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THE WORLD'S 
CANE SUGAR INDUSTRY 

PAST AND PRESENT 



BY 

H. Cr PRINSEN-GEERLIGS 

III 

Late 'Director of the Sugar Experiment Station, 'Pe^alongan, Java. 

AUTHOR OF 

" Cane Sugar and its Manufacture^' 
" Chemical Control in Cane Sugar Factories T 



NORMAN RODGER 

ALTRINCHAM 

(Manchester) 

1912 



PREFACE 

At a tim^ when, through the co-operation of numerous factors, 
a new epoch of prosperity for the cane sugar industry has begun, 
the opportunity seems to have arrived to bring together in a 
coherent survey the past, the present, and the probable future 
of the cane sugar industry in the different countries of production. 

The various causes which have contributed to animating 
with new vitality an industry, which by many writers was 
already considered to be dying out, are still fresh in the mind 
of the reader. One may mention here only the most con- 
spicuous of these, viz., the Brussels Convention, the conquest 
of Formosa by the Japanese, the tariff privileges granted by 
the United States to the former Spanish colonies, and, last but 
not leasf, the great advance of science in the province of sugar 
cane cultivation and cane sugar manufacture — all of which has 
occurred during the last twenty years. 

I, personally, felt inclined to tackle this important subject, 
the more so because, first of all, I myself have been an eye- 
witness of the decline, and then the revival, of the cane sugar 
industry ; and, further, because, as well through my own obser- 
vations as through regular correspondence with authorities 
on the subject in well-nigh every cane sugar producing country, 
I am able to draw on the most reliable information concerning 
that industry in every part of the world where it is found. 

Apart from the private information which I gratefully 
acknowledge here, I found many interesting data in the Archief 
VOOR DE Java Suiker Industrie, in the International 
Sugar Journal, and in all the other periodicals quoted in the 
list on page iv., and in the various sources of reference men- 
tioned at the end of each chapter. 

I further beg to offer my thanks to Messrs. J. H. de Bussy, 
of Amsterdam, who enabled me to study so many a valuable 
and original book in their well-stocked reading room ; and to 
Mr. Algernon E. Aspinall for his courtesy in allowing me to 
reprint the beautiful maps of Barbados, Trinidad, and Jamaica 
from his Pocket Guide to the West Indies. 

I make use of this opportunity cordially to invite my 
readers to write to me and draw my attention to any errors or 
omissions which have struck them when reading the book. 
All of these will be thankfully considered in a future edition. 

H. C. PRINSEN GEERLIGS. 
Wanningstraat 17, 

Amsterdam, 
1st July, 1912.- 



LIST OF PERIODICALS CONSULTED IN THE 
COMPOSITION OF THIS WORK. 

Agricultural News. 

American Sugar Journal and Beet Sugar Gazette. 

Archief voor de Java Suiker Industrie. 

Australian Sugar Journal. 

Boletin Ofi&cial de la Secretaria de Agricultura, Industria y Comercio. 

Buretin Agricole. ; ]'' J 

Centrajfcilatt der Zuckerindustrie. 

Cuban Review. 

Deutsche Zuckerindustrie. 

Hacendado Mexicano. 

Indische Mercuur. 

International Sugar Journal. 

Journal des Fabricants de' Sucre. 

Licht's Wochenberichte. 

Louisiana Planter. 

Planters' Monthly. 

Revista industrial y agricola de Tucuman. 

Revue Agricole de la Reunion. 

Sucrerie Indigene et Coloniale. 

West Indian Bulletin. 

West India Committee Circular. 

WiUett & Gray's Weekly Statistical Sugar^Trade Journal. 

Zeitschrift des Vereins fiir die Zuckerindustrie. 



CONTENTS 



Part I. 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 



CHAPTER I 

General Survey of the History of the Cane Sugar Industry 
FROM THE Beginning till the Introduction of the " Continental 
System " . . . . . . . 

Legendary origin of the sugar cane 
Sugar cane in ancient history 
The sugar industry during the Crusades 
Kinds of sugar in the Middle Ages 
The sugar industry after the voyages of discovery of the Portu 
guese and Spaniards ..... 

Introduction of slavery ..... 

The sugar industry in Brazil, in the West Indian Islands, and ;n 
Guiana ........ 

The sugar industry in Mauritius, India, and Java . 



page 



3 
3 
4 
5 
6 



9 

12 



CHAPTER II 

General Survey of the History of the Cane Sugar Industry 
FROM the Introduction of the " Continental System " down 
to the Present Day ...... 

Continental system .... 

Discovery of sugar in the beetroot 

Experiments with extraction of sugar from the beetroot 

Experiments with extraction of sugar from grapes . 

Beginning of the beet sugar industry . 

Abolition of slavery ...... 

Production of beet and cane sugar between 1850 and 1903 

Sugar premiums ..... 

Cartels ....... 

Additional and countervailing duties . 

The Brussels Convention ..... 

Revival of the cane sugar industry 

World's sugar production after the signing of the Brussels Con- 
vention ....... 



13 
13 
13 
14 
15 
16 
19 
21 

23 
27 
29 

37 
38 



39 



Contents. 



Part II. 

The Condition of the Cane Sugar Industry in the Different Countries 

of Production. 



ASIA. 

I 
British India ...... 

1. Planted area and total production 

2. Cane cultivation : — 

(a) Tillage and Manuring 

(&) Cane varieties, diseases, « and pests 

3. Sugar manufacture .... 

4. Prime cost, importation and transportation, excise, and 

levied ...... 

5. The future . . . . 







PAGE 






43 






43 






47 






49 


. 


. 


50 


excise, and 


duties 


60 
68 



Straits Settlements 



Cochin China 



II 



III 



IV 



69 



73 



China . 


74 


I. Swatow ....... 


74 


2. Amoy ....... 


. . . 76 


3. Canton, Kowloon, Lappa .... 


. . . 76 


4. Kiungchow in the Island of Hainan 


. . 76 


5. Chunking in the Province of Szechuan 


. . . 76 



Japan 



Formosa 



V 



VI 



77 



81 



VII 
The Philippines .......... 

1. Geographical conditions, population, and modes of communica- 

tion .......... 

2. History of the Cane Sugar History ..... 

3. Cane cultivation and sugar manufacture 

4. The future ....... . . 



91 

91 

9.5 

98 

106 



Contents. 

Java— VIII page 

Geographical location, climate, and area planted with cane . 107 

History of the cane sugar industry . . . 115 

Cane cultivation ... .... 121 

Manufacture . . . . ... 131 

Import and export duties, consumption, exportation, peaces 

of destination ........ 139 

6. Future ...... . . 142 



EUROPE. 
Spain . . . 144 



NORTH AMERICA. 

I 

The United States of America ....... 150 

II 
Mexico ....... . . 161 

Cuba— III , 

I; Geographical location, population, area planted with cane, 

total sugar production ....... 166 

2. History of the cane sugar industry . 172 

3. Cane cultivation ...... . 176 

4. Sugar manufacture ..... . 181 

5. Export of sugar, prices. Reciprocity Treaty . . 184 

6. Future .186 

IV 
San Domingo . . 190 

V 
Porto Rico . ' • .196 

VI 
British West Indian Islands — 

1. Historical survey of the sugar industry . . 202 

2. Cane cultivation and sugar manufacture . . 209 

3. Survey of the industry in the different Islands : 

(a) Barbados ....... . 212 

(6) Trinidad . 216 

(c) Jamaica .... .... 219 

(d) Windward Islands ... . 222 
(«) Leeward Islands . ..... 223 

xi 



Contents. 

French Antilles — VII 

1. Geographical location, climate, etc. 

(a) Guadeloupe . ....... 

(b) Martinique ........ 

2. History of the cane sugar industry ..... 

3. Sugar cultivation, sugar manufacture, duties, production, and 

costs ... ...... 



VIII 



St.' Croix 



PAGE 

226 
226 
228 
229 

■ 231 



243 



Guatemala 

Salvador 

Honduras 

British Honduras 

Nicaragua 

Costa Rica 

Panama 



CENTRAL AMERICA 



245 
246 
247 
247 
248 
249 
251 



Colombia 
Venezuela . 
British Guiana 
Dutch Guiana 
Ecuador 
Peru 
Bolivia 



SOUTH AMERICA. 
I 

II 

III 

IV 



VI 



VII 



xn 



253 
253 
256 

263 
266 
267 
273 



Brazil 



Argentina 



Paraguay 



Contents, 
VIII 



IX 



X 



page 

274 



• 283 



288 



Madeira 



Canary Islands 



Angola 



Liberia 



AFRICA. 
I 

II 

III 

IV 



290 

293 

! ' 

293 
294 



Egypt 



Mozambique 



Natal 



VI 



VII 



Mauritius — VIII 

1. Location, History, cane-planted area, total production 

2. Cane cultivation, cane varieties, diseases and pests, sugar manu- 

facture, output of sugar, production per acre, and cost 
price .......... 

3. Import and export duties. Government aid and financial situa- 

tion, destination of the exported sugar .... 



Reunion 



295 
300 

303 

306 

311 
318 
322 



xni 



Contents. 

AUSTRALASIA. 

; . I . '• fag's 

Commonwealth of Australia . . . . . . .' 330 

Hawaiian Islands — II 

1. Geographical conditions, climate, population, area planted 

with cane, total sugar production . . 343 

2. History of the cane sugar industry . . 348 

3. Cane cultivation . . ...... 353 

4. Sugar manufacture, sugar production per acre, cost price 358 

5. Future . . . . . ... . . . 364 

III , 
Fiji Islands . . . . . 365 

IV 
Tahiti ... . . ... 369 



APPENDIX. 

I. The text of the Brussels Sugar Convention .... 371 
II. List of additional duties to be levied from bounty-fed sugar im- 
ported into countries adhering to the Brussels Convention 378 
III. Table of measures, weights, and currency mentioned in this work, 

and their equivalents in British ones .... 379 



INDEX. 

General .... 383 

Geographical and Proper Names 386 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT 

PAGE 

Fig. I. Stone mill in tlie Eastern Districts o* Agra . . 52 
,, 2. Wooden mill from Gorakhpur . . '53 
,, 3. Behea Iron Roller Mill ... . . 54 
,, 4. Furnace for boiling cane juice into rab ... 55 

,, 5. Scheme of a plant to make sugar from cane juice in the Philip- 
pines (from Herbert S. Walker's The Sugar Industry in 
the Island of Negros) ... . 100 

,, 6. Evaporating Plant after Pere Labat . . 233 

„ 7. Sugar factory, from the plans of Pere Labat (Figs. 6 and 7 are 
taken from P^re Labat's work, Description des lies d' Amerique , 
1722) 234 



LIST OF PLATES 

Sugar factory, Ngelom, in Java . . Frontispiece 

Sugar factory, Kohekirin, in Formosa . To face page 8g 

Sugar 'factory, San Nicolas, in Spain ,, „ 145 

Sugar factory, Tenango, in Mexico . . ,, ,, 161 

Central Stewart, in Cuba . . < . ,, ,, 168 

Vere Sugar Factory, in Jamaica . ,, ., 209 

Tinley Manor Sugar Factory, Natal . „ ,, 305 



LIST OF MAPS AND DIAGRAMS 



Diagram showing World's Production of Raw Sugar in the different 
Countries during 1900 (expressed in thousands of tons) 

To face page xvi 
Diagram showing World's Production of Raw Sugar in the different 
Countries during 1910 (expressed in thousands of tons 

To face -page i 

Map of British India ...... ,, . 49 

„ Formosa ... . . ,, ,, 81 

„ the Philippines . . . . . . ,, ,. 97 

„ Java ,, „ 113 

„ Louisiana ....... ,, ,, 152 

„ Cuba „ „ 176 

„ Barbados . . . . . . . . . . 212 

,, Trinidad .......... 216 

„ Jamaica .......... 2ig 

,, Mauritius ......... 320 

„ Reunion 323 

„ Hawaiian Islands . . . . . . . -352 



Notes :— 

(i) The maps of Barbados, Trinidad, and Jamaica are reproduced from 
Aspinall's " Pocket Guide to the West Indies," by kind permission of the 
Author. 

(2) The map of Formosa is reproduced by permission of His Majesty's 
Stationery Office, from British Consular Report, No. 3863 (1907) on Formosa. 




World's Production of Raw Sugar in the dijff>'^ent Countries 

during 1900. 

Kxprrssecl in Thousands of Tons. 




World's Froduction of Raw Sugar in the different Coiuitries 

during 1910. 

Expressed in Thousands (if Tons. 



PART I. 



General History of the Cane Sugar 

Industry. 



PART I. 



General History of the Cane Sugar 

Industry. 



CHAPTER I. 

General Survey of the History of the Cane Sugar Industry from 

the Beginning till the Introduction of the 

" Continental System." 

In all probability the sugar cane originally came from India, more especially 
from the banks of the Ganges. We cannot be absolutely certain of this, as 
at the present day sugar cane in its wild state is not found anywhere. 

The probability, however, of its originating from India is very strong, 
as only the ancient literature of that country mentions sugar cane, while we 
know for certain that it was conveyed to other countries by travellers and 
sailors. 

According to Hindu mythology, sugar cane was created by the famous 
hermit Vishva Mitra to serve as heavenly food in the temporary paradise 
which was organized by him for the sake of Raja Trishanku. This prince 
had expressed his wish to be translated to heaven during his lifetime, but 
Indra, the monarch of the celestial regions, had refused to admit him. In 
order to meet his wish, Vishva Mitra prepared a temporary paradise for him, 
but when a reconciliation between the two rajas was brought about, the para- 
dise was demolished and all its luxuries destroyed except a few, including 
sugar cane which was spread all over the land of mortals as a permanent 
memorial of Vishva Mitra's miraculous deeds. 

We find sugar cane mentioned in the Atharva Veda, one of the latter 

3 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

portions of the sacred books of 'the Hindus, from which we quote the 
following : 

" Paritw^ paritantu nexunag^mawidwise YathsL mim kaminyaso yathS, man n^paga 

assah." 
" I have crowned thee with a shooting sugar cane, so that thou shalt not be averse 

to me.'' 

The fellow-travellers of Alexander the Great, and afterwards writers who 
made use of their notes, tell us of a reed growing in India which produced 
honey without the aid of bees. 

We also find sugar cane repeatedly mentioned as a tribute to the Emperor 
of China from the Indian border provinces, which also accounts for sugar 
cane having spread as far as the East. 

Although sugar cane was known in. ancient times, we do not come across 
any regular statement of sugar being made from cane at any period previous 
to 300 — 600 A.D. It is a fact that Greek and Roman authors, such as Strabo, 
Dioscorides, Pliny, and others, refer to a kind of honey made from cane 
which grows in India, and some substance, " saccharon," which, also in the 
East, is obtained from cane ; but on closer examination it does not appear 
to have been sugar, being in some cases manna, and in others " tabaschir," 
a gelatinous silica which sometimes forms in the joints of some species of 
bamboo. 

The first kind of sugar mentioned was simply concentrated cane juice, 
called " gur " in India and known under the name of " gud " in Sanskrit, 
which (although we cannot be certain of it) points to the fact of " gur " having 
been known in India even in prehistoric times. 

We do know that in a.d. 627, at the time of the Conquest of Dastagerd in 
Persia, sugar was among the spoils taken by the Byzantines ; and also that, 
according to the Pen-tsao-kang-mu, a famous encyclopedia written in 1552 
by Si-Shi-Tjin, the Emperor Tai Tsung (627 — 650) sent people to Behar, in 
India, in order to learn 1 he art of sugar manufacture. 

From that time the art of making sugar out of cane spread rapidly, being 
considerably aided by the vast trade renaissance of the seventh, eighth, and 
ninth centuries. 

It was not restricted merely to evaporating the juice to dryness, but the 
Arabs and Egyptians soon learnt how to purify raw sugar by re-crystalliza- 
tion, and to make a great variety of sweetmeats out of the purified sugar. 

Marco Polo, who visited China during 1270-1295, and other western 
travellers after him, mention a great many sugar factories in South China 
where sugar could be freely bought at low prices. 

Although the Chinese had soon learned how to prepare a light-coloured 
kind of sugar by draining off the raw molasses, the proper art of refining seems 
to have been brought to China by people from Cairo subsequent to Marco 
Polo's time 

4 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

The Mohammedan writers, who refer to the sugar industry in India, 
mention a great many kinds that, about the end of the thirteenth century, 
were prepared from the evaporated cane juice by re-dissolving, clarifying it 
,with milk, and then either concentrating it to solid matter, or crystaUi^ing 
it into candy. 

Further, we find that sugar cane was taken to Sicily by the Arabs in 
703, and Sicilian sugar conveyed to Africa in goo. Sanutus writes in 130:3 
that sugar cane was produced not only in the dominions belonging to 
the Sultan, but also in the Christian countries of Cyprus, Rhodes, and 
Sicily. 

The Crusaders found extensive sugar cane plantations in Tripoli, Meso- 
potamia, Palestine, Syria, Antioch, etc. 

As early as 755, sugar cane was taken to Spain by Abdurrahman, and it 
was especially on the south coast of Andalusia that it was cultivated, so that 
as far back as the year 1150 Spain could boast of a flourishing sugar industry, 
commanding an area of no less than 75,000 acres. 

The Arabs and Chinese introduced sugar cane not only to the above- 
mentioned countries, but also to the coast of the Mediterranean and the Indian 
Ocean, consequently to Tunis, Morocco, Gambia, Madagascar, Siam, Sunda 
Islands, the Philippines, Formosa, and Japan, and it flourished wherever it 
was cultivated. 

In all the countries mentioned, however, any regular sugar industry was 
out of the question ; the cane was cultivated simply for the purpose of supply- 
ing local wants, while before 1400, with the exception of China, a proper sugar 
industry was carried on only in the countries round the Mediterranean. 

The Crusaders looked upon sugar cane cultivation as a profitable venture, 
and therefore interested themselves in it, making Tyre an important centre 
of the sugar trade. Both the administration of- King Baldwin's dominions 
and the different knighthoods founded extensive sugar cane plantations in 
Palestine, in Antioch, in Syria, and in Cjrprus, and greatly improved the sugar 
industry in those parts. 

Egypt continued producing large quantities of very good sugar, which 
met with a ready demand in all the markets round the Mediterranean. In 
Sicily the sugar industry, which was in a flourishing state during the Norman 
Conquest, gradually dwindled to such an extent that the Emperor Frederic II 
thought it expedient to send to Tyre for two capable sugar manufacturers 
in order to revise the almost forgotten art of sugar manufacture. 

This sugar industry soon developed, a result partly due to the influence 
of the instructors, and partly to the fact that the government began hence- 
forward to patronize agriculture. Discord and war, however, soon had a 
disastrous influence on the political affairs of the island, and about 1400 A.D. 
the sugar industry was entirely abandoned. But after the restoration of 
order under King Alfonso (1410 — 1418) prosperity returned, so that even in 

5 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

1418 much sugar was being exported from Palermo, a great many suga^' cane 
plantations and mills being found in 1450 in Sicily. 

At the same time a sugar industry flourished in Spain, and was also taken 
up in the south of France, where many of its inhabitants had acquired a thorough 
knowledge of cane cultivation and sugar manufacture, through constantly 
coming into contact with their Spanish neighbours and through their partici- 
pation in the Crusades. 

Consequently, all the countries round the Mediterranean were cane sugar 
producing countries in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries : Spain, France, 
Calabria, Sicily, C5rprus, Rhodes, Asia Minor, Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Morocco 
all taking part, more or less, in the sugar industry. The sugar that was not 
needed for their own consumption was chiefly exported via the Italian ports 
of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa. The Crusaders who, when in the Far East, had 
become accustomed to sugar, wished to continue its use after their return 
home, and thus developed a brisk trade between the Italian towns and 
Northern Europe, both by land and by sea. 

The sugar was sold in the form of loaves, square blocks, or powder. The 
small loaves were wrapped up in palm leaves, two at a time, with one base 
lying against the other, sewn up in cloth, and marked with the seller's 
trade mark. 

Sometimes the loaves were packed in barrels, and the open spaces filled 
in with dried cane leaves. Another way of packing was to knock the top off 
the sugar-loaf and to put the truncated cones, thirty-six of them together 
into a chest in two layers, while the open spaces, which were left, were filled 
in with the broken-off tops. Finally, the chest was wrapped up in cloth 
and the vendor's trade mark affixed. 

Only the inferior kind of sugar was packed up in chests like this ; it went 
by the name of cassonade, which means simply " packed in wooden boxes." 
Later on, however, the name was also given to any inferior grade of sugar, 
so that in course of time it has become the general term for inferior sugar. 

Then there was sugar powder, which was obtained from inferior sugar 
loaves crumpled to powder, and this also was sent away in chests and barrels. 
Finally, there was sugar candy in a variety of tints between clear white and 
brown. 

The sugar industry in the countries round the Mediterranean flourished 
up to the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries; 
Syria lost much of its importance as a sugar trade centre when, after the fall of 
Acre in 1291, the Crusaders had to give up their conquests in Asia Minor ; but 
Tyre and Beirut, Antioch and the Jordan Valley all continued producing large 
quantities of sugar, while Damascus and Tripoli became sugar refining centres. 
Cyprus, still tributary to Venice, extended its industry considerably, and 
every year sent large supplies to the mother-town; while Egypt, too, still 
produced considerable quantities of sugar. 

6 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

All this prosperity, however, suddenly and unexpectedly came to an 
end. In 1453 Constantinople was taken by the Turks, in 1461 Trebizonde 
followed, and soon after the other commercial towns of Asia Minor and all 
Genoa's colonies on the Black Sea were also conquered, so that the trade 
relations between Europe and Asia Minor were no longer what was previously 
the case. Moreover, the entire industry was much restricted during the Turkish 
sovereignty, and the manufacture of sugar soon declined. In 1517 the Turks 
attacked and conquered Cairo, and made Egypt a Turkish province, which 
step had an equally fatal effect on the sugar industry there. 

In 1532 Rhodes, and finally in 1571 Cyprus, were taken from the Venetians 
and added to the Turkish dominions ; by this time, however, the sugar culti- 
vation in these islands had already lost much of its importance, while the 
industry of Sicily had quite dwindled away, so that within one hundred years 
the once flourishing sugar industry of the Mediterranean was condemned to 
extinction. 

As early as 1419 the Portuguese had taken the sugar cane to Madeira, 
where it grew up luxuriantly and developed so quickly that the island soon 
produced unheard-of quantities of sugar, which were taken to Italy by Portu- 
guese seafarers. In 1444 the Azores were captured and colonized by the 
Portuguese ; between 1456 and 1462 the Cape Verde Isles followed ; San 
Thome, Principe, and Annobon in the Gulf of Guinea were acquired in 1496, 
while in the same year the Spanish colonized the Canary Islands, and assisted 
in the establishment of sugar cultivation. Favoured by the mild and moist 
climate of these islands, the cane grew luxuriantly, and was produced at so 
little cost, with the help of African negro slaves, that the price of sugar fell 
considerably, and both Cyprus and Sicily were obliged to abandon competi- 
tion, so that in 1570 the sugar industry of these Mediterranean islands ceased 
to exist. 

When, the Portuguese West African colonies began to flourish, Bartholo- 
mew Diaz sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1490 Vasco de Gama 
reached Calicut by the unbroken sea route, the result of which was that Venice 
lost its ascendancy as a trade centre, and the Portuguese distributed Indian 
goods as well as those coming from their Own colonies, consequently opening 
up new routes for the world's trade. 

Still greater changes in the history of cane sugar were brought about by 
the discovery of America, and the colonization of that vast territory — first 
by the Spanish and the Portuguese, and later by the Dutch, the English, and 
the French. In consequence of the colonization of Brazil, the Antilles and 
Guiana, the production of sugar increased so rapidly that the latter, which up to 
now had been a very costly article, only to be indulged in as a medicine or 
as- a luxury by the very rich, became in quite a short time an article of 
'common consumption. 

Although previously the annual production of the principal sugar centres 

7 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

was only some thousands of hundredweights, it was now possible to state the 
production in thousands of tons. 

The enormous progress in production was caused not only by the great 
abundance of fertile land in a favoured climate, but also by the cheap labour 
in the form of negro slaves obtained from the countries on the Gulf of Guinea. 

Throughout the history of the cane sugar industry in tropical countries 
the labour problem has .influenced the- whole production. When plenty of 
labour is to be had, and soil and climate allow of sugar cultivation, cane sugar 
production can flourish, while a decline immediately sets in when in any way 
labour becomes scarce. 

We shall repeatedly come across instances of this fact in the second part 
of this Volume; when dealing with the industry in the different countries of 
production, and this influence is so great that at the present time a few islands 
would suffice to produce all the Sugar needed for the world's consumption if 
the lack of the necessary cheap labour did not limit their power of production. 

For this very reason Christopher Columbus's first attempt, made on his 
second journey in 1493, to introduce sugar cane cultivation in San Domingo 
resulted in loss for the time being. When, however, the Portuguese and the 
Spanish, in imitation of what they had done in their own colonies on the West 
Coast of Africa, took negro slaves from the Gulf of Guinea to America, the 
industry was placed on a firmer footing, and spread to an unprecedented 
extent. The aborigines of most islands disappeared soon after the conquest 
by foreigners, and for the greater part were replaced by negro slaves from 
Africa, who established their race in all the West Indian islands and the ad- 
joining parts of the Cotitinent of America. 

Up to the first half of the fifteenth century hardly any slavery existed 
in Christian countries ; , it only occurred in Mohammedan lands. 

Even in 1442 Henry the Navigator sent Moors, who were taken 
prisoners, back to their own country, but later on, when it appeared to what 
account they might be put, he began to deal differently with them. In the 
year 1481 the Portuguese built three fortresses in Africa, namely, on the Gold 
Coast, on an island in the Gulf of Guinea, and at Loango, and from these sent 
slaves to the American possessions. In 1502 negro slaves were used m the 
mines by the Spanish in Hispaniola (now San Domingo), and Charles the Fifth 
granted the Genoese the privilege of importing every year as many as 4,000 
into Cuba, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. But, quite independent of this monopoly, 
the import of slaves greatly increased, and even in 1772 it amounted to 74,000, 
supplied by the following nationalities : — 

38,000. by the British. 
20,000 ., ,, French. 

4,000 ,, ., Dutch. 

2,000 ,, ,, Danes. 
10,000 ,, ,, Portuguese. 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

They hailed from Gambia, Sierra Leone, Las Palmas, the Gold Coast, 
Whydah, Lagos, Benin, Boma, New Calabria, Cameroons, Loango and Ben- 
guela, that is from the entire West Afritan Coast, and were distributed all 
over the American and West Indian countries, so that a mixed population 
of Americans, Africans and Europeans sprang up. 

In Brazil, which in 1500 was discovered by Pinzon arid by, Cabral, sugar 
cane was imported from Madeira, and in a very short time the sugar industry 
there attained to considerable importance. ,In 1590 there were thirty-six 
mills in Bahia, and sixty-six jn Pernambuco, which numbers continued in- 
creasing, so that in 1600 the export from Brazil amounted to 60,000 chests 
of sugar, each cpntaining 500 lbs. At that time Brazil belonged to Spain, 
which in 1580 had, annexed Portugal and the Portuguese colonies. Because of 
the truce with Spain the Dutch, who more than once had coveted the rich Portu- 
guese colony, were compelled to suspend their plans of conquest till hostilities 
were resumed,, When in 1621 the armistice had come to an end, the West 
Indian Company, which was just founded, made up its mind to conquer Brazil, 
in which attempt it succeeded in 1629, when Pernambuco was taken, and 
consequently the whole of Brazil fell to the Dutch. It was at this time that 
a great many sugar mills and plantations were destroyed, but the governor, 
Joan Maurits, succeeded in resuscitating the sugar industry to the extent that 
during the yeai;s i$36 — 1643 a total of 159,148 chests, each containing 500 lbs. 
of white sugar, ,49,903 chests of muscovado, and 218,220 chests of brown sugar 
were exported. In the year 1640 Portugal regained its independence, and 
although a, treaty guaranteed the possession of Brazil by the Dutch, the Portu- 
guese, helped by the Engljsh,, instigated a rebeUion which ended in the Dutch 
being expelled in 1654, whereupon in 1661 Brazil was acknowledged a Portu- 
guese possession under an indemnity of eight million guilders, paid to the 
Dutch West Iridian Company. 

In 1665 the Portuguese government committed a serious mistake in 
banishing the 20,000 Dutchmen who then lived in Brazil ; and it was a two- 
fold error,, because, in the first place, a great number of quiet and industrious 
citizens were driven away, and, secondly, because the latter settled in the 
neighbouring Caribbean Islands, where they introduced the sugar industry, 
and consequently became in the long run formidable rivals of Brazil. 

Meanwhile, it was impossible for Portugal to regain her former importance, 
and a great many measures taken by her only tended to- favour the Portuguese 
without at all developing the resources of their country. Moreover, gold 
mines were discovered, in 1725 in the province of Minas Geraes, which caiised 
the regular trade in field and factory to decHne, as many labourers found 
work at the gold mines instead. The sugar factories could not stand these 
successive blows, and a great many of them were deserted, with the result 
that the sugar exportation fell rapidly. 

After some time it recovered more or less, especially when, at the end of 
the eighteenth century, a new cane, Otaheite (now known as Bourbon), was 

9 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

introduced, which contained much more sugar. Still, Brazil has never since 
attained its former importance in the sugar world. 

In the year 1625 the island of St. Christopher (now St. Kitts) was occupied 
by both the English and the French, and planted with sugar cane. Further, 
the French conquered Guadaloupe and Martinique in 1635, ^^'^ the English 
took Barbados in 1627, and Jamaica in 1656. Sugar cane cultivation was 
introduced in all these islands, but the people there did not know how to 
prepare good and durable sugar, till in 1655 the Dutch manufacturers, who 
had been driven away from Brazil, came to settle there and put their knowledge 
and experience, gained in Brazil, into practice. 

After the French had successively occupied and deserted San Domingo, 
France took permanent possession of this island in 1697, and it is from this 
time that the flourishing state of the sugar industry there dates ; for a 
ceniury it was one of the first among the cane sugar exporting West Indian 
islands. On the whole the French colonies flourished more than the English, 
which was partly owing to their more rational way of working, and partly to 
the more liberal French trade policies. Because of the cruel way, however, 
in which the French treated their negro slaves a rebellion broke out in 1791, 
in which, within a very short time, almost the entire white population was 
massacred or expelled, and sugar plantations and mills were destroyed and 
burnt, so that San Domingo lost its ascendency, and has ever since been of 
little importance in the sugar world. 

After the fall of this sphere of activity, the other countries became more 
prominent, especially Jamaica, which made the most of her opportunity, and 
succeeded in doubling her yearly output in some twenty or thirty years, so 
that at the end of the eighteenth century this island was first among the sugar 
producing West Indian islands. 

San Domingo's fall was also an incitement to Cuba to extend her sugar 
cultivation. 

Owing to her subjection to Spain, Cuba's sugar industry had to submit 
to all sorts of restricting stipulations until 1772, after which date, however, 
they ceased ; and henceforward the manufacture and export of sugar gra- 
dually increased in quantity, and after 1791 expanded at such a rate that 
even in 1802 it amounted to 40,800 tons. 

The Dutch colonies, St. Eustatius and Cura9ao, and the Danish islands, 
St. Croix, St. John, and San Thome, also profited by this general prosperity ; 
and, especially during the Anierican War of Independence, became increasini^ly 
important, not so much through producing sugar as through being good trade 
centres for the smuggling of sugar in those stirring times. 

In the meantime the sugar industry had also got a firm hold in the 
other countries on the continent of South America, with the exception of 
Brazil. In 1634 French people who were engaged in sugar cultivation 
settled in Cayenne, and in 1640 in Surinam. This cultivation did not 
amount to much for the first hundred years, even after the conquest of 

10 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

Surinam, Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice by the Dutch, owing to the 
scarcity of labourers ; consequently, the importation of slaves on a large 
scale was thought necessary for developing the sugar production in these 
parts. 

This want, of labour was gradually supplied, and when the hostilities 
with the French, who had continually disturbed the pea;ce of the colony, 
had come to an end, the manufacture of sugar began to flourish, and in the 
year 1750 Surinam produced the maximum quantity of 12,300 tons of sugar, 
a quantity never again reahzed in the eighteenth century. Essequibo, Ber- 
bice, and Demerara also supplied some sugar, but disturbances prevailed, while 
lack, of capital and lack of enterprise, together with careless financial manage- 
ment, prevented any sound development of the industry. Through con- 
tinuous wars the colonies fell to the French, then again to the English, then 
reverted to the Dutch ; but in the end, with the exception of Surinam, they 
i remained English possessions. 

Finally, sugar was grown in Peru, Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Louisiana ; 
also in Trinidad, which was taken by the English in 1792, but at the time of 
which we speak this was of little consequence for the world's trade, as all the 
sugar produced was used for local consumption. 

According to Reesse, in his book on " De Suikerhandel van Amsterdam," 
page 225, the exportation of American colonies and countries during the last 
years of the eighteenth century amounted to the following quantities (ex- 
pressed in Amsterdam pounds and tons) ; — 





Amsterdam Pounds 


Tons 


French Colonies (1788) . . 


. 188,350,000 


93.045 


English .„ {1781— 1785) 






yearly average 


• 157.953.000 


78,029 


Danish Colonies (1768) . . 


41,600,000 


20,550 


Cuba (1790) 


. " 28,325,800 


13,993 


Brazil (1796) 


69,384,000 


34.276 


Dutch Colonies (1785) . . 


18,000,000 


8,892 



Owing to the large supplies of sugar from the Antilles and ^Brazil, the 
sugar industry in Madeira, the Cape Verde Isles and Canary Isles had been 
outrivalled, and sugar from these islands gradually disappeared from the sugar 
markets. This was also the case with the sugar industry in the Islands of 
the Gulf of Guinea, which previously in their turn, shortly after the commence- 
ment of the great voyages of discovery by the Portuguese and Spaniards 
in the fifteenth century, had destroyed the sugar industry of the countries 
lying on the Mediterranean. 

Sugar cane was also introduced by the French to the Isle de France (now 
Mauritius) and Bourbon (now Reunion), and at about the end of the eighteenth 
century people began to export sugar to Europe from this part of the world. 

Finally, Eastern Asia should not be omitted from the list of important 

II 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

sugar producing countries. On their first voyages the ships of the Dutch 
East Indian Company carried Formosan, Bengal, and Siamese sugar to Amster- 
dam, where it was sold at such a profit that they kept on importing it. In order 
to be able to send still larger consignments of sugar, the Company had sugar 
cane planted in Java itself, but before the plantations had had time to spread, 
the price of sugar (in 1642) fell so considerably, in consequence of the large 
Brazilian harvests, that the profits dwindled away, and it was necessary to 
reduce the imports pf sugar from the East. During the time that elapsed 
between the beginning of planting in Java and the disbanding of the East 
Indian Company, the sugar produc^tion of this island experienced enormous 
fluctuations. In 1710 a 14,000,000 lb. harvest was reaped ; between 1742 
and 1748 absolutely nothing ; from 1751 to 1^60, 6,000,000 lbs. a year, which 
quantity by no means came up to the amqunt exported by the Dutch West 
Indian colonies. The sugar was sent both to the Netherlands and to Persia, 
Japan, and other cour;tries. The English East Indian Company exported ^ 
large quantities of sugar from British India (" gur " as well as crystals) ; while, 
moreover, a fair amount of Chinese, Formosan, and Indian sugar was sent to 
New York, where, in consequence of fiscal restrictions, importations from 
the East Indies were less onerous than from the much nearer West Indian 
colonies. 

It was a very bad time for the development of the cane sugar industry 
when, during the last years of the eighteenth and the first years of the nine- 
teenth centuries, France (first alone, but later on in combination with her 
allies) was at war with Great Britain. The larger part of the hostilities took 
place in West Indian waters, where the French and British, fleets not only 
destroyed each other, but where also a great number of laden merchant ships 
were captured, with consequent loss to sugar planters and merchants. East 
Indian sugar, too, was often captured b}' privateers or men-of-war, while, on 
the other hand, the French Government enacted all sorts of restricting stipu- 
lations in order to deal a serious blow to British trade. 

When, in the end. Great Britain reigned supreme at sea and succeeded 
in preserving trade relations with the Continent, in spite of Napoleon's effort 
to crush them out, the French Emperor in 1806 had recourse to what is known 
as the " Continental System," which eventually dealt a disastrous blow to 
the cane sugar industry. 

Literature : 
Sayld Muhammad Hadi. The Sugar Industry of the United Provinces of Agra and 
Oudh. 

F. 0. von Lippmann. GescMchte des Zuckers. 

G. Washington Eves. West Indies. 

J. J. Reasse. De Suikerhandel van Amsterdam. ' ' '' 



12 



, CHAPTER II. 

General Survey of the History of the Cane Sugar Industry from the 

Introduction of the " Continental System " 

down to the Present Day. 

Much to his regret, Napoleon did not succeed in humiliating his greatest 
enemy, Great Britain, and had to give up his intention of attacking this country 
when, in 1805, Nelson destroyed the French fleet off Trafalgar, consequently 
preventing the landing of the French in England. As the struggle was not 
to be brought to an end by fighting. Napoleon tried to isolate his enemy by 
prohibiting all commercial intercourse between England and the Continent, 
which for the greater part was submissive to him. In 1806 the Berlin decree 
was issued, according to which all trade communication with Great Britain 
was forbidden, and all colonial and British goods were confiscated. In answer 
to this move, England prohibited ships of any nationality from approaching 
French harbours on the penalty of confiscation ; whereupon Napoleon, in 
his turn, by the Milan decree, confiscated any ship that had either submitted 
to English examination or had paid dues in English harbours. 

In short, the one party endeavoured to outdo the other in confiscating 
goods and forbidding any intercourse ; so that the importation of sugar was 
hindered, and prices went up to a figure that was previously unknown. It 
is true that the Trianon decree later on allowed colonial products to enter, 
but only under high import duties^ so the price of these articles was not 
conducive to any widespread distribution, and only wealthy people could 
afford to use sugar. 

Napoleon did not conceal from himself the fact that this want of sugar 
was most inconvenient to his subjects, but, in the first place, he was sure 
trade would hit upon a means by which sugar might be brought from the 
East to the West of Europe via the land route (Constantinople and Vienna) ; 
secondly, he cherished great expectations as regards substitutes for cane sugar, 
which might be produced in Europe and supply a much-felt want. Such were 
the sugar produced from grapes and from beetroot — while strenuous endeavours 
were also made to exitract sugar from apples, pears, plums, quinces, mulberries, 
chestnuts, figs, sorghum and maize stalks, and from the sap of the nut and 
maple trees ; but only from the two first-mentioned sources could sugar be 
produced on a large and industrial scale. 

In the year 1747 Marggraf, in a communication to the Royal Academy of 
Science and Literature in Berlin, had shown that various kinds of beetroot, 
the sweet taste of which was akeady known, contained sugar that could be 
extracted and crystallized in a. fairly simple way. Other plants which had 

13 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

a sweet taste also contained sugar, although in a less degree, but it was found 
that in many cases it did not crystallize out, but remained as syrup, no matter 
how long it was kept. 

This discovery of crystallizable sugar occurring in plants that thrive in 
a European clirnate was for a long time considered a mere laboratory demonstra- 
tion without any practical importance, till in 1786 Achard began to occupy 
himself with beetroot cultivation on his estate, Caulsdorf, near Berlin. He 
planted beetroot there in the hope of finding a species rich in sugar, and at 
the same time containing few impurities destructive to the yield ; but, because 
of a fire which burnt down his house, as well as through financial difficulties, 
it was not till 1799 that he made his result known. The King of Prussia, 
Frederick Wilhelm III, took a great interest in this beetroot sugar manu- 
facture, and after he was convinced of the truth of Achard' s information, he 
bought, in 1801, the Crown land, Cunern, in Silesia, for experimenting on a 
large scale, and provided Achard with the necessary means for the erection of 
a sugar factory. Moreover, the king contributed towards the erection of 
further sugar factories round Berlin, in Pomerania, and in Silesia, by means 
of funds and advice, while he held out premiums to any farmer or manufacturer 
who should work up more than twenty tons of beetroot a year. 

Although the war calamities and defeats from which the Prussians suffered 
after 1806 hindered the development of the sugar industry, yet the manu- 
facture advanced so far that in 1810 it was possible to declare that this 
industry had proved itself a success when properly conducted ; consequentl}', 
the experiments at Cunern were discontinued. Hence, in 1812, this experi- 
mental farm was turned into a school for the sugar industry, but, unfortu- 
natelj', in 1813 it was destroyed by the ravages of war. 

Achard' s important experiments caused much surprise all over Europe, 
especially in France, the more so as Achard, being of French origin, had com- 
municated with several French savants, and, as a result, had had his method 
of working officially examined by the Physical Section of the Paris Academy, 
who judged favourably of it. Notwithstanding this, since capitalists hesitated 
to risk money on building sugar factories, only two were constructed, one 
near Paris and one at St. Ouen, both of which, however, soon failed for want 
pf adequate knowledge and through working with a very inferior kind of 
beetroot, the beetroot sugar manufacture thus coming to an entire standstill 
for some years. But although the industry had come to a temporary stop, 
the possibilities were not overlooked ; and it is from this time that a number of 
documents date, which show how much the French had the idea of a national 
sugar industry at heart, and how everywhere, although on a small scale, people 
fervently looked forward to the realization of this hope. 

As, however, the manufacturing branch of the industry had given negative 
rather than positive results, a great many scholars, especially Proust and 
Parmentier, became interested in the preparation of sugar on a large scale 
from grapes. Although it had long been known that a saccharine substance 

14 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

could be obtained from grape-must by evaporating and cooling the residue, 
it remained for the chemist Proust to point out in a lucid memoire the profit 
obtainable from the manufacture of sugar from grapes. So we must look 
to him as the real pioneer of this industry. 

It also stood Proust in good stead, that shortly after the publication 
of his memoire the " Continental System " was started, in consequence of 
which cane sugar could only be imported at great expense and danger, the 
demand for a substitute thus becoming great. About the same time the 
chemist Parmentier had pubhshed an of&cial report, in which he advised his 
countrymen not to manufacture beetroot sugar in France, as the French soil 
would not allow the production of beetroots containing sugar. 

Further, the extraction of sugar from must was greatly stimulated by 
the fact that the Vine abounded in France, and brief instructions were issued 
by the Government for preparing sjnrup and sugar from rnust for domestic 
use. Where there was a dearth of sugar it was a great convenience for the 
inhabitants of the vine-growing countries to be able themselves to produce 
sugar easily from grapes, so this native sugar industry began immediately 
to flourish. 

Napoleon was greatly pleased to see the results of the attempts at sugar 
production within the boundaries of his empire, hoping that such sugar might 
supersede the cane sugar imported from America. He consequently ordered 
his subjects to apply themselves vigorously to the manufacture of this sub- 
stance, in order to extend its consumption to districts outside the vine-growing 
provinces. 

Proust succeeded in obtaining a solid sugar from concentrated syrups, 
while Fouquet was able to work this into white sugar, which, though not 
crystallizing in the same shape as cane sugar, corresponded in colour and 
consistency to it. As a reward they received by Imperial decree sums of 
money amounting to 100,000 francs in Proust's case, and 40,000 francs in 
that of Fouquet, on condition that factories for grape-sugar should be founded 
with the money in the south of France, and their factory secrets should be . 
divulged. 

A few months later Napoleon disposed of a sum of 200,000 francs, to be 
divided among twelve factories that should produce the greatest amount of 
sugar out ot grapes in proportion to the quantities manufactured. A minimum 
weight of 10,000 kg. was necessary for those competing for the prize. 

Parmentier, who had greatly exerted himself in the manufacture of sugar 
from grape-must, and had done what he could in the way of giving hints and 
instructions about that manufacture, finally wrote a memorandum dealing 
with the best way in which to prepare this kind of sugar on a large scale, which 
monograph contained much information for manufacturers. 

The committee appointed to distribute prizes reported that, in 1811, 
2,000,000' kg. of syrup and 500 kg. of sugar had been prepared from grapes, 
but that only three establishments, whose yearly output of prepared sugar 

15 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

and syrup exceeded 10,000 kg. were entitled to a prize. Consequently, only 
three piizes of i6',666'66 francs each were awatded, and further a premium 
of 12,006 francs to a fourth manufacturer who had prepared 4,500 kg. 

The greatest apprehensions were entertained as to this national industry 
when in 18 14,' 'owing to Napoleon's downfall and the revocation of the " Con- 
tinental System," cane su'gar was freely imported again, and owing to its 
low price de'alt a deadly blow to the manufacture of grape sugar.' 

■ Although people expected great things of the grape sugar industry, their 
feeling towards beetroot sugar piroduction had now greatlj' changed. The pri- 
mary dislike for this' industry was latgely due to the influence of Parmentier, 
who advocated the cause of sugar manufacture from grapes ; but the enterprise 
and the never-ceasing activity of those in favour of^ the beetroot sugar in- 
dustry led ultimately to Napoleon cohtribtiting generously towards the 
manufacture of sugar from this plant: Thus in 1811 Napoleon ordeired 32,000 
hectares to be planted with beetroot — to be equally distributed over the 
several provinces^ — four schools were to be founded in which sugar manufacture 
was to be taught, while on January ist, 1813, all further importation from 
the East and West Indies was prohibited. 

