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http://www.archive.org/details/cu31 92401 31 1 31 33
THE LANGUAGE AND METRE OF
CHAUCER
THE LANGUAGE
METRE OF CHAUCER
SET FORTH BY BERNHARD TEN BRINK
SECOND EDITION, REVISED BY
FRIEDRICH KLUGE
TRANSLATED BY
M. BENTINCK SMITH
MACMILLAN AND CO., Limited
NEW YORK : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
I9OI
AH rights reseived
1
C^
J\
GLASGOW : PRINTED AT THE UNIVERSITY PRESS
BV ROBERT MACLEHOSE AND CO.
PREFACE
And for ther is so greet diversitee
In Englissh and in wrytinge of our tonga-
So preye I God that noon miswryte thee,
Ne thee mismeetre for defaute of tonge.
The little book herewith offered to the friends of
Chaucer and of the English language is the result of
several years of study not originally undertaken with
a view to a publication of this nature. The gram-
matical and metrical outlines which form the basis of
the present work were planned, and in course of
time expanded and elaborated, for my own use
and the benefit of those who attended my lectures.
At the beginning of the present year I hap-
pened to hear that a younger colleague intended
to write a Chaucer Grammar. This circumstance
determined me, in the interest of a rational
division of labour, to bring to light what had for
years lain hidden in my desk. I, of course, at once
communicated my plan to the scholar who was the
unintentional occasion of my decision. From the
alacrity with which he gave way to me followed the
obligation, on my part, to appear before the reader
vi PREFACE
as soon as possible. But unexpected difficulties
hindered the execution of a plan so easily conceived.
The revision and completion of the somewhat
defective MS. occupied several months ; three more
were spent in seeing it through the press, as, for
various reasons, the printing was delayed. In this
connection I should like to acknowledge the
sympathy and encouragement I received from my
friend Friedrich Kluge, who also assisted me in the
correction of the proof-sheets.
Though deferred beyond my expectations, the
appearance of this work strikes me nevertheless as
premature. I could have wished to postpone the
publication of a Grammar and Prosody of Chaucer
until after the completion of a critical edition of his
works. The preparations for such an edition have
occupied me for a considerable time, but owing to
lack of leisure the undertaking makes but slow pro-
gress. So long, however, as a critical edition of
Chaucer's works remains a fond hope, the details of
his grammatical and metrical systems will not be
determined with the accuracy that might otherwise
be attainable, nor will the survey as a whole be
really comprehensive* Moreover, the want of such
an edition presents difficulties both to the author
and the thoughtful reader. The text-book, which
ought to rest on a critical foundation (for otherwise
though it might give specimens of forms, it would
not present a picture of Chaucer's language), must
nevertheless disclose but little of the critical labour
involved in it, and may err in being in some points
too concise and in others not concise enough. The
reader, however, who frequently can not even refer to
PREFACE vii
the necessary texts, must have either great con-
fidence in his author, or great personal industry.
In this connection I may be permitted to make a
statement on orthographical matters in particular.
It goes without saying that MS. forms which the
evidence of rime and metre proves to be incom-
patible with Chaucer's phonetic system have been
removed and replaced by more appropriate ones.
But even within the range of the permissible the
MSS. offer so great and so bewildering a variety
that some selection seemed advisable. In the
chapter on Phonology it has been my endeavour to
quote the examples in the orthography supported by
the best evidence, a comparison of the tendencies
prevailing in the most reliable MSS. of the Canter-
bury Tales providing the starting point for my
investigations. But I have consistently and tacitly
differentiated the consonants v,j, from the vowels u,
i, whereas the MSS. hardly ever use the j symbol,
and the v symbol chiefly initially to denote both
vowel and consonant. I have made no use of the
symbol }> for tk, for this reason among others,
because Ellesmere and Hengwrt employ it, even as
an initial, only in abbreviations. In the second and
third chapters I have felt called upon to be somewhat
less conservative than in the first, and to insist upon
the application of certain principles of a normalised
orthography for which I made some incidental sug-
gestions in the chapter on Phonology, but I have
nevertheless endeavoured to avoid startling innova-
tions. The beginner will, I hope, be grateful to me
if by means of my orthography I considerably
facilitate a correct comprehension of Chaucer's word-
viii PREFACE
forms, especially the gradation-series in conjugation.
Only the other day, during the perusal of the most
recent numbers of our two philological periodicals,
my eyes were opened to the need for such assist-
ance. In the discussion of Inflection I have made
an abundant use of diacritics ; in the discussion of
Metre where, in many cases, marks of another kind
were required, diacritics are — with rare exceptions —
used only in part of the section on rime. The
reproach of temerity and inconsistency, which I shall
hardly escape, will be gladly borne, if only I have
been enabled to contribute somewhat to the wider
diffusion, and at the same time, to the deepening, of
our knowledge of Middle English speech and of
Chaucer's art.
Much that is not of inferior importance remains
to be said. But I prefer to postpone further remarks
to the future when an occasion for them, whether
peaceful or polemical, will not be wanting.
One thing must, however, not remain unexpressed
here — the gratitude I owe to my predecessors in
this department — to name only Tyrwhitt, Gesenius,
Child, Ellis. The reader will gather from certain
external analogies that Sievers' Anglo-Saxon Gram-
mar has not remained without influence on the final
form of my work, more especially on the portion
treating of inflection. To these names must be
added that of Furnivall, without whose publications
one would hardly have ventured upon a critical
examination of Chaucer's text.
BERNHARD TEN BRINK.
Strassburg, October, 1884.
TO THE SECOND EDITION
Later than one might have expected, a new edition
of this httle book has become necessary. In my
capacity as editor I have treated the original form of
ten Brink's work on Chaucer with the reverence due
to the mature work of a master. Apart from
editorial changes of a purely practical kind, I have
undertaken only a few slight modernisations of the
subject-matter, for which Zupitza's discussion of the
book in the Litteraturzeitung, 1885, col. 609, had
prepared the way. I felt the less called upon to
disturb the fundamental views of the book, as a
settlement of opinions on some points can be ex-
pected only in the future. Unfortunately, ten
Brink's remains contain but few notes for a new
edition. Thus the work appears almost entirely in
the form which for many years has proved its value
as an introduction to the language and verse of
that poet whose muse laments most deeply the
premature death of our teacher and master.
F. KLUGE.
Freiburg I. H., January, 1899
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
The study of Chaucer is at last becoming a matter
of real interest to the English-speaking peoples, and
if we are gradually awakening to a sense of the im-
portance and value of his work, and of older English
literature in general, we owe it in no small measure
to ten Brink's research. Even scholars who are
unable to share ten Brink's opinions on all points
agree that his investigations are matchless examples
of profound learning and whole-hearted devotion to
his subject.
My experience as a teacher proved to me, how-
ever, that in its German form ten Brink's time-
honoured work on Chaucer's Sprache und Verskunst
presented great difficulties even to students tolerably
conversant with the German language, and that, if it
were to be used with advantage to any considerable
extent, these difficulties must be removed by an
English version. I have, therefore, ventured to
undertake the present translation, in the hope of
making the average English student more familiar
with this valuable book.
The rendering of certain technical terms from
German into English is often no easy matter. Yet
xii TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE
I cannot think it desirable to shirk the difficulty by
retaining the more familiar German expressions. I
have therefore endeavoured, as far as possible, to
extract from our slender English vocabulary of
grammatical and metrical terms equivalents for all
such German words. But I have found it impossible
to improve upon Schipper's suggestions {Engl. Metrik,
vol. I. p. 318) that the metrical terms ' Aufgesang,'
'Abgesang,' ' Stollen,' 'Wende,' etc., as applied to
English metre, had best be rendered by those given
originally in Dante's ' De vulgari eloquentia ' (cf.
Opere viinori di Dante AUghieri, ed. di Pietro
Fraticelli, 1858, vol. II. p. 146 ff.), and I have,
therefore, translated them by ^frons' ' cauda,' 'pedes,'
or ' versus', as the case required.
Moreover, it seemed to me undesirable to per-
petuate our probably erroneous custom of translating
' Hebung ' by ' arsis' and ' Senkung ' by ' thesis!
Whenever, therefore, a more concise expression than
'stressed element,' 'unstressed element,' seemed called
for, I have followed the example of two distinguished
American scholars, and reversing our ordinary usage,
I have rendered 'Hebung' by 'thesis,' and ' Senkung'
by ' arsis ' (cf. Professor White's Introdtiction to the
Rhythmic and Metric of the Classical Languages,
by Dr. J. H. Schmidt, and Professor Platner's trans-
lation of L. Miiller's Greek and Roman Versification).
Further, in order to make the references throughout
the book available for students who do not possess
the Six-Text, I have added in square brackets the
equivalent references to Skeats' Students' Chaucer,
(Clarendon Press), and Macmillan's Globe edition of
Chaucer.
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE xiii
In conclusion I beg to express my heartiest thanks
to all friends who have assisted me by valuable sug-
gestions, more especially to Professor Kluge for the
kindly interest he has taken in the translation, and
to Miss E. M. Guest and Mr. A. W. Pollard, who
have also helped in the revision of the proof-sheets.
M. BENTINCK SMITH.
GiRTON College, Cambridge,
November , igoi.
CONTENTS
Biographical Notice, xxi
Introduction, - xxvii-xxxiii
The unity of English speech, xxvii ; Chaucer and WicUf,
xxviii ; Chaucer's influence upon the literature and language
of his successors, xxix ; Chaucer and the English dialects,
xxxi ; Chaucer's influence upon English metre, xxxii ; the
authorities and the methods of reference to them, xxxiii.
CHAPTER I. PHONOLOGY.
I. The Vowels, - i-74
Quality, quantity, and accent, 1-2.
Germanic Vowels : Accented vowels in originally tonic
syllables, 3. Short Vowels : Conditions of shortness,
3 ; quahty, 5 ; i and /, 5 V f . 7 ; «, 8 ; ?, 9 ; u, 10. Long
Vowels : Conditions of length, 11 ; quality, 13 ; f, 13 ;
e, 15 ; /, 16 ; fluctuation between I and e, 17 ; ortho-
graphy, 19 ; a, 19 ; ^, 21 ; o, 22 ; fluctuation between
q and q, 22 ; orthography, 23 ; «, 23. Variable
Vowels, 24 ; divergence of opinion as to their character,
28 orthography, 28 ; ii, 29. Diphthongs, 30 ; ai, 30 ;
monophthongisation, 32 ; qi, 33 ; eu, 33 ; au, 34 ; qu,
34 ; ou, 35 ; monophthongisation, 36. Summary :
Development of Old English vowels, 37 ; short vowels,
37 ; long vowels and diphthongs, 41 ; <^ and ea, 42 ;
eo, 44 ; long vowels when shortened, 45 ; vowels in a
temporarily unaccented syllable, 46 ; vowels capable
of accent under the primary stress, or under the
xvi CONTENTS
secondary stress, 47 ; -y and -ly, 48 ; -ere, 49 ; -hqqa
and h^^d, iQ ; weakening of quantity in an unaccented
syllable, 50 ; weakly accented monosyllables, 50 : pre-
fixes incap; ble of accent, 51 •, weak e in final syllables,
52 ; in other positions, 52 ; alternation with i, 54.
Romance Vowels . Vowels in originally tonic syllables when
actually accented, 54. Long Vowels : Conditions of
length, 54; qu.:iity, 54; f, 55; /. 55; f, 56; a, 57;
<^"> 58 ; ?, 58 ; q, 59 ; «, 59 ; «, 60; fluctuation between «
and u, 60 ; orthr-rraphy of long Romance vowels, 61.
Short and Varial'? Vowels, 61 ; originally tonic sylla-
bles under second.ry stress, 64 ; loss of stress, 64 ;
vowels in originally pre-tonic syllables, 64 ; vowels in
originally post-tonic syllables, 69. Diphthongs, 70 ;
ai, 70 ; gi, 71 ; eu, 72 ; au, 72 ; o:t, 72. Latin or
Graeco- Latin Vowels, 73 ; in Proper Names, T^.
II. The Consonants, - 74-10?
Preservation of Oki English consonant length, 74 ;
lengthening of consonants in Old Tnglish, 75 ; 'n
Middle English, 76.
Labial Series : Tenuis, 77 ; media, 78 ; voiceless spirant,
78 ; voiced spirant, 78 ; semi-vowel, 79 ; resonant, 80.
Lingual Series Tenuis, 81 ; media, 82; interdental spirant,
82 ; voiceless spirant s, 83 ; voiced spirant s, 88 ;
spirant Jf, 90 ; affricate /?, 91 ; affricate dz, 93 ;
liquid /, 94 ; r, 95 ; resonant, 96.
Palatal and Guttural Series : Tenuis, 96 ; sk, 98 ; media,
98 ; voiceless spirant, 100 ; the breath-ng h, loi ;
voiced palatal spirant, 102; voiced guttural spirant,
103 ; palatal semi-vowel, 104 ; resonant, 105.
CHAPTER n. ACCIDENCE.
I. The Verb, - . 106-140
Tense Formation of Reduplicating Verbs, 106 ; Vowel of the
Pres. Ind. and P.P., 106 ; Pret., 107 ; forms which
occur in Chaucer, 107 ; observations, 108 ; weak in-
flexion, 109 ; hqte, 109.
CONTENTS xvii
Tense Formation of Verbs with Vowel-Gradation, no ;
Class I., group A, no; group B, 113; group C, 114;
Class II., 115; Class III., 117; Class IV., 118.
Tense Formation of Weak Verbs, 119; Class I. A: Pres.,
119; Pret., 120; P.P., 121 ; Class I. B, 121; weak
inflexion of originally strong verbs, 122 ; verbs with a
non-mutated vowel in the Preterite, 123 ; consonantal
changes in the syncopated forms, 124 ; Class II., 126;
syncope, 126 ; borrowed verbs of Germanic origin, 127.
Old French Verbs, 128 ; formation of the present, 128 ;
accent, 129 ; inflexion, 129 ; syncope, 129 ; participial
forms in -aat, 130.
Inflexion of the Present, 131 ; Indicative, 131 ; Paradigms,
131 ; observations, 132 ; syncope and apocope, 133 ;
have, see, slee, 134; Conjunctive, 134; Imperative,
134; Infinitive, 134; Participle, 135.
Inflexion of the Preterite, \y^ ; Indicative, 135 ; Paradigms,
of the strong Preterite, 137; observations, 136; weak
Preterite, 137 ; Conjunctive, 138.
Anomalous Verbs, Preterite Presents, 140.
II. The Substantive, - - - 141-155
(1) Vowel Stems, 141 ; (a) O.E. Masculines — Nom. and
Accus. Sing., 141 ; Gen. Sing., 142 ; Dat. Sing., 142 ;
Plural, 142 ; (/3) O.E. Neuters — Nom. and Ace. Sing.,
143 ; Gen. Sing., 144 ; Dat. Sing., 144 ; Plur., 144 ;
(y) O.E. Feminines — Nom. Sing., 144 ; Gen. Sing.,
145 ; Dat. Sing., 145 ; Plur., 146.
(2) Consonantal Inflexion, 146. Germanic Loan-words,
147 ; syncope and apocope, 148 ; medial and final
consonants, 149. Romance Substantives, 149 ; apo-
cope, 150; Gen. Sing., 152; Plur., 152; syncope,
153; words vnthout inflexion, 154.
III. The Adjective, - - - - 155-163
Uninflected form, 155; strong and weak inflexion, 156;
respective use of each, 156; apocope, 157; strong
Gen. Plur., 158.
b
xviii CONTENTS
French Adjectives, 158; apocope, 158; inflexion, 159;
declension (?), 159; French Plur., 160; comparison,
161 ; inflexion of the superlative, 162 ; note on the
Adverb, 163.
IV. The Numeral, 163-164
V. The Pronoun, - 165-168
Personal Pronouns, 165 ; Possessive Pronouns, 166 ; De-
monstrative Pronouns, 167 ; Interrogative Pronouns,
167 ; Relative Pronouns, 167 ; other kinds of Pro-
nouns, 168.
CHAPTER III. ON THE STRUCTURE OF
VERSE AND STANZA.
I. Prosody, - - 169-189
Weak e: in two consecutive syllables, 169; after an un-
accented syllable capable of accent, 170; after a
syllable under secondary stress, 170 ; after a medial
syllable under primary stress, 171 ; when final, 173 ;
between primary stress and secondary stress, 175 ;
syncope, 176; apocope, 177; aphsresis, 179; synasresis,
179; diaeresis, 180; synizesis, 180; elision of weak e,
181; of other vowels, 183; hiatus, 184; contraction,
187 ; slurring, 188.
II. Accent and Stress, - - 189-206
Conflict between word-accent and rhythm, 190; accent-
shift (inversion of a measure), level stress, 191.
Accentuation of Germanic Words : normal position, 192 ;
legitimate shifting, 194 ; parathesis, 195 ; verbal sub-
stantives, 197 ; secondary stress, 197.
Accentuation of Romance Words, 199 ; dissyllabic or
trisyllabic nouns in which the last syllable is un-
accented, 199 ; polysyllabic nouns, 200 ; Romance
derivatives and compounds, 201 ; English derivatives
CONTENTS xix
and compounds, 202 ; verb, 203 ; participle in -aunt 203 ;
verbal noiin and participle in -inge, -ing, 203. Latin
Words, 204. Foreign Proper Names, 204. Sentence-
stress, 205
III. The Various Forms of Metre and their
Structure, - - 206-233
The normal short line, 207 ; number of stressed syllables
and conclusion of the line, 207 ; the anacrusis and the
arsis, 208; level stress, 210; Romance methods of
versification, 211 ; Sire Thopas, 212. The verse of
three beats and the verse of one beat, 212.
Heroic Metre: its history, 213; its use prior to Chaucer,
213; number of syllables, 214; apparent exceptions,
215. Caesura: its ordinary position, 218; cajsural
beat, 219 ; caesural pause, 219; secondary csesura, 220;
two csesuras, neither being primary, 221 ; separation
of closely connected words, 221 ; cassural beat upon
the second syllable, 222 ; lyrical caesura, 223 ; rhythm,
223 ; level stress, 224.
Enjambeinent (running-on) : general remarks, 226 ; modifi-
cation of the enjambement, 228 ; stress on the words
separated by enjambement, 230 ; Chaucer's bold use
of it in the short rimed couplet, 231.
IV. Rime, - 233-252
End-rime (riTne) and alliteration, 233. Rime : its gender,
233 ; adequate rime, 234. The riming syllable : its
quantity, 234 ; its quality, 236 ; weak e in a feminine
rime, 237 ; consonants, 239 ; spread of rime, 239.
Alliteration : Lindner's article on it, 241 ; its use in
formulas, 242 ; its use in the short rimed couplet,
244 ; in heroic verse, 246 ; its relation to accent and
metrical stress, 249 ; quality, 250.
V. The Stanza, - 252-265
The rimed couplet: the short rimed couplet and the
heroic couplet, 252 ; isometrical stanzas consisting of
XX CONTENTS
short lines, 253. Of heroic verse : seven-line stanzas,
255 ; eight-line stanzas and other forms, 257. Meta-
bolic stanzas, 257.
Relation of the stanza to the poem : in epic poetry, 258 ;
in lyric poetry, 259 ; similar stanzas, 260 ; poems con-
sisting of three stanzas, 260; the balade, 262 ; the
envoy, 263 ; dissimilar stanzas, 264 ; monostrophic
poems, 264 ; roundel, 264.
Index to Chapter II., 266-280
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE
{^Adapted by kind pertnission of Pro/. Friedrich Klugc from the
Sliakespeare-Jahrbuchf voL xxvii., p. 306.)
Bernhard ten Brink died on January 29th,
1892. The sudden and unexpected death of this
eminent scholar in the midst of work much of
which was but haif-accomplished or merely planned,
was a serious blow to English philology.
By birth a Dutchman, ten Brink had spent his
childhood in Amsterdam, his early youth in Dussel-
dorf and Essen. From his student days onwards
Germany became his permanent home : he con-
sidered himself a German, and took a keen interest
in national and political questions.
This assimilation of German character and of
German habits of thought was the fundamental
cause of his thoroughly German style. But few
foreigners have attained to the mastery of German
that ten Brink possessed — the name of Chamisso
may occur to the reader — and not many German
scholars handle the literary language with his con-
summate skill. To this fact the number of brilliant
metrical versions of M.E. poems scattered through-
out his History of English Literature would bear
sufficient testimony, were not the monumental torso
xxii BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE
of this very History an additional proof. This
command of the German language was acquired in
long years of serious work. Dutch, his mother-
tongue, yielded to German in the years which he
spent as a student at Bonn, though even in the
early seventies a Dutch word is said to have escaped
him now and again in lecture.
From the year 1873 onwards, ten Brink was
Professor of English Language and Literature at
the then recently founded University of Strassburg,
having previously lectured on English and Romance
Philology at Munster and Strassburg. He owed
this distinguished position in the first instance to
his Chaucerstudien which had appeared in 1870,
but by the publication of other valuable works,
his power as a teacher, and his unusual rhetorical
gifts, he invested his office with increasing dignity
up to the day of his untimely death.
The work of his life, his History of English
Literature, was produced in Strassburg. So far as
it was published during his life-time, it is a sketch
of England's poets and poetry from the days of
Hengest and Horsa up to the time immediately
preceding the establishment of the printing-press
in England. Though the area occupied by the
English language within that period is a limited
one, yet it makes manifold demands upon the
historian of literature who aims at tracing the
intellectual development of the nation upon the
massive background of its political growth. In
the first thousand years of English history, this
sea-girt kingdom reflects the most varied influences,
to understand and do justice to which requires a
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE xxiii
width and depth of scientific training, such as only-
ten Brink possessed. His sketch of the Middle
Ages, in which the clergy took so prominent a
part in literature, is admirable for its profound
sympathy with the religious life of an age so far
removed from our own, as well as for its objective
appreciation of the English reformer. More striking
even than his theological knowledge is, however,
the scope and thoroughness of his acquaintance
with Romance and Classical literature : on one
page we may find the development of the Renais-
sance in England introduced by character sketches
of the great Italian poets, Dante, Petrarch, and
Boccaccio ; on another, sketches of the French
originals of M.E. poems, whilst the whole book is
interspersed with side-glances upon ancient and
modem literature, and hints on poetry and art in
general.
This task was, moreover, a peculiarly difficult one
for the Strassburg Professor, in so far as it un-
doubtedly put a severe curb on his personal in-
clinations. Ten Brink was ever and again attracted
by the scientific monograph, and had always
cherished a plan of writing a series of such essays
on special subjects, a plan which was, however,
forced to give place to the real work of his life.
But every specimen, and every poet, treated in his
History of English Literature had been made the
subject of special research, and thus he forestalled
the conclusions of many monographs, lest he should
yield unduly to his fondness for the scientific
treatment of detail. He is hence at all points able
to act as guide to fellow-students and pupils, with-
xxiv BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE
out losing sight of the main object of his work,
namely, by artistic treatment and artistic economy,
to draw the attention of wider circles to a subject
which, though at first unattractive, attains to supreme
interest in the persons of Wiclif and Chaucer and in
the growth of the English drama. A delicate power
of historical appreciation greatly furthered this
object : ten Brink felt equally happy and at home
in the semi-precious style of the older alliterative
poetry and in the labyrinth of allegorical epics and
dramas, and the sympathy which he felt for the
religious epic and the most artistic love-song was
given in like measure to the simplest effusion of
the folk-song.
In the first volume of the History of English
Literature ten Brink is perhaps too exclusively a
philologist ; he is apt to discuss specimens of
literature which have a purely philological value.
The second volume emphasises only important per-
sonalities and important movements in literature,
and his sketch of Chaucer probably marks the
climax of his work so far as it was published
during his life-time. He had planned a monumental
edition of the poet's works ; indeed, his remains
contained no unprinted matter of an editorial char-
acter save such as he had devoted to this purpose.
It was upon Chaucer also that he lavished the full
wealth of his linguistic and metrical knowledge and
power. Chaucer was the touchstone of ten Brink's
versatility, and much as he had already done for
him, he could and would have done more in the
future.
The relation between the poet and the scholar
BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE xxv
had become, as it were, a personal one, and to work
on his behalf seemed almost the service and duty
of a friend. Traits of character which he shared
with Chaucer attracted the modern scholar to the
mediaeval poet : humour and playful fancy, a light
heart, an ideal conception of life, a serious purpose
coupled with a deep sense of responsibility for its
fulfilment, honesty, candour, a cultured appreciation
of form, and wealth of idea, were common to both.
In this connection we can but briefly refer to
the lectures on Shakespeare which from about 1885
onwards ten Brink was in the habit of delivering
either before an academic audience or an educated
general public. They were published after his
death, and there is no doubt that had it been
granted to ten Brink to fix the final outlines of
the character of the greatest Englishman, we should
have been presented with a work marked equally
by rigid philological argument and by an artistic
appreciation of the poet and his development.
We may briefly also refer to ten Brink's devotion
to the great popular productions of English literature.
The O.K. Beowulf stood in the forefront of his
interests during the last years of his life, and he
attempted in his own original way to fathom the
birth and growth of the popular epic, a one-sided
treatment of which according to some stereotyped
method had for long years encumbered the science
of literature.
Yet withal ten Brink was no pedantic devotee
of learning. His memory will long remain green
not only as a distinguished scholar, but as a dis-
tinguished man. He served learning, his family,
xxvi BIOGRAPHICAL NOTICE
and his friends with the love and devotion which
spring from a pure heart. He defended his con-
victions with courage and energy, but also with
kindliness and charity. Without striving for influ-
ence, he possessed it ; without creating a school,
he was a dominating and potent force in the world
of letters.
INTRODUCTION
During the early centuries after the Norman Con-
quest the English dialects, of which each in turn
seems to claim a certain pre-eminence in literature,
are seen to be undergoing a development which
in each one severally tends apparently towards a
more complete differentiation from the others, and a
more emphatic accentuation of its distinguishing
characteristics. This period, characterised by the
prevalence of centrifugal tendencies, is succeeded in
the second half of the 14th century by an epoch in
which the foundation for future unity is laid. About
the time when in the adjoining kingdom of Scotland
a branch of the northern dialect attains to the dignity
of a national language, the beginnings of a common
literary language are discernible in England. Scotch,
whose first classical representative is Barbour, was
scarcely able to maintain its position unimpaired for
three centuries. Literary English, on the other hand,
from the reign of Edward III. to the present day,
can look back' upon a continuous development, which,
in spite of an occasional change of direction, has
never been interrupted or violently forced into a new
channel. In course of time it has subjected to
xxviii INTRODUCTION
itself not only the British Isles, but a large portion
of the inhabited world, and has, moreover, helped
to add to the intellectual possessions of mankind
treasures of such kind that its importance for the
culture of the world now seems independent even of
the continuance of the mighty empire over which its
extension is increasing, and of the no less important
federation of autonomous colonies in which it is the
prevailing speech.
The home of the language born for so great a
destiny was on the banks of the Thames. From a
union of Midland and Southern dialects there sprang
more than 500 years ago that literary English, the
origin of which is still clearly perceptible in the
language of modern English, as well as of American,
writers and speakers.
Two districts watered by the Thames claim alike
to have exercised the deeper influence on the. unifica-
tion of English speech : Oxford on the one hand,
London, with Westminster, Windsor, and other Royal
residences, on the other. The opinion of scholars
called upon to decide who really coined the literary
language of England and secured its extension,
wavers between the names of two distinguished
authors of the 1 4th century : Wiclif and Chaucer.
He who deliberately and without bias weighs the
criteria by which the question must be decided, will
soon attain to a standpoint from which the contro-
versy seems superfluous and futile. He will be able
to appreciate the peculiar merit of each of these two
great men in the unification of English speech, but
he will be unable to close his mind to the conviction
that to Chaucer alone the honour is due of being
INTRODUCTION xxix
esteemed the first and supreme classic of the literary
language then in its infancy.
The English language was a gift to English
literature not from the learning of the university,
but from the great capital and the Royal Court.
Not the Yorkshireman living far from his home, but
the Londoner, who remained in permanent and close
contact with the place of his birth, stamped the
language with the impress of his mind. Wiclif was
a great theologian, an acute logician, a man imbued
with deep religious and patriotic feeling, but the form
of his work was to him of secondary importance
as compared with its substance, and therefore he
never completely grasped the secret of form ; he was
never really triumphant in the struggle for literary
expression. Chaucer was, and remained until the
appearance of Shakespeare, the most consummate
master of language amongst English poets, one of
the few in whom art and nature, form and substance,
are in absolute harmony, indeed, appear to be one.
It was in the last years of his life that Wiclif began
to write in English ; he never wholly abandoned
Latin, and the English he wrote was not his native
dialect. Chaucer, from his earliest years, wrote and
composed poetry in his mother tongue, and so far as
we know, in it exclusively ; the dialect with which
he was familiar at home and the English which he
acquired at Court, and in intercourse with Govern-
ment officials, hardly differed from each other ; in the
district, linguistically considered, of which he was a
native, the off-shoots of several dialects met ; the way
for his own eclectic and levelling activity had been
prepared by the environment in which he grew up.
XXX INTRODUCTION
WicHfs adherents were natives of different parts of
England ; his collaborator in the translation of the
the Bible, Nicholas Hereford, wrote in a dialect that
differed from Wiclif's own, and had a south-western
tinge ; Purvey's revision had much the same dialectal
colouring as his master's work ; the poor priests spoke
each his own idiom. So far as we can trace the
literary tradition inaugurated by Wiclif, it seems to
move westwards rather than eastwards, i.e., its direc-
tion is towards the past rather than the future. The
bloody reaction which orthodoxy brought about
under the Lancastrians put an end to this tradition,
to the great detriment of English prose. On the
other hand the literary movement which received its
impulse from Chaucer maintains an uninterrupted
course throughout the 15th and i6th centuries.
His example dominates art-poetry, and even the
Renaissance rather emphasised than checked the
effect of his writings. At critical moments — we need
consider only Caxton — he must be held to have
exercised an important influence even on prose. And
far-reaching as was the influence of his art, the effect
produced by his language was co-extensive with it.
Gower, a native of Kent, writes his Confessio Aniantis
in a dialect which, despite many Kenticisms, re-
sembles, on the whole, Chaucer's idiom far more
closely than that of his own countrymen. Occleve
was a Londoner, like the master he so passionately
revered. Lydgate, the recognised head of the
Chaucer school, and of poetry in the isth century,
was a native of Suffolk. His language is built upon
the foundation laid by Chaucer, but has a deeper
East-Midland tinge, and is therefore typical for the
INTRODUCTION xxxi
further course of development. It is chiefly in the
east of England, with a tendency towards the north,
that, in the critical period of transition, literary
tradition is propagated. Stephen Hawes, with whom
mediaival poetry stands on the threshold of a new era,
was, like Lydgate, a Suffolk man. Skelton, whose
bold originality relieves the monotony of a decadent
art, was a native of Norfolk and had manifold con-
nections with Northumberland. It seems superfluous
to continue such considerations, since the results of
the historical process are patent.
In all essential features Modern English more
closely resembles Chaucer's language than Wiclifs.
In so far also as the relation of modern literary
English to English dialects is concerned, it is more
closely akin to the language of Chaucer, and more
remote from the language of Wiclif. And thus the
conclusions we have arrived at may be summarised
as follows : — Wiclif prepared great masses of the
people for the reception of a common literary
language, but Chaucer is the author of the literary
movement to which this language owed its develop-
ment during the succeeding centuries.
The following is an attempt to present the idiom
of our great poet from two points of view only : —
phonology and accidence. Both, but especially the
former, clearly define the relationship of this idiom to
the dialects. The conclusion we shall arrive at is
that Chaucer's language belongs essentially to the
East-Midland dialect-group, but contains a fairly large
admixture of South-Eastern elements. The dialects
of the three principal tribes which transformed
England into a Germanic country are all represented
xxxii INTRODUCTION
here : Anglian, as well as Saxon and Jutish ; but just
as the peculiar character which English assumed in
the mouth of North-Anglian tribes has remained
practically without influence upon the poet's speech,
so, on the other hand, it reveals few traces of West-
Saxon influence. An investigation of this relation-
ship in greater detail would necessitate a history of
English dialects such as cannot be given here.
Chaucer's work was no less important for the
evolution of metre than for the development of the
language. English poetry owes its classical metre to
him, and, moreover, both directly and indirectly, more
than one very important strophic structure. Above
all he taught his fellow-countrymen the secret upon
which depended the future of English versification ;
the art of harmoniously linking — not intermixing —
the Germanic and Romance methods — the accentual
and the syllabic. To present Chaucer's versification
in conjunction with his language seemed the more
expedient, since the one cannot be grasped without a
knowledge of the other.
Hence Chaucer's poetical works are naturally the
primary source even of the linguistic part of this
enquiry, whilst the prose works have only been
noticed incidentally. Chaucer is himself only in
verse, only there is he original and national, and only
there he affords definite criteria by which we can
separate that which is peculiar to himself from the
disfiguring husk of tradition.
With one exception, all Chaucer's works are now
contained in the Publications of the Chaucer Society
in a form convenient for purposes of research. I have
made use of these publications, and quoted according
INTRODUCTION' xxxiii
to them ; in all doubtful cases in the Canterbury
Tales, I have taken Morris's reprint of MS. Harl.
7334 into consideration, in addition to the Six-Text,
without binding myself by Morris's numbering of the
lines. For the Clerkes Tale, the careful reprint from
MS. Cambr. Univ. Dd. 4. 24, by W, A. Wright, 1867,
has occasionally been of value.
As a rule, I cite the Six-Text of the Canterbury
Tales ( = ST) according to the number of the page
and line, e.g. S.T. 4/108 or simply 4/108, as a
confusion is sufificiently guarded against by this
method of reference. For the prose portions I quote
according to page and paragraph ; the Troilus by
book and line, e.g. Troilus or Troil. I. 340, the
remaining poems by the line number. Abbreviations
as Blaunche ( = Deeth of Blaunche the Duchesse or
Book of the Duchesse), Parlement ( = Parlement of
Foules), Fame ( = Hous of Fame), Legende or Leg.
(Legende of goode Women), Mars, Venus ( = Com-
pleynte of M., Compleynte of V.), Scogan, Bukton,
etc., will present no diiificulty to the reader ; the
Treatise on the Astrolabe, ed. Skeat ( = Astrol.), I
cite according to paragraph and line.
For the Boece I have used the edition by Morris
(London, 1868, E.E.T.S.) which numbers the lines
consecutively.
Works which have been erroneously attributed to
our poet, as well as such as have been ascribed to
him by some on insufficient grounds, could not be
taken into consideration in this investigation. So
far as poems are in question, we have restricted our-
selves to such material as is printed by Furnivall in
the Parallel-Text Editions of the Ch. Soc.
ABBREVIATIONS
Ace.
= accusative.
Adj.
= adjective.
G;el.
= Ga3Uc.
Adv.
= adverb.
Gen.
= genitive.
A.f.d.A.
=Anzeiger fiir
Germ., Germ'
■■ = Germanic.
deutsches Altertum.
Goth.
= Gothic.
Ags.
= Anglo-Saxon.
Grdr.
= Paul, Grundriss der
AngL
= Anglian.
germ. Philologie.
Angl.
=Anglia.
Grk.
= Greek.
AngL Anz.
= Anzeiger zur Anglia.
Ind.
= indicative.
Bret.
= Breton.
Indef. Art.
= indefinite article.
Inf.
= infinitive.
Ch.
= Chaucer.
Ital.
= Italian.
Conj.
= conjunctive.
C.T.
= Canterbury Tales
Kent.
= Kentish.
D., Dat.
= dative.
Lat.
= Latin.
Dan.
= Danish.
Lay.
= La3amon.
Def. Art
= definite article.
Lg-
= Low German.
Deut. Littztg.
= Deutsche Littera-
Litl. Zeitg.
= Deutsche Littera-
turzeitung.
turzeitung.
E.St.
= Englische Studien.
Matzner
= Matzner, Englische
Engl. Stud.
= Englische Studien.
Grammatik.
E.E.P.
= Ellis, Early English
Masc.
= masculine.
Pronunciation.
Mdu.
= Middle Dutch.
M.E.
= Middle English.
Fem.
—feminine.
Mhg.
= Middle High Ger-
Fr.
= French.
man.
Fris.
= Frisian.
M.Lat.
= Middle Latin.
ABBREVIATIONS
MIg.
= Middle Low Ger-
Pers.
= person.
man.
Pers. Pron.
= personal pronoun.
Mod. Fr.
= Modern French.
phon.
= phonetically.
Pic
= Picard.
N.
=note.
PI.
= plural.
N.
=noun.
Pres.
= present.
N.E.
=New English.
Pret
= preterite.
N.E.D.
=New English Dic-
tionary.
Rom.
= RomaBce.
Neut.
= neuter.
North.
= Northumbrian.
S.
= substantive.
Schipper
= Schipper's Englishe
O.Aiigl.
= OId Anglian.
Metrik.
Odu.
= Old Dutch.
Sg., Sing.
= singular.
O.E.
=:01d English.
S.T.
= Six-Text.
O.Fr., O.Fris.
= 01d Frisian.
Stratmann
= Stratmann's Middle
Ohg.
= 01d High German.
English Diction-
O.Kt.
= Old Kentish.
ary.
Olg.
= 01d Low German.
Swed.
= Swedish.
O.N.
= Old Norse.
orig.
= originally.
V.
= verb.
Oiig. Norse
= Original Norse.
Voc.
= vocative.
O.W.S.
= 01d West Saxon
W.
= Welsh.
P.P.
= past participle.
West Germ'=-
=West Germanic.
P.B.B.
= Paul und Braune s
Beitrage.
W.S.
=West Saxon.
CHAPTER I.
PHONOLOGY.
I. THE VOWELS.
1. The vowels will be considered from three points
of view, namely ; quality (timbre), quantity (duration),
and stress (accent), these being, in many respects,
mutually interdependent. Thus the timbre of some
M.E. vowels is essentially determined by their
quantity, the latter, again, is undoubtedly influenced
by the accent. Conversely, the accentual capacity
of a syllable is sometimes conditioned by the quantity
of its vowel, and the quantity is not always inde-
pendent of its quality.
2. In the present section the several vowels will
be discussed from the point of view of quality under
headings indicating their quantity.
3. As regards quantity we distinguish short, long,
and variable vowels. The root-vowel is short, for
instance, in sitten, bed, man, God, huntere; long in
wis, ' wise,' seeken, beren, taken, stoon, good, hous ;
variable in writen, pret pi. or p.p., heven, fader, sone
(pron. sune\ 'son,' dore (pron. dure), 'door.' The
e A
2 PHONOLOGY.
term variable is applied to vowels the quantity of
which is intermediate between long and short. The
existence of this class of sounds, the limits of which
are not always easy of definition, is not acknowledged
by all philologists. But it is proved, in the first
place, by rimes (§325); in the second place, by the
N.E. development of the vowels in question (§ 35),
and, finally, by inferences from analogy. In order
to do justice to the views of opponents, we shall, as
occasion offers, state what quantity others ascribe to
sounds which we designate variable.
4. The theory of accent will be discussed in ch.
III. 8S 276-295. In this connection one observation
may suffice, i.e. that syllables, the accent-points of
which are formed by vowels (for which reason the
latter also appear as the actual bearers of the accent),
may be appropriately divided into originally accented
syllables, syllables capable of accent, and syllables
incapable of accent. Amongst originally accented
syllables some always retain their accent, as the first
syllable in fader, heven, the second syllable in the
Romance words estaat, array; others can throw it on
to an adjacent syllable — whether from merely metrical
considerations, or owing to some tendency more in-
herent in the language — as the first syllable in worthy,
singinge, frendshipe, the second syllable in nature,
resoun, pitee. The adjacent syllable which, under
certain circumstances, may attract the accent, is said
to be capable of accent, thus the second syllable in
worthy^ singinge, frendskipe,^Q first in nature, resoun,
pitee. Incapable of accent is, for example, the second
syllable in fader, heven, the third in frendshipe, nature,
the first in estaat.
GERMANIC VOWELS. 3
With regard to actual individual cases, this classi-
fication is in contradistinction to a division into
accented and unaccented syllables.
Some trisyllabic and polysyllabic words have more
than one accent. In these cases the simple accent
becomes differentiated into a primary stress and a
weaker, secondary stress ; cf. mdrtyrdohm, creatiire
or criattire. The acute accent denotes the primary
stress, the grave the secondary.
Amongst monosyllables, nouns, numerals, verbs,
adverbs, interjections, as well as pronouns used
absolutely, or with logical emphasis, are regarded as
originally tonic compared with adjacent elements
in the sentence, but the juxtaposition of syllables
bearing a relatively stronger accent will, of necessity,
frequently reduce the weaker among them to un-
accented syllables.
A. GERMANIC VOWELS.
5. The vowels in originally tonic syllables will,
with regard to their actual accentuation, be discussed
in the following order : first the short, then the long,
finally the variable vowels. Genuine English words
will be considered primarily, those of other origin
only incidentally. Old loan-words will not be
separated from words of the native stock.
Short Vowels.
6. Short are :
(a) Old short vowels in a closed syllable : bidden,
men, spak,fox,ful.
(/8) Old long vowels, when followed by a con-
sonant group, or a long {sc. geminated) consonant :
4 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
kepte, ladde ; crepte, rafte. This shortening took place
even where the two consonants belonged to two
different parts of a compound, the first being the
final consonant of the one element, the second the
initial consonant of the other : wisdom by the side
of wis ; fr^ndshipe beside freend ; chapman (O.E.
ceapmon) beside chepe.
Note i. Orrm, writing as early as the beginning of the
thirteenth century, already affords indubitable proof of this rule,
which, as a matter of fact, dates from a period prior to his.
In accordance with his system — a perfectly appropriate one
(cf. § 97) — ^he doubles the final consonant of a syllable (as
well as the first of two consonants terminating a word) after a
short vowel, a method which he considers the only correct one
{Dedic. 103-110), and thus he writes wissdom but wis, chapp-
menn (pL) but chepinngbo}>e.
In composition this phonetic rule is, however,
violated with extreme frequency by the operation of
analogy. New compounds are thus differentiated
from older ones, but even existing compounds are
endued with new life by the subjection of the first
element to the same phonetic development as the
corresponding simple word. The quantity of the
stem-word seems to be determinative, especially in
the development of derivatives with the suffix -ly
(originally the second element in a compound) and
-nesse, so that formations I&lq frendly, siknesse, seem
almost exceptions.
Note 2. A necessity for differentiation not infrequently
exercises some influence; thus between godhed, 'goodhood,'
and godhed, 'Godhead,' between ivisly, 'wisely,' and tuisly,
'certainly.' It is noteworthy, for instance, that Orrm writes
clennlike (from dene), but wisUke, wisUj (from wis, ' wise '). At
a later period a toneless e was not infrequently inserted before
SHORT VOWELS. 5
•ly, among other reasons for the purpose of indicating that in
words like wisely, gddely, shortening by position was avoided.
The quantity of the 2 in M.E. siknesse may be inferred from
N.E, sickness, and especially from N.E. sick as compared with
M.E. sik.
A phonetic exception to the rule in accordance
with which originally short vowels are preserved, and
originally long ones are shortened, results from the
character of certain consonant combinations, and, in
a more limited degree, also of single sounds. Cf. § 1 6
and § 35.
(7) O.E. long vowels rarely appear shortened
before single consonants, as in ten (by the side of
-iene) ; us, but (O.E. ■iis, b-iitan) are cases of shortening
in unaccented form-words.
7. The short vowels are i, e, a, 0, u, amongst
which / represents the pure German i, as well as the
N.E. sound which inclines towards e (as in is) ; e and
0, on the other hand, always stand for open sounds.
For the purpose of distinction from the corresponding
closed sounds open e and will be denoted graphically
by f, g, and the impure i by i. On the ai-sound,
which occurs sporadically, cf § 38.
8. i and 2 are not graphically distinguished in
M.E., nor can they be differentiated etymologically.
On the whole, i is the rule. The pure «-sound seems
to have been preserved only before certain con-
sonants ; it may safely be assumed before gh
(palatal x) '• knight, light, night.
9. Short 2 (or i) is represented in the MSB. either
by i or by^ : the latter symbol is used by preference,
to obviate erroneous readings, when n or m precedes
or follows : myght, nyght, knyght, kyng, skyn, etc. :
6 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
initially, in such cases, some scribes prefer the capital
/: / (O.E. ic). In, Inne. Since no such external
considerations are now binding, it would be advisable
to use i exclusively in normalised texts ; cf, § 22.
10. Sources of i or / :
(a) O.E. /, as well as ie from io, eo, or as i-
mutation from ea (for further particulars v. § 48, V.
VII. : is, mysse, wiste, with, bidden, (Ji)it, sitten,
thikke, stille, wilh, chyn, tyn, ryng, drynken ; knyght,
right, six, fighten, highte, myght, myghte, nyght.
Also the i of some other Germanic dialect : windowe
(O.N. vindgugd), brink{e) (Da.n.),J>igge (Mdu.), etc.
(/8) Stable O.E. y ( = ^): brigge, kissen, list,
' lust,' fille, fulfillen, kyn, synne, thynne, kyng. — Sister
from O.N. syster.
Note i. In kyng the /-sound had already become fixed
previous to the M.E. period. — In exceptional cases O.E. y is
represented in Chaucer by e (§ 11, f) ; as to the relation of e
to i, cf. § 48, XI.
(7) O.E. i : ftftene, blisse S., lisse S. and V., list
(O.E. list, border, edge of anything), wisdom,, smyt
(beside smyteth), light ' light, easy,' dich, -lich, yliche.
In some cases the long i may have become short
already in O.E., a question which we must, once and
for all, decline to discuss. The i of other Germanic
dialects becomes short also under the same conditions
as O.E. i\ cf, for instance, shrighte by the side of
shriked, from schrtken (Olg. scric6n).
{8) O.E. ie, io, do : light ' light ' S., // (i.e. ///,
O.'K.feoir), siknesse.
Note 2. By the side oifil Chaucer also has the iormfel, cf.
S.T. 568/1282 [G. 1282], fel: wel; but, on the other hand, ib.
32/1104 [A. 1104],// : wil.
SHORT VOWELS. 7
(e) O.E. stable y { = long u) : hyd (phon. = hidd
from hidd, O.E. hyded), Ayd (from kidd, O.K. cyded);
cf. §50.
(Q M.E. i by monophthongisation (cf. on this
subject §21,6 and § 41, Note) : highte ' height,'
mystriste (O.N. treystd), slighte beside sleighte (sleijpe,
slejp, O.N. sldegd).
Note 3. It may seem doubtful whether in Chaucer the
quantity of i before ght is correctly designated short. The
original length and origin of the vowel are certainly irrelevant,
and the only question is whether gh still retained the function of
a genuine consonant or not. Now it is a fact that gh when
protected disappears less rapidly than when final, hence a form
like//f/, instead of plight is the exception in Chaucer. It may
therefore be assumed that such a word as knyght was by
Chaucer still pronounced knixt, which, in consequence of the
extremely palatal character of the x, was in sound almost
equivalent to kniit or kntht. Long before Chaucer some texts
regularly have iit for ight. Cf. on this point the opinion of an
accurate observer among German phoneticians, who holds that
in such a German word as ' nicht,' etc., there is no i at all ;
the apparent z'-sound is, he asserts, palatal %.
11. Sources of f (short open e) :
(a) O.E. e by z-mutation from a : bed, helle, men.
Likewise the corresponding O.N. sound, e.g. brennen.
0) O.E. e, eo : helpe, self; kerte, erthe, erl.
(7) Rarely O.E. se : whether, nesse, for instance in
Holdernesse ; in the case of messe Romance influence
is conceivable. Cf. § 48, IIL
(^) O.E. ea before x: flex, wex, and sometimes
before ^-combinations, upon which cf § 48. IV. 7.
Note. As to the usual representation of O.E. ,» and ea, cf.
§ 12. In the combination O.E. -eah, ea appears in Chaucer
sometimes as a, sometimes as e, but in both cases the union of
8 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
these sounds with the vocalic element of the guttural or palatal
X has produced a diphthong : au or ei, cf. § 39 ff.
(e) O.E. y ( = u): abegge {:legge) 113/3938, [A.
3938]; knetten. Pari. 439, 628, Mars 183, Troilus
m. 1733; melle [\ telle) 113/3924, [A. 3924] and
122/4241, [A. 4241]; Cantebregge {: collegge)
^ I S/3990, [A. 3990] ; melle ' mill ' ; cherche (: werche)
once 546/5 . 5 [G. 54S] ; dent 'blow, dint ' ; thenne
'thin {irenne) 117/4065, [A. 4065]; fulfelle
(: telle) Troil. III. 510. On kessen and lest cf.
§ 48. XL
(^) O.E. d: grette, mette, kepte, bledde.
(fj) O.E. SB or (cf. § 50) : yspred, dredde, lesse,
slepte, shepherde {sheep = O.E. sce'ap, where a stands
for d, or seep), mente, lente, ylent; cf. § 12 »/ and
§ 50.
(0) O.E. io : £-r^/i?, brest, fel (O.E. y%i//), ^'^''^^,
compar, to deere (O.E. deore).
(c) O.E. /« : betten, pret. pi. from iJ/^'^;? ' beat,'
gretter (O.E gr/atra, but also grytrd), compar. of
^/'e^A Edward; cf § 12 and § 50.
(/c; Sometimes O.E.j/: hed,yked, cf § 50.
12. Sources of ^ :
(a) O.E « : asschen, asse, cat. Also O.N. « :
gabben, cast, casten, carl, Mlg. a : knarre. Mlg. a :
labben, etc.
(/3) O.E. a, 0, before resonants, with the exception
of the combinations mb, nd, ng: ram, cam, nam,
swam ; man, swan, wan Adj., than, gan, bigan, ran,
wan, can ; thank.
NoTEy . By the side of nam occurs noom (O.E. noin) ; coom,
too, is due to O.E. c6m, whereas cam is probably formed by
analogy. On on, from, cf. § 58.
SHORT VOWELS. 9
(7) O.E. a, ea : al, alle, also, als, as, wal, galle,
halle, stalk, callen, fallen, galwes, salwes ; hals ; half;
walk.
(0) O.E. ea : warde, hard, Edward, afterward ;
carf, starf; arm, barm, harm, warm ; harpe, sharpe ;
narwe. Before x only in waxen by the side of
wexen ; cf. § 48. IV. ^.
(e) O.E. « : staf yaf, craft ; glad, sad, bad pret. ;
had, hadde ; gnat, hat, that, what, sat ; fast, faste,
brast ; bak, blak, spak.
(^) O.E. d\ clad (from cladd, O.E. clddod), gat-
toothed {gat from O.E, gdt, that otherwise results in
gggt), axe (O.E. dxian, dscian).
(»?) O.E. se : lad, ladde, dradde, spradde, adder
(O.E. nmdre, n^ddre, M.E. naddre, addre), bladder,
ladder ; ylaft ; lasten (O.E. Ids tan).
Here belong also the adj. badde (orig. p.p. to O.E.
bsbdan) and the verb madde, a new formation from the
adj. mad (orig. p.p. O.E. mdded).
{&) O.E. ^a : yraft ; chapman.
Note 2. In exceptional cases a develops from O.E. e=i-
mutation from a , cf § 48, v. — The word harre (O.E. }ieorr,
O.N. hiarre) probably derives its a from Mdu. herre, harre.
13. Sources of q :
(a) Old stable o : God, ofte ; dogge ; flok, knok, lok,
yak ; shoppe, hoppen • corn, horn, biforn, yborn, lorn,
ysworn, y shorn, torn ; ycorve, ystorve ; borwe, morwe,
sorwe ; post (O.E. post, Lat. poste-m), ylost ; grot,
lot, Scot, stot ; box, fox. Alofte is based on O.N. d
lopte.
Note i. Both the verb costen and the correspoaiing sub-
stantive cost belong here, since, though neither of them is an old
loan-word, they are not immediately derived from the Romance
lo PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
(O.Fr. coste, couste, produced M.E. couste, which Chaucer
does not use), but have found their way into English through
the medium of Scandinavian or Dutch.
(jS) Unstable O.E. a, o before nd, ng: bond, bonde,
brand, hand, land, sonde, strond\ the preterites bond,
fond; fonden {0.'E,.fandian'), stonden ; song S., wrong
adj., long, strong; rong pret., slong, song, throng,
wrong; fongen, hongen. >
Note 2. For the sake of rime with a foreign word like
gerland, Ch. seems, in exceptional cases, to consider a form
hke hand permissible, of. S.T. 56/1930, [A. 1930], 298/4574,
[B. 4574.] Being characteristic for the Northern dialect, such
forms are used by the students in the Reeve's Tale. On and,
cf. § 58.
(7) O.E. 6 : so/te.
14. Short u is, as a rule, represented by u ; after
w, however, is written for the sake of graphic clear-
ness ; the most reliable MSS. use the o-symbol also
before -nn.
15. Sources of ^ :
(a) O.E. short ^: tubbe (Lg. tubbe); tukked (from
Lg. tuckeri) ; bulle, fuKJ), wolle, pullen ; sonne, tonne,
connen, bigonnen,yronnen, ywonnen ; hunten, hunter e ;
hunger, hungry ; thus.
(/8) O.E. 0, u from eo after w in world.
Note. Unchanged eo has resulted in ^ in werk, swerd
(O.E. sweord, swurd). Unusual is soster (O.E. sweoster^swuster),
S.T. 100/3486, [A. 3486], riming with Lat. noster; o = u or n'i
The form with which Chaucer is more familiar is sisfer (O.N.
sysier).
(7) O.E. before // in dulij).
{S) O.K. y exceptionally before //: skulle, tullen ;
after w in wors (but more frequently wers') and in
LONG VOWELS. n
worth, woi-thy, worthe V. ( = O.E. wyrdian), worm
(O.E. wyrm), wort (O.E. wyrf") ; further in muchel,
muche (O.E. myceP).
(e) Older ^ : buxom ; on us (O.E. ■iis) and ^«if
(O.E. biitan) cf. § 6 -y.
Long Vowels.
16. Long are :
(a) Originally long vowels before a single consonant,
or when final: ride, see, deed, brQgd,fggt, hous.
(;8) Originally long vowels before Id, nd, ng, where,
however, they occur but rarely ; heeld,feend,freend,
heeng ; frequently before st : Crist (but list * border,
edge'), breesti^vifL also brpt), meest, mggst, wggst, dggst.
In this connection note that the length is most fre-
quently preserved in cases where the consonant com-
bination in question is final, or, at any rate, final in
the most important of the various inflexional forms
of any given word : feend-feendes, but, on the other
hand, with a variable vowel, wende, pret. of wenen ;
meest, moost, from O.E. m^st, mast, but lasten from
O.E. Isestan.
Note i. Between Jti and d weak e is generally inserted :
deemede, seemede, which then become deemed, seemed. On rd, cf.
(7) Originally short vowels, as a rule before -Id:
child, feeld, did, gold; original i, ii,y (phon. i'l) before
nd: bynden (phon. binden), bounden, kynde (phon.
klnde) ; i, and occasionally a, 0, before mb : clymben,
comb, lomb.
(S) Originally short vowels in an open syllable
(with the exception of z, u,y) : beren, maken,forldre.
12 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
(e) Originally short vowels, after which a consonant
has disappeared, whether contraction has taken place
as in maad from maked, or compensation-lengthening,
as presumably in made, for makde, from makede.
Also originally short vowels, after which some re-
lated consonant has become vocalised. This applies
chiefly to O.E. ^: sille from stijele, fuwol, fowl {^\\on.
fuel, ful) from fujol — exceptionally to palatal c (^')
and h {■)[): I from ic,plit irora plight, pliht.
(f ) Single vowels resulting from the monophthong-
isation of O.E. or M.E. diphthongs : crepen (O.K.
creopan), deeth (O.E. deap), ye from eye, high, hy from
heigh, phon. pluh, plu (spelt plough, plow) from plouh,
and the latter from OS., play^ (spelt ploh).
Note 2. A following consonant-group reduces the vowel-
lengths developing in accordance with £ and C, exactly as if they
were originally long monophthongs.
17. If one of the consonant-groups enumerated
in the preceding section, under /3 and y, is followed by
another consonant, the long vowel is replaced by the
corresponding short one : Crzst, but christnen ; child,
but children ; kynde, but kyndlen (i.e. Mndleti).
18. If the following syllable concludes with a
stem-formative (i.e. not an inflexional) r or n, the
lengthening which should take place according to
§ 16, y, S, is prevented or impaired : alderman,
thonder; heven, fader (ci. § 3 5, <5). It seems that, in
this case, even the vowel-lengths which should be
preserved in accordance with § 16, /8, are generally
shortened : cristen as compared with Crist. But the
vowel-lengths mentioned in§ 16, a,retain theirquantity:
leever, ever, mggder.
LONG VOWELS. 13
Note. The phonetic laws developed in §§ 17 and 18 are
frequently violated by the operation of analogy : by the side of
feend we fmA.feend2y, beside child, childhede, and so on in almost
all corresponding cases (but cf. frSjidly, stknesse). Thus
derivatives formed by means of the suffix -ere (not to be con-
founded with the old -er already extinct), retain, without exception,
the quantity of the root-vowel of the word from which they
derive, although when the accent falls upon the root-vowel, the
final e is regularly mute : hence, as a matter of fact, r concludes
the syllable. The comparative suffix -er influences the quantity
of the root-vowel only when the consonantal termination of the
root has been strengthened (geminated), but, in this case, it
affects equally originally long vowels of every category : for
instance, leever, kynder, but gretter (and hence, by analogy,
gretiest), from greei ; cf. hereon, § 244.
19. Much the same effect as that produced by
final stem -formative r, n results from y as the vowel
of a following syllable : body, ■many, peny. An
originally long vowel remains, as a rule, apparently
uninfluenced by^, for instance, lady, unless perhaps
when n precedes the y ; at any rate, the quantity of
eny (O.E. sanif) for which the MSS. not infrequently
have any, seems doubtful.
20. The long vowels are l e ^ d g q u.
21. Sources off:
(a) Old I : lyf. Ilk, '^ys, ryde, write ; Crist.
(fi) Stable O.E. y (z-mutation of ii) : hyde, pryde,
drye, 'dry' (O.E. dryje, cf drUjod, ' drought '); j^?"-
Here belongs also klthe, lite, ' little ' ; cf P.B.B. ix.
365-
(7) Old i followed by the consonant-groups Id, nd,
mb, which produce length : child, mild, wild; wynd,
blynd, bihynde, bynden, fynden, grynden, wynden,
chymbe (Mdu. kimme), chymben (Swed. kimba), clymben.
14 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
Also old Stable y before nd: mynde, kynde (O.E.
cynd), kynde (O.E. cynde).
[i) Old i before a palatal that has disappeared or
become vocalised. I ; pllt ; stile (O.E. stijele') tile,
(O.E. tijele, and, according to Pogatscher, also O.E.
tljel), tithes, 'tithes' (O.E. tijodd); lyest (O.E. lijest,
' thou liest '), ywryen (O.E. jewrijeii) ; also old y
before j: lye (O.E. lyje)} abyest (O.E. dbyjest, 'thou
buyest, payest')- M.E. hyen, 'hasten, hie,' is O.E.
Mgian (O.E. / on account of Orrm's subst. hih,
' haste ').
Note i. Forms like lyen (O.E. licjun), abyen (O.E. abycjan)
are by analogy with forms like lyesi, abyest j strict phonetic
development must have produced in Chaucer forms like Ugge,
ahigge (^^=N.E. dg) ; cf. §114. A phonetically correct equiva-
lent for dbycjan which actually occurs in Chaucer is abeggen,
by the side of which the analogy formation ateyen.
(e) A monophthongisation of (i) the O.E. diph-
thong io, /(?. This diphthong has generally been
transmitted in the form do, and has resulted in i ; but
z appears in slk, ' sick,' by the side of more frequent
seek, and regularly before following /: jffyen (O.E.
Jleojan), flye (^fleoje), dryen (O.E. dreojan), lyen (O.E.
Uojan). (2) Related Germanic diphthongs, for instance,
Olg. do, io : sky, Mhg. ze: smylen (?). (3) The M.E.
diphthong ei, upon which of. § i,i : ye from M.E. eie
(O.E. daje, eje), sllgh, slye, sly from sleigk (O.N. sloegr)^
dyen beside deyen, (O.Fris. deja, O.N. doyj'd), high hy
(from heigh, O.E. heah, more correctly heli), sy by the
side of say (from seigh, O.E. seah, smh, seh).
^ In consequence of the diverging use of the same symbols in O. E.
and in M. E. , it may be as well to point out in this connection some-
what more fully the links in the development of lyje to 2y, namely:
luji, Hje, Hie, lie.
LONG VOWELS.
15
Note 2. The cases mentioned under e, 1 and 3, cannot be
accurately differentiated. A form like dryen, for instance, may
very possibly have developed from dreyen, which is frequent in
M.E., though it does not occur in Chaucer.
22. Like short i, long / is represented sometimes
by i and sometimes by y. But _y is a far more fre-
quent symbol for long i. It alternates initially with
/, and seems to be avoided only before certain con-
sonants (such as k and th). Some scribes, too,
betray an inclination to differentiate forms identical
in sound but differing in meaning, by a distinction in
the use of these symbols. In normalised texts it
would be desirable, following the example of Brad-
shaw (cf the transcribed passages in The Skeleton of
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, London and Cambridge,
1868), to employ the symbol _y exclusively for long I,
and the symbol i exclusively for short t. The familiar
symbol /, which is also the more usual one in the
better Chaucer MSS., might appropriately be retained
only for the first pers. pron.
