
I have given these facts at considerable length because my
contention that these are the craters, and not simply the necks, of
mud volcanoes has been questioned. It is contended that the
craters have been washed away, but this is hardly borne out by
local observations. The tops of these craters are bell-shaped as is
the case of ordinary volcanoes. I cannot conceive how these craters
could have been just fiUed to the level of the surface of the sur-
rounding country except that the material which filled them came
up as mud highly charged with gases which escaped in the air on
nearing the surface and allowed the mass of mud to subside. There
must have been some such process to incorporate the shales, which
lie near the surface, so thoroughly with the eruptive mass.
If, as contended, a few thousand or even a few hundred feet of
the tops of these mines have been washed away, where are the rich
places which contain this marvellous store of diamond, richer than
the soil along the banks of the Kistna and Godavari rivers, where
the Golconda of tradition outstretched, and richer than the cascalho
of Brazil ? A story is told of the climbing of Zulmat by the great
Alexander, to the rim of an inaccessible valley, where, beneath sheer
precipices, glistened a coverlet of the stones of fire. There was no
way of winning the diamonds that glowed so temptingly except by
flinging down masses of flesh and waiting for swooping eagles to
bear the lumps up to their perches on the mountains with the
precious stones sticking in the meat.*
Sindbad the sailor had this tale in mind in his second voyage.
It will be remembered that he was stranded by shipwreck on a
desert island and was carried away by the flight of a gigantic rukh
to the top of a distant mountain. From this mountain he de-
scended into a neighbouring " valley," exceeding great and wide
and deep and bounded by vast mountains that spired high in the
air. Walking along the wady, he found that " its soil was of
diamond, the stone wherewith they pierce minerals and precious
stones and porcelain and the onyx, for that it is a dense stone and
a stubborn, whereon neither iron or hard head hath effect, neither
* " Oriental Accounts of Precious Minerals," Journal of Asiatic Society of
Bengal, August, 1832.
DIAMOND MINES OF KIMBERLEY
323
_ MOO-ADotea llD«fali
'Deb'*'ers 4009.88T
March 23, ICOi
X 2
324 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
can we cut off aught therefrom, nor break it save by means of lead
stone." The sailor soon bethought himself of the old story of the-
valley from which diamond-stiidded meat was " plucked by eagles."
So he quickly filled his pockets and shawl girdle and turban with
the choicest diamonds. Then he put a piece of raw meat on his
breast and lay down on his back. Soon a big eagle swooped down
into the valley, clutched the meat in his talons and flew up to a
mountain above, "where, dropping the carcass, he fell to rending
it," leaving the lucky sailor to scramble off with his booty.*
These amazing stories are less teeming with interest than they
were in the days when they were first told. If from the mines of
Kimberley huge masses of diamond-bearing earth have been washed
away there must be a massing of these diamonds in the valleys of
the Vaal and Orange rivers awaiting the coming of some lucky
Aladdin which will make the discoveries of Alexander and Sindbad
look insignificant. Personally, I do not believe that toilsome
searches for these masses of precious stones from the craters of
Kimberley will ever be rewarded.
I cannot conceive of any denudation of the tops of volcanic
craters which would not have left behind some trace, even more
than a. trace, some concentration of diamonds and the heavy
minerals which are associated with them. In the machines in use
on the Diamond Fields we imitate nature in concentrating the
heavy minerals. The light particles are washed away leaving the
concentrates behind.
In the case of the Kimberley diamond mines there was no
richer ground on surface than that found below it. In the Trans-
vaal Premier mine the conditions seem to have been different.
There a concentrating process seems to have gone on for ages.
These concentrates have not been swept away into unknown
quarters, but have simply sunk down as the upper part of the
mine was disintegrated and the lighter material was washed away.
It is true that a portion of this concentrated mass finally found
its way into the alluvial deposits below, but the diamonds appear
to be found at no considerable distance from their source.
The evidence of the movement of the diamond-bearing rock
after solidifying is indicated by the slickensides and striated sur-
faces of the country-rocks at their junctions or contacts with the
kimberlite. Large sheets of calcite are frequently found at the
junction of these rocks, which have taken the form of the striae.
Beautiful calcite crystals and transparent pieces of doubly-refrac-
ting, or Iceland spar, are of frequent occurrence.
There is conclusive proof that the diamonds in the South African
mines are not found in their original place of crystallisation, as, for
example, the frequent occurrence of broken crystals, embedded in
the hard kimberlite.
Concerning the discussion of the genesis of the diamond. Sir
Isaac Newton's opinion was that it was of vegetable origin and
* Arabian Nights, Lady Burton's edition. Vol. III., pp. 476 — 482.
DIAMOND MINES OF KIMBERLEY. 325
combustible ; but it was not until 1694 that the combustibility of
the diamond was actually proved by the famous burning-glass
experiment of the academicians of Cimento.
Lavoisier, Guyton de Morveau, and others determined that the
diamond was converted into carbonic dioxide by burning. The
experiments of Sir Humphrey Davy, in 1816, showed that the
diamond was almost pure carbon. These experiments have been
confirmed by Dumas, Stas, Friedel, Roscoe and other eminent
chemists, who have fixed with extreme precision the composition
of the diamond to be pure carbon in crystalline form. The Tate
Dr. W. Guybon Atherstone was one of the first scientists to deal
with the occurrence and genesis of the diamond in the Kimberley
mines. Being a resident of the Cape Colony he made frequent
visits to the diamond fields and made personal investigations.*
Professor Lewis alleged that the diamond is the result of the
intrusion of igneous rocks into and through the carbonaceous
shales. He says ;
" The kimberlite is shared by no other terrestrial rock.
In structure it resembles meteorites of similar composition.
If the ground-mass of kimberlite were replaced by native iron
it would be nearly allied in both structure and composition
with meteorites known as chrondrites Per-
haps the most interesting chemical observation concerning the
blue ground was that made by Sir H. E. Roscoe. He found
that on treating it with hot water an aromatic hydrocarbon
could be extracted. By digesting the blue ground with ether,
and allowing the solution to evaporate, this hydrocarbon was
separated and found to be crystalline, strongly aromatic, vola-
tile, burning with a smoky flame and melting at 50 ° C. . . .
That the rock was a true lava and not a mud
or ash is indicated by the fact that the minerals and their asso-
ciations are those characteristic of eruptive ultra-basic rocks, "f
Professor Lewis advanced the theory that probably the dia-
monds came from the hydrocarbon which was contained in the
fragments of carbonaceous shales distributed through the blue
ground, but the inclusion of carbonaceous shales in the blue ground
can hardly be reconciled with Professor Lewis's conclusion " that
the rock was a true lava."
If the diamond is the result of the intrusion of igneous rocks
into and through the carbonaceous shales, why do not all pipes
composed of kimberlite contain diamonds ? And why do diamonds
exist in some mines, such as those in the Pretoria district, where no
carbonaceous shales are to be found ?
Professor Molengraaff,t formerly State Mineralogist to the South
African Republic, discusses the genesis of the diamond, and says
♦Geological Magazine, Vol. VI., p. 208, May, 1889.
tThe JNIatrix of the Diamond. Professor Henry Carvill Lewis, p. 52.
I A Monograph on the Diamonds at Rietfontein, near Pretoria, in the
Transvaal.
326 SCIENXE IX SOUTH AFRICA
that the theory of the formation of diamonds during the ascension
of the blue ground from carbon borrowed from the carbonaceous
shales was, in his opinion, weak.
" In the Pretorian beds, as well as in the formations under-
lying these, strata containing any notable quantities of carbon
were nowhere to be found in the Transvaal ; so that the con-
clusion might safely be drawn that the igneous blue ground, in
forcing its way from great depths towards the place where it
was found, could not borrow any carbon from the surrounding
strata in order to convert it into diamonds."
In Bohemia a rock occurs which contains every mineral known
in the blue ground of Kimberley, except diamonds. On my visit
to the Mining Academy at Freiberg, Saxony, a few years ago. Dr.
Stelzner, Professor of Geology, showed me two cases containing
these minerals, and in every instance the Bohemian minerals corre-
sponded with those from Kimberley, except that the case of Kim-'
berley minerals contained a few small diamonds, which had been
presented to the Academy.
It is reported by Mr. G. F. Kunz that diamonds have been found
in Bohemia, but they did not occur in the rock mentioned above.
Both the aqueous and igneous theories of the origin of the
kimberlite have had able supporters, among the former being
Stanislas Meunier,* M. Chaper,f and, later. Professor Gamier and
Sir William Crookes.f The igneous theory is strongly supported
by Professors Lewis, § Molengraaff|| and Stelzner.** My own
opinion is that the aqueous theory is the less assailable.
Concerning the origin of the blue ground, assuming that it is not
the original matrix of the diamond, I find the following weak points
in the igneous theory.
1. As already observed, it is impossible to account by the igneous
theory for the water-worn boulders found in the blue ground, and
the presence of carbonaceous shale fragments.
2. The experiments of Herr W. Luzi,tt of Liepsic, in the produc-
tion of artificial figures of corrosion upon the surfaces of rough
diamonds, are most interesting in the light which they throw on the
crystallisation and the probable matrix and genesis of the diamond.
Until lately the only appearance of corrosion upon the surface of
* " Composition et origine du sable diamantifere du Toits Pan, Afrique
Australe "- — Comptes rendus de I'Academie des Sciences de Paris, Vol.
LXXXIV., No. 6, p. 250. " Examen mineralogique des roches qui accom-
pagnet le diamant dans les mines du Cap de Bonne Experance ' ' — Bulletins
de I'Academie Royale de Belgique, 3d. series, Vol. III., No. 4.
+ " Note sur la region diamantifere de I'Afrique Australe," Paris, 1880.
j Lecture before the Royal Institute of Great Britain, June nth, 1897.
§ The matrix of the Diamond — Henry Carvill Lewis at a Meeting of the
British Association at Manchester, August, 1887.
II The Occurrence of Diamonds at Rietfontein, G. A. P. Molengraaff.
** A lecture by A. W. Stelzner before the Isis Society, in Dresden, Saxony,
April 20th, 1893.
ft Artificial Figures of Corrosion on Rough Diamonds, Berichte der Deut-
schen Chemischen Gesdleschaft, 1892.
DIAMOND MINES OF KIMBERLEY. 327
rough diamonds was the regular, triangular negative pyramids which
were produced through heating the diamond in the open air or under
the oxygen flame.
Herr Luzi discovered that the breccia (kimberlite) from the
South African mines, when in a molten condition, possesses the
property of absorbing the diamond or of changing its shape.
He describes his experiment as follows : —
" A small quantity of blue ground was melted in a crucible
placed in a Fourquinon-Leclerq furnace at a temperature of
1770 ° R., which was the highest temperature attainable. A
diamond with perfectly smooth, natural faces was submerged
in this molten mass. A further quantity of blue ground was
added to the contents of the crucible until it was completely
filled. A tightly-fitting cover was placed on the crucible,
which was again exposed for thirty minutes to the greatest
heat attainable. When the crucible was cooled the diamond
was removed and found to be covered with irregular oval and
half-round grooves of various depths. In one experiment the
diamond was found to be deeply eaten away on one side."
Some of these partly- absorbed diamonds, upon which Herr Luzi
experimented are deposited in the mineralogical museum of Leipsic
University.
Owing to the cost of the material to be experimented upon,
however, Herr Luzi was unable to determine positively what
chemical action took place during the time the diamonds were
heated in the complicated silica flux. The fact that diamonds can
be absorbed by being placed in molten blue ground tends to prove
that the blue ground was not thrust up through the earth's crust
in a molten state.
If the diamond is unable to withstand the corroding influence of
the silica magma at the comparatively low temperature given above
how could it possibly have retained its forms of crystallisation and
perfect faces at the temperature and pressure which must have
existed under the igneous theory ?
3. Some years ago a diamond weighing 28 '5 carats, found at
Kimberley, attracted the attention of the valuator. Its external
surface was smooth and crystallised, showing no other mineral
except the diamond itself, but the interior was white and not
transparent. Noticing this peculiar appearance the valuator broke
the stone in order to satisfy his curiosity, and found that a small,
perfect octahedral diamond was enclosed in the centre of the larger
stone. Nor was this all. There were flakes of a white mineral, not
diamond, attached to the fragments of the broken diamond. In
appearance the flakes were white, translucent and crystalline, and
about as hard as steel. When heated in a closed tube moisture was
given off. It fused readily on platinum wire to a white bead. A
few grains of this white mineral were collected, and by analysis it
proved to be apophyllite, a silicate of lime and potash with 16 per
cent, of water.
328 SCIENXE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
If a mineral which is fusible at the ordinary temperature obtained
with a blow-pipe, and which contains i6 per cent, of water, was
formed at the same time that the diamond crystallised, it is certain
that this did not take place under an enormously high temperature.
How, then, one may ask, did the apophyllite become a part of this
diamond ?
Herr von Tschudi* describes a beautiful crystallised Brazilian
diamond in the centre of which was a leaf of gold. He obtained the
information from Dr. Mills Franco, who claimed that there was no
doubt or deception as to the identification of the gold.
Occurrences of this nature tend to veil in additional mystery the
genesis of the diamond.
Professor T. G. Bonney,t at a meeting of the Royal Society,
presented the following conclusions in reference to the origin of the
diamond : —
" The blue ground is not the birthplace, either of the
diamond or of the garnets, pyroxenes, olivine and other minerals
— more or less fragmental — which it incorporates. The dia-
mond is a constituent of the eclogite, just as much as a zircon
may be a constituent of a granite or a syenite." ..." I
had always expected a peridotite (as supposed by Professor
Lewis), if not a material yet more basic, would prove to be the
birthplace of the diamond.
" Can it possibly be a derivative mineral, even in the
eclogite ? Had it crystallised out of a more basic magma,
which, however, was still molten when one acid more was in-
jected, and the mixture became such as to form eclogite ? But
I content myself with indicating a difficulty and suggesting a
possibility ; the fact itself is indisputable : that the diamond
occurs, though rather sporadically, as a constituent of an eclo-
gite, which rock, according to the ordinary rules of inference,
would be regarded as its birthplace."
Professor Bonney's statement that diamonds occur in the eclo-
gite of the Newlands mine caused me to examine the eclogite (?)
which is found in all the mines at Kimberley, and has always been
treated as waste rock and thrown away. There are tons of it lying
about the Kimberley mines. I have examined hundreds of pieces
of this rock, but never found a diamond ; nor have I ever heard of
a diamond being found in it by any one during the many years that
these fields have been worked. I caused about twenty tons to be
collected and sent to a test- plant, where it was crushed and after-
wards jigged ; but it contained no diamonds.
Mr. Waldemar Lindgren, who is connected with the United
States Geological Survey, has had an opportunity of studying the
blue ground and the minerals contained therein from samples
* Travels in South America, by J. J. von Tschudi.
■j- The Parent Rock of the Diamond in South African, Professor T. G.
B'onney. Proceedings of the Royal Soc, Vol. LXV., July 27th, 1899.
DIAMOND MINES OF KIMBERLEY. 339
supplied by the writer from which forty-five slides were made.
His conclusions are as follows : —
" In looking over the literature (on diamonds), especially
the papers by Professors A. W. Stelzner and T. G. Bonney, it
seems to me that the connection of the diamond with the
garnet in the peridotite and pyroxenite has been satisfactorily
proved. It is not possible to regard it as formed in the ' blue
ground.' On the contrary it was evidently contained in the
peridotite magma and crystallised with it."
A specimen of the rock, which I presume to be the same as the
eclogite spoken of by Professor Bonney, taken from Dutoitspan
mine, was handed to Dr. G. F. Becker, who had a slide made from it.
He determines the rock to be Iherzolite and says : " This composi-
tion shows that the rock is extremely analogous to kimberlite, in
fact probably a sub-variety of it. Zirkel considers kimberlite as
closely allied to Iherzolite, while Rosenbush appears uncertain how
to classify it." Dr. Becker is still of the opinion that diamonds
ought to be found in the Iherzolite in spite of the result of the test of
twenty tons.
Quite a number of specimens of diamonds and garnets cemented
together have been found, but in most specimens which have come
under my observation the diamond has grown into the garnet. A
diamond was found (January gth, 1904) in Wesselton mine, Kim-
berley, which had a small garnet embedded in it. The diamond
weighed 114 carats, and the garnet was estimated to weigh about
half a carat. It appeared to fill the hole in which it was embedded.
The diamond was of cubic crystallisation, with nearly half of the
cube wanting. The part of the diamond in which the garnet was
buried had numerous depressions similar to the one containing the
garnet, and one is led to think that these depressions were also once
filled with small garnets, or in other words the diamond crystallised
upon a nest of garnets. It was of a peculiar plumbago colour and
semi-transparent. AU of the diamonds crystallised in cubic form
which have been found of late in Wesselton mine were of this
peculiar colour. Specimens have also been found where the dia-
mond was embedded in olivine.
Sir William Crookes and others have mentioned diamonds
which burst or explode on being brought to the surface ; and Sir
Wilham says it has been " conclusively proved that the diamond's
genesis must have taken place at great depths under enormous
pressure. The explosion of large diamonds on coming to the sur-
face shows extreme tension."
Professor Lewis says that Kimberley diamonds have been found
sometimes to have optical anomahes due to strain. Fizzan thought
this strain to have been caused by the unequal distribution of heat
during cooling ; but Jannettaz * holds that the strain is due to
compressed gas in the interior of the crystal.
* Bulletin de la Societe Minerale de France, II., 1879, p. 124.
330 SCIENXE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
I have found that the Hght-brown, smoky diamonds are the
ones which crack on being brought to the surface ; but even these
remain intact if kept in a moist place. In the days of open-cut
working, when a smoky or hght-brown diamond was found, the
digger placed it in his mouth, where he kept it until he offered it
for sale. The buyer placed it in a raw potato, in which it was
shipped to Europe. The temperature of the ground in which the
stone was found would, as a rule, not exceed 70 ° F. The tem-
perature of the diamond would be raised to 98 ° F. while in the
digger's mouth. If, however, the stone was kept in a dry place,
€ven at a lower temperature, it would crack in all directions. One
might argue from this that it was not the expansion of gases by heat
alone which caused the fractures. If these fractures were due to
compressed gas, as contended by Jannettaz, one might expect this
cracking to have occurred while the diamond and its contained gas
'were exposed to the enormous heat to which, according to the'
igneous theory, diamonds must have been subjected.
I had been led to believe that only light-brown or smoky stones
cracked on being exposed to dry air, but I have lately been informed
by one of the old diamond miners that he had seen white stones
which showed the same phenomenon.
Sir William Crookes says that the ash left after burning a
diamond invariably contains iron as its chief constituent, and the
most common colours of diamonds, when most perfectly pellucid,
shows various shades of brown and yellow from the palest " off-
colour " to almost black. These variations, he declares, accord
with the theory that the diamond has separated from molten
iron.
I have made exhaustive tests in order to ascertain whether
diamonds contain iron, oxidised or metallic. The experiments
were made upon a magnetic separating-machine, the field- magnets
of which attracted any mineral containing iron or iron oxides,
except iron pyrites. Although some of these diamonds had the
appearance of being coated with iron in some form, and others
were coloured dark brown and deep yellow, they were in no way
attracted by the magnet, even when excited by a strong electric
current. These experiments do not, perhaps, disprove the exis-
tence of iron in the diamond, but they do establish the fact that
the quantity is infinitesimally small. Further experiments in this
direction ought to be made by those who have better facilities for
such work than are at our disposal here in Kimberley. The ex-
periments of Messrs. Hannay, Moissan, Friedel, Sir WiUiam Crookes
and others all show that microscopical diamonds can be produced
artificially ; but they throw very little light upon the question
how the diamonds in the South African craters crystallised.
From what is known of the theory of crystallisation, one is in-
clined to the old Indian idea that diamonds grow like onions, though
much less quickly. It is hardly conceivable that diamonds,, such as
the Koh-i-nur, the Great Mogul, the Excelsior (a Jagersfontein,
South African stone of 971 carats), and the two largest De Beers
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DIAMOND MINES OF KIMBERLEY. 33 1
diamonds (respectively of 503 and 428-5 carats) were formed, as
the microscopical diamonds have been, in a moment of time during
the sudden cooling of molten iron.
Is it not more reasonable to suppose that these enornious crystals
grew little by little, and that nature has followed the same laws of
crystallisation in the diamond as in other minerals ?
SECTION VII.— ECONOMIC.
I. DISEASES OF STOCK IN SOUTH AFRICA.
By D. Hutcheon, M.R.C.V.S., Chief Veterinary Surgeon,
Cape Colony.
South Africa has obtained an unenviable reputation regarding-
the number and virulence of the diseases which affect its domestic
animals.
It is a generally accepted opinion that the farm and domestic
animals in South Africa are subject to more diseases, and that these
present a more obscure and fatal character than the diseases
affecting the farm and domestic animals in any other part of the
world. Now, although that picture is considerably overdrawn,
it must be admitted that during the Icist half century one animal
plague after another, has swept over large portions of the South
African Colonies and States, causing serious losses, and great dis-
appointment to the stock owners of the country. It has to be
noted, however, that with the exception of " Horse-sickness "
and one or two diseases which are closely allied to it, which appear
to be indigenous to South Africa, the large majority of the epizootic
diseases which affect farm stock have been introduced, either from
Europe, or from the East Coast extending towards the equator.
Large herds of cattle were found in possession of the Hottentots
at the Cape at the time of its discovery by the Portuguese, and
we do not read of any special disease having appeared amongst
this class of stock during the eighteenth and first half of the nine-
teenth centuries.
The Contagious Pleuro-Pneumonia of Cattle.
This was first introduced into Cape Colony in 1854, by some
bulls which were imported from HoUand and landed at Mossel
Bay. Since that date it has spread all over South Africa, and has
been the cause of serious losses annually.
Inoculation for the prevention of this disease — ^first discovered
by Dr. WUlems, of Hasselt, Belgium — has been generally adopted
by the European farmers in all the Colonies and States, and with
more or less success, depending on the care and skill of the operators.
But the natives, within their own territories, rely principally upon
the alleged curative action of certain plants, and consequently
lose large numbers of their cattle annually.
The Contagious Pleuro-pneumonia of cattle will not be eradicated
from the herds of South Africa until the respective Governments
DISEASES OF STOCK. 333
agree upon a uniform policy of the strict i'^olation of infected
herds, and slaughtering all affected animals.
Infectious Pleuro-Pneumonia in Goats.
This virulent infectious disease was introduced into this Colony
by a shipment of Angora Goats which arrived at Port Elizabeth
from Asia Minor about the middle of December, 1880. One con-
signment of these goats was taken to Mount Stewart, and shortly
after their arrival the disease appeared amongst a flock of 460 ewes
belonging to Mr. Cawood, amongst which the imported rams had
mixed. The disease spread rapidly until about 200 of the flock
had died; the remainder were then destroyed and their carcases
buried. This action was effective in arresting the further spread
of the disease at that centre.
Another consignment of this shipment of goats was sent to
Somerset East, and subsequently sold there. Mr. Niekerk, of
Brakfontein, Bedford District, purchased one ram. This ram
became sick after his arrival at the farm and recovered, but the
disease spread, first to Mr. Niekerk's own Angora flocks, thence to
the flocks on adjoining farms, rapidly increasing its radius of infec-
tion until it carried off about 13,000 large goats, and caused the loss
of over 20,000 kids, the average mortality being 65 per cent.
The author devised a system of inoculation, which was effec-
tive in preventing the disease, or reducing the death-rate to a mini-
mum, if applied before any infection had reached the flock. If
the infection appeared in a flock some time subsequent to the
inoculation, the re-inoculation of the flock, and the slaughter of those
affected, arrested the disease at once, and left no infection behind.
In 19 uninoculated flocks containing 7,500 goats, 5,100 died,
or a mortality of 68 per cent.
In 12 flocks containing 12,550 goats which were inoculated
after the disease appeared in the flock, 4,380 died ; a mortality
of 31 per cent.
In 35 flocks containing 21,500 goats, which were inoculated
before any visible signs of disease were manifest, 2,860 died ;
a mortality of 13J per cent.
There were 18 flocks containing 9,950 goats, which were free
from disease when inoculated, and remained free.
Nature of the Disease. — It may be described as an infectious
febrile disease, characterised by a special form of Pleuro-pneumonia,
which terminates in consolidation of the whole of one lung, or
portions of both lungs, an effusion of a serous fluid into the pleural
cavity, and adhesions of the pleural surfaces. The period of in-
cubation is from seven to ten days, and the length of the fever
about twelve days.
The disease makes its first appearance in the lungs as a number
of small nodules about the size of a pin head ; they are of a pale
yellow colour, and firm consistency when pressed between the
fingers. Surrounding these nodules, in a spherical form, is a con-
gested ring of a bluish-purple colour, varying in diameter from
334 SCIENXE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
J to ^ inch, corresponding to the size of the nodule. These nodules
appear irregularly, sometimes in one lung only, in other cases
they are distributed irregularly in both. These nodules enlarge
in spherical form, giving the lung at a certain stage a distinctly
globulous appearance. These globular portions gradually coalesce,
when the whole diseased portion becomes solid ; a cut section
presenting an appearance similar to that of a granular liver. There
is no perceptible enlargement of the interlobular tissue, the air
cells and smaller bronchii become filled with cellular elements,
saturated with a serous fluid. As the disease advances, the affected
portions become drier and firmer in consistency, and present a
dirty yellow colour on section. At the same time a quantity of
serous fluid becomes effused into the pleural cavity, and fibrous
adhesions appear between the pulmonary and costal portions
of the pleura. The pericardium is usually filled with fluid, and both
the pericardial and thoracic fluids coagulate after death. The
pathological lesions are confined to the thoracic organs.
Preventive Inoculation. — The clear serous fluid found in the
thorax and that expressed from the diseased lungs, is strained
and used as fresh as p6ssible. When it has to be kept for twenty-
four hours or more before being used, a little glycerine is added.
About 5 minims of the virus was injected hypodermically on the
under surface of the tail. If the goats were still exposed to in-
fection, a second injection of 8 minims was given after a month.
The disease was eradicated from the Angora flocks of the Colony
in February, 1882, and has not re-appeared. The measures adopted
were : — The quarantine of infected flocks, the inoculation of healthy
flocks surrounding infected areas, the slaughter of affected goats,
and when the disease was well under control authority was obtained
to slaughter, with compensation, any flocks which became affected,
that had not been previously inoculated.
Rinderpest.
From ancient literature on the subject, this Bovine Plague
must have existed in the steppes of Oriental Europe and of Central
Asia since the most remote periods, and from these countries
it has evidently spread by wars and the migration of people to almost
every country in Europe.
Origin of the Disease in Central Africa. — Sir John Kirk, in
Nature, June, 1896, says : — " There can be little doubt that the
present epidemic known under the common name of Rinderpest,
is the same as that with which we have been familiar in Central
Africa for the past six years, commencing, as far as we know, in
Somaliland in 1889, where the disease killed off a large part of the
cattle.
It passed through Masailand in the autumn of 1892. It was
there that Sir Frederick Lugard, then an officer of the Imperial
British East African Company, first came in contact with it."
Sir Frederick considers that the disease started on the East
Coast opposite Aden, and thence to have spread inland.
DISEASliS OF STOCK. 335
From Somaliland it spread in 1890 to Uganda, and Kasalli in
1891. Passing southward it reached the north of Ngara, July,
1892, and in August of the same year, Lake Nyassa.
The Imperial German Consul writing under date the 7th Feb-
ruary, 1893, states : — ■" The Governor of German East Africa
reported on the 9th December last that great havoc had been done
of late by cattle disease through the country generally. The
disease was first officially reported at Bulawayo, March 3rd, 1896,
but a report reached Mafeking as early as February 19th, that
cattle south of the Zambesi were rapidly dying from some mysterious
disease, doubtless Rinderpest."
From Bulawayo the disease was carried rapidly southward
by the transport wagons returning to Mafeking.
An effort was made to stop these, quarantining the oxen, and
killing the affected spans. But the native transport riders left
their wagons and drove their oxen through the cordon in all directions
southward. By this means the disease was carried to Kopani's
Stadt in the Transvaal on the east, and to Mosita Reserve in
the Mafeking district. In less than a month the disease had
travelled over 500 miles. It got into the Mosita Native Reserve
early in April, the Setlagoli Reserve in May. It was reported
in the Vryburg district early in July. It appeared in the Taungs
Reserve on September ist, and on the same date it was reported
at Daniel's Kuil in the Barkly West district. On the ist of October
it appeared at Warrenton in the Kimberley district. The policy
of slaughtering the infected herds and stopping all movements of
cattle was carried out at first. This policy was abandoned in
Bechuanaland on October 12th, but it was maintained north of
the Orange River until the end of March, 1897, when Dr. Koch's
method of bile inoculation, was generally adopted throughout the
whole of South Africa — the disease following in its train.
This first invasion of Rinderpest died out in the British Colonies
and the Dutch Republics about the end of June, 1899. But
it still existed in German South- West Africa, north of Windhoek.
In May, 1901, the disease re-appeared at Ladybrand in the
Orange River Colony, and at Maseru in Basutoland. The general
opinion is that the infection was brought from German South-
west Africa. From Basutoland and the Orange River Colony it
spread to the Transvaal, Nata:l, Zululand, the British Protectorate,
Bechuanaland, and the frontier districts of the Cape Colony.
Effective measures could not be taken to suppress the disease
until October, 1902, due to the forced movements of cattle during
the war. At the above date the disease existed in twenty-two
districts of the Cape Colony, and the number of separate infected
centres were seventy-seven, involving 27,235 cattle.
The disease was entirely suppressed within the Cape Colony
in April, 1903. Our complete success was almost wholly due to
the use of large doses of strong Serum obtained from highly fortified
recovered cattle. The disease lingered several months longer
in the other Colonies, especially in Zululand and the adjoining
336 SCIENXE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
districts of Natal. But with the exception of German South- West
Africa, where the war has prevented the authorities from sup-
pressing it, the disease is not known to exist in any of the Colonies
of South Africa.
Inoculation against Rinderpest. — The principal methods of
inoculation against Rinderpest practised in South Africa are Bile
and Serum.
The former is used both fresh and glycerinated, and the latter
in the form of preserved Serum and as blood freshly drawn from
a recovered animal.
Pure Fresh Bile {Koch's Method). — Using lo c.c. of selected
Biles from animals which have succumbed to Rinderpest or kUled
in the last stages of the disease and injecting it under the skin.
Edington's method consists of adding one part of glycerine
to two of the Fresh Bile ; stirring the mixture, and allowing it
to stand for eight days, then using a dose of 15 to 25 c.c. sub-
cutaneous, and after an interval of ten days, giving an inoculation
of I c.c. of virulent Rinderpest blood.
Serum and Defibrinated Blood. — Behring's important discovery
that if the toxines of a pathogenic organism are injected in proper
quantities for a sufficient length of time into the body of one of
the higher animals, the Blood Serum of this animal acquires suffi-
cient specific antitoxic properties, but they do not neutralise or
render harmless the toxines of any other species of micro-organism
was generally known at the date of the outbreak of Rinderpest
in South Africa.
Koch, in the early stages of his experiments at Kimberley in
January, 1897, found that Serum obtained from cattle which had
recovered from Rinderpest, when injected into susceptible animals,
gave them an immunity against the disease, for a limited period,
when injected in large doses ; but at that time Koch discovered
the efficacy of the Bile obtained from sick animals, which he con-
sidered was safer and more effective than Serum.
It was Messrs. Watkins-Pitchford and Theiler, Chief Veterinary
Surgeons of Natal and the Transvaal respectively, who were the
first in South Africa to aim at confering an active immunity to
cattle by the Serum method of treatment, but their experiments
were interrupted.
Later Dr. Danysz and Bordet, of the Institute Pasteur, Paris,
commenced work at Waterfall in the Transvaal, and directed
their attention to the elaboration of the Serum method. They
employed defibrinated blood obtained from recovered animals
which, after recovery, had received large doses of virulent Rinder-
pest, blood at periodic intervals. The inoculated cattle were then
mixed with infected animals, from which they contracted a modified
form of the disease under the resisting action of the Serum. As
a curative remedy, large doses of freshly drawn blood were injected
into the jugular vein of the sick animals.
Drs. Turner and KoUe devised what is known as the " Simul-
taneous Method " of inoculation — that is to inject i c.c. of virulent
DISEASES OF STOCK. 337
blood on the one side of the animal, and a regulated dose of
standardized Serum on the other. The amount of the Serum
depended on its ascertained strength, which was previously tested,
and the size of the animal. This is the simplest and one of the most
effective methods of conferring an active immunity on herds of
cattle where the disease is prevalent. But when the outbreaks
of Rinderpest become sporadic in character, as they did "during
its second invasion of the Colony, nothing succeeds so well as the
injection of large doses of strong Serum alone to the whole of the
infected herds and all likely to come in contact with these. It
arrests the spread of the disease at once, with little loss to the owner,
and it leaves no infection behind.
Redwater, Texas Fever, or Bovine Piroplasmosis.
The causal organism of Texas Fever was first discovered by
Dr. Theobald Smith, Pathologist to the United States Bureau of
Animal Industry, in 1889, and during the following year his col-
laborator, Mr. F. L. Kilborne, discovered that the cattle tick —
, Boophilus bovis, vel Rhipicepkalus annulatus — was the medium of
transmitting the infective organism. This tick is closely allied
to our common Blue Tick {Rhipicepkalus decolor ahis), which Dr.
Koch demonstrated was the tick which transmitted the Redwater
in German East Africa. In December, 1896, at Kimberley, Koch
recognised the 'identity of Texas Fever and South African Red-
water, on examining the first blood which he obtained for inocula-
tion purposes from Taungs, Bechuanaland.
In their first report, which is a classic on the subject. Smith and
Kilborne describe the disease by its previously-recognised name —
Texas Fever — and Smith named the causal organism Pyrosoma
bigeminum, from its pyriform shape and its usual occurrence in
pairs within the red blood corpuscles.*
Since Smith's discovery of the causal organism of Texas Fever,
this organism has been found in the blood of cattle affected with
the same disease, but described under different names, in several
countries of the world.
" At the suggestion of Lignieres, the term ' piroplasmosis ' was
proposed as a suitable term for all diseases due to a piroplasma ;
accordingly Texas fever is caUed Bovine piroplasmosis." — (Theiler).
Redwater was first discovered in British South Africa in 1870,
when it appeared among some cattle near the mouth of the Tugela,
in Natal. The disease was evidently carried by cattle from Zulu-
land and Swaziland, as the native servants from these territories
recognised the disease as one which they had previously seen among
their own peoples' cattle, and Dr. Koch, in his official report from
Dar-es-Salaam, dated 15th November, 1897,! states, " that from
* Investigation into the Nature, Causation, and Prevention of Texas
Fever, Bulletin No. i., Government Printing Office, Washington,
t Vide Agricultural Journal, Vol. XIV., p. 658.
338 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
information obtained in these territories it is evident that Texas
fever (Redwater) had for a long time been endemic on the East
African Coast, and the Island of Mafia. Presumably the region
where it is endemic includes other East African cattle-rearing
islands, and stretches both north and south across the German
Protectorate."
Redwater caused very serious losses amongst cattle in Natal
during the early years of its invasion of that Colony ; similar very
heavy losses followed in its train as it invaded the adjoining States
of the Transvaal and Orange Free State. In 1883 it spread through
the Transkeian Territories and made its first appearance in the
Kaffrarian districts of the Cape Colony.
In the year 1885 it was estimated that over 100,000 cattle died
in Griqualand East and the Transkeian Territories alone. It has
since spread as far south as the districts of Mossel Bay and Oudts-
hoorn, and inland as, far as Queenstown, Stockenstrom, Bedford,
etc., and is occasionally met with in Griqualand West and Bechuana-
land in the Cape Colony.
Preventive Inoculation. — The possible success of preventive
inoculation was clearly foreshadowed in the exhaustive reports of
Smith and Kilborne already referred to. They proved that the
tick was the medium of communicating the disease in Nature, and
that it could also be communicated to a clean animal by inocula-
tion with blood obtained from a sick animal.
Immunity was, therefore, sought to be established first, by
placing a limited number of infected larval ticks on a clean animal ;
then, by exposing susceptible cattle to natural tick infection for a
limited time. This led to inoculation with blood obtained from a
recovered animal, first tentatively by the Officers of the Bureau of
Animal Industry, and subsequently by other State veterinarians.
In 1896 the Queensland Government took this subject up with great
enthusiasm. It would appear that Mr. A. Barnes, Veterinary Sur-
geon of the Queensland Government, was the first to tentatively try
the effect of recovered blood as an inoculating medium there. But
it was Mr. Pound, Director of the Queensland Stock Institute, and
Dr. Hunt, who by their carefully-conducted experiments first estab-
lished the value of preventive inoculation with recovered blood for
Texas fever in Queensland.
Mr. Pound prefers obtaining blood from a young animal which
has recovered from a severe attack of fever that has been arti-
ficially produced, rather than from one which has contracted the
disease naturally.
Dr. Edington recommends taking a recovered, or naturally
salted animal, from an infected area ; injecting it with a dose of
virulent blood, and twenty-eight days after, if no great degree of
fever has been produced, this animal's blood may be used for in-
oculation.
Our experience is that the blood of recovered animals, even when
obtained from the same infected veld, varies considerably. In some
cases the blood gives little or no reaction when inoculated into
DISEASES OF STOCK. 339
susceptible animals, while in other cases the fever re-action is so
severe that a heavy mortality follows. The safest plan is, there-
fore, to test the recovered animal's blood first on a limited number
of cattle before using it on large herds.
African Coast Fever (Piroplasma Parvum).
This disease was first discovered by Dr. Koch in German East
Africa in 1897, and in his official report from Dar-es-Salaam he
described the disease as Texas Fever, and the causal organism
found in the blood corpuscles as a form of pyrosoma bigeminum.
In 1901 it appeared, in combination with Redwater, amongst
a shipment of cattle from New South Wales, which were landed at
Beira. There is some doubt expressed whether they were the first
cattle to introduce the disease into Rhodesia or not. Mr. Jarvis,
Veterinary Surgeon to the Rhodesian Government at Umtali, is
of opinion that a shipment of cattle was imported from German
East Africa direct, previous to the arrival of these cattle from New
South Wales, and that these latter died.
It is generally admitted by Messrs. Gray, Jarvis and the other
veterinary surgeons who were actively engaged in attending to
these imported cattle, that the most susceptible cattle which fell
victims to the disease shortly after their arrival, presented all the
prominent clinical and post mortem appearances of Redwater ; but
as the disease progressed in the herd, the symptoms manifested,
and the post mortem lesions observed, deviated considerably from
those met with in the normal type of Redwater. These atypical
cases became more and more numerous during the following season,
1902, when it spread from Umtali to several other centres in Southern
Rhodesia.
It was still associated with Redwater, however, and those who
were engaged in its investigation at the time, like Dr. Koch, when
he first met with the disease at Dar-es-Salaam, although they
clearly recognised' and described the small and characteristic
organisms of African Coast Fever, did not consider these special
and distinct parasites, but regarded them as different forms of the
P. bigeminum.
When Dr. Koch came to investigate this disease at Bulawayo,
in the beginning of 1903, it is very evident that he met with the
disease in an uncomplicated form, as he states in his first report,
that, " in the blood of animals examined by us we only found the
small parasites characteristic of the disease." In his second report
he qualifies that statement and admits that in ten out of ninety-one
sick animals, he found the large pyriform organism, and in six out
of these latter cases he observed blood-coloured urine. These cases
he considered, were animals salted to ordinary Redwater, which
again developed that disease as a result of the high temperature
produced by an attack of African Coast Fever.
Y 2
340 FCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA
As a result of his experiments and observations, Dr. Koch
showed that African Coast Fever differs from Texas Fever in the
following particulars : — (a) the blood parasites are of different
shape, and considerably smaller ; (b) although the blood parasites
are more numerous in African Coast Fever than in Texas Fever,
there is not the same destruction of the blood corpuscles, and con-
sequently hsemoglobinuria is rarely observed ; (c) a strong im-
munity to Texas Fever gives an animal no immunity to African
Coast Fever ; (d) Texas Fever is communicable to a susceptible
animal by inoculation with the blood of an affected or recovered
animal, but African Coast Fever is not. (The fact that Messrs.
Gray and Robertson obtained positive results from inoculation
clearly shows that the cases which they had to deal with were com-
bined with Texas Fever or Redwater.)
" At the present time African Coast Fever exists only in areas
infected " (more or less) " with ordinary Redwater." — (Theiler).
Further, it has since been found, although not recognised by Koch,
that while the blood of cattle immune to Redwater is stUl infective,
the blood of cattle immune to African Coast Fever is not infective,
(e) The local lesions in certain organs are quite different in African
Coast Fever from those seen in Redwater. For example, the
enfarcts in the kidneys, lungs and liver, the swollen and haemor-
rhagic condition of the different groups of lymphatic glands, and
the appearance of local oedema especially in the lungs from which
the peculiar frothy effusion, occasionally observed, arises, are
sufficient proof that African Coast Fever, although allied to Texas
Fever and belonging to the same class of diseases, is still a dis-
tinctly different disease.
Transmission of African Coast Fever. — This fever can be trans-
mitted by the " Brown Tick," Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, either
by a nymph which fed as a larva on a sick animal, or by an
adult which fed on a sick animal as a nymph ; the infection
does not pass through the egg. It may also be transmitted by the
R. simus.
Can Animals other than Bovines carry the Infection. — Messrs.
Gray and Stockman and Dr. Thieler are confident that bovines
alone contract the disease, and convey the infection. The tick
has to acquire the infection by feeding on a sick beast, either
as a larva or a nymph. If the tick contracts the infection as a
larva it communicates it in its nymphal stage ; and whether the
animal that it bites is susceptible of the disease or not, the tick
discharges its poison, and loses its power of conveying further
infection, and it does not remain long enough on the animal that
it infects to get re-infected.
Another important fact is that recovered cattle are incapable
of conveying infection to the ticks, hence, although recovered
cattle are left on an infected farm, the infection dies out as com-
pletely as if the farm were cleared of cattle, within a period of
fifteen months.
DISEASES OF STOCK. 34I
PiROPLASMOSIS IN THE DOG.
This disease has been recognised in many countries of the world.
The first authorities to describe the causal parasite were Galli,
Valerio and Plana, who in 1895 demonstrated the piroplasma in
the blood of a dog in Milan, and gave a minute description of it and
the clinical history of the disease. He named the parasite Pyro-
soma bigeminum var. canis. Dr. Koch alludes to malarial parasites
in the blood of dogs at Dar-es-Salaam. Hutcheon first met with
the disease at Port Elizabeth in 1885, and described it in 1887. In
1893 he drew attention to the close resemblance between the disease
and Redwater in cattle. Veterinary Surgeon Spreull proved its
inoculability in 1899, and Dr. Carrington Purvis the same year
demonstrated the piroplasma in the blood sent to him for micro-
scopic examination.
Lounsbury and Robertson in 1901, working conjointly, confirmed
the fact that the disease was communicated by direct inoculation
of virulent blood, and through the agency, of the dog tick Haemaphy-
salis leachii (Audouin), and described in detail and at length, the
causal parasite, the clinical symptoms, post mortem appearances,
and microscopical characteristic of the blood and tissues from a
great number of cases of the disease. They also proved that the
blood of a dog which had recovered from an attack of the disease,
(and had been kept out of the reach of second re-infection by ticks,
etc.) can by direct inoculation, or through the medium of ticks, pro-
duce the disease after an interval of nearly two years.
Mr. Lounsbury by a long series of carefully-conducted experi-
ments, satisfactorily demonstrated that the common dog tick at
the Cape, Haemaphysalis leachi (Audouin), transmits the infection
of malignant jaundice through its progeny, and that such progeny
normally remains incapable of transmitting the infection it inherits
until it attains the adult stage." Mr. Lounsbury remarks : — "That
the infection passes through the egg stage is a fact not unparalleled
and therefore not surprising, but that it is harboured through two
feeding stages without being transmitted is at present unique."
Veterinary Surgeons Bowhill and M. Le Doux, in 1904, describe
an endoglobular form of the parasite, the Piroplasma, which form
possesses " flagella like processes with two bulbs on the flagellum,
and some with only one at the end." — " Numerous free parasites
were also present in the blood, and in a few instances we thought
we observed flagellate bodies entering infected corpuscles."
Diseases Produced by Trypanosomata.
The genus of Trypanosoms is characterised by the possession
of a longitudinal undulating membrane, the thickened border of
which takes its origin posteriorly from a centissome and terminates
anteriorly in a free flagellum.
The Trypanosomidae occur in amphibia, reptiles, birds and
mammals, and depend for their propagation and spread upon an
.intermediary host or bearer — a Blood-sucking Fly.
342 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The principal Trypanosoma! diseases in Africa are : —
The Sleeping Sickness of Uganda, affecting human beings,
caused by the T. Gambiense and T. Ugandense, and carried by the
Glossina palpalis.
The TseTse, or Fly Disease, affecting horses, mules, donkeys,
cattle and dogs, caused by the T. Brucei and carried by the Glossina
morsitans.
Transvaal Gallziekte, or Gall Sickness, affecting cattle, caused by
the T. Theilerii, and carried by the Hippohosca rufipes.
Up to the present, none of the above diseases have been met with
in the Cape Colony.
African Horse-Sickness.
This remarkable equine disease, known locally as Horse-sickness,
has been more or less prevalent in South Africa for nearly two
centuries. It appeared at the Cape in 1719, fifty years after the
introduction of horses into Cape Colony by the Dutch East India
Company. The fact that there were no horses in South Africa at
the date of its first occupation by Europeans, although they were
plentiful in Northern Africa from the dawn of history, makes it
probable that their absence was mainly, if not entirely, due to the
existence of this disease.
The infective agent is harboured by the other species of the
genus Equus, which roamed in large troops all over South Africa,
and are known to possess a strong resistence to Horse-sickness.
Horse-sickness occurs as an enzootic, or seasonal disease, in
certain areas of South Africa, but at intervals of more or less dura-
tion, it assumes an epizootic character, and passes like a wave over
the greater portion of one or more of the Colonies, carrying off a
large percentage of the horses and mules.
The seasons in which these epizootics usually occur are char-
acterised by early and abundant rains, followed by heat and un-
usually heavy dews. It was these conditions that gave rise to the
popular opinion that these heavy dews, which fell during the night
— the period in which the disease is contracted — had something
directly to do with its origin. This view was further strengthened
by the fact that, when horses were taken from the valleys and plains,
and placed on high table lands, during the summer and autumn,
and not returned until the first frost fell, they escaped infection.
It was further observed that it was the local elevation and not the
absolute height of the table land above sea-level which conferred
the immunity.
Proper stabling was also believed to give protection when care
was exercised to protect the food and water from the night air.
The Nature of Horse-sickness. — This disease was considered
by several military and civil veterinary surgeons who studied the
disease in Natal, to be closely related to Anthrax, but to Dr. Eding-
ton belongs the credit of being the first to show that Horse-sickness
is a disease sui generis ; that it has a constant period of incubation,
DISEVSES OF STOCK. 343
and that it may with great certainty be transmitted to horses by
subcutaneous inoculation with the blood of an animal dead of
the disease.*
The hypothetical organism of Horse-sickness has not been
discovered, and Professor McFadyean showed in 1902 that the
contagium passed through a Berkfeld filter.
It has, however, been generally recognised as a disease peculiar
to the genus Equus, but Dr. Edington, in his more recent reports,
states that " both bovine and caprine animals, obtained from
the Karoo, could be infected, though with some difficulty"; he
therefore proposes to group Horse-sickness, Heartwater and Veld-
sickness (Coast Gallsickness) under the generic name of " South
African Fever," having Equine, Bovine and Caprine varieties.
In 1900 Mr. Watkins-Pitchford, F.R.C.V.S., Natal, published
in the Agricultural Journal of that Colony, a short series of articles
embodying his views on the etiology or cause of this disease, and
stating the various factors which had led him to incline to the
theory of the disease being one which was due to the agency of
nocturnal insects, probably some species of Mosquito.
During his recent work, Mr. Watkins-Pitchford states that he
has been able to observe that horses carefully protected from
possibility of attack from other insects can be subjected to the bites
of a species of Mosquito (Anopheles) without any appreciable after-
effect, but when steps have been taken to infect these mosquitos
(by previous feeding upon an animal suffering from Horse-sickness)
a disease indistinguishable from a mild attack of Horse-sickness is
produced, when the insects are allowed access to a horse in a normal
condition.
Dr. Arnold Theiler, in his yearly Report, 1903, claims to have
found a system of preventive inoculation whereby mules (which
are not so susceptible to the disease as horses) can be rendered
immune against an attack of Horse-sickness.
Dr. Edington, in a recent report, states that he has devised a
Vaccine for the inoculation of mules, which is being issued, and
is acting satisfactorily ; while that for horses will be issued as soon
as the present season of sickness has ceased.
The method of preventive inoculation recommended by Dr.
Koch for the establishment of artificial immunity against Horse-
sickness, as the result of his "experimental work in Rhodesia, is
summed up briefly as follows : —
Step I. — o.oi c.c. of Virus injected subcutaneously in the
neck, at an interval of four days; 100 c.c. of standardised strong
Serum is injected subcutaneously, a hand's breadth below the
site of the Virus injection, at 12 days interval.
Step II- — 0.05 Virus. 4 days interval.
50 c.c. of Serum. 12 days interval.
Step III. — 0.2 c.c. Virus. 4 days interval.
50 c.c. Serum. 12 days interval.
* Vide Dr. Edington's Report, 1895.
344 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Step IV. — 0.5 c.c. Virus. 12 days interval.
Step V. — I c.c. Virus. 12 days interval.
Step VI. — 2 c.c. Virus. 12 days interval.
Step VII: — 5 c.c. Virus. 12 days interval.
Dr. Koch adds that the doses of Virus and Serum must be
regulated according to the relative strength of the Virus and Serum
employed, which must be tested in every case by previous ex-
periments.
Preparation of Serum. — In fortifying salted horses, Dr. Koch
preferred the intravenous injection of 1,000 c.c. of virulent HOrse-
sickness blood, to the subcutaneous method with 2,000 c.c.
For intravenous injection the blood must be carefully defi-
brinated, -filtered through muslin, and injected while warm, or if
allowed to cool, it must be raised again to a temperature of 25° Cent,
in a water bath. The blood should then be introduced directly
into the jugular vein with a large Canula, by gravity alone, etc.*
Equine Piroplasmosis or Biliary Fever.
It is impossible to say whether this disease is indigenous to South
Africa, or whether it has been imported from some other country,
or extended south from the eastern coast districts, like African
Coast Fever, Redwater and Heartwater, as we do not know any-
thing relating to its origin, or the medium of its transmission.
Veterinary Surgeon Bowhill gives the following description
of its —
History and Geographical Distribution.^ — Equine piroplasmosis,
commonly known throughout South Africa as Biliary Fever, was
first observed in Natal in 1883 by Wiltshire, who named the malady
Anthrax Fever.
Subsequently, the author described it in the Cape Colony as
Biliary Fever in the horse. He also states that it is most
prevalent along the coast belt, and is fully as common among
stable-fed horses as those which have never been inside a stable.
It may occur at any season of the year, but is most prevalent
during summer and autumn.
Gugliemi (1899) described the disease in Italy as Horse Malaria,
and was the first to discover endoglobular parasites in the blood
of the infected animals.
Rickman (1902) described endoglobular parasites in the .blood
of horses that succumbed to Horse- sickness, and concluded that
Horse-sickness was similar to pernicious malaria in man.
Robertson, in tlie Report of the Chief Veterinary Surgeon for
1901, describes the parasites in detail, and failed to transmit the
disease by direct inoculation.