In 1812 the number of sugar schools was increased to five, the pupils 
of which obtained scholarships, and the area devoted to beets amounted to 
100,000 hectares; Further, 500 licences for the manufacture of beetroot sugar 
were granted in France— that is, at least one in each department. Each 
licensee was obliged to erect a factory, which was supposed to yield at least 
10,000 kg. of sugar in the campaign of 1812-13, and in case one of them was 
to improve the manufacture or increase its output the licence was extended, 
on condition that no duty or excise should be raised on its produce during the 
time of the licence. Finally, the decree also contained restrictions as regards 
the foundation of four Imperial factories, which were to deliver up 2,000,000 kg. 
of sugar in 1812-13, and of a small factory on the Crown land, Rambouillet, 
with a capacity of 20,000 kg. of sugar. 

In consequence of this decree no fewer than 338 licences were taken out 
in 1812, four of which fell through, so that in the campaign 1812-13 334 sugar 
factories must have been working on French soil, which, according to a report 
by the Minister of the Interior, turned out 7,000,000 lbs. of sugar. The largest 
among the factories was that of Crespel-Dellisse; founded at Lille in 1810, 
where Spanish prisoners of war were employed as labourers. Many of them 
had been used to working in the colonies, where they had come into contact 
with the sugar industry, so that their knowledge and experience stood the 
French enterprise in good stead. 

In Austria, too, some factories were built in the nineteenth century, 
which, because of the high price of sugar, yielded large piofits during the time 
of the " Continental System." 

Consequently, a promising beetroot sugar industry, soon capable of 
supplying the wants of Europe, sprang up in 1813 all over Germany, France, 

16 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

and Austria. But in 1814, when Napoleon had to abdicate, the " Continental 
System " was abolished, and colonial sugar was admitted again into Continental 
harbours. On account of this, the price of sugar feU so rapidly that it was 
impossible for the new beet sugar industry to compete with cane sugar ; hence, 
nearly all the factories which had just been opened were closed again. 

However, an industry which had experienced such a rapid rise, thanks 
to the patronage and support of Frederick Wilhelm of Prussia and the Emperor 
Napoleon, and which had developed through the industry and devotion of 
the entire population, was not destined to go to ruin just because of the great 
change produced by Napoleon's fall. On the contrary, it was realized that 
although the majority of the factories could riot possibly have obtained good 
results, there were others where the manufacture of beetroot could be turned 
into profit, even where American sugar had free access. Acting up to 
Napoleon's commands, beetroots had been planted all over the country, 
machinery had been erected in great haste, and work had been begun without 
the slightest knowledge or experience being obtained, and attempts had even 
been made to manufacture sugar from roots which had gone bad. This, of 
course, led to the factories producing either no sugar, or such a bad type that 
the enterprise resulted in a financial failure, and from 1814 onwards people were 
generally disposed to distrust the beetroot sugar industry. However, Chaptal, 
the Director-General of Commerce and Industry in France, kept drawing 
the Prefect's attention to the beetroot sugar industry, while the chemist De 
Dombasle of Nancy, published a paper in which he gave definite instructions for 
the rational manufacture of beetroot sugar. In 1815 there were still about a 
hundred sugar factories in France, and the average yearly output of beetroot 
sugar amounted to 1,000 tons during the years 1816 — 1821. This industry 
derived great profit from the fact that the importation of sugar from abroad 
was heavily taxed, while the inland sugar was free from duty. In 1821, 49-5 
francs duty was placed on every 100 kg. raw sugar from the French colonies, 
and 70 francs on white sugar — while sugar from other parts was taxed 90 
francs, which amount increased to 125 francs in i8ig. Later on the surtax 
was increased on foreign sugar, while an extra duty was paid on sugar imported 
in foreign ships. As in spite of these differential duties, the French still 
complained, the refining of French colonial sugar intended for export was 
made possible by a drawback of 120 francs per 100 kg. (restitution of duty) 
being given on refined sugar when exported. Since this, however, was also 
the case with exported home-grown sugar, on which no duty had been 
paid, the State paid an export premium of 120 francs per 100 kg. beet 
sugar. One can imagine that on account of this fiscal arrangement it 
was not long before new sugar factories sprang up and old ones were 
extended ; and that by 1836 about one-third of the sugar refined in France 
was beetroot sugar. But the payment of the premium was a great 
loss to the Exchequer, and that was why, in 1840, the French Government 
proposed to buy up all the existing beetroot sugar factories for the sum of 

17 B 



General History of the Cane Sugar In,dustr.y. 

40,000,000 francs, and to tax the, inland sugar at the samcTate as the cojoijial 
sugar. This plan fell through, and, instead, beetroot sugar and cane sugar 
were equalized in 1843. This was most detrimental to the home industry, 
and von Lippmann tells us in his G^schichie des Zuckers ihst if it had not been 
for the cane sugar- industry suffering severely on account of the abolition of 
slavery, the beetroot sugar industry might have been utterly ruined by this 
measure. 

After 1836 the sugar industry in Germany made great progress ; the 
Germans succeeded in getting more sugar out of the beet, consequently the 
production became more and more profitable. The following table shows 
the steady progress of the production : — 



Year. 



No. of 
Factories. 



Production. 
In quintals 
of 50 kg. In 



tons. 



Yield on 
100 beetroot. 



1836/37 


122 


28,162 


1.383 


5-51 


1837/38 


156 


153.552 


7.540 


5-51 


1840/41 


145 


284,102 


13.951 


5-88 


1841/42 


135 


314.817 


15.459 


6-13 


1844/45 


, 98 


259,360 


12,736 


6-67 


1846/47 


107 


402,518 


19,881 


7-14 


1848/49 


145 


717.154 


35.217 


. 7-27 


1850/51 


184 


1,066,979 


52.396 


7-25 



In Austria the beetroot sugar industry was again taken up in 1831 ; there 
were a great many factories in existence by 1840, while in 1854 the amount 
of sugar prepared in the country itself was equal to that imported from abroad ; 
hence, towards the latter half of the nineteenth century — that is about fifty 
years after the beetroot sugar industry had been introduced — it had been 
generally adopted in Europe, and was likely to become a formidable rival to 
the colonial cane sugar industry. 

During the first decades following the revocation of the " Continental 
System," this competition was hardly noticeable. The sugar consumption 
in "Europe increased so rapidly that the beet sugar produced in European 
countries did not supply the increased demand, and in spite of its home produc- 
tion, rather more than less cane sugar was being imported into Europe. But the 
cane sugar industry was not restricted to the same place during the first part of 
the nineteenth century, and America practically lost the monopoly of the 
sugar importation into Europe, which had been hers during the eighteenth 
century. 

This was partly due to J:he aboHtion of slavery in most of the European 

18 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

colonies, and partly to the development of the cane sugar industry in other 
non-American countries, such as British India, Java, etc. Indeed, the first 
of these two causes had an exceptionally great influence on the cane sugar 
industry in the majority of cases,, and brought some of them to the verge of 
utter ruin. The sugar industry was so dependent upon slavery that the 
abolition of the latter jeopardized its existence, and it was not till some twenty 
or thirty years later that it became accustomed to the new state of affairs. 
Unfortunately, this transition period coincided with an aitiiicial and con- 
tinuous extension of the new beet sugar industry, which, supported by bounties 
and privileges, tried to supplant cane sugar everywhere ; consequently, the 
second half of the nineteenth century, especially the last fifteen years, was 
most unprofitable for the cane sugar producers. 

The long-planned abolition of slavery became in the period 1825 — 1850 
a settled fact in most of the colonies under European government, while the 
other colonies and republics set their negroes at liberty, either at that time or 
else a little later on. 

In 1776 the first motion for the abolition of slaves was submitted to the 
British Parliament, and in 1787 a society for the suppression of slavery 
Was founded in England, of which Wilberforce and Clai-kson were the ruhng 
spirits. The agitation against slavery was ever after persevered in, the result 
being that in 1807 a bill introduced by Lord Grenville was passed, pro- 
hibiting all further slave-trading in British territory. Those, however, who 
were slaves at that time remained so. On August i, 1834, the entire system 
of slavery in the British colonies and possessions was abolished ; the owners 
of the liberated slaves received an indemnification of ;^20,ooo,ooo, while, 
as a measure of transition, it was resolved that the quondam slaves should 
become apprentices of their former owners up till 1838 — and up till 1840 
in the case of agriculturists ; and that the slaves should not be free to go 
where they chose till after that time. The sum of £20,000,000 was divided 
among the West, Indian colonies, the Cape, and Mauritius — the first-mentioned 
receiving £16,500,000 sterling, while Mauritius and the Cape came in for the 
remainder. 

Although the indemnification was much appreciated, it could not buy 
back the labourers so necessary for the sugar industry. The liberated slaves, 
in many cases, refused to work, and in many of the islands they left the planta- 
tions in great numbers, in consequence of whicfx the necessary work could not 
be done, and the production of the British colonies in the We^t Indies dropped 
considerably, their sugar exportation decreasing from 17,000 tons to 8,000, 
On the other hand, the production of the other West Indian islands where 
slavery was still in full force increased, and in order to grant the British colonies 
some compensation a special import duty was placed on sugar produced in 
countries where slaves were still kept. But in 1846 this difference in prices 
was much reduced, to be entirely done away with in 1848, from which time 

19 1: 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

onwards sugar was admitted to England on the same terms, whether imported 
from colonies where slaves were still at work, or from those where the work 
was done by other labourers. 

Slavery was abolished in the French colonies in 1848, at the time of the 
Second Republic ; in the Dutch West Indian colonies in 1863 ; in Porto 
Rico in 1873 ; in St. Thomas in 1876 ; while in Cuba not until 1880. The 
different states of the American continent likewise eventually abolished slavery, 
this leading to a turning point in the sugar production of these countries. 
Since slavery had n^ver been of much consequence, either in Asia or Australia, 
the sugar production there gradually developed and filled the gap caused by 
a decrease in American production. 

Though there was a decrease in the number of labourers, the cane sugar 
industry did not all at once dwindle. Fields once planted with the cane sugar, 
as a rule yield year after year crops which only gradually diminish in quantity. 

At the time of the abolition the fields had been planted and cared for, 
while the roads and dykes were in a sound condition, so that during the follow- 
ing years nothing needed to be done but harvesting the crop. Later on, 
however, some necessary steps were omitted, -old exhausted plots which were 
ready for ploughing-up, and which ought to have been planted anew, were 
kept in constant cultivation for want of labourers, and consequently yielded 
poor harvests. The roads, reservoirs and dykes gradually got into a bad state, 
through not being kept in repair, while both cultivation and manufacture 
were little improved. 

Attempts were certainly made to supply the want of labour by the impor- 
tation of indentured coolies fronv other parts, for which Chinese, free negroes 
and British Indians were chosen ; but in most cases the supply was too expensive 
and of too little avail to fill up so great a deficit of labour. Even in colonies 
such as Demerara and Trinidad, where the immigration of British Indians 
has given comparatively the best results, the amount of available labour is 
not sufficient to do the same amount of excavation and dyke building which, 
in the times of slavery, had been done with much more primitive implements 
than those that are now at our disposal. 

The same fact was noticeable all over America and in the African islands. 
Both the British West Indian islands, as well as Surinam, Demerara, Cuba, 
Brazil, Louisiana, Peru, Mauritius, Reunion, etc., suffered from lack of labour 
and before one had got used to this new state of affairs, and had learned how 
to do the work with a limited labour supply, the cane .sugar industry in ihe 
emancipated countries had an anxious time of it. In some countries they 
imported labour ; in others they either divided up the plantations into smaller 
plots, which lower class planters had to work, or sold the plantations piece- 
meal ; in short, all sorts of means were tried, but during this time of difficulty 
the cane sugar industry could not properly develop, and was left far behind 

20 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

by its reviving competitor, the beet sugar industry, as is shown by the following 
table of the world's sugar production from 1852 to 1903* : — 






Tons. 


Tons. 


Tons. 




1852/53 


202,810 


1,260,404 


(^ 1,463,214";^ 


86-0 


1859/60 


451.584 


1,340,980 


1,792,564 


74-3 


1864/65, 


529,793 


1,446,934 


1,996,727 


73-5 


1869/70 


846,422 


1.740,793 


2,586,915 


67-3 


1874/75 


1,302,999 


1,903,222 


3,206,221 


59-4 


1880/81 


1,820,734 


2,027,052 


3.847.786 


1 52-7 


1883/84 


2,485,300 


2,210,000 


4,695,300 


47-0 


1884/85 


2,679,400 


2,225,000 


4,904,400 


45-4 


1885/86 


2,172,200 


2,300,000 


4,472,200 


51-4 


1886/87 


2,686,700 


i!, 400, 000 


5,086,700 


47-1 


:887/88 


2,367,200 


2,541,000 


4,908,200 


51-7 


1888/89 


3-555.900 


2,359,000 


(:;;^,9I4,900 , 


40'0 


1889/90 


3.536,700 


2,138,000 


5,674,700 


37-7 


1890/91 


3,679,800 


2,597,000 


6,276,800 


41-2 


1891/92 


3,480,800 


3,501,900 


6,982,700 


51-6 


1892/93 


3,380,700 


3,040,500 


6,421,200 


47-3 


1893/94 


3.833.000 


3,561,000 


7,394.000 


48-2 


1894/95 


4,725,800 


3.531.400 


8,257,200 


42-7 


1895/96 


4,220,500 


2,839,500 


7,160,000 


39-6 


1896/97 


4,801,500 


2,841,900 


7,643,400 


372 


1897/98 


4,695,300 


2,868,900 


7,564,200 


38-0 


1898/99 


4,689,600 


2,995,400 


7,785,000 


38-5 


1899/00 


5,410,900 


2,880,900 


8,291,800 


34-7 


1900/01 


5,943.700 


3,646,000 


9,589,700 


38-0 


1901/02 


6,800,500 


4,079,000 


10,880,500 


37-5 


1902/03 


5,208,700 


4,163,900 


9,372,600 


44.4 



fiut that the cane sugar industry was eclipsed by the more recent beet 
sugar industry was not altogether due to the abolition of slaves, nor to want 
of interest or enterprise among the owners ; other causes contributed to it, 
which are of so much account in the history of the cane sugar industry during 
the latter half of the nineteenth century and the first years of the twentieth, 
that we shall deal with them more fully here. 

When about 1830 the sugar industry in Germany began to revive after 
its decline at Napoleon's fall, foreign sugar was much more heavily taxed 

* Very varying figures as regards the total cane sugar harvest are repeatedly met with, 
and these can only be explained by the fact that sometimes the total production of a country 
is given and sometimes only its export. This is clearly shqwn by the fact that British 
India, which produces over 2,000,000 tons of sugar does not appear on the older statistical 
lists, while every beet sugar producing country is mentioned for its full production without 
deducting what is used for its own consumption. 

21 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

than inland produce, so that gradually inland sugar was exclusively used, 
a nd the revenue from sugar duties became less and less. Since this loss was 
made up for by an increase in the duty on home-grown_ sugar, colonial sugar 
was no longer at such a great disadvantage. But the latter became scarce, 
and the quantity of sug ar produce d at home so much exceeded the amotint 
r equired for the German consumption that it became even possible to export 
sugar. T he basis for the levying of the duty on beet sugar was a combination 
of the weight of the roots, and their assumed rendiment of sugar, which latter 
might have been exact at the outset, but which, through an improved system 
of working in the factories, and especially through better raw material, gradually 
produced a much lower figure than was really the case. So the amount of 
sugar produced at the factories much exceeded the estimated quantity, and 
as the excess of weight was exempt from duty, although it fetched the full 
price plus excise when sold, the manufacturers enjoyed a considerable premium. 
When exported to other countries the duty was returned, but it was calculated 
according to the actual quantity exported, so that if a factory exported all 
its sugar, a much greater amount of excise was returned than was originally 
paid, in which case the premium would obviously have been paid by the 
Exchequer. As long as the export from Germany remained insignificant, 
this premium was of little consequence ; but the situation altered when, after 
1875-6, the export rapidly increased, as may be judged from the following 
table :— 



Year. 


Metric tons. 


Exportation per cent, 
on Production. 


1875/76 


56,121 


— 


1876/77 


60,354 


21-75 


1877/78 


96,778 


25-60 


1878/79 


138,077 


32-40 » 


1879/80 


134,486 


32-85 


1880/81 


283,904 


52-54 


1881/82 


314.410 


■ 52.43 


1882/83 


472,551 


56-58 


1883/84 


595>8i4 


63-38 


1884/85 


673.727 


59-99 



Through this exportation, and the restitution of excise only partly paid, 
the exporting manufacturers became the .richer, whereas the country got 
less and less of the excise money. The import duties on sugar, which used 
to amount to 12^ million marks in 1871-72-^and later on to 7 milhon — now 
only brought in i^ milHon marks. The home consumption increased from 

22 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

more than i200,ooo to about 400,000 metric tons. The duty on raw material 
in 1871-72 realized 36 million marks, in 1872-73 almost 51 millions, in 1873^4 
more than 56 millions, in 1884-85 as much as 166-4 millions. The restitution 
of excise," on the other hand, increased still more, that is from 3| miUions during 
the first years after 1870 to 96-3 and 128-5 milhons respectively during the 
periods 1882-83 and 1884-85. The ' remainder of import duty and excise 
which finally fell to th& Exchequer, after the drawbacks had been paid on 
exportation amounted to the following figures : — 



1881/82 


58,456,658 marks 


1882/83 ■ - • ■ ■ 


67,286,890 „ 


1883/84 


47,788,316 „ 


1884/85 


39,368,907 ,. 


1885/86 


24,500,000 


1886/87 


33,600,000 ,, 


1887/88 


14,670,000 



It goes without saying that such a state of affairs could not last, and 
that the Treasury could not possibly go on disbursing the amount of duty 
on home consumed sugar almost entirely on drawbacks on exported goods, so 
measures were taken to increase the excise, and to diminish the bonus on 
export which led to a more favourable difference for the Exchequer, but left 
the evil itself untouched. 

In Austria-Hungary duty was levied according to the size of the diffusers 
and the number of times they could be filled (not according to the number 
of times they actually were filled) . In order to gain as nTucf^Augar as possible 
above the " quota," the manufacturers tried their best to work with extremely 
small diffusers at an enormous rate, so that, though there may have been a 
little more sugar left in the slices, the profit on the untaxed sugar woyld be 
more than sufficient to cover twice or several times this loss. When sugar 
was exported the full amount of excise was returned, and that is why they 
exported as much sugar as they possibly could, so that in 1875-76 there was 
an excess of 135,556 florins paid as restitution of excise over and above the 
total amount received by the State. So the exporters received more in the way 
of a disguised export-bounty than the entire inland excise had amounted to. 

This, of course, was only the case with exports, hence everything was 
done to increase the amount. The surest way to attain that end was to lower 
the price at which sugar was sold to foreign countries ; consequently, the 
exporters did not pocket the premium in full, but gave part of it to foreign 
buyers to secure their custom, that it might end in their retaining the bounty. 
It was a good thing that just at this time of forced production and exporta- 
tion the daily consumption of sugar increased considerably, both in England 
and the United States, so that during the first years the surplus was entirely 

23 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

disposed of ; this state of affairs, however, did not last long, and was upset 
by the tremendous crisis of 1884-86, when the price fell to about half the 
former amount. 

France, during the second half of the nineteenth century, could boast 
of a considerable sugar export trade, and although she had to have recourse 
to foreign and colonial importation, which sugar was used as raw material 
in the Paris refineries for the famous French loaves, a considerable surplus 
for export was left, till, in the first years following 1880, .this surplus was super- 
seded by a deficit, the import exceeding the export trade, and soon surpassing 
the former surplys, Qwing to the slight difference between excise and import 
duty (the surtax), it, became even possible to import, with profit, German 
sugar into France. 

In 1883-84 no less than 125,000 metric tons of sugar were imported from 
abroad ; and their own produce and that from their colonies amounted to 
474,000 and 76,000 tons respectively, while the sugar for their own consumption 
amounted to only slightly over 400,000 tons ; but of the 125,000 tons of imported 
sugar, 47,000 came from Germany and 15,000 from Austria, and it was especially 
this invasion of German sugar, together with the sudden fall in price, that 
stirred up the hostile feeling of the French, who had not got over their defeat 
of 1870-71. All at once the surtax was increased to put an end to a further 
influx of foreign sugar, but as this did not appease the French, nor give them 
back their foimer export trade, disguised export bounties were resorted to. 

As a basis of taxation a certain rendemeni of sugar out of the beetroot 
was fixed, on which duty had to be paid ; the excess of product used to be 
exempted from taxation, but eventually became lightly taxed, when the 
Exchequer was too pressed to dispense with it. 

The fixed quantity of sugar to be obtained from beetroot, which formed 
the basis, was repeatfedly raised as circumstances required it, and the excess 
was at one time exempted from duty and then again lightly taxed, which 
regulation for a long time formed the standard according to which the French 
sugar was taxed. It goes without saying that owing to an improved system 
of manufacture in the factories and a better condition of raw material, the 
excess product was very often a considerable one, so that a handsome premium 
was allotted to the manufacturers, which gradually increased as more work 
was done and a better product turned out. This, of course, resulted in an 
unprecedented extension of the sugar industry, and also in the long-desired 
return of a sugar exportation trade. Urged on by these examples, each 
European beet sugar producing country drew up its legislation in such a manner 
that open and disguised bounties on sugar exported were allotted, and it 
was in their own interests that producers tried their very best to send as much 
sugar as possible to foreign markets, in order to secure the export premium. 
Consequently, the sugar production was unnaturally stimulated, so that the 
price of sugar fell at the end of 1883, much to the detriment of all countries 
concerned. 

24 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

This lowering of prices, on the whole, affected the cane sugar industry 
much more than that of beet sugar, because the latter was more in touch 
with the interests of the European market, and the parties concerned in all 
European countries knew how to obtain the support of their governments, 
whereas those interested in the colonial industry hardly had a say in the matter. 

The respective European governments were rather anxious to get rid 
of these once approved bounties, and when, in 1886, Lord Salisbury convened 
a meeting in London, in order to agree to a general abrogation of the bounties, 
which would have been most beneficial to the colonial sugar industry, the 
realization of this prospect seemid a not unlikely contingency. 

While the smaller countries, as well as Austria and Germany, agreed 'to 
the gradual abolition of bounties, France, on the contrary, having just adopted 
as basis for its taxation scheme the Meline system — which was based on the 
exemption of excedents — was opposed to this plan. For the rest, the British 
consumers were greatly pleased with the existing state of affairs, and did not 
think it wise to interfere for the sake of their colonies. Great Biitain, which 
was not a sugar-producing country though a great consumer of sugar, was 
doubtless the very best market for sugar exported by the principal producing 
countries ; and, being compelled to dispose of their produce abroad, the 
exporters offered their goods to the British market even below cost price, 
just for the sake of the bounties held out to them. Owing to the rivalry among 
the continental producers, the British consumers, especially the preserve manu- 
facturers who were in the habit of using enormous quantities of sugar, got 
as much sugar as they wanted at a price at which it was impossible for them 
to produce it themselves. One can imagine that they wished this advantageous, 
though abnormal, condition to continue, and that they did not approve of 
measures put forward by their own Government to put an end to the system 
for the sake of the West Indian colonists. Both through their own opposition 
and through that of France, the London Conference resulted in nothing, and 
things remained as they were, in spite of an unnatural production and many 
defects. 

To put an end to the fact that the return of the excise swallowed up a 
substantial part, if not the whole, of the revenue and left little or nothing 
for the Exchequer, a duty was levied on sugar consumed in Germany from 
which the sugar for export was exempted, so that there was no need to give 
restitution ; at the same time finished product instead of raw material was 
being taxed. 

This kind of excise was something one could rely upon, and amounted 
to 40 or 50 million marks for the whole empire, a small sum considering the 
enormous consumption. The amount of excise levied, however, on raw material 
was absorbed by the excise restitution on exports, which, because of the new 
system rather increased, the country itself thus deriving little benefit from the 
several kinds of taxation. 

In 1890 the German Government made up its mind to strip the sugar 

25 



General History of the Carte Sugar Industry. 

industry of all its privileges, in order to swell the Exchequer with 'the full 
amount of taxation. A new law was adopted, and it was resolved that from 
1895 all bounties should be stopped, but a fixed export bounty in money 
should be allotted by way of transition, as had been done in Austria, when 
some time ago they had adopted the finished product instead of the raw material 
as basis for taxation.' In 1891 a law was brought into foirce according to which 
a direct export bounty was granted, amounting to 1-25 marks per loq kg. 
of raw and refined sugar up to 98° polarization, arid to 2 marks per 100 kg. 
of sugar of at least 99!°. In 1895 these bounties were to be reduced, to 
be entirely done away with in 1897, so that by that time all export bounties 
on sugar were to be a thing of the past. 

Unfortunately, at this very time a griculture we nt through a crisis, in 
consequence of large supplies of American cereals being e xported at such a low 
price that European competition was killed for the time being. It became 
necessary to find a substitute for corn, and as beetr oot was th e very thing 
to take its pl ace, the lowering of corn prices necessarily led to a further exten- 
"■ sion of the beet sugar cultivation. This in its turn was followed by an unpre- 
cedented fall in sugar prices, compared with which that of 1884 was a mere 
trifle^ 

In these circumstances the German Government could not possibly pass 
any rrieasure to lower, much less to abolish, the bounties, all the more as none 
of the other countries seemed inclined to follow their exainple ; this latter 
attitude may be looked upon as a sure sign that a decrease in German exporta- 
tion would mean an extension of the export trade of other countries, without 
leading to any improvement generally. At the' request of the farmers, the 
proposed restriction in output of 1895 was deferred, and through the so-called 
" Antrag Paasche " it was doubled, so that the export bounty was raised to 
2-50 marks per 100 kg. for raw sugar and 3-55 marks per 100 kg. for refined 
sugar. This heavy bounty, called a " Kampfpramie," Was meant to favour 
the export gugar still more, and consequently to compete with that of other 
countries in the hopes of leaving Germany finally in full possession of the 
trade. It was also meant to send up the cost so considerably that it would 
become impossible for any country to go one better, and in this way they 
would be obliged by co-operation to abolish bounties altogether. The result 
was quite different from what was expected, for instead of forcing them to 
give in, the raising of the German bounties induced their rivals to follow their 
example, and raise their own bounties by a similar amount ; so that eight 
months after the German law was enacted nothing had been gained, only 
a greater amount of inoney was withheld from the Exchequer of the producing 
countries, to be bestowed on foreign consumers, or even on the Exchequers 
of foreign countries. 

In 1897 the United States raised, besides a fixed duty, an extra tax on 
sugar ; this extra taxation was aimed at the bounty System, and corresponded 
with the bounties in amount, all the moriey derived from bounties allotted 

26 



General' History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

by the governments of the several European countries thus going to swell 
the Treasury of the United States, an example which British India imitdted 
some two years later. 

The Austrian and Germari producers, apart from the profit ma.de by 
the export bounties, which was greatly reduced by the low price sugar fetched 
in the world's markets, enjoyed an extra profit by the introduction of the 
so-called " Cartel " (or " Kartell "), in imitation of the Russian Normirovka. 

The Russian Government fixes the quantity' of sugar required every 
year for inland consumption, which quantity may be sold by the manufacturers 
as their contingent. Next, the amount of sugar to be kept in reserve, and 
to be sold when the price exceeds the amount stipulated by the Government 
Committee (that is 4-30 roubles per pood in winter, or 4-45 roubles in summer) 
is fixed. If the production exceeds the quantities destined for home con- 
sumption and reserve, sugar may be exported, in which case the exporter 
gets the duty at the rate of 175 roubles per pood returned, or is allowed to 
sell the remainder in his own country ; but the duty in this case is doubled, 
and consequently amounts to 3-5d roubles per pood. If it comes to this, 
exportation becomes much more profitable, and as the fixed price is rather 
high for the interior, one can easily afford to lose on the export and sell sugar 
more cheaply, without running the risk of loss. There is another inducement 
for the manufacturers to produce much sugar, namely, the stipulation that 
the contingent in the profitable inland sugar market shall increase as the 
total produce of the factory becomes more, for which reason also a large 
production yields a greater profit. All th ese are reasons for providing the 
foreign markets with cheaper sugar, at the expense of the home consumer , 
t hough the manufacturer profits by it. Perhaps this was simply done for 
the purpose of keeping the sugar prices at hoine at one level, and of enabling 
the producers to supply the home market without being dependent on inter- 
national suppUes, and not for the purpose of extending the sugar exportation. 
It, however, had that result ; and an import duty of 3 roubles gold per pood 
(which put an end to the importation of foreign sugar, and made abnormally 
high prices at home possible) greatly contributed to this. 

All this system was brought about in Russia by government interference, 
whereas in Germany and Austria the co-operation of manufacturers achieved 
the same results. As early as 1890 the Austrian refiners had formed a Con- 
federation or Cartel, in order to exploit the high surtaxes, by bringing for 
the time being the production of refined sugar in line with the consumption. 
Later on the contingent of sugar to be taken to the home market was fixed 
for every refinery belonging to the Cartel. But owing to the lowering of 
prices, and the promotion of other competing refineries, the temptation to 
sell more than was stipulated proved to be too much for them, so that in 1894 
the first Cartel was dissolved. 

In 1898 a new association consisting of manufacturers and refiners was 
founded, their principal stipulation being that the raw sugar manufacturers 

27 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

were only to sell their product to refiners who belonged to the Cajtel ; that 
as regards their contingent in the home sugar trade they were not allowed to 
sell white sugar, while as regards the sale of the remainder to markets abroad, 
they could please themselves. The supply of refined sugar for the home market 
was contingented amongst the refiners, in return for which privilege they 
had to allow a fixed price of 30 kronen per 100 kg. of raw sugar, the market price 
of which was paid by the buyer and the difference by the Cartel, which ob- 
tained the funds by simply raising the price of white sugar at home. Should the 
Cartel be the only, seller, and the importation of foreign sugar become impossible 
on account of the high surtax (the difference between taxes levied on imported 
and inland sugar), the consumers would have to approve of these prices, and 
pay- them as. long as the difference between the world's price and the price , 
fixed by the Cartel was lower than the surtax^ 

This profit was turned into a fund, through which the parties concerned 
who had not yet acceded were brought into line, either by a temporary lowering 
of prices when a factory was about to produce white sugar, or by buying up 
shares in the recalcitrant enterprises. The remainder was used for paying 
the difference between the market price (with 22 kronen as minimum) and 
30 kronen, while what was then left fell to the refiners as Cartel profit. 

The share in the profit for the raw sugar manufacturers amounted to : — 

16,200,000 kronen in 1897/98 
15,100,000 ,, ,, 1898/99 
15.700,000 ,, ,, 1899/1900 
20,600,000 ,, „ 1900/01 

The Cartel profit for raw sugar manufacturers and refiners, is calculated 
per 100 kg. refined sugar, which is taken to equal no kg. raw sugar, as follows : — 

Price of refined sugar for the interior per 100 kg. . . . . kr. 85-00 

Raw sugar no kg. at kronen 22 . . . kr. 24-2 

Refining cost and profit . . . . . -, 7'56 

Excise . . . . . . . . ,, 38-00 

„ 69-76 



Nett profit of Cartel . . . . . . . . kr. 15-24 

With a market price of 22 kronen so much is added that the 
fixed price of kronen 30 is arrived at ; consequently no kg. 
at kronen 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,, 8-So 



Leaving a nett Cartel profit for the refiners of . . . . . kr. 6-44 

Whenever the raw sugar manufacturers receive 8-8o kronen, the refiner's 
share in the entire Cartel profit amounts to 6-44 kronen, from which, of course, 
the expenses, sometimes rather high, are not deducted. 

28 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

Chiefly in imitation of Austria, Germany also founded a Cartel, which 
fixed 1275 marks as minimum fixed price per 50 kg. : that is, exactly the same 
as in Austria. The Cartel again pays to the raw sugar manufacturers the 
difference between the market price and the fixed price, together with the 
10 per cent, extra for the reduction of raw sugar to its equivalent of refined 
sugar, like as in Austria no parts of raw sugar = 100 parts of refined. 

If, for instance, the price of raw sugar in Magdeburg is io-6o marks per 
50 kg., the Cartel pays to the combined raw sugar factories for each 50 kg. 
sugar leaving the refineries : 1275 — io-6o=2-i54-io per cent == 2-36 ; this 
has to be divided among the raw sugar factories according to their contingent. 
Suppose that price should continue for a year, and the consumption amount 
to 13,500,000 quintals of 50 kg., then the sum to be divided among the com- 
bined raw sugar manufacturers would be 31,927,500 marks ; and should the 
entire production have come up to 37,000,000 quintals, the German raw sugar 
manufacturers would receive — as Cartel profit — a premium of 85 pf. per 
quintal of 50 kg. on their whole production as long as they did not exceed 
their contingents. 

The disguised as well as the open bounties absorbed each year such an 
amount of money that every country suffered from them, and desired most 
fervently to see them abolished. It is impossible to ouote the exact amount, 
as in some cases a specially low railwav tariff or a conveyance by sub -^irliy.prl 
steamers was considered as a bounty . This made the United States alter 
the amount of the countervailing duties continually, so as to correspond with 
that of the bounty. At first, for instance, the contingenting of Russia sugar 
was not looked upon as a disguised premium in the United States, and, con- 
sequently, no countervailing dutj' was levied on it, while the same sugar when 
imported into British India, where such taxes were also levied, was taxed 
extra at Rs. 3.11.0 per cwt., afterwards reduced to Rs. 2.7.4. per cwt. for 
refined sugar. Later on, America started to tax Russian sugar heavily ; and 
the following table shows how much was to be paid as additional duty on 
European sugar when imported into the United States, according to the 
decree of 12th December, 1898 : — 

per lb. 

refined 



Austria-Hungary 


0-252 cents 


Denmark 


0-136 ,, 


France . . 


0-978 ,, 


Germany 


0-270 


The Netherlands 


0-322 


Russia . . 


0-627 ,, 



Raw sugar was meant when not otherwise specified. Although not all 
the data were given which made alterations repeatedly necessary, this table 
shows the amount at which bounties were fixed, and the heavy tax they levied 
on the producing countries. 

29 



General History of the Cane Suga.i: Industry. 

To receive a much-coveted article below cost price was very welcome 
to the countries to which the sugar was destined, and it must seem strange 
that the governments of these very countries should insist on putting an end 
to that state of affairs, while, oil the other, hand, countries which spent most 
on the bounties opposed the proposed change with all their might. 

Let us, therefore, first see what happened in the countries to which sugar 
wcis exported. 

In the United States there had long been 'an endeavour to produce as, 
much sugar as, would supply their own wants, and that is why nothing was 
left undone to improve the beet sugar cultivation, and to obtain sugar from 
sorghum and m£.ple, as well as cane. The maple sugar industry did not pro- 
gress much, while people were greatly disappointed in sorghum cultivation. 
In the south the cane sugar industry slightly increased, although its production^ 
of about 250,000 tons in 1900 did not greatly exceed that of 1890 — which 
r.mount could not possibly supply their enormous wants. In 1875 a reciprocity 
treaty with Hawaii was signed, in -vVhich exemption of import duty was mutually 
granted, so that Hawaiian sugar could enter America free of taxation. The 
duty on imported raw sugar was not high at that time, but was ultimately 
abolished by the McKinley tariff, after having been repeatedly lowered. In 
order to satisfy the manufacturers at home, a premium of 2 cents, per lb. was 
promised on sugar manufactured in America ; but Hawaii, not belonging 
to the United States, was out of it. This premium, however, soon appeared 
to be too much for the Treasury, so that as early as 1894 the Wilson tariff 
fixed the import duty at 40 per cent, of the value, with an extra duty of o.i 
per cent, per lb. for bounty-fed sugar. The reinstitution of this duty had 
a twofold result : first, it got rid of the payment of bounties ; secondly, it 
secured a better revenue to the Treasury. As the prices fell considerably just 
at that time, the revenue was not great, while a general lowering of the prices 
of corn and cotton was to be feared ; this all led to a strong wish for the exten- 
sion of their sugar cultivation. 

The result was a general tendency in favour of the raising of the import 
duty, which was expressed by the Dingley tariff of 1897, with its import duty 
of 0-95 to 1-825 cents per lb. of raw sugar, and 1-95 cents per lb. of refined. 

In spite of. all these duties, the Hawaiian sugar came in freely : first, 
because of its reciprocal treaty ; and later on, after 1898, through the annexa- 
tion of the Hawaiian Islands, in virtue of which all the privileges of the sugar 
grown in the States were enjoyed. This was not the case with sugar from Cuba, 
Porto Rico, and the Philippines, which counties had also come under the rule 
of America, out were not treated in quite the same way as their own producers 
as regards sugar importation. It was nothing new to see the Hawaiian Islands 
so highly favoured ; this really dated from a time when the United States 
produced little sugar herself, and thought an increased sugar importation 
from these islands rather expedient for her own wants. After a struggle it 

30 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry, 

was deci ded to levy 15 per cent, of the value of the Dingley tariff on Porto 
Rican sugar, but in igpi the importation from that island entered altogethe r 
free of duty. 

On Cuban sugar a reduction of 20 per cent, qi the import duty was allowed, 
and on Philippine sugar a reduction of 25 per cent., so that the several parties 
in America were satisfied. 

The Dingley tariff was responsible for another new measure exclusively 
directed against the European continent, which was to the effect that over and 
above the fixed duty an additional duty would be raised on all bounty-fed 
sugar, to an amount corresponding with that of the bounty ; hence, the bounty 
allotted by any European government on the exportation of white sugar 
to America was gladly accepted by the Customs of the United States, without 
its having been of any use to the country which had issued the bounty, 

That the bounties were not abolished till five years later shows the mutual 
feelings of jealousy which existed between the European States. 

The cane sugar industry likewise suffered during the struggle between 
the beet sugar producing countries just mentioned. That it was not altogether 
ruined is due to the fact that the producers could not think of any article that 
was a little more profitable, so that they were obliged to stick to this kind 
of siigar, however hard they were put to it to make ends meet. 

The British West Indian Islands were the worst off of all, and their in- 
habitants continually asked the mother-country for help and support. 

When Joseph Chamberlain, in 1895, became Colonial Secretary, one of 
his first acts was to appoint a Royal Commission on the West Indies, which, 
in January, 1897, began its inquiries and published the results in a full report 
the same year. 

The facts elucidated were much more serious than had been expected. 
Through their isolation the islands were marked out for sugar production 
only, and as the price of sugar went down at such a rate that it could only 
be produced at a loss, their condition became deplorable and ruin imminent. 
The Commission proposed, firstly, to establish agriculture on a small scale 
by letting out small plots of land to negroes and coolies, and so encourage 
them to grow other crops than cane ; secondly, to improve the means of con- 
veyance between the islands, and so lead to a better export trade in fruit to 
New York and London ; and, finally, to borrow the necessary funds for the 
foundation of central factories. The cost was estimated at a lump sum of 
£90,000, besides a yearly sum of ;f 27,000 for ten years, and of £20,000 during, 
the next five years. 

This report of the Commission gave rise to much controversy, and 
it was clearly not only sympathy with the population of a part of the empire 
that counted in the matter. The West Indian Islands are close to North 
America, and are, no doubt, favourably situated as regards trade facilities 
with the States. As they are British colonies', their produce is so heavily 
taxed on entering the States that competition is out of the question. No 

31 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

wonder, then, that the West Indian planters have often wished to be American 
citizens, that their distress might come to an end. The United States, if it 
were so incUned, could easily persuade the British colonies to join the Union, 
and that is partly what the British Government wished to prevent. 

Consequently, Chamberlain declared himself wiUing to make any sacrifice, 
and even to exceed the amount proposed by the Commission. In 1898 subsidies 
were granted, which soon proved inadequate to bring about permanent changes 
for the better, as the capitalists, warned by the bad reports as to a steady 
decline in the islands, shrank from further risking their money, and the local 
governments economized on what they could — all of which made matters' 
worse. 

British India, too, had come to its turning point. The sugar cultivation 
in that country must be considered as a branch of native industry, and each 
village produces a sufficient quantity of sugar to supply its own wants, which 
sugar the Hindus and Mahommedans preferred to the cheaper imported brands, 
because they thought the latter were prepared with the aid of animal blood, or 
charcoal from oxen or pigs' bones, a product they were not allowed to use. 

Refined sugar was comparatively little used in the huge Indian Empire ; 
the few refineries which refined the jaggery or sugar imported from the neigh- 
bouring countries, including the supplies of white sugar from Mauritius, were 
aU they wished for. White sugar from Europe, however, was offered at such 
low prices and of such good quality that the native confectioners and manu- 
facturers of sweets and sorbets dropped their religious scruples, and, without 
mentioning it to their customers, began to use more and more refined sugar, 
often mixed with the ordinary home-made sugar for fear of being found out. 
This, of course, led to a considerable importation of cheap refined sugar, 
while most of the inland and Mauritius sugar did not find buyers, much to the 
detriment of Indian refiners. Although the discontent of the big refiners could 
not bring the Government to take measures on their behalf, the distress of 
the inland producers finally induced the Government to act. These sold 
their produce, on which money had been advanced, to the many sugar bakeries, 
but as the latter had still sugar left over from the preceding harvest, they 
preferred to use it up first, instead of advancing money again. The second- 
rate agriculturist in India (who had gone through many a time of famine and 
epidemic, and only a short time ago had survived the invention of artificial 
indigo, and the discovery of huge sources of petroleum which had deprived 
him of a considerable means of income derived from his indigo and oil-seed 
plantations) could not possibly afford a further retrenchment, and' it was almost 
certain that the payment of taxes would soon become an impossibility, and 
thus affect the revenue of the State. 

Besides this, the Mauritius planters complained of the invasion of Euro- 
pean refined sugar into India. This unfortunate island had suffered much 

32. 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

from great drought, hurricanes, pestilence and cattle-plague, and had hardly 
known how to bear up under it. As Australia no longer bought their produce, 
their sugar went chiefly to India, but this source of demand also was threatened 
with extinction, in which case South Africa cquld be their only market. 

Both in India and in Mauritius there was a great desire for levying counter- 
vailing duties in the first-mentioned country, as was done in America. This 
wish was soon complied with, thanks to Chamberlain's influence, so that at the 
beginning of 1899 the resolution for enforcing these taxes was passed, and 
immediately became law. 

Yet the law did not answer the purpose, for much European refined sugar 
was still imported, especially from Austria and Germany, as the producers 
from these countries still made enough profit by their Cartels to bear the in- 
creased taxation. 

However, in 1903, a new special duty was levied on the two kinds of 
sugar, a duty covering the actual Cartel profit, and quoted at Rs. 3.3.9 per 
cwt. Austrian sugar, and at Rs. 2.13.9 per cwt. German sugar. This fresh 
taxation, of course, prevented aU further importation of these kinds of sugar. 

The increase of the German bounties in 1897 had not resulted exactly 
as anticipated, viz., in making matters so much worse that the condition might 
become unbearable to others. On the contrary, it had led to an ever-increasing 
amount of sugar being exported and a regular swelling of foreign Exchequers, 
without restricting them in any way as regards their exchange of other goods. 

Much against their wish, however, the representatives had been obliged 
to agree to a further increase in the bounties ; but every now and then they 
expressed the wish to abolish the bounties by general agree^nent ; the respec- 
tive governments had already the right to reduce them as soon as occasion 
offered itself. 

When they were busy increasing the bounties, the Austrian and German 
Governments by mutual agreement sounded France as to the possibility 
of an entire and simultaneous abolition of all the bounties. It was France's 
wish only to do away with the direct bounties, leaving the indirect ones, which 
lay in the untaxed excedent, untouched. 

That the United States looked upon the indirect bounties as genuine 
ones, and not as affairs of internal administration, is proved by the fact that 
in Washington the German bounty was considered to be 2-40 marks, the 
Austrian 2-47 kronen, and the French I0'82 francs. Should England, as had 
been repeatedly suggested, adopt the levying of countervailing duties, France 
would suffer from it, so that she was wise to give in, in case the com- 
peting nations should make a start at taking their international agreements 
seriously. 

33 c 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

This proved to be so, when in 1898, at the invitation of the Belgian Govern- 
ment, a conference was held in Brussels, where Germany, Austria, Belgium, 
Great Britain, the Netherlands, France, Russia, Spain, and Sweden were 
represented. France, however, had demanded that the inland excise affairs 
should not be discussed, while the other countries set up as a taxation basis 
the quantity of sugar actually produced, so that a disguised bounty like that 
of the French could not possibly exist any longer. As regards this difference 
in opinion, neither party could gain its own, and on June i, 1898, the Conference 
was adjouraed, it being left with Belgium to summon the members again 
as soon as the preliminary negotiations, which would take place under' Bel- 
gium's mediation, had gone so far that unanimity would be possible. 

As we mentioned before, in 1899 British India, strongly influenced by 
the British Government, had levied countervailing duties, which were taken 
all round as a hint of what the mother-country could do too, when conferences 
were of no avail. It was not unexpected, as the government measures in 
the West Indies had led to nothing, and also as the British Government, which 
in its war in South Africa wanted the support of the colonies badly, would do 
anything to please them. After much negotiation, another conference was 
held in December, 1901, in Brussels, but things had changed in the meantime. 