23. Sources of e :
(a) O.E. /: beeche ' beech,' seche seke ' seek ' ; gleede,
heede, steede; feele ' feel ' ; deeme, seeme,gueme;queene,
wine ' believe, ween ' ; feeng, heeng ; sleep ' slept ' ;
feere (infeereyfeere), heer{e) 'here' ; gees 'geese,' chSse
' cheese ' (O.E. cise cyse) ; feet ' feet,' sweete ' sweet,'
beete ' beat, poke,' grete ' greet,' meeie ' meet ' ; teeth
' teeth ' ; reeve (O.E. jer/fa), $ve (O.E. ^fe); me, thee,
he, ye. Here belongs also O.E. / as 2-mutation from
Germanic au (where the O.W.S. dialect has le,y) : eche
' increase,' heere ' hear,' leeve, bileeve ' believe,' sleeve
' sleeve,' also O.E. le, y in neer O.E. nyr (by the side
of niar\
1 6 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
(/8) O.E. e by group-lengthening before Id : feeld,
skeeld, seelde, cf. § 3 S , e.
(7) O.E. eo : bee, knee, tree, free ; been, fleen, seen ;
theef, leef ' dear lief ; seek (more frequent than slk")
* sick ' ; heeld ' held ' ; feend, freend ; leep ' lept,' weep
• wept,' deer ' deer,' deere * dear,' reesen (O.E. hriosan),
ckeesen * choose,' ^rf£.fi; (by the side of bresi), freest.
Also the related diphthong of other Germanic dialects,
e.g. meeke (O.N. mj'iikr).
Note. In exceptional cases Kentish e occurs in Ch. for
O.E. /, the usual representative of which is f : feer, Troil. I. 229 ;
III. 978, by the side of the ordinary fyr. On the other handy-
veeze S., which is probably deduced from the O.E. verb ffsan,
fisan { = O.S-wed..fdysa) should be accounted for analagously to
heere, sleeve. On e in words like eelde, weelde, cf § 35, e.
(^) M.E. / when final : thus by the side of sle^n
inf. (O.E. sl^an) the apocopated form slee, and the
verb inflects in the pres. ind. slee, sl§§st, sl(§th, pi.
sl^^n, slee.
24. Sources of/:
(a) O.E. ^ : d((l, ((r, l((s in nathel§§s, l§(ste, m^gst;
s§(d, thr((d,f§§re ' fear,' br§§th 'breath,' skgtke 'sheath'
(O.E. scmd scead\ unsh^then, gggtk ' he goes,' Leg.
2145. Excepting when the vowel is final: see
(O.E. s£) always with closed e.
Note i. Instead of gis^h Chaucer generally uses gooth,
which may be accounted for by analogy : O.E. gd, gdsf, gded:,
pL gd^, in Chaucer ^^, gqqstygqqth, PL gqqn.
(^) O.E. e, or mutation-^, in an open syllable :
st^de ' place, stead ' ; broken, spoken, wrgken ; b^re
' bear,' spire, bgren, d^ren 'injure,' ^ren 'plough,' sw^ren,
t§ren, w^ren, ' defend,' wgren ' wear ' ; mfte ' meat,'
LONG VOWELS. ly
§ten; aszvfved p.p. Likewise O.N. e: £-fien. Also ^
from O.E. jc in an open syllable : stfren (O.E styrian,
N.E. to stir), which is confirmed by rimes, Fame
567, 817 [Globe, Fame IL 59], Troil. IV. 145 1.
Further O.E. ea in an open syllable : g^re.
Note 2. Mlg. U produces f in beer {filwebeer) from bare
'cover, slip.'
(7) Monophthongisation of O.E. ^a : br^§d, Iggd,
d(§d ' dead,' r^^d ' red,' toskr§den ; d(^', Ch^pe, h§(p,
st^gp, Igpen, thripen, b^pn, drg§m, strggm, g^re ' ear,' gre
' ear of corn,' iggre ' tear ' ; /ggs ' falsehood, deception,'
Igfs ' he lost,' ggst ; grggf, b^ten ' beat,' thriten ; deeth
'death,' sleeth 'he slays'; h^ved. Fame 550 [Globe,
Fame IL 42], instead of which generally the con-
tracted form heed, r§ven.
Note 3. Before palatals O.E. da becomes / in Anglian.
Chaucer's language shows evident traces of this old monoph-
thongisation, in the first place, in the younger monophthongisa-
tion oiei to I {ye from eie, O.E. dag-e, Angl. dje, cf. § 41, Note), and
fiirther, in the form ike by the side of q^k (O.E. dac).
25. Fluctuation between e and /. We have
seen that O.E. le is represented in M.E. by /, O.E.
/, on the other hand, by e, Anglian and Kentish 4
occurs, however, frequently in O.E. by the side of
W.S. se. We may therefore expect to find in
Chaucer doublets with / and e, and, as a matter
of fact, these occur in great numbers : ( i ) particu-
larly in the case of words, the O.E. ^ of which
traces back to West Germ. A — Germ. Goth, i: —
speche ; deed, drede ' dread,' mede ' meadow,' dreden,
reden ; cheke (O.E. cedce for cei&ce Mdu. c&ke, but also
O.E. cdoce) ; sleep, slepen ' sleep ' ; yeer, heer ' hair ' ;
B
1 8 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
beere ' bier ' ; tMre, where, beren ' they bore ' ; weren,
were 'they were,' 'he were'; streete, weete 'wet';
leten, eet, eeten ' he ate,' ' they ate ' ; seeten ' they sat ' ;
eve ' evening.' Amongst these words some, like deed,
yeer, occur frequently either with § ox e; others, like
drede, sleep, slepen, generally have the closed sound,
whereas reden, werein), and there, have the open
one ; were{n), which occurs frequently in rime,
appears only a few times, there only once. Leg. 1870,
with closed e; cheke (for which in O.E. also ceoce)
almost always with e, but ch§kes, S.T. 18/633
[A. 633]. The words leche ' leech,' ' physician ' ; eel,
sheep, meete ' meet, suitable ' (also m-ete, ' measure ')
are found only with i, which may, however, be
accidental, as they occur but rarely. All other words
belonging to this category either appear exclusively
in the f-form, or are doubtful ; (2) in a more limited
degree in the case of words the O.E. d of which is
due to 2-mutation from Germ. at. The great majority
of these words, like techen, brede ' breadth ' ; spreden,
heele ' salvation ' ; deelen, heeste, heete ' heat,' white,
speten, sweten, heeth, live, bilive, blive ' stay behind,
remain,' seem to occur only with the f-sound, and
only a few, like liden ' lead,' cline, line, minen, leeren,
also occur with closed e, evere and nivere exclusively
with the latter. Open ^ exclusively in meeste (O.E.
mdst), cf. § 29 p. Other words with a variable e are
need, generally e (O.E. ne'd, nyd), but need, Blaunche,
1253 [1252] (O.E. nead) ; steel, stile, with § and e
(O.E. stiele, style, could correctly only have resulted in
stele^ ; greve, of uncertain origin, generally i, but also
^; heete, biheete with i and f from the Fris., Mlg. or
Mdu.
LONG VOWELS. ig
Note. If live 'leave,' and bileve 'belief,' have forms with#,
as well as such with e, this is probably due to the influence of
the verbs leeven, bileeveti ' believe,' which, correctly, have only f
(§ 23 a). The pret. sing. 3eer with g or e, by the side of the
correct form dar, is formed by analogy with the pi. beren. In the
same manner seet, S.T. 50/2075 [A. 2075], Blaunche, 501 [500],
— instead of the original sat — is deduced from seeten. An analogy
formation of a different character, but also due to the type beren,
is the pi. were(n) — for wered(en) — which occurs S.T. 84/2948
[A. 2948], in an f-rime ; the form may, however, also be treated
as a present.
26. The two sounds e and f axe represented either
by ee or by e. The best MSS. of the C.T. generally
have ee in a closed syllable, but er, ther (by the side
of theer or there) are a frequent exception. In open
syllables e occurs not infrequently, but more usually
as the symbol- for § than for e. This is due to the
fact that originally short vowels, when final in a
syllable, are represented by a simple symbol and are
open, and hence long open f which goes back to an
original vowel-length, derives its spelling from analogy
with these. This tendency which, in the case of the old
scribes, is crossed by a desire to differentiate homo-
nyms, as well as by other more incidental considera-
tions, might appropriately constitutb the principle of
a normalised orthography, and if used in. conjunction
with the diacritic, would afford an easy means of
complying with phonetic requirements. It would
then be incumbent upon us to use, in a closed
syllable, either ee {ee) or ^e, in an open one ee {ff) or
e{e), according to the respective quality of the sound.
27. Sources of d :
(a) Old d in the language of the Northumbrian
students of the Reeve's Tale : swa i:/ra), S.T.
20 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
116/4039 [A. 4039], raa {-.alswd), 1 17/4085 {A.
4oSS\ atdnes {: banes), 1171^071 [A. 4073]. ^'^^^^
Q.lathe), 117/4087 [A. 4087]. In Chaucer's own
dialect old d is represented hy g, c(. § 29 a; A as
interjection, and as the name for the letter.
(;8) The O.E. representative of Germ, a in an open
syllable, hence (i) O.E. a: spade, taken, awaken,
mdken, smdle (O.E. smala, smalan, smdle, whereas
smdl= O.K. smsel), ape, hare, amdsen (O.E. dmdsian),
kndve; care (O.E. cdru); (2) O.E. a, 6: name, vdne;
(3) O.E. ea : die, bale. O.E. «, the chief source for
M.E. d, need hardly be considered in connection with
d, for in words like fader {O.K. fmder), water (O.E.
wseter), the final r has prevented the complete
lengthening of the a (cf. §35/8, also §18), whilst
forms like ddle, gate, do not trace bacli to O.E. dxl,
jeat, (i.e. jsei), but rather to the O.E. plurals ddlu,
jatu, jeatu (i.e. jatu); cf Zupitza, A. fd. A. II. 11.
Further, the d of other Germanic languages : take
(O.N. tdkd) ; hdte (by the side of O.E. hete) is Mdu.
hate [or rather, according to Litt. Zeitg. 1885, col.
609, it has been influenced by the verb M.E. hdten,
O.E. hdtian\.
Note. In some cases the M.E. word may be derived from
an O.E. word that has not been transmitted, cf. gasen, gazen,
perhaps also crasen (cf. Dan. krasa, Swed. krasa).
Qy) a or sb, after which a consonant has been
dropped, causing compensation-lengthening, or con-
traction ; k has disappeared in made, pret. — maad
p.p. by the side of makede — maked. An exceptional
case is the apparent loss of _/ in hade, S.T. 16/554;
[Prol. 554 ;] 18/617 [Prol. 617]: the ordinary M.E.
form for O.E. hiefde is hadde (assimilation), and in the
LONG VOWELS. 21
cases referred to, the consonant has probably been
shortened, and the vowel correspondingly lengthened,
merely for the sake of the rime.
28. In an open syllable a is generally represented
by a, in a close one by aa.
29. Sources of g :
(a) O.E. a : fgg, tgg ' toe ' ; Igde, skgde, brggd ; the
prets. bggd, glggd, rggd, bistrggd ; ggk, strggk ; hggl
(N.E. whole), bggr ' boar,' sggr, Iggre, ggre, hggr, mggr,
mgre, mg ; ggn, nggn, stggn, gggn, shggn ' shone ' ; J>gpe,
grgpen, agrggs, arggs; gggst 'ghost'; bggt, gggt, hggt,
gte ' oats ' ; hgten, wggt, bggt ' bit ' ; smggt, wrggt ;
clggth, ggth, Iggtk, wrggth ; likewise O.N. d : wggn
' abundance, quantity ' (O.N. van).
Note. S.T. 194/1991 [B. 1991]; 396/2105 [D. 2105]; luggn,
wqnes, occur respectively in the sense of ' dwelling.' If this is
based on O.N. vane the a must early have undergone lengthen-
ing. The form wggn or ivqn occurs also in other M.E. texts.
Cgpe owes its g to an early lengthening of a in M. Lat. cappa,
capa, and may therefore be compared to pgpeiiom papa. Note
incidentally the proper name John, the g of which is perhaps
due to contraction irorajokan [or rsXhex Jokgn=Orrm Jokan\
(J3) Rarely^ from O.E. 5 = Germanic ai: niggst,
mggste, by the side of m§§ste [but already late Ags.
North, mast, Holthausen, P.B.B. xn. 590].
(7) a from O.E. a (ed) before -Id : gld, bggld, cggld ; ^
fglden, hglden, sggld, tggld.
(§) Mdu. o or b: crgne (Mdu. kronie, from O.Fr.
caroigne), grgte (N.E. groat').
(e) Keltic 6 as in boost, [but according to the
N.E.D. s.v. the etymon is not known]. Clgke is
probably due to M. Lat. clocca.
22 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
(iQ O.E. before final -/d: gold, cf. § 35, e ; O.E.
a, o before -mb : comb, lamb, etc.
()/) O.E. in an open syllable: poke, smoke,
broken ; cole, hole, tholen ; ybore,yswoye, forlore, bifore;
throte.
30. Sources of g -.
(a) O.E. 6 : shg ' shoe,' do ' I do,' unto, thertg ;
blood, good, wood ' mad ' ; book, cook, hook, wggk,
forsook \quggk'\ ; tool ; dggm, cggm ' came ' ; nggn
(N.E. noon), spggn, mggne, sggne ; ggr{e) (O.E. or
N.E. ore), fggre ' course, track ' ; gggs ; fggt, bggte ;
tggth, sggth.
(/3) O.N. 6 : bggne, crggk, rggte, and O.N. gu (au)
in logs, O.N. Iguss ' loose, free,' Angl. A. VIL 1 5 2.
In the case of swggte, sggte, also, Mlg. origin might
be assumed, if O.E. swot did not occur in com-
pounds {swotstenc), and if the correct form for the
O.E. adverb swote (adj. sw^te) were not actually-
extant.
31. A fluctuation between g and g is shown in
some words, the root-vowel of which resulting from
O.E. a, was, or is, preceded by w : wo, two, so (like-
wise, of course, also) from swd, probably also who
from hwg (O.E. hwd). The adv. tho has in Chaucer
both g (O.E. Jid) and g (Lg. thd). There is no
definite proof of the occurrence of the latter phonetic
form in the Canterbury Tales. It is less easy to
explain why go sometimes occurs in rimes on g,
although not in the Canterbury Tales. Hoom, which
ought phonetically to be hggm, is linked, when it
occurs in rime, either with dggm or cggm^, perhaps
from lack of other rime-words. Doon ' to do,' on the
LONG VOWELS. 23
other hand, rimes not only on -on, but also on -gn.
The following may be considered inaccurate rimes :
sgthe : bgthe or wrgthe, only in early poems : Blaunche,
S13, S19, 1 189;" St. Cec. S.T. 533/167 [G. 167];
to (O.E. to) : thg (dem. pron. O.E. })a), S.T. 344/369
[D. 370] ; in a corrupt strophe of the Monkes Tale
thereto rimes with mg, wg, gg. S.T. 266/3510
[B. 3510].
32. The representation of g and g, in so far as the
doubling of the vowel-symbol is concerned, resembles
that of the two e-sounds ; only in an open syllable,
before r, g is not infrequently written 00, but before
medial Id generally o, and when final hardly any
graphic distinction is made between the open and the
closed sound. A normalised orthography might with
advantage always represent the closed sound by 00
(finally, however, o would suffice), the open sound in
a closed syllable by gg, in an open one by g. The
diacritic can certainly not be dispensed with in the
case of g, because the variable u in an open syllable
is regularly written o.
33. Sources of u :
(a) O.E. i!i : thow, how, now nowthe (O.E. nu pa);
proud, loud loude, koude (more rarely kouthe) ; rough
rowe ; sowken ; owle, foul foule ' foul, ugly ' ; toun,
downe ' down, hill ' ; adoun doun, rownen ; stoupen ;
hour, shour, sour sowre, oures ; hous, mous ; out
oute, aboute, withoute ; mouth. South ; schowven,
howve, O.E. h^fe.
(B) Mlg. ii : lowke ; powpen ; toute, snowte,
strouten. Likewise Keltic w ox H: gowne.
(7) O.E. u before nd: pound, ground, sound.
24 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
hound, stounde, wounde ; ybounden, yfounden,
ygrounaen.
(S) O.E. u before vocalised w from /: fowel
fowl, youthe.
(e) Monophthongisation of M.E. ou, resulting
from ( I ) O.E. 4r. "X when final : bough, plough,
slough, swough ; tough ; ynough ynow ; lough. (2)
O.E. iow when final : yow, cf § 46, Note : the initial
y is probably due to analogy with the nom. ye, as
the u in youre, youres to analogy with yow. (3) O.E.
oj when final : trough, cf § 46, Note. (4) Mdu. ou
from <?/ : j^om^.
34. ?? is written either ou, a symbol borrowed from
the French, or ow, which may be accounted for by
the ordinary development of the M.E. diphthong ou,
one of the sources of u. As a rule, though not
consistently, ow is used finally, frequently also in an
open syllable, particularly before /, n, v. In our
editions it would be advisable always to represent
long u by ou.
Variable Vowels.
35. The following vowels may be considered
variable :
(a) O.E. / and u, as well as i from O.E. y, in an
open syllable. In this case u is always represented
by 0. Examples : Pret. pi. biden, gliden, riden,
writen, dwinen, shinen, yshriven ; witen ; yiven,
brice (O.E. bryce ? ' breach '), wike (O.E. wicu) ;
sone, dore, spore ; love ; some (pi. of soni) ; come,
shove p.p. (cf § 159). By the side of wike
VARIABLE VOWELS. 25
occurs wowke, S.T. 4S/iS39 [A. IS39], O.E. wiicu,
apparently a non-Chaucerian form.
Note i. The following seem arguments in favour of
designating these vowels as variable : (i) The general tendency
to lengthen all short accented vowels. In consequence, e, a, o,
in an open syllable, became long from about the middle of the
thirteenth century onwards, after having previously caused the
lengthening of the single final consonants in short mono-
syllables (§ 97). Considering this tendency it would seem an
unaccountable anomaly, if i and u, in an open syllable, had
remained short. (2) Occasional rimes of these vowels on I
and «, § 325. But it must be granted that the extreme rarity
of such rimes in Chaucer proves the tendency of these words
to have been rather towards shortness than length. (3) The
fact that in words like sone, which Chaucer no longer uses as a
dissyllable (not so the pi, sones), good MSS. do not omit the
final -e. (4) The after-developmfent of these sounds. For the
most part they have become distinctly short in N.E. : ridden,
written, to wit, give ; son, love, some, come. But in isolated
instances they appear lengthened : i without diphthongisation,
hence spelt ee, in N.E. weevil and week ; by the side of to wit
the archaic form to weet, which is frequent in the time of
Elizabeth and James L ; especially u before r, with which is
connected a peculiar development of the quality : door, spore, by
the side of spur. On the representation of M.E. variable u cf.
§37-
(j8) e, a, g in an open syllable w^hen the stem-
ending of the follow^ing syllable is n or r. (i) e
from O.E. e or eo: weder, lether, heven, stevene,
swevene, sevene, evene, rarely from O.E. se : whether.
{2) a from O.E. a : rather, from O.E. se : fader,
water. (3) ? from O.E. : oven, over. Final -m
would doubtless exercise a similar influence, but no
example is available: O.E. botm has in Chaucer,
even in the nom., botme S.T. 290/4291 [B. 4291].
26 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
(4) Final / in a following syllable need hardly be
considered : crddel, Iddel, but perhaps sadel with
variable a. Mute + r following a vowel seems, in
some cases, to produce variable quantity : gadre
(O.E. gadrian), togedre, or rather togidre (O.E.
tojmdre). It seems doubtful whether the participial -n
in forms like soden, troden, the root of which ends
in -d, prevents complete lengthening of o in Chaucer,
as stem-formative n otherwise does.
Note 2. In these cases also the variable vowel generally
becomes short in N.E. Well known exceptions are even, overj
especially striking is the lengthening of variable a in father,
rather, water.
(7) §■, <s^> ?j in 3^n open syllable when the following
syllable contains j/: e from O.E e, peny : from O.E.
y, besy ; a from O.E. a{p), many ; g from O.E. o,
body. Exceptionally perhaps original length in eny
(O.E. amij).
(S) All originally short vowels before consonant-
groups that produce length, when the following
syllable ends in r or n: e.g. / in linden, probably
also in hinderinost ; e from O.E. e in selden, on the
other hand, seelde, where n has been dropped, with a
distinct i ; a in alder, alderman (whereas did becomes
'gld in Chaucer) ; u in thonder, wonder, sonder, asonder.
On length by analogy, cf. § 18, Note.
Note 3. Yonder is linked in rime with the above-men-
tioned words. It, as well as yond, had an «-sound in M.E.
The development of O.E. jeond is not quite clear ; if o in it=«
{je, of course denotes the palatal /), the question arises, why
not j/(P««(/ in M.E. ? But perhaps the toneless character of the
word should be taken into consideration [or, on the other hand,
the possibility of O.E ^=M.E. g\.
VARIABLE VOWELS. 27
(e) Old e before Id, whereas old e {e), as in feeld,
§23/3, becomes long. But since in Chaucer's
language the /-mutation of O.E. a, ea, before /-
combinations appears both as Anglian e and Kentish
e, we may find in his writings elde with variable e, by
the side of weelde, unweelde with e. In exceptional
cases -eld with variable vowel results from non-
mutated -eald : helde (instead of the usual hglde) :
stnclde (from smellen, hence properly smellde), Fame,
1686 [Globe, Fame, Bk. m. S9S] ; behelde : elde
(Anelida, 80). g appears to be variable also when
resulting from before medial Id: sholde, wolde,
nolde {wolde rimes with glde, tglde, etc.) ; on the
other hand, Orrm spells wollde, shollde (as contrasted
with gold=ggld).
(^ Old / before medial -nd probably becomes
variable f : wende (O.E. wende); but cf feend,
freend, § 16/8.
(rj) Q before rd: (i) from an original vowel-
length : lord (from lover d, O.E. kldford) ; (2) from
O.E. o : bord, kord hoard, tord toord, word. § before
rd is variable or long in herd (O.E. beard), yerd
(O.E. jeard), aferd by the side of af§red (O.E.
dfdred) : variable or short in herde — herd (O.E. he'rde
— hered),f erde (O.'E. fe'rde),m swerd (O.E. sweord),
yerde (O.E. jerd).
(6) a before mb : clomben pret. pi. and p.p. ;
probably also before ng : tonge, yonge, songen,
sprongen, stongen, and before rn in borne {eg. in
Sidyngborne), mornen.
Note 4. If the following syllable ends in r (or stem-forma-
tive ti) a short vowel results : hunger.
(t) O.E. ii, though in an open syllable, sometimes
28 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
becomes variable u before v : dove. Original short
a in an open syllable is variable in have.
(k) In a few cases of originally short vowels before
a final simple consonant. Without exception a (from
O.E. se) before voiceless s:^glas, gras, was (the
voiceless character of s in was is in M.E. proved
beyond a doubt by rimes). Also § from e in wel;
by the side of this form the distinctly lengthened
one with e: week But even a variable §, when
riming with (, may be represented by ee. Besides
fer (O.E. feor) with short or variable ^ there seems
to be a feer with f , cf. Fame, 6 1 o [Globe, Fame,
11. 102], (\ Jupiter, but 591 [Globe, Fame, IL 83],
Jupiter : botiller). g in upon rimes, S.T. 547/5^2
[G. 562] : ^p«, S.T. 553/755 [G. 7SS'\-- P^oporcion,
cf.§58.
36. The greater number of the vowels we have
designated as variable would by many philologists
be counted short, but cases like wike ; evene, over ;
bord, hard; dare, inornen, on the other hand, they
would consider distinctly long. The view taken
above seems to me, however, more consonant with
the logic of linguistic development, as well as with
the rimes of accurate M.E. poets, especially
Chaucer. A thorough study of Orrm's orthography,
though the results of such an investigation would
not be immediately applicable to the language of
Chaucer — for differences of chronology and dialect
must be allowed for in this respect also — would
certainly tend to support my opinion.
37. The variable vowels are represented in the
Chaucer MSS. by simple symbols ; by a double
VARIABLE VOWELS. 29
symbol only in isolated cases, as weel, hoard,
toord — especially in rimes on long vowels. Vari-
able u is regularly represented in the greater number
of the best codices by o, only under with u (or rather
v). Those who consider the vowel short ascribe
this fact in part to the vicinity of m, n, v (an
explanation similar to ours of wo. -for wu -or uuu- ;
-onn for -unn), in part to an endeavour to discriminate
in an open syllable between English (and Romance)
u and Romance U : whereby, of course, an equally
obvious confusion between English g and u was
artificially produced. It must be granted that no undue
weight ought to be attached to the spelling, but it is
surely not wholly insignificant that one and the same
scribe should persistently write thonder, but hunten ;
yonge, but hunger The practice of the best MSS.
should be taken as the model for a normalised
system, but for the purpose of differentiating u
and 0, it would be advisable to denote the open o
by the symbol g, even in a closed syllable in doubtful
cases — and it would be most simple to do so in
every case without exception. For variable i the
MSS. sometimes have e {weke instead of wike),
especially after y -.yeven for yiven, but the rimes
prove this to be non-Chaucerian.
38. Before concluding the discussion of the simple
Germanic vowels, a sound must be mentioned which
occurs only in exceptional cases, either as a variable
or a short vowel, i.e. the South- Western ii (more
accurately defined perhaps as a sound intermediate
between ii and o), representative of O.E. 7. This sound
occurs regularly under secondary stress in Caunterbury,
otherwise only in sporadic rimes : mury (instead of
30 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
mery\ S.T. 23/802 [Prol. 802]; Caunterbury:
murie, S.T. 40/1386, [A. 1386] 4S6/i733 [E.
1733] : Mercurie. But thurst, which does not occur
in rime, should be derived, according to Zupitza,
Litt. Ztg. 1885, col. 609, not from O.E. }}yrst, but
from O.E. Jyurst.
DIPHTHONGS.
39. The O.E. diphthongs have become monoph-
thongs in Chaucer's language. The MSS. not
infrequently have ie= O.E. ^0, to, especially before/":
thief, lief, adj., but the poet himself presumably
wrrote ee, as his rimes are, in this case, invariably
on the f-sound. These cases of ie are probably
Kenticisms of the copyists ; {0 (also id) in the O.E.
period, and ie in the M.E., w^ere for a long time
usual in Kent. Whether ie occurs as a fracture is
doubtful : perhaps in wierde (O.E. wyrd), Troil. in.
617 ; according to Addit. MS. werdes occurs Boece
I o, but according to the Camb. MS. wierdes : also
in hierdes ' shepherdess ' (: wierdes ' fates '), Troil. Ill
619, but probably only for the sake of the rime.
Otherwise Chaucer probably wrote herde, herdes.
But, on the other hand, the M.E. diphthongs,
some of which occur already in Old Kentish, are in
active use in Chaucer. They are, as a rule, pro-
duced by the union of an original vowel with an i
or u developed from a following consonant. In
Chaucer these diphthongs are : ai, gi, eu, ^u, au, gu, ou.
40. The diphthong ai derives in part from an
older ai that traces back to the first period of M.E.,
DIPHTHONGS. 31
in part from older (i. As a rule, the better Chaucer
MSS. Still distinguish graphically between the two
groups : older ai is generally written ai, ay, whereas
ai from ei is by preference written ei, ey ; but each of
the two groups, and especially the second, contains
instances of assimilation to the other. The fluctua-
tion between i and y as symbol for the second
element in the diphthong is, on the whole, regulated
in such a manner that_j/ occurs at the end of a word
or syllable, i medially, but even in the latter case y
often stands (p.p. sayd, seyd), and is, indeed, the
rule before n (slayn) ; from the nature of things it
is of course far more frequent than /. In a
normalised orthography it would be advisable always
to denote the second element of the diphthong by y,
but with regard to the first element to discriminate
carefully between the two groups. But when words
from both groups rime with each other, either the
orthography of the first word should determine that
of the second, or, for phonetic reasons, the spelling
should be ay ; for instance, the pret. sg. of ' to see '
should always be spelt 'say,' unless some other
phonetic value (as in sy) is at issue.
41. I. Older ai results from :
(a) O.E. «/: day, gen. dayes (whilst the pi. dayes
is due to analog}', cf § 44), lay, ' I lay,' may ;
mayden mayde ; sayde seyde ' I said,' sayd seyd pp.
' said ' ; fayn * fain, glad,' yslayn.
(/3) various sources : May (the O.E. loan-word
Mains, but more probably the O.Fr. Mai) ; especially
O.N. ei in cases where, in contradistinction, O.E.
has a: ay ' ever,' nay, swayn, waik.
32 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
II. at from older §i results from :
(a) O.E. ejr (e by /-mutation from a) : seyest, seith,
leyest ' thou layest,' — leith, leyde (seyen, seyn, sayn ' to
say ' and leyen ' to lay,' etc., are due to analogy).
(j8) O.E. e/: wey weye way, pley, pleyen, ley{e)n
' lain,' seyn ' seen,' ayeyn.
(7) O.E. yj: bey est, obey est [bey en, aieyen is due to
analogy).
(^) O.E. ea before h: eight, seigh, or as Chaucer
seems to have written, say ' saw.'
(e) O.E. ^j: ey' egg,' keye, cley, grey.
(t) O.E. ej". wreyen 'accuse.'
(»?) O.E. ^A yj («-mutation from auj) : dreye ' dry '
(by the side of drye), teyen ' tie, bind.'
(0) Different sources : sleighte (O.N. sldegd), deyen
(O.N. ddyj'a, O.Fris. dSj'd), reysen (O.N. reisd), reysen
(Mlg. reisen), weyven, O.N. veifd).
Note. By the side of some of the above-mentioned forms
doublets occur in which the diphthong has yielded to a
monophthong, whereas, in other cases, only the monoph-
thongised forms occur in Chaucer (cf § 21 e, also § 10 i").
A thorough investigation of the conditions which necessitate
this monophthongisation belongs to the province of M.E.
grammar. Meanwhile the following observations may suffice :
O.E. ^/and ej never produce i in Chaucer, hence abyest {O.'E.
dbyjest, dbe/esi) traces back to abijest, not obey est ; on the other
hand, O.E. /<?/ always results in z and never in a diphthong.
Therefore, in the former case, the ^z-sound was in existence
before the period of the monophthongisation of ei began. In
the latter case either eoj; z'<7^ became zV/, z/, f, or ej became ei,
a, z. Now if ^aje produces in Chaucer onlyjp^, heah only high,
hy, we must infer therefrom that in an older period the forms
dje, hih exclusively prevailed in his dialect. It is more peculiar
that sy should occur by the side of say (from seigh). O.E.
seah sah had resulted partly in sah (cf hereon § 44), partly in
DIPHTHONGS. 33
s^h ; but apparently the influence of the palatal extended yet
further, and seh appeared as a dialectal variety of s^k. Whence
sgigh and seigh, and from the latter form sy. Most peculiar of
all is, however, that O.E. ^j- from Sji, and ^ from au/i {dreye
' dry ' for drye goes back to drije) produce no monophthong in
Chaucer. Ifdyen occurs by the side of deyen the latter might
trace back to O.Fris. deja (or O.Dan, diiia with long 6, which,
according to E. Brate, Nord. Lehnworter im Orrmulum,
P.B.B. X. 38, is the source of dejenn), the former to O.N. doyja.
Slights and sleighte seem to postulate one and the same
original form. The adjective from which both words are
derived occurs only in rime in the form sly, slye, but there is
no reason for doubting sleigh as a Chaucerian form. Anyone
who should devote himself to exhaustive investigations aiming
at a solution of existing difficulties would need to discriminate
most accurately among the various dialectal peculiarities and
the different periods of the language. The chronology of the
diphthongs has the most important bearing on their develop-
ment. Four periods may be distinguished : (i) Final /becomes
i ; (2) medial / becomes i ; (3) i develops before final h ; (4) /
develops before protected h.
42. gi occurs rarely excepting in Romance words:
embroyded, p.p., cf. § 1 40, floyten (Mdu. ?), boy, of
unknown origin, boistous (Wall, bwystus).
43. eu, generally spelt ew, more rarely eu, since w
and u interchange similarly to y and i, is due to
O.E. eow : trewe ' faithful, true,' knew ' knew,' threw;
also in newe (O.E. neowe), hewe (O.E. h^ow').
Note. Instead of O.E. treoiu Mo, meow cne'o, the latter
forms have become the prevailing ones in M.E. throughout the
whole inflexion of the words in question.
A3b. §u is carefully distinguished from eu ; it
stands for O.E. eaw mf^we {O.'E.. fiawe), th§w (O.E.
p^aw), sk§we (O.E. sceawian), also in r^we ' row,'
c
34 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
dronkel§we, cf. Weymouth, Pronunciation, p. 104.
On final eaw, cf. also § 44, Note.
44. au, when final in a word or syllable generally
spelt aw, also au, is due to : .
(a) O.E. «/ : hawe, lawe, mawe, shawe, dawes (O.E.
dajas, whereas dsaj deejes produces day dayes), dawen
'to dawn,' drawen, yslawen (O.E. jeslajen, just as
yslayn = jeslmjen) : likewise O.N. ag\ awe (O.N. «^«)
and Mlg. ag : _/«ze;^ {fagan, whereas the far more fre-
quent y«y;? =fmjen).
(/3) O.E. ea, se before h : saugh, saw (for another
development, cf § 41, II. ^ and Note), f aught,
straughte ; likewise O.N. a in draught (from O.N.
(7) O.E. d ox s^ before protected h, for O.E. ib,
when shortened, generally also results in a : aught
(O.E. dht'), naught, taughte (O.E. tdhte, tmhte), raughte
(O.E. ri&hte from rdceam, and reahte from reccan have
almost ceased to be distinguishable).
(^) eaw, when final : straw, unless it be more
correct to assume ^aw.
Note. O.E. final eaw either drops the tu at an early period,
or it becomes vocalised at the beginning of the M.E. period ;
hence O.E. streaw results, on the one hand, in stria, str^ (in
Chaucer, of course, e when final : stree, but str^^s), on the other
hand, in stmu, strau. Similarly hraw, hrceu rau. Obscure is
the origin of wraw 'peevish, fretful,' but it is clearly not
derived from wrdh, which in Chaucer must have become
wrough but presupposes a form *'wrce'w or wreaw, or a
borrowed form wrau.
45. QU results almost invariably from an originally
short 0, or from shortened 6 before protected h :
wroughte (O.E. worhte), broughte, thoughte, roughte
DIPHTHONGS. 35
(O.E. rShte), soughte; ought (O.E. 6hf), nought; only
exceptionally from old a before protected h : oughte
(O.E. dhte).
On though from O.N. J^S (pre-literary * pSk), cf.
§ 46, Note.
Note. As aught, naught go back to O.E. dht, ndht, but the
forms ought, nqught, though with the same meaning, to O.E.
6ht, ndht, so O.E. dhte should regularly have produced
aughte, which is common in other dialects, but does not occur
in Chaucer. For the explanation of the form qughte, note
that in dhte the root-vowel acquired the same timbre as in the
forms of the present djan, dh, d/on, dje, djen. The influence of
analogy caused dhte to retain its long d beyond the usual time,
so that d became q. The shortening of the q in qhte probably
did not take place until qwen, qwe had become ouen, oue.
Thus, by the side of oue (spelt owe), appeared first qghte, and
later qughte.
46. ou generally spelt ou medially, otherwise ow,
goes back to :
(a) O.E. medial 6w or 6j : glowen, growen, wowen
(O.E. wojian).
(j8) O.E. medial oj (medial ow would produce the
same result if it occurred), and o before final h :
bowe (O.E. bojd), though (Orig. N. thoh).
(7) O.E. dw : crowe, ' crow S.', blowen, crowen
' to crow,' knowen, sowen, throwen, soule (O.E. sdwel),
slow (O.E. sldw), snow (O.E. sndw) ; O.E. dj: throwe
(O.E. t>rdj), owen (O.E. ajaii), likewise O.N. dg:
lowe {Idgr).
(^) O.E. medial ^ow : trouthe, routhe,foure, trowen;
but for these forms it may be more correct to
assume eow.
(e) Exceptionally O.E. dw in slouthe (O.E. sldwd),
by assimilation to slow.
36 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
Note. The following further observations may be made
on the history of the diphthongs formed with u. (i) M.E.
has an aversion to vowels of undue length, so that soon after
the formation of a new diphthong the first element, if origin-
ally a long vowel, becomes shortened : blouen from blowan
becomes blouen, etc. (2) The chronology of the development
of u from w, j, and h is as follows : — (a) « from final w after
ea ; {fi) from any other w and final /; (y) from medial j and
final h ; (8) from protected h. (3) From qu (whether it = ^ from
o-\-u, or=q from d-\-u) there regularly develops ou, so that
bowe from boj^a, knowe from cndwan, contain in Chaucer the
same diphthong as growen from growan. Only the qu that
developed last maintained itself, hence this diphthong occurs
only before protected h, where ou never stands. (4) ou
became u only finally, and only at one definite period, and
this sound is as little affected by the evanescent breathing
which is all that survives of an originally final h, as by a
weak -e which is a later addition : ynow {/enij), ynowe
and ynough {jen6h\ all with u; for which reason every
medial ou, as well as any which developed finally at a later
period, remained diphthongs. In Chaucer we find il from
final -dj -6h -oj and -eow, provided the latter has not resulted
in -eu (cf. § 33 e, and § 43 ^) ; but not from -oh and not from
-dw -dj-dh. In contrast to the relation between ei and t, that
between ou and u is perfectly clear, nor in this case either are
doublets found in Chaucer. In the M.E. of Chaucer's time
doublets can, in any case, only have resulted in the very
youngest forms of ou, namely, in cases from originally final oj:
The only available example is troj, which in Chaucer is spelt
trough, with the sound of u, but elsewhere has probably
preserved the diphthong: for the N.E. phonetic form trqf
(spelt trough) postulates M.E. ou, or rather ow, qv, qf, as N.E.
2«^ (spelt enough), r?/ (rough), M.E. u or rather uu, uw, uv,
uf. Chaucer's pronunciation of trough could in N.E. have
produced, only one or the other of the two forms trcm or trsf.
The conjunction though, on the other hand, must, as in
Chaucer, have everywhere retained the diphthong ou. I have
yet to adduce a proof against Zupitza, A.f. d. A. 11. 6, that my
DIPHTHONGS. 37
derivation of though from a loan-word thoh is correct : — though
is not derived from O.E. ]}iah because (i) in Chaucer's
language, or the dialects upon which it is based, O.E. /a before
h never resulted in a, far less g, cf. § 49 ; (2) in other dialects
it results, indeed, in a, but in one of a lighter timbre, which is
incapable of transition into q ; however, M.E. }>ah had probably
a short a (cf. }>ehh in Orrm. and also Brate, Nord. Lehnworter
im Orrmulum, P.B.B. x. 12); (3) Orrm uses the form Jjohh^ a
derivation of which from O.E. })iah would force us to assume
two processes without parallel in the language of this author :
development of /a to a instead of to S, and development of A to
Q, instead of retention of a ; moreover, the shortening of the
vowel — though in itself not impossible — would, under these
circumstances, be difficult of explanation. Brate (P.B.B. x. 60 f.)
derives }>ohh from a pre-literary O.N. *}>6h. On the effect of
analogy in verb inflexion, so far as it bears on the relations of
ou and u, cf § 152.
47. In normalised texts it would be advisable to
differentiate gu, ou and u, by writing ou for u
(hence : ynough, lough, bough, bouen ' to bow, bend,'
nou, hou, you), ow for the diphthong ou {growen,
knowen, bowe ' bow ' S., thowgh, rowthe, trowthe); but
either gu or simple g for gu, in which case the
following ^^ would sufficiently indicate the ^-element,
and as a matter of fact this is frequently done in
the MSS.
Summary.
48. At this stage it may be advisable to pause
for a moment in order to sum up in connected
sequence the history of the O.E. vowels, so far as
they are represented in Chaucer's dialeft.
I. O.E. a remains a, which is lengthened in an
open syllable.
38 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
II. O.E. a, before resonants becomes g before
-nd, -ng ; g before -mb : cgmb, Igmb, womb, clgmb ;
otherwise a.
III. O.E. ^ almost invariably becomes a, the
quantity of which is further determined by the laws
discussed above, f appears only in messe, unless
Romance influence ought here to be assumed, nesse
(in Holdernesse), after palatal k ; ckestre (in Chaucer
only in composition: Rouchestre, S.T. 254/3116
[B. 311 6]) ; further in cases where O.E. « stands
instead of, or by the side of, e = /-mutation of a, as
in berne (O.E. bern, bmrii), likewise in whether,
whereas from tojedre (O.E. tojsedre) has developed
the form tojidre, which the best MSS. of the Canter-
bury Tales have preserved, and which is confirmed
by rime in Leg. 649.
IV. O.E. ea :
(a) In an open syllable regularly becomes a in
Chaucer.
(/3) Before /-combinations O.W.S. O.Kt. ea ap-
peared by the side of Angl. a. In the district where
Chaucer's dialect developed, -AL and -EAL seem to
have met. Both resulted in AL- with lengthened a
in the combination -ALD, which — like original d —
becomes g, and regularly appears in this form in
Chaucer. In exceptional cases only he employs
forms in which ELD, with a variable e, has developed
from EALD : helde, bihelde (cf § 3 5 e) ; these are
probably not native to the poet's dialect, but have
been borrowed for the sake of rime from some
neighbouring dialect.
(7) Before ^'-combinations ea was the rule in the
SUMMARY. 3g
later period of O.E. in all dialects which enter into
the discussion here. This, in Chaucer, usually results
in a. Exceptions are : erme = O.E. earmian, S.T.
3 1 2/3 1 2 [C. 3 1 2] (Stratmann — ignoring the context
— translates the word ' make miserable ' = O.E.
ierman, yrmari), probably also Blaunche, 80 (instead
of the transmitted yerne),fern, yerd ' garden,' herd, in
which lengthening of the f takes place (§35 n)-
(§) Before A and ^-combinations (naturally also
before x=ks) O.Angl. ^ appeared by the side of
O.W.S. and O.Kt. ea. Chaucer's linguistic usage
presupposes in part f (exceptionally e), in part
a darker sound which was bound to become a :
flex, wex, wexen and waxen, eight (from §hf), seigh
say {s§h) ; sy (sek) ; saugh, saw (sah), f aught,
laughter, etc.
V. O.E. e as /-mutation of a regularly becomes
(, or in an open syllable lengthened ^. Exception-
ally a has developed before protected r in warien
' curse ' (O.E. werjian, werjan, wserjati), harwede
(O.E. herjode). Tarien, ' to tarry, delay,' is probably
a blending of O.E. terjan with O.Fr. tarier (which is,
however, itself of Germanic and identical origin), and
perhaps, so far as the meaning is concerned, with
O.Fr. targer. The z-mutation of O.W.S. O.Kt. ea,
O.Angl. a before /-, was W.S. ie, y, Kent, e, Angl. m,
e. Closed and open e coalesced in ( when the sound
remained short ; but before -Id closed e was
lengthened : eelde, unweelde, by the side of which
variable § in (Ide. The /-mutation of O.E. eah, xh
occurs in Chaucer only in cases where in O.E. it had
already reached the /-stage : might 'might,' S. mighte
'might,' V. night.
40 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
VI. O.E. e before -Id becomes e (feeld, shedd) ; in
other cases it becomes §, and thereupon, in open
syllables, §.
VII. O.E. eo, io, as a rule becomes f (it occurs more
rarely in open syllables, hence less frequently §).
But before protected h we find i, not only where this
stage had been reached already in O.W.S. and
O.Kt, as in knight, riht, six, but also in fighten,
and even in highte, although here the only O.E. form
transmitted is heht (by the side of hit), not heoht.
In silk, milk, silver the i sometimes occurs already in
O.E., but it may be partially due to foreign iniluence
{e.g. O.N. silki).
VIII. O.E. i is lengthened before Id, nd, mb {child,
wynd, clymben) ; in an open syllable it is variable,
but in the majority of cases it seems to become / ; cf.
§ 8.
IX. O.E. always becomes g or g, even where it is
lengthened before -Id {gold), and naturally where it
becomes variable in quantity.
X. O.E. u is lengthened before nd {bounden,
founden), becomes variable before inb, ng, rn, etc., as
well as in an open syllable ; in other cases it remains
short {u with a tendency to ^?).
XI. O.E. y. Already in O.Kt. e appeared by the
side oi y, and in course of time it becomes more fre-
quent. In M.E. u {i.e. ii with a tendency to o) appears
in South-Western territory, e in South-Eastern, in
other districts generally /. In Chaucer u occurs only
in burden, -bury {Caunterbury), and otherwise excep-
tionally for the sake of rime {mury, murie). The
correct form in Chaucer's dialect is e, which has
SUMMARY. 41
become §, and i which, where it remains short and is
not followed by gh, probably = i. e is on the whole
more frequent than i. [On the other hand, according
to Morsbach, M.E. Gr. § 1 3 1 , Note i , zis more frequent
than ^.] i occurs regularly before gh {^flight, afrighi) ;
as a rule also before n and ^-combinations : kyn,
synne, wynne, thynne (more frequent than thenne),
kyng, kynde, mynde, with the exception of -nt : dent,
stenten, rarely stynten ; before rth : birthe, myrthe ;
further, fille S., fulfillen by the side oi fulfelkn V.,
gilt ' guilt,' kissen, more frequently than kessen, which
he uses for the sake of rime. On the other hand,
generally lest ' lust, desire,' lesten V. ' to lust ' (only
one certain instance of liste in a rhyme on upriste).
Hence it would be better to read 172/1332 [B.
1332] keste : leste, and certainly 343/317 [D. 317]
chest : lest with H. and P. The subst. lest occurs
twice in all MSS. linked in rime with brest (C. once
best for lesi) ; and, in addition, once brest : fest
122/4276 [A. 4276] where H.E.Hg. C. have the
e-form, Co.P.L. the z'-form. Hence we must read
4/132 [Prol. 132] brest : lest as in H., with which
Co.P.L., and in part also C, agree, and deny the
occurrence of the form brist 'breast,' in Chaucer.
The subst. list remains only 351/633 [D. 633] (: lyst
from list).
49. The O.E. long vowels and diphthongs are
represented as follows in Chaucer. O.E. d hy g ;
O.E. dhy r, O.E, / by f ; O.E. / by f ; O.E. 6 by
g ; O.E. t'c by ii ; O.E. y hy i {e only exceptionally
in forms which may be considered Kenticisms, as
feer besides fyr) ; O.E. /« by f ; e'o, io as a rule
by e, but before / and h hy i (before protected h
42
PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
by /: light 'light' S.), also in sik, and shortened
in fil, siknesse.
As in O.E. A and e stand side by side, so in
Chaucer § and e alternate under conditions which
have been sufficiently defined, § 25. Again, as in
Anglian O.E. ea appears before palatals as /, so in
Chaucer we have eeke by the side of (^k, whilst hy
presupposes O.E. Mh for h^ah, and ye likewise eje for
eaje.
The cases in which O.E. le and /« have resulted,
in Chaucer's language, in g instead of §, and where
O.E. eo seems to have bec6me 5, require special
comment. Several M.E. dialects develop an a from
sb and ea. This, however, never becomes g : bare
by the side of b§re, chas by the side of ch§s (N.E.
chose has no connection with this form, but is due to
the M.E. pi. chgsen). This a is therefore a lighter
sound than the O.E. a, and occurs in Sth. texts
not infrequently by the side of, though carefully
differentiated from, the g which had developed from
the latter. The lighter a does not occur in Chaucer
in this function, nor has it left any real traces in
N.E. (N.E. race, if borrowed from the Northern
dialects, is derived either from O.N. rds, or from
Mdu. rses). a, g, can develop only in certain cases
from m, ea: ( i ) « from Germanic ai without /-muta-
tion. Sievers is inclined to deny the existence of ^
for a in O.E. altogether ; in all doubtful cases he
assumes z-mutation to account for the se, and leaves
msest and flsbsc unexplained [for which forms /-muta-
tion is, however, proved to be possible, Angl. V.
Anz. 85]. But he disregards the fact that in O.W.S.
even a word like jdst appears in the form ^st, for
SUMMARY. 43
which, in the loth century, jdst again becomes
the rule. But, at any rate, the word miBst is a
certain example of a case where, instead of § and e,
g and of seem to have been the rule in O.E. The
former § survives, the latter of becomes a, and
thereupon g. Thus, in Chaucer, we find mgfst by
the side of mggst. Corresponding to Ohg. meina we
must assume for O.E. a form (not in evidence) nmn,
with or without a secondary form man, M.E. m§ne
and mane mgne. Chaucer has only the form m.gne.
But if the O.E. verb mxnan becomes in M.E. on
the one hand regularly m^nen menen, but on the
other hand mdnen, mgnen, the two latter forms
must be due to analogy with the corresponding
substantive, an assumption which is confirmed by
the fact that the vowel a, or g, appears in older M.E.
more rarely in the verb than in the noun, though in
course of time the differentiation into mean and
tiioan, which is established in N.E., becomes apparent
in both. Chaucer uses the verb only in §- or e-
forms. (2) O.E. lb and ea before w may result
either in ^ or in a, g, in either case a diphthong
develops which, finally, becomes ^21! or ou : O.E.
sldwd, M.E. sleuthe slouthe — the latter form is common
in Chaucer, O.E. sceawian, M.E. skewen showen,
Chaucer shewen ; O.E. streawian, M.E. strewen
strowen. Chaucer seems to employ the form
strawen, which may be accounted for by the de-
velopment of a dialectal form strauen, instead of
the regular strgwen from strawen, in consequence
of assimilation to the subst. straw.
Note i. Except in the above-mentioned cases M.E. q does
not occur as representative of O.E. da, and only apparently
44 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
as representative of O.E. i. In all cases where in several
dialects M.E. g apparently corresponds to an O.E. d, it
would certainly be advisable to investigate whether a secondary
form with d is not phonetically possible, or whether no loan-
word, especially no O.N. one (cf for instance, Ign from O.N.
ldn,wqren from OM.vdrum, etc.) is the source, or, finally, whether
analogy has not been in play (cf. pret. pi. ■y)ven, goven, instead
of ii^even geven by analogy with the p.p. ^oven from ■3,eoven by
the side of -leven or y-veii).
O.E. eo is in some M.E. texts represented at
least occasionally by 5 instead of e; but in a
fairly large area (and in the district where Chaucer's
language prevails) an o develops, but only before w,
the original quantity, and hence also quality, of
which seem doubtful ; medially it is bound in
course of time to result in the diphthong ou,
finally in u : — O.E. fdowere, M.E. foure ; O.E.
hreowan, M.E. rewen and rowen (Chaucer : rewen) ;
O.E. hreowd, M.E. reuthe and routhe (Chaucer :
routhe) ; O.E. seowian, M.E. sewen and sowen
(Chaucer : sowen) ; O.E. trhwe, M.E. ti-ewe and
trowe (Chaucer : trewe) ; O.E. treowian, M.E. trewen
and trowen (Chaucer : trowen) ; O.E. treowd, M.E.
treuthe and trouthe (Chaucer : trouthe) ; O.E. eow,
M.E. eu and ou, ^eu and ^ou, Chaucer yow (i.e. yii), in
youres u for ou by analogy. In the remaining
examples of O.E. eow Chaucer appears to be familiar
only with the diphthong eu.
Note 2. The development of ow ou from eow is scarcely to
be explained by the change of the falling diphthong eo into a
rising one. The second, though inferior, element acquires such
a preponderance, in consequence of the addition oiw, that when it
becomes obviously necessary to simpKfy the triphthong which has
developed, or is about to do so, o may prevail over e. An attempt
SUMMARY. 45
to pronounce the O.E. Mowd^w'ith a falling diphthong would
prove a difficult task. But in the case of dw gw from daw, an
accent-shift within the diphthong is out of the question ; da
results, here as everywhere, in li, and like & before iv, may
develop the phonetic value a' and thereupon become a g
instead off. Therefore not even a case like chase {=chds), by
the side of ches from O.E. cdas, postulates a falling diphthong
ea, but should be accounted for exactly like bare by the side of
b^re from O.E. beer.
50. In cases where O.E. vowel - lengths were
shortened early they develop like the corresponding
originally short sounds : d becomes a : gattggthed
(from M.E. gggt, O.E. gdt\ yclad (from O.E. clddian) ;
e becomes f : grgtte, k§pte, wgpte, tgn (by the side of
fiftene) ; / becomes /, more rarely i : wisdom, smit
(smitth from smited), light ' light ' adj. ; 6 becomes g :
softe ; ■ii becomes u : but, us ; do becomes f : crepte,
rest (by the side of breest), f§l ; io ie becomes i or
i : light ' light ' subst. ; /il (by the side of fgl),
siknesse.
Several different developments proceeded from
shortened ^, da, y. In O.E d occurred by the side
of ^; in position we may therefore in the first
instance expect s& beside e ; the latter is bound to
become ^ ; ^ in Chaucer's district generally becomes
a, and in exceptional cases f On the whole a is
more frequent in Chaucer : bad, mad, lasten, ladde —
lad from liden, dradde — drad from driden, spradde
from spr§den, swatte from sw^ten, lafte from l§ven, to
which belongs the p.p. (yyaft, and more rarely, left ;
cf Blaunche, 42. Conversely, though less fre-
quently : dredde, yspred ; ywet = O.E. jewMed ; lesse
is more frequent than lasse, whether owing to the
following ss (cf messe -nesse), or by analogy with
46 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
l^(st ; shepherd only with |, whereas sheep only with
e, likewise exclusively sl^pte, because slepen is the
ordinary form, but especially on account of the not
yet extinct strong pret. sleep ; only mente, lente,
because in the former half of the M.E. period vtende,
lende, with long, or at least variable, § were the rule.
O.E. /(2 in position regularly became se, and there-
upon a : chapman, rafte from r^ven, straw. The
newly formed pret. bette (provided it really occurs
in Chaucer, cf § I34), is, however, connected
primarily with the strong preterite beet, not b§ten.
The form of the positive gr^^t has influenced the
compar. gretter, and grettest formed by analogy with
it [or it must be derived from the mutated O.E.
grytrd\. In Edward we have § on account of the
prolonged survival of the quantity in composition.
O.E. y when not in position almost always
becomes i, but in position, like original short y,
sometimes i, sometimes f : kyd: hyd, S.T. 462/1943
[E. 1943], a rime without real value as evidence,
but which tradition has sufficiently accredited in this
form ; on the other hand, hed or yhed (: bed). Leg.
208, Blaunche, 175.
Vowels without Primary Accent.
51. So far we have considered the Germanic vowels
in originally accented syllables (i.e. under primary
stress) with reference to their actual accentuation.
Now if the originally accented syllable transferred
its accent to the syllable immediately following, the
quality of its vowel - sound would scarcely be
modified, but the quantity would probably be
VOWELS WITHOUT PRIMARY ACCENT.
47
somewhat shortened. This shortening cannot,
however, have been very considerable, for the reason
that the accent-shift occurred only very occasionally,
and mainly in response to the exigencies of the
metre, whilst on the whole the original accentua-
tion prevailed, and maintained itself unimpaired in
current speech. We have no means of finding a
more definite answer to the question thus raised :
the originally tonic syllable occurs in rime only
when it is actually accented, the traditional spelling
justly concerns itself only with normal accentuation,
and the rare cases in which the shifting of the
accent has had permanent consequences — for instance,
in the first syllable of N.E. mankind or freewill —
reveal no essential difference in the treatment of the
vowels in question.
52. The syllables capable of accent may be
divided, according to their position in a word, into
two classes : such as regularly bear the secondary
accent, and such as are sometimes unaccented,
sometimes bear the principal accent. To the first
class belongs, for instance, the third syllable in
Canterbury, Holdernesse, alderman, martyrdoom, to
the second, the second syllable in millere, writynge,
clennesse, worthy. One and the same part of a
compound, or one and the same suffix, may belong
both to the first and the second classes ; cf., for
instance, martyrdoom and wisdom, alderman and
goodman, worthily and shaply, buxomnesse and
clennesse ; in one and the same word even, by
mere syncope, a syllable may pass from the first
to the second class, or, by the insertion of a syllable,
from the second to the first: trewely and trewly.
48 PHONOLOGY- GERMANIC VOWELS.
hardly and hardely, etc. The syllables under
secondary accent and the syllables of the second
class in case of actual accentuation will therefore be
considered conjointly. The vowels of these syllables,
in so far as they appear in rime, display on the
whole, as the result of analogous development, the
same characferistics as originally tonic syllables. It
will suffice to quote a few examples, which may be
followed by the discussion of cases requiring special
comment. Short vowels : lernyngie), O.E. leorninj
leornunj; smoterlick, O.E. -He; ydelnesse, O.E. idelnes;
Holdernesse, O.E. -nses ; alderman, O.E. ealdormon,
-man; newef angel, origin obscure (from newfangle-
nesse), Edward, O.E. Eadweard ; Engelgnd, Northum-
berlgnd, furlong, O.E. furhlgng furlang. Long
vowels : body, O.E. bodij ; holy, O.E. hdlij- ; boterflye,
O.E. butorflioje ; fifteene (cf , on the other hand,
simple t§n), hertel^^s, routhelggs, etc., O.E. -le'as,
nathel(§s, O.E. nddelds ; algate, algates ' always ' from
allegate, from O.N. alia ggtu, but nom. sg. gata, M.E.
gate ' way, gate ' ; nyhtyngale, O.E. nihtejale ; knight-
hggd, prentishggd, O.E. -had, househgld, cokewgld,
Osewgld ; martyrdggm ; neighebour. Diphthongs, for
instance, in felawe (O.N. filage), windowe (O.N.
vindgugd). Variable i va frendshipe, felawshipe (O.E.
-scipe), etc., il in Canterbury.
53. The O.E. suffix -ij, no matter of what origin,
always becomes y, i.e. I from ii. The O.E. com-
position suffix -He -lice becomes -lieh -liche ; the
more usual -ly might trace back to O.N. -Hgr -liga
[if M.E. / from O.E. ie did not prove the possibility
of a phonetic change]. The O.E. adj. jelic, on the
other hand, results in lik, more rarely lieh, and the
UNACCENTED VOWELS. 49
adverb also appears in both forms: {y)like and
{y)liche.
54. The suffix -ere, for instance in mellere, ridere,
as well as the suffix -stere, expanded by analogy
with the former from O.E. -stre, as in beggestere, has
generally ^ in Chaucer (sole exception wonger for
wongere: dextrer,S.T. 197/2102 [B. 2102]) in other
M.E. poets it more frequently has e. The corre-
sponding O.E. suffix is commonly spelt -^re, not
because the / had always been closed, but because in
a syllable under secondary stress the ^-sound was
generally represented by e, as dsejrM, hMd, AelfrM,
etc., prove ; cf Anglia V. 3. O.E. HierusaUm Jeru-
salem seems also — and that, indeed, in all dialects
— to contain ^ in the final syllable, as proved by
Orrm's spelling Jerrsalsem, and the same sound holds
iot Jerusalem (pronounced Jerwsalfm) in Chaucer.
Note. Sievers (P.B.B. IX. 200) and also Sweet, assume short
g in O.E. Aelfred, dcejred, hired. Now the long vowel in weakly
accented syllables of this kind was doubtless capable of
shortening, especially when the meaning of the component parts
of a word had ceased to be felt. Thus hired perhaps became
^zVerf already in the O.E. period (though we have not the slight-
est justification for assuming the shortness of the e in all cases,
to say nothing of texts so early as the ninth century), M.E.
hired and hird. But it is otherwise in the case of dcejrid and
AelfrM, the long f (or /) of which is proved as late as the
thirteenth century. Cf Alfred : rgd, Owl and Nightingale, 761.
But only a pedant could fail to take into consideration not only
W.S. -re'd in relation to rdd, but also the suffix -ere and the
e in JerusaUm, and anyone with a fairly comprehensive grasp of
M.E. phonetic conditions as a whole, cannot doubt but that in
an unaccented syllable O.E. / might well stand for f
55. The composition suffix -/igod, O.E. Md, has
D
50 PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
acquired an etymologically identical doublet, -h§(d,
-h(de, also hede : maydenh^^d, goodlyh^^d, chapman-
k§de, maydenhfde, maydenhede, wommanh^de, wom^nan-
heede, etc. ; Mdu. -hede contained, apparently, §
(Deut. Litteraturzt, 1884, Col. 125); is the closed
sound derived from Frisian or some other Low
German dialect? [Grdr. I. 874 a mutated secondary
form -hs^d is assumed for O.E.]
56. Amongst the syllables which may be accented
or unaccented, and which in Chaucer's time were as
a rule unaccented in the language of every-day life,
there are some which contain an originally long vowel
shortened even under the ictus. Thus Dunstan (O.E.
D-knstdn) occurs S.T. S77/iSOi [D. 1502] riming
with man, and this form of the name seems in the
M.E. period to have been as current in the South as
Dunston. a for points to a weakening of the
quantity which may be accounted for by the lost
perception of the meaning of the name. A similar
weakening occurs in wedlok (O.E. -lac) as well as in
-dom, wisdom, freedom (in Orrm the was still long)
as compared with martyrdoom.
57. If the syllables belonging to the second class
and capable of accent are nevertheless unaccented,
the quantity of the long vowels contained in them is
without doubt diminished. But the quality of the
vowels capable of accent probably remained essen-
tially the same in either case.