Bowhill (1904) observed P. Equi in a horse that died of naturally
acquired Horse-sickness at Grahamstown.
* Vide Cape. Agricultural Journal, Vol. xxiv. pp. 505 & 663.
•(■ Journal of Hygiene, Vol. v. No. i, January, 1905.
DISEASES OF STOCK. 345
Koch (1904) met with this disease during his Horse-sickness
work in Rhodesia. One of his young animals developed a fatal
attack of Biliary Fever after inoculation with blood from a salted
horse.
Theiler (1902) describes the disease as Equine Malaria.
Edington (1901) considers the disease as a Malarial form of
Horse-sickness.
Zieman (1902) has described equine piroplasmosis as occurring
in Germany, and states that a similar disease prevails in Venezuela.
Theiler, in his annual report for 1903-1904, states that he suc-
ceeded in transmitting the disease to a recently imported horse by
direct inoculation, using the blood of a horse which recovered
from an attack of the disease two years previously. The inoculated
animal succumbed on the i6th day, with all the clinical symptoms
and post mortem appearances of Biliary Fever, and with typical
Piroplasma in the blood. The period of incubation was eight
days. In Dr. Koch's case the temperature rose on the gth day.
The Parasite which causes piroplasmosis of the horse, mule
and donkey belongs to the Haemocytozoa or endoglobular haema-
tozoa. In an outbreak of piroplasmosis which appeared amongst
some troops of donkeys in the Transvaal, the parasite was dis-
covered by Theiler, who states that it is very closely related to,
if not identical with the piroplasma found in Biliary Fever of the
horse and mule.
Agent of Transmission. — Most observers, judging from analogy,
are of opinion that a tick is the transmitter of the disease. I
entertain strong doubts on that point, because I have seen numbers
of severe attacks, sometimes ending fatally in imported stud and
racehorses, which were kept in good clean stables and well groomed,
at least twice a day, and no tick allowed to rest on them.
Heartwater in Sheep, Goats and Cattle.
This is a specific fever which affects sheep, goats and cattle
along the eastern districts of the Cape Colony, the Transkeian
Territories, Natal, Zululand, and a large area in the Transvaal.
It most probably exists along the greater portion of the north-east
coast districts of South Africa, as it is believed to have come
originally from that region.
Heartwater was recognised as a special disease of sheep and
goats in the coast districts of the Eastern Province of the Cape
Colony forty years ago. But in 1898 Dr. Edington demonstrated
that it could be communicated to cattle by inoculation, and since
then it has been observed that cattle, more especially young cattle,
contract the disease on the veld.
It is not infectious, but is communica,ble by inoculation with
the blood, spleen pulp, and thoracic fluid, obtained from an affected
or recovering animal.
Mr. Lounsbury has demonstrated that the medium of
communicating the infection in Nature is the " Bont tick " —
346 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
A mhlyomma hehraeum, Koch, which has previously fed on an affected
animal, one tick being sufficient to communicate a virulent
attack.
' The hypothetical infective organism has not been discovered,
but Mr. Robertson has shown that the infective agent does not
pass through a Chamberlain or Berkfeld filter. The incubation
periods are : — After inoculation, from 8 to 10 or more days ; after
successful tick infestation, from 11 to 15 days. The fever period
usually lasts from 6 to 10 days, but death may occur within 48
hours.
Post-mortem Lesions. — There is usually slight enlargement of
the spleen and congestion of the liver. The mucous membrane
of the fourth stomach — abomasum — and portions of the small
intestines are highly congested. In cattle there is acute gastro-
enteritis, but the characteristic lesion is an effusion of a clear
buff-coloured sero-albuminous fluid into the thoracic cavity and
pericardial sac, which coagulates into a firm jelly on exposure to
the atmosphere. Hence its popular name, " Heartwater."
Preventive Inoculation. — A long series of experiments have been
conducted by Dr. Edington and the officers of the Veterinary
Staff of the Cape Colony with the object of discovering a safe and
effective method of preventive inoculation. And strong hopes
are entertained that by giving two or more graduated inoculations
of virulent blood hypodermically, at intervals of 30 days, that the
greater portion of the animals so treated will resist the ordinary
tick infection On the veld.
Medical treatment has not proved a success, although a large
number of remedies have been tried.
Malarial Catarrhal Fever of Sheep.
This is a specific disease which affects sheep over a large area
of South Africa. It is characterised by high fever, a catarrhal
inflammation of the mucous membranes lining the lips, tongue,
mouth, fauces and upper air passages, accompanied, in the majority
of cases, by inflammation of the coronary band and laminae of the
feet, and followed in severe cases by suppuration and shedding of
tJie hoofs. In other cases there is extensive exfoliation of the
epidermis and shedding of the fleece. It is non-infectious, but
readily communicable by inoculation with a small dose of blood
from an affected animal either sub-cutaneously or intravenously.
It visibly affects sheep only, but a slight fever re-action can be
communicated to goats, rabbits, cattle, and probably to other
animals by the intravenous injection of large doses of virulent
blood, and blood drawn from these animals during the fever re-
action, if injected into sheep will communicate a severe form of
the disease to them. (SpreuU).
It is not communicable to the horse. (Mr. Robertson.)
The period of incubation is from two to four days, rarely five.
The temperature is high, reaching from 104° to 107° Fah. The
fever period extends from five to seven days. In young animals
DISEASES OF STOCK. 347
in poor condition, the disease is very severe and runs its course
very rapidly. In cases of recovery the course of the disease is
about twenty-one days (Spreull.)
The blood of an infected sheep is virulent during the whole
course of th? fever, and for a number of days after recovery, in
some cases up to fifty. (Ibed.)
Etiology. — ^This " Ovine Malaria " was until recently believed
to be due to a small intra- corpuscular organism, similar to the
Plasmodium found in the red corpuscles of a horse suffering from
Equine Malaria. But in conducting certain experiments relating
to this disease at Cape Town, Mr. Robertson failed to find the
intra- corpuscular organism in artificially produced cases, which he
had previously seen in the blood of sheep on the East Coast districts
affected with malaria. He then demonstrated that the contagium
was capable of passing through a tested Berkfeld filter. In this
respect, as well as in the conditions under which it arises, " Ovine
Malaria" closely resembles Horse-sickness.
Preventive Inoculation. — Mr. Spreull has discovered that by
mixing 2 c.c. of virulent blood, and a regulated dose 3 to 6 c.c. of
standardised fortified Serum, and injecting them together, that a
modified fever is produced, which confers an immunity sufficient
to resist veld infection.
Geel Dikkop, or Yellow Thick Head.
This is a peculiar disease affecting sheep and goats, but more
particularly the former. It is most prevalent in the Karoo districts,
but it is met with in mixed veld, and even in pure grass veld.
It is characterised by an effusion of a clear yellow serous fluid
into the subcutaneous cellular tissue of the head, throat, cheeks
and ears, hence its local name of " Yellow Thick Head." There
is a rise of temperature from 103° to 105° Fah. The fat and tissue of
the body present a jaundiced appearance ; the liver also presents
a saffron colour, and the gall bladder and bile ducts are usually
distended with bile of a similar colour often mixed with mucous.
There is also a catarrhal condition of the small intestines and of
the cystic duct, " and in numerous cases an absence of bile in the
small intestines." (Dixon.)
Cause. — ^This disease has been attributed to several causes,
but the general opinion entertained by the farmers is that it is due
to a small plant called the " Dubbeltje Doom." — Tribiihis Terres-
trus Lin. — which springs up luxuriantly after rain, the time when
the disease becomes most prevalent.
Numerous feeding experiments have failed, however, to con-
firm that opinion. And it is observed that the disease will suddenly
cease, although this plant is still abundant. Further, it occurs
where the plant does not grow. There has, therefore, been a growing
conviction that this disease is due to some specific infective agent.
It occurs at the same period of the year, and under conditions
similar to those which give rise to Horse sickness and Ovine Malaria.
But it is not inoculable like these two diseases.
348 science in south africa.
Anthrax.
Charbon (France), Miltzbrand (German], Meltziekte (Dutch).
Sporadic outbreaks of this disease are met with in numerous
districts of South Africa, and there are some hmited areas where
the disease occurs with more or less virulence as an annual visitor,
while on individual farms, the losses during some seasons are so
heavy, that it is found necessary to resort to preventive vaccination
or inoculation, employing as a vaccine the double inoculation of
attenuated cultures prepared and despatched by the Laboratories
of the Institute du Pasteur.
In Griqualand West, in parts of which the disease is very pre-
valent, a large proportion of the cases which occur in horses take on
the external form, characterised by circumscribed swellings due to
cutaneous infection most probably by the Hippohosca rufipes.
These cases are amenable to prompt treatment, a considerable
percentage recovering.
Black Quarter or Quarter Evil.
Charbon Syniptomatique (France), Rauschbrand (German)
Sponsziekte (Dutch).
This disease has been known from the time of the early settlers,
and behaves much as it does in Europe.
Preventive inoculation for this disease has proved very success-
ful (Arloing, Cornevin, and Thomas method) and is becoming
more general every year.
Glanders. U^
Jetaje (French), Rotz (German), Drafts (Dutch).
Glanders appears to have been introduced into the Cape at an
early period of the Dutch occupation, but, except in the principal
towns, a large proportion of farmers had no experience of it until
after the sale and distribution of the military horses at the close of
the recent war, when it was spread all over the country ; at present
the disease is rapidly being subdued by slaughter of visibly-affected
animals, and the application of the Mallein test to suspected animals,
with their future quarantine if the reaction is suspicious. -
Strangles.
Gourme (French), Druse (German) or Infectious Reno Adenitis
is called by the Dutch Nieuwziekte or New Sickness, which indicates
that it was introduced at a recent date, most probably during the
last generation. It is very evident that it spread rapidly over the
the whole country, for almost every horse owner appears to be
familiar with it. as every case of any disease in which there is a
discharge from the nostrils in a horse is described as Nieuwziekte.
Epizootic or Suppurative Lymphangitis.
This disease was known to exist amongst the horses in some of
the Eastern Coast districts of the Cape Colony for over twenty years,
and was known as Tick Farcy.
DISEASES OF STOCK.
349
A great influx of the disease appeared with the commencement
of hostiUties, and " there can be no doubt that it was introduced
by animals imported during the war, though no cases appear to
have been observed prior to 1901. In 1902 it became a scourge, and
has so remained. — (Lieut.-Colonel F. Smith.)
It has been spread over the greater part of South Africa by the
dispersion of the cast miUtary horses. It has since been proclaimed
ai) infectious disease, and treated as such in all the British South
African Colonies.
Its etiology and treatment, both preventive and curative, are now
well known, and consist of isolation of the affected animals, the
surgical removal of the affected parts, and complete destruction of
all diseased products by caustics or cautery, accompanied by the
thorough disinfection of the stable, its furniture and utensils.
Tuberculosis.
At what date this disease first made its appearance in the country
we have no definite records to go upon.
It is customary to regard native and indigenous cattle as com-
paratively free from this affection, but I have seen numerous cases
of advanced Tuberculosis in Western Province bred and reared
cattle, more particularly amongst the Friesland breed.
At present all over-seas cattle have to be provided with a certifi-
cate from a properly-quaHfied veterinary surgeon, certifying that
they have been submitted to the tuberculin test and failed to react,
in default of which they are landed in quarantine, submitted to the
tuberculin test by a Government Veterinary Surgeon, and if they
react, slaughtered. By these means we hope to at least minimise
the chances of further infecting the cattle of the Colony with
Tuberculosis.
Epizootic Aphtha, or Foot and Mouth Disease.
This weU-known disease has had a wide distribution. There
are few countries in which it has not appeared. It has been intro-
duced into South Africa on several occasions, at long intervals.
It, however, assumes a much milder type in this country than in
Europe, and the losses arising from it are comparatively small,
except during the prevalence of . a drought, when the mortality
among sheep has sometimes been heavy.
Specific Ophthalmia of the Horse.
Specific Ophthalmia or recurrent inflammation of the interior
of the eye of the horse — a disease which arises without discernible
cause — ^was comparatively rare in South Africa until the war.
Lieut.-Colonel F. Smith states that " this disease appears to have
been introduced during the war with horses from America. It was
not seen during the early days of the Campaign, and did not attract
serious attention until 1902. In its symptoms and results it does
not differ from the disease as observed in Europe ; all the tissues
of the eye, excepting the sclerotic, are involved, leading to gradual
350 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
disorganisation in the course of one or more attacks." It is peculiar
to the horse, and there is a growing conviction that it is due to some
specific microbe. " It cannot, however, be conveyed by any known
method of inoculation." " Its recurrent character is its destructive
feature, and this is unaffected by treatment." — (F. Smith.)
Ulcerative Keratitis.
This is acute inflammation of the eyeball or cornea of ruminants,
and is extremely common in certain parts of Cape Colony at
certain seasons of the year, chiefly during the summer months,
when it frequently assumes an epizootic form, affecting a large
proportion of the herds and flocks. The inflammation is confined
to the cornea, the conjunctive lining the eyelids being rarely
affected at the commencement of the attack.
Symptoms. — The cornea becomes cloudy and opaque followed
by a circumscribed swelling, which increases in size and acquires a
pale yellow colour. An abscess forms, which bursts and discharges
its contents. It is marvellous how such cases recover, leaving
only a small cicatrix.
The cause is not definitely known. The disease is extremely
contagious, and may be introduced into a clean herd by an affected
animal. As it occurs during the summer months only, it may be
that the pollen of certain plants enters the eye, and injures the
epithelium of the cornea. The micro-organisms may enter the
cornea with the seed or afterwards.
The treatment is local, consisting of soothing and antiseptic
applications, and when granulations appear the use of Calomel, or
applications of Lunar Caustic, are to be recommended.
Parasites in the Eyes of Cattle.
The presence of worms in the eyes of cattle is frequently met
with in Cape Colony, more particularly in the Eastern districts.
Calves are the most common victims.
There are two varieties of the worms. One, the Filaria lacry-
malis, is found under the mcmbrana nictitans at the inner angle of
the eye, and is very common. The other variety, Filaria oculi,
occupies the anterior chamber of the eye, immediately behind the
cornea in the aqueous humour. This parasite is comparatively
rare.
The treatment for the first parasite is washing them out with a
solution of salt or weak tobacco water ; the second can be removed
by an operation.
Chronic Catarrhal Pneumonia (Jagziekte).
This is a special and peculiar form of inflammation of the lungs,
which affects sheep over a large area of the Cape Colony, more
particularly in the higher and colder districts. It bears a close
resemblance to catarrhal pneumonia, with a natural tendency to
terminate in interstitial pneumonia. There is no tendency to
breaking down of the lung tissue or the formation of abscesses ;
DISEASES OF STOCK. 351
the smaller bronchise become filled with catarrhal products, at the
same time there is an exudation of inflammatory lymph into the
lung tissue, until in advanced cases, a cut section of the lung pre-
sents a semi-solid appearance, of a pinkish yellow colour, and an
oily soapy feel. In still more advanced cases, the diseased portion
of the lung becomes drier, and the interlobular tissue hard and
resisting.
There is no tendency to recovery, even when the affected sheep
is placed in a comfortable house and carefully nursed. Under such
conditions, however, the progress of the disease is slow, and differs
considerably in character from those cases which are exposed to the
vicissitudes of the weather. The smaller bronchise and air-cells do not
become filled with catarrhal products to any appreciable extent, but
they become gradually closed up by the thickening of the lung tissue,
which becomes leathery and inelastic. The animal dies of asphyxia.
Symptoms. — There is no constitutional disturbance observable
in the early stages of the disease, except an occasional cough, which
becomes more frequent, and the breathing more rapid, as the disease
advances, until, in the latter stages, the poor beast stands with its
ribs fixed, and flanks heaving, panting for breath, hence the Dutch
name " Jagziekte " or driving sickness.
There is strong evidence that, under the climatic conditions in
which it arises, it is infectious, but all artificial attempts to com-
municate the disease by cohabitation, or bj? inoculation, with the
blood or inflammatory products, have failed.
Paralysis in Sheep caused by the Tick — Ixodes Pilosus
This tick paralysis is met with over a large area of the Cape
Colony, and has been recognised by the sheep farmers for many
years, and unanimously attributed by them to certain tick, which
has been identified by Mr. Lounsbury as the Ixodes pilosus.
This paralysis is most prevalent during the cold winter months
of May, June and July. It is met with most in the kloofs and
valleys where the grass and other vegetation are longest. One
tick appears capable of producing the paralysis, and a large number
does not appear to intensify the attack. The tick attaches itself
principally on the inside of the thighs, behind the elbows, and be-
tween the branches of the lower jaw. The tick is evidently the
passive bearer of the infection only, as all ticks are not infective.
Large numbers of the same species of tick may be found on sheep in
flocks on adjoining farms where the disease dees not exist at the time.
In support of the opinion that the tick is the originating cause
of the paralysis, if the affected flock is dipped in Cooper's sheep dip,
which is an arsenical compound, the disease ceases almost immedi-
ately, and does not re-appear for some time, but the internal admini-
stration of the dip exercises no preventive effect. In like manner
if the ticks are all removed from an affected sheep it makes a rapid
recovery, whereas if the ticks are left on, the recovery is uncertain
and very much retarded. Mr. Spreull failed to communicate the
352 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
disease to healthy sheep by inoculation, nor has any definite micro-
organism been found in the blood. It is not known whether one
attack confers immunity, but young sheep are more susceptible
than older ones. There is no perceptible rise of temperature during
the attack, and the period of incubation is not known. The course
of the disease is rapid ; from the time that the sheep is first observed
to be affected, until it becomes paralysed, may be only six hours
When complete paralysis is established, the sheep will remain quiet,
as if asleep for from twenty-four to forty-eight hours, after which
the majority will recover, even if the ticks are not removed, if the
sheep are placed in a shed and left undisturbed. But if no par-
ticular care is taken of them, a great proportion will die.
No definite or characteristic post-mortem lesions have been
observed.
Acute Rheumatism — " Stijfziekte in Sheep."
This is an affection of the limbs which is very prevalent amongst
sheep in the high and cold districts of the Cape Colony, during the
winter months. It is characterised by acute inflammation of the
sheaths of the tendons and capsular ligaments of the joints of all
four limbs.
Cause. — It is attributed to the sheep having to walk long dis-
tances to the homestead in the evening, as the farms are large in the
districts where it is most prevalent. The sheep arrive at the home-
stead warm, drink at the dam, and then lie down either in or around
the kraal. At this time, about sunset, the temperature usually
falls suddenly from 30° to 50° Fahr. every evening, for a great
portion of the winter months. When the flock is examined the
following morning, a considerable percentage will be found more or
less stiff and lame, and the more acute cases unable to stand. The
sheaths of the tendons are found tense and painful. If these are
opened, the synovial fluid appears like a clear pale yellow jelly. In
these very acute cases the sheep are unable to stand, and often die
from the accompanying fever.
Prevention. ^li farms were fenced, and water and shelter pro-
vided, at convenient centres, the driving home would be avoided.
Internal Animal Parasites.
Apart from the specific diseases which affect the different
classes of domestic animals in this country, a very heavy loss is
experienced annually from the prevalence of internal animal
parasites. Every class of stock is more or less affected, but the
principal losses occur amongst sheep, goats and ostriches ; it is
almost the only cause of loss'amongst the latter class of stock.
Ostriches become early infested from being hatched and reared
on tainted ground. If the chicks could be reared on clean ground,
and well cared for until they are a year old, the losses amongst this
class of stock would be exceeciingly small, as full grown ostriches
do not appear to suffer from any special disease, if the food supply
is sufiacient, and, suitable in quality.
DISEASES OF STOCK. 353
The drinking water of stock, which consists mainly of rain water
which has drained into dams from the surface of the tainted pasture,
and the further contamination which takes place when the stock
come to drink at these dams, is doubtless responsible for a great
deal of this prevalence of parasitic diseases. I am of opinion
that underground water should be provided, as far as possible,
for stock, using the water obtained from surface drainage for
irrigation. At any rate, where dams are used they should be fenced
in, and the water led out into troughs for the stock to prevent
pollution.
Poultry Diseases.
Poultry are comparatively easy to rear in the mild climate of
South Africa, if infectious diseases are rigidly guarded against.
But very severe losses occur if any of these diseases are temporized
with and allowed to contaminate the fowl run.
Care is also required to keep poultry free from external and
internal parasites, to which they are very subject. But one of the
principal considerations is to keep the houses and runs clean, and
completely free from putrid pools, open drains, or dirty puddles
of any kind.
Apart from infectious diseases to which poultry are very liable
in this country, such as Chicken Cholera, Septic Enteritis, Diph-
theretic Roup, etc., Septicaemia, or Septic Intoxication, is the
principal cause of the heavy mortality which occurs amongst poultry,
and this is invariably due to want of care in keeping the runs
clean and dry, and their food and water free from contamination.
Even for ducks, unless there is a running stream for them
to swim in, where the water is always fresh and clean, no artificial
pond should be provided ; it is difficult to keep clean, and is rarely
effected. It is much better to confine them to a regular supply of
clean water to drink, renewed several times a day.
Dietetic Diseases.
Gallsickness, Bushsickness, Veldsickness, etc.
The disorders of the digestive organs of ruminants, commonly
called by the farmers Gallsickness, Black-gallsickness, Bushsickness
and Veldsickness, are very numerous, and very difficult to differen-
tiate. The more common forms of digestive disorders, such as indiges-
tion, congestion of the liver, gastro-intestinal irritation, and im-
paction of the stomachs and constipation of the bowels, occur
all over the country in stall-fed, as well as in veld-fed animals,
and are generally attributed to changes in the vegetation, over-
feeding, and similar errors of diet. The treatment of this class of
cases is comparatively simple when it is carried out early, and
consists mainly in the administration of suitable purgatives. But
in addition to these common disorders of the digestive organs,
stock of all kinds are very liable to eat noxious and irritating
354 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
plants, more especially when these are young and springing up
with the fresh vegetation, and also when more wholesome food
is scarce.
In a country in which the pasturage for farm stock consists
almost wholly of the natural vegetation, it is only to be expected
that, with the rich and varied flora which South Africa possesses,
a great many plants which are liable to be eaten by animals, would
be found to be inimical to health, while several others would prove
directly poisonous.
There is a popular opinion that animals are gifted with certain
instinctive perceptions which enable them to select the safe and
nourishing plants, and avoid those that are dangerous. But this
perceptive faculty must be largely due to hereditary and acquired
experience. Because, it is an unfortunate fact, that, when travelling
with stock through different districts of the country, or intro-
ducing stock for the first time into some locality which is entirely
new to them, we find that a large number become ill and die,
through eating some plant or plants that they were unaccustomed
to. Take the several species of Moraecs or " Cape Tulp " as an
example. Stock that are bred and reared on farms where it
grows luxuriantly, rarely eat it, or if they do, it must be in
very small quantities, as they rarely suffer from i,ts effects. But
if you remove stock from veld which is free from it, to veld on
which it is abundant, it is almost the first vegetation which they
go for, the mortality being greatest within the first day or two.
It does happen, however, that stock that are accustomed
to graze on veld where some of these noxious and irritating plants
grow, are often tempted to eat them, (a) during a severe drought,
when the other vegetation is scarce ; and (b) when these plants
come up green and fresh with the early vegetation that springs
up after rain. A number of these noxious plants haye already
been convicted, by feeding experiments, of being the originating
cause of some of those serious diseases of the digestive organs.
But there are many more which require to be investigated.
The rapidly fatal effect which the different species of " Cape
Tulp," Moraea polystachya, M. polyanthos, M. collina and M.
tenius, have upon ruminants, more particularly cattle, has been
known to transport riders for many years,, and their opinion has
been confirmed by feeding experiments, conducted by the Cape
Veterinary Department.
■81 When eaten in sufficient quantity, these species of Moraecs
produce acute gastro-enteritis, accompanied by great nervous
prostration, the affected animals usually dying in a state of coUapse.
If the animal lives for a day or two the inflammation usually
involves the cystic and hepatic ducts of the liver. This gives
rise to the secretion of a large admixture of mucous and other
cellular elements along with the bile, which causes the latter often
to present the appearance and consistency of Stockholm tar,
which "has given rise to the name " Black-gallsickness." But
the colour of the bile may vary from a dark green to a dirty yellow.
DISEASES OF STOCK. 355
" Slangkop," Ornithoglossum glaucum Sallish. — This is another
bulbous plant which is found over a large area of South Africa.
When eaten by stock, it produces similar effects to those produced
by " Tulp," more especially on sheep who eat it readily when young.
Chailletia cymosa. Hk* — This plant is a native of the Trans-
vaal, and when eaten by cattle it produces its fatal effects very
rapidly. Veterinary Lieut. Sawyer says : —
" In the majority of cases progress is rapid, often the first thing
noticed is the animal halts, trembles for a few seconds and drops
dead. In cases less severe the animal is tj^mpanitic, lies down,
groans with pain ; there is a green discharge from both nostrils,
and symptoms of gastro-enteritis are present. On the veld the herd
may be grazing, and all apparently well, when one or more will
suddenly fall and die."
The post mortem appearances are : — The mucous membrane of
all stomachs intensely inflamed ; there is also a catarrhal inflamma-
tory condition of the intestines ; the other organs appear healthy.
It is evident that the poison is absorbed during the primary process
of digestion, as in some cases, the animal dies from coma, before
the local lesions are sufficiently developed to cause death.
Nicotiana glauca or Wild Tobacco. — This plant is fatal to
ostriches of all ages, both in the green and dry condition, but they
are more liable to eat it when it is cut. Cattle are also reported
to have died after eating a small. quantity, but it is exceptional
for them to eat it. It first causes excitement, then contraction
of the voluntary muscles, followed by stupor and death by coma.
Stramonium or Stinkblaar. — ^The seeds and young growing
plants of stramonium are very poisonous to young ostriches. Cattle
also die after eating a certain quantity of the leaves or swallowing
the seeds. There is first a delirious excitement, followed by a want
of co-ordination of the muscles of locomotion, and death by coma.
Oleander. — Numerous instances are recorded of the poisoning
of stock, principally horses and cattle, by eating the leaves of
that well-known garden shrub Nerium Oleander L. Professor
MacOwan says : —
" The active principal in the leaves resembles that of Digitalis,
and re-acts directly upon the heart, stopping its action at the moment
of expansion."
A very small quantity is sufhcient to cause death. The symp-
toms exhibited by one horse twelve hours after having eaten a small
quantity were : — He appeared dull and depressed, began to breathe
heavily and his extremities became icy cold ; he suddenly dropped,
and died without a struggle.
'' Chincher-and-Ching " or " Chinkerinchee," Ornithogalum thyr-
soides Jacq. — ^This well-known and popular flowering plant grows
abundantly in moist lands and vleis over a large area of the
Western district of Cape Colony.
* Vide Cape Agricultural Journal, Vol. xix. p. 827.
Z2
356 SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
It is very liable to get mixed with the oat-hay and other fodder
which grows on such places, and when eaten by horses, along with
the forage, it causes acute gastro-intestinal irritation and inflamma-
tion, accompanied by violent purging and great nervous depression.
The animal becomes dull, stupid and insensible to outward influ-
ences, terminating in partial paralysis. A very few of the dried
flower heads are sufficient to produce fatal results in from forty^
eight to sixty hours.
Cynodomum Capense or " Klimop." — This creeper grows plenti-
fully in the Caledon and other of the South-Western districts of
Cape Colony.
" It belongs to the family of the Asclepiadeae L.V. 2, which are
all of a more or less poisonous nature." — (Professor MacOwan)
Cattle and sheep eat the plant readily when fed to them, and
manifest the symptoms of nervous disturbance in from fifteen to
thirty hours after. The losses of stock arising from eating this
plant are often serious. The farmers call the complaint " Kramp-
ziekte." The first symptom is irregular movement, the animal is
unable to stand quietly or to walk straight, but staggers like a
drunken person. As the effects increase the animal falls down
repeatedly, and on rising stands with hind legs spread out, or fore
legs crossed. It frequently strikes the air with the latter con-
vulsively. The cramps may appear first in the forelegs, or first in
the hind legs, but the whole muscular system soon becomes affected,
and the animal becomes completely paralysed.
The rapidity with which the symptoms develop, and their dura-
tion, depend upon the quantity of the plant eaten. In very severe
cases, the animal suffers from violent tetanic spasms of almost thp
whole of the voluntary muscles of the body. Sheep suffer most
severely from this form. The pulse increases to no and the breath-
ing from 120 to 150 per minute. The temperature remains normal,
although a slight rise is sometimes observed immediately before
death.- — (Henning.)
Horses do not eat the plant readily, but will do so when starved,
and the plant is cut up and mixed with bran or other food. The
first symptoms observed are those of abdominal pain, lying down
and rolling, and exhibiting some difficulty in getting up. When
standing the animal becomes restless, paws with its fore feet, and
continuously twitches the muscles of the hind quarters. In one case
observed one hind leg was trailed on the ground, and there was a
loss of co-ordination of the hind limbs generally. The eyes were fixed
and dull, and the animal appeared stupid. No faeces or urine passed,
and food and water refused during first and second days' illness.
The third day he fell down and had great difficulty in getting up.
Same symptoms continued until fourth day, when he got one
drachm of Calomel and five drachms of Aloes, and enemas of soap
and water. On the following, fifth day, the bowels were acting
freely, and the animal bright, eating freely, urinated and drank
some water ; on the sixth day he was quite recovered. — (W. Robert-
son.)
DISEASES OF STOCK. 357
Treatment. — The general treatment is to administer an active
purgative immediately, combined with repeated doses of Chloral-
hydrate or similar anodyne.
VOMEERZIEKTE OR VOMIT SiCKNESS OF ShEEP.
This peculiar disease is due to functional derangement of the
stomach or of the nervous centre which regulates the spasmodic
movements involved in the act of vomition. It is more or less
prevalent in the western and north-western Karroo districts.
Cause. — It is generally attributed by the farmers to the action
of the plant known as the " Vomeerboschje " (Geigeria passeri-
noides. This opinion has not been verified by feeding experiments.
Quantities of the plant have been fed to heep with negative
results.
The immediate cause of death, in the majority of cases, is
Broncho-pneumonia, due to a certain portion of the vomit entering
the larynx. The sheep, when vomiting and coughing, make an
effort, at the same time, to re-swallow the vomit, and some of it
enters the larynx.
The symptoms are greatly aggravated by driving the sick sheep,
or allowing it to follow the flock.
Post Mortem. — There does not appear to be sufficient local con-
gestion or inflammation of the mucous membrane of any of the
stomachs, to account for the distressing symptoms.
Treatment. — ^This consists of rest, the administration of a seda-
tive in combination with an alkali, followed by a dose of purgative
medicine.
Paralysis of the Muscles of the Cheeks and Lips of Sheep.
(Mest-bek.)
This is another peculiar affection which is met with in the same
Karroo districts. It is paralysis of certain muscles of the face and
cheeks which gives rise to a trickling of food from the mouth during
mastication and rumination, principally during the latter.
If the muscles of one side only are affected, the food dribbles
from that side. If the muscles of both sides are affected, the lips
hang and the food dribbles from the front of the mouth.
Cause. — It is evidently due to the physiological action of some
plant or plants which are eaten by the sheep at certain stages of
their growth.
No anatomical lesion has been discovered, and the sheep recover
if removed from the veld to a plot of lucerne, or fed artificially.
Melica dendroides or Dronk-Grass. — This grass is found in many
parts of the Cape Colony. Cattle eat it readily, and very soon
become giddy, semi-delirious, and lose control of the muscles of
locomotion. If they are allowed to rest the symptoms gradually
wear off. Experienced transport riders usually give the affected
animals a large dose of brandy, which is said to relieve the syrnptoms
at once. There are two or more varieties of this species which are
said to produce similar effects.
358 science ix south africa.
Geilziekte or Full-Sickness of Sheep.
This is an obscure disease which is observed oyer the whole of
South Africa, principally in sheep. It is characterised by its sudden
onset and rapid course. There is acute disturbance of the brain
and nervous system ; congestion of the venous circulation ; and a
tendency to the formation of gas in the rumen, followed by rapid
post mortem decomposition.
Cause. — Several opinions are entertained with respect to the
nature and cause of " Geilziekte," but the one most generally
accepted is, that it is due to the direct action of a chemical poison
which is produced in certain succulent plants by the action of the
scorching heat of the sun. It is held that the succulent grass which
springs up after a rain is quite wholesome, if it is eaten while it is
green and fresh, but if it gets wilted and blanched by the scorching
rays of the sun, it becomes poisonous and sheep eating it may die
within a few hours from " Geilziekte."
Post mortem Appearances. — ^These are acute distention of the
abdominal organs with gas, and a dark congested appearance of
the whole of the tissues of the body, followed by rapid decomposition.
Preventive Measures. — ^These are removal of the flock to a change
of pasture, if practicable, or dosing the whole flock with " Cooper's "
sheep dipping powder, which is a compound of arsenic. It is very
difficult to explain how this mixture acts, but it has thoroughly
established its merits as a preventive amongst the sheep farmers.
In connection with Geilziekte, it is interesting to find that the
recent researches by W. H. Dunstan and T. A. Henry, Imperial
Institute Technical Reports, 1903, Part II., page 121, show that
prussic acid is formed in " Kafir Corn " — Sorghum vulgar e — in
the early stages of its growth, but that the quantity becomes
lessened as maturity approaches, until, with the ripening of the
seed, it disappears entirely.
The authors state that : — " The symptoms of hoven " are not
unlike those of prussic acid poisoning, and it is possible that the-
varioys leguminous fodders which are known to be particularly
liable to produce these effects, may, at any rate in some cases
prove like Lotus arabicus and Sorghum vulgare to furnish prussic
acid." In support of this opinion, it is a curious fact that many
of these diseases of stock which are attributed to the eating, of
poisonous plants suddenly cease, although there is no perceptible
alteration in the vegetation, except that the plants comprising it are
arriving at a more mature condition.
Cerebro-Spinal Meningitis or " Nenta " in Goats.
This disease affects goats over a large area of the Karroo districts
of the Cape Colony. It is characterised by congestion of the
membranes of the brain and spina] cord, principally the latter,
accompanied by irritability of the motor nerves, which is greatly
increased by active movement of the muscles of locomotion.
DISEASES OF STOCK. 359
Post mortem Appearances. — These are congestion of the mem-
branes of the brain and spinal cord, accdmpanied by an effusion
of a clear serous fluid into the sub-arachnoid space — most abundant
about the base of the brain and under the medulla. In individual
cases the cerebro-spinal membranes are highly congested throughout
their whole extent, accompanied by complete paralysis.
Etiology. — It is evidently due to a certain plant or plants which
the goats eat, and feeding experiments clearly point to the Cotyledon
nentricosa Bttrm., as being one which is capable of producing aU
the symptoms and post mortefti lesions characteristic of this disease.
Other plants are, however, suspected by some.
Symptoms. — In the early stages of the disease, the goat while
at rest, or grazing leisurely, will scarcely indicate by its appearance,
that there is anything seriously amiss with it, but upon being driven,
it walks with its back slightly arched, the tail is held out straight
in an upward direction with a quivering movement. These sypm-
toms become aggravated as the goat proceeds, the head commences
to dangle, and the muscles of the body to tremble. The goat
walks with difficulty, cind gives indications- of great distress. The
muscles of the limbs become painfully cramped, and the poor animal
suddenly drops down completely exhausted. If allowed to rest
for a few minutes, it will get up again, apparently refreshed, and
will walk for another short distance, but only to repeat the same
distressing symptoms. The appetite is not seriously affected until
the animal becomes semi-comatose.
Treatment. — ^Remove affected goats from the flock at once,
place them in a cool shaded place where they can have free access
to water, and allow them complete rest. Give an active purgative
followed by i drachm doses of chloral hydrate, repeated as may be
required.
Cirrhosis of the Liver in Horses and Cattle.
Chronic inflammation and induration of the liver is very preva-
lent amongst horses which graze on the veld, more especially in
the high sour grass veld districts of the country. It is rarely met
with amongst horses that are exclusively stable-fed. It is much
more prevalent on certain farms than others, even within the same
district, and even on the same farm, it is oljserved that it is only
when the horses are permitted to graze on certain portions of it
that they contract this complaint.
This pointed to something in the veld, but its real cause remained
obscure until recently, when our attention was directed to a similar
disease amongst cattle in the Molteno district of Cape Colony.
This led to Veterinary Surgeon Chase being stationed there to
conduct an enquiry into its etiology. Just at this time our attention
was directed to the recent reports of Mr. Gilruth, Principal Veteri-
nary Surgeon to the New Zealand Government, in which is discussed
a similar disease of cattle and horses attributed by the writer to
the ingestion of " Ragwort " Senecio jacohcea. Acting upon this
information, Mr. Chase had a careful search made over the veld
360 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
of the affected farms for plants closely resembling 5. JacobcBa.
Two specimens were collected and submitted to Dr. MacOwan,
Government Botanist, for identification, and he described them
as S. Burchellii and S. Isaiidens. Mr. Chase commenced feeding
experiments with both these species at once, with the result that
he clearly showed that, by feeding a quantity of the 5. Burchellii
to cattle they died, exhibiting all the characteristic symptoms mani-
fested by those cattle which contracted the disease on the veld.
A similar result has been obtained by feeding this plant to
horses ; but in the artificially produced cases the progress of the
disease was too rapid to produce the typical cirrhotic condition of
the liver. Arrangements have since been made to test this point
by the continuous administration of small doses of the plant to
horses.
It is surprising that many horses retnain apparently healthy,
and work well long after their livers must have been in an advanced
stage of Cirrhosis. Then suddenly the characteristic symptoms
appear. The animal becomes sleepy, staggers in its walk, bores
its head against the wall or similar obstruction. This is followed
by delirium. The immediate cause of the development of these
symptoms is the indigestion and engorged condition of the stomach.
But cases of hepatic Cirrhosis in the horse invariably terminate in
this manner. " Stomach Staggers " as it is called, may, however,
arise from an engorged stomach, quite independent of hepatic
Cirrhosis.
Osteo-Malacia or Stijfziekte and Lamziekte.
This is a disease which is characterised by a gradual softening
of the bones of the skeleton, accompanied by a highly vascular
condition of the articular extremities of the bones of the limbs,
causing acute lameness, which is locally called " Stiffsickness."
In other cases there is a highly congested condition of the vertebrae,
which gives rise to an effusion of a clear serous fluid into the spinal
canal, which leads to paralysis, most frequently of the hindquarters
only ; but in acute cases the whole of the spinal canal is affected
when the paralysis is complete. This receives the local name of
" Lamziekte," meaning limpness or loss of function.
Etiology. — It is a dietetic disease, due to a deficiency of phos-
phates or bone-forming salts in the vegetation. This is clearly
indicated by the following facts : —
{a) The animals most subject to this disease are heifers
with their first calves, then cows either in an advanced
stage of pregnancy, or giving a full supply of milk, and
young growing cattle of both sexes.
(h) Cattle which graze on veld where this disease prevails,
manifest an intense craving for bones, and all kinds of
animal matter. So intense is this craving at times
that cattle have been observed to kill young lambs and
eat them ; while every vestige of the carcases of cattle
that die are greedily eaten by the survivors. And
DISEASES OF STOCK. 361
(c) The artificial supply of broken bones, or bone meal, in
sufficient quantity to the stock which graze on such veld,
acts as an effective preventive. Similar beneficial
results are obtained when the natural vegetation is sup-
plemented by a liberal allowance of any cereal crop
such as barley, oats, lucerne, etc.
Acute Paralysis and Death by Coma — Arising from Acute
Indigestion and Congestion of the Liver.
Cattle, more particularly stall-fed cows, frequently suffer from
paralysis, rapidly ending in Coma and death, unless prompt relief
is obtained. It is generally understood to be due to the absorption
of ptomaines, or similar products, which are formed in the mass of
undigested food in the stomach. The principal causes are con-
gestion of the liver, and acute indigestion.
This is clearly indicated by the success which invariably attends
the following treatment when given in time. Give Calomel in from
I to 2 drachms, depending on age and size of the animal, place
it dry on the back of the tongue and wash it down with a little water.
If the animal is already comatose, it is better to omit the water.
As soon as consciousness is restored, or about ten hours after giving
the Calomel, give a good dose of Epsom or Glauber Salts.
Cases similar to the above frequently occur in veld-fed cattle,
more especially where " Stiffsickness " and " Lamsickness " pre-
vails. It is, therefore, very probable that congestion of the liver,
giving rise to indigestion, may act as the exciting cause, and produce
a serious complication of these cases of so-called acute Lamziekte.
Mr. Bowhill has recently found a pasturella in the blood and glands
of similar cases, which he has met with in Lower Albany. The
treatment indicated is a prompt and active purgative.
SECTION VII.— ECONOMIC— (cohW.)
2. INSECT PESTS IN SOUTH AFRICA.
By Charles P. Lounsbury, B.Sc, F.E.S., Government
Entomologist, Cape Colony.
Insect pests in South Africa are neither more numerous nor
destructive than they are in other countries of warm temperate
and sub-tropical chmates. Indeed, were it possible to make com-
parisons with precision, it would probably be found that the losses
occasioned by insects, other than animal parasites, are considerably
less, relatively, in this sub-continent than in the countries of Europe
and America and the older states of Australia. But, as is perhaps
the case everywhere, there are few plants cultivated in South Africa
that are not subject to the attack of one or more destructive insects ;
and in most instances the losses which these pests would inflict may,
to a great extent, be avoided by intelligently applied preventive or
remedial measures.
Government Entomologists.
Appreciation of the fact that most insect pests may be profitably
combated has led the Governments of Cape Colony, Natal, Trans-
vaal and Orange River Colony to attach economic entomologists
to the staffs of their respective agricultural departments. These
men are charged with the study of pestiferous insects, chiefly with
the view of ascertaining the most practical means of preventing or
checking their ravages, and with the task of disseminating such
knowledge amongst those in need of it. They are known officially
as " Government Entomologists," and have their headquarters at
the seats of their respective Governments. The post of Govern-
ment Entomologist at the Cape was created in 1895, of Natal in -
1899, of the Transvaal in 1903, and of the Orange River Colony in
1904. The great area and the diversity of the climatic and other
conditions affecting farm operations in the Cape Colony, and also
the demand of orchardists of eastern districts for an entomologist
to be located in their midst led, in .1904, to the appointment of a
second Cape entomologist with headquarters at Graham's Town.
This officer is known as the " Eastern Province Entomologist," and
is responsible to the Government Entomologist at Cape Town.
Legislation to Prevent the Introduction and Dissemination
OF Insect Pests.
The South African government entomologists agree that they
can be of inestimable service to their colonies by securing the
enactment and intelligent enforcement of legislation restricting and
INSECT PESTS. 363
regulating trade in living plants and plant products, and one and
all have devoted, and are still devoting, much time and thought to
this practical phase of modern economic entomology. Commerce
has brought many serious pests, particularly such as may accom-
pany living plants and fruits, from oversea, and many of these have
spread far and wide without any serious effort having been made to
retard them. The same statement is true in regard to almost every
country ; but the conditions in South Africa, much more than in
most lands, justify drastic restrictions on plant imports and on the
internal traffic in plants as a means of checking the importation
of fresh pests and the further dissemination of those already intro-
duced, or native ones, now restricted in occurrence. The country
has sea connection only, and that through half-a-dozen ports at the
most, with the rest of the civilised world. The oversea traffic in
living plants is still small, and there is no reason why sufficient
nursery stock of all descriptions cannot be grown within one or
another of the colonies to meet every reasonable requirement. Of
indigenous forest there is only a very limited area, and the govern-
ment forest officers hope and believe that the wants of the sub-
continent for wood and timber of most kinds will, in the not distant
future, be met, chiefly from artificial plantings of introduced varieties
of forest trees. To a large extent the success of the forestry opera-
tions depends upon the exclusion of the pests and diseases that
afflict the trees in their habitats abroad ; and to a less but still great
extent the same is true of horticulture and viticulture.
The Cape has led the way in regulating the importation of plants.
The regulations now in force prohibit the introduction of all coffee,
eucalypt and coniferous plants, prohibit stone-fruit trees from cer-
tain countries, restrict the importation of grape vines to introduc-
tions by the Government, and confine the importations of all kinds
of trees, except seedling stocks of certain fruit trees, to very limited
numbers, imported for special reasons and under special authority.
As a precaution against introducing scale insects, all woody plants
on arrival are enclosed in an air-tight chamber and exposed to
hydrocyanic acid gas for an hour, fumigating facilities for this
purpose being provided at the principal ports. All plants and
fruits are inspected, and are subjected to fumigation, or mayhap
confiscation and destruction, if msects thought liable to become
pests are discovered. Somewhat similar regulations have recently
been adopted by Natal, the Transvaal, and Rhodesia, and the
Orange River Colony is expected soon to follow the example. lii
the course of a few years the different entomologists expect to have
practically uniform requirements applying to all the colonies.
Acts to regulate local and inter-Colonial traffic in nursery stock
were recently passed in Natal and the Transvaal, and regulations
affecting the plant produce of the other colonies were published
within a few months by the Rhodesian Government. Attempt
after attempt to secure nursery legislation has been inade during
the past ten years in the Cape Colony, but thus far conflicting
interests and fears of racial discrimination have rendered the efforts
364 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
futile. However, it is probable that in a few seasons all the British
colonies will have adopted measures and a uniform procedure be in
vogue relative to consignments from one colony to another. The
general idea of the entomologists is to have systematic inspections
of the nurseries by qualified entomologists, the despatch only of
stock apparently free of pests and all diseases, and, as a precaution-
ary measure, enforced fumigation of all stock shortly before ship-
ment. The comparative value of nursery legislation is expected
to prove far greater in South Africa than it would in Europe,
America, or even Australia.
Locusts.
Locusts are the most important of the indigenous insect pests
of South Africa. Every colony, British and foreign alike, and
almost every district of every colony, is subject to visitation by
migratory species. The better watered inland parts and a narrow
strip along the eastern coast are most pested ; while the south-
western districts of the Cape Colony are very rarely visited. No
swarms have reached Cape Town for about sixty years.
There are two leading species, Pachytyhts sulcicollis {capensis)
and Acridium purpuriferum. The former is closely allied to the
common old world locust (P. migratorius). and the latter to the more
destructive of the North African species (A. peregrinum). Both are
known by many popular names, such as Old, Brown, Small or
Karroo Locust for the Pachytylus, and New, Red, Large or Coast
Locust for the Acridium ; these names are all descriptive. The
Pachytylus is a frequent visitant and seldom comes to the coast,
whilst the Acridium is often absent for the space of a generation
at a time, and is particularly partial to the sea-board when it comes
to the southern colonies.
Little definite information has been recorded in regard to the
permanent breeding grounds of either species, and there is room
for much investigation to determine the factors which give rise to
the immense devastating swarms that from time to time occur.
Both species are able to live for a number of consecutive years in
all the British colonies, but their numbers do not appear to increase
to any great extent in any settled section after the first season.
For years at a time neither species is found in swarms in the lower
colonies, and they are commonly stipposed to be wholly absent.
The vast Kalihari Desert and the region northwards to and beyond
Lake N'gami are looked upon as the natural home of the insects, and
as the country in which the invading swarms are hatched. The
great clouds of the Pachytylus that enter the southern colonies
certainly come from the direction of the Kalihari, and in 1895 im-
mense swarms of the Acridium entered northern Cape Colony from
that side. From the behaviour of the latter species in the colonies,
it is probable that its permanent home is in better watered and
better wooded country than that of the former, since it is partial
to trees and fails to remain in the dry districts ; hence the invading
INSECT PESTS. 365
swarms of this species may come from beyond the desert. Swarms
were reported about Lake N'gami two or three years before any
came over the northern border of the Cape.
The Pachytylus does not appear to have been absent from the
Cape Colony since 1891. Several times it has been practically
exte.-minated in one way or another in the more settled parts, only
to become again a pest through new swarms from the northward ;
some of the new swarms may have come from the desert, but some
of the more important that came down in 1904 appear to have
originated south of the Cape boundary. The winged swarms
generally appear from late summer to winter, and the eggs left by
them hatch with the first spring rains ; it often happens, however,
that specimens in all stages of life are to be found in one locality.
No general return movement of winged swarms is known to occur.
' The Acridium has been established along a narrow strip of the
coast from about Port Alfred eastward to Delagoa Bay and in-
definitely beyond since 1893. Previous to that it had been seen
in the colonies only by ^ the oldest inhabitants. Swarms are said
to have been in Natal about 1852, and others to have invaded the
coastal districts westward to the Cape Peninsula early in the forties.
In general the swarms of this species move south and west between
November and March, and the eggs left begin to hatch early in the
year. If there is any general return movement, as is recorded of
the Algerian and Argentine allied species, it escapes observation.
Numerous small swarms are known, on the other hand, to winter
in the dense bush that here and there occurs near the coast. Late
in 1895 immense swarms entered the Cape Colony from the north-
west and north-east, and uniting in the south-east of the Colony
turned westward through the southern districts along the coast.
Vast numbers of the pest flew as far as Riversdale and a few reached
Worcester.
Throughout the central and northern parts of the Cape Colony
a belief is current that eggs of the Pachytylus locust may hatch
after having remained in the ground for a number of years. And
it is not uncommon to meet farmers who most positively assert
that "the occurrence has taken place to their personal knowledge.
The occasional appearance of swarms of newly-hatched locusts in
localities not known to have been visited by adult locusts for several
successive years is the common basis for the belief. Sometimes
the period through which the eggs have laid dormant is given as
fourteen years or longer ; and a few farmers claim to have actually
observed that vast quantities of eggs were deposited by the last
winged swarms, and that these failed to hatch in the intervening
years. Amongst the explanations that have been offered for the non-
development of the eggs is that the localities may have chanced to
escape soaking rains during the long interval, or that shifting sand
may have covered the eggs meanwhile to a depth sufficient to pro-
tect them from heat and moisture. It should be mentioned that
the idea that the eggs may retain vitality for a period of years is
not universally accepted by the farmers in the districts where the
366 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
occurrence is said to have taken place, many of the most enhghtened
ones believing it entirely erroneous. The facts, however, that
locust invasions of magnitude generally occur in good seasons
following protracted droughts; and that the swarms commonly
originate in sandy deserts which receive their scanty rains mostly
in showers of more or less local occurrence, lend plausibility to the
notion. It really seems incredible that a sufficient number of
locusts can mature during a drought to give rise to the enormous
swarms that sometimes appear on the wing a few months after good
rains fall. On the other hand, granting that the eggs may retain their
vitality through a drought, it may be imagined that the enemies
of the pest die or are compelled to leave the region during the
interval, and that the innumerable young locusts awakened to life
by copious rains are thus permitted to develop unmolested : then
that the resulting winged adults, urged by the migratory instinct
to seek afar for food, swarm out of the deserts to the settled districts.
The natural checks of the South African migratory locusts have
not as yet been comprehensively studied by anyone. A good com-
piled account of those that have been recognised is given by L.
Sander in his Die Wanderheuschrecken ; this work, published in
Berlin in 1902, deals with the locust pest in all its various phases
as regards the German South African colonies. The natural check
of greatest interest, because it has attracted world-wide attention,
is a fungus which Mr. George Massee, of the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, has named Mucor exitiosus (Kew Bulletin, 172-174, 1901).
Public attention was first directed to the destruction of locusts by
this fungus early in 1896 by Mr. A. W. Cooper, of Richmond, Natal.
He took diseased locusts to the Colonial Bacteriological Institute at
Graham's Town, and ever since cultures of the fungus with direc-
tions for the inoculation of swarms have been distributed by this
institution. There is stUl reason to doubt, however, the economic
value of the cultures. The fungus is naturally of widespread occur-
rence, and peculiar weather conditions appear essential for its rapid
development. Locusts that had succumbed to it were received by
the Cape Government from sections of the Colony hundreds of miles
apart before any artificial cultures were made.