The German and the Austrian sugar Cartels had been much discussed, 
and it had been proved that the high surtax enabled the Germans and 
Austrians to jsret such high prices in their own market, even when the direct 
bounties were abolished, that their overproduction became excessive, and 
t heir large exports forced down prices in outside markets. Belgium and Great 
Britain therefore insisted on a considerable decrease in the surtax to the extent 
that, though foreign sugar might be kept ou t of the country, it woul d not leave 
enough margin to make the formation of Cartels profitable. Austria and 
Germany did not approve of this, and it looked as if the conference would 
again prove abortive, when the British Government declared that should this 
conference result in nothing, they would lay before Parliament a proposal 
either to prohibit bounty-fed sugar altogether, or to take other me9,sures, and 
they pointed out how in British India a measure had already been considered 
to the effect that an extra duty on Gerjnan and Austrian sugar would be levied, 
to an amount equal to that of the Cartel profit. 

This declaration put an end to, all, opposition, and on 5th March, 1902, 
the Convention was signed by the representatives of Germany, Austria, Bel- 
gium, Spain, France, Great Britain, Italy, The Netherlands, .Sweden, and 
Norway. The Convention, which may be found in .extenso in Appendix I, 
was to the following effect : — 

The countries agreeing to the Convention pledged their word to abolish 
all direct or indirect bounties on the production or exportation of sugar from 
the date of issue, and not to grant new ones during the term of the Convention. 

34 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

Ihe sugar factories, refineries, and factories where molasses are separated out, 
will be considered bonded warehouses, and be superintended by Custom-house 
officers. 

The maximum surtax or difference between import duty and excise is 
to amount to 6 francs per loo kg. of refined sugar, and 5 50 francs per 100 kg. 
of raw sugar. All sugar coming from countries where bounties are granted 
on the production or exportation of sugar is to be specially taxed, the extra 
duty to be not less than what the bounty amounts to. At the same time, any 
country will have the right to prohibit the importation of such kind of sugar. 
The countries joining the Convention pledged themselves to allow each other's 
own colonial sugar to enter at the lowest import duty when premiums are 
not granted. Spain, Italy, and Sweden might do as they liked as regards 
their sugar legislature, as long as they do not export any sugar, but agree to 
modify their laws within a year according to the spirit of the Convention, 
as soon as the Permanent Committee can prove that they export sugar. The 
Convention was enforced on the ist of September, 1903, and was to remain 
in force for five years. Unless notice was given by one of the participants 
within twelve months before the date of expiration, the Convention was im- 
plicitly understood to be prolonged for another year. 

Moreover, a Permanent Commission was appointed, whose duty it was 
to see that none of the contracting countries granted bounties ; and, if granted 
in other countries, to ascertain to what extent they were given in order to 
fix the sura to be levied, as an extra import duty by the Convention countries. 
These sums are now an4 then made known, and the most recent list of them 
is to be found in Appendix II. 

Thus, after a lengthy struggle, the die was cast, and the bounty system 
abolished : and, strange to say, through the help of the country that durin g 
the last years preceding the Convention had enjoyed exceptional profits. 
simply ow ing t o the fact that the sugar- was sold in their market below cost 
price. O ne .can easily imagine that the wholesale sugar consumers in England — 
such as jam, biscuit and chocolate manufacturers — were not pleased with 
this, change in affairs, and that at the following electioij the sugar policy of 
the government was used as a weapon against them. In igo5 the Conservatives 
were turned out of power, and as the Liberal Government enjoyed the support 
of the opponents of the Convention, it was thought necessary to comply with 
their wishes. On 6th June, 1907, the Foreign Secretary informed the Per- 
manent Com mittee that he considered the r estriction of the sugar importation 
i ncompatib le with his policy and with t he interests of the English consumers 
and manu facturers, so that he could not continue taxing those kinds of sugar 
he avily which were declared to be bounty-fed . As long as the other contract- 
ing countries would not interfere with Great Britain's policy of not increasing 
the duties on these bountied sugars. His Majesty's government would be pleased 

35 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

to continue as a participant in the thus modified Convention ; but should they 
in this case consider England as no longer belonging to the Convention, she 
would be only too pleased to withdraw. 

Although the Convention had ceased to answer its original purpose, the 
contracting countries, which were joined by Peru, Switzerland, and Luxem- 
burg, were so satisfied with its results that they did not wish to have them 
put an end to by a possible dissolution, and that is why, on 28th August, 1907, 
they agreed to prolonging the Convention for another five years, to begin on 
iSt September, T908. Their conditions would remain the same, with the 
one exception that Great Britain should be exempted from the obligation 
laid down in Art. 4 of the Convention, namely, that an extra duty amounting 
at least to the bounty money was to be levied on bounty-fed sugar when im- 
ported into Convention countries. 

Russia, too, joined the Convention in September, 1908, under the reser- 
vation that she should not have to alter her fiscal legislature and her present 
excise regulations, nor increase the profits to be gained by the sugar manu- 
facturers from the way in which the selling price at home should be fixed. 
On the other hand, Russia pledged herself not to export more than 1,000,000 
tons during the next five years to countries other than Finland, Persia, and 
the remaining neighbouring Asiatic countries which could be reached by 
land ; this restriction was enforced on ist September, 1907. 

The thus modified Convention was prolonged to September, 1913, by 
agreement on the part of all the contracting countries, and on the 15th March, 
igi2, was again extended till 31st August, 1918, on almost the same terms 
as the 1908 Convention, the difference being that Russia was allowed to 
export 1,650,000 tons in the, seven years between September ist, 1911, and 
August 31st, 1918, 

T he Convention put an end to all pre ssure on the part of the sugar manu- 
factu r ers to export sugar at any price, a nd many a government availed itself 
of the fact that an export bounty need no longer be levied to lower the inland 
sugar excise ; Germany, France, and Belgium reduced theirs considerably, 
i n consequence" of "which the coiTsum ptibn price went down at such a rate 
"and so "much more stigar wa s used that the total amount of excise had soon 
risen again to what it used to be, and in some cases actuaHjTsurpassed the 
old figure. '^ ~ ""' 



The increased home consumption, of course, reduced the desire for exporta- 
tion, so that both the measures taken in the leading European sugar producing 
countries, i.e., the enforcing of the Convention and the excise reduction, limited 
the exportation of cheap sugar to the foreign and especially British markets. 

This result was most favourable to the cane sugar industry, in the first 
place because sugar was no longer being exported below its prime cost ; and, 
secondly, because the whole trade had got on a firmer footing. During the 

36 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

conflict among the European powers as regards the sugar exportation, one was ; 
never sure of what measures were to be taken next to promote the exports ' 
of one country or other, and of their influence on the sugar prices. This was 
the reason why people did not wish to risk their money and interests in the 
cane sugar industry of those countries which did not enjoy bounties, nor to 
sink money in ultra-radical improvements which might prove to be a failure 
on account of the world's price having been lowered in the meantime. 

But people were set at ease after the Convention had come into force, 
and they were certain that the European powers had abolished all their bounty 
systems, and did not entertain the slightest wish to re-introduce them. Every- 
where factories were re-installed and new enterprises set on foot, so that from 
ist September, 1903, a new period began for the cane sugar industry. 

The hard times this industry has experienced have not been without 
a beneficial result, inasmuch as the planters and owners had been taught 
how to be prepared for a struggle. 

Up to 1880 the cane sugar industry had been carried on in haphazard 
style, both economically and technically. Most of the owners of the sugar 
factories lived well up to the income accruing from their possessions, and 
did not invest much money on improving conditions ; in fact, as a rule, they 
were prone to spend all their income without thinking of a proper reserve 
fund. Consequently, they were absolutely unprepared for the struggle for 
existence when luck changed and hard times began for them. Much to their 
credit, this condition did not continue long ; they tried their utmost to improve 
the canes and the sugar production, and left no stone unturned to lower the 
prime cost of sugar by a more economical and rational production. Java 
was leading in this respect ; after 1884 new capital was largely invested in 
sugar enterprises .and in founding and keeping up experimental stations ; 
everything was done for the practical application of science to this industry. 
Moreover, all those interested in this branch of industry tried with success 
to place the sugar cultivation on a firm footing through strict and economical 
management and cordial co-operation. They also succeeded in getting their 
undertakings fully equipped with the newest and best machinery and means' 
of conveyance to be had, while leaving an ample reserve fund for untoward 
circumstances, that they niight be more equal to the occasion than they were 
in 1884. 

The results of the application of science in this industry have far surpassed 
the greatest expectations, so that when the Brussels Convention was signed 
Java had already reorganized the cane sugar industry to such an extent that 
immediate profit was yielded, while the other cane sugar producing countries 
had still to go through a transition period before they could enjoy the benefits 
resulting from the abolition of bounties. 

The example set by Java was universally followed, and now experiment 
stations and testing grounds and laboratories, for the benefit of planters and 

37 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

manufacturers, are to be found in every sugar producing Country ; and it 
is a fact that the cane sugar industry of the present day knows far better 
how to turn to account any given area than it used to do before the crisis.- 

But this great improvement in the quantity of cane sugar produced is 
also in part due to altered politics of certain countries and colonies. 

During the last years of the nineteenth century the Spanish colonies, 
Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, suffered greatly from internal troubles, 
which caused the cane sugar production, of Cuba especially, to fall to an in- 
credible small quantity, while the development of this industry in other less 
harassed countries had practicall}' come to a standstill. 

When in 1898 peace was signed in Paris, Spain lost almost all her colonies, 
having to part with Porto Rico and the Philippines, which became possessions 
of the United States ; Cuba was declared an independent state, but was glad 
to sign a reciprocal treaty with the great Republic, according to which either 
country allowed the other a rebate of 20 per Cent, on import duties. A short 
t ime after the annexation Porto Rican sugar could enter the United States 
exempt from import duties, which privilege was also practically granted to 
t he Philippines in 1909, so that sugar from these countries w as h ighly favoured 
and this, of course, told on the improvement of their sugar industry ., 

In their war with China, the Japanese conquered Formosa, where, soon 
after the annexation, they began to extend the cane sugar industry, so that 
a modernized sugar cultivat ion sprang up in these parts. 

As Formosa is a part of the Japanese Empire, her sugar when imported 
into Japan pays no import duty, except the consumption duty, thus enjoying 
a great advantage over foreign sugar, which is subject to both duties. 

Australia, Natal, and the American republics tax foreign sugar heavily, 
while on inland sugar a much smaller, if any, duty is paid ; this, of course, 
has led to a considerable change as regards sugar protection in quite a short 
time. 

Before the Brussels Convention had come into existence, the much privi- 
l edged and protected beetroot sugar industry towered over the suffering and, , 
unprotected cane sugar cultivation, on which full import duties had to be paid 
when exported to foreign markets. Nowadays we see the reverse. With the_ 
e xception of Russia and the United States, hardly any beetroot sugar prod u cing 
c oantry of importance subsidizes its home industry, whereas a great many 
c ane sugar producing countries now support their industry by means of 
differential import duties, surtaxes, and direct governmental assistance, as 
w ill be shown in subsequent pages of this boo k. Owing to the above-mentioned 
advantages the cane sugar industry, in its turn, predominates nowadays, 
bu t it will not be able to oust the beetroot sugar manufacture, especially 
as an evergrowing consum.ption draws on both kinds of sugar, and, conse qu ently, 
gives both of them a chance to spread and flourish. To how great an exten t 

38 



General History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

both branches of the industry have developed since the Brussels Convention 
can be seen from the following table (in which also a column is entered which 
does not include the British Indian industry, and this for the sake of com- 
parison with the table on Page 21, which likewise omits the Indian output). 
It shows that neither industry is inferior to the other, a state of equilibrium , 
which is not likely to cease! ~ 



World's production of sugar in tons in \ 

Convention : — 



years after the Brussels 





Including British India. 




Not including British India. 










Per 








Per 






Cane 


Beet 


cent. 




Cane 


Beet 


cent. 


Year. 


Totai. 


Sugar. 


Sugar. 


Cane 
Sugar 


Total. 


Sugar. 


Sugar. 


Cane 
Sugar 


1903/04 . 


— 


— 


— 


— 


10,080,000 


4,234.000 


5,746,000 


42-0 


1904/05 . 


12,022,000 


7,144,000 


4,878,000 


59-4 


9,654,000 


4,776,000 


4,878,000 


49-5 


1905/06 . 


14,007,000 


6,834,000 


7,173,000 


48-8 


12,085,000 


4,910,000 


7.173,000 


40-9 


1906/07 . 


^4,799.oC'0 


7,691,000 


7,108,000 


52-0 


12,349,000 


5,241,000 


7,108,000 


42-4 


1907/08 . 


13,861,000 


6,866,000 


6,995,000 


49-5 


ii,/45,ooo 


4,750,000 


6,995,000 


40-5 


1908/09 . 


14,582,000 


7,654,000 


6,928,000 


52-4 


12,709,000 


5,781,000 


6,928,000 


45-8 


IQ09/10 . 


14,981,000 


8,303,000 


6, 588,000 


55-7 


12,766,000 


6,177,000 


6,589,000 


48-3 


1910/11 . 


16,687,000 


8,115,000 


8,572,000 


48-6 


14,587,000 


6,015,000 


8,572,000 


41-2 


1911/12 . 


15,449,000 


8,648,010 


6,801,000 


56-0 


13.349,000 


6,548,000 


6,801,000 


49-0 


(estimate) 



















Literature : 
Em. Legier. Histoire des Origines de la Fabrication du Sucre en France. 
Paasche. Zucherindustrie und Zuckerhandel der Welt. 
Stein. Zuckererieugung und Verbrauch der Welt. 
Max Schieppel. Zuckerproduction iind ZuCerprdmien. 
The West India Committee Circular. 



30 



PART IT. 



The Condition of the Cane Sugar Industry in the 
different Countries of " Production. 



Asia. 



I. 



BRITISH INDIA. 



I. — Planted Area and Total Production. 

It is a most difficult, nay, an almost impossible, task to collect exact data relat- 
ing to the area planted with sugar cane in the British Indian Empire, and the 
quantity of sugar obtained from it. First of all, this empire contains districts 
where statistical accounts are very much neglected ; secondly, the sugar 
cane cultivation is not under the management of large undertakings, but is 
everywhere carried on on a very small scale, so that any exact estimation 
of the area becomes an impossibility. 

Moreover, the planted sugar cane is by no means destined to be used 
exclusively for the preparation of sugar; a considerable portion of it is sold 
for chewing purposes, while what is left is turned into sugar in a very primitive 
way. Supposing the statistics of the planted area to be exact, it would not 
give us a clear idea as to what portion is destined for sugar preparation, for 
one never can know beforehand, or later on, how much of the cane grown 
there is used for direct consumption, and how much is ground and made into 
sugar. 

We should not forget this when the figures of the cane-planted area in 
British India are being considered, and when the results of some years differ 
greatly from those of other years. This does not point in the least to a great 
difference in planting, but rather to a difference in opinion between the indi- 
vidual estimates. 

43 



Asia. 

The cane sugar cultivation is chiefly carried on in the following provinces : 
I, Bengal ; 2, Eastern Bengal and Assam ; 3, United Provinces of Agra and 
Oudh ; 4, Punjab ; 5, the North-West Provinces ; 6, Madras ; 7, Bomba}' 
and Sind ; 8, the Central Provinces and Berar ; 9, Burma ; and 10, the 
Rajput States. From these the six first mentioned have furnished useful 
statistical data for years, as for some time has Bombay, too ; while those 
of the other parts are most deficient and unreliable. Fortunately, the per- 
centage of the provinces which afford useful data amounts to a high figure in 
the total area planted with cane for sugar manufacture, so that their ratio 
between planted area and finished production may easily be taken as the 
average for British India. 

According to the average statistics derived from five years' observation, 
1904-5 to 1909-10, the quantity of seven out of the ten provinces amounts to 
no less than 98-5 per cent, of the total cane- planted area, and that of the first- 
mentioned six [i.e., excluding Bombay and Sind) to 95-4 per cent., so that 
the results of the rest are not likely to influence much the average figure. 

Making allowance for the above-mentioned uncertainties, and arriving 
at an average from unknown figures, we obtain the following figures for the 
total cane-planted area in acres in British India : — 



1890/91 




2,758,000 


1891/92 




3,100,000 


1892/93 




2,798,000 


1893/94 




2,897,000 


1894/95 




2,764,000 


1895/96 




2,930,000 


1896/97 




2,651,000 


1897/98 




2,648,000 


1898/99 




2,755,000 


1899/00 




2,693,000 


1900/01 




2,599,000 


1901/02 




2,474,000 


1902/03 




2,358,000 


1903/04 




2,280,000 


1904/05 




2,244,000 


1905/06 




2,110,800 


1906/07 




2,366,000 


1907/08 




2,681,000 


1908/09 




2,219,700 


1909/10 




2,157,000 


I9I0/II 


2,164,000 


I9II/I2 




2,370,000 



44 



British India. 

The area divided over the different provinces was, as far as could be 
fixed, as follows : — 



















Central 








Eastern 


United 




North- 




Bom- 


Pro- 




Year. 


Bengal. 


Bengal 


Provinces 


Punjab. 


west 


Madras 


bay 


vinces 


Bur- 






and 


of Agra 




Pro- 




and 




ma. 






Assam. 


& Oudh. 




vinces. 




Sind. 


Berar. 




1902/03 


659,700 


42,044 


1,151,929 


320,258 


26,478 


59,903 


56,471 


24,814 


16,272 


1903/04 


645,400 


40,555 


1,089,660 


330,767 


27,224 


54,740 


59,251 


19,397 


13,108 


1904/05 


638,000 


44,869 


1,212,729 


333,231 


26,000 


64,369 


59,n6 


23,465 


11,213 


1905/06 


421,600 


201,500 


1,220,716 


172,700 


26,003 


60,700 


58,882 


— 


12,710 


1906/07 


424,500 


199,900 


1,386,700 


257,600 


28,600 


52,500 


49,090 


— 


— 


1907/08 


436,200 


171,000 


1,481,700 


391,800 


35,200 


49,000 


74,300 


— 


— 


1908/09 


375,100 


169,200 


1,119,400 


365,600 


27,500 


43,700 


83,500 


— 


— 


1909/10 


351,600 


170,700 


1,037,600 


411,700 


30,600 


43,200 


81,600 


— 


— 


1910/11 


346,600 


177,400 


1,059,500 


388,000 


32,700 


47,200 


80,100 


— 


— 


1 9 1 1 / 1 2 


34J,6oo 


179,300 


1,340,600 


292,100 


31.500 


60,000 


87,400 







As regards these figur^^s, we may make the following remarks : - 

Bengal. The considerable decrease noticeable as regards the figures 
of planting since 1905 is only apparent, and solely due to the dividing up of 
Bengal into two parts, by which fourteen districts were attached to Assam. 
That is why the cane-planted area of Bengal has lost about 200,000 acres, 
while that of Assam and Eastern Bengal has gained by the same amount. 

Agra and Oudh. Of these two provinces, the former is by far the more 
important for the sugar cane cultivation, as in this province alone about 
950,000 acres are planted with sugar cane. The United Provinces are respon- 
sible for half of the total cane-planted area in British India, so that this territory 
is surely the most important for cane cultivation. / 

Punjab. In the year 1905-6 we notice a sudden decrease in the number 
of acres planted with cane, which decrease we shall also find in the 
sugar production. The source from which we derive these figures, " The 
Agricultural Statistics," does not explain the point any further, but as the 
figures for the following years revert to the original amount, this falling off 
is either only apparent or only temporary ; we need, therefore, not consider 
it any further. 

Bombay and Sind. A sudden temporary decline is to be noticed here, 
too, during one of the years. For the year 1905-6 we find for Bombay the 
figures 56,333 acres, and for Sind 2,549 ; while both of them fall to 49,090 
in 1906-7, to rise again soon after. Although the cane-planted area in this 
province is not extensive, the sugar production is of considerable importance, as 
much more sugar is yielded per acre on irrigated land than in other parts 
of India. 

Central Provinces and Berar. There are no reliable statistics to be had 

45 



Asia. 

from these parts, but it is known that in 1904-5, 21,390 acres were planted 
with cane in the Central Provinces, and 2,076 in Berar. 

Burma. The cane cultivation is chiefly met with in Lower Burma. Here 
in 1905-6, which was an average year, 10,439 acres were planted with cane, 
while 2,281 acres represented the Upper Burma harvest. 

Independent Inland States in Rajputana and Central India. The joijit 
cane-planted area of the States of Mysore, Jaipur, Gwahor, Bikanir, Marwar, 
Tonk, Alwar, Kishangarh, Bharatpur, Jhalawar, and Kotah amounted to 
about 40,000 acres, out of which Gwalior planted some 5,221, Jaipur 645, 
Bharatpur 459, Tonk 340, Kotah 320, and Alwar 220 acres ; while as to the 
rest we have no specified lists. 

The total sugar production of British India comes to figures that vary 
greatly in the different statistics given, which is not to be wondered at if we 
realize that the cultivation of sugar cane and the manufacture of sugar rests 
for the greater part with very small owners, so that it becomes a kind of home 
industry. The produce when prepared is chiefly used for local consumption, 
and what is left is consumed in the country itself, so that any exact production 
statistics are an impossibility. The best figures are provided by the six first- 
mentioned provinces at the beginning of this chapter, yet we suspect them 
to be too low. 

According to these statistical accounts, 2,307,618 acres are said to have 
yielded from 1898 — 1906 for these six provinces an average of 1,988,211 tons 
of raw sugar (gur, jaggery, or evaporated cane juice), or less than 0-9 ton 
per acre (2,250 kg. per hectare). 

This does not tally with other lists, which on the whole give higher amounts. 
According to different statements, the production amounts to the following : — 



Provinces. 



Maunds* 
per acre. 



Tons per acre. Kg. per Hectare 



Bengal 



g 

■> 
o 

u 

+* 
"a 
P 



/Meerut 
Benares 
Rbhilkhaiul 
- Allahabad 
Oudh 
Agra 

Average . . 
Central Provinces 
Rajputana 
Bombay . . 
Madras 
Burma — ^first quality soil 
second ,, 



36 

35 
34 

2S 

30 
22 

33 
30—40 



32 
29 

25 
07 
10 

85 
21 



I- 
I- 
I- 
I- 

0-1 

I- 

0-7 2-2 

I- [o — 1-47 
3-1 

2 2i 

1-3 
0'9 



* Maund = 82 28 lbs. = 37-35 '. 
46 



3718—5024 
3320 
3244 
3145 
2671 
2766 
2136 

3043 
1767--5533 
2766—3697 

7796 
3718 — 6290 

3269 

2263 



British India. 

These figures no doubt hold good for very successful plantations, and, 
consequently, they are too, high for the average. For this reason the true 
amount will be between the two. 

According to the of&cial statistics, the sugar production of the six 
provinces, to which that of Bombay is added later on, amounts to the following 
in tons of raw sugar or giir : — 







Eastern 


United 




North- 












Bengal 


Provinces 


west 








Year. 


Bengal. 


and 
Assam 


of Affra Punjab. 
& Oudh. 


Pro- 
vinces. 


Madras. 


Bombay 


Total. 


1899/1904 






1 










average 


492,300 


— 


957,800 230,400 


23,200 


95.500 


— 


1,799,200 


1904/05 .. 


444,900 


189,800 


1,184,40b 238,300 


22,606 


90,000 


— 


2,169,000 


1905/06 . . 


452,300 


162,700 


884,800 


89,000 


22,800 


114,500 


— 


1,725.300 


1906/07 . . 


419,300 


193,500 


1,264,600 


212,800 


32,800 


100,400 


12,1,874 


2,345/200 


1907/08 . . 


407,800 


175,300 


916,700 


238,700 


32,200 


92,000 


184,200 


2,046,900 


1908/09 . . 


255,900 


174,900 


844,200 


265,600 


30,100 


81,000 


221,200 


1,872,900 


I $09/ 10 . . 


309,400 


198,800 


955,200 


334.000 


33.100 


81,800 


213,000 


2,125,300 


1910/11 . . 


367,700 


195,800 


1,042,900 


262,660 


35.700 


87,100 


226,000 


2,217,800 


1911/12 ... 


393.400 


215,200 


1,259,300 


176,600 


31,900 


110,700 


203,300 


2,390,400 


(estimate) 



















If we suppose these statistics to stand for 98-5 per cent of the total 
cane planted area (since Bombay is represented also), the total production 
for the whole of British India would amount to about 2,400,000 tons of 
raw sugar, which no doubt is too low. From other statistics we obtain 
a figure of 3,411,000 tons, to which is added 543,000 tons of palm sugar, so 
that the production in the parts spoken of must come to no less than 4,000,000 
tons. How far more exact this very high figure is than the lesser one just 
mentioned is difficult to say, but as all the sugar is used for home consumption 
and, consequently, is of no importance for the world's trade, we do not think 
it necessary to trouble ourselves about it further. Although we consider 
the official figures too low, we shall adhere to them, in order not to quote 
figures which differ from other statistics. 



IL— Cane Cultivation. 

(a) Tillage and Manuring.' 

iTi is easy to imagine that in such an extensive territory as British India the 
cultivation methods in the different parts of the country do not always corres- 
pond, being based on the results of meteorological circumstances, the quantity 
of water available, the condition of the soil, etc. On the whole, however, 
there is a similarity that enables them to be condensed into a short survey. 

47 



Asia. 

As a rule, cane is planted in India as an annual only, and ratoons are 
seldom grown, while cane is planted again on the same soil after some years' 
interval ; manuring is accomplished by means of stable dung, or garbage 
from the towns, or with the crushed oil cakes left as a residue from producing 
oil. The cane is planted from February to April, and is reaped from the 
middle of January up till the beginning of April the following year. The 
cuttings are sometimes taken from the middle of the stalk, and sometimes 
from the top ; they are out with three eyes, and are soaked for some days 
before they are planted. 

Three different methods of cultivation exist : the first method consists 
in leaving the soil fallow for a whole year after the spring harvest, beginning 
the ploughing after the first spells of rain and continuing till the planting time 
commences. The second method is mostly applied to soil irrigated by means 
of canals, in which case the ground is left fallow during the winter time after 
an autumn harvest ; then ploughing is begun directly after the harvest is 
reaped, and is repeated sometimes as much as forty times ; then the soil is 
levelled," the manure is spread, and the furrows are dug. In the third type 
of cultivation the soil is ploughed after a spring harvest, and immediately 
prepared for the reception of the cane cuttings. 

Then, where irrigation is possible, the soil is thoroughly moistened during 
the planting time, and constantly watered afterwards, till the plants have at- 
tained to their full height ; the soil is kept loose, and the young plants are 
banked up, while drainage is carried out in the rainy season. From July till 
October dry leaves are wound round the cane stems in order to ward off 
attacks from jackals, wild boars, and mice, and also as a shelter from the wind, 
which at this time generally blows severely from the direction of the Gulf of 
Bengal. 

In January and February the harvest is begun, and lasts till the end 
of March or the beginning of April. When no ratoons are kept, which is generally 
the case, the cane is dug .out and loosened with a pull from the roots. Only 
in the district of Poona is much ratoon to be met with, but even then only 
first ratoons, while in the other parts ratooning is an exception. For the 
ratooning the cane is cut off with a sharp knife and the stump covered with 
leaves, which are burnt in April. After a month, when the young shoots have 
budded, the soil between the old plants is loosened, the cane being treated as 
ordinary plant cane. As the ratoon ripens sooner than the planted cane, 
the next crushing season the ratoons are dealt with first, and then the new 
planted cane is ground. The cane that is not kept for ratooning is dug out 
altogether, and not cut off at harvest time. 

In British India much irrigation is carried out with river water, as well 
as with well water, which is led across the country in canals that get narrower 
and narrower as they proceed. Soil where no irrigation is available is first 
planted with cane, after it has lain tallow for a whole year, and been .ploughed 
repeatedly during that time. In this case the planting is done during the 

48 



British India. 

months of November, December, and January, and cow dung is used for 
manuring in quantities of 50 to 200 maunds per acre {4,500 to 18,000 kg. per 
hectare, or 4,100 to 16,400 lbs. per acre). As soon as the cane has grown 
up, the soil is covered with leaves to prevent evaporation, and to supply the 
want of irrigation water in the best possible way. 

(b) Cane Varieties, Diseases and Pests. 

According to the use to which cane is put, i.e., whether it is to be used 
for direct consumption, or as raw material in sugar manufacture, a great 
variety of canes exist in British India which can, however, be placed under 
three different heads, namely, the Ukh, the Ganna, and the Paunda. 

The Ukh cane species occur most frequently ; they are chiefly planted for the 
manufacture of sugar, and used by the lower classes only for chewing. They 
have a hard rind and a hard internal tissue, are thin and rather short. The 
leaves are small and narrow, while the stalk is scantily provided, and this 
only on a few of the lower joints, with aerial roots. A great many joints 
are hollow when the cane is ripe, while the fibrovascular bundles extend all 
through the hollow space. The buds lie hidden, and generally are little de- 
veloped. Being hard, this kind of cane is little subject to diseases and the 
attacks of parasitps and wild animals. 

The Ganna- cane species are exclusively cultivated as an article for direct 
consumption as a dainty, except in Meerut, Rbhilkhand, Gorakhpur, and Benares 
Divisions, where they are also used for sugar manufacture. They are generally 
taller and thicker than the Ukh kinds, and their leaves are longer and broader too. 
The rind, as a rule, is hard, but the interior is soft, and there is no inner cavity. 
Although this kind of cane is very juicy, it is not so rich in sugar as the first- 
mentioned species, and the sugar prepared from it is not of the same quality. 
As the Ganna cane species are so much softer, they are more subject to attacks 
from animal pests than the Ukh sorts, and they are also more liable to infection 
with Colletotrichum falcatum. That is why their planting has been consider- 
ably reduced during the last twenty years, especially in the district of Meerut, 
where both kinds of cane were planted simultaneously, and where it was 
noticeable how much more capable the Ukh cane was of resisting attacks 
from parasites and other enemies than the other kind. 

The introduction into India of the Paunda cane species dates from more 
recent times. They are almost exclusively planted for direct consumption, 
and, as a rule, in the neighbourhood of large towns. These kinds of cane 
require much care and heavy manuring in their cultivation, and therefore 
they are not thought fit for profitable sugar production. The stalks are tall 
and thick, and have a hard rind and a very soft internal tissue without any 
cavities ; their leaves are long and broad, and the aerial roots all along the 
stems are much developed. 

49 D 



Asia. 

Seedling cane is not met with in British India, which cannot be wondered 
at when we realize the primitive stage at which cane sugar cultivation stands 
there. 

To the list of animal enemies met with belong wild boars, jackals, mice, 
white ants, borers [Diatraea sacoharalis , Chilo simplex, and Chilo auricilia, 
Scirpophaga auriUua, and Scirpophaga excerptalis, as well as Nonagria uni- 
formis), beetles and grasshoppers. The parasitic types of fungi which do 
most harm in British India are Thielaviopsis aethaceticus (pineapple disease, 
or black rot), Colletotrichum falcaium (red smut), Trichosphaeria sacchari 
a very common parasite, Ustilago -sacchari (smut), Sphaeronoema adiposum, 
and some kinds of Cercospora and Leptosphaeria, which cause diseases in the 
leaves. Then there is a phanerogainic parasite, namely, the Striga lutea, 
a kind of broom-rape which vegetates on the cane roots, and sometimes is 
capable, of destroying an entire cane harvest. This parasite is so harmful 
and so difficult to exterminate that the cane growers take good care not to 
plant cane where the Striga occurs. 

Finally, the climate is anything but reliable, and the spells of drought 
are sometimes so long that the cane is the worse for it ; that is why the crop 
of 1908-9 was a failure. The low cane soil suffers much from inundations 
in the rainy season, while the sugar cane in the western districts of the United 
Provinces experiences much harm from severe frost. 



III. — Sugar Manufacture. 

According to the most reliable sources, the art of preparing sugar from 
cane came originally from India ; the plant itself had long been known, 
and so had the use of its juice as a luxury ; but the art of evaporation to a 
solid substance is an Indian invention of about the seventh century, and 
was spread all over the then known world. 

Among the Mohammedan authors there is a certain Ibn-i-Batuta, who, 
travelling in different parts of India at the end of the thirteenth century, 
mentions in his Safar-ndmah the cultivation of several kinds of cane, but 
does not go into particulars. The author of the Makhzan-ul-Adviyya, who 
is an authority on medicinal plants, and also lived at the time of the Moham- 
medan period in the Indian history, divides the sugar cane into three kinds, 
i.e., paunda, a white, and a red type of cane. According to him the best white 
cane is found in Bardwan and Murshidabad, in Patna, Gorakhpur, and Oudh ; 
and the best red cane in Rajmahal, Agra, etc. Further, a number of sorts 
of cane sugar are given, which go by different names ; although many of 
those names have been altered since, most of the undermentioned preparations 
are still manufactured in exactly the same way as described by the ancient 
author, which shows, first of all, to how high a degree the manufacture of 

50 



British India. 

sugar rose in India already at so early a period ; and, further, it points to 
the conservative spirit among the inhabitants of that country, who have 
clung to old traditions and customs. 

These sorts are distinguished as follows : — 

1. Qand-i-siyah. The solid product obtained by evaporating cane juice 

to dryness. 

2. Shakar-i-ahmar or Shakar-i-tan. The product obtained by concentrating 

the juice considerably longer than No. i, and by rubbing the cooled 
dry substance to powder. 

3. Shakar-i-safed. Sugar obtained by refining raw sugar. 
Nahat-i-safed. The product obtained by purifying Shakah-i-safed with 

milk or albumen. 
Shakar-i-sulaimdni. Obtained by refining No. 4 more thoroughly. 
Qand. Obtained by boiUng No. 5 in water, and crystallizing its syrup 

out into conical moulds. 
Ihluj or Qand-i-mukarrar . Obtained by a further solution of Qand, 

and of re-crystallizing its syrup out in oblong moulds. 
Nahat-i-sanjari. Obtained by refining Qand-i-mukarrar. 
Shakar-i-tabarzad. Obtained by boiling Qand with a tenth of its weight 

of milk till it becomes solid. 
10. Fdniz or " drops." Obtained by dissolving product No. 3 {Shakar-i-safed) 

with water and milk, and by skimming it off. 

Although the modern way of preparing sugar is sometimes applied, the 
original processes are much more adhered to, and, consequently, demand 
a fuller description. 

The simplest way of extracting cane juice is to put the cane, cut up into 
pieces, into a kind of stone or wooden mortar, and to crush it with a pestle 
driven by oxen, while the juice runs into an earthenware vessel put under an 
opening in the mortar waU. In former times the mortar was made by sawing 
through a rather big tamarind tree about 3 ft. above the ground, and excavating 
its stump , but as the right sort of trees was not always to be found in the 
right spot, cut logs were also used after they had been hollowed and buried 
into the earth for sonje length. Later on, similar mortars were made of stone, 
and were considered a most desirable possession, so that it was a long time 
before they were supplanted by the iron-roller mills. The accompanying 
illustrations show amply the way in which this kind of mill works. 

The pestle is a two-armed lever,- whose point of support lies on the edge 
of the mortar, so that the cane is crushed between the mortar wall and the 
pestle. A couple of oxen are put on the yoke, and are driven round, while 
the driver stands on the extremity of the yoke in order to increase the pressure, 
or puts some stones on it instead. (Fig. i.) 

The first improvement was the mill with two vertical wooden rollers, 
the longer of the two having a frame at the top connected with a capstan to 

51 



Asia. 



which the oxen are attached. Both the rollers are provided with grooves and 
corresponding teeth, so that when one is put into motion the other is also 
turned round. The cane staUcs are then placed between the turning cylinders, 
and the juice is pressed out of them. In the end these again were superseded 
by mills with two or. three iron cylinders and gear wheels, which are called 
Behea mUls, after the place where they were first introduced. 

These mills express much more juice from the cane than the older mortar 
and pestle mills, but to show how far this kind is from perfection we may 
as well quote a few figures from the work of Saiyid Muhammad Hadi, " The 
Sugar Industry of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh," which states 
the returns obtained through these Behea mills. 




Fig. 



STONE MILL IN THE EASTERN DISTRICTS OF AGRA. 





Species 
of Cane. 


Average percentage of juice 
from cane expressed by a 


District, 


2 Cylinder Mill 

used by the 

Cultivator. 


3 Cylinder 
Behea Mill. 


Fyzabad 

Farukhabad 

Unao . . ' . . 


Sarauti 
Chin 


52-27 

56-33 
50-01 


62-50 
61 -06 
58-11 



The results of a great many experiments on several kinds of cane gave 
figures varying between 50 and 60 per cent., so that these can be considered 
the average for the quantity of juice to be obtained from cane in India. 



British India. 



From the cane juice a great variety of sugar is prepared which, however, 
either belongs to the gur or the rab brands. 

For the preparation of gur the juice flowing out of the mill is strained 
first through a coarse sieve, in order to prevent the pieces of coarse fibre from 
passing through, and later on is caught in an earthenware pot which is sunk 
in the earth. As soon as this pot is filled the contents are scooped out by 
means of cans and placed in a number of vessels, which are put by in readiness 
beside a furnace. While the juice is setthng all sorts of dirty matter rise, 
floating to the surface to be skimmed off. This is a very superficial way of 
purifying, and does not amount to much considering the dirtiness of the vessels, 
which are seldom or never cleaned, in which the juice has to stand for a con- 



which there is loss 
nace (Fig. 4), as a 
sometimes only of 
contrivance of one 
sunk into the 
tiles round it. The 
a subterraneous ba- 
the pan, some other 



siderable time, in addition to 
caused by inversion. The fur- 
rule, consists of three pans, though 
one single pan. It is a very simple 
or more shallow iron dishes 
ground with a wall of bricks and 
evaporation is carried on through 
gasse furnace, which keeps heating 
fuel being 
sometimes ad- 
ded. In a 
great many 
cases the juice 
is only puri- 
fied by being 
skimmed off. 
The juice is 
treated first 
in the first 
pan, and when 
the scum be- 
gins to float on the surface after having been boiled, the clean juice is 
transferred to the third pan, being left thexC to concentrate, the process 
being finished by means of the second pan. Generally some milk-of-lime, 
Glauber's salt, crude soda ash, or some Hibiscus escuUntus root extract is 
added as a purifying agent. A mixture of anchusa leaf extract, soda, and 
alum is used to give it a better colouring. The scum, which as a result of 
the purifying process floats on the top, is skimmed off with a spoon, and kept 
in a basin to be used as food for animals, and sometimes even for poor people. 
When the juice under concentration becomes yellowish-brown, it is con- 
stantly stirred, and as soon as bubbling becomes active a little of the substance 
is rolled between finger ana thumb to a ball in order to judge of its consistency. 
When it remains moderately soft after cooling, the concentration is considered 

53 




Fig. 2. WOODEN mill from gor-^khpor. 



Asia. 

sufficient, and the boiling process is stopped. With some kinds of gur the 
hot mass is scooped out into earthenware moulds where it is left to cool, 
and turn hard ; with other kinds it is kneaded first with wooden pestles in 
an earthenware dish, and then, after being sufficiently cooled to be touched, 
kneaded into balls or flattened on a cloth-covered mat and cut into triangular 
pieces. To prevent the hot mass from sticking to the hands, the latter are 
first dusted with wood ashes. The sundry balls and pieces are put aside to 
dry in baskets, and when dry they are fit for consumption. 

When soft and well crystallized, gur is well suited for refining, buf when 
solidified into a hard mass, it can be used for direct consumption only, while 
extremely hard and burnt gur never goes through the refining process at all 
In case the cane should have been fallen, unripe, or if its juice should 
have stood for too long a time, the quantity of reducing sugar it contains is so 



txsaii 



Bfairw.^^7J^?~».»,^a^^.^^-~»^■^nr,^ 




Fig. 3. BEHE.\ IRON ROLLER MILL. 



considerable that it never can be- 
come a dry sugar, but remains 
viscous. 

For the preparation of rab 
almost the same method is followed 
as for preparing gur, except that 
more care is taken about cleanliness, 
the iron pans then amounting to five. 
These are properly cleaned every 
morning, and more attention is paid 
to the skimming and purifying pro- 
cess, while the clarified juice is 
strained through cloth before it is 
evaporated to dryness. The con- 
centration is not conducted so far as in the preparation of gur, so that a 
thinner product is struck into the cooling vessels. 

To promote a better crystallization it is well stirred in the pots in which 
it is scooped, and within a few days changes into a moist, rather soft sub- 
stance, which is sold together with the pot in which it is crystallized, and 
the latter has therefore to be broken into pieces in order to get at the contents. 

As rab is a semi-liquid mixture it is difficult to convey, and, consequently, 
its use is restricted to the immediate neighbourhood of the place where it 
is prepared. Gur, however, being a hard, solid matter, is easily sent long 
distances." Gur is used partly for direct consumption and partly for refining 
purposes, while rab is almost exclusively employed for refining. 

A very primitive and simple way of refining is achieved by packing the 
rab in sacks and getting a man to keep trampling on them, whereupon the syrup, 
called shira, runs out, and a moist, whitish sugar, putri, is left, which may be 
further refined. 

54 



ilk 




55 



Asia. 

Sacks of rab are sometimes piled up on a floor covered with mats and 
provided with little holes ; the syrup, trickling out of the sacks, soon collects 
into a little well in the floor, while the process of draining off the molasses from 
the raw sugar is greatly helped by placing big pieces of baked earth on the top 
of the bags. Only half of the quantity of rab is turned into puiri or shakar, - 
while half of this again is lost when refined to chini, or white sugar. 

With this treatment the drained rab is put into pots which have an opening 
at the bottom, and are covered with a layer oi wet water-plants, Hydrilla 
verticillata. The water it contains trickles over the sugar crystals and dissolves 
the adhering syrup, which runs out through an opening at the bottom. After 
four or five days the plants are taken away, and the light-brown sugar [fachni) 
is scraped off the surface, when a fresh layer of plants is placed again on what 
is left, which process is repeated till all the syrup has drained out. The sugar 
obtained in this way is in this form used for several purposes, or left to dry in 
the sun, and kneaded by human feet in order to give it a lighter colour. 

This method, modified in many ways, is applied to both rab and gur, and 
its result, as a rule, is a more or less purified sugar. The syrup that first drains 
off is either used for sweetening food, or is distilled after fermentation, whUe 
the sugar syrup which is obtained later on, and which is richer in sugar through 
some sugar being dissolved in it, is evaporated to dryness, and worked up to 
a second kind of rab. The pachani, or kacha, or kacha qand obtained through 
this process is sometimes dissolved again, clarified with skimmed milk, skimmed 
off and strained through blankets and worked up to white sugar [pucka chini) 
loaves [qand], or candy [misri), so that the scheme is as follows : — 

Cane juice 



evaporated to dryness 


evaporated to a semi-solid substance 
(rab) 

pressed in bags 


clarified not clarified 
{shakar) [gur) 




semi-refined syrup 
[putri] [shira) 

treated with water-plants 



pachani | syrup [shira] 

kneaded in the sun 
[kacha chini, kacha qand, shakar) 



boiled with milk, boiled with boiled with 

strained, concentrated milk, strained, milk, 

to dryness. and crystallized to strained, 

[pucka chini) [misri) candy. poured into 

moulds [qand). 



5(5 



Runnings evaporated to sugar again. 
[lal bhura). 



British India. 

Through the primitive draining off and covering methods, much sugar 
is lost, and that is why the Assistant-Director of Land Records and Agriculture 
at Allahabad, Saiyid Muhammad Hadi, has tried to prepare rab in a more 
rational way ; much sugar is now being prepared according to the so-called 
Hadi process. 

The difference is that the heating apparatus is constructed on much 
more practical lines, and th&.t one can easily regulate the fire, so that there 
is less chance of burning or of the juice decomposing. 

Further, the cooled yab, or massecuite, is no longer separated into crystals 
and molasses through the covering and draining-off process for the sake of 
further purification, but in a handworked centrifugal. As can be seen, the 
modifications brought about by the Hadi process are not in the least radical, 
but the native sugar manufacture in British India is still at such a primitive 
stage that a little improvement like this affects the yield of white sugar from 
rab considerably. 

The following figures may show what heavy losses are suffered from 
the primitive refining methods of gur and rab. 

The analyses of some ra\v and semi-refined sugars are as follows : — 





Polariza- 
tion. 


Glucose. 


Ash. 


Water. 


Un- 
determined. 


Nctt. 


Gur 

Rab . . . . 
Putri . 


71-80 
76-20 
80-20 
82-30 


10-65 
6-48 

5-30 
6-10 


3-76 
5-94 
1-76 
1-60 


8-50 
7-48 
9-40 
7-34 


5-29 
3-90 

3-34 
2-66 


42-35 

40-02 
66-10 
68-20 



The nett yield by these figures is the trade yield calculated by deducting from 
the polarization the percentage of the glucose, and five times the percentage of 
ash, and does not refer to the actual amount of white sugar obtained from it. This 
is considerably less, and depends on the raw material. According to Hadi, 
the buyers distinguish three kinds of rab as regards quality, and the following 
productions on 100 parts of original raw sugar are obtained as the average 
figure : — 



Products. 


1st class. 2nd class. 


3rd class. 


1st class of sugar 

2nd ,, 

Syrup 

Loss 


28-00 

, 5-33 

62-00 

4-67 


22-00 
3-00 

70-00 
5-00 


1600 
4 00 

74-50 
5-50 



57 



Asia. 

On an average a yield of only 20 to, 33 per cent, of sugar from rab is 
obtained when working in the old way ; while a yield of 40 per cent, is easily 
arrived at when the work is done with centrifugals according to the Hadi 
process. 

The production of sugar from the same quantity of raw material is sure 
to increase gradually, but as British India adopts new ideas slowly, it will 
take some time before each factory possesses centrifugals. 