58. The vowels of generally unaccented, or at
any rate weakly accented monosyllables deviate but
little from the rules laid down for syllables under
primary accent. The prepositions in, with, gf, fgr,
UNACCENTED VOWELS.
SI
up, thurgh ; by, to, and the conjunction that call for
no special comment so far as the relation of the O.E.
to the M.E. vowels is concerned. But in the pre-
positions on, frgm, an g occurs where the original
tonic syllable requires an a in Chaucer's dialect.
This g has become so firmly established, that it
maintains itself in frg after the loss of -m, and occurs
even when the words in question, being used adver-
bially or in composition, acquire the accent : to and
frg, upon. The g in gn, upgn, used post-positively, is
capable of lengthening, at least in so far that it can
rime with long "g, gn : gggn, Blaunche, 12 17, upgn :
ggn, S.T. 547/564 [G. 563]. On the other hand, the
conjunction ^ andl in contradistinction to hond, lond,
and all similar words, always contains a — a fact which
is more difficult of explanation, but reaches back to
the O.E. period. Noteworthy is also the differentia-
tion between weakly accented or unaccented not, and
strongly accented ngught.
Note. The particle unto is not the result of gn and to, but is
probably correctly derived by Stratmann from Olg. unto.
c U
59. The syllables incapable of accent may Be <
divided into prefixes and syllables containing weak e.
60. In prefixes incapable of accent O.E. long
vowels appear shortened: a- becomes a-, cf. arysen,
abyden (perhaps a had become short already in the
O.E. period), t6- becomes to-, cf toh^wen, toshrfden, but
not in tgshreden, etc. y-, also, is the shortening of ii-
ji- (O.E. je), but retains the sound of pure i (not /).
e has disappeared from O.E. je in yede from jeiode.
As to the O.E. short vowels, note that only
medially the closed sound passes into the open one :
52
PHONOLOGY: GERMANIC VOWELS.
qf-,fgr-, with-, but that otherwise the original sound is
preserved : bi- with i, but, by the side of it, be- with
weak e; Chaucer seems to prefer bi- to be-. In
bileven ' remain ' the i may also be omitted : Troil.
IV. 1357. In blynnan the vowel had suffered syn-
cope already in O.E. O.E. blinnan goes back to
* be-linnan [or more probably according to Grdr. I.^
390, by analogy with Gothic af-linnan, to of-linnan\.
Here belong also prepositions which have become
completely assimilated to a following word, as a
(O.E. an on, also a, or already a (?), O.N. a), bi
(from bi) : abouten (O.E. abiitan from on-be-iitan),
alyve by the side of onlyve, bilyve, or usually blyve.
61. Weak e occurs, in addition to be-, the article
the, the negation ne ' not.'
(a) In final syllables, namely :
I. Corresponding to O.E. unaccented or weakly
accented vowels, in the following stem-formative or
inflexional suffixes : e, es, ed, er, el, en, a, as, ad, ol,
on, or, u, um. The last suffix has maintained itself
unweakened only in whilom.
Note. The verbal suffix -est (O.E. -est) 1 pers. sing. ind. is
not absolutely toneless, and the superlative ■sxiSa.-est (O.E. -ost,
also -est) is distinctly capable of accent.
II. As the result of analogy in the final syllable
of the sing, of some substantives, whose nominative,
and in some cases also accus. sing, had a con-
sonantal termination in O.E., for instance, in sorwe,
dale, cf. § 199 ff. more rarely in the final syllable of
an uninflected adjective, cf, § 231.
(/3) in other places :
I. In compounds and derivatives the weak -e
UNACCENTED VOWELS. 53
occurs frequently in the stem-formative suffix of the
first part, or determining word : nosethirles, morwemilk,
openly, kyndely, trewely, ydelnesse, kyndenesse. Not
infrequently an -e foreign to the stem-ending of the
simple word is inserted here : this occurs especially
in composition of an adjective with -ly : hardely,
boldely, etc., from O.E. heardlic{e), bealdlid/), but also
treowlicie).
II. In improper composition or parathesis weak
inflexional e sometimes occurs medially : dayesye,
O.E. dxjes eje, Oxenford, O.E. Oxnaford.
III. O.E. weak e or 0, as rational or irrational
medial vowel in inflected simple stems, generally
drops : fadres (O.E. fxderas) ; but it is preserved
between v and a continuous consonant : kevenes,
sevene ; in these cases a weak e is even inserted,
which either did not occur at all in O.E., or was
generally syncopated : evere, O.E. i^fre, develes, O.E.
diofles (rarely diofoles). Also occasionally after th :
bretheren.
IV. O.E. 0, e (earlier 6), as connecting vowel in
the pret. and p.p. of weak verbs of the second class,
also results in weak e: lovede, asked{e), loved, asked.
In the same way O.E. e in the corresponding forms
of weak verbs of the first class : wered{e) * wore.'
Here, in certain cases, an e is inserted where in O.E.
the connecting vowel had disappeared owing to old
syncope; cf. § 16, Note i.
The disappearance of weak e by apocope, syncope,
contraction, etc., whether it be merely in pronuncia-
tion, or also in orthography, will be discussed partly
in the chapter on Accidence, partly in that on
Prosody.
54 PHONOLOGY: ROMANCE VOWELS.
62. In some dialects the weak e in final syllables
like -es -ed alternates with i and u. Chaucer occasion-
ally uses the 2-forms for the sake of rime : werkis
(for werkes) : derkis, ywoundid : wounde hid. Apart
from such cases as were discussed in § 328, e seems
to be the more appropriate symbol for the weak
vowel in Chaucer's dialect.
B. ROMANCE VOWELS.
63. In the main only vowels of French words
need be considered, the majority of which are Anglo-
Norman in form. Only occasional reference will be
made to Romance elements of other origin. But on
the other hand, such Latin or Gr^co-Latin words
will be discussed as have been influenced in form by
the French. Other words of classical origin will be
commented on separately.
The Romance vowels in tonic syllables in case of
actual accentuation will be considered first.
Tonic Vowels.
64. Accented vowels of an originally tonic syllable
are long :
(a) When final in a word.
(;8) When final in a syllable, in which connection
it should be noted that a following mute + liquid is
frequently, though not invariably, considered initial
in the following syllable.
(7) Generally when medial before a simple con-
sonant.
TONIC VOWELS. jt
(S) Before certain consonantal combinations, wiiich
can be more conveniently specified in the discussion
of the vowels severally.
Note. A simple, but long (geminated) consonant may in
some cases be shortened, when the preceding vowel will regularly
become long. This apphes to rr and ss.
65. The long vowels are : f, e, f, a, d", g, 5, u, u.
66. « = O.Fr. i: cry, mercy, hardy, fly; melody e,
crye, plye, justifye, bribe, vice, nyce; bible, cidre (on the
other hand, delivre, considre, cf. § 78); stryf, desir,
avys,pris, dellt: further O.Fr. ie, i in squyre (esquierre)
and O.Fr. e in the pi. dys from dee.
67. e corresponds to :
(a) O.Fr. e from Lat. a (exception cf. § 68 a) :
compeer, sopeer, peer, frere, deer, appere V., auctoritee,
degree, entree, pitee, see ' seat,' likewise in the pi.
degrees, sees.
(j8) O.Fr. e = Lat. e or Grk. n, rarely Lat. se,
Grk. ai in an open syllable : learned words and
proper names are chiefly in question : precede,
succede, Diomede, Ganymede : diademe ; Polixene,
Athenys ; planete, prophete, quiete, mansuete; dissevere,
hyene. Here belongs also Rom. e = Lat. cs, Grk. 01,
as in tragedie, comedie, which are probably derived
from the Italian.
(7) O.Fr. ie, that became monophthongised in
Anglo-Norman ; the diphthong is still frequently
used in M.E. texts, but in the better Chaucer MSS.
only in isolated cases : mescheef, grief, acheve, greve,
releve ; fevere ; contene, mayntene, sustene ; the suffix
-eer from -ier, as in archeer, bacheleer, bokeleer, car-
penteer, daungeer, squieer, etc., likewise, -ere from
56 PHONOLOGY: ROMANCE VOWELS.
-iere as in chamberere, manere, mateere, preyere, ryvere,
tresorere ; chere, the pres. of the fin. verb in enquere,
requere (for the inf. cf. § 68 /8, for the p.p. requered
cf. Angl. I. 551), inf. and fin. verb, in refeere.
(S) Anglo-Norman monophthongisation from O.Fr.
ue='La.t. 8 not in position; beef,preef, repreef, preve,
repreve, remeve, kevere, 'cover' ; peeple. Here belongs
also kevere 'to recover,' Troil. I. 917, although the
root-vowel is due to Lat. u, not o.
Note. In the consideration of the verbs it should be borne
in mind that the strong forms of the Romance present provide
the type for the whole of the English inflexion. Only the O.Fr.
inf. qicerre was suited for adoption into M.E. without further
change. Hence the infinitive of this verb has in Chaucer a
vowel differing from that of the fin. verb in the present.
Note 2. With reference to ^8 note that proper names
ending in -ete, the e of which = Lat. e, Grk. t\, have sometimes a
closed, sometimes an open e : Admete, Lete ; Crete and Cr^te ;
Polyph^te.
68. § corresponds to :
(a) O.Fr. e = Lat. a before / : condicion§§l, effec-
tu§§l, eterng^l, natur(§l, tempor^^l, textu§§l. Here
belongs also crewel, which is derived by modern
Romance philologists from a form * crudalis, instead
of crudelis.
(/8) O.Fr. e = Lat. e or z, also ae, in Lat. or Rom.
position, likewise Germanic e in position. The
length of the vowel is in this case the result of
the shortening of a long consonant (simplification
of a gemination): Fynyst^re, the infinitives enquire
and require ; w§re by the side of werre (O.Fr. werre,
guerre from Ohg. werrd) ; cipr§§s instead of cipresse,
^r(§s by the side oi presse. Here belong also words
TONIC VOWELS. 57
like Gr^e, Bo§ce, Lucrgce by the side of Boesse,
Lucresse.
(7) The monophthongisation of ^2 = older French";
ei and older French ai, which are not differentiated
in the examples quoted : encrggs, d(§s, lg§s, relggs,
P?§^, §se, disgse, apgse, countrepgse, plgse, displgse, sgse ;
also in greesse, encr§sse, incr§ce, relfsse (the ss of which
denotes a short voiceless spirant, cf § 109/8);
countrefgte, plgte, ir§te. Evidently the monophthongi-
sation takes place chiefly before s and t (also
occasionally before r, upon which cf. Note).
(^) The contraction from pre-tonic ei or e with
tonic g ox a: s§gl {seiet), vggl (veeT) ; rpne {reiame) ;
m^gne (meien).
(e) The name of the town Lgpe.
Note. Before r the monophthongisation of ei or ai becomes
closed e : poweer, grammeere, probably only by analogy with the
numerous forms in -er, -ere=-ier, -iere. PrSche, O.Yx.preschier
has open as well as closed e.
69. a, corresponds to O.Fr. a : face, grace, mace,
place, chdce, deface, embrace, pace, purchdce ; age, cage,
page, rage, corage, lyndge ; male, pale, plurals like
cardinales, or like roiales, blame, dam,e,fam.e, defame
V. ; declare ; date, abate, debate ; cave, save \ able,
fable, stable, table, acceptable, abhomyndble ; charit-
able, chaungeable ; cardiacle, tridcle, myracle, obstacle ;
with inorganic -e lake,; chaar; aas, caas, laas, paas,
trespaas, purchds, solaas ; achaaf, debaat, estaat, m,aat,
annunciaat, consecraat, curaat. This list obviously
includes a number of learned words. Proper names
like Diane, Dane (Daphne), Adridne (Ariadne), may
be mentioned here, also the adjectival substantive
58 PHONOLOGY: ROMANCE VOWELS.
Cordewdne (leather from Cordova), as well as the
name of the (originally Genoese ?) coin Jane.
Note. The plural form mynstrales, S.T. 195/2035 [B. 2035]
need not be immediately derived from M.Lat. ministeralis
ministralis, the probable etymon of O.Fr. menestrel, since even
in O.Fr. -a/ is more frequent than -el=aHs, and there is definite
proof of menestral menestrale used as an adjective ; of. Frey-
mond, Jongleurs und Menestrels, p. 10 f.
70. «" denotes the nasalised «, or, more strictly-
speaking, the sound which in M.E. represents
Romance nasalised a. It was, apparently, a darker
a, as the spelling au, which frequently alternates with
a, seems to indicate. The sound is necessarily long,
hence it never occurs before -nk, for instance in
frank. It occurs before mb, ng, nc, nd, nt:
chdumbre chanibre ; dungel angel ; chdunge ; baldunce,
ckdunce, ddunce, pendunce^ plesdunce, Custdunce ; in
these cases the spelling is also frequently -ance ;
comdunde ; aunt, gedunt, hdunt, servdmnt.
71. g generally corresponds to O.Fr. open (p)
from Lat. au, d : stggr, tresggr, restore, sgre ; rgse,
clgse, dispgse, suppgse ; cgte, ngte, Pertelgte ; memgrie,
stgrie ; cloos, Igs ; the vowel is also long before st :
cggst, hggst, rggst. In isolated cases g corresponds to
Fr. b from Lat. o, for instance, in ngble ; this is
regularly the case with the suffix Lat. -ori : glgrie,
victgrie. Exceptionally g occurs, corresponding to
French nasalised o from Lat. o before n : per-
sone, N.E. person (but on the other hand, persoun,
N.E. ^s.rson),proporcign (by the side of more frequent
proporcioun). The g forms of these words must be
looked upon as later borrowings from the French,
whereas the corresponding ou forms are part of the
TONIC VOWELS. 55
inherited Anglo-Norman stock. The g sound occurs
also in proper names like Absalgn, Demophgn,
Hermygn (Hermione), Amazgnes, Palamgn (by the
side of Palamoun) ; Nabugodonosgr ; Nichandr{e).
72. g occurs very rarely in Romance words, but it
is found in pggre ' poor ' as a monophthongisation of
the diphthong ou (fgvre, pgure, poure, poore\ and
in the foreign word cynangme.
Fool, trone, Alcyone, Alcyoon, probably also Rome,
fluctuate between g and g.
Note. Poure occurs fairly often by the side oipoore, within
the metre, but not in rime. Rome was either pronounced with
§ and 0, as in Mdu., or it had 5 exclusively ; in the latter case,
the name Jerome (which is less probable) ought also to have
contained q, since the two names are linked in rime. Troil. v.
300 rimes dispone : to done. Since doon, doone may also
occur with the g sound, the latter must be assumed here, and
dispone must be accounted for \\\^e proporcign, persgne (§71).
73. u, represented by ou ow, corresponds to the
so-called O.Fr. closed (J), Anglo-Norman u, the
sources of which are Lat. o and u, also to Lat. au
before consonants which have been dropped (au,
gu, ou, uu, in contradistinction to the ordinary
development au, gu, ou, go, gg), finally to Lat. o
before resonants. Examples : avow, prow ; avowe,
allowe, coroune crowne, soune V., expoune ; croupe ;
houre, honoure V., laboure ; doute, route ; couple,
souple ; soun, persoun (cf. persgne, §71), passioun,
resoun, devocioun, proporcioun (by the side of pro-
porcign, §71), Alisoun, Amphioun, Cipioun, Citheroun,
Genyloun, Palamoun (beside Palamgn^, Neroun,
Sampsoun, Symoun, etc. ; clamour, colour, fiour, honour,
labour, tour ; amorous, bounteous, curious, etc. The
6o PHONOLOGY: ROMANCE VOWELS.
sound is always long before ^-combinations : pro-
nounce, confounde, habounde, count, mount, accounte,
encountre, etc.; as a rule also before ^ + consonant:
bourde, gourde, court, cours, recours, sours; coalescence
of a pre-tonic vowel with u in emperour, mirour,
round, etc.
74. u corresponds to :
(a) O.Fr. u = u from Lat. u, rarely U, occasionally
from Germanic ^ : vertu ; muwe ; crude, fortune,
commune, cure, creature, nature, conjure, endure,
excuse, refuse ; due, pur ; rude ; Huwe. Pre-tonic
vowel has coalesced with U in due, armure ; synizesis
is apparent in seur (perhaps = syur, sy produces in
N.E. sure the j^-sound, whereas u develops as usual).
(/3) In some cases O.Fr. iv, iu : eschu ' shy,'
eschewe, eschue V., sewe V. The spelling ew
occurs also elsewhere when the sound precedes a
vowel : mewe beside muwe (Fr. mue), remewe V. This
spelling, as well as the origin of eschewe, sewe, seems
to indicate that the M.E. ^-sound was akin to the
ii-sound, and was perhaps almost equivalent to the
Alsatian pronunciation of German u, or Fr. ou.
(■y) Fr. ui = ui (with the exception of the cases
mentioned, § 90), the spelling ui is retained here :
suit, bruit, fruit. O.Fr. u before palatalised n should
be similarly dealt with, since the latter when final
in an originally tonic syllable became in in M.E. :
expugne, repugne, expune, repune from expuine, repiiine.
In this case the original spelling is also retained.
75. Transition of u to u, which is very general
in other M.E. dialects, hardly ever occurs in Chaucer.
In Sir Thopas he permits 'Wvccis.^ii arm.our armoure (due,
TONIC VOWELS. 6 1
however, possibly to some other suffix), instead of
armure. The form Arthour need not necessarily be
considered a derivation from the French. There is
apparently a transition from ii to u in the verb
honouren konu7'en, which occurs, Mooder of God, 64,
and Venus, 23, and in chanteplure for chanteploure,
Anelida, 320, in both cases in a rime on u. In
the latter word, however, the ^-sound might be due
to younger French eu instead of Anglo-Norman u.
76. The traditional spelling of Romance vowel-
lengths agrees on the whole with that of the
corresponding Germanic sounds. Only, in Romance
words, the representation of f, f, g by y, ee, 00 is
rather less frequent. In a normalised system of
orthography it would be advisable to apply the same
principles in both cases, din a closed syllable should
be more consistently represented by the double
symbol than is the case in the MSS. a" should be
written au, and u, u, uw (for ew), ui, ug, as the case
might demand. In words like due, pur, the appro-
priate symbol would be ii, to obviate the possibility
of a confusion of u with u.
77. The short vowels will be most conveniently
treated in conjunction with those of variable quantity.
They are short generally before a consonant gemina-
tion or consonant-group (with the exception of
certain combinations), variable chiefly in cases of
doubtful position, occasionally also before a simple
consonant. Further details will be given in the
discussion of each separate sound. The quality may
be determined as follows : i or 2, g, a, g, u, u. With
regard to the last sound vre may add that it
62 PHONOLOGY: ROMANCE VOWELS.
probably corresponded more closely to an o pro-
nounced without lip-rounding, i.e. the Dutch short k
in dus, tusschen, etc.
78. i is short in words like epistle, divinistre,
registre, where it is followed by another consonant,
naturally also in the rare case in which a long
explosive follows, as in quit, p.p. from qulten, and
before ch (^ = tsh) in ricke, chiche. In all these cases
the z-sound possibly occurred already in Chaucer,
whereas O.Fr. has only pure /. i must be considered
variable : sometimes before mute ■\- liquid, for instance,
in delivre, considre, further in popular forms of
proper names, as Austyn, Martyn ; probably also in
the appellation sire.
79. f, corresponding to O.Fr. open e, is short
before a long consonant : dette ; noblesse, richesse,
countesse, etc., dressen, pressen, Lucresse, Boesse. If,
as may be the case with the two last-mentioned
names, shortening of the consonant takes place, the
vowel is lengthened {Lucr§ce, Bogce), and thus the
quantity of g in the verb cesse is also variable ; note
further wgrre by the side of wfre. Amongst con-
sonantal combinations which allow the preceding
vowels to remain short, the ^-combinations in learned
words are of primary importance : argument, present,
prudent, defense, excellence, amenden, defenden ; rk, for
instance, in clerk (O.E. already cleric, O.Fr. clerc) ;
rs in vers, divers, herse.
( is variable before st : arrest, forest, best (O.Fr.
teste), tempest (O.Fr. tempeste), feste, geste, requeste ;
these words are linked in rime with English words
both in -fst and -§st, though these two groups are
TONIC VOWELS. 63
not linked with each other. (In words like Alceste,
A Images te, the g is probably short.) § is probably also
variable in -ten (from -ianus), the monophthongisa-
tion of which in parisshen is exceptional, the ending
being generally dissyllabic : Arabyen, Egipcien,
Percien, Marcien, Octovyen, Venerien, in which group
include Galien {Galenus), and in -el {-ellus, -ellunt) :
catel, hostel, pikerel, to which add the adj. fel (O.Fr.
f els felon from Ohg. '^ Jillo) and the name Daniel.
80. a is short in words like Anne, Osanne,
Susanne, emplastre, idolastre, probably also before
^'-combinations : barge, charge, arme, charme, art,
part. Mars, Tars ; before nk : frank, flank ; excep-
tionally only before nd (S 70) in gerland.
We must assume a to have been variable before
st : chaste, haste, also in the p.p. past (the present of
this verb has pace, as well as passe), in the ending
-arie : adversarie, contrarie, inercenarie, perhaps in
names like Nicholas, Thopas ; finally, in the learned
French suffixes : -al and -an (Lat. -alis and -anus) :
animal, celestial, principal, special, temporal; Aurelian,
Damyan, Theban, etc.
81. Q is short, for instance, in port, conforten,
disporten, probably also in post, cost, short or variable
in cofre, philosophre.
82 u is short in suffre, justen ' joust,' exception-
ally before r-combinations (§ T^: purs, turne beside
tourne, variable in covre by the side of kevre (the
latter from cuevre, the former from later cuvre, covre).
83. il is short in just, humble, variable probably in
j'uge, jugen, refuge, etc.
64 PHONOLOGY: ROMANCE VOWELS.
Note. Short u may appropriately be represented by H.
Accordingly, in a closed syllable, u would be pronounced u, ii -u,
u -u\ in an open syllable u would be either long ii, or, in words
likey«^^, variable ii, whilst ou would always stand for U.
84. If an originally tonic syllable retains only
secondary stress, the quality of its vowel will remain
unchanged, nor will the quantity be weakened to
any extent. On the whole, long vowels will remain
long, though the possibility of their being shortened
is not excluded. This is specially apparent in the
case of trisyllabic or polysyllabic words in -ous, in
which a reversal of the positions of the primary and
secondary accents respectively was certainly more
frequent than in other words, but which are never-
theless almost invariably spelt with ou, and with u
only in cases where they rime with words in us:
amorus, courageus, curius, desirus, despitus, etc.
85. If the originally tonic syllable loses its accent
altogether, the quantity is, without doubt, appreciably
weakened. But a distinct abbreviation of originally
long vowels must have been the exception even
here, and probably did not take place until the
position of the new accent was definitely fixed,
whereupon the quality of the vowel would also
become affected by the shift.
Pre-tonic Vowels.
86. The vowels of originally pre-tonic syllables do
not admit of so accurate and detailed an exposition
as the tonic vowels, as neither they nor their
Romance antecedents can be subjected to the most
valuable of all tests, that of rime. A few general
observations must therefore suffice :
PRE-TONIC VOWELS. 65
i^a) i= O.Fr. i, rarely e, as in chivalry e,pilgrymage,
myster. The vowel is always short where it remains
unaccented, for instance, in phxlosophie, Albandre,
predous, p'lte, squidr. But even when the accent
falls upon it, it rarely becomes long, excepting when
followed by another vowel : squter, prioresse, perhaps
also, in isolated cases, in an open syllable immediately
preceding the originally tonic syllable : tyrdunt. As
a rule, i is short : pite, cite, prive, tirannye, chivalry e,
condicioun. The z-sound occurs in an originally closed
syllable: mister, gipser, pilgryinage, Aristotle, but
whether, as in N.E., also in words like pite, prive,
condicioun, is very doubtful.
(j8) The ^-sounds may be closed, open, or weak.
Open, unaccented syllables contain either closed or
weak e, closed e occurring chiefly in the first syllable of
a word : degree, departen, reguesten ; weak e, on the
other hand, in medial syllables : chapeleyn, rem&naunt,
general, colerik. Open g occurs in closed syllables,
whether accented or unaccented : mgrcy, sergeant,
dfstynee ; in cases like estaat, destroye, despit, the st
seems, as in N.E., to have been considered initial in
the second syllable, so that the previous e was closed.
Open g seems, moreover, to have been the rule under
the accent, as in v^rray, where the doubling of the r
(O.Fr. verai) is significant, p^ril, rgmenant, r^likes.
But e under the accent followed by another vowel is
a long closed e : theatre, creature ; e is perhaps
variable when accented and followed by a simple
consonant and two syllables in hiatus : especial, dis-
cr^cioun, precious. The long open / is the monoph-
thongisation of ai, Anglo-Norman §i: r^soun,
sgsoun. Even when the accent falls upon the last
E
66 PHONOLOGY: ROMANCE VOWELS.
syllable in these words, as it originally did, the § is
probably long.
(y) a = O.Fr. a, whether this sound traces back to
Lat. a or other sources, as, for instance, to e before
r: marchaunt, parfit, parde. The sound is short in
M.E. in an unaccented syllable : z.rray, cre^tour,
and in the majority of cases even when the syllable
is accented : amorous, mdladye, fdmulier, carpenter,
pdleys, Paris, jdngler, pdrfit. In the following cases
the vowel becomes long when under the accent :
(i) before a following vowel : example? ; (2) before
a simple consonant followed by two syllables in
hiatus : pddent, duracioun, domindcioun, ymagindcioun,
gracious, not, however, when a syllable follows con-
sisting of the semi-vowel «' -J- vowel: cdrie, mdrie,
nor, on account of mdrie, in mdriage, not even when ia
is distinctly dissyllabic; (3) before certain consonant
combinations, especially before -mb, -ng, etc., in which
case the sound becomes «" : chdmberleyn, ddunger,
ddungerous; (4) in certain cases before a simple
consonant, if the originally tonic syllable immediately
follows : labour, nature, etc.
(^) In pre-tonic syllables and u cannot always
be distinguished with certainty, since here also — and,
indeed, to a greater extent than in tonic syllables —
may be used as the symbol for u, and we have no
rime to serve as criterion. In O.Fr. closed «? in a
pre-tonic syllable seems not only to occur in cases
where it develops under the accent, but it cor-
responds apparently also to Lat o in an open
syllable, so that open o was, in the main, limited
to cases where Lat. S occurred in position — but not
before resonants (perhaps also to Lat. S and in
PRE-TONIC VOWELS. 67
loan-words ?). As regards Chaucer's linguistic usage,
only the following statements can be made with
any degree of certainty : ( i ) « appears in genuine
Romance words (but not in loan-words) before a
following vowel, before resonants, generally also in
an open syllable immediately before the original
accent, also where the original Lat. sound cor-
responds to Latin or Germanic short u. This M.E. u
has a tendency towards length before a following
vowel and before ^-combinations (not, however, when
the combination contains a third consonant), also
when u forms a separate syllable : coward, prow esse;
montaigne mountayn, countour, countenance ; outrage.
Perhaps also before -rs, but courser may have been
affected by analogy with the simple word cours
(cf. S 73). In all other cases, even where an original
n is dropped, it tends to be short : contre ' country,'
constable, cosyn, covenant ; colour, corage, Jlorisse,
covert ; sovereyn, norice, coveytyse, curteis curteisye ;
forage, burgeys. Compounds, which are felt as such,
must be explained by reference to their component
parts: covercheef, cf. covre, §82 (syncope and con-
traction in courfew corfew, for coverfew; similarly
keerchef, S.T. 156/837 [B 837] for keevercheef,
doublet of covercheef), countrefeten, countrepleten,
countrepesen, although the particle countre is not
used as an independent word in M.E., whereas the
verb countren, encountren, is so used (^JZ)- (2)
occurs where the original Romance sound
corresponds to Lat. S (occasionally also 0) in
position ; in this case the short open sound is
the rule : propgrdoun, hgstelrye, pgssible ; also where
the vowel traces back to Lat au : pSverte or
68 PHONOLOGY! ROMANCE VOWELS.
poverte with g. o occurs further in loan-words,
corresponding to Lat. 6 ox o m an open syllable :
devocioun (in spite of devout), curiosite (in spite of
curious), dominacioun, the first o in philosophre, both
in philosophie, etc. ; in these cases the o is short
and closed in an unaccented syllable. Under the
accent it is probably generally an open g that is
lengthened when a vowel or two syllables in hiatus
follow {curigsite, devgcioun).
Since ' loan-word ' is an elastic term in Romance
languages, and it is not always possible to decide
whether a Romance word incorporated into M.E.
became, at a later period, assimilated to the Latin
original or not, it is in some cases doubtful
whether o ot u \s, the sound to be assumed.
Chaucer probably pronounced cgnquere cgnquerour,
but should comaunde be pronounced with o or u?
Is the first vowel in dolour to be determined in
accordance with N.E. pronunciation, or with Anglo-
Norman spellings like dulorl Even setting aside
the influence of Latin, problems arise, the solution
of which cannot be attempted here.
(e) ji represents the corresponding O.Fr. sound.
In a closed syllable it is short : justise, humblesse; in
an open one, under the accent, always long :
/■kneral, ci'irious, fiimetere, cr-Ael; in other cases
probably variable : usdunce, punisshe, cruel. As to
the probable timbre of M.E. long and short ii,
cf. §§74, TT- In one case it may seem doubtful
whether the M.E. sound is not u rather than ii :
namely, when a French il in position occurs in
an evidently learned word, where it may be derived
either from Lat. it or Lat. it, for instance, in words
like /j'^uctzyje (Lat. ii), multiplye (Lat ii).
POST-TONIC VOWELS. 69
Post-tonic Vowels.
87. In an originally post-tonic syllable the vocalic
element is supplied by weak e : justise,feste, madame,
bataille, nature, etc. The apocope of the e will be
discussed in the chapters on Accidence and Metre.
Metathesis has taken place in dungel (O.Fr. angele =
anjle), as well as in maisier, but in the pi.
maistres ; otherwise — at any rate in the better MSS. —
this transposition occurs in the main only where an
originally final e has become medial in consequence
of composition, cf. covre, but covercheef.
Lat. i in hiatus has maintained itself as
semi-consonantal, non-syllabic i, especially in the
suffixes art and ori, but also elsewhere : adversdrie,
apothecdrie, contrdrie, Janudrie, necessdrie, tributdrie,
glorie, historie, mem.6rie, victdrie, tragedie, comedie
(both 'the latter from the Italian), remMie, mys^rie,
stAdie, Mercikrie, porf'iirie. Here belong also verbs
like stiidien, contrdrien, cdrien, mdrien, which have
shifted their accent.
Note. By the side of remedie there occurs, and, indeed, more
frequently, rhnedye ; instead oivicdrie S.T. 5S9/22 [I. 22] vicary.
Similarly Antony beside A7it6me (§ 94). Boccaccio's Emilia^
Hippolita's sister, appears in Chaucer as Emetye (on the other
hand, the province of the same name retains its original accent,
S.T. 404/51 [E. 51] : Emile, Harl. 7334 : Emyl, Cambr. Dd. 4.24
has emended Einile to Emilie, cf. W. A. Wright's reprint of the
Clerkes Tale. On the whole, Proper Names in -ie rarely shift
their accent either in rime or elsewhere : Cectle occurs by the
side of Cedlie, but not Cccilye. If the forms MArie and Marie
are both in use, the former must be the native one (Orrm's
MarjeT), the latter the one borrowed from the Romance.
70
PHONOLOGY: ROMANCE VOWELS.
Diphthongs.
88 The diphthongs of Romance origin which
occur chiefly in originally tonic syllables, but also
in originally pre-tonic ones, are : ai, gi, eu, au ;
in exceptional cases ou.
89. ai corresponds to (a), older French ai, {fi)
older French ei (whence later French oi). The
two diphthongs coalesced in Anglo-Norman in ^i,
from which, in case of monophthongisation (§ 687),
/ resulted. If the diphthong was preserved, it, like
native ei, became ai. In orthography the two groups
(a) and (/3) are only partially, and by no means
consistently, differentiated. Examples :
(a) jay, lay ' song,' paye ; air, debonaire, repaire ;
paleys, eyse (beside ese) ; maister ; capitayn, chapeleyn,
soverayn, certayn certeyn, playne N., playn pleyn
adj. and adv., vayn veyn adj., soveraynetee, mayn-
tene.
(/3) f^y ' faith,' lay ' law,' despeir, heir, faire
' market'; deys, burgeys, harneys harnays, palfreys,
curteis, preyse V. (but, on the contrary, the noun
prys; the diphthong ei—e-\-i is specially charac-
teristic for the Eastern group of French dialects) ;
Beneit from Beneeit, streit ; aperceyve, deceyve, receyve;
chainberleyn, desdeyn, peyne payne, veyne, Maudeleyne,
peyne V. ; feynte V. ; peynte V. ; in a pre-tonic
syllable, for instance, in deyntee; in a medial position,
which always remains unaccented, ei alternates in
M.E. with e : curteisye curtesye, coveityse covetyse.
ai is rare in -aire for the older and Anglo-Norman
-arie : vicaire (by the side of vicary). As a rule
M.E. has preserved the older form. The diphthong
DIPHTHONGS.
71
az corresponds further to: (7) O.Fr. accented a before
palatal /or n, (§) O.Fr. accented e in the same position ;
when final in the tonic syllable, palatal / always be-
comes M.E. il, palatal n M.E. in. It is not always
easy (especially in the case of the verb) to distinguish
these secondary diphthongs from the original ones,
cf , for instance, pleyne compleyne ; feyne, distreyne,
restreyne restrayne. Clear examples of the secondary
diphthongs are :
(7) bataille, faille, Itaille, maille, taille, vitaille,
assaille V. ; montaigne nwntayne monteyne, Britayne
Briteyne, Spayne.
(§) conseil, merveyle, consaille V., deigne deyne V.
(e) In obeye, obeysaunt, obeysaunce the diphthong is
the result of synaeresis.
Note. Forms like deceit, receit have developed from decet,
recet by assimilation to deceyve, receyve. On queynte cf. § go.
Note the following Proper Names : Eleyne (O.Fr. Eleine, in
spite of the original e), Criseyde (in Boccaccio Griseida, in older
prints : Cryseida),
90. gi corresponds to :
(a) O.F. gi = Lat au •{■ i; j'oye, noise (if Diez
derives this word correctly from nausea), cloistre.
(J3) O.Fr. gi from older o? = Lat. o + i : vois,
Troye.
(7) O.Fr. gi from older oi ui= Lat. ii+i: destroy e,
crois, boyste, anoint, point. In French, oi ui further
results either in gi or in Hi. Anglo-Norman seems
to have been partial to the diphthong ui, but in later
M.E. it yielded in almost every case to gi. But in
anguisse, or, as Chaucer probably spelt, angwissh, the
first element of the diphthong has become a con-
sonant.
72
PHONOLOGY: ROMANCE VOWELS
(S) O.Fr. ^z = Lat. o + i. In French, g has here
become a diphthong, and the resulting uei has
further developed into ui. In Chaucer, gi occurs
almost always, at least in originally tonic syllables:
annoye, oile, oystre. But, oddly enough, queynte from
O.Fr. cointe, which on the continent does not seem to
undergo the development into cueinte cuinte, and
apparently derives from Lat. cognitus, hence from
o ■\- i. In a pre-tonic syllable : noysance.
(e) O.Fr. accented g ox o u before palatal I ox n:
boille, broille ; Coloigne, Boloigne.
(f) Occasionally O.Fr. gi from older ei (on the
normal Anglo-Norman and M.E. development of
which cf. § 89) : coy, and hence the verb coye, Loy
(Elot) ; in a pre-tonic syllable : roial roialtee.
{r\) O. Fr. o'i (out) in rej'oyce.
91. eu corresponds to O.Fr. eu from older ou in
corfew, nevew, in a pre-tonic syllable eau in bewte, or, as
Chaucer probably spelt, beaute. By contraction of
e-\- au the same sound originated in lewte leaute, cf.
{wx^&c Jewes, more xaxely /ues {O.Yx. Judeus Juis).
92. au corresponds to O.Fr. au in loan-words :
cause, clause, laude, auditour ; O.Fr. a -(- protected / :
sauce, sauf, auter ; O.Fr. a -\- vocalised v : aunter (J>er
aunter beside j>er aventure) ; O.Fr. a -^ u: brawn.
93. Ou occurs only in poure as intermediate
form between pgure^O.Yx.pgvre) and ppgre; only the
latter form occurs in rime.
Note. The triphthong ieu occurs in Dzeu which is, however,
only used in French phrases : depardieux (for de par Dim)
S.T. lyjsg [B. 39], where some MSS. read depardeux. More
distinctively English ispards, O.E./ar De {De from Deti).
LATIN VOWELS. 73
Latin Vowels.
94. With regard to Latin or Grseco-Latin vowels,
in so far as they have not been referred to incident-
ally in the course of the discussion on Romance
vowels, note the following : The vowels in un-
accented syllables, as well as those in position, are
considered short ; accented vowels when final in
the penultimate are considered long — corresponding
thus frequently, though not invariably, to the original
quantity {mater, significavit, atnor ; redemptorls ; juris),
whilst in the ante-penultimate {benedicite, Ypdlita)
the usage seems to have been variable.
Under the secondary stress final vowels are pro-
nounced long : Smnid, principig, benedicite ; at any
rate, they rime with distinctly long vowels, and e
and are closed sounds. The same applies to Proper
Names like Valeria, Ypolita ; Scitherg Citherg
( = Cicero) ; Isiphilee ( = Hypsipyle). In the termin-
ations -as, -es, -OS these vowels may be designated
variable (in es and os perhaps long), and e and o are
open sounds : cupiditas, Sathanas; Alcibiades, Diogenes,
Ethiocles, Ercules, Socrates, likewise, in spite of the
originally short e : Amadrides ( = Hamadryades),
Pierides ; Eneydos, Metamorphoseos. The ending -us
generally has short u : Apius, Claudius, Julius, Val-
erius ; but the vowel may be lengthened for the sake
of rime: S.T. 367/1 140 [D. 1 140] Kaukasous {-.hous).
If in Proper Names, under the influence of French
accentuation, the final syllable of a Latin paroxyton
acquires the primary, or at least the secondary, stress,
the rules given above hold good as regards both
the quantity and the quality of the vowels.
74 PHONOLOGY: THE CONSONANTS.
Words like Cle6 ( = Clio), Ekko, Erro ( = Hero),
Juno, Platd, Apollb, have closed g ; Tesbie has closed e,
similarly, with loss of s: Achate (: he, Fame 226);
on the other hand, Achates, Achillas, Anchisgs, Poli-
myt§s { = Polynices) have the /-sound, and Circus
acquires it in consequence of the epithetic s. In
Thebes, Troil. v. i486, a weak French e is exception-
ally treated like Lat. e in es. Words like Viikaniis,
VenAs are pronounced with u, not u.
The diphthong eu of the Grk. ending -eu? is re-
solved into e-u : TMseks, ^geiis, Tydeiis, etc.
The various corruptions to which classical Proper
Names are subject cannot be discussed in detail here.
It may, however, be added that beside the fuller
form of such names there appears not infrequently an
abbreviated one with weak e in the final syllable :
Achilles and AcMlle ; CleopdtarAs and Cleopdtre ; An-
tSniiis, AntSnie, Antony; Isipkilee and IsipMle;
CHseydA (Troil. I. 169) and commonly Crisiyde.
For further details cf. §§229 and 294.
II. THE CONSONANTS.
95. We shall treat first of the Labials, next of the
Linguals, finally of the Palatals and Gutturals. The
sounds belonging to each series will be discussed in
the following order : Explosives, spirants, liquids or
resonants respectively.
96. The lengthening of consonants must be con-
sidered in the first place. On the whole, O.E. long
consonants remain long in M.E. Isolated excep-
GENERAL REMARKS.
75
tlons, the result of analogy, will be considered
below. As a general exception founded on phonetic
laws, note the case of a long consonant when final
in a syllable which is unaccented in Chaucer. In
gossib, for instance, we must assume short b. But
in M.E., as already in O.E., a long final consonant,
or a long medial consonant before consonants, was
often indicated by a simple symbol. In the better
Chaucer MSS. this is practically the rule : alle but al ;
marines but Tnan ; hadde but had ; setten but set.
Note. In some M.E. texts a different usage prevails, and the
length of the consonant, even when final, is marked more or less
consistently. Orrm, who is distinguished by the consistency of
his spelling, will be referred to below.
97. Already in the O.E. period the rule obtained
that an originally short consonant, when final in an
accented syllable, was lengthened. A great number
of the phenomena which in ordinary linguistic usage
are summed up in the term 'position,' are due to
the operation of this law. Thus many originally
short vowels became long, many originally long
syllables excessively long (as, for instance, the first
syllable in w{s-ddm,cdc^monn), an excess from which,
in course of time, the language endeavoured to rid
itself by shortening the vowel (wherefore M.E.
wisdom, chapman). In O.E., as has already been
noted, this lengthening was restricted to the final
consonant of an accented syllable. Nor does it
seem to have taken place when the end of the
syllable coincided with the end of the word ; only
the more compact structure and more rhetorical tone
of metrical speech could in this case produce length-
ening. For which reason, monosyllables ending in a
76 PHONOLOGY: THE CONSONANTS.
short consonant in O.E. can only be considered long
when under the metrical ictus.
In the M.E. period, however, sentence stress had
the intensity of metrical stress, for which reason all
final short consonants after an accented short vowel
were lengthened. Since final accented vowels had
been lengthened already in the O.E. period, all
accented monosyllables were now long. God became
phonetically Godd, ship (O.E. scip") became shipp, shal
(O.E. sceat) became shall, though scribes who had been
in the habit of marking original length by the simple
symbol, naturally adopt no special means of indi-
cating the new length. But that this consonant-
lengthening really took place is proved (i) by the fact
that forms like Goddes, shippes, which gradually took
the place of Codes, shipes, and are the usual ones in
the 14th century, can only be explained by analogy
with Godd, shipp ; cf , for instance, with shippes the
suffix -shipe; (2) by rimes like smal: al, as well as
by the N.E. change of <2 to ^ in small, just as in all,
fall, etc. But if shal, shall has developed on other
lines than smal, small, this is due to the fact that the
unaccented form of the auxiliary determined its
sound (whereas the accented form, or the analogy of
the other words in -/ -//, decided the N.E. ortho-
graphy). When, in M.E., shal occurs in rime it is,
of course, accented, just like the French suffix -al
(animal, celestial), which in M.E. also rimes on -all,
but in N.E. has completely lost its tone. The frequent
use of the auxiliary shal as an unaccented syllable has
produced such curious abbreviations as T'se = I shal
(as late as Shakespeare).
It cannot be definitely decided when this con-
THE LABIALS 77
sonant-lengthening took place. But it seems evident
that it began before the lengthening of short accented
vowels in an open syllable, and that when Orrm
wrote it was already an accomplished fact. Orrm, as
is well known, follows the principle of representing
the consonantal termination of a syllable containing
a short vowel by a double symbol, and it will now be
apparent why in §6, Note i, his system was called
an appropriate one. It is imperfect, indeed, in so
far as it treats unaccented syllables in exactly the
same way as accented ones. Nor is it always quite
to the point when the first of several final consonants
following upon a short vowel is also doubled.
98. Let us now turn to the consideration of the
consonants occurring in Chaucer. With regard to
their sources we shall, as a rule, discuss only those of
O.E. and O.Fr. origin ; those of other origin will be
commented upon only incidentally.
Labial Series.
99. The tenuis p corresponds to :
(a) O.E. p : pleyen, plough, pound (old loan-word,
Lat pondo) ; ape, lepen, weepen, gospel ; geminated,
for instance, in lappe, cappe. Likewise to the p of
other Germanic dialects : poupen (Mlg.) ; clappe (Mdu.).
(;8) 0.¥r. p: pay en, pees; April; appere.
(y) In exceptional cases O.Fr. b : purs [late O.E.
purs'E. ST. xxi. 334].
{S) O.Fr. ph f in spere ( = sphere).
(e) / is often inserted between m and n : autumpne,
solempne, sompnour, as well as between m and t:
tempten, temptour.
^8 PHONOLOGY: THE CONSONANTS.
100. The media b corresponds to :
(a) O.E. b which occurs chiefly initially ; medially
and finally only geminated, or in the combination mb :
bale, beere, beren, byten, boor ' boar ' ; boure, but, blowen,
broother ; webbe (O.E. webbd), abbot (O.E. abbot, older
abbod, Lat. loan-word) gossib ; clymben, Northumber-
lond, comb. Also to the b of other Germanic dialects :
boom (O.N. b6n), beer (Lg. bilre), etc.
(/8) O.Fr. b : bacheleer, beautee ; habyt, humble,
nom.bre, rem.embreii.
(7) b is inserted after m in thombe (O.E. J^^ma),
slomber.
Note. O.E. medial bb has disappeared from the verbal
inflexion, owing to analogy : cf., for instance, O.E. habban — (zV)
habbe (North, hafu), hcefst hafast, hceft hafad, pi. habbad
with the Chaucerian forms : have{n) han, have, hast, hatk, pi.
have etc. Hence heven (O.E. hebban) etc.
101. The voiceless spirant /corresponds to :
(a) O.E. /"when initial, when medial before voice-
loss consonants, and when final : father, fast, fer,
fyr, fox, fleen, freend ; rafte, lafte, lofte, twelfth ; leef,
lyf, ivyf, roof, elf ' elf,' self. Exceptionally j occurs
before a vowel as in halfe; Harl. more frequently has
/ for V in such cases : wyfes etc., doubtless contrary
to Chaucer's linguistic usage.
(/8) O.E. p by assimilation in chaffare (for chap-
fare).
(7) O.Fr. /: fats, faire ' market,' f el, fum£, flame,
Fraunce; palfrey, cofre; cheef actifjolif In learned
words ph is preferred : phisik, philosophie.
102. The voiced spirant v corresponds to :
(a) Initially, very rarely O.E. /—under Kentish
THE LABIALS. ^g
influence — vane, vixen, veeze, but regularly when
medial between vowels and voiced elements : knave,
heven, seven, Steven, driven, liven, lyve Dat. of lyf,
wyves from wyf, love, dove, twelve, silver ; finally, only
in the unaccented particle of (where, however, the
spelling is/), as already in O.E. (but cf. the archaic
form ob\ and still in N.E.
(/3) O.Fr. V initially and medially : vayn, veyne,
verray ; meeve, greeve, keevre.
The consonant has been dropped medially, for
instance, in lord (Joverd, O.E. kldford) ; lady (Javedy,
O.E. hliefdije), in heed beside heved; it has been
assimilated to following in in woinman woman (from
wimman (O.E. wifmori).
103. The semi-vowel w corresponds to :
(a) O.E. w initially, as well as after a preceding
consonant : water, was, wex, werk, wys, wolf ; sweete,
swerd, two ; widwe, falwe, arwe. Of O.E. initial
consonant groups the first element of which is w, wr
is fairly extensively preserved : wryten, wrecche,
wrooth, etc. ; wl is retained probably only in wlatsom,
other words in which it occurred are no longer in
use in Chaucer. Wh is a new formation from hw
(cf. § 1 22a) : who, what, why etc. The combination
kw (O.E. cw') is represented by qu (after the model
of O.Fr. qu = Lat. qti) : queene, querne, quenchen,
quoth quod etc. Before an <7-vowel w has dropped in
so, in soote by the side oiswoote; it is uncertain whether
Chaucer uses the form swich by the side of such, in
which w has become vocalised, and has coalesced
with i. Medially, and finally after vowels, w has
without exception been vocalised and has united
8o PHONOLOGY: THE CONSONANTS.
with the preceding vowel to form a diphthong:
straw, trewe, soule, growen ; cf. §§ 43, 44, 46.
(/3) O.E. guttural / medially after consonants
(finally only in so far as the final consonant becomes
medial in M.E.) : halwes, galwes,folwen, morwe, sorwe
(O.E. sorj , oblique cases sorje). If w remains final,
it changes to the voiceless spirant f, cf dwetf (N.E.
dwarf), which, apparently, does not occur in Chaucer.
Borw also occurs by the side of borugh. Medial and
final w from guttural j after vowels, like original w
in this position, has, without exception, become u ; cf.
§§33.44,46.
(y) Anglo-Norman w from Germanic w : warante
v., wardeyn, wastel (^-breed), werre were, werreye,
William. In wasten (O.Fr. waster, gaster) we may
have a blending of Lat. vastare and a presumptive
Ohg. wastjan (Diez, Worterbuch,* p. 178 f).
(i5) O.Fr. u in the combination qu = Lat. qu, as
well as u after t ( = ^) and ^ : quart, querele, enquere,
quyten ; queynte, angwissh (S 90).
Note. Aphseresis of w occurs in was were, woot wiste, wil
wolde, preceded by ne : nas beside ne was etc.
104. The resonant m corresponds to :
(a) O.E. m : man, might, mooten ; smyten ; name,
deemen, com.en, hoom. ; clymben, comb ; long in, for
instance, in swimmen, swam ; wem, wemmelees. Final
m, in an originally inflexional syllable, is preserved
only in whilom. Fro occurs by the side oifrom, the
latter before initial vowels and h, the former before
consonants.
(/8). O.Fr. m which occurs initially, as well as
medially, before vowels and before labials : magestee.
THE UNGUALS. 8i
mateere, meynee, mesure, mytre, montaigne ; amiable,
clayme, memorie, channe ; champartie, emperour,
embrace, compaignye. Under Latin influence m
stands, instead of n, in circumstaunce.
Lingual Series.
105. The tenuis t corresponds to :
(a) O.E. t: tale, teechen, tellen, tyme, timber,
tooth, toun, tonne ; tree, treden ; meeten, smyten,
hooten ; myghte, inoste ; it, that, what, sat, nyght,
fist. O.E. gemination, for instance in sitten, setten,
metten, hat, fat etc. The assimilation is old m yset
(O.E. jeseted, jeset), whilst in other cases it did not
take place in the uninflected form of the Participle
until the M.E. period. It is old also in the
syncopated form of the 3rd Pers. Sing. Pres. Ind.
of verbs the root of which ends in </ or t: bit = Mteth
or bideth, writ = wr{teth,fint=findeth, etc. (cf. S 186).
t occurs also in words borrowed from other Germanic
dialects : taken (O.N. takd), etc.
(/3) O.K.Jf (d) after some other preceding spirant:
thefte, highte, rist = ryseth (in this case already O.E.
risd, rist) ; also O.N. d in sleighte, slighte. Further,
tk { = O.E. Y) becomes t in atte = at the, saistow,
woostow, etc.
(7) O.E. d in the syncopated forms of the weak
Preterite (which in M.E. also determine the form of
the P.P.), in -nde {-nd + de, but also -n + de) -Ide
{-ld+ de), -rde {-rd + de) ; blente, sente ; lente ;
bilte; girte. Rarely, in other cases, O.E. d: bretful
(O.E. breord-), abbot (O.E. abbod, but also in later
O.E. abbot).
82 PHONOLOGY: THE CONSONANTS.
(S) O.Fr. t : temple, tempest, tour ; bataille, mayn-
tene, assenten ; estaat, despyt : best etc. Th in
Thomas.
(e) t is added to final s in heeste, biheeste (O.E.
beh9Bs~).
106. The media d corresponds to :
(a) O.E. d: deed, deef, doom, dreem; syde, hider,
thider, weder, leeden, fader, mooder, wode, togidre ;
leed, heved heed, mood.
Long d, for instance, in ladde (O.E. Mdde), spradde
(O.E. sprMde), lad, sprad, bad Adj. (O.E. bMed P.P.
cf. Engl. Stud. vi. 91), madden (from mad, amad O.E.
dmseded); bladder (O.E. blsedre bl&ddre), (n)adder
(O.E. nddre) ; hadde (O.E. hmfde), had (O.E.
(/3) Sometimes O.E. d: coude beside couthe, quod
beside quoth, mordre, burden.
(7) O.Fr. d initially and medially : dame, deys,
digne, druerye ; auditour, panade, amenden, extenden,
tendre; proude pryde, late O^. priid prydal
(S) d is inserted between n or I and r : thonder,
alder. In O.Fr. words a </ of this kind, as, for
instance, in tendre, was transmitted by O.Fr. to M.E.
Note, d has sometimes become assimilated to a following s,
as in gossib, gospel, answere (from O.E. godsibb, godspell,
andswerian).
107. The interdental spirant p ox d. The former
symbol may stand for the voiceless, the latter for the
voiced sound, though the O.E. usage, especially with
regard to the second symbol, by no means observes
the distinction. The Chaucer MSS. sometimes
employ 'p, sometimes th. It is hard to discover
VOICELESS S. 83
what symbol the poet himself may have used. In
accordance with the best MSS. of the Canterbury
Tales we use t/i. The sound corresponds to :
(a) In the majority of cases O.E. p or ct. It is
voiceless initially and finally : thanken, thenken,
thinketi, thries ; bath, breeth, death, with the probable
exception of the unaccented particle with before
words with an initial vowel, and the verb quoth in
combinations like quoth I, quoth he ; hence quod.
On the other hand, contrary to the N.E. usage,
the th is probably voiceless in thou thee thyn, the,
this, that, thus, than etc., since Orrm even after a
final (lingual) media changes the th in such words
into t {c{.for]>edd te pin wille), and the form atte = at
the, which is common in Chaucer also, seems to
presuppose voiceless t. The spirant is voiced
medially between vowels : bathen, seethen, fithele,
clothen, soothe, as well as between r and a vowel :
worthy, or between r and r ; this also accounts
for d (instead of tJi) in burden, jnordre. The sound
corresponds to the p, d of another Germanic dialect
in they (O.N. peir'), bothe (O.N. bdder bdda bddar),
though (O.N. po). In birthe (O.E. jebyrd) we may
perhaps trace the influence of O.N. burd.
(/3) Rarely Anglo-Norman th as symbol for an
evanescent d; feyth fayth, by the side of which,
though rather as a foreign loan-word,/^ is used.
108. The spirant s also occurs as a voiceless and
a voiced sound. The two cases will be considered
separately.
109. Voiceless s corresponds to :
(a) O.E, s initially and finally, as well as medially
84 PHONOLOGY : THE CONSONANTS.
when followed or preceded by a voiceless consonant :
see N. ; seen V., senden, sond ' sand,' sonde ' messenger/
strond ; glas, gras, wys, goos, hous, mous, hors ; wiste,
asken. s is always voiceless in x (phonetically = ks),
not only when final : wex, flex, six, but also
medially : waxen. With regard to final -s, note that
s in is and was, as proved by rimes, is voiceless,
as is also the inflexional -s after voiced elements,
even after long vowels ; cf S.T. 471/2276 [E2276]
auctoritees : gees. That the N.E. usage is of later
origin is proved by petrified case-forms like twice,
thrice = M.E. twyes, thryes (cf. the forms hence,
thence, M.E. hennes, thennes, which are probably to '
be explained in a similar manner ; on the other
hand, however, with voiced s, else = M.E. eiles).
M.E. as from ase, alse, also may contain voiced s.
The final s in his seems doubtful.
ss is always voiceless, whether it be the result of
old gemination, or of assimilation (but not when it
is merely the lengthening of final s in an accented
syllable) : lesse, lasse, blisse blis, lisse, kissen, missen,
blessen (O.E. bletsian); gossib {O.'E.. godsibb), § 106 N.
(;8) O.Fr. initial and final s: see' seat,' serve, sire,
sovereign, suffisauuce, space, stable ; paas, avys, prys,
pees etc. Medial s is voiceless before voiceless
consonants : maistrye, meschaunce, as a rule, also
after consonants in general : counsail, falsify e .
A short voiceless s is also recognisable in O.Fr. ss
which, in words like laisser, corresponds to original s
after k (x = ks>is).
A form like creissent {cs for sc) seems to admit of
similar explanation, also graisse, the origin of which
is obscure. The shortness and voicelessness of the
VOICELESS S.
8S
consonant (as well as the length of the f which has
resulted from the diphthong) are preserved in M.E.
Chaucer seems generally to spell these words with ss
(the MSS. now and again with s), perhaps occasionally
with c : greesse, encresse (increce), relesse ; in a nor-
malised orthography c would be preferable.
O.Fr. ss = Lat. ss must be considered a long
voiceless s, for instance, in passer, cesser. In Chaucer
the consonant is frequently shortened ; regularly
when it ceases to be medial and becomes final, as in
prees by the side of presse, ciprees ; but also
occasionally under other circumstances: pace more
frequently than passe, cesse, with variable quantity of
the s (and hence also of the f), on the other hand,
presse with long s.
(7) O.Fr. c= Lat. c before e and i, or Lat. ce ci, te
ti before another vowel. The development of this
sound in French up to the 12th century may be
illustrated as follows : {ky), ty,ts{^ = Ital. c before i, e) ts,
in which connection note that the Picard dialect, which
prevailed also in part of Norman territory, remained
at the /i-stage, when the other dialects had already
attained the i^j'-stage. Interesting for us at the
moment is only the Common French ts, which
predominated also in older Anglo-Norman. Now in
England, as on the continent, the explosive in the
O.Fr. affricate ts became assimilated to the spirant,
the result being ss. When this change took place
the symbol was still exclusively c. In some cases
the consonant was shortened at once, namely
initially and medially after a preceding consonant
(not until later, and not so regularly, after unaccented
vowels), further in learned words : vice, avarice.
86 PHONOLOGY : THE CONSONANTS.
French orthography has, as a rule, retained the
original symbol c for this short j-sound ; but, in
course of time, the symbol s, as well as the c or
f-symbol, was used between a consonant and a dark
vowel. After vowels, especially after accented
vowels, ss, which resulted from ts, preserved its
length more effectually, and here the graphic symbol
ss gradually appeared by the side of c, and
ultimately, with but few exceptions, supplanted it
(c occurs particularly after a in substantives, other-
wise generally only in loan-words where the con-
sonant is short).
In Chaucer the short ^--sound occurs initially, as
well as medially, after consonants. Initially he
generally uses c : celebrable, celle, celerer, centre, cerclen,
dprees, citee, citole; in some cases, indeed, the MSS.
vary : seynt beside ceynt ' girdle,' and occasionally it
is the better MSS. which use s : sencer by the side of
censer, syklatoun beside ciclatoun. Sendal (O.Fr.
cendal), by reason of its origin, which, however, is
obscure, does not belong here. Between a consonant
and a light vowel he sometimes writes c, sometimes
s : mercy, percen, herse, between a consonant and a
dark vowel s is the rule, as in raunsoun.
Medially, between vowels, the long consonant is
often shortened in Chaucer, not only in loan-words,
but also in other cases, regularly after a : grace,
place, space, chace, purchace, in learned words like
devocioun, condicioun, avarice, malice, vice, Grece. In
all these cases the spelling c prevails. Boece, Lucrece,
alternate with Boesse, Lucresse. On the other hand,
in the nominal suffix -esse always long s and shorts:
noblesse, richesse etc., also in the verb dresse.
VOICELESS S. 87
Note. O.Fr. c( = is) occurs only initially and medially ; finally
it is represented by z {6raz, laz, cerviz etc.) which originally
stood for ts, later s, and was then replaced graphically by s (or x)
But in a great many cases is with a simple voiced spirant
occurs after a preceding vowel, instead of medial c (for instance,
raison, saison, veisin voisin etc.), and in the same way, instead
of final s, -is {pais, palais, pris from *prieis etc.) where the
spirant is, indeed, voiceless, but must once have been voiced.
We must assume the development to have been the same in both
cases : ts, dz, iz, and, when final, is. Upon what conditions the
softening of the ^j-sound is dependent, cannot be very concisely
stated : In the first place Lat. c before e and i develops on these
lines, thereupon Lat. ti before vowels, finally Lat. ci before
vowels ; the accent exercises a certain amount of influence, nor
does the quality of the preceding vowel seem a matter of in-
difference, cf the noteworthy article by Horning, Zur Gesch.
des lat. C. Halle, 1883, which did not come to my notice until I
was already engaged in reading the proof-sheets of my book. I
do not, however, in all respects share Horning's point of view.
Some cases remain perfectly obscure, namely, those in which an
?-sound develops out of the /j-sound without softening the
affricate (cf. espice, from *espieice), and those in which diphthong-
isation takes place in position {pihe, niece), or where dz seems
to have developed instead of iz (i.e. idz instead of is with voiced
.S-) : croiz i.e. croits from older *croidz, cf croiser, likewise voiz,
noiz,puiz etc. (croiz may, of course, be a blending of croz and
crois').
(S) Finally O.Fr. 2 = ts, later s, for instance in
laas, crois, vois : also where it has become medial in
emperice (O.Fr. emperetz). Only where an inflexional
s was immediately added to a form in final -/ was
the sound -ts preserved in spelling : servaunts,
penitentz.
(e) On the voiceless j-sound in words like accom-
plice, cherice, cf. § 112^.
88 PHONOLOGY : THE CONSONANTS.
110. Voiced s corresponds to :
(a) O.E. s medially between vowels : amasen (O.E.
dmasian), cheesen, risen, wyse Adj. PL, wyse N. ;
houses ; the symbol is rarely ^, as in veeze, S.T.
57/1985 [A. 1985] (cf. § 23, Note.) Perhaps also
between vowel and voiced consonant, as in housbond,
wisdom.
In the inflexion of the verb cheesen, voiced s has
been restored by analogy in all cases where, in
consequence of grammatical change, it had become
r : O.E. ciosan, ceas, curon, coren, in Chaucer : cheesen,
ch(§s, chgsen, chosen. On the other hand, P.P. lore{n)
lorn from leesen, and Pret. were weren from was.