Natal is the only colony whose government has taken energetic
steps to combat the locust pest. It has had legislation since 1895,
and as the law now stands the Government can oblige all occupiers
to destroy, or pay for the destruction of, all locusts that hatch on
their lands. During the past year or two the campaign has been
waged most vigorously. The young locusts only are fought, and
the most popular measure is to spray them and the vegetation
around them, whilst they are sleeping, with a sweetened solution of
arsenic. The Transvaal has a Cyprus trained locust officer, under
whose direction many large swarms have been destroyed by the
screen and pit system. The Cape and the Orange River Colonies
contemplate legislation, and a measure on the Natal lines would
doubtless be of great value to the coastal districts. In the sparsely
settled inland districts there would be grave difficulties in securing
INSECT PESTS. 367
effective enforcement of a compulsory destruction Act, particularly
as a section of the public in some parts is opposed to any action.
In April, 1904, the Civil Commissioner of Britstown, Cape Colony,
reported that at a meeting called to consider measures, fifty out of
the eighty farmers present supported a motion that no steps be
taken on the ground that the locusts were a visitation of the
Almighty and that if efforts were made for their destruction a worse
plague would follow. At present the Cape Government loans spray
pumps to local " locust boards," and under certain conditions pays
two-thirds of the cost of certain soaps and sheep dips purchased
for spraying.
Fruit and Vine Insect Pests.
The foremost vine pest in South Africa is the notorious Phyl-
loxera vastairix. It is confined to the south-western district of the
Cape Colony, the only portion of South Africa, however, in which
viticulture is an industry of much importance. The presence of
the insect was first discovered in 1885 at Mowbray, in the Cape
Peninsula, but there is some reason to think that it was introduced
ten or twelve years before with rooted vines from an English green-
house. It spread very rapidly soon after its discovery, despite of
strenuous efforts to check it, and at the present time it occurs in
all the important vine districts of the south-west ; few old vineyards
now remain within fifty miles of Cape Town, except in the Con-
stantia area, which only recently became generally infected. The
vine-growers, Dutch and English alike, have grappled manfully
with the problem of re-establishing their vineyards with European
vines on resistant American stocks, and it is probable that the acre-
age in vines is now practically as great as ever.
Next to Phylloxera, the most important insect pest of the grapes
vine are Otiorrhynchid beetles, known by the farmers as " calan-
ders." The principal species is Phlyctinus callosus. The systematic
trapping of this beetle in loose rolls of leaves is part of the routine
work in Constantia vineyards.
The greatest of the fruit pests is the Fruit Fly (Ceratitis capitata),
the disgusting maggots of which are often found in fruits which
outwardly look perfect ; but in respect to applies and pears, this
relatively old pest is rapidly becoming eclipsed in the south-western
and midland districts of the Cape by the Codling Moth {Carpocapsa
pomonella), the great apple worm of most civilised countries. A
second species of Fruit Fly (C. cosyra) is very injurious in Natal, as
is also in some seasons a Tortricid, allied to the Codling Moth, which
attacks citrous fruits. In the east of the Cape Colony and in Natal
fruit-sucking moths are occasionally extremely destructive. There
are a dozen or more species, the principal of which are Sphingo-
morpha chlorea and Ophiuza lienardi. The statement that these
insects puncture perfectly sound fruit is often disputed, but is sup-
ported by competent observers. Almost all kinds of fruits are
attacked, and the entire crops of large gardens are sometimes almost
completely spoiled.
368 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The Woolly Aphis (Schizoneura lanigera) is the worst pest of
the apple tree, and is the only fruit tree aphis of much importance
in commercial orchards. A black species of Myzus, however, is very
troublesome to peach trees in some up-country gardens, and another
black aphis is almost everywhere found on the young growth of
citrous trees. The cosmopolitan Red Scale of citrous trees
iChrysomphalus aurantii) has spread into most districts, even
having already become established in Rhodesia. At present it is
the worst scale pest in South Africa. The Oleander Scale {Aspidi-
ottis hederae) is widespread in all the colonies and in some parts is
very injurious. The Purple Scale (Lepidosaphes beckii) is an im-
portant citrous tree scale on the coast of Natal and in a few Cape
orchards. The White Peach Scale {Aulacaspis pentagona) has long
been common as a pest in the coastal districts of the Cape. The
notorious Aspidiotus perniciosus and Lepidosaphes ulmi are not
known to occur anywhere in South Africa ; both have been present
on plants confiscated at ports of entry under the Import Regulations.
Few kinds of caterpillars plague the South African fruit-grower.
The larva of Papilio demoleus is somewhat troublesome on young
citrous trees in all sections. The larva of Heliothis armiger
often damages young deciduous trees by eating the buds and
young growth, and it occasionally eats holes into an immense
quantity of green fruit. Altogether H. armiger is one of the. most
troublesome of all South African lepidoptera. It seems to occur as
a severe pest in all of the colonies, though not so much to fruit as
to mealies {Zea mays), peas, tomatoes and lucerne. The Pear Slug
(Eriocampoides limacina) occurs for about a hundred miles inland
from Cape Town, and where not controlled by insecticides often
defoliates pear and plum trees.
Boring insects are not numerous in fruit trees, and the only
species known to be of much importance is Cossus tristis ; this
caterpillar borer is in most of the south-western districts of the
Cape Colony and is extremely injurious to quince trees and some
varieties of apple. A species of Tetranychus, known as the Red
Spider, prevents_ extensive cultivation of the so-called Cape Goose-
berry {Physalis peruviana) in the south-western fruit districts ; and
Bryobia pratensis, another mite, does considerable damage some
seasons to pear and plum trees in a number of inland valleys.
Miscellaneous Insect Pests.
Termites or white ants of one species or another are more or less
troublesome in all of the colonies. . In the northern colonies and in
parts of Natal several species of Termes make themselves most
objectionable by their habit of tunneling the woodwork of buildings,
and also by their girdling the bark of most sorts of young trees.
The only Termite which seems of much importance in the Cape
Colony is Hodotermes havilandi, a kind which makes no hill and which
works; in daylight. It is restricted to certain classes of soil. A
variety of plants, including grains and vines, are attacked by it.
INSECT PESTS. 369
■It cuts slender parts such as leaf petioles and grass stems into short
lengths and carries these to its underground burrows. From its
method of work it is called houtkapper (wood-chopper). Arsenic
in and about the entrances to its burrows is very successfully used
for its destruction.^
The insect pests of growing grain have been little studied. The
most important, perhaps, are Sesamia fuscu, a lepidopteron that
tunnels the stalks and cobs of Zea mays, various species of cutworms,
certain aphides, several species of plant bugs (Lygaeidae), a ladybird
{Epilachna similis) and a root-feeding Scarabaeid, Heteronychus
arator. All of these are widely distributed. To some extent the
planting season is modified in a few sections to minimise the attack
of the Sesamia and cutworms, but in general control measures for
grain insects are not practised. The larva of Colias electra, a native
butterfly, is the worst lucerne pest, and to save crops premature
cutting is sometimes necessary.
The pests of stored grain are those familiar in almost all countries.
The most destructive is Calandra oryza. In the Transkei many
traders store their grain in cylindrical tanks of galvanised iron as a
means of averting injury by granary insects. The tanks are kept
practically airtight and the contents quite dry, and when these
conditions are fulfilled the grain is said to remain sound indefinitely ;
a lighted candle is sometimes placed in the tank before the cover is
fastened down with the idea of exhausting the air. The Mediter-
ranean Flour Moth [Ephestia kuhniella) has been in the Cape Colony
for upwards of fifteen years.
The worst potato insect pest is Gelechia operculella ( Lita sola-
nella). It occurs in all the colonies, including Rhodesia. The
nematode Hderodera radicicola is also frequently reported to have
damaged tubers and is widely distributed. Epilachna dregei has
been said to give considerable trouble in Rhodesia. Crucifers
seem to be more molested by insects than vegetables of other kinds.
Plutella cruciferanim. Aphis brassicae, and several species of flea
beetles are all destructive ; but the insect most complained of is a
small Pentatomid {Bagrada hilaris), which at irregular intervals
abounds in all the colonies, and after a few seasons of remarkable
abundance disappears as suddenly as it came. The Transvaal
Government Entomologist has proposed to introduce a parasite
that affects an allied plant bug in America. Several species of
Mylabrid beetles are a great nuisance in gardens, particularly in
inland districts. Cucurbs suffer severely in some parts from a
phytophagous ladybird {Epilachna chrysomelina), and a large
Pentatomid {Aspongopus viduatus). Whole crops of the fruits are
sometimes destroyed by Trypetid flies distinct from the species
found in the tree fruits ; the maggots work in the pulp and cause
decay.
One of the worst pests to indigenous forage plants is Loxostege
frustalis, a Pyralid which dcfohates the Karroo bush {Pcntzia
virgata) from time to time over an immense area. The native
Thorn Tree {Acacia horrida) bears a wonderful variety of insect life,
AA
370 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
many forms of which spread to introduced plants and trees.
Amongst such insects is A ntheraea tyrrhea, a large Saturniid, the
black-and-white caterpillar of which frequently does serious injury
to wattle (Acacia decurrens) plantations in the east of the Cape
Colony, and which is often a subject of complaint because of its
-defoliating various kinds of trees in the south-western districts.
A Psychid bag-worm, which the Natal Entomologist gives as
Animida sp., is another Thorn Tree insect which sometimes afflicts
wattles severely. Plantations of pines, both east and west in the
Cape Colony, occasionally suffer partial defoliation by the large and
handsome caterpillar of AntHeraea cytherea. One of the most recent
plantation pests is Phylloxera corticalis, a European bark louse of
the oak which within a few years has become established in oak
plantations in the south and east of the Cape Colony and in the
south of the Transvaal ; so serious were the injuries it inflicted
two years ago that Cape forest officers questioned the advisability
of extending their plantings of oak.
An insect pest of quite another sort is Sitodrepa fanicea. This
tiny beetle and its larva have caused much loss to dealers in boots
and shoes in the towns near the coast, and have riddled the bindings
of great numbers of stored volumes of official records. The paste
employed in the manufacture of the boots and in the attachment
of book bindings is the attraction for the insect. As a rule importers
now require that any paste used in the preparation of leather goods
for them be effectively poisoned ; and on the recommendation of
the writer the paste used by the Government bookbinder is poisoned
with zinc chloride.
Beneficial Insects.
An important feature of recent economic entomology in several
countries has been the introduction of parasites and predaceous
insects to check insect pests. The fact is now generally recognised
that many of the most injurious insects are introductions which
chance to have become separated from natural checks that in the
country of their origin sufficed to prevent their undue multiplica-
tion ; and there have been a few highly successful instances of the
suppression of pests by the restoration of a natural enemy. South
Africa shared in the benefits of the discovery of the ladybird check
on the so-called Dorthesia (Icerya purchasi). The Dorthesia was
observed in Cape Town in 1873, and is thought to have come on
plants from Australia. It thrived wonderfully well, and within
five years was a severe garden pest throughout the town and
suburbs. By 1885 it occurred almost all over the Colony. A wide
variety of plants was infested; orange and other citrous trees,
and the blackwood {Acacia melanoxylon) throughout the south-
western districts were so severely injured that they were exit down
on nearly every estate. Meanwliile. the pest had made its appear-
ance in California, and was causing immense losses amongst orange
growers. Then in 1888 American entomologists were sent to
INSECT PESTS. 37I
Australia to search for natural checks. The Vedalia (Novius
cardinalis) was soon discovered, and when introduced into California
this tiny creature increased with amazing rapidity at the expense
of the pest, and within two years completely suppressed it. At-
tempts to introduce the Vedalia to South Africa by mail failed, and
late in 1891 a special commissioner was sent to California by the
Cape Government to procure it. This man succeeded, and the pest
was as speedily suppressed in South Africa as in California. Both
the ladybird and its prey are now to be found throughout the
colonies, but so scarce have they become that they are seldom
observed when not specially searched for.
Stimulated by the magnificent result of the introduction of the
Vedalia, the Cape Government has made many attempts to intro-
duce and establish other exotic ladybirds in the hope of securing
some relief from several destructive scale insects and aphides.
Many species have been introduced from Australia and the United
States, and have been liberated in large numbers under circum-
stances apparently favourable for their welfare ; but only two
species, Orcus australasiae and Cryptolaenms montrouzieri, are known
to have survived their first winter. The Orcus, introduced in i8g6,
was found in small numbers for three years and then is thought to
have completely disappeared. The Cryptolaenms, introduced in
1900, has failed to become established in the western part of the
Colony, but is thought to be slowly multiplying at King William's
Town ; it feeds on mealy bugs [Dactylopius) and their close allies.
The most notable failure was with Hippodamia convergens, which
was introduced from California in the hope of its proving of value
against the Woolly Aphis of apples trees. Hundreds of thousands
of this ladybird were liberated, but, though there was no scarcity of
food for it, the species failed to establish itself, and disappeared
entirely after one generation.
When this work goes to press, the Natal Government Ento-
mologist and the writer will have proceeded to Brazil to secure
parasites of the Fruit Fly (Ceratitis capitata), found to exist in that
■country some months ago by an American entomologist employed
by the West Australian Government. The expenses will be borne
by the Cape, Natal and Orange River Colony Governments. If
the insects desired are successfully established, and prove as effi-
oient as the West Australian Entomologist claims them to be in
Brazil, South Africa will soon be relieved of its worst fruit pest.
The Cape has offset its obhgation to California for the Vedalia
•by supplying to that State the Chalcid wasp {Scutellista cyanea).
This tiny parasite was found by the writer to be the principal of
several species which suffice to keep the Black Scale [Saissetia oleae)
so well suppressed in South Africa that it nowhere in the country
iigures as a pest. In Cahfornia the same scale was, before the
advent of the parasite, the worst orchard scale pest ; now it is being
rapidly suppressed, and, next to the Vedalia, the Scutellista is
regarded as the most important insect check introduced into the
State.
AA 2
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374 SCIENCE IN SOUTH ATRICA.
The Bont Tick {Amblyomnia hehraeum), long suspected by a few
farmers to be associated with the serious disease of sheep known
as heartwater, was demonstrated in 1900 to commimicate this
disease to susceptible animals in the nymph or adult stage of its
existence if in a previous stage it had fed on diseased animals.
More recent experiments have shown that the infection may be
communicated from goats, sheep, or cattle to goats, sheep, or cattle
indifferently. Infection from a given source may be transmitted
within a month, or, through the failure of the tick to secure a host
meanwhile, may not be communicated for upwards of six months.
If the tick is not subjected to a considerable degree of warmth
during its metamorphosis or whilst it is later awaiting a host it fails
to prove pathogenic.
Malignant jaundice or Piroplasmosis of the dog was discovered
in igoi to be communicated by Haemaphysalis leachi, the common
dog tick in South Africa. In the case of this disease, it was found
that the infection was taken up from sick or recovered dogs by the
adult tick of one generation and communicated to susceptible dogs-
by the adult of the following generation.
African coast fever, the latest cattle scourge of South Africa,
was determined in 1902 to be communicated by Rhipicephalus
appendiculatus, a rather common tick which leaves the host for
both its moults. Recent experiments have shown that the infection
is taken up by one stage and communicated by a later stage in the
same life cycle. The Transvaal Bacteriologist, Dr. A. Theiler, has
by a single case of the disease shown that R. simus may also serve
as the carrier of the infection. The details of the experiment, with
the details of numerous tests which affirm that the first mentioned
species is pathogenic, are given in the Transvaal Agricultural
Journal for October, 1904.
At the present time the problem of tick suppression is receiving ■
much attention in most sections of the British colonies where ticks
are a pest and where the diseases they communicate are known or
dreaded. The leading remedial measure coming into vogue is the
dipping of the large stock on the farms in a liquid containing
arsenic in solution ; this results in the death of most of the ticks
within a few days. Long, deep tanks of cement or faced with
cement are used to contain the poison, and very little. difficulty is
experienced in making cattle and horses enter them. It is found
safe to dip range cattle once a fortnight in a preparation containing
three-tenths per cent, of arsenic, and few ticks are able to mature
on animals thus treated. The veterinary departments of the
various colonies are doing much to encourage the movement ; and
during the past year the Governments of the Cape Colony and Natal
have expended some thousands of pounds sterling in contributions
to bodies of farmers towards the cost of dipping tanks. It is quite
probable that millions of pounds sterling will be added during the
next decade to the farming value of land in South Africa simply
through the improvements effected, or seen to be practicable, by
systematically dipping cattle to destroy ticks.
SECTION VII.— ECONOMIC— (co»/rf.)
3, AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS AT THE CAPE OF
GOOD HOPE
By Eric A. Nobbs, Ph.D., B.Sc, F.H.A.S ,
Agricultural Assistant to the Government of Cape Colony.
The Cape ot Good Hope, as all who come to it soon discover, is,
Ijefore all things, an agricultural country. And Agriculture, the
first of the Arts, is the last of the Sciences to have received the
honour of recognition as a separate section of the British Association.
The hope may, perhaps, then be expressed that in favouring the
Cape with a visit that august body will pay special attention to
our leading industry and to its own most recent branch. It is not
intended in what follows to attempt an exposition of colonial agri-
culture, but it is hoped that, by bringing to the notice of scientists
from beyond the seas some of the difficulties under which we' labour
here, they may be willing out of their wider knowledge to help us to
the solution of some of our problems. The more specialised
enquiries of purely scientific interest or with only indirect bearing
upon agricultural practice are, as yet, quite beyond the range of
our consideration. Our pressing need is still the pioneer work ot
studying strange conditions, of finding new and profitable uses for
our energies and our land.
In spite of its oft-times forbidding aspect the agricultural
prospects of Cape Colony are bright, and the future is one of promise.
In the face of all possible ills, war, pestilence drought, flood, rust,
locusts and a depressed phase of commerce, the country at present
supports in comfort a contented people, whose chief demands are
for such meritorious objects as new roads and railways, for irriga-
tion works, and generally for facilities to enable them to grow more
produce and to secure an outlet for it. Above all, there is an
urgent need, fully realised, for more enlightenment in regard to the
application of the discoveries of science to agricultural practice
which, it is seen, has done so much for other countries, enabling
them even to compete with us at an advantage in our own land.
Agriculture is by nature in close touch with many other branches
of science, and seeks to benefit from each. Its aims are many, but
underlying all is the one great problem — that of furnishing to the
people the necessaries of life. Compared to the study of the pure
sciences or the fine arts, its intentions may be low and humble ; it
is, however, none the less vital to humanity.
The conditions of soil and climate to which the stranger is
376 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA. [
introduced on arrival at the Cape are remarkable for their
extraordinary contradictions — the tantalising inconsistency which
at first sight perplexes and confuses, and is apt to give an altogether
false idea of the country and its capabilities. First impressions
are proverbially difficult to eradicate, and it must at the outset be
admitted that in fertility of soil and extent of land capable of yield-
ing crops the Cape of Good Hope cannot pretend to rival other
more favoured parts of the British Empire. Yet the Colony has
possibilities all its own, and offers a fair field for profitable agri-
cultural enterprise to those who will study her resources and adapt
themselves to her requirements.
It is an old observation that at the Cape all those factors which
combined are known as the natural conditions of a country, are
usually found in favourable combination save some one essential, and
that through such omission wide tracts of otherwise productive
land are rendered sterile and of insignificant value. So far, this is
unfortunately true ; the Karroo lacks only rain, while the soils of
our well-watered south coast are sour and deficient in the chemical
elements of fertility. While this must be regretfully admitted, it
may here be remarked that these are drawbacks which can to a
certain extent be combatted by man's industry, and that already
much has been done in this direction ; astonishing supplies of
water have been found in arid regions, while artificial manures are
proving what even poor soils can be made to produce when other-
wise suitable for cultivation. The barren and uncultivated appear-
ance of our country is more apparent than real, and the Colony
should not be condemned, as it so often is, after a mere superficial
glance at certain of the least favoured portions. Indeed, it may be
said without fear, of contradiction, that, as compared with more
advanced colonies, while the Cape offers greater difficulties to the
immigrant at the outset, yet the rewards to be gained by intelligent
application and skill are also larger : that whUe the initial hard-
ships to be overcome and the risks are great, the number of those
who attain to comparative wealth through farming is also more
considerable than elsewhere.
A feature particularly noticed by the casual visitor is our water-
less rivers, and many jibes are thrown at the country on that ac-
count It is, indeed, a regrettable characteristic, and one that has
given food for thought to many. Dry water courses will probably
ever be found in our wide plains of the north and west, which are
only occasionally blessed with rain, though then in torrential form.
But transient critics seldom penetrate to where our perennial
streams, taking their rise amongst the mountains, flow down
through fern-carpetted forests to fertile kloofs, in which the waters
are made use of for the growth of all manner of crops and fruits.
Xor do those strangers know our rich alluvial islands fringed with
willow, and covered by a dense and matted jungle, periodically
enriched by the red mud from distant plains. These islands,
under cultivation, produce crops such as no other soil or country
can surpass, and but few can match.
AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS. 377
It is another curious irony that much of our finest grazing veld is
ruined by the presence of the germs of certain well-known stock
diseases, but there is consolation in the remembrance that some of our
most successful achievements in the past, as well as the burning
•questions of to-day, are connected with the prevention and cure of
these ailments. Apart from the deeply interesting veterinary aspects
-of this question, the effect that this menace to all live stock exerts upon
the methods of farming makes it a vital question to the agricultural
industry. Lack of manure prevents the cultivation of many crops
which would otherwise be remunerative. The discovery of preven-
tive measures or specific remedies will at once give opportunities
which will revolutionise the farming methods of wide districts, and
materially enhance the productive capacity of the Colony.
Another unfortunate anomaly is that much of our most pro-
ductive land, lies so remote and inaccessible that its natural advan-
tages are more than counteracted by the cost of production and
transport. Our trunk lines to the north pass consistently through
our least fertile areas, and only now is a network being developed
to tap the agricultural portions of the Colony. Our mountain
chains are full of valleys of most marvellous richness ; soils of super-
lative quality, but of very restricted extent, are to be found in some
of the most remote corners of the back-veld ; in our semi-desert of
the north west there are wheat lands of the greatest fertility, but
scantily cultivated on account of the thin population surrounding
them ; in the Transkei there are to be found regions full of the
greatest possibilities, only awaiting an outlet or the establishment
of markets in their own vicinity. In due time, possibly quite soon,
the economic situation may change.
In the immediate neighbourhood of our larger towns, especially
the coast ports and Kimberley, are some of our least fertile soils,
but the artificial advantages of situation more than compensate
them for such deficiencies, and very profitable farming is followed
in these areas.
Given, as is the case at the Cape, a number of rivers draining a
large inland plain, the soil of which is characteristically rich, one
would expect to find along their banks large tracts of sedimentary
deposits admirably adapted for irrigation, with rich alluvial deltas
at the mouths. Such is not, however, our good fortune at the Cape.
Geologists explain that the rivers of the south coast have cut their
way across the series of synclines and anticlines that form the
crumpled edge of the continent, forming gorges and ravines.
Only in a few exceptional cases — as in the Breede River, the Gam-
toos and the Sundays River Valleys— do our rivers get an oppor-
tunity of spreading out and depositing their silt before falling into
the sea. But these exceptional cases have given us some of the best
lands we have, and they are of wonderful fertility.
In the Karroo, which occupies one quarter to one third of the
total area of the Colony, fields or gardens, though rare, yield
phenomenal crops as far as the limited water supply will let them,
proving the great potentialities of these regions, if the existing
J78 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
subterranean waters can be successfully tapped. By the irony of
fate, in many instances where underground water has been found,
particularly in certain formations, it has proved valueless, quite
brack and occasionally poisonous.
One of the first facts which must strike the traveller passing
through the Cape Colony is that by far the greater part of the
country is essentially pastoral, and that though altered from its
pristine condition by burning and grazing, it must of necessity always
remain chiefly a stock country. Perhaps it is not altogether a
misfortune, at least, for the next few generations that this is so,,
since it renders more valuable the land that can come under the
plough. It is not as in England, where for miles the arable lands
continue in unbroken succession of fenced-in fields and meadows.
Even in our more highly-cultivated grain-growing districts, the
" lands " — that is, the cultivated fields — only occupy a fraction
of the whole farm, and the impression given is that of patches of
cultivation surrounded by leagues of unfilled land. Under irriga-
tion the scene is somewhat different, the more valuable crops grown
and the limited extent of such favoured areas have led to continuous
cultivation and a most highly intensive system of agriculture.
A specially-marked feature of the Cape Colony is that it has been
divided by natural agencies' into a number of distinct areas, each
uniform throughout its extent, but very clearly differentiated from
adjoining districts. The methods in vogue vary little throughout
any particular zone, and we have regions almost exclusively devoted
to one special branch of farming, or noted for one particular product,
such as grain, fruit and vines, pineapples, ostriches, angora goats
or merino sheep. The boundaries, too, of these areas are frequently
quite sharply defined. The conformation of the country, the suc-
cessive sudden changes of altitude, the clearly-defined range of
winter and summer rainfall, and other climatic influences, account
sufficiently for this phenomenon. It is this fact that renders it
unwise to attempt any generalisation with regard to agriculture at
the Cape, and which has brought so much contumely upon those
who attempt to make sweeping assertions on the subject.
Over and above the natural conditions influencing agriculture
at the Cape, a number of economic factors are at work, to which-
attention must for a moment be drawn. The population of the.
Colony is but limited, the local demand restricted, and still suffering,
from the commercial disorganisation consequent on the war.
Cultivation of every kind, except in a few favoured areas, was at a
standstill for three years, while the requisites for production, the
labour, draught animals, wagons, and so on, were otherwise em-
ployed. During those years, and the subsequent seasons of drought
foreign trade has obtained a secure footing and become so highly
developed and so firmly established that now our own products com-
pete at a disadvantage with those from oversea. Surplus military
and naval stores, disposed of at nominal prices after the close of the
war, further materially assisted in paralysing local efforts at pro-
duction. This artificial and abnormal state of affairs is not in the
AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS. 379
interests of the community at the Cape, of which by far the major
portion is dependent upon the agricultural prosperity of the country.
The products of our land are required p>rimarily for the Im-
mediate use of the rural population, including the consumption
of the villages, next for the larger centres, the ports, the Rand
and Kimberley, and finally for export. Farm consumption is
placed first, since to this day the ideal of a very large number of
our farmers is to supply their own needs, only producing for market
sufficient to enable them to purchase such necessaries as cannot be
grown at home. The nearest dorp usually takes dairy produce,
fruit and vegetables, but one wagon-load of produce is apt to glut
these limited markets. The great consuming centres are our
larger towns where Cape produce meets the competition of Europe,
Australia and the Argentine. The reliable quality and steady
supply of the latter products have completely captured the markets
and " colonial grown " does not to-day stand, as it readily might
do, for the acme of perfection, but rather the reverse.
At the ports colonial produce carried overland is in competition
with sea-brought foodstuffs. When taken up-country both are
heavily burdened by railway rates. Colonial-grown supplies have
certain advantages granted over the foreign article, but in practice
not sufficient to enable them to compete against the better organi-
sation of the import trade. This is particularly disconcerting in
view of the fact that it is to a great extent the same sort of produce
which we can ourselves grow — mealies, lucerne, forage, flour, beans,
jams, raisins, dried fruits, eggs, poultry and fresh meat. It will
be one of the great tasks of the next few years to win back for the
Cape her proper place in her own markets. The export trade
offers great scope for profitable development. Much has already
been done, and our trade in wool, mohair, feathers and fruit is known
the world over. Fruit exportation is the youngest ; but is a rapidly-
growing business, and is capable of very great development.
The conditions of labour in the Colony have had a very material
effect upon the present state of agriculture. Practically all the
unskilled and much artisan labour is supplied by natives, who
provide also for the mines, and during the war worked for the Army.
Although plentiful, the demand for labour was for some years so
great, and the natural inclination for work so small that wages rose
to a figure altogether prohibitive for agriculture, and the farmer
suffered accordingly. Happily now matters are returning to their
normal condition, and agricultural labour is again fairly plentiful.
At different times in our history efforts have been made to
introduce a class of white agricultural labourers, but all attempts
have failed or ended disastrously, and it is unlikely that such efforts
can ever succeed, as we are not in a position to offer the same
inducements to this class of settlers that other new countries are
able to do.
The tenure of land has certain features of special interest. The
desire to own large farms amounts to a passion, to possess the land
as far as one can see in every direction, and if possible to build a
380 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
home out of sight of any other human habitation ; these are
sentiments frequently encountered. The landlord leasing portions
of his property is uncommon, although signs are not wanting of
such arrangements coming into vogue in the more advanced and
highly-cultivated districts, and it is a system altogether to be
welcomed. Tenants (" bijwoners ") working on the share system
are, however, often met with, the owners usually furnishing, be-
sides land, draught animals, implements, seed and manure, the
tenant giving only the labour.
Some farms are in the hands of families, all being joint heirs
and owning a portion. Such undivided farms are seldom well run,
and the complications, especially where water rights exist and irri-
gation is practised, are confusing in the extreme and apt to lead
to much friction and trouble.
As a rule it may be said that of the total amount invested by
our farmers, an undue proportion takes the form of land, with a
corresponding deficiency of buildings, implements, machinery and
livestock. Thi'i distribution of capital prevents the fullest use
being made of the soil, whether on pastoral or arable farms. The
drawback is, however, fast disappearing, and at the present time
there is a marked tendency to increase the other forms of capital
by the investment of profits on the land in the shape of dams and
irrigation works, fences and other permanent improvements. The
number of stock in this country is also rapidly recovering from the
devastations of rinderpest and the war. In this way the balance
is being approached, and is hastened by the return of land values
to a more normal level, after a period of undue inflation following
on the war.
Having now briefly discussed certain of the natural and social
conditions affecting the agricultural situation at the Cape, let us
turn tp some of the difficulties which the Cape farmer has to combat
to-day. It is his daily work to face them, and it is in overcoming
them that success is to be achieved and wealth attained.
These problems, like the conditions of which they are the outcome,
may be grouped in two classes — those due to natural phenomena,
which are in their origin practical or rather technical, and those
arising from social or economic causes, and which tend to raise
political issues.
The soils of the Cape Colony, like those of any country of such
great size, are not of constant character, and within its boundaries
all manner of soil is to be met with. A striking peculiarity of this
country, already alluded to, is the well-defined zones into which it
can be divided. The loess-like red and grey loams of the Karroo,
the red sands of Kimberley, the pale gravelly clays of the south-
west, and the humus sands of the south coast, are all well known
and widely distributed types of soil. There are many other equally
distinct sorts. In the past as occasion served, samples of soil have
been examined by the Analytical Department, and all analyses
have been carefully recorded. The data so collected are neces-
sarily incomplete and irregular, but will serve as a nucleus round
AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS. j8l
which to build up a systematic survey of the soils of the Colony.
This is a pressing need as the information so acquired would serve
as the starting point for many other enquiries and researches on
behalf of the farmers. At the present time it cannot be said that
much is being done towards this end, nor is there any likelihood
of such investigations being initiated at the' present time ; the
need, however, remains. The figures hitherto obtained point to a
very general deficiency of lime. There are, however, wide areas
well supplied, indeed too rich in this element. Very frequently the
analyses indicate what in other countries would be taken to imply
poor soil deficient in the essential plant foods, yet the yield of crops
belies this description. This matter has not yet been studied, but
it would seem as if, in our warm and genial climate, vegetative
energy and chemical and fermentative i)rocesses were more active
than under European conditions. Whether this accounts for the
fact or not ,yet there is no doubt that good returns are consistently
obtained from lands, the analyses of which, judged by European
standards, promise but light crops.
Alkali soils such as occur in most arid and semi- arid climates are
commonly met, with at the Cape, particularly on ill-drained spots
and on irrigated lands, due to seepage and to excess of water or lack
of drainage. Economy in water, that is its use in irrigation to the
best advantage, has still to be learnt, extravagance and waste of
the precious commodity is only too frequently seen on land so fortu-
nate as to be irrigable.
A peculiar feature of many portions of the Colony, especially in
the south-west, is a spotted appearance of the land, with a more
luxuriant growth of crop or natural herbage corresponding to these
richer and often slightly raised patches each a few- yards in diameter.
Sometimes they are close together, while again they may be found
only every few hundred yards. Invariably the soil is deeper and
richer on these " heuveltjes " than elsewhere, and the crops heavier
but unevenly ripened. To this extent they are a disadvantage,
and the soil surrounding the " heuveltje " appears to be poor
inversely as the mound is rich. They are worthy of examination
by those interested in the study of soils, as their origin is still a
matter of doubt, though a partial explanation may be ventured
that they are striking examples of cumulative fertility, though the
primitive cause seems somewhat obscure.
With so much spare land on every farm, there are always ample
facilities for practising a bare fallow system whereby after two or
three successive grain crops the land is left a few years to recuperate.
In the corn-growing areas the use of stable manure has long been
necessary and artificial fertilisers are now very generally employed.
The demand for concentrated manures is growing, if slowly, and is
extending to inland districts and to the Eastern Province. But for
recent droughts the growth of trade in these commodities would
probably have been larger than it is to-day.
The Cape farmer is singularly fortunate in that a benignant
Government, which fortunately owned a number of rocky, islands
y
82 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
along the coast, has determined that it is more ad\'isable to dispose
of the annual deposits of bird guano at a low profit to its own
people than to seU it to greater direct pecuniary advantage in
Europe. Besides furnishing him with a cheap and excellent
manure this broad-minded policy has familiarised the Cape farmer
with the use of concentrated fertilisers, and at the same time has
doubtless tended to lower the price of the artificial commodities
which have to compete against the Government product. Naturally
farmers living near the port of entry. Cape Town, are able to obtain
their guano at a less cost than those living far inland, especially
those remote from the railway, but then the back-veld fanner is at
a similar disadvantage for aU his articles of consumption, and land
itself is cheaper, a compensation for its remoteness.
Artificial fertilisers are now largely dealt in, though as yet we
are but at the threshold of our experience of them, and we have
still much to learn as regards their best modes of use. One fact is
certain, that here only a quarter to a third of the amounts applied
in England need be sown, a curious feature corresponding with
what we also know of the fertility of soils of apparently deficient
composition, and due perhaps to the same causes.
Amongst other manurial experiments the possibility of soil in-
oculation for leguminous crops, which has aroused so much interest
in other countries, is also being tested at several centres in the
Colony.
In view of the growing importance of the trade in artificial
fertilisers there is a widespread opinion that both for the protection
of the farmer and in the interest of honest dealers a system of con-
trol of the chemical composition of such manures, similar to that
exercised in other countries, is urgently required. This implies
legislation, and a bill with that object in view has just been
published, and wiU probably be introduced next session.
During the last two seasons a' beginning has been made in the
direction of carrying on manurial experiments with a view to
ascertaining what fertilisers are especially adapted to different
districts, and in what manner and quantity they should be applied.
It is also hoped in this way to stimulate an interest in the use of
artificial manures and to encourage farmers to study the subjeet
for themselves, and ascertain what is best for them to use. The
experiments are conducted through the Department of Agriculture.
Without entering into tedious details, it may here be stated that
encouraging results have been obtained, but that facilities are
lacking for prosecuting the work on the scale which its importance
warrants, and which would by multiplying results enable definite
and rehable rules to be laid down for the guidance of farmers and
those who import artificial fertilisers. Drought in the Eastern
Province has in the past seriously militated against these trials
in portions of the Colony which are only now awakening to their
needs in this direction.
Except on the guano islands, no natural deposits of fertilising
material are known in the Colony, unless limestone and gypsum.
f AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS. 383
which are not yet so utilised here, may be reckoned as such. At-
tempts made at one time to start artificial manure works came to
nothing, though to-day in the Eastern Province there are two mills
turning out crushed bones, mainly for feeding, but also for manurial
purposes. In the pastoral districts, owing to the ancient custom
still adhered to, of bringing the cattle and sheep into the kraal
•every night, enorm.ous heaps of manure have accumulated. How-
■ever undesirable the practice may be, it must continue until the
jackal is exterminated or got under control. Meantime the wealth
of the farm is concentrated in one useless spot. Facilities for the
■sale of this " kraal manure " exist in the form of specially low
•charges for carriage by rail from the Karroo to the grain and fruit
areas, but this only affects up-country farmers within immediate
reach of the trunk lines.
The veld is of many kinds, and is described either according to
the characteristic of the herbage or to its uses. The first great
sub-division is into grass-veld and bush-veld, the former being
characteristic of the regions under the influence of the wet summer
monsoon, the latter covering the parts under winter rains, but
extending along all coast lands, over many mountain ranges, and
usually, even in the Eastern Province, occupying the kloofs and
valleys. The Karroo plain is peculiar, for while what rain it
gets falls chiefly in summer, yet it is essentially covered with bush,
grasses only appearing for a short time after rain and on the
mountains.
The term " bush " includes a great variety of plants, the short
■shrubs of the Karroo, the knee-high " boschjes " of the Western
Province, the dwarf-trees of the mimosa type, the dense scrub of
■our coasts, and the majestic timber trees of the natural forest.
Grasses, too, vary, though not to the same extent, and combina-
tions known as mixed veld are not uncommon.
Again, the veld is characterised as " groot-vee veld " and
" klein-vee veld," accordingly as it is suited for cattle and horses
or for small stock, while every class and breed of domestic animals
has veld especially adapted to its use.
The two phrases " sweet " and " sour," as applied to our natural
pasture land, have no connection with the usual English acceptation
of the words. " Sweet " implies rich land producing nutritious
food whether natural or cultivated. In some localities' both classes
•occur in patches, such country being described as " broken " veld,
while elsewhere the veld over large areas is of distinctive degrees of
sourness or sweetness. The modifications depend chiefly upon the
■composition rather than on the physical nature of the soil, the
sub-soil and underlying rocks, but is also due in a large measure to
natural drainage. Absence of lime is characteristic of " sour "
veld, probably not only on account of the neutralisation of acid
where lime is present but rather because lime soils are usually well
drained, and well supplied with other plant food. Lime is an
essential plant food, very generally lacking in Cape soils ; wherever
it does occur marked fertility— and " sweet " veld— results. Excess
384 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
of humus does not explain " sour " veld, for, while in some sour-
veld districts, like the Knysna, organic matter is abundant, yet on
the whole "sour" soils are lamentably deficient in this respect.
The application of the terms " sweet " and " sour " is then some-
what unfortunate, but once comprehended should give no further
difficulty.
Sour veld gives good grazing during certain months of the year,
but when old it becomes harsh, dry and fibrous towards the end of
the summer months, and is then of little or no value. For this reason,
and to promote an early growth of young and succulent grass, the
very general practice of burning such veld during the dry season
has arisen. The propriety of so doing is one of the great questions
of the day. Many insist that in order to get grazing for certain
seasons, veld burning is a necessity, and that this is the only way of
removing the old growth, which by sheltering the young vegetation
would prevent cattle and sheep from getting at it until it was itself
old and woody. The practice enjoys the popularity which attaches
to old customs. While in a sparsely-stocked country this mode of
getting rid of rank growth and hastening the new vegetation is.
perhaps unavoidable, there can, on the other hand, be no doubt
that the practice is a very detrimental one. Not only is the already
scanty supply of organic matter lost to the soil, but the ash con-
stituents are removed by the wind, and the bare surface of the soil
is exposed to erosion by rain, and the baking influences of sun and
wind, harmfully influencing its physical properties. Furthermore,
burning materially alters the character of the veld. The more
valuable feed appears also to be that most easily killed. No
doubt the pasturage is improved the first year, the second season
a marked deterioration takes place and burnt veld becomes more
sour than ever. Burning sweet veld is a much less objectionable-
practice.
The only alternative is heavier stocking coupled with resting
of the veld at certain seasons to allow the more valuable classes of
herbage to increase. In this direction much yet remains to be
learnt as to the duration of such periods of rest, and the best
means of encouraging good natural herbage. A great advance in
this direction is the sub-division of farms into camps and paddocks,,
thus limiting the stock to certain parts at certain seasons. Of late
years much has been done in this way and the practice is on the
increase. A great difficulty arises from fires spreading across
neighbours' lands, especially as in many districts it is considered
that veld once burnt must bd continuously burnt, and so the burn-
ing extends, and farmers are at the mercy of those round them.
The question of veld-burning is indeed a vexed one, which will
continue to disturb us for a long time to come, but the feeling
against it is certainly growing.
A question closely connected with the veld is that of vermin.
This term includes several kinds of jackal, lynx, leopard (" tiger ")
wild cats, and lesser beasts of prey. For years the Government has
attempted to exterminate them by offering rewards for tails, but
AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS. 385
the plague continues unchecked. It is on this account that the
almost universal custom of confining stock to the kraal at night
has arisen. Every morning the flock must sally forth to the grazing
land, returning again at dusk, spending therefore much time
in travelling to and fro, which were better employed in
laying on flesh or resting. At night the sheep or goats stand on the
accumulated manure of years, closely confined without the possi-
bility of feeding, and in an ideal condition to contract any con-
tagious disease which may break out As mentioned above, when
dealing with the question of manure, all the dung is concentrated
near the homestead in quantities which render its distribution over
the land again quite impossible. Moreover by the continuous
grazing which necessarily takes place no part of the veld is ever
rested. Flowers are eaten off and possible seed destroyed ; young
plants are nibbled down or tramped out, and bushes are gnawed,
especially by goats. In this manner the veld is becoming posi-
tively worn out over wide extents of country, and several years of
drought have brought matters to a very acute stage. This reckless
depasturing while very reprehensible was hardly to be avoided on
account of the events and circumstances of the last few years.
The best remedy yet devised is the construction of jackal-proof
wire fences round whole farms or groups of farms, within whose
shelter stock can graze at will, undriven by the shepherd and allowed
full freedom day and night. Further, sub-division of the farms
into camps with ordinary fencing gives the opportunity of resting
the land, and allows the sheep to have that change of pasture which
is so necessary for them. The system. is still in its infancy, but
there can be no doubt that in this way lies the redemption of our
veld.
The destruction of herbage has led to other serious consequences.
Owing to the absence of a natural covering, and the loss of humus
in the soil, the rain not only fails to be absorbed by the sunbaked,
hard-caked surface of bare ground, and so to be preserved for future
use, but it rapidly collects into, streams and torrents, which in an
astonishingly brief space of time carve out deep gullies in the
hitherto unbroken veld, and remove from wide areas the best of
the surface soil. The paths worn by stock under the prevailing
system of pasturing has materially facilitated this process of erosion,
until at the present time the problem has become one of the greatest
seriousness and urgency, demanding vigorous and immediate steps
for the remedy of this growing peril. That it is within the power of
the individual farmer to do much to minimise the damage and
prevent its continuance has been amply proved by the zealous
enterprise of leading private individuals, such as Mr. W. R. Southey,
Varkenskop, Middelburg, and Mr. P. Weyer,. of De Toekomst,
Somerset East, whose work, already well known, deserves even
wider recognition.
A great field lies before this country in the utilisation of such
water supplies as it has got, either known and on the surface, or
hidden beneath and unsuspected. Recent developments have
BB
3S6 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
quickened the hopes of many that in this direction lies great future
prosperity. State undertakings have done something in the past,
but it is now generally accepted that it is not in gigantic irrigation
works, but rather in numerous and small private enterprises, en-
couraged and directed by a liberal form of Government control and
financiil assistance that salvation for the country in this respect is
to be sought.
Considering the advantages and variety of soil and climate it is
somewhat surprising to find a comparatively small number of crops
under cultivation on a large scale. The range of crops that can be
grown is extraordinarily wide ; there are many places where the
strawberries from the north ripen side by side with the bananas of
the south ; and rye, the cereal of cold latitudes, may be found
growing close to the tropical date palm. But the number of crops
grown for market, apart from fruits and vegetables, is inconsiderable.
Throughout the Colony we find wheat, oats, beans, pumpkins,
melons, and very generally lucerne, tobacco and potatoes. Widely
distributed though not everywhere we get vines, mealies (maize),
Kafir corn, rye, barley and sweet potatoes. Many of these crops
could doubtless be grown on a large scale, and to pay, if only the
initial difficulties of a commercial outlet could be overcome. The
merchant demands a guarantee of quantity and quality before
embarking on the business of manufacturing or exporting, while
the farmer requires an assurance of price before risking a crop. A
most unreasonable prejudice seems to exist against colonial-grown
produce. We can and do produce foodstuffs of all kinds equal to
the finest imported article, but admittedly in only small quantity.
Foreign competition is keen and well organised, while our facilities
for storage and distribution are still in a rudimentary condition.
If only these preliminaries could be overcome and a reasonable
profit assured to farmer and merchant alike, there can be no doubt
but that many so-called industrial crops might be advantageously
added to our list of common crops, and that in this manner the pro-
ductive capacity of the country might be materially increased.
Amongst others deserving trial in this connection, flax and cotton
and the castor-oil plant deserve special mention.
As regards our present staples, we have to contend with many
difficulties which materially diminish the profitableness and in-
crease the risk of farming in this country. The locust, which used
to be regarded as an occasional visitor, has for some years past, been
constantly with us, and takes away everything except lucerne.
Rust attacks all our cereals. Some five years since our Cape oat
was the universal forage crop, though Scotch and Tartarian oats
were also grown in the Eastern Province. These kinds will now
only be found in a few remote places ; rust, which previously did but
little injury, practically annihilated them in a couple of seasons,
and but for the fortunate discovery of the resistant properties
of certain imported oats, oat-hay would now be a thing unknown.
These came from Texas, from the Argentine — known to the trade as
" Algerian " — and from Australia, misleadingly called " Egyptian."
AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS. 387
But useful as they are, they cannot be compared to our old Cape
oat. As regards wheat, we are in an almost equally unfortunate
position. A great number of kinds are grown, every small district
possessing varieties peculiar to the neighbourhood. New sorts are
constantly being tried, but most succumb to the fell disease, and at
present only one solitary kind — " Rietti," from Italy — can be
depended upon, although others, such as " Medeah " and " Red
Egyptian," are resistant in certain districts.
Potatoes at the Cape exhibit a surprising and hitherto unex-
plained tendency in the course of a very few seasons to deteriorate
in size so as to become unsaleable, and fresh seed has constantly to
be obtained from Madeira, England, France and Germany. Per-
haps varieties produced in this country from the " apple " might
possess more constant properties.
There is much room for improvement in our mealies, for while
we have several excellent kinds, probably of South African origin,
yet all might be improved by selection, while the production of new
varieties and the acclimatisation of the best foreign sorts offers a
wide and promising field for experiment.
Oudtshoorn at one time had the reputation of alone suiting
lucerne, but fortunately that myth has been exploded, and this
most valuable of all forage plants is now widely grown, and its many
good qualities fully appreciated. Unlike other crops, lucerne is
comparatively free from pests, though dodder and the caterpillar
of Colias dectra do harm at times. Its cultivation is extending
rapidly, particularly in our deep alluvial Karroo soils, where water
can be led on to it, but also on poorer, shallower " sour " veld under
rainfall. However, even lucerne has its limitations, and there are
many other forage crops as yet but little known in the Colony, and
well deserving of more attention or, at the least, of a fair trial.
Besides crops for direct market, we have yet much to learn in
the growing of fallow and forage crops and their conversion into
more valuable marketable commodities of beef, mutton, pork and
dairy produce. The value of green manuring has yet to be learnt
and appreciated. Something in this direction is already done, but it
cannot yet be said to be the general practice, and before its value can
be demonstrated we have to learn whatcrops are suitable for such
purposes in this country, as well as to find out the best modes of
growing them.
An obvious need, and one of the first to strike the stranger, is
our want of statistical information, of a concise but systematic
statement of the experience of the past. Such data are tedious and
costly to prepare, and individually convey little information, but
collectively are of the utmost value, enabling us to compare our
position at any one time, with that at any other. Constant en-
quiries are being made as to our sources of supply, the quantities
produced in different districts, our ability to support our population,
and so on. Last year's census has furnished much interesting in-
formation, and dispelled many erroneous ideas, but much of the
evidence therein contained is so all important that it would be well
to have it prepared annually, as is done in other countries.
BB 2
388 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Adequate statistics would be especially useful in Cape Colony
in furnishing information to the public regarding supply and demand,
to regulate both to the advantage of producer and consumer
alike, thus preventing those conditions of feast and famine
which have become proverbial with us. Further, such reliable
information — crop reports, market returns, and the records of
past years — serves as a useful guide in preventing the great
fluctuations of price which are a marked feature of our commercial
condition, and would at the same time add a sense of security
to our trading.
The labour question is a fruitful source of anxiety and specula-
tion to politicians, farmers and manufacturers alike. All are agreed
as to the difficulties, few as to the solution, but the question is one
demanding the most earnest thought of those who call the Colony
their home, as on its solution depends, perhaps more than on any
other single factor, the future prosperity and the conditions of life
in the Colony.
Closely allied to this problem is that of the education of the
native. While far from being settled, there seems to be a growing
feeling that training in the useful arts of agriculture would be more
beneficial to themselves and to the Colony at large, than the long
tried and still prevalent attempts at literary and aesthetic culture.
Immigration and its influence on the labour market is a problem
of pressing urgency, this country having now reached a stage when
considerations of the character and industrial qualifications of
newcomers are of more importance than their mere numbers.'
Anything that will tend to bring together our farmers, whether
for the purpose of discussion of matters of mutual interest, or for
combination for mutual help, for agricultural shows and the like,
deserves hearty support. A strong feeling in this direction is at
present abroad, as may be instanced by the growing numbers of
farmers' associations, of agricultural societies, and of combinations
of farmers for co-operative undertakings, such as irrigation works,
joint selling and buying, and for the advancement of particular
objects, stud-book societies, and the like. Legislation in the same
direction is at present on foot, so that the matter may be said to be
within the range of practical politics.
Closely allied to this subject is that of agricultural co-operation,
which has recently come to the front very prominentlj'. As yet
the matter is only in the initial stages of enquiry and discussion,
but it is receiving earnest attention from all classes in the country,
and several proposals of a practical nature have been made. A
great danger that threatens us is that, in considering this matter,
we pay too much attention to the methods of other countries,
modelling our schemes blindly on their plans, instead of adopting
their principles but modifying their practice to suit our conditions.
Co-operation in Cape Colony ought surely to be a natural growth of
our own veld, however small the original seed may be, rather than
an exotic graft of imposing appearance, but without root of its own
in this country. Aid and advice on this subject, however, will be
, AGRICULTURAL PROBLEMS. 389
welcome from competent sources, our want in this respect being, as
in so rnany others, knowledge and experience.
This suggests yet another matter in which the Colony is anxious
to advance, has indeed done something, but for which there is still
great scope, namely, the vital problem of agricultural technical
education. For practical instruction in the various branches of
the farmer's art, especially in wine-making, the growing and curing
of tobacco, butter-making, cheese-making, pruning and grafting of
fruit trees, and the like, there is a real demand, not only by youths,
but also by adult farmers. There are, however, many difficulties,
and as yet, it must be confessed, Httle has been done in this direction.
Unfortunately the classes most in need of instruction are the very
ones least anxious to benefit. In the back parts of the country
distances are so great that anything of the nature of short courses
by itinerant lecturers is almost impossible. With the limited facilities
at present available more benefit is probably derived from the
personal visits and by the dissemination of pamphlets, and also
through the " Agricultural Journal," a monthly magazine of farming
issued by the Department of Agriculture, than if the same labour
were expended in lecture courses. A combination of both methods
is, of course, highly desirable, and may be looked upon as the goal
to be aimed at.
Love of individual freedom is a traditional sentiment of our
people, yet it has been recognised that, without in any way offending
this feeling, much may be done by Government to assist one
particular class, the farming community, without pauperising them
or interfering with their independence.