In spite of due encouragement from the Government, and the improved 
prices, the modern methods of sugar industry do not spread. In 1896 there 
were 236 sugar factories and refineries in India, while in 1900 the number 
had dropped down to 203, employing 5,000 people ; and, consequently, could 
not possibly have been of much importance. According to Financial and 
Commercial Statistics, which since 1904 do not record factories employing 
fewer than* 25 employees, there were in the year 1904 only 28 large sugar 
refineries in India, with 4,612 employees. 

Considering the small sugar production per acre, and the loss of raw sugar 
through injudicious methods of purification, one might expect a sugar enter- 
prise with plenty of funds, and carrying on the cane sugar cultivation according 
to modern methods, to do well. Results, however, fall short of these expecta- 
tions, as no increase in the number of enterprises, working ' after European 
methods, is to be noticed, although the Brussels Convention has made com- 
petition with beetroot sugar easy ; while their financial results are not promising 
either. 

Classified according to the provinces, the factories are as follows : — 
In Bengal. 
Sakri . . , . . . Production 200 tons. 
Bara Chakia 
Cossipore Refinery 
Ottur . . 
Soeraha 
Burgohah 



2,000 
Refines chiefly Java sugar. 
Production 2,500 tons. 

800 
Has stopped work. 



Japaha Production 1,200 tons. 

Kotchandpore . . Refines palm sugar. 

Pursa Production 1,200 tons. 

Tarpore . . . . Refines palm sugar. 

Marhourah . . . . Production 12,000 tons, works with carbonatation plant 

Maharajganj . Melts 20 tons of gur a day. 

In the United Provinces of Agra and Gudh. 
Cawnpore Sugar 

Works . . . Refines exclusively gur. 
Purtabpore . . . . Production 1,200 tons. 
Rosa Refines gur and rah. 

In the Punjab. 
Punjab Sugar Works. 

:;8 



British India. 

In the North- West Provinces. 
Peshawar Sugar Manufacturing Co 

In Bombay. 
Poona Sugar Works. 
Gaewar Sugar Works. 

In Madras. 
Aska. 
Samalkot. 

East India Distilleries and Sugar Factories, Ltd. 
Gorihiduor. 
Petal. 
Podanur. 
Bellary. 

The East India Distilleries and Sugar Factories, Ltd. has sugar works m 
Nellikam, Coimbatore, and Tinnevelly. They grind cane during the crushing 
season, and at other times they refine cane and palm sugar. 

These factories and refineries were originally founded for the purpose of 
manufacturing sugar out of sugar cane, but in most cases it seems an impos- 
sibility to get enough cane to work on steadily. The land in India is divided 
up into such httle plots and belongs to so many owners that joint cane planta- 
tions do not exist, so that the raw material has to be conveyed from places 
at some distance, and only in small quantities. Owing to the indifference of 
farmers this raw material, as a rule, is of a very inferior kind, and is not likely 
to be improved by the slow methods of transport in vogue. As the supply 
of cane leaves much to be desired, the manufacturers have been compelled 
to work up gur and rab as well for the sake of constant work, and this, again, 
has given rise to difficulties. 

First of all, there is only a slight difference in price between the raw material 
gur and the white sugar obtained from it ; moreover, among the orthodox 
Hindu population there is a dislike for sugar prepared in the European way, 
so that the chini made according to native methods fetches a far higher price 
than the sugar refined in the big sugar works. The British India manufacturers 
are at a great disadvantage all round : first, in comparison with foreign com- 
petitors who have access to a far better and cheaper kind of raw material ; 
and, secondly, when compared with their native rivals, who, although they 
have to use the same raw material, get much higher prices for their produce. 

The fact is, gur is generally used either as food aait is, or for baking pur- 
poses, and it does not deteriorate in value should it contain much glucose or 
its colour be dark through caramelization, which conditions mean loss to the 
sugar refiner. 

The European breweries do not think it a disadvantage vihen rab contains 
glucose or is caramelized, so that a bad kind of raw material realizes the same 
as a better kind, in consequence of which the refiner pays too much for the 
inferior sort. 

59 



Asia. 

As regards refining sugar, the modern refiner is better off, his loss being 
less severe than that of the native manufacturer, who must make shift with 
primitive implements. The latter, on the other hand, has hardly any instal- 
lation costs, and does all the work himself, together with his family ; he can, 
moreover, gain his livelihood in another way, and can stop his refining business 
when prices become unprofitable, which a big undertaking cannot. 

The sale price of native refined sugar is considerable, being much higher 
than either the sugar prepared in up-to-date refineries or imported produce ; 
and will, no doubt, continue to be so as long as religious and caste prejudices 
are so strong against foreign sugar. 

Animal charcoal is used for refining operations, and the ancient legends 
about clarification with ox-blood still prevail. Hence the Hindus are much 
opposed to the consumption of sugar thus prepared, and wish to take nothing 
but chini sugar, which they think free from these admixtures. 

Then there is the difficulty lest sugar worked up by the lowest caste should 
be consumed by people of the superior castes to their defilement. 

The native refiners have realized for some time that it would be far more 
profitable for them to use European beetroot or Mauritius and Java cane sugar 
as a raw material than the much more expensive futri or pachani, which is 
got Ayith great difficulty from rob or gur. Consequently, this kind of sugar is 
greatly supplemented by the once-despised foreign sugar, which is nowadays 
much used by the devout high-caste native, who, of course, is ignorant of 
the fact. The confectioners, too, have recourse to imported sugar for the 
preparation of their sweetmeats, being sure of its better effect. 

Thus the native refiner can make use of a better and cheaper material 
than his European colleagues in British India. All these reasons go far to 
show how it is possible for a gigantic empire such as British India to prepare 
and- refine a large amount of sugar in an irrational and primitive way, and, 
in addition, import a good deal of white sugar, modern economical methods 
being scarcely employed at all. 



IV. — Prime Cost. Importation and Transportation. 

Excise and Duties levied. 

The prime cost of an acre planted with cane varies much as regards the 
different districts. 

Watts, in his " Commercial Products of India," quotes the following figures 
for prime cost and profit : — 

60 



British India. 
Rupees per acre of cane. 





Prime cost. 


Profit. 


Bengal 


i6o 





United Provinces 


66—158 





Central Provinces 


164 


38 


Bombay 


420 


120 — 150 


Madras 


150 


90 


Burma 


90 


— 



while Hadi has the following specified statements of a number of treatments 
apphed in the districts of Agra and Oudh : — 



DiSTBIOTS. 


Ploughing 






Hoeing and 


Irrigation. 














Seed. 


Cost 
of 


Weedinjr. 






Manure 


Rent. 
















Number 




Total. 


Name of Tract. 


Num- 


(Jost. 




So-ming. 


.'^um- 


Cost. 


Source 


of Water- 


Cost. 










ber. 








ber. 


of 


ings. 














K a. p. 


R a. r. 


R. a. p. 




R. a r. 






B. a. r. 


R a. p. 


U. a. P. 


B. a. n. 


Meerut 


14 


10. 8.0 


8 0,0 


2. 8.0 


S 


10. 0.0 


canal 


6 


18. 0. 


5. 


12. 0.0 


66. 0.0 


Agra 


IS 


9. 0.0 


10. 0.0 


2. 6 


6 


18. 8.0 


well and 





20 14.10 


8. 0.0 


8 12.0 


72. 8.0 


Eohilkhand., .. 


1.5 


16. 0.0 


12. 0.0 


2. 4.0 


5 


11. 4 




4 


IB. 0. 


9 0.0 


13. 8.0 


8'. 0.0 


Allahabad , . , 


15 


15 0.0 


11. 0.0 


2. 8.0 


4 


6. 0.0 


Wtll 


4 


16 0. 


6. 0.0 


12. 0.0 


67. II. 


iinoeHsii .. 


9 


6.12.0 


12. 0.0 


2. 8.0 


6 


11 4.0 




4 


20. 0. 


8, O.n 


T. 8 


68. 0.0 




16 


8. 0.0 


10. 0.0 


3. 


11 


9. 4.0 




6 


20. 0. 


0.12 


10. 


67. "0 


Gorakiipur . . 


20 


16. 0.0 


9. 6.0 


2. 4.0 


14 


15.13.0 




4 


12.13.10 


7. ' 


12. 4.0 


74.12.0 


Luckcow 


la 


16. 0.0 


9.' 0.0 


3. 0.0 


10 


12. 0.0 




4 


18. 0. 


10. 0.0 


13. 0.0 


80. 0.0 


FyzaV'ad 


ir 


'r. 0.0 


9. 0.0 


3. 0.0 


10 


(i 0.0 




5 


15. 0. 


9. 


IS. 0,0 


72. 0.0 



The same author also quotes the cutting, crushing, and grinding cost 
per acre of cane in the same districts, but with hired labour : — 



40 men for cutting, stripping, and carrying to the mill, 2 annas 

per head 
Hire of an iron mill at 8 annas per day during fifteen days . . 
Hire of bullocks for the same period at 8 annas each 
Hire of the boiling pan, 2 annas a day 
Wages of the man who keeps the mill supphed with cane and feeds 

it, at 2 annas a day 
Wages of the labourer who feeds the furnace, at 2 annas per day, 

or li seers of gur . . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ • .... 
Earthen vessels . . 
Fuel in addition to bagasse . . 
Oil 



R. a. p. 



7 « 





5 





I 14 






I 14 



I rupee = 16 annas. 



Total 



I anna = 12 pics 
61 



I 14 





8 





2 





6 





36 






I rupee = is. 4d. 



Asia. 

The total expenses consequently amount to 70 + 36 == 106 rupees for the 
product of an acre, which is reckoned to be one ton, so that the prime cost 
in the above case for gur is {y is. 4d. per ton, or 7s. id. per cwt. 

This prime cost is fairly high, and figures provided by the manager of 
Rosa factory mention 6s. 2d. as the price of gur per cwt., and 6s. 6d. as the 
price of rab per cwt., while putri fetched 8s. gd. per cwt. Although these 
prices do not come up to those quoted by Hadi, they are still so high, consider- 
ing the inferior quality of the product, that it shows us clearly how difficult 
it is for those engaged in this industry to produce out of this inferior kind of 
raw material a refined sugar that can compete with a corresponding foreign 
produce. 

Besides the very considerable home product, British India also imported 
a great amount of foreign sugar, which during the last ten years has been 
derived from the following countries, and is reckoned in cwts. : — 





1901/2* 


1902/8 


1903/4 


1904/6 


1905/6 

2,340,717 
712 440 
177 682 
201 665 


1906/7 


1907/8 


1908/9 


1909/10 


1910/U 


Beetroot Sugar. 

Austria- Hungary 
Germany 
United Kingdcmt 
Other countries . . 


2,257,928 

677,139 

94,150 

6,979 


888,018 
146,666 
167,388 
266,446 


299,269 

7,205 

61,865 

194,408 


1,441,240 

176,488 

60,46 li 

48,308 


1 017 100 

2,001 316 

88,264 

116,700 


703,266 
61,879 
12 932 
11.799 


1,918,1.58 
3 071 

22,610 


782,778 
61,537 

23,702 


714.093 
8,206 

2,496 


Total .. 

Cane Sugar. 

Mauritius . . . . 
China . . 
Java .. .. -.. 
Straits Settlement 
tTnitodKlngdom 1 
Other countries / 


2,986,196 

1,759,208 

, 182,767 

446,686 

63,050 

94,151 

88,198 


1,457,517 

1,915,604 
668,601 
673 066 
207,937 
157,388 
106,612 


562,737 

2 616,656 
848,898 

1 836,648 
229,993 
61 866 
868,872 


1,716,488 

1.823,676 
'285 027 

2,091,508 
211,040 
60,462 
351,163 


3,482,404 

2,015,476 
1.39,628 

1,685.891 
160,868 
177,682 
176,920 


3.823.630 

2,310,023 
51,279 

3,804,866 
88,988 
88 266 
114,286 


■ 806,876 

2,690,193 
7,340 

6.693,699 
12,933 
11,787 
12,104 


1,948,839 

2 614,440 

6,884 

6,172,039 

804 
26,777 


858,012 

2,485 560 

22,094 

7,816,745 

3.114 
1,288 


724,795 

2,928,983 

129,373 

8,768 715 

962 

1428 


Total 


2,629,061 


8,529,678 


5,485,878 


4,883,309 


4,265,644 


5,907,162 


8,288,026 


8 719,444 


10,277,801 


11 814,361 


General Total 


5,566,267 


4,987,195 


6,088,115 


6,547,397 


7,698,048 


9,730,682 


10,044,901 


10,663,283 


11,186,813 


12,539,166 



Only 500,000 to 600,000 cwts. of the total amount is raw sugar from 
Java and Mauritius ; the rest is white sugar. 

The sugar importations were not extensive till 1871-72, when they amounted 
to 562,559 cwt. ; in 1881-82 they were as much as 982,266 cwt. ; while fbr 
1801-92 we have 2,734,491 cwt. This was principally cane sugar from Mauri- 
tius, but in 1895-96 the competition with beetroot sugar, chiefly from Germany, 
became noticeable. In the same year the total amount imported was 
2,730,693 cwt., 57 per cent, of which was Mauritius sugar, while the rest came 
from Germany and from various cane-sugar producing countries. It is a fact that 
in 1890-91 the importation from Germany just for once amounted to 700,000 
cwt., but during the four following years it never exceeded 275,000 cwt., 
to rise suddenly to 718,000 cwt. in 1905-6. The next year Austria-Hungary, 

* The statistical year in British India is from April ist to March 31st. 

t The importations from the United Kingdom are reckoned to be half cane sugar and half 
beetroot sugar, and that is why an equal amount of these two kinds is given in many years. 

62 



British India. 

too, exported great quantities of sugar, so that these two countries are together 
responsible for 880,000 cwt. In 1896-97 British India's total importation 
amounted to 2,861,400 cwt., while the year after it had increased to 4,608,630 
cwt., which, although other countries provide more than they used to do, 
comes chiefly from Germany and Austria-Hungary. Both the Dingley tariff 
in the United States and the competition with the French sugar on the EngUsh 
markets induced the exporting firms of these countries to find new outlets 
for their produce, and so British India got the benefit^f this surplus of foreign 
sugar. To put a stop to this influx a law was passed in March, i8qq, which 
entitled the Government to raise, besides the 1894 import duty of '^ per cent .. 
equivalent duties on bountied sugar to the amoant of the bounty. The follow- 
ing yeaf there was a decrease in sugar imports from 4,077,499 to 3,360,862 
cwt., the German as well as Austrian supplies being less ; indeed, Germany 
disappeared altogether from the lists. This decrease is not altogether due 
to the countervailing duties, as the amount imported by countries which are 
exempted from this duty either remained what it was, or went down. The 
then prevailing high sugar prices, together with a famine in the west part 
of India, must have caused the consumption to be reduced considerably, 
while there might have been much sugar left in stock from the year preceding. 
When, in the following year, the condition of the sugar trade improved, Germany 
and Austria-Hungary came in again for a rather large amount, and it may be 
seen from current statistics that while Mauritius imported 2,085,156 cwt., 
the figures of Germany and Austrian importation were respectively 1,321,330 
and 201,980 cwt. The countervailing duties thus had not had a lasting in- 
fluence, if any. In 1901-2 the importation of Austrian sugar had increased 
to 2,257,928 cwt. ; while of the 577,139 cwt. sent by Germany no doubt some 
came from Bohemia, being transhipped via Hamburg, as the countervailing 
duty on German sugar is a little less than that on Austrian (Rs. 1.4.7 German ; 
Rs. 1.7.4 Austrian). This practice was, however, put a stop to when it became 
necessary to send with the imported sugar certificates of origin. 

It was proved at the Conferences held preparatory to the Brussels Con- 
vention that much profit was made in Germany and Austria, apart from 
bounties, through the concentration of the sale by the Cartels. The latter 
enabled the producers to keep sugar at a high price at home, so that they 
could export sugar below prime cost, and yet realize on the whole a fair profit. 
In order to annul this artificial competition, the Indian Government passed 
a bill in June, 1902, that an extra duty should be levied to the amount of the 
Cartel profit — namely, of 3.3.9 rupees per cwt. on Austrian sugar, and of 
2.13.9 rupees on German sugar. On German sugar, for instance, a fixed duty 
of 5 per cent, of the value, a countervailing duty of 1.4.7. rupees and a Cartel 
tax of 2.13.9 rupees per cwt. was paid, while for Austrian sugar we find 5 per 
cent, of the value + 1.7.4 + 3.3.9 rupees per cwt. 

The effect of these duties was at once noticeable, the more so as they 
were levied immediately after the law v/as enacted. Of the year 1901-2 three 

63 



Asia. 

months had passed, so that for that period the law was in force only during 
nine months, and yet we notice a decrease in importations, from Austria only 
888,018 cwt., and from Germany only 14,566 cwt. Half of the amount of 
Austrian sugar had come in in April, and neither German nor Austrian sugar 
was imported after September, but the other countries, especially the Nether- 
lands and Belgium, supplied more than they usually did. A greater quantity 
of cane sugar was also imported, principally from the Straits and Hong Kong, 
as the sugar mentioned in the statistical accounts of China is nothing but 
sugar from Java and the Philippines refined in Hong Kong. 

When, in September, 1903, the Brussels Convention was signed, by which 
all bounties were abolished and the surtaxes were reduced to such an extent 
that any Cartel profit was out of the question, the high countervailing and 
additional duties disappeared too, and the import duty in every country 
was fixed at 5 per cent of the value, with the exception of bounty-fed sugar 
from countries not belonging to the Convention countries. Consequently, 
the importation of European refined beetroot sugar increased, and had risen 
in 1905-6 to the same height as in the best year before. During the time, how- 
ever, when beetroot sugar had become practically excluded from importation, 
Java began to supply large quantities, partly raw sugar and partly white, 
the so-called " superior sugar " (above No. 25 D.S.), and in spite of an increase 
in the importation of Austrian sugar, Java has held its own in the import trade 
with British India, and its supplies have increased during the last few years ; 
while Hong Kong's exports have gone down. 

The import duty as we know amounts to 5 per cent of the value, which 
is fixed according to the following scale (dating from January, 1909) : — 



Sugar, crystallized beetroot 

,, ,, and soft from China 

,, ,, from Java No. 21 D.S. and higher 

,, ' ,, ,, ., No. 16 — 20 D.S. 

,, ,, ,, ,, No. 15 D.S. and lower 

Mauritius No. 16 D.S. and higher 
Molasses from Java 

,, ,, other countries . . 

No excise is levied in British India on its own produce. 

As regards the specification of imported sugar throughout the empire, 
the several kinds of beetroot sugar are found from November till May, while the 
cane sugar suppUes are distributed over the whole year, though the period 
from August till November is their special season. Bombay, Karachi, Calcutta, 
and Madras are the harbours through which it is imported. In 1906-7 Bombay 
received more than 2,000,000 cwt. of sugar, of which Bomba}' Presidency 



Per cwt. 


R 


a. 


10 





II 





10 





9 





8 





9 


8 


2 


4 


3 






British India. 

got 843,000, the Central Provinces 367,000, the United Provinces 358,500, 
and Rajputana and Central India 241,500 cwt. Karachi imported 1,863,000 
cwt., which was chiefly sent to the Punjab, while Sind received only 355,000 
cwt. The remaining 1,508,000 tons were not destined entirely for the Punjab, 
but were for a large part conveyed across the frontier to Afghanistan and 
Kashmir. In the Punjab the imported produce can be sold at a lower price 
than sugar from the other provinces. This is because transit by railroad is 
very inexpensive, the railway companies having in any case to run their trains 
empty from the seaport town to the interior to fetch goods hundreds of miles 
distant, so they think it more profitable to transport sugar at the same time, 
be the freight tariff ever so low. 

Calcutta imported 1,250,000 cwt. in 1906-7, out of which East Bengal 
and Assam received 573,000 ; Bengal, 363,500 ; and the United Provinces 
235.500. The importation of Madras finally amounted to only 111,400 cwt. 
in the same year, which was consumed in the neighbouring country. 

The sugar imports in cwts. during the last three years for the different 
provinces have been as follows ; — 



65 



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February . . 
March . . 


I 



66 



British India. 



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67 



Asia. 

Of the British Indian provinces the Punjab is the greatest consumer of imported 
sugar ; then follow Bombay, the United Provinces, Eastern Bengal and Assam, 
the Central Provinces and, last, Bengal ; which shows that districts which 
have an important home industry have, as a rule, foreign imported sugar 
placed on their markets. 

The, sugar exportation of British India is not of much importance, though 
it used to be of far more consequence. In 1851 India exported 1,607,508 cwt., 
1,506,051 of which went to the United Kingdom ; in 1861 these figures had 
gone down to 845,961 and 696,012 respectively. This was almost entirely 
refined sugar, but when the British refining industry made some progress, 
the exportation of raw sugar increased, to be followed by a period of gradual 
decrease. This also refers to white sugar. 



Exportation of Sugar from British India in cwt. 









Raw Sugar. 


Refined Sugar 


1877/78 




366,997 


477,128 


1878/79 




— 


51,053 


1882/92 (average) 




1,145-685 


1888/89 34.523 


1892/04 „ .. 




733.654 




1904/05 , 






192,890 




1905/06 . 






230,498 




1906/07 






164,299 




1907/08 






198,843 


20,564 


1908/09 






174.538 


20,725 


1909/10 






123,440 


21,40? 


1910/11 





175.095 


26,732 



V, — The Future. 



It has repeatedly been pointed out by various people that should the 
cultivation and manufacturing methods in India be only slightly improved 
and modernized, the country would not only be able to supply its own wants, 
but would also rank among the sugar exporting countries. This has been 
said so often, and yet the planted area remains stationary, and the production 
per acre does not increase, whereas the imports do. No doubt there are 
important and insurmountable difficulties which prevent the immediate 
extension and improvement of .the cane cultivation. What these are and 
whether they are the outcome of conservatism or of poverty among the native 
population, of too much dividing-up of property, or of lack of co-operation 
it is hard to tell, and we do not see any promise of a radical chailge in the 
near future, 

68 



Straits Settlements. 

Consequently, there is every reason to believe that British India, in spite 
of its gigantic sugar production, will remain for some time to come a sugar 
importing country, to whose markets beet as well as cane sugar will continue 
to be taken. 

Literature : 

Reports of the Netherlands Consuls of Bombay and Calcutta. 

Agricultural Ledger. 

Imperial Gazetteer for India. 

Sir George Watt. Commercial Products of India. 

NeWlands. Sugar : A Handbook for Planters and Refiners. 

Agricultural Statistics of India. 

Agricultural Journal of India. i 

Saiyid Muhamad Hadi. Sugar Industry in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh. 



II. 

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 

On the Malay Peninsula, in the Province Wellesley, opposite the island of 
Penang, and in the native State of Perak, a sugar industry is to be found 
which used to be of more importance than it is now, as it is slowly but steadily 
being supplanted by the cultivation of rubber. 

Between the years 1890 and 1900 the sugar industry in these parts was 
at its best, when in different spots ground was opened up and planted with 
sugar cane, to be worked up into sugar in numerous factories by Europeans 
and Chinese. 

The first European sugar manufacturers who settled in the Mala}'- Peninsula 
were Frenchmen from Mauritius, who,' in the nineteenth century, started 
cane plantations opposite the Isle of Penang, and constructed factories, which 
were abandoned when the ground round them became exhausted and covered 
with weeds. Later on British from Demerara appeared on the scene, and 
laid out the plantations in the manner they were used to in their former country, 
being induced to do so because of the similarity between it and Demerara 
as regards the condition of the soil. 

As a matter of fact, all the plantations are to be found near rivers and 
creeks, which are nothing but hollows in the plain not yet filled in by the 
deposits of the sea, being simply sea creeks. They do not discharge fresh 
water from inland, but are filled with tidal water, which is, of course, subject 
to ebb and flow. The entire low coast is intersected by these creeks, which 
wind through the country in all directions, and divide it up in a number of 
little islands. It is a very moist climate, and because of its proximity to the 

69 



Asia. 

equator there are no distinctly defined monsoons, but the amount of rain is 
spread rather regularly all over the year, as the following table for 1905 shows : — 



January 

February 

March 

April 

May .. 

June . . 

July .. 

August 

September 

October 

November 

December 



mm. 


inches 


163 


6-5 


149 


6-0 


363 


14-0 


169 


6-6 


160 


6-25 


230 


9-2 


109 


4-3 


221 


87 


254 


lO-O 


350 


1375 


126 


50 


224 


88 



Total 



2,518 mm. 



99-1 ins. 



The average annual temperature is about 25°C. {77°F.), varying but 
little for the different months. 

There are no rivers to speak of, and irrigation is altogether out of the 
question, so that cultivation is absolutely dependent on the rain ; this, how- 
ever, on account of the equal distribution of the rainfall is no drawback. The 
jungle land is given by the Government in " quit rent " to the farmers at 
a low rate. In this way one can obtain immediate possession of extensive 
tracts of land, but the places where Malay natives have settled down are 
precisely marked off and excluded from the transaction. The first part of 
the cultivation process is to provide the creeks with dykes to prevent salt 
water from coming in at high tide. It is a much simpler plan to shut off these 
creeks from the sea through a " stop, off," or dam, as near the sea as possible, 
which saves the erection of dykes along the creeks and their by-streams It 
is quite safe to do this, as they are only in contact with the sea, and do not 
carry any water from the land. Only in case of Malay compounds lying on 
the creek in an inland direction can such a damming off be brought about 
by the promise of indemnification, as the sea-fisheries suffer much from it, 
if they are not altogether stopped on that account, .^fter the sea water has 
been barred from the land, the jungle is cut and the trees and weeds burned 
or carried away, and ditches are dug throughout the land by way of drainage 
canals. Near the sea these ditches end in a sort of wooden lock, with a move- 
able gate which is fixed at the top, but can open seaward at the bottom. During 
ebb the water being higher in the canal than outside pu.shes the gate open, 
and flows into the sea. When, on the contrary, the sea water comes rushing 
up in time of flood tide, it pushes the gate shut, and is thus barred from spread- 

70 



Straits Settlements. 

ing over the land. Besides this network of drainage canals, a number of 
wide canals is dug for navigation, and this also forms a coherent network 
which, however, does not communicate with any of the drainage canals. These 
canals for navigation are so deep that a well-laden barge can easily pass along, 
so that all the necessary sugar cane can be transported by water. When 
the newly laid out land has been rid of its superfluous saline content by the 
rains, shallow furrows are dug, 120 ft. in length, at distances of 6 ft. apart, 
wherein cane tops are planted, which soon grow up and do not require manuring 
for the first year or so. A year after the planting is done the cane is cut, 
and fresh cuttings are planted again in the same fields in such a manner that 
the new rows lie between the old ones. Weeding is practised, and efforts 
are made to keep down the " lalang " {Imperata arundinacea) , the roots of 
which grow to an intertwined mass, and to prepare the soil for cane cultivation 
again. In case of lack of labour for this purpose, the field is abandoned alto- 
gether, and a fresh plot is taken up, so that cane cultivation in the Straits 
has often caused a field which was originally arable land to be turned into a 
" lalang" field, which only after nmch toil and labour can be made fit for 
cane cultivation' again. The great di'awback of cane cultivation in Malay 
Peninsula undertakings is lack of labour. The natives do not wish to do a 
regular day's work, and that is why the planters have to employ labourers 
from other countries. 

Indentured Javanese are mostly employed in digging work, and British- 
Indian coolies, chiefly from Madras, are used for field and factory work. These 
immigrants leave their country under a three years' indenture, and earn from 
fifteen to twenty dollar-cents (one Straits dollar — 2s. 4d.) a day, and when 
doing piece-WQik they make more, as well as getting free housing and other 
privileges. When their- time of indenture is over they may go on serving as 
free labourers, and then, of course, receive higher wages, or receive more 
money through piece-work. ' 

The importation of indentured coolies is carried on in the face of great 
difficulties, and so it is very hard to have the entire plantation under one's 
own management. In order to meet these difficulties in some way, the planters 
have adopted another system besides that of planting under their own manage- 
ment. They provide Chinese labourers with plots of fresh soil, the trees on 
which are cut, and which have the necessary dykes and partitions. Each 
Chinese contractor gets a plot of two orlong* (2I acres), and if they work 
in co-operation, as is often the case among the Chinese, the combined workers 
receive so many times that area as the number of workers amounts to. The 
management procures the cane cuttings, and further advances them implements 
and some money each month on credit. As soon as the cane is ripe, according 
to the management's judgment, it is cut by the Chinese and taken to the 
miU to be ci'ushed, 'either at their own expense or at that of the mill owner. 

*i orlong = IJ acre = 0-535 hectare. 
71 



Asia. 

The payment is 1-5 dollar-cents per gallon of juice, which money they receive 
after the money advanced has been deducted. Proper control should, of 
course, prevent the money advanced from exceeding the value of cane, and 
should see to the work being done under a manager's supervision. This 
system has given good results, but it is necessary to take good care not to 
be altogether dependent on the Chinese farmers ; for that reason it is not 
wise to dispose of all the land in this way, but rather to keep some portion 
under European management. As a rule, one proceeds in the following way ; 
the new land is given to Chinese farmers, who plant cane on it during three 
consecutive years without manuring ; then the factory itself plants cane on it 
year after year, without letting it lie fallow or be planted alternately with other 
crops, but with the aid of manure. Finally, the " lalang" has to be dug out, or 
a fresh start is made, abandoning the old soil altogether, which is used by 
Chinese tapioca growers after they have succeeded in rooting out the weeds 
by untiring efforts. 

The canes that are planted are White or Chinese, Ribbon, Purple, or 
Bourbon Cane (imported from Martinique). The White cane is grown by, 
the Chinese labourers in preference to other kinds, because it grows to a 
great height and weight, and contains plenty of juice that is easily ex- 
tracted, so it is most profitable to them, as they are paid according to the 
amount of juice extracted. 

Both Ribbon and Purple canes are stunted in growth, and are subject 
to disease, and their sugar quality is low, and yet the greater part of the planta- 
tions consist of this kind. The Bourbon cane is tall, heavy, and rich in sugar, 
and not very liable to disease. Borers are seldom met with, but a kind of 
large beetle does occur, which tunnels the cane from bottom to top. The 
old beetles lay their eggs on a manure heap, and through the compost they 
gain access to the cane, so that the hatched insects, which are not cane 
enemies by nature, are induced to attack cane. 

The cane on the whole is 'short, and its juice poor, which is due to the 
low soil, the scanty tillage, the little sunshine, and the steady rain. On the 
best plantations no greater cane yields than 43,500 to 52,200 kg. per hectare, 
or 17-3 to 2075 tons per acre, are realized. 

The cost of an acre of cane is about $52, so that a ton of cane on the field 
costs 12-40, which, together with transport expenses, costs the factory $2-56 

to $3-20. 

The Europeans manufacture a kind of white sugar, and obtain 7-5 per 
cent, of sugar on the weight of cane. The Chinese work up the cane juice 
to concentrated juice, like the British-Indian gur, and, of course, in this way 
realize a greater quantity, as all the impurities of the juice remain in the sugar 
and add to the weight. 

In the year 1896 there were three European factories in the British Prb- 
vince Wellesley, and one in the State of Perak, besides a great many Chinese 
undertakings, most of which were equipped with steam power. 

72 






Cochin China. 

The total cane planted area was estimated at 14,200 acres, or 5,670 hectares, 
in 1898, and its total production at 15,000 tons. This increased up to the 
year igoo, and amounted to 7,500 tons for Wellesley, and to 13,000 tons for 
Perak ; but since rubber has become so much more profitable than sugar, a 
great part of the land destined for cane cultivation has changed consider- 
ably. In the first place, rubber does not require quite so much manual labour 
as sugar cane, and the work is easier, so that it is not so difficult to get labour 
for rubber as for cane fields. Moreover, rubber yields far more profit than 
sugar ever will do ; and so, taking things as they are, the sugar industry of 
the Straits Settlements is not likely to revive. In Wellesley three European 
factories are still working, two of which grow sugar cane as a catch crop between 
rows -of rubber trees, but will give this up when the latter grow up well. The 
Chinese plantations in the provinces have all stopped working. The yearly sugar 
production amounts at the present moment to 7,500 tons, all of which, except 
what is required for local consumption, is sent to England ; but this is sure 
to diminish in quantity. In Perak there are three Chinese sugar works, with 
a yearly output of 4,000 tons, but these, too, are gradually giving up sugar 
cultivation, in consequence of which the once promising sugar industry of the 
Malay Peninsula will have died out in a very short time. 



III. 

COCHIN CHINA. 



In the extensive French colonies of Cochin China, Annam, and Tonkin a 
kind of impure, brown, raw sugar is prepared by the native population on 
a large scale for their own consumption, but is very seldom exported ; and 
it is said that in Annam especially the land is extremely suitable for cane 
cultivation. It is impossible to get at the exact figures as regards the exten- 
sion of this industry, but the yearly output is estimated at 50,000 tons of 
raw brown sugar. 

One hundred and ninety-two tons of sugar were im.ported into France 
from Indo-China in 1897, but no figures of the French imports are available 
for th3 other years. 



n 



Asia. 
IV. 

CHINA. 

Ai THOUGH China during many centuries has cultivated sugar cane and pre- 
pared cane sugar, this has never got past the stage of a home industry, and 
sugar is still being prepared in the same primitive and wasteful way as it 
was done centuries ago. Farmers often plant sugar cane on a small scale, 
and what is not wanted for direct consumption is sold to small manufacturers, 
who prepare sugar from it in a very simple way. The cane is ground between 
vertical wooden or stone rollers, which are turned by cattle, and the cane has 
to go through three times before being crushed sufficiently. The juice is 
put into the boiling* pans, of which there are five as a rule, and, as has been 
explained before, the juice is scooped from one pan into another as evaporation 
proceeds. The rawest form of sugar is the concentrated and cooled cane 
juice, from which a white sugar is gained by draining off and covering. For 
this purpose the brown sugar is put into casks with perforated bottoms, and 
is covered up with a layer of grass which is kept moist. The moisture from 
the grass gradually trickles "down, penetrates the sugar, washes the brown 
syrup from the crystals, and carries it away through the holes in the bottom, 
while the moist soft white sugar is left as a residue. The syrup is used for 
sweetening food or baking cakes, while the sugar, when dried in the sun, forms 
the commercial article. This sugar is also melted again in hot water, and 
slowly re-crystallized to candy. One can easily imagine that this most primitive 
and yet expensive mode of preparation no longer holds its own in competition 
with the far superior factory methods of the adjacent countries, and though 
the sugar consumption in China increases, it is the foreign countries which 
profit by this expanding demand, while the inland industry rather decreases. 

Since the sugar industry in China, as has been pointed out, is a home 
industry, the produce of which is consumed in the immediate neighbourhood 
of its manufacture, we cannot very well give the exact figures of its output, 
but when we go through the export figures of Chinese sugar to other Chinese 
harbours, we see a gradual decrease in the quantify of sugar exported by 
China, a fact which benefits Hong Kong, Java, Japan, and even Europe. 

The principal producing districts are : — 

I. SWATOW.' 

The sugar cane here chiefly grows in the Prefecture of Chao Chow Fu 
and its sugar, consisting of brown, white and candy sugar, is mostly exported 
to the northern harbours of China, i.e., Shanghai, Newchang, Tientsin, Chin- 
kiang, and Hankow, while only a small portion is transhipped to Hong Kong 
Siam, and the Straits Settlements. 

74 



China. 

The sugar exported by Swatow for the last few years has been as foUows- 
in piculs of 133-13 lbs. and in tons : — 





Brown. 


White. 


Total. 


Year. 
















Piculs. 


Tons. 


Piculs. 


Tons 


Piculs. 


Tons. 


1891 . 


. 826,888 


49,613 ■ 


831,647 


49,899 


1,658,535 


99,512 


1892 . 


. 625,708 


37,542 


563,287 


33.797 


1,188,995 


71-339 


1893 . 


. 544,700 


32,682 


470,126 


28,208 


1,014,826 


60,890 


1894 . 


• 457,969 


27,478 


464,488 


27,869 


922,457 


55,347 


1895 . 


690,518 


41,431 


630,640 


37,838 


1,321,158 


79,269 


1896 . 


• 701,231 


42,074 


625,854 


37,551 


1,327,085 


79,625 


1897 . 


. 704,270 


42,256 


629,780 


37,868 


1,334,050 


80,124 


1898 . 


■ 789,298 


47,358 


667,465 


40,048 


1,456,763 


87,406 


1899 . 


1,028,218 


61,693 


796,910 


47,815 


1,825,128 


109,508 


1900 . 


846,261 


50,776 


531,023 


31,861 


1,377,284 


82,637 


1901 


814,402 


48,864 


572,198 


34,332 


1,386,600 


83,196 


1902 . 


640,264 


38,416 


449,010 


26,941 


1,089,274 


65,357 


1903 . 


590,974 


35,45s 


421,025 


25,261 


1,011,852 


60,719 


1904 . 


591,974 


35,518 


473,563 


28,414 


1,065,537 


63,933 


1905 . 


492,991 


29,579 


311,496 


18,690 


804,387 


48,269 


1906 . 


325,821 


19,599 


231,443 


13,807 


557,264 


33.406 


1907 . 


573,337 


.34,400 


316,845 


19,011 


890,182 


53,4iT 


1908 


481,244 


,28,875 


346,231 


20,774 


827,475 


49,649 


1909 . . 


297,018 


17,821 


198,221 


11,893 


495,239 


29-714 


igio . . 


612,619 


38,288 


220,510 


13,783 


833.129 


42,071 



Owing to the heavy competition of Hong Kong and Java sugars in the 
Yangtse Valley and the harbours of North China, the formerly large Swatow 
exportation has sunk to a low figure. 

It may be taken for granted that about 22,000 acres are planted with 
cane in Swatow and that about 2,000 mills are engaged in sugar manufacture. 
These work, on an average, 100 days every year, and yield between 600 and 
1,000 piculs of sugar in harvest time. In the districts of Chfeng-hai cane 
is being bought by the sugar manufacturers from the planters, but in other 
districts where the plantations are more scattered each cane planter in his 
turn hires the mill and grinds his own sugar cane. 

The cane is planted in early spring, and is cut ten to twelve months later ; 
then three ratoon crops are reaped, each of which takes a year. Finally, the 

75 



Asia. 

roots are dug out, and the soil is planted with other crops. Oil cakes of soja 
beans are used as manure. 

2. Amoy 

In the districts of Tungan and Chang Chow most of the planting is done. 
The better kinds of sugar are exported to the northern harbours of China, 
to Tientsin and Shanghai, and the inferior kinds to Foochow, Ningpo, Cheefoo, 
and Newchang. 

The last-mentioned harbour exports much less than it used to do, for 
while in 1896 its exportation amounted to 278,761 cwts., in 1906 it had gone 
down to 79,352 cwts., no doubt in part owing to t]ie competition of Java, 
Hong Kong, and Japanese sugar. In 1909 the exportations of sugar amounted 
to 79,478 cwts., and in 1910 to as much as 123,322 cwts 

3. Canton, Kowloon, Lappa. 

The principal sugar producing districts used to be Waichow, Tsinshing, 
and Fungkow, but in consequence of bad crops, rebellion, and internal com- 
motions the sugar production in thesc'provinces has deteriorated, and they 
have ceased to be the important producers of yore. Formerly large quantities 
of sugar were exported from Waichow to Hong Kong, but this is no longer the 
case, and their only exportation of sweetstuffs is that of the sugar cane itself, 
which is sold as a dainty. The export trade in 1903 amounted to 7,336 cwts. 
of sugar, in 1906 only to 67, while in 1900 it was still 160,000 cwts 

4. KlUNGCHOW IN THE ISLAND OF HAINAN. 

Sugar is being produced in the Island of Hainan, South China, with Kiung- 
chow as an export harbour. This sugar, as well as the sugar brought from 
the opposite peninsula, Leichcw, is transhipped in steamers to Macao and 
Hong Kong. 

The exportation of raw sugar amounted to : — 

174,501 cwts. in 1897. 192,752 cwts. in 1901. 

120,041 ,, 1898. 294,803 ,, 1902. 

175,548 ,, 1899. 68,028 „ 1909. 

104,752 ,, 1900. 194,507 ,, 1910. 

5. Chunking, in the Proving? Szechuan. 

In addition to the provinces of the sea coast already mentioned, much 
cane is planted and sugar produced in Central China, on the banks of the 
Yangtse-Kiang. Here, too, manufacture is carried on as a home industry, 
and though the quantity of sugar produced may be very large, it is not possible 
to know the exact figures. The quantity of sugar exported to foreign parts 
is known ; but as this is only an inconsiderable portion of the total production, 
we might just as well leave it unmentioned. The kind of sugar is again of 
a light brown colour, or fine crystal sugar made white through draining off 
the molasses. 

Besides its own sugar, which, although we cannot quote the exact figures, 
seems to decrease instead of increasing, China demands more sugar, which 

76 



Japan. 

is imported from abroad, viz., brown sugar from Java and the Philippines ; 
white crystal and second sugar from Java ; and refined sugar from European 
countries, Hong Kong, and Japan. 

The import figures, both in piculs and in tons, have been for the last 
twentj? years as follows : — 



Year. 


Piculs. 


Tons. 


Year. 


Piculs. 


Tons. 


1891 . 


290,035 


17,402 


1901 . 


■ 2,564,787 . 


■ 153,867 


1892 . 


531,614 


■ 31,897 


1902 


. 4.473,222 . 


268,393 


1893 . 


■ 1.549.297 


• 92,958 


1903 . 


. 3,169,914 . 


• 190,195 


1894 . 


. 1,823,890 


• 109,433 


1904 . 


. 3,708,800 . 


222,528 


1895 . 


. 1,483.217 


■ 88,993 


1905 . 


. 4,496,164 . 


■ 367,770 


1896 . 


. 1,636,129 


98,168 


1906 . 


6,575,742 . 


• 394,544 


1897 . 


. 2,298,427 


■ 137,905 


1907 . 


. 5,095,100 . 


305,706 


1898 . 


. 1,813,202 


. 108,792 


1908 . 


. 4,129,080 . 


• 247,745 


1899 . 


• 2,077,959 


• 124,677 


1909 . 


■ 5,485,765 • 


329,196 


1900 . 


. 1,291,289 


• 77,474 


19T0 . 


• 4,255,543 ■ 


• 255,333 



Literature : 
C. Kraay. Sugar number of De Indische Mercuur. 
British and American Consular Reports. 
Imperial Maritime Customs Report. 



V. 

JAPAN. 

In the several islands which form part of Japan proper, sugar cane is cultivated 
and cane sugar prepared in a primitive way, which branch of industry has 
developed during the last few years. The principal sugar cane cultivating 
tract is found in the Riu-Kiu group, which extends to 24° N. Lat. In 
1902 the islands Okinawa, Miyako, and Jajeyania, all belonging to the 
same group, produced 19,788 tons of sugar, which quantity in 1908 rose to 
26,377 fons. Then the Oshima Islands, south of Hondo, have a yearly output, 
of 7,500 tons, and some sugar is grown in the northern islands, so that we 
can fix 40,000 tons for the local sugar production of Japan. 

Ihe sugar produced is brown, and is prepaied from juice in a very primi- 
tive way, and is used entirely in the island of its production, or is transported 
to Kagoshima and Osaka. 

We may expect some change for the better in this very primitive state 
of affairs, as a company with a capital of 2 million yen* has been floated, 
called the " Okinama Seito Kabushiki Kaisha," in order to plant sugar cane 

* : yen is about 2S id. 

77 



Asia. 

in the Riu-Kiu Islands, and to work it up according to modern practice. We 
do not possess any more details about this scheme, but as the Riu-Kiu Islands 
are not far from Formosa, where the sugar industry flourishes, it is quite 
possible that in these islands, too this branch of industry will do well, and 
contribute towards the realization of the Japanese economic ideal, i.e., to 
become independent of foreign countries as regards their sugar supply. 

It has not attained to this ideal state yet, but the island of Formosa has 
produced increasing quantities of sugar during the last five years ; while 
we notice a steady decrease in the importation of foreign sugar into Japan, 
which the following statistics show, and which during the present and future 
years may become still more pronounced : — 



Country 
of origin. 


1900 


1901 


1902 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


China 


666,996 


862,604 


223,008 


207,954 


271,489 


117,402 


114,044 


81,211 


111,972 


110,626 


9,460 


Hong Eoug . . . . 


1 217,947 


1,473,012 


411,708 


260 834 


347.880 


111 976 


46.414 


62,820 


75.877 


46,004 


27,277 


Philippines .. .. 


868,675 


534,776 


239, *77 


67i,198 


386,046 


62,221 


89,073 


269 648 


211,772 


93,684 


6,831 


The Netherlands 


— 


4,261 


669 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 






United States 


668 


1,176 


1,460 


2,799 


2 668 


5,142 


0,109 


6 116 


19,165 


4,464 


6,696 


Hawaii 


— 


— 


1,996 


2 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 






Germany . . . . 


479,118 


1,192,828 


639,649 


461,398 


166,106 


42,923 


203 684 


06,050 


29,820 


434 


31 


Great Britain . . 


1,602 


7,116 


676 


23 


11 


— 


— 


— , 


— 






Australia . . . . 


4,212 


— 


84 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 











AuBtria-Huugary 


439,162 


660,860 


177,952 


, 422,243 


28,072 


845 


65,669 


32,394 


6,326 


1 





Belgium . . . . 