(/3) O.Fr. s of various origin, medially between
vowels : ese, apesen,plesen, sesen, resoun, sesoun,prisoun,
assise, diocise, servise,justise, baptisen, devisen, excusen,
resolve, resigne, perhaps also between vowel and voiced
consonant as in desdeyn, disgise degyse. Before con-
tinuous sounds s had already in the oldest Anglo-
Norman become mute or d, in Chaucer, for instance,
in medlee. He, meynee.
(7) O.Fr. s initially (no example) and medially as
in duszeyne dozeyne doseyn. Also z in foreign Proper
Names as Zephyrus, Razis. Here belongs further
the mysterious form Zanzis, S.T. 303/16 [C. 16]
( = Zeuxis ?), Zauzis, Zanzis, Troil. iv. 414.
111. The relation of the voiced to the voiceless s
in the suffix -ise, -ice, calls for special comment. The
Latin suffixes -icia, -itia regularly result in O.Fr. -ece,
later -esse ; in some cases, however, they become -ise,
and this form also occurs as the representative of
Lat. -icium, -ztimn.
In a number of cases -icia, -itia, -icium, -ttium are
VOICELESS AND VOICED S. 89
represented by -ice. The latter suffix appears prim-
arily in learned words, the ending -ece, later -esse, is,
on the contrary, a purely popular one ; the suffix -ise
seems to occupy an intermediate position, in so far
as (setting aside the other elements of the words
under discussion) at least the z and the voiced s are
in accordance with the rule, by which attraction of
the z goes hand in hand with the simplification
and softening of the ts sound ; Lat. i + i ought,
of course, to have resulted not in f, but in et.
Now Chaucer employs all three suffixes, and,
moreover, in accordance with the usage of older
French texts. The spelling, even of the better MSS.,
not infrequently misrepresents his habit with regard
to the endings -zse and -zee ; but there is clear
evidence of it in rimes. Judging by these, voiced
s prevails in coveitise, exercise, franchise,justise,juwise
juyse, marchandise, sacrifise, servyse, tormentise (also
in the name Venyse, which is regularly formed from
Venetia, as pris from pretimn) ; the voiceless sound
in avarice, benefice, malice, office, vice, and in the name
Maurice.
The voiced spirant regularly occurs in the verbs
despise, suffise (with as much justice as in plese, for
instance) ; exercise and sacrifise seem to be formed
from the corresponding substantives ; but upon the
verb sacrifise, as upon chastise, for sacrifye, chastye, the
analogy of verbs like baptise etc. may have exercised
an influence.
On the voiceless s in the verbs accomplice, cherice,
warice, as well in the subst. nyce, cf § 1 1 2 /3. The
sound is not accounted for in the verb trice (O.Fr.
tricher').
go PHONOLOGY: THE CONSONANTS.
112. The voiceless spirant s, the sound of which
is equivalent to N.E. sk, is spelt scA or sk in native
words ; we prefer the latter spelling, as being that of
the most accurate and consistent MSS. In French
words either the same symbol is used, or the tra-
ditional one ss based upon French usage. The
sound corresponds to :
(a) O.E. sc : shaken, shame, shapen, sheeld, sheep,
ship, short, shour, shrive. Medially and finally s is
always lengthened, since when the originally com-
pound sound was simplified the original duration was
preserved ; the long sound is always represented by
sch (or ssch) : asshen, wasshen, thresshen ; assh, flessh,
fissh. There is, of course, no lengthening when the
sound is initial in the second part of a compound, as
\xi felaweshipe. On the combination sk in Chaucer,
cf. § 1 1 9.
(/8) O.Fr. ss = Lat. sc before e, i or sci, sti before a
vowel. We must here assume the phonetic develop-
ment to have been {sky), sty, sts, ss, wherefrom results
lengthened, or possibly also short, s. This sound
which is still extant in Italian (to take one example
among many, angoscid) must have existed also in
O.Fr., and be frequently concealed under the symbol
ss, to what extent, and with what chronological or
dialectal limitations, let Romance philologists decide.
At any rate, the sound penetrated into English, and
has maintained itself there up to the present day,
whilst the orthography, starting from ss, by degrees
appropriated to itself the symbol sch, sh which stood
for the identical sound in native words. In M.E.
this 1-sound is always long, and occurs only medially
and finally. The verbs of the z-class with an in-
THE AFFRICATE TS. gi
choative Present are chiefly in question where forms
like -iscis, -iscit, -iscimus, -iscitis seem to have deter-
mined the character of the preceding consonant :
blaundissen blaundisshen,florisshen, norissen,punisshen ;
in esco : vanisshen ; analogous formation venquisshen.
Also angwissh (O.Fr. anguisse angoisse, Lat. angustid) ;
in parissh the origin of the sound is obscure.
Some at least of the verbs in -isco appear in
Chaucer also with short voiceless s, in which form
he employs them chiefly in rime ; thus there occur
in the C.T. accomplice, cherice, warice (O.Fr. garir,
warir) riming with office, vice, avarice etc. It is a
question whether here the younger French form
of the .r-sound under discussion has exercised an
influence, or whether a variation in the development
of the original form has taken place. The Adj.
nyce (O.Fr. nice) must trace back to *necius instead of
nescius.
113. The voiceless affricate ts, represented by ch,
corresponds to :
(a) O.K. palatal c {■=k\ Initially, it occurs
before light vowels, amongst which must be numbered
d and /«, as a rule also se, ea ; in y, y, on the other
hand, not the i-, but the u- element seems to
exercise the predominant influence. Examples :
chin, child, chiden cherl, cheese cheep, chapfnan chaf.
Before O.E (which, however as the vowel-develop-
ment proves, cannot, in this case, have had the i-
sound) in cherche. Medially the palatalisation takes
place as a rule only when O.E. c has transmitted the
/-mutation of the preceding vowel : beechie), breech,
leeche, blechen, seechen biseechen, techen bitechen.
92 PHONOLOGY : THE CONSONANTS.
drenchen, thenchen, muchel, muche (O.E. micel mycel)
etc., but, under these circumstances, k also occurs in
some cases (§ 1 1 8 a). Rarely otherwise : specke,
chercke, obscure is wenche. The medial gemination
is treated similarly: wicchecraft, wrecche, fecchen,
strecchen, thus also recchen ' to reck, care' (O.E. rkan,
but also reccan ; is the lengthening of the consonant
due to the influence oi reccan, M.E. recchen ' stretch'?),
by the side of rekken (§ 1 1 8 a), lacchen. Without
softening by mutation in wacche. Finally ts de-
velops, in the first instance, under much the same
conditions as medially, e.g. bench, wrench ; further
after / and /: dich -lich (likewise -liche), the adj.
lich by the side of more frequent lik (likewise adv.
yliche by the side of ylike), wich, for instance, in
Greenewich : ich beside more frequent T ; finally
after an / that has been dropped in eech, which, swich,
such, ifj + J becomes long s : Frenssh from Frencisc.
(/3) O.E. / + palatal j in orchard (O.E. ort-jeard,
beside which early the form orcjeard).
(7) O.Fr. ch : chapel, char, chambre, chaunge, chaste,
cheef, cheer e, chivalry e ; vache, broche, bacheleer, archeer;
inarchaunt, approchen; franchise, riche, richesse etc.
The main source of O.Fr. ch is Lat. c before a, which
in Picardy and a part of Norman territory retains
the k sound. Thus we see Picard c ox k playing
a part, though a subordinate one, by the side of
French ch even in Anglo-Norman, and also in the
language of Chaucer ; cf § 1 1 8 y.
(^) Very rarely Old Pic. 6 ch which corresponds to
O.Fr. c it's for ts, s, cf § 109 7). An undoubted
example is cacchen from Old Pic. cachier=0.¥Y.
chacier (which resulted in chacen). A word like
THE AFFRICATE DZ. 93
chiche is of no moment, because here the Picardism
Js, if one may say so, Common French.
Note. The derivation of M.E. cacchen from Old Pic. cachier
has recently been questioned, and its derivation from Common
French cacher has been suggested instead. This assumption is
untenable, because not only is there no evidence for Fr. cacher
meaning ' to acquire by the chase,' but such a meaning is incon-
ceivable, since the word is not derived from *coactare, but (cf.
Grober) from *caveare. An attempt to claim M.E. cacchen as a
native word has been refuted elsewhere. Cf., however, for the
Picard ch in English, M.E. cherie, N.E. cherry, as well as N.E.
scutche07i.
114. The voiced affricate dh occurs :
(a) In original English words only medially. It
has developed from O.E. final or medial palatal
media, which occurs only in the gemination {cj=gg),
and in the combination nj, in both cases after the
operation of z'-mutation. O.E. palatal cj results in
ddz, spelt gg\ palatal nj results in nds, spelt ng.
Examples : brigge, Cantebrigge Cantebregge, egge,
eggen, hence eggement, wegge, abeggen, leggen ; alenge
(O.E. dlenje), sengen.
Note i. It is possible that in the verb eggen the medial con-
sonant represents the phonetic value ^^ as well as the phonetic
value ddS (cf. O.N. eggja, N.E. to ^^^ by the side of 'to edge') ;
the guttural media prevails, probably exclusively, in egging.
In lenger, strenger, lengthe, sfrengihe etc., yg must have de-
veloped for nd^ as the result of analogy (as in long, strong).
Note 2. Abeyen abyen, leyen occur side by side with abeggen,
leggen, and, moreover, more frequently. The analogy of abeyest
abyest, leyest, and similar forms, where in O.E. the palatal
spirant j stood, has been applied to forms where the palatal
media was the rule. O.E. lie/an, secjan seem to be represented
in Chaucer exclusively by lyen, seyen say en.
94 PHONOLOGY: THE CONSONANTS.
(/3) It derives further from O.Fr./ or^ (^, i). Chaucer
generally writes/ (or before a,o,u; before e, i, he uses
g, but sometimes also — especially initially — a. J (or i)
which, in this case, frequently corresponds to the Latin
spelling : Jay, janglen, jolyf, Jove, Jornee, Juge, Justen
Jousten, Justice, Juyse, less appropriately gay /er; gentil,
get, Jewerye,Juparti, Jelous ; age, page, rage, mages tee,
Juge, aungel, daunger, chaungen, chalengen. Medially,
between an accented e and another vowel, there is
a tendency towards gemination : coUegge, abreggen,
aleggen (here influence of Engl, aleggen ? cf Matzner,
a. v.), occasionally also elsewhere : Juggement beside
Jugement.
Initially, the French sound has ousted the native
one in Proper Names borrowed at an early period :
Jerusaleem, Jesus, John etc. are to be pronounced with
initial d'k, not withy' or j/.
115. The liquid / corresponds to :
(a) O.E. /, initially also hi : lasten, leten, litel, lore,
louten ; lepen, loud ; blowen, slouthe, dale, Jele, sowle,
fowle, seelde, sold, half, elf; deel, wel, hool. The
length of the consonant is of old standing, for instance,
in halle, fallen,fellen, al alle, wal, but recent in sinal,
shal etc., / remains short, however, in smale, shule,
shuln.
Note. O.E. / is rarely dropped : eech, which, swich \ as
occurs beside also, meaning 'so' ; meaning 'as' it occurs only in
the form 'ar' ; meaning 'also' in the form als beside also.
(/3) O.Fr. /: latoun, /isrj/ ' song,' lay, 'law,' lepard, lige,
loos ; blame, deer, celereer, flame, assemblen, ensaumple,
palfrey ; roial, cruel etc. Protected French / has
resolved itself into u, but often reappears in Anglo-
L AND R.
95
Norman texts (^palfrey which is based on palefrei,
does not belong here). In Chaucer we find protected
/, for instance, in fals, crueltee, roialtee, on the other
hand, auter, beautee bewtee, maugre, reme, sauf, saven,
sautrie etc. / naturally stands in learned words like
salvacioun, salpetre,
French palatal /, when final in the originally tonic
syllable, becomes il, or, before a vowel, generally -ill :
bataille, faille, Itaille, assaille V., consaille V., merveyle,
conseyl, peril; in the pre-tonic syllable it becomes
-lly, as in William.
(■y) / is inserted in manciple, sillable, cardiacle etc.
116. The trill r corresponds to :
(a) O.E. r, initially also hr: reden, riden, rood,
rough ; roof; breest, dreed, freend, writen, steeren, lore,
dore, lord, word, short, erthe, kerven ; heer, for etc.
Gemination, for instance, in sterre, ferre. O.E. r is
dropped in speken [already O.Kent, specan = Ohg.
spehhan beside sprehhan] or speche. Metathesis has
taken place, for instance, in fright, wright, wroughte.
In many other cases, on the other hand, an O.E.
metathesis has been abandoned : bresten, thresshen
(cf § 140) etc.
Note. On chosen for cur on, coren, cf. § 1 10 a.
(/3) O.Fr. r : rage, roial, reme, resoun, braunche ;
Fraunce, trenche, houre, amorous, poure ; archeer, deer,
flour etc. Geminated, for instance, in array, werre ;
werreye. Simplification of the gemination takes place,
for instance, in were, Fynystere, the infinitives enquere,
requere. On the simplification of the geminates in
O.Fr. cf Faulde, Ueber Gemination im Altfranz, p.
10, ff. (z.f rom. Phil., vol. iv. p. 542).
56 PHONOLOGY : THE CONSONANTS.
117. The resonant n corresponds to :
(a) O.E. n, initially also hn : name, neede, night,
nothing ; nekke ; knave, knight, snewen, vane, seene,
inoone, lond, stenten ; wyn, streen, boon. The length of
the consonant is of old standing, for instance, in synne,
cynne, man tnannes, can conne etc.
When final in inflexional syllables n is frequently
dropped : for particulars cf. the chapter on Accidence.
Note further, beside oon the form oo or o, and
beside the shortened an (before vowels and K) the
form a (before consonants).
((8) O.Fr. n : nature, necligence, nyce, noble, norice ;
enemy, veyne, punisshen, am.enden, repenten, count,
aunt, daunger, aungel, chaunce, trenche ; playn, soun,
prisoun, noun.
Palatal n when final in the originally tonic
syllable becomes -in, though the spelling sometimes,
and generally after /, remains gn : Britayne, deigne
deyne V., Boloigne, vyne, signe, benigne, digne. When
final in the syllable immediately preceding, it becomes
ny in onyoun, but we also find — and this, moreover,
in the best MSS. — oynon. The phonetic value o{ gn in
words like signefye, magnificence etc. is doubtful.
(■y) Lingual n is inserted in papyngay, popyngay,
but the most correct MS. (Ellesmere) spells papejay.
Note 2\sofor the nones —for then ones and atte nale
= at then ale.
Palatal and Guttural Series.
118. The tenuis k corresponds to :
(a) O.E. guttural r ( = y^) which occurs ( i ) initially
before consonants : cleene, knave, knee, knyght, creepen.
PALATALS AND GUTTURALS. 97
queen{e) ; before dark vowels : can koude, corn, cup
etc., here belong also care (O.E. cam cearu), and the
majority of cases where O.E. a, ea, or as stands
before /-combinations : calf, cold etc. {chalk must be
influenced by O.Fr.) ; as a rule before O.E. y :
kyng, kyn, kynde, kissen kessen etc., in some words
before ^-sounds : keene, keel, keepen, kerven. As far
as the orthography is concerned, k is the rule before
e, i, or y, and before n, rarely before dark vowels :
koude, q before « = zy (§ 103 a), in other cases c. (2)
Medially, as a rule when the guttural has not served
to transmit the z'-mutation : rake, snake, maken,
cheeke, breken, speken, wreken, syken, drynken, synken,
occasionally even when mutation has taken place :
shenken, thynken, thenken, probably more frequently
than thenchen, seeken biseeken beside seechen biseechen.
The geminate is treated similarly, for instance, in
bukke, lokkes, nekke, but also thikke, rekken by the
side of recchen (§113 a) ' to reck, care.' (3) Finally
under the same conditions as medially : folk, werk,
book, eek, leek, seek sik, flok, lok ; rarely before original
/: lik beside lich (cf. §113 a). — k corresponds further
to the k of other Germanic dialects, for instance,
O.N. in casten, taken, meeke, Mlg. in crowke, lowke etc,
(/3) O.Fr. c—k: constable, cors, coward, court, cur-
teis, contree, coy, cure, keevren, deer, croys ; seculeer,
secree, secte ; frank, due.
{y) More rarely Old Pic. c (corresponding to O.Fr.
ck, cf. § 1 1 3 7) : cacchen, caitif, cantel, carien, caroigne,
carpenteer, castel, catel etc. In other cases it is a
question of Common French c (for cK) in learned
words, for instance in caas, castigacioun, cause etc.
Common French appears to be c (for ch) in cage, cave
G
gS PHONOLOGY: THE CONSONANTS.
119. The combination sk corresponds to :
(a) Rarely O.E. sc (which, as a rule, produces sk) :
initially, almost exclusively under the influence of
words of Scandinavian origin, similar in sound and
meaning : scabbe, skile, skyn, also Scot. Scatered is
obscure. Medially, the transition into sh is some-
times prevented by metathesis: asken, probably
more frequently axen, tusked (from O.E. t7!isc tikx).
(/S) O.N. sk : scalle scalled, scathe, scrippe ; O.N.
influence may also be apparent in skie (O.N. sky).
If Chaucer uses the form skriken by the side of
shriken, as the reading of the Ellesmere and
Hengwrt MSS. seems to indicate, S.T. 299/4590
[B 4590], the latter must be of Low German,
the former of Scandinavian origin.
(y) Mdu. sc in scrapen. Sclendre, that is coupled
with Mdu. slinder, is obscure.
(5) The same sound in some Germanic words of
obscure origin, as skippen, sculle.
(e) O.Fr. i-f ( = sk) : scale scoleer, scourges, sqmr(r)el,
squier, sclaundre, scripture, scriveyn.
(Q Old Pic. jc ( = sk) : scafold, scalded, escapen
scapen, scarsly etc.
120. The media g corresponds to :
(a) The O.E. initial guttural spirant from Germanic
/ (South Germanic g) which occurs before consonants,
dark vowels (sometimes before ss, ae) as well as before
y, but before e and ?'-sounds almost only as the
result of analogy : glee, glyden, greene, gat-toothed,
goon, god, good, goos gees, galwes, geere, togidre, gilty
agilten, girdel. O.N. gestr must have influenced the
word gest, since we should otherwise expect either
PALATALS AND GUTTURALS.
99
gast (O.E. jsest\ or yest, yist (O.E. jest jiest jisf).
Gynnen bigynnen might have been influenced by
Mdu. or Mlg., but the analogy ofgan gonnen suffices
to account for the media.
Note. Medially and finally the O.E. guttural spirant has
changed to w, which became vocalised to u after vowels, cf.
§ 103 /3. The spirant has, however, remained guttural only after
a, o, u (not after a\ and after consonants, when no /-mutation
has taken place. Preceding a and z-mutation necessitate a
palatal. But one exception may be noted : In the inflexion of
the second class of weak verbs a thematic palatal /(even when
=f) may become guttural before a dark vowel. Cf. harwede
(O.E. herjode).
(/3) The O.E. guttural media, which only occurs
medially and finally, either geminated {cj), or in the
combination nj. I have noted only one example of
the media, namely dogge. I do not know, for
instance, whether the word frogge occurs in Chaucer ;
the combination ng is more frequent : thing, ringen,
singen, springen, long, tonge etc. In the M.E. period
the media was most probably pronounced in all
these cases after the guttural resonant (hence yg,
as nowadays in longer, tongue"). The /-mutation
excludes the guttural as a rule, and produces the
palatal (on the O.E. palatal media cf § 114a); but
in Englissk Engelond the guttural media occurs
without a doubt. The guttural sound seems there-
fore — at least in the combination nj — to have been
supported by a following /.
(7) SS resulted further by mutual assimilation
from O.E. d-^ c : beggen from bedecian.
(S) The media corresponds further to O.N. initial
g : gabben, galle, gate, for instance in algate algates.
loo PHONOLOGY : THE CONSONANTS.
also before light vowels, gelding, gigges, hence also in
gest, geten, forgeten, whilst, on the other hand, foryeten
preserves the O.E. palatal ; medially, or finally, O.N.
gg, for instance in bagge, even when 2-mutation has
operated : leglegges, egging etc.
(e) Mdu. g, gh : grote, gessen, pigge.
(Q) Keltic g : gonne, crag cragges, apparently
W. ch in kog hogges.
{ri) The O.Fr. media g: glorie, grace, graunten,
governour, gyden gyen, gyse ; agonye, agu{e), angwissh
etc. Sometimes also Pic. g as in gardin.
121. The voiceless spirant x> represented by gh,
appears only medially before consonants, and, in
point of fact, only before /. It is either palatal, or
guttural, according to the nature of the preceding
vowels ; before the palatal sound an i has developed,
which, however, after a preceding i, is not generally
represented by any symbol, before the guttural sound
an u. The diphthongs and monophthongs which
thus originate have been discussed above. The
spirant generally corresponds to O.E. h = -)^^: light,
nyght ; knyght, highte (O.E. hiehdu), aught, laughter,
taughte, straughte, broughte, thoughte, also spelt broghte,
thoghte etc. Sometimes to an O.N. g which was
certainly a spirant : sleighte slighte (O.N. sMgd).
Original c { = k) before t in Benedight. By analogy
the sound occurs in caughte from cacchen, cf. laughte
from lacchen. Although the development of the
vowel naturally necessitates a weakening of the con-
sonantal character of \, yet, from the uniformity in
the spelling and from the rimes, we may deduce
that the spirant in this position had not yet become
a mere breathing. Spellings and rimes like plit (for
PALATALS AND GUTTURALS. loi
plight); appeUt, S.T. 473/2335 [E 2335] are quite
isolated.
Note. That protected ^A only occurs before t is accounted for
by the fact that jtr=^j probably already in O.E., but in Chaucer
certainly denotes ks, whereas any other A before s drops in M.E.,
hS becomes ght, and, in some other cases, a parasitic vowel
develops. On the initial combinations of h, cf. § 122 o. On
the orthography of the x-sound, note that some Chaucer MSS.
have A for gh, which, however, is contrary to the usage of the
best codice
122. The breathing h is represented by k and gh.
The first symbol obtains where, already in O.E., or
soon after the beginning of the M.E. period, a mere
breathing survived, likewise as representative of
Romance k, the latter where ;^ became k only in the
course of the M.E. period.
(a) Initially h is the only .symbol : (i) In English
words : hare, helpen, hyen, hood, hooin, hous, he, hym,
hire, hit. By the side of hit we find it. h obtains also
in the initial combination -wh, i.e. a voiceless w, from
O.E. hw ( = yw) : what, where, why, who etc. The O.E.
combinations hi, hn, hr have lost every trace of h in
Chaucer : lepen, nekke, roof. (2) In Germ? loan-words,
cf. O.N. h in hap and the verb happen derived there-
from, Mdu. or Mlg. or Fris. h in the suffix -heed,
-hede, in the verb heeten, biheeten etc. (3) In Keltic
words, cf. harlot, hog. (4) As smooth breathing in
French words, for instance, in herber, heir, honour,
tiorrible, hoost, hostelrye, hour, humble, humilite, as
rough breathing in habergeoun, harneys, haste, heraud,
herbergage, herse.
(j8) Finally, the best MSS. write gh. In this posi-
tion the sound corresponding to O.E. or some other
1 02 PHONOLOGY : THE CONSONANTS.
Germanic ^ ( = x) was, in the M.E. period, still dis-
tinctly a spirant, either palatal or guttural, under the
same conditions as medial gh, and produced, in the
former case an i, in the latter an u. But the rimes
and orthographical variations prove that, in Chaucer's
time, only a breathing survived : heigh hye, seigh sy,
saugh (does the spelling ^saw' also occur in Chaucer?),
, bough, plough, tough, lough, slough slow, ynough ynow.
At the end of a long syllable guttural j became h in
O.E., hence, for instance, the gh in ynough ; but we
also find trough (O.E. troj). Original Norse h occurs
in though — O.N. }}6 from \oh.
123. The voiced palatal spirant y occurs :
(a) Almost exclusively at the beginning of a word.
It results chiefly from O.E. palatal j, due to two
sources : (i) Germanic ^ (whence South Germanic^)
which before light vowels (but not before y), in excep-
tional cases before dark ones, becomes palatal in O.E.
(2) Germanic j before light or dark vowels. O.E.
orthography employs the /-symbol initially before e
and /, in other cases je (before u sometimes ji),
rarely i. The MSS. represent the corresponding M.E.
sound either by y or /. Following the most reliable
MSS. of the C.T. we shall use y, which is also the
more usual symbol. Examples are: {\) yiven yeven,
foryeten (by the side oi forgeten cf 120 S),yelwe,yerd
' rod,' yerd ' garden' (O.E. jeard, M.K. jurd jerd, N.E.
yard), yate ' gate,' yaf ' gave ' etc. (2) yif,yit, ye,yeer,
yok,yong etc. 7/" occurs by the side oi yif.
(jS) Medially and finally the O.E. palatal spirant /
(on its relation to the guttural spirant, cf § 120,
Note) has, in some cases, become a vowel, in others
PALATALS AND GUTTURALS. 103
a semi-vowel : a vowel, namely, after vowels, so that
either a diphthong or a long monophthong has
resulted, but a semi-vowel after consonants, which
latter case will be discussed in the following paragraph.
(7) A voiced palatal spirant seems, however, to
occur medially in a few words in Chaucer. It is in
these cases represented by gh, and corresponds to an
O.E. h, that has been separated by a parasitic vowel
from its protecting consonant, or an h that had been
dropped medially between vowels, but has been
restored by analogy with forms where it was final,
and which is now bound to appear medially as a
voiced spirant (cf. O.E. on heajum or fleojan for
fleon) : higher, highe, neighen ' to approach.' But the
weakness of the spirantic character of this gh is
proved, not only by spellings like neyen, hyer, hye
(these are the usual Chaucerian forms), but above all
by the fact that the MSS. sometimes employ the
symbol gh even in cases where Chaucer certainly
admitted no spirant: S.T. 13/454 [Prol. 454]
weyeden, Harl. 7334 weighede; S.T, 509/1035 f. [F.
1035] Ellesmere. Hengwrt, Harl. 7334 heighe : eighe
(eyghe). Corpus keije : eyje, Lansdowne hihe : eyhe,
Cambr. Gg. 427 hyghe : lye, Petworth hie : ye, where
the spelling of Petworth corresponds absolutely to
Chaucer's pronunciation. Perhaps the palatal spirant
in neighebour should also be considered voiced,
although it is due to O.E. hh from hj (O.E. nihhebiir
from neah-jeb-kr).
124. The voiced guttural spirant which, according
to the above observations, we must assume in the
verb laughen (O.E. hlehhan hlyhhan, Angl. hlsehhan,
Mlg. Mdu. lachen) is in Chaucer about to become
I04 PHONOLOGY : THE CONSONANTS.
transformed into a labial spirant ; hence in the MSS.
the spelling laughwen occurs. Perhaps we ought
actually to assume the pronunciation lauwen (or
lawen, from which N.E. laf, spelt laugh), gh in
burghes ought, no doubt, to be pronounced in a
similar way.
125. The palatal semi- vowel i,y corresponds to:
(a) O.E. palatal spirant or palatal semi-vowel
between consonant and vowel : berye berie ' berry,'
merye merie, berien ' bury ' (O.E. byrjan byrijan,
where ij marks the palatal more clearly than simple
/), warien, tarien. In these verbs the O.E. /,
from which the i is derived, is radical. In the
inflexion of weak verbs the i, j and ij of the Present
is sometimes preserved in the first conjugation, and
then carried through the whole inflexion : herien ' to
praise,' but, on the other hand, weren ' to defend ' and
weren ' to wear ' ; in the second it has dropped
entirely, as in axen, loven ; but a trace of the older
lovien has survived in the derivative lovyere by the
side of lovere. A final palatal spirant is the source of
the y in Caunterbury , which y does not always retain
the force of a syllable even before a following initial
consonant, cf. S.T. 1/16, 2 2 [Prol. 16. 22]. Final y
= O.E. i+j may be treated as a semi-vowel, if the
following word begins with a vowel : many «, so
besy a.
(/3) Romance i in the unaccented ending -ie :
contrdrie, gUrie, victSrie, tragddie, comedie, stikdie.
Also in verbs like st-kdien, contrdrien, mdrien, cdrien.
Occasionally also O.Fr. z in the terminations -ial, -ioun,
-ious, on the syllabic value of which, cf. 8268.
GUTTURAL N. 105
126. The guttural n corresponds to :
(a) O.E. n before guttural stops : thank, synken,
bryngen, syngen, heeng, Engelond, song, long,yong, tonge
etc., naturally also in forms like thynken, thenken ;
but not in thenchen etc.
(/3) O.Fr. n before guttural stops : frank, angwissh
etc.
(7) It is inserted in nightyngale (O.E. nihtejale).
CHAPTER II.
ACCIDENCE.
I. THE VERB.
127. We shall begin with the discussion of tense-
formation, and consider, in the first instance, the
characteristic forms of the strong verbs: (i) the
reduplicating verbs ; (2) the verbs with vowel-grada-
tion ; (3) the weak verbs. We shall then discuss the
inflexion of the various tenses in the different moods.
Finally, we shall consider the formation and inflexion
of the anomalous verbs.
Tense-Formation of the Reduplicating
Verbs.
128. The Present and the Past Participle have the
same root-vowel, namely :
(a) Germanic a before // or l-\- cons., nn or n +
cons. = O.E. a ea, a ; all other cases have a long
vowel or diphthong before a simple stop or before w :
(j8) Germanic ai = O.E. a ;
(•y) West Germanic a before w = O.E. a ;
(^) West Germanic a before a stop = O.E. ^ i ;
REDUPLICATING VERBS.
107
(e) Germanic au = O.E. ^a ;
(^ Germanic 6= O.E. 6 ;
(»?) Germanic 6 mutated by z = O.E. /.
These vowels develop in M.E. according to rule,
for example :
(a) O.Y..fanefealle, M..'E..falle, O.E. halde healde,
M.E. hglde ;
(/3) O.E. hate — hgte ;
(7) O.E. bldwe — bloue, spelt blowe ;
(^) O.E. j/^/g slepe — sl§pe sleepe ;
(e) O.E. hleape — l^pe, heawe — heue, spelt hewe ;
(^ O.E. grSwe — groue, spelt growe ;
(»?) O.E. Z£/^^ — weepe.
The Present ofO.K./on and ^^« (from '^'fanhan and
*hanJmn), with its (long) <^, gradually disappears in
M.E., and is replaced by other forms. The P.P.
develops regularly ; fanjenfgnjen — -fgngen.
129. The (apparent) root-vowel of the Preterite is
in O.E. e or eo ; both produce M.E. e, in case of
shortening (, or, united with a following u from w,
eu (spelt eiv). The only archaic O.E. Preterite of
importance in Chaucer is heht (by the side of hei)
from hdtan.
130. We shall now enumerate the characteristic
forms of reduplicating verbs found in Chaucer,
marking later forms (analogy- formations — loan-words)
by ordinary type.
(a) falle felfil fallen,
hglde heeld hglden.
wglde.
walke.
fqnge.
io8
ACCIDENCE : THE VERB.
h9nge
(/3) {hote)
(y) blowe
knowe
crowe
sowe
throwe
(^) sleepe slepe
lete leete
drede dreede.
rede reede.
(e) lepe
hew
bete
(j^growe
{r\) weepe
131. Present.
hglde, cf. 8 3 5 e.
heeng.
heet h^^t highte
blew
knew
crew
threw
leet
leep.
hgten.
blowen.
knowen.
crowen.
sowen.
throwen.
leten laten.
hewen.
beten.
growen.
beet
grew
weep.
Helde occurs rarely by the side of
Fgngen, instead of O.^.fon, may be
derived from the MXg.fangen ; hgngen maybe accounted
for by a confusion of the strong transitive verb hdn
with the intransitive w^eak hangian; heng is intransitive
already in Orrm, and thus also heeng in Chaucer.
In any case an Inf. f6n, hon by the side of a P.P.
fongen, hongen could not fail to appear as an
anomaly.
132. Past Participle. Peculiar is the form laten
latyn, S.T. 125/4346 [A. 4346]. Harl. 7334 has
lete, Cambr. Gg. Ictyn.
133. Preterite. The plural has the vowel of the
singular. The form honge: {strange) S.T. 69/2421
[A. 242 1 J can, in spite of the variant henge, only be
treated as a Pres. PI.
REDUPLICATING VERBS. jog
134. Intrusion ofthe weak inflexion. By the side
of sleep, weep, occur slepte, wepte; walke, drede,
r{e)ede are inflected exclusively weak ; Pret. walked,
dradde, radde redde. It is doubtful whether Chaucer
uses bette as well as beet.
Note. Already in Old Angl. sUpan is inflected weak, some-
times also, in O.W.S., slapan and ondmdan. The Pret. radde,
from O.E. radan, is of frequent occurrence. Orrm has only
weak forms for the Preterite or P.P. of slcBpenn, drcedenn,
radenn and wepeiin, and no instance whatever of walken.
135. The verb hole requires special comment. O.E.
hdtan, heht hit, hdten means ' voco, jubeo, promitto ' ;
hdtte ' vocor,' and thereupon ' vocatus sum.' Hdtan, in
the sense of 'vocari' occurs only Gen. 344, where it
is presumably a Saxonism, since Lg. hetan seems
to have been used in this sense earlier than Engl.
hdtan. In M.E. haten hgten is used not infrequently
in the sense of ' vocari,' but it may be doubted
whether it occurs in Chaucer with this meaning.
(S.T. 45/1557 f. [A. 1557] the six MSS. have in two
consecutive lines highte or hy^te, hiht etc., Harl. 7334,
indeed, hole and hoote). On the other hand, the use, with
Passive meaning, of the Preterites derived from heht
Jiet is very common in M.E. and familiar to Chaucer.
Highte (heht treated as a weak Pret.) and heet
generally mean ' vocatus sum ' in Chaucer ; on the
other hand, highte bihighte (or bihight strong ? cf.
\ 193) 'he promised ' and the P.P. hight ' promised'
by analogy with it. In the same sense as highte
heet Chaucer sometimes also uses h(§t (Blaunche
948, for hete : grete, read hegt : grg§t). This form
may be looked upon as a confusion of heet with a
no ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
M.E. form hette which does not occur in Chaucer.
How to account for the form hette itself seems
doubtful, since O.E. hsbtte, with the force of a Pre-
terite, does not occur at all, and with the force of a
Present it occurs only once. Is hette formed after the
model of the borrowed Present heete, which will be
discussed below ? Or is it the result of a compromise
between hit and hdtte ?
From the Preterite highte 'vocatus sum' the
Present highte ' vocor ' has been deduced.
The Present heete biheete (§ 25), which occurs in
the sense of ' promise, vow,' is a borrowed form.
Tense-Formation of the Verbs with Vowel-
Gradation.
136. Four classes , are to be distinguished, which
may be characterised in the first instance by the
original (Germanic) vowels of the Pres. and Pret.
Sing. I. e, i — a ; II. a — 6 ; III. t — ai ; IV. eu, ■A — au.
137. The first class contains three groups : In
group A the root ends in a long consonant or a
consonant group — generally a geminated or protected
liquid, in group B in a single liquid, in group C in a
single mute. Verbs, the root-vowel of which is fol-
lowed by a single mute, but preceded by mute -|-
liquid, fluctuate between B and C. In O.E. their
inflexion is generally that of C — with the exception
of the verb brecan ; in M.E., on the other hand, they
incline to B, and we shall include them in that class.
138. Class I. Group A, falls into two sub-divisions
(a) and (/3) ; in (jS) the root-vowel is followed by a
VERBS WITH VOWEL-GRADAT m
geminated or protected resonant ; all other cases
belong to (a).
The complete gradation-series (Pres., ist and 3rd
Pers. Pret. Sing., Pret. PI. etc. P.P.) is in O.E. for
both divisions :
(a) e eo (ie i y, u) a ea
(/S) i a ox g u u
According to strict phonetic development, the result
in Chaucer's language should be :
(a) ( (i, u) dug
or, by group-lengthening,
? dug
(/3) z a g u u
or, by group-lengthening,
I a g g u il
In (a), however, the third grade has become like the
fourth, the two having been alike in (/3) from the
beginning ; the two grades are therefore in Chaucer :
(a) g ox g and (/3) u or u.
Note. On variable u and its representation, as well as on
the symbol for short u after w, before mm, nn, etc., cf. the chapter
on Phonology.
139. We shall now enumerate the characteristic
forms which occur in Chaucer :
(a) swelle
swal swgllen.
helpe
halp hglpen hglpen.
yelpe
delve
dglven.
yeelde
yglden.
■worthe
wartk(lfci. 1 92/1 941 Hengwrt).
kerve
karf kgrven kgrven.
sterve
starf stgrven stgrven.
ACCIDENCE : THE VERB.
hreste
brast
brgsten
brgsten.
thresshe.
abreyde
abrayd.
fighte
faught
fgughten
fgughten.
(/3) swrnme
swam
swommen
swommen.
clymbe
clgmb
clomben
clomben.
biginne
(bi)gan
(bi)gonnen
bigonnen.
blinne
brenne brinne.
renne
ran
ronnen
ronnen.
spinne
sponnen.
winne
wan
wonnen
wonnen.
bynde
bgnd
bounden
bounden.
fynde
fgnd
founden
founden.
grynde
grounden.
wynde
wgnd
wounden
wounden.
ringe
rgng
rongen
rongen.
singe
sgng
songen
songen.
springe
sprgng
sprongen
sprongen.
stinge
stgng
stongen
stongen.
thringe
thrgng
throngen
throngen.
wringe
wrgng
wrongen
wrongen.
drinke
drank
dronken
dronken.
sinke
sank
sonken
sonken.
shrinke
shrank.
stinke
stank
stonken
stonken.
swinke
swonken.
140. With regard to (a), note: yelpe,yeelde corre-
spond to the 0\d.Ar\g\. jelpejjeldeiO.W.S.jielpejjylpe
etc.). The i in fighte presupposes an ie from eo (O.E.
feohte), for which there is mo evidence, unless the 2nd
and 3rd Pers. Sing. Pres. Ind. have determined the
root-vowel for the whole of the Present (and even
VERES WITH VOWEL-GRADATION.
113
for the related Subst.). Breste, thresske = O.E. berste,
persce ; the metathesis may have been reversed under
O.N. influence. — abreyde = O.E. dbrejde. The strong
Pret abrayd is confirmed by rime, Blaunche 192,
Fame no. Asa rule, the verb is inflected weak :
Pret. abreyde, likewise in the simple form breyde.
The form broyded i\j\Od,g [A1049] recalls the grade
of the old strong P.P. brojden (Lansdowne and Pet-
worth : browded under Romance influence, cf. em-
brouded s/Sg [Prol. 89] where Corpus and Petworth
have embroyded.
141. On (^) note : brennan (from O.N. brennd) is
inflected weak whether used transitively or intransi-
tively, which is accounted for by the fact that O.E.
beo7-nan (intrans. strong) and bsernan (trans, weak),
had begun to be confounded already in older M.E.,
the result being the extension of the weak inflexion.
Brinnan occurs very rarely in the Present with in-
transitive meaning, as S. T.335/S2 [D 52]. Rennen
etc. must derive from O.N. renna, rann, runnu,
runnenn ; the O.E. forms are : iernan irnan etc.,
rarely, rinnan, orn am, urnon, urnen.
142. Class I. Group B. The gradation series is
in O.E. :
e {i) S3 {a or g) St {p) o (u) ;
in Chaucer:
# a ^e{p) g {u).
Characteristic forms :
stele stal.
here bar beer b^^r beeren beren bgren bgrn.
shere shgren shgrn.
tere totar totgren tgrn.
H
114 ACCIDENCE : THE VERB.
come cam coom
camen coomen comen.
{neme)nam noom
trede trad
breke brak
speke spak
wreke
nomen.
trgden.
brgken.
speken spgken.
wrgken
wreken.
143. Pres. come P.P. comen = O.E. cunie, cumen ;
(neme) nomen = O.E. nime, numen. Both verbs form
the Pret. Sing, in O.E by analogy with the Plural,
hence with 6 instead oi a o: c6m cdmon, n6in nSmon.
In later W.S. ncim ndmon also appear, but not until
M.E. cam cdmen.
144. By analogy with beren the weak verb weren
(O.E. werian ' to put on, wear ') has formed a Pret.
PI. weren, S.T. 84/2948 [A. 2948].
I. Group 0. Gradation series in O.E. :
m ea (M) m e (?) ;
145. Class
e{z)
in Chaucer :
#(/) af(ef) eg ^ (f).
On the resulting diphthongs, cf. the chapter on
Phonology.
Forms :
yive yaf
yiven.
weve waf
wgven,
ete eet g§t
eeten eten
eten.
mete mat
meten.
gete gat
geten.
{quethe) quoth quod.
see saugh, seih saygh sy
seyen.
sitte sat seet se^t
seeten seten
seten.
bidde bad
beden.
lye lay
leyen
leyen.
VERBS WITH VOWEL-GRADATION.
"S
146. Present. The i in yive is the result of
assimilation to the Palatal (O.E. jiefe jife), whereas
in gete O.N. influence is apparent. In see, the final h
of the root has dropped, as already in O.E. {sed).
The i in sitte, bidde (likewise O.E. licje^ is due to old
/-mutation, the gemination to tj, dj (in licje to jj^ \
lye for ligge {liddhe) is formed by analogy.
147. Pret. Sing, eet ^^t (O.E. ^i'=Goth. ei) pre-
serves original length. On the other hand seets^gt, by
the side of sat, is by analogy with the Plural. In
quotk quod o stands for older a (O.E. cwmd), which is
not wholly accounted for by the influence of the
preceding semi-vowel.
148. Past Participle. The i in yiven is to be
explained as in the Present. Woven is an instance
of transition into the second group, B. By the side
of the P.P. seyen, the adj. yseene seene (O.E. jesine
jesyne) which in Chaucer is only construed with the
verb to be.
149. Class II. Gradation series in O.E. :
a, ea {g, g) 6 6 a sb, ea (g) ;
in Chaucer :
d,ag(J§) o o d,ag (g).
On the resulting diphthongs, or the monoph-
thongisation of them, compare the chapter on
Phonology.
Forms :
fare faren.
swere swoor swooren swgren sworn.
shape shoop shoopen shapen.
(stape) stapen.
Ii6
ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
grave
graven.
shave
shaven.
heve
haf.
drawe
drow
drawen.
gnawe
gnow.
stgnde
stood
stooden
stgnden.
bake
taken.
forsake
forsook
forsooken
forsaken.
shake
shook
shooken
shaken.
take
took
tooken
taken.
wake
wook
waken.
laughe
lough
lowen loughen laughen.
slee
slough slow
slawen slayn.
waxe wexe
•weex wex
wax wexen
waxen? wgxen,
wasshe
wessh
wasshen.
150. Present e for a in sweren, heven is due to
/-mutation. The semi-vowel in O.E. swerian
swerijan^ and the geminate in hebban have been
levelled out by analogy. Shapen (instead of sheppen
shippen, O.E. scieppan scyppari) may have been formed
by analogy with the P.P. shapen (hence sK), from
O.N. skapa ; but perhaps derivation from O.E.
sceapian might be suggested, since the weak P.P.
shaped also occurs. On laughen cf § 1 24. The long
vowel in slee sl§§n is due to loss of h (O.E. sMan from
*sleahan).
151. Participle, g for a in swgren occurs already
in O.E. Slawen traces back to O.E. slajen, slayn to
slsejen ; wgxen (like Pret. wax) with a Present wexe
follows the analogy of Class I.
152. Preterite, ou 'ow in slough slow, drow, gnow,
'h = u in Chaucer, Medially, as for instance in
VERBS WITH VOWEL-GRADATION.
"7
the PL lowen loughen, we should on phonetic grounds
expect the diphthong ou, but, by analogy, ii may
have prevailed in this position also.
The Prets. haf (for hoof) from heve, wax (and like-
wise P.P. wgxen) from wexe, follow the analogy of
Class I. The Pret. weex with unusual, but well-
attested, preservation of the long vowel, and wex
correspond to O.E. wdox, which generally takes the
place of the regular wox {weaxan has thus passed
from the second gradation series into the reduplica-
ting class). Further, M.E. wessh from wasshe seems
to have been formed by analogy with wex. The
originally weak verb quake, P.P. quaked, has formed
a Pret. quook by analogy with shake. The true
Pret. oifare — -foor — is lost, and has been replaced by
ferde (O.^./erde ixoxa. feran).
Note. By the side of the strong verb waken awaken 'to
awake' intrans. there is a weak verb waken (O.E. waciati)
awaken trans. ' to awaken.' The verb taken is of O.N. origin.
153. Class III. Gradation series in O.E. / -a -i -i ;
in Ch. i -g -i -i.
driven,
shriven,
biten,
shiten.
smiten.
writen writen.
)rms :
shyne
shggn.
dryve
drggf
ryve
r9<?f.
shryve
thryve.
byte
bggt
slyte.
shyte
smyte
smggt
wryte
wrggt
Il8 ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
byde
bggd
glyde
giggd
ryde
rggd
slyde.
bistryde
bistrgg
wrythe.
agryse
agrggs.
ryse
^ggs
wrye
{d)biden.
gliden.
riden riden.
wryen.
154. ryven (O.N. rifd) has supplanted O.E. riofan
(O.N. rjifa) which belonged to CI. IV. The verb
stryven, borrowed from the O.Fr. (estriver) has con-
formed to the third gradation series : Pret. Sg. strggf.
155. Ripan riopan occurs in the Anglian dialects
by the side of O.E. (W.S.) ripan ' to reap,' Sievers,
P.B.B. ix. 277. Upon which is based the Pret.
rgpen in Chaucer.
156. Class IV. Gradation series in O.E. :
/o, li ea u o ;
in Chaucer here (as in CI. I. A, a,) the third grade
has been assimilated to the fourth, hence :
e,u f g g.
On the resulting diphthongs, as well as on i in lye,
flye, cf. the chapter on Phonology, § 21.
Forms :
creepe cr^^p crgpen crgpen.
cleeve clqven.
brewe brew,
fleete.
sheete skgten.
beede.
seethe
WEAK VERBS.
I
cheese ckggs
leese
flye fleighfley
lye ' to tell lies.'
chgsen
flowen
chgsen.
Igren Igrn.
flowen.
flee
brouke.
fleighfley.
(Jouke)
shouve
shoof
Igken.
shoven.
119
157. The grammatical change which is preserved
in sgden from seethe sggth, Igren from leese., is
abandoned in chgsen (Pret. PI. and P.P. O.E. curon,
coren) from cheese.
158. Instead of flyen the MSS. frequently write
fleen in the Pres. (perhaps even Chaucer himself did
so, cf. Blaunche 178, Fame 1523 [Globe, Fame iii.
433, Note]), whereby the verbs to fly and to flee
become identical in form (0.¥.. fl^ojanfl^ah flujon
flojen ; fleon (from ^'fldohan), fldah, flujon, flojeri).
Beeden has been contaminated by bidden (CI. I. C.)
hence bad forbad, instead oi bg§d forb^^d.
159. Noteworthy is the anomalous inflexion of
shouve ' shove, push ' with variable u in the P.P.
(already in Lay. scufen), and o in the Pret. Sing.
160. Weak inflexion has intruded into cleeve, Pret.
clefte ; leese, Pret. Igste, also P.P. Igst by the side of
loren ; creepe, Pret. crepte beside cr§§p ; flee ' flee,'
fledde, by the side o{ fleigh.
Tense Formation of the Weak Verbs.
161. 01. I. (A) with short root-vowel. Present.
O.E. erie, derie, herie, werie, styrie ; Chaucer : ere,
dere, were, stere, but herie (on the personal inflexion
120 ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
cf. § 1 84). If any other consonant but r precedes,
the semi-vowel is assimilated to it in O.E., and the
result is that jj becomes cj (i.e. gg), fj becomes bb :
tellan, set tan, streccan, dswebban, lecjan etc. In
Chaucer the gemination is, as a rule, preserved and
carried through the whole inflexion of the Present :
dwellen, tellen, sellen, letten, setten, recchen, strecchen,
with the exception of bb, that, by analogy, yields to v
from / (asweven) and Cf, which maintains itself either
as gg {ddz) {abeggen, leggen), or is supplanted by y, i
irom j^{aby en abey en, leyen, seyen), cf. § 100 Note; §114
Note 2.
162. The Preterite is formed by means of the
ending -ede (oldest English form -idoR from idd) : O.K.
erede, derede, werede, and in the same way in Chaucer,
so far as the forms occur : O.K. styrede, Ch. sterede,
but, on the other hand, O.K. herede, Ch. heriedie) by
analogy with the Present ; O.K. dswefede, Ch.
{aswevede) etc.
Excepted are, however :
(a) a number of short-stemmed verbs which dropped
the i at an early period, and hence, in contradistinc-
tion to the Present, have a non-mutated root-vowel.
In Chaucer occur : sglde (O.E. salde, sealde) from
sellen, tglde (O.E. tealde) from tellan, raugkte Troil. II.
447 (O.E. reahte) from recchen (O.E. reccan), straughte
(O.E. streahte) from strecchen (O.E. streccan), as well
as sayde, seyde from seyen, sayen {ssejde from secjan,
which, however, is of mixed inflexion in O.E.
Sievers, Ags. Gr. §§ 41 5, 416, Note 3, P.B.B. ix. 297).
Note in this connection also the originally anomalous
formation of the Preterite boughte from {a)byen {a)beyen
(O.E. bohte from bycjan, Goth. baAhta from bug/an).
WEAK PRETERITE. 121
The syncope is fluctuating in dwelled{e) dwelte (O.E.
dwealde and dwelede).
The verb liven (O.E. libban, lifian) which in O.E.
follows the mixed (third) conjugation, has a Pret. livede
(O.E. lifde, but later also lifedeliofode, etc. ; cf. Sievers,
P.B.B. ix., 297, N. 2). On the other hand, the Pret.
of haven han (O.E. habban) which originally belonged
to the same conjugation is hadde (O.E. hsefde).
The verb weyen ' to weigh ' (O.E. wejan, Pret. wiej),
which has passed from CI. I. of the gradation verbs
into the weak inflexion, has a Pret. weyede.
Note. On the change oi dxa t in the suffix {e)de, as well as on
the modifications of the consonantal terminations of the root,
cf. § 170.
163. The P.P. is formed by means of the ending
-ed: stered, heried (O.E. hered); asweved; after the
same model also lifed {O.^. jelifd). The verbs men-
tioned under | 162 a, have a syncopated form of the
Participle in O.E., also lecjan {je)lejd, but the verbs
in -d -t show the syncope as a rule only in polysyllabic
inflexional forms. In Chaucer the syncopated Pre-
terite of this group always has a syncopated Parti-
ciple : sold, told, straught, sayd seyd, bought, leyd, let,
set, in the same way also had (O.E. hiefd).
164. 01. 1. (B). with long root- vowel. The Present
regularly suppresses they' or i in O.E. after a preced-
ing consonant : — -fele, dime, hire {hyre), cipe, life {lyfe),
jrete, -mete, fide, lAne, msene, liere, liefe, swMe, Isede,
sprdde, cyde, hyde ; in Chaucer : feele, deeme, heere,
keepe, leeve bileeve, greete, meete, feede, lene, mene,
meene, leere, lere, leve, swete sweete, lede leede, ^rede,
hyde : O.E. Hhte, Mste, Chaucer : lighte, laste ; O.E.
122 ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
blende, rende, sende, wende, and the same in Chaucer ;
O.E. blence, menje, fylle, stynte, jyrde, cysse, lyste,
Chaucer : blenche, menge, fulfille, stente, girde, kisse
kesse, lyste, etc.
165. The Pret. has in O.E. regularly a syncopated
form (for exceptions cf Sievers, Ags. Gr. § 404
N. I.), and this is also generally the case in Chaucer:
felte, ferde, herde, kepte, grette, mette, fedde, lente,
mente, lafte, swatte, ladde, spradde, kidde, lighte, laste,
blente, rente, sente, wente, bleynte, stente, girte, kiste,
leste. After m, however, a weak e is inserted :
demed{e), seemed{e), but rarely otherwise.
166. In O.E. the P.P. is syncopated as a rule
only in inflexional forms expanded by the addition
of a syllable (in verbs in -d -t, sometimes also in
other cases); in Chaucer even the uninflected forms
of the P.P. generally appear syncopated: felt, herd,
kept, gret, met, fed, biwreyd (from biwreye, O.E.
wr/j-an), teyd (O.E. te'jan ty/an), lent, ment, laft,
sprad spred, lad, ywet, (O.E. jewseted), kid, hid hed,
blent, rent, sent, went, bleynt, ymeynd, spilt (from
spillen), girt, kist, etc. But kythed occurs by the side
of kid, afered beside the more frequent form aferd,
stented from stenten, lered from leren (Pret. apparently
not found) ; naturally no syncope in deemed, seemed,
etc.
167. Originally strong verbs with a long root-
syllable which become more or less completely weak,
also generally have syncopated forms : weepe, Pret.
wepte, sleepe — slepte, drede — dradde — drad, rede — radde
redde, creepe — crepte,cleeve — clefte, leese — Igste — Igst; but
walke has a Pret. walked{e), syke — syked(e) and sighte,
WEAK PRETERITE. 123
unless the latter form be due to a M.E. Pres. sihten
(cf. Stratmann 547^) ; the P.P. of breyden is broyded
(| 1 40) and of (^for) weepen, with adjectival iorce,for-
weeped.
168. On the modifications which the root-vowel
undergoes in the syncopated forms in consequence of
the shortening, cf § 50. Note the metathesis whereby
encte, enc{e)d becomes M.E. eynte, eynt; eng(e)d
becomes eynd; hence blenche bleynte bleynf, drenche
dreynte dreynt, quenche P.P. yqueynt, menge, P.P.
ymeynd, senge — seynd, sprenge — spreynd yspreynd.
Note. Amongst the weak forms of originally strong verbs
the P.P. Igst zxvdi the Pret. Iqste, the g of which is due to Igren,
and the P.P. broyded bora O.E. brojden should be noted.
169. The following classes of long-stemmed verbs
have a non-mutated vowel in the Pret. and P.P. :
( 1 ) The verbs in which these forms were originally
anomalous: O.^.Jjencan — pShte — J}Mf,Ch.a\icer: thenken
thenchen — thgughte — thgught ; O.E. }}yncan — p-Ahte —
}>-iiht ; Chaucer : thinken, which in the Pret. (and P.P.)
instead of the phonetically correct ou = u has acquired
gu by assimilation to thenken, (cf for instance, S.T.
'^79l'h9'i'h [B 3933] ^^ ^^^^ ^^^ thgughte:
brgughte) ; O.E. wyrcan — worhte — worht, Ch. werken —
wrgughte — wrgught. Here belongs also the strong Pres.
with weak Pret. and P.P. O.E. brinjan — brdhte — broht,
which in O.E., has, on the one hand the comple-
mentary forms branj brunjon jebrunjen, on the other,
brenjan. These disappear, however, in the M.E.
period. Chaucer : bringen — brgughte — brgught.
(2) The verbs which at an early period were
inflected by analogy with CI. i.: O.E, rec{e)an (also
124 ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
r^ccati) and se'c(e)an — rokte, sohte — soht, in Chaucer :
recchen — rgughte, seeken seechen — soughte — sgught.
(3) rdc{e)an, tmc{e)an fluctuate in O.E. : rdhte
North, rdhte, tdhte tdhte — tseht tdht; in Chaucer
this fluctuation is no longer apparent, on account of
the identical development of shortened s& and a
(§ 50): rechen — raughte, techen — taughte — taught.
170. The consonantal changes which take place in
the syncopated forms of both the short and long-
stemmed verbs of this class are the following :
(a) the ending -de becomes -te in O.E. after /, t, c
and voiceless s (also ss and x) ; in Chaucer the ending
is -te, and in the P.P., under the same conditions, -t
instead of -de and -d: kepte, grette, dreynte (from
drencte), kiste, but also after an originally voiced s, as
proved by Igste, Igst from leesen; after y^: lafte, clefte,
and further in a number of cases which, for the sake
of better classification, will be discussed below.
(/3) In pre-historic O.E. c ( = /^) before t became
k ( = x)> hence forms like O.E. pSkte, piikte, worhte,
sShte, rohte, reahte, streahte, rdhte rdhte, tdhte tdhte ;
in Chaucer : thgughte wrgughte, sgughte, rgughte,
raughte, straughte, raughte, taughte. In later O.E. the
same change sometimes took place, as the result of
analogy. In the syncopated forms of the Pret. and
P.P. in Chaucer we regularly find ght for kt (unless
k be preceded by another consonant, as dreynte
from drencte), for instance, pighte from picchen etc.
Note i. Amongst the old forms in -ta we see that in O.E.
bohte brohte, Chaucer bgughte brqughte, j before t has also
become h {=x)- In the really syncopated forms in ({)da, {e)de
this change cannot occur, since d after / does not become f, cf.,
for instance, O.E. lej'de, M.E. leyde.
WEAK PRETERITE. 125
(7) ^■\-d{e) becomes dd{e): kythen kidde kid
( = kidd).
(S) Before the ending -de(-te) the gemination is
simplified, but, in point of fact, only graphically :
O.E. fj/lde, cyste; Chaucer: V.V. fulfild, Pret. kiste.
Originally single / as in O.E. tealde, sealde remains
phonetically short in cases like tglde, sglde, on the
other hand, dwelte by the side of dwelled{e) from
dwealde dwelede has actually long /.
(e) dd-\- de or (cons. -\-d)-\-de becomes dde or cons.
■\-de, tt-\-t or (cons. + /) + ^e becomes tte or cons.
^-te. In the P.P. dd-^d, tt+t also =dd, it, which,
as in other cases, when final, are represented by
single d, t, cf sette, Pret. sette, P.P. set. But in
Chaucer older nde, nd from nd+de, nd+d, older Ide,
Id from ld-\-de, ld-\-d, as well as older rde, rd from
rd-\-de, rd+d, have become nte or nt, Ite or It, rte
or rt respectively : wende, Pret. wente, P.P. went,
sende sente sent, bilde bilte bilt, welde welte, girde
girte girt.
(^ Chaucer frequently uses -te -t for -de, d after
single or geminated n : mente, lente, but wende from
weenen, brenne brente brent (but P.P. also brend,
cf. Fame 173 S.T. 83/2896) [A 2896], likewise
sometimes after a single or geminated /: felte,
felt ; dwelte, spilt, on the other hand not only as
a matter of course tglde told, sglde sgld, but also
fulfild.
Note 2. Some mss. spell even the syncopated participles in
original -enjed with final / : ymeynt, spreynt (by false analogy
with bleynt, dreynt), but Chaucer apparently wrote orA}j ymeynd,
spreynd, seynd. The P.P. oi {kemben), Pret. kembde is kembd,
variants being kempd and kempt.
126 ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
171. 01. II. Present. The O.E. i or J (z ij also /)
of the termination which traces back to older t, as t
in its turn to 6j (for which reason no mutation of the
root- vowel, unless the theme is an i- or Jo- stem) is
generally suppressed in M.E. In Chaucer : live
(§ i62),prike {O.^. pricie), love, wone, clepe, answere
(O.E. andswarie, influenced by swere O.E. swerie),
make, twicche (O.E. twiccie), longe, folwe, axe, reve,
clgthe, looke, etc.
On astonie, harie, cf below.
172. The Preterite is formed in O.E. by means of
the ending -ode^zXsx -ode,B.\so -ade,-ude,-ede,the P.P. by
the ending -Sd, later -od, -ad, in the inflected forms also
-ed. In Chaucer the endings Pret. -ed{e), P.P. -ed,
are the rule. Examples : Pret. livede, lovede, wonedie),
cleped{e), longed, folwed, axed, wyped, looked, etc. On
the apocope of the final -e, cf § 194. P.P. lived
(§ 163), loved, waned, mased amased, waked, folwed,
axed, looked, yfetered, etc.
173. In some verbs syncope occurs as the result
of analogy : — priken — prighte ; twicchen — twighte —
twight ; pleyen — pleyde ; reven — rafte — raft ; but also
bireved; answiren (generally accented thus) — answerde
(by the side of dnswerd with apocope of the final e) —
answered answ^rd; maken — made and maked — maad
and maked; clothen — cladde and clothed [OS., clddode)
— clad, exceptionally cled, Blaunche 252, and clothed;
clepe — cleped{e) — cleped and clept ; (shrede) toshrede —
shredde. Chaucer affords no genuine instance of the
strong inflexion of the last-mentioned verb, which
occurs elsewhere in M.E., and finds an analogy in
the Mlg. schroden P.P. gesckrdden, shredde occurs S.T.
WEAK PRETERITE. 1 27
410/227 [E. 227] where Harl. 7334 reads shred,
which may, however, stand for the apocopated weak
form.
174. The verb astonien may be due to a confusion
of O.E. stunian with O.Fr. estoner, by the side of
which estonier, or estonir, seems to have occurred (a
P.P. is proved by the occurrence of the Fern, estonie) :
Pres. astonie, Pret. astonyed astoneyd or astoned{e) S.T.