The principle of State aid to agriculture has come to be generally
approved, but the mode of its application leaves much room for
discussion. The main object of the existence of a Department of
Agriculture is the protection and encouragement of farming
interests. While being specially concerned with the administra-
tion of acts of Parliament affecting agriculture, yet it is to a great
extent regarded as a bureau of information. Numerous enquiries
reach it daily upon the greatest variety of topics, live stock in health
and disease, crops grown and possible, fruit, viticulture, dairying,
tree-planting, geology, botany, entomology, and a host of other
matters. To many of these a brief reply is ample, at other times
lengthy explanations are called for. But to a proportion of the
enquiries it is impossible to prepare a satisfactory answer. The
information is not forthcoming. There are many practical problems,
especially those appertaining to arable farming, which have never
' been taken up and studied in the Colony, and for which the experi-
ence of other countries is without value. To this category belong
questions relating to crops, new and possibly advantageous to the
Colony, improved methods of propagation, cultivation and subse-
quent treatment of crops, and other cognate problems. In almost
every civilised country in the world where agriculture is of import-
ance— and where is this not the case ? — there exist special institu-
tions for the purpose of investigating these questions. The work of
390 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
the experiment stations of England, America and Germany are
known to the world, and their beneficial influence upon the
agriculture of the countries where they are found can scarcely be
exaggerated. Hitherto Cape Colony has been without such facilities
for research, but it is an extreme pleasure to be able to announce
that it has definitely been decided to establish experiment stations
in the Colony, and that Parliament has voted the funds necessary
for the commencement of this great work.
Experiment stations in Cape Colony cannot be established
slavishly upon the lines adopted in certain other countries, since no
other country possesses precisely the same conditions. Emphasis has
above been laid on the great differences which exist from place to
place within the Colony. On this account it has been decided to es-
tablish not one large and elaborate institution, but rather a number
of small separate stations, each working out the problems of its own
region. The crude state of our knowledge has been commented
upon ; accordingly it has been decided to make the work in the
first instance eminently practical, to restrict it to questions that
will appeal at once to the pockets of the people, deferring to a later
stage the study of matters less immediately advantageous. Another
restriction is the limited nature of our resources, but it is trusted
that when the first stations have justified their existence, a more
liberal treatment may be accorded them, and that then perhaps
private generosity, which has done so much for this cause elsewhere,
may also endow the work, and permit of its extension. Un-
fortunately it is the initial outlay which is heavy, upkeep is a
comparatively trifling matter.
The aim in view is simply by the application of the laws of nature
to our agricultural conditions, to increase the producing power of
the country, and to help our farmers to overcome the many diffi-
culties with which they are surrounded. Supplementary to the
experiments it will be necessary to carry on demonstrations of known
facts, for it is the argument of " things seen " that appeals most
eloquently to the farmer. So far as possible every item of the farm,
the buiViings, fences, roads and implements, as well as the crops
and livestock, should serve some purpose of experiment, comparison
or trial, the return to be looked for, iDeing in results and facts
learned, and not in the financial balance-sheets.
The proposal for experiment stations has been favoured with a
considerable amount of public attention, which it shares as regards
matters agricultural, with the questions of technical education and
the possibilities of co-operation. These aims may never be realised
in their entirety, but the hope may be permitted that in striving
towards their attainment we may acquire the best forms of the
wealth of a nation — enlightenment, comfort and prosperity. The
proof of this will be seen in the changing appearance of the land,
in the increasing extent of cultivation, and in the springing up of
new homes.
SECTIOrj VII.— ECONOMIC— (co»W.)
4. FORESTRY IN SOUTH AFRICA.
By D. E. Hutchins, F.R.Met.Soc, Conservator of Forests,
Cape Town.
The Indigenous Timber Trees.
" / am as certain as I stand here that Nature intended wide tracts
of South Africa to be forest country." — (Lord Milner's farewell
speech, Johannesburg, March 31st, 1905.)
Of the great variety of indigenous trees in South Africa only
three have much importance for timber, and two for the peculiar
value ot their wood. The six chief trees are : —
j Podocarpus elongata. — The large or Outeniqua YeKowwood.
I Podocarptis thunbergii. — The small or Upright Yellowwood.
Ocotea bullata. — Stinkwood.
Olea laurifolia. — Black Ironwood.
Pteroxylon tttile. — Sneezewood.
Callitris arborea. — The Clanwilliam Cedar.
Of these, the two Yellowwoods yielded nearly all the house-
building timber used by the early settlers in the Colony for many
years ; and ■ Yellowwood still represents about three-quarters
of the commercial timber in the belt of dense indigenous forest
which stretches in a much broken belt along the slopes of the
coast mountains from Cape Town to the north-east of the Transvaal.
From Yellowwood being the only large timber tree, the dense
evergreen indigenous forest of South Africa is commonly known
as the "Yellowwood forest." In recent years the Knysna forests
have yielded 100,000 Yellowwood sleepers yearly for the Cape
Government Railways. Yellowwood sleepers when creosoted
are not surpassed by Jarrah, creosoted Baltic pine, or any sleeper
known, but it is as a flooring board that Yellowwood timber finds
its most valued use.
Ocotea bullata (Stinkwood). — The timber of this tree has a higher
value than that of any other timber in the indigenous forest.
Stinkwood, however, is rarely a large tree, and the timber is chiefly
used for furniture and in wagon-making. Stinkwood furniture is
most beautiful, but its cost confines it, at present, to the houses of
the wea'thy.
Olea laurifolia (Black Ironwood). — This tree reaches the stature
of a medium-sized or large timber tree, but the wood is excessively
hard and not durable in the ground. It is chiefly used for wagon-
making and is occasionally exported as an ornamental hardwood.
392 SCIENCE IN' SOUTH AFRICA.
Pteroxylon utile (Sneezewood). — This is usually a small tree
with a very hard timber, but the timber is almost imperishable
in the ground, so that it is highly valued for fencing poles.
Callitris arhorea. — The Clanwilliam Cedar holds the first rank
for general usefulness amongst the indigenous timbers. It is as
easy to work as Baltic pine, it seasons well, and is very durable.
It has a sweet lasting fragrance surpassed by no other Cedar.
In growth this Cedar much resembles the Atlas Cedar of North
Africa. The timber of Callitris arborea is more highly scented
and more durable than that of Cedrus atlantica. Unfortunately
Cape Cedar has been so destroyed in the past that its forest has at
present no commercial value.
There are three other species of Callitris in South Africa. C.
cupressoides is usually shrubby. C. whytei barely comes south of
the Zambesi. C. schwartzii is a newly described species whose
capabilities are not yet fully known. It may prove not to differ
greatly from the tree form of Callitris cupressoides.
Apodytes dimidiata (White Pear) [ Medium-sized trees prized
Curtisia faginea (Assegai) ) for wagon-making.
Goniami kamassi. — Kamasi is a Boxwood substitute exported
from Knysna.
Biixus macowani is a second-rate Boxwood formerly exported-
to some extent from East London.
Olea verucosa. — The common " Wild Olive " furnishes a good
fencing post. The European Olive can easily be grafted on it.
Leucadendron argenteum. — The Silver Tree has practically no
"timber value. It is not known to occur naturally farther than
fifty miles away from Cape Town.
There are in the Yellowwood forest altogether about io8 species
of trees ; but these, with the exception of those mentioned above,
have little commercial value. They are occasionally brought
into use for fencing poles, wagon-wood, etc., and all are employed
on the eastern side of the Colony, in building Kafir huts.
With the exception of the Clanwilliam Cedar the indigenous
timber trees are of weak natural reproduction and difficult artificial
propagation. The indigenous timbers are also of slow growth
and of delicate constitution. It is difficult to obtain seed of Sneeze-
wood ; it is impossible to procure any satisfactory supply of Stink-
wood seed. Hence the improvement of the indigenous forest is no
easy matter. The stock of commercial timber in the indigenous
forest probably does not average above one-twentieth a full stock,
and in the more accessible portions it is less. Instances have occurred
where the total stock of timber in a good indigenous forest was only
equal to one year's growth of timber in a Eucalypt plantation
yielding a first-class hardwood, such as Ironbark. The value of
the standing timber in the indigenous forest, taken at 3d. per
cubic foot, may be averaged at : —
Forests of "Cape Colony ;f 6 per acre.
„ „ Natal £5 "
„ Transvaal £4 ..
FORESTRY. 393
It is certain that without the assistance of the picked timber
trees of larger forest floras, Forestry in South Africa could never
be the remunerative business it now is. Which of the introduced
trees is best fitted to re-stock and restore the indigenous forest
is still an unsolved problem.
I have mentioned that the Clanwilliam Cedar is an exception
to the difficult propagation, the slow growth, and the dehcate
constitution of the indigenous trees generally. Unfortunately,
that tree will not thrive away from its home in the rugged Cedar-
berg country — an area of 150 or 200 square miles on the western
■side of the sub-continent, situated 120 miles due north of Cape
Town. The re-foresting of this area has been pushed forwjrd
as rapidly as the slender provision of funds has allowed of. Fires
have been restrained, goat-grazing stopped, and only dead Cedar
trees are now allowed to be felled, while 81,000 trees have been
planted over 94 acres by the inexpensive process of plowing
the ground and sowing the seed broadcast. Seed is obtainable
-as easily as Pine seed, and the growth of the young Cedars is as fast
as that of the Cluster-pine on the Cape Flats. Such Cedar timber
as is obtainable from dry trees sells easily in Cape Town for the
same price as Stinkwood or Teak. No doubt in the future Clan-
william Cedar will largely replace the costly imported Teak, but
-since the Cedar will not flourish away from the rigorous climate of
its snowy mountains, it can play but a restricted part in the general
re-foresting of the country. Hence the supreme importance of
the introduced timber trees to the South African Forester.
The Introduced Timber Trees.
Some of the finest timber trees of the Northern Hemisphere
have now been under cultivation in South Africa for 200 years,
and may reasonably be considered to be completely naturalised.
Most of them show an abundant natural reproduction from seed,
and they flourish in localities where drought, frost'and parching
winds are a complete bar to the cultivation of the delicate indigenous
trees. It is of course necessary to see that in their new home they
are properly fitted to the climate — winter rainfall trees (such as
those of the Mediterranean) to a winter rainfall climate ; summer
rainfall trees to a summer rainfall climate ; all-the-year-round
rainfall trees to an all-the-year-round rainfall climate ; inland
trees to an inland climate ; and coast trees to a coastal climate.
Hence, to the South African Forester, the prime importance of the
study of climatology. The following trees are those which have
■shown themselves to be most hardy and useful in South Africa.
Pinus pinaster (Cluster-pine). — Grows like a weed along the
southern coast of Cape Colony, wherever there is a good rainfall ;
particukriy on the coast mountains and on the plains of the south-
west, where there are winter rains and a Mediterranean climate.
It is 'now being largely propagated for sleepers and firewood by the
Forest Department. About 8 tons of seed are used yearly in these
operations. For an account of the remarkable growth of this tree
•VDIHJV IlXnOS \[ 30XHI0S
H>£
FORESTRY. 395
on the Caledan Mountains see a pamphlet by the author, entitled
" Cluster Pine at Genadendal," reprinted in 1904.
Pinus pinea (Stone-pine). — This tree seems to have been intro-
duced by the early settlers before the Cluster-pine. About the
old farms there are some noble specimens of this picturesque tree,
with its flat umbrella top, so strongly recalling Southern Italy.
Unfortunately, about thirty years ago it was attacked by a fungoid
disease which has been pronounced to be a species of Peronospora.
This disease has almost exterminated the Stone-pine, and has
led to its being placed entirely outside the operations of the Forest
Department.
Quercus pediinculata (English Oak). — This is a favourite tree
around the homesteads of the early Dutch settlers in the south-west
of Cape Colony, and it has been planted with success within the heavy
rainfall area of the eastern mountains, particularly along the Ama-
tolas, north of King William's Town. It does not flourish in the
drier parts of the Colony, but in all the more fertile parts it is highly
prized for its incomparable beauty in Spring and its heavy yield of
acorns. To the farmers the acorns are a valuable crop; indeed, it has
been truly said that the Oak in South Africa is more a fruit than a
timber tree. The Oak in South Africa bears acorns abundantly
every year, and these acorns average almost double the size of those
commonly seen in England and northern Europe. The foliage of
the Cape Oak is also denser than that of the same tree in Northern
Europe.
Populus alba (White Poplar). — This tree was probably one of
the first to be introduced to South Africa, and is now completely
naturalised, in vleys and damp places from Cape Town to he
Northern Transvaal. The Poplar bush is a standing institution in
many up-country farms, and the Poplar in South Africa furnishes
a light useful timber for farm purposes and second-rate house
building. .
Populus nigra (Black Poplar). — This tree has also been long
introduced to South Africa, but it is less hardy and less wide-spread
than the White Poplar. It is usually seen in the form of the Lom-
bardy Poplar, and as such is used as a break-wind in the vineyards
and fruit orchards of the South-west of Cape Colony.
Populus monilifera has been introduced more recently, but it
seems quite at home, and is very fast growing.
Eucalyptus globubts (Blue-gum). — This was not introduced to
South Africa till 1828, but is now the most wide-spread and generally
hardy tree on the sub-continent. From Cape Town to the Northern
Transvaal, wherever trees are planted, the Blue-gum will be seen
generally occupying the largest space. It commends itself to
farmers on account of its hardiness and rapid growth. But the
efforts of the Forest Department are now directed to replacing it
by other Eucalypts which may be equally quick-growing and pro-
duce a timber of superior value.
Eucalypts Generally.— 01 the 150 odd species of Eucalypts
nearly all have now been planted in South Africa. There are nearly
39^ SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
100 species in the Government arboreta at Tokai. Of these among
the most valuable for sleepers and general use as hard woods may
be mentioned Eucalyptus pilularis, the fastest grower known in the
Cape Peninsula, E. microcorys or Tallowwood, E. resinifera, yielding
a Jarrah-like timber, E. paniculata, an Ironbark, and E. saligna.
The above are being planted on a large scale for the production of
sleepers, for which item alone Cape Colony has now to spend yearly
;f 100,000, most of this money going to Australia. After the Blue-
gum the tree that has been most widely planted is E. tereticornis,
commonly known in South Africa as the Red Gum. Up-country
it flourishes at ail elevations, from Johannesburg at 6,ooo feet to
Delagoa Bay, where it may be seen growing with Cocoa-nut Palms
and other tropical trees. E. maculata flourishes on poor soils within
the summer-rainfall areas of the sub-continent, and the closely-
allied E. citriodora, with its scented foliage, in the warmer parts of
the same region. Of Iron-barks, the pearl of Eucalypt timbers,
E. paniculata has given the best results near the coast, and E.
sideroxylon inland. E. paniculata is one of the fastest-growing
Eucalypts in South Africa, and a hardwood of unsurpassed ex-
cellence. Other valuable Eucalypts being largely propagated are
Eucalyptus diversicolor or Kari, a hardy free-grower, and one of the
giant trees of the world in its home in West Australia. E. mangi-
nata, the West Australian Jarrah, has not proved to be one of the
most profitable of the Eucalypts to plant for timber, though it
grows well enough' in its own climate in the south-west of Cape
Colony. Eucalyptus corynocalyx, or Sugar-gum, is a tree recently
introduced to the drier districts, and growing with great success at
Robertson and elsewhere. It also produces a first-class timber.
Other Eucalypts suited to the drier parts of the country are Euca-
lyptus tereticornis, E. leucoxylon, E. hemiphloia, and the two Cool-
gardie gums from West Australia ; E. salmonophloia and E.
salubris. E. polyanthemos is the Eucalypt that has proved hardiest
against frost and drought in the severe climates of the high South
African plateaux. All the above Eucalypts are being planted on a
large scale in the Government timber plantations.
Pines. — Most of the extra-tropical pines are now being grown
by the Forest Department. Of the Pines recently introduced the
rnost promising appears to be Pinus canariensis. The timber of
this tree is justly esteemed at a high value in the Canary Islands.
On the southern mountains of Cape Colony it appears to rival the
Cluster-pine in hardiness and quickness of growth. It is also being
successfully planted in Natal and the Transvaal.
Piniis insignis. — This handsome Pine has been largely planted
in recent years in South Africa. It is only climatically suited,
however, to the winter rainfall districts, and the wholesale planting
of this tree in Natal and the Transvaal has produced disappoint-
ment. This is a large, rapidly-growing tree, particularly at first.
Other Pines being planted more or less extensively are Pinus
halepensis or Jerusalem Pine, P. muricata and other Californian
Pines, the two Japanese Pines P. thunbergii and P. densiflora,
FORESTRY. 397
together with the four Pitch Pines of the Gulf States of the United
States of America, P. australis, P. mitis, P. cubensis and P. tasda.
The Mexican and Chinese Pines remain for trial in the summer-
rainfall, high-plateau country — Transvaal, Orangia, Basutoland,.
Transkei and Natal.
Cypresses . Junipers and Cedars generally. — Trees of the genus
Ciipressus, with their valuable Cedar-like durable timbers, have
naturally not escaped the notice of the Forest Department, but
their planting is somewhat restricted by considerations of expense.
They grow slowly, more especially at first, and are frequently costly
to establish. There are, however, extensive areas under Cypress-
at Tokai, Ceres Road, Fort Cunynghame, and elsewhere in the
Government timber plantations. The Cypress that has been most
largely planted (and often out of its climatic habitat) is Cupressus
macrocarpa. This rapidly becomes a tree of much beauty.
Cupressus guadalupensis may almost be looked upon as the hardy,
drought-resistant form of C. macrocarpa. The planting of this
tree is rapidly extending. Quite equal to C. macrocarpa, however,
is C. lusiianica, which, under various names, has been extensively
planted throughout South Africa, and, judging from its natural
reproduction, it seems to have become naturalised in the Transvaal,
Natal and Cape Colony. C. goveniana, C. Kndleyana, and C. torulosa
have also been planted to a less extent.
Jumpers. — These trees yielding the Cedar of commerce have
naturally claimed the first attention in an extra-tropical country.
Juniperus virginiana has proved extremely hardy, but it seems too
slow-growing to produce timber economically, and the same is true
with regard to /. hermiidiana, J . chinensis, J. mexicana.
J. foetidissima and /. procera remain for trial on the plateau
country. I have lately received from Dr. Perez seed of the almost
extinct Juniperus cedrus of the Canaries. Altogether there are
some fifteen or twenty Junipers under trial in the Government
plantations of the Cape and the Transvaal.
Cedrus. — Cedrus deodar a is being planted on a large scale in the
Transvaal, where it shows an excellent growth.
Taxodiijm. — T. dystichum has given but poor results, even on
swampy ground, in Cape Colony. It promises better in the Trans-
vaal. The Mexican T. mucronatum awaits seed for trial planting
in the Transvaal.
Callitris. — Eight or ten Australia species are under trial. C.
lobusta and C. calcarata seem the most promising.
Cedrela. — Several species are under cultivation in the warmer
summer-rainfall climates, but the proper testing of this most valu-
able genus of all the Cedars has as yet scarcely begun.
Wattles.— The so-called Wattles of Australia belonging to
various species of Acacia form an extremely valuable forest resource.
Their exact utility lies in the production of tan bark and in their
rapid and early yield of small wood for fuel. Of the Wattles
planted, the best known are the Black Wattle in Natal (described
under "Natal") and the plantations of Acacia saligna and A.
398 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
pycnantka in the south-west of Cape Colony. A. saligna (sometimes
called Port Jackson Wattle) grows like a weed on the Cape Flats and
elsewhere in the south-west of Cape Colony, and it furnishes a bark
which has been largely used by the Cape Town tanners, and which
bark contains up to 23 per cent, of tannin. The Wattle, however,
which yields the largest percentage of bark, surpassing even the
Black Wattle, is A. pycnantha, or the Golden Wattle of South
Australia. This is now being grown on the Cape Flats and else-
where in the Government plantations. It flourishes throughout
the whole region of winter rains from Cape Town to Knysna, and
should be more largely planted than it is by farmers. Wattles
yielding a return in from five to seven years can be produced by
private enterprise and have thus not been so largely planted in the
Government State Forests.
These are the most important of the introduced trees now being
planted for timber in South Africa. Many more are being grown ;
the range of choice in the extra-tropics is wide. It would be im-
possible here to even mention by name all that are being and have
been tested by the Forest Department. Of trees not falling within
the four chief classes — Eucalypts, Pines, Cedars and Wattles — there
are such valuable timbers as Blackwood {Acacia melanoxylon); Cali-
fornian Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), Camphor (Cinnamomum
camphora), several species of Podocarpus and Araucaria, and others
which cannot even be mentioned here.
FORESTRY IN CAPE COLONY.
The forests of extra- tropical South Africa occupy but a small
portion of its area, and are still less fitted to supply the wants
of the country in timber. This had long been recognised. As
early as 1819 there \vas a Superintendent of Lands and Woods
at Cape Town. In 1876 Forests and Plantations were constituted
a separate department of the Ministerial Division, its principal
officers corresponding directly with the Ministerial office. The
chief forest officer was then at Knysna. At last in 1881 a separate
Forest Department was organised, and the Cape Government
obtained the services of an eminent French forester, the Count de
Vasselot, as head of the Cape Forest Department. This gentleman
had obtained his professional training in the French National
Forest School at Nancy (than which there is no better), and had
since obtained distinction by particularly good work in connection
with the great re-foresting operations in Gascony. The work
there was with Cluster-pine (Pinus pinaster), which is at the same
time the pine that has been most largely employed in the pine
plantations of South Africa. Count de Vasselot made a forest
tour through the country, and his recommendations after this tour
will be found in the valuable report which was translated and
presented to Parliament in 1882. This report should be referred
to by those who may wish for further information on the position
of Cape Forestry at that time. In 1883 the writer, who had
also been trained at Nancy, arrived from India, and was
FORESTRY. 399
subsequently transferred from the Indian to the Cape Forest
Service. By 1884 the newly-formed Forest Department
had got to work, the oldest of the western plantations
being founded by Mr. J S. Lister, now Conservator of Forests in
charge of the Eastern Conservancy. The Cape Forest Department
may thus be said by now (1905) to have had twenty clear years
working existence. During that time the timber plantations near
Cape Town, the chief Colonial market, have been largely extended,
more especially recently with the object of supplying sleepers to
the railways. At the same time the " high-timber " indigenous
forest of the country has been demarcated, and the wasteful system
under which it was formerly worked replaced by systematic fellings
under the supervision of competent Forest Officers.
For administrative purposes Cape Colony is divided into four
Conservancies, each in charge of a Conservator of Forests, the
Conservator stationed at Cape Town having at the same time
consultive functions on technical matters.
As soon as the forests had been demarcated, it was seen that a
Forest Act was necessary to give effect to the demarcations, and
to regulate and enforce the working of the forests. In 1886 I
submitted a draft founded on the Madras Forest Act of 1882,
and in 1888 was passed the Cape Forest Act, No. 28 of
1888, which has since been in force, and which has has
served as a model for other Colonial forest legislation, not in
South Africa only. In 1902 this Act was strengthened and amended
in certain particulars, the chief of these being a provision which
requires that the National Forests cannot be alienated, nor any
forest rights granted, without the previous sanction of both Houses
of the Legislature. Further measures may be necessary in order
to entirely safeguard the forests from the loss to which they are
liable as long as they remain under political control.
The total cost of forest work during the last twenty-two years
in Cape Colony has been over three quarters of a million pounds
sterling, of which sum more than a quarter of a million pounds
sterling has been spent on the timber plantations in the neighbour-
hood of Cape Town and the south-west. There is a total Forest
Staff of twenty-six (Conservators and their assistants) in the upper
grades, and eighty-four European Foresters, besides a few native
guards in the Native Territories.
It was early recognised that an efficient Forest Staff required
that the superior officers should have a technical training beyond
what was obtainable in South Africa. In 1892, Mr. C. B. McNaugh-
ton, the present Conservator at Knysna, was sent for a special
course of training to the Cooper's Hill Forest School in England,
and he has since been followed by four others, all of these, except
Mr. K. Carlson (at present Conservator inthe Orange River Colony),
obtaining a grant from Government which averaged som what
less than half their total expenses. Partly on account of the high
cost of this training, the last Forest Officer sent from the Cape
for his professional training has proceeded to the American Forest
400 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
School at Yale; and he has been joined by a forest apprentice from'
Orangia. But for the obstacle presented by a foreign language,
the training at Nancy is that which would best satisfy the require-
ments of Cape students ; since, in the South of France most of the
trees now cultivated in the timber plantations of Cape Colony
are to be met with, and the climatic and fire-conserving conditions
resemble those in Cape Colony. In view of the fact, however,
that there is no English speaking forest school devoted entirely to
extra-tropical forestry, the expense of sending forest students
a.broad, and the increasing demand for forest education in South
Africa, the project of a South African Forest School has been
recently revived, and has obtained the serious consideration of
Lord Milner and the South African Governments.
The policy of the Cape Forest Department may be said to have
two chief objects : —
(i) Production at home of the timber now imported from
abroad. This is to be accomplished by conserving and improving
the indigenous forest, and by forming plantations of the most
valuable trees of other countries, near the railways and chief centres
of Colonial consumption.
(2) The furtherance of general tree-planting in a nearly treeless
country, by advice and assistance to landowners and the public.
The principal trees planted have been sketched above. It
remains only to mention that the cause of tree-planting generally
is assisted ; by professional advice in the form of pamphlets, lectures,
and visits to the forest centres ; and by practical aid in the issue of
young trees and seeds to the public at cost price. In round numbers,
550,000 young trees are issued yearly to the public at an average-
price of about fd. each, each of these trees being securely rooted
in a planting tray. These planting trays -are formed of old paraffin
tins cut lengthways. During the last ten years the average value
of the plants and seeds sold to the public has amounted to ^f 1,844.
These figures are rapidly increasing,- thus during the last year in
the Western Conservancy the sales amounted to ;^3,859.
Under Act 4 of 1876, one half the cost of all the tree-planting
done by Municipalities and Divisional (County) Councils (up to a
limit of £250 in one year) is re-imbursed by Government. The
administration of the tree-planting grants made under this Act,
rests with the Forest Department, as also the adjudication of the
special grants sometimes made to private tree-planters.
The Government Timber Plantations.
The total expenditure on forest work since the Forest Depart-
ment was organised on its present basis in 1883 amounts to ;f778,ooo ;
of which ^293,000 has been spent on the large plantations near
Cape Town and on Forestry in the south-west of Cape Colony ; and
^^485, 000 on plantations and Forestry elsewhere in Cape Colony.
The large timber plantations are situated near the chief Colonial
markets, and either on or close to, lines of railway. The trees
planted are Eucalypts, Pines, and a lesser quantity of Cedar and other
FORESTRY. ' 4OI
trees. The best known of these western plantations is that at
Tokai, which runs along the Table Mountain range from the
boundaries of the Muizenberg Municipality to Constantia. The total
area there planted to date is 2,371 acres, at a nett cost of £28,791,
so that the average cost of planting has been £12 3s. per acre.
The revenue from this plantation up to December, 1904, was
£16,766. The total area of the estate is 6,475 acres. Planting began
twenty-one years ago, in 1884. A preliminary valuation of the timber
made in 1900 worked it out to a total of £51,825. The revenue re-
alised from this plantation varies from half to two-thirds of the
expenditure, and this revenue is obtained from the sale of plants,
seeds and thinnings, none of the main crop being yet fit to cut, so
that the financial results of this plantation cannot be considered
otherwise than satisfactory. In the best portions of the estate the
growth of timber is scarcely exceeded in any portion of the world.
Thus, from a thirteen-year-old plot of Kari, Eucalyptus diversicolor
(Prinz Kasteel block) there has been a mean yearly yield of timber
amounting to 625 cubic feet. From a six-year-old plot of Kari
on Cedar Ridge there has been a mean yearly production of timber
amounting to 533 cubic feet. And similarly, another block
of Kari on Manor House Ridge has yielded a figure of 377 cubic
feet. The largest trees on the plantation are some particularly
line specimens, now over 100 feet high, of Eucalyptus saligna.
These, at eighteen years old, showed a mean yearly production of
timber (acrim) amounting to 527 cubic feet. When one considers
that the best yielding forests in Europe — the Spruce and Silver-fir
of Saxony do not average more than 150 cubic feet per acre per
year, it will be seen how satisfactory is the growth of timber at
Tokai.
At Ceres Road, 84 miles from Cape Town on the main line of
railway, is another large Government timber plantation, which,
' with the addition of the adjoining sleeper plantation, has nearly
the same area as Tokai, viz., 6,000 acres. The trees planted here
and the results obtained are similar to those at Tokai.
There is a further large Government plantation on the Cape Flats,
also amounting to about the same area, viz., 6,000 acres. Here,
the soil being poor and sandy, the trees planted are almost entirely
tan Wattles and Cluster-pine. The tan Wattle used is mainly
Acacia saligna, though a little of the more valuable A. pycnantha
has been planted of late years. For the last thirteen years, how-
ever, the planting on this plantation has been confined to Cluster-
pine, designed to produce sleepers, firewood, and coarse Pine timber.
These Pine plantations are formed by the inexpensive process of
plowing the ground and sowing broadcast ; the total expenditure,
plus interest at 3I per cent., amounts to £64,104, the revenue with
interest to £26,047. The timber is now being valued.
The fourth large Cape timber plantation is situated at Fort
Cunynghame on the Eastern line of railway north of King William's
Town. Here the area planted amounts to 3,000 acres, the total
expenditure to £35,408, while the revenue and estimated value of
cc
402
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA
the timber amount to £160,000. The chief trees planted are Black
Wattle {Acacia dcciiryciis). Cluster-pine {Pinus pinaster), various
Eucalypts, and on the lower better ground Oak {Qtiercus pednncu-
lata). There are various smaller timber plantations which, to-
gether with the larger jilantations mentioned, amount altogether
to about 23,000 acres.
I Drift Sand Plantations.
Among the most successful plantations undertaken by the Cape
Forest Department must be reckoned those performed with the
object of fixing the sands. Of such plantations there are large areas
on the Cape Flats, undertaken some years ago to protect the Rail-
way from drifting sands. At the head of False Bay an artificial
Morram Grass-planting at .\gulhas, 1904
coast dune like the " dune littorale " of Gascony, has been
run along the shore, stopping the further ingress of sand. Even
at Port NoUoth, where the rainfall is only four inches per annum,
it has been found possible to stop a serious sand drift threatening
the harbour by the planting of Eragrostis and other grasses. The
grass that has been most largely employed for sand fixing is Morram
(known as Bent grass in Scotland), Psamma arenaria. Drift
sands threatened to overwhelm the Agulhas Lighthouse : nowhere
has the planting of Morram grass succeeded so remarkably as here.
Its growth can be seen from ships passing some distance out at sea
and it opens up wide possibilities for turning to account the dreary
FORESTRY. 403
areas of sand which mark the extreme southern point of the African
Continent. Morram grass has been planted successfully further
east at " Still " Bay, but this, so far, is the limit of its successful
growth. At Port Elizabeth, where are the largest sand-drift fixing
operations, Morram grass has been found not to succeed : and it is
necessary there to proceed by the more expensive process of covering
the sands with town refuse, conveyed on to the sands by a special
line of railway. After the sand has been temporarily fixed with
town refuse, it is sown with seeds of various sand-fixing vegetation,
and the Wattles Acacia cyclopis and A. saligna.
The Cape Budget for the Financial Year 1903- 1904 showed a
total expenditure of £31,500 on the Forest Staff and ;^6o,ooo on
Forest work. Owing to the present financial crisis the total forest
expenditure has been cut down to £50,000, viz., £30,000 Staff and
£20,000 work.
FORESTRY IN NATAL.
Natal has been called the " Garden Colony " of South Africa.
The part of the Colony from which it derives this name is the central,
well- watered portion traversed by the belt of Yellowwood forest.
In the southern portion of this belt is situated some of the finest
of the indigenous Yellowwood forest. About many of the home-
steads in or near this belt have been planted introduced trees which
are growing with a vigour unsurpassed elsewhere in South Africa.
Natal has a large native population (about seventeen blacks to
one white) and as the natives were settled in Natal they were un-
fortunately given destructive forest rights. These forest rights
and the settlement of the country produced a deplorable destruction
of its rich forests. In 1886 the services of a Cape Forest Officer,
Mr. H. G. Fourcade, were obtained, who, after a tour through the
country, submitted an able report (Maritzburg, 1887), which may
be read to-day with the utmost interest. Unfortunately, Natal
was at that time a Crown Colony, and practically nothing was done
to give effect to Mr. Fourcade's recommendations, or to those of
his successor, an eminent young German Forest Officer, Herr
Schopflin. At last, in 1901, when the Colony was managing its
own affairs. Forestry was again taken up. Mr. J. S. Lister, Con-
servator of Forests in the Eastern Districts of Cape Colony, was
deputed to visit and report on the forests, and at his recommenda-
tion the present Conservator, Mr. T. R. Sim,' was appointed in 1902 ;
and Forestry in Natal is now organised on much the same footing
as in Cape Colony and other South African States. Mr. Sim's
preliminary report for 1902 and his last report dated June, 1904,
are interesting documents, and show what is being done in Natal to
make up for the long years of forestal neglect. It is a sad tale of
waste and ruin !
The Conservator of Forests has his headquarters at Maritzburg,
and is assisted by a European staff of thirty permanent Forest
officials and five apprentices, The Natal Forest Staff now
cc 2
404 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
ranks second after that of Cape Colony. A list of reserved forest
trees has been published, and a modification of the Cape Forest Act
embodied in the Forest Regulations. Game reserves under the
charge of the Conservator of Forests have been established in Natal.
There is an area of about 20,000 acres in the wild country near
Giant's Castle, at the headwaters of the Bushman's and Tugela
Rivers in the Drakensberg. There are also game reserves in Zulu-
land.
At Cedara, lying at an altitude of between 3,500 and 5,000 feet,
in the strip of well-watered country immediately north of Maritz-
burg, are being formed a large distributing nursery, forest arboreta
and forest plantations. An area of 407 acres here has been planted,
100,000 trees have been issued from the nursery, and 170,000 re-
main in stock (1904).
On the semi-tropical coast lands of Zululand a plantation has
been formed at Empangeni, with a nursery for the supply of plants
to the public. Cocoanuts and Dates are amongst the trees being
planted in this warm country. Attention is also being given to
the cultivation (here and elsewhere in Zululand) of the Rubber
Vine (Landolphia kirkii), and interesting figures regarding the
good natural reproduction and growth of this rubber producing
tree in Zululand are given in Mr. Sim's report referred to above.
Private Plantations in Natal.
There is more forest planting on_ private plantations in Natal
than anywhere else in South Africa. Round many of the substantial
homesteads forest arboreta have been formed which I found of
greater interest and variety than anything I have yet seen in South
Africa outside the Government timber plantations in Cape Colony.
The area of private timber plantations in Natal is estimated to
amount to not less than 5,000 acres; these plantations, though
embracing a great variety of trees, are in the main composed of Euca-
lypts. Besides this, in Natal is to be seen the most remarkable and
successful instance of private timber planting in the modern world.
The plantations of Black Wattle in Natal now embrace an area of
25,000 acres, and give a return of £100,000 yearly. They are being
extended steadily. The Black Wattle used almost exclusively in
Natal is Acacia decurrens var. mollis, * I have seen the open-leaved
variety {Acacia decurrens var. normalis) on some of the plantations,
but it is stated that this does not give as good a result as the mollis
variety. The Black Wattle plantations occupy the middle districts
of Natal on a belt extending north and south above Maritzburg.
In 1886 thirty-nine packages of Black Wattle bark were exported
to the value of £11 ! During the three years, igoi-1903, an average
of 13,814 tons of bark, valued at £71,662 has been exported, the
average value being thus about £5 per ton. The great rise in value
of the Wattle plantations that has taken place in recent years is due
to the good prices obtained for the poles concurrently with the bark.
From the Railway returns it appears that about 20,000 tons of
FORESTRY. 405
mining props pass over the Railway yearly, and of these the greater
portion is exported for use in the Transvaal mines. The bark is
exported from Natal in the form of roughly-ground chips. Other
outlets have been sought for the Wattle timber, particularly paper
pulp. The reports ol the trials made in 1899, however, are not
favourable. The wood is too hard for mechanical pulp, and has been
found unsuitable for chemical pulp by the sulphide process.' The
soda process yields a coarse pulp of inferior quality.
The total present yield from the Black Wattle plantations,
including bark, pit-props and firewood, is put down at not less than
;^ioo,ooo yearly. The £10 shares of the Town Hill Wattle Company"
at Maritzburg, whose fine plantations I visited in 1903, were then
quoted at £100 ! The average cost of these Wattle plantations is
set down at £6 per acre. And it is considered that for land well
suited for Wattles from £t. to £6 an acre may be paid. It is now
twenty years since the Black Wattle was first planted in N-t 1.
The Wattle is fit to cut from five years upwards, the average cutting
time being ten years. The yield naturally varies much with the
different plantations, especially as many of the early plantations
in Natal have been planted in unsuitable localities, but the average
may be taken at 5 tons of dry bark and 30 tons of dry timber.
The price paid for this bark at Dal ton, the centre of the Noodsberg
district, now averages from £6 to £6 los. for bark in bundles,
ground and bagged £x more. Black Wattle firewood fetches up
to £t per ton, put on the railway ; good pit-props double this price,
or £2 per ton.
The forest expenditure provided on the current year's budget
amounts to £9,028, and the Conservator of Forests also administers
the two allied items of expenditure, viz.: — Fruit trees, £2,752 ;
game reserves, £1,176.
FORESTRY IN QRANGIA.
The Orange River Colony consists of elevated treeless plains
so subject to drought, frost, and drying winds that tree-growing
is a matter of great difficulty. Nevertheless, the beauty and
comfort of trees in such a country, and the necessity of doing
something to replace the large importations of timber, have been
fully recognised at Bloemfontein. In 1903, Mr. J. S. Lister made
a forest tour in the country, and his report was followed by the
founding of a Forest Department, which will doublless soon develop
beyond its present American modelling. Orangia Forestry is in
charge of M ■. K. Carlson, an able and experienced officer, formerly
in the Cape Seivice. He is assisted by a staff of three or four
foresters and seven probatioriefs, one of whom has been
seit to the Yale Forest School to obtain a professional forest
training. Plantations are being formed near Bloemfontein, and
in the only part of the country where trees can be grown without
great difficulty, that is to say, the Eastern frontier bordering Basuto-
land. Here, two or three large Government nurseries are in process
4o6 [science in south africa.
of formation, and at Prynnsberg, near Clocolan, are the oldest
timber plantations in South Africa, formed by Mr. Newbury.
There is no natural forest in Orangia, and there has been much
disappointment in the tree-planting efforts that have been made.
This disappointment is almost entirely due to the haphazard
selection made. As an instance, Bloemfontein may be mentioned..
Here, for years there have been persistent efforts at tree-planting,
but the tree mainly planted has been the Blue-gum, a tree making
the largest demand on water supplies, while Bloemfontein has an
uncertain and small rainfall, and but a poor supply of irrigation
water !
The Forest expenditure provided for the Orange River Colony
during the current year, 1904-1905, is £10,600.
FORESTRY IN THE TRANSVAAL.
The indigenous high timber forest of the Transvaal, with
Yellowwood as the chief species, is limited to the better watered
districts on the Eastern frontier. From Belvidere (near Pilgrim's
Rest) one looks down on to a forest scene recalling that of the Western
Ghauts of India. Here, on the top of what would be called the Ghauts
in India, is the dense Yellowwood forest, stretching in a nearly un-
broken line along the eastern slopes of the mountains, and spreading
in patches over the plateau, occupying the southern and eastern
sides of the mountains and deep dark valleys. Below the heavy
Ghaut forest stretches the open forest of the hot, low country,
gradually tailing away to the thorn bush and scrubs- of the coast-
lands. The. area occupied by the Yellowwood forest in the Trans-
vaal, to enjoy the same amount of effective moisture as at
the Cape, must, on account of the lower latitude and greater altitude,
have a considerably heavier rainfall. This rainfall may be esti-
_mated at from 40 to 80 inches. The largest area of dense evergreen
forest (Yellowwood) in the Transvaal is the Woodbush, which,
with the adjoining Helsbush (so-called on account of the difficult
nature of the ground) amounts to about 10,000 acres. While ihe
Yellowwood forest does not extend beyond the heavy rainfall area
of the eastern mountains, all the eastern side of the plateau, and
the better watered areas on the plateau are either treeless or carry
only low thorn-wood and scrub forest ; there thus remains a very
large area, in fact the best portion of the Transvaal, which, though
nearly treeless now, is suited to produce first-rate timber forest,
using the hardier trees of larger and stronger forest floras.
The first Boer settlers planted Poplars and Willows in the vleys.
Afterwards the more enlightened settlers planted Blue-gum and
Tereticornis gum ; and, in certain localities under irrigation, such
as Lydenburg (the capital of the old Lydenburg Republic), most
of the winter rainfall Cape trees were planted. As long as they
were irrigated such trees succeeded fairly enough. It is interesting
to see the results of these early tree-planting efforts under irriga-
tion in the townlands of Potchefstroom, Pretoria and Lydenburg.
FOKHSXm'.
407
Jiidigenoiis Vcllowwoo.I Furesl, M'lJirh, Ccorge, iir. I'jl-riju's Rest, Trnnswial.
408 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
But such planting was naturally limited, and practically
did not extend beyond the planting of trees for ornament and
shade. With the discovery of the Johannesburg goldfields there
came a change. It was recognised at once that pit timber was one
of the most expensive items in working the mines, and the mine-
owners laid down considerable areas of timber plantations, mostly
in the neighbourhood of Johannesburg. Unfortunately, altogether
fallacious estimates were based on the profits to be realised from
these plantations. The rapid growth of isolated and avenue trees
was taken as a basis for the growth of trees in masses. Sufficient
allowance was not made for the reduced growth consequent on the
increased drain on subsoil moisture when trees were planted in
dense forest. It was often assumed that so many trees planted
per acre would leave a nearly equal number of trees to fell at the
final cutting ; and, worst of all, there was little climatic selection.
Fifteen years ago we were positively assured that all the trees
that grow at the Cape would succeed at Johannesburg ! This
was an astonishing assumption !
It was assumed that trees growing naturally near the sea with
winter rains would succeed on an inland plateau, between 4,000
and 6,000 feet above sea level, and where the rains fall entirely in
summer. The countries to which one would naturally look to
furnish trees for the Transvaal are not winter rainfall areas such
as the Mediterranean _ and California, but, summer rainfall areas .
such as Mexico, the drier western Himalayas, and part of the
Argentine ; while for test purposes, trees should be tried from
the more southerly latitudes of inland eastern Australia. The
slopes of the Andes will also supply certain trees. The failure of
much of the early planting done around Johannesburg must not
be considered any criterion of the prospects of future Forestry in
the Transvaal. The largest of these mining timber plantations
are at Bramfontein, near Johannesburg ; the Willows (H. Struben)
near Pretoria; and just across the border at Vereeniging (S. Mark's).
In the latter an open, low-lying, damp, soil makes up, to a large
extent, for the deficient rainfall.
In 1903 I visited the Transvaal and framed a forest scheme,
which was published in a report- to the Transvaal Government
(Pretoria, 1903). This scheme contemplated an expenditure of
£100,000 yearly for six years. The report gave a list of over 450
species of timber trees suitable for cultivation in the Transvaal.
Of these only a small proportion are already growing there. The
following year I again visited the Transvaal, and this was folic wed
by the appointment of Mr. Charles Legat as Conservator of Forests,
with a moderate staffs of assistants. Mr. Legat himself is a
former member of the Cape Forest Department.
During the short time that the Transvaal Forest Department
has been in existence a central nursery and seed store has been
established at Irene, in charge of a Forest Officer who was also for
some time in the Cape Forest Department. This nursery during
its first season (summer 1904-1905) had a revenue of £2,000 from
fo:{e;trv.
409
Dry Open Forest, Inchlomii Tree on Bank of Ki\-cr, Nelsprnit, Transvaal
410 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
the sale of young trees, which is the largest revenue of any-
forest nursery in South Africa.
Government plantations have been established in the following
five localities : —
Lichtenberg.
Ermelo.
Pan.
Potchefstroom.
Belfast.
In these plantations excellent work has already been done.
It is anticipated that 2,000 acres will be planted next seasoii^
Hardly any Mexican trees have yet been planted owing to the
great difficulty in obtaining seeds of forest trees from that country.
Difficulty has been experienced also in obtaining Deodar and other
Himalayan seeds from India. A small plantation (350 acres),
successful but costly, near Pretoria, was taken over from the late
Government ; and a fine estate near Johannesburg heis been mape
over to the Transvaal Government by Messrs. Wehrner, Beit and Co.
A considerable portion of this princely gift has already been planted
with forest trees. Test planting is being also undertaken in and
around the indigenous forest at Woodbush, at Sabi and at Pil-
grim's Rest. Here the climatic conditions are of the best and
there is every prospect that some of the finest timbers of the extra-
tropics will succeed, notably many of the noble Conifers of Japan.
During its first complete working year the Transvaal Forest De-
partment raised if million young trees, and i^ million "were distri-
buted to the public and various Government institutions. There were
also nearly 1,000 lbs. of tree seed sold. In the various plantations .
there was a total area of 682 acres planted, the greater part of this
planting being at Pan, a favourably-situated locality on the Delagoa
Bay line, not far from Belfast.
Good progress has been made with the demarcation of the
indigenous forest in the north-east of the Transvaal, an area of
about 14,000 acres having already been brought into the Forest
Reserves. This forest possesses peculiar interest. It lies at an
elevation of from 4,000 to 6,000 feet, and marks the northern end
of the dense evergreen indigenous Yellowwood forest of South
Africa. North of this, across the great valley of the Limpopo,
occurs forest of quite another character, the dry, open, leaf-shedding
scrub-like forest of semi-tropical Rhodesia.
Timber Imported into the Transvaal.
In his last annual report, the Conservator of Forests gives the
following return of timber imported into the Transvaal : —
Unmanufactured. Manufactured.
1896 .. .. £271,868 .. .. £328,947
1897 .. .. 178,145 ■• •• 258,741
1898 . . . . 130,013 . . . . 217,447
1899 . . . . 74.258 . . . . 118,368 (6 months)
FORESTRY. 411
Unmanufactured. Manufactured.
1900
1901 .. .. £15,283
1902 • . . . 275,332
1903 ■ ■ • . 781,409
;f8,542
67,328
241,445
The forest estimates for the current year provide for an expen-
diture of £16,770 ; for the ensuing year (1905-1906) the estimates
amount to ;£25,ooo.
FORESTRY IN RHODESIA.
Here we have a country in which forestry should play an impor-
tant part. The natural timbers of the country are almost all
excessively hard, while the majority of them are not durable and
season badly. The larger portion of the high veldt of Southern
Rhodesia is covered with forest of an open character, which,^
though better than scrub, is far from being good timber forest.
Doubtless, it can be improved by demarcating out the areas
that are best wooded and best supplied with moisture, and
then husbanding the subsoil moisture by thinning into groups.
But very much must remain to be done by planting more valuable
exotic timbers, particularly Cedars and other timber of that class
which fall under the description of durable softwoods. We may
particularly mention several species of the genus Cedrela, Taxodium
mucronatum of Mexico, Cedrus deodara of the Himalayas, Callitris
calcarata and C. robusta of Australia, and lastly the slow-growing
true Cedars belonging to the genus Juniperus. A list of trees suit-
able to Rhodesia will be found in a report prepared by the author
for the Rhodes' Trustees in 1903. In this report are enumerated
440 valuable timber trees, which are more or less climatically suited,
to Southern Rhodesia. This list is divided into two portions, the
first embracing the more suitable trees, and the second comprising
trees which, although not entirely suited climatically to the country,
are worthy of test planting. Planting in Rhodesia is at present
' almost entirely confined to the Botanic Gardens at Bulawayo and
Salisbury, and the fine work initiated by the Rhodes' Trustees in
the Matopa Park. In his will, leaving the Matopa Park and its
road and railway as a gift to the country, Mr. Rhodes enjoined
the planting of every suitable forest tree in the Matopos. This,
injunction is now being carried out by the^ Rhodes' Trustees,
and the planting of the Matopa Park will, it is hoped, soon afford an
object lesson of the greatest value to the residents and others
interested in the country. The Matopa Forestry scheme embraces
the formation of a National Arboretum, which, for this semi-tropical
country, will supplement the extra-tropical arboreta in Cape Colony
and the Transvaal.
The first step to be taken as regards Forestry in Rhodesia is to
determine what areas should be definitely reserved as forest, to.
demarcate these out, and to protect them from fire.
412
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
AREA OF FORESTS— SOUTH AFRICA.
The following statement shows the area of forests in South Africa
brought up to May, 1905. This area includes the whole of South
Africa south of the Zambesi, with the exception of Rhodesia and
the Portuguese Territory, for which data are wanting. Though
there is much open forest in the Portuguese low country, and the
whole of the Rhodesian plateau is more or less covered with open
forest, it is believed that in neither country is there any appreciable
area of dense forest comparable to the Yellowwood forest of Cape
Colony, Natal and the Transvaal. This does not mean that there
is no valuable forest in Rhodesia. The Wanki Forest, yielding
Rhodesian Teak, may be cited as one of probably great economic
value, but the areas that it is intended to reserve as forests in
Rhodesia have not yet been demarcated, and I have no data, even
approximately, of their size.
Cape Colony.
Transkei : Demarcated, indigenous
Plantations (1,500 wattles, 562
timber)
Actual Forest area. Eastern (Cons. Rep.)
Plantations (including sand drifts
4,000 wattles)
Actual Forest area, Knysna (Fourcade)
Plantations . .
Forest Area, Western :
Plantations (excluding sand drifts)
Cedarberg Forest . .
Indigenous Yellowwood . .
Forests.
Acres.
102,000
168,000
90,818
116,494
1,555
478,867
Plan-
tations.
Acres.
2,062
8,877
905
11,691
23.535
If we allow another 27,500 acres for forests in the Transkei not
yet brought on to the Reserves, that would make a total of 529,902
acres of Government timber forest in Cape Colony : there are
413,408 acres of Yellowwood forest and 1-8,035 acres of timber
plantations exclusive of wattles.
The following may thus be stated as the approximate areas
under timber forest in South Africa : —
Acres.
529,902
Cape
Natal (excluding scrub forests) :
Old Natal
Zululand
40,000
50,000
90,000
FORESTRY. 413
Three-quarters of the Natal forests have been aUen-
ated, and of the 40,000 remaining one-third is on Native
locations. For the forests of Zululand 50,000 acres is
merely a very rough estimate.
Swaziland : Acres.
Numerous small detached areas, say . . . . 1,000
Transvaal :
Demarcated (1905) 14,000
The total area of Government forest is probably
about . . . . . . . . . . 20,000
Total Forest area of South Africa . . . . 640,902
Excluding the very poorly-stocked Cedar Forests
there remains of Indigenous Yellowwood Forest 524,408
With the exception of Cape Colony, Forestry in the various
South African States dates only from the reconstruction following
the war : and it is only in the Transvaal that there is, as yet, any
notable forest expenditure.
In Cape Colony systematic Forestry has been practised for
nearly a quarter of a century, during which time over a million
(£1,000,000) has been spent in the formation and conservation of
the forest estates, reckoning interest at 3J per cent. The value
of the Cape Forests is estimated now at about two millions
(£2,000,000).
The average value of the timber imported to Cape Colony is
estimated at £450,000 yearly, and the total South African timber
bill at i-^ millions (£1,500,000) yearly.
SECTION VII.— ECONOMIC— (co»/</.)