13,969 


46,616 


22,917 


89,366 


— 


— 


6,48-J 


8 


— 


— 




British India 


8,173 


4,657 


26 


— 


3 


— 


— 


— 


— 








Dutch India.. .. 


447,991 


390.287 


476,191 


1,830,766 


2,642,lfl 


1,822.672 


3,186.910 


2 690,383 


2,863.903 


1,986,023 


1,954,101 


France 


171 


464 


454 


206 


235 


— 


; — 













Russia 


2,838 


17,270 


299 


25,379 


• 310,166 


2,'640 


3 


166 









Other Countries.. 


420,678 


342,778 


666 368 


816 


27 


1,762 


17,84« 


88,680 


6,266 


278 


160 


Total piculs . . 


4,045,785 


4,928,076 


2,661,212 


3,923,483 


4,104,753 


2,168,473 


3,786.127 


3,296 385 


3 323,641 


2,241,507 


2 003,446 


In Tons . . . . 


242,747 


296,685 


159,073 


235,409 


246 286 


130 108 


227,168 


197,783 


199,412 


134,490 


120,207 



The following table shows the imports into Japan from Formosa, and 
also the total imports : — 





Importations from 






Year. 


Foreign Countries. 


Formosa. 


iotai. 




Piculs. 


Tons. 


Piculs. 


Tons. 


Piculs.' 


Tons. 


1905 

1906 

1907 

1908 

1909 . . 

1910 


2,168,473 
3,786,127 
3,296,385 
3,323,541 
2,241,507 
2,003,446 


130,108 
227,168 

197,783 
199,412 

134,490 
120,207 


707,722 
1,090,079 

942,280 
1,035,356 
2,097,466 
3,099,616 


42,463 
65,405 
56,537 
62,121 
125,848 
185,977 


2,876,195 
4,876,206 
4,238,665 
4,358,897 
4,338,973 
5,103,082 


172,571 
292,573 
254,320 
261,533 
260,338 
306,184 



78 



Japan. 



The whole of this quantity is not consumed in Japan itself, for Japan 
exports a considerable amount of refined sugar. This exportation first became 
considerable after the war with China, and now yearly increases, as the following 
figures show " — 

Exports in tons of refined sugar and candy from Japan. 





1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1900 


1910 


Refined sugar 
Candy 


1,030 
374 

1,404 


14,831 
392 


50,610 
454 


14.803 
422 


17.145 
399 


29,249 
146 


41,481 
148 


Total . . 


15,223 


51,064 


15,225 


17,544 


29,395 


41,629 



The refined sugar is chiefly exported to China and Korea, while the exporta- 
tion to other countries is of little account. 

In 1907 the Japanese refineries began to work up Formosan sugar on a large 
scale ; the Kolagashi Refiners' Group melted 40,593 piculs (2,436 tons) of 
the total of 3,000,000 piculs (100,000 tons), which is the quantity usually melted 
in all the Japanese refineries. 

The reason why in the years preceding 1907 a comparatively small quan- 
tity of Formosan sugar was worked up in the refineries is to be found in the 
fact that this sugar generally was a brown concrete sugar, which was used 
for direct consumption, while the raw cane sugar from Java was more suitable 
for refining purposes. As Formosa is exporting more and more crystal sugar, 
a greater portion of it is being refined, which means a gradual decrease in 
the Java sugar importation. 

Import duty has to be paid on foreign sugar imported into Japan, which 
was levied until i6th July, 1911, as follows (in yen per picul) :. — 



I. 
2. 
3- 
4- 
After the termination of the commercial treaties the import duty became 
levied as follows : — 

1. Sugar below No. 11 D.S. . . . . 2-50 

2. Sugar from 11 — 15 D.S 3-10 

3. Sugar from 15—18 D.S 3-35 

4. Sugar from 18 — 21 D.S 4-25 

5. Candy 7-40 

6. Other kinds of sugar . . . . . . 4-65 

79 





General 


Conventional 




tariff. 


tariff. 


Sugar below No. 8 D.S. 


. . 1-65 


— 


Sugar from 8—15 D.S. 


2-25 


— 


Sugar from 15 — 20 D.S. 


3-25 


0748 


Sugar No. 20 and higher 


3-50 


0-827 



Asia. 



When sugar imported from abroad is used for direct consumption, the 
import duty is levied in full. But should the sugar be refined in Japanese 
refineries, and its produce be used for consumption in Japan, then the Govern- 
ment refunds a sum of 1-45 yen per picul sugar below No. 8, and a sum of 
1-95 yen per picul sugar from Nos. 8 to 15. This amount of money refunded 
is limited to 1,000,000 piculs, but i yen per picul is to be allowed on any excess 
above this quantity. The subsidy for the year 1910-11 to refiners in this way 
is estimated at 2,830,000 yen, or £288,896. When directly consumed, their 
own and Formosan sugar enjoys a privilege of 1-65 and 2-25 yen, according 
to its quality, and when refined a privilege of 1-65 yen— i'45 = 0'20 yen or 
2-25 — 1-95 = 0-30 yen per picul. One can understand that foreign sugar 
is used as much as possible for refining, while Formosan sugar is used for 
direct consumption. As Formosa is gradually producing more and more 
sugar, the amount of sugar gained will exceed the demand of unrefined sugar 
for consumption, and, consequently, the refineries will use a steadily increasing 
quantity of Formosan sugar for melting. It was decided to cancel the 
drawback of foreign raw sugar refined in Japan on ist April, 1912, on the 
ground that the new Customs tariff which came into force in July, 1911, will 
give sufficient protection against the competition of foreign sugar ; but we 
shall be surprised if the Japanese refiners, who have much to say in the matter, 
are not indemnified in some way or other for the loss. 

Besides the import duty on foreign sugar, Japan raises a consumptiop 
duty or excise on all sugar consumed in the country, which, consequently, 
has to be paid on imported as well as on native sugar. 

This nowadays (in yen per picul) amounts to : — 

Sugar below No. 8 D.S. : 



I. 



[a) 
(6) 



[e) 



Brown sugar in barrels . . 

Unrefined sugar, except centrifugalled 
or sugar other than refined, which has 
been manipulated, or made partially 
or entirely by modern machinery 

All others 



II. 
III. 
IV. 

V. 
VI. 



Sugar No. 8 — 15 D.S. . . 
Sugar, No 15—28 D.S. . . 
Sugar, No. 18 — 21 D.S. 
Sugar above No. 20 D.S. 
Candy, crystal, or sugar cubes 



2-50 

3 

5 

7 

8 

9 
10 



At the present time one pays on foreign refined sugar a total of 0-827 
+ 10 = 10-827 y^^ Psr picul, and on foreign sugar below No. 8, 1-65 + 3 
= 4-65 yen per picul duty when used for consumption. It follows that all 
these duties have caused sugar to be very expensive, and have also led to a 
system of protection which aims at enabling Japan, in conjunction with 
Formosa, eventually to supply her own wants in sugar. 

80 



TAIWAN OR FORMOSA. 




[Reproduced, by permission of the Controller of His Majesty's Stationary Office, from 
British Consular Report No. 3863 (1907) on Formosa.'] 



Formosa. 

For the rest, it will depend upon legislature whether Japanese Tefineries, 
strengthened by high home prices, shall come out first in the struggle with 
sugar refined in Hong Kong, in the Yangtse Valley, and with Russian sugar 
in Manchuria. As long as the present high protection holds goodi Japan 
will be able to supply the above-mentioned markets with refined sugar, and 
even extend the scope of her exportations ; but should the Government 
as is- said, reduce its protection, it may be possible yet for Japan to produce 
enough refined sugar for home consumption, but exportation abroad wHl 
be out of the question then. 

Literature : 
Report of the Netherlands Consul at Kobe. 
British and American Consular Reports. 



VI. 

FORMOSA. 



Although Formosa forms part of the Japanese Empire, and is politically 
united with it, her sugar industry is of quite a different character to that 
of the other Japanese islands, and for that reason we propose to treat of it 
separately. 

The Island of Formosa (Taiwan) lies in the China Sea betwden 2i° 45' 
and 25° 38' N. Lat. and 120° 10' — 122° E. Long. ; it is separated from the 
mainland by the Straits of Formosa. Its entire area covers 13,504 sq. miles. 
A mountain range runs through the island from north to south, which is flanked 
by two subsidiary ranges. The highest peak of the middle range is 13,600 ft. 
high, and that of the western range 9,290 ft. The highlands are rather rough, 
and are covered with woods, but in the south-west there is an extensive plain, 
which is well suited for agriculture, and here sugar is being cultivated. 

The west coast is richer in bays and harbours than the east coast, so 
that most of the towns are built on the former. Its climate is almost tropical, 
and dependent on the monsoons ; the month of February is the coldest, with 
an average temperature of 51-6° F. (10-9° C.) on the coast, and the month 
of July is the hottest, with an average temperature of 72-5° F. (22-5° C). 
The rainfall is very considerable, and in 1898 amounted for the town of Kelung 
to no less than 206 ins. 

Formosa, together with the Pescadores, on ist October, 1905 had a 
population of 3,039,751 inhabitants— 57,335 of which were Japanese, 8,973 
Chinese, 163 of other nationalities, 2,4q2,784 of Chinese origin from Fukin, 

81 F 



Asia. 

397,195 Chinese from Kantung, 506 from other parts of China, and 46,432 
semi-civilized and 36,363 uncivihzed savages. Of the latter about 35,076, 
or almost the entire number, live in the wild mountainous district of Taito, 
while the half-civilized tribes are found all over the islands. 

The population of the Pescadores at the date given was 56,327, 2,083 of 
which were Japanese. 

As Formosa is very narrow, being not more than seventy-seven miles 
wide, its rivers are short, and only the Dakusui and Tamsuikei are navigable. 
The network of railway, on the other hand, which, of course, is restricted to 
the western part of the island, is extensive, and joins the towns of Tainoku 
with Kelung, and with Tainan and Takao. 

Besides these public railways, there are extensive light railways on the 
plantations for the transportation of cane and sugar, amounting in all to 
220 miles ; they also connect the plantations with the main line. 

The sugar industry in Formosa dates from a long while back ; we find 
it mentioned that in 1622 the Dutch East Indian Company sent a cargo of 
796 piculs (48 tons) of Formosan powder sugar to the Netherlands, which dis- 
patch was now and then followed by others, till the flourishing state of the 
sugar cultivation in the West Indian colonies made the importation of East 
Indian sugar less profitable, and drove the Formosan sugar out of the western 
markets. In spite of this, the sugar industry in Formosa spread so that during 
the last years of Chinese dominion the sugar production amounted to 60,000 
to 80,000 tons every year. The greater part of this consisted of a soft brown 
finely-grained sugar, while only a small portion of the production was the 
so-called " white sugar." The latter kind was obtained by draining off the 
syrup from brown sugar, or by claying, and, consequently, was by no means 
the white sugar of the present day. 

When, in 1895, Formosa became part of the Japanese Empire, there were 
about 1,000 small factories, which were all worked by buffaloes and prepared 
brown or clayed sugar. Half this sugar was used for home consumption, and 
the rest was exported to China and Japan by Chinese traders. 

The species of cane that was mostly cultivated was a green variety that 
yielded little juice, but which had the advantage over a red type that was 
also grown in Formosa of never dying off, however much it was neglected, 
which was usually the case. This kind of cane, called " Tekchia," is reckoned 
to yield on an average 8 tons per acre (20,000 kg. per ha.) each crop. About 
45 per cent, of juice on the cane was obtained, while the rendement of moist 
brown sugar was 6 per cent, for the green sort of Tekchia, and 8 per cent, for 
the red kind, i.e., an average of 9^ cwts. per acre (1,200 kg. per ha.). 

Although the Japanese had seized the Island of Formosa, they found 
subduing it no easy task, as the inhabitants did not at all like the idea of coming 
under Japanese rule. First of all they founded a kind of republic, which, 
after a heavy struggle, was suppressed by the Japanese ; and only in 1898 
did the Japanese get possession of the island. In 1902 another armed rebellion 

82 



__-Ll 



Formosa. 

was suppressed ; but since then there has not been any further disturbance. 

Not till 1900 could the Japanese authorities find time to think of repairing > 
the damage done by the war, and of developing what resources the island 
could boast of ; but then they set to-work with a zest which ^nay be realized 
from the rapid way in which the sugar industry began to flourish. In June, 
1902, a law was promulgated for the encouragement of sugar cultivation, 
in consequence of which a Sugar Bureau was established in Tainan, to super- 
intend all affairs dealing with the sugar industry. The first work done by 
this office was to send out young Japanese students to countries where the 
sugar industry was at a high degree of development, especially in Germany, 
Java, and Hawaii, in order to study the industry thoroughly, and to report 
what might be of use for Formosa. At the same time, other varieties of cane 
were imported from foreign countries, planted in different places, and their 
peculiarities studied. 

The experimental station for the new cane was founded at Daimokko, 
and it was not long before some of the new species appeared to excel the cane 
planted hitherto in Formosa. The Striped Tanna and the Lahaina varieties 
yielded a very satisfactory product, but required great quantities of irrigation 
water and constant care, circumstances which were against their retention. 
The Rose Bamboo, imported from Hawaii, on the contrary, could stand a 
rougher treatment and an unsatisfactory water supply, and yet yield an output 
gratifying in all respects, so that the planting of this kind of cane was strongly 
recommended by the Sugar Bureau. 

Apart from this, sugar factories which were founded obtained during 
five years a GoverniAent subsidy of 6 per cent, yearly on the paid-up capital, 
or a lump subsidy of 20 per cent, on the value of factory and installation. 
There were other cases in which promoters borrowed machinery from the 
Government for five years, which meant that the Government paid for the 
machinery and claimed the money from the hirers only after five years had 
elapsed. The cane planters could also get land on very moderate terms, and 
even manure was gratuitously provided by the Government, on condition 
that the planters pledged themselves not to leave off sugar cultivation for 
the following five years. On ist April, 1911, most of these privileges were 
withdrawn. 

When these restrictions were being planned, the Taiwan Seito Kaisha. 
(Taiwan Sugar Company) was founded in 1900, with a Government subsidy 
of 60,000 yen for each of the first five years. The capital amounted to 500,000 
yen, and it was meant to work up purchased cane and export the sugar. This 
factory was ready in November, 1901, and began to grind, but the Chinese 
farmers soon appeared to be unwilling to sell cane to the factory, so 
' they resolved to plant cane for themselves. This led to an increase of the 
capital to i million yen. The company reckoned on producing 30 tons of sugar 
each day during the 150 crushing days, which would mean an output of 4,500 
tons each crushing season ; but the first year, 1902, realized only 20,000 piculs, 

83 



Asia. 

or 1,200 tons. This factory was favourably situated on the railway, halfway 
between Takao and Tainan, and, moreover, was privileged in only having 
to pay half of the tariff for having its goods conveyed by the State railway. 

At the san;e time, two factories belonging to Chinese were started through 
the assistance and pressure of the Government, both situated near Tainan. 
Chiefly owing to difficulties experienced when sugar cane was bought, and 
cilso because, they were not conversant with the modern kind of machinery 
thrust upon them, and, finally, because of quarrels with the experts of the 
Sugar Bureau, these two factories yielded little result, and all efforts to improve 
the sugar industry proved of no avail. The Chinese farmers refused to sell 
their cane to the manufacturers, and chose to grind it in their own buffalo 
mills in the old primitive way, so that the Government's plans to turn For- 
mosa into a second Java fell through. The natives, too, refused to plant the 
new kind of cane, although the tops for planting could be had gratis, and 
although they were provided with manure and irrigation facilities, and enjoyed 
a subsidy if they would only plant a better kind of cane than the rubbish 
they were hitherto wont to use. 

When all their efforts for encouragement, guidance, and instruction were 
opposed by the distrust and conservatism among the natives, the Japanese 
Government took stronger measures, and in June, 1905, issued a set of or- 
dinances to the following effect : — 

Anyone wishing to erect a modern sugar factory must first obtain permis- 
sion from the Director of the Sugar Bureau, who will mark out the district 
within which the applicant is to be allowed to buy sugar cane, and where no 
other sugar works may be started. Anyone planting sugar cane in that district 
is under obligation to sell it to the factory, and is not free to export it outside 
the district, nor to use it for any other purpose, so that the factory enjoys 
the monopoly of buying all the sugar cane planted there. On the other hand, 
the factory is bound to take aU the cane planted in the district, and is not free 
to refuse a part of the planting should the supply exceed their wants. Cane 
planters are not allowed to grind their cane in their own buffalo mills, unless 
permitted to do so, and as the Sugar Bureau means to promote modern methods 
of sugar cultivation, these licences are not easily granted. 

In some districts which have no cane cultivation of their own, large 
extensions of soil may be ceded free of cost to sugar undertakings. The only 
condition stipulated is that the factory should really work at a certain time 
with a capacity, arranged beforehand. When this is the case the land becomes 
the property of the factory as soon as it is entirely cultivated ; but should 
the concession not be acted on in good time, it is cancelled, and the factory 
has to be pulled down. 

These restrictions immediately influenced the industry for the better, 
for at the present day fifteen big companies, with a paid-in capital of more 
than ;^2,5oo,ooo sterling, manufacture sugar in the modern way in the Island 
of Formosa. 

84 



Formosa. 

In 1908 only two buffalo mills existed out of the 1,000 which were in 
use at the time of Japan's conquest of this island. There were, however, 
50 factories worked by steam, which ground 40 to 200 tons of cane every 
twenty-four hours ; and 11 big sugar works, 7 of which have a capacity of 
1,200 tons of cane per twenty-four hours, and 4 a capacity of 500 to 1,000 tons. 

During 1909, 1910, and 1911 a great many new factories were added, 
while for 1912 some more are under construction. At the present time (1911) 
29 big factories are in working, and g are under construction, all of them brand 
new, excellently fitted out, and equipped with the latest and most economical 
machinery by British, American and German firms. In November, 1910; 
it was announced that no more charters would be granted for the time being 
for the formation of sugar manufacturering companies, nor for the extension 
of existing mills, the object being to check the expected over-production of 
sugar in the island in excess of the demands of Japan for direct consumption 
and for refining, pending the opening of foreign markets. No period has 
been fixed for this limitation, which is, however, officially stated to be a tem- 
porary measure. 

All the land on the west side set apart for the sugar industry is divided 
among the big companies, while on the east side there are some 10,000 acres 
available for the stigar cane cultivation, which the Sugar Bureau is willing 
to dispose of should there be parties eager to apply. As the advantages on 
the east coast for navigation are few as compared with the west, plenty of 
ground remains to be disposed of, nobody having as yet applied for it. 

This change in the state of affairs has, of course, been opposed by the native 
farmers, so that the cane planted area of a district has, as a rule, gone down in 
the year following the allotting of ground to a factory ; but as soon as the 
farmers found that the produce of the cane sold to a factory exceeded that of 
other crops, they gradually fell back again on cane cultivation, the more so 
as it was advantageous owing to the Government's premium for planting 
Rose Bamboo cane. 

If the manufacturers are alive to their own interests, pay well for the cane, 
and advance money to the planters in order to help them through the bad time 
when the cane is still in the field, then the supply of cane will be so abundant 
that there is more chance of the factory being too smaU to hold it than of the 
raw material supply being insufficient. One should not forget that though 
the manufacturers have the monopoly as regards buying cane, the planters 
are not forced to plant it, so that should the factory offer too low a price 
the planters grow other crops than cane, and as the factory cannot import 
cane from other parts it cannot work at its full capacity, which, of course, 
must mean great loss to an industrial undertaking. For this very reason the 
cane price is kept high enough to be profitable for the planter, while it has 
to be approved of by the Government as well. 

85 



Asia. 

The factories built during the last four years have been erected without 
any subsidy or help from the Government, which shows the satisfactory state 
of affairs in Formosa, and the independent position of the manufacturers. 

In order to support the planters and to extend the Rose Bamboo cane 
cultivation, the Sugar Bureau provides manure to a value of 20 yen gratuitously 
for each koh* planted with this kind of cane, on condition that the planter 
himself puts 25 yen worth of manure (that is 45 yen in all) into the ground. 
The manure can be bought at net cost from the Sugar Bureau, and paid for 
after the harvest is reaped, and no interest will be charged. 

In consequence of these favourable stipulations, the cultivation of Rose 
Bamboo has much improved, and this kind of cane now forms 75 per 
cent, of the total plantation, which will' soon consist of this variety altogether. 
While the average production of the old variety of cane used to amount to 
8 tons to the acre with a rendement of 6 per cent, of brown soft sugar, the 
average output of Rose Bamboo per acre is 14 tons, 11 per cent, of which is 
turned into centrifugal sugar : that is 30 cwts. of crystallized sugar against 
gi cwts. of an inferior product of times past, which fetched only two-thirds 
the price. 

Owing to the energy of the Sugar Bureau, the produce per acre has become 
five times as much as it used to be, both to the profit of the planter and that 
of the manufacturer ; while the Government, through the consumption duty, 
has also benefited by it. In 1909 60,987 koh, or 169,018 acres, land were 
planted with sugar cane in Formosa ; while the figures for 1910 are 90,000 koh, 
or 220,512 acres. 

Irrigation in Formosa is still very primitive, and the plantations have 
to depend chiefly on rain. Fortunately, the two monsoons in the south are 
fairly regular, and one can be sure of much rain during the period from June 
to September, and of a dry period between the months of November and April, 
sq that cane can grow from January till October, and ripen afterwards. The 
climate of the north is not nearly so favourable, and that is why most of the 
small and all the big sugar undertakings are found crowded together in the 
south. 

The native farmers plough the land most unsatisfactorily with wooden 
ploughs, but the more modern undertakings employ steam ploughs, which 
turn over the soil thoroughly. The cane grows for one year, and is planted 
afresh every year, without keeping ratoons. The crushing season begins in 
November, and is over in May or in June at the latest, so that it amounts 
to 150 grinding days. 

The plant of the old-fashioned factories, as is everywhere the case with 
primitive installations, consists of a battery of open pans placed over an open 
fire, together with earthenware pots, in which the massecuite is cooled and 
clayed, the product consisting of a soft fine brown or whitish sugar. The 

* I koh = 2*45 acres or o'ggij hectare. 

86 



Formosa. 

modern factories are up-to-date with crushers, ^ills, clarifiers, filter-presses, 
quadruple effects, vacuum pans, crystallization-in-motion plant, centrifugals 
and sugar dryers. Their produce is centrifugal sugar, colour No. 15 — 16 D.S., 
chiefly for exportation while the exhausted molasses is sold to the natives. 

Bagasse is used as fuel, to which Japanese coal, delivered at the factory 
for £1 15s. per ton, is added if necessary. 

The factories nowadays generally pay 3 yen (6s. zjd.) per 10 piculs* 
cane, and obtain about 11 per cent, of sugar out of it, so that a picul of sugar 
costs 273 yen in raw material. When we allow i yen for manufacturing 
cost, and 0-50 yen for other expenses, and another 0-50 yen for transportation, 
etc., then the price of the sugar at the factory will cojne to 473 yen = 9s. gjd. 
Add to this 5 yen for consumption duty (which is very seldom paid in full), 
the cost price increases to 973 yen = £1 os. ijd. per picul. As the price in 
Japan, however, is as high as 13 yen, it is evident that when transport costs 
and other expenses are deducted, a considerable profit is still left to the sugar 
manufacturers. 

The amount of 3 yen per 10 piculs paid to the planters comes to 70 yen 
per acre, at a production of 234 picul (14 tons) per acre ; whereas the planters, 
when they had worked up the cane to brown sugar in their old-fashioned way, 
would never have made more than 48 yen net profit, and had they treated the 
old Tekchia cane, certainly not more than 24 yen per acre. Although the 
manufacturers are able to obtain more profit, the planter is none the worse 
for this new system as his gain also increases, which is simply due to a greater 
amount of raw material yielded by the same area, and to a better production 
of better paid sugar,, achieved with very little more trouble and expense. 

At the time of the Chinese dominion the sugar trade of Formosa rested 
entirely with Chinese and British merchants. The Chinese Government 
raised an export duty of 18 cents (4jd.) per picul, and the sugar was sent to 
China and Japan, where it was consumed. 

During the years 1897 — 1901 the exportation amounted to 34,000 tons 
on the average from Anping only, while that from Kelung was of little im- 
portance. 

In 1901 both consumption duty and import duty were raised on sugar 
in Japan, and as Formosa forms part of the Japanese Empire, the sugar sent 
straight, to Japan for consumption was exempted from import duty. 

For this reason it was easy for Formosan sugar to supplant imported 
brown and white sugar for consumption, and as their own country people 
had less difficulty in importing sugar than foreigners had, the trade in Formosan 
sugar soon fell into the hands of Japanese merchants in Yokohama and Kobe, 
and the Chinese had to withdraw. The importation into Japan was further 
promoted by an import duty on sugar destined for foreign countries of 0-50 yen 
(is. ojd.) per picul. 

* I Japanese picul= 133-33 lbs. or 60-5 kg. 

87 



Asia. 

Later on, in 1906, this was changed into 0-45 yen per picul brown sugar,. 
and 0-50 yen per picul white sugar, but as no Formosan sugar was exported, 
this export duty did not at first amount to much. 

As, however, sugar manufacturers looked for foreign markets for Formosa 
sugar, they raised an agitation, in consequence of which the export duties 
were abolished in November, igio. 

The original consumption duty raised in 1901 was increased in 1906 — 
a year of trouble — and also in 1908, and was modified again in 1909. 

The amounts were, in yen per picul, as follows : — 





1901 


1906' 


Sugar below No. 8 D.S. 


I- 


3- 


„ from 8—15 D.S. 


1-6 


5-50 


from 15 — 20 D.S. 


2-2 


8-50 


„ above 20 and candy . . 


2-8 


10- 



In 1909 there was a different kind of classification, and the consumption 
duty was levied as follows : — 



Class I. Sugar below No. 8 D.S. : 

Brown sugar in barrels 

Other kinds 
,, II. Sugar between No. 8 and 15 
„ III. „ „ No. 15 and 18 

„ IV. ,, „ No. 18 and 20 

,, V. ,, above No. 20 

Candy, crystal sugar, cubes 



2 yen 
3 

5 



9 
10 



In April, 1911, the duty on the sugar from Class I. was changed as follows :- 

[a) Brown sugar in barrels . . . . 2-00 yen 

(h) Unrefined sugar, except centrifugalled 2-00 ,, 
(c) All others . . . . . . . . 3-00 ,, 



When imported into Japan for direct consumption, the Formosan sugar 
enjoys the full protection of the Japanese import duty, and when imported 
for refining purposes that of the difference between the import duty and the 
drawback. There have been complaints about too low a classification of the 
consumption duty on Formosan sugar by the Customs officers, who reckon 
Formosan sugar to belong to a lower class for the payment of duty 
than should be the case. How far there is cause for these complaints, 
and how far this cause, if any, will continue to exist it is difficult to say ; but 
even without this privilege the Formosan sugar has a great advantage over 
other kinds of sugar when imported into Japan proper, and so it becomes clear 

88 



Formosa. 

that so long as Japan is able to take it up, the entire Formosan sugar exporta- 
tion is bound for Japan, and only the surplus will be sent to other countries. 
In 1911 some 10,000 tons of Formosan sugar have actually been shipped to other 
places than Japan, e.g., to China, Korea, Canada, and Hong Kong ; but as 
the 1912 crop will be rather short, owing to hurricanes that befell the cane 
in August, it is very ' improbable that such exportation will take place in 
19 1 2 as well. 

It is difficult to get the exact figures for the total production of Formosan 
sugar, as nobody knows for certain how much of the brown sugar prepared 
in the second-rate factories is consumed in the island itself. It is easier to 
get at the figures of exportation, which show that a rapid increase in the sugar 
production has been brought about by Japan's promotion of the sugar trade 
The figures are as follows : — 

Formosan Sugar in tons. 



1901/02 






46,893 


1902/03 






32,992 


1903/04 






58,968 


1904/05 






49.565 


1905/06 






63,359 


1906/07 






81,448 


1907/08 






68,450 


1908/09 






122,000 


1909/10 






160,000 


I9I0/II 






256,950 



Of the 256,950 tons sugar produced in 1910/11, 59,000 tons were brown 
sugar, and the rest centrifugal sugar. The first-mentioned sugar exceeded the 
quantity exported in former years, as almost all Philippine sugar is now sent to 
the United States because of the exemption from import duty there, so that 
there is more room for Formosan sugar in Japan. For this reason a number 
of licences was taken out a couple of years ago for the foundation of small 
factories for brown sugar, which may lead to an increase in the quantity at 
which it is now estimated. 

The main increase, however, is due to the improved production of crystal 
sugar. There is a constant addition of newly installed factories, while the 
existing ones increase their production by turning their capacity to better 
account, so that the importation of Formosan crystal sugar annually improves, 
and may continue to do so. 

According to the Dutch Consul's report at Kobe, there were in 1910 
15 big sugar estates existing in the island of Formosa, 8 of which ran a number 
of factories installed on the most modern plan, while the other 7 were hastening 
to build factories for the rapid preparation of centrifugal sugar. Besides 
the tracts marked out by the Sugar Bureau as fields of operation for the big 
estates with their modern factories, there are stiU a number of old-fashioned 

89 



Asia. 



sugar factories, which, provided with new machinery, manufacture exclu- 
sively brown sugar. 

The modern estates are capitalized as follows, and have the number of 
factories mentioned either already at their disposal, or else under construc- 
tion : — 





Capital in million Ven. 


Number 


Production 




Name. 






of 
Factorie.s. 


in 
Piculs 


In Tons. 












Nominal. 


Paid-up. 




1909-10. 




Taiwan Seito Kaisha 


10 


6-9225 


5 


650,000 


39,000 


Meizi Seito Kaisha 


5 


2-5 


3 


150,000 


9,000 


Toyo Seito Kaisha 


5 


2-5 ^ 


2 


150,000 


9,000 


Ensuiko Seito Kaisha 


5 


1-5 


3 


240,000 


14,400 


Takasago Seito Kaisha 


2-5 


0-625 


I 


— 


— 


Dai Nippon Seito Kaisha . 


12 


4 


2 


200,000 


12,000 


Niitaka Seito Kaisha 


5-5 


1-25 


4 





— 


Hokko Seito Kaisha 


2-5 


— 


I 





— 


Rinhogen Seito Kaisha 


2-5 


2-5 


I 


— 


— 


Formosa Sugar Dev. Co. . 


0-8 


0-8 


I 


100,000 


6,000 


Shinko Seito Kaisha 


0-6 


0-6 


I 


70,000 


4,200 


Shinchiku 


0-3 


— 


I 


— 


— 


Bain & Co. . . 


0-3 


0-3 


I 


40,000 


2,400 


Cada Seito Kaisha . . 


0-2 


0-2 


I 


— 


— 


Byoritsu 


0-5 


0-125 


I 


- — 


— 




1,600,000 


96,000 



According to the same authority, the total grinding capacity of the modern 
undertakings amounted to 10,400 tons per twenty-four hours for the crushing 
season 1909/10 ; but this was increased to 17,000 tons of cane for the year 
1910/11, so that this latter season yielded the already-mentioned quantities 
of 197,480 tons of crystal, and 59,000 tons of soft sugar. The construction of 
more factories is under way, so that, if the weather had not been too unfavour- 
able, in the year 1911/12 Formosa would have produced an amount of sugar 
equal to that required by Japan for supplying her own wants, in addition 
to her own production of 1,000,000 piculs (60,000 tons). 

It is certain that Formosa will not be satisfied with this success, and will 
aspire after greater things, and endeavour to export her produce to other 
countries, either as raw sugar or as sugar refined in Japan. 

We must not lose sight of the fact that the success achieved is greatly 
due to the Government's powerful patronage, and the preferential treatment 
accorded to Formosan sugar in Japan. The industry may, of course, lose all 

90 



The Philippines. 

these privileges before long, in which case the pVesent state of affairs may 
change altogether ; but we must not forget how in Europe at the time of the 
sugar bounties refined sugar could be exported to foreign countries by the 
levying of a high surtax and a clever co-operation of sugar refiners 
and merchants. , 

The possibility of a great export trade in Formosan sugar depends on 
Japanese inland politics, so that we cannot say anything certain about it. 
We may predict, however, that Formosa will produce after 1912 a quantity 
of sugar large enough to supply Japan's wants, and for the rest we must leave 
things to the future. 

Literature : 

Summary of the Administration in Taiwan (Formosa). 
Report of the British Consul at Tamsui, 1909. 
Report of the Netherlands Consul at Kobe, 1910. 
British, German and American Consular Reports. 



VII. 

THE PHILIPPINES. 

I. — Geographical Conditions, Population and 
Modes of Communication. 

The group of islands called the Philippines lies in the Pacific Ocean, south- 
east of the Chinese Empire, between 4° 10' and 21° 10' N. Lat., and 116° 40' 
and 126° 53' E. Long. It consists of no fewer than 3,140 different islands, 
greatly varying in size, which in all cover 127,853 sq. miles of land. 
The names and areas of the principal islands are as follows : — 



Mindanao . 






. . 46,721 sq. miles 


Luzon 






■• 44.235 




Samar _ 






■■ 5.448 




Palawan . 






■ ■ 5.037 




Panay 






.. 5,103 




Negros 






.. 4.854 




Leyte 






.• 4,214 




Mindoro . 






.. 4.108 




Cebu 






.. 1.782 




Masbate . 
Bohol 






.- 1.732 
.. 1,614 





91 



Asia. 

But we must not forget to mention that these numbers stand for the combined 
areas of the bigger and the neighbouring islands. As a whole, the Philippines 
group is intersected by mountain ridges of a volcanic nature, which continue 
under the sea, and join the different islands coherently together. The islands 
possess some fifty volcanoes, active and partly extinct, while the country is^ 
always subject to earthquakes. The highest volcanoes are Apa, near Davao 
Bay in Mindanao (10,331ft.), and Mayon, on Luzon, (8,970 ft.). 

The coasts of the island are much indented, and are rich in favourable 
landing places. The principal harbour is Manila, in Luzon, with a splendid 
bay, which is sheltered from the fiercest typhoons by a breakwater, and, 
consequently, is a safe port for large ships in the worst weather. The bay 
is so deep that ocean vessels with full cargo can advance as far as the Pasi 
River. Other important harbours are those of Cebu and Iloilo, while the 
numerous islands can point to many other ports which are noted for their 
navigable rivers. Both owing to the mountainous nature and the considerable 
rairifall of these islands, a great many rivers exist which are of considerable 
width but of only moderate length. 

The streams descending from the mountains carry along the disintegrated 
deposit of volcanic stones, and fill the hollows between the mountain ridges 
with them, so that broad vaUeys of very fertile soil are created, which form 
the banks of the river. In many cases the rivers inundate the surrounding 
country in the rainy season, and cover it with a layer of mud, which occurrence 
stops aU traffic on the spot when it is raining. The Rio Grande de Mindanao, 
which with its numerous tributaries drains the extensive inland, is one of the 
principal rivers, and joins the sea at the port of Cotta Bato, on the Celebes 
Sea. Further, there is in Mindanao the Agusan River ; in Luzon the Cagayan 
River, which flows out at Aparri into the Chinese Sea ; and the Panay River, 
in Panay ; and many others. The three first-mentioned are navigable to 
a great distance from their mouths, but only for small steamers. 

Although the Philippine Islands are in the tropics, their meteorological 
conditions vary so much that it is impossible to give any general data as regards 
climate. On the whole, one can describe the sea coast climate' as moderate 
between November and the beginning of March, fairly hot in March, July, 
August and September, and extremely hot in April, May and June. The 
nights, however, are always cool. The temperature in the mountains, of 
course, is lower than at the coast, and greatly depends on the elevation above 
sea level, so that fixed data are out of the question. The average monthly 
temperature varies between 25° C. in January and 28-3° C. in May. The 
yearly rainfall is on an average 74 ins., 50 of which fall in the months of July, 
August, September, and October, and the rest during the other eight months. 

92 



as 



The Philippines. 

The monthly mean temperature for a period of twenty years is for Manila 
follows expressed in degrees Centigrade ; — 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


March 


April 


May 


June 


July 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Mean 


1883 . 


• 25-2 


25-6 


277 


28-2 


287 


27-1 


267 


27-4 


26-5 


26-5 


26-0 


24-1 


26-6 


1884 . 


• 23-6 


247 


26-4 


27-8 


28-2 


27-0 


26-3 


26-5 


26-6 


26-6 


25-9 


24-3 


26-2 


1885 . 


. 24-6 


24-4 


26-1 


27-3 


28-5 


28-3 


27-3 


27-1 


27-6 


27-3 


26-4 


25-2 


267 


1886 . 


• 25-2 


247 


26-4 


28-3 


28-5 


27-5 


27-0 


27-5 


27-1 


26-6 


26-0 


24-9 


26-6 


1887 . 


• 25-2 


25-3 


267 


277 


277 


27-6 


27-1 


27-3 


26-3 


26-4 


26-1 


25-4 


26-6 


1888 . 


• 24-9 


25-2 


27-5 


287 


29-2 


27-8 


26-1 


27-2 


27-6 


26-3 


26-5 


26-0 


26-9 


1889 . 


• 25-8 


26-4 


27-5 


29-4 


30-3 


287 


27-5 


27-3 


27-5 


27-1 


26-5 


24-0 


27-4 


1890 . 


25-6 


25-9 


27-3 


27-9 


27-9 


27-3 


27-3 


27-4 


26-5 


26-1 


25-4 


25-2 


26-6 


189I . 


24-6 


25-0 


267 


28-6 


29-8 


27-6 


26-8 


26-6 


26-8 


27-4 


26-3 


25-5 


26-8 


1892 . 


25-3 


26-0 


27-1 


28-0 


28-8 


28-1 


27-3 


27-0 


267 


27-1 


25-8 


25-0 


26-9 


1893 . 


24-1 


25-4 


26-5 


28-3 


27-8 


277 


27-3 


277 


26-6 


26-5 


257 


25-4 


26-6 


1894 . 


247 


25-0 


26-6 


28-2 


28-0 


277 


27-2 


27-3 


26-8 


26-9 


25-6 


25-0 


26-6 


1895 . 


247 


25-1 


267 


28-3 


28-0 


27-8 


27-5 


27-1 


26-9 


27-5 


25-8 


25-1 


267 


1896 . 


24-6 


25-8 


27-2 


28-4 


27-6 


28-0 


27-3 


26-4 


27-2 


27-2 


26-4 


25-3 


26-8 


1897 . 


257 


26-3 


277 


29-0 


29-4 


29-5 


27-5 


27-1 


27-2 


27-3 


26-8 


25-5 


27-4 


1898 . 


25-5 


26-2 


26-3 


27-9 


28-2 


27-6 


267 


27-3 


27-2 


26-9 


26-1 


257 


26-8 


;n899 . 


25-3 


25-0 


257 


27-9 


28-1 


27-5 


27-0 


27-0 


27-3 


27-0 


25-8 


257 


26-6 


1900 . 


25-1 


26-0 


27-5 


28-9 


29-8 


28-3 


277 


27-4 


27-5 


27-2 


26-5 


25-5 


27-3 


1901 . 


25-3 


25-2 


26-6 


28-4 


28-9 


28-3 


27-6 


26-8 


277' 


27-0 


26-4 


25-0 


26-9 


1902 . 


25-4 


24-0 


267 


28-1 


28-8 


28-2 


27-2 


27-0 


267 


28-8 


26-1 


25-8 


267 


Average 


25-0 


25-4 


26-8 


28-3 


28-6 


27-9 


27-1 


27-1 


27-0 


26-9 


26-1 


25-2 


26-8 



The period of rainfall for the different places depends on their position 
as regards, the mountain ridges, which stop the trade-winds, and so force them 
to yield up their moisture. That is why on the west coast of the islands they 
have dry weather from November till May, and a rainy season from June till 
October. On the east coast, on the other hand, the period between November 
and May is noted for its rainfall, but during the months between June and 
October there is not nearly so much rain as on the west coast. This refers 
to the mountainous parts of the islands, while in the plains, which are exposed 
to wind and not sheltered by mountain ranges, they have a very regular rainfall. 

The Philippine .Islands are not far away from the t3rphoon area, which 
makes the Chinese Seas unsafe. The typhoons usually come on between the 
months of April and October, especially in September. An up-to-date and 
well-established observatory in Manila foretells their approach through baro- 
metric indications derived from a great number of stations, and warns all 
the harbours that shipping may be aware of the impending danger. On land 

93 



Asia. 

the typhoons do hardly any damage, and axe not nearly so disastrous in their 
effects as the hurricanes are in Mauritius or in the islands of the Caribbean 
Sea. 

The population of the Philippine Islands, according to the census of 1903, 
amounted to 7,635,426, 6,987,686 of whom were Christians and the rest Moham- 
medans and heathen ; the density is, therefore, only 60 per sq. mile. The 
population is densest in the province of Ilicos Sur, with 414, and in the provinces 
of Cebu and Pangasinan with 337 inhabitants per sq. mile ; while the extensive 
island of Mindanao has only 15 inhabitants per sq. mile. 

Besides the old-established railway from Manila to Dagapan, about 720 
miles of railway have been constructed in the Philippine Islands during the 
last few years, to connect the best harbours with the most fertile part of the 
interior ; 430 miles of them are constructed in the isle of Luzon, and about 
300 miles in the Viscaya group, namely, Cebu, Negros, and Panay. In Negros 
the port of Escalente, in the north, is connected with San Juan de Hog harbour, 
on the west coast, via the richest sugar country of the Philippines. In Cebu 
the Danao railway runs through densely populated parts along the east coast 
for 80 miles southward ; while in Panay the important harbour of Iloilo, in 
the south, is connected with the ports of Capiz and Batan, in the north, by 
a main line of 95 miles and a branch line of 20 miles. 

The isle of Luzon is, however, developing the most extensive railway 
system. First of aU, on the most southern peninsula a railway is being con- 
structed from Pasacoa to Albay with branch lines through the principal hemp- 
producing parts of the island. From Manila there is already a railway running 
to Dagapan, which is being extended in a northern direction to Loagag. Then 
a smaller line goes from Dagapan to the summer resort of Baguio, situated 
at a height of 5,000 ft. ; and, finally, Manila is going to have some more railway 
connections with the interior, and a main line in a southern direction to Cavite, 
Batangas, and Laguna on the south coast. All these lines are either finished 
or under construction, and will soon bring the principal productive parts of 
these populous islands into touch with the harbours in a convenient and in- 
expensive way. 

After the Americans took possession of the Philippines, not only the 
railways, but also the main roads were taken note of and improved, as their 
condition under Spanish rule left much to be desired, especially m the rainy 
season. 

Although sugar cane is used everywhere on the inhabited islands of the 
Philippine group as a dainty, a regular sugar industry only exists in the islands 
of Negros, Cebu, Luzon, and Leyte, covering 250,000 acres of ground, and 
producing 207,219 tons of sugar for export in igii. 



94 



The Philippines. 

11. — History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

The sugar cane itself and the art of preparing sugar therefrom was most 
probably introduced into the Philippine Islands by the Chinese, as many 
of the names of implements and the customs there in use point distinctly to- 
a Chinese origin. When Magellan, in 1521, discovered these islands,he already 
found a sugar industry in existence on a small scale, but entirely similar to 
the Chinese system, and its product likewise similar to the Chinese product, 
which fact points undoubtedly to the Chinese origin of this branch of industry. 

Pope Alexander VI., in 1493, in order to prevent discord between the 
rivals Spain and Portugal, divided the world into two parts, and, according 
to the treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, allotted to Portugal all the newly discovered, 
as well as the unknown countries, east of the meridian, which passes 470 miles 
west of the Cape Verd Isles ; while Spain got everything lying west of this 
line. Charles the Fifth sent out the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan, who 
had- enlisted with the Spanish, to navigate in a western direction, reach the 
Moluccas, and take possession of them, as they lay west of the dividing line. 
On this expedition round the southern point of America, Magellan discovered 
the Philippine Islands, to which, however, no further attention was paid 
till 1564, when a Spanish expedition set sail from Mexico, and in 1565 claimed 
these islands in the name of the King of Spain. It took some time before 
the possession was sufficiently confirmed, but, apart from a short period of 
British dominion between the years 1762 and 1764, the Philippine Islands 
continued under Spanish rule till 1898, when they fell to the United States. 
In the year 1896, in consequence of the Spanish oppression, revolutionary 
outbreaks were prevalent, but were forcibly suppressed by the Spanish Govern- 
ment. The insurgents invoked the help of the Americans, who were then 
waging war -with Spain. This led to the destruction of the Spanish fleet in 
the harbour of Manila in 1898, and to the final conquest of that town by the 
Americans on August 13th of the same year. It was, however, not the wish 
of the revolutionaries to substitute an American government for a Spanish, 
and so they proclaimed an independent national government, but were soon 
driven out by the Americans, who had taken possession of the group of islands. 
During the Spanish regime not much attention was paid to the develop- 
ment of the resources of these islands ; the Spaniards were keener on building 
churches and convents than on the construction of roads or the development 
of the means of livelihood and the facilitation of industry. The religious 
Orders had become increasingly powerful, and were the proprietors of consider- 
able plots of land, which they allowed the natives to cultivate. These Orders 
were far from desirous to suppress the population ; they were kind and con- 
siderate, and aimed at nothing but the welfare of their proteges ; but they 
could not be expected to achieve great things, nor to take a broad view in 
business matters; consequently, the state of the industry remained most 
primitive. 

95 



Asia. 