413/316 [E. 316]. P.P. astonied or astoned. P.P.
astoned is proved Troil. I. 274 by the rime, but the
form astonied seems Hkewise to have been used by
Chaucer, at least in the Pret., and probably also in
the P.P. — harien to 'drag, traho,' points, at first sight,
to O.Fr. harier, but the Pres., as well as the P.P.
haried, suggests a confusion of the French verb with
O.E. herjian, the / of which is thematic. The Pret.
harwede corresponds to O.E. herjode.
175. Adjectives formed from substantives by means
of the participial ending -£</are very rarely syncopated ;
but herd and yherd ' hairy ' (: herd) occur.
176. Some of the verbs borrowed from other Ger-
manic dialects have syncopated forms, of which the
following are examples : — {skedden, O.Fris. skedda
scheddd), Pret. shedde and shadde (treatment of the
u -root as an a -root) ; steden [bisteden, Mdu. steden
besteden, cf. O.N. stedja, P.P. staddr). P.P. bistad;
{hussen hushen, Lg. huschen hussen), P.P. hust;
skippen (origin?) Pret. skipte; sterten (O.N. sterta),
Pret. sterte, but also asterted {^.converted P.P.) ; shryken,
Olg. scrtcdn) Pret. shrighte, but also shryked {skryked).
deyen, dyen (O.N. doyja is strong, cf., however, § 4 1
Note), Pret. deyde dyde, dyed. In contradistinction
128 ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
to the usage of the languages from which they are
derived Preterites and Participles like drouped,
reysed (from reysen ' to raise, rear '), weyved (O.N.),
reysed ' travelled ' (Lg.), are not syncopated.
Note. The verb putten (of obscure, perhaps Keltic, origin,
in older M.E texts aXsoputen) va&^cts putie—put.
177. The inflexion of verbs borrowed from O.Fr.
is, in the main, based upon the strong (stem-accented)
forms of the Romance Present : M.E. Present crye,
frye, preye, cacche,preeche\ suffre, keevre, covre, assente;
blaundisshe, punisshe, vaniscke, accomplyce, cheryce;
suffyse; despyse, playne, remayne; deceyve receyve, meeve^
plese, etc.
The verbs which have an inchoative ending in the
Romance Present generally retain it in M.E. ; sese,
however, drops it, whilst in obeye (for obeyshe) only
the consonantal element is lost, but the i has united
with the preceding vowel to form a diphthong. The
latter phenomenon, without the former, also appears
in rejoyce.
venquisshe is a late addition to the verbs in -isshe.
It seems to be derived from the Fr. Perf instead of
the Present. On the verbs chastyse, sacrifyse and
exercyse, cf § 1 1 1 . A few verbs are based on the
forms of the O.Fr. strong P.P. in -t: countrefete,
peynte. Similarly feynte is formed from O.Fr. feint,
but the M.E. verb does not acquire the meaning of
the O.Fr. /emdre, to which M.E. feyne corresponds
in sense.
Note. The stem-extension which O.Fr. jouster undergoes in
M.E. justne does not seem to pertain to Chaucer's language :
of. S.T. 3/96 [Prol. <)€\juste, though Harl. 7334y«j/«^.
INFLEXION OF ROMANCE VERBS. 129
178. Romance verbs generally retain in M.E. the
accent of the Romance form on which the English
Present is based.
Excepted from this rule are :
(a) a few verbs in O.Fr. -ier, which in M.E. throw
back the accent on to the root-syllable immediately
preceding : contrdrie, stikdie, cdrie, marie, hdrie (§ 1 74,
on tdrie cf. § 48, V.).
(jS) the verbs in -isshe -yce, which, as a rule, retain
the accent on the termination, but may throw it on
to the preceding root-syllable, the latter chiefly in
the Pret. and V .V . fiinisshed yp^nisshed, but also in
the Pres. Idngwisseth.
(■y) The verbs in O.Fr. -iner, Lat. -tnare, as
enlumyne, imagyne, at least in the Pret. and P.P.
enliimyned (not, however, for instance, a verb like
enfamyne, P.P. enfamyned). Also verbs like French
empoisonner, emprisoner, cf. empoisoned.
179. Verbs borrowed from O.Fr. — with the ex-
ception oi stryve (| 154) — follow the weak inflexion.
The Pret. is formed by means of the ending -ed(e),
the P.P. by means of the ending -ed: Pret. and P.P.
suffred, assented, punisshed, playned, plesed, etc.
180. Syncope occurs especially in the Pret. of
verbs the theme of which ends in a vowel : crye —
cryde ; preye — preyde ; paye — payde. The verbs in
simple i have in addition the non-syncopated form
which the poet uses at any rate for purposes of
rime : cryed beside cryde, espyed beside espyde,
signifyed. In the P.P. syncope occurs in verbal
themes in ay, ey, but not in I : payd apayd, affrayd,
preyd, etc., beside which — and more frequently — payed
1 30 ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
apayed, affrayed, arrayed, assayed etc., but exclusively
it seems, cryed, allyed etc.
181. In accordance with a general rule (§ 257)
the e of the ending -ed becomes mute when the
antepenultimate bears the accent, though the syncope
is not as a rule expressed graphically : piknisshed,
yp'knisshed, vdnissked, enl^mined, empoisoned etc.
This rule is rarely violated : enliimined AIQ.C 73 (cf.
Pret. crlstened S.T, 534/217 [G. 217], unless the
passage should be emended cristned hath : Ell.
Hengw. and Corpus read cristned, which as it stands
is metrically inadequate, but in point of fact is the
only correct form). In the case of themes in -issh
some MSS. occasionally suppress the i, instead of the
e, of the inflexional ending, cf S.T. 19/6^7 [Prol.
657] Petworth -.punsched.
Note. Verbs like conirdrie, stiidie, cdrie, mdrie are not to be
regarded as proparoxytons, as the i is only a semi-vowel, hence
studied, mdried etc.
182. Proofs of more extensive syncope are afforded
by the Pret. and P.P. of cacchen which follows the
analogy of the native verb lacchen (O.E. Ixccan) :
caughte— caught, further the Participles quit ( = quitt
from quyted) from quyten, enoynt from {enoynten),
which itself is formed from the O.Fr. P.P. enoint,
likewise depeynt from depeynten. On syncope in the
Personal and Numeral inflexion, cf. below.
183. The Chaucerian P.P. enoynt might be con-
sidered a direct derivation from the O.Fr. P.P.
We must doubtless assume the P.P. creaat to be
formed by immediate analogy with Lat. creatus
{"though probably after the model of French learned
INFLEXION OF THl? PRESENT. 131
words). Other words of similar formation are used
only as adjectives, as, for instance, desolaat, elaat,
exaltaat, fortunaat, others again, like curaat, prelaat,
only as substantives.
Inflexion of the Present.
184. Indicative. In the following paradigms we
shall consider primarily those O.E. forms upon which
the Chaucerian ones are based, without, however,
indicating isolated late phenomena which may seem
to foreshadow the M.E. development. Chaucerian
forms which are the result of analogy will be marked
by special type ; but this seemed superfluous in the
case of the PI. ending which differs uniformly
from O.E.
O.E.
Chaucer.
S. fealle
falle.
feallest (felsf)
fattest.
fealleSifeM)
faUeth.
YX.feallaS
fatten.
S. here
bere.
berest (biresf)
berest.
berett (bired)
bereth.
PI. berad
beren.
S. licje
lye.
lijest
lyest.
lijest {lid)
lyeth {lyth).
PI. licjad
lyen.
S. bidde
bidde.
bidest {bitsf)
biddest.
bided {bit)
biddeth {bit).
PI. biddad
bidden.
132
ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
O.E.:
Chaucer :
S. werie
were.
werest
werest.
wereit
wereth.
PI. weriad
weren.
S. herie
herie.
herest
heriest.
hered
herieth.
PL heriad
herien.
S. telle
telle.
telest
tellest.
teled
telleth.
PI. tellad
tellen.
S. secje
seye.
sejest (sejst)
seyest (seyst).
sejed{sejd)
seyth.
PI. secjad
seyen.
S. lufie
love.
lufast
lovest.
lufad
loveth.
PI. lufiad
loven.
185. The form of the stem in M.E. is determined
partly by the O.E. form of the ist. Pers. Sing, and
the three persons of the Plural, partly by the 2nd.
and 3rd. Pers. Sing
By the former in case of
gemination, with the
exception of cj and bb. By the
latter when the ist.
Pers. ends in -ie, with the ex-
ception of herie and
possibly astonien (S 174). The
formation of the Present stem of Romance words
calls for no comment
in addition to the remarks made
in §^ 177, 178. The inflexion of the Pres. Ind. is
sufficiently illustrated by the paradigms given above.
INFLEXION OF THE PRESENT. 133
As regards the endings, only the Plural termina-
tions would require explanation, which had, however,
better not be attempted in a grammatical monograph
such as this.
It is noteworthy that Chaucer in exceptional cases
forms the 3rd. Pers. Sing, by means of the ending
-es, instead of -eth, a usage peculiar to the Northern
dialects : telles {-.elles) Blaunche 73.
186. Syncope and Apocope. A. Syncope occurs
in a limited degree in the 2nd. Pers., to a greater
extent in the 3rd. Pers. Sing. In the 2nd. Pers.
there occur by the side of forms like seyest, leyest,
doublets like seyst, leyst, cf. further § 259. In the
3rd. Pers. syncope is the rule in seytk, leyth, and by
the side of lyeth we find lyth. We also find comth,
makth beside cometh, maketh, likewise loveth A. B.C.
71, bereth 192/1937 [B. 1937]; 197/2091 [B.
2091J ; troweth 537/288 [G. 288], lyketh Troil. HI.
385 etc. If the syncopated e \s, preceded by a lingual,
the following consonantal changes, which go back to
the O.E. period, take place : {d)d+ th and t{f) + th
become tt (spelt £), s+th becomes st, cf slit beside
slydeth, bit beside biddeth, fint beside fyndetk, bit
beside byteth, sit beside sittetk, set beside setteth, lest
beside lesteth, rist beside ryseth. th + th ought to
become long th ; but cf wryth for wrytheth (mss.
wrype writhe) Troil. III. 1 2 3 i ; there is nothing new
to be learnt from worth, which always stands for
wortheth.
In the PI. syncope is rare : seyn, leyn beside seyen,
leyen.
B. Apocope of n is very frequent in the Plural :
falle^ here, telle, lye, seye etc.
134
ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
187. The verb have inflects : Sg. have, hast, hath,
PI. haven han have, also haveth, the latter especially
for the 2nd. Pers. PL Verbs like see or slee inflect :
Sing, see, seest, seeth, PL seen see ; Sing, slee slggst
slggth PL slggn, slee.
188. Conjunctive : O.E. Sing, fealle, here, licje,
bidde, werie, herie, telle, secje, lufie ; PL feallen, beren,
licjen, bidden, werien, herien, tellen, secjen, lufien.
Ch. Sing, falle, bere, lye, bidde, were, herie, telle, seye,
Iffue ; PL fallen, beren, lyen, bidden, weren, herien,
tellen, seyen, loven.
Apocope of the PL n is not less frequent in the
Conjunctive than in the Indicative.
189. Imperative.
(a) Strong : Sing, ber, PL bereth ; com, cometh ;
tak, taketh ; chees, cheeseth ; help, helpeth.
(/3) Weak : (were, wereth ; herie, herietK) ; telle,
telleth. Likewise in Romance verbs : {suffre),
suffreth ; (studie), studieth etc.
Shortened forms of the PL: come, take or taak,
chees, help, tel. Forms like herieth are incapable of
shortening ; likewise studieth and suffreth ; in any
case shortening is rare in Romance verbs.
190. Infinitive : O.E. feallan, beran, licjan, biddan,
werian, tellan, secjan, dbcyjan, lecjan, lufian. Ch. fallen,
beren, lyen, bidden, weren tellen, seyen, abyen abeyen
abeggen, leyen, leggen, loven etc. Apocope of n is
frequent : falle ; bere, lye etc. ; see, flee, slee beside
seen,fleen, slggn, have etc.
The Gerund (O.E. bera?ine etc., M.E. berenne
berene) has in Chaucer as a rule become like the
Infinitive ; only a few forms are extant which were
INFLEXION OF THE PRETERITE.
135
originally dissyllabic, or have become dissyllabic by
syncope : (to) seene, {to) doom, (to) seyne (O.E. s^onne,
dSnne, secjanne), but we also find to seen, to see ; to
doon ; to seyn, to seye.
191. Participle, fallinge, beringe, lyinge, biddinge
etc. Apocope of the e is not infrequent, especially
in rime. The isolated instances of the North-
English participle in -and, which Harl. 7334 intro-
duces in the Sompnour's Tale, are not confirmed by
the Six-Text.
Note i. The ending -inge is due to a confusion of the O.E.
participial ending -ende, which in the M.E. period assumed the
form -inde in Southern, with the ending of the Verbal Subst.
M.E. -ing -inge (O.E. -unj-inf). The similarity in form seems
to have been the immediate reason for this confusion, since
as regards their respective functions the M.E. Part, in -inge is
easily distinguished from the Verbal Subst. in -ing{e). But
since the Participle in a previous period sometimes acquired
the function of the Gerund, cases certainly have resulted in
course of time — in N.E. — in which the participle or gerund
appears to have been confounded with the Verbal Substantive.
Note 2. The Anglo-Norm. Participle in -aunt occurs only
in the function of a noun. It is genei'ally used as an adjective :
table dormaunt, theef erraunt, likewise joynaunf, trenchaunt,
consentaunt, suffisaunt, repentaunt, accordaujit, plesaunt. Sub-
stantives are, for instance, rejnenaunf, servaunt etc.
Inflexion of the Preterite.
192. The Preterite Indicative in strong verbs :
O.K.: Chaucer:
S. heold heeld.
heolde .''
heold heeld.
PI. heoldon heelden.
136
ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
O.E.:
Chaucer :
S. sgnj-
• sgng.
sunje
songe.
sgnj-
sgng.
PI. sunjon
songen.
S. bijgn (bijan)
bigan.
bijunne
bigonne.
bijon {bijan)
bigan.
PI. bijunnon
bigonnen.
S. bsRV
bar beer.
biere
bere bare bar.
bser
bar beer.
PI. bseron
- beren baren.
S. sprsec
spak.
sprSRce
spak.
sprsec
spak.
PI. sprdcon
speken spaken.
S. swor
swggr.
sw6re
[tggke from taken | 193. J
sw6r
swggr.
PI. swSron
swooren.
193. The 2nd. Pers. Sing, is clearly distinguished
from the ist. and 3rd. persons only in verbs belong-
ing to gradation-class I. A, /3 : dissyllabic sonje,
for instance, S.T. 585/294 [H. 294], but treated as
a monosyllable in Harl. 7334, trisyllabic bigonne
S.T. 543/442 [G. 442], changed by Harl. 7334 to
bigonnest, dissyllabic founde Troil. III. 362. But
even in this group the 2nd. Pers. is assimilated to
the 1st. and 3rd., for instance, thou drank ; cf also
monosyllabic tggke Blaunche 483 (from taken).
INFLEXION OF THE PRETERITE. 137
Note. Mark as interesting the reading of Corpus, S.T.
71/2472 [A. 2472] confirmed by Harl. 7334 : as }>ou him bihight
{•.knight Nom.), Lansd. as }>ou him hihte, the remaining MSS. as
thou hast him hight. If Chaucer wrote }}ou bihight, we should
have to assume a strong Pret. bihight (cf. § 135).
The Plural often drops the final -n. Sometimes
the Sing, is used for the Plural : yaf, lay, sat, bigan,
wan, ran etc.
194. The weak Pret. Ind. has the following
endings in O.E. : Sg. -e, -es{t), -e ; PL -on ; Chaucer :
-e, -est, -e ; PI. -en.
The -e of the ist. and 3rd. Pers. Sing, becomes
mute in the non-syncopated forms, and is generally-
dropped in the better MSS. : axed, Ignged, looked,
wyped etc., also deemed, seemed (where the medial
vowel is re-inserted). Hence cleped by the side of
clepte, maked beside made, and dyed beside dyde,
espyed beside espyde etc. After an originally short
theme the e is occasionally retained : werede beside
wered, but especially when the character of the root-
vowel resists complete lengthening, hence generally
lovede. In such a case the medial e must necessarily
be treated as mute (Jovede) ; but there is no doubt
that the form loved occurs also. In the PI. the
non-syncopated forms generally drop the ending -en.
Rare are forms like trisyllabic weyeden 13/454 [Prol.
454], yelleden 2gZl4S79 [B. 4579], woneden Leg.
712, useden ib. 787, stremeden Troil. IV. 247 (variant
■weptyn that), or like quadrisyllable asseegeden Troil. I.
60. The Romance verb assenten has Pret. PL
assented, or, with unusual syncope, assenten.
The syncopated forms drop the -n when metre or
rime requires it; and in the ist. and 3rd. Pers.
138 ACCIDENCE: THE VERB.
Sing., and even in the PL, they may from considera-
tions of metre drop the ^ of the termination. (Cf § 261.)
The following examples will illustrate the normal
inflexion of the weak Pret.
S. tglde lovede loved,
tgldest lovedest lovedest.
tglde lovede loved.
PL tglden ? loveden loved(en).
S. axed preeved cryde cryed.
axedest preevedest crydest.
axed preeved cryde cryed.
PL axed{en) preveedien) cryden.
Note. S.T. 117/4088 [A. 4088] the ending -est of the and.
Pers. Sing, appears to be dropped in the speech of a North-
umbrian student : ne had thow, or (with Hari. 7334), nad thou,
instead of naddest thou. Only ED. has syncope in this case :
nadstow, and Camb. Gg. the full form ne haddist J>ou which is at
variance with the metre.
195. The Pret. Oonj. has in O.E. the following
endings, which remain unchanged in Chaucer : Sg. -e,
PL -en. Apocope occurs under the same conditions
as in the Indicative.
In the weak Pret. the 2nd. Pers. Sing, has in
Chaucer frequently assumed the endings of the
Indicative ; cf ne haddestow which read naddestou
Troil. IV. 276, wgldest TroiL IV. 282 etc.
In O.E. the strong Pret. Conj. follows the grade of
the 2nd. Pers. Sing, and the PI. Ind. In Chaucer
assimilation to the Ind. has generally taken place.
196. With regard to the P.P. note further the
following :
In some verbs the strong P.P. occurs also in a
shortened form. The verbs with an originally short
INFLEXION OF THE PRETERITE. 139
root ending in -r, less consistently those in -/, fre-
quently syncopate the e of the ending : 6grn, Igrn,
swgrn, stoln, likewise the verbs lyen, seen, sl§§n, P.P.
leyn, seyn, slayn (probably never slayen).
Moreover, some verbs with an originally short
root drop the n of the ending and let the e become
mute : come beside comen, drive beside driven, stgle
beside stolen stgln, write beside writen etc. When
the root-vowel is originally long the n is more rarely
dropped (in order to facilitate elision of the e), as
sonje S.T. 45/1540 [A. 1 540], zyo%«^ 2/58 [Prol. 59]
yknowe 13/423 [Prol. 423] etc. (cf, on the other
hand the verbs without a connecting vowel, § 197).
Forms without n and with a syllabic e as falle, bgre,
Iggre, swgre, slawe, seye occur principally in rime.
But, used with the force of adjectives, bake {bake mete
S.T. 10/343 [Prol. 343]), dronke (a dronke man
37/1264 [A. 1264], cf. also ib. 1263 [A. 1262]
where elision takes place) occur as dissyllables
within the metre.
The P.P., both strong and weak, is often com-
pounded with the particle y- (O.E. je-') : yeomen,
yfallen, ywryen, yleyd, ydrad, ymaad etc., also the
P.P. of Romance verbs : ypreeved, yserved etc.
Verbs which have already adopted another prefix do
not admit of composition with y, unless the prefix
has ceased to be felt as such, as in the case of
yfreten.
Note. In rare cases only are other verbal forms united with
the prefix y-, as the Inf. yknowe S.T. 505/887 [F. 887], ysee,
Blaunche 205, Leg. i^,yfynde Leg. 425 [cf. Globe, Leg. 425 N.].
I40 ACCIDENCE : THE VERB.
Anomalous Verbs.
197. Go. Pres. Ind. Sg. gg, gggst, gggth ; PL gggn,
Conj. Sg. gg ; PI. gggth. Imp. Sg. gg ; PI. gggth.
Inf. gggn, gg. P. Pres. gging. P.P. gggn gg (especially
in ygg agg). Yeede (O.E. jeeode, old Aorist) and
wente from wenden, are used as Preterites : both
forms are inflected weak.
doo. Pres. Ind. doo, doost, dooth ; doon. Conj.
doo ; doon. Imp. doo ; dooth. Inf t^o^^^ doo. P. Pres.
(/J/^^. P.P. doon dggn (§31) doo. Pret. dide weak.
Verb. Subst. Pres. Ind. am, art, is ; been bee,
rarely arn. Conj. bee ; ^^^« <5^^. Imp. bee ; (5^^/,^.
Inf. ^^^« bee. P. Pres. ^««^. P.P. been bee. Pret.
w«.r, were, was ; weren were. Conj. were ; weren
were.
wil. Pres. Ind. w// w^/, zw/Z^^ wglt, wil wgl; wiln
wil wgln wgl. Conj. wile wglle. Pret. wglde. P.P.
Preterite-Presents.
198. can. Pres. Ind. can, canst, can ; connen
conne (can). Inf connen conne. Pret. kouthe koude.
P.P. /^£72<//^.
dar. Pres. Ind. dar, darst, dar ; dor (dar). Pret.
dorste.
thar. Pres. Ind. thar, tharst, thar ; {thar).
shal. Pres. Ind. shal, shall, shal; shullen shuln
shul (shal). Pret. shglde.
may. Pres. Ind. may, might (iJiaj/st), may; mowen
mowe mow (inay). Pres. Conj. inowe. Pret. inighte.
moot. Pres. Ind. moot, moost, moot ; mooten moote
moot. Pres. Conj. moote. Pres. moste.
THE SUBSTANTIVE. 141
WOOt. Pres. Ind. wggt, wggst, wggt ; witen wite
{wggf). Pres. Conj. wite. Imp. wite. Inf. witen wite.
Part. Pres. witinge. Pret. wiste. P.P. wist.
owe. Pres. Ind. owe, owest, oweth. Pret. gughte.
The forms in brackets are the result of analogy.
They are, in the main, instances of levelling out of
the Plural in favour of the Sing., and we may note
that it is chiefly the 2nd. Pers. PI. for which a Sing,
form is used : ye wggt, ye may.
II. THE SUBSTANTIVE.
199. I. Vocalic Stems.
(a) O.E. Masc. Nouns. The ending of the Nom.
Sing., to which the Ace. Sing, corresponds, is
(i) Consonantal in the case of the (?-stems : arm,
borugh borw (Troil. I. 1038), cherl, doom, dr^^m,
fissh, mouth, ggth, ring, wal, wolf; staf, whal; heven,
fowelfoul, thonder, hamer etc., likewise in the case of
the long-syllabled or polysyllabic i- and «-stems :
gest, thurst, stench, h§§th ; feeld, somer, winter etc.
(2) Vocalic by the M.E. resolution of an O.E.
consonant, as in the case of the c-stems day, wey,
the long wo-stem snow etc. Noteworthy is peny
(O.E. penij).
(3) Vocalic by the loss or resolution of a con-
sonant in the O.E. period, as in the case of the
<?-stem shoo.
(4) Weak e, corresponding to O.E. -e in the longyb-
stems : ende, herde (Jiierde), leeche, mellere, rydere etc.,
as well as in the short «-stems : bite, mete, stede, lye, to
which should be added the words in -shipe,z.s freend-
shipe, Igrdshipe etc. ; corresponding to O.E. -u in the
142
ACCIDENCE: THE SUBSTANTIVE.
short «^-stems sone, wode. Weak e becomes final by
the apocope of n in mgrwe (O.E. morjen).
(5) Inorganic weak e in the7b-stems which have
become long in consequence of the West Germanic
consonant gemination, whenever the O.E. Nominative
ended in cj: wegge (O.E. we'cj).
Note, weye is used beside -wey, and, apparently, more fre-
quently ; Orrm already uses wefje. Sgime is the rule instead
of bgtm ; apparently also sialle for j/a/, iere for ieer. Amongst
words in -ere, wongeer has lost the final e, and the preceding s is
closed, so that a confusion with the O.Fr. suffix -/i?r seems to have
taken place.
200. The Gen. Sg. ends in -es or -s : cherles,
Ggddes, kinges, Igrdes, fingres etc., dayes {shoos);
sones.
Note i. Assuming the Nom. as stem, the rule is to add -ei
to the words ending in a consonant, as well as to those mentioned
in § 199, 2, -s to those ending in weak e, as well as to those
mentioned in § 199, 3.
Note 2. By the side of;^fZ'^;^«j there occur the Genitive forms
hevene, heven, as in O.E. by the side of the Masc. heofon heofones,
a Fern, heofon, also heqfone, which follows the ^-inflexion.
201. The Dat. Sg. is, as a rule, like the Nom.,
only a few of the words the Nom. of which ends in
a consonant, have retained the old -e of the Dative :
bgrwe (from bgrwe), brgnde, jlighte and flight, Igrde,
and probably more frequently Igrd, strgnde, toune
and toun.
202. The PL of all cases ends in -es, or -s: doomes,
kinges, Igrdes, fingres ; dawes dayes (from day, cf. §§41,
44) ; shoos ; sones etc
VOCALIC INFLEXION. 143
By the side of shoos, shoon occurs (already O.E.
Gen. PI. sceond) by analogy with fggn, tggn (§ 213).
Peny has a PI. pens.
203. I. VocaUc Stems. (;8) O.E. Neuters. The
ending of the Nom. Sing, to which the Ace. corre-
sponds, is
( 1 ) Consonantal in the long o- and /-stems : bggn,
deer, fyr, good, wyf etc. ; wight ; also in the ja-
stems which have become long in consequence of the
West Germanic consonant gemination : bed, kin etc.,
further, in some of the short o-stems : bath {clif), lith,
ship, writ etc., and in the greater number of the
polysyllabic o-stems : heved h((d, wepen etc. Final
n is apocopated in even beside eve, niayden beside
mayde, invariably in game.
(2) Vocalic by M.E. resolution of an O.E. con-
sonant : straw (beside stree).
(3) Vocalic by loss or resolution of a consonant in
the O.E. period : fee, wo ; tree, knee, stree (beside
straw\
(4) Vocalic, i.e. weak e corresponding to O.E. -e in
long jb-stems, short /-stems : wyte, spere, and, corre-
sponding to O.E. u, short wo-steras : mele etc.
(5) Weak e as the result of analogy in the majority
of the short, and in some of the polysyllabic, o-stems :
blade, cgle (but cglfgx, cglblak'), dale, hgle ; berne, welkne
etc. In these cases the form of the O.E. PI. in -u
has been determinate. An e seems, moreover, to be
added to the Nom. of short wo-stems with roots
ending in a vowel, provided that w is resolved in
M.E. — not already in O.E. — cf. hewe in contra-
distinction to tree, knee (on the other hand in long
stems, for instance, straw beside stree).
144 ACCIDENCE: THE SUBSTANTIVE.
204. The Gen. Sing, ends in -es or -j, as in the
Masc. : wyves, beddes, kinnes, shippes ; maydens ;
spares, etc.
205. Traces of a Dat. Sing, in -e when the Nom.
ends in a consonant : fyre, lyve (frequently also
Instrumental), Ignde ; bedde, wedde etc. But if
rhythm or rime requires it we also find fyr, lyf,
land, bed etc., in the Dat. Similarly lighte and light,
shipe(\ 2 2o) and ship.
206. The PL of the following long o-stems is (cf
the Nom. and Ace. in O.E.) like the Sing. : deer, fglk ;
hgrs, n^§t, pound, sheep, swyn, less consistently thing,
yeer; here belongs also the dissyllabic winter (which
in O.E. is Masc. in the Sing., Neuter in the PL :
wintru, more frequently winter, not until late Masc.
wintras). As a rule the PL ending -es or -s (origin-
ally the ending of the Masc. o-stems) prevails for
Neut. nouns : bgnes, fyres, goodes, wyves ; beddes ;
dives, shippes ; maydens ; fees, trees, knees, strggs ;
speres, cgles, etc. ; also thinges, ye(e)res beside thing,
yeer.
Note. Exceptionally the PI. of words in -ee occurs with the
ending -es, instead of -s. Thus Blaunche 266 fees, Troil. in.
1592, and S.T. i84/i7i9[B. \^\()\knees (in both cases the variant
knowes) should be scanned as dissyllables ; likewise trees dis-
syllabic, Fame 752 [Globe, Fame ii. 244].
207. I. Vocalic Stems (7) O.E. Feminines. The
Nom. Sing, generally ends in weak -e. This corre-
sponds to O.E. -u in short i^-stems: care, love, shame,
etc. ; in short TO^-stems like shade (beside shadwe),
in short w-stems like dore, nose. In long stems it is
VOCALIC INFLEXION.
145
due to analogy either with all, or most, of the
remaining cases. Examples of the long stems :
(i) ^-stems (O.E. Gen. Dat. Ace. in -e) beere,foore,
halle, lore, sorwe (but sgrwful), throwe, wounde, sowle,
shepne, -ckestre, strengthe, highte, sighte (O.E. jesikd).
The verbal substantives fluctuate between -inge and
-ing. Fight is an exception, the inflexion of which
was determined by the O.E. Neuter jefeoht.
(2) /irJ-stems, both those which have become long
by assimilation, and the originally long ones : brigge,
egge, fitte, helle, selle, also the words in -nesse; an
exception is ken ; blisse, lisse, yerde.
(3) wa-sXsxas : meede, rewe, trewe.
(4) /-stems (O.E. Gen. and Dat. in -e, later fre-
quently also the Accusative) : dede deede, gleede,
neede ; bene, queene ; tyde ; exceptions : bench, might,
world. — see ends in an accented vowel.
(5) 2^-stems : querne, but hgnd. — u is apocopated
in kinrede (O.E. cynrseden).
Note. The -wd-stems prove that the Nom. of short-syllabled
steins was also formed by analogy in M.E. : O.E. sceadu.
Gen. Dat. Ace. sceadwe and sceade, in Chaucer shade and shadwe.
208. The Gen. Sing, is but scantily represented
in this group, which contains numerous Abstract
Nouns and some names of inanimate objects. The
old form in -e appears for instance in halle, helle, love
in loi'eday. The Gen. in -es, for instance in queenes,
worldes, loves {love is Masc. in Chaucer).
209. Dat. in -e in a Nom. with consonantal ending
occurs in hgnde by the side of which hgnd (O.E,
honda hand).
146 ACCIDENCE: THE SUBSTANTIVE.
210. The PI. ends in -es (or -s), cf. cares, dores,
halles, sgrwes, woundes, dreminges, lesinges etc., hennes,
deedes, gleedes, queenes, hgndes etc.
Note, gere is based on the O.E. PI. jearwe, more accu-
rately perhaps on the Dat. jearwiim jearum.
211. II. Consonantal Inflexion (a) ^-sterns. Nom.
Sing. O.E. Masc. Nouns : ape, asse, bonde, housbgnde,
hunte, moone, name, gxe, teene etc. e has been dropped
in pley ; old contraction in rgg, here belongs also fgg
{O.^. jefd, whereas fdj fa is an Adj.). Feminines :
arwe,erthe, herte, guene{S.T. 576/18) [H. 18], sonne,
swalwe, tonge, widwe etc., also old loan-words like
almesse, cherche ; e is dropped in lady ; cases of old
contraction are bee, flee, flgg, tog etc. Neuters : ye
' eye,' ere.
212. Gen. Sing. Amongst the Feminine Nouns
characteristic forms occur like herte (but also hertes,
cf. Leg. 5 1 9), Sonne, widwe, cherche, lady. But for
the most part the form in -es, or -s, seems to be the
rule for feminine nouns also.
213. Plural in -en or -n ; gxen, fgon (also fogs)
pesen ; asshen (and asshes), hgsen, been (and bees),
fli^n, tggn (and tggs) ; yen. The form in -es or -s is
the general rule : housbgndes, arwes, tonges, ladyes,
eres, rggs etc. It is not clear whether Chaucer wrote
assen or asses, cf. S.T. 342/285 [D. 285].
214. II. (/3) Nom. Sing, foot, tooth, man wom-
man ; book, goes, gggt, ggk {burgh, turf), mous, cow,
night; mgnthe, ale. Gen. inannes wommannes. Dat.
foote. An old Gen. and Dat. of burgh is contained
in the form Canterbury. Plural : feet (but foot when
CONSONANTAL INFLEXION. 147
used as a name of measure), teeth, men womtnen,
gees, breecli Sing. (O.E. brSc'), wanting ; no evidence
for the PI. of mous (and lous) ; kyn ; night ; bookes,
ggkes, burghes, turves, ingnthes (but a twelfmgnthe).
A Gen. formed by analogy with the Sing, is con-
tained in mennes, wommennes. A Dat. PI. feete
(older M.E. foote, O.E. fotum) S.T. 165/1104
[B 1104J.
215. II. (7) fader, broother, mooder, dgughter,
suster. Gen. fader, but also fadres, broother appar-
ently also brotheres, moodres (also mooder T).
Plur. bretheren, dgughtren and dgughtres, sustren
and sustres.
216. II. (^^ freend, feend ; Gen. freendes, feendes.
PL freendes, feendes.
IVl. II. (e) calf, lamb Igmb, Gen. lambes, ey. No
evidence for the Plural in -r. Plural chyld (in Sire
Thopas, which, however, contains many irregularities,
b\so chylde: wylde S.T. 194/1996 [B. 1996]); Gen.
chyldes ; PI. children.
218. Germanic Loan-words. The consonantal or
vocalic ending of the Nom. Sing, corresponds, as a
rule, to the original form : for instance, in old loan-
words : carl, ergs, crook, wggn, Mdu. or Lg. pgt,
Mdu. calf ' sura ' (orig. ' pulpa ') ; on the other hand,
O.N. cake, felawe, windowe, Mlg. crouke, drake, knarre,
snoute, toute ; Mdu. crgne (| 29, ^), grgte, pigge,
Mdu. or Fris. slinge etc. But O.N. Feminines with
a consonantal ending frequently add -e : boone, roote,
sleyghte. On the other hand -e is dropped in beer
(Mlg. biire), for Blaunche 254 should read thus,
148 ACCIDENCE: THE SUBSTANTIVE.
Compound pilwebeer. Gen. Sing, occurs rarely :
pigges. Dat. brinke (from Dan. brink'). PL crookes
legges, felawes ; pgttes etc.
Note. Keltic words : hog, PI. hggges, cloke (if not from
M.Lat. clocca, O.Fr. cloque cloche, which, however, is itself
derived from the Keltic), gonne etc. An e has been added to
goune (Gael. gUn, W. gdin), daggere (W. Bret, dager'i, but
cf the M.E. verb daggen, to the stem of which the suffix -ere is
added).
219. Syncope and Apocope. Words in -el, -er, -en,
generally syncopate the e of the derivative suffix,
whether it be original or irrational, whenever a ter-
mination is added : sowle, welkne, thus shepne for
sheepen and in the MSS. sometimes wepne for wepen,
especially before -es of the Gen. Sing, or of the PI. :
foules, fingres, fadres, moodres, dgughtres, sustres, as
well as before -en : dgughtren, sustren. But if v pre-
cedes (probably also in, as in hamer), the e is not
suppressed graphically, though it loses its syllabic
value ; hevene beside heven, hevenes, develes (for which
it would be preferable to write deeveles or deevles),
thus also after th in brotheres, bretheren. Mayden is
in the Gen. and PL, not maydnes, but maydens.
After an unaccented, but metrically numerable,
syllable, weak e when final or in the ending -es
becomes mute, thus by the side of mellere {inellere is
also conceivable) mellere, beside feldwe : felawe
(^felawshipe\ beside wominennes : wommennes, beside
housbgndes : hoi'isbgndes, beside felawes : felawes etc.
Graphically the e is rarely suppressed in the MSS. :
generally Iddyes, bgdyes bgdies, though occasionally
Iddys etc. After a syllable with secondary accent
apocope is general, syncope optional : n^ygheboiuxs
ROMANCE SUBSTANTIVES.
149
or n^yghebores, lovedayes, massedayes 284/4042 [B.
4042].
Note. A trisyllabic form maydenys, such as occurs Leg. 722
according to the MS. Camb. Univ. Gg. 427, in contradistinction
to the other MSS., is certainly not Chaucerian. How the verse
could be emended is, however, not apparent.
220. Final and Medial Consonants. A final /
corresponds to a medial v (though the usage of some
scribes varies in individual cases) : wyf, wyves ;
theef, theeves ; staf, staves ; lyf, lyves lyve etc.
A geminated consonant which, when final, would
be expressed by a simple consonant is marked
graphically when it becomes medial : wal, walks ;
pot, pgttes.
An originally short consonant is lengthened
medially in Ggddes, ggddesse, shippes (but Dat.
Sing, shipe, cf. S.T. 101/3540 [A. 3540] beside
ship), liinmes.
221. Romance Substantives. In cases in which
Old French makes a distinction in form between the
Nominative and the Accusative, Chaucer — following
the early recognizable tendency of Anglo-Norman
— generally prefers the form of the Accusative for the
Nom. Dat. Ace. Sing. Thus the French -s is regu-
larly wanting : due, mesteer, tour, flour (the word
fitz does not occur in Chaucer so far as I know), and
words which shift their accent generally appear in
the form one would naturally expect : emperour, citee
etc. Well-known exceptions are sire, tempest, Huwe
and — contrary to the French development — povirte.
In virgine Chaucer has adopted the learned French
form. It is questionable whether in addition to the
15°
ACCIDENCE: THE SUBSTANTIVE.
form aungel — O.Fr. ang{e)le — he is acquainted with the
form aungele (O.Fr. angele), cf. ^ 226 N.
222. Vocalic and consonantal terminations occur
in the majority of cases corresponding to the
O.Fr. Examples : words in weak e : aunte, cause,
chaunibre, coroune, ese, face, grace, haunche, joye,
melodye, nature, preye (praeda), reniembraunce, servyse,
trompe ; poete,prophete, doute,freere etc. Words with
consonantal ending : mesteer, squieer, prisoneer, caas,
paas, deys, estaat, due, heir, peer, emperour, servaunt,
argument, purpggs ; flour, tour, colour, favour, honour,
vois, p(gs etc. Words ending in an accented vowel :
array, cry, degree, see ; mercy, citee, plentee, crueltee,
benignitee, fey beside feyth etc. It is especially note-
worthy that Chaucer marks the gender of words
which end in a suffix capable of inflexion (as in -ain
-aine, -ier -iere) by a distinction in form, cf chapeleyne
S.T. 5/ 1 64 [Prol. 164J chambereere — 'chamber-
woman ' — tresoreere ' female-treasurer '). Unusual is
peere (Masc. and Fern.) heside peer, cf S.T. 258/3244
[B. 3244], Purs II. In emperyce. Former Age 55,
MooderofGod 2, Chaucer uses the younger O.French
form, instead of the older one {emperets). In lazar
(O.Fr. lasre, by the side of which Lazare) and aungel
metathesis has taken place, which in other similar
cases is occasional and optional.
Note. Incidentally attention may be drawn to forms like
quiete, Ariete, which may be designated as pseudo-Romance
imitations of Latin words.
223. Apocope of weak e takes place :
(a) Especially after a double consonant or a con-
sonant group. The words best and tempest have
ROMANCE SUBSTANTIVES. 151
quite lost their e, apparently also /z<rj, cf. 19/655,
658 etc. [Prol. 655, 658]; we find, moreover, /^j/
beside feste, hggst beside kggste, entente and entent,
presse and pr^^s, force and fgrs, source and sours etc.
Some MSS., amongst others EUesmere and Hengwrt,
are in the habit of using the abbreviated forms for
force, source only in rime, but within the metre the
full form, even where a monosyllable is required.
But of. for the converse, Harl. 7334, where we find
fors and sours, though not in rime, and likewise
princes, sowdanes, experiens, innocens beside princesse,
sowdanesse, experience, innocence etc.
(/3) After a simple consonant -e is apocopated in
compeer, also in physik, magyk, probably also musyk,
prenostik, prondstik Fortune 54, in bdner when
the first syllable is accented, generally also in mdner
beside vidnere (on the other hand ban^ere baniere,
maneere maneere); S.T. 19/650 [Prol. 650] the form
concubyn seems assured by the concord of the best
MSS. After a simple consonant -e generally loses its
syllabic value, but like the mute e in Mod. French
(the metre of which is too much fettered by ancient
tradition) has left a distinct trace of its original value.
This is the reason why words \{k.Q face, grace, place,
space, freere, yre etc. rime in Chaucer only with
words of a corresponding termination. Rimes like
plus = place: solas S.T. 1 93/1 971 [B. ig7i\gras =
grace: Thopas S.T. 195/2021 [B. 2021] are charac-
teristic for the ruder art of the minstrels whom
Chaucer mimics in Sire Thopas.
(7) After a preceding vowel -e is, as a rule, not
suppressed, although it rarely has any syllabic value
(cf Surry e 135/173 [B. 173]). Chaucer is specially
1^2 ACCIDENCE: THE SUBSTANTIVE.
wont to discriminate in rime between the endings
-y and -ye, the difference between which may be
illustrated by the Mod. French ami beside amie. A
rime like Gy : chivalry S.T. 197/2089 [B. 2089] is
again only conceivable in Sire Thopas. But -e
regularly blends with a preceding e to form one
syllable : contree, destinee, meynee (O.Fr. mesniee),
perree (beside perrye), renomee, are not to be dis-
tinguished, so far as the ending goes, from citee,
crueltee, pitee. Note further, abbay, journey ; but on
the other hand money e, nobleye, Galgopheye; Blaunche
155 should read valeye {-.tweye), instead of valey
(: twey).
After a weak syllable weak -e regularly loses its
syllabic value : nature, bdtaille, science, but it is not
suppressed otherwise than in the cases mentioned
above.
224. The Gen. Sing., so far as it occurs, ends in
-es or -s : carpenteeres, cherubinnes, emperoures, sena-
toures, marchauntes (S.T. 476/2425 [E. 2425] Harl.
tnarchaundes), princes etc., thus also Fortunes. It
rarely appears in the form of the Nom. as heritage
Pitee 71, rose S.T. 31/1038 [A. 102,^^, chaumbre
Blaunche 299. The cars seynt Leonard Fame 117
(mss. Corseynt, Caxton and Thynne corps of seynt or
saynt) seems to be a case of O.Fr. inflexion.
225. -es or -s is also the ending of the Plural :
braunes, aventures, coursderes, squieeres, officeeres,
freeres, mii'dcles, peeples, provirbes, stables ; fioures,
toures, armes, chaumbres, creatures, daunces, duchesses,
figures, flaumes, lettres, preyeeres, vyces etc. The
words in -ee have in the Plural monosyllabic -ees :
ROMANCE SUBSTANTIVES. 153
auctoritees, degrees, entrees, sees, subtiltees, etc. ; by the
side oi dees there occurs dys S.T. 36/1238 [A. 1238].
Words in -ay -ey have as a rule syllabic -es : alayes,
assayes, delayes, jayes, layes, virelayes, but syncope
also occurs, cf. palfreys ; note also trays ( = French
traits). The Plurals in -yes like allyes, glotonyes,
maladyes do not rime on the ending -ys, though
the e rarely counts as a metrical syllable.
Note. S.T. 589/4 [I. 4] the verse seems to require degrees
instead of degrees.
226. After an unaccented syllable the -e of the
ending -es is syncopated, though it is still frequently
written, as in the Plural forms pilgrimes, riveres, but,
on the other hand, humours, pilours, Idzars, caytifs
rather than caytives (cf. Harl. 7334 for S.T. 27/924
[A. 924]), dungels etc. \i t precedes, z is written
instead of s as in O.Fr. (§ 1 09 (5) : stdtutz, mdrchauntz,
tyrauntz etc. After a syllable under the secondary
accent the syncope of the e is optional : argumentes
and argumentz ; thus we find with syncopated e
amongst others the forms covenauntz, dyamauntz,
payementz, penitentz, auditours (S.T. 391/1937 [D.
1937] : sours).
Note. S.T. 150/642 [B. 642] should apparently read
aungeles (§ 221). The ordinary form dungeles would necessitate
an emendation for which there is otherwise no reason. A hint
in favour of this unusual accentuation is perhaps to be found in
Mooder of God 79. S.T. 130/55 [B. 5;] episieles is possibly the
reading required instead of epistles (cf. Lansdowne and Harl.
7334). A classical affectation on the part of the Man of Lawe
would conveniently eke out the verse. Cf. § 294.
227. Syncope of e in the termination -es is im-
possible when c, ss, s, sh, ch, g or mute + liquid pre-
154 ACCIDENCE: THE SUBSTANTIVE.
cedes ; hence in words like circumstaunces, jangleresses,
pilgrimages etc., the e always has syllabic value. A
position of the accent in which syncope would
become necessary, for ms^-dXice, princesses instead of
princesses, is avoided under these circumstances.
Apocope of the final e is not interfered with by a
preceding sibilant. After mute + liquid -e loses its
syllabic value when an unaccented syllable precedes,
but only in that case : constable, manciple ; in the PI.
only constables, manciples would be possible.
228. Words in -aunt (also in -enff) sometimes
take z instead of -es in the Plural, even when the
ending is accented, cf. alduntz, S.T. 62/2148 [A.
2148], and servduntz, S.T. 4/101 [Prol. lOi]; cf
further S 259a. Beside the form grgues {orgies,
organs) 532/134 [G. 134], a PL orgggn occurs
284/4041 [B. 4041].
229. Words in -s remain uninflected : aas V\.aas,caas
PL caas, paas PL paas, deys, vers PL vers etc. This
applies also to Proper Names in -s : Eneas, Ceys
(Lat. Ceyx), Priamns, Troilus, Verms, Vulcanus,
Grisildis etc. are the same in the Genitive as in the
Nominative. Good examples are : the king Priamus
sone of Troye Troil. I. 2., Ceys body the king Blaunche
142. These names only admit of a special form for
the Genitive when they are abbreviated, as Grisildis
Grisilde Grisild, Cleopataras Cleopatre, Antonius
Antonie, but the unabbreviated form with its sonorous
ending is as a rule preferred.
Note. Occasionally a Lat. Gen. occurs as {domus) Dedaly
Fame 1920 [Globe, Fame ill. 830]. The form Nicholay with
its final diphthong is in the Miller's Tale considered equivalent
THE ADJECTIVE. 155
to Nicholas, though only in rime, cf. Pompey 136/199 [B. 199].
Petrified Greek Genitives are preserved in Eneidos, Meta-
morphosios (thus Ellesmere, Hengwrt, other MSS. more correctly
Metamorphoseos), with retention of the PI. form Argonauticon.
Amongst other classic inflexional forms note Parnaso or Pernaso
{mount of P- or on P.), Lemnon as well as the Plural forms
Pierides, Amadrides (for Hamadryades).
III. THE ADJECTIVE.
230. The termination of the uninflected Adjective
corresponds as a rule to the O.E. form. Hence con-
sonantal ending in o-stems and such as have gone
over to the (7-stems : blak, glad, war, good, gold, foul ;
litel, muchel, evel, bitter, heethen, quik etc. The West
Germanic long jo-stsxus end in weak -e : blythe,
cleene, deere, drye, keene, greene, newe, sheene, sweete
(and swoote | 30/8), softe (O.E. sefte, but also softuni)
etc. Beside nierie the forms inery, mury. An O.E.
contraction has survived in free. We find vocalic
ending, in consequence of the M.E. resolution of a
consonant, in grey, slow, hgly, worthy, from the O.N. sly
etc. Weak e in consequence of loss of n in the loan-
word fawe (§ 44 a).
231. In rare cases weak e has been added to the
stem by analogy, as in bare, tame, fayr and fayre,
evene, so also in lyte which, in the Sing., is probably
only used as a substantive; more frequently in loan-
words from O.N., as in ilk, lowe, meeke. Short-syllabled
English K-stems, the O.E. uninflected form of which
ends in -u, end in Chaucer either in -w or in -we : yelw,
narw narwe, falwe. Hglwe (also holw ?) stands for
O.E. holh which is not explained.
156 ACCIDENCE: THE ADJECTIVE.
Note. The adjectives badde (really a Participle), wikke,
dronkehwe, which are new formations, also end in weak -e. It
is doubtful whether beside hy (high) hye also occurs in an unin-
flected form.
232. Strong Inflexion : Sing, good, PI. goode ; blak,
PI. blake ; smal, PL smale ; sad, PI. sadde etc. Weak
Inflexion : Sing, and PI. goode, blake, smale etc.
Participles inflect in the same manner : bgrn borne,
swgrn swgrne ; dreynt dreynte.
233. The adjective free is uninflected, likewise those
adjectives which end in weak -e (but cf. § 237).
Since, moreover, no weak e can stand after an un-
accented syllable, all dissyllabic paroxytonic adjec-
tives and participles (unless syncope occurs) remain
uninflected as lltel, bitter, cursed, wedded etc.
Note. On a foreign form of the Pres. Part, cf § 191, N. 2.
234. Strong inflexion takes place when the Adjec-
tive is used predicatively, or attributively without an
accompanying Demonstrative or Possessive Pronoun.
The Predicative Adjective may also remain unin-
flected when it refers to a substantive in the Plural. It
is inflected, for instance, in the following cases : they
■were seeke S.T. i/i8 [Prol. 18], His ngsethirles blake
were and wyde S.T. 16/557 [Prol. 557], Ful Ignge
were his legges S.T. 17/591 [Prol. 591], Thise glde
wommen that been gladly wyse S.T. 489/376 [F. 376].
But it is uninflected in the following examples : Nat
fuly quik ne fully d§(d they were S.T. 30/1015
[A. 1015]; in this case Ellesmere, indeed, reads
quyke, dede, so that apocope or slurring of the e rhay
possibly have taken place ; but the following example
is beyond question : Of which this ladyes weren
INFLEXION OF THE ADJECTIVE. 157
ngthingglad (S.T. 41 S/37S [E. 375], cf. Harl. 7334),
where the shortness of the a in glad {-.bad, clad)
proves the uninflected form. Hence cases like they
were as fayn S.T. 77/2707 [A. 2707] etc. must be
construed in the same manner.
The Participle used predicatively remains as a rule
uninflected : they were adrad, were aferd, were hurt,
were kept, been maad, been bgrn, been went etc. But
in exceptional cases the inflected form also occurs :
sin they been thus yniette S.T. 165/1115 [B. 1115],
thilke that unbrende were Fame 173.
235. Weak Inflexion takes place whentheAdjective
is used as an attribute accompanied by a Possessive or
Demonstrative Pronoun (including the Def. Article),
or when it occurs in the Vocative : the yonge sonne,
this ilke monk, here hgte love, my swgrne broother ;
leeve ' broother, o strange Ggd, But if the Adjective
follows the Substantive accompanied by the Pronoun
(Article) without the repetition of Pronoun or
Article it remains uninflected : on the mgrwe gray
Mars i. (but, on the other hand : til that the ggd
Mercurius hous the slye S.T. 489/672 [F. 672]).
Nor is an e added when the Adjective follows the
Substantive in the Vocative : Now lady bright. Used
as a substantival Neuter it remains uninflected : the
gmi-
Note. A petrified Vocative seems to occur in cases like
and 'goode fayre Whyt' she heet, Blaunche 948. Ought the
epithet '■ goode leef which the Host in the Canterbury Tales
S.T. 253/3084 [B. 3084] applies to his wife to be similarly
explained? (Ellesmere without regard to the metre : good life.)
236. Apocope of the inflexional -e, from con-
158 ACCIDENCE: THE ADJECTIVE.
siderations of metre or rime, occurs in the Sing, of
the weak inflexion : thy gr^§t beautee,o good Custdunce
S.T. I 5 s/8 17 [B. 8 1 7] etc. Even in accurate MSS. this
apocope is, of course, often wanting. Apocope
hardly ever occurs in the PL of the Adj. used attri-
butively, whether the inflexion be weak or strong ;
never if the Adj. precedes; cf, however, | 261.
Some adjectival Pronouns are treated otherwise, cf
Section V. of this chapter.
237. The stem-formative -e in adjectives like
cleene, trewe etc. loses its syllabic value only when
the inflexional -e of adjectives capable of inflexion
admits of apocope, or when such adjectives remain
uninflected. But in point of fact this rarely happens
(except in cases of elision, slurring etc.).
238. A strong Gen. PI. is preserved in alter, cf
§ 255. Only in the PL occur fele, f ewe.
Note. O.'E.fela is indeclinable, and almost invariably used
as a Neut. Sing. Subst. combined with a dependent Genitive,
rarely as an Adj .
239. French adjectives when uninflected generally
retain their original termination : apert, desirous,
excellent, fals,fiers, gentil, hastyf, inaat,parfyt, precious,
veyn ; blew, coy, gay, hardy, escku ; able, agreable,
chaste, double, riche, tendre, possible etc. The Part.
due (O.Fr. deii) has acquired an e. Latin formations
with Romance endings : desolaat, fortunaat etc. ;
armipotente (Ital. influence?), mansuete.
240. The final e becomes mute more readily in
the case of Romance adjectives than of English ones.
It is regularly dropped in honest, and in adjectives in
FRENCH ADJECTIVES. ijg
-yk, as fantastyk, malencolyk. Furthermore the weak
e becomes mute when the preceding syllable loses
the accent entirely, and in this case it is even slurred
after mute + liquid.
241. The strong and weak inflexions respectively
are used exactly as in the case of native words :
This false juge, fierse god of amies, diverse freeres,
Diverse men diverse thinges seyden, S.T. 136/21 1
[B. 211], with teres blewe. Apocope also takes place
under exactly the same conditions — perhaps in pro-
portion somewhat more frequently : his fals dissimu-
linge, seynt Cenlie (Voc.) S.T. 528/28 [G. 28]. Here
also paroxytons remain uninflected : pdrflt blisses, cri'iel
briddes, silbtil clerkes,pitous teres etc. Proparoxytons,
with a secondary accent upon the last syllable may
be inflected or remain uninflected : your excellente
daughter, hire Excellent beautee.
242. It seems doubtful whether we may correctly
speak of a declension of the French adjective. The
word seynt is generally quoted as an example of
declension, but Useynte Marie occurs anywhere except
in the Vocative, we must, on the other hand, remember
that possibly seynte Benedight and seynte Petres
occur also: cf the difficult passage S.T. 100/3483 ff".
[A. 3483] and Harl. 7334; perhaps S.T. 20/697
[Prol. 697] should also read seynte Peter. It is con-
ceivable that the popular treatment of the adjective
was determined by its prevailing use in invocations
(in which cases it is not always easy to distinguish
Vocative and Nominative, cf. S.T. 380/1604 [D.
1604]) ; though Chaucer generally observes the rule :
seynt fghn, seynt Lay, seynt Beneyt etc. S.T,
i6o ACCIDENCE: THE ADJECTIVE.
64/2240 [A. 2240] we read ne veyne glorie, Pitee 17,
with colour ful diverse ; but S.T. 4/122 [Prol. 122]
the servyse divyne, whilst it is very questionable
whether Chaucer considered servyse a Fern. noun.
243. Traces of the French Plural of adjectives
occur more rarely in Chaucer's poetry than in his
prose. The whole of the poetical part of the
Canterbury Tales contains only two examples, one of
which is, however, specially striking. The Persones
Tale alone contains a fairly large number, and not
only that part of it which is borrowed from the
Somme of Frere Lorens, and which is, apparently, not
Chaucer's work.^ This phenomenon is more frequent
in Boethius, the diction of which abounds in Latin
and Romance elements.
The French Plural is most easily accounted for in
the case of French adjectives which follow the noun
attributively(especiallyif the substantive belongs to the
Romance portion of the vocabulary) : places delitables
S.T. 505/900 [F. 899], noumbres proporcionables Boece
2428; weyes espirituels S.T. ^72)l79 [I- TDlygoodes
temporeles or temporels S.T. 646/685 [I. 6% ';)\ thinges
espirituels S.T. 655/784 [I. 784], 787 (in the former
passage the original runs : les choses espiritex. Filers,
Erz. des Pfarrers, p. 28), [Ch. Soc. Publ. Essays on Ch.,
V.J. The case becomes more striking when the adjec-
tive precedes its substantive : in the sovereyns devynes
substaunces Boece 4403 (orig. supernis divinisque
substantiis). But the effect produced is foreign in
the extreme when the adjective forms part of the
' Cf. Wilhelm Eilers, Die Erzahlung des Pfarrers in Chaucer's Canter-
bury Geschichten (Erlangen 1882) Magdeburg [Chaucer Soc. Publ.
Essays on Ch., Part v.].
COMPARISON OF THE ADJECTIVE. i6i
predicate: S.T. 650/730 [I. 730] the travailles that
been convenable, but Harl. renders the passage : that
been convenables (correctly ?) ; the form is confirmed
by rime 195/2038 [B. 2038] that been roiales. In
the familiar passage 152/711 [B. 711] Swich
manere necessaries as been plesinges, the last word
ought perhaps to be construed as a substantive,
not as a participle. In any case^ the line is
metrically suspicious. With substantival force: the
gentils.
244. Comparison. The Comparative suffix is -er,
the Superlative suffix -est. Lengthening of the
single consonant is frequent in comparison, which is
accounted for by the O.E. lengthening of the final
consonant in a syllable (O.E. Comparative in -ra cf.
jlmdra ; this feature was in M.E. transmitted by the
Comparative to the Superlative) : glad gladder
gladdest, gr§§t gretter grettest, hggt hgtter hgttest.
Sometimes, when the word ends in r, -re is used as
the Comparative suffix instead of -er : deere derre (O.E.
deore deorrd) in which case the consonant remains
short in the Superlative : deerest ; but on the other
hand fayr {^fayre) fayrer fayrest, hy {hygh) hyer
hyest, hgly hglier hgliest. The following are mu-
tated in the Comparative and Superlative : ggld, Igng,
strgng; elder (used as a Subst. in the PI. eldres),
eldest, lenger lengest; strenger strengest. Comparative
and Superlative without a cognate Positive : [good],
bettre, best ; \evU\ werse, werst ; \inuchel muche],
mgre, mggst mg^st ; [litel], lasse, Iggst. Adjectival
Superlatives formed from adverbs or prepositions :
fer, f err est; neigh, ny, next ; fgre, first ; gver, gverest.
Formed from Comparative stems of a similar
l62 ACCIDENCE: THE ADJECTIVE.
kind : utterest, upperest, hind{e)rest. An old Super-
lative in -ma is fgrme.
245. French adjectives may be compared in the
English way : richer, gentilest, though in the majority
of cases there is no evidence of such comparison,
and in the case of trisyllabic and polysyllabic ones,
comparison by means of the adverbs mgre and mggst
is preferred, a method which is also in use for native
words.
246. In the Comparative no inflexion is apparent,
since forms in -er either cannot take a weak -e, or if they
do, ic becomes mute, whilst forms in -e are treated like
Positives with the same ending. Beside mgre occurs
the form mo, originally a substantival Neuter, but in
Chaucer generally used as a PI. Adj., though in some
cases its original function is still discernible : Ofmaystres
hadde he mg than thryes ten S.T. 17/576 [Prol. 576].
The Superlative is inflected : the beste, the mggste, the
werste, the firste. In the case of paroxy tons the weak
-e must be elided or apocopated : hire gritteste ggth
S.T. 4/120 [Prol. 120], the Mndreste of our e route
S.T. 18/622 [Prol. 622], his gvereste courtepy S.T.
9/290 [Prol. 290], better with Harl. and Petworth
overest. Not so in the case of proparoxytons : the
seemlikste man, Ta the littereste preeve of his corage
S.T. 428/787 [E. 787J, according to Skeat's
emendation. If in dissyllabic Superlatives the
accent is shifted, the e is also audible : the fayriste,
the hyiste.
Apocope takes place, however, occasionally in the
Superlative, as in the Positive, from considerations of
metre.
THE ADVERB.
163
Note. Our scheme does not admit of a discussion of the
adverb in this connection. But to supplement the above
remarks, the following Comparative forms may be men-
tioned : bet bettre, best (wel serves as Positive) ; ivers werse,
■werst ; mqre mggst ; lasse Iggst ; /er, ferre, ferrest ; neigh
ny, neer, next ; f^r, erst ; fore, first. Note, in addition, the
following rules : Adverbs formed from adjectives which are still
extant add a weak -e to the stem if it originally ended in a con-
sonant, whereas the stem ending in final -e remains unchanged :
brighte, harde, hye, Ignge, ylyke yliche, cleene, sgfte etc. Ex-
cepted are the non-syncopated dissyllabic stems ending in a
consonant which necessarily apocopate the weak -e. Further
exceptions are the compounds in -ly (O.N. ligr, Adv. -liga, which
has in many cases taken the place of O.E. -lie -lice that
survives in -lick -liche), in which -ly has begun to assume the
character of an adverbial suffix. Isolated exceptions : the com-
parative particles /»/ {Jul weljful hard etc.), which seems to
have become separated from the compound (fulhard, O.N.
fullhardr), fayn ; firom the French word-stock : certeyn, flat,
playn. The uninflected form of the adjective is as a rule used
for the Comparative and Superlative : lenger, grettest, fayrest.
Occasionally-^ is added to the Comparative stem : S.T. 21/714
[Prol. 714], the merierly (according to three MSS., however, the
reading should be so meri(e)ly, according to Harl. ful meriely).
The Superlative not infrequently attracts the weak inflexion of
a following adjective or participle : The gentileste yborn of
Lumbardye S.T. 405/72 [E. 72], cf. Harl. Seyn that I have the
moQste stedefastwyf^S^li 551 [E. 1551], O firste meeving cruel
firmament 139/295 [B. 295].