5. VITICULTURE IN CAPE COLONY.
By Professor P. Daniel Hahn, Ph.D., M.A., Professor of
Chemistry, South African College.
It was Van Riebeek, the founder and the father of the first
European settlement at the Cape, who planted the first vines in
Table Valley in 1653. These vines were brought to the Cape from
the banks of the Rhine, and, since they flourished very well, many
more vine sticks were brought in 1656, piincipally from the Rhine
and from France. We have no record as to what induced the first
commander to plant vines in the " Company's Garden." There are
a large number of wild vines in South Africa, and one variety par-
ticularly— Vitis capensis, bearing large grapes, which up to the
present day are used for making preserves — is met with in woods on
the slopes of the mountains of the Cape Peninsula. It is very
probable that Van Riebeek, a very keen observer of nature, finding
the wild vine on the Peninsula mountains conceived the idea of
trying in the new settlement experiments with vines from Europe.
The earliest account of a vintage is from the muscadel grape in
1659. It appears that the first settlers took up this industry
vigorously, for we hear that as early as 1681 the first wine-brandy
was distilled, and that in 1687 the total number of vines planted
in the vineyards of the settlers and in the Dutch East India Com-
pany's plantations was more than half- a- million.
It has been thought that the Huguenots brought with them the
art of viticulture, and also the principal varieties of vines which are
now cultivated in the Colony. But this is not so. The Huguenots
only arrived at the Cape in 1688, whereas the first vine cuttings
were introduced to the Cape twenty-five years earlier. The Hu-
guenot settlers certainly gave a powerful impetus to the cultivation
of the vine, and they have done much to improve the character of
the wines produced. Soon after their arrival French Hoek, Draken-
stein, and Paarl— the early Huguenot settlements — became, and
are still, the centre of viticulture in South Africa.
In 1710 the increase of cultivation was so great that, according
to a return furnished by the Governor of the Colony, Lowe van
Assenburg, to the Governor- General of the Dutch East India Com-
pany, the vines planted amounted to 2,729,300, and some small
quantities of wine began to be shipped by the Company to Java
and Europe. In those days viticulture was the most prominent
VITICULTURE.
415
branch of agriculture at the Cape, and a much larger proportion
of the population of the young Colony was engaged in this industry
than at the present day.
The vines cultivated at the Cape for white wines were known
as Steen, Green and Hanepot Grape, for red and dark wines Pontac,
Frontignac and Muscadel Grape. The original vines imported had
their character somewhat changed under different climatic condi-
tions and methods of cultivation, and it is now impossible to deter-
mine accurately the varieties of European grapes corresponding
with the above-mentioned Cape grapes.
In the year 182 1 the number of vines in the vineyards of the
Cape was 22,400,000 and the total quantity of the wine grown was
21,333 pipes. Very ftw people at the Cape are cognisant of the
fact that at the beginning of last century the wine export from the
Cape was very considerable, and that during the time 1815 to 1822
more wine from the Cape was imported into England than from
France.
The following table gives the quantities imported into England :
From France. From the Cape.
Year.
Tons.
Tons.
1815 .
2,116
1,512
1816 .
1,612
1,631
1817 .
802
4,218
1818 .
1,798
3,648
1819 .
1,543
1,648
1820 .
1,090
1,925
1821 .
1,057
2,113
1822 .
1,193
2,244
T
Dtal .
11,211
18,939
Although viticulture at the Cape now extends over many of the
south-western coast districts, and although the area under cultiva-
tion of the vine yearly increased, the export of Cape wine gradually
decreased, and represents at this time a truly " neghgible
quantity " in the exports of the Cape. For some time the
very existence of the vine was threatened when, in
1858, a certain destructive fungus, Oidium tuckeri, ap-
peared in the vineyards of the Cape. It was, however, found that
this fungoid disease was checked by the application of sulphur, and
by its proper use the crops were restored again. In December,
1885, the Phylloxera vastatrix was discovered for the first time in
the vineyards of the Colony, near Mowbray, and in several vineyards
of the Stellenbosch district. At first it was thought that the eradi-
cation of the vines in all infested areas would prove an effective
way of combating this pest. But it was soon evident that the
insect spread too rapidly, and the struggle against the Phylloxera
had to be abandoned. The experience gained in Europe with
grafted American vines, which resisted the attacks of the Phylloxera,
4l6 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
was then utilised at the Cape, and large nurseries of American vines
have since been established at Constantia, Stellenbosch and the
Paarl.
Although there is some fluctuation in the yield of the vineyards-
at the Cape, the Cape vigneron can always reckon on a crop which
amply repays his labour. According to official returns the Colonial
output of wines and spirits in 1889-1890 was 4,680,000 gallons of
wine and 1,115,308 gallons of spirits ; and in 1890-1891 it was
3>857,430 gallons of wine and 1,460,000 gallons of spirits. It is
due to the inevitable fluctuation of trade, caused by greater or less-
demand, that the crop of 1889-1890 was valued at £529,932 and
that of 1890-1891 at ;£33i,730. The last census returns (1900) show
the number of vines in the Colony to be 78,574,124, and the amount
of wine and brandy produced therefrom to be 6,012,522 and
1,423,043 gallons respectively. The prices ruling at present are
very low, and it is impossible to say how the newly-imposed excise
on brandy — viz., 6s. per gallon proof spirit — will affect the future
development of the industry.
The cultivation of the vine is met with in nearly all parts of
South Africa, but the production of wine is limited to the Cape
Colony. Even at Klein Wind Hoek, in German South- West Africa,
wine is produced, and the samples of wine which the author tasted
at some of the wine-stores of the settlers and of the Roman Catholic
Mission at Klein Wind Hoek were very fair considering the climatic
difficulties with which the growers have to contend. Table grapes-
are grown on some farms in the Transvaal and the Orange River
Colony, which favourably compare with the best grapes in the
Western Province of the Cape Colony.
In the Cape Colony the production of wine is limited to the
following districts : —
Districts with more than 10,000,000 vines : Paarl and
Stellenbosch.
Districts with from 1,000,000 to 10,000,000 vines : Cape,.
Malmesbury, Caledon, Worcester, Robertson, Oudts-
hoorn."
Districts with from 100,000 to 1,000,000 vines : Piquetberg,
Clanwilliam, Tulbagh, Swellendam, Riversdale, Lady-
smith, Prince Albert, George, Willowmore, Jansenville,.
Uitenhage.
The production in other districts, such as Uniondale, Graaff-
Reinet and Bedford, is insignificant.
Nearly all these districts are situated in the western part of the-
Cape Colony, in which the climate is more favourable to the cultiva-
tion of the grape than in any other part of the globe. Here we have
in spring a sufficient number of fine days with bright sunshine and
also as much rain as will cause a very vigorous development of the
buds, and a most luxuriant growth of the young shoots. Towards
summer bright sunshine reigns supreme, but the humidity of the
air is still sufficient for the further growth of the bunches, which
VITICULTURE. 4I7
in January and February mature under an almost cloudless sky
and in a tropical temperature.
A very great contrast exists in the climate of the western and
eastern part of South Africa ; whereas the climate of the Western
Province is distinguished by a wet and cold winter and dry and
warm sumnier, the eastern -part of South Africa has a dry and cold
winter and a damp or wet and hot summer. The heavy rain in
summer in the eastern part frequently destroys the grape crop
almost completely, and much damage is done nearly every year by
heavy hailstorms accompanying the tropical thunder weather. In
addition to these climatic drawbacks the' eastern part of South
Africa is more frequently exposed to visitations by enormous
swarms of locusts, whose tracks are marked by the absence of
everything green.
The viticultural districts in the Western Province may be suit-
ably divided into coast districts and inland districts, being distin-
guished from one another by the nature of soil and climate, and
consequently also by the mode of cultivating the vineyards.
The principal coast districts are Malmesbury, Cape, Paarl,
Stellenbosch and Caledon ; all other wine districts may be called
the inland districts. The soil in the coast districts is formed from
the disintegration of granite, clay, slate and sandstone, and rarely
contains as much as i per cent, of lime. The best vineyards in
these districts are situated on the slopes of granite hills or moun-
tains such as those of Constantia, Bottelarij, Moddergat, Jonker's
Hoek, Simons Berg, Paarl, Drakenstein, Groeneberg, Riebeek
Kasteel, Paarde Berg and Groene Kloof. Also at the Cape the truth
of the words Bacchus amat colles has been observed, inasmuch, as
the wine grown on hills is of a much superior quality to the product
obtained from vineyards in the valleys — " vleys," where the
wine thrives in a rich alluvial soil, yielding large luscious grapes
containing much albuminous matter, which, however, renders, the
manipulation of these wines more difficult than the wines grown on
hills.
The stiff, clayish soil on the hills and in the vleys of the coast
districts possesses a wonderful power of retaining moisture, in conse-
quence of which there is no need for irrigation. It is true the rain-
fall in the coast districts is a little greater than in the inland districts,
but the difference in the mode of cultivating the vineyards is more
due to the difference in the physical and chemical conditions of the
soil. In the inland districts the vineyards are in the plain or in
valleys where irrigation can easily be carried out. The loose,
somewhat calcareous soil in these districts does not retain moisture
to the same extent as the stiff clay soils of the vineyards in the
coast districts, and the grapes in the inland districts do not come
to perfection unless the vineyards are irrigated two to four times
according to the porosity of the soil, and also in most cases according
to the available supply of water, which is either collected in dams
or obtained through furrows from rivers or rivulets in the vicinity.
The yield of the vineyards in the coast and inland districts varies
DD
4iS
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
very considerably, inasmuch, as the quantity of wine obtained from a
given number of vines in the inland districts is on an average more
than double the quantity of wine obtained from the same number
of vines in the coast districts.
In the Cape, Stellenbosch, Paarl, Malmesbury and Caledon
districts the average annual yield is i^ leaguers* per i,ooo vines,
corresponding with 86J hectoliters per 10,000 vines, which are, as a
rule, planted in Europe on i hectare of land. In the Worcester,
Robertson, Montagu and Oudtshoorn districts the yield is generally
3 leaguers, and even more, per 1,000 vines, which corresponds with
173 hectoliters per 10,000. But there are many wine farmers in
Montagu, Ladismith and Oudtshoorn who obtain as much as 5
leaguers from 1,000 vines, corresponding with the fabulous quantity
of 287 hectoliters per 10,000 vines. These inland districts are more
suited for the production of sweet vines, brandy and raisins, whilst
the wines of the coast districts are very light, containing about the
same amount of alcohol as Rhine wine, unless they are fortified by
the addition of brandy, an operation which is quite needless if only
proper care and cleanliness is observed in the making and manipu-
lation of the wines.
It is of interest to compare the yield of the Cape vineyards with
the yield of vineyards in the chief wine-producing countries of the
world ; the following data are taken from the standard work on
viticulture by the late Baron von Babo of Klosterneuburg, near
Vienna : —
Hectoliters
per Hectare.
Hungary (1861-18
Hungary (since a
Germany
Austria
Switzerland
72)
Dpearar
ice of phylloxera) .
24
6
24
. i4-i8i
42
France
. 18-22
Italy
Spain
Greece
Mi
17
17I
Algeria
United States
254
142
Australia
Mi
Cape Colony, Coa
Inla
st disti
nd dis
'icts
tricts
86i
^73
The productive power of the vineyards of the Cape greatly
exceeds that of any other viticultural country in the world, a fact
which has not yet been properly turned to account in the economics
of the country. The area under cultivation of the vine in the Cape
Colony is comparatively very small, the export of wine is insignifi-
cant, and the whole industry has been since the appearance of the
*A leaguer is a Colonial measure equal to 127 imperial gallons, or s-j'^
hectoliters.
VITICULTURE. 419
Phylloxera in a critical condition. In the opinion of the author
and others this critical condition has been considerably aggravated
by the imposition of an extraordinarily heavy excise on brandy, the
effect of which xmdoubtedly will be to discourage many farmers in
the inland districts, where mostly brandy is made, from restoring
their vineyards by grafted American vines after the old vineyards
have been destroyed by the ravages of the Phylloxera.
However favourable the beautiful climate of the western part
of the Cape Colony is for the luxuriant growth of the vine, it mili-
tates against the making of wine of the delicate bouquet which is
so characteristic of the ' wines made on the Rhine, in Northern
France, Austria and Hungary.
At the Cape the grapes ripen in midsummer heat, and the first
fermentation is a rather tumultuous process, which proceeds at a
high temperature and is over in four to eight days. The young wine
has of course lost a large amount of the more volatile bouquet com-
pounds which cannot be restored again. On the Rhine the grapes
are gathered on the approach of winter. Many cellars must be
artificially heated to bring up the temperature to the proper fermen-
tation temperature. The first fermentation is a very slow process,
which goes on for six to eight weeks at as low a temperature as
possible, and the young wine retains all volatile compounds which,
under proper manipulation, develop into that beautiful bouquet
which fills the connoisseur with admiration and inspires the poets
with enthusiasm. Formerly — that is, before 1880 — the Cape
wines were heavy and more or less fortified by the addition of
brandy. It remains the great merit of the first Colonial wine expert.
Baron Carl von Babo, to have demonstrated and introduced the
method of making light wines — white and dark wines — ^with a
minimum amount of alcohol. Although these wines are wanting
in bouquet, for reasons explained above, they compare in every
other respect very favourably with Rhine wines ; they are light,
wholesome, and deserve the patronage of all who wish well to the
wine industry of the Colony. For the sake of comparison a few
analyses made of light wines, 1904 vintage, from Klein Constantia
and Stellenbosch districts are given ; the data referring to Rhine
wines are taken from the standard work on viticulture by Baron
von Babo (1883, page 807) :-
Total
Alcohol.
District and Name.
Acidity.
volume
Ash.
per cent.
per cent.
per cent.
Wines from Klein Constantia :
Stein
. -574 •
■ 13-25
. . .164
Stein
. -536 .
. 12.88
.170
Hermitage
. .605 .
. II.41
.200
Wines from Stellenbosch District :
Stein
. -575 •
. 12.69
-- -151
Stein
. -585 •
• 11-77
- • -199
Stein
. .585 •
. 13.06
. . .171
Hermitage
. .762 .
. 10.96
. . .250
DD 2
420
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Total
Alcohol.
District and Name.
Acidity.
Volume
Ash.
'
per cent.
per cent.
per cent
Rhine Wines :
Deidesheimer
. . .68 .
12.33 •
. .21
Steinberger
■ • -75 •
12.64 •
. .22
Rauenthaler Berg
• • -75 •
12.36 .
• -17
Riidesheimer
.. .78 .
10.57 ■
. .19
Forster Jesuitengarten
.. .63 .
II. 16 .
. .25
Schloss Johannisberger
• • -57 •
12.09 •
• -17
Markobrunner . .
. . .79 .
12.10 .
. .30
The quality of the hght Cape wines is steadily improving, be-
cause most wine farmers are beginning to take more care in the
making of wine by paying attention to the proper stage at which,
the grapes must be gathered, by keeping the temperature in the
fermenting casks as low as possible, by the use of atteihperators
and, above all, by observing greater cleanliness in all operations.
The Cape climate brings all those grapes to perfection which
are used for making sweet wines, ports and liqueur wines at the
same time. We shall not be able to gain a footing with our light
wines in the European market, but sweet wines, ports and liqueur
wines, such as can only be made in warm climates, as at the Cape, are
the brands by which the Cape wine industry will re-conquer the
export trade, which it possessed nearly one hundred years ago, as
soon as it has passed through the present critical condition brought
about through the appearance of the Phylloxera in the Cape vine-
yards.
Shortly after the Phylloxera was discovered at the Cape, in
December, 1895, seeds of Ame^rican vines were imported into the
Colony and planted at the Government Farm, Groot Constantia,
for the purpose of establishing a large nursery of American vines
to supply the wine farmers of the Colony with cuttings for the
reconstruction of their vineyards. Although it was well known
at the Cape that in all European wine-producing countries afflicted
with Phylloxera all attempts to eradicate Phylloxera had proved
futile, it was still hoped that by using very stringent measures of
quarantine in connection with the fruit trade, by destroj/ing affected
vineyards, and in other ways, it would be' possible to destroy the
Phylloxera at the Cape. These hopes have not been realised. In
order to save the wine industry all vineyards destroyed by Phyl-
loxera have to be replanted with American vines, on which our
varieties have to be grafted.
It had been observed in Europe that the American vines were
not affected by Phylloxera, and that American vines on which
other varieties were grafted were likewise immune, and remained
immune. Large areas of devastated vineyards have subsequently
been replanted in the European wine-producing countries, and the
wine farmers of the Cape have now to follow the example of their
confreres in Europe.
VITICULTURE. 421
There exists a large number of varieties of American vines which
may be used as stocks to graft on, but it appears that they differ
very considerably as to their suitability for different soils and the
different varieties of grapes. Only by patiently and properly-
conducted experiments is it possible to ascertain which of the
American vines has to be used for certain soils and for certain grapes.
This important question has not received sufficient attention
yet at the Cape, and our knowledge of this subject is at present
very meagre indeed. Some important facts, however, have been
brought out with reference to the vineyards on the stiff clay soils
of the coast districts, and they have served the farmers in their
work of reconstituting the devastated vineyards on this soil. But
much has to be done yet in this direction, because at present we do
not know which American vines are to be used for the Hanepot
grape and the Muscadel grape, both grapes being highly valued
for making sweet wines. We may expect that under the direction
of Mr. R. Dubois, the Government Wine Expert at Groot Con-
stantia, this important question will receive the fullest attention.
There are large nurseries under the management of the Agricultural
Department at Constantia and at Stellenbosch, the mother planta-
tions at Constantia covering 5 acres and at Stellenbosch 13 acres.
The cuttings sold last year were as follows : — From Groot Con-
stantia, 577,600 thick and 153,000 thin cuttings of Rupestris
metallica, which has been found to be most suitable for clay soils ;
from Stellenbosch, 133,825 thick and 39,000 thin of Rupestris
metallica, 23,097 thick cuttings of Jacquez, 281,100 thick and
11,400 thin cuttings of Aramon rupestris, and 235,938 thick and
1,501 thin of Riparia Gloire de Montpellier, together 1,456,455
cuttings. A large proportion, however, of these cuttings perishes
in transport, others do not take the graft, some die when planted
out in the vineyards ; only about 40 per cent, of all the cuttings
finally form the stocks of the grafts in the new vineyards. Last
year a new plantation of 12 acres was set out at Groot Constantia,
from which a limited number of cuttings will be available for dis-
tribution next season. Many of the reconstituted vineyards have
been in full bearing for some years. The same observation which
has been made in Germany, Switzerland, France and Austria with
reference to the quality of the wine obtained from grafted stocks
has also been made here, namely, that there is no essentia^ difference
in the quality of wines obtained from grafted stocks and original
stocks, except that the wines obtained from grafted stocks are
somewhat lighter in alcohol. This is principally due to the larger
production of grapes of the grafted stocks and a smaller amount of
sugar in the grape juice of the ripe grapes. However, by training
and pruning a vine the production can be reduced and the amount
of sugar in the ripe grape increased. On account of the enormous
growth of the grafted stocks they are planted at a greater distance
than was the case in the oM vineyards, in which the vines were
frequently planted at a distance of 3 by 3 feet or 3 by 4 feet, giving
an area of 9 and 12 square feet respectively to each vine. The
422 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
grafted American stocks are, on an average planted 5 by 5 feet,
giving each vine an area of 25 square feet. Since there is more
room between the vines the working of the ground, the pruning and
sulphuring of the vines, and other operations can be more effectually
carried out in the new vineyards than in the densely-stocked old
vineyards.
Viticulture in Cape Colony is at present passing through a very
severe trial, and it will take still many years before the Phylloxera
will have run its course and destroyed the last vine of the old stocks.
The replanting of the vineyards is a slow process as compared with
the simple methods of planting a vineyard in the ante-Phylloxera
days. For some years, whilst the diseased vineyards are being
taken out and the new vineyards planted, the wine farmer has no
revenue from his industry, and must try to work his way through
as well as he can, but not all are able to bear the strain.
The only redeeming feature in this affliction of the wine industry
is that the production of the new vineyards is in quality and quan-
tity not inferior to what it was before. The wine industry brought
here by the founder of the European Settlement of the Cape,
Commander Jan Anthony Van Riebeek,is not doomed to destruc-
tion, but all who are more intimately acquainted with the past and
present of this industry are confident that there are still bright days
in store for the Cape wine farmers — that is to say, for the survivors
of the present critical times.
SECTION \ II.— ECONOMIC— («"/</.)
6. THE SUGAR INDUSTRY OF NATAL.
By a. N. Pearson, Director of Agricultural Experiments
AND Chemistry, Natal ; and
Alex. Pardy, Analyst, Department of Agriculture, Natal.
An industry which is capable of putting on the market £600,000
worth of produce in one year, which maintains in active work thirty
mills, having a total capital value of £1,000,000, and employing
nearly 8,000 persons, which keeps under cultivation about 33,oco
acres of land, and which has at its doors a market of the present
value of £1,250,000, must be regarded as an important one. Such
is the Natal sugar industry, which from very small beginnings
fifty-five years ago has grown to be one of the principal rural indus-
tries of South Africa.
The history of this industry has been written more than once.
An excellent account of its rise and progress was prepared twelve
years ago by Mr. David Don for the Official Handbook of the Cape
and South Africa, edited by John Noble, 1893 (J. C. Juta and Co.,
Cape Town). This account, with but few alterations, would almost
serve to describe the industry to-day. Mr. Don made quotations
from Holden's History of Natal, 1855 ; Notes on Natal, by Robin-
son ; The Natal Journal of 1858 ; The Colony of Natal, by Dr.
Mann, 1859 ! Report of Indian Immigrants Commission, 1885-7 '<
and the Svtgar Cane Magazine, 1892. An early reference was made
to the industry by George Russell in his History of Old Durban,
1855 ; a description of it from the pen of Mr. William Campbell
appeared in Davis' Almanack of 1874 ; and in the numerous volumes
of the official Statistical Year Book of Natal its gradual growth may
be traced.
Historical.
Sugar cane appears to have been grown in Natal before the
advent of the white man. In the early days a variety of sugar
cane was found to be grown in small quantities about the kraals
of the Chiefs, the Zulus calling it umoba. It is believed by some
that the early European settlers brought this cane into industrial
cultivation, the variety now known as Green Natal being considered
to be its lineal descendant. This view is countenanced by Mr.
Medley Wood, who states that the native umoba was cultivated by
424 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Morewood in 1852, and that he has been unable to trace any other
origin for Green Natal. On the other hand, Mr. Wm. Campbell,
writing in Davis' Almanack of 1874, suggested the possibility oi-
another variety having descended from the indigenous cane.
" China cane," he wrote, " is now universally used in land that
will not bear other cane well. Whether it is the real China cane
is a moot point. Some say it was in the country many years ago,
long before cane-planting was thought of." Be this as it may,
the first recorded attempt of the European in Natal to grow sugar
cane for industrial purposes was in the early days of settlement.
Natal was proclaimed a British Colony in, 1843 ; it was consti-
tuted a separate Government in 1848 ; and between 1848 and 1850
thirty-five vessels arrived bearing Byrne's 3,792 immigrants, who
swelled the European population to 7,600. It was at this early
period that the sugar industry was started. Holden in his History
of Natal, written in 1850, stated (we quote from Mr. Don's article) :
" Sugar is now beginning to attract attention, and it is thought it
may grow advantageously. One gentleman has planted several
acres. Two years ago {i.e., 1848) I purchased a few plants which
were brought to this place from the Isle of Bourbon. I planted
them in two different situations ; one failed, the other brought
forth abundantly, producing canes 6 feet long and 6 inches in circum-
ference." The gentleman who had planted " several acres " was
Mr. Morewood, of the Compensation Flats on the Umhlali, 35 miles
north of Durban, and it is to him that the honour of founding the
industry is ascribed by old planters.
" Mr. Holden's dates are not very precise," writes Mr. Don,
" but we gather that the Compensation Plantation was begun in
1849, and that Mr. Morewood's first crop was reaped in 1851 the
implements employed in the manufacture being a pair of wooden
rollers, hewn from an old mast, for crushing the canes, and an ordi-
nary Kafir cooking-pot, of about- 3 gallons capacity, for boiling the
juice. Thus was obtained the first sample of indigenous sugar in
Natal."
According to Mr. Mack, of Isipinga, 15 miles south -of Durban,
three of the settlers in that district, namely, Messrs. Piatt, Burket
and himself, in 1852 sent a cart and oxen to Compensation Flats to
obtain cuttings from Mr. Morewood, and obtained from him four
varieties, named Bourbon Yellow, Purple, Ribbon, and Green Natal..
They themselves gave the name to the latter variety. They paid
£2 per 1,000 for these cuttings, and brought away 3,000 or 4,000.
The Isipingo Flats soon became an important centre of the young
industry, and we read that in 1858 there were in Durban County
alone twelve sugar mills and 1,490 acres under cane. These were
chiefly on the Isipingo Flats or on the Umgeni, immediately to the
north of Durban. In the Victoria County there were only four or
five mills at that time, but the average acreage of cane to each mill
was greater than in the Durban County. Plantations and one or
two mills had been started further south also, at Umzinto and near
the mouth of the Umkomaas.
SUGAR INDUSTRY. 425
The early machinery used was primitive ; the first rollers were
of wood — Morewood's, as already related, having been made out
of a ship's mast ; but iron rollers worked by oxen were early intro-
duced, and these in their turn were soon superseded by steam-
driven machinery. In George Russell's History of Old Durban,
written in 1856, it is stated that H. Milner and J. B. Miller— of the
Redcliffe Estate (?) — in the year 1855 " started new machinery to
demonstrate the conversion of cane juice into sugar by steam."
The machinery was small, but its introduction was regarded as a
notable event in the history of the young Colony. The report of
the day ran as follows : — " The beautiful little steam engine (the
first introduced into Natal) and the wonder-working centrifugal
machine displayed their powers to perfection, and excited the
delighted surprise of all present. A quantity of thick, dark-coloured
syrup was poured into the inner perforated cylinder of the centri-
fugal, and in exactly four minutes after the revolutions commenced
(of which there were 1,700 every minute) the syrup was converted
into a beautiful sample of bright, dry yellow crystallised sugar,
equal to the finest qualities imported from Mauritius. In seven
minutes the same syrup was converted into sugar of still finer
quality, almost white in colour and far superior to the imported
article. Several quantities were sold, the price averaging 303. per
cwt."
The progress during these early years was not an untroubled ,
one. As was natural in a hilly country the favourite lands for first
cultivation were the river flats. The cane was planted in the flats
and the mills also for convenience of haulage were built on the same
level. The result was that the cane was liable to injury from frost,
and both crops and mills were in frequent jeopardy from floods.
Fire also from the grass burnings, practised then as now, often
swept through the cane crops. The injury from floods was serious.
The mill at Springfield, in the bank of the Umgeni was, says Mr.
Don, " almost totally destroyed by the great flood of 1856. The
Umgeni rose 28 feet, and not only submerged the Springfield cane
fields, but rushed through the factory to a depth of 9 feet and,
among other havoc made, carried the heavy battery of boiling pans
clean out of the masonry. On the same occasion another sugar
mill was similarly destroyed on the banks of the Umhloti." A
glimpse of the condition of the country in those days is furnished
by an incident of the flood at Springfield^ when an elephant, trumpet-
ting furiously but vainly struggling, was swept past the factory by
the irresistible flood.
It can be well imagined that difficulties innumerable arose from
want of knowledge of the technicalities of the industry. The
planters at first knew little about the cultivation of the cane, and
practically nothing about the processes of sugar extraction. But
probably their chief troub'es were financial. Mr. Wm. Campbell,
writing in Davis' Almanack of 1874, said :— " This was a poor
country, and without credit, at least for purposes of agriculture.
The little money there was was under the control of a few, who gave
425 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
or withheld as seemed to suit themselves ; 12 per cent, to 14 per
cent, per annum was the rate of discount at the banks, 7^ per cent,
per annum to the merchant for his name to discountable paper,
10 per cent, commission for selling sugar. Sugar sold at four
months' credit. Goods bought at an advance of 5 per cent, to 10
per cent, on market price, depending on the kind of dinner the
agent had overnight, for planters were bound to purchase from him
at whatever price his lordship might condescend to fix." A few
years later the planters suffered from the opposite evil of a glut of
money. Back managers, anxious to find investments, induced
planters to launch out beyond their strength, with the result that
several were ruined when the re-action set in. In many
cases estates changed hands, passing to mortgagees,
absentee proprietorship being thereby introduced. From
this the industry suffered in various ways. To quote Mr.
Campbell : — " A creditor, being mortgagee, or company or
other, insists upon all sugars going to one particular market,
no matter whether it be the worst — whether to England, the Cape,
or elsewhere, it must be sent where the mortgagee or the director
or his agent may realise a commission on the sale. It frequently
happens also that the mortgagee or the director or his agent are
troubled with a love of meddling, and write to the manager, or go
on to the estate and tell him what to do, when to crush, when to
plant, and give directions generally as to what is to be done ; and
the proprietor may obey to his loss any such directions, being fast
bound by the creditor."
Notwithstanding these many obstacles the industry owing to
inherent fitness grew steadily until it attained such dimensions
that it reached the limits of available labour, and was prevented
from further expansion and even threatened with extinction from
the want of hands to keep it going. To a new arrival it must
always seem remarkable that with a teeming black population
exceeding the whites ten-fold a labour difficulty should exist in
this country. But so it is and has been for years. The aboriginal
is not a worker ; his ancestors have been fighters for generations,
and he has not inherited the instincts of labour. He is able bodied,
hardy and enduring, and in many directions teachable, but he
wearies of sustained exertion and nothing but compulsion, physical
or moral, would cause his race to devote itself to steady work.
The Kafir works by fits and starts, but the sugar industry requires
reliable labour. To meet this requirement the Government in
1859 legalised the importation of indentured coolies from India,
and the first shipment arrived in i860. By the year 1866 5,600
Indians, men and women, had been introduced.
Whatever may be the ultimate effect on the country of this
introduction of coolie labour — and the effect must be very con-
siderable, for the Indians, mostly free, now in Natal exceed in
number the Europeans — there is no doubt that it had a most salu-
tary immediate effect on the sugar industry, and not only on this
industry but on the general prosperity of the country also. Mr
SUGAR INDUSTRY. 427
J. R. Saunders, of Tongaat, speaking as a member of the Indian
Immigrants Commission of 1885-7, ^^i^ '^^ the subject : — " The
question resolves itself into this : can the Colony afford to put a
check on production, and what effect would this have on the revenue
or progress and the employment of Colonists ? I view it as affecting
Colonial industries and their development in the broadest sense,
as a question affecting the progress of the Colony, its revenues,,
public benefit and comfort, and, above all, as being the most practi-
cal way yet suggested in which white Colonists may secure profit-
able occupation in a Colony situated like ours. If we look back to
1859 we shall find that the assured promise of Indian labour resulted
in an immediate rise of revenue, which increased four-fold within
a few years ; mechanics found their wages more than doubled, and
progress gave encouragement to every one from the Berg to the sea.
A few years later well-founded alarm arose that it would be sus-
pended. Simultaneously down went revenue and wages, immigra-
tion was checked, confidence vanished, and retrenchment was the
main thing thought of. Some years later — in 1873 — a fresh promise
of renewed Indian immigration created its effect, and up again went
the revenue, wages and salaries, and retrenchment was soon spoken
of as a thing of the past."
The Indian question has been and still is one of prime impor-
tance to the Colony. Its prominence is shown by the fact that
since 1859 ^^ ^^^^ than thirty-three laws relating to it have been
passed by the Legislature. The indentured cooly is a valuable and
steady labourer, intelligent, industrious and generally to be trusted
in his work. But the free Indian seldom works as an agricultural
labourer for the white man, though he offers himself in limited
numbers for higher classes of work. Generally he acquires land of
his own, principally in the coast belt, where he now cultivates 44
per cent, of the total acreage under crop. The Indians have multi-
plied exceedingly since their first introduction, and now number
100,918 as compared with 97,109 Europeans. In fact, they now
equal in number the estimated native population at the time of
the founding of the Colony. Whether the free Indian will in time
become an important source of agricultural labour for the European
is a moot question.
Shortly after the first introduction of Indian labour two attempts
were made to interest the Kafirs in sugar growing by providing them
with mills of their own, in order apparently to see if they could be
trained to habits of industry by being allowed to work for them
selvei. Mr. Don states that the idea was attributed to Sir George
Grey, who visited the Colony— once in 1855, and again with Prince
Alfred in i860. The first mill was erected at Umvoti in i860, but
had not " even moderate success " until 1870. For some years it
was under European control, and in 1872 produced 150 tons of
sugar from cane grown by forty-seven natives on 300 acres of land
The factory still existed in 1893, being then in the hands of two or
three natives, who paid Government one shilling a year rent for it.
It has since closed. The second mill was started as a result of
428 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
missionary effort. It was erected in 1865 on the American Mission
Station at Amanzimtote, at a cost of £700. It was the first and only
steam sugar mill owned and managed by natives. In 1867 it sent
sugar to the Paris Exhibition. It survived seven or eight years,
and then died a natural death.
Notwithstanding the various obstacles — flood, fire and frost,
want of knowledge, want of money, glut of money, inadequate
labour, and financial crisis — the struggling planters persevered in
building up the industry, and in the year 1864 it made an important
advance, the output of that year being " three or four times that
of any previous year." In 1867 a duty of 3s. 6d. per-cwt. was im-
posed on imported sugar. In 1868 rum began to be exported,
" Mr. Thomas Reynolds," says Mr. Don, " being among the first,
if not the first, to recognise the distillery as a necessary complement
to the sugar factory." In 1869 the census showed that there were
15,892 acres under cane, of which '5,757 were cut by Europeans and
164 by the natives at Umvoti and Amanzimtote ; 7,823 tons of
sugar were produced and 34,778 gallons of rum. The yield of sugar,
not counting that in the molasses, was, it will be noticed, at the rate
of ij tons per acre harvested. In 1870-1 the opening of the Kim-
berley diamond fields gave a general stimulus to South Africa and
enlarged the market for Natal sugars, so that whereas in 1870 only
three factories possessed vacuum pans, by 1873 nine more had
installed them. A few years later the attention of the Mauritius
planters seems to have been directed towards Natal as a new field
of operations, and a few of them together with some trained sugar
artisans settled in Natal, introducing their expert knowledge into
the local industry. Concomitantly with this immigration there
was erected in 1877-8 the first large sugar mill in Natal. This was
the Natal Central Sugar Company's factory at Mt. ^dgecumbe
It was built under the supervision of Mr. Alfred Dumat, from
Mauritius, and was fitted up with machinery also from Mauritius.
The machinery, though not new, was up to date and in advance of
anything previously in Natal. The mill had a capacity of 20 tons
of sugar a day, or 5,000 tons in a season. It was intended to be
worked as a central factory, but from the outset the Company had
themselves to grow cane in order to supplement the supply from
planters.
Up to this time a:ll internal transport had been done by ox
wagon, but in 1876 the railway from Durban to Maritzburg was
commenced, and was opened in 1880. In 1879 a short line was
opened along the north coast from Durban to Verulam. But it
was not until 1891 that, in order to meet the rapidly-growing
requirements of Witwatersrand goldfields, to which a rush had
taken place in 1886, the main line was completed from Maritzburg
to the border at Charlestown. The sugar industry responded to
the growing demands of the neighbouring market and to the in-
creasing facilities of transport, and by 1892, 26,000 acres were under
cane, and the output of crystallised sugar in that year was approxi-
mately 18,000 tons.
SUGAR INDUSTRY.
429
Simultaneously with this growth of the industry, there was a
course of development — observable in all progressive sugar countries
— from numerous small factories to a fewer number of large factories,
the latter effecting a more thorough extraction and a less working
cost per ton of sugar. The mills used m the early days were capable
of crushing only half a ton of cane a day. In the Isipmgo district
alone there were at one time seventeen of these little mills, every
planter being his own manufacturer. To-day there are m that
district only two factories, one capable of crushing 175 tons of cane
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SUGAR INDUSTRY. 43 1
far as planting and milling operations are concerned, it does not
differ in any important features from the cane sugar industry in
other countries. The varieties of cane and the details of cultivation
have, of course, been selected to suit local circumstances ; and the
present condition of the work in the mills is a natural outcome of
the historical development of the industry.
Varieties of Cane. — Besides the Green Natal, supposed to be
indigenous, many imported varieties of cane have been introduced.
At one time a variety known as China cane was extensively grown,
but it suddenly succumbed to a species of smut, UsHlago sacchari,
and had to be discarded. The other varieties tried are princpa ly
Lousier, Fotiogo, Bois-rouge, Imperial, Tamarand and Belle-ougete,
said to be from Mauritius ; Ribbon, Bourbon Yellow and Bourbon
Purp'e, probably from Bourbon ; also White Queen (one of the
best in good seasons). Port Mackay, Gold Dust (white and red), and
Rose Bamboo. None of these are now generally cultivated ; they
have almost everywhere been supplanted by a variety the correct
name of which is unknown, but which is here called Uba — a name,
it is said, formed of the only letters remaining legible on a damaged
label attached to the variety on its first arrival in the country.
Mr. Jledley Wood thinks it was introduced by Governor Sir Charles
Mitchell who, on returning from a visit to India in 1884-5, brought
two Wardian cases containing cane plants, only three of which were
alive. These were propagated by Mr. Wood, the resulting plants
being given to Mr. Anthony Wilkinson. It is generally admitted,
however, that this cane was introduced in quantity by Mr. De Pass,
of the Reunion Estate. From a milling point of view this cane is
undesirable ; it is thin, tough, wiry and fibrous, and the juice needs
special care in the treatment — mill managers say that from 10 to 30
per cent, more mill power is required for this cane than for any
other variety. But the planters like it, since it eiidures the un-
certainty of the Natal climate better than any other variety yet
tried ; it is hardy, bears frost and drought, stools prolifically,
recovers readily from locust attacks, is subject to no fungus pests,
and but little damaged by white ants and the borer. Recently it
has been successfully grown on the highlands of the interior as a
forage for cattle.
Within the last few years several varieties have been introduced
from the West Indies, British Guiana, Mauritius, Queensland and
Honolulu, the Department of Agriculture having co-operated with
the planters for their importation. The Inanda Association have
taken a leading part in this movement, and several of the canes
have been propagated for distribution on their behalf by Mr. H. W.
James, of Verulam. Some of these from the West Indies were
recently sampled by the Department of Agriculture and analysed.
Hitherto it has not been the custom to analyse Natal canes, the
chemist in fact being but little recognised by the industry, and
therefore no exact comparison of the juice of the different varieties
as grown in Natal can' be niade. The following few statements of
analysis are, however, available : —
432
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Uba
Cane.
Average.-
Maximum,
Total solids in juice per cent.
Sucrose
20.32
18.61
22.79
20.79
Glucose
.18
.27
Non.sugars
Glucose ratio
1-53
I.OO
1-73
1.30
Purity
Per cent, of juice in cane
91.6°
84.28
91.2°
82.30
Fibre in cane
15.72
17.70
B.109
D.95
B.15
15-31 •
. 17.04 .
. 16.78
12.68 .
. 15-83 .
. 15-19
1.78 .
.28 .
-37
.85 .
■93 •
1.22
14.17 .
. I .78 .
2.46
82.8° .
. 92.9° .
. 90.6°
The above analyses show a large proportion of fibre in the cane,
but indicate no inferiority in the juice ; in fact, the quality of the
juice so far as disclosed by the analysis would not be readily sur-
passed anywhere.
The West Indian canes grown by Mr. James for the Inanda
Association, though sampled unseasonably, gave results as follow : —
Total solids in juice (per cent.)
Sucrose
Glucose
Non-sugars
Glutose ratio
Purity
These three juices were, it will be seen, dilute, but the purity
and glucose ratio of the last two sarhples was good. In fact, the
analyses generally show that so far as quality of juice is concerned,
the soils and climate of Natal admit of cane being grown here as
well as anywhere.
Soils. — The soils of the planting districts vary considerably,
there being light grey sands, red sands, light loams, chocolate loams,
sandy clays of all degrees of texture, grey alluvials and black
alluvials. Many of these soils may be on the one farm and even in
one cane field. The prevailing soil is a red or chocolate ferruginous
sandy loam, light in texture and easy to work when once broken up.
This class of soil is often very fertile when first cleared of bush, and
has been known to give yields in good seasons of 4 and 5 tons of
sugar crystals per acre from the plant canes. At one time the cane
was grown exclusively in the alluvial fiats, spme of which have been
in continuous cultivation for forty years, and still yield well. But
many are of poorer quality, and as crops grown in them are subject
to flood and frost, it has been found advantageous to plant on the
hills, even on the steeper slopes where only hand labour can be
applied. According to Mr. Wm. Campbell, " tambootie grass "
land is excellent for cane.
Preparation of Ground. — In newly-cleared bush land the canes
may be planted without ploughing. The bush having been cut,
the timber stacked and the scrub burnt, holes may be grubbed out
with hoe and axe, and the cane planted straight away. Grass land,
however, requires to be broken up, allowed to lie for a time, and then
SUGAR INDUSTRY. 433
cross-ploughed and harrowed. For planting old cane lands the
ratoons are ploughed out — with the mould board plough, and
recently with the disc plough — and the land is then cross-ploughed
and harrowed.
Manures. — Very little manure is used other than mill refuse,
but in the neighbourhood of Durban stuff is carted out from the
Corporation stables, and in a few cases small quantities of artificials
and bone dust are applied. Experiments now being conducted by
the Department of Agriculture both on the Coast Experiment Farm
and on private farms suggest that many of the cane lands may be
materially benefitted by the judicious application of phosphatic
manures.
Planting. — The cane is planted in rows 5 or 6 feet apart, or even
nearer in poor land, and further apart in very rich land. The land
is either drilled out with the drill plough working 9 or 10 inches deep,
or it is holed out in lines by hand hoes, the holes being made i foot
wide, 8 or 10 inches deep, and i| to 2 feet long, a space of from 6
to 18 inches being left between each. Sometimes whole canes are
used for planting, these being laid two together in the drills, or the
canes are cut into lengths of 5 eyes to each ; many, however, prefer
only the tops which are cut off when the canes are being harvested
for the mill. These are laid, two, three or four together, in the
holes or drills, at distances of i to 2 feet apart. The cuttings or sets,
having been planted, are loosely covered with about an inch of soil.
As the young shoots grow up the covering of soil is increased until
the drills or holes are filled. The shoots appear in from ten to
thirty days according to the weather and the vitality of the sets.
The general time for planting is August to September, but it may
be done as late as December and January.
Weeding and Trashing. — The weeds are kept down until the cane
has grown sufficiently to cover the ground. Later on the crop may
be trashed or not according to individual preference and the labour
available. Trashing, by which term is meant stripping off the dead
leaves and leaving them to rot on the ground between the rows, is an
operation regarded as essential in nearly all cane-growing countries,
the object of it being to open out the crop to air and sunshine
the latter especially being considered beneficial in promoting sugar
formation. In Natal the utility of the operation is by many called
in question, more especially as applied to the thin-leaved Uba cane,
and it is undoubtedly the case that many excellent crops are grown
with no trashing save one shortly before harvesting. Where labour
is scarce trashing has been done with the Inciter, the dead leaves
being swept off by fire. But this burning is universally condemned
by the central mills, for as might be anticipated it injures the work-
ing quality of the juice. The question of trashing will be investi-
gated at the Coast Experiment Farm.
Harvesting. — The crop is ready for harvesting in from twenty to
fwenty-four months. This remark applies not only to the first
cutting — the plant canes — but also to the subsequent ratoon crops.
Thus if five cuttings are obtained from the one planting, that is to
EE
434 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA
say one qatting of plant canes and four cuttings of ratoon canes,
the crop may occupy the ground ten years. In other countries the
usual time for maturing is from twelve to fourteen months. So
long as land is plentiful a cutting every two years has no grave dis-
advantage, but with increased settlement and higher land values
it would be a distinct gain if the period could be shortened. The
question is one for investigation at the Experiment Farm. The
average time of maturity is said to be from the middle of September
to the middle of December, but cutting generally commences in
August and continues into January ; indeed, the shortness of
labour and limited capacity of many of the mills often cause the
harvesting to extend over nine months or even right through the
year. With a growing industry this shortness of mill capacity, with
its obvious disadvantages, must always be experienced. It is a
defect which time alone can adjust.
The cut cane, having been divested of its leaves and suckers,
is put into trucks which run on tram lines, portable or permanent,
and is hauled off to the mill, or to the main railway, for transport
to the nearest central mill. Animal power is generally used for
hauling on these tram lines ; but on some estates, such as those of
Reynolds Bros., Ltd., at Esperanza, Messrs. Pearce Bros, at Lower
Illovo, and the Reunion Estate (Mr. De Pass) small locomotives are
employed. The Natal Government Railway carries cane from the
estates to the central mills at special rates. Last year it carried
57,575 tons in this way, a revenue of ;^i,334 being earned thereby,
the average distance of haulage being ii miles.
After the cane has been cut, the trash or dead leaves is raked to
the middle of the space between the rows, being afterwards buried
after rotting or raked back when the ratoons are above ground ; or
the trash between the first and second row is raked over into the
space between the second and third row, and so on, so that every
alternate space is left free for cultivation. In some cases the trash
is burnt just as it lies on the ground, the practice being advocated
as a means of destroying grubs. The ratoon crop which springs up
is treated in every way the same as the first crop after planting.
From two to four ratoon crops may be taken, but each succeeding
one is less in quantity than the first. From the figures available
showing the yield of cut cane to the acre, it appears that the average
probably does not exceed 25 tons ; 30 tons is considered a first-class
crop, though on newly-cleared bush land 60 tons and more have
been obtained.
Factory Operations. — The treatment at the mill differs in no
important respect from that in other countries. At all the factories
the Cane is crushed, the diffusion process not having, been introduced
into Natal. The following brief resume of the operations at one
of the largest factories will give an idea of the treatment at other
large factories. At the smaller mills the operations are of course
less complete. At this factory, which has a capacity of about 260
tons of cane per diem of twelve hours, cane from outside suppliers
is bought by weight at a uniform price per ton, but if the juice falls
SUGAR INDUSTRY, 435
below an arbitrarily fixed Beaume standard, a reduction is made in
the number of tons credited. The cane is tipped from the trucks
on to an endless carrier which conveys it to the mill. The mill is
double, consisting of the first three rollers, an intermediate carrier
for maceration, and the second three rollers. It is reckoned that
65 per cent, of juice is obtained out of Uba cane, and 70 to 75 per
cent, out of softer canes.
The juice, after straining, is sent from the mill tank by a monte-
jus to the sulphuring tank, from whence, after injection of sulphurous
anhydride and heating, it is passed to the tempering tanks, where
it is limed until neutral ; it then circulates through three vertical
heaters, passing afterwards to subsiding tanks ; from these the
clear juice is syphoned off and gravitated to the quadruple effect,
the bottoms being pumped into filter presses, from which the juice
runs to the quadruples, the cake being thrown to the compost heap.
From the quadruples the concentrated liquor goes to subsiders, and
the clear liquid from these passes to the vacuum-pan feed-tanks,
from which it is sucked into the vacuum-pans. There are in the
factory in question three of these pans, two of copper, of 4 and 6
tons capacity, and one of iron, of 20 tons capacity. From the large
iron pan the massecuite is dropped into a mixing tank, and from
this it passes to six water-turbine centrifugals. The massecuite
from the copper pans goes to ten smaller centrifugals, driven by
belting. The first sugars from the centrifugals are marketed for
direct consumption. From the molasses four other grades of sugars
are obtained and these are sent to the refinery. The fuel used
for the boilers is the megass — the exhausted cane from the mills —
supplemented by a proportion of coal. At most other factories
megass alone is used, efiftcient megass furnaces being installed. To
prevent over straining of the roller mills toggle gearing or hydraulic
attachments are adopted in some cases. At several factories various
trade preparations of phosphoric acid are added to adjust the neu-
trality of the juice after liming and before defecating. Taylor bags
are still commonly used instead of filter presses, the bags being in
some cases supplemented by " eliminators." At the Esperanza
factory a Yaryan double effect has been installed. Generally
speaking the large factories are up to date, so far as the machinery
and processes are concerned. The principal central factories,
naming them from north to south, are the Tinley Manor (Messrs.
Hulett and Sons, Ltd.), recently erected, with machinery from
McOnie, Harvey and Co., Glasgow, capacity 200 tons of cane per
diem of twelve hours ; the Tongaat (Tongaat Sugar Company,
Ltd., Managing Director, Mr. E. Saunders), fitted with machinery
from the Mirrlees Watson Co., Glasgow, capacity 270 tons ; the Mt.
Edgecumbe (the Natal Estates, Ltd., Managing Director, Hon.
Marshall Campbell, M.L.C.), the earliest central factory in Natal,
fitted with machinery from Mauritius, capacity 300 tons ; the
Reunion Estate (Mr. De Pass), with Jones and Abel's green megass
furnaces and Wetzel evaporators, capacity 180 tons ; the Isipingo
(Mr. Piatt), with toggle gearing to the mills, and machinery by
EE 2
436 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Manlove AUiott and Co., the Mirrlees Watson Co., and others,
capacity about loo tons ; and the Esperanza Estates (Messrs.
Reynolds Bros., Ltd.), with toggle gearing to rollers, Yaryan
evaporators and electric-driven centrifugals, capacity about 220
tons. In 1876 a Fryer's concretor was installed by the Umhloti
Sugar Company, and by its use from 1.72 lbs. to 1.86 lbs. of sugar
per gallon of juice were obtained on the average of two seasons.
It is stated that it takes variously from 12 to 20 tons of Uba
cane to produce one ton of crystals. A first-class factory has been
known to obtain i ton of crystals from 12^ tons of Uba cane as a
season's average ; that is to say, every 100 tons of cane produced
8 tons of crystals. These crystals, of course, would not be pure
sugar, they would probably contain 7f tons pure sugar. Assuming
the cane to have contained originally 13^ per cent, of sugar, there
would have been obtained 13^ tons of pure sugar from 100 tons of
cane had it all been extracted. What, then, became of the balance ?
In the absence of systematic chemical examinations it is impossible
to say, but probably 3 J tons passed away in the megass and were
burnt, J ton was lost in the filter residues and waste waters, and 2^
passed away in the molasses. The latter is not lost as there is a
good market amongst the natives for molasses. At the small mills
worked by the planters themselves it very likely, as an average,
requires 16 tons of Uba to produce i ton of crystals. With other
canes a good factory has been known to produce i ton of crystals
from less than iij tons of cane as a season's average. The most
serious loss at the large factories is in the megass, and the only known
way of preventing this is by the adoption of the diffusion process.
Besides the factories there is at the South Coast Junction a
refinery belonging to the Natal Estates, Ltd., and managed by
Mr. John L. Malcolm ; it has a capacity of 6,000 tons refined sugar
per annum, and is fitted with thoroughly modern refinery plant
from D. Stewart and Co., of Glasgow.
Present Output and Market. — According to the Statistical Year
Book of 1903, there were harvested in that year 32,830 acres of cane
from which 441,555- tons of cane were crushed, 31,628 tons of sugar
produced and 34,050 tons of molasses, part of which were converted
into 70,717 gallons of rum. The value of the products (not count-
ing the rum) was put down at £608,200. According to these,
statistics the average yield per acre harvested was 13I tons of cane,
.96 tons of sugar crystals, and (supposing the molasses to contain
40 per cent, crystallisable sugar) .56 tons of sugar in the molasses,
making a total yield of 1.52 tons of sugar per acre harvested. It is
doubtful if the statistics give a correct statement of the area cut,
and therefore the above yields per acre must be taken as a somewhat
uncertain estimate. Possibly the true averages may be somewhat
higher than here stated, for it seems likely that the statistical
returns in some cases include the whole area under cane, not merely
the area cut.