That the general state of the country was not bad appears from the fairly 
rapid increase inpopulation, which from 667,612 people in 1591 rose to 7,635,426 
in 1903 — a tenfold increase was thus attained in 400 years. In 1871 the newly- 
appointed Governor-General claimed both corvee and taxes, which caused 
*much anger and friction among the population, and, in conjunction with 
many other grievances as regards despotism and incapacity on the side of 
the Spanish rulers, led to the loss of the Philippine Islands in the end. 

The Philippines were not of any importance as a sugar producing country 
till after 1849, in which year the island Negros, by command of the Spanish 
Governor-General, was placed under the jurisdiction of the religious Order of 
the Recoletos, one of the three communities of the Minorites. The governor 
encouraged the sugar industry very much, and was unexpectedly assisted 
by an increase in sugar prices through the Crimean war, so that it became 
profitable to cultivate sugar for export purposes in Negros, Luzon and Cebu. 

In spite of the bad roads, the unskilfulness of the sugar planters, the 
lack of capital, and the primitive mills and factory installations, the sugar 
exportation rapidly gained in importance to reach during the last years of 
the Spanish Government, in 1893, its greatest output of 261,686 tons. Through 
a financial crisis in consequence of a fall in the price of silver, and later on 
through friction and turbulence, the industry went down in 1901 to as low 
as 52,274 tons, but has since gradually increased to 207,219 tons in 1911. 

Immediately after the United States had taken possession of the Philip- 
pines, they tried hard to promote the well-being of the islands. They improved 
the sanitary conditions everywhere, looked after transportation facilities and 
harbours, began to construct an extensive railway system, put the educa- 
tion of the natives on a sound basis, and opened up possibilities for getting 
credit cheaply, all of which measures will perforce influence the sugar 
industry for the better when once this influence becomes felt. Up to 
then the greatest obstacles to a rapid development of the sugar industry had 
been the poverty of the manufacturers and their dependence on money- 
lenders, and a lack of good roads. All the sugar factories are small, and 
installed in a primitive and uneconomical way, and are in the habit of losing 
enormous quantities of sugar through the very bad system of juice extraction 
and evaporation in open pans, and curing in' earthenware pots. It is not only 
that the manufacturers are unable to obtain their sugar in a more rational 
and profitable way, but they are also much in debt to the sugar buyers in 
the seaport towns, so that large sums must be deducted for interest from 
the price of sugar provided before there can be any thought of profit. 

On the west -coast of Negros, the seat of the large sugar estates, there 
are no seaports for ships, so that the sugar from each factory has first to be 
taken to Iloilo in small sailing vessels, to be there laded into steamers. By 
constructing a railway on Negros the object is to put the sugar districts in 
direct communication with, the harbours of the island, and, consequently, 
to avoid the difficulty of re-loading. 

q6 



The Philippines. 

Although the American Government has put some funds at the disposal 
of native peasants as credit, this has had hardly any effect : first of all, 
because the sums advanced were not far-reaching enough ; and, secondly, 
because the Filipinos feel too much the pressure of money-lenders to avail 
themselves without restraint of this State assistance ; and we must not forget, 
either, the national dislike for all that is new. 

Besides the indirect help, the Government of the United States, in 1902, 
allowed a drawback of 25 per cent, of the import duties on all sugar imported 
into the territory of the United States from the Philippine Islands. 

This has not been of much avail, as, to judge from the figures representing 
the exportation of Philippine sugar, only very little has been imported into 
the States since. As a matter of fact, the sugar is of such inferior quality 
and is so impure that only a few of the American refiners can handle it, and 
then only in small quantities together with a much larger amount of better 
raw sugar. Most of the Philippine sugar is sent to the neighbouring countries 
of China and Japan, where the far less fastidious population like to eat it in 
the raw state. 

This privilege, therefore, has not led to much, and that is why, in 1909, 
it was extended- by a clause to the effect that each year the quantity of 300,000 
tons of, sugar was to be allowed to be imported exempt from duty into the 
United States, but that full import duty had to be paid on aU sugar above 
that quantity. A restricting stipulation has been added to prevent some 
first-rate manufacturer from establishing gigantic factories in the Philippine 
Islands, grinding his cane very early, sending the sugar in fast steamers to 
America, and thus getting his sugar imported free from duty ; while the less 
enterprising native manufacurers, who lag behind, would enjoy none of 
these privileges. 

According to this stipulation, only those estates will be privileged that 
are likely to export less than 500 tons sugar a year, while those that wish to 
exceed the amount of 500 tons will be considered last. Further restrictions 
involve a thorough investigation as regards the identity of the privileged 
exporter to ensure that he who comes in for protection shall have produced 
the sugar himself, and not act as a go-between for a leading manufacturer. 
The obj ect is clear : the small manufacturer is always to have the first benefit of 
free importation. As the existing production, however, only forms two-thirds 
of the quantity allowed free from duty, and a good kind of sugar (basis 96°) 
is much more welcome to the American refiners than the present universally 
manufactured Philippine mat-sugar, we may suppose that should large factories 
be erected according to modern methods,, they will be able to import their 
sugar exempt from import duty into the United States, and it will be some 
time before the American industry in the Philippines will increase sufficiently 
to attain to or even exceed the limit of 300,000 tons allowed by America. 

Most of this imported sugar will, no doubt, be sugar polarizing 96°, and 
it will be a long time before the conservative small manufactuter will produce 

97 . ^ 



Asia. 

this kind on such a large scale that his part in the importation of sugar into 
the United States can be so considerable as to cause uneasiness to the central 
factories that may be estabhshed later on. 

Up to three years ago there was a restriction which made it difficult for 
American concerns to start large sugar establishments in the Philippines. 
This restriction was to the effect that a single person was not allowed to occupy 
more than 40 acres, and a company to occupy more than 2,500 acres ; accord- 
ing to American ideas it was an impossibility to found a proper sugar enter- 
prise on so small a tract of land. This seems to be no longer a restriction, as 
the Government sells larger plots of ground, which, when the Americans took 
possession of the islands, belonged to religious Orders, and have since been 
bought from them. In a similar manner an agent of an American corporation 
bought in 1909 no less than 55,000 acres of friar land in the isle of Mindoro 
for the sum of $361,000 ; and Hawaiian sugar planters have bought 20,000 
acres from the Calamba convent in the province of Laguna, in Luzon, in order 
to establish a sugar undertaking on that spot, which by rail and boat is con- 
nected with Manila. 

The corporation just mentioned has already formed a company named 
the Mindoro Development Company, which has built a sugar factory on the 
site. So we may expect great things of the Philippine Islands in the near 
future. 



III. — Cane Cultivation and Sugar Manufacture. 

In the Philippines it is the custom to burn the. trash, and to plough up 
the soil immediately after the cane is reaped, or as soon as the weather permits. 
This is chiefly done with inefficient wooden ploughs, although gradually superior 
American iron ploughs have been introduced, allowing of a better tillage. 
After the big lumps have been broken by a harrow, the furrows are dug 6 ins. 
deep, and at 30 — 60 ins. distance from centre to centre. All this happens 
in the months between November and April in soil that has just been planted 
■with cane ; in the case of tilling fallow land the work is begun in July or 
August, in order to have everything ready for the time of planting. For 
planting purposes one takes the white tops of the cane, in most cases first 
soaked in water in order to germinate better. Generally the cuttings are 
planted at 16 ins. distance from each other, so that an acre will hold 10,000 
of them. The sets are laid into the furrows sloping slightly, so that a very 
little of one end peeps out of the soil ; four or five weeks after planting the 
weeding and banking are done, but manuring is out of the question. 

In July, at the time of the rain monsoon, some more banking and weeding 
is carried out, this concluding the field activities, so that nothing is left but 
harvesting. 

Cane is not planted afresh every year, but allowed to ratoon. In some 
parts nothing else but first ratoons is kept ; but in case of a rich and deep 

98 



The Philippines. 

soil one can reap as many as eight crops before planting afresh. The plant 
cane is usually reaped from eleven to fourteen months after it has been planted, 
and the ratoon always after one year. 

The variety of cane mostly planted in Luzon is a white or yellowish sort, 
while the Morada, or Purple Cane, is exclusively planted in Negros. Only a 
little white and black cane is found in some places in this island. 

Of parasites, grasshoppers and a species of coco-beetle are most to be 
feared ; while an epidemic among the water buffaloes, which are used both 
for ploughing and driving mills, greatly contributed towards a considerable 
decline in the sugar industry in 1901. 

The planters have much difficulty in getting regular labour. They recruit 
labourers froni the other islands, but are obliged to advance money before 
these are wilHng to come, while the legal security is not great, and the 
trustworthiness of the borrower not high, either ; so that breach of contract 
and loss of the money advanced is frequently experienced, and, of course, 
impedes any regular progress of affairs. 

Plant cane is reckoned to yield 2-5 tons of sugar per acre ; first ratoon 
2-0 tons ; second ratoon 1-75 tons ; third ratoon 1-5 tons ; fourth ratoon 
1-25 tons. A field that does not yield more than o-8 ton sugar per acre is 
hot thought fit for ratooning, and has to be planted again. It also depends, 
of course, on the small or large supply of labour, on the amount of land, etc., 
as one sooner thinks of planting again with an abundance of labour and land, 
than when there is a scarcity of both. 

Considering the smaller production of first and second ratoons, one can 
safely reckon half of the total product to be supplied by plant cane, and the 
other half by the first and subsequent ratoons. 

The prime cost of cane, of course, has much to do with the production 
per acre, and also with the type and the fertility of the soil. Allowing 40 
centavos de peso Philippino (10 pence) for day wages, the cost of an acre of 
plant cane amounts to 1872 pesos (from the burning over of the field to the 
cutting), not reckoning cost of cattle, implements and superintendence. When 
calculated in the same way, the cost of an acre of first and second ratoon 
amounts to 9-65 pesos, so that an average acre of cane in the field comes to 
14-32 pesos, for tillage and seed. Allowing a yield of 24 piculs* sugar per 
acre, the cultivation of a picul sugar is reckoned to cost 60 centavos (is. 3d.). 

In cutting the cane much care is not taken, so that tall cane stumps often 
stick out of the ground, which, naturally, causes direct loss. The bigger 
estates have at their disposal portable rails with trucks, or a fixed railroad with 
movable sidings, while the smaller ones transport the cane by means of bullock 
or carabao (water-buffalo) carts of 30 piculs capacity. The cutting of the 
cane comes to 12-5 to 20 centavos per picul sugar, and the transport to the 
mill costs 10 — 25 centavos per picul sugar, varying with the distance to be 
covered. 

* I Philippine picul = 63-28 kg. or 137^ lbs. 

99 



Asia. 

The installation of the factories is rather primitive. In 1907 in the Philip- 
pine Islands 1,075 little factories were found — 528 working with steam, 470 
with carabaos or human power,' and 77 with water power. The number of 
carabao mills steadily diminishes, and will soon become nil, while water mills 
are only limited to the very unimportant little factories in the interior, where 
mountain streams yield a very inexpensive supply of power. The majority 
of the factories grind 50 — 60 tons, or 800 — i',ooo piculs, cane a day in a single 
mill, without second crushing, so that the loss of sugar in bagasse is very con- 
siderable, and the bagasse is so moist that it is unfit for fuel without being 
dried in the sun. 

Evaporation in vacuum pans, and the use of centrifugals, are not known 
in the Philippine factories, the juice being clarified with a little lime and evapora- 
ted to dryness in a fcattery of five or six hemispherical pans or " cauas." 

The following diagram gives a clear idea of what the installation of such 
a factory is like : — 










Fig. 5. SCHEME of a plant to make sugar from cane juice in the PHILIPPINES. 



There are generally two distinct batteries built over separate furnaces, 
having only the No. 5, or juice-receiving " caua " in common. The two 

100 



The Philippines. 

batteries are fired tHrough a separate lurnace, and the furnace chambers 
converge into one under the boiler, which, moreover, can be heated from the 
side too. The juice coming from the mill is freed from the suspended particles 
of bagasse by being strained through a clotji or wire screen, and then comes 
into a " caua," where it is warmed up to 70 or 80° C, some of the lighter im- 
purities rising to the surface in the form of a froth, which is skimmed off and 
thrown into the scum-tanks at one side. From time to time, as required, 
juice is ladled with a kerosene tin into the smaller " cauas," where it is mixed 
with. lime. In Nos. 3 and 2 the first violent ebullition occurs, and the im- 
purities that float to the top are steadily skimmed off and thrown into the 
scum-tanks. The juice, left by the scum, tends to flow back, and the remainder 
now and then flows to a strainer, from which the extracted juice returns to the 
mill juice tanks. When the juice is properly concentrated, the thick mass 
is quickly ladled into woodeh crystallizers, where it is stirred with a spade 
till it coagulates to a soft crystalUne substance, when it is ready for 
transportation. 

Philippine sugar is classified commercially under two main headings, 
which are subdivided again into numbers. 

Sugar that polarizes above 80° is called " Superior," and is subdivided 
as follows : — 

No. I from 87 — 88-9° (or higher) average 88° polarization. 
No. 2 ,, 85 — SS-g" average 86° polarization. 
No. 3 „ 80-84-9° „ 82-5° „ 

The difference in price between grades has ordinarily been 25 centavos 
per picul, but since Philippine sugar is now more and more bought for shipment 
to New York this simple and harmonious scale of prices is disturbed. Accord- 
ing to the New York basis of o-i cent gold per lb. for each degree difference 
in polarization, the difference in price between Nos. i and 2 would be 
56 centavos per picul, and between Nos. 2 and 3 98 cenj:avos per picul. 

When large purchases of "Superior" are made, and nothing special 
is stipulated, I of No. i quality, | of No. 2, and | of No. 3 may be reckoned, 
the price for assorted being midway between Nos. 2 and 3, and its average 
polarization 84°. Of late years rather more No. i has been produced, so that 
26 per cent. No. i, 18 per cent. No. 2, and 56 per cent. No. 3 is nearer the 
figure, the average polarization of the lot coming to 84-4°. 

Besides the "Superior" sugar, there is; — 

" Humedo " (wet) . from 76 — 79-9° polarization. 
"Corriente" (current) from" 70— 75-9°. 

" Humedo " is quoted at about i peso less than No. 3, while " Corriente " 
has no fixed ratio to the other grades. The relative amount of these two 
grades produced is rather difficult to estimate, since much is mixed together 
and sold to Chinese buyers as " wet " sugar, regardless of its polarization ; 

1 01 



25-0 


per 


cent. 


5-0 






2-5 


>, 




lO-O 


„ 




1-5 


It 




44-0 


per 


cent. 



Asia. 

while the better grade of " humedo " is frequently worked off by blending 
it in small quantities with No. 3 superior. Climatic conditions during different 
years also affect the proportion of low-grade sugars, but generally it varies 
between 10 and 20 per cent, of the total production. The average production 
consists of 85 per cent, superior of 84° polarization, and 15 per cent, of wet 
at 75° polarization, with an average polarization for the whole of 82-6°. 

Manufacture, as is seen, is most primitive, and although all the molasses 
are kept in the product, so that no loss is suffered as regards this waste sub- 
stance, the sucrose loss from material to finished product in Iloilo amounts to 
no less than 44 per cent., classified as follows : — 

In the bagasse . . 

In the scum skimmed off in the boiling 

• process 
By inversion, caramelization, etc. 
Burned, spilled, stolen, and unaccounted for 
Tare, loss of weight in transport, etc. 



The cane as ordinarily ground in the mills averages 14-75 per cent, of 
sugar, so the yield in sucrose on the weight of the cane amounts to 8-26 per 
cent., or almost exactly 10 per cent, of raw sugar polarizing 82-6. This does 
not hold good for all parts of the islands, but we may reckon an average of 
something between 9 per cent, and iij per cent. 

The manufacturing cost of a picul of sugar may be estimated at 63 centavos 
per picul, when it is done under a single management. If, on the other 
hand, as is sometimes the case, the grinding, the sugar boiling, and the bagasse 
drying are each done by different people, who have to share in the profit, 
manufacture cost$ 72 centavos per picul. Then the sugar has to be carted 
to the lorcha (a small flat-bottomed schooner), which carries it to the ports 
of exportation. Next, commission amounting to 2 per cent, has to be paid, 
so that for extra expenses we may calculate 53 centavos per picul. 

Hence the net cost of sugar is estimated generally, per picul, to be as 
follows : — 

Ploughing, planting, and caring for cane 

sugar until it is ready for cutting o-6o pesos 

Cutting the cane and carting, it to the 

mill . . . . . . . . . . 0-32 

Manufacture . . . . . . . . 0-63 

Shipping, and placing on market . . 0-53 „ 

2 -08 pesos 
102 



The Philippines. 



This does not include cost of buffaloes, implements, machinery, survey, 
interest on capital, working capita;l, but only states the cost price in wages 
and all direct expenses. Herbert S. Walker, in his essay on the sugar industry 
in the isle of Negros, gives an estimate of the other expenses, and arrives at 
a rate of interest of lo per cent, on fixed and working capital, and lo per cent, 
depreciation per annum — an additional cost of sugar at the coast of 4-15 
pesos per picul. On the other hand, most of the planters are not able to raise 
money at 10 per cent, interest, but have to pay considerably more, so that 
the cost price of that kind of sugar polarizing 82° exceeds 4-15 pesos (8s. 8d.). 
In the case of the few planters using their own capital, if no interest is charged 
on this, the cost of production, including all amortization and maintenance, 
expenses, would be reduced to 3-38 pesos per picul. 

This leaves a fair profit, as sugar in Manila and Iloilo brings per picul 
in pesos (in November, 1909) : — 





Per picul. 


Per ton. 


Superior No. i . . 


7-50 


II8-59 


No. 2 .. 


7-25 


114-63 


„ No. 3 • • 


7-00 


110-68 


average (assorted) 


7-12 


112-66 


Humedo (wet) 


5-62 


68-96 


Corriente (current) 


4-00 


63-24 



On the New York market the price quoted for Iloilo " Assorted " is prac- 
tically constant at i cent gold per lb. less than that of 96° centrifugal, so that 
the price of Philippine sugar is to be inferred from the New York quotations. 

In 1907 there were in all 1,075 small factories, classified as follows : — 







Number 


Driven 


Driven 




Average 


Island. 


Province. 


of 


by 


by 


Production 


produc- 






Factories 


Steam. 


Cattle. 


in Pesos. 


tion in 
Pesos. 


Luzon 


Pampanga 


.- 


194 


131 


48' 


758,691 


3,911 


,^ 


Bulacan 




38 


3 


35 


83,070 


2,186 






Tarlac and Capiz 




35 


12 


21 


62,206 


T-'in 






Bataan 




18 


10 


— 


46,520 


2,584 






La Laguna 




23 


10 


13 


40,551 


1.763 






Cavite . . 




15 


— 


13 


27452 


1,830 






Batangas 




8 


I 


7 


16,063 


2,008 






Pangasinan . . 




4 


2 


2 


8,354 


2,089 






La Union 




3 


2 


I 


6,600 


2,200 






Miramis 




3 


, 


3 


6,586 


2,195 






Carried forwar 


d 


331 


171 


143 


1,056,093 


22,543 



103 



Asia. 







Number 


Driven 


Driven 




Average 


Island. 


Province. 


of 


by 


by 


Production 


produc- 






Factories 


Steam. 


Cattle. 


in Pesos. 


tion in 
Pesos. 




Brought forward 


331 


171 


143 


1,056,093 


22,543 


Luzon 


Sorsogon 




4 


— 


4 


6,350 


1.588 


t* 


Rizal 




3 


— 


3 


6,190 


2,063 


1) 


Nueva Ecija 




4 


— 


4 


5.219 


1.305 


Negros 


Negros Occidental . 




531 


291 


194 


4.644.398 


8.747 


n 


Oriental 




38 


32 


6 


325.611 


8.569 


Panay 


Iloilo 




62 ■ 


26 


36 


372.399 


6,006 


,, 


Antique 




14 


2 


9 


26,018 


1.858 


Cebu 


Cebu 




69 


59 


63 


149,268 


2,163 


Leyte 


Leyte 

Total 




9 


I 


8 


11,460 


1.273 




1.075 


528 


470 


6,603,006 


6,142 



The estates employed in all about 45,247 labourers. The largest of- all 
in that year was Talisey, in Negros, which produced 300 piculs, or 20 tons, 
of sugar each day. 

The entire exportation of sugar, dating from the year when it became 
important down to the present day, is given, together with the names of the 
countries of destination, in the following table (the figures indicate metric 
tons) : — 







f 




United 


States. 










United 
Kingdom. 


Cjnt. 
Europe. 


Australia 






Canada. 


China, 
Japan, etc. 




Year. 


Atlantic 


Pacific 


Total. 










Ocean. 


Ocean. 








1849 •• • 


11.545 


6,094 


5.593 


— 


— 


— 


23,232 


1850/54 • 


13.952 


9,616 


8,048 


935 


— 


— 


32,551 


1855/59 • 


21,369 


14,040 


6,967 


1,903 


— 


— 


44,279 


i860 .. . 


27.231 


10,976 


13.204 


4,342 





— 


55,753 


1861 . 




26,666 


18,550 


4.885 


2,626 


— 


■ — 


52,727 


1862 . 




37.603 


1,162 


28,413 


6,482 


4,160 


— 


2,922 


80,742 


1863 . 




26,886 


819 


15.424 


3.422 


4,786 


— 


23,672 


75,009 


1864 . 




41.854 


429 


1.794 


6,346 


9.043 


-^ 


4.319 


63,785 


1865 . 




20,292 


939 


11,543 


4.290 


8,202 


— 


9.910 


55,176 


1866 . 




29,417 


685 


3.607 


5.365 


8,234 


— 


7,528 


54,836 


1867 . 




31.715 


1,788 


7,617 


6,156 


5,111 


— 


12,17 -^ 


64.559 


1868 . 




51,216 


660 


6,061 


11,601 


2.753 


— 


1,789 


74,080 


1869 . 




32.055 


437 


7,202 


21,497 


7.546 


— 


90 


68,827 


1870 . 




40,547 


2,307 


7,156 


19.039 


4,100 


— 


5,063 


78,212 



104 









The 


Philippines. 












1 




United States. 










United 
Kingdom. 


Cont. 
Etirope. 


Australia. 






Canada. 


China, 
Japan, etc. 




Year. 


Atlantic 


Pacific 


Total. 










Ocean. 


Ocean. 








187I . . . . 


34.744 


3,592 


8,737 


34.121 


6,240 


— 


31 


87,465 


1872 .. .. 


52,773 


2,766 


7,277 


24,418 


7,801 


— 


491 


95,526 


1873 ■'■ .. 


35.266 


' 4,468 


13,649 


27,412 


8,409 


— 


134 


89,338 


1874 .. .. 


41,637 


2,545 


7.924 


37.038 


14,178 


— 


540 


103,862 


1875 .. . 


63,074 


1.777 


7,703 


41.693 


11,855 


— 


87 


126,188 


1876 .. .. 


49.352 


1.549 


974 


59.467 


19,066 


— 


22 


130,430 


1877 .. . 


55.406 


2,528 


— 


55.138 


9.179 


— 


160 


122,411 


1878 .. . 


46,572 


3,133 


1,681 


47,109 


16,892 


— 


2,639 


117,926 


1879 •■ ■ 


69,151 


2,168 


— 


53.237 


2,839 


— 


7,409 


134,804 


1880 . . . 


69,818 


4.490 


575 


97,908 


5.048 


— 


2,909 


180,748 


1881 .. . 


108,909 


9-532 


3,120 


80,419 


4.949 


— 


4,488 


211,417 


1882 .. . 


66,162 


3,162 


1.559 


75,907 


2,081 


— 


2,122 


150,993 


1883 .. . 


56,309 


9,214 


— 


140,656 


8,874 


— 


183 


215,236 


1884 . . . 


18,721 


8.073 


— 


77.191 


12,437 


— 


6,503 


122,925 


1885 .. . 


33.292 


4.175 


— 


147.997 


4.829 


— 


22,498 


212,791 


1886 .. . 


26,448 


5,442 


— 


130.883 


4,000 





19,012 


185,785 


1887 .. . 


29,887 


4.510 


89 


118,997 


4.500 


— 


21,165 


159,146 


1888 .. . 


35.155 


4,629 


86 


74,064 


34.293 


10,500 


26,529 


185,256 


1889 . . . 


54.874 


5.123 


— 1 112,223 


17,819 


14,728 


14,160 


218,927 


1890 . . 


40,041 


3.926 


. 5 


35.482 


5.145 


26,883 


36,042 


147.520 


189I . . . 


48,819 


2.337 


— 


60,022 


— 


36,570 


18,712 


166,464 


1892 . . 


73.837 


3,032 


— 


61,542 


— 


32,575 


76,218 


247,686 


1893 .. . 


98.572 


4.344 


— 


61,103 


— 


19,610 


78,057 


261,686 


1894 .. . 


61,139 


4.119 


— 


36,420 


— 


20,465 


72,176 


194,313 


1895 .. . 


92,212 


4,009 


200 


40,593 


— ' 


19,022 


74,887 


230,929 


1896 . . . 


39.312 


3,547 


— 


78,489 


■ — 


20,135 


88,430 


229,913 


1897 .. . 


47.037 


1,775 


— 


- 15.223 


— 


9.130 


128,928 


202,093 


1898 .. . 


46,780 


180 


— 


27,997 


— 


— 


105,863 


180,820 


1899 .. . 


17,967 


2 


— 


22,105 


— 


— 


52,980 


93,054 


1900 . . 


. 12,748 


— 


— 


2,100 


— 


— 


47,896 


62,744 


I90I . . 


27 


— 


— 


1,975 


— 


— 


50,272 


52,274 


1902 . . 


. 5,912 


— 


— 


2.550 


— 


— 


83,610 


92,072 


1903 . . . 


— 


— 


— 


33.805 


— 


— 


55,755 


89,560 


1904 .. . 


• 4.350 


— 


— 


20,893 


— 


— 


58,740 


83.983 


1905 .. . 


500 


— 


— 


42.930 


— 


— 


61,563 


104.993 


1906 . . 


— 


— 


— 


— 


11,726 


— 


112,657 


124.383 


1907 . . . 


. 11.663 


— 


— 


8,698 


2,002 


1 ■ — 


99,615 


121,978 


1908 . . 


. 10,944. 


— 


— 


45.969 


— 


! — 


85.535 


142,448 


1909 .. . 


— 


— 


— 


50,223 


— 


j — 


77.065 


■ 127,288 


I9IO . . 


— , 


, — 


— 


84,681 


12,932 


— - 


18,733 


116,346 


I9II . 


— 


— 


— 


168,461 
105 


17,700 


' ^ 


21,058 


207,219 



Asia. 

The import duty in the PhiHppine Islands has been since 5th August, 
1907, as follows : — 

Raw sugar, $372 (American) per 100 kilos. 
Refined $4-23 „ „ ,, „ 

but as no sugar is being imported into the islands, this duty counts for nothing. 
Then there is an export duty of 5 cents (American) per 100 kilos on all 
sugar not bound for the States. Sugar destined for other Philippine Islands 
or for American harbours is exempted from it. 



IV.— Future. 



As regards the prospect of the cane sugar industry in the Philippine 
Islands, all forebodings point to gigantic progress in the near future, which 
may be caused either by improvement and development of the existing under- 
takings, or by the establishment of large central factories, with American 
capital, either on land now occupied by the Philippine population, or else on 
newly prepared soil. This follows when we consider that it was actually 
possible to produce sugar that could compete with others in the world's 
market, at a time when machinery was most primitive and uneconomical, 
and when irrigation and agriculture and means of transportation left much 
to be desired, and the manufacturers were poor and much in debt, while the 
product was burdened with an export duty in its own country, and handi- 
capped by import duties in almost every country of destination. 

The American Government has established at Iloilo, in Panay, a Sugar 
Bureau, where the different kinds of cane are being examined, and where the 
best manuring methods will be investigated. Then there is a bank for the 
native producer to get credit from at little cost, which guarantees him against 
excessive interest, and enables him to turn the produce of his land to a better 
account. As we saw, the actual production cost of sugar treated in a primitive 
way was quite low, and we can therefore guess what it will be when well- 
selected cane varieties are properly planted, manured, and kept in irrigated 
land ; when cane is carried by railways to an economically working central 
factory, where it will be worked up to centrifugal sugar ; when it is sent to 
America in fast steamers ; and when it enters free and enjoys a premium of 
no less than 1-685 cents per lb. for sugar basis 96° over sugar from other sources 
which have no special treaty with the United States. 

There is land and irrigation water in abundance, but labour is scarce, 
as the country is as thinly populated on the average as Cuba. Now that 
the latter, however, in spite of its small number of inhabitants and lack of 
irrigation, has a greater yearly output of sugar than any other country in the 

106 



Java. 

world, it does not seem to interfere with the important extension of the sugar 
industry, while we should not lose sight of the fact that each of the two bigger 
islands, Luzon and Mindoro, covers a slightly larger area than, for instance, 
Cuba does, so that it is not unlikely that considerable areas will be planted 
with sugar cane. 

Besides the Filipinos, the American firms are sure to benefit by these 
facilities — no doubt far more so. Through the purchase of 55,000 acres of 
friar land in Mindoro and elsewhere by American sugar magnates, and of 
20,000 acres in Luzon by Hawaiian planters, they have begun to turn to account 
the treasures which the soil of the Philippine Islands offers to the sugar industry ; 
and, encouraged as it is by the protection of the United States, it may have, 
in the end, a future such as we dare not yet put down in figures. 

Books of Reference — 
Literature : 

Hamilton M. Wright. A Handbook of the Philippines. 

Bulletins of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

British Consular Reports. 

Report of the Philippine Commission for 1906. 

Herbert S. Wallcer. The Sugar Industry in the Island of Negros. 



VIIL 

JAVA. 

I. —Geographical Location, Climate and Area 
planted with Cane. 

The island of Java is situated in the Indian Ocean, between 105° 12' 37" and 
II4'' 36' 4" E. Long, and between 5° 52' 30" and 8° 46' 51" S. Lat. 

Its total area, not including Madura, amounts to 48,688 sq. miles ; its 
greatest length measures 657 miles, while its breadth varies from 13 to 50 
miles. It is narrowest in the western, middle, and eastern parts, while broader 
stretches of land lie between. 

The north coast is low and muddy, and broken up by several unimportant 
bays, which, though in the dry season they may serve as sheltered landing 
places, during the wet monsoon are unsuitable as roadsteads. 

The road of Soerabaja only is an exception, while the seaport of Tand- 
jong Priok is an artificial one on the muddy coast land. At Rembang the 
flat north coast is broken up by steep limestone mountains, east of which 

107 



Asia. 

stretches again ttie alluvial plain. The south coast is steep, and in some places 
rocky. Sometimes dune formation is met with ; in most cases, however, 
it is surrounded by steep cliffs, while the heavy breakers which generally 
prevail on that part of the coast make the navigation of sea-going craft an 
impossibility. The sheltered harbour of Tjilatjap alone is an excellent sea- 
port, and the only natural port in the entire island 

As regards the orography, one can divide Java into three parts, which 
are separated by dividing lines running south of Cheribon and Semarang. 
Of the entire western part, the north coast is almost wholly taken up by the 
alluvial plain, which sometimes stretches across one-third of the entire width, 
while the centre and. the south parts consist of extensive highlands. Towards 
the centre of Java the mountainous land becomes very narrow, and there are 
alluvial tracts on the north as well as on the south coast that do not attain in 
width to the former. In East Java one finds in the north two low and broad 
limestone mountain ranges, while a similar chain runs along the greater part 
of the south coast. Through the longitudinal axis of the island, or very close 
to it, goes a range of volcanoes, some of which are not active, while the others 
emit smoke or sand, and are repeatedly in eruption. 

Java possesses a great many rivers, the direction of flow of which is influ- 
enced by that of the principal mountain chain or to the general slope of the 
country. Most of these rivers break up the north coast, and others, the smaller 
ones, the south coast. Although the slope is chiefly northward, the principal 
rivers, though running parallel with the limestone mountains in East Java, have 
a more northern or north-eastern direction. That is why the two principal 
rivers in the east part of Java, the Solo and the Brantas, are larger than those 
^in the west, which flow from the mountains, where they rise, straight into the 
sea. Besides the two big rivers, we ought to mention the Tji Manoek, the 
Tji Taroem, the Tji Tandoei, and the Serijoe river as being available for 
navigation, while all the others are important from an agricultural point of 
view, as they supply the water for irrigating the arable land. Owing to the 
heavy rainfall in Java, and the short course of the rivers, the effluence of the 
rivers varies for the different seasons. . While many of the rivers during the 
dry season contain but little or no water, in the rainy monsoon they often 
change into roaring mountain torrents, which devastate the country by over- 
flowing their banks. On the occasion of these inundations very large quantities 
of products of disintegration of rocks or matter emitted from the volcanoes 
are carried along, and ar^ partly deposited on the land and partly carried out 
as mud to sea. The deposal of this fine kind of disintegrated mud has given 
rise to the alluvial plains along the river beds and on the north coast, and as 
this forrnation still goes on the coast gradually extends in a northern direction, 
and the mouths of the rivers get shallow, so that the harbours must be kept 
at their proper draught by dredging. The deposit of mattef. emitted by 
volcanoes and spread by inundation is less profitable than the disintegrated 
products, as the coarse pieces of lava will cover the arable land, and will not 

T08 



Java. 

form a fertile layer for some years, when the disintegration process will be 
sufficiently advanced. 

The amount of silt in the river water greatly varies according to the 
season, and to the soil the river passes through. . There are times when only 
a few milligrams of mud are found per litre, while at other times the water 
contains i grm. of silt per litre or more. 

Java lies altogether in the tropics, and has a fairly constant annual tem- 
perature ; a considerable amount of moisture and rain, with little wind, prevails. 
The average annual temperature for the whole of Java is 25-94° C, and the 
difference between the warmest and coolest months is not more than 1° C, 
as the warmest months, May and October, have an average temperature of 
26-39° ^'id 26-37", ^^'^ the coolest, January and February, one of 25-35° and 
25 "39" respectively. Neither the day differences nor the hourly differences 
during the same day amount to much. In the most extreme case, the greatest 
deviation during the years from 1866 to 1905 observed at Batavia'was 13-5° C, 
and in the least case no more than 0-9'' C. 



The average figures for Batavia between 1866 and 1900 were as follows : 
Observations at Batavia, 5° 11' o" 5. Lat. 107" 7' ig" JE. Long. 





Tem- 


Absolute 


Relative 




perature. 


Moisture. 


Moisture. 


January 






25-40 


20-94 


87-1 


February 






25-43 


21-10 


87-5 


March 






25-86 


21-22 


85-9 


April 








26-30 


21-51 


• 85-0 


May . . 








26-44 


21-31 


83-6 


June . . 








26-03 


20-66 


83-1 


July .. 








2577 


1973 


80-8 


August 








26-01 


19-21 


777 


September 








26-36 


19-54 


77-5 


October 








26-48 


20-07 


79-0 


November 








26-20 


20-55 


82-0 


December 








25-68 


20-69 


84-8 


Average 


26-00 


20-54 


82-8 














«*- 



109 



Asia. 

and in some sugar cane cultivating areas we find : — 

Observations made at Kagok (Pekalongan Residency), 109° 12' 30* E. Long., 
6° 95' 10'' S. Lat., the altitude of the instruments above the sea level being 151/1. 

Average Temperature. 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apl. 


May. 


June 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Average 


1889 


26-9 


26-8 


26-8 


27-5 


27-3 


26-4 


26-0 


26-2 


26-5 


27-3 


27-1 


26-8 


26-8 


1890 


26-8 


26-3 


26-5 


26-7 


26-2 


25-9 


25-6 


25-4 


26-2 


26-4 


26-3 


26-2 


26-2 


1891 


26' 2 


25-9 


26-3 


26-6 


26-6 


25-9 


25-3 


25-4 


27-0 


27-9 


26-9 


27-0 


26-4 


1892 


25-7 


26-2 


26-4 


26-2 


26-2 


26-0 


2S-8 


26-0 


26-5 


26-7 


26-1 


26'2 


26-2 


1893 •• 


25-4 


25-4 


25-9 


26-4 


26-5 


26.0 


25-9 


26-2 


26-6 


26-8 


26-3 


26-0 


26-1 


1894 • ■ 


25-7 


25-7 


25-9 


26-3 


25-9 


25-4 


25-5 


25-7 


26-3 


27-3 


26-3 


26' 2 


26-0 


1895 .. 


25-6 


25-9 


26-1 


26-5 


25-6 


26-2 


25-5 


25-5 


26-8 


27-1 


26-8 


20-I 


26-2 


1895 ■• 


26-1 


25-9 


26-2 


26-2 


26-3 


25-6 


25-5 


26-1 


26-8 


27-9 


27-6 


26-4 


26-4 


1897 • • 


26-9 


26-2 


26-9 


27-0 


26-9 


26-9 


26-2 


26-2 


27-3 


28-0 


27-2 


26-8 


26-9 


1898 


26-2 


26-4 


26-4 


266 


26-6 


26-1 


25.8 


26-0 


26-7 


26-9 


26-7 


26-5 


26-5 


Average . . 


26-1 


26-1 


26-3 


26-5 


26-5 


26-1 


25-7 


25-9 


26-7 


27-2 


26-7 


26-4 


26-5 









Average Relative Moisture of 


the Air. 








Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


lAar. 


Apl. 


May. 


June 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Average 


1899 . 


83 


85 


84 


83 


82 


84 


80 


74 


76 


76 


77 


77 


81 


1890 


80 


82 


83 


80 


82 


82 


79 


77 


73 


76 


80 


81 


80 


1891 


82 


81 


82 


81 


74 


77 


69 


65 


63 


64 


72 


79 


74 


1892 . 


86 


85 


86 


86 


80 


78 


79 


78 


73 


78 


81 


80 


81 


1893 • 


85 


87 


84 


82 


84 


84 


79 


76 


79 


77 


88 


83 


82 


1894 . 


87 


87 


85 


82 


82 


81 


76 


59 


77 


75 


80 


87 


80 


1895 . 


87 


88 


85 


84 


84 


86 


87 


78 


69 


73 


78 


86 


79 


1896 


87 


89 


88 


88 


81 


75 


72 


68 


65 


67 


75 


86 


76 


1897 . 


84 


88 


85 


84 


78 


74 


77 


69 


67 


74 


77 


80 


79 


1898 


84 


87 


83 


84 


81 


85 


78 


78- 


77 


77 


78 


82 


81 


Average . 


85 


86 


84 


83 


81 


81 


78 


71 


72 


74 


79 


82 


79-3 



110 



Java. 



Observations at Pekalongan. 109° 40' 26" E. Long., 6° 52' 39" S. Za/. 
Altitude of instruments above the level of the sea, i^/t. 

Average Temperature. 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apl. 


May. 


June 


July- 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Average 


1902 . . 

1903 . . 

1904 . . 

1905 . . 

1906 . . 


26-49 

27-73 
26-07 
26-64 
26-41 


25-91 
26-67 
25-93 
26-07 
27-25 


26-43 
27-07 
26-56 
27-26 
27-10 


27-96 
27-36 
26-83 
26-90 
27-02 


27-47 
27-71 
26-70 
27-05 
27-28 


26-68 
26-78 
26-39 
27-10 
26-71 


25-94 

26-39 
26-16 

25-93 
26-82 


26-33 
26-83 
26-29 
26-19 
26-88 


26-75 
27-30 
26-99 
26-86 
26-88 


27-92 
27-81 
27-38 
27-82 
27-43 


28-70 
26-99 
26-83 
27-56 
26-47 


27-54 
26-10 
26-29 

27-53 
26-42 


27-01 
27-02 
26-54 
26-91 
26-89 


Average . . 


26-67 


26-64 


26-69 


27.21 


27-14 


26-73 


26-25 


26-50 


26-96 


27-67 


27-31 


26-98 


26-87 



Average Relative Moisture of the Air. 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apl. 


May. 


June 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Average 


1902 


90 


91 


89 


^83 


79 


78 


79 


79 


75 


74 


71 


82 


80-8 


1903 


83 


88 


84 


85 


85 


82 


85 


79 


80 


80 


83 


86 


83-3 


1904 .\ 


89 


88 


86 


84 


84 


86 


86 


83 


82 


84 


85 


88 


85-4 


1905 


86 


87 


84 


85 


84 


83 


81 


80 


80 


79 


89 


84 


83-5 


1906 


89 


86 


85 


85 


84 


83 


83 


82 


84 


81 


87 


88 


84-6 


Average . . 





























Observations at Pasoeroean during the years 1901-06. 
Average Temperature. 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apl. 


May. 


June 


July. 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Average 


1901 


27-3 


27-1 


27-1 


28-2 


27-8 


27-S 


26-7 


26-8 


27-4 


28-7 


29-0 


28-0 


27-60 


1902 . . 


27-7 


26-6 


27-2 


28-0 


27-8 


27-3 


25-8 


27-0 


26-9 


28-2 


29-3 


28-6 


27-62 


1903 . . 


28-5 


27-4 


27-6 


27-2 


27-6 


27- 1 


27-1 


27-4 


28-0 


29-0 


28-7 


26-6 


27-72 


1904 .. 


27-2 


26-9 


26-6 


27-4 


27-3 


27-1 


26-7 


27-1 


27-7 


28-7 


28-7 


27-9 


27-44 


1905 . . 


27-3 


26-7 


28-0 


27-5 


27-5 


27-4 


26-8 


26-4 


27-6 


28-8 


29-2 


29-2 


27-70 


1906 . . 


27-1 


28-1 


27-9 


28-1 


28-0 


27-0 


27-2 


27-8 


28-5 


29-3 


27-8 


28-0 


27-90 


Average . . 


27-52 


27-13 


27-40 


27-70 


27-67 


27 23 


26-89 


27-08 


27-68 


28-78 


28-78 


28-05 


27-65 



III 



Asia, 

Relative Moisture. 



Year. 


Jan. 


Feb: 


Mar. 


Apl. 


May. 


June 


July- 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. 


Dec. 


Average 


1901 


80-3 


81-3 


82-0 


75-3 


70-7 


76-0 


75-3 


67-0 


61-7 


62-0 


67-7 


75-3 


72-88 


1902 


76-3 


Bo- 3 


78-0 


70-3 


71-0 


69-0 


65-0 


65-0 


63-0 


62-3 


62-7 


73-0 


69-60 


1903 


75 -o 


80-0 


80-3 


79-3 


76-0 


71-0 


67-3 


63-7 


63-0 


63-7 


70-5 


81-5 


72 60 


1904 . . 


77-0 


80-0 


80-3 


76-0 


76-0 


73-0 


70-7 


66-7 


64-3 


64-3 


67-6 


73-4 


72-49 


1905 


78-0 


81-3 


76-7 


78-7 


76-3 


70-0 


67-3 


67-8 


65-0 


61-0 


64-3 


70-0 


71-37 


1906 


82-3 


78-7 


7T7 


76-0 


73-7 


70-0 


69-0 


55-0 


68-3 


64-0 


74-7 


75-3 


7289 


Average . . 


7-8-15 


80-27 


78-83 


75-93 


73-95 


71-50 


69- 1 c 


65-87 


64-22 


62-89 


69-58 


74-75 


71-97 



The rainfall varies greatly for the -whole year in different parts of the 
country. As a rule, it rains more in the -west than in the east, and there is 
also more rain in the mountains than in the plains. From May to September 
the east monsoon or dry season prevails, -while the -west monsoon, or rainy 
season, extends from November till March. Bet-ween the monsoons there are 
intervening periods, -which are distinguished by great heat and an oppressive 
atmosphere. The monsoons begin and end later as one goes further east-ward, 
so that the foregoing months are not to be considered as limits of these periods 
for every place. 

For a great many stations in these parts of the plain which are fit 'for 
cane cultivation, the average rainfall in inches of a great many years has been 
as follo-ws -. — 



Stations. 


Jan. 


Feb. 


Mar. 


Apl. 


May. 


June 


July 


Aug. 


Sept. 


Oct. 


Nov. Dec. 


Total 


Cheribon 


17-13 


14-65 


14-69 


7-95 


5-28 


4-33 


2-72 


0-87 


1-18 


2-44 


1 
6-06 14-80 


92-10 


Semarang 


14-6: 


14-13 


8-90 


7-36 


5-04 


3-35 


3-11 


2-56 


3-70 


5-39 


7-28 


10-47 


85-90 


Soerabaja 


12-09 


10-98 


10-39 


6-58 


4-45 


3-50 


2-01 


0-83 


0-55 


1-57 


4-57 


9-65 


67-17. 


Pasoeroean . . 


9-06 


10-39 


7-95 


5-12 


3-03 


2-44 


I-IO 


0-24 


0-16 


o-Si 


2-24 


6-61 


48-85 


Probolinggo 


9-25 


9-69 


6-10 


3-98 


2-52 


1-77 


0-79 


0-39 


0-16 


0-47 


2-44 


6-46 


44-02 


Beznoeki 


12-80 


11-81 


7-09 


3-39 


2-17 


1-54 


0-98 


0-24 


0-12 


0-28 2-24 


7-60 


50-26 


Banjoemas . . 


13-35 


11-50 


13-35 


10-04 


7-68 


5-55 


4-06 


2-99 


3-66 


12-17 


17-13 


17-95 


119-43 


Djokjakarta 


13-78 


12-48 


12-91 


8-15 


5-39 


3-90 


1-89 


1-22 


1-50 


3-74 


9-57 


13-90 


88-43 


Soerakarta . . 