IV. THE NUMERAL.
247. Cardinal Numerals, i. ggn gg, the latter
form not before vowels ; the numeral appears in
a weakened form in the Indef. Article an a ; gnes for
O.E. an in al gnes 'all one' S.T. 324/696 [C. 696],
l64 ACCIDENCE: THE NUMERAL.
for O.E. dnum in /or the ngnes—for then gnes ; weak
inflexion algne. 2. tweyne tweye (orig. Masc). and
twQ two (orig. Fern, and Neut.) are used without
distinction of gender ; the two first-mentioned forms
occur principally in rime, and hence generally after
their substantive, but also tweye and tweye. Beside
these the form bgthe. 3 three, 4 fowre, 5 fyf fyve,
6 six sixe, 7 sevene, 8 eyghte, 9 nyne, 1 o ten, 1 1
enleven ellevene elevene, 1 2 twelf twelve, 1 3 thretteene,
i/^fowrteene, i^ififteene, 18 eyghteteene, 19 nyneteene,
20 twenty, 30 thritty, 40 fowrty etc., 1 00 hundred,
1 000 thousand. The forms fyve, sixe, twelve — ioxfyf,
six, twelf — ^generally appear alone or following their
substantive.
248. Romance cardinal numbers like dnk, sis etc.
are only used as technical terms.
249. The Ordinal Numerals, with the exception of
oother, inflect weak : forme firste, oother (beside which
the French secounde), thridde, ferthe, ffte, sixte . . .
tenthe .... threttenthe etc. There is no evidence
for a form like eightetethe, such as Skeat assumes
Man of Law's Head-Link 5 ; the form must be eyghte-
tenthe. (The substantive ' tithe ' is tythe). — eyghte and
twentithe. — oother vAiGO. used as a substantival pronoun
has a Gen. oothres, PI. oothre (MSS. othere othre other).
Note. Numeral Adverbs : gties, iwyes, thryes.
THE PRONOUN.
^65
V.
THE PRONOUN.
250. Personal Pronoun.
First Person.
Second Person.
Sing. N. jf /, z'c/i, i
'.k.
thou.
G. {myn.)
(jthyn.)
D. me, mee.
thee the.
A. me, mee.
thee the.
PI. N. we, wee.
ye yee.
G. oure.
youre.
D. us.
you.
A. us.
Third Person.
you.
Masc.
Neut.
Fern.
Sing. N. he kee.
hit it.
she shee.
G. (Am.)
{his.)
{hire hir.}
D. him.
him.
hire hir.
A. him.
hit it.
For all genders.
hire hir.
P1.N.
they.
G.
here hir.
D.
hem.
A.
hem.
Note i. For the Nom. Sing, of the ist. Pers. Chaucer
generally uses y (/), more rarely ick, the form ik only excep-
tionally as a characteristic provincialism; S.T. 11 1/3867 [A.
3867] it is used by the Reeve from Norfolk.
Note 2. The pronoun thou occasionally unites with the pre-
ceding verb : shaltou, •wiltou, wggstou, nadstou=ne haddest thou
etc.
Note 3. Some mss. (as regards the Canterbury Tales, for
instance, Harl. Corpus etc.) distinguish between the Gen. (Dat.
i66 ACCIDENCE: THE PRONOUN.
A-tc.) Sing. Fern, and the Gen. PI. of the 3rd. Pers., or the
, Tossessive forms derived from them (with the exception of
forms expanded by s), in such a manner that for the Sing.
Fem. they invariably use Aire hir, for the PL consistently,
or at any rate generally, here her. Other MSS. (for the C.T.,
for instance, Ellesmere and Hengwrt) are wont to employ
i- forms in both cases, others again the e- forms even for the
Fem. Sing. I do not venture to decide which was Chaucer's
own usage. But it is certain that hire hir is the only form he
employs for the Fem. Sing.
Note 4. The forms of the Pers. Pron. oure^youre, hire, here
never occur as dissyllables.
Note j. The Accusative forms him, hire hir, he7n are due to
analogy with the Dative ; O.K., and even older M.E., had
separate forms for the Accusative. The 3rd. Pers. Nom. PI. they
is based upon O.N. peir ; the Nom. Sing. Fem. she has so far
not been adequately explained.
Note 6. The Genitive Sing, forms of all three Persons occur
only in functions which permit of their being construed as
Possessive Pronouns. The corresponding forms of the Plural
need be treated as Genitives only in such phrases as will be
mentioned in § 255.
Note 7. The 3rd. Pers. Pron. (as well as the ist. and 2nd.
Pers. Prons.) does service in the oblique cases also as a Reflexive
Pronoun.
251. Possessive Pronouns. Used attributively be-
fore the noun : myn my ; thyn thy : his, his, hire hir ;
our e our; your e your; here her hire hir. Myn and ihyn
are used before vowels and h, my and thy before con-
sonants ; in the PI. myne and thyne occur, but only
before an initial vowel: thyne y doles 537/298 [G.
298]. Hire oure youre here are never dissyllables.
Used attributively after the noun : myn PI. tnyne
(cf. S.T. 414/365 [E. 365]; 438/1093 [E. 1093]);
{thyn PI. thyne) ; — ; oure ; youre ; — . Predicatively
and absolutely : myn PI. myne ; thyn PI. thvne ; his.
THE PRONOUN. 167
keres; (pure) oures ; youre (cf. Leg. 683) generally
youres ; heres.
252. Demonstratives. The, the Def. Art. for all
genders in the Sing, and PI. A survival of the Dat.
appears in for the ngnes=for then gnes. At + the
becomes atte; in which connection note, according to
Zup.LittZeitg. 188 5,col. 609, rt/fe^a/^S.T. 373/1349
[D. i349] = O.E. tet pdm ealod. — That, with more
demonstrative force, also stands adjectivally for all
genders, PI. tho. When used substantivally that
remains what it originally was, a Neut. Sing. — This,
PI. thise or thees (generally spelt thes, also these)
is always monosyllabic.
253. Interrogatives. Nom. whg who, what; G.
whgs whos ; Dat. whom whoin ; Ace. whgm whom.
what. — Which, PI. whiche, which. — Whether ' which
of two ' ? (when used as a conjunction often synco-
pated wher).
254. Relatives. That for all genders in the Sing,
and PL, but, in point of fact, found only in the Nom.
and Accus., or in conjunction with prepositions. —
Which, PI. whiche which, but adjectivally whiche with
audible e: of whiche two 30/1013 [A. 1013];
exceptionally which may assume the function of the
Genitive : of which vertu = ' by whose power ' S.T.
1/4 [Prol. 4]. Generally speaking whos does duty
as a relative Genitive, whom, as a relative Dative.
Compound Relatives : that-he, that-his, that-hini etc.,
the which, PI. the whiche, the which, but adjectivally
the whiche with audible e : the whiche brook S.T.
113/3923 [A. 3923], the whiche toun Leg. 707;
which that; the which that.
1 68 ACCIDENCE: THE PRONOUN.
Correlatives : that that and simply that ; who,
what ; which PI. whiche which ; whether.
Indefinite Relatives : who that ' whoever,' what
that ' whatever,' also simply what ; who so, what so.
255. Other Pronouns. Self in adjectival function :
thy selve neyghebour. In conjunction with my, thy,
our, your, and with him, hire, hem, we sometimes find
self, sometimes selven selve, for instance, myself,
myselven my selve ; hemself hemselven hemselve ; these
forms are in a large measure due to the confusion of
the adjectival use of j^^with the substantival use.
Self is used substantivally, for instance, in myself
S.T. 319/175 [D. 175] (where, however, Ellesmere
obscures its substantival function). Ilk : the ilke
contracted in thilke, this ilke. — Swich such, PI. swiche
swiche (dissyllabic for instance in Fame 35, mono-
syllabic Blaunche 28). — Ogn ; nggn. — Any. — On
oother cf. S 249. — Som PL some, always monosyllabic
whether used substantivally or adjectivally; som-
what. Al PL alle, generally apocopated before
an article or pronoun with syllabic force. This is,
however, not always indicated by the MSS. : al the
wordes, al thy freendes : exceptionally : alle the S.T.
1 3 2/1 18 [B. 118]; in a case like S.T. 7/210 [ProL
210] the reading alle thordres fowre as well as al the
ordres fowre may be defended ; the Plural alle has,
however, like other Adjectives in the PL, full syllabic
value. A strong Gen. PL aller occurs in phrases like
oure aller cok, youre aller cost, here aller cappe, also in
alder best, alderwerst, alderfirst. Aught gught; naught
ngught — eyther G. eytheres ; neyther G. neytheres. —
E(ch D. §§che, echggn, everich every, everichggn. — Many,
many ggn, many a(n), PL many. — Men me 'one' indef.
CHAPTER III.
STRUCTURE OF THE VERSE
AND STANZA.
I. PROSODY.
256. Treatment of weak ^ (§ 6 1 ) in the word con-
sidered as a unit. We shall first state the two pro-
positions based upon the law regulating the position
of the secondary accent (§ 282), the significance of
which has already been indicated in the chapter on
Accidence.
I. If each of two consecutive syllables contains a
weak e, one of these is bound to lose its syllabic
value, whether absolutely, by syncope or apocope, or
approximately, but in a degree sufficient for the
exigencies of accentuation and metre, by slurring.
Examples : in the weak Pret. Sing., instead of werede,
lovede, clepede, makede, axede, longede, lookede etc.,
werede or wered, lovede or loved, clepte or cleped, made
or maked; axed, longed, looked fXc. ; in the PL instead
of loveden, clepeden, makeden, axeden, longeden etc.,
loveden (?) or loved, depten or cleped, maden or maked,
axed, longed etc. ; in the same way, instead of Sing.
170
METRE: PROSODY.
cryede PL cryeden : cryde or cryed, cryden; in the
nominal inflexion, instead oifaderes, hevenes, maydenes
etc., fadres, hevenes, maydens etc. ; evere or ever
corresponds to E.O. stfre etc. Isolated exceptions
from the rule occur in the non-syncopated weak
Preterite, though it is doubtful whether we find any
in the Sing, (cf, for instance, weddede S.T. 26/868
[A. 868], where Ellesmere, Hengwrt, Petworth,
Lansdowne read wedded, and the verse seems to
require the complement of a monosyllable), there
certainly occur in the Plural : weyeden, yelleden,
stremeden etc., cf § 194. Doubtful is cristened for
cristnedS.T. 534/217 [G. 217], cf. § 181.
257. II. After a syllable which, though unaccented,
is capable of stress, weak e must become mute: apo-
cope, for instance, in bdner, mdner, instead of bdnere,
mdnere, also, though not indicated graphically, in
mdlere, ISvere, ndture, bdtaille ; slurring, for instance,
in c6ns table, mdnciple ; syncope in ISvers, housbondes,
Iddyes ladys, h-Amours, Idzars, dungels, tyrauntz (| 226),
pUgrimes, riveres, p^misshed piinisshd, better punissht
{piinshed cf § 181), vdnisshed, rdvisshed rdvissht,
rdvisshedest etc. It is due to this rule that paroxy-
tonic adjectives have no inflexion.
Exceptions are very rare: Idngwissheth 460/1867
[E. 1867], where syncope was not feasible, and only
a change of accent would have been possible, en-
luinined A.B.C. 73. Since the e of the termination
-es cannot be syncopated after a preceding sibilant
or after mute -|- liquid, Chaucer avoids an accentuation
like princesses, cSnstables, instead of princesses, con-
stables § 227.
258. After a syllable with secondary accent weak e
WEAK E. 171
may, but need not necessarily, become mute. If it is
final it generally retains its value in rime, but
within the metre it is, in the majority of cases,
probably not syllabic ; oAtrydere, so^idanesse sot'cdanes;
apparently even after mute + liquid where slurring is
possible: insurable (S.T. 13/435 [A. 435] ought
probably to be read thus, and hence die'te be treated
as a trisyllable); but heritage Pitee 71 as a quadri-
syllable. If it is part of the ending -es it cannot be
syncopated after a sibilant or after mute + liquid
(^ 227) ; in other cases syncope is optional : emperoiires,
cdrpenteeres, drgumentes drgumentz, pdyementz, a&di-
toicrs ; mdsseddyes, loveddyes etc.
259. With regard to the treatment of weak e in
final syllables immediately preceded by the syllable
with primary stress, a yet more stringent distinction
must be drawn between medial and final weak e.
Medial e is rarely syncopated :
(a) Ending -es : syncope is usual in the appellation
sires PL ; sometimes in PI. forms like loveres lovers,
answeres, answers etc., even when the accent is
shifted to the second syllable (cf. for instance 542/429
[G. 429]), also in forms like y doles colours etc. even
when the accent retains its original position (cf.
537/285 [G. 285]); cf. further §§ 225, 228.
(jS) Ending -est 2nd. Pers. Sing. Pres. Ind. : seyst,
leyst beside seyest, leyest, rarely knowest, Blaunche
137, for knowest, spekest 544/492 [G. 492], leevestou
534/212 [G. 212]; ending -est 2nd. Pers. Sing, of
the weak Pret. woldest 254/3135 [B. 3135], haddest,
ib. 3138 [B. 3138], haddestou ib. 3136 [B. 3136]
etc. ; in the majority of cases it is counted as a full
1^2 METRE: PROSODY.
syllable. It is only in pronouns placed after the
noun that syncope is more frequent.
(7) Ending -eth 3rd. Pers. Sing. Pres. Ind. cf.
§ 186; on the shortened form of the Imper. Pi.
cf § 189.
(^) Ending -en : syncope is not infrequent in the
strong P.P. born, shorn, torn, sworn, lorn, stain, leyn,
seyn 'seen,' invariable in slayn, doubtful whether in
jiven (263/3425 [B. 3425]^zW« ox yiveT); syncope
is more frequent in the Inf forms seyn ' to say,' /tan,
in the Pres. Ind. PL seyn ' they say,' leyn, han, am,
wiln, woln, shuln.
(e) In the ending -ed the weak Pret. must be dis-
tinguished from the weak P.P. As a Pret. termina-
tion -ed is derived from -ede or -eden, and characterises
the apocopated, in contradistinction to the syncopated,
form ; these forms in -ed do not admit of syn-
cope ; but in some cases, mentioned in the Acci-
dence, the poet has the choice between the
apocopated and the syncopated forms. The syncope
of the P.P. in -ed follows on the whole a strict
grammatical rule which need not be repeated in this
connection. But the cases in which a syncopated
form occurs by the side of one of full syllabic value
may be enumerated here : kythed kid, afered aferd,
wept but forweeped, raft, but also bireved, answired
answ^rd, maked maad, clothed clad, cleped clept ; the
Romance verbs in -aye, -eye, as payed payd, affrayed
affrayd etc. On the whole syncope (or slurring
^ 272) is very rare : loved Blaunche 478, but the
Adj. balled, which is formed by means of a participial
suffix, occurs more than once as a monosyllable.
A syncope of the Participle such as would not be
WEAK E.
173
permissible grammatically hardly ever takes place
from metrical considerations ; but Pitee 9 1 must
read : and we dispeyred that seeken to vour grace.
Cf., however, § 263.
Note. Blaunche 115 youres is used as a monosyllable ; but
it is probably permissible to replace it by the more unusual form
voure (§ 251). Archaic forms may be expected in the works of
Chaucer's earlier period ; the corrupt, and in many respects
modernised, version of Blaunche as transmitted to us accounts
for the disappearance of some of them from this poem.
260. Filial weak e often becomes mute immedi-
ately after the tonic syllable, and in the following
cases it is never syllabic :
(a) In the following forms of the Personal and
Possessive Pronouns, provided they do not occur in
rime : hire, cure, youre, here, which are also spelt Mr,
our etc., viyne, thyne ;
(/8) In the Plural forms thise, some, in swiche (when
not adjectival in the Plural), whiche (with the same
exception, and when not preceded by the, § 254), in
the Dat. eeche ;
(7) In the strong P.P. of verbs with an originally
short root, when the -n is apocopated : come, drive,
write, stole etc. (but on the other hand, comen,
driven, writen are naturally dissyllabic and stolen
occurs beside stoln) ;
(^) In the 2nd. Pers. Sing, of the strong Pret. :
here bare, iooke etc., with the exception of the verbs
belonging to the gradation-series I. A, ^ (songe, founde
dissyllabic, bigonne trisyllabic, § 193) ;
(e) In the forms were and made'^ not only in the
^ Where made occurs as a dissyllable, either maked or maden should be
read, the latter, for instance, S.T. z/33 [Prol. 33].
174 METRE: PROSODY.
Sing., but also in the PI. when -n is apocopated, and
in the same way probably in wile, wite, and a few
other forms ;
(P In the substantives sone, wane, in the Dat.
shipe (Nom. ship), in the Romance words in ye, aye,
eye etc. ;
(i?) In before, tofore ; there, heere beside the{e)r,
heer.
Note i. The -e in most of the above-mentioned cases has
not lost its value in rime ; cf., for example, the remarks made
in § 223y.
Note 2. On such Romance substantives as have once and
for all apocopated their -e {best, tempest), or in which it has
blended with a preceding vowel, cf. § 223.
261. In the majority of other cases the weak -e
may either be counted as a metrical syllable, or if
necessary be considered mute. If, however, mute
+ liquid or consonant + / precedes, it is necessarily
audible : table, miracle ; glorie, victorie etc. It is
always syllabic in the plural of the adjective used as
an attribute, if the latter precedes the substantive.
Almost invariably also when it follows, although in
this case the MSS. — particularly when elision takes
place — not infrequently apocopate it ; but we find,
for example, Blaunche AfOO fioures fele. As a rule it
is preserved in the Infinitive even after apocope of
the -n ; only isolated instances of monosyllabic
Infinitives like yive, come, make, shewe shew, swere or
dissyllabic ones like encense are to be found ; some
doubtful cases occur, however, in poems the tradition
of which is corrupt. It is frequently mute in the
Pres. Ind. and Imper., more rarely in the Pres. Subj.,
sometimes also in the syncopated forms of the weak
WEAK E.
175
Pret., and in all these cases the PJ. with apocopated
-n is treated in exactly the same way as the Sing.
Thus it may become mute in the PI. of the strong
Pret. after the loss of -n, and this circumstance has
without question facilitated the not infrequent occur-
rence of the Sing, for the PI. (§| 193, 198). When
final in a substantive, -e loses its syllabic value more
frequently in Romance than in English words ;
among the latter those especially retain a mute -e,
the root-syllable of which can only be considered
semi-long {sone, wane, as we have seen, never occur
as dissyllables in a verse, love is sometimes dissyl-
labic, sometimes monosyllabic), more rarely those
with a lengthened (like lawe, tale), or even originally
long, root-syllable {tyme, sonne, reeve). The chapter
on the inflexion of the substantive proved, moreover,
that some nouns which in the Nom. Sing, owe their
-e to analogy, may also have a consonantal ending.
262. Weak e between the primary and the
secondary accent generally counts as a syllable in
English words (where it is frequently due to analogy),
as well as in English derivatives from, or compounds
with, foreign elements. Thus in neyghebour, bagge-
pype, nosethirles, wodecraft, pilwebeer, but, for instance,
yeldekalle, in morwesong, love-dayes, but love-knotte, in
Engelond, Orewelle, Dertemouth etc. ; in recchelees,
but dettelees (although from Fr. dette) ; in rekening,
watering, morwening, by the side of which morning ;
in boldely, hertely, kyndely and kyndly, needely, seemely
more rarely seemly, but always seemliest, softely,
trewely, but also trewly, likewise when -ly is added
to a French adj. in -e : rudely, richely, solempnely,
largely ; beside nathelees we find nathelees. In fore-
176 METRE: PROSODY.
ward {^foreword) the e is always mute, and some MSS.
Vfnte forward, just asforkeed seems to be the correct
Chaucerian form. The irrational e in everich is
generally, in every probably always, mute. In
French words also, an e in this position is often
syllabic : arrerage, chapeleyne, juggement, oynement,
amendement, comaundement, reverence, daungerous, but
covenaunt, remenaunt and remenaunt, colerik, dis-
chevelee, pomelee (jiomely), lecherous {likerous) and
lecherous {likerous), sovereyn and sovereyn, suretee and
surtee eta Practical considerations exercise a very
considerable influence upon accentuation, for which
reason, for instance, only seemliest, likerousnesse, with
syncopated e are possible ; a word like sovereynetee
may be pronounced either with five syllables or
with three : sovreyntee ; hence also hostelry e, chivalrye,
bachelrye etc., regularly appear with syncope, not
chivalerye etc. An irrational e in French words is, as
a rule, naturally mute : bokeleer, Christophere, better
bokleer, Cristophre or Cristofre, but we find, for
instance, Aperil, Troil. iii. 360.
263. Syncope of vowels other than weak e rarely
takes place : bileven also bleven ' remain,' bilyve, gener-
ally blyve, erande Blaunche 1 34 (O.E. Arende, M.E.
also ernde), parisshe S.T. 14/491 [Prol. 491] vanisshe
488/328 (?) [F. 12%'\ perilous 194/1999 [B. 1999]
posityf 34/1 167 [A. 1 167] (? cf. Harl.), but regularly
in formations like amorously, naturally etc., for
reasons of accentuation (| 228); Antony Leg. 657,
701 ; but the majority of these cases had perhaps
better be treated as instances of slurring, S 272.
Syncope has distinctly taken place in croune beside
coroune, cf. 541/389, [G. 388] and the refrain to
SYNCOPE AND APOCOPE. 177
Gentilesse. The word Jerusaleem never has more
than three syllables in Chaucer (which is the general
rule in M.E.), but probably he did not syncopate the
u, as is Orrm's usage, but treated it as a consonant :
Jerwsaleem.
Syncope of consonants with consequent synaeresis
need be considered here only in so far as Chaucer's
dialect contains the full form as well as the shortened
one, or in so far as the abbreviation is not expressed
graphically. An opportunity has already been taken
to mention cases like heved heed, maked{e) made and
inaked maad {kid beside kythed, clad beside clothed,
are not cases of syncope, but of assimilation of the
th after previous syncope of e), han beside have{n).
Deserving of mention are further whether wer,
outher or. Rather, Blaunche 562, whider. Fame 602
[Globe, Fame ii. 94J, and similar cases, are instances
of slurring of e rather than of syncope of the con-
sonant. Monosyllabic are sometimes ever, never
(before a following initial consonant), in which case
the pronunciation is more probably eur neur than eer
neer or (§r n^^r. Similarly the form aunter {per
aunter) occurs beside aventure. The exclamation
benedicite is as a rule trisyllabic {bencite or bendcitet),
in an exceptional instance S.T. 52/1785 [A.' 1785]
quinquesyllabic ; significavit 19/662 [A. 662] must
be pronounced synficavit.
Note. If beside Cleopataras the form Cleopatras, or better
Cleopatra or Cleopatre appears, it is, strictly speaking, not the
latter which is syncopated, but the former which is extended by
interpolation.
264. Apocope. Of moment because of its influ-
ence on the structure of the verse is the apocope of
M
178 METRE: PROSODY.
a final -n, which, occurs chiefly in the various inflex-
ional forms of a verb, and frequently involves that of
a preceding weak e, in other cases at least renders its
elision possible. The latter is generally the case in
the Infinitive, the former in the strong P.P. — which
is however not always capable of apocope — and
in the PI. forms of Finite Verbs, especially of the
weak non-syncopated Preterite, the PI. of which as
a rule simply drops the ending -en. In cases like
oon 00, an a, myn my etc., the apocope of n does not
affect the number of syllables in the verse, but has an
important bearing on hiatus. The same holds good
with regard to the apocope of m in fro from from.
The apocope of a final s in Proper Names is also
worthy of consideration : James fame, Achates Achatee.
It is frequently connected with weakening, or com-
plete disappearance, of the preceding vowel : Achilles,
AcMlle, Antonius AntSnie Antony, Grisildis Grisilde
Grisild, cf, on the other hand, Cleopataras beside
Cleopatra Cleopatre, Arcitas beside Arcyte (in Boc-
caccio Arcitd).
On the apocope of the ending -eth in the Imper.
PI. cf. § 189.
Apart from weak -e, which also becomes the medium
of abbreviation in the case of the above-mentioned
Proper Names, no vowel is readily apocopated.
Final y may appeal? as a semi-vowel in the word
Caunterbury (§125 a), which accordingly counts either
as a quadrisyllable or as a trisyllable in the metre ;
in other cases only when the following word begins
with a vowel.
Note. Some prepositions and adverts take an epithetic (e)s
in M.E., but frequently the non-expanded forms occur also, so
APH^RESIS AND SYN^ERESIS. 179
that the poet has a choice of doublets of varying syllabic value :
ayeyn ayeynes, togeyn togeynes, ainong amonges, algate algates
(§ 120 S), etc. Here belongs sX^oyoure besideyoures as a pro-
noun used predicatively or absolutely.
265. Aphseresis. For the native word-stock the
loss of k in //zV it (in /lave only occasionally, in natk
nadde beside nhath nhadde) must be taken into con-
sideration ; and above all that of w in was were,
wil wolde, woot wiste, if ne precedes : ne was and
nas etc. (§ 271). Moreover, the poet has a number
of doublets at his disposal in consequence of the
identity of meaning which some verbs have, or may
have, according as they are used in their simple
form, or compounded with certain particles {hi and
y) : bif alien and fallen, biginnen and ginnen ; yfynde,
yknowe, ysee, generally fynde, knowe, see ; P.P. yclad,
yclothed, beside clad, clothed, yfallen beside fallen etc.
Amongst Romance words aphaeresis is more fre-
quent, and produces many doublets : apothecarie
potecarie, epistle pistel (the latter form, however, from
O.E. pistol), escapen more rarely scapen, esquieer
generally squieer, honour onour, historie istorie storie,
dispenden spenden etc.
266. Synseresis scarcely occurs in M.E. in native
or Germanic words apart from the case considered
above, in which it was preceded by syncope of a con-
sonant. Of course, forms like lyth beside lyeth,
knowest beside knowest might be considered instances
of synaeresis rather than of syncope. In Romance
words it takes place more frequently, but here
synaeresis is as a rule an accomplished linguistic fact,
and further fluctuation in syllabic value is therefore
excluded. Thus, for instance, in reme (from reiaine).
l8o METRE: PROSODY.
mene {meien), seel {seiet), veel {veel), preche preeche
{preeschier), emperyce {empereis), emperour (empereiir),
due {deu), obeye, obeyssaunt, obeyssaunce, rejoyce. Note
further the synaeresis in Eneyde Leg. 928 (on the
other hand Fame I. 378 Eneidos), in Criseyde, Pom-
pey, Nicholay, Sinay, in Creusa Fame 175, 183, and
in Averroys. Beside Beneyt from Anglo- Norm.
Beneeit stands Benedight from Lat. Benedictus.
267. Diaeresis occurs exceptionally in degrees in-
stead of degrees, regularly in Greek words in -eus, the
diphthong of which is resolved after Romance fashion
into e-u : Theseus, Morpheus etc.
Note. Fees, Blaunche 266, for fees, may be treated as
diasresis. But knees for knees should be explained according to
§ 206 N.
268. Sjmizesis affects chiefly dissyllabic French
vowel-combinations which begin with i and u. Such
combinations (which, in discussion, will not be
differentiated from the corresponding ones in words
which though really Latin are treated after Romance
fashion) are as a rule dissyllabic in Chaucer also ;
cf ia or iau in amiable, mariage, cerial, celestial,
cordial, special, licendaat, alliaunce, daliaunce ; ie
in conscience, experience, science, pacient, insufficient,
squieer, diete ; iau in absolucioun, avisioun, com-
missioun, condicioun, confessioun, conclusioun, devo-
cioun, discrecioun, imaginacioun, lamentacioun, inedi-
tacioun, mencioun, nacioun, operacioun, opinioun,
revelacioun, sessioun, contrarious, curious, delicious,
glorious, gracious, precious; ua va. perpetual; ue in
crueel, textueel; uou in vertuous, tortuous etc. But
synizesis occurs also in trisyllabic and polysyllabic
SYNIZESIS AND ELISION i8i
words, generally within the metre, thus in condicioun
S.T. 132/99 [B. 99] questioun 542/428 [G. 428],
religioun ib. 427, avistouns Fame ^2,, curious, glorious,
victorious, fhisicien; thus we read S.T. 491/448
[F. 448]y^«n'«/, Leg. 702 storial; imaginacioun occurs
in rime Blaunche 14. Infamulier synizesis prob-
ably takes place regularly ; cf. on this word Tobler
Vom franzosischen Versbau, p. 59 f. Synizesis is
necessary when without it the first element of the
combination in a polysyllabic word would receive the
stress (whether primary or secondary), hence meri-
dional; this is particularly evident in words com-
pounded with -ly : specially, perpetiially, paciently,
curiously, deliciously, graciously. In classical and
Romance Proper Names the combinations in question
are treated as in other words : Julian, Linian, Julius,
Antonius, but also ^Antonius Leg. 588, generally
Valerian,hut Valerian 535/235 [G. 235]; S39/350
[G. 350]; 541/408 [G. 408]; generally Almackius,
but Almackius, e.g. 54 1/4 10 [G. 410]. Before a
weak e post-tonic i is necessarily only a semi-vowel :
Antonie, and thus regularly in words like : glorie,
victorie, tragedie, cdrie, mdrie, as also in berie, inerie.
Synizesis generally takes place in the Comparative
of adjectives in -y : holier, besier etc., but frendlier,
Troil. i. 885, lustier 570/1345 [G. 1345], in which
each syllable retains its full value. No synizesis
occurs in similar cases in the Superlative, cf holiest,
seemliest etc. Seur (O.Fr. seilr^, which is invariably
monosyllabic, may be considered as a further instance
of synizesis. Note also Perotheus beside more
frequent Perotheus ( = Pirithoiis).
269 Elision. This term comprehends all the
l82 METRE: PROSODY.
diverse phenomena which result from the blending
into one syllable of the final vowel of one word with
the initial vowel of the next. They are principally
of two kinds : ecthlipsis or apostrophe, and 'synklisis '
if a new term be permissible for a process which is
comparable to synizesis in a single word. Actual
crasis is rare.
Ecthlipsis affects, primarily the final weak e. This
is regularly elided before an initial vowel (on the only
case in which elision need not take place, cf § 270).
A few examples must suffice ; the ecthlipsis of e is
indicated only in cases where it cannot be apocopated
before an initial consonant :
Wei koude he sitte^on hors and fay re ryde 3/94
[Proi. 94].
Wei koude she carina morsel and wel keepe 4/1 30
[Prol. 130].
Whan they were wonneTand in the grete see 2/58
[Prol. 59].'
Thestaat, tharray, the nombr^and eek the cause
21/716 [Prol. 716].
With muchel gloria and greet solempnitee 26/870
[A. 870].
Victoria and as a conquerour to liven 27/916
[A. 916].
Short was his goune with sleeves longhand wyde
3/93 [Prol, 93].
Frequently, indeed as a rule, weak e is also elided
before following h. This affects in English words
chiefly the initial h in he, him, his, hire, here, hem (in
the case of elision it would be preferable to spell hit
without It), how, heer, and various forms of the verb
ELISION.
183
have, in Romance words the mute h as in honour,
honest, humble, humilitee etc. Examples :
His bootes soupld^his hors in greet estaat 6/203
[Prol. 203].
That hem to seen the peeple'^hath caught plesaunce
434/993 [F. 993]-
To eschue and by hire contrari^hire oppresse 527/4
[G."4].
Nought wolde I tell^how me is wo bigoon 517/1316
[F. 1 3 16].
Of children to thonour of God above 448/1449
[E. 1449].
It is noteworthy that the aspirated French h
also occasionally permits of elision :
Of brend goold was the caas and eek the harneys
83/2896 [A. 2896].
The elision of an e finds graphic expression as a
rule only in the case of the article the and the
negation ne, and even then it is not always indicated
by the scribes : nis = ne'^is, nam = n^am, nath, nadde,
or also nhath, nhadde ; thestaat, tharray, tholde man,
thonour, etc. In other cases the elided e is, indeed,
not infrequently apocopated as: And floures fressh
honour en ye this day. Mars 3, but as a rule only in
such MSS. as often omit even an e which is metrically
essential.
Closed e may be elided as well as weak e,
though this happens infrequently, and only before
an initial vowel, not before h. Ecthlipsis must
be assumed in the following cases : in the'^alighte
182/1660 [B. 1660] (Ellesmere and Hengwrt : in
thalighte), do meTendyte t)2?>J2,2 [G. 32] (Hengwrt:
184 METRE: PROSODY.
do ntendite), on crueltee fne^awreke Pitee i i,ikat hadde
affrayd m^out of my sleep Blaunche 296. Stedfast-
nesse 17 ought to be emended : Pite^is exyled, no
man merciable, either crasis or synklisis having
taken place ; synklisis probably in prive^and apert
366/1 1 14 [D. 1 1 14] (JA.aA.prive n^apert. cf. § 270,
Note.), Tisb^and Piramus Leg. 916. Unaccented
o is more frequently elided in to : to'^eschue, to'~'en-
tende, to'^abyden, to'~'Athenes, unto'~'any lovere, Troil.
i. 20 etc. ; since spellings like tentende, tenforce etc.
also occur, these must be cases of ecthlipsis ; synklisis
also in a case like to Placebo'^ answerde 450/1520
[E. 1520]; crasis in so'^estaatly 9/281 [Prol. 281]?.
Synklisis takes place without doubt when a final y
unites with a following initial vowel to form one
syllable : so besyTa man, so mery^a (var. so myri^a)
compaignye ; inany^a is united with extraordinary
frequency, so that the cases in which the two words
taken together form a trisyllable as 136/213
[B. 213] are really exceptions ; on the other hand,
generally, many con. A case like they'^engendred
21/421 [Prol. 421] may be treated as crasis.
Note. For very obvious reasons the final sound in every
never undergoes synklisis. Nor, as a rule, are adverbs in -ly,
which are frequently followed by a short pause, adapted to this
process. One might be inclined to scan Blaunche 147 : And
shiwe hire shortly'^it is no nay ; but the line more probably
reads : And shdwe hire shdrtly, hit is no ndy, cf. § 272.
270. Hiatus is the converse of elision, and may
therefore be appropriately discussed in this connec-
tion. Neither Old French nor Modern German
poetry acknowledges any rigid law against hiatus,
such as Modern French poetry observes. This is true
HIATUS 185
also of M.E. poetry in general and of Chaucer's
verse in particular. He does not hesitate to permit
the conjunction of a final with an initial vowel,
provided that the former is not weak e, but he
betrays a tendency to avoid such a juxtaposition
whenever it is fairly easy to do so. A careful study
of the MSS., even the most reliable specimens of
which cannot ^be credited with an absolutely faithful
adherence to the original, will prove that after a final
vowel which is not to be elided Chaucer always
spelt hit — not it ; before an initial vowel or h he
regularly used from, oon, noon, an, niyn, thyn, and
frequently also -lich and -liche instead of -ly, whilst
before consonants he used fro, a, my, thy, generally
also and no. Rigidly tabooed is the conjunction of
syllabically weak e with a following initial vowel.
In this connection note further the following three
points :
(i) The Article the generally unites with a
following vowel to form one syllable, but may also
maintain its independence : the ercedeknes curs
19/655 [Prol. 655] (also 1. 658 Purs is the ercedek-
nes helle quod he with Harl. ; in no case with Zupitza :
Purs is the ercedekenes helle seyde he), the olde clerkes
34/1163 [A. 1 163], that al the Orient 43/1493
[A. 1494] (^Orient here necessarily dissyllabic, cf
I 268), on the auter cleere 67122,2,1 [A. 2331], o« the
auter brighte 69/2425 [A. 2425] etc.
(2) Initial h permits, as we have seen, the elision
of a preceding weak e, but it may, on the other hand,
also conceal the hiatus. It is unnecessary to multiply
examples : the following will prove that an e which
is frequently subject to apocope may be syllabic
l86 METRE: PROSODY.
before following h : Yit hadde he but litel gooli in
cofre 9/298 [Prol. 298]. That on his shine a
mormal hadde he 12/386 [Prol. 386].
(3) Chaucer very rarely permits hiatus after a weak
-e in the csesural pause. Most of the examples
which have been adduced as evidence in support of
his doing so are based on erroneous readings which
have become untenable since the publication of the
Six-Text. In other cases the emendation is obvious :
for instance 39/1322 [A. 1322] read Witkouten
doute hit may stonden so. Yet its occasional
occurrence must be conceded. The hiatus jars but
little when the csesural pause coincides with a very
distinct logical pause: 468/2144 [E. 2144] should
be punctuated as follows —
Com. forth, -tny whyte spouse. Out of doute
Thou hast me wounded in inyn herte, o wyf
Nor is the hiatus in the following example ob-
jectionable, although it only coincides with a
secondary caesura, and the logical pause is only a
brief one :
In the ende of which an ounce and natnore
568/ 1 266 [G. 1266].
Here elision would have reduced the energy of
the statement. There is no such excuse for 322/599
[C. 599] or 326/772 [C. 772] :
If that a prince useitK) hasardrye.
No lenger thanne after deeth they soughte.
The poet may, of course, have overlooked some
imperfect verses, and it is significant that the short
fragment of the Cokes Tale contains no less than
two examples of this hiatus : 127/4380 [A. 4380];
CONTRACTION AND SLURRING. 187
128/4407 [A. 440;]; 570/1348 [G. 1348] and
405/57 [E. 57] are doubtful. The latter verse may
easily be emended with the help of Cambr. Univ.
Dd. 4. 24 (cf. the reprint of the Clerkes Tale, by
W. A. Wright, p. 3) :
Ther is right at the west syde of Itaylle,
and thus Tyrwhitt also reads. Other cases are
200/2153 [B. 2153]; 282/3989 [B. 3989].
Note. Since ne (non) and ne (neque) are spelt alike in the
MSS. and are occasionally confounded by scholars, it may not be
superfluous to note that ne admits of absolutely no hiatus,
whereas it is quite permissible after ne: ne oynement that
ivolde dense and byte 18/631 [Prol. (i2,\\ yong ne oold Sgl^iio
[A. 31 10] etc. On the other hand ne (like the pronouns me,
thee) may suffer elision, for instance Nat Rome for the harm
thurgh Hannibal ' Nor at Rome,' etc. 139/290 [B. 290]. Exactly
the same relation holds between O.Fr. ne and ne\ = nz).
271. Contraction is the elision of e in the
negation ne, when accompanied by aphsresis of a
consonant in cases where it was the rule already in
O.E. : nas (O.E. nies) = ne was, nere (O.E. ndre) =
ne were, nil (O.E. nylle) = ne wil, nolde, O.E. nolde =
ne wolde, noot (O.E. ndi) = ne woot, niste (O.E. nyste
= ne wiste. The same term may be applied to a
process in which the aphaeresis of a vowel is followed
by assimilation to the preceding word. Of this I
can only quote one example : this = this is. 404/ 5 6
[E. 5 6] ought probably to read : But this the tale
which that ye shal heere ; 32/1091 [A. 1 09 1 ] We
moste endure it, this the short and play n.
272. Slurring is a sort of modified syncope or
apocope. The vowel which is slurred does not
l88 METRE: PROSODY.
disappear entirely, but is reduced to such an extent
that, together with the vowel of a preceding or
following syllable, it does not exceed the time of one
metrical beat. The two syllables occur in one and
the same word, in hevenes, deeveles, lovede, werede,
constable, indnciple etc. Scansions like bretheren
should probably be included under this heading,
unless it were permissible (having regard to doughtren,
ootkres, oothre) to assume syncope for them ; in all
probability also scansions like Antony, naturally,
like rather and whider, but without doubt all the
cases where the ending -ye in Romance words is used
as a monosyllable. Very often the syllables in
question belong to two different words. A weak e
in the iinal syllable before a single final consonant
may be slurred if the following word begins with a
vowel, or an h capable of elision. Thus we find
combinations like fader^of, water^he {evet^on, ever^he
had also better be scanned thus than as eur on,
eur he | 263), leever^have and very often over^al;
furthermore riden'^in, getettThim, peseriTupon Leg. 648 ;
candet^at, litet^asonder ; overlooked^it, biloved^and ;
Athmes'^hir 60/2098 [A. 2098], Goddes^halfe
Blaunche 370 and numerous similar ones. Unusual is
197/2087 [B. 2087] romauncefofprys,m Sire Thopas,
where, however, Harl. reads romauns. Some cases
admit of a two-fold interpretation, thus ever^on, ever^he
ought perhaps to be explained as evere'^on, ever^he;
wered^he, loved'^he, loved'~'hir (Preterites) as wered^he
etc. The phonetic effect remains, of course, in either
case the same. I have not quoted any instances of
slurring in the ending -eth, because in the Imper. PI.
the ending admits of apocope, in the 3rd. Sing. Pres.
ACCENT AND STRESS. 189
more frequently of syncope. In all cases where
weak n can be apocopated it would be better to
assume such apocope and consequent elision than
slurring, thus in the P.P. of some verbs, and invariably
in the Infin. and the Pres. Plur. or Prat, of finite
verbs. Read likewise JameTandmsX.&'a.A oi J allies'^ and,
since the form Jame occurs in rime.
The weak e in ne and the is also slurred when
these particles become enclitic to a previous word
with vocalic termination : / ne saugh this jeer so mery
a compaignye 22/764 [Prol. 764] emended according
to Harl. ; / ne seye but for this ende this sentence
166/1139 [B. 1 1 39]; Or som wight elles ; I ne
rought who Blaunche 244 ; Me ne lakketh but my
deeth and than my bere Pitee 105 (emended) ; nathe-
less is, after all, a similar instance.
That is S.T. 6/ 180 [Prol. 180], Blaunche 268, as
well as hit is Blaunche 147 (cf. § 269, N.) must also
be treated as examples of slurring. A contraction
such as thats, hits must have left traces in the MSB.
though, on the other hand, it is obvious how easily
the scribes could resolve this = this is (| 271) into its
component parts. Combinations like with a, and a,
in the appear to me to be very doubtful ; for the
present I should prefer to consider them non-
Chaucerian.
II. ACCENT AND STRESS.
273. Since the rhythm of Chaucer's verse is
determined by accent, the metrical stress is ne-
cessarily based on the word- and sentence-accent.
But not infrequently the normal word-accent and the
190 METRE: ACCENT AND STRESS.
metrical rhythm are at variance, and different
opinions are possible and have been actually held
as to the manner in which the conflict may be
decided. The sentence-stress disagrees less fre-
quently with the rhythmical stress — a fact which
offers a valuable hint for the solution of the difficulty
with regard to word-stress.
274. There are altogether three methods con-
ceivable for the reconciliation of accent and rhythm
when at variance : either the accent must yield to
the exigencies of the verse — accent-shift ; or the
rhythm must conform to the normal accentuation —
inversion of the metrical measure ; or, finally, in
delivery a compromise must be attempted of such a
character that the hearer remains conscious both of
the natural accentuation and of the claims of the
rhythm — level stress — veiled rhythm.
275. If in studying a metrical art inherited from
the past we seek for criteria which may render it.
possible in any given case to decide without bias in
favour of one of these three methods, the following
considerations naturally present themselves. The
corresponding syllables of different words often vary
in weight — that is in capacity for stress ; the second
syllable in a word, like mellere for instance, is dis-
tinctly more capable of stress than the second
syllable of a word like fader. On the other hand,
different parts of one and the same metrical line vary
in the demands they make upon accuracy of rhythm ;
for instance, an investigation of modern versification
amongst various nations teaches us that the con-
clusion of a verse requires under all circumstances
rhythmical correctness and is characterised by it
METRICAL STRESS.
191
even in the syllabically accented metres of Romance
nations (also we might add in the ancient poetry of
the Indians which is measured by syllabic quantity),
whilst on the other hand, the beginning of a verse
even in the rhythmically accented metres of the
Germanic peoples, permits deviation from the
correct rhythmical scheme, or at least a veiling of it.
Starting from 'these preliminary considerations we
arrive at the following conclusions :
(i) Where in case of conflict between accent and
metrical stress the syllabic character of the word
has been considered exclusively, whilst its metrical
position has been disregarded, the accent should be
shifted. Now since a word like mellere, even at the
end of a verse, is capable of filling out such a portion
of a rhythmical scheme as may be illustrated thus :
— -^(^), the inevitable conclusion is that in this
and all cases in which the metre imperatively
demands it, the accentuation mellire must be assumed,
i.e. accent-shift. This assumption receives the most
gratifying confirmation from the rules laid down
above on the treatment of weak e, according to
which the form melleres, for instance, can only be
treated as a trisyllable when the medial syllable is
accented.
(2) When in case of conflict between accentua-
tion and metrical stress merely the metrical position
of the word can be pleaded in justification, inversion
of the metrical measure must be assumed.
(3) When both metrical position and syllabic
weight conduce to the solution of the difficulty, or,
in an unfavourable case, both are equally indifferent,
level stress, or veiled rhythm, must be assumed.
192
METRE: ACCENT AND STRESS.
But, in point of fact, inversion of the measure can be
dispensed with altogether in an accentual verse of the
second type. For since the portion of the verse in
question makes the conflict between accentuation and
rhythm bearable by the very fact that it preserves the
consciousness of the rhythmical scheme, it will, in all
cases in which it is possible to assume inversion of
the measure, be equally possible to assume veiled
rhythm — level stress. A regard for economy in
terminology makes the assumption of only two
categories advisable : namely, of accent-shift and
level stress.
276. We shall be guided by these principles in
the further discussion of our subject. Our immediate
task is the study of word-accentuation by means of
a consideration of the position of the primary accent,
or of the accent in general (i) in native and Ger-
manic, (2) in Romance words.
277. In considering the accentuation of the Ger-
manic word it is necessary to discuss first the normal
position of the primary accent, then the legitimate
conditions for shifting it. The normal position of
the accent corresponds to the O.E. rule.
(i) In the simple word the accent rests upon the
root-syllable in contradistinction to the inflexional or
derivative syllables : fader, in6oder,f{nger, heven, sddel,
rydere, Idvere, b6dy, w6rthy, thinken, dskedest, wry ting,
kdlier, hyeste, siemlieste etc.
(2) In noun-composition the principal accent
rests upon the iirst element, whose function it is to
determine the force of the second : plSwman, shirreve,
cdkewold, wddecraft, notheed, manhood, fr^endshipe.
GERMANIC ACCENTUATION 153
freedom, wisdom, wdrthily, bSldely {-ly originally a
noun). This applies even when the first element is
a particle (exceptions § 278) : dnswere, foreward,
forward, forheed (instead of foreheed), iipright,
6utrydere.
(3) In verb-composition, which by this very fact
is proved to be unreal, the accent does not fall
upon the initial particle, but upon the verb : arysen,
bicldppen, biginnen, forg^ten, forbieden, forb^ren, of-
thinken, tohewen, yse'en, ythinken, ybSren etc.
278. Exceptions:
(i) None in simple words.
(2) In noun-composition : compounds with al:
almighty etc. ; with mis : misdied, mishdp ; with un :
unhdp, unheele, unreste, uncouth, unhappy, unkynde,
unmighty, unsdd etc. ; with for (' German ver ' not to
be confounded with fore ' fore ') : forgetfulnesse from
an extinct noun forgit ; with y (O.E. je-") : ywis ;
compounds with a which are formed by analogy with
corresponding verb-compounds : abSod from abyden,
even in old formations like ariste the particle may
have lost the accent in spite of O.E. i&rist ; the case
of bi (forby) is almost identical, the old genuine noun-
compounds with bt — excepting byword (O.E. biwyrde,
Mhg. btwort) — have all been lost, and younger O.E.,
as well as M.E., formations with be- bi- are in use :
bihdlf biheeste, bileve etc. Finally nouns in -ere
denoting the agent follow the accentuation of the
verb from which they are derived, cf. overc6m.ere
Boece 4266.
(3) In O.E. the denominatives are excepted :
cf dndswarian ; but in Chaucer answere is generally
N
194 METRE : ACCENT AND STRESS.
accented like other verb-compounds : answe're, but
also dnswere.
279. Legitimate shifting of the accent for the sake
of the metre occurs primarily in rime, and secondly
in the caesura, without being prohibited in other
parts of the verse, since its purpose is to be sub-
servient to metrical exigencies. It consists in the
following : In a noun-compound the second element
may be accented instead of the first, provided that
it or its root-syllable follows immediately upon the
originally tonic syllable : answire, forheed, upright,
upriste, brimst6on, manhood, freendshipe, trewly {trewly
beside triwely), oonly etc. Amongst loan-words
note O.^.feldwe beside ///awe (but orAy filawshipe),
windSwe. In the simple word a heavy derivative
suffix may be accented instead of the root-syllable,
provided it follows immediately upon the latter.
Such suffixes are : -ere, -nesse, -esse, the Superlative
suffix -este, -ing -inge, -y : mell/re, dagg/re ; clennisse,
gladnisse ; goddisse ; hySste,fayr/ste ; lording; making,
wryting, bytinge, weepinge ; body. It is noteworthy
that the suffix -y in rime is either weak, or bears
merely the secondary accent : b6dy, icnworthy. Of
inflexional suffixes only the isolated -om in whylom
whyldm can be in question. Verb-compounds
admit of no accent-shift from metrical considerations
{dnswere beside answ/re is otherwise accounted for,
cf. § 278, 3, on the verbal substantive of. § 281).
In a noun-compound the second element of which is
usually accented (cf. § 278, 2) the accent is very
rarely shifted to the first element ; but Uncouth,
■iinworthy occur.
PARATHESIS.
195
Note. If the second element of a compound has suffered
mutilation to such an extent as to be unrecognisable, the
remainder is treated as if it were the suffix of a simple word :
hence lady can be accented lady.
280. Parathesis is the union of two (or several)
originally separate words which as regards their
syntactical functions — and inflexion where such takes
place — were co-ordinate. The parathetic com-
pounds which were created in the M.E. period are
accented according to the O.E. (by no means the
M.E.) sentence-stress, provided the latter does not
offend against the laws of composition-stress. Hence
in a union of two nouns the former will normally
bear the accent : sonday, hdlyday (in the MSS. some-
times spelt as two words), gdodman, good-wyf, Idng-
swerd 192/1943 [B. 1943], Oxenford, Cdunterbury
etc. The same holds good when two particles
belonging to the same part of speech are united :
elleswhere, also ; but with a legitimate shift als6. If
a preposition is united with a noun or with an
adverb, the noun or adverb will bear the accent :
alyve, bilyve blyve ; bifore, bihynde, tofore, withSuten
etc. The preposition used as an adverb before
another preposition bears the accent : into, imto
(§58 N.), but also into, untd and probably always
up6n (frequently spelt up on). The pronominal adverb
before a preposition used as an adverb is originally
unaccented : heerin, therefdre, there6f, but also therfore,
tyrof {tMr of) etc.
If the O.E. sentence-stress is at variance with the
composition-stress, the latter prevails. The preposi-
tion used as an adverb, as well as the ordinary pre-
positional adverb, bears the accent in O.E. if it stands
196 METRE: ACCENT AND STRESS.
before the verb : fore seon, lip ahebban, ■kppe -bringan.
If the particle enters into a closer union with the
verb it loses its accent in M.E. by analogy with the
older verb-compounds (which, as a matter of fact, are
also unreal compounds): And Arcita anoon his
hSnd uphdf {WS&. up haf) 69/2428. For also sdoth as
sSnne uprlst on morwe (mss. up rist, Var. rist tip),
Troil. IV. 1443, likewise uproos Troil. I. 85. But
what that G6d forwoot moot needes bee 294/4424 [B.
4424], likewise _/(7rze/oW Fame 45. By hygh imdgind-
cibun forncdst {Sf^x.forn cast, for cast etc.) 294/4407
[B. 4407] Sire Thopas wolde outryde (MSB. out ryde
192/1940 [B. 1940]. Participial forms: up-f6stred
S3i/i22[G. 1 22],«/'-^^/</i? 533/189 [G. 189]. Beside
these, however, cases are found in which the particle
retains its tone : That for woot dl withouten
ignordtunce Troil. IV. 1 07 1 ; Up roos the sdnne and
■Ap roos Emelye 65/2273 [A. 2273] (where at the
beginning of the verse we must assume level
stress) ; but in such instances there is no neces-
sity for assuming parathesis, and in the former of
the two passages quoted we should be justified in
replacing /c^r by _/(7rf in order to indicate the indepen-
dence of the particle. However, the accented par-
ticle generally follows the verb in M.E., or is separated
from it by another word ; the latter is the case, for
instance, in To live -with hire and dye and by hire
stonde 140/345 [B. i^c^X And out she comth Leg. 858;
the former in Tisbe rist up Leg. 887. In She rist hire
up Leg. 810, the particle both follows the verb and
is separated from it by another word. The noun
has in O.E. a stronger stress than the verb, as a rule
even when it follows the latter. In those M.E,
SECONDARY ACCENT.
197
instances of parathesis which one feels inclined to
construe as Imperative sentences, the initial verb bears
the accent by analogy with genuine noun-compounds :
pikepurs, tredefoul etc.
281. The Verbal Substantives in -ing -inge, when
compounded with a particle, are often accented
otherwise than the verb from which they are derived :
not only in cases like forseeing, forwiting, i.e. in
compounds which by no means necessarily pre-
suppose the parathesis of particle and verb (any more
than the German ' Thursteher' postulates a verb
' thiirstehen '), but also in cases like Mginning, i.e. in a
noun-compound, which is probably derived immedi-
ately from the corresponding verb-compound. Side
by side with this form there occurs, however, one
with the accent corresponding to that of the verb :
biginning. Occasionally the Pres. Part, also has
noun-accentuation; this fSrknowinge wyse Troil. I. 79.
282. As regards the position of the secondary
accent two frequently antagonistic tendencies may
be recognised in the language of the 14th. century,
the historical source of which must be discussed
elsewhere : on the one hand a tendency to accentu-
ate the second element of a compound felt as such,
and consequently to emphasise a living derivative
suffix by the accent ; on the other hand a tendency to
bring about a regular alternation of accented and
unaccented syllables in a word. In Chaucer's poetry
— as in that of all poets who aim more or less
consistently at a regular alternation of accented and
unaccented syllables — the latter tendency is, in case
of conflict, destined to prevail, the former only
198 METRE: ACCENT AND STRESS.
attains to indirect expression in their work, namely,
in so far as it tends to account for the possibihty of
shifting the primary accent. The position of the
principal accent once given — whether it be the
normal or an exceptional one — that of the secondary
accent follows in Chaucer as a matter of course.
Words like wisdom, mdnhood, friendshipe, hyest have
no secondary accent, but, on the other hand
mdrtirdhom, wSmanhbod, fndydenheed, felawshlpe,
sdemliest ; cf. further arysen, forgeten with bvercdmen,
iinderstSnden, forheed with outrydere, unworthy with
■Anworthy, biginning with biginning, f6rseelng, forwit-
Ing etc.
A weak e is apocopated, syncopated or slurred
whenever the secondary accent would fall upon it ;
but sometimes the necessity for this is obviated
by the syncope or slurring of a weak e belonging
to a preceding syllable. On this relation are based
the propositions discussed in §§ 256, 257.
It is further noteworthy that the e of the 2nd.
Pers. Sing, termination -est is not weak, since it
is capable of secondary accent : dskedest, nobledest
etc. In isolated cases the -en of the non-syncopated
weak Preterites, and much more rarely the -eth of the
3rd. Pers. Sing. Pres. Ind., and the -ed of the P.P.,
bear the secondary accent. Cf §S 256, 257, excep-
tions. The Comparative suffix -er rarely bears the
secondary accent, ^sfr^ndlier (Ysx. frendliour), Troil.
I. 885, lAstier 570/134S [G. 1345]. As a rule
synizesis takes place in such cases (cf § 268).
Note. On a case like episteles for epistles cf. § 226 N. ; on
occasional accentuation of a weak e in foreign Proper Names
§294.
ROMANCE ACCENTUATION. 199
283. Accentuation of Romance words. In French
the accent rests, as we know, upon the last syllable
of the word which is capable of accent, hence either
upon the ultimate, or upon the penultimate, if
the ultimate contain weak e. In M.E. the treatment
of French nouns differs from that of French verbs
with regard to accentuation, and they must therefore
be considered separately.
284. The French noun often retains its original
accent in Chaucer. This statement can be proved
only in the case of dissyllabic words, or trisyllabic
ones with a weak e in the final syllable. Instances
of accentuation like pitee, honSur, vertii, natiire,
maneere, victSrie, contrdrie are frequent in Chaucer,
and (with very rare exceptions : r^medye beside reine'die,
vicary beside vicdrie) the only permissible ones in
rime. But the accentuation corresponding to N.E.
usage is very frequent within the metre : pitee, hSnour,
virtu, ndture, mdner etc. In words like victorie,
contrarie, historic this accentuation seems limited to
cases in which the final e may be elided, since
it is incapable of secondary accent, whereas the
preceding semi-vowel can neither disappear absolutely
nor be easily transformed into a full vowel ; hence
victori^dnd 26/872 [A. 872] cdntrari^hire 527/4
[G. 4]. On the other hand, there is no objection
to accenting constable, ■manciple, cf. further § 227.
285. A number of nouns of the character indicated
do not in any case admit of the recession of the
accent from the second to the first syllable. This
applies especially to nouns the first syllable of which
contains a parasitic e before impure s, as for instance
200 METRE: ACCENT AND STRESS.
estaat, and to a large number of compounds the first
element of which is a particle. The prefixes a{ad) and
de resist accentuation to an extraordinary degree, e.g.
abet, achaat, accord, apert, array, arest, assent, assyse,
avys, avow, awayt; debaat, deceyte, decree, defence,
degree, delyt, delyvre, desyr, despeyr, despyt, devout.
But Blaunche 384 ddfaute seems to occur. Other
particles like dis- di- are more fluctuating : probably
always disuse dzspdrt (etymologically delay also
belongs here), but on the other hand cf. discreet
beside discreet ; others again, like abs- con- betray no
perceptible aversion to the accent. No conclusion as
to M.E. pronunciation can be drawn from direct
comparison with N.E. : thus renoun occurs in Chaucer
by the side of renSun (M.E. discrete fluctuated in
accent, and in this case also the pronunciation
discrete has become established).
286. In polysyllabic words there is a tendency to
throw the accent two syllables further back, in short
to reverse the positions of the primary and secondary
accents (the position of the latter is the same in
Romance as in native words) : emperhur for hnperdur,
argument drgument, in the same way, soveriynetee,
condicibun, imagindcibun, dbeysdunce. To what extent
this process had been accomplished in Chaucer's
language cannot be wholly determined from the
metre, since both the primary and the secondary
accents are capable of metrical stress. But that the
process was not unknown may be deduced from
cases of syncope like auditours for auditoures, which
necessarily postulate an accentuation aikditoiirs
(§ 226), further from a few cases in which in
synizesis the accentuation of the word in its full
ROMANCE ACCENTUATION. 201
syllabic value has been preserved : condtcioun 6f
poverte 132/99 [B. 99] religioun 542/427 [G. 427]
(in rime synizesis naturally produces accent-shift,
hence imdgindcidun, but Blaunche 14 hnaginacibun,
or rather Imaginacidun ?), finally, in cases of
synaeresis like dunter beside dventiire. Whether, con-
versely, from the occasionally syllabic force of a weak
final e in words like aventure we ought to conclude
that in such cases the primary accent maintains
its position, must be left an open question. In
further discussion I shall venture to assume that
Chaucer's normal method of accentuation was to
reverse the respective positions of the primary and
secondary accents in French words the structure of
which made it permissible. Weak e is incapable
of accent, hence sovreyntee occurs beside sbvereynetee,
nor, presumably, was the first element accented in
the combinations ia, io etc. (§ 268), unless such a
combination constituted the first syllable of the
word), hence meridional.
287. The M.E. accentuation of Romance deriva-
tives ignores, as a rule, the M.E. accentuation of
the original Romance word ; thus we accent delitable,
desirous, in spite of delyt, desyr, and in the same way
acceptable, d^ceyvable in spite of accepten, dec^yven ;
but Venus 68 the accentuation agreable occurs by
analogy with the verb agreen, and in achdtour
17/568 [A. 568] the influence of the noun achdat is
evident, since no M.E. achaten corresponds to the
French verb acater acheter from which the noun
denoting the agent is derived. On the participial
formations in -aunt cf. § 291.
Considerations of Romance composition hardly
202 METRE: ACCENT AND STRESS.
affect the accentuation (apart from the case mentioned
^285) unless an unaccented English particle occurs
side by side with a Romance one of similar form and
meaning, thus immortal Troil. I. 103, and elsewhere ;
on the other hand, impossible, naturally also innocent,
since there is no such word as nocent ; thus mischdunce
is the normal accentuation in Chaucer as nowadays,
but, again, mischeef beside mischief, since cheef alone
has not the force of the compound. Note further
prenostik Fortune 54, and more frequently advocat
instead oi ddvocaat — other Romance compounds are
accented according to the general rule ; by the side
of pitSus or pitous we find despitous ; on despitously
cf. § 288.
288. Amongst the English derivatives from
original Romance words those in -nesse are of
primary importance ; fdlsnesse, with legitimate accent-
shift /a/j^^i'i'^, ritdenesse, strdungenesse ; in polysyllabic
words an endeavour is made to secure the secondary
accent for -nesse : foolhdrdynesse.