The total output is considerable, and for some years has been
showing an upward course. The British and South African Export
SUGAR INDUSTRY.
437
Gazette estimates that since its start fifty-five years ago the Natal
sugar industry has contributed ;fii, 000,000 sterhng to the Colony's
wealth.
The value of the South African market is indicated by the
statistics showing the total sugar consumed therein. The sugar
consumed includes that produced in Natal and that imported from
oversea. The statistics of imports and exports of sugar into and
from Natal in 1904, as furnished by the Collector of Customs, were
as follows : —
Refined Sugar
Unrefined Sugar . .
Golden Syrup
Glucose
Saccharum and Molasses
IMPORTS.
3,434,455 lbs. worth
14,043,723 ,,
i,J57,iii ,,
125,745 ■■ ..
138,035 ,,
i
23.107
80,315
11,074
606
73r
.^115,833
Oversea :
Refined Sugar
Unrefined Sugar
Golden Syrup
Molasses and
Glucose
EXPORTS.
Natal Produce. {,
15,902 lbs. worth 13G
9,685,368 ,, ,, 81,404
42.935 .. .. 246
107,005 ,,
Total Value
358
;£82,I44
Imported Produce. £
55,575 lbs. worth 334
208,876 ,, ,, 1,363
4,700 ,, ,, 52
43*3 .. .. 6
,£1.7=; 5
Overland :
Refined Sugar
Unrefined Sugar 31,155,562
Golden Syrup 123,000
Molasses
4,309,020 lbs. worth 38,570
Total Value
223,149
1,320
^263,039
933.337 lbs. worth 7,467
3,471,245 „ ,, 18,903
960,478 ,, „ 9,073
1,385 .. .. 15
;£35.45S
The oversea exports were practically all to South African ports
or used as ships' stores.
The imports other than from Natal into the Cape and Delagoa
Bay for 1904 were as follow : —
Total imports into the Cape (estimated from
eleven months returns) £617,771
Imported from Natal 81,870
Sugar other than from Natal
Total imports into Delagoa Bay
Imported from Natal
Sugar other than from Natal
£535.901
? £1-251
1,196
I 55
438 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The sugar produced in Natal in 1903 was worth ^^608,200 ; and
its production in 1904 is likely to have been worth not less than
;f 600,000. The total sugar consumption in South Africa in 1904
may therefore be shown as follows : —
The Natal production . . . . . . £6oo,ooc
Imported into Natal . . . . . . . . 115,832
Imported into the Cape, from elsewhere than
Natal 535.901
Imported into Delagoa Bay from elsewhere
than Natal 55
Total consumption in South Africa . . £1,251,789
This figure represents the present value of the market available
for Natal sugar. It is evident that if the Natal output were double
what it is it would still find a local market. That market is pro-
tected by an import duty of 3s. 6d. per 100 lbs. on raw sugars and
5s. on refined, and by differential rates for Colonial produce on all
South African railways.
The further expansion of the industry will depend not only or
the increase of area under cane,- an increase which will soon take
place by the opening up of Zululand, but also on the increase ol
the yield of cane per acre, the shortening of the period of growth oJ
the crops, the increase of the sugar contents of the cane, and on the
more complete extraction of the sugar. The increasing of the
yield, the shortening of the period of growth and the increase of the
sugar contents are matters for experimental investigation and
systematic selection of canes, work for which an Experiment Farm
has been started by Government at Winkle Spruit, near the mouth
of the Illovo River on the South Coast. The more complete extrac-
tion of sugar from the cane will result from the increasing use oi
large central factories, and also from the introduction of the chemist,
At present, except for the refinery, the chemist is ignored by the
Natal sugar industry ; but the results obtained in Australia, at
Hawaii, in the United States, and in other countries where the
chemist is systematically employed are being watched in Natal,
and it is not unlikely that before long a sugar chemist will be im-
ported as an experiment by one of the larger mills.
SECTION VII.-ECONOMIC-(«/;/,/.)
7. TEA CULTURE IN NATAL.
By a. S. L. Hulett.
Early History.
It appears from records that the first tea-plants grown in
Natal were introduced from Kew in or about the year 1850.
They were supposed to be of the Indian variety, but subsequent
knowledge has led me to the conclusion that they belonged to
the China variety. The plants grew healthily, and propagations
from them were tried in a small way in the Victoria county
and other parts of the coastal districts of Natal. It was not,
however, until more than a quarter of a century later that tea
culture was taken up practically in Natal.
From causes well known to the oldest residents of the Colony,
the Coffee Industry of Natal, which, until the years 1877-78, was
in a most flourishing condition, suddenly failed, and it . became
necessary for those who had capital invested in that enterprise to
look out for some other means of livelihood. It then occurred to
my respected father Mr. (now Sir) J. Liege Hulett, who was at
the time Chairman of the Lower Tugela Planters' Association,
that as the tea plant, though of inferior "jat," flourished in
several parts of Victoria County (and in no instance had there
been any failure in its growth), that it was only a question of the
introduction of the proper class of plant in order to establish a
new industry. The matter was brought before the Lower Tugela
Planters' Association, and the late James Brickhill, of Umbilo,
having kindly offered his own services and those of a friend in
Calcutta to obtain seed, and have it attended to on the way over,
the Government was approached to render some assistance.
They acceded to the request, and provided freight from India to
Durban in the chartered steamer " Umvoti." A small syndicate
was formed to defray the cost, and the seed upon arrival was
divided pro rata according to amount invested by each member,
the largest share falling to the proprietor of the now well-known
Kearsney Estates. The seed left Calcutta about the beginning of
January, 1877, was landed from the "Umvoti" about the 13th
of March of the same year, and planted out in nurseries as soon
as it arrived.
Unfortunately about the time that these plants were planted
out the District was visited by a severe drought ; the consequence
440 SCIENCE IN' SOUTH AFRICA.
was that the greater portion of the seedlings were destroyed, only
1,200 plants surviving out of the 4,000 which were successfully raised
from the imported seeds. The seriousness of this loss can better
be appreciated when it is borne in mind that the surviving plants
would have to attain the age of three to four years before any
mature seed could be obtained from them. It was, therefore, not
until the year 1880 that the first seed was gathered from these
trees, and then there was only enough to plant five acres. As a
consequence no serious attempt to extend the cultivation was
made until the year 1881, and again great difficulties had to be
overcome, drought and insect pests destroying a large percentage
of the young plants. It was, indeed, not without many dis-
couragements that the Tea Plant ultimately became established
and increased from the first 1,200 plants, covering a little over
half an acre, — which, by the way, are still to be seen in a healthy
and vigorous condition, some of them having reached a surface
diameter of 12 feet — to the large area under cultivation now
covering some 4,000 acres.
Varieties of Tea.
There are two main varieties of tea under cultivation in the
tea producing countries of the world, namely the China and the
Assam, and there are many hybrids between these. The two
varieties were at one time regarded as distinct species under the
names Thea Chinensis and T. Assamica, but no tea has yet been
discovered growing wild in China, and botanists are now inclined
to regard the indigenous tea of Assam as the parent species of all
- cultivated varieties.
The variety introduced into Natal from Kew in 1850 was — as
I have already stated — probably the Chinese, though it was at the
time supposed to be Assarnese. The ■Varieties introduced in 1877-8
were pure Assam from the Rookang Estate, and a China-Assam
Hybrid from the Longeeburr Estate, of the Assam Tea Company
in India. Experience has shown that the Assam Indigenous is
the most suitable variety for the tea districts of Natal ; but owing
to the ready cross fertilization of the tea blossom, there is probably
little or no pure Assam seed now obtainable in Natal, and
most of the estates are planted with tea of various degrees of
hybridization.
Method of Raising Tea.
There are several methods of propagating the tea plant. First,
from seed planted at stake, i.e., direct from the .pod to the site
where it is to grow ; second, from seedlings planted out in nurseries ;
and, third, from sprouted seed, i.e., seeds planted thickly in beds,
with a thin layer of earth over, them to sprout them. Each of
these three methods has its advocates, but no hard and fast rule
can be laid down, as so much depends on the time of year and
the weather when laying out the garden. If the ground be ready
when the seed is ripe one cannot do better than plant at stake.
TEA CULTURE. 44I
It would be advisable, however, to plant three or more seeds
in one hole, thus insuring at least one plant winning through,
though it will -often be found that the whole of the seeds planted
will survive in one hole, whilst in the next all will have perished ;
thus the advantage of having more than one plant in the neigh-
bouring hole will be apparent, for the overplus are available for
transplanting on a wet day to the vacant spot. It often happens,
however, that the land is not ready when the seed is ripe ; in that
case it is necessary, in order to preserve it, to plant it out in
nurseries, where it will germinate and grow into a plant of some 3
inches to 4 inches high ; this is the best height for planting out.
The other plan of planting sprouting seed commends itself to
many, and if the season is favourable good results are obtained.
In each case all the plants should be well shaded with leaves or
grass, and these shades should be allowed to remain until the plant
is well grown.
The distance between each tea-bush varies from 4 ft. x 4 ft. to
4 ft. X 5 ft. The latter distance is, to my mind, preferable, as
giving the plant more room to develop a good wide surface or
" top," an object which should always be aimed at, for it is from
this wide surface that the " flush " is obtained.
Soil.
The soil most suitable to the successful cultivation of tea is a
sandy loam, with sandstone formation. Open grass land also gives
good results, provided it is of a sandy nature and without a clay
or shale sub-soil. Red chocolate soil, if not too heavy, is often
found to yield excellent results, though the tea plant takes longer
to establish itself, but when established will often give heavier
crops than on the first-mentioned class of soil. Tea plants can be
grown in almost any part of Natal, but this fact should not be
taken as an indication that it can be grown to pay in every part.
Climate and altitude are important factors, and unless those are
suitable, the leaf production will be restricted, thus making all the
difference between profit and loss. A fairly reliable test as to
suitability of soil is to ascertain first the best soil for sugar growing,
and then avoid it for tea ; for, as a rule, tea will not thrive where
the sugar cane is most at home.
Age of Plants.
The tea plant comes of age, so to speak, from four to five years,
but plucking may be commenced at 2^ to 3 years. At this age it
may be reckoned that it just pays its way ; great care, however,
should be exercised that the plants are not overplucked when so
young, as the tendency would be to dwarf them for all time.
Pests.
The tea plant, like, everything else in Nature, is not without its
enemies, though, so far as our experience goes in Natal, it has but
comparatively few. The principal disease found in the tea plant
442 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
is what is commonly called Red Spider, a minute insect whicl
attaches itself to the leaf, giving the bush a red appearance
Though the death of the plant rarely if ever follows the attach
made upon it by this insect, ail leaf production is instantlj
checked, and when a large area is infected great loss is incurred
In the past Natal tea gardens have not been attacked to any grea1
extent, but during the last two seasons considerable loss has been
experienced. This pest is common in Assam and Ceylon, and a1
times so serious does it become there, that whole gardens are cul
down, and the bushes burnt, to free the remainder of the estate
from the blight. To the unitiated this would appear to be rathei
a drastic method of dealing with the disease, but the destruction oi
the plant does not follow, it soon shoots up again, and in a couple
of years is again productive. Another remedy I believe will be
found. Mr. Claud Fuller, the Government Entomologist, has
suggested sulphur, and if the pest again makes its appearance this
remedy will be applied. The Red Spider usually makes its appear-
ance about the middle of the plucking season, and lasts about three
months ; heavy rains have been found to clear the tree of the
blight.
Altitude.
The altitude best suited to tea is about i,ooo ft. above sea level.
I do not wish it to be inferred that it will not grow to pay at a
lower level, but, that being the altitude of the most successful tea
gardens in Natal, one is led to regard it as the most advantageous.
The general features of the land at this altitude are usually of an
undulating nature, and well watered, the climate sufficiently
humid to encourage leaf production, whereas, at a higher altitude,
humidity, which is essential, seems to be lacking. Weather plays
an important part in the successful growth of tea, plenty of heal
and moisture are both necessary, and this state of climate is to be
had on the coast of Natal, though recently it has been favoured
with more heat than moisture. The average yield per acre oi
made tea in Natal is approximately 600 lbs., though when the lane
is very rich and conditions favourable, as much as 1,200 lbs. maj
be obtained, but this is exceptional. The importance of high
cultivation cannot be too strongly urged, and it may be truly said
•of the tea bush, " the more you do for it the more it will do foi
you." It may be safely said that the life of a tea planter is more
to be desired than that of most occupations, inasmuch as wher
once a tea garden is established, it is there for all time. Tht
risk from fire and flood is reduced to a minimum, its greatesi
enemy being drought. The anxiety attendant on sugar-growing
is non-existent, it being impossible to burn a tea plantation, and
the locust swarm has no terror for the tea planter.
The plucking season commences from September, and lasts tc
the beginning of June, and during that time each tea bush ii
plucked about 16 times — to use a technical term, 16 flushes ar(
obtained in the season. The slack time, if such there be, is full}
TEA CULTURE. 443
occupied in pruning the bushes, a most important item in tea
culture. The coming season crop may be made or marred by the
manner in which this process is carried out, and the knowledge of
which can only be gained by practical experience. The
object aimed at in pruning is to thin out the growth which
takes place during the summer months, and which, owing
to the constant plucking, becomes very dense and matted.
There is a great difference of opinion as to the best
manner of pruning, some advocating "heavy pruning," which
consists in cutting the plant back and leaving very little
vegetation; others believe in "light pruning," i.e., leaving as
many leaves and cutting away as few branches of the tree as
possible. In some cases heavy pruning is a necessity, as from
constant pruning year after year the plant becomes knotted and
gnarled, so that a thorough cleaning out is imperative. The tea
plant, if allowed to grow unchecked, would reach a height of from
20 ft. to 30 ft., but the trained plant is encouraged to spread
rather than ascend, and is kept at a uniform height of about
2 ft. 6 in. After pruning, which should be over by the end of
June, or middle of July, the ground ought to be hoed over, and the
prunings or lopped branches and leaves, buried, thus returning to
the soil some of the constituents which the plant has taken from
it. This process is best done by means of forks or pronged hoes,
so as to avoid the roots of the plants being cut, which would be
the case if an ordinary hoe were used. The cutting or bruising of
the roots should be avoided if possible, for every root so damaged
will send out a " sucker," which will drain the parent bush, resulting
in a loss of leaf.
Manuring.
It is a well known axiom that if something is taken from the
soil its equivalent must be returned, and this can only be done by
means of fertilisers. Hitherto chemical manures have been but
little used on Natal tea gardens, and their suitability has yet to be
proved; not that I have any doubt of their adaptability, but, so
far as my experience goes, the quantity required per bush to give
the desired results would be too costly, and thus counterbalance
any gain which might accrue. The old-fashioned farmyard manure
has done good service, and to my mind, if this were available in
sufficient quantity, nothing better could be desired. It has the
advantage over all artificial manures of being bulky, and, when
buried at the root of the bush, retains moisture for a- considerable
time.
Plucking.
Reference has already been made to plucking, which commences
in September and lasts until June. The first "flush" is usually
ready for picking about the 7th or loth of September. A " flush"
is the term used to signify the leaf which is suitable for the
manufacture of tea, and which consists of three or more young
SCIENCE IN' SOUTH AFRICA.
growing in one single tender shoot. It is not generally known
he different qualities which are to be bought at every grocer's
le product of the same bush, and are gathered and mann-
ed simultaneously, the younger the shoot the higher the
of tea ; thus the bud or uncurled tender leaf goes to supply
the broken or Orange Pekoe, known locally as "Golden
," and the next leaf in size and age goes to make the next
and so on, down to the oldest leaf and lowest grade. It is'
is, therefore, that if the youngest leaves only were plucked,
er grade of tea would be made, but would, in consequence,
t the output. The flushes recur at intervals of about ten
iccordihg to the weather, and if the tea garden covers a large
; would often happen that as soon as the first flush is plucked
ne to commence again. Indian labour is employed in the pluck-
nd the Indian women are eminently fitted for this branch of
dustry. The average quantity of leaf brought in per man per
about 361bs., which represents gibs, of manufactured tea, the
•tion of green leaf to made tea being 4lb. to lib.
Manufacture.
thout being too prolix I will give a rough outline of the pro-
: inanufacture. The leaf is brought into the factory twice a
; being gathered either in baskets or sacks ; these are weighed
tely, so as to detect any shirking of duty ; and the leaf is
arried up to the "withering" loft. The first process after
ng is to wither the leaf, this takes from 12 to 14 hours,
iing to the state of the weather, which can hardly be too hot
iltry for the purpose. What is called a "good wither" is a
ua non for good tea-making. The correct condition of the
tien well withered is ascertained by the feel, which should be
id silky to the touch. From the withering floors the leaf is
to bs "rolled," this being done nowadays by machinery,
has superseded the old method of hand rolling, the process
: half-an-hour. From the rolling-machine it has to go
h the stage of fermenting, or correctly speaking oxidising.
is no fixed time for this process, as it is hastened or retarded
condition of the atmosphere, a inugfgy day gives the best
and the proper state of fermentation is known by the colour
"mash" or rolled leaf, which should change from the
1 green to a bright copper. It is an interesting fact that the
copper colour of the well fermented "mash" when dried or
I is retained after it is dry and can be seen in the infused
at the bottom of every family teapot. The " firing " or
is done in machines of various patterns and designs, each of
has its individual merit, the object being to desiccate without
ing or burning, and to avoid this, great care and attention
mbent on the part of the man who t6nds the machine.
lave now given you a description of the four different
ses which together comolete the manufacture of
TEA CULTURE. 445
tea, viz., withering, rolling, fermenting, and firing. For all
practical purposes the article is now fit for consumption.
When arriving at the last mentioned stage it contains all the
different qualities which have to be separated and graded. This is
accomplished by means of "Tea sorters," or an arrangement of
sieves of different size mesh, the finer mesh separating the higher
qualities. After the sorting process has been gone through the
tea is ready for packing and despatch to market.
Natal tea has a distinctive character of its own, and while it is
not so pungent and harsh to the palate as Indian and Ceylon tea,
for which reason it is considered by so-called experts to be of
inferior quality, it is in reality a more wholesome tea to drink than
either of the Indian teas before mentioned, as it contains a much
lower percentage (as much as 7^ per cent, less) of tannic acid, and
it is richer in caffein, which is the stimulating principle of tea
and coffee, whilst tannin is the most unwholesome.
A blend of Natal and Indian tea is being at present forced
upon the Colonial market. Whilst this may be a sound and
successful commercial venture it is not, to my mind, calculated to
further the progress of the Natal tea industry, for it procures a
market for the teas of outside countries which should be supplied
by the Natal grown article. This practice is being resorted to, not
because Natal teas fail to find favour with the consumer, but
because the demand is beyond the present supply. If those who
are engaged in this hybrid trade were to concentrate their energies
and capital in increasing the output of Natal tea they would be
conferring a lasting benefit on the Colony.
Natal is capable of producing every ounce of tea consumed in
South Africa, as the following figures will prove. There are at
present under cultivation approximately 4,000 acres of tea, and
the total output for the Colony is 2,000,000 lbs. The quantity of
tea imported into Natal for home consumption during the year
1902 was 145,000 lbs., and for the whole of South Africa, via
Cape ports and Durban 6,134,697 lbs., thus showing that Natal
does not produce more than one-third of the total requirements
of South Africa. It will, therefore, be seen that to produce
enough tea to satisfy the present South African demand, from
12,000 to 13,000 acres of land need only be brought under cultiva-
tion, assuming that the rate of yield per acre is the same as at
present realised. In fact there is far more land available in
Victoria County alone than these figures represent, to say nothing
of other parts of the coast district of Natal and Zululand. To
•emphasise the capabilities of the Colony in this respect I need only
mention that the area of Victoria County is 1,290 square miles,
and the Magisterial Divisions of Alexandria and Eshowe comprise
an area of 779 and 690 square miles respectively, making a total of
2,759 square miles. I do not wish it to be inferred that all this
land is suitable for tea growing, but I wish to point out that a
belt of tea land extends right through the area mentioned.
Sufficient land to supply all the tea consumed in South Africa at
446 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
the present time can be found in the Division in which I live, but
I regret to say that most of it is in the hands of absentee
landlords.
Conclusion
To render this paper of some practical use to intending tea
planters, I will give an estimate of the cost of planting 2O0 acres
of tea and of bringing them to the reproductive stage, leaving out
the purchase price of the land, which, in these days of gold
discovery and land speculation cannot well be arrived at.
I will assume that the garden is opened out in June, 1905.
1st Year's Expenses, from June, 1905, to June, 1906.
Cleaning, Ploughing, Holing and Planting 200
acres, at 65s. per acre . .
Cost of Plants, per acre 20s.
3 Weedings, at 4s. per acre each, 123.
Cost of Tools and Implements
£650
0
0
200
0
e
120
0
0
60
0
0
£1,030
0
0
16, 1907.
£160
0
0
150
0
0
30
0
0
£340
0
0
2nd Year's Expenses, from June, 1906, to J^me, 1907.
4 Weedings, at 4s. per acre each, i6s.
I Hoeing between Plants, at 15s. per acre
Cost of Tools, etc. . .
yd Year's Expenses, from June, 1907, to June, 190S.
4 Weedings at 4s. per acre each, i6s. . . . . ;fi6o 0 0
I Hoeing between Plants, at 15s. . . . . 150 0 0
Tools, etc. . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 0 0
£340 o o
Total Cost for 3 years . . . . £1,710 o 0
Return from sale of tea at end of 3rd year
40 lbs. tea per acre — 8,000 lbs. at 6d. per lb. £200 0 0
It will be seen from the foregoing that by the end of the third
year's operations, a revenue of £200 is derived, which goes a long
way to pay working expenses of that year ; and this amount may
be augmented by planting catch crops of maize or beans between
the tea plants without any injury to them, if carried out in moder-
ation. By the end of the fourth year one may reasonably expect
TEA CULTURE. 447
a yield of 250 lbs. per acre of made tea, or, say, £1,250 worth of
tea for the whole garden. In the above estimate I have not gone
into the question of manufacture, as this should, in my opinion, be
treated as a distinct concern, the cost of machinery, and working
of same, being kept separate.
Now, having given the characteristics and requirements of the
tea plant, it only remains for me tb add the necessary attributes of
a successful tea planter : plenty of penries, patience and
perseverance.
SECTION VIII.—EDUCATIONAL AND HISTORICAL.
I. NOTES ON THE HISTORY AND STATE OF EDUCATION
IN CAPE COLONY.
By Thomas Walker, M.A., LL.D., Professor of Philosophy,
Victoria College, Stellenbosch.
To make a succinct statement of the conditions and arrange-
ments for education throughout a wide territory is always difficult.
The difficulty is greater than usual in the case of Cape Colony owing
to various circumstances. The Colony of the Cape of Good Hope
counts already more than two hundred and fifty years of European
occupation, and during that time there has been a less or more
sustained effort to make provision of a sort for education. But the
historic Castle of the Cape of Good Hope, which was Van Riebeek's
settlement, has been remarkable chiefly as a point of departure for
ever-widening explorations and settlements ; and these were often
made under conditions not at all favourable to education. To the
difficulties arising from the circumstances of a very much scattered
population there fall to be added those connected with its curiously-
mixed racial elements. In addition to the two leading white races,
English and Dutch, there are some not inconsiderable elements from
other European countries ; and there are the multifarious native
races with their very various physical and mental characteristics
and possibilities. To frame a system of education which should
cover with an elastic and adaptable network a population existing
under such difficult and diverse conditions has been the aim of the
successive heads of the Department of Education in Cape Colony.
Very briefly to sketch this system in its history and its present form
is the purpose of the present paper.
A. The Early Days.
From the beginning of the European settlement under Van
Riebeek in 1652 the Governor and Council of the Cape kept an eye
upon education. Not only were the children of the factory and
garrison and settlers provided for, but there were regulations for the
baptism and instruction of the natives (slaves) employed by the
individual settlers and in the service of the Dutch East India Com-
pany. When it is remembered that the Castle in Cape Town was
chiefly regarded as a factory and calling station, where vessels,
might take in supplies on their way to the Dutch East Indies, it
becomes easier to understand that exploration, prospecting, big
game shooting and farming over vast sheep and cattle runs, opened
EDUCATION IN CAPE COLONY. 449
o;it the country in many directions, without giving it those settled
conditions in which education is likely to prosper.
It must be constantly borne in mind that during the Dutch
occupation the population, except in the small south-west corner
of the Colony, was exceedingly sparse. The few comparatively
important centres of population were the places which had been
chosen as locations for churches ; and the area which the Dutch
Reformed minister had to superintend and visit resembled a diocese
rather than a parish. Each of these church-villages had its school,
generally taught by the parish clerk, and largely dependent for its
prosperity upon the amount of interest taken in it by the clergy-
man. In the first hundred and fifty years of the Colony — that is,
down to the English occupation, at the close of the eighteenth
century — only seven congregations or parishes of the Dutch Re-
formed Church had been fully established, the most distant of these
from Cape Town being Graaff-Reinet and Swellendam. In the
numerous out-stations of these parishes small centres of population
had been gathering strength; and, accordingly, we find that in the
first twenty-five years of the nineteenth century nine new congrega-
tions (with their full ecclesiastical and educational machinery) were
established. The foundation of Grahamstown, in 1812, and the
arrival of the Settlers in 1820, mark the beginning of the colonisation
of the Eastern Province.
B. The Herschel System.
The increase of settled centres of population and the need thence
arising for better educational facilities led to various proclamations
and ordinances for regulating education being issued from time to
time, as by Commissary De Mist (during the Dutch re-occupation,
1803-1806) and Governors Sir John Cradock and Lord Charles
Somerset. In 1839 ^^- J- Rose-Innes was appointed the first Super-
intendent of Education, and it was under his supervision that effect
was given to the so-called Herschel system of Colonial schools.
The draft scheme had been set forth in a long memorandum from
Sir John Herschel, addressed to the Governor in 1838 ; and the
Superintendent of Education appointed in accordance with that
memorandum reduced the recommendations of Sir John Herschel
to a working system.
The teachers in the schools under the Herschel system were to
be appointed and paid by the Government, and transferred at its
choice. Besides the drawback that the teachers in these schools
were thus apt to lose touch with the people of the district, there was
the fact that the number was felt to be sadly inadequate ; and the
system was almost from the beginning supplemented by grants-in-
aid to Mission schools and to schools among the scattered farming
population.
In 1859 Dr. (afterwards Sir) Langham Dale was appointed
Superintendent-General of Education, and almost immediately a
Commission was appointed to revise and extend the system of
public education.
FF
1865, which substituted for the " Estabhshed " schools of the
Herschel system a system of schools in which (so far as the white
population of the Colony was concerned) the principle was adopted
of making grants-in-aid from public funds for the establishment
and up-keep of schools wherever a committee elected by a body of
local guarantors could be formed. Special regulations were made
for schools of a humbler class under the management of mission-
aries of the various Churches, and for schools among the aborigines,
in the Native Territories, which were from time to time brought
under the jurisdiction of the Governor of Cape Colony.
Provision was made in the Act of 1865 whereby modifications
and extensions in the regulations and schedules of the Act, if ap-
proved by resolution of Parliament,were to obtain the force of law.
It is probably this power «f ready modification (under reasonable
safeguard) which has enabled the Act to remain in force so long.
Dr. Muir, the present Superintendent-General of Education,
who came into office in 1892, has vigorously pursued the work of
extending the educational system of the Colony and co-ordinating
its parts.
D. The Public Undenominational Schools under the Act of
1865.
The general principles regulating the action of Government in
the matter of public education are laid down in the Act of 1865,
■with its amending and supplementary regulations as approved by
resolution of Parliament from time to time.
In the case of the Public Undenominational Schools Govern-
ment is prepared to issue grants-in-aid towards the maintenance
of any school organised by a Municipal or a Divisional (County)
Council, or by a local committee elected by a meeting of guarantors
who have undertaken to support the committee in making good
any deficit in the local contribution required to meet the Govern-
ment grant.
These Public Undenominational schools are of three classes
according to the range of the course of instruction. Schools of
the first or highest class are intended to carry pupils forward to the
Matriculation examination of the University, and are generally
intended for boys or for girls only. Schools of the second and third
classes are generally mixed. Government aid is extended to these
public undenominational schools in the shape of grants towards
the salaries of teachers, grants towards the erection of buildings or
towards the rent and furnishing and up-keep of buildings, and
grants towards the management of boarding-houses in connection
with the schools. The scale of grants-in-aid naturally varies much
in the schools of these very different grades.
For the system of grants-in-aid to local committees it is
pleaded that it tends to . call out private or local exertion
EDUCATION IN CAPE COLONY. 45 1
and interest. Against the system it is maintained that
just those places are left untouched where Government or Depart-
mental initiative is most necessary and would be most helpful.'
At one time the complaint is made that the local committees a;re
often coteries of one predominating political or ecclesiastical tone.
On the other hand, the complaint of those who manage the schools
is that they have to perform a thankless task, which not infrequently
lands them in serious (or at least annoying) pecuniary indebtedness.
Teachers complain that the possibility of such a committee of
management dissolving at the end of the three years for which it
was originally elected makes their tenure of office very insecure. .
It is with these difficulties in view that the Colonial Government
has brought in a Bill (March, 1905) for establishing school boards
for divisional and municipal areas, with continuity of existence,
with popular election, and with legal powers for making good any
deficits in local school revenues.
E. Mission Schools and Schools in the Native Territories.
In the case of those parts of the community where it is impos-
sible to secure the appointment of voluntary committees, and in the
territories, where the population is practically wholly native and
uncivilised, Government avails itself of the existing organisation
provided by the various Christian Missionary Churches. For each
school or group of schools Government recognises the superintending
European missionary of the district as its correspondent. Appoint-
ments of teachers are made by him subject to the approval of the De-
partment of Education ; and all returns from, and payments to, the
schools pass through his hands. All the Churches are at liberty to
share in these subsidies from Government, if they will undertake
to give thorough secular instruction to those under their care.
Doctrinaires may object that this system looks very like concurrent
denominational endowment. Practical educationists will admit
that probably no other means would secure an equal amount of
intelligent and continuous supervision for the schools among the
vast and varied native population of Cape Colony.
F. Extensions of the Public Undenominational System
OF Schools.
The foregoing paragraphs will indicate the leading features
of the system of public undenominational schools, and of schools
for the native population in the Colony and the included territories.
As complementary developments of the system may be mentioned
the boarding houses for pupils who come to the schools from
■distant parts of the country, and the industrial schools (or in-
dustrial departments of general native institutions) where training
is given in carpentry, blacksmith work, wagon making, printing,
book-binding, shoemaking, tailoring, farming and gardening
for lads, and domestic work and needlework for girls. For white
children living on farms more than three miles distant from a pubhc
FF 2
452 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
school a system of private farm schools has been arranged, whereby
any family or group of families containing not less than five children
of school-going age may obtain grants-in-aid (based on attendance
and inspection) such as will enable the head of the family to engage
a properly qualified governess. Poor schools for destitute or
neglected white children have been opened in a number of im-
portant centres, where local co-operation and supervision have
been secured. Institutions for deaf and dumb pupils are subsidised
at Cape Town and Worcester. The Government School of Agri-
culture is at Elsenburg, in the division of Stellenbosch.
Side by side with the endeavour to bring education nearer to
the door of every household in Cape Colony, there has been, under
the present Superintendent-General, a vigorous and sustained
effort to widen the scope of the common school curriculum, especially
on the practical and aesthetic side. Subjects such as vocal music,
drawing, woodwork (for boys), domestic economy (for girls),
and the natural and applied sciences, have received greater promi-
nence and substantial departmental support. In connection
with all these subjects there are special inspectors and annual
competitive examinations.
In the important work of providing a supply of teachers for
the steadily extending school system considerable progress has
been made. It should be remembered also that this progress has
been made, not only under the general economic condition that
other callings offer greater pecuniary inducements than teaching,
but also under the special difficulty arising from the fact that
for some years before the recent war the northern states were
able to attract into their teaching service a large number of those
who had been trained under the Education Department of Cape
Colony. To improve the professional efficiency and status of
teachers Dr. Muir has revised the regulations for certificates, and
has added to the previously existing third class and second class
certificates a first class teacher's certificate (open as a rule to
University graduates only, after five years' teaching service).
In addition to the previously existing scheme for ^training pupil
teachers under the masters or mistresses of approved schools,
provision has now been made for the training of aspirant teachers
in well-equipped normal schools, and of acting teachers in vacation
courses.
All parts of the school system and of its complementary develop-
ment are duly and regula.rly inspected on behalf of the Department
by a large staff of energetic and highly qualified inspectors. The
steady enlargement and differentiation within the school system
have necessitated a large increase in the staff of inspectors ; and
many of these have been selected from among the headmasters
of schools. As showing the earnestness of the Department's
endeavour to grapple with this problem, attention should be called
to a valuable set of special reports, drawn up by inspectors selected
for the purpose, giving a minute survey of the more (educationally)
destitute parts of the Colony.
EDUCATION IN CAPE COLONY. 453
G. The Board of Examiners and the University.
In 1858 Governor Sir George Grey appointed a Board of
Examiners in Literature and Science. While directly intended
to provide machinery for examining candidates for the Civil
Service, and aspirants for the professions of law and surveying,
regulations were made for examinations in liberal studies, with
certificates of three grades, supposed to correspond to the matricu-
lation and degree examinations of universities elsewhere. Pro-
vision was also made for the institution of an Educational Council
instead of the Board of Examiners, as soon as a certain number
of candidates had passed the certificate examination corresponding
to a degree, half of the Council to be elected by the certificate-
holders, and by holders of non-Colonial degrees and qualifications
who had been admitted to equal electoral rights with the certificate-
holders. Before the Board of Examiners had undergone its
destined change into the Educational Council, its powers were
transferred to the University of the Cape of Good Hope, established
by Act of Colonial Parliament in 1873. As a necessary and natural
extension of this Act the Higher Education Act of 1874 made
provision for the establishment or enlargement of Arts Departments
(departments of academic and professional instruction) at the
more important centres, in connection with the examinations
of the University.
The University Extension Act of 1875, and the University
Amendment Act of 1896, gave power to the University to admit
to its examinations, and to certificates and prizes, persons living
beyond the Colony, and made provision for certain other South
African Governments taking a share in the administration of
the University. Up to the present this last provision has been
taken advantage of by Natal only.
Her late Majesty Queen Victoria granted a Charter to the
University in 1879. In 1901 H.R.H. the Duke of Cornwall and
York (now Prince of Wales) accepted the office of Chancellor of
the University.
H. The University and the Schools.
From a very early date in its history the University has, in
addition to its own Matriculation Examination, conducted two
examinations known as the School Elementary and the School
Higher Examinations. These examinations are held annually
at local centres all over the Colony on prescribed schemes of work ;
and the answer-books of candidates are transmitted through
the Registrar to the examiners, whose awards are published m
the "University Gazette." ,^ , ■ 1 ^■
There were more than a thousand candidates for Matriculation
in 1904, of whom over 50 per cent, satisfied the examiners. The
Matriculation certificate is used largely as a school leaving certificate
and as a passport to the Civil Service and to professional courses.
Consequently, a large number of those who pass the Matriculation
examination do not enter the Arts' classes in the Colleges.
aucted Dy examiners cnosen Dy tne Associatea jsoara oi me Koyai
Academy of Music, and the Royal College of Music, London ;
and the requirements are the same for each examination as for
the corresponding examination of the Board in London. The
examinations are theoretical and practical, deal with both vocal
and instrumental music, and are intended for all grades of pupils
and for teachers. Bursaries to further musical study in the Colony
and an Exhibition to enable the holder to proceed to Europe
for study are awarded annually.
I. The University and the Colleges.
While it is open to candidates for degrees and certificates
(except the certificate in mining engineering) to prepare themselves
by private study, the great majority of candidates take advantage
of the courses provided in the Colleges recognised and subsidised
by Government under the provisions of the Higher Education Act.,
These Colleges receive from Government grants in aid of the
salaries of recognised professors and lecturers, and for buildings,
libraries, laboratories and other purposes.
Three of the Colleges have been recognised under the Higher
Education Act practically since the date of the passing of the Act :
the South African College, Cape' Town, which was founded inde-
pendently in 1829 ; the Victoria College, Stellenbosch ; and the
Diocesan College, Rondebosch. The Huguenot College (for
women), Wellington, was recognised in 1898 ; and the Rhodes
University College in 1903 took the place previously held by St.
Andrew's College, Grahamstown. Nearly all the Colleges have
recently received considerable expansion in order to meet more
fully the requirements of University teaching.
As has been already pointed out, the Board of Examiners
founded in 1858 paved the way (as was intended) for the erection
in 1873 of a University of the type of the unmodified University
of London ; that is to say, a University granting degrees and
certificates to candidates upon pas,sing certain examinations, _
without asking where or how long they had studied. But the
passing of the Higher Education Act in the following year provided
for the growth of local academic centres where the teaching work
of the University could be carried on. The students of these
Colleges in due course become members of the Convocation of the
University, the body which has the right of electing half of the
University Council. The strengthening of this College element
in Convocation has led to an increase in the number of College
lecturers and professors in the University Council, and to a union
of the University and the Colleges much closer than, from the
mere terms of their respective constitutions, would at first sight
appear. In what way to make that union more intimate and
efficient is the problem of the immediate future. In a country
EDUCATION IN CAPE COLONY. 455
of wide extent and sparse population, no cautious reformer would
seek to uproot institutions which have proved their vitality by
substantial increase under great difficulties- Short of the heroic
and costly course of abolishing the present University and putting
one large teaching and degree-granting corporation in its stead,
it has been suggested that some relief and improvement would be
secured by a more definite position being granted to the Colleges
within the University, so that they might form a federated body of
teaching centres, with acknowledged power of concerted action
on many important points, while yet free in other respects to
follow individual lines of development. This would be to follow
so far the line taken by the reconstituted University of London,
and by the University of Wales with its teaching centres at Aberyst-
wyth, Bangor and Cardiff.
To realise in any marked degree the hopes of University ex-
pa.nsion it is manifest that individual liberality will have to supple-
ment the aid which Government may feel able to give. That
this stream of liberality has been sensibly quickened in the last
few years is one of the hopeful signs'. All the Colleges have been
in one degree or another favoured in this way. The University
has received numerous endowments for scholarships and exhibitions:
and the erection of its new block of administrative buildings it
will owe to a recent bequest supplemented by an equivalent grant
from Government.
Note. — (a) The bill for establishing School Boards, referred to
in section D of the foregoing paper, p. 450, became law in June of
. the present year, after prolonged discussion in Parliament, in the
course of which two conferences to agree on modifications took
place between representatives of the Government and of the
Opposition. Provi?ion is made in the Act for the establishment
of Divisional and Municipal School Boards, two-thirds of the
members to be elected by the ratepayers and one-third to be
nominated by the Governor. The school board for each divisional
or municipal area is to administer all public undenominational
schools, state-aided private farm schools and poor schools within
the area. This may be done either directly by the board, or by
a committee to be appointed by the board or, if so desired,
elected by the parents of the children attending such school.
The guarantee system to cover deficits is abolished. Deficits
incurred by school boards are to be met, half by Government,
and half by a rate levied on owners and occupiers within the
area. School accommodation for children of other than European
parentage may be provided by the school board, on the request
of the parents of such children. Municipal and divisional
councils and other bodies empowered to levy rates may vote
contributions to the funds of any pubhc school or college withm
their respective rating areas ; and all new townships must on
formation set aside not less than two acres of land for school
purposes. The principle of compulsory school attendance is
(b) Information on the subject of Education in Cape
Colony is to be found in the successive reports of the Education
Department, in the reports of the various Parhamentary Com-
missions on Education, in the (sectional) pamphlets of the Educa-
tion Department, and in the annual Calendar of the University.
Gazettes are published by both the Education Department and
the University. An excellent and interesting resume of the
subject is to be found in the Special Reports on the Systems of
Education in Cape Colony and Natal, a sectional reprint from
Vol. V. of " Special Reports on Educational Subjects," issued
under authority of the Committee of Council on Education, London.
SECTION VIII.— EDUCATIONAL AND HISTORICAL-(co//W.;
2. EDUCATION IN NATAL.
By C. J. MuDiE, Superintendent of Education, Natal.
The principle that the State is wholly responsible for the primary
education of the children underlies the system of education in Natal.
About two-thirds of the European children are educated solely by
the State, and the education of one- third is carried out by denomi-
national and private bodies subsidised by Government. Private
non-subsidised schools may generally be classed as secondary, and
many of these by request are State-inspected.
The race to be taught is main'y British, but there are a good
many localities in which the Dutch predominate, and several com-
munities are entirely German and Norwegian, the English language
being, in the main, the usual medium of instruction. The race
problem is not acute in Natal, but what is known as the Coloured
question causes friction from time to time, as the whites resent the
intrusion of coloured children into the schools.
In 1878 the present educational system of Natal was inaugu-
rated, and up to the granting of responsible Government to the
Cplony in 1894, the management of educational affairs was in the
hands of a Council nominated by the Governor. Since 1894 a
member of the Cabinet, with the title of Minister 'of Education, has
had the control of the Department, with a Superintendent of Educa-
tion as permanent administrative head, assisted by a staff of inspec-
tors and clerks.
In 1878, before the changes provided for by the new Laws had
been carried out, there were only four Government Schools in the
Colony — a High School and an Elementary School in Maritzburg
and two similar schools in Durban. The Maritzburg High School
had an attendance of twenty-two boys. The Durban High School
was housed in a granary at the east end of Smith Street, and was
attended by forty-six boys. Both were day schools only. Not
more than five boys in each school were able to read an easy Latin
author, to translate simple French, and to work the propositions in
the first book of Euclid. These two schools are now flourishing day
and boarding institutions, occupying handsome buildings in the
suburbs of each town, and preparing pupils for higher and University
examinations. The combined attendance is 380 boys, and the work
lUe two Jilementary bctioois were attended by Dotn boys and
girls — the Durban school by i6o pupils and the Maritzburg schojol
by i8o. They have grown into nine large schools, two for boys, and
seven for girls and infants, with an aggregate attendance of 2,740 in
Durban and 1,460 in Maritzburg. The work of the two parent
schools in Maritzburg and Durban is described, even in those early
days, as being equal to an ordinary London Board School and ahead
of the average English National School.
In country districts, where there are now twenty-three large and
successful county schools belonging to the Government, with 2,530
children in attendance, there were eight small aided schools with a
total attendance of 199. Estcourt, Ixopo, Stanger, Weenen and
other places had to depend on private tutors and governesses.
Twenty-seven years ago the work of the country schools was ex-
ceedingly elementary ; nowadays it competes successfully in many
ways with the best of the work done in the town schools.
Fees in Government schools range from is. to 5s. per month
according to standard, but no one family pays more than los. per
month ; and free education is given on the production of a satis-
factory certificate. At the Government High Schools los. per
month is the fee for the junior division and 20s. for the higher.
In 1878 only two Secondary Schools for girls received Govern-
ment aid-^the Durban Girls' School and the Maritzburg Collegiate
School. The combined attendance was ninety-seven. To-day six
such schools ar^ under Government inspection — the Girls' Collegiate
School and Thanet House School in Maritzburg, the Ladies' College
and the Girls' High School in Durban, the Huguenot High School
in Greytown, and the Girls' High School in Dundee. The average
daily attendance at these schools is 700.
At that date there were only two school buildings in the Colony
belonging to the Government, one in Maritzburg and one in Durban,
and each of them' occupied by the mixed Elementary School. The
schoolrooms in the country were generally of the most inferior
description, consisting in many cases of wagon sheds, stables, and
store rooms. The furniture was deficient, antiquated, and badly
arranged. School books were of all descriptions. In some schools
the teachers simply used what ever the children chose to bring.
Registers were few and badly kept. Twenty of the aided schools
were under the management of local committees, and the acton of
these committees began and ended with receiving the Government
grant and handing it over to the teachers.
There are now in villages and country districts twenty-three
school buildings erected, equipped and maintained by the Govern-
ment, and more are being built. A school for girls, costing nearly
£18,000, has been built at the foot of the Berea in Durban on a site
granted by the Corporation, and a girls' school and an infants'
school have also been built in the Greyville district. These schools
and the two High Schools are very favourable examples of modern
EDUCATION IN NATAL. ,]=Jj.
school architecture. The other school buildings are mostly plain ^
but convenient and commodious.
In consequence of the substitution of Government Schools for
subsidised schools wherever circumstances justify it, the public
expenditure on education has been considerably augmented, the
average annual expenditure on education in the Colony being ap-
proximately £100,000, exclusive of money spent on buildings. The
Colonists recognise the advantages of schools managed entirely by
the State, and local school committees are only too willing to hand
over their responsibihties to the Education Department. The
additional expenses, however, are amply justified by the increased
efficiency.
In 1878, Infant Schools in the modern sense of the term were
almost unknown in Natal. Instruction given in Art and Science
was of a very perfunctory character. School handicrafts are now
taught in all the Government Schools, and a large number of trained
Kindergarten teachers are employed.
Good progress is being made in manual work, and in elementary
scientific and technical instruction ; but the almost entire absence
of manufactures and industries in Natal deprives the students of a
practical stimulus to work in this direction. In addition to the
Secondary and Primary Schools already referred to, there are also
Art Schools in both Pietermaritzburg and Durban, which a con-
siderable number of students attend.
Four Indian Schools in Durban and vicinity and one in Maritz-
burg belong entirely to the Government. The education given
approximates as nearly as possible to that given in the European
schools. A good many of the teachers are European. In addition
there are twenty-four Government-aided Indian Schools under the
aegis of different religious denominations. Two schools for coloured
children other than Natives and Indians, also belong to the Govern-
ment, and are largely taken advantage of. Further effort is being
made in this direction, and a school is being built in Durban for 500
of these children. There are, in addition to the purely Government
Schools, eighty Government-subsidised schools for Europeans
scattered throughout the Colony and 150 subsidised Farm Schools.
Continuation Classes and Night Schools, Commercial, Shorthand,
Typewriting, Pharmacy and other classes have also been provided
wherever there is a sufficient demand for them.
Native school work was first organised under Government con-
trol in 1885, and is regulated primarily by the provisions of a law
passed in 1884. The first Inspector of Native Education was
appointed in April, 1885. In that year there were sixty-four
schools with a total attendance on registers of 3,783 pupils and an
average attendance of 2,888 pupils, and an expenditure of £2,494
in grants-in-aid.
At that time every Native School was connected with some
missionary body, and, with one exception, the same condition has
obtained ever since. In 1886 an attempt was made by the Govern-
ment to provide industrial teaching, as it was r cognised to be
460 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
beyond the financial ability of these Missions to provide it, and a
Kfative Industrial School was erected and equipped near Maritz-
burg, but after five and a half years' unsatisfactory working, having
failed to elicit any support from the native people, it was closed at
the end of 1891.
It is, however, felt that the teaching of some handicrafts is abso-
lutely necessary in any scheme of education for these people, and an
amount of some ^^2,500 was last year placed on the Estimates for the
purpose of making another attempt of the kind. The erection of
workshops on a somewhat large scale was contemplated, and but
for an unfortunate hitch in the arrangements this school would have
been completed before now. It is hoped to have it in working order
by the end of the year.
The present system of Native education is purely an aided one.
Grants-in-aid are given by the Government to the schools in con-
nection with the different mission bodies on condition of compli-
ance with regulations laid down from time to time by the Depart-
ment. The subjects taught include Reading and Writing in both
English and Zulu, Arithmetic, Grammar, Geography and a little
History. All the girls are taught sewing, and in the Boarding
Schools they have lessons given in general housework, cookery and
fancy work of several kinds, whilst the boys have two hours'
instruction daily in some useful industrial work. Nothing of an
industrial character is required from the boys in the day schools,
experience having shown that the want of facilities in most day
schools is such that the attempt to do industrial work would only
be wasting time.
"High-water mark was reached in 1901, in which year we had 196
schools with 11,071 pupils on registers, and an average daily attend-
ance of 8,491. The Government's grants-in-aid amounted to £6,^§^
3s. od.
In 1904 our figures had receded to 156 schools with a registered
attendance of 9,256 pupils, and an average attendance of 6,995, and
the grants-in-aid amounted to £6,180 3s. 6d. This decrease was the
direct result of stringent regulations being passed requiring all
Native head teachers to possess certain higher qualifications. The
supply of such qualified teachers being inadequate some fifty
schools were temporarily closed. The probability is that in 1907
we shall have 250 schools with 14,000 or 15,000 in attendance. Of
the 156 schools at present receiving grants-in-aid, twenty-six are
boarding schools, the rest day schools. There are in all 278
teachers, of whom seventy-six are Europeans.
In nearly all the schools the payment of fees is enforced. These
vary considerably in arnount, but they are enough to ensure the
recognition of the principle of paying for what is received.
Special emphasis is laid upon English speaking as distinct from
reading and translating. All schools receiving grants-in-aid are
inspected twice, and in most cases three times a year. Bonuses are
.given to the teachers for good discipline, general deportment of
-Scholars, neatness and cleanliness of buildings, and general progress
EDUCATION IN NATAL. 461
in school work. Examinations for Teachers' Certificates are held
annually in the month of December, and July and January are
holiday months.
Native Teachers' salaries vary from £36 to £60 per annum in the
case of male teachers, and £24 to £40 per annum for females.
The whole work is supervised by three Inspectors, working under
the direction of the Superintendent of Education.
Steady improvement on the part of the pupils and a growing
interest on the part of the Native parents are distinctly evident.
The present high standard of education and its wide diffusion
throughout the Colony are an enduring testimony to the wise fore-
sight of Sir Henry Bulwer, by whom the Laws passed in 1878 were
framed. Twenty-seven years ago it was very unusual to find in
up-country districts any child who had ever been out of his native
place. The teacher, however able and earnest, was circumscribed
by his environment. It was next to impossible for him, for instance,
to explain the greatness and extent of the Empire to children whose
ideas were bounded by the horizon of their own hamlet, to whom the'
ox-wagon was the ideal means of locomotion, who had never seen a
soldier, and to whom the mention of the ocean and ships conjured
up no memories. His words could awaken no response. Now, the
railway, that great educator, has changed, and is changing all that.
The dull stare which so often greeted one's questioning has, except
in remote corners, almost wholly disappeared ; and both teachers
and inspectors find the change in the keener interest and the more
intelligent apprehension which the children bring to bear on the
instruction imparted to them, and in the increased vivacity and
responsiveness of their manner.
Natal is affihated with the Cape of Good Hope University, and is
represented on the Council of the University by three members—
the Hon. J. X. Merriman, Mr. R. D. Clark, M.A., and the Superinten-
dent of Education ex officio. Many advantages, direct and indirect,
result from this educational union of the two Colonies.
Natal has the honour of nominating one Rhodes Scholar per
annum, and two young men are now in residence at Oxford. f^^
The Natal Government provides an Annual Exhibition to an
English University of £150 a year for four years, and several other
valuable scholarships and bursaries are given to pupils after com-
petitive examination to enable them to proceed to higher work.
SECTION VIII.— EDUCATIONAL AND HISTORICAL— (co/^f?.)
.3. EDUCATION IN THE LATE SOUTH AFRICAN REPUBLIC
AND IN THE TRANSVAAL.
By John Robinson, Secretarv of the Technical Institute,
Johannesburg.