:2-87 


12-95 


11-81 


8-03 


4-88 


3-86 


2-24 


1-85 


i-8i 


4-06 


8-78 


10-51 


83-65 


Madioen 


12-44 


lo-gi 


10-12 


8-82 


5-08 


2-99 


1-61 


1-06 


1-22 


2-64 


787 


9-61 


74-37 


Dj ember 


14-65 


15-24 


14-37 


8-98 


6-22 


4-37 


2-95 


2-17 


3-07 


6-30 


11-26 


14-17 


103-75 


Sitobpndo . . 


10-67 


8-66 


6-30 


2-36 


1-97 


1-14 


0-63 


0-16 


0-16 


0-75 


2-05 


5-79 


40-63 



The barometric readings in Java do not vary much all through the year. 
During the forty years bet-ween 1866 and 1905 the average reading at Batavia 
-was 758-77 mm. (30 inches), -with a maximum of 764-41 and a minimum of 

112 



108° 



109- 



110° 



11 r 



11 3- 



114" 



aBoompjes Isles 



Kari-moendjawa Isles 
• 

- 4'' 



xJAVA 



Scale 1 : 2,000,000. 



ways. 

Tramroutes. 

^-v.^-\ Rivers. 

Q Cspibals oP Residencies. 

Boundaries oF Residencies. 

s%** Su9ar Plantations. 




^sev " ^<-indtriad7VoqU 



108' 



109° 



llO'LE.ofGr 



111° 



112° 



113* 



114° 



Java. 

752-39- The greatest variance observed in one day did not amount to more 
than 5-56 mm. (0-25 ins.) ; the smallest 1-40 mm. 

As may be seen from these lists, Java does not suffer from cyclones, which 
in other countries often cause great havoc. 

The population of Java, including Madura, amounted to 30,098,008 
on 31st December, 1905, and, leaving the island of Madura out, to 28,604,719. 
These are divided as follows : — 



Natives 

Europeans . 

Chinese 

Arabs 

Other foreign Orientals 



28,227,983 

64.305 
292,108 

17.562 
2,761 

28,604,719 



The population has increased marvellously, in spite of a considerable 
emigration to other parts of the Archipelago, while except that of a few 
Europeans, Chinese, and other Orientals, no immigration has taken place. 
The figures representing the censuses of 1824-62 only showed from 6 to 13 
million inhabitants ; but the later censuses of Java and Madura have realized 
the following figures : — 



1880 
1885 
1890 

1895 
1900 

1905 



19.794.559 
21,467,445 
23,914.564 
25,697,701 
28,746,638 
30,098,108 



Java is intersected with a network of well-kept roads, both footpaths and 
cart roads. Owing to the direction of the mountain chains, the traffic goes 
better along the island than from north to south ; although here, in this latter 
respect, the roads are numerous, too, and each of the mountains is traversed 
by a main road that connects the north and south of the island. 

Right through the island from west to east, from sea to sea, runs a railway, 
which at many points has branch lines which run to the coast northwards 
and southwards. Further, in addition to this, there is a network of well- 
developed tramways, which connect all parts of the country with the main 
line. 

For the rest, there is a splendid connection with the several harbours 
across the sea through the mail and steamship service, which makes it quite 
easy to send goods from one place to another, so that no single district is cut 
off from the outer world. 

113 H 



Asia. 

The sugar industry is only carried on in Mid and East Java, the western 
boundary being formed by the Tjimanoek, although some small plantations 
are met with west of this river. In Mid Java the entire northern plain from the 
Tjimanoek to, the limestone mountains of Rembang is given up to the sugar 
industry, and from the sea up to the foot of the middle mountains cane planta- 
tions are found. In the corresponding plain south of the central mountains 
an important sugar industry is met with, which, however, begins more to 
the east, because in the south the mountains stretch further in an eastern 
direction than they do in the north. In East Java the sugar industry is most 
prominent in the extensive valley of the Brantas, further, in the alluVial north 
coast of the narrow eastern streak of that island, and in the tableland between 
the volcanoes in the residencies of Madioen and Kediri. On the map the 
cane sugar centres are indicated by shading. 

The cane planted area for the harvest of 1910 amounted to 314,335 acres 
which are divided over the different residencies, and to which, for the sake 
of comparison, are added the figures of some previous years. 



Area Planted with Cane for Crop in Hectares. 
Crop I9II. 135,780 hectares = 335,591 acres, divided as follows : — 



Residencies. 


1895 


1900 


1905 


1910 


1911 


Cheribon 


5.901 


6,901 


7-779 


9,019 


9,114 


Pekalongan 


7,287 


8,762 


9,984 


10,759 


11,060 


Bagelen and Banjoemas 


2,443 


2.731 


3.605 


4,707 


6,345 


Djokdja 


5.972 


5,588 


7.335 


10,716 


11,062 


Solo 


5.769 


6,406 


7,018 


8,248 


9.015 


Semarang 


7.372 


7.804 


8,105 


8,636 


8,990 


Rembang 


750 


— 


— 


— 


— 


Madioen 


2,410 


3.321 


3,894 


4,446 


4.803 


Kediri 


6,351 


8,744 


12,288 


17.625 


19.493 


Soerabaja 


16,891 


19,806 


23,806 


26,253 


26,358 


Pasoeroean 


12,887 


13.584 


14,710 


20,143 


22,766 


Bezoeki 


5,019 


5.602 


6,906 


6,709 


6,774 


Total hectares 


79,152 


89,248 


105,430 


127,261 


135.780 


Equal to acres 


195,505 


220,440 


260,412 


314,335 


335.591 



These figures stand for the number of hectares that have been planted 
with cane for one of the harvests, and as no cane in Java is kept from the pre- 
ceding year, but every year yields a new crop, they also represent the number 
of reaped hectares of this planting. 

114 



Java. 

The actual area taken up by the sugar industry covers much more ground, 
as more than a year is required for the whole vegetation period, and the sugar 
cane cultivation in Java generally demands triennial change. Each acre 
of actually planted cane requires altogether three acres of available ground, 
so that the planting alone makes 3 x 314,335 = 943,005 acres of ground 
necessary. Further, nurseries are needed for the cultivation of cuttings, 
while the factory buildings and compounds require ground as well, so that we 
can reckon that 1,000,000 out of the 10,000,000 acres of arable land in Java, 
or 10 per cent, is given up to the sugar cane cultivation, two-thirds of which 
is not occupied by cane, for the moment being planted with other crops. 

In the following list one finds expressed the sugar production and the 
number of factories of each residency of recent years, the former in piculs 
of 6176 kg. and metric tons of 2,200 lbs. : — 







1899 


1904 


1909 


1911 


Residencies 


Piculs 


Tohs 


1 

1 


Piculs 


Tons 


i 


Piculs 


Tons 


S 
1 


Piculs 


Tons 


16 


eribon . . 
kalODgan 
gelen and 
Banjoemas 
okdja . . 
lo 


I 


827 706 
1,226,645 

381,200 

782,200 

861,200 

1,008,200 

420,784 
1,199,848 
2,852,091 
1,693,805 

739,785 


51,093 
76,651 

23,531 

48,284 
63 160 
62,235 

26,971 
74.083 
176 055 
98.888 
46,666 


15 
11 

6 

13 

10 
14 

6 
16 
39 
81 
13 


1.138,298 
1,780,656 

639,187 

1,210,789 
1,033 818 
1,375,806 

666,259 
1,998.896 
3,919 504 
2,177,897 

895,427 


70,265 
109 917 

83,283 

74 740 
63,785 
84,926 

84,964 
123.368 
241,946 
134,438 

55,273 


12 
16 

6 

15 

16 

14 

6 
17 
39 
29 
12 


1,466,222 
1,983,452 

659,689 

1,621,374 
1,283,992 
1,5^4,867 

740,846 
2,484,679 
4,030,362 
2,667,499 

939,557 


89.890 
122,435 

40,716 

100,086 
79,269 
94 127 

46,731 
153,369 
248.787 
164.660 

37 997 


13 
15 

6 

18 
16 
12 

6 

19 
38 
29 
11 


1,678,036 
2,048,207 

1.074,778 

1,997,847 
1,635,687 
1,620,285 

851,930 
8,172.726 
5,240,894 
3,612,061 
1,173,363 


96,099 
126,377 

06,379 

124,114 
96,258 
100,934 

S'2,600 
196 962 
317,448 
218,143 

72,165 


12 
15 

7 

18 
16 


cuarang . . 
mbang .. 
Ldioen . . 
diri 

srabaja . . 
Boeroean 
zoeki 




' 2 

6 
21 
38 
29 
11 


Total .. 




11,891,809 


734,062 


182 


16,635,531 


l,0'i6,.SS4 


179 


19,392,319 


1,197,005 


182 


23,745,802 


1,466,569 


186 



II.— The History of the Java Cane Sugar Industry. 

Since times immemorial sugar cane has been planted in Java, where it 
was introduced by Chinese or Hindus, who regarded the cane as a dainty, 
and probably squeezed out the juice and evaporated it to dryness on a smaU 
scale. The Chinese traveller, Fahian, who visited Java in 424, mentions the 
presence of sugar cane in the island, so that, considering the many commercial 
relations between Java and China, India and Arabia, there is no doubt as 
to the knowledge of evaporating the juice to a soft brown sugar existing on 
the island, as well as in the countries it traded with. 

That a sugar industry in its present-day form should have already been 
in existence when the Dutch arrived at Jakatra (a sugar industry the produce 

115 



Asia. 

of which was divided into sugar and molasses) is an erroneous supposition 
originating from a misinterpreted fact by van Gorkom, and by other authors 
who imitated him, as regards the occurrence of arrack-distilleries in the 
above place.* . 

During the first years following the conquest of Jakatra, which gave 
the Dutch a firm footing in Java, nothing much was done for the encourage- 
ment or extension of the sugar industry, because the East Indian Company 
was mainly a commercial undertaking more intent on the carrying on of trade 
in Eastern produce than on the production of any commodities by itself. 

The sugar which was transported by the Company to its fatherland during 
the first years after its existence consisted of the produce of China, Formosa, 
Siam, and Bengal, and not till after 1637 did the first shipment of Java sugar 
take place. In that very year the exportation of Bantam sugar amounted to 
as much as 10,000 piculs (618 tons), and as the sugar profits were very tempting, 
and the foreign article was not always to be had, the Company resolved to 
erect sugar cane mills on their property in the neighbourhood of Batavia, 
and to establish a sugar industry of their own. 

The Company allotted ground to Chinese sugar manufacturers and bestowed 
a great many privileges on them, e.g., a licence for cutting free firewood 
for the sugar manufacture out of the woods, etc., on condition that the entire 
produce should be delivered to the Company at a price to be fixed by itself. 
These prices were 6, 5, and 4 rijksdaaldersf respectively per picul for first, 
second, or third quality ; but the next year i rijksdaalder was deducted from 
each class. The Company kept changing the terms, the quantities to be de- 
livered, and the prices, so that the sugar industry was ever in a state 
of uncertainty, and the number of factories and the quality of their output 
were not twd years running the same. Moreover, the industry suffered from 
wars, disturbances, and diseases among the canes and the cattle which were 
used both for ploughing and for driving the mills, and from lack of labour. 
In the year 1648 the sugar harvest in the Company's territory amounted to 
2,000 piculs (124 tons), which in 1652 had increased to 11,712 piculs (723 
tons), as the Brazilian disturbances created a greater demand for Eastern 
sugar in Europe. When the West Indies on the other hand began to supply 
more sugar, the period of prosperity came to an end again for the time being ; 

* Although nowadays in Java arrack is almost exclusively prepared from the molasses 
remaining from the sugar manufacture, this substance should not be considered as the 
sole raw material of this liquor, so that the existence of arrack distilleries does not imply 
the presence of sugar factories. Arrack was originally a beverage made from rice, and 
in China a, good deal of it is manufactured from glutinous rice ; but palm wine and cane 
juice would do just as weU for its preparation, so that the distilling of arrack out of molasses 
dates from a much later period than its manufacture from malted rice, palm wine, or 
similar juices, and the arrack distilleries do not go far to prove the existenCie of a sugar 
industry. 

•f I rijksdaalder = 4s. 2d. i Java picul = 6176 kg. or 136 lbs. avoird. 

116 



Java. 

while the Bantam war, about 1660, hkewise prevented the development of 
the sugar industry. In 1652, 20 sugar mills were working, but in 1660 only 
10 of these were in use, while the other 10 had discontinued operations. After 
peace was concluded with Bantam, in 1684, owing to the ever-growing power 
of the Company a better state of affairs began ; in 1710 as many as 130 sugar 
mills were working, and the sugar industry spread to Bantam, Cheribon, 
and Japara. The commercial politics of the Company were not consistent 
with any large production of Eastern goods. There was nothing they 
feared so much as an abundance of any product, and a reduction in price 
in consequence of it, so acting up to this the Company prohibited the erection 
of any more sugar factories, and stipulated that no mill was to be allowed to 
yield more than 300 piculs (18 tons) sugar yearly, so that a maximum product 
of 40,000 piculs (2,470 tons) was fixed. This quantity, however, was not 
realized by a long way, as in 1745 the number of sugar factories in the terri- 
tories surrounding Batavia had fallen to 65. The Company then fixed on 
70 as the maximum number of these factories, which was raised to 80 
in 1750. However, the number of factories actually grew less, but their output 
increased, so that in 1779 only 55 supplied in all 100,000 piculs (6,176 tons) 
sugar , to the company, exclusive of the molasses, which they were free to sell 
to other people. 

In 1795 the East Indian Company was dissolved, and Java came under 
the direct management of the Batavian Republic, which was afterwards called 
the Kingdom of Holland, and when that kingdom became part of France, 
it became French too ; but in 1811 it was seized by England, only to be 
returned to the Netherlands in 1816. 

During all this period the restrictions as regards the sugar industry kept 
changing. The manufacturers' complaint during the management of the 
East Indian Company had always been the same, namely, that they were 
obliged to deliver all their produce to the company, which in its turn did not 
feel any obligation as regards taking a fixed quantity of sugar, so that 
the business was most uncertain, as the planters could never prepare for any 
pre-arranged production. In order to remedy this, it was decreed in 1797. 
that the factories in the surroundings of Batavia should produce 15,000 baskets 
(of 375 lbs.) of sugar, and were to be free to dispose of any excess production 
at their own risk. The share of every miU in the contingent quantity of sugar 
was fixed according to the condition of the mills, the condition of the crops, 

etc. 

For the north and east coast also similar regulations were fixed. In 
1794 there were in these parts 31 sugar factories, which together were capable 
of producing 2,000,000 lbs. of sugar, an amount they wished to increase till 
4,000,000 lbs. should be reserved for the Government, and another 1,000,000 lbs. 
be left for sale to outsiders. For this purpose the owners of the existing and 
the new mills were to receive unfilled plots of ground for plantation purposes, 
and the Government was to advance money to the amount of half the expected 

117 



Asia. 

harvest, the price of which was fixed at 4J rijksdaalders per picul, first quality. 
The proposed regulations, however, were not brought into force, so that the 
production of that part of the island never realized more than 2,000,000 lbs. 
In the surroundings of Batavia this system had good results, the more so as 
the Government kept su'pporting the manufacture of sugar by raising the 
advances and the sugar prices. The sugar production of Java consequently 
rose during the first years of the nineteenth century, to be followed by a time 
of marked decline. The unfavourable political situation in Europe, Holland's 
forced alliance with France, and the activity of the British privateering ham- 
pered the free intercourse of trade so much that Java sugar had to lie stored 
up in the island, any transportation being out of the question. The Govern- 
ment still lived in the hopes of peace being restored in the future, and in spite 
of the existing large stock-in-trade, it kept encouraging the manufacturers 
to remain working, in order that when the war should cease, the industry 
might not be found in an inactive state. 

As the Government's stock of sugar yearly increased, and as it was no 
longer fllought desirable to have so much capital lying inactive, the Governor- 
General Daendels in 1809 abandoned the policy hitherto followed, and granted 
the manufacturers freedom to dispose of their goods ; but, as ill-luck would 
have it, the sugar cultivation became free just at the time when selling the 
produce became an impossibility. The British occupation during the years 
1811-16 confirmed that state of affairs. We may safely call this a complete 
check for the industry, for we see that in 1813 the total Java production 
amounted to only 10,000 piculs (618 tons), a figure that in 1816 had gone up 
only to 20,000 piculs (1,235 tons). 

After these colonies in 1816 had reverted to the Netherlands, the new 
government provisionally maintained the system of a free sugar industry ; 
but the sugar manufacturers had suffered so severely that although they were 
certain of getting fheir crop sold, their business remained stagnant. When 
in 1826 Governor-General du Bus de Guisignies came to Java, the entire sugar 
production did not exceed 19,795 piculs (1,223 tons). This statesman started 
advancing money once more, and knew how to encourage the sugar production 
so much that in 1830, at the end of his term of office, the. production had risen 
to 108^640 piculs (6,710 tons). He was succeeded by Governor-General van 
den Bosch, who was provided with well-nigh absolute power, and among 
other things was especially instructed to take measures to make Java produce 
for the mother-country. These measures include one known by the name 
of the " Cultural System," which, as regards the sugar industry, consisted 
of the following regulations : — 

The native population of the districts suited for sugar growing was to 
give up one-third of its arable land for the planting of sugar cane, to be dis- 
posed of as necessity required, so that the entire third need not be taken into 
cultivation. Further, the native population was to till the fields, supply 
fuel, draught and ploughing cattle, and in this way was exempted from corvde 

118 



Java. 

duty. All labour was to be paid out of the money the given produce fetched, 
from which the requisite land tax was to be deducted first. In order to work 
up the cane to sugar, sugar contracts were drawn up with private parties 
who received loans in money for the erection of factories. The contracting 
parties were to deliver all their produce to the Government at a fixed price, 
and were allowed to redeem the money advanced by means of sugar supplies. 

In the beginning the profits for the State and for the sugar manufacturers 
were meagre ; in fact, the transaction even resulted in loss during the first 
years the system was tried, and it was not without some trouble that private 
individuals were won over to the idea of entering into sugar contracts. Later 
on the regulations were revised and improved, the manufacturers being allowed 
to dispose of part of the sugar at their own risk, so that their interest in a 
profitable manufacture became keener ; there was thenceforward a change 
for the better noticeable in the state of affairs, and the Java sugar industry 
gradually became a profitable business, both for the Exchequer and for the 
manufacturer. When, by 1870, the sugar manufacture was settled on a sound 
basis, it was considered time for the Government to withdraw from any direct 
participation in the production, and so new regulations were made as follows : — 

The direct interference of the State with the sugar industry was restricted 
to the growing of the cane. This made it necessary for the Government to 
dispose of part of the land and the labour of the population, on condition that 
a proper price should be paid both for ground and labour,- and that when the 
crop in the field was given to the contractor he should provide for the further 
tending, cutting, and transportation of the cane out of his own purse, without any 
assistance from the Government. Beginning with 1879, the original plantations 
stipulated by contract were to be diminished by one-thirteenth every year, 
so that in 1891 the connection of the Government with the sugar cultivation 
and industry was to come to an end. The manufacturers could freely dispose 
^of the sugar they produced, and pay as rent for the land they were planting 
on with the aid of Government intermediary up till 1891 a fixed price for the 
cane, and, further, a fixed premium, which is reckoned on the basis of production 
during the years 1864-69. On the private plantations a fixed premium of 
25 guilders (or 1^2 is.) per bouw* is due to the Government. In order to come 
to the assistance of industry which was not in prosperous circumstances 
the premium on the private-grown cane was done away within 1886, and the 
premium on the Government plantations was reduced to half between the 
years 1887 and 1891, on condition that the payment of the other half should 
be postponed till the years 1892-96. 

Just at the time these new regulations were introduced, Java was struck 
by two calamities, which brought the sugar industry to the verge of ruin. The 
enormous beetroot sugar production referred to in the first part of this volume 
caused the price of sugar to go down considerably in 1882-84, so that it event- 
ually fell below net cost price. At the same time a mysterious disease, which 
* I bouw = 500 sq. Rhineland rods= f74 acres. 
119 



_ Asia 

has not been explained in spite of careful and continuous investigations on 
the part of several able botanists and plant pathologists, attacked the cane 
plantations, and did great harm. Noticed first in 1884, in the western part 
of the island, this disease (called sereh) spread eastwards, and caused a con- 
siderable decrease in production everywhere. The sugar manufacturers, 
oppressed by the two evils, did not lose courage ; they put considerable capital 
into their industry, and invoked the aid of science to help them to improve 
their cultivation and manufacturing methods. Three experimental stations 
were founded for the purpose of combating the sereh disease, which have done 
good work outside their original scope, and which have given useful infor- 
mation as regards planting and manufacturing methods, chemical analysis, 
and control, and even now as regards mechanical installations of factories. 
Capital was provided by the Dutch capitalists and invested in the calamity- 
stricken industry, science was practically applied, and the estates were managed 
in an economical, rational, and energetic manner. This praiseworthy com- , 
bination of energy, science and capital not only saved the Java sugar industry 
from utter ruin, but also placed it among the foremost cane sugar-producing 
countries, so that for years Java has been an example to other countries, 
who recognize it to be expedient to carry on the cane sugar industry in a scientific 
manner. 

So much active power and rational application of science was sure to 
be crowned with success, and it is due to these circumstances that the Java 
sugar industry, in the dark days just before the Brussels Convention, was 
never destitute, but could hold its own, unprotected as it was. Even during 
the last years of the nineteenth century the planted area increased so much 
that the Government began to fear that arable land for other articles of food 
would fall short, and therefore took measures to stop the extension of the 
cane plantations. As that fear soon appeared to be without foundation, the 
extension, as will be seen, went on regularly, and is still going on. 

A statement of the total production in metric tons, from the early years 
following the introduction of the Cultural System down to the present time, 
shows the steady and uninterrupted growth of this production :— 



1840 


47-040 


I85I . . . 


120,345 


I84I . . . 


45.901 


1852 . . . 


76,007 


1842 . . . 


51,128 


1853 ■ • • 


111,727 


1843 •• . 


56,436 


1854 . . . 


112,094 


1844 . . . 


63,421 


1855 • • • 


103,963 


1845 • ■ • 


90,962 


1856 . . . 


125,101 


1846 . . . 


87,647 


1857 ■ • • 


106,157 


1847 . . . 


82,738 


1858 . . . 


132,824 


1^48 . . . 


89,931 


1859 • • • 


. 133,682 


1849 . . . 


105,126 


i860 . . . 


136,153 


1850 . . . 


86,519 


I86I , . , 


136,889 



120 



Java. 



1802 . . . 


145,047 


1863 . . . 


131.799 


1864 . . . 


140,224 


1865- .. . 


137,893 


1866 . . . 


142,290 


1867 . . . 


133.049 


1868 . . . 


■ 178,784 


1869 . . . 


182,461 


1870 . . . 


152,595 


187I . . . 


190,866 


1872 . . . 


209,299 


1873 . . . 


199,068 


1874 . . . 


201,502 


1875 . . . 


193,634 


1876 . . . 


237,870 


1877 ■ • ■ 


245,814 


1878 . . . 


224,689 


1879 • • • 


233,302 


1880 . . . 


216,179 


1881 . . . 


279,207 


1882 . . . 


292,005 


1883 . . . 


324.704 


1884 . . . 


394.247 


1885 . . . 


380,046 


1886 . . . 


356,022 



1887 . . . 


• 375.784 


1888 . . . 


355,334 


1889 . . . 


332,997 


1890 . . . 


399.999 


189I . . . 


406,800 


1892 . . . 


422,000 


1893 . ■ . 


479,660 


1894 . . . 


530,963 


1895 . . . 


• 581.569 


1896 . . . 


534.390 


1897 .. . 


586,299 


1898 . . . 


725.030 


1899 . . . 


762,447 


1900 . . 


744.257 


I9OI . . . 


803,735 


1902 . . 


897,130 


1903 • • • 


944.798 


1904 . . . 


• 1,055,043 


1905 • • • 


1,039,178 


1906 . . 


. 1,067,798 


1907 . . . 


1,210,127 


1908 . . . 


, 1,241,885 


1909 . . 


. 1,247,260 


I9IO . . . 


. 1,278,420 


I9II . . . 


. 1,466,569 



III. — Cane Cultivation. 

Cane cultivation, as a rule, is carried on in Java on land which is not the 
planter's property, but is rented by him either for a single crop or for a com- 
paratively small number of years ; though sometimes he gets it on perpetual 
lease. Nearly all the cane ground by the sugar factories is planted under 
their own management, and only a very small part is bought from native 
growers, so that the manufacturers are cane planters as well, and both agri- 
culture and manufacture are controlled by the sanie people. 

Most of the sugar factories get their arable land by voluntary agreement 
with the population, i.e., they hire land for one harvest only from " dessas," 
or villages, round the factories, and work them under estate control with their 
own labourers. They never hire more than is wanted for their immediate 
needs, but leave the rest to the owners, who use it for rice and other crops. 
According to the civil regulations, it is forbidden to hire more than one-third 
of the arable land belonging to a dessa ; moreover, a maximum planting area 
has been fixed for every factory, which cannot be exceeded when hiring. When 

121 



Asia. 

people wish to found a new factory or extend the plantation of an existing 
one, permission from the Governor-General is first required and only granted 
when it is sufficiently proved that the step will not be detrimental to the 
economical interests of the native population : which are, that enough ground 
shall be left for the cultivation of articles of food, and that there is sufficient 
irrigation water for both the cultivation of these articles and of cane. In 
Djocdjakarta and Soerakarta, the so-called Principalities, hiring has more 
the character of perpetual leasing ; extensive stretches of land are hired from 
the native princes for a number of years at a time, and plots of that land selected 
for cane cultivation. The remaining land is given to the native population, 
who grow food crops on their own account in return for payment in money, 
in produce, or in labour. Finally, a few sugar estates are established on long 
leases, where the land is ceded to the estate for seventy-five years on payment 
of annual rent. In this case there of course results a large surplus of ground, 
and suitable plots for cane cultivation have to be selected. 

' While in one case only such ground as is wanted for cane cultivation 
that very year is hired, in the two other cases large plots of ground are partly 
cultivated with cane, and partly grown with other crops, either by the estate 
itself or by natives at their own expense or joint account. 

The planting is exclusively done on irrigated land, and a triennial rotation 
of crops is practised. In some parts where the soil is scarce, one meets with 
a two-year rotation, and in other places a four-year is met with ; but a triennial 
one is the rule, and in every case cane is planted after a rice crop. The follow- 
ing scheme approximately indicates the succession of crops, although it is 
not an exclusive example. Sometimes tapioca or some other crop is planted 
instead of rice, so that then only one rice crop finds its place between two cane 
harvests. 



September.. 

September to November 

November to April 

April to November 

November to April 

April to September of the next 

year . . . . . . cane, etc 



cane crop. 

beans, maize, etc. 

rice. 

fallow, beans, indigo, etc. 

rice. 



As soon as the rice is reaped, the field operations are begun. The land, 
for months together, has been saturated with water ; all sorts of reducing 
processes have taken place there, and oxygen is altogether wanting. In order 
to make this soil fit again for cane, it should be exposed to sun and wind. For 
this purpose, first, a deep ditch which carries off the water, and also serves 
to supply irrigation water later on, is dug. Then the plot is divided up into 
pieces of one-tenth or one-twelfth of a bouw through cross ditches, and, finally, 
the furrows are dug in which the cane is to be planted. These generally measure 
30 ft. in length by a little more than i ft. in depth, and are placed at a distance 

122 



Java. 

of 4 or 5 ft. apart. Their width is i or i.| ft., 'and the displaced earth is piled 
up between the furrows. In some places where the condition of the ground 
allows it, ploughing is first done, and afterwards the digging of furrows with 
spades is commenced. When the plot is " open " it looks like a network of 
trenches, which remain in that position during five or six weeks exposed 
to the sun. The wet clods become dry, crumble up, assume a lighter colour, 
and in the end a light-grey, powdery soil instead of a lot of wet, cold, black 
clods is obtained. During the drying-up, and also after the planting of 
the cane, grass has to be repeatedly weeded away, which becomes especially 
necessary when the cane is not yet well developed. As soon as it i^ full 
grown, however, it will produce shade which will cause the weeds to wither. 
When the land has been in this condition for some time, the soil is thoroughly 
loosened again in the furrows where the cuttings are planted directly or in 
holes. 

The cuttings are put in the loosened subsoil in the furrows, then covered 
with a layer of earth and irrigated repeatedly every four or five days. As 
the planting time happens to be in the dry monsoon, it is thus necessary to 
irrigate the cane plantations. In most cases the irrigation installation is 
already ready for use, as the same fields used for rice cultivation serve as cane 
plots. These installations, ditches, and 'canals are hired together with the 
land, while the irrigation water is given by the Government, according to 
a plan of division drawn up beforehand, which allows for the size of the planta- 
tions of sugar cane; the extent of those of the native population, and the 
amount of disposable water. As the latter is not always adequate, the sugar 
factories often have large pumping stations for the irrigation of their land, 
when should the quantity of water from the canal supply not prove sufficient 
the water pumped up is used. 

Manuring is done either simultaneously with the planting, or later on, 
and sometimes at both times, to an average amount of £/^ 3s. 4d. each bouw, 
or £2 6s. 8d. per acre. Manuring is almost exclusively carried on with nitro- 
genous compounds, sulphate of ammonia, oil-cakes (boengkil) from arachis 
nuts, kapok-seed, castor beans or cotton-seed, bat-dung, but most of all with 
sulphate of ammonia. Potash and phosphoric acid are seldom applied, the 
former almost never, and phosphoric acid in the form of superphosphate and 
basic slag only in combination with great quantities of ammonium sulphate 
on soils rich in lime, which are found in the residencies of Djokdja, Solo, 
and Semarang. The silt yearly deposited by the rivers contains so much 
potash and phosphoric acid in combination with other elements, but which are 
set free by disintegration processes, that the cane, as a rule, does not want any 
more ; and experiments have shown us that any increase in the quantity of 
potash and phosphoric acid in most cases does not lead to any better cane 
and sugar production. 

As the cane grows up it is banked with loose soil, which up to that time 
has been heaped up between the rows. Finally, good care is taken by the time 

123 



Asia. 

the heavy rains of the west monsoon are due that the cane is entirely banked up, 
and stands on fairly high banks, so that the rain water can run off instead of 
being forced to collect round the roots of the cane. As soon as the cane has 
ripened, which takes from eleven to fifteen months according to the kind of 
cane and the state of the weather, it is reaped and then dug out as deep as 
the root. 

^Ratoons, as known in most cane sugar producing countries where, in 
many cases, they are most profitable, are not grown in Java, but every year 
the past year's crop is reaped,, and nothing is kept for a following harvest. 
This is due to the fact that the first and following ratoons yield so much 
smaller a crop that, owing to the heavy rent and the small amount of dis- 
posable land, if becomes an absolute necessity to obtain as much cane sugar 
as possible from the little area of land ; while labour in Java is so abundant 
and cheap that it pays well in the end to spend more money on labour 
connected with the yearly planting. 

As compared with most of the other cane-growing colonies, where land is 
abundant and cheap, and labour is scarce and expensive, Java, with its 30,000,000 
inhabitants, wants the land badly for the cultivation of articles of food, so 
that the ground disposable for cane growth becomes costly and very limited. 
On the other hand, this extensive population offers an ample supply of cheap 
and readily accessible labour, which counterbalances the first-mentioned 
disadvantage. This explains why it is advisable to proceed in Java quite 
differently from the manner in which they work in Cuba, and why it is necessary 
in Java to obtain as much cane, and from the cane as much sugar, as possible 
through intensive tillage, manuring, careful up- keep, and constant care ; 
whereas in other countries the quantity of cane produced by a unit of area 
does not count so much, as there is an abundance of ground to be got for 
little money. 

In the years preceding 1850 a kind of white cane was planted, until a 
sugar manufacturer from Cheribon, Gonsalves, noticed that a kind of dark 
red cane, which for centuries had existed among the plantations, yielded far 
more sugar than the white cane, but at the same time was harder and not so 
easy to crush. He had cuttings of that cane collected and planted in a seques- 
tered spot in his ground, and showed the Government officials, who up to 
that time had objected to the planting of this dark variety, how much more 
sugar was to be had from it than from the white cane. The difference was 
considerable, and it soon appeared that the new cane had not only the advantage 
of a larger yield in sugar, but was also less susceptible to damage by heavy rains, 
as well as by drought, while it would thrive in both light and heavy soils. It 
was not long before the Black Cheribon cane, as it was called, was being 
planted everywhere in Java, and this, no doubt, greatly contributed towards 
increasing the sugar production. But this favourable state of affairs was 
not destined to last long. In 1882 a planter from the most westerly district 
'of Java noticed that part of his cane did not grow more than a few feet high, 

124 



Java. 

and formed a bunch of shoots and leaves, while yielding no well-developed 
cane stalks. The following year the same thing happened in the more easterly 
plantations, the new disease spreading further, till, in 1892, it had gone so far 
as the Bali Straits. Only the mountainous regions and the interior were 
exempt from the disease, and have continued so owing to very severe 
quarantine laws. Because of the shape assumed by the plants that were struck 
with the disease, it went by the name of sereh, as the canes resembled clods of 
Citrondla grass {Andropogon schoemanthus ; Javanese sereh). 

The phenomena of the disease in its worst phase are absolute stagnation of 
growth, together with the sprouting of buds and aerial rootlets after the first 
months of vegetation ; in case the disease should be less serious, stagnation 
only occurs after the cane has attained to a certain height, so that the financial 
loss is then not so ruinous as with a more severe attack. At any rate, a decrease 
in th6 quantity of cane to be reaped cannot fail to be noticed, but as the plant 
does not die, the sugar content remains satisfactory, and the yield of sugar 
from the same weight of sereh-stxicken cane is not less than that from cane in 
a sound condition. It appeared that ratoons suffered much more from the 
disease than plant cane, and that when tops of attacked cane were planted the 
disease showed itself in a far more severe form than was the case with tops 
from sound cane ; finally, that cane planted from sound sets in infected soils 
did riot become attacked by sereh till after two generations. A first measure 
taken against the fatal disease was to avoid planting cuttings out of infected 
plots, so new fields were planted with cuttings coming from the more easterly 
uninfected regions. There was a regular transportation of cuttings from east 
to west, which the Government assisted by lowering the freight charges on 
the State railways, and in 1888 and 1889 even by transporting the seed free 
of cost along their lines ; but as the disease spread more and more eastward 
the need of this plant-seed increased while the supply diminished, so that this 
assistance was only of temporary avail. With the aid of the experimen,t 
statipns, which were established in the meantime, cane varieties were obtained 
from all parts , of the world within reach in order to try and find a variety 
which would be able to withstand sereh, and possess the same good qualities as 
the Black Cheribon cane does. At the same time, nurseries were laid out in 
remote spots in the mountains in order that fresh and sound plant-seed might 
always be available. The planters also did their utmost to keep the sereh- 
free districts immune from it by means of disinfection and quarantine, and 
they began to start extensive scientific experiments in order to discover the 
nature and the propagation of the disease. 

Among the newly imported varieties there were some that, although 
not altogether immune from sereh, were fairly resistant to it : such varieties as 
the Loethers, Muntok, Canne Morte or Yellow Fiji cine, etc. ; but however 
welcome these might havd been at a time when the sugai industry was much 
pestered by untoward circumstances, they could not now altogether supplant 
the Black Cheribon cane. Some sorts did give adequate returns, but were not 

■12-5 



Asia. 

so rich in sugar ; others were sensitive as regards the soil, and required either 
a hght or a heavy soil, or could not stand much moistiire, so that the new 
varieties could not be entirely substituted for the Black Cheribon. As long 
as fresh supplies of plant cane weie provided from the mountain nurseries, 
and not more than one generation was planted, while ratoons were never 
kept, sereh could easily be avoided, and good crops obtained. But although 
the yields were satisfactory the expense caused by the renewing of plant-seed 
was so heavy that this method had soon to be given up. For one bouw 
of cane in the field would take as many as 40 piculs of cuttings, which 
cost 2s. per picul in the mountainous regions where they were raised, and, 
delivered in the field, perhaps 3s. 4d., so that a bouw of new cane cost 
£6 13s. 4d. in tops from mountain nurseries, and supposing this to yield 100 
piculs of sugar, no less than 12 per cent, of the cost of production would be 
wanted for plant-seed. As only part of the plots was planted with tops 
from mountain nurseries, and the rest with tops from the cane field itself, 
the avera,ge cost of plant-seed became less, but about 1900 it was estimated 
at the average price of lod. per picul sugar. 

The discovery of the propagation of cane through seed, made by Soltwedel 
in Java in 1887, and by Harrison and Bovell in Barbados in 1888, independently 
of one another, revived the hope of obtaining a better species of cane. 

As sereh was attributed by many people to a weakening in consequence 
of the continuous asexual propagation, it was evident that if this supposition 
was right sereh would not attack the new kinds of cane obtained from seed. 
But this was not the case, and it appeared that cane raised from seed was 
as well susceptible to sereh as cane from cuttings. Wakker, Moquette, Bouricius, 
Kobus, and others, through their scientific crossing experiments, succeeded 
in producing new varieties of cane which were not susceptible to sereh disease, 
and which were both heavy in weight and rich in sugar. These kinds, after 
they had been reared from seed, were propagated through cuttings, and are 
now reproduced aU over the cane plantations. The cultivation of new species 
is stiU in progress, and even now in Java there are a great many cane varieties 
which have gradually supplanted the old Cheribon cane. A heavy blow was 
dealt to the latter cane by the so-called dongkellan disease^ which caused much 
of the Black cane to die all over Eastern Java, and thereby contributed greatly 
to the wholesale substitution of that kind of cane by the seedling canes. Some 
of these latter ripen early, some late ; some prefer a light soil, others a heavy 
one ; some are proof against drought, othefs can stand much moisture ; in 
short, there is so much choice that every manufacturer can choose a special 
kind to suit a special time of the season, and a special part of his plantation, 
and always provide the mills with fresh ripe cane. There is still a necessity 
to keep on special nurseries for cuttings, but as these need not be in distant 
parts the cost of carriage to the fields has become considerably less. 

Experiments destined to select from a number of cuttings those richest in 
sugar through chemical selection as regards sugar content and through physical 

126 



Java. 

selection, as regards specific weight, and to plant them, relying on hereditary 
reproduction of the high qualities, have ultimately proved useless in spite 
of a short period of apparent success. 

Besides the sereh^ the cane suffers greatly from infectious diseases caused 
by parasitical fungi. Some of these attack the roots, others the stalks, or leaves 
and leaf-sheaths, but only a few of these diseases are highly injurious, namely, 
the Pineapple disease or Black Rot, caused by Thielaviopsis aethaceticus , and 
the Red Smut brought about by Colletotrichum falcatum. The first-mentioned 
fungus possesses highly resistant spores, and once it gets a hold in the fields 
it is most difficult to exterminate. It sometimes occurs on the ends of cuttings, 
and penetrates them till it has got at the young plant, which- generally dies 
soon after. To prevent this, the cutting is soaked in Bordeaux mixture, 
which renders the penetration of the moulds an impossibility. This disease 
is only dangerous to the very young cane plants. As soon as these have reached 
the stage of no longer being dependent on the seed, but possess their own roots, 
the danger is past. 

On the other hand, the other disease mentioned. Red Smut, only threatens 
the grown-up cane plant. The slightest wound serves as an opening for the 
penetration of the fungus Colletotrichum, which develops and attacks the 
cane. 

It is rather remarkable that really pernicious disease germs, such as smut 
and others, cause so little damage to the cane, while fungi, on the other hand, 
though harmless in themselves, do so much damage. This may be explained 
by the fact that the crop is dug out and planted anew every year, so that the 
dangerous diseases have no time to spread or get a firm hold. Yet the large 
open wound surfaces of the cuttings give ample scope to the development 
of facultative parasites, which find everything in readiness for them. 

As soon as the cane has attained to some height, it may be attacked by 
animal enemies. We need only mention termites or white ants, boring cater- 
pillars, beetle-larv?e, beetles, and mice. There are plenty of others which, 
however, do not accomplish any great mischief. Grasshoppers, usually so 
pernicious in tropical countries, cause little damage in Java for want of a 
desert where they can quietly mature, and then attack the plantations in 
great swarms. The caterpillars, especially the boring variety, are by far the 
most dangerous and injurious, while the leaf-eating caterpillars do very little 
harm. Five kinds of borers have been discovered up to now, all of which 
attack cane in their special way. 

Owing to improved varieties of cane, rational treatment and manuring 
of the fields, and extremely punctilious superintendence, the cane production 
per unit of area has considerably increased during the last sixteen years, as 
the following statistics dealing with the production of the different residencies 
will show : — 



127 



Asia. 





1893/4. 


1894/5- 


1895/6. 


189,6/7. 


RESIDENCIES. 


Piouls 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piouls 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,210 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw, 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piouls 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2, 240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Bezoeki . . 


824 


28-564 


900 


31-198 


831 


28-807 


934 


32-377 


Probolinggo . 


832 


28-941 


903 


31-225 


734 


25-444 


861 


9-854 


Pasoeroean 


666 


23-187 


723 


25-063 


669 


23-191 


706 


24-473 


Soerabaja 


857 


29-718 


897 


31-095 


785 


27-213 


883 


30-609 


Kediri 


848 


29-397 


1037 


35-948 


884 


30-649 


957 


33-175 


Madioen . . 


664 


23-018 


821 


. 28-460 


701 


24-300 


781 


27-074 


Rembang 


— 





591 


20-487 


229 


7-962 


372 


13-890 


Japara . . 


688 


23-850 


858 


29-743 


743 


25-756 


815 


28-253 


Semarang 


619 


21-458 


798 


27-663 


639 


22-151 


752 


26-068 


Solo 


. 705 


24-439 


835 


28-946 


787 


27-282 


845 


29-293 


Djokdja . . 


827 


28-668 


986 


34-180 


946 


32-793 


1030 


35-705 


Ban] oemas 
Bagelen . . 


[ 593 


20-556 


885 


30-679 


788 


27-317 


1016 


35-220 


Pekalongan . 


870 


30-158 


912 


31-874 


815 


28-253 


952 


33-001 


Tegal . . . 


840 


29-119 


963 


33-357 


811 


28-114 


875 


30-332 


Cheribon 


694 


24-058 


813 


23-183 
30-887 


771 


26-727 


800 


27-732 


East Java* 


808 


28-010 


891 


775 


26-866 


868 


30-097 


Middle Java . 


721 


24-994 


878 


30-436 


804 


27-871 


903 


31-302 


West Java 


788 


27,-317 


895 


31-026 
30-783 


801 


27-767 
27-351 


858 
"875"" 


29-743 


Average 


782 


27-108 


888 


789 


30-332 




19c 


>2/3 


19c 


>3/4 


19c 


4/5 


1905/6 


RESIDENCIES. 


Piouls 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2 240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piouls 

p r 
Bouw 


Tons of 
2 240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piouls 

per 
B uw. 


Tons of 
2 240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 

2,240 lbs. 
per acre 


Bezoeki . . 


II26 


38-566 


II06 


38-339 


1056 


36.606 


1072 


37-160 


Pasoeroean 


971 


33-660 


1095 


37-959 


1098 


38-063 


1093 


37-889 


Soerabaja 


1033 


35-809 


1 137 


39-414 


1097 


38-028 


1077 


37-334 


Kediri 


I166 


40-419 


1203 


41-702 


II89 


41-217 


1202 


41-667 


Madioen . . 


929 


32-204 


924 


32-031 


1027 


35-601 


996 


34-5261 


Semarang 


980 


33-972 


1067 


36-988 


985 


34-156 


1039 


36-017 


Solo . . . 


988 


34-250 


1088 


37-716 


1060 


36-745 


- 1079 


37-403 


Djokdja . . . 


1043 


36-156 


III2 


38-547 


II29 


39-137 


1 142 


39-587 


Banj oemas 
Bagelen . . 


1 1239 
1043 


42-950 


995 


34-492 


1042 


36-121 


II72 


40-627 


Pekalongan . 


36-156 


1109 


38-443 


I164 


40-350 


IIO4 


38-270 


Cheribon 


959 
1050 


33-244 


886 


30-713 


lOIO 


35-012 


994 


34-457! 


East Java* 


36-398 


1114 


38-617 


II06 


38-339 


1102 


■38-200 


Middle Java . 


1034 


35-844 


1075 


37-265 


1052 


36-467 


1099 


38-097 


West Java 


1009 

1039 


34-977 


1018 


,35-290 


II05 


38-305 


1058 


36-676 


Average 


36-017 


1089 


37-750 


1092 


37-854 


1094 


37-924 



* The division of Java into west, middle and east Java does not tally with tiie one given on Page 
Solo, Djokdja, Bagelen, and Banjoemas to Middle ; and Madioen, Kediri, Soerabaja, Pasoeroean and 
were Japara with Semarang, and Tegal with Pekalongan ; that is why since 1900 the production of the 

128 



Java. 



1897/8 


1898/9 


1899/ 


1900 


I900/1 


190 


1/2 


Piouls Tons of 


Piouls 1 


Tons of 


Piculs 


Tons of 


Piculs 


Tons of 


Piculs 


Tons of 


per 2,240 lbs. 


per 


2 240 lbs. 


per 


2,240 lbs. 


per 


2,240 lbs. 


per 


2 240 lbs. 


Bouw. per acre. 


Bouw. 


per acre. 


Bouw. 


per acre. 