On the composition of English nouns and particles
with Romance nouns note the following. Only those
English words which are generally unaccented in
composition appear as the first element in com-
pounds : almerciable ; undble, unreprovable. When
the English word forms the second element in a
compound it is apt to receive the secondary accent :
prdntishood, pitously, despitously. Estdatly, dev6utly
are accented thus on account of estdat, devSut,
but there are no instances of dfnorbusly, ciiribusly,
but rather with slurring or synizesis dmorously,
naturally; cicriously, pdciently, spicially, cf S8 263,
268.
ROMANCE ACCENTUATION.
203
289. In Chaucer the French verb is generally ac-
cented like the strong forms of the Romance Present.
This statement was fully substantiated in §§ 177,
178, and in the same connection the most important
exceptions from the rule were mentioned. The
latter, in point of fact, only betray a tendency to
carry out the principle deduced from the rule more
consistently than is done in French. There is
little to add to the remarks made in the paragraphs
quoted above.
290. Such verbs as are compounded with a dis-
syllabic nominal stem probably reversed the re-
spective positions of the primary and secondary
accents in Chaucer, hence probably mMtiplye,
j-iistifye ; possibly this is also the case when the
verb is compounded with a dissyllabic particle, as
countrefete. Other instances of unusual accentua-
tion are disslmuleth 543/466 [G. 466], pArfiled
6/193 [Prol. 193].
291. The Pres. Part, in -aunt is, when used sub-
stantivally always, and when used adjectivally usually,
accented like the ordinary Romance noun : remen-
dunt, servdunt servaunt, trenchdunt trenchaunt,
sikffisdunt, repentdunt ; but in the latter case verbal
accentuation also occurs : accordaunt 2/37 [Prol.
37], discor daunt, consentaunt 310/276 [C. 276] (Var.
consented^, recr^aunt Troil. I. 814.
292. The Verbal noun in -ing, -inge derived from
Romance verbs frequently shifts its accent if the
verbal theme is monosyllabic : arminge, preching,
offringe. In case of a polysyllabic theme the ending
-ing is apt to acquire the secondary stress, the
204 METRE: ACCENT AND STRESS.
frequent result of which is a deviation of the primary
accent from the position it occupies in the inflected
forms of the verb : appdraillinge, chdlanging, chdstis-
inge, cdmpleyning, desiringe, enbibing, governing, pur-
chasing, sermoning etc. A similar deviation takes
place, though far more rarely, in the case of the
Participle in -inge, -ing: ambling apertening. In by
far the majority of cases the participle has the accent
of the verb; but naturally imagining ^tc. § 178.
293. Latin words in a Romance form, as, for
instance, creaat, desolaat are treated exactly like
genuine Romance words. Latin words which have
been adopted without change retain as a rule their
original form, but words that are practically formulas
and occur frequently, seem to allow a shifting of the
accent without which, for instance, the familiar syn-
cope in ben(edi)cite would be unaccountable.
294. Foreign Proper Names, especially those of
classic origin, display many peculiarities of accentua-
tion. The original accentuation of names like Julius,
Ercules, Scithero Cithero ( = Cicero), Troilus, Scithia
corresponds to the usual M.E. pronunciation of
polysyllabic Romance nouns, and hence they retain
as a rule the original accent ; but the form. Pridnius
occurs beside Priamus Troil. I. 2, Fame 159 (or,
in this case, Pridin ?), beside Perotheus also Perotheus
and Perotheus. Faroxytons with a sonorous ending
are apt to shift the accent. Dissyllabic ones are
accented after the French fashion when they occur
in rime, in any other position more rarely so : Tisb^e,
Circes, Cypris, Cled, Ekk6, Erro, Juno, Plato, Veniis.
Polysyllabic ones are frequently, indeed as a rule,
ROMANCE ACCENTUATION. 205
transformed into proparoxytons : Achates Ackatee,
Achilles, Xnchises, but Anchises, Fame 171, Polimites
{=Polynices), Eneds, but Eneas, cf. Fame 165,175,
VMcaniis, Mddea, Laddmid, ( = Laodamia) etc., thus
we find beside Apollo : Apollh (in rime) beside
Perndso : Pernasb (in rime), and even beside
Placebo : Placebo (likewise in rime). The names
in -eiis = eu? are naturally accented thus : Theseiis,
Egeus etc., but we find, for instance, Morpheus
beside Mdrpheiis. Amongst names which derived
their form from Boccaccio, note Arcyta and Arcitd,
as well as Criseydd, Troil. I. 169.
Weak e in the final syllable favours accentuation
of the penultimate : AcMlle, AntSnie, Arcyte, Criseyde
(the ordinary form of the name), Elye, Eneyde (beside
Eneidbs) Isiphyle (beside Isiphile), Ovyde, Stdce, or of
the one before the antepenultimate : Gdnimede,
Emelye (in Boccaccio Emilia'), fsdye etc., but, as a
rule, it is Virgile although Virgyle Leg. 924. Note
further forms like Antony and Antony, Cleopdtaras
Cleopdtre, Grisildls Grisilde and Grisild etc.
Troilus V. i486 Thebes is peculiarly accented in
rime, S.T. 2g\gTi [B. 973] within the metre pro-
bably Athenes, as if here the French PI. ending -es
were influenced by a reminiscence of Lat. -as
(cf episteles ^ 226, N.). By analogy we should
perhaps be justified in reading S.T. 405/63 [E. 6i'\
and similar cases Sdluces. The ordinary accentua-
tion of these words is naturally Thebes, Athenes,
SalAces.
295. An investigation of the M.E. sentence-stress
would form part of a general discussion of M.E.
2o6 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
metre, or of a sketch of alliterative poetry in the
M.E. period. Chaucer's verse contributes nothing to
the solution of the most important problems, as
indeed no metre can do which is incapable of in-
dicating what words in a given series extending over
several syllables are of primary importance for the
rhythm of the sentence. Both the primary and
the secondary accent are in Chaucer capable of
metrical stress. As a rule, all dissyllabic words
have one metrical stress, the trisyllabic ones
either one or two, according to the position of
the principal accent. Monosyllabic words are
generally metrically unstressed, though the great
majority of them are capable of stress. Exceptions
are the, ne ' not,' and perhaps an a. A studious
sifting of the cases in which monosyllables, though
as a rule unaccented in a sentence (prepositions,
conjunctions etc.) may bear the metrical stress, would
hardly serve any useful purpose for the reason that
Chaucer's verse does not reflect all the more delicate
shades of sentence-stress, any more than for instance
NE. or Nhg. metre does, and because any safe
conclusions which might be arrived at in this
direction are for the greater part self-evident.
III. THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE AND
THEIR STRUCTURE.
296. Only two amongst the various forms of verse
employed by Chaucer can lay claim to any con-
siderable and independent importance. They may
conveniently, and without fear of misapprehension,
be denoted by the terms ' normal short line ' and
THE NORMAL SHORT LINE.
Z07
'heroic metre.' The former will be considered first
and a characterisation of it will be followed by a
survey of other short lines which Chaucer uses in
one single specimen of his work in conjunction with
the normal line. A discussion of heroic metre in
which Chaucer wrote the great majority of his poems,
and amongst them his masterpieces, will form the
conclusion.
297. The normal short line was transmitted to
Chaucer by the older poetry of the M.E. period, and
its history reaches back into the 12th century. It
must be regarded as an imitation of the Romance
octosyllabic verse, though, on its first appearance in
English poetry, it does not withstand the influence of
a closely related native verse-form, i.e. the ' original
short line ' (Proverbs of Alfred, King Horn). Chaucer's
structure of the normal short line differs in no
essential point from that of the more distinguished of
his predecessors. But cf. § 31 7.
298. The normal short line contains 4 beats. The
last beat may either (a) conclude the line ; or (jS) it
may be followed by one unaccented syllable ; or (y)
by two unaccented syllables, the former of which is
slurred. Examples :
(a) This king wol wenden Sver s£e Blaunche 6j
This lady that was Idft at hSom „ 77
Swich a Ust anoon me tdok „ 273
Why that is an avisiSun Fame 7
As he that wiery was for g6 „ 1 1 S
Naked fleetinge in a see ,, i 3 3
(j8) Withouten sleepe and been in sSrwe Blaunche 2 1
A nd in this bdok were writen fables „ 52
2oS METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
Bord ne man ne nothing elks Blaunche 74.
That lyth ful pale and ndthing rddy „ 143.
(7) TJ my wit what cduseth swevenes Fame 3 ff.
Eithei^on m,6rwes or on evenes.
The verse-endings in (/3) and (7) are essentially the
same.
299. Between every two stressed syllables, or beats
(thesis, ' Hebung '), there is invariably an unstressed
or weak element (arsis, ' Senkung '). The first stress
is, as a rule, preceded by an anacrusis (' Auftakt '), so
that in its complete form the rhythm of the verse is
iambic. The anacrusis may, however, be suppressed.
A few examples will suffice :
Bid him creepe intd the b6dy
Swich a lestanoon me tSok
Took my hdrs and fdrtk I w^nte
G6 wefdste and gdn to ryde
Every man dide right anoon
Cduseth swiche drem.es 6fte
Be so pdrfit ds men fynde
Tt'irne us ivery dreem to g6od
Mette I trdwe stedfastly
Note. The assertion that there is invariably an arsis between
two stresses will seem untenable to an over-credulous reader of
the ' Deeth of Blaunche ' or the ' Hous of Fame ' in their present
form. But the extant versions of these poems in particular are
corrupt to a degree such as, in the absence of more reliable and
independent evidence, justifies a more radicaf criticism than the
general condition of Chaucer's poems requires or warrants.
Many passages call for incisive treatment, but even when
dealing tentatively with others a memory of the prevailing
characteristics of the poet will save the commentator from
Blaunche
144.
jj
273-
jj
357-
)>
371-
»
373-
Fame 35.
)>
44.
>»
58.
11
61.
TH5 NORMAL SHORT LINE. 209
imputing to the author the sins of ignorant copyists. One
example, for many, may serve to illustrate the point in question :
Ne trie ne ndught that 6ught wds, Bist tie mdn ne ndught dlles
Blaunche 1 58 £ emend : Ne trie ne nothing thdt ought wds, Bdst
ne mdn ne ndthing elles.
300. The arsis is, from a metrical point of view,
always monosyllabic ; in other words, anapaestic or
trochaic rhythm is foreign to the metre. Nor does
dissyllabic anacrusis occur. The chapter on prosody
showed us by what means the poet could, under
certain circumstances, reduce two syllables to one.
We may remember that by syncope, synseresis and
synizesis an absolute monosyllable may be pro-
duced, by slurring an approximate one (§ 272).
Note. The mss. afford — especially in the Deeth of Blaunche —
several verses which only violent slurring could reduce to the
correct number of syllables, i.e. which contain a dissyllabic arsis.
But the majority may easily be emended, as was in some cases
done already in Urry's edition. An examination of them will
show that the metrical error was not infrequently caused by the
insertion of a gloss into the text, for instance, a Proper Name
was added to the appellative employed by the poet (also the
reverse), or a Substantive took the place of a Personal Pronoun,
or a dissyllabic synonym of a monosyllable. The practical con-
clusions to be derived from such observations will be drawn with
the less hesitation, because otherwise consistency would force us
to let verses stand which are too long by a whole foot. {e.g.
instead of Now for to speke of Alcione his wyf, Blaunche 76,
read : Now for to speken of his wyf; So whan this lady koude
heere no word, Blaunche loi, read : So whan she koude heere no
word). A dissyllabic arsis should be removed from Blaunche
1 36 : Go bdt quodfuno to Mdrfheiis, by inserting the Pronoun she
for the Proper Na.mefuno ; Blaunche 213 by changing Alids to
A ! ; Blaunche 264, by deleting queene. A fertile source of dis-
syllabic arsis is a habit of the scribes of repeating a word used
in one clause of the sentence in a corresponding clause where it
O
210 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
should only be supplied mentaUy. Two striking instances of
identical character, taken from the Hous of Fame, will serve to
illustrate our meaning ; the interpolated word is in brackets :
Why thdt is an avisioun
And {why) this a rdveldcioun. Fame 7 £
Why this afdntome {why) thise ordcles Fame 1 1.
Schipper (Metrik p. 281) does not object to tlie dissyllabic arsis
in Chaucer, or — to speak more accurately — he considers every
species of slurring permissible. He quotes as an instance in
point ' proving considerable skill ' Blaunche 87. For him alas /
she loved alder best. It is evident that the e in loved might be
slurred with the following vowel, but I fail to see how and with
what word she could also be slurred. The verse as it stands
seems to be the welding together of two variants. For him, she
lived dlder best and For him aids she l&ved best. Blaunche 95.
Schipper causes sorowe to be slurred, but the only Chaucerian
forms are sorwe and (with apocope of e) sorw.
301. Level stress occurs especially at the be-
ginning of a line : Cer'tes I nil never ete breed,
Blaunche 92. Ra'ther than thdt I shSlde deye, ib. 240.
Now' for to spiken of his wyf ib. 76 (cf. § 300 N.).
Doun' to his hert to make him warm ib. 491. Hooni
for it was a Idnge terme ib. 79 etc. It occurs with
the next greatest degree of frequency at the beginning
of the second half of the line, if immediately after
the second stress a sort of caesura falls : And why
theffSctlfol'weth of sdme Fame 5. With floures felej
fayr/ under feet Blaunche 400. Right' as it was/
wo'ned to d6o ib. 150, which, however, may possibly
be emended to : Right! as it waned was to dSo. More
rarely it occurs in the second foot if a sort of caesura
falls after the first (cf. Note) : Than pleye/^ither at
che'sse or tables 5 i , which, however, possibly ought to
read : Than pleyen either at chesse or tables.
LEVEL STRESS. 21 1
Note. In Germanic metre it is customary to count the first
foot as beginning with the first beat. This is a mistake, for the
metrical anacrusis (even when suppressed) claims a rhythmical
period as much as any other arsis, and it is a mere convention
that in music a bar is always considered to begin with a beat.
Whether the rhythm of a verse is trochaic or iambic, cannot be
decided a priori even in Germanic metre. The M.E. normal
short line which indirectly at least (through the medium of the
French vers octosyllabe) traces back to the iambic dimeter, and
is perhaps directly descended from it, is naturally defined as an
iambic metre, in which, however, the anacrusis is sometimes
replaced by a pause.
302. In addition to the cases of level stress,
which, from the point of view of Germanic metre,
might appear legitimate, there occur — though in-
frequently in Chaucer — others of greater importance,
which can be accounted for by the persistent
influence of the Romance system of metre (as, on
the other hand, the absence of the anacrusis is due
to the influence of originally Germanic metrical
schemes). Only acatalectic verses are in question.
For instance : He was war of me hdw I stSod
Blaunche 515, Yift that ever he abSod his lyve ib.
247, Of Decembre the tenthe day Fame ill, I ferde
the werse dl the mSrwe Blaunche 99. Fugityf of
Troye contree Fame 146. Was in the gldsing
ywrought thiks Blaunche 327, Right even a quarter
before day ib. 198 etc.
Note. A verse like' Fame 20 : Forwhy this is more than
that caiise is is less striking, in so far as the accentuation required
logically this is mdre than thdt is in some respects of an
exceptional character, and we have long since grown accustomed
to the fact that an antithesis cannot always attain to rhythmical
expression.
212 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
303. In Sire Thopas Chaucer handles the normal
short line as in Blaunche or Fame. Although he
permits himself a certain license in the treatment of
the rimes after the fashion of the minstrels whose
style he is parodying, yet his metre remains free
from the crudeness that characterises the work of
some of the members of that guild. Only two verses
lack smoothness and rhythmical perspicuity. What
eyleth this love at me S.T. 193/197S [B. 1975], 0/
roinaunces that been roidles 195/2038 [B. 2038].
304. Besides the normal short line there occurs in
the stanza of Sire Thopas a shorter verse of three
beats, and further, in some expanded stanzas, a verse
of one beat (cf. \ 348). The verse of three beats is
iambic and perfectly regular in structure : Ther any
ram shaL stdnde S.T. 192/1931 [B. 1931J. Ye b6the
biikke and hare 192/1946 [B. 1946]. For ndw I
w6l you roune 195/2025 [B. 2025]. Of B eves and
Sir Gy. 197/2089 [B. 2089]. And priked as he
were w6od 1 9 3/ 1964 [B. 1964]. Level stress only
occurs in legitimate cases : And sleepe under my
gSre 193/1979 [B- 1979]- In the main body of the
stanza the anacrusis is never wanting, though it may
be absent when the verse occurs in the cauda
(Abgesang) of an expanded stanza : Neyther wyf
ne chylde 194/1996 [B. 1996]. Dwellinge in this
place 194/2006 [B. 2006]. The short line of one
beat occurs only with a feminine ending : in toune,
so wylde, with mace, thy mdwe, in londe.
Note. A few proverbs transmitted under Chaucer's name
(Minor Poems, ed. Furnivall ni. 432) have no bearing upon the
poet's metre. Other species of short lines occur only in pseudo-
Chaucerian poems.
HEROIC VERSE. 213
305. Heroic verse occurs in older M.E. poetry
only in such isolated instances (cf. Note) that to
Chaucer would be due the credit of having introduced
it into English literature, even if his treatment of it
did not differ essentially from that of his predecessors
(or predecessor?). Chaucer first made use of this
metre in lyric poetry, not until a later period in the
epic. The earliest poem in which he employed it,
the Compleynte to Pitee, was probably composed
before the Italian journey of 1 372-1 373 (I should
like to date it 1370- 1372), and thus we can hardly
escape the conclusion that in the first instance this
verse was an imitation of the French vers d^ca-
syllabe. Yet it was in Italy that he first became
thoroughly alive to the significance of this metre.
After that Italian journey heroic verse became his
sole poetical instrument, destined in the future to be
laid aside but twice so far as we know, and in each
case for a definite reason, in the Hous of Fame" and
in Sire Thopas. Of yet greater significance is the
fact that Chaucer's heroic verse deviates in all those
points from the French vers decasyllabe, in which
the Italian endecasillabo deviates from the common
model, and approximates as nearly to the verse of
Dante and Boccaccio as Germanic metre can
approach Romance. Incidentally we may also note
that the heroic verse in the Compleynte to Pitee is far
more closely allied to the French vers decasyllabe
than, for instance, in Troilus or the Canterbury
Tales. The free treatment of the caesura after
Italian fashion is far less apparent in the older
poems than in the later ones, and anyone who
compares the Compleynte as transmitted in Harl.
214 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
78 with the text of the remaining MSS., and pays
greater attention to the point in question than I was
able to do in my edition (Essays on Chaucer VI.,
p. 165 ff. Ch. Soc. Publ), will perhaps arrive at the
conclusion that the extant final version of the poem
is based upon an earlier one, in which French treat-
ment of the metre was more distinctly evident, and
of which MS. Shirley has preserved some traces.
Note. Schipper (Metrik l. p. 436) to whom the credit
belongs of having been the first to raise the question as to
Enghsh heroic verse before Chaucer, mentions as the oldest
poems in vvrhich it occurs the two songs contained in MS. Harl.
2253 : Boddeker, W.L. xiv., G.L. xviii. (Wright, Specimens of
L.P. No. 41 and 40, also Reliquas Antiquae I. 104) where, in his
opinion, the fifth and sixth lines of every stanza and the
concluding line of the refrain are in this metre. Since, as I
pointed out, Engl. Lit. I. 310. Note, the religious song in
question is an imitation of the secular one, this two-fold
occurrence can only count as a single one. But I have been
unable to convince myself that this is a genuine instance of
a metre, which — whether in origin or in character — may be
identified with Chaucer's heroic verse, though in isolated
instances it seems to be an exact equivalent. On the other
hand I should Hke to recognise an imitation of the decasyllabic
line in a case where Schipper has overlooked it (cf. Metrik I.
399). In the middle portion of the song, L'en peut fere et
defere (Wright, Pol. Songs, p. 253 ff, Wulcker's Lesebuch I.
74 ff.), the Cauda of each strophe ends with three verses which
hardly admit of any other interpretation : For miht is rihtjtke
ISnd is Idwelis etc., but in the corresponding verses of the 4th
stanza the last arsis is regularly latent : For wille is re'djthe
Idnd is ■wre'cfiil etc.
306. Chaucer's heroic verse always contains 10
syllables when it has a masculine ending, eleven
(or twelve when the eleventh is slurred) when the
HEROIC VERSE.
2IS
ending is feminine. Here again ' syllable ' is used
in the metrical sense of the term, to which the
grammatical definition — at any rate in cases of
slurring — approximates, but does not wholly corre-
spond (§ 272, cf. § 300). Examples :
Ful wel biloved and famulier was he S.T. 7/215
[Prol. 215].
That naturelly wolde holde an oother way 139/298
[B. 298].
This constable whan him lest no lenger seeche
146/521 [B. 521].
Wyd was his parisshe and houses fer asonder
14/491 [Prol. 491].
307. Three exceptions from the above rule are,
I believe, admitted by some scholars :
(l) Suppression of the anacrusis. Chaucer cer-
tainly permits its suppression in the normal short
line of four beats ; but the inherent difference
between this verse and heroic metre ought not to be
disregarded. That Chaucer himself was conscious
of this difference is proved beyond a doubt in my
opinion — which was Tyrwhitt's also — by Fame 1094-
1098 [Globe Fame III. 5- 10] (cf. specially Thowgh
som lyne fayle in a sillable). Personally, when in
reading a Chaucerian poem in heroic metre I come
upon a verse without anacrusis, I experience a jarring
sensation for which I should be loth to make the
poet responsible. And the less since a sensible
recension of any fairly well transmitted poem will
leave but few such cases, and of these some again
may be removed by slight emendations. In this
connection I may express my regret at not having
2i6 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
supplied the anacrusis in Pitee i6. Deed as stoon
etc. ought to read '■As deed as stoon', which would
also be more conformable to the linguistic usage of
the poet. Experience proves that especially at the
beginning of a line, the more superfluous mono-
syllables are easily omitted by the scribes.
(2) Dissyllabic anacrusis occurs far less frequently
than even suppression of the anacrusis, and should
therefore be yet more emphatically repudiated,
though for the same reasons. S.T. 8/260 [Prol. 260],
for instance, I have no doubt that instead of With a
threedbare cope : we should read : With threedbare
cope. If 147/561 [B. 56 1 J In name of Cryst were
not confirmed by the united authority of Ellesmere,
Hengwrt, Camb. and Harl., a scrupulous editor
would probably read with Corpus, Petworth,
Lansdowne, In the name of Cryst. 200/2147 [B.
2147] comprehended should be pronounced as a
\.'i\syV^?i!c^e = comprended {\Ak.ew\se 485/223 [F. 223]
comprehenden = comprenden) ; in Boece the syncopated
form is also in use graphically.
(3) A redundant syllable at the CESura after the
model of the feminine caesura in the O.Fr. epos
occurs without doubt in Lydgate and some later
poets. But it is hardly compatible with a metrical
system which does not fix the position of the caesura,
and though we do occasionally come upon such
passages in Shakespere, we are justified in demand-
ing greater correctness of form from the epic than
from the dramatic poet. This a priori reasoning
is by no means refuted by facts. If we assume
apocope, elision and slurring to the same extent at
the caesura as in other positions in the verse (which
THE C^SURA. 217
we are perfectly justified in doing, as proved above
all by the example of Italian verse), only an ex-
tremely limited number of verses remain, in which
the redundant syllable would have to be removed by
emendation.
Note. — Some readers of Schipper's Metrik would perhaps
welcome in this connection an examination of the cases which
Schipper i. 415 f. (under the heading 'feminine caesura after the
second beat, so-called epic csesura') quotes in support of the
redundant syllable at the caesura. I pass over the cases in
which the syllable can be gained only at the cost of a hiatus,
since Schipper himself considers them doubtful, and my readers,
I hope, do not. But here belongs also Prol. 184 studie^and,
since the preceding semi-vowel certainly protects the final -e
from apocope (cf. §§ 261 and 284), but by no means from elision
(§ 269). Prol. 18 were is, of course, monosyllabic. It would be
necessary to write weren to secure a redundant syllable in
holpen. Prol. 266 hadde should be changed to had, as frequently
elsewhere; Prol. 193 e in Jiurfi/ed is , shirred. Prol. 132 the
e in curteisye, as often in similar words, is non-syllabic ; 550
dore is, as usual, monosyllabic ; 740 the best MSB. do not read
woote but woot (§ 198) ; 22 the y of Caunterbury is a semi-
vowel just as in 16, where it does not occur in the caesura.
152 there is no reason against reading Hire nose treiys, or even,
which considering the state of the MSS. might be preferable Hire
nose was streyght. Monk. T. 3385 and 3409 slurring takes
place in the caesura : fader'~'and, heveri^haih (or, in the latter
case, elision : hevene'^hath, the elision being in this instance not
metrically but linguistically necessary). If we read Prol. 198
with Harl. and shoon instead of that skoon, slurring must also
be assumed in balled, cf , however, § 259. Prol. 148 But sore
wepte she, if oon of hem. were deed looks, judging by the MSS.,
like an Alexandrine. But if we write wept she, or change (for
which no adequate reason) with Zupitza to weep she, there would
be no objection to blending she with if in one syllable (§ 269).
But I suspect that she ought simply to be deleted. A verse But
sore wepte, if oon of Item were deed -would be metrically superior
2i8 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
to the one transmitted, and would not be less compatible with
the linguistic usage of the poet. These remarks obviously
dispose of the cases enumerated by Schipper p. 455 ; only, with
regard to Monk. T. 3413, I should like to add that sone, even if
not followed by a vowel, could not metrically count as a dis-
syllable.
308. The rhythmical character of the verse is
essentially determined by the caesura, which in
Chaucer — as in the Italian poets — is moveable. Four
species of caesura are of primary importance, two
masculine (i and 3) and two feminine ones (2 and 4).
(i) after the fourth accented syllable :
And whan that T \by lengthe of certeyn yeres
Hadde ever^in oon || a tyine sought to speke, Pitee 8 f.
T fond Mr deed | and buried in an herte Pitee 1 4.
(2) after the fifth, when the fourth is accented :
Of his miracles || and his cruel yre Parlement 1 1.
The day gan faylen || and the derke night
That reveth bestes ^from here besynesse Parlement
85 f
(3) after the sixth accented syllable :
This sorwful prisoneer || this Palamoun S.T.
32/1070 [A. 1070].
As thowgh he stongen were || unto the herte
32/1079 [A. 1079].
This Palamoun answer de 11 and seyde agayn
32/1092 [A. 1092].
(4) after the seventh syllable when the sixth is
accented :
The fayrnesse of that lady || that I see 32/1098
[A. 1098].
THE C^SURA.
219
The holy blisful ntartir || for to seeke 1/17
[Prol. 17].
The chambres and the stables || weren wyde 2/28
[Prol. 28].
Of these four species of metrical section the first is
by far the most frequent, and the second occurs more
frequently than the third or fourth. The two last
are distinctly less, represented in poems of the earlier
periods than, for instance, in the Canterbury Tales.
309. The beat which immediately precedes or
follows the caesura need not coincide with a primary
stress, in short, need not be the strongest accent in
the section of the verse concluded by the caesura :
Of Engelbnd || to Caunterbury they wende 1/16
[Prol. 16].
Inspired hath || in every holt and heeth i /6 [Prol. 6].
As wel in Cristendbm || as heethenesse 2/49
[Prol. 49]-
B^tfor to tellen you || of his array ijyi [Prol. 73].
That toward Caunterbicry || wolden ryde 1/27
[Prol. 27].
In the feminine caesura the arsis may consist of
an enclitic monosyllable :
Or if men smdot it || with a yerde smerte 5/149
[Prol. 149]-
Ful worthy was he || in his lordes werre 2/47
[Prol. 47J.
310. The caesural pause does not necessarily
coincide with the most emphatic pause in the
sentence. In accentual metre the logical structure
of the verse certainly provides a basis for the division
of the line, but the harmonious balance between the
220 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
two sections of the verse is always carefully con-
sidered, and the historical tradition to which Chaucer
is linked, and in accordance with which the break is
placed as near the middle of the verse as possible, helps
to maintain it. Thus in the first verse of Troilus :
The double sorwe || of Troilus to tellen,
we must certainly place the caesura after the fourth
syllable, although the clause into which it cuts only
ends with the word Troilus. But if the caesural
pause which metrically would be most appropriate
falls after the sixth or seventh syllable when the
sixth is accented, whilst an equally strong, or even
stronger, logical pause occurs after the second or
third syllable of the verse, it will be legitimate to
assume two caesuras :
With grys || and that the fyneste || of a lond Sjig^
[Prol. 194].
Of court II and been estaatlich || of maneere S/140
[Prol. 140].
And palmers || for to seeken || straunge strondes
1/13 [Prol. 13].
Somtyme || with the lord || of Palatye 3/65
[Prol. 65].
A loviere || and a lusty || bacheleer 3/ 1 80 [Prol. 180].
Note. If the logical pause follows the metrical caesura we
need not assume a double caesura, for instance :
Andsofte unto himself^ he seyde : Fy 51/1773 [A. 1773].
Is in this large worlde\^ysprad, quod she, iZil\i,i,i, [B. 1644].
In refutation of Schipper's diverging interpretation of these
verses (Metrik I. 457) I should like to point out that even the
marks of division in the MSS. confirm my opinion in both cases,
whilst where the metrical and logical cjesura are at variance,
they are generally placed with regard to the latter.
THE C^SURA. 221
311. Two csesural pauses are the rule in a verse
when none of the principal kinds of caesura discussed
in § 308 occurs. In this case the caesural stresses
generally rest upon the second and eighth syllables :
That I II was of here felawshipe || anoon 2/32
[Prol. 32].
Andheeld || after the newe world || the space 6I176
[Prol. 176].
Of grece || when she dronken hadde || hire
draughte 4/135 [Prol. 135].
And I seyde || his opinioun \ was good 6/183
[Prol. 183].
Note. This double cassura also occurs in the Italian endeca-
sillabo (which, as a matter of fact, is generally divided in
accordance with one of the methods discussed §308), cf Rispdse,
poiche lagrimdr Ttii vide. Inf. I. 92 ; O musa tu che di caduchi
allori Gems. Lib. I. 2, i.
312. The metrical c^sura — as is evident from
some of the examples quoted — may even separate
closely connected words. But in all such cases it is
obligatory that the caesura should fall upon some word
bearing a fairly strong accent (which is not otherwise
necessary § 309). If two substantives standing in
genitival relationship to each other, or if an adjective
and the noun it qualifies are to be separated, a yet
further condition must be fulfilled : namely, that the
word before which the caesura occurs should bear more
than one stress, as in the examples quoted above :
The double sorwe || of Troiliis to tellen,
A loviere || and a lusty || bdcheleer.
If in the first instance we imagine the name Ector
instead of Troilus, we should certainly divide :
The double sorwe of Ector \\for to tellen.
2 22 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
Enclitic or proclitic words cannot be separated by
the caesura from the more strongly accented words to
which they belong.
313. Extremely rare are the cases in which the
verse has a single caesura, the stress of which rests
upon the second syllable. One would at first sight
be inclined to divide S/T 8/274 [Prol- 274] as
follows :
His resons || he spak ful solempnely,
and Hengwrt divides thus, but EUesmere on the
other hand :
His resons he spak || ful solempnely.
But a deviation from the logical structure does not
seem admissible in a case like the following :
By forward^ and by composicioun 28/848 [Prol.
848].
In case of a double caesura it occasionally
happens that the caesural stresses rest upon the first
and eighth — instead of the second and eighth
syllables :
Purs II is the ercedeknes helle || quod he 19/658
[Prol. 658].
Ginglen || in a whistling wynd \\ als cleere 5/1 70
[Prol. 170].
Note. Schipper p. 458 quotes 24/848 [Prol. 848] amongst the
examples of 'obscured caesura,' assuming the caesura to fall after
the word and. But after his arguments on p. 456 f. Schipper
was certainly not justified in deviating in this verse from the
natural structure of the sentence. The other examples which he
quotes in support of ' obscured caesura ' are, with one exception,
instances of double caesura with the caesural stresses upon the
second and sixth, or upon the second and eighth syllables.
THE C^SURA. 223
The one exception, Prol. 507 (15/507)13 a regular caseof Cffisura
after the fourth syllable, and there is no trace of ' obscuration '
—not even if we read He sette not, or He sette nat, since the
cassural stress need not be the strongest accent in the section of
the verse concluded by the csesura (§ 309). But in point of
fact we ought, in conformity with Chaucer's custom in such
cases, to read with Hengwrt, Corpus, Petworth, Lansdowne,
nought {noght) instead of nat {not).
314. Though probable, it is not absolutely certain
that Chaucer further permitted himself that species
of caesura which sometimes occurs in Provengal and
O.Fr. lyrics, namely, a pause after the fourth syllable
when the third is accented. Some of the verses
which have been transmitted to us in this form
permit of a different interpretation, a few others —
when correctly read and scanned — seem to be
incomplete and without anacrusis. 405/63 [E. 63]
we should probably be justified in accenting And
Sdluces instead of And SaMces (| 294), in the same
way. Mars. 5 or Troil. I. 22 might be But yi lovers
(§ 259 y). Defective is for instance 9/294 [Prol.
294], Twenty bookes || clad in bldk or r^ed; the
reading of Cambridge (l-clad) is wholly unsupported,
and clothed in Harl. would completely efface the
iambic character of the line. An emendation seems
necessary. Tyrwhitt's conjecture A twenty bookes is
probably correct (cf. Child in Ellis. E.E.P. p. 372,
§ 100, N.d.). But undoubted cases appear to be
amongst others : that no drope || ne fille upon hire brest
4/1 3 1 [Prol. 131]. Three persones 5 39/341 [G.
341], Kdlendeeres A.B.C. 73.
This caesura seems to occur sporadically in the
Ital. endecasillabo also, at least amongst the older
poets, cf Inf. VI. 14 Con tre g6le || caninamente
224 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
latra; Blanc, Gram. p. 701, indeed treats the verse
differently.
315. Chaucer's heroic verse is far more decidedly-
iambic in character than the Italian, indeed so much
so that deviations from the iambic scheme (with the
exception of the case considered last, if it be proved
genuine) may fairly be treated as instances of " level
stress.'' It seems superfluous to quote examples
in support of this rule. But the exceptions, i.e. the
cases in which the rhythm is veiled deserve con-
sideration.
316. Level stress occurs primarily at the begin-
ning of a line: Sheweth untd Pitee 59, Under colour
ib. 66, Prey en for speed Troil. I. 17, Dwelleth with
iis ib. I. 119, After hire cours ib. I. 140, After the
dSeth Leg. 580, Regned his queene, ib. 582, Useden
thd Leg. 787, After the scale S.T. 4/125 [Prol. 125],
Maken mortreux 1 1/384 [Prol. 384], (read the second
part of the verse : and eek wel bake a pye), Lyned
with tdffata 13/440 [Prol. 440] etc; likewise Eek on
that dother syde Pitee 102, Thus for your deeth ib.
118, Gan for to syke Troil. I. 192. Right for despyt
ib. I. 207, Bothe of thasseege ib. I. 464, Shoop him
an hdost Leg. 625, Glorie and honour Leg. 924,
Trouthe and hondurS.T. 2/46 [Prol. 46], Short was
his gSune 2,l9Z [Prol. 93] etc. It occurs with the
next greatest degree of frequency after the caesura,
the position of which is indifferent, provided it is
masculine and does not take place after the eighth
syllable. A few examples will suffice : To tellen
you II al the condicioun 2/38 [Prol. 38], And for to
festne his hood \\ under his chin 6/195 [Prol. 195],
And heeld || after the newe world [j the space 6/iy6
LEVEL STRESS.
225
[Prol. 176] etc. Comparatively rare are the verses
in which Chaucer yields more to Romance influence
than seems permissible from the standpoint of
Germanic metre, by extending level stress to
syllables which occur neither at the beginning of the
verse nor immediately after the caesura. If, namely,
the second section of the verse consists of 6 syllables
it occasionally reveals a structure which — if the
rhythmical scheme were framed in accordance
with the word- and sentence-stress — might be defined
as a combination of two anapaests (instead of three
iambics). Examples :
Keepeth ay wel || thise corounes, quod he 535/226
[G. 226].
Sin that thou wolt || thyne y doles despyse 5 37/298
[G. 298].
O grete God\ that parfournest the laude 1 87/ 1797
[B. 1 797 J.
For reverence |{ of his mooder Marye 189/1880
[B. 1880].
Governed is |j by Fortunes errour Fortune 4.
Ful wel she song || the servyse divyne 4/122
[Prol. 122].
Shalyive it you || as ye han it deserved 541/390
[G. 390].
Everich a word || if it bee in his charge 2.\lTH
[Prol. 733].
In this connection we may discuss a few doubtful
cases : 528/29 [G. 29] we must read instead of
And thou thatflSur || Sfvirgynes art dlle
with Arch. Seld. B. 14 :
And thou that fldur art || 6f virgynes dlle.
p
226 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
A.B.C. 73 Kdlendeeres || enlumyned been they ^av^A
be accented enliimined (§ 257 and 282), since the
cffisura of this verse is of such a character as hardly
to permit of level stress in the second section of
the verse.
The vers That everich of you || shalgoon where him
leste 53/1848 [A. 1848] is objectionable in more
than one respect. Anyone who considers the
context of the passage will admit that direct speech
might very well take the place of indirect speech,
and would therefore agree to the following change :
Everich of you || shal goon where as him leste.
Impossible is And that oother knight highte
Palamoon 30/1014 [A. 1014], ^ verse which we
should least of all expect in Chaucer's child of
sorrows, the Knightes Tale. But it is difficult to
decide what Chaucer actually may have written,
perhaps : And that oother ]| ivas cleped Palamoon, or
yet more probably : That oother knight || was cleped
Palamoon. That highte was copied by the scribe
from the previous line {Of whiche two Arcyta hight
that oon), whereas most probably Chaucer varied the
expression (as in Leg. 724 f.), seems likely.
Chaucer does not seem to treat the six-syllabled
section before the caesura with equal license. For
this reason I should now no longer read 12/392
[Prol. 392] — as I did in my edition of the Prologue :
In a goune of /aiding || {un') to the knee, but per-
haps : {Clad) in a goune of f aiding || to the knee.
317. Enjambeinent (Run-on Lines). The separ-
ation of even closely connected elements of a
sentence by the conclusion of the metrical line is an
ENJAMBEMENT. • 227
indispensable device for the animation of poetical
speech and the avoidance of monotony.
The application of this device lies under a two-
fold restriction, but of so slightly defined a character
as to be observed only by the delicate tact of a con-
summate artist. In the first place too frequent a
use of enjambement is checked by an instinct that
prompts the avoidance of a restless and disjointed
style. In the second place the intensity of enjambe-
ment is kept within bounds by the consciousness
that it must remain possible for the hearer to grasp
the verse as a metrical unit, and the sentence as a
connected whole. No epic poet has availed himself
of enjambement with greater felicity than Chaucer,
none has by the most varied and yet measured use
of this device, with which the mobility of the caesura
is closely allied, been more successful in producing a
combination of movement and repose, variety and
uniformity. This applies more particularly to his
treatment of heroic verse, and above all to the best
passages of the Canterbury Tales. In the short
rimed couplet the poet occasionally displays somewhat
excessive boldness in the linking of lines and even
couplets by chains of words. But we pardon his
temerity the more readily as this metre is especially
liable to degenerate into a monotonous jingle, and as
it is by means of enjambement that Chaucer has
succeeded in so far surpassing the rhythmical art of
his predecessors in this metre.
The following observations will be devoted solely
to the consideration of the limits in intensity imposed
upon enjambement.
318. The separation of what is naturally connected
228 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
is felt the more intensely, the less material weight
belongs to either of the two clauses thus separated.
But the poet may effectively counterbalance the lack
of material weight by the force of logical weight, as
Chaucer, for instance, does in the following case of
the word Fy:
And softe unto himself he seyde : Fy
Upon a lord that wol han no mercy S^/^773 f-
[A. 1773]-
The same passage affords us an opportunity for
yet further comment : if the first clause lacks material
weight, the second is so much the heavier, since it
extends as far as the metrical caesura, or even — as
the relative clause is an indispensable complement to
the word lord — fills up the whole of the second verse.
But the enjambement is thereby lessened, of which
we may easily convince ourselves in the following
manner. If we imagine the second verse changed
to : Upon this lord, he wol han no mercy, and next
to : Upon him, for he wol han no m,ercy, we see that
the strength of the enjambement increases pro-
gressively.
Now, as a rule, the enjambement in Chaucer is
somewhat modified by the addition of greater weight
either to both elements, or at least to one of the two.
The following means are used amongst others to
increase weight : in the case of a substantive or
substantival pronoun besides a relative clause —
especially a noun in apposition :
And though that I, unworthy sone of Eve,
Be sinful, yit accepteth my bileeve 529/62 f. [G.62],
or some addition of appositional force :
ENJAMBEMENT. 229
That hath destroyedivel ny al the blood
Of Thebes, with his waste walles wyde
39/ 1 3 30 f. [A. 1330],
or, in the case of the verb, every sort of adverbial
definition or adverbial complement denoting direction
towards a place :
But mercy, lady bright, that know est weel
My thought and seest what hdrmes that I feel.
64/2231 f [A. 2231].
Sey thus on my behalf (MS. on my halfe) that he
Go faste into the grete see. Blaunche 139 f
In the following examples weight is added both to
the verb and to the noun :
Alias to bidde a woman goon by nighte
In place there as peril fallen mighte. Leg. 838 f.
I saugh his sleeves purfy led at the hond
With grys, and that the fyneste of a lond.
6/193 f- [Prol. 193].
The adverb is occasionally strengthened by a con-
secutive clause :
He ^ Alma redemptoris' gan to singe
So loude that al the place gan to ringe.
187/1802 f [B. 1802].
Inversion is a very important means of modifying
enjambement, in so -far as it separates the elements
to be ultimately divided by the conclusion of the
verse by the previous insertion of other elements :
That in hire cuppe nas no ferthing scene
Of grece, whan she dronken hadde Mr draughte.
4/134 f [Prol. 134J.
Divyded is thy regne, and it shal be
To Medes and to Y&csos, yiven, quod he.
263/3424 f [B. 3424].
230 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
O lord, our lord I thy name how merveyllous
Is in this large v^oxXdi ysprad, quod she,
182/1643 f. [B. 1643].
In the last example ^ is ysprad' is a more compact
unit than thy name, for which reason the words ' in
this large worlde ' add to the weight of the second
clause as a whole.
319. The significance of inversion for the modifica-
tion of enjambement brings us to the most important
point in the discussion of the question thus raised.
Each of the two elements to be separated by the
conclusion of the verse must bear a distinct stress.
Proclitic or enclitic words must therefore not be
separated from the words to which they belong. If
in the example quoted above, Blaunche 139 f., the
first element (he) is somewhat too weakly stressed,
this is to some extent atoned for by the fact that the
dominating accent of the expanded second element
rests upon the conclusion of the following line :
Go faste into the grete see.
It is above all important that the accent of the
first element should not be obscured by the following
one : they must therefore not succeed each other too
closely. Hence Chaucer generally observes the rule
that when the first clause occurs at the end of a verse,
the predominant stress of the second should not fall
before the second syllable of the following line.
Moreover, cases like the following, in which the
second element is an independent word in that posi-
tion, are extremely rare in his heroic verse :
But wherfore that I speke al this : nat yore
Agoon, it happed m.e for to biholde Pari. 17 f.
ENJAMBEMENT. 231
The stress of the second element may only fall
upon the first syllable of the verse if it is decidedly
weaker than the stress of the first element. Since
the second may not be an actually enclitic word,
this case again necessitates an inversion of rather
unusual character, namely, inversion of the elements
to be separated. The following interesting and rare
example was procured by emendation. Leg. 858 f.
reads, as transmitted :
And out she coinetk and after him gan espy en
Bothe with hire herte and with hir yen.
I hope I shall not meet with opposition if I assume
that Chaucer must have written :
And out she cometh, and after him. espy en
Gan bothe with hire herte and with hire yen.
320. As I remarked above, Chaucer sometimes
proceeds with greater boldness in the normal short
line than in heroic verse. The Deeth of Blaunche is
especially distinguished by the frequency of enjambe-
ment, as well as by the energy, not to say harshness,
of several of these metrical separations or linguistic
combinations. The following examples are all taken
from the 290 verses of the Prologue to that poem,
from which one example has already been quoted,
§ 318, and if we wished to include slight instances
several more might be mentioned. The cases which
most seriously oiifend against the rule given above
will be mentioned last. I venture to quote from the
text as emended by myself, but in any instance of
considerable deviation from the MSS. I add the
variants.
232 METRE: THE VARIOUS FORMS OF VERSE.
And wel ye woot, ayeynes Kynde
Hit were to liven in this wyse. 16 f.
Nat longe tyme to endure
Withouten sleepe, and been in sorwe. 20 f.
But men might axe me why soo
I m.ay not sleepe, and what m.e is. 30 f.
My selven can not tellen why
The sooth ; but trewly, as I gesse, 34 f-
To tellen shortly, whan that he
Was in the see, thus in this wyse, 68 f.
Sende me grace to sleepe and meete
In my sleep som certeyne swevene, 1 18 f.
For as she preyd, right so was doon
In deed ; for Juno right anoon ... 1 3 i f-
This messageer took leeve and wente
Upon his wey, and neur ne stente ... i S3 f-
This god of sleep, with his oon ye
Cast up, axed^: Who clepeth theer? 184 f.
Anoon this god of sleep abrayd
Out of his sleep, and gan to goon . . . 192 f.
And called hire, right as she heet,
By name,and sayd : My sweetewyj . . . 200 f.
But, sweete^ herte,for 3 that ye
Burie my body, swich^ a tyde
Ye inowe it fynde the see bisyde. 206 ff.
Swich a lest anc^^n me took
To sleepe that right upon my book . . . 273 f.
^ and axed {asked). '■good sweie. ^for omitted. *for such(e).
RIME. 233
And I ne may ne night ne morwe
Sleepe, and thus ^ melancolye
And dreed I have for to dye. 22 ff.
Hath wonder that the king ne cooin
Hooin,for it was a longe ter^ne. 78 f.
I ferde the werse al the morwe
After, to thenken on hire sorwe. 99 f.
And yive me grace my lord to see
So one, or wite wher so he bee. 1 1 1 f.
/ will yive him the alderbeste
Yift that ever he abood his lyve. 246 f.
With regard to the last example, note that the relative
sentence refers, not to the second of the two elements
separated by the conclusion of the verse, but to both
considered conjointly, hence scarcely contributes at
all to the modification of the enjambement.
IV. THE RIME.
321. Only end-rime is of fundamental importance
for Chaucer's versiiication ; alliteration occurs fairly
often, sometimes by accident, sometimes as a deliberate
artifice, but always merely in the function of an
accompanying ornament, never as an essential element
of the poetical form. We shall therefore, in the
first instance, discuss only end-rime, which we desig-
nate simply as rime. A brief consideration of alli-
teration will then follow.
322. We distinguish according to gender between
masculine and feminine rime. I nstances of masculine
1 this (tkys, pis).
234 METRE: RIME.
rime are — breeth : heeth, day : lay, licour : flour,
auditours : sours ; of feminine — sonne -.yronne, melodye:
ye, cordge : pilgrimage. Amongst the feminine rimes
we must also include the so-called gliding rime, as in
hevene : stevene, nevene : sevene, since these words
metrically considered never have more than two
syllables, or as in berie : merie, tragedie : comedie,
since the i in such words is always a semi-vowel in
metre. Hence cases like swevenis : swevene is, beriis
(for beries) : mery is, may, on account of the first
element in each of these combinations, be treated as
feminine rimes.
323. The most important element in rime is the
tonic syllable of the rime-word. It coincides with
the last stressed syllable of the verse, which need
not be a primary stress ; secondary stress suffices, for
instance, inilodye : ye, cordge : pilgrimdge, aAditburs :
sours, seemeljf •.fetisly, Mstieste -.fayreste etc.
324. A rime is adequate if the vowel of the
tonic syllable of the rime-word and all the phonetic
elements following are identical with the corresponding
elements of the word to which it is linked. Our
immediate task is to investigate in what measure
Chaucer's rimes fulfil this condition.
325. We shall in the first instance consider the
tonic vowel of the rime-syllable with regard to
quantity and quality. As regards quantity Chaucer's
method may briefly be stated as follows : he rimes
long vowels with long ones (also diphthongs with
diphthongs), short vowels with short ones, variable
vowels either with variable ones or with either of the
other two groups. Only the latter part of this state-
QUANTITY IN RIME.
235
ment seems to require further discussion. However,
as a full and detailed enquiry into the quantity of
Chaucer's vowels was made in ch. i., a few examples
will suffice to recall what was said there. A word
like best (bestia) is linked, on the one hand, with
§ist, on the other, with words like best (optime),
brest ; was rimes with caas, wel with d^§l, upgn with
gQQn 547/563 [G. 563] etc. A vowel which
changes its quality together with its quantity, is not
to be considered variable : thus beside breest with
e we find brest with ^, whilst beside the form wel
with a variable vowel there occurs one with a decided
vowel- length : wel, wgfl and weel. Without change
of quality a short vowel may, in some instances, be
lengthened by shortening the following consonant.
This occurs especially in Romance words in the case
of r, and, to a yet greater extent, of toneless s :
werre were, passe pace (the latter the ordinary form),
Boesse Boece, Lucresse Lucrece etc.
Of Germanic words the following come into question
— hadde {hade : blade 1 8/6 1 7 [Prol. 6 1 7], spade : hade
16/553 [Prol. 553]). In goddes PI. oi god {goddis :
forbade is 472/2295 [E. 2295]), goddesse {goddis :
forbade is Scogan 15) the MS. spelling seems rather to
indicate treatment of the vowel as variable. The
treatment seems doubtful in the rimes shape : hape
{shappe : happe,shap : hap) 566/1208 [G. 1208], and
unhape : shape (unhappe : shappe, unhap : shap) Scogan
29, where either hape stands for happe, or in happe
and shape the vowel is pronounced with variable
quantity, or, finally, in shape the final -e has become
apocopated and the preceding vowel been shortened
in consequence, so that the word can rime with hap.
236
METRE: RIME.
For the sake of rime long Romance u can be
shortened under secondary stress in the ending -ous,
so that links like amorus : Aurelius, curius -.Julius,
lecherus : Apius, desirus : Theseus become possible.
Conversely the u of the Latin termination us is
sometimes lengthened for the sake of rime on long
English « — hous : Kaukasous 367/1 1 39 [D. 1139].
It is worthy of note that variable i and u in an
open syllable are so rarely linked in Chaucer with
the corresponding long vowels (there are no cor-
responding short ones). But Leg. 370 writen (PI.
Pret.) rimes with endyten S.T. 268/3580 [B. 3580],
brike : Anioryke. On a more complicated case
(Troil. II. 933) cf. § 326. But if Fame 649 [Globe,
Fame II. 141] we get neyghebores : dores (this is the
correct spelling), we must remember that in
the first word originally long u under secondary
stress — though it maintains its quantity in a rime
like neyghebour : honour 507/961 [F. 961] — is, on
the whole, to be considered a variable vowel in
Chaucer, as a frequently recurring for ou, even
in good MSS., seems to prove.
326. The quality of the tonic syllable in a rime-
word is also as a rule carefully respected by
Chaucer. In cases where the same word is used in
different rimes, it has more than one phonetic form
in the language of the poet, as, for instance, fel, fil
' he fell,' kisse kesse ; heet h§§t, d§§d deed, Crete Creete ;
dradde dredde ; sg soo, twg twoo ; proporcign pro-
porcioun, Palamggn Palamoun etc.
But the poet seems to have allowed himself a
certain degree of licence: Troil. II. 933, he rimes
riden : abiden : yeden ( = ieden ? not, as generally,
QUALITY IN RIME. 237
yeeden ?) ; he links open and closed e in hemes :
dremes 286/4120, l§^ : leef 53/1838, swere : heere
Troil. III. 384 ; on open and closed 0, cf. §§ 3 1 and 72.
Romance u and u were discussed § 75 ; it may be
added that Lat. u appears exceptionally to have the
sound of u in coitu 458/181 1 [E. 1811J : eschu
(O.Fr. eschiu, esktu, ' shy ').
327. The unaccented vowel of the feminine rime
is as a rule weak e. It has been noted above that
Chaucer does not generally apocopate this final e
when preceded by a vowel or simple consonant, nor
does he ignore it in rime, even though within the
metre it is never syllabic (as in sone and in the PI.
some), or at least very rarely so (as in the Romance
substantives in -jye). The rigid distinction of rimes
in j/e and ^, -ce and -s (which are only confounded
once or twice in Sire Thopas, cf. § 223 ^ and y)
provides therefore a very essential criterion for the
differentiation of genuine works of the poet from such
as are falsely attributed to him.
On the other hand, Chaucer's language admits in
this respect also certain doublets like heer heere (hie),
th§(r there (ibi), (§k and eeke, vicary (for vicdrie) and
vicdyre, Senec and Senekke etc.
Further, a few remarkable instances of apocope in
rime occur — sp§§k for speke 3rd. Sing. Pres. Conj. : §§k
586/324 [H. 324], cf. Anglia I. 535 ; feel iox feele
1st. Sing. Pres. Ind. 64/2232 [A. 2232] : weel (this
spelling is absolutely necessary, cf Harl. and Cambr.
wel : fel).
Here belongs probably also 298/4577 [B. 4577]
§fk : br(§k, where br^^k should probably be parsed as
3rd. Sing. Pret. Conj. (in which case, of course, eeke :
238 METRE: RIME.
breeke would be conceivable, but in the best MSS.
apocope has taken place). Cf. further allou (for
alloue, spelt allowe) the, §328.
328. In a feminine rime Chaucer not infrequently
links two words with one. In this case, he on the
one hand takes the liberty of treating a sonorous
vowel like weak e, as in the well-known rimes —
Rome : to me, youthe : allow the \ on the other hand,
of transforming weak e before a consonant into i
(which, of course, in more than one M.E. dialect
frequently takes its place), especially in the termina-
tion -es : werkis : derk is ^zgjGS [G. 66], werkis:
clerk is : derk is 145/481 [B. 481], clerkis : clerk is
294/4426 [B. 4426] ; 448/1428 [E. 1428], «o«/j :
noon is 15/523 [Prol. 523], agoon is : onis ^^^19
[D. 9] etc. In these cases elision more frequently
takes place in the rime which consists of two words —
sonis : wane is Fame 75, causis : cause is ib. 19,
placis -.place is 386/1767 [D. 1767], sydis : gyde is
528/45 [G. 45], goddis : forbode is 472/2295
[E. 2295], swevenis : swevene is 285/41 1 1 [B. 41 1 1]
etc., or synklisis as in beriis : mery is 287/4156
[B. 4156^ Beside -is for -es (which also occurs in
rimes on single words talis : Alis = Alys 343/319
[T>. 3 1 9]), -id for -ed occurs, as in confoundid : y-
woundid : wounde hid 132/103 [B. 103]], and -ith
for -eth as in savith : significavit 19/661 [Prol. 661].
Even a sonorous e is occasionally transformed to
/ in the weak rime-syllable : open e in goddis (for
goddesse) : forbode is Scogan 15, closed e in dytis for
dytees Fame 662 [Globe, Fame I'l. 114] : lyte is.
The fairly corrupt passage Fame 620 ff [ll. 112]
should doubtless be emended thus :
CONSONANTS IN RIME. 239
And natheless hast set thy wit,
A I thowgh that in thyn heed full lyte is^
To maken bookes, songes, dytis etc.^
329. Of the consonants necessary to form an
adequate rime we must, in the first instance, consider
the final ones in masculine rime, and the medial
ones in feminine rime. As a rule there is complete
coincidence between the links in any given rime-
combination. Very rarely small deviations occur :
advocatz : alias 312/293 [C. 292], (Petworth : ad-
vocas, Sloane : advocase, whilst Harl. Corp. and
Lansdowne have a totally different reading ; the
same rime occurs in O.Fr. poets) ; terme : yerne
Blaunche 79 is not to the point, since erme (§48,
IV. 7) would suit the context better than yerne;
somewhat unusual remains Troil. II. 884 syke :
endyte : whyte. In rimes like reherce : werse, or
reherce : diverse it is only a question of different
symbols for the same sound, h is treated as mute
in wounde hid 13 2/ 1 06 [B. 106] {: confoundid :
ywoundid).
Chaucer is also extremely accurate with regard to
final consonants in a feminine rime. But S.T.
19/661 [Prol. 661] he rimes savith : significavit ;
391/1933 \J^- 1933] Davit (for David) : eructavit ;
Blaunche 7 3 he uses the Northern form telles (instead
of telleth) riming with elles,
330. Frequently, though not so often as in O.Fr.
poetry, the initial consonant of the tonic rime-syllable
is affected by the assonance, cf. pardoun : adoun,
' MSS. : /u/ lytel is.
^ Fairfax, Bodley : To make songes dytees (diteys) bookys.
Caxton, Thynne : To make bookes, songes or (and) ditees.
240 METRE: RIME.
accorde V. : corde N. Nor does Chaucer, in such
cases, disdain those cheap combinations in which
two words with the same derivative suffix, or
two compounds in which the second element is
identical, rime with each other. Here belong
words in -nesse, as, for instance, goodnesse : sooth-
fastnesse, gladnesse : lyknesse, shamefastnesse : besy-
nesse ; in -ly, for instance, softely : openly, sodeynly :
deliverly ; in -ment, like eggement : torment ; in -tee,
like tretee : magestee, deyntee : Trinitee ; further
cases like natnore : everemore, like presence : absence,
like recorde : accorde, commende : amende etc.
(Amongst merely adequate rimes cases like the
following may be compared — reverence : diligence,
richesse : gentillesse, and in a further sense, such as
is : nis, was : nas, wolde : nolde.) Another, less
numerous group of such rimes is formed by cases in
which a noun in the PI. is linked to a noun in the
Sg. followed by the Verb. Subst. : clerkis : clerk is,
place is : place is, causis : cause is etc.
The most artistic of the rimes with the same
initial consonant are without doubt those in which
each element is an independent word, identical in
form, but differing in meaning, as see ' to see ' : see
' the sea,' seeke ' seek ' : seeke ' sick,' Aeere ' hear ' :
keere ' here,' style ' post ' : style ' style, diction,' /em
' fern, plant ' : fern ' previous, before ' etc. The
number of such combinations is necessarily limited.
331. Sometimes the rime extends beyond the
tonic syllable and includes the vowel of the preceding
syllable — amendement : esement, trewely : hertely,
pitee : citee, humilitee : adversitee, alenge : chalenge ;
without an intervening consonant, for instance, in
ALLITERATION. 241
scorpioun : confusioun ; sometimes even the initial
consonant of the preceding syllable, as execucioun :
fornicacioun, subjeccioun : presumpcioun ; finally, also
the vowel of the next syllable but one preceding —
confusioun : condusioun, affecciouns : protecciouns,
dommacioun : habitacioun, constellacioun : operacioun,
significaciouns : tribulaciouns. The majority of such
combinations are of the commonplace type.
332. Intermittent rime which is akin on the one
hand to assonance, on the other to alliteration,
occurs, for instance in cases like abregge : alegge, un-
kyndely : unwitingly, nightertale : nightingale etc.
333. Rime is rarely employed in Chaucer except
at the conclusion of a line. It is not my intention
to point out special effects which are occasionally
produced by sectional rime, or other conceits. The
sequence of rimes will be discussed in the following
section on the stanza. In this connection I only
wish to remark that no law regulating the alternation
of gender in rime is discernible in Chaucer's work.
334. Alliteration. We possess a creditable article
on Alliteration in Chaucer by F. Lindner (Jahrb.
fur rom. u. engl. Spr. u. Lit. xiv. 311, English
version in Ch. Soc. Pub. Essays on Ch. Vlll.), to
which I should like to refer the reader interested in
this subject. But at the same time, I cannot refrain
from expressing my opinion that the subject has by
no means been thoroughly exhausted by Lindner's
treatment of it. I miss in his article :
( I ) The differentiation of alliterative formulas and
alliterative combinations of other kinds ;
Q
2^2 METRE: RIME.
(2) An investigation of the question whether
and to what extent syllables in the arsis may
be considered as participating in the alliteration ;
Lindner apparently ignores accentuation ;
(3) A more accurate statement of the different
forms in which alliteration considered metrically occurs
in Chaucer ;
(4) A more systematic answer to the question on
what occasions Chaucer specially makes use of
alliteration, to what varying extent this device is
employed in different forms of metre and in the
poet's various works (Lindner considers exclusively
the Canterbury Tales), or in portions of them. The
desire for a fresh investigator, or at least a fresh
investigation, seems therefore pardonable.
Within the limits of the present sketch the follow-
ing observations will suffice. They owe a good deal
to Lindner's article, but in some points go beyond it.
335. In Chaucer's poetry we find a number of
alliterative formulas, the majority of which were
transmitted to him by the language of daily life as
well as by that of poetry, but in part may have been
coined by him, for the character of a formula is
imparted to any given combination of words, not
only by traditional use, but very largely by qualities
which recommend it for popular employment. Thus
no one will hesitate for a moment to declare com-
binations like straunge strondes, or as meeke as {is) a
mayde to be formulas — without waiting to enquire
how often they occur in pre-Chaucerian poetry. But
the case is doubtful even in the ■^\\xzs,& jighten for the
(or oure) feyth, cf And foughten for oure feyth at Tra-
ALLITERATION. 243
missene 2I62 [Prol. 62]. And it is absolutely certain
that from 2/54 [Prol. 54] In Lettow hadde he reysed
and in Ruce, we have no right to infer a formula
reyse{n) in Ruce.