I. Education in the South African Republic.
The first published Education Law of the South African Re-
pubHc was Law No. 4 of 1874. In terms of this Law three classes
of school were recognised — (i) Ward Schools, (2) District Schools,
and (3) Gymnasium (at Pretoria). In practice the Ward School
was described as a " Farm " School and the District School as a
'" Town " School. The Gymnasium was not realised till 1893. In
terms of this Law, instruction was undenominational. The medium
was Dutch or English at the will of the parents. Thus when the
first School Inspector (Mr. van Gorkum) arrived in the Transvaal in
1876 there were eight Farm Schools. There were four schools in
which the medium was wholly English, viz., Pretoria, Heidelberg,
Lydenberg and Zeerust, with a total of seventy-one pupils. In
three schools — Pretoria, Potchefstroom and Lydenburg, with fifty
pupils, the rnedium was Dutch. One school, with twenty-nine
pupils, had both English and Dutch as the medium.
The next educational legislation of significance is Law No. i of
1882. The distinctions between town and country schools ceased ;
Lower Education (Standards I. — III.) and Middle Education
(Standards IV. — VI.) were recognised, and annual subsidies of £3
and £5 per pupil were paid on account of the respective groups.
This law laid it down that schools were to be opened and closed by
prayer, but that doctrinal instruction was to be left to the Churches.
The medium of instruction was to be Dutch. The medium clause
was not rigidly enforced and English schools, as a rule, had no diffi-
culty in earning their subsidy. A reference to the number of pupils
undergoing instruction furnishes evidence as to the liberal, or may
be lax, spirit of the Administration. Thus in 1883, the year after
the publication of the Law, numbers had nearly doubled, and in
1892 they had increased tenfold.
Inauguration of Retrogression Policy. — 1892 onwards marks a
new era in the history of education in the South African Republic.
From the Volksraa'd discussion during the few years immediately
prior to this there appeared to be uneasiness as to the effect
education might have upon the spirit of nationality. Thus when
the propriety of paying bursaries to students in Europe was under
debate, a member urged that the boy would return as a stranger In
EDUCATION IN S.A.R. AND TRANSVAAL. 463
Ihe land. Another member put an end to the argument by point-
ing out that Moses was educated at a foreign court, and on his return
he was not only a patriot but became the leader of his people. In
reply to a member arguing against the English language, it was
shown that many who had been educated at the Cape had fought in
the War of Independence, and were therefore nothing the worse for
knowing the language.
It was, however, reserved to Mr. Mansvelt to inaugurate what
may fairly be called a period of educational repression and retro-
-gression. Mr. Mansvelt, a teacher from the College in Stellenbosch,
was appointed Superintendent of Schools in i8gi. In the following
year Law No. 8 of 1892 appeared. The more important provisions
of this Law were as follows : —
1. All teachers must be members of a Protestant Church.
2. All lesson books must be written in Dutch. Not more
than three hours per week in Standards I. — III. and
four hours per week in Standards IV. — VI. may be
devoted to instruction in a foreign language.
Under (2) all English-speaking children, including many from
"the Cape Colony, were excluded, and Roman Catholics and Jews
"were subject to a further disability under (i). That the Law was
not merely a conservative measure, but was in its intent purely
anti-English, need hardly be said, but if proof were wanting it is
found in the arguments Mr. Mansvelt used to coerce recalcitrant Boers.
"The use of English," he says, "is fraught with serious conse-
quence to our national existence," and he inveighs bitterly against
the parents who have sent their children to English schools," where
they can get fuller scope to their short-sighted desires." As a
result of two years' working of this Law attendance at schools fell off
27.7 per cent, throughout the Republic, and about 40 per cent,
taking the Town schools alone.
The turning of some 2,261 children out of school brought about
an agitation amongst those on the gold fields interested in educa-
tion, aiid the result was a Volksraad Resolution purporting by a
subsidy to meet the case of private schools. The subsidy
was to be paid on account of those children who learnt
Dutch, but the payment was so hedged round with conditions as to
render it almost impossible for schools to earn it. At no period
were there more than 200 children earning the subsidy under this
resolution.
Staats Gymnasium and Staats Meisjes School. — In 1893 the
Staats Gymnasium and the Staats Meisjes School were opened at
Pretoria. The Gymnasium was modelled on the lines of the Gym-
nasia of Holland. In the Gymnasium Higher Education was to
have four departments : —
(i) Modern language and literature.
(2) Science.
(3) Classics.
(4) Natural Science.
Holland. The Science department developed in 1897 into the
School of Mines, which was brought to an untimely end by the war..
Witwatersrand Council of Education. — The dissatisfaction with
Law 8 of 1892 and the subsequent Volksraad Resolution found
expression in 1895 in the formation of the Witwatersrand Council
of Education. This Council, of which Mr. H. S. Caldecott was the-
leading spirit, consisted of a number of influential Johannesburghers
many of whom, by their contributions to the funds of the Council,
gave proof of the keen interest they took in the welfare of the
children who had been excluded from school under Mr. Mansvelt's
regime ; ;£7,ooo was subscribed, which the Council by judicious
investment converted into ;/|io,ooo. A director was employed who
was instructed to report on the condition of things. On investiga-
tion it appeared that in the mining area (excluding Johannesburg)-
there were some 2,000 children of school-going age. There was not
a single efficient English school in the whole area, most schools being
of the private adventure type presided over by a lady who had not
succeeded in other walks in life. In Johannesburg and district
there were 2,000 children of school-going age not attending school.
A scheme involving an expenditure of about £60,000, and having
for its object the providing of schools on the mines and the subsi-
dising of the more deserving schools in town, was approved. Fifty-
thousand pounds had been promised in donations from individuals-
and firms when the Jameson Raid, in the beginning of 1896, caused
education to take a less prominent place in the public mind. The
Council, however, went to work with the ;£io,ooo it had in hand,
and brought seven English schools into existence, in addition to-
subsidising in a small way several schools in town. This work was
carried on from 1896 till the outbreak of the war. An attempt was-
made in 1897 to establish classes for the Cape University Matricula-
tion together with science classes, these latter in the interests of
employes on the mines. After about eighteen months this work
was abandoned, as its cost, in view of the limited resources of the-
Council, threatened to jeopardise the primary educational work,,
which was deemed more important. Although the Council had the
satisfaction of realising that it was getting good return for its outlay,,
it was obvious that only the outerm.ost fringe of the difficulty was
being dealt with, and during 1898 it was resolved to try and resusci-
tate the original scheme. The Director made another exhaustive
inspection of the mines and district, and communicated the results
of his investigations in a letter addressed to Mr. (now Sir Percy)-
Fitzpatrick. Mr. Fitzpatrick forwarded this letter, with an appeal,
to the financial houses in London, and his action resulted in dona-
tions to the extent of £97,000. It was proposed to spend this sum
in buildings, and the mines engaged to furnish £13,000 for a period
of three years for salaries and maintenance. The Council had the
whole of the Witwatersrand area mapped out and sites for schools
EDUCATION IN S.A.R. AND TRANSVAAL. 465
located when the imminence and the final outbreak of war put a
period to its operations.
Further Legislation for Uitlanders. — Meanwhile the activity of the
Council of Education, circumscribed though it was by its limited
means, gave rise to considerable perturbation at Pretoria. The
problem was how to take the wind out of the Council's sails without
departing too far from the policy laid down in' 1892. About a year
after the publication of the Council's Report, Law No. 15 of i8g6
was evolved. The peculiar terms of this Law show that the situa-
tion was considered critical. The Volksraad empowered the
Superintendent of Education and the Government to take steps to
remedy the educational conditions on the gold fields where they
were considered defective, thus making it possible to go as far as the
exigencies of the case might demand and no further. It was soon
apparent, when the Superintendent published his Regulation under
this Law, that he did not intend to go very far. Though not ex-
plicitly stated, the Regulation in effect made it impossible for any-
one but a Hollander to become headmaster of a school under the
new law. A child during his first year at school was expected to
devote one hour a day to instruction in Dutch, in the second year
two hours, and in the third year three hours. In the fourth year he
was to take the whole of his instruction through the medium of
that language. In view of the short average school life of the class
these schools proposed to reach it became obvious to the Govern-
ment itself that the scheme was impossible, and the regulations
were not strictly enforced, with the result- that during 1898 there
were as many as 540 children working under the Law.
Although State Schools were formally closed by Volksraad
resolution of the 3rd of October, 1899, several State and State-subsi-
dised Schools were carried on during the war. During the first
months teachers paid a war tax of from ten to twenty per cent, on
their salaries ; later fifty per cent, was charged.
II. Education in the Transvaal.
In January of 1901, exactly fifteen months after the declaration
of war, Mr. E. B. Sargant, Director of Education for the Transvaal
and Orange River Colony paid a visit to Johannesburg and Pretoria.
Mr. Sargant returned to the Cape in January to organise his Camp
School scheme leaving deputies in the two Transvaal towns with
considerable powers of initiative in respect to educational work.
Mr. Sargant's policy of delegating administrative powers to his
subordinates was productive of the best results, so much so that at
the end of 1901, whilst war was still going on, there were more
children in schools in proportion to population than there had been
at any time in the history of the Republic.
Concentration Camps. — ^The work of teaching in the Boer Con-
centration Camps was carried on vigorously, the number of pupils
rising from 1,859 in May 1901, to 17,213 in the same month of 1902.
GG
to go nurriea on to tneir larms.
Farm and Country Schools. — Hitherto educational efforts had
been confined to the towns along the lines of communication. Now
education had to be provided on the farms and in the country.
The difficulties the Department had to encounter in rendering this
service were, in view of the scarcity of transport and the almost
total lack of school accommodation, if possible, greater .than at-
tended the establishing of the Concentration Camp Schools.
Although continually occupied in the distracting efforts to meet
the exigencies of each new situation as it arose, questions of educa-
tional policy and organisation with a view to the future were not
overlooked.
In July of 1902 an Inspectors' and Teachers' Conference was
held in Johannesburg, when resolutions affecting such questions
as conditions of entrance to the Normal Schools, Evening Schools,
Native education and other questions were approved.
Inter-Colonial Conference. — In January of 1903 an Inter-Colonial
Conference of the heads of the Education Departments of the various
Colonies was held at Bloemfontein, when questions of common
interest were discussed. Conferences of Inspectors were frequently
held to discuss problems arising out of their work.
Education Ordinance of 1903. — In Februa,ry of 1903 the Educa-
tional Ordinance for the Transvaal was published. The main
features of the Ordinance may be summarised as follows : —
• I. Primary Education is free.
2. All teachers must be certificated.
3. Teachers to give instruction in Bible history. Ministers
of Religion to have the right of entry to give " supple-
mentary " religious instruction. - The " conscience
clause " is operative.
4. When required instruction may be given in or through
the medium of the Dutch language, for not exceeding
five hours per week. _
Religious Difficulty. — ^The Religious Instruction Clause has been
subjected to considerable criticism^ as a result of which the Govern-
ment appointed a special commission to enquire into its working.
In the evidence the " right of en-try " was most strongly opposed,
whilst some witnesses were in favour of the secularisation of schools.
The report of the Commission has not been published at the time of
writing.
Language Question. — The Dutch are dissatisfied with the propor-
tion of time allotted to the Dutch language. This is the more sur-
prising as the time given is in excess of that allowed for the English
language under Law 15 of 1892.
Code of Regulations for Elementary Schools. — ^An excellent Code
of Regulations for instruction in Primary Schools was issued in
October of 1903 by Mr. Ware, who succeeded to Mr. Sargant in the
EDUCATION IN S.A.R. AND TRANSVAAL. 467
Directorship in July of that year. It should be noted, however,
that the Department has reverted to the old system of annual
individual examination of scholars.
Secondary School Regulations. — Regulations for "Government
Secondary Schools consist almost wholly of syllabuses of two
examinations, the Lower and Leaving Certificate. The intention
of the Department that the Leaving Certificate should take the
place of the Matriculation examination for several purposes is likely
to be defeated, as the examination regulations preclude the possi-
bility of any uniformity of test.
Normal School Regulations.— In August of 1903 Regulations for
the Government Normal Schools of the Transvaal were published.
The feature of these Regulations is the alternating of teaching work
and professional study until the First-class Teacher's Certificate is
obtained. The effect of the operation of these Regulations would
be to keep the Colony supplied with a first-class teaching staff from
its own resources, but hitherto it has not been the practice of
Governments to provide for the training of teachers on so liberal a
scale.
Technical Education. — In 1898 a law was passed in terms of which
the Boer Government proposed to establish Technical Schools in the
various districts of the Republic. It is, however, only interesting
to note the fact as a matter of history, as practically nothing was
done under the law.
In July of 1902 Mr. E. B. Sargant was successful in getting to-
gether a Committee to advise him on technical education. Im-
mediately after printing its report a conference was arranged be-
tween the Committee and representatives of the South African
College and the Kimberley School of Mines, at which the question
of training in mining subjects was discussed.
Technical Education Commission. — In January of 1903 the
Lieutenant-Governor appointed a Commission to report generally
on Technical Education. The Commission made recommendations,
briefly summarised as follows : —
1. That immediate provision for a four years' course in
Mining Engineering be made.
2. That a central site be set aside in Johannesburg to pro-
vide accommodation for technical instruction, which
should at the same time accommodate the State Scien-
tific Laboratories and focus the scientific and literary
work of the town.
3. That a site be acquired for the purpose of a South
African Teaching University.
Transvaal Technical Institute.— To carry out recommendation
(i) and report on (2) and (3) a representative bddy was appointed
by the Lieutenant-Governor .in August of 1903. This body was
incorporated under the title of the Transvaal Technical Institute.
The Council of the Institute secured the services of Professor Hele
Shaw of Liverpool University, and the Institute commenced teaching
GG2
in technical subjects were opened. The enrolment in these classes
for the year was 349. This year the number of students in mining
engineering is fifty-two. The enrolment for the first term's work
in the evening classes for the present year is 460.
Inter-Colonial Co-operation. — During March of 1905 a Conference
between the Council of the Institute and delegates from the Tech-
nical Education Commission of Natal and of the Orange River
Colony took place at Johannesburg. Several resolutions were
passed which point towards co-operation between the Colonies in
regard to Technical and Higher Education.
Appended is a list showing number of schools and attendance,
together with the cost to Government of teaching staff. A list of
authorities wherein fuller information on the points touched on
above may be derived is also attached.
Town
Farm
Aver. No.
Paid to Schools •
Cost per
Year.
School
.- i School.
of Pupils.
in subsidies.
Pupil.
£ s. 6.
£ s. A
1873
9
' 10
1,975 0 0
1876
8
1 5
150
1,275 0 0
8 I 0
1877
9
(
306
3,500 0 0
II 8 9
1879
II
i 9
838
4.379 0 0
5 4 6
1882 •
9
' 34
872
2,753 0 0
3 4 8
1883
8
: 64
1,410
4,395 0 0
3 2' 4
1884
14
45
1,280
5,974 0 0
4 13 4
1885
14
i 79
2,111
8,525 0 0
409
1886
18
! 78
2,600
9,261 0 0
3 II 3
1887
16
100
2,795
10,499 0 0
3 15 I
1888.
20
1 159
4,016
14,715 0 0
3 13 3
1889
28
197
5.475
24,907 0 0
4 II 3
1890
34
262
6,990
35,546 0 0
5 18 0
1891
99
453
8,170
43,823 II 0
5 7 3
1892
62
1 422
7.932
34,962 5 7
482
1893
59
■ 353
5.909
26,916 4 4
4 II 2
1894
61
' 358
6,626
51,260 17 4
4 14 4
1895
422
7,217
39.813 2 8
5 10 4
1896
395
7,738
44,548 3 2
5 15 2
1897
457
10,777
65,656 2 6
6 I 10
1898
509
13.561
90,935 10 3
6 14 I
1903
388
24,021
221,226 14 0
942
Documents from which material has been collected for the pur-
poses of this Memorandum : —
For Education in Z.A. Republic : -
Staats Courant of Z.A.R. Years 1887-1899.
Appendix I., Report on Education in the Transvaal.
E. B. Sargant. (Longmans and Co.)
By
EDUCATION IN S.A.R. AND TRANSVAAL. 469
For Education in the Transvaal :
Appendix I., Mr. Sargant's Report as above.
Reports, Witwatersrand Council of Education. By J.
Robinson.
Report of Director of Education for the Transvaal for year
1903. (Government Printing Works, Pretoria.)
Report of Technical Education Commission, issued July,
1903. (Government Printing Works, Pretoria.)
SECTION VIII.— EDUCATIONAL AND HISTORICAL— (cokW.)
4. EDUCATION IN THE ORANGE RIVER COLONY.
By Johannes Brill, Lit.D. (Utrecht and Cape),
Rector of Grey College, Bloemfontein.
To understand the problems that present themselves to those
who, under the present conditions, seek to establish an efficient
system of education in the Orange River Colony, it is necessary to
be acquainted with the conditions prevailing in the country before
the war, while it is both interesting and useful to cast a glance at
what was done for education even in the midst of the war, and
finally to give some account of the system which is being established
at the present moment.
Our subject, therefore, naturally falls into three divisions : —
A. Education in the Orange Free State.
The Orange Free State was established in the year 1854. During
the first twenty years of its existence difficulties of various kinds —
Basuto wars (1856-68), troubles about the possession of the Dia-
mond Fields, the poverty of the young State and its struggling
citizens — hindered the Government from seriously turning its atten-
tion to the organisation of education. Still it must not be supposed
that the youth of the land, even under those adverse circumstances,
grew up altogether illiterate. There has always existed among the
Boers a strong sense of the value of education as marking the boun-
dary line between civilisation and barbarism, coupled with a deep
religious feeling, which caused them to submit readily to the salutary
rule of their Church, according to which there could be no member-
ship without some knowledge of reading and writing, Bible history
and Church doctrine. Under these influences elementary schools
existed not only in the little townships, but also on many of the
farms scattered all over the country, where instruction was given
by " wandering " schoolmasters of a peculiar type, most of them
without any professional training, who drifted from one farm to
another to " keep school," sometimes only for a few months, some-
times for longer periods.
In the townships schools were established by the inhabitants,
enjoying some support from the Government in the form of contribu-
tions towards the salary of the teacher ; and in the capital, Bloem-
fontein, a school of a somewhat higher type was founded, thanks to
a generous gift of Sir George Grey, and, consequently, called " The
EDUCATION IN ORANGE RIVER COLONY. 471
Grey College " after its founder. This state of affairs lasted till
1873, when, after the wars with barbarous neighbours, peace had
been established for some years, and, on the discovery of diamond
fields, prosperity had followed under the wise rule of President
Brand. In that year the Volksraad adopted a scheme of national
education, and invited the Rev. John Brebner, a Scottish teacher,
who had come to South Africa twelve years before, and was then
Professor of Classics in GiU College, Somerset East, to come to the
Free State as Inspector of Education. He accepted the call, came
to Bloemfontein in January, 1874, and from that time devoted him-
self to his work of organisation and supervision for more than
twenty-five years with untiring energy and patience. The follow-
ing are the main features of the system that Mr. Brebner introduced
into the Free State, and which has often been pointed to as a model
one for its time and for the requirements of the country.
I. Schools. — The " Grey College " for boys and the " Eunice
Institute " for girls, both in Bloemfontein, provided a higher or
secondary education, carrying their pupils as far as Matriculation
or the Intermediate Arts Examination of the Cape University.
AU the other schools were expected to give sound elementary
instruction, but not to go beyond the Standard work."!!
These schools were classified under four heads : —
{a) District Schools, in the larger towns or villages, with
a school building and a teacher's dwelling provided by Govern-
ment. The headmaster of such a school was required to hold
a first-class teacher's certificate of the Free State, or an equiva-
lent certificate of some other country ; but the assistants were
required only to hold a second-class teacher's diploma. Both
Dutch and English had to be thoroughly taught throughout
the school, while half the subjects were taught through the
medium of Dutch, the other half through the medium of
English. The headmaster received a fixed salary and a free
house, and wis entitled to all the school fees. He was ex-
pected to keep boarders, and his house was built with a view
to this. The assistants' salaries were paid partly by Govern-
ment and partly by the headmaster. An energetic and success-
ful headmaster of such a school might have altogether an income
of £500 or £600 a year.
(6) Ward Schools, in the smaller villages or in suitable
situations in the country. The Government provided the
necessary buildings as under {a) for the school, the teacher,
and a certain number of boarders, but these schools were gener-
ally smaller than those of class {a), and a teacher holding a
second-class or equivalent certificate might be appointed
to them. The teacher also received a fixed minimum salary,
free house, and all the school fees. Both Dutch and
English had to be taught.
(c) Itinerant Schools. — These could be established on a
farm wherever sufficient and suitable accommodation was
472 SCIENCE IX SOUTH AFRICA.
offered, and a sufficient number of children could be got to
attend regularly. The Government paid a fixed rent for a
schoolroom, and a room for an unmarried teacher, and also
paid the teacher a salary of £ioo or £120.
The proprietor, on whose farm the school was opened, was
bound to board children from other farms who lived too far
away to come to school daily from their homes. He also had
to board the teacher at a reasonable rate. The school fees
were fixed by Government, but drawn by the teacher, who
sometimes, however, agreed to accept his board as an equiva-
lent. The teacher was expected to hold a second-class certi-
cate or some certificate of equal value. Dutch was the principal
language in these schools, but English was also taught to the
more advanced pupils. An itinerant school was started for a
term of six months. After that time application might be
made to continue the school on the same farm for another six
months. If the Superintendent approved, the request was
granted, otherwise the teacher was moved to another farm
■where a school was required, and sometimes a number of his
former pupils went with him.
(i) Private Schools. — These might apply for Govern-
ment aid under certain conditions. They must be situated on
a farm not too near a Government school ; they must be
examined and reported on by some person appointed there-
unto by the Superintendent of Education, and regular instruc-
tion according to the standards must have been given for at
least six months previous to the examination. Government
aid took the form of a capitation grant, the amount of which
depended on whether or not the teacher held a certificate, and
on the standard in which the child passed. The grant was equally
divided between the teacher and the owner of the school. A
minimum number of pupils was fixed, and it was also required
that the teacher should bear a good character and be a member
of some Protestant Church. As for the two latter conditions,
they applied equally to all Government-aided teachers in the
Free State.
Besides the schools falling under the above category, there
also gradually came into existence a certain number of schools
^ for children in Railway and Mining camps, Poor Schools, an
A.rtillery School of young men serving time in the Free State
Artillery, and an Industrial Home for children of poor parents,
who were clothed, fed and instructed at Government expense,
at the same time being apprenticed to learn some trade.
II. School Committees. — These were of two kinds, viz..
District School Committees and Committees appointed over the
Ward and Itinerant Schools. The Committees consisted of five
members, two of whom were recommended by the Superintendent
of Education and appointed by the President, while the other three
were chosen by all the inhabitants of the district who were entitled
to a vote. The Committees were appointed for three years. The
EDUCATION IN ORANGE RIVER COLONY. 473
District Committees met once a month, the others once in three
months.
They selected places convenient for opening a school, selected
teachers, subject to the approval of the Superintendent and the
President ; visited and examined the schools under their control at
stated intervals and reported on them to the Superintendent (such
examinations, however, did not take the place of the annual inspec-
tions by Government Inspectors). Finally, they had to see that
the school books and school materials prescribed by the Superinten-
dent were procured for the schools under their supervision.
III. Inspection and Standards. — At the head of all the
schools and School Committees in the State stood the Superin-
tendent of Education, latterly with two Inspectors and a staff of
clerks to assist him, himself responsible to the Volksraad and the
President, to whom he submitted an annual report.
Every school receiving Government grants was inspected at
least once a year, and these annual inspections were conducted on
the lines of the seven standards fixed by the Department. Reading,
■writing, arithmetic, grammar, Bible history, geography and general
liistory were the main subjects taught, some of them through the
medium of Dutch, others in English. In Standard VII. a little
literature and science was added. French, German, Latin and
mathematics were optional, whereas drawing and (for girls) sewing
were gradually made compulsory, and woodwork was taught as a
special subject in some of the schools. A special grant of 2S. 6d.
was made to the teacher for each pupil who passed in sewing, draw-
ing, gymnastics or woodwork.
IV. Examinations. — An examining body for all public
■examinations in the Free State was constituted in Bloemfontein,
consisting of nine members under the Superintendent of Education
as chairman. It was divided into three Committees for examining
in literature, in science, and in law. Examinations for the purpose
■of granting teachers' certificates were held twice a year. A com-
petitive school examination, open under certain restrictions to all
schools in the State, was held once a year, and those candidates
{boys or girls) who obtained the highest marks were awarded bur-
saries of £50 each per annum for two and a half years on condition
that the Bursar continued his or her education at a school approved
of by the Superintendent, during the time for which the money was
granted.
A system providing for pupil teachers was introduced, their
apprenticeship lasting three years, With grants of £15, £25 and £60
respectively, and in 1899 a beginning was made with a Normal
Training College in Bloemfontein.
In 1895 a modified form of compulsory education was adopted
hy the Volksraad, making it binding on every white child living at
a distance of not more than two miles from a Government school,
and being between ten and sixteen years of age, either to attend
such school for one or two consecutive years or to pass a simple
examination in reading, writing, arithmetic, history and geography
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■vDiaav Hxnos ni aoNaios ^^l^
EDUCATION IN ORANGE RIVER COLONY, 475
done. For this result both the Dutch and English teachers who
volunteered for the work deserve credit. It is interesting to recall
the fact that the work done in these schools received commendation
from the Ladies' Commission sent from England to enquire into the
condition of the Camps.
C. Education after the Declaration of Peace.
As the Concentration Camps began to be broken up the attend-
ance at these schools declined with great rapidity. For several
months after peace was declared the towns were crowded with
famUies who were unable to return to their farms until the damage
done by the war had to some extent been repaired, and accordingly
the hands of the Department were fully occupied in re-establishihg
the Town schools and providing the additional accommodation
required by the influx of population into the towns.
When the country became more settled, the most difficult work
of all began — the bringing of educational facihties within the reach
of children living on remote farms. The applications for new
schools increased in number month by month, and in dealing with
them the attention of the Department was first directed to the
larger schools — the so-caUed Ward schools, at which a minimum
attendance of twenty-five pupils was expected. In the year June,
1903 to June, 1904, nearly lOO of these schools were established,
and the number of children in attendance rose from 480 to 3,388.
To meet the needs of the more isolated parts the so-caUed Farm
schools were established, with a minimum attendance of twelve
pupUs, in which a capitation grant is paid to the teacher. While
the latter type of school must necessarily form part of a complete
system of State education under existing conditions, the Depart-
ment has always endeavoured to encourage the establishment of
larger schools, adequately staffed, where greater efficiency can ac-
cordingly be secured.
In the early days of the new administration there was much to
mUitate against anything like the formation of a definite system,
and it is doubtful whether attempts in this direction would have been
altogether desirable. It was, therefore, not until June, 1903, that
the Education Ordinance was passed. From that time, however,
events moved quickly. Towards the end of 1903 Local Education
Committees were appointed with certain defined powers. In
December, 1903, a Code of Regulations and a Syllabus of Instruc-
tion was put into force. The principle of free education, which in
practice had been recognised since the British occupation, was in
January, 1904, formally approved by Government. In February
of the same year Mr. E. B. Sargant, who had been Director of
Education for both the Transvaal and Orange River Colony, was
made Education Adviser to the High Commissioner, and Mr. Hugh
Gunn was appointed Director for the Orange River Colony. He
became henceforth directly responsible to the Local Government,
and holds a seat in the Legislative Council of the Colony."" I
476 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Under the system as now established, special provision for
Higher education is made at the Grey College and the Girls' High
School, Bloemfontein, and in the north of the Colony at the Kroon-
stad High School. In the Grey CoUege students are prepared for
the degrees of the Cape University, and a staff of lecturers has been
carefully selected for this work. There is a B.A. class at present in
existence, and the intention of the Government is to develop the
Grey College on University lines. At aU the remaining schools,
both town and country, education is free, and in the case of the more
important towns there is attached to the Elementary school a higher
department in which pupils may receive free education up to the
standard of matriculation.
A Normal school was established in August, 1902, for the pur-
pose of preparing students for the teaching profession, and a large
number have already passed through a course of training. The work
of Technical education and the establishment of Evening schools
have also been taken in hand in different parts of the Colony.
The town of Bloemfontein is under the charge of the Chief
Inspector, and the rest of the Colony is divided into four inspec-
torial districts. Though the work of creating new schools has not
been allowed to lapse, the energies of the Inspectors can now be
devoted more to their natural duties than was possible when the
country was passing through its various and eventful phases alluded
to above.
SECTION VIII.— EDUCATIONAL AND HISTORICAL-(a);/M.)
5. THE GROWTH OF SOUTH AFRICA : HISTORICAL AND-
SOCIOLOGICAL DATA.
By Rev. William Flint, D.D., Librarian of - Parliament,
Cape Colony.
The work, of which the chapters in this volume are a record and
a review, does not necessarily invite competitive comparison with
that accomplished in the name of Science in older lands. It does
claim, however, to have a value of its own, but its worth can only
be appraised on a careful weighing of the conditions under which
research and investigation have been carried on.
The accompanying tables of events, linked as they are with
estimates and censuses of the population at different periods, will
afford data out of which a true background may be found for the
work and workers in science.
The events vv^hich have contributed to the making of the com-
paratively brief history of South Africa need only a cursory examin-
ation in order to reveal the fact that many of the varied experi-
ences and developments of older countries, which have extended
over long eras, have here been compressed into two or three brief
centuries. The conquest of barbaric tribes, the peopling of the
land, the establishing of law and order, the development of natural
resources, the opening up of communication over vast distances,
the provision of the means of education, the uniting into one
commonwealth of peoples of diverse origins and varying ideals,
have necessarily absorbed the chief energies and time and thought
of the makers of the country.
In the 250 years which have elapsed since the landing of Van
Riebeek not less than fifty wars, great and small, have been waged,
an average of one every five years, and m.any of these have entailed
a large expenditure of money, and great sacrifices of life and pro-
perty on the part of the populations of the different colonies and
territ&ries.
As one of the results of these conflicts the boundaries of the
Colonies have frequently been extended. Now and again the
territorial advance has been necessitated by the exigencies of danger
to the white population caused by the close proximity of warlike
and irresponsible tribes. At times the rights of conquest after
battle have led to annexation. On more than one occasion tribes
which have learned to respect the guarantees of safety for life and
property which accompany the white man's rule have sought the
protection of the British Flag. Here and there the discovery of
478 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
mineral wealth has attracted the European, and in opening the
ground for gold or diamonds he has found it convenient to erect a
flagstaff for his national colours.
Slowly through the periods covered by these wars and exten-
sions the methods of governing the various peoples have developed,
-from the simple enforcement of the gubernatorial will of Van Rie-
beek and his successors to the complete self-government of the older
colonies of the Cape and Natal, and the recently granted Constitu-
tion for the younger Colony of the Transvaal.
In 1825 the Cape Colony was accorded the right of influencing its
Governor through a Council of Advice consisting of six members,
to whom all ordinances were to be submitted before promulgation.
In 1834 another step towards a Parliament was taken, and a Legis-
lative Council consisting of six officials and six colonists chosen by
the Governor was created. For twenty years that semblance of
popular government had to suffice, when in 1854 Parliamentary
institutions were granted and two Chambers were created, a Legis-
lative Council and a House of Assembly, but the old Executive
Council, whose members were appointed by the Home Government,
was retained for purposes of administration, much to the chagrin
of those who made the laws and voted the money for carrying out
the will of the people. Ultimately in 1872 Responsible Government
was granted, and in 1874 made more effectively operative by the
division of the Colony into seven electoral circles for the election of
the Upper House.
A reference to the historical data which immediately follows
this will reveal the development of self-government in Natal upon
somewhat similar Mnes, but will show that even now responsible
government is only twelve years old, and it may be noted that the
Legislative Council is still a nominated Chamber.
Hints at more ancient history will be found in the paper on
Rhodesian Ruins, and light will be thrown upon the relations be-
tween the Native races by articles in the Anthropological Section;
The somewhat chequered career of the recently-acquired Colonies
may also be discerned in the chronological table inserted hereafter.
Not a little light is thrown on many aspects of the country's
growth by the tables giving an outline of the history of railway
extension, How recently the ox-wagon and the stage-coach have
given place to the locomotive is not always realised, but he who
reads the figures aright, will find a key to many of the problems
which have affected development, as well in the realm of science
as in the social and political life of the people.
A.D. Historical Data.
i486. Discovery of the Cape of Good Hope by Diaz.
1497; Cape rounded and Natal named by Vasco da Gama.
1503. Table Bay discovered by Antonio de Saldanha.
1505., Arab dhows laden with gold from interior found at Sofala.
1510. Indian Viceroy slain in fight with Hottentots.
1552. Zimbabwe mentioned by De Barros.
HISTORICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL DATA. 479
1580. Drake returned from East by Cape.
1588. Monomotapa described by Livio Sanuto.
1591. English ships first visited Table Bay.
1595- First Dutch fleet in South African waters.-
1602. Dutch East India Co. formed.
1607. Armed alliance between King of Monomotapa and Portu-
guese.
1620. Sovereignty of King James proclaimed in Table Bay.
1632. Tete founded by Portuguese.
1652. Arrival of Van Riebeek and beginning of Settlement.
1655. Introduction of the Vine.
1657. Inland exploration commenced.
1658. Importation of Slaves.
1659. First War with Hottentots.
1672. Territory formally purchased from Hottentots.
1673. Second Hottentot War commenced.
1679. Stellenbosch founded by Van der Stel.
1685. Discovery of Namaqualand copper.
1686. Wreck of Stavenisse on Natal coast.
1688. Arrival of first Huguenot settlers.
1691. Commander raised to dignity of Governor.
1693. Portuguese forces driven by Natives from Zimbaoe.
17,00, Extension of settlement to Tulbagh.
1702. First encounter with the Kafirs.
1713. Outbreak of small-pox at the Cape.
X720. Makalangas, forced South by Zulus, enter Natal.
1746. Foundation of Swellendam.
1752. Exploration eastwards to Kei River.
1761. Northern exploration to Namaqualand.
1778. Orange River discovered.
1778. Fish River made the Frontier line.
1779. First Kafir War commenced.
1781. French troops arrived to defend Colony against English.
1789. Second Kafir War commenced.
1793. Commission of Enquiry into Cape grievances.
1795. Graaff Reinet and Swellendam rebellions.
1795. Surrender of Cape Colony to English.
1797. Earl of Macartney, first English civil governor, appointed.
1799. Rebellion of Eastern farmers.
1799. Third Kafir War commenced.
1799. London Missionary Society started operations.
1801. Southern Bechuanaland explored.
1803. Cape Colony restored to the Dutch.
1804. Van Riebeek's heraldic arms granted to the Cape.
1806. Cape Colony again surrendered to the English.
1806. Last public sale of imported slaves.
1807. Court of Appeal for civil cases appointed.
1809, Hottentots made subject to colonial laws.
1812. Fourth Kafir War.
1815. Slachter's Nek rebellion.
480 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
1818. Chaka's reign of terror commenced.
1818. ' Fifth Kafir War.
1820. Port Elizabeth founded.
1820. Arrival of British settlers in Albany.
1823. Lieut. Farwell's visit to Natal.
1824. First settlement of English in Natal.
1825. Governor's power limited by Council of Advice.
1825. First steamer arrived at Table Bay.
1828. Chaka killed by Dingaan.
1829. South African College opened.
1834. Emancipation of slaves.
1834. Fingoes released from bondage.
1834. Dutch Farmers entered Natal.
1834. Legislative Council established in Cape Colony.
1835. Sixth Kafir War.
1835. Capt. Allen Gardiner's mission to Natal.
1835. Durban founded.
1835. American mission in Natal commenced.
1836. Emigration of Dutch farmers beyond Orange River.
1837. Matabele crossed to the north of the Limpopo.
1837. Dutch emigrants enter Natal.
1838. Dutch emigrants murdered by Dingaan.
1838. Natal visited by British troops.
1839. Dutch proclaimed republic of Natalia.
1839. Coal discovered in Natal.
1839. Transvaal Republic founded.
1839. Establishment of Public School system in Cape Colony.
1841. Wesleyan Mission in Natal commenced.
1842. British supremacy in Natal proclaimed.
1843. Griqua and Basuto treaties.
1844. Pondoland made a treaty State.
1845. First Lieut. -Governor of Natal appointed.
1846. Seventh Kafir War commenced.
1847. Province of British Kaffararia created.
1848. Orange River Sovereignty proclaimed.
1848. Andries Pretorious crossed the Vaal.
1848. Legislative Council for Natal established.
1849. Anti-Convict agitation. >
1850. Eighth Kafir War commenced.
1851. First Basuto War commenced.
1852. Sand River Convention.
1852. Sugar planting commenced in Natal.
1854. Orange Free State established.
1854. Parliamentary institutions granted to Cape Colony.
1854. Angora goats introduced into Cape Colony.
1856. Natal created a colony with representative institutions.
1857. Pretorious and Kruger invade the Free State.
1858. Cattle-killing mania of the Ama Xosa.
1858. Second Basuto War.
i860. First telegraph line from Cape Town to Simon's Town.
HISTORICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL DATA. 481
i860. Coolie labour introduced into Natal.
1865. Kei River made eastern boundary of Cape Colony.
1866. Natal extended to Pondoland border.
1867. Discovery of Diamonds.
1868. Annexation of Basutoland to British dominions.
1871. Creation of Province of Griqualand West.
1872. Burgers elected President of Transvaal.
1872. Responsible Government granted to Cape Colony.
1873. Cape University established.
1873. Revolt of Langalibalele.
1874. Legislative Council for Cape Colony elected by 7 Circles.
1877. Annexation of South African Republic.
1877. Ninth Kafir War commenced.
1879. War with Cetewayo.
1880. War with the Basutos.
1880. Annexation of Griqualand West to Cape Colony.
1880. Transvaal War of Independence.
1881. Restoration of South African Republic.
1882. Kruger elected President.
1884. Basutoland made a Crown Colony.
1884. Barolong Territory annexed to Free State.
1884. German Protectorate in South- West Africa.
1885. Bechuanaland made British territory.
1886. Opening of Transvaal goldfields.
1887. Zululand declared British Territory.
1889. Customs Union formed.
1889. Charter to British South Africa Company granted.
1890. Mashonaland occupied.
1893. Responsible government granted to Natal.
1893. Lobengula overthrown.
1894. Pondoland annexed to Cape Colony.
1895-,. Swaziland annexed to the Transvaal.
1895. The Raid into the Transvaal.
1896. War with the Matabele.
1896. Annexation of Amatongaland.
1897. Zululand annexed to Natal.
1898. Rebellion of Bechuana chiefs.
1899. Great Boer War commenced.
1900. Transvaal and Orange River Colony proclaimed British
territory.
1901. Visit of Prince and Princess of Wales.
1902. Death of Cecil Rhodes.
1902. Peace signed at Pretoria.
Population Data.
Cape Colony.
Population.
1806 77>055
1811 .. ^7,018
t8i6 8m8o
HH
482
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Cape Colony (continued).
Population.
I82I
. . 112,147
1826
. . 121,497
I83I
. . 126,848
1836
. . 152,240
I84I
• ■ 155.324
1846
• . 180,594
I85I
. . 297,113
1856
267,096
These figures are probably rough enumerations, but are suffi-
ciently consistent period by period to give a fairly accurate idea
of the number and growth of the population up to the time when
the census proper was instituted. The relative proportions to be
allotted to the different races may be gathered from the following
figures taken at different times. In 1806 the races are thus
divided : —
Christians
Hottentots
Slaves
26,768
20,426
29,861
Fifteen years later, in 1821, two new classes appear, the figures
being : —
Christians . .
47,280
Free Blacks
1,871
Hottentots
29,023
Negro Apprentices
1,571
Slaves
32,402
In a return presented to the House of Commons showing the
population in 1849, the proportions are given as 88,490 white
and some 196,790 coloured, the numbers being approximate.
First Census.
The first actual census was taken in 1865, with the following
results : —
Europeans
Hottentots
Kafirs
Others
Total Population
181,592
81,598
100,536
132,655
496,381
HISTORICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL DATA.
4«3
In 1875 a
Second Census
produced the following figures : —
Europeans
Malays
Hottentots
• • 236,783
10,817
98,561
Fingoes . .
Kafirs and Bechuanas
Mixed and others
73,506
• . 214,133
. . 87,184
Total Population
720,984
It should be noted that the territory then known as British
Kaffraria was not reckoned in the census of 1865. By the inclusion
of that territory in Cape Colony some 8,183 Europeans and 78,018
Natives were added, and these must be reckoned with their natural
increase during the decade for the purpose of comparison.
The Third Census
was not taken until 1891, the intention of the longer interval being
doubtless to bring the numbering of the people into line with the
year fixed for the United Kingdom and other parts of the Empire.
The results are set forth in the following table : —
Europeans or Whites
Malays
Hottentots
Fingoes
Kafirs and Bechuanas
Mixed and Others
Total Population
376,987
13,907
50,388
229,680
608,456
247,806
1,527,224
Again it must be borne in mind that additional territories had
been included since the previous census, these comprising the Pro-
vince of Griqualand West which brought in 29,670 Europeans and
53,705 Native and coloured, and the Native Territories of East
Griqualand, Tembuland, Transkei and Walfish Bay with 10,379
Europeans and 476,985 Natives.
The Fourth Census
which, in the ordinary course, should have been taken in 1901, but
owing' to the war had to be deferred, was not taken until 1904, that
being the earliest date for which the arrangements could be com-
pleted after the country districts had settled down, and the towns
resumed their normal condition.
484 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
The results are set forth in racial detail in the following figures :-
European or White
Malays
Hottentots
Fingoes
Kafirs and Bechuanas
Mixed and Others
Total Population
579.741
15,682
91,260
310,720
1,114,067
298,334
2,409,804
Once more annexed territories have to be taken into account
when comparisons of results are instituted, British 'Bechuanaland
and Pondoland being together responsible for the addition of 10,300
Europeans and 276,522 Native and other peoples.
Natal. ;-^
For the population of Natal there are no accurate figures for the
early years, and resorting to estimates the following figures wUl be
found to afford at least an idea of racial proportions and growth ; —
1859.
Europeans
Zulu Kafirs
Total
11,580
150,000
161,580
1865. Europeans
Zulu Kafirs
Total
17,000
140,000
157,000
1871. Whites
Coolies
Natives
Aliens, &c..
Total
17,886
5,070
266,817
4,059
293,832
1881. Whites
Coohes
Natives
28,483
20,196
367,540
Total
416,219
HISTORICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL DATA.
485
1904.
Whites
Coolies
Natives
Total
. . 46,788
41,142
• 455,983
■ 543,913
Whites
Indians
Natives in Service
Mixed and Others
Natives
97,109
100,918
79,978
6,686
• 824,063
Total Population
• 1,108,754
Transvaal.
The earlier estimates of the population in the Transvaal appear
to have been less carefully made than those in other parts of South
Africa, and the Native population, especially, seems to have been
over-estimated. The figures available do not cover a very extended
period. During the first British occupation the following statement
was given : —
1880. Whites
Natives ajid others
45,000
774,930
1891. Whites
Natives and others
Total
Total
819,930
85,000
715,000
800,000
1904. Whites
Natives
Other Coloured
Total Population
300,255
1,030,029
23,946
1,354,200
In the numbers for the 1904 census Swaziland is included,
another instance of expanding territory which has so frequently to
be borne in mind in South Africa when comparisons are instituted.
Orange River Colony.
The estimates of population in the early days of the Orange
Free State do not form very satisfactory data upon which to work,
but the population was at no time very large, nor did it very rapidly
increase. In later years the development has been more rapid.
486
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
In 1870 the following figures were given]out : —
Whites
Natives and others
Total
1880. Whites
Natives and others
Total
1890. Whites
Natives and others
Total
1904. Whites
Natives and others
Total
33,000
17,000
50,000
61,022
72,496
133,518
77,716
129,787
207,503
143419
241,626
385,045
Southern Rhodesia.
1904. Mashonaland Europeans
Matabeleland Europeans
Whites
Natives and others
Total
4,917
7,706
12,623
593,141
605,764
Bechuanaland Protectorate.
1904. Whites . .
Natives and others
1904. Whites . .
Natives and others
Total .
1,004
• 119,772
V
120,776
Basutoland.
. .
Total .
895
• 347,953
• 348,848
HISTORICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL DATA. 487
British South Africa, 1904.
European Natives and ^ , ,
or White. " others. ^°^^^-
Cape Colony 579,741 1,830,063 2,409,804
Natal 97,109 1,011,645 1,108,754
Transvaal 300,225 i,053,975 i,354,200
Orange River Colony . . 143,419 241,626 385,045
Southern Rhodesia . . . . 12,623 593,141 605,764
Bechuanaland Protectorate 1,004 119,772 120,776
Basutoland 895 347,953 348,848
Grand Total .. 1,135,016 5,198,175 6,333,194
Railway Communication.
Cape Colony {Western.)
A.D.
1863. Cape Town to Wellington (Main Line).
1864. Cape Town to Wynberg.
1875. Cape Town to Docks.
1876. Main Line extended to Worcester.
1877. Malmesbury Branch.
1878. Main Line extended to Matjesfontein.
1880. Main Line extended to Beaufort West.
1883. Wynberg to Kalk Bay.
1884. Main Line extended to De Aar.
1885. Main Line extended to Kimberley.
1890. Sir Lowry's Pass Branch.
1890. Kalk Bay to Simon's Town.
1890. Main Line extended to Vryburg.
Cape Colony {Midland).
1875. Port Elizabeth to Addo.
1875. Port Elizabeth to Uitenhage.
1877. Main Line opened to Alicedale.
1879. Uitenhage Line extended to Graaff-Reinet.
1879. Grahamstown Branch.
1881. Main Line opened to Cradock.
1883. Extension to Colesberg.
1884. Linked with Western at De Aar.
1890. Nerval's Pont reached.
1898. Graaff-Reinet Line extended to Rosmead.
Cape Colony {Eastern).
1877 East London to King William's Town.
1877. East London to Kei Road.
1880. Extended to Queenstown.
488 SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
1883. Extended to Sterkstroom.
1885. Extended to Aliwal North.
1892. From Albert to Orange River.
Later the Sir Lowry's Pass Line has been extended to Caledon,
the Malmesbury hne to Hopefield and Eendekuil, and other branches
are in course of construction from the Western Line to Carnarvon
and Prieska.
From the Graaff-Reinet Line the South- Western Districts have
been tapped, and the coast district west of Port EHzabeth.
The King William's Town Line has been extended to Cookhouse,
and from the latter place a branch reaches to Somerset East.
The Eastern Line has also been supplied with a feeder on its
western side from Tarkastad, and on its eastern side branches are
being made in the direction of Butterworth from Amabele, and to
Maclear from Sterkstroom, and Gairtney from Aliwal North.
At different periods private enterprise has joined Grahamstown
with Port Alfred ; and from Worcester an extension has been made
which will shortly reach Mossel Bay ; while from the west coast
Namaqualand has been supplied.
' ■ Natal. '
i860. Point to Durban (First Railway in Africa).
1876. Main Line commenced.
1880. Opened to Maritzburg.
1886. Extended to Ladysmith.
1891. Completed to Charlestown.
1892. Opened to Harrismith.
Branch Lines have been been opened it different periods on the
northern coast through the sugar and tea districts reaching the
Lower' Tugela in 1898, and Empangeni in Zululand in 1902. On
the southern coast the line was completed to North Shepstone in
1901, and a branch to Umzinto was opened in 1900. A local line
Clairmont to Wests was completed in 1898. On the Western side
of the main line Richmond branch was opened in 1897 and Maritz-
burg to Gre5rtown on the east in 1900. Glencoe to Dundee was
completed in 1889, and last year was opened to Vryheid. Portions
of most of these lines were opened as completed.
Orange River Colony,
i8go. Cape Lines reached Bloemfontein.
1892. East London Line linked at Springfontein.
1892. Extension to Vaal River.
More recently branch lines have been opened to Jagersfontein,
Ladybrand, Winburg and Heilbron, and the Natal line from Harri-
smith has reached Bethlehem.
HISTORICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL DATA. 489
Transvaal.
1892. Cape Lines extended to Johannesburg and Pretoria.
1895. Natal Line linked with Johannesburg.
1895. Delagoa Bay Line linked in at Pretoria.
Branch lines have since been made to Barberton, to Pietersburg,
to Springs and to Klerksdorp.
Rhodesia.
A decade covers the railway history of Rhodesia, which includes
extension from Vryburg to Beira, with branch lines to Matopos,
West Nicholson, Selukwe and the Ayrshire Mines, and during the
present year the Zambesi has been crossed at the Victoria Falls.
11
INDEX.
PAGE.
PAOE.
Aard-yark
136
Anderson, W. . .
. . 260
Aard Wolf
126
Andersson, C. J.
.. 124
Aba-Tembu
84
Angiopteridium . . .
. . 266
Abbe de Lacaille
61, 65
Angola coast described
6
Ablabaphus , .
147
highland . . .
.. 3. 12
Acacia decurrens
404
Angoni. plateau . . ....
.. 3. 10
„ , .horrjda. .
369
Animals, Parasites of. . .
■ • 372
Acanthodrilidae
17s
Antelopes, List of ...
. . 128
Acidity of Wines , . .
419
Antheraea tyrrhea
•■ 370
Acid rocks -
292
Anthiinae ....
.. 163
Acontias
146
Anthomyiidae . .
•■ 173
Acraeidae
169
Anthracidae
. . 172
Acrididae . ,
156
Anthrax . .
, . 348
Acridium purpuriferum . ;
364
AnthophUa ...
160
Acrolepsis
302
Anthribidae
. . 168
Actaeonina ... ...
270
Anthropological institute
121
Acute. rheumatism in Sheep . .
352
Anthropology . .
79, 115
Aepycefos ... . . . .
130
Antidorcas . .
. . 130
.^stridae
156
Antiquities, Rhodesian
109
African coast fever
339
Anysberg ....
. . .244
Agaristidae . . ...
171
Aphlebia ...
.. -155
Agonic Une _
75
Aphodiinae
.. 165
Agricultural co-operation
388
Apodytes dimidiata
■■ 392
„. Journal . . 373, 389
Apus
• • 175
problems . .
375
Aqueducts, Ancient ...
121
school
452
Aquila . .
.. 141
Agulhas current ...
24
Arachnida ...
.. 176
Airy, Sir George ....
63
Araneae
. . 178
Alaria .....
270
Archaean rocks . .
. . 302
Albany, district . .
245
Arctiadae . . ...
. . 171
,, , .Museum, Grahamstown
309
Argas persicus
•• 373
Albatross . . . .
143
Argiope . .
• 179
Alcohol in wines ...
419
Artillery School ....
. . ■. 472
Algoasaurus ...
308
Artocephalus . . ....
. . 127
Algol variables . .
72
Asbestos mountains ... ;
241, 247
Alkali soils .
381
Ascalaphid ....
• 159
AUis, Mr.
69
Ascension, Expedition to
68
Allobophora ; <
■175
Asilidae
. 172
Alpha centaxui . .
65
Aspidelaps
. 148
Altitudes of towns . . . . / ~. ..
V.19
Aspidiontus hederae . .
. 368
Ama-Baca
84
Assegai
• 392
Ama-Rarabe.
84
Astronomy . . ....
61
Ama-Xesibi .... ...
'M
Astrophysics
70
Amblyomma .Hebraeum
'374
Attidae
. 180
American vines '. .
421
Aves
. lie
Amphisbaenas. .'."
■-M5
Avicula
-:e 191
Aiaygdaloid
278
Aulucaspis Pentagona . .
. 368
Analyses of sugar cane
-432
Anchisaurus ...
308
Baboon
. 124
Ancient Ruins Co
118
Backbakri
• 139-
492
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
PAGE.
PAGE.
B^pulites
. . 270
Bokkeveld series 242, 245, 246, 264
Bagrada hilaris. .
•■ 369
B^qjhbycidae
.. 171
Baiera . .