Bouw. 


per acre. 


Bouw. 


per acre. 


1052 


36-467 


1033 


35-809 


I0I2 


35-081 


IOI7 


35-255 


942 


32-654 


907 


31-441 


871 


30-193 


938 


32-516 


891 


30-887 


[835$ 


28-946 


808 


28-010 


840 


29-119 


854 


29-604 


799 


27-697 


1047 


36:295 


IO3I 


35-740 


998 


34-596 


939 


32-550 


921 


31-927 


III3 


38-582 


1045 


36-226 


1058 


36-676 


870 


30-158 


961 


33-313 


928 


32-170 


860 


29-819 


804 


27-861 


747 


25-895 


782 


27-108 


370 


13-826 


— 





— 


— 


— 


— 





— 


946 


32-793 


903 


31-302 


991 


34-353 


894 


30-991 


■ 858 


29-743 


lOII 


35-047 


912 


31-614 


893 


30-956 


826 


28-633 


1027 


35-631 


955 


33-106 


996 


34-526 


747 


25-895 


898 


31-130 


1098 


38-063 


946 


32-793 


1092 


37-854 


882 


30-574 


988 


34-250 


II90 


41-563 


993 


34-422 


1063 


36-849 


771 


26-727 


1089 


37-750 


993 
1039 


34-422 
36-017 


836 
916 


28-980 
31-753 


1048 
1008 


36-330 
34-943 


1074 
971 


37-230 
33-660 


I1O7I 


37-126 


962 


33-347 


833 


28-876 


803 


27-836 


835 


28-946 


860 


29-819 


999 


34-630 


978 


33-903 


972 


33-694 


901 


31-233 


902 


31-267 


1042 


36-121 


947 


32-828 


IOI9 


35-324 


829 


28737 


932 


32-307 


lOOI 


34700 


868 


30-097 


938 


32-516 


927 


32-135 


981 


34-007 


lOOI 


34700 


949 


32-897 


979 


33-937 


888 


30-783 


922 


31-961 


1906/7 


19c 


,7/8 


igc 


38/9 


190 


9/10 


1910/11 


Piouls 


Tons of 


PiculB 


Tons of 


Piouls 


Tons of 


Piouls 


Tons of 


Piculs 


Tons of 


per 


2,240 lbs. 


per 


2,240 lbs. 


per 


2 240 lbs. 


per 


2,240 lbs. 


per 


2,240 lbs. 


f Bouw. 


per acre. 


Bouw. 


per acre. 


Bouw. 


per acre. 


Bouw. 


per acre. 


Bouw. 


per acre. 


' 1202 


41-667 


II82 


40-794 


1 142 


39-587 


II23 


38-929 


i;209 


41-910 


1086 


37-646 


II43 


39-622 


mo 


38-478 


II 17 


38-731 


1154 


40-020 


' 1 169 


40-523 


II72 


40-627 


II70 


40-558 


II57 


40-118 


1326 


45-966 


III4 


38-617 


1 1302 


45-133 


1207 


41-841 


II38 


39-448 


1186 


41 -113 


1087 


37-681 


! 1 145 


39-692 


II56 


40-073 


1044 


36-191 


1167 


40-464 


1054 


36-537 


1222 


42-360 


II93 


41-355 


II23 


38-929 


1 142 


39-587 


1 192 


41-320 


1296 


44-926 


II74 


40-697 


II43 


39-622 


1199 


41-559 


II94 


41-390 


1341 


46-486 


I2I4 


42-084 


1 163 


40-315 


1238 


42-915 


"I5 


38-652 


1362 


47-213 


1238 


42-916 


III2 


38-547 


1176 


40-766 


1027 


35-601 


1234 


42-707 


1235 


42-912 


II56 


40-080 


1230 


42-638 


lOOI 


34-700 


1064 


36-884 


1098 


38-063 


990 


34-318 


1130 


39-171 


"35 


39-345 


1192 


41-320 


1164 


40-350 


II33 


39-275 


1224 


42-430 


1143 


39-612 


1298 


44-996 


1200 


41-598 


II40. 


39-518 


1193 


41-345 


1016 


35-220 


1156 


40-073 


1 172 


40-627 


IO81 


37-473 


1 185 


41-078 


1118 


38-756 


1213 


41-977 


II72 

1 


40-627 


II26 


39-033 


1210 


41-945 



108. In sugar circles Cheribon and Pekalongan are supposed to belong to West Java ; Semarang, 
Bezoeki to Kast Java. + In 1900 the residencies Pasoercean and Probolinggo were united, so 

component parts of the united residencies is no longer given separately. 

129 I 



Asia. 



To judge from the above table, it is clear that no fixed cost price of cane 
can be set down, as the cane production per unit of area varies greatly, and the 
cost of the different operations for the different parts of the country is not 
the same either. From a great many annual reports of sugar factories we 
may infer, however, that the net cost price of cane in the field — that is, without 
cutting and carting wages, but including the items of land rent, cutting, culti- 
vation, manuring and wages — amounts to 4d. to 5d. per picul, or from 5s. 4d. 
to 6s. iid. per ton. Higher and lower figures may occur, but most of the 
data at our disposal for igog vary between these two values. 

In the Archief voor de Java Suikerindustrie, igo8, on page 830, we find 
the average cost of cane for igoi-igo5, on one of the best managed sugar 
estates in Java, specified as follows ; 

European employes 
Native labour 
Rent of land 
Cultural expenses 
Watching expenses 
Manure . . 

Premiums for killing vermin 
Disinfection of tops 

Import of cuttings 

Various expenses 

Seedling nurseries in the plain 

Various costs for bridges and roads 
Mountain tiurseries 



3 : — 












£ 


s. 


d. 


£ 


s. 


d. 


2,620 


18 


4 








1,561 














• ■ • 3.515 


10 











■ ■ 15.330 


II 


8 








425 


8 


4 








5.943 


8 


4 








430 


13 


4 








70 


15 

















£2g,8g8 


5 


n 








\j 


590 


13 


4 








166 


18 


4 








137 


15 

















895 


6 


R 











roads . . 






215 


16 


8 


.. 






4725 


8 


4 




£35.734 


16 


8 



The average planted area amounted for those years to 1,345 touws = 
2,358 acres, so that the total cost of sugar cane in the field per bouw amounted 
to £26 IIS. 8d. {£15 3s. id. per acre), or 4s. gd. per picul cane (6s. 7d. per metric 
ton), not including interest, management, taxes, and other expenses. 



130 



Java. 



IV.— Manufacture. 

The manufacture of sugar from sugar cane in Java has attained to great 
perfection, and may serve as an example of a well managed and well con- 
trolled business. The ample investment of funds in the newest machinery, 
the activity of the sugar experiment stations, the adequate training of sugar 
chemists and factory chiefs — all these have contributed towards making the 
Java sugar industry a model one, of which it may rightly be proud. 

In other works by the author the manufacture and the methods of control 
have been fully dealt with, so that it may suffice here to refer but briefly to 
them. It need only be pointed out that as a method for juice extraction 
mill crushing is exclusively employed ; as a rule, a crusher or a shredder is 
used with three or sometimes four mills, and usually maceration with water 
and with last mill juice. The juice is generally clarified with a little lime, 
sometimes followed by a neutralization with sulphurous acid ; while some 
factories which prepare white sugar apply the double carbonatation process. 
Evaporation and boiling is exclusively done in vacuo, all massecuites are cooled 
in motion and separated into sugar and syrup in centrifugals. Centrifugal 
sugar is dried in a revolving roller by means of hot air before being packed 
into bags and baskets. 

According to the figures of the Mutual Control of Javan Sugar Factories, 
the extraction and losses of sugar have been during the last ten years as 
follows : — 





\ 


§S 


■OS c 


Sucrose obtained on 


Sucrose lost on 100 






°i 


io 


" So 


100 parts < 


)f 


parts of Cane in 






§0 

s ° 
2 


.s » 

'J) 11 


Sucrose extra 

Juice on 100 ] 

Sucrose in 
















Year. 


g 



s § 

go 


si 


i 


4J 
U 


Molasses & 
undeter- 
mined 


Total. 


1899 . 


' 13-99 


12-63 


90-3 


11-27 


80-58 


89-23 


1-36 


O-IO 


1-26 


2-72 


1900 . 


12-26 


11-04 


90-1 


9-62 


78-53 


87-15 


1-22 


O-IO 


1-32 


2-64 


I90I . 


\ 12-68 


11-44 


90-2 


10-21 


80-51 


89-25 


1-24 


0-09 


I-I4 


2-47 


1902 . 


13-43 


12-22 


91-0 


— 


— 


— 


T-21 


0-09 


— 


^ 


1903 . 


12-40 


11-23 


90-6 


9-94 


81-07 


89-58 


1-T7 


0-09 


1-08 


2-35 


1904 . 


13-04 


11-92 


91-4 


10-77 


82-58 


90-35 


1-12 


O-IO 


1-05 


2-27 


1905 . 


12-66 


11-54 


91-2 


10-33 


81-69 


89-51 


1-12 


0-09 


I-I2 


2-33 


1906 . 


12-38 


11-26 


90-9 


9-98 


80-64 


88-74 


1-13 


0-og 


I-18 


2-40 


1907 . 


13-11 


11-96 


gi-2 


10-75 


82-00 


89-gi 


1-15 


O-IO 


I-II 


2-36 


1908 . 


12-30 


11-19 


91-0 


10-05 


81-73 


89-63 


i-ii 


0-09 


1-05 


2-25 


1909 . 


12-16 


11-07 


90-7 


9-89 


81-33 


88-38 


1-09 


O-IO 


1-08 


2-27 


I9IO . 


12-54 


11-43 


91-2 


10-26 


81-82 


89-76 


i-ii 


O-IO 


1-07 


2-28 



131 



Asia. 

The yields of sugar from cane in the different residencies during the last 
fifteen years have been as follows :— 



Residencies 


1S97 


1898 


1899 


1900 


1901 


1902 


1903 


1904 


1905 


190S 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


Bezoeki . . 


9-48 


9-40 


9-74 


8-76 


9-84 


9 97 


8-96 


9-37 


9-33 


9-21 


11-29 


9 43 


9-52 


9-21 


10 1 


Probollnggo* 
Pasoeroean., 


9 73 
10-3O 


10-29 
10-64 


10-26 
10-94 


5-47 
10 09 


9-77 
10 34 


1 10 88 


11 18 


10 46 


10-05 


9-93 


11-49 


9-80 


9-74 


9 96 


9-5 


Soerabaja . . 


10-28 


1017 


10 89 


9-40 


9-92 


10-71 


10-29 


10 56 


10-54 


10-09 


12-49 


9 80 


9-93 


10-42 


10-4 


Kediri .. .. 


8 93 


9 61 


10 58 


8-43 


8 71 


1016 


8-92 


9-9 


9 14 


8 91 


11 61 


8-98 


8.93 


9-66 


9-7 


Madioen 


11-16 


11-39 


11-84 


10-66 


11-07 


11-27 


10-79 


12-14 


11 20 


11-26 


12 63 


10-70 


10-76 


11-00 


10-8 


Bembang . . 


11-76 


9-36 


— 


























Japara* 
SemaraBg .. 


11-20 
9-84 


11-11 
9 76 


11-69 
10-95 


10-36 
10-63 


10 83 
10-79 


1 11-47 


10-59 


11-68 


11-22 


10-61 


11 97 


10 83 


10-86 


11 00 


11-8 


Solo .. 


10-54 


10-26 


10 89 


9-32 


10-60 


11 12 


9 95 


10-36 


10 81 


9-87 


12-64 


9-76 


9-83 


10 06 


10-2 


Djokdja . 
Banjoemas . . 
Bagel en 


10-23 
1 10-19 


10-17 


11.17 


9 01 


10-58 


10-79 


10 01 


11-01 


10 71 


10-46 


13-34 


10-53 


9-60 


10 04 


10-4 


9-96 


11-19 


9-12 


10-32 


10-75 


9-92 


10 72 


10-44 


9-88 


11 67 


10 03 


9-83 


10 67 


10-2 


Pekaloi]ga;D^ 
Tegal . . . . 


10-06 
10 22 


10-37 
10 68 


12-26 
12 00 


10-81 
10-68 


11-08 
11-20 


|ll-42 


10-66 


11-78 


11-U 


10-63 


11-69 


10-91 


10 98 


11-00 


10 7 


Cheiibon 


9-71 


10-18 


10-72 


10 74 


10-72 


11-01 


10-66 


11-86 


1087 


10-68 


11-54 


10-67 


11-06 


11 29 


10-9 


East Java . , 


9-90 


10 09 


10 68 


929 


9-71 


10 47 


9 84 


10-39 


10-06 


9-7R 


11-95 


9 62 


9-20 


10-09 


10-1 


Middle Java 


10-47 


10.33 


11 20 


9-65 


10-63 


11-07 


10-12 


10-97 


10-72 


10 26 


12-6-2 


10-34 


10-05 


10-37 


10-6 


West Java . 


1000 


10-39 


11 62 


10-72 


1100 


11-26 


10-66 


1179 


11-02 


11-25 


11-63 


10-85 


10-74 


U;ll 


10-8 


Average . . 


10-06 


10-21 


10-94 


9-67 


10-16 


10-77 


10 03 


10-74 


10-87 


10-04 


12-03 


10-00 9-97 


10-33 


10-26 



In these statistics the yield of sugar is calculated by taking the quantity 
of first sugar and second sugar for the full weight, to which is added half of 
the black stroop weight. If on loo cane 8-39 per cent, white sugar, 0-37 
per cent, refining crystals, i-8o per cent, second sugar, and 0-38 per cent, 
black stroop are yielded, the rendement is calculated as follows : — 



White sugar 
Refining crystals 
Second sugar . . 
Black stroop 



8-39 


= 


8-39 


0-37 


= 


0-37 


i-8o 


. = 


i-8o 


0-38 - 


- 2 


= 0-19 


1075 



Total rendement 



A most instructive lot of figures is to be gleaned from the statistics of 
Government plantations between the years 1840 to 1888, and from the statistics 
of the Archief voor de Java Suikerindustrie from 1903 up to now, which clearly 
shows the extraordinarily high degree in which the sugar production of the 
same area has increased during the last sixty years. 

The increase of sugar production per bouw dates from 1872, when the 
sugar manufacture was no more interfered with by the Government, and the sugar 
needed no more to be passed over to the State warehouses, but could be freely 
disposed of. It became, therefore, profitable to the manufacturers to try and 
increase the output of their land, as everything which they produced went to 

* See footnote on page 128. 

132 



Java. 

their benefit, whereas in former years their interest in the production was 
very small. 

During the years from 1840 to 1872 the production per bouw of the Govern- 
ment's plantations amounted to :— 



1840/44 


■ ■ 23-38 


1844/49 


• ■ 30-54 


1850/54 


■- 33-58 


1855/59 


.. 38-89 


1860/64 


• • 43-25 


1865/70 


• - 49-74 



23-38 piculs, or 0-809 tons per acre 
1-058 
I -163 

1-347 
1-499 
1-723 



This rose to an average of 65-28 piculs during the years 1872/76, and 
amounted in 



1877 . 




to 67-62 piculs, ( 


3r 2.343 to 


1878 . 






. 64-38 „ , 


, 2.231 „ 


1879 . 






. 62-08 „ 


, 2-152 „ 


1880 . 






. 60-30 „ 


, 2-090 ,, 


I88I . 






• 75-12 „ 


, 2-605 ., 


1882 . 






. 75-28 „ , 


, 2-609 " 


1883 . 






. 84-27 „ , 


, 2-920 ,. 


1884 . 






- 92-75 .. 


. 3-215 „ 


1885 . 






. 87-42 „ 


, 3-030 „ 


1886 . 






. 89-74 „ 


, 3-110 „ 


1887 . 






• 97-99 ,' 


. 3-396 „ 


1888 . 






. 94-00 ,, 


, 3-258 ,. 



After 1888, the Government's sugar production was so much reduced that 
the production figures per bouw as regards this cultivation do not give any 
satisfactory indication of the total production. Not tiU 1893 were any figures 
of production compiled by private cultivators to be relied upon ; these figures 
were first published in the Ar chief voor de Java Suikerindustrie, and have 
since been continued. 

From them we gather that after the great improvement during the years 
following 1872, there followed a period of stagnation during the sereh years 
circa 1890, which, however, for reasons mentioned above, was followed by 
a sharp revival that is stiU in progiess, and the end of which is not to be expected 
for some time yet. 



^33 



Asia. 





1 893/4. 


1894/5. 


1895/6. 


1896/7. 


RESIDENCIES. 


Pieula 

p»r 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Picula 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs, 
per acre. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw. 


Tore of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Bezoeki . . 


8i-o 


2-808 


83-35 


2-891 


83-55 


2-887 


88-0 


3-050 


Probolinggo . . 


85-05 


2-946 


89-3 


3-095 


76-55 


2-655 


83-9 


2 908 


Pasoeroean 


71-1 


2-464 


79-35 


2-755 


72-10 


2-500 


73-1 


2-534 


Soerabaia 


88-65 


3-070 


89-75 


3-IIO 


84-75 


2-940 


90-35 


3-132 


Kediri 


79-15 


2-740 


88-15 


3-055 


82-0 


2-842 


85-45 


2-962 


Madioen . . 


79-95 


2-770 


90-15 


3-125 


80-25 


2-783 


87-1 


3-020 


Rembang 


40-55 


1-405 


56-1 


1-945 


21-6 


0-749 


43-85 


2-906 


Japara . . 


75-10 


2-602 


87-45 


3-033 


84-15 


2-919 


91-25 


3-162 


Semarang 


67-20 


2-330 


77-85 


2-697 


68-4 


2-371 


73-75 


2-555 


Solo 


72-85 


2-500 


78-6 


2-725 


82-95 


2-874 


89-2 


3-092 


Djokdja . . 


90-05 


3-120 


96-45 


3-345 


99-1 


3-436 


105-35 


3-642 


Ban] oemas 
Bagelen . . 


56-7 
69-95 


1-955 
2-420 


■ 83-55 


2-895 


83-25 


2-885 


103-55 


3-591 


Pekalongan . 


93-85 


3-250 


91-2 


3-161 


86-8 


3-009 


95-7 


3-317 


Tegal 


95-75 


3-318 


97-7 


3-386 


89-85 


3-114 


89-45 


3-100 


Cheribon 


71-05 


2-462 


81-7 


2-832 


80-3 


2-783 


77-55 


2-687 


East Java* . 


82-35 


2-850 


86-85 


3-012 


81-13 


2-812 


85-93 


2-977 


Middle Java . 


76-J5 


2-636 


85-63 


2-967 


86-26 


2-989 


94-54 


3-275 


West Java 


85-75 


3-005 


90-24 


3-127 


86-52 


2-998 


85-69 


2-970 


Average 


81-15 


2-812 


86-94 


3-012 


83-29 


2-887 


88-16 


3-057 




19c 


2/3- 


190 


3/4. 


1904/5. 


1905/6. 


RESIDENCIES. 


PieulB 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw, 


Tons of 
2 240 lbs. 
per acre 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Bezoeki . . 


. 100-8 


3-494 


100-8 


3-494 


98-6 


3-418 


98-8 


3-425 


Pasoeroean 


- 99-2 


3-439 ■ 


103-6 


3-590 


II0-4 


3-827 


108-5 


3-761 


Soerabaia 


■ 106-35 


3-674 


IIO-5 


3-830 


115 -7 


4-012 


108-6 


3-765 


Kediri . . . 


.1 104-0 


3-605 


I20-I 


4-167 


108-7 


3-768 


107 -I 


3-713 


Madioen . . 


. 100-3 


3-476 


II9-8 


4-156 


115-1 


3-992 


II2-2 


3-890 


Semarang 


. 104-0 


3-605 


123-7 


4-292 


110-5 


3-831 


IIO-3 


3-823 


Solo . . . 


• 97-55 


3-380 


II2-7 


3-907 


109-2 


3-785 


106-6 


3-695 


Djokdja . . 


• 104-45 


3-620 


122-4 


4-247 


121-0 


4-198 


II9-5 


4-145 


Banj oemas 
Bagelen . . 
Pekalongan . 


123-0 


4-268 


106-6 


3-695 


108-8 


3-772 


II5-8 


4-016 


. lOI-I 


3-505 


130-6 


4-534 


129-3 


4-488 


1 17 -4 


4-072 


Cheribon 


. 102-25 


3-485 
3-580 


105-0 


3-640 


109-8 


3-806 


105-1 


3-644 


East Java 


■ 103-25 


II5-7 


4-012 


111-2 


3-855 


107-7 


3-733 


Middle Java . 


. 104-8 


3-633 


I18-O 


4-093 


II2-8 


3-9II 


112-8 


3-911 


West Java 


. 107-6 


3-710 


I20-I 


4-167 


I2I-8 

II3-3 


4-226 


119-0 


4-128 


Average 


■ 104-35 


3-617 


II7-O 


4-058 


3-928 


104-8 


3-633 






* 


See note 


on page 1 


28. 









Java. 



1897/8. 


1898/9. 


1899/ 


1900. 


1 900/ 1. 


190 


1/2. 


Picula 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons ot 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per aci e. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


9S-95 


3-430 


100-6 


3-487 


88-7 


3-074 


94-95 


3-290 


94-85 


3-287 


93-30 


3-234 


89-6 


3-106 


88-8 


3-078 


87-1 


3-020 


• 86-6t 


3-002 


85-30 


2-956 


91-85 


3-183 


86-35 


2-993 


82-7 


2-866 


106-55 


3-676 


II2-3 


3-883 


93-95 


3-257 


93-1 


3-228 


98-8 


3-425 


107-05 


3-709 


IIO-5 


3-814 


89-25 


3-097 


75-75 


2-625 


97-7 


3-386 


105-75 


3-641 


loi-g 


3-534 


85-0 


3-946 


82-7 


2-866 


88-15 


3-055 


34-5 


1-196 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 





104-95 


3-639 


105-6 


3-661 


102-75 


3-559 


96-85 


3-357 


■ 98-35 


' 3-408 


98-7 


3-421 


99-85 


3-461 


93-65 


3-246 


89-15 


3-090 


105-25 


3-641 


104-1 


3-609 


92-95 


3-221 


79-25 


2-746 


99-6 


3-453 


111-7 


3-850 


105-65 


3-662 


98-3 


3-307 


92-85 


3-218 


106-65 


3-680 


118-3 


4-093 


111-25 


3-858^ 


96-95 


3-362 


79-65 


2-760 


117-3 


4-068 


103-0 


3-570 


102-55 


3-552 


113-25 


3-935 


119-05 


4-129 


■122-4 


4-247 


109-95 


3-812 


109-85 


3-806 


107-55 


3-729 


108-75 


3-772 


97-9 


3-393 


89-1 


3-089 


86-2 


2-988 


89-55 


3-103 


94-75 


3-383 


100-9 


3-500 


104-4 


3-619 


90-3 


3-130 


87-55 


3-034 


94-55 


3-276 


107-65 


3-711 


105-35 


3-642 


97-4 


3-376- 


88-15 


3-055 


103-3 


3-580 


104-0 


3-605 


100-05 


3-467 


100-7 
93-75 


3-490 
3-249 


101-95 


3-532 


II0-5 


3-814 


103-15 


3-571 


103-95 


3-601 


90-1 


3-124 


99-35 


3-443 


190 


6/7. 


190 


7/8. 


190 


8/9. 


1909/10. 


191C 


/" 


Picula 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 

2,'J40 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


■ Piculs 

per 

Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


Piculs 

per 
Bouw. 


Tons of 
2,240 lbs. 
per acre. 


II3-O 


3-918 


III-4 


3-862 


108-7 


3-768 


1 13 -5 


3-920 


122-5 


4-247 


II4-9 


3-984 


II2-0 


3-883 


io8-i 


3-748 


III. I 


3-870 


iio-i 


3-812 


125-0 


4-348 


II4-9 


3-984 


II6-2 


4-030 


120-6 


4-180 


138-5 


4-801 


I16-I 


4-027 


I16-9 


4-054 


107-8 


3-897 


108-8 


3-773 


II5-5 


4-004 


126-3 


4-383 


122-5 


4-250 


125-4 


4-352 


114-8 


3-980 


125-9 


4-364 


1 19 -6 


4-149 


132-4 


4-597 


129-5 


4-495 


123-5 


4-280 


130-0 


4-506 


126-4 


4-387 


126-5 


4-390 


II5-4 


4-002 


115-0 


3-986 


1 21 -7 


4-220 


133-7 


4-642 


141 -4 


4-912 


II6-6 


4-044 


ii6-o8 


4-018 


1 28 -I 


4-40 


1 15 -7 


4-012 


136-6 


4.744 


I2I-8 


4-226 


117-6 


4-076 


1 20-1 


4-163 


II7-I 


4-062 


134-7 


4-677 


135-0 


4-688 


127-2 


4-408 


1 31 -4 


4-555 


II5-4 


4-002 


113-6 


3-939 


I2I-4 


4-212 


111-8 


3-876 


122-9 


4-260 


II9-5 


4-145 


1 14-7 


3-977 


II2-0 


3-883 


114-4 


3-990 


123-5 


4-281 


125-2 


4-345 


134-3 


4-663 


120-7 


4-187 


118,2 


4-098 


125-3 


4-343 


II5-9 


4-019 


125-0 


4-338 


128-9 


4-474 


121-7 


4-219 


127-6 


4-423 


120-3 


4-173 


121-3 


4-208 


I16-8 


4-051 


116-3 


4-033 


1 241 


4-302 



t See note on page 129. 



Asia. 

The kind of sugar shipped from Java has recently gone through some 
changes. During the years 1894 to 1902 sugar was almost exclusively delivered 
as raw sugar Nos. 11 — 14*, and 5 to 8 per cent, black stroop or sack sugar. 
The second sugar was melted and worked up to raw first again, while only a few 
factories prepared white sugar. After 1902, when Java gradually lost the Ameri- 
can market and was directed to the British-Indian and the Chinese markets, 
white first and second sugars were prepared in larger quantities, so that these two 
kinds together represented in 1910 and 1911 more than one-third of the total 
production. The second sugar, at first hardly even in demand, was later pro- 
duced in Ughter colours, whereupon it more readily found buyers, and latterly 
has fetched such a price and been so much in demand that in 1906 more than 
7 per cent, of the total production consisted of this brand. This was fol- 
lowed, however, by a reaction, and the percentage of second sugar fell, although 
it still accounts for 5 per cent, of the export trade. The black stroop up to 
1898 represented 8 per cent, of the production, till through the introduction 
of processes involving the returning of molasses during the first strike, the 
quantity of sack sugar produced has dropped considerably, and is still 
decreasing. In percentage of the total production, the relation of the 
quantities of each kind has been for the last fifteen years as follows : — 

Superior Sugar. — A crystallized sugar as white as possible and whiter than No. 25 
Dutch Standard. It is sold according to type of sample, without reference to the polari- 
zation. 

First Sugar No. 18 and higher : very light-coloured crystallized sugar, which corres- 
ponds in colour with that of the numbers of the Dutch Standard. It is sold according 
to sample, without reference to polarization. 

First Sugar, No. le, to 17. — Also going by the name of European Assortment. A light- 
coloured crystallized sugar corresponding in colour with that of the samples of the Dutch 
Standard Nos. 15 to 17. The basis of polarization is 98.0. 

First Sugar, No. 12 and higher or so-called American Assortment, or refining crystals. 
A moist, dark-coloured, and well-crystallised type of sugar corresponding in colour with 
samples of the Dutch Standard Nos. 12 to 14. The basis of polarization is 96.5. 

Red Sugar or Gula Merah. — A dark-coloured kind of sugar, corresponding in colour 
with samples of the Dutch Standard Nos. 8 to 10. It is prepared from syrup with first 

molasses, and sold according to sample without having to attain a certain polarization. 

Superior Second Sugar. — A fine-grained white kind of sugar, which is delivered accord- 
ing to sample without having to attain a certain polarization. 

Second Sugar No. 14, — A light-coloured, finely-grained sugar. It need not attain a 
certain polarization. 

Centrifugalled Sack Sugar. — A dark after-product of the same colour as No. 8 of the 
Dutch Standard. It is viscous, and sticks together ; no special analysis is wanted, but 
at least 80 polarization is expected. It must come up to a good saleable quality. 

Ordinary Sack Sugar. — Sticky magma of fine crystals and adhering molasses 
obtained by draining ofi in mat bags. It is not sold by polarization, but has to be of a 
good saleable quality, while a polarization of 72 — 75 is expected. 



Java. 



ASSORTMENT. 


1896 


1 

1897 1898 1899 


1900 


1901 


1902 


1903 


1904 


1 90s 


1906 


1907 


igo8 1909 


1 

I9I0 I9II 


Sack sugar ...' 8-2 


7-8 


5-5 


5-0 


4-7 


48 


6-4 


5-2 


4-2 


4-4 


4-6 


3-6 


3-3 


3-2 


3-1 


2-2 


Gula merah ...' — 


— 


— 


— 1 — 


— 


0-2 


O-I 


— 


— 


0-3 


O-I 


O-I 


— 


— 





10 — 13 D.S. ...1 — 


II-8 


— 


— ' 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— ■ 


— 


— ^ 


— 


— 


— 


— 


1-7 


II— 14 D.S. ...' — 


36-0 65-4 


l6-2 


— 


— 





— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


2 


12—14 D.S. ... 


58-4 


14-6 13-1 


67-2 


81 8 


8l-2 


76-1 


71-8 


75-8 


74-2 


6o-2 


56-8 


59-2 


40 5 


31-8 


27-0 


13 D.S. and 


































higlrer 


— 


o-i 


o-i 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


1-6 


— 


— 


14 D.S 


— 


0-6 


— 


— 


— 


0-4 


— 


— 


1-2 


— 


— 


0-7 


— 


1 


— 


15 D.S 


31-6 


i6-o 


.V.3 


I-O 


4-2 


— 


— 


— 





— 


— 


— 


— 







O-I 


15—17 D.S. ... 


— ■ 


9-2 


10-8 


8-3 


5-3 


8-2 


II-8 


14-3 


6-4 


4-8 


5-6 


2-4 


1,5 


0-7 


— 


-1 


16 D.S 


05 


1-7 


0-5 


0-2 


1-4 


2-5 


I- 1 


3-5 


5-3 


5-S 


14-0 


13-5 


13-1 


24-8 


30-2 


33 4 


16 D.S. and 


































higher 


— 


O'l 


— 


0-3 


0-2 


04 


0-9 


0-8 


I- 1 


— 


2-3 


1-4 


0-8 


0-4 


— 


— 


18 — ig D.S. 


0-3 


o-i 


— 


— 





— 


0-4 


— 


0-8 


0-9 


0-6 


0-8 


0-2 


0-2 


— — 


19—20 D.S. 


0-8 


— 


— 


— 





— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


20 D.S 


— 


— . 


06 


08 


09 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


— 


0-3 


— 


— 


20 D.S. and 


































higher 


— 


1-7 


0-4 


0-7 


1-0 


— 


— 


— 


— 


0-3 


0-8 


2-1 


2-5 


0-2 


— 


02 


Superior 


0-2 


0-3 


0-3 


0-3 


0-5 


2-5 


3-1 


4-3 


5-2 


8-5 


II-6 


i8-6 


19-3 


28-1 


34-9 


35-2 


Total 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 


100 



The prime cost of sugar, first of all, depends on the class which is produced, 
on the cost, price and the quality of the cane, on the distance between the 
factory and 'the harbour, and also on the factory installation. Generally 
speaking, it may be taken that the manufacture of superior sugar costs is. 
more than the brown sugar, basis 96-5, and that of sugar Nos. 18 — 20 6d. 
more per picul — that is allowing for the diminished rendement. But these 
figures, of course, vary. 

According to van den Berg, the cost price of sugar during the years 1885-88 
was, not including interest on the fixed capital or floating capital, or loans : — 



1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 



Per picul. 


Per ton. 


/8.17 


£11 6s. od. 


/ 7-72 


;fio IIS. 8d. 


/ 6.68 


£9 3S. 2d. 


/ 6.67 


£9 2S. 10 ^d 



When allowing an average interest of / 0.88 per picul or £1 4s. 2d. per 
ton, we come to / 7.55 or ;^io 7s. per ton as the cost price of sugar during 
1888. Engelberts calculated this figure for the years circa 1900, and his 
calculation on the returns' of iii factories, or 60 per cent, of the total 
number which produced 7,835,700 piculs, or 60 per cent, of the total Java 
crop,*gave the following data : — 

137 



Asia. 



All over 


Examined 


Java. 


Factories. 


Number . . . . 185 


Ill 


Piculs cane per bouw 979 


1055 


Piculs sugar per bouw 93-69 


102-23 


Rendement . . . . 9-57 


9-69 


ories which procured the figures were 


considered the best, in 



which case the sugar cost / 5.64* per picul or £7 14s. 7|d. per ton, including 
all expenses of management, planting, manufacture, shipping, or conveying 
to the harbour, maintenance of factory, machinery, buildings, interest on 
floating capital, and commission on the sale of the produce. This does not 
include expense of new machinery for the extension of the factory installation 
or of new transportation plant for the transport of cane, or the interest on the 
capital and debts. If one reckons, as van den Berg did, t 0.88 per picul or 
£1 4s. 2d. per ton, for interest and administration expenses, the cost price 
will amount to / 5.52 per picul or £y lis. 4d. per ton. 

H. 's. Jacob published at the same time a specification of the prime cost 
of sugar, estimated for 212 factories during the years 1899 — 1902, and arrived 
at the following figures : — 

Per picul. 
1899 / 5-50 

1900 . . . . . . / 6.27 

1901 . . . . . . / 6.24 

1902 / 5-59 

This includes interest on floating capital, but no interest or mortgage on 
fixed capital, which really should be added to be exact. 

The amount of £y los. 8d. is specified by him as follows : — 





Per ton. 


£7 


los. 8d. 


£8 


IIS. iid. 


£8 


IIS. od. 


£7 


13s. 2d. 





Per picul. 


Per ton. 


Employes . . 


/ 0-50 


£0 


I2S. 


5d. 


Agriculture . . 


/ 2-00 


£2 


15s. 


8id. 


Transport of Cane. . 


/ o-6o 


;^0 


i6s. 


64d. 


Fuel 


/ 0-07 


£0 


IS. 


iid. 


Wages 


/ 0-14 


£0 


33- 


lod. 


Sundries 


/ 0-07 


£0 


IS. 


iid. 


Packing 


/ o-i6 


£0 


4s. 


44d. 


Transport of Sugar 


/ 0-31 


£0 


8s. 


7d. 


Maintenance 


/ 0-32 


£0 


8s. 


9d. 


Diverse expenses . . 


/ 0-17 


£0 


4s. 


9d. 


Commission 


/ 0-27 


£0 


7s. 


6d. 


New machinery 


/ 0-59 


£0 


i6s. 


2d. 


Interest 


/ 0-30 


£0 


8s. 


24d. 


Total 


/ 5-50 


£7 


lOS. 


8d. 



/ stands for floi;in or guilder = is. 8d. 
138 



Java. 

The yearly reports of the different joint stock companies give various 
figtires as the cost price of sugar on the several estates, which vary so much as 
regards the class of sugar, the distance from the seaport, the interest on capital 
due, the produce, etc., that it is impossible to quote any fixed amount as cost 
price. Generally speaking, we may consider H. 's. Jacob's figures still to hold 
good, so that the cost price of the sugar Nos. ii — 13 D.S. comes to / 5.50 per 
picul or £7 los. 8d. per long ton, including all expenses except interest on 
the capital. 

v.— Import and Export Duties, Consumption, Exportation, 
Places of Destination. 

Sugar entering into the Dutch East Indies is not subject to a special 
sugar duty, but, like all other articles of food, is taxed with an import duty 
which since the recent rise has been fixed at 12 per cent, of the value. Pre- 
vious to 1884 an export duty of 3d. was paid per cwt. of sugar, which in 1884 
was lowered to i|d. It was suspended, however, from July i, 1887, till July 
I, 1892, and was abolished in 1898. 

The consumption of cane sugar of European standard is not great, and 
amounts to about 50,000 tons every year for the entire archipelago. This 
does not seem much for a population of 40,000,000 people who are very fond 
of dainties and sweet things ; but we should remember that besides the sugar 
industry carried on by European methods there is also a flourishing native 
sugar industry, which produces an unknown but considerable amount. All 
over the island sugar is being prepared on a small scale from sugar cane and 
palm trees, which is much in demand in all the markets in the Dutch Indies, 
and almost entirely supplies the want of sugar among the native population. 
The sugar produced in the European sugar works is chiefly consumed by the 
Europeans, Chinese, and wealthy natives, while the bulk of the inhabitants 
like to stick to the sugar prepared from cane and palms in the orthodox way, 
and prefer evaporated juice to crystals. Part of the crystallized sugar re- 
crystallized to candy is, however, also in demand by the natives. 

The greater portion by far of Java sugar is exported to foreign countries. 
During the years previous to 1880 a fair amount of this sugar was sent to the 
Netherlands, but when that country itself began to produce an increasing 
amount of beetroot sugar, and consequently wanted no cane sugar from the 
colonies, the demand for cane sugar to be worked up in Holland ceased to 
exist, and, with the exception of the occasions when there has been a 
dearth of beetroot sugar, Java sugar has not been refined in Holland since. 

From that time a great amount of Java sugar went to England, and soon 
after the United States also became a regular buyer ; but when the latter 
began to supply its wants with sugar from its own colonies, and from countries 
with which it had entered into reciprocal treaties, Java had to look out for 
some other market — and so sugar has been exported to Hong Kong, too. 
During the last few years the exportation of brown sugar to Japan, and especially 
of white sugar to British India, has become of increasing importance, as the 
statistical data clearly show. 

139 



Asia. 



o 
en 

a 



I—! 

s 

o 



bp 
in 

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* 


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CO m >-< t-i CO 1-1 
rf in CO O N CTi 


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140 



Java. 

Shipments of Java sugar from ist May — 30th April. 







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141 



Asia. 



VI.— Future. 

Java's sugar production has steadily improved since 1890, when the 
sereh disease and the consequence of the sugar crisis had been overcoine by 
a powerful economical and judicious management. 

Something peculiar strikes us in the figures of production, namely, that 
the weight of the sugar produced will all at once rise after some years' interval, 
to remain almost stationary during the following years, and then experience 
a period of considerable increase again. Thus the years 1894, i8g8, 1904, 
1907 and 1911 are marked by a sudden rise, while the production of the inter- 
mediate years was stationary. 

There is not the slightest reason why we should expect the end of progress 
yet. ^The production of sugar per unit of area is ever rising ; the rational 
methods of labouring, manuring, and treatment of the soil, together with 
the selection of those kinds of cane that thrive best in the respective soil, 
and a shortened campaign through improved methods of juice extraction 
and manufacture, have contributed to a steadily increasing crop per acre, 
and that while the sugar content of the cane has slightly dropped, as the figures 
on page 132 have shown. 

Great things are to be expected when the cross-fertilization of cane varieties 
for the sake of new species of cane is successfully^ accomplished ; attention 
wiU be paid not only to a high cane produce, but also to a satisfactory sugar 
content. Then there is the experience that a high sugar content always goes 
together with a superior purity, so that, in consequence of an increase of sugar 
content in cane juice, the yield of sugar improves for the following two reasons : 
first of all, because the juice contains more sugar ; and, secondly, because this 
increased amount of sugar yields a greater percentage of rendement through 
the purer condition of the juice. So there is every reason to believe that 
the sugar production per unit of area will increase, and that the cane planted 
area of Java will grow larger, too. Everywhere bigger stretches of ground 
are being prepared for cane and rice cultivation through a new irrigation 
system, and although a period of five years has been stipulated as the interval 
before newly irrigated land should be let to cane sugar factories, still, in 
the end, more arable land for cane growing will be at their disposal, and the 
industrialists will not be long availing themselves of it. Sugar cane is also 
planted on jungle land after it has been carefully made fit at great expense, 
and the ever-recurring flow of applications for licences to build new sugar 
factories shows how little the spirit of enterprise slackens. So we cannot 
but expect either a steady or a sudden extension of the Java sugar industry, 
if we base our hopes on the quick rate at which it has improved since 
1890. 

142 



Java. 

Whenever, owing to changed circumstances, one of the markets, where 
Java sugar used to be imported, was lost to that industry, the Java manu- 
facturers, as a rule, were energetic enough to plan the exportation to another 
market, and to take good care to prepare sijch kind of sugar as was most in 
demand, so that the Java product has always been thought much of, and has 
come up to the highest expectations. 

As energy, enterprise, knowledge, and science are all to the fore in Java, 
we may hope for the best results in the future. 



143 



Europe. 

I. 

SPAIN. 

Spain is the only European country where sugar cane is still cultivated on 
a commercial scale, and this cultivation is restricted to that part of Andalusia 
which lies between Almeria and Gibraltar, it being the only part of the penin- 
sula where climatological circumstances allow the sugar cane to thrive. 

A high average temperature and a total lack of frost are only to be met 
with in Spain on the Mediterranean coast, where in the irrigated parts of the 
country, especially on the alluvial stretches of land in the midst of the valleys, 
sugar cane cultivation is carried on. 

Three kinds of cane are planted in Spain : the white, red, and striped ; 
and the particular species is chosen according to the nature of the soil. The 
white cane only thrives on well-manured soil of a good quality ; its average 
sugar content may attain to 15 per cent, of the weight of cane, but its yield 
is low, and seldom amounts to more than 15 to 18 tons per acre. Plant cane 
takes a year to ripen, but first and subsequent ratoons take two years. The 
red cane thrives best on ground with a deep and moist layer of earth ; it is 
stronger than the white cane, and demands good manuring. In the best of 
circumstances the cane yield will amount to 32 tons per acre, and, as compared 
with white cane, the ratoons of this variety also ripen in one year. As long 
as good care is taken to manure every year with readily assimilable fertilizers, 
one is sure to reap crops from the same canes for five years running. Altb lugh 
its yield exceeds that of the white cane, the sugar quality of the red cane is 
lower, and becomes more so as it is cultivated further east of Gibraltar. In 
the Malaga Plains the sugar content of cane runs to 13 — 14 per cent., with 
0-5 — 1-2 per cent, reducing sugars. The striped cane corresponds wit 1 the 
red as regards productiveness of cane and other circumstances, but is Tiost 
inconsistent in its yield of sugar. 

These three kinds of cane are planted in the same way. The Jar^d is 
laid out with cane after it has born different crops such as wheat, oarley, 
maize, or sweet potatoes for at least three years. In January and February 
the soil is ploughed deeply, while large quantities of stable dung (12 to 16 tons 
to the acre) are put into the soil. In March the furrows are dug, about 3|- ft. 
apart from each other, 12 in. deep, and 8 in. wide, which are hollowed out 
with spades and dressed with manure when former supplies are thought in- 
sufficient. Besides stable dung, superphosphates, sulphate of ammonia, 

144 





irM 



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Uf> ji 



Spain. 

Chili saltpetre, basic slag, and sometimes fish guano coming from the sardine 
and tunny fisheries, are also employed. Basic slag is generally given before 
the ploughing is done, while the fish guano, superphosphate and two-thirds 
of the sulphate of ammonia are laid in the furrows just before the planting, 
and the rest of the ammonia and the Chili saltpetre is used as a top dressing 
when the plants are banked up. 

For planting, the tops of the cane are used, from which the youngest still 
colourless joints are removed. Two parallel rows are planted in every furrow, 
this necessitating a large quantity of seed material, viz., 9,800 lbs. per acre. 
This may be explained by the fact that in the comparatively cool climate 
of Andalusia they cannot rely upon the formation of secondary stalks, so 
that enough primary stalks must be provided for. Moreover, a great many 
of these die when a cold or wet spell of weather immediately follows the plant- 
ing. The seed is covered with a thin layer of earth and watered, so that the 
soil gets fairly moist ; this degree of moisture is kept up, by means of irriga- 
tion water, as long as possible till the end of the period of vegetation. Occa- 
sionally, as the growth of cane proceeds, the cane is banked. Then the field 
is made quite level with a hoe, or better still with a plough, and, finally, the 
cane is banked for the last time, so that the rows now stand slightly elevated 
and banked earth and shallow gutters alternate where the rows used to be, 
the whole forming a connected system. The irrigation water is admitted, 
and flows slowly through the entire gutter system all over the field, following 
the natural slope of the ground. During the summer the land is irrigated 
every ten or fifteen days, and about 40,000 gallons of water per acre are used 
each time. 

The cane ripens in March, when it is cut and worked up ; the grinding 
season lasts till May. The cane is cut close to the ground with knives, and 
after being cleaned is taken to the factory. The leaves are conveyed to the 
stables, where they serve as straw for the cattle, while the rest is burnt, this 
operation at the same time destroying the parasites. Some more manuring is 
done, either with stable dung or guano ; the earth between the rows is loosened 
by means of a plough ; and the cane plants left in the ground are now so 
much shortened that only two nodes are left on each stalk. This is done to 
prevent too big a formation of secondary stalks which are unlikely to keep 
alive, so that now only the budding shoots come up, instead of the primary 
stems of tl\e year before. Then the young shoots are covered, manured, and 
irrigated, and cut after a year in the same way as explained above, which 
process is repeated so long as the field yields a satisfactory crop. 

As may be seen from the above, the mode of cultivation is very expensive ; 
a most intensive treatment and manuring are necessary for the little part 
of Spain that is fit for cane cultivation in order to yield a profitable crop. 

The manufacturers pay a