A number of systematically grouped alliterative
formulas may follow here : Blood and bones, braun
and bones, dale and doune, flessh and fissh, hunte and
horn, holt and heeth, style and stoon, toun and tour,
thikke and thenne, word and werk ; hood ne hat, herde
tie hyne -jfreend or fo. — Foul and fayr, keene and coo Id,
long and lene, seek and sore, stern and stout, war and
wys, wyly and wys, weery and wet, wylde and wood,
leef ne looth ; looth or leef. — Dyken and delven, hakken
and hewen, hawken and hunten, swelten and sweeten,
wanen and wenden, weepen and waylen ; sleen or
saven.
Fresshe floures, hardy herte, hye halles, mighty
maces, povre persoun, straunge strondes, wedded wyf,
wyde world, wikked wight, a worthy wominan, worthy
wommen : floures fresshe, groves greene. Miles hye,
robes riche, rubies rede, sorwes sore, woodes wylde,
woundes wyde.
A seynt of silk, water of a welle; foul in flight. —
Big of bones, fair of face. — Drewen a draught, drinken
a draught, han the hyer hond, hangen doun the heed,
hyden the (his) heed, leden the (a, his) lyf leven his lyf
seen a sight, singen a song, sooth to seyne, to seyne {the)
sooth, tellen a tale, taken by taylle, wandren by the
weye, winnen to wyf, syken sore, smellen sweete.
As besy as bees, as meeke as a mayde, as reed as
rose, as stille as stoon.
Now Chaucer very frequently employs such for-
mulas as compact units, but he sometimes also
244 METRE: RIME.
resolves them into their component parts, inverts
them, modifies them more or less, sometimes welds
two into one. He also frequently unites such
formulas, as if they were simple notional words, with
other notional words alliterating with them.
336. In the normal short line of four beats there
are frequently two staves, which occur, as the follow-
ing examples prove, in the most diverse positions in
the verse :
And nSthing ndedeth it,pardie Fame 575 [ll. Qj^.
Bee hit rSuned, xdd or songe Fame 722 [ll. 214].
Andfdr I shSld the Wt ahr^yde
Fame 599 [11. 51].
And p^^nest thee to pr/jse his art
Fame 627 [11. 1 19].
That dooth me Useful 6fte ier Fame 610 [ll. 102].
The position of the staves produces the most
artistic effect, when, as in the two last examples,
they are upon the first and third, or upon the second
and fourth beats. This is also the most frequent
position for them. Chaucer's short line rarely has
three staves, as in the following examples :
That have his service sought and seeke
Fame 626 [ll. 1 18].
Or as craft countrefeteth Y^ynde
Fame 12 13 [iii. 123].
337. In some cases the two verses of a rimed
couplet seem linked by alliteration, whether according
to the formula a-a^ or ab-ab, or even aa-aa :
Is for thy \ore and for thy prow ;
Lat see, darst thou yit \ooke now ?
Fame 579 f. [11, 72].
ALLITERATION.
245
Til that he ielt that I hadde heet,
And "ielt eek that myn herte beet ib. 569 f. [ll. 62].
T -wol thee telle Wa.at I am.
And whider thou shall, attd why / cam
ib. 601 f. [n. 93].
But other combinations also occur — especially
when the last verse of a rimed couplet is linked to
the first one of the following couplet. In the follow-
ing three examples we find the combinations a-aa,
abb-a, aa-bab :
Thou art noyous/br to carte,
And nothing needeth it pardee
Fame 575 f. [IL 6'j\
That dooth me ilee iul ofte ier.
To Aoon al his comaundement ib. 610 f. [ll. 1 02].
¥irst I that in my ieet have thee.
Of which thou hast a iere and -ponder
ib. 606 f [IL 99].
A couple of examples from the Deeth of Blaunche
may further illustrate the use Chaucer makes of
alliteration in the short rimed couplet. The second
one proves that the same stave occasionally recurs
in a series of consecutive verses.
I have greet wonder, by this light.
How that I live, for day ne night
I may not slepe welny nought.
I have so many an ydel thought.
Purely for defaute of sleepe.
That, by my trouthe, I take no keepe
Of nothing, hou hit comth or gooth,
Ne me nis nothing \eef nor \ooth Blaunche i ff.
246 METRE: RIME.
The raayster hunte anoon, ioot hoot,
With a greet home blew three moot
At the uncouplinge of his houndis,
Withinne a whyle the herte iounde is
Yhalowed and rechaced iaste ... ib. 375 ff.
Note. Even in the short line of three beats two staves
sometimes occur, for instance : At Vopering in the -place
Vjijigio [B. 1910]. As it -was Goddes grace it)ili<)l'i [B. 191 3].
His lippes rede as rose 191/1916 [B. 1916] etc.
338. Alliteration is more in evidence in heroic
verse than in the short line. The former not only
sometimes contains two staves — varying in position
— ^but not infrequently even three. The alliteration
produces the finest effect when the staves fall upon
the first, second, and fourth beats, whilst the caesura
occurs after . the arsis following upon the second
beat, as in the following verses :
And which they weren || and of what degree
2/40 [Prol. 40].
Ther shiveren shaftes || upon sheeldes thikke
74/2605 [A. 2605].
Hw hardy herte || mighte him helpe naught
76/2649 [A. 2649].
But it is very effective also when the first, third, and
fifth beats alliterate, whilst the third is the caesural
beat :
And har away the hoon || bitwixe hem ho the.
3S/1180 [A. 1 180].
And euere gaped up || into the eyr.
100/3473 [A. 3473].
The effect is less satisfactory when, the position of
the staves remaining the same, the position of the
ALLITERATION. 247
caesura is changed ; or when two of the three staves
fall upon the fourth and fifth beats ; or when two fall
upon the first and second, the third upon the fifth
beat ; or, finally, when all three staves occur before the
caesura. One example follows of each of these cases :
My ipurpos was || to Yitee to compleyne Pitee 5.
That in this viorld || nas never ■wight so wo ib. 3.
FuH worthy was he || in his lordes werre
2/74 [Prol. 74].
Ther stomblen steedes strange {{ and doun gooth al
75/2613 [A. 2613].
If the verse has only two staves they would most
appropriately rest upon the first and third beats, or
upon the second and fourth :
A \ovie/r || and a lusty || bacheleer 3/80 [Prol. 80].
Out-goon the swerdes || as the silver brighte
75/2608 [A. 2608].
Other possible combinations will not be mentioned in
this connection.
Occasionally four staves occur in a verse ; as, for
instance, in
/ wretched wight || that weepe and wayle thus
28/931 [A. 931]
(according to Harl.) ; perhaps also in the following
verse, although the preposition thurgh occurs in the
place of the metrical ictus, but does not bear the
logical stress (cf § 341) :
He thurgh the thikkest || 0/ the throng gan threste
75/2612 [A. 2612].
Occasionally the verse contains two different alliterat-
ing staves in each hemistich, in the order aa-bb, for
instance, in the following consecutive verses :
248 METRE: RIME.
Out-hrest the hlood |{ with sterne stremes rede ;
With mighty maces || ^ hones they tohreste ;
75/2610 [2610].
The following verse should probably be considered a
similar instance, since the particle whan is, in con-
sequence of its position, less emphatic for the ear :
For -Wei he vfiste || whan that song was songe
21I711 [Prol. 711].
339. In heroic metre the same alliteration some-
times extends through more than one line, as, for
instance, in the following passage:
H^ rolleth under {cot || as dooth a bal,
He ioyneth on his ieet || with his tronchoun.
And he him hurtle th || with his hors adoun.
He thurgh the body is hurt, || and sithen take,
Maugre his heed, || and hrought untoo the stake ;
As forward was, || right ther he moste ahyde
75/2614 f. [A. 2614].
340. Chaucer uses alliteration most extensively and
effectively in descriptions of battles and kindred
subjects. This is by no means the result of accident,
for M.E. possessed rich stores of traditional formulas
bearing on such subjects, a fact which is further
attested by the purely alliterative poems of the 1 4th.
century, the martial passages in which are in many
respects the most successful. Anyone who compares
the well-known battle-scene in Joseph of Arimathie,
489-517, with the account of the tournament in the
Knightes Tale (from which, following Lindner's
example, we have above quoted numerous verses)
will be compelled to acknowledge some closer
historical connection between the two. With
' MS. iAe bones.
ALLITERATION. 249
reference to Chaucer, note further the description
of the Battle of Actium in the Legend of Cleopatra
(Leg. 63s ff.)-
341. Chaucer is not one of the poets who con-
sisteritly unite alliteration and end-rime in their
verse. Rich as his language is in alliterative
formulas, and numerous as the alliterative verses
are which flow from his pen, yet there is no evidence
to prove that he ever consciously observed any rule
binding upon alliterative poetry. It is therefore
difficult to determine where in his poetry alliteration
begins, and where it ends. The following remarks
on the relation in his poems between alliteration on
the one hand, and accent and metrical stress on the
other, as well as on the character of the alliteration
in his verse, do not therefore claim to be a final
settlement of the question.
With regard to the relation between alliteration
on the .one hand, and. accent and metrical stress on
the other, it is obvious that all such syllables may
alliterate as are capable of word- or sentence-accent,
as well as of metrical stress. This applies also to
words under a weaker accent, like was, hadde, or like
he, him, hire etc., if these pronouns are not logically
emphasised. But such slightly accented words do
not necessarily bear the alliteration, even when they
have the same initial symbol as more strongly accented
ones, cf. for instance, whan in the verse 21/711
[A. 711], quoted in § 3 3 8. Whether they do so or not,
depends essentially upon their position in the verse,
and on the position and number of the other staves.
Unaccented monosyllables, and English prefixes
in the arsis, are incapable of alliteration. I am not
250 METRE: RIME.
equally convinced that this applies to the unaccented
first syllable of a Romance word or of a foreign
Proper Name. In the following case, for instance ;
That cleped is Calyopee
Fame 1 400 [Globe, Fame iii. 310]
the similarity in the initial consonants cannot have
escaped Chaucer ; it probably pleased him, i.e. this
is without doubt an instance of alliteration.
In case of conflict between metrical rhythm and
word-accent, the alliteration is determined by the
word-accent. But if it is a case of variance between
metrical rhythm and sentence-stress, the question
arises as to whether the conflict is of a character to
render an emphasis of the ictus prescribed by the metre
absolutely unendurable. If this question is answered in
the affirmative, the sentence-stress necessarily attracts
the aUiteration, cf Fame 1213 [Globe, Fame iii. 123]
(§ 336)- But if in the negative, then sometimes the
more strongly accented syllable will alliterate, some-
times the syllable under the metrical ictus : the
former, for instance, in 75/2617 [A. 2617] (§ 239),
the latter in 7 5/26 1 5 [A. 26 1 5] (§ 2 39), and probably
also 72/2612 [A. 2612] (§ 238). In no case can
both alliterate at the same time; thus in 75/2615
[A. 261 5] He ioyneth on his ieet with his tronchoun it
is not permissible to assume, in addition to the f-
rime, an ,^-rime on he, his-his, although he { = ^ the
latter') and the first his ('of the former') have
a stronger sentence-accent than the notional words
following them.
342. With regard to the quality of the allitera-
tion in Chaucer it will suffice to note the following :
ALLITERATION. 251
Alliteration of the smooth breathing cannot be
denied, though it occurs less frequently than allitera-
tion of h and of real consonants. Apparently sp, st,
sk can alliterate with simple s, but sh, which denotes
a single sound, though one with double articulation,
only alliterates with itself ; wh alliterates with w.
If amongst the words alliterating with each other
there are frequently such as stand in the relationship
of derivative and radical to each other, or such as are
merely derivational variations from the same stem,
or inflexional variations of the same word, or, finally,
such as are absolutely identical, the eiifect of the
alliteration is not thereby diminished, but rather
increased. Iteration is an artistic device for
which Chaucer displays an unusual predilection, and
which as a rule he uses most effectively, though
sometimes, indeed, to an exaggerated degree. Two
examples will suffice (but cf likewise Fame 568 f
[n. 60] ; 610 f [n. 102] ; § 337 and S.T. 75/2614 f
[A. 2614] § 339) ; the second one is open to criticism.
Ful vcva.Ti.y~a fat par trich hadde he in vauwe.
And man ^ breme and man)?"^ luce in stuwe
10/349 i. [Prol. 349].
That, of his mercy, God so merciadle
On us his grete mercy multiplye.
For reverence of his mooder Marj/e
189/1878 ff [B. 1878].
343. Alliteration, as well as end-rime, contributes
in Chaucer, each in its own characteristic way, though
in a varying degree, to the elevation of poetic diction.
But whereas alliteration comparatively speaking but
rarely adds emphasis to the rhythmical structure of a
252 METRE: THE STANZA.
verse, it is the further and invariable function of
end-rime to confirm the rhythmical unity of a line,
and at the same time to group the individual verses
in larger entities and rhythmical systems.
V. THE STANZA.
344. The rhythmical systems employed by Chaucer
are, with only two exceptions, isometrical. The
simplest isometrical system is the rimed couplet
which, however, since its conclusion does not admit
of a uniform punctuation, can lay no claim to the
name of stanza, but is rather akin to stichic com-
position.
345. Two species of rimed couplets occur in
Chaucer : a short one consisting of normal short
lines, and an heroic one consisting of heroic verses.
The short-rimed couplet was transmitted to the poet
by his English predecessors, and is the oldest form
of his epic poetry. The Deeth of Blaunche the
Duchesse (i2th. Sept., 1369 — June 20th., 1370) was
composed in this metre, and probably many another
lost work of the poet. At a later period — so far
as we know — he only once, for a special purpose,
reverted to this form, namely in the Hous of Fame
(1384). Chaucer himself introduced the heroic
couplet into English poetry. He did not discover
this metrical form, until he had for years availed
himself, even for epic purposes, of seven-line stanzas
in heroic metre. He employed it for the first time
in the Legende of Goode Women (1385). From
that time onwards it is his ordinary vehicle for epic
RIMED COUPLETS. 253
narrative : by far the greater part of the Canterbury
Tales — namely the whole frame and the greater
number and most successful of the Tales — is
conveyed in heroic metre. The poem of Palamon
and Arcyte when revised for insertion in the C.T.
exchanged the seven-line stanza for the new form.
Cf. with reference to these facts my Chaucer-Studien
I. 48 f., 56, no f, 144 f., 149, 150.
Note. According to Skeat, Prioresses Tale etc. p. xix f.,
Chaucer is supposed to have imitated the heroic couplet from
Guillaume Macliault, more especially from his ' Complainte
ecrite apr^s la bataille de Poitiers et avant le sihge de Reims par
les Anglais' (1356-1358). It may readily be granted that the
English poet was probably acquainted with this poem. Yet it
remains somewhat extraordinary that so long a period should
have elapsed before the idea occurred to him of making use of
the same metrical system. Moreover, we ought to bear in mind
that for the Englishman the really great and decisive step was
not so much the use of a longer rimed couplet, as the imitation
of the heroic metre. For if we consider that in the Legende of
Goode Women Chaucer starts from the idea of a cycle of Lives
of Saints (hence the secondary title : the Seyntes Legende of
Cupyde S.T. 130/61 [B. 61]), also that the Southern cycle
of Legends was composed in couplets of M.E. Alexandrines,
we can easily understand — without dwelling on any possible
reminiscences of Machault's Complainte — how the idea occurred
to him of composing this particular work in rimed couplets of
the heroic verse with which he was already familiar.
346. The greater number of Chaucer's isometrical
stanzas is composed of heroic verses. Only in the
Deeth of Blaunche a few stanzas consisting of lines
of four beats have been inserted, which may perhaps
serve as examples of the lyric poetry of his youth.
They are probably based on French forms of popular
254 METRE: THE STANZA.
origin. A monostrophic six-line song runs (rime-
scheme aabbad) :
Lord, hit maketh myn herte light.
Whan I thenke on that sweete wight.
That is so seemly on to see.
And wissh to God, hit might so bee
That she wolde holde me for Mr knight.
My lady that is so fayre and bright
Elaunche i 175-1 i8o.
The same Black Knight who sings this song as an
earnest of his love-poetry had previously recited
another song, a lay, a maner song Withoute note,
withoute song (47 1 f.). This lay consists of two dis-
similar stanzas which run :
/ have of sorw so grete woon
That joy e gete I never noon.
Now that I see my lady bright.
Which I have loved with al my might.
Is fro r)ie deed and is agoon.
Alias the^ deeth ! what eyleth thee
That thou noldest han taken me.
Whan that^ thou took my lady sweete.
That was so fay r, so fressh, so free.
So good eek^ that men may wel see.
Of al goodnes she had no meete
Blaunche 475 fif.
The order of rimes is therefore aabba — ccdccd.
The first stanza shows a combination of continuous
rime and embracing rime (like the little mono-
strophic song, but in a different arrangement), the
' the wanting in MS. ^whan that Thynne, (whan, when) MSS,
^ eei wanting.
ISOMETRICAL STANZAS.
255
second is an instance of tail-rime (§ 348). In
Thynne's edition (1532) the two stanzas are assimi-
lated to each other : a verse has been added to the
first, and in the second, to the detriment of the sense,
the lines have been transposed : ccddcc. Chaucer
himself distinctly refers to dissimilar stanzas, perhaps
even to an uneven number of verses in the whole
poem, in the words : He made of ryme ten vers
or twelve Of a compleynte to himselve (463 f.), cf,
however, Ellis in Furnivall's Trial Forewords, p. 1 1 4 —
P- 133-
347. Of the isometrical stanzas in heroic verse the
finest is the seven-line stanza, which occurs for the
first time in the Compleynte to Pitee. The rime-
order is ab ab bcc, and the stanza is clearly tripartite,
the first two parts of it (J>edes) being equal to each
other but unequal to the third, the cauda (Abgesang).
Chaucer often observes this tripartition, even in the
logical structure of his argument, without pedantically
binding himself to it. The second stanza of the
Compleynte to Pitee may serve as an example :
And whan that I by lengthe of certeyn yeres
Had evere in oon a tyme sought to speke.
To Pitee ran /, al bispreynt with teres.
To prey en hire on Crueltee me awreke ;
But eer I might with any word outbreke.
Or tellen any of my peynes smerte,
I fond hir deed and buried in an herte.
This stanza occurs in O.Fr. and Provencal art-
poetry, and probably developed according to the
following scheme : ab ab aab (thus in Bernart de
Ventadorn), ab ab baa, ab ab bcc. Although not
2s6
METRE: THE STANZA.
its creator, Chaucer may claim the stanza as his own.
The skill with which he constructs it and the extent
to which he uses it have given it a far greater signi-
ficance than it originally possessed. The English
poet has set his own peculiar seal upon the system,
especially by the consistency with which he employs
a new rime for the last couplet ; whereby the
structure becomes more clearly outlined and the
conclusion more defined. Chaucer remained loyal to
the seven-line stanza even after he had become
acquainted with the Italian ottave-rime in Boccaccio's
epics. The ottave-rime, which is only differentiated
from the seven-line stanza by the interpolation of a
verse : ab ab {a)b cc, cannot, as regards harmonious
proportion of the parts, sustain comparison with it :
the ottave-rime contains four parts instead of three ;
the tripartite frons {Aufgesang) is far too long for
the Cauda {Abgesang).
Hence, in his second, Italianate period (1373-
1 384), Chaucer wisely employed the seven-line stanza
in a preponderating degree ; not only in poems like
the Lyf of Seynt Cecyle (Second Nonnes Tale) or the
Parlement of Foules, but also in romantic epics like
Palamoun and Arcyte (the first lost version) and
Troilus, the metre of which challenged a comparison
with Boccaccio's ottave-rime. He uses the same
stanza in the introduction (proem and story) of the
Compleynte of Mars, and later in the epic part of
Anelida and Arcyte ; the touching story of Griseldis
(Clerkes Tale), the legend of the pious Christian boy
murdered by the Jews (Prioresses Tale), a few Links
in the Canterbury Tales, and most of his lyrical
products are also in this form.
METABOLIC STANZAS. 357
Next in importance, though considerably below
the seven-line stanza, ranks the eight-line stanza
which — like almost all his complex metrical schemes
— Chaucer also imitated from O.Fr. poets. The
rime-scheme is ab ab be be, the cauda is therefore
symmetrical with the/rowj, and the stanza must have
developed out of the old form ab ab ba ba. This
stanza occurs for the first time in the A.B.C., then in
the Former Age, in the Envoy to Bukton, in the
Ballade de Visage sans Peinture (Fortune), in
narrative poetry only in the tragedies contributed
by the Monk of the Canterbury Tales.
Only isolated instances of other stanzaic forms
occur : one of six-lines {ab ab eb) in the Envoy to
the Clerkes Tale, an eight-line one, with the rime-
scheme (ababbeeb) which is unusual in Chaucer, in
the Compleynte of Venus translated from the French
of Oto de Gransons ; a nine-line one {aab aab bee)
in the lyrical part (the real Compleynte) of the Com-
pleynte of Mars ; another nine-line one {aab aab bab)
prevails in the Compleynte of Anelida. On the
stanzas of the Envoys and on the form of the
Roundel, cf. §§ 350, 352.
348. Only two metabolic stanzas occur in
Chaucer : one borrowed from art-poetry in the Com-
pleynte of Anelida (Anel. 256-271 ; 317-332) and
a popular one in Sire Thopas. Both are constructed
on the principle of the tail-rime {rime cou^e), which
prevails also in the frons of the 9-line stanza
mentioned in \ 347. The stanza in Sire Thopas
is, however, tail-rime {rime couee) properly so-
called. The metabolic stanza in Anelida is a
blending of normal short lines and heroic verse.
2S8
METRE: THE STANZA.
and is arranged as follows (the capitals indicate
heroic verse) :
aaaB aaaB bbbh bbbh.
The tail-rime in Sire Thopas appears in two forms :
in the simple normal form of six lines (the normal
double form of 1 2 lines does not occur in Chaucer),
and in the expanded form. The simple normal
form consists of four normal short lines and two
short lines of three beats each, and the rime-scheme
is as follows (the capitals indicate the normal short
line): KKb KKb or KKb CCb. The expanded
form again consists of two varieties : the interpolat-
ing and the continuative, which are differentiated by
the fact that in the first case a short line of one
beat (y) introduces the second section of the stanza;
in the second case a similar line (y) introduces a
third section : AAi5 7 BBc (occurs only once), and
AAb AAb y AAc or AAb AAb y BBc. The
tail-rime stanza was the favourite metre of the
M.E. minstrels, whose crude art Chaucer parodies in
Sire Thopas. For further details, cf. ten Brink's
Engl. Lit., I. 207, 249 f., 267 (Engl, translation).
349. Relation between Stanza and Poem.
In epic poetry the rule is that the same system —
whether rimed couplet or stanza — should be repeated
the requisite number of times up to the end of the
poem, with any variation in the rime that may be
preferred (so long as 'the rime-order in the stanza
remains the same). But in Sire Thopas Chaucer
intentionally varies his treatment of the rime cou^e.
In that series of fragments called the Canterbury
Tales, which is distinguished by the variety of its
STANZAS IN LYRIC POETRY. 259
rhythm, structure and subjects, each tale must be
considered an independent unit, and thus it is no
accident if those tales which are most closely-
interwoven with the dialogue and action of the
pilgrimage should appear in the same metrical form
as the description of the journey to Canterbury. But
this metrical frame-work is composed in the heroic
couplet, which only once or twice gives place to the
seven-line stanza ; if we consider the last redaction of
the fragments undertaken by the poet, we shall find
that he allowed such stanzas to remain in one
place only S.T. 190 [Sire Thopas]. Lyric pieces
are, however, sometimes interpolated into epic
poems : in Troilus without change in the pre-
vailing system, in the Deeth of Blaunche with
a slight change (in the Lay, not in the
Song), with more considerable deviation in the
Parlement of Foules, where a Roundel is inserted
amongst the seven-line stanzas, and especially in the
Prologue to the Legende where a Balade appears
amongst the heroic couplets. The Compleynte to
Pitee and the Compleynte of Mars are lyric poems
with epic introductions, the fragment of Anelida and
Arcyte might also be considered such. In Pitee the
same system is employed for both main divisions, in
the two other cases a variation takes place ; Anelida
is, however (if we except the Canterbury Tales), the
sole example of a poem which, taken as a whole, is
not isometrical.
350. In lyric poetry three species may be dis-
tinguished : poems consisting of similar stanzas,
poems consisting of dissimilar stanzas, and mono-
strophic poems.
26o METRE: THE STANZA,
The first kind is by far the most important and
the most numerous. Some of the examples belong-
ing to it have a stanzaic conclusion to the actual
lyrical structure, the envoy (Prov. tornada, French
envoi), in which the person for whom the poem is
intended, or whom it is to influence, is addressed,
or in which the connection between the poem and
the person is expressed in some other way, or
which, though more rarely, by an unexpected
digression to general topics, winds up with some
concise epigrammatic dictum. In the art-poetry of
Provence, where the envoy first makes its appearance,
and where it attains its highest development, it
generally takes the form of an incomplete stanza, the
rime-scheme of which corresponds to the conclusion
of the last stanza of the actual song. But the
O.Fr. art-poets, particularly those of a later period,
frequently deviated from this rule. Chaucer's
treatment of the envoy will be discussed presently.
Less frequently than an addition of this kind, there
occurs a sort of independent preamble. In the first
of the classes into which we divided Chaucer's lyric
poetry, only the Compleynte of Mars is introduced by
a stanza which — though in form identical with the
others — reveals itself unmistakably as a proem (cf.
in the second division The Compleynte of Anelida).
The nucleus of Chaucer's poems in isometrical
stanzas is built up, as Bradshaw was the first to
recognise, in such a manner that the total number of
stanzas is divisible by three. Judging by the extant
MSS. there are three exceptions to this rule. But
of these three the hymn Mooder of God is only an
apparent one, since there is evidently a stanza wanting
STANZAS IN LYRIC POETRY. 261
in this poem, which, in its present form, consists
of 20 stanzas (cf. Furnivall, Trial Forewords, p. 94),
the structure was therefore 7x3. The extant
version of The Former Age (Aetas Prima), a
paraphrase of the 5 th, Metrum from Boethius De
Consolatione 11., consisting of 8 stanzas, is corrupt
(the last verse of the 7th stanza is wanting) ; it
is not only a somewhat careless specimen of the
poet's craft (in the 6th stanza the rime-order is
abab bcac, instead of abab bcbc), but it is also
more descriptive than lyric. The A.B.C. was bound
to contain 23 stanzas. In all other instances the
rule holds good : in the Compleynte to Pitee the
Compleynte itself contains 3x3 stanzas, the lyrical
part of the Compleynte of Mars contains, in addition
to the proem, 5x3 elegiac stanzas, and all poems
of the first division, transmitted as separate entities,
are based on the principle of divisibility by three.
Even in the lyric poems which share the stanzaic
form of the epic in which they are inserted, Chaucer
almost invariably follows the same principle. In
the Introduction to the Lyf of seynt Cecyle, the
Hymn to the Virgin imitated from Dante contains
three stanzas S.T. 528/36 ff. [G. 36 ff.], and the
prayer immediately following 529/57 ff. [G. 57 ff.]
contains the same number ; the Invocation to the
Virgin in the Prologue to the Prioresses Tale
182/1657 ff. [B. 1657] also consists of three
stanzas. In Troilus the song in which the love-
lorn hero imitates Petrarch's 88th Sonnet (Troilus I.
400-420,) is a triplet ; but on the other hand,
Antigone's love-song (ib. II. 827-875) contains seven
stanzas (unless we wish to admit a proem), and the
262 METRE: THE STANZA.
song which Troilus sings at the climax of the action
(ib. III. 1744-177 1 ), again a paraphrase of a Metrum
of Boethius, contains four stanzas.
In one species of the first division, namely the
balade, the number of stanzas prescribed is not only
one divisible by three, but actually three. Chaucer
had become acquainted with and practised the balade
in the form used by the contemporary French poets of
the Puys, which had, in point of fact, only essentially
formal qualities in common with the more popular
Provencal ballada, and only shares the name of the
poem called thus in later English and German poetry.
The three stanzas of the balade are not only identical
in structure, and hence in the arrangement of the
rimes, but the very rimes are identical (which is not
otherwise the case in Chaucer) ; each stanza concludes
with a line forming a refrain, which is at the same time
an integral part of the stanzaic structure. The stanza
in Chaucer's balades generally contains 7 lines, thus in
Hyde Absalon (Prologue to the Legende), in Gentil-
lesse, Stedfastnesse, Compleynte to his Purs and
Trouthe. Two poems are in form compound Balades :
Fortune and the Compleynte of Venus consist each
of three terns, each being in form a complete balade;
in both poems the stanza contains 8 lines. Amongst
the simple balades an envoy is added to Stedfastnesse,
Trouthe and Purs. In the two former poems the
envoy is a complete stanza, identical with the other
stanzas of each poem, the refrain being varied in
Stedfastnesse. In Purs it consists of a short system
of S lines, riming in the order aabba, and — a most
unusual occurrence — with totally new rimes, and con-
sequently without repetition of the refrain. In another
BALADE AND ENVOY. 263
connection (Litteraturblatt fur roman. u. engl. Philol.,
1883, No. 11) I tried to prove that this envoy was
a later addition to the poem in question ; these
formal proofs may now serve to supplement the
arguments brought forward there. In a compound
balade the independent position of the envoy would
not be surprising. Fortune, whose 3x3 stanzas are
arranged in the order ab ab be be, has an envoy in the
form ab ab bab; the rime b is totally new, a, however,
corresponds to b in the stanza of the last tern. The
Compleynte of Venus, the terns of which are com-
posed in stanzas riming ab ab bccb, has, exceptionally,
an expanded envoy: aab aab aab; rime a is new, b
corresponds to a in the stanza of the first triad,
to c in the stanza of the third, which is of course
a mere accident. Under these circumstances the
repetition of a refrain would be inconceivable in
either case.
An extension of the term envoy is exemplified in
the Envoy to the Clerkes Tale, which consists of six
stanzas, each containing six lines, riming through-
out ab ab eb {c is therefore not linked in the stanza,
but only in the poem). Envoy in Chaucer means
further epistle, missive. The Envoy to Bukton which
accompanied the despatch of the Confessions of the
Wyf of Bath consists of three eight-line stanzas, the
envoy to Scogan of 2 X 3 seven-line stanzas. Again,
each of these poems contains an envoy properly so-
called : in the Envoy to Bukton the envoy proper
refers to the enclosed poem of the Wyf of Bath ; in
the Epistle to Scogan it conveys the practical purport
of the whole poem. Both envoys are complete
stanzas.
264 METRE: THE STANZA.
351. The second class, to which belong the Pro-
vengal descort and the French lai, is represented by
only two examples in Chaucer. Both are, as regards
contents, elegies. The isometrical lay in two stanzas,
sung by the Black Knight in the Death of Blaunche,
was quoted above (§ 346). Fairly complicated in
structure is the Lament of the heroine in .Anelida and
Arcyte. It consists of a monostrophic proem, two
movements of six stanzas each, and a concluding
strophe. As a matter of fact, only two stanzas
occur : an isometrical one of nine lines (§ 347) and
a metabolic one of sixteen lines (§ 348). The latter
occupies the fifth place in each of the two movements ;
the former is used everywhere else, even in the proem
and the conclusion.
352. A system which suffices to constitute a whole
poem can, strictly speaking, only be designated a
strophe if in a variety of poems it is so frequently
employed that its re-appearance, like that of an old
acquaintance, is immediately noted — as, for instance,
in the case of the Italian sonnet. But we will
venture to apply the term to all cases in which the
structure of the system in question is clearly evident.
The following may therefore be considered mono-
strophic poems in Chaucer (the Proverbs are again
excluded) : the above (§ 346) quoted six-line love-
song of the Black Knight, one of the songs of Troilus
(v. 638-644, naturally a seven-line stanza), Chaucer's
Wordes unto Adam (likewise a seven-line stanza),
finally, the Roundel in the Pari, of Foules (cf. Parallel
Text Edn. of Chaucer's Minor Poems, II., pp. 98-99
[Pari. 680-699]). The latter, of which only one MS.
has preserved the complete form, may be quoted here
THE ROUNDEL. 265
in conclusion of our sketch. We supplement the
repetitions that are not indicated in the MSS., and,
following Furnivall's example (Trial-Forewords, p. S 4),
insert the pronoun thy in the first line :
Now welcome, somer, with thy sonne softe.
That hast this wintres wedres overshake
And driven away the large nightes Make.
Seynt Valentyn, that artful hye on lofte.
Thus singen smale foules for thy sake :
Now welcome, somer, with thy sonne softe.
Wei han they cause for to gladen ofte,
Sith eech of hem recovered hath his make ;
Ful blisful mow they singen, whan they wake :
Now welcome, somer, with thy sonne softe.
That hast this wintres wedres overshake
And driven away the large nightes blake.
APPENDIX.
The following corrections are taken from Holthausen's review
of the second German edition of ten Brink's Chaucer's Sprache
und Verskunst, in Anglia, Beiblatt, vol. Xll. Nr. vili. p. 237 fF.
The article did not appear until after the proof-sheets of the
translation had been passed for the press, or the emendations
would have been inserted in the text.
§ 12 a Mdu a : labben etc., not Mlg.
§ 21 £ (2) O.N. f : sky, not Olg. eo, 10.
%2°P Mdu. origin, not Mlg.
§ 107 a O.N. burdr, not burd.
§ 1 18 a (3) rarely after orig. 1, not before.
§ 207 last line : nqse, not nose.
§ 207 (5) « is apocopated, not u.
§ 214 monthe, not mijnthe.
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
(Substantives, numerals and pronouns ate not marked as such.
The numbers refer to the paragraphs.)
aas 229. abye V. cf. aiegge.
abbay 223 (y). accomplyce V. 177.
aiegge V. 161, 190 ; cf. bye. accor daunt Vsxt. A. 191 N2.
abeye V. cf. abegge. adrad Part. 234.
able K. 239. afer{e)dVaA. 166, 234.
abreydeV. 139, 140. affrayeV. 180.
266
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
267
agreable A; 239.
al 255.
alaunt 22S.
alay 225.
ale 214.
allye 225.
allye V. 180.
almesse 211.
algne 247.
<j:»2 V. 197.
Amadrides 229 N.
amase V. 172.
«(«) 247-
answere'V. 171, 173.
Antontus 229.
a«y 255.
apay{e)d Part. 180.
a^« 211.
a/^r/ A. 239.
Argonauticon 229 N.
argument 222, 226.
Ariete 222 N.
arw 199 (i).
armes 225.
armipotente A. 239.
array 222.
amzy«rfPart. 180.
arz£/« 211, 213.
i^jjizy 225.
assay e V. 1 80.
«zjj« 211, 213.
asseege V. 194.
assente V. 177, 179, I94-
asshen, asshes 211, 213.
asterte V. cf. sterte.
astonie V. 174.
asweve V. 161, 163.
aucioritee 225.
auditour 226.
aught 2'i^.
aungeli2i, 222, 226 and N.
aunte 222.
aventure ■ZT,'^.
awake V. cf. wake.
axe V. 171, 172, 194.
badde A. 231 N.
fe/Jg V. 149.
^<2^e Part. adj. 196.
banere 223 (/3).
^ar« A. 231.
bataille 223.
i5aM 203 (l).
bed 102, (l), 204, 205, 206.
^i?« 211, 213.
fee V. 197.
beedeV. 156, 158.
fe^re 207 (i).
fewc/^ 207 (4).
bene 207 (l).
benignitee 222.
fere V. 142, 184, 186, 188, 189,
190, 191, 192, 196.
berne 203 (5).
best 223 (a),
fei/ Sup. 244, 245.
bete V. 130, 134.
bettre Comp. 244 ; Adv. 246 N.
beye V. cf. bye.
bidde V. 145, 146, 158, 184, 186,
188, 190, 191.
biginne V. 139, 192, 193.
bikeeteY. 135.
bikight Pret. 193 N.
bildeV. i7o(«).
bileeve V. 164.
268
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
bireve V. cf. reve.
bistede V. cf. stede.
bistrydeV. 153.
bite 199 (4).
bitter A. 230, 233.
blade 203 (5).
blak A. 230, 232.
blaundisske \' . 177.
blencfie V. 164, 165, 166, 168.
blende V. 164, 165, i66.
blew A. 239, 241.
blinne V. 139.
blisse 207 (2).
bloweV. 130.
blythe A. 230.
^^^ 2ig.
bqnde 211.
^o<?^ 214.
^^^« 203 (i), 206.
booiu 218.
^^^j^2i8N.
bgrn Part 232, 234.
bgrugh, bgrw 199 (i), 201.
^^M« 247.
botme 199 N.
braunes 225.
breech i\i,.
brekeV. 142.
brenne V. 139, 141, 170 (f).
^r£j/£ V. 139, 140.
brewe V. 156.
breyde V. 140, l67<
brigge 207 (2).
bright A. 235.
bringeV. 169, 170 N.
iJ^^K^ 218.
brinne V. cf. brenne.
irgnd 201.
broother 215, 219.
brouke V. 156.
burgh 214.
^jffe V. 153.
byeV. 162, 170 N. ; cf. abegge.
bynde V. 139.
4y/i? V. 153, 186.
caa:^ 222, 329.
caccheY. 177, 182.
ca;^a2i8.
calfi\'].
calf 2ii.
can V. 198.
fare 207, 210.
farzV V. 178 (a), 181 N.
carl 21%.
carpenteer 224.
Caunterbury 214.
cause 222.
cay tif 226.
certeyn Adv. 246 N.
Cej/J 229.
chambereere 222.
chapeleyne 222.
chaste A. 239.
chastyse V. 177.
chautnbre 222, 225.
cheese V. 156, 157, 189.
cherche 211, 212.
cherl l<)<) (i), 200.
cherubin 224.
cheryce V. 177.
-chestre2oy (i).
chivalrye 223 (y).
chy Id 217.
cink 248.
circumstaunce 227.
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
269
citee 221, 222.
cleene A. 230, 237.
cleeve V. 156, 160.
Cleopataras 229.
clefie V. 171, 172, 173.
cUf 202 (i), 206.
clgkeT.i^'a.
clotheY. 171, 173.
cgle 203 (5), 206.
colour 112.
comeV. 142, 143, 186, 189, 1 96.
compeer 223 (/?).
concubyn 223 ()8).
consentaunt Part. adj. 191 N. 2.
constable 227.
contrarie V. 178 (a), 181 N.
contree 223 (-y).
convenable A. 243.
coroune 222.
countrefete V. 177.
courseer 225.
covenaunt 226.
covre, keevre V. 177.
tow 214.
<:<?)' A. 239.
cr^oai^Part. 183.
creature 225.
cre«/« V. 156, 160, 167.
cristened 'Pr&X. 181.
fr^«« 218.
c«»(7^ 218.
crgij 218.
crouke 218.
crowe V. 130.
cruel K. 241.
crueltee 222.
crj' 222.
frj/^ V. 177, 180, 194.
curaat 183.
cursed Part. 233.
dagger e 218 N.
rffl/^ 203 (5).
darV. 198.
daunce 225.
</izy 199 (2), 200, 202.
deceyveV. 177.
Dedaly ziq'ii .
dee 225.
de{e)de207 (4), 210.
ife«?«« V. 164, 165, 166, 194.
/feirr 203, 206.
</^^r^ A. 230 ; Compar. 244.
<&£Z/^/2I9.
degree 222, 225 and N.
//e/ay 225.
delitable A. 243.
delve V. 139.
depeynte V. 182.
&r« V. 161, 162.
desirous A. 239.
desolaat A. 183.
despyse V. 177.
destinee 223 (y).
</i?y^, ^/ye V. 176.
i/^j/j 222, 229.
divers A. 241, 242.
divyne A. 242, 243.
<fo(7 V. 190, 197.
<ibo;« 199 (i), 202.
^ore 207, 210.
dormaunt Part. adj. 191 N 2.
double A. 239.
</g*!f^/«r 215.
doute 111.
drake 218.
Z70
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
drawe V. 149, 152.
dre{e)deY. 130, 134, 167, 196.
driijn 199 (i).
dreming{e) 210.
drenche V. 168.
dreynt Part. 232.
drinke V. 139, 193.
dronke Part. adj. 196.
dronkelewe A. 231 N.
droupe V. 176.
t/ryg A. 230.
dryveV. 153, 196.
due 221.
duchesse 225.
</«e A. 239.
dwelle V. 161, 162.
dyamaunt 226.
(/k^ V. cf. deye.
ggi:A2SS-
ggr Adv. Compar. 246 N.
e^^e 207 (2).
elaat K. 183.
emperour 222, 224.
emperyce 222.
empoysoned Vart. 178 (y), 181.
««rfa 199 (4).
Eneas 229.
Eneidos 229 N.
enfamyne V. 1 78 (y).
enlumyne V. 178 (y), 181.
enoynt Part. 182, 183.
entent{e) 223 (a).
entree 225.
epistle 226 N.
^r« 211, 213.
^r« V. 161, 162.
erraunt Part. adj. 191 N. 2.
^rr/ Adv. Sup. 246 N.
«r//5e 211.
^jiT/^z^ A. 239.
«« 222.
espirituel A. 243.
ifj^^^ V. 180.
estaat 222.
«/£ V. 145, 147.
evel A. 230.
eve{n) 203 (i).
«7/^«« A. 231.
exaltaat h. 183.
excellent A. 239, 241.
exercyse V. 177.
experience 223 (a).
£/ 217.
eyghte 247.
eyghteteene 247.
e)///%«>'255.
^« 222.
fader 21s, 219.
y&//e V. 130, 184, 186, 188, 190,
191, 196.
/a/j A. 239, 241.
f alive A. 231.
fantastyk A. 239.
fareY. 149, 152.
favour 222.
/azffi A. 230.
_/5zy/? A. 234 ; Adv. 246 N.
fayr{e) A. 231 ; Compar. 244.
fee 203 (3), 2o6 and N.
feede V. 164, 165, 166.
feeld i()<) (i).
^f/e V. 164, 165, 166.
feend 216.
felawe 218, 219.
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
271
feU A. 238.
fer Adv. Comp. 246 N.
ferde Pret. 152, 165.
ferrest Sup. 244.
ferthe 24^.
fest{e) 223.
fewe A. 238.
/eyne V. 177.
feynte V. 177.
fey{th) 222.
fiers A. 239, 241.
ffte 249.
fifteene 247.
Jight207{i).
fighte V. 139, 140.
figure 225.
finger 200, 202, 2ig.
_/&-j^ Sup. 244, 246 ; cf. 249.
fissh 199 (i).
^/fe 207 (2).
flaume 225.
/ff« 211, 213.
flee V. 156, 160, 190.
fleete V. 1 56.
flight 201.
flgqiw, 213.
flour IT.!, 225.
y^^-^V. 156, 158.
_;^/,6 206.
_/^/7£/^ V. 171, 172.
fgngeV. 130, 131.
/??2II.
jffe(7r« 207 (i).
foot 21 i^
forbeede V. cf. beede.
fqrce,fgrs 223.
fqrme Sup. 244 ; cf. 249.
forsake V. 149.
Fortune 224.
fortunaat h. 183.
forwee^ed 7s.xi. 167.
yozz/ A. 230.
fowel,foul 199 (i).
fowre 247.
fowrteene 247.
fowrty 247.
/r^e A. 230, 233.
freend 216.
freere 222, 225.
_/^^/« V. 196.
./9y« V. 177.
7^/ Adv. 246 N.
/«^//« V. 164, 170 (S).
.^^247.
fyndeV. 139, 186, 193.
^5''' 203, 205, 206.
Galgopheye 223 (y).
game 203 (i).
^oy A. 239.
gentil A. 239, 243 ; Comp. 245.
gere 210 N.
gest 199 (i)-
gete V. 145, 146.
ginne V. cf. biginne.
girde V. 164, 165, 166.
glad K. 230, 234 ; Comp. 244.
gleede 207 (4), 210.
glotonye 225.
gnaweN. 149, 152.
^? V. 197.
Ggd 200, 220.
ggddesse 220.
goone 218 N.
good h. 230, 232.
good 201 (r), 206.
272
INDEX TO CHAPTER 11.
goos 214.
ggqt lli,.
goune 218 N.
grace 222, 223 (y8).
grave V. 149.
greene A. 230.
gr^^tA. subst. 235; Compar. 244.
greete V. 164, 165, 166.
grey, gray A. 230, 235.
Grisildis 229.
grgte 218.
growe V. 130.
grynde V. 139.
Gy 223 (y).
^fl/& 207 (i), 208, 210.
Aamer 199 (i).
hardy A. 239.
^arzV V. 174, 178 (o).
haunche 222.
haveV. 162, 163, 187, 189, 194, 195.
he{e) 250.
^f^^ cf. heved.
heere V. 164, 165, 166.
heete V. 135.
%M 207 (2).
heethen A. 230.
j^fzV 222.
>4«/^e V. 131 ; cf. hqlde.
helle 1&J (2), 208.
hclpe V. 139, 189.
hen 207 (2), 210.
herd A. 175.
z^^nfe 199 (4).
ker{e) 251.
herieY.\6i, 162, 163,184, 188, 189.
^fr/« 211, 212.
heve V. 149, 1 50,, 152.
heved, h^^d 203 ( i ).
heven 199 (i), 200 N. 2.
hewe 203 (5).
^we V. 130.
highteW. 135, 193 N.
hind{e)rest Sup. 244.
^«>(«) 251.
^zj 251.
hit, it 250.
^gjf 218N.
hqlde y. 130, 1 3 1, 1 92.
^?/a 203 (s).
hqlwe A. 231.
^^/c A. 230 ; Comp. 244.
hqnd 207 (5), 209, 210.
honest A. 240.
hqngeY. 130, 131, 132.
honour 222.
hqqst{e) 223 (a).
^?^/ A. 23s ; Comp. 244.
hqrs 206.
;5^j^« 213.
hqteV. 131, 115, 193 N.
humour 226.
hundred 247.
hunte 211.
^ar/ Part. 234.
ffuwe 221.
;^y<& V. 164, 165, 166.
^J'^'^j ^ A. Comp. 244.
/, ich, ik 250.
ilk A. 235, 255.
ille A. 231.
imagyne V. 178 (y).
-ing{e) 207 (i), 2ia.
innocence iij, (a).
?■/ cf. ^zV.
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
273
janghresse 227.
jay 225.
journey 223 (y).
joye 222.
joynatint Part. adj. 191 N. 2.
juste V. 177 N.
^f^/<? V. 164, 165, 166.
keevre V. cf. covre.
kempe V. 170 N. 2.
<J«// Part. 234.
kerve V. 1 39.
kesse V. cf. ^zjj^.
^z« 203 (i), 204.
^z«f 200, 202.
kinrede 207 (5).
>fejj^, kesse V. 164, 165, 166.
knarre 2t8.
/J«?e 203 (3), 206 and N.
knowe V. 130, 196.
j&y^^e V. 164, 165, 166.
lady 211, 212, 213, 219.
lamb, Iqmb 2iy.
langwisshe V. 178 (j8).
/ajje Comp. 244.
lasteV. 164, 165.
lauglieV. 149, 150, 152.
/ay 225.
lazar 222, 226.
/e?c^^ 199 (4).
le{e)de V. 164, 165, 166.
leefh. 235.
/£(«)re V. 164, 166.
leeseV. 156, 157, 160, 167, 168 N.,
196.
Ig^st Sup. 244.
le{e)te V. 130, 132.
leeve V. 164.
/i?^2l8.
I'SS^i leye V. 161, 163, 163, 186)
190, 196.
Lemnon 229 N.
lene V. 164, 165, 166.
Leonard Gen. 224.
lefie V. 130. k
leste V. 164, 165.
/?//« V. 161, 162, 163.
Iettrei2^.
leve V. 164, 165, 166.
leye V. cf. legge.
light 205.
ligkte V. 164, 165.
lim 220.
/zVj« 207 (2).
litel A. 230, 233.
/2V>4 203 (i).
live V. 162, 163, 171, 172.
Igjnb cf. lamb.
Iqnd 205.
/^«f A. Comp. 244.
IgngeV. 171, 172, 194.
lookeV. 171, 172, 194.
Iqrd 200, 201, 202.
/^r« 207 (i).
louke V. 156.
love 207, 208.
/4;z/e V. 171, 172, 184, 186, 188,
190, 194.
loveday 208, 219.
lowe A. 231.
-ly Adv. 246 N.
lye 199 (4).
lye V. 145, 146, 184, 186, 188,
190, 191, 193, 196,
lye V. 156.
274
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
lyfiot,, 220.
lyke V. 186.
lyte A. 231.
maad Part. 234.
moat A. 239.
inagyk 223 (/8).
make V. 171, 173, 186, 196.
maladye 225.
malencolyk A. 240.
;««« 214.
manciple 227.
manerie) 223 (/3).
mansuete A. 239.
many 255.
marcJuMint iii„ 226.
OTaw V. 171, 181 N.
wzaj^ V. 172.
masseday 219.
way V. 198.
mayde{n) 203 (i), 204, 206, 219
and N.
meede 207 (3).
meeke A. 231.
me{e)n V. 164, 165, 166.
w«0rf Sup. 244.
;«i?^/e V. 164, 165, 166.
meeve V. 177.
mele 203 (4).
melhre 199 (4), 219.
m,elodye 111.
■me{n) 255.
menge V. 164, 166, 168, 170
N.2.
mercy 222.
inerie, snery, jnury A. 230.
mesteer 221.
Metamorphosios 229 N.
;»«?fe 199 (4).
OT^fe V. 145.
■meynee ■zi'^ (y).
m.ight 2oy (4).
miracle 225.
w?^ Comp. 246.
moneye 223 (■y).
menthe 214.
mooder^iJ^, 219.
moone 211.
m.ggst Sup. 244, 246.
woo/ V. 198.
wzjire Comp. 244.
mgrwe 199 (4).
»«o?<j' 214.
mouth 199 (i).
muchel K. 230.
OT^rj' A. cf. merie.
musyk ■2.i'^ (fi).
my{n) 251.
name 211.
narw{e) A. 231.
nature 222, 223.
naught, ngught 255.
»«^(ie 207 (4).
w^»ze V. 142, 143.
-nesse 207 (2).
w^K/e A. 230.
Wifji:/ Sup. 244.
neygh, ny Adv. Comp. 246 N
neyghelour 219.
neyiher 255.
Nicholay 229 N.
night 7,1^.
nobleye 223 (y).
«^^« 255.
«^j« 207.
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
27S
nought cf. naught,
nyne 247.
nyneteene 247.
obeye V. 177.
officeer 225.
ggk 214.
o?/(/ A. 230 ; Comp. 244.
ones Adv. 249 N.
??(«) 247, 255.
ggth 199 (i).
oother 249.
orgqgn 228.
qrgues 228.
tfare 251.
gverest Sup. 244.
<ra'« V. 198.
^xe 211, 212.
^aa^ 222, 229.
falfrey 225.
i>arfyth. i-y),-2.i^\.
Pamaso 229 N.
payeV. 180.
payement 226.
peeple 225.
peer{e) 222.
/^M 222.
penitent 226.
/is^j/ 199 (2), 202.
perree 223 (y).
pesen 213.
peynte V. 177 ; cf. depeynte.
phisyk 223 (y8).
/wy^e V. 170 (;8).
Pierides 229.
pigge2i&.
pilgrim 226.
pilgrimage ivj.
pilour 226.
pilwebeer 21Z.
pitee 223 (y).
//«« 223 (|S).
/to Adv. 246 N.
playn Adv. 246 N.
playne V. 177, 179.
plentee 222.
plesaunt Part. adj. 191 N. 2.
/&je V. 177, 179.
plesingie) 243.
//if)/ 211.
//^ye V. 173.
/oifife 222.
Pompey 229 N.
possible A. 239.
/^/ 218, 220.
pound 2Qi(i.
poverte 221.
preeche V. 177.
preeve V. 194, 196.
prelaat 183.
prenostik 223 (y8).
presse,pr^qs 223 (a).
preye 222.
preyeY. 177, 180.
preyeere 225.
Priamus 229.
/^■^e V. 171, 173.
prince 224.
princesse 223 (a), 227
prisoneer 222.
prophete 222.
proporcionahle A. 243.
proverbe 225.
punissheV. 177, 178 (/S), 179, 181.
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
276
purpqqs 222.
purs 223 (a).
putten V. 176 N.
quake V. 152.
queene 207 (4), 208, 210.
quencfie V. 168.
quene 211.
querne 207 (5).
quethe V. 145, 147.
quiete ill N.
quik A. 230, 234,
quyte V. 182.
recche V. 161, 163.
recche (reck) V. 169.
receyve V. 177.
rfc^^ (reach) V. 169.
re{e)deV. 130, 134, 167
rejoyce V. 177.
remayne V. 177.
reinenaunt Part, subst. 191 N. 2.
remembraunce 222.
r^K^ V. 164, 165, 1 56.
rOT«^ V. 139, 141, 193.
renomee 223 (y).
repeiitaunt Part. adj. 191 N. 2.
r^z/e V. 171, 173.
rewe 207 (3).
reyse (raise) V. 176.
reysed Part. 176.
riche A. 239 ; Comp. 245.
ring 199 (i).
ringe V. 139.
rivere 226.
ro^ 211, 213.
rg^«« Part. 155.
rose 224.
rj/t/e V. 153.
rydere 199 (4).
ryseV. 153, 186.
ryve\. 153, 154.
sacrifyse V. 177.
jarf A. 232.
jfljye V. cf. seye.
science 223.
j^e 222, 225.
see V. 145, 146, 148, 187, 190,
196.
seeche V. cf. seeke.
seek A. 234.
seeke V. 169.
j««»z£ V. 165, 166, 194.
seethe V. 156, 157.
selfii<i.
selle 207 (2).
j^//^ V. 161, 162, 163.
senatour 224.
sendeY. 164, 165, 166.
j««f? V. 168, 170 N.2.
servaunt 191 N., 222, 228.
serve V. ig6.
servyse 222.
j£j« V. 177.
jf//e V. 161, 162, 163, 186.
sevene 247.
j^y^, saye V. 161, 162, 163, 164,
186, 188, 190.
seynt A. 241, 242.
shade, shadwe 207 and N.
shake V. 149.
shalV. 198.
shame 207.
shape V. 149, 1 50.
shave V. 149.
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
277
shedde V. 176.
sh^e) 250.
skeene A. 230.
sheep 206.
sheete V. 1 56.
shepne 207 (i), 219.
shere V. 142.
ship 203 (i), 204, 206, 220.
-shipe 199 (4).
shoo 199 (3), 202.
shouve V. 1 56, 1 59.
shrede V. 1 73.
shrinke V. 139.
shryke V. 176.
shryve V. 1 53.
shyne V. 153.
j^^/g V. 153.
sigkte 218.
signify e V. 180.
singeV. 139, 192, 193, 196.
««^« V. 139.
j« 248.
jzV/^ V. 145, 146, 147, 186, 193.
six 247.
sixte 249.
skippe V. 176.
skryke V. cf. shryke.
she V. 149, 150, 151, 152, 187,
190, 196.
sk{e)peY. 130, 134, 167.
sleyghte 218.
slinge 218.
j/i5W A. 230.
j/y A. 230, 235.
slydeV. 153, 186.
slyieV. 153.
smal h. 232.
smyte V. 153.
snoute 218.
jMO'ze' 199(2).
jg/?a A. 230.
jo/aj 223 (^).
j<?;« 255.
somer 199 (i).
fo«« 199 (4), 200, 202.
JO««e 211, 212.
sgrwe 207 (i), 210.
source, sours 223.
sovereyn A. 243.
sowdanesse 223.
wz£/e V. 1 30.
jow/i? 207 (i), 219.
space 223 (yS).
speke V. 142, 192.
j/«>-« 203 (4), 204, 206.
spille V. 166.
spinneW. 139.
spredeV. 164, 165, 166.
sprenge V. 168, 170 N. 2.
springe V. 1 39.
squieer 222, 225.
stable 225.
stafv)<) (l), 220.
j^a//« 199 N.
j/a/« V. 149.
statut 226.
j/«^« 199 (4).
j^^ife V. 1 76.
stele Y. 142, 196.
stench 199(1).
stenteV. 164, 165, 166.
j/^r/^ V. 1 76.
sterue V. 139.
stinge'V. 139.
j/z«/J« V. 1 39.
stireV. 161, 162, 163.
278
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
stqnde V. 1 49.
straw 203 (2).
streccheV. 161, 162, 163.
stree 203 (3), 206.
streme V. 194.
strengthe 207 (i).
strond 201.
strqng A. 235 ; Comp. 244.
stryve V. 1 54.
studie V. 178 (a), 181 N., 189.
subtil K. 241.
subtiltee 225.
suffisatmt Part. adj. 191 N. 2.
suffreN. 177, 179, 189.
suffyse V. 177.
Surrye 223 (y).
suster 215, 219.
swalwe 211.
sweete, swoote A. 230.
swe(e)te V. 164.
swelle V. 139.
swereV. 149, 150, 151, 192, 196.
swich 255.
swimme V. 1 39.
swinkeV. 139.
swgrn Part. 232, 235.
jwj/w 206.
jy/J^ V. 167.
^aw/e A. 231.
takeV. 149, 152N., 189.
/arzV V. 178 (a).
/«£■/;« V. 169.
^«««g 311.
&//« V. 161, 162, 163, 164, 185,
188, 189, 190, 194.
tempest 221.
femporel \. 243.
ten 2^7.
tendre A. 239.
tenthe 249.
/era 199 N.
tereV. 142.
//4(i/ 252, 254.
tharN. 198.
//^e 252.
theef 220.
thenche, thenke V. 169.
A^ey 250.
thing 206.
thinke V. 169.
//^zj 252.
thonder 199 (l).
Thopas 223 (/3)
/>5o« 250.
thousand 247.
//<rae 247.
thresshe V. 139, 140.
thretteene 247.
thridde 249.
thringe V. 139.
thritty 247.
throw'e 207 (i).
throwe V. 130.
/>5?7aj Adv. 249 N.
thryve V. 153.
thurst 199 (l).
A^j/C^) 251.
/o«^« 211, 213.
igg2ii, 213.
/<;o/>4 214.
/o shrede V. cf. shrede.
foun 201.
^«/- 221, 225.
/0»/« 218.
/nyj 225.
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
279
trede V. 142.
tree 101 {1), 206 N.
trenchaunt Part. adj. 191 N. 2.
tresoreere 222.
irewe 207 (3).
Troilus 229.
trompe 222.
trowe V. 186.
turf 11^
tweye, tweyne 247.
t-wiccheV. 171, 173.
/i«/o 247.
iwyes Adv. 249 N.
/yrf^ 207 (4).
tyraunt 226.
unbrend Part. 234.
upperest Sup. 244.
Kje V. 194.
utterest Sup. 244,
valeye 223 (y).
vamssheW. 177, 181.
venquisskeV. 177.
Venus 229.
WfW 229.
wej/« A. 239, 242.
virelay 225.
virgine 221.
T/^yj 222.
Vulcanus 229.
zy« 225.
wa-^g (awake) V. 149, 152 N
wakeW. 1S2N., 172.
a/a/ 199(1), 220.
ffi/ffl/fe 130, 134, 167.
if^j/ A. 230.
was Pret. 197.
•wasshe V. 149.
wcur^, ware V. 149, 151, 152.
wed 205.
wedded Part. 233.
we(e) 250.
weene V. 1 70 (f).
weepeY. 130, 134, 167.
we^^e 199 (5)-
we/& V. 170 (t).
welkne 203 (5), 219.
wendeV. 164, 165, 166.
we«/ Part. 234.
wepen 219.
w^re V. 161, 162, 188, 189, 190,
194.
were (wear) V. 144.
werke V. 169.
werse Comp. 244.
werst Sup. 244, 246.
weve V. 145, 148.
wexe V. cf. waxe.
wey{e) 199 (2) and N.
weye V. 162, 194.
weyve V. 176.
whal 199 (i).
w^a/ 253, 254.
which 253, 254.
who 253, 254.
widwe 111, 212.
Tw^^^ 203 (i).
a/z'/l/^e A. 231 N.
wilV. 19s, 197.
windowe 2 1 8.
winne V. 139, 193, 196.
winter 199 (i), 206.
W(7 203 (3).
wode 199 (4).
28o
INDEX TO CHAPTER II.
wglde V. 130.
wo^ 199(1).
wemman 214, 219.
•woneV. 171, 172, 194, 199 N.
wqngeer 199 N.
wQon 218.
ivggtY. 198.
world 207 (4), 208.
wortfie V. 139, 186.
worthy A. 230.
wounde 207 (i), 210.
wreke V. 142.
wringe V. 139.
a/>"z/ 203(1).
wryeY. 153, 196.
wrj/& V. 153.
wrytheV. 153, 186.
wyd A. 234.
7£'jy203 (i), 204, 206, 220.
wynde V. 139.
wj^fi V. 172, 194.
ayj A. 234.
ayfe 203 (4).
J/ cf. /.
j'«2il, 213.
yfeteredVaxX. 172.
yfynde Inf. 196 N.
y herd A. 175.
yknowe Inf. 196 N.
j'OT^/ Part. 234.
j/j^g Inf. ig6N.
_y«(*) 250.
yeelde V. 139, 140.
^e«r 206.
j'^Z/fi V. 194.
yelpeV. 139, 140.
_j'«/'Z£' A. 231.
yerde 207 (2).
yiveV. 145, 146, 14
>o«f A. 235.
youre 251.
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