.. 251
Bombylidae
.. 172
Bailey, Capt
70
Bonney, T. G
.. 328
Baily, W. H
.. 269
Bontebok
.. 128
Balaena . .
.. 136
Boophilus bovis
•■ 337
Banded Ironstone
• • 302
Boring insects . .
.. 368
Bankets
.. 278
Bos
.. 131
Bantu tribes
79
Boschvark
.. 132
Barberton series
.. 275
, Bosman, Mr. . .
74
Baridinae
.. 168
Bostrichidae
.. 67
Barometric depression, Ty
pes of 39
Botha's Hill
. . 264
pressure . .
60
Bothriceps
.. 308
Barreto, Francesco
90
Boulder-pavement
. . 250
Basalt
.. 271
Boundaries
I
Basaltic lavas . .
. . 261
Bovine piroplasmosis . .
■• 337
Basic rocks
. . 290
Braconidae
•• 159
Bateleur
.. 141
Branchipodopsis
.. 175
Bat Guaiio
.. 105
Brand, President
71
Bathyergus
• • 134
Brebner, Rev. J.
■■ 471
Batrachia
.. 148
Breviceps
.. 149
Batrachosaurus
.. 251
BrickhiU. J
•■ 439
Batrachosuchus
.. 308
Brill, Dr. J
.. 470
Beattie, Dr. J. C;
74
British Association Cat;
ilogue
Beaufort Beds . . 250, 2 C
>i, 266, 304
of Stars ..
66
period
.. 242
British S.A. population
.. 487
Bechuana areas . .
.. 83
Bromo-Cyanogen process
•• 314
tribes
90
Broom, Dr. R. . .
■• 304
Bechuanaland population
.. 486
Brown, A.
■• 309
Becker, G. F
• • 329
Bubalis . .
.. 128
Belodon . .
.. 308
Bubalus baini. . .
• • 254
Beneficial insects
.. 370
Buchan, Dr. and rainfall
31. 39
Benguela current
24
Buffalo
.. 131
Bent grass
. . 402
Bufo
.. 149
Bent, Theodore
109
Bullion . .
•• 314
Berg Damaras . .
.. 98
Bultfontein mine
.. 322
Berg winds
40
Bumble bees
.. 160
Berlin Academy of Scienc
B .. 71
Bunbury, Sir Chas.
. . 201
Bethyllidae
.. 162
Buphaga
•• 137
Bibliography of Flora . .
.. 236
Buprestidoe
.. 166
Bier River mountain . .
•• 243
Burchell, W. J
201
Biggarsberg
.. 268
Burchell's travels
.. 123
Biliary Fever . .
■-• 344
Burghersdorp group . .
. . ~ 250
Birds
... 136
Bursaries
■■ 473
Bishop birds
.. 138
Bushbuck
• • 131
Bitis
.. 148
Bushmanland . .
.. 241
Blaauwbok
.. 130
Bushman paintings
. . 269
Black Ironwood
•• 391
race . .
82, 95, 105
poplar . .
■■ 395
rock-shelters
.. 269
Black-Quarter . .
.. 348
Bush veld
. . 290
Black Reef series 24
7, 263 275,
Butterflies
124, 168
280, 281
Buxus macowani
... 392
Black wattle . .
.. 404
Blattidae
154, 161
Caerostris
•• 179
Blesbok
.. 128
Caesetius
■• 179
Blesmol . .
■• 134
Caffer cat
.. 126
Bloemfontein museum . .
•• 309
;GalaiHites
.. 302
Blue ground
299. 320
Calandra oryza . .
.. 369
Blue-gum
•• 395
Calcite
•• 324
Blue jays
140
Caldecott, H. S.
.. 464
Board of Examiners . .
•• 453
Caledoh
■• 245
Boedlander's equation . .
•• 313
Callitris
•■ 397
INDEX.
493
PAGE.
PAGE.
Callitris arborea .. 391,392
Chemnitzia
. . 270
Calvinia . . . . . . 247, 250
Chiropteris
251, 252
Camoens
79
Chloeniinoe
.. 163
Campbell Rand series . . 247, 285,
Chlorination plant
.. 312
Canary . .
. 138
Chrysidae
162
Cane, Sugar
• 424
Chrysocloris
•• 135
Cane, Varieties of
• 431
Chrysomelinae . .
.. 168
Cango beds . . 245, 2
47, 264
Chrysomphalus aurantii
.. 368
Cape ant-eater . .
. 158
Cicads . .
■• 173
Cape armadillo . .
. 158
Cicatria . .
.. 270
Cape catalogues
. 66
Cicindelidae
.. 162
Cape Colony, Population
. 481
Circumcision and natives
88, 91, 94
Cape Colony, Railways
• 487
Cirrhosis of liver
•• 359
Cape fauna in early times
122
Civilization of ancient na
fives 89
Cape Forest department policy 400
Civil Service
•• 453
Cape formation . . .. 245,280
Cladophlebis
.. 251
Cape Hanglip . .
• 243
Clanwilliam
.. 245
Cape hunting dog
. 127
Clanwilliam cedar
•• 393
Cape-Orange highland. .
2
Cleithrolepis
.. 251
Cape Peninsula . .
• 244
Cleridae . .
.. 167
Cape tulp
• 354
Cleve, Professor
.. 194
Carabidae
. 163
Climate . .
22, 207
Caracal . .
. 126
Climatic regions
7
Caranx trachurus
• 193
Clinus
.. 19s
Cardium . .
. 270
Clock, Sidereal . .
71
Camivora
• 125
Cloud
43
Carpenter bees . . . . i
60, 167
Clythrinae
.. 168
Carpocapsa pomonella . .
. 367
Coal-bearing series 266, 294, 302
Carte du ciel
■ 69
Coal-output, Natal . .
266, 267
Cassidinae
. 168
Coal seams
251, 298
Cassiterite
• 311
Coast belt described . .
5
Cataetyx
■ 195
Coast configuration
.. 189
Catarrhal pneumonia . .
■ 350
Coast fever
■• 339
Cattle parasites
• 350
Cobra
.. 148
Causus ..
. 148
Cobus
.. 129
Cave sandstone . . 251,2
61, 269
Codling moth . .
•• 367
Cecidomydae . .
• 172
Colias electra
.. 369
Cederbergen . . . . 2
43. 244
Coliopasser
.. 138
Cedrela
• 397
Colius
140
Cedrus . .
• 397
Coleoptera . . . . i
53, 154, 162
Census . .
. 481
Colleges and university
.. 454
Census botanical
• 199
Colour of natives
.. 85
Cephalopoda
. 270
Comet of 1882 . .
68
Cephalopus
129
Comets, Maclear's observ
itions 66
Ceratitis capitata
. 367
Commission on Technica
Edu-
Ceratodus
. 251
cation
.. 467
Cercopidae
• 173
Compulsory education . .
•■ 473
Cercopithecus . .
. 124
Concentration camps . .
46s. 474
Ceres . . . ,
• 245
Congo-Zambesi plateau
.. 3. 12
Ceropalidae
. 161
Conocephalinae . .
.. 156
Ceryle
140
Conopidae
.. 172
Cetoninae . . . . i
5i, 166
Convocation of Universiti
^ ■■ 454
Cevicarpa
. 130
Coolie labour . .
. . 426
Chailletia cymosa
■ 355
Co-operation, Agricultura
1 ..388
Chalcedolite
. 283
Cooper's Hill Forest Scho
ol . . 399
Chalcid wasp
• 371
Copper . .
.. 3"
Challenger observations
■ 75
Coracias . .
140
Chamaesaura . .
• 145
Corstorphine, Dr. G. S.
.. 277
Chameleons
146
Cosmas indicopleustes . .
82
Charbon
• 348
Cosmetornis
140
Charter for University. .
• 453
Cossoninae
.. 168
Cheloctonus
■ 177
Cossus tristis
.. 368
494
SCIENCE' IN. SOUTH AFRICA.
260, 26
Cost metallurgical treatment
Cost tea production,
Cosyra . .
Council of University-
Cranes .....
Crenicpras .... . .
Cretaceous rocks 253
Crimes among natives
Crocodiles . . .-i
Crocidolite . . .
Crookes, Sir Wm
Crustacea
Crustaceans
Cryptocephalinae,
Cryptolaemu? montrQuzieri
Cryptorrhyncljinae
Ctenizinae
Cuckoo . . . ,
Cuculus . .
Culicidae
Curculionidae ,
Currents, Ocean
Curtisia faginea
Cyanide solution
Cydrela . . , .
CyHchna . . • . , .
Cymindinae ...
Cynoctomuin poisoning
Cynodonts ' , . .
Cynodraco ....
Cynoglpssus capensis
Cypognathus, , . .
Cypresses ...
Cytherea ...
Dale, Sjr Langham . ,
Damaliscus ...
Damaraland djk-dik..
Damaras, Berg . .
Darwin, George , ,
Dassie?. . .
Dasyp.eltis ....
Day-flying bnttertii,e§
De Beers mines . .
Decora^:ion in ruins
Decticinae ...
Deep sea fauna. .
Delalande's fpjc. .
Dalphinognathus ,
De Mist, Conjniissary
Dendrappis , , . .
Denudation, Results of
Deposits, Sea . • •
Desert climate . .
Desis . .
Dhlo-dljlo ruins
Diadepiodon , . .
Diamonds, Genesis of
Diamond mines. .
Diamond pipes. .
Dicynodon .... 2.50, 251,
Dietetic diseases
PAGE.
316
446
367
454
143
270
I, 269
87
144
247
329
271
175
168
371
168
J 79
141
141
172
168
24
392
313
179
270
163
356
307
306
190
SI. 307
397
270
102, 449
128
129
98
72
133
147
168
319
"5
156
194
127
305
449
148
4-
189
7
180
"3
307
324
318
299
268, 305
353
Die Wanderljeuschrecken
Dilophus ....
Dinosaurs ...
Diocesan College
Diomedea ...
Dip for ticks, . . .
Bipnejimones . . .
Diptera . .
Diseases of stock
Discovery observations
District schools . .
Dolorite intrusions
Dolomite formations 247,
244,
263,
Donax . .
Don, D . . ... .
Doornbergen . .
Doornfontein beds
Dorffel, Dr.
Dorthesia
Dove
Drakensberg 241, 252, 260, 261,
Drege, J. F., Travels. and work
Dress of natives
Driest station . .
Drift sand plantations
Dronk grass
Droos
Duiker . . . .
Durban education
Dust storms
Dutoitspan mine
Dwellings of Zulu Kafirs
Dwyka.conglpmerate
Dwyka. series. .... ,^
Dynastinae
Dytiscidae , . .
PAGE.
366
137
2.51
454
143
374
179
172
332
75
471
253
280
283
270
423
247
277
279
370
142
268
201
Eagle , .. "... . ,
Earth Magnetism , ,
Earthw:orms ....
East coasf described
Eastern climate
Eastern Province , .
Ecca beds , 243, 261, 265, 266,
Ecklon and Zeyher
Ectobia . . , . .
Edaphic influences on flora
Edendale falls . . ....
Edington's inoculation method
Education and Sir J. Herschel
Education in Cape Colony
Education in Natal ....
Education in Transyaal
86, 93. 95
28
402
357
348
129
457
42
321
87
296, 302
241, 248
161, 165
164
Education in Orange
Colony ...
Edwards, TeLford
Egossa forest
Eland ..
Eland's Vley
Elateridae
Electrolytic prgcess.
River
141
74
175
6
7,8
449
297
201
155
209
271
336
64
448
457
462
470
III
253
131
250
167
313
INDEX.
495
Elephants ■ . .
PAGE.
134. 271
Forests. ._. • . . ■ .
PAGE.
212,' 214
Elephants shrews
•• 13s
Forest, sandstones
• ■ 303
Elldn, Dr.
.. 68
Forest Staff
•• 399
El Masudi - . . .
.. 83
Forestry . .
■• 391
Elmore process . .
.. 310
Forestry in Cape Colony . . 399
Elsburg beds
• • 279
Forestry in Natal
■• 403
Eisner's equation
•• 313
Forestry in Orangia .
. . 40s
Embotyi beds . .
245, 253, 254
Forestry in Rhodesia .
.. 411
Empires, Early African
82
Forestry in Transvaal .
. . 406
Empusinae . .
.. 156
Formations, Geological
table 256
Endothiodon . .
• • 305
Forraicaria
.. 158
Engler, Dr. A. . .
. . 203
Formicidae . . ■ .
.. 161
Engoye mountains
. ^ .. 263
Fossil flora . . ." .
. . 268
Enon beds • . .
.. 253
Fossil mammals
.. 131
Entomologists, Govern
ment . . 362
Fossil reptiles . .
. . 304
Eoliths of Pretoria • .
. . 108
Fossores
'. . 161
Eparcha,ean rocks
. . 302
Fossorial hymenoptera
.. 161
Ephestia kuhrriella
■ • 369
Fourcarde, Mr. . .
74
Epilachna similis
■ • 369
Francolinus ... - .
. . 142
Epizootic rocks
• • 349
Fresh- water invertebrates .. 175
Epomophorus . .
•• 135
Frogs ....
.. 148
Eptesicus
■• 135
Frost
26
Equine piroplasmosis .
■ ■ 344
Fruit fly. .
367. 371
Equus . .
.. 132
Fruit insect pests
• • 367
Eremobiinae
.. 157
Fruit sucking moths .
• ■ 367
Erinaceus . .
■• 135
Fulguraria
. . 270
Eriphyla
. . 270
Fur seal . .
.. 127
Eriocampides limacina
. . ,368
Fynn, H. F.
. . 260
Estheria . .
175, 266
Estrilda
.. 138
Gaikas, Characteristics of . . 86
Etheridge, R. . .
. . 269
Galago . .
.. 125
Eucaljrpts
• • 395
Galeichthys
.. 19s
Eumenidae
160
Galena . .
.. 310
Eunice Institute
.. 471
Galerucinae
.. 168
Europeans, Altitude suitable for 2
Galesaurus
• • 307
Euskelesaurus . .
. : 308
Gall sickness
• . 342
Euxenite
.. 311
Gamble, J. G. . .
21
Examinations . .
453, 473
Gangamopteris
250, 298
Examiners, Board of .
•• 453
Ganoid scales . .
. . 266
Exogyra. ...
. . 269
Garter snakes . .
. . 148
Experimental farm
. . 438
Gasteracantha . .
.. 180
Experiment stations .
• • 390
Gatsrand series . .
263, 286
Gauss observations
75
Factories, Sugar
• • 430
Geckos . .
.. 145
Fallows, Rev. Fearon .
62
Geel dikkop
• ■ 347
Farm schools . .
. . 466
Geilziekte
.. 358
Fauna, Insect . .
•• 153
Gelechia operculella .
■ • 369
Fauna^ Review of
.. 124
Gemsbok ^ . . . .
.. 130
Fees for Education
.. 459
Geocalaptes . . . .
. . 140
Felis Leo , . .
.. 125
Geodesy . .
.. 61
Fermentation of wines
.. 419
Geodetic survey
.. 70
Fingoes . .
.. 84
Geographical botany .
.. 199
Fiscal. .....
•• 139
Geographical features
.. 183
Fish, Early stages of .
.. 195
Geography, Physical .
I
Fitzpatrick, Sir Percy.
. . 464
Geological formations.
Table of 256
Flint, Dr. W. . .
• • 477
Geology of Cape Colon
y . . 241
FloraLregions, Sketch c
f . . 199
Geology of Natal and Z
ululand 260
Flushes, Tea . .
. . 442
Geology of Rhodesia .
. ■ 301
Folk-lore of natives .
• • 97
Geology of Transvaal
and Or-
Food of natives
.. ' 86
ange River Colony
■• 273
Foot and mouth disease
5 • • 349
Georychus
■■ 134
Foraminifera . .
.. 271
Gervilia . .
. . 269
496
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
PAGE.
PACK.
Gibson, W.
• . •
276
Harpactirella . .
.
179.
Gilchrist, Dr. J. D. F.
, ,
182
Harpagini
.
156
Gill, Sir David . , .
ix., 6
I. 71
Hatch, Dr. F. H.
273. 275
277
Giraffa
. . .
131
Heartwater
345
Glacial conglomerates.
■ ■ ■
296
Hedgehog
.
135
Glacial deposit
. ■
26s
Heidelberg^
254
Glanders . . '
348
Heights of mountains .
8-13
Glendale valley
■ •
262
Heliothis armiges
368
Glossina morsitans
372
Helium stars
JO
Glossopteris . . 250,
251, 266
298
Helm, Dr. John
.
III
Gneisses
• > <
262
Helotarsus
141
Gold .. .. 263,
264, 278
3"
Hemerobiidae . .
159
Golden moles . .
* >
135
Hemiptera-Homoptera .
154
173
Goliathid beetles
. •
166
Henderson, Thomas
63
Gomphognathus
,
307
Herbage destruction
385
Gouaquas
83
Herero areas
83
Gondwanaland
3
Herero tribes
93
Goniami kamassi
• > •
392
Herschel, Sir John
. ,
64
Gonnochaetes . .
> ■ •
128
Herschel system of education
449
Gould, Dr.
67
Hesperidae
169
171
Government, Develop
ment of
478
Heterocera
171
Government, Native .
.
87
Heterodera radicicola
369
Government timber pla
ntations
Hetrodinae
156
400
410
Heuveltjes
381
Grandidier, M. . .
HI
Hexispodidae . .
17S
Granite . .
. .
246
Hex River mountains .
243
Granitic rocks . . 261,
262, 278
292
Higher education
4-54. 458
467
Graphipterinae
163
Highland defined
2
Grass flora (Stapf)
. .
203
High-level gravels
254
Great Karroo . .
241
High veld
294, 297
301
Green mud
.
196
Hippoboscidae . .
173
372
Grey College
. .
471
Hippopotamus . .
62
132
Grey, Sir George
470
Hippotragus
.
130
Griesbach, C. L.
260
Histeridae
. .
164
Griqualand West
254
Historical data . .
477
478
Griquatown beds
247
302
History of Education
, Cape
Grisebach, A. . .
201
Colony
448
Greenland mountain .
. .
243
History of Education
, Nat'ai
457
Growth of country
477
History of Education,
Orange
Gryllacrinae
156
River Colony
. ,
470
Gryllidae
156
History of Education,
Trans-
Grysbok
129
vaal
462
Guano . .
. .
382
History of Sugar Industry
423
Guinea fowl
. .
143
History of Zoological discovery
122
Gulls
143
Hodotermes havilandi
368
Gnnn, Hugh
475
Hollway, H. C. Schunke
1
Guest, Ivor
106
Holmes, G'. G- ■ .
280
Gurney, J, H. . .
124
Homorelaps
148
Gwamba areas . .
83
Honey-guides . .
141
Gwamba people
88
Honey-pot ant
162
Gyps
■143
Hoogeveld series
295
Gyrodus . .-
270
Hooger, Sir John and Aus-
tralian afiinities .
217
Hadogenes
177
Hopetown
249
Hahn, Dr. P. D.
414
Hopliinae
165
Hahn on climatology .
24
Hornbills
140
Hail
39
Horse sickness . .
342
Hall, R. N.
109
Hortalotarsus . .
308
Hamites
270
Hospital Hill series
277
302
Harbours described
18
Hottentots
82, 9;
Hares . . ; .
134
Hough, S. S. . .
71
Harpactira
178
Houses of Natives
9
1-95
INDEX.
497
Houwhoek mountain . .
PAGE.
•• 243
Kafirs described
PAGE.
85
Howesia
•• 307
Kalahari' Climate
7
Huguenot College
■• 454
Kalahari Desert
242
Hulett, A. S. L.
•• 439
Kalahari flora . . 229
-233
, 364
Hnlett, Sir J. L.
•■ 439
Kapteyn, Professor . .
•.69,73
Hunting Leopard
.. 126
Karoo . .
377
Hutcheon, D. . .
•■ 332
Karoo basin
242
Hutchins, D. E.
■• 391
Karoo formation 241,
248
,265
Hyaenas
.. 127
Karoo flora
22;
-226
Hydrography . .
14
Karoo Poort
243
249
Hydrus . .
•• 147
Karoo system . .
273
293
Hymenoptera . .
154. i.';9
Keis series
247
Hymenoptera Petioliventres
160
Kenhardt
247
Hymenopterous fauna
160
Khami ruins
113
Hystrix
• • 134
Khoi Khoin race
Kimberley mines
1 02
318
Ibiquas group . .
246, 264
Kimberley shale
318
Icerya purchasi . .
■ • 370
Kimberlite
320
325
Ichneumonidae
.. 159
Kingfisher
140
Ictidosuchus
• ■ 306
Kirk, Sir John . .
. ,
334
Igneous rocks .. 271,285
290, 320
Kistecephalians
306
Impendhla
.. 271
Klaarstroom . .
244
Jmplements, Stone
102
Klip River amygdaloid
263
Importation of plants . .
■ • 363
Klipriversberg amygdaloid
278
Inanda Association
.. 432
Klip.springer
129
Inchlomu tree . .
.. 409
Knorhaan
143
Indenture system
• • 427
Knysna . .
253
Indian Immigrants Commission 427
Knysna forests . .
391
Indians in Natal
. . 426
Koch's inoculaticn method
336
Indian schools . .
■■ 459
Kosi lake
261
Indigenous trees
•■ 391
Kouga mountains
243
Infection and coast fever
.. 340
Krantz kop
264
Innes, R. T. A
73
Krauss, Dr. F
201
Inoculation . . 332, 343,
346, 347
Kudu
131
Insect fauna . .
•• 153
Kunene river, area of basin
14
Insect pests
362
Kunene river described
18
Insects, Beneficial
■• 370
Kwanza river, area of basin
14
Inspection of schools . .
•• 473
Kwanza river described
18
Inter-Colonial Conference
.. 466
Kynaston, H. . .
273
Inter-Colonial Education
.. 468
Intermediate rocks
. . 292
Labour and agriculture
379.
426
Invertebrates, Land and fresh-
Lacaille, Abbe de
6
r, 65
water
.. 175
Lace mine
300
Inyala . .
.. 131
Laingsburg
249
250
Inyanga ruins . .
.. 119
Lakes, Zululand
261
Iron
.. 311
Lamna . .
270
Iron ores
.. 268
Lampyrini
167
Ispidina
140
Lamziekte
360
Isometrus
■• 177
Land invertebrates
17s
Itinerant schools
.. 471
Land, Kafir theory of . .
87
Ixodidae
•• 373
Landolphia kirkii
Land tenure
404
379
■ ackson. Colonel
74
Land vertebrata
122
Jagziekte
•• 350
Langsbergen
241,
243
'_ asus lalandii . .
.. 191
Language and education
466
jaundice, Malignant ..
•• 374
Language of natives, 81, 96
, 99.
III
Jerri's People. .
.. IIS
Laniarius
139
.'etaje ..
.. 348
Lanuis . .
139
Johannesburg Observatory
73
Larks
138
Johnny Hangman
•• 139
Larus
143
Johnson, E. H. . .
.. 310
Laterite . .
303
Junipers
.. 397 :
Latiarca . .
270
498
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
PAGE.
PAGE.
Latrodectus • • . .
• ■ 179
Mactra . . ■
270
Layard, E. L.- . .
.. 123
Madoqua . . - .-.
I2C^.
Lead . . ■ . .
.. 310
Magaliesberg series
263
Lebiinae . .
.. 163
Magnetism, Earth
74
Lebombo range . . "
. . 269
Main reef series . .
276
278,
Lechwe . . ■ . .
.. 129
Makalauga areas
83
Leeches . .
17s, 176
^akalanga people
88
114
Legat, C
.. 408
Maklandjalo
83
Legislation and insect pests
. . . 362
Malacodermidae
167
Leguan . .
.. 145
Malarial catarrhal fever
346
Lemurs . .
.. 125
Malignant jaundice
374
Leopard . ^
.. 125
Malmesbury beds 245,
236
302
Lepidoptera .. 153, 154
, 168, 171
Mamba . .
148
Lepidosaphes beckii . .
.. 368
Mammalia
124
271
Leptestheria
.. 17s
Man, Uncivilized
79
Leptodeira
.. 147
Manis
136
Lepus
• • 134
Mansvelt and education
463
Leslie, T. N. . .
106
Manufacture of tea
444
Leucadendron argenteum
• • 392
Mantodea
155
Le Vaillant's travels . .
122
Manurial experimants 182,
433
443
Lewis, H. C
.. 320
Marine fauna . .
T82
Lichtenstein's hartebeest
.. 128
Maritzburg education ; .
457
Limpopo, area of basin
14
Marloth, Dr. R.
, ,
214
Limpopo described
17
Marriage customs of natives . .
88
Lindgren, W. . .
.. 328
Masaridae
160
161
Lion
.. 125
Massee, Geo. . . . .
366
Literature of anthropology
. . ' loo
Massopondylus
308
Literature of Zoology . .
.. 151
Matatiele
254
Livingstone and natives '
.. 89
Matsap series . .
247,
290
Livingstone's antelope . .
129
McArthur process ...
312
Livingstone Nyasa highlan
i .. 3. JO
McClean, Frank
70
Lizards . . . .
.. 14s
Meadows, Lieut.
63
Locustidae
.. 156
Mediterranean flour moth
369
Locusts . .
■ • 364
Meerkats ^
126
Lophogyps
.. 142
Megalocypris . .
175
Lounsbury, C. P. 341, 345
. -351. 362
Melica dendroides
357
Lourie . .
.. 141
Melina . .
269
Louw, Rev. A. A.
III
Melinodon
307
Lower Dwyka shales- . . '
.. 242
Mellivora
127
Lower Karoo . .
.. 295
Mellor, E. T
. ,
274
Lower Witwatersrand serie
s 261, 278
Melmoth district . . ,
263
Lbxostege frustalis
.. 369
Meltziekte
348
Lugard, Sir F
• • 334
Melyrini . .
167
Luipard . .
.. 126
Meningitis in goats . .
358
Lumbricus
.. :75
Mennell, F. P. ,.
301
Lunt, J -
71- 73
Meridian of Cape . .
'.'.6
I, 6s
Lutra
.. 127
Merlucius vulgaris
193
Luttman-Johnson, Mr.
.. 279
Mesoplodon
136
Luzi, W. ..
.. 326
Mesosaurus
250
304
Lycaon . . . . ' . .
.. 127
Mest-Bek
357
Lycaenidae ...
169
Metallurgical equipment
315
Lychas . .
■• 177
Metallurgy
310
Lycini . .
.. 167
Metamorphic rocks
261
263
Lycosidae . .
.. 180
Meteorology . .
19
Lycosuchus
.. 306
Meyer, Dr. Ernst
201
Lygaeidae
. . 369
Microgomphodon
251
Lystrosaurus . . . .
.. 306
Microchaeta
Micropholis
175
306
Machinery, Sugar
•■ 435
Migration of floras
235
Maclear, Sir Thos.
.. 64
Milk as native food
86
Macroscelides . .
•• 135
Mills, Sugar . .
, -,
427
Macrurus
.. iQi;
Milner, Lord, and forestry
3QI
INDEX.
499
Miltzbrand ...
PAGE.
.. 348
Neithea . .
PAGE.
. . 269
Minerals in bine ground
•• 321
Nemestridae
.. 172
Minister of education..
■• 457
Nemopteridea . .
.. 159
Mission schools..
450. 451
Nemoscolus
. . 180
Modder River . .
.. 254
Nephila . . ..,..■
.. 179
Moggridgea
... 179
Nesotragus ...
. . 129
Molerigraaff, Dr. 263
273. 275
Neuroptera
54- 157
MoUoy-Zerener process
•• 314
Nevill, Mr.
.. 76
MoUusca
.. 271
Newberry-Vautin process
• 312
Molteno group . .
.. 251
Ngami in early times . .
4
Molyneux, A. J. C.
•• 303
Ngami ruins . . ...
. . 14, 16
Monazite
' •■ 311
Nicotiana glauca
•• 355
Monkeys
.. 124
Night-jar
140
Monocentris japonicus
•• 193
Nieuwerust series , . .
246
Monoliths . . . .
.. 262
Nieuweveld escarpment
.. 251
Mont-aux-sources
. . 260
Nieuwziekte
. . 348
Mooi River
.. 284
Nobbs, Dr. F. A.
•• 375
Moorrees, Mr. . .
74
Noctuidae
.. 171
Moroea . .
• ■ 354
Noodsberg
. . 264
Morra,m grass . .
.. 403
Normal school . .
■■ 476
Morris, Colonel. .
70
Nossa Senhora Belem . .
23
Mossel Bay
245. 253
Notochampsa .. 251,2
.52, 308
Motacilla
■■ 139
Novius cardinalis
• • 371
Mountains
6
Nursery legislation
.. 363
Mountains, Heights of
.. 8-13
Nyasa-Tanganyika plateau
.. 3. II
Mousebirds . . . . .
140
Nycteribiae
•■ 173
Mozambique current . .
24
Nycteris . .
•• 135
Mucor exiliosus
.. 366
Nyika plateau . .
.. 3. II
Mudie, C. J
•• 457
Nymphalidae . .
169
Muishond
.. 127
Murray, Sir John
196
Oak, English . .
. • 395
Muscidae
■■ 173
Observations, Magnetic
74
Music and the University
•■ 454
Observatory, Durban . .
.. 76
Mutillidae
.. 161
Observatory, Johannesburg
73
Mydasidae
.. 172
Observatory, Mauritius
.. 76
Mylabridae ,
167
Observatory, Royal . .
62
Myrmicinae
.. 162
Ocean currents. .
24
Mytilus . .
. . 269
Oceanic circulation
.. 183
Myzus . .
., 368
Ocotea bullata . .
•• 391
Odonata. .
54. 158
Naeggeratheopsis
. . 298
Oecological botany
•• .199
Naia
.. 148
OJdipodi
.. 157
Nama-Damara highland
•• 3, 13
Oidium tuckeri . .
•■ 415
Namaqualand granite . .
. . 146
Oleander scale . .
.. 368
Namili plateau, Size of
2
Olea laurifolia . .
• • 391
Natal and forestry
. .- 403
Olea verucosa . .
•• 392
Natal and locusts
.. 366
Oliphant's klip. .
.. 283
Natal and university . .
. . 461
Oliphant's River mountains
•• 243
Natal education
■■ 457
Onithodoros
■ • 373
Natal, Geology of
. . 260
Onychophora . .
. . 180
Natal, Old name of . .
.. 84
Ophiuza lienardi
■• 367
Natal population
.. 484
Ophthalmia
•• 349
Natal railways . .
.. 488
Opisthacanthus
. . 177
Natal sugar imports and exports 437
Opisthoctenodon
■ • 306
Natal tea culture
•• 439
Opisthophthalmus
. . 177
Natal, Wahlberg in . .
.. 124
Orange Grove quartzite
.. 276
Native conquests
84
Orange River .. 5, 14,
17. 249
Native races . .
79
Orange River Colony educati
on 470
Native schools . .
450, 459
Orange River Colony, Geolo
?y
Native teachers' salaries
. . 461
of .. .. ..
■ • 273
Nectarinia
•• 139
Orange River Colony, popul
a-
Negroid races . .
.- 79
tion . .
•• 485
500
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
Orange River Colony railways
PAGE.
488
Peringuey, L. . .
102
PACK.
153
Orcus australasiae
371
Peripatus
180
Ordinance, Education . .
466
Perisphaerini . .
155
Oreotragus
129
Pests, Insect . .
362
Ore sorting
31S
Pests of tea plant
441
Oribi
129
Petrels..
143
Orinosaunis
308
Phacochaerus . .
, ,
132
Ornithogalum poisoning
355
Phaneropteridae
156
Ornitology
123
Phasmodea . . '
156
Orthoptera .. 154, 157
173
Pheasant
143
Orycteropus
136
Philips ruins . .
117
Oryx
130
Philosophical Society . .
'.'.6
1.74
Osteo-malaria . .
360
Phlyctinus callosus . .
.
367
Ostrea
269
Phoenicopsis
251
Ostrich
144
Phryganidae
159
Otocyon . . . .
127
Phyllocranini . .
156
Otters
127
Phyllodromiinae
155
Oudenodon . . . . 250
305
Phyllotheca
250
266
OudtShoorn . . . . 245
305
Phylloxera certicalis . .
370
Ourebia . .
129
Phylloxera vastatrix 367,
415,
420
Overlapping of botanical regions
200
Phymatinae . . . .
159
Owl
142
Physical features
Physical geography . .
21,
183
I
Paarl mountain
248
Physiography in relation
to
Paauw . .
143
geology . .
3
Pachytylus sulcicoUi . .
364
Pieridae . .
169
Paintings, Bushman . .
96
Pietermaritzburg
265
Palaeanodonta . .
^50
Pieter Faure
187
Palaeolithic age
102
Pigeon . .
142
Palaeomutella . . . . 250
302
Pilgrim's Rest . .
311
Palaeoniscus
250
Pines
3^&
Palaeozoic formations. .
260
Pinna . .
269
Palala plateau . .
289
Pinus pinaster
393
Paliguana
306
Pinus pinea
395
Palladium
311
Pipunculidae . .
172
Palystes. .
180
Piroplasmosis . . 341 ,
344
374
Pamphaginae . .
157
Pisces . .
271
Panagoeine
164
Pitchford, Watkins . .
343
Papilio demoleus
368
Pits in ruins
I20'
Papio
124
Placenticeras . .
. .
270
Parabuthus
176
Planarians
175
176
Paradiaptomus . .
17s
Plaintain-eaters
141
Paralysis in sheep
351
Plantations
400
404
Paraplectana . .
180
Plantations, Sugar
424
433
Parasites, Internal
352
Plant formations
210
219
Parasites of animals. Insect . .
372
Plant-forms
213
220^
Parasites of cattle
350
Plants, Fumigation of . .
363
Pardy, A
423
Plants, Importation of
363
Pareiasaurus . . . . 250
305
Plants of XJitenhage beds
253
Parkes desilverization process
314
Platinum
311
Partridge
143
Platyhinae
164
Passarge, S. on the Kalahari . .
203,
Pleistocene
269
280
Pleuro-pneumonia in cattle
332
Passer . .
138
Pleuro-pneumonia in goats
335
Patella
270
Pneumorinae . .
157
Paussidae
164
Podocarpus
391
Pear slug
368
Poecilogale
127
Pearson, A. N. . .
423
Pole, Magnetic . .
76
Pedetes
134
Poliochierax
142
Pelea
130
Pollination of plants . .
214
Pelecypoda
269
Pompilidae ■
161
Penguin . .
143
Pondoland
244
. 249
INDEX.
501
PAGE.
Pondoland beds . . . . 308
Pondola'nxi coast belt . . . . 245
Pondoland cretaceous beds . . 253
Ponerinae . . . . . . 162
Population data . . . . 48 1
Populus alba . . . . . . 395
Populus monilifera . . . . 395
Populus nigra . . . . . . 395
Porcupines .. .. .. 134
Port Elizabeth museum . . 309
Port Elizabeth rainfall . . 32
Portuguese and natives . . 89
Potamochoerus .. .. 132
Potato pest . . . . . . 369
Potteiy of Makalanga . . . . 1 14.
Poul ton, Professor .. .. 123
Poultry Diseases . . . . 353
Predominating orders of plants
206, 215, 221, 225, 228, 232
Premier pipe . . . . . . 299
Pretoria diamond fields . . 300
Pretoria series . . 274, 280, 286
Primary system . . . . 273
Prieska . . . . . . 247, 239
Prince Albert . . . . 244, 250
Private schools . . . . . . 472
Procavia .. .. .. 133
Procolophon . . , . . . . 306
Promerops . . . . . . 1 39
Propagation of tea plant . . 440
Proteles . . . . . . . . 126
Protocardium . . . . . . 270
Prynnsberg . . . . . . 406
Psamma crenaria . . . . 402
Pselaphidae . . . . . . 164
Pseudaspis . . . . . . 147
Psoroptes ovis . . . . 372
Psychidae . . . . . . 171
Ptermochilus . . . . . . 179
Pterochlurus . . . . . . 143
Pterophyllum . . . . . . 268
Pterostichinae . . . . . . 164
Pteroxylon utile .. 391,392
Ptinidae . . . . . . 167
Puff adder 148
Puku 130
Punaise de Miana . . . . 373
Pupil teachers .. .. . . 47J
Purcell, Dr. W. F 175
•Purple scale . . . . , . 368
Pyronielana . . . . . • 138
Pyropsis. . . . . . • . 270
Pythons 147
Quagga 132
Quarter Evil . . . . • • 348
Qudeni mountain .. .. 261
Queme range .. .. .. 271
Quercus pedunculata . . . . 395
Railway communication 434, 487
Rainbearing winds . . . . 31
PAGE.
Rainfall 27, 47-59, 204, 208, 218,
224, 227, 231 232
Rana . . . . . . . . 148
Raphicerus . . . . . . 1 29
Ratel .. .. .. ..127
Rauschbrand . . . . . . 348
Ravenstein, E. G. . . . . 37
Red beds . . 252, 261, 268-9
Red granites . . . . . . 263
Red hartebeest . . . . . . 128
Red scale . . . . . . 368
Red shales . . . . . . 277
Red spider . . . . 368, 442
Reduviidae . . . . . . 173
Redwater . . . . . . 337
Reedbuck . . . . . . 1 30
Regulations for schools . . 466
Rehmann, Dr. A. . . . . 201
Relations of insect fauna . . 153
Religious ideas of natives
88, 90, 92, 94, 96
Religious instructipn . . . . 466
Reptiles . . . . . . . . 144
Reptiles, Fossil . . . . . . 304
Reptilia . . . . . . 144
Republicanism, Native . . 90
Rhenoster-bosch . . . . 211
Rhine wines . . . . . . 420
Rhinoceros .. .. 133,271
Rhinolophus .. .. .. 135
Rhipicephalus appendiculatus 374
Rhipiceridae . . . . . . 167
Rhodes, Cecil . . . . . . 7
Rhodesia . . . . . . 274, 301
Rhodesian antiquities . . . . 109
Rhodesian plateau described
2, 9, 10
Rhodesian population
Rhodesian railways
Rhodes scholars
Rhodes University college
Rhopalocera
Rhyolitic lava . .
Rhyti^osteus
Rinderpest
Ringhals
Ripple-marked bed
; Rivet basins
Rivers cjescribed
Rivergdale
Roan
Roberts, Dr. A. W
Robinson, John
Rog§^,_A. W. 6,204,209,210,
227, 241
Roggeveld Nieuweveld escarp-
ment 253
Rollers . . . . . . . . 140
Ronald, Captain . . . . 62
Rooias . . . . . . . . 192
Rooibekjes .. .. .. 138
vRooicat . . . . . . 1 36
486
489
. . 461
■• 454
168, 170
271
.. 308
•• 334
.. 148
.. Z77
14
14
254
130
72
462
223.
285
253
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA.
i rhebok
.. 130
Serinus . .
.. 138
5-Innes, J. . .
•• 449
Serpentarius
.. .142
2
•• 348
Serum . . , . .
336, 344
settus ...
• • I.VS
Serval . .
.. 125
al Astronomical Society . . 66
Sesamia fusca . .
• 369
al Observatory
32, 45. 62
Sesamodon . . _
• 307
ber vine
.. 404
Settlers . .
• 449
in, IJr.
• • 71
Shaw, Dr. Hele
■ 467
y tailed flies
.. 162
Sheba Mines
• 311
IS, Ancient . .
89, 109
Sheep paralysis . .
• 351
sell, G
.. 42s
Shell mounds . .
• 97
iell, W. A
.. 474
Shepstone, Sir Theophilus
86
- ■•
.. 386
Shire highlands described
Shrikes . .
. 2, 10
■ 139
I, Ancient empire of
.. 119
Sialidae . .
. 158
lans in Rhodesia . .
III
Sibayi lake
. 261
ae's observations . .
74> 76. 77
Sidereal astronomy
• 67
river described . .
. . 14, 16
Sidereal clock . .
71
e
.. 130
Silver
■ 310
ed fire of Heroros. .
94
Silver tree
• .^92
aae . .
.. 156
Sim, T. R., investigations of
-buli
.. 138-
202, 220
jetre Kop . .
.. 254
Simon's Bay temperature
. 185
Alberto ...
.. 83
Siricidae . . . . .
• 159
ler, L
• ■ 366
Sitagra . . , . .
• 137
[ grouse
•■ 143
Sitatunga
• 131
I mole ...
•• 134
Sitodrepa panic'ea ...
• 370
Istones ....
.. 289
Size of S.A. compared . .
• i> 2
aphagidae . .
•• 173
Slangkop .
■ ,70
ant,'E. B
46s, 474
Slaves
• 448
ridae
. . 169
Slave trade, beginning of
. 90
•• 372
Sleeping sickness
■ 342
r anteater . .
.. 136
Siime problem . .
• 312
anodon
•■ 305
Smith, Sir Andrew
• 123
ibeidae . .
164
Snake . . .....
• 147
ites . .
146
Sneezewood . . . .
• 391
itS^
176, 262
Snow . . . .
39
loneura
.. 250
Soapstone beams
. 116
:oneura lanigera . .
.., 368'
Sociable plants . . ...
• 213
icter, Dr. R., travels and
Sociological data . . .
■ 477
ivritings
202
Sofala. and Bantu clans
. 8.^
cter, Dx.. ...
.. 113
Soils . . . . 376, 380
432. 441
ol .Boards . . . .
•• 455
Solarium
. -270
al policy ...
.,. 462
Solifugae . . ...
• 177
al statistics . . .
'468, 474
Solpugidae ... ...
. 178
al. systems.. . 450
457. 471
Somkele coal-field ...
266
als as botanical investiga-
South African. College . .
454
:ors. . ... . .
200
South African museum . .
308
rf tebergen . .
.. 243
South African. Republic
and ,
:s . . .... ...
.. 146
education. . . ...
' 462
er, W. L.
-. . lJ22
South-Eastern coast region
,
dae
. . 26,p
botanical ... ...
21,77222
liOBS ...
.. 17(5
•South-Eastern highland
'I'.t 1 ?
illista cyanea
•• 371 .
South-easters
65
naenidae . .
164
South-east rain theor,y . .
37
nakes .' .
.. 147
South- Western cUmate
• .-?
idary schools . . , .
-• 467
South. Western coast region
i-. .,')
tary bird . . . . ■ •
.. 142
botanical ., t . ...
•T2S(?rg^«
motus
.. ?5.l.
Sparrman's travels . . .;.,
122
yra ... ....
.. 178
Sparrow . .
.
138
,. 148
Speckled bed ■ . .
.
277
tie schists ....
".. -276
Sphenjscus ....
.
143
INDEX.
503
PAGE.
PAGE.
Sphingidae
.. 171
Table of Bantu words . .
99
Sphingo-morpha chlorea
.. 367
Tablet to Lacaille
.. 61
Spiegel River . .
•• 254
Tachinidae
•• 173
Sponsziekte
.. 348
Taeniopteris
.. 251
Spoor law among natives
.. 87
Talcose schists
. . 276
Springbok
.. 130
Tanqua Karroo . . ...
. . 241
Springhaas
■• 134
Tanvrrhyn chidae
. . 168
Squirrel . .
•• 134
Tapes
; . 270
Staats Gymnasium
.. 463
Tapinocephalus ...
•• 305
Stapf, Dr., on grass flora
. . 203
Tati . . . . . .
.. 311
Staphylinidae . .
162
Taurotragus
.. 131
Stamp mill
•• 315
Taxodium
•■ 397
Staphylinae
164
Teachers' certificate
■• 473
Starlings
•• 137
Tea culture
• 439
Stavenisse
.. 83
Tea production
■• 445
Steenbok
. . 129
Tea varieties
. . 440
Stegocephalians
.. 308
Technical education
. . 467
Stegodyphus
.. 179
Telephorini
.. 167
Stelzner, Dr. A. W. . .
. ■ 320
Temperature , 22, 48-59, i
84, 205,
Stenopteris
.. 251
208, 209, 219, 224, 2
27. 231
Stewart, CM
..19,26
Tenebrionidae . .
. 167
Stijfziekte
•■ 352
Tenthredinidae . .
• 159
Stinlcwood
•• 391
Termes
. 368
St. John's
. . 241
Termitaria
. 158
St. Lucia's lake
.. 261
Termitidae
• 157
Stone Age
102
Termitobious animals . .
. 158
Stone, E. J
66
Tetradactylus . .
146
Stone pine
•• 395
Tetranychus ...
. 368
Stormberg beds 241, 242, 2
51, 252,
Tertiary rocks . .
. 270
268, 291;
" Texas fever
• 337
Stramonium
•• 355
Thaba Imamba ruins . .
• 115
Strangles ...
• 348
Thea Assamica . .
• 440
Strepsiceros . ,
■ 131
Thea Chinensi . .
• 440
Streptocephalus
• 17s
Thelegnathus . .
■ 307
Strix •
. 142
Thelphusa
• 175
Struben, A.
27
Therocephalia . .
■ 306
Struthio
• 144
Thinnfeldia ... . . 2
51, 268
Struve's Russian Arc . .
71
Thode, Justus, on flora 2
02, 218
Stumus . .
• 137
Thrysite's atun . . 1
91, 192
Sugar-birds
• 139
Thunberg's travels
122
Sugar industry. .
• 423
Thunderstorms
• 31
Sugar output . .
• 436
Ticks
• 373
Summary, Botanical . .
. 236
Timber imported. Value of .
. 410
Sunbirds
• 139
Timber plantations 400, 4
08, 410
Sunday's river beds ..
• 253
Timber trees introduced
• 393
Sunshine
44
Timeball Hill series . .
. 287
Sutherland, Dr. . . 2
60, 268
Tin
■ 311
Sutton, J. R. . .. 25, 28
37, 40
Tingidae
• 173
Swaziland
. 261
Tipulidae
. 172
Swaziland series . .
. 263
Titanosuchus . .
• 305
Swellendam • . . . . 2
44. 253
Toads
■ 149
Synaptura microlepis . .
. 190
Tokai oaks and homestead .
• 394
Synaptura pectorals- ..
190
ToDke, W. Hammond . .
79
Synoptical table of botanic
il
Tortoise ......
■ 144
regions ...
• 234
Totem, tribal, ..
• 115
Syntomidae . .
■ 171
Towns, Altitudes of . .
9
Syrphidae •
. 172
Transport
. 428
Transvaal forests
. 406
Tabanidae ... . .
. 172
Transvaal geology
• 273
Table Bay Temperature
. i8s
Transvaal and locusts. .
. 366
Table Mountain series 24
2, 263,
Transvaal population . .
■ 485
2
54, 265
Transvaal railways, ...
• 489
504
SCIENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA
Transvaal system
Trees for Rhodesia
Trees, Indigenous
Tregelaphus . . ,
Trigonoarca
Trigonia . .
Trimen, Roland
Trimerorhinus . .
Tripterophycis . .
Trirarchodon . .
Tritylodon
Trypanosoma . .
Trypanosomata and disease
Tsetse fly
Tube mills
Tuberculosis
Tubulifera
Tugela falls
Tulbagh, Governor
Turacus . .
Turtles . .
Turtur . .
Typhlops
Typhlops schegelli
PAGE.
273, 280
411
391
131
270
270
124
147
195
307
308
372
341
342- 372
317
349
162
271
61
141
144
142
146
158
244, 2
TJba
TJitenhage series 243
TJitlander education
Ulcerative keratitis
XTmfolosi . .
Umgeni falls
TJmgeni River . .
TJmhlatuzi lagoon
"Umhlatuzi river
TJmkwelane Hill
TJmlalaas river . .
TJmoba
"Umzamba beds
TJndenominational schools
TJniondale
TJniversity of Cape of
Hope
Upland defined
TJpper Dwyka shales . .
Upper Karoo . . 241
Upper Region flora
Upper Witwatersrand beds
Uroplectes -~
Usher, Sir John
Ustilago sacchari
53.
431
308
465
350
261
271
425
261
265
269
269
423
253
•■ 450
244, 241;
Good
■■ 453
2
.. 304
295, 297
226-229
•• 277
.. 176
72
•■ 431
264,
263,
245.
Vaal gesteine . . . . . . 279
Vaal rhebok . . . . . . 1 30
Vaal River . . . . . . 249
Vaal River system . . 273, 280
Van Bemmelen's observations 74
Van Rhyn's Dorp . . 244, 254
Van Riebeek and education . . 448
Variable stars . . . . . . 72
Vector diagrams . . yy, 78
Vedalia . . .1 . . . . 371
Veld 383
PAOE.
Ventersdorp beds .. .. 279
Vereeniging . . . . . . 250
Vermin and stock . . . . 384
Vertebrates, Land .. .. 122
Vespidae . . . . . . 160
Victoria College Museum . . 309
Victoria College, Stellenbosch 454
Victoria Falls, Origin of . . 4
Vine Insect pests . . . . 367
Vines . . . . . . 414, 421
Viticulture . . . . . . 414
Volcanic lava . . . . . . 271
Volcanic rocks . . . . . . 293
Volcanic series . . . . . . 252
Vommerziekte . . . . . . 357
Vryheid 265
Vultures.. .. .. .. 142
Wagtail 1 39
Walker, Dr. T 448
War customs of natives . . 86
Ward schools . . . . . . 47 1
War, Education during . . 474
Warthog .. .. .. 132
Waterberg sandstones. . 263, 281
Waterberg series . . . . 288
Waterbuck . . . . . . 1 29
Watcrmeyer, C. J. . . . . 26
Water on Karoo . . . . 378
Water Tower slates .. .. 271
Wattles . . . . . . 397, 404
Way, W. A. . .' .. .. 42
Weapons, Stone . . . . 104
Weasel .. .. .. .. 127
Weaver-birds .. .. .. 137
West coast described . . . . 6
Western Coast Region flora . . 204
Wettest station . . . . 28
Weevils . . . . . . . . 168
Whales . . . . . . ..136
White, Franklin . . . . 110
White Peach scale . . . . 368
White Pear . . . . . . 392
White Poplar ^ . . . . . 395
White Umfolosi River . . 263
Widow birds .. .. .. 138
Wildebeest .. .. .. 128
Williams, G. F. . . . . 318
WUlowmore .. 244,245,253
WUmer, H. Carrington . . .40
Wind-frequency . . . . 32-35
Wind-roses, Port NoUoth . . 41
Winds, Berg . . . . . . 40
Winds, Rain-bearing . . . . 31
Wine exports .. .. .. 415
Wine production .. .. 418
Witteberg series . . 242, 264
Witwatersrand Council of edu-
tion., .. .. .. 464
Witwatersrand series . . 263, 275
Women in native life . . . . 86
Wonderfontein . . . . . . 284
INDEX.
505
Wood beds
Woddgate, R. ' , .
Wood, J. Medley
Woodpecker
Woolly aphis
Worcester
Worcester fault
Xenopus
Xerus
Yale Forest school
Yellow-skinned races
Yellow Thick head
Yellowwood
PAGE.
= 53
71
202
431
140
368
245, 250
253
242
149
'34
400
94
347
391. 392, 406, 407
Zambesi and geological times
Zambesi described
Zambesi, tributaries of
Zaria
3
14
15
270
FACE
Zebra . . . . . . . . 132
Zeekoe . . , . . . . . 132,
Zeekoe Baard amygdaloids . . 247
Zeng, People of . . . . 82
Zeus japonicus . . . . . . 193
Ziin 82
Zimbabwe . . . . 89, 109
Zinc .. .. .. ..310
Zoogeographical relations of
fauna . . . . . . ' 149
Zoological discovery .. .. 122
Zoology, Literature of . . 151
Zonurus . . . . . . 145
Zorilla . . 127
Zulu Kafirs described .. .. 83
Zululand geology . . . . 260
Zulus . . , 84
Zwartbergen .. .. .243,244
Zwide . . . . . . . ., 84
Zygopinae .. .. .. 168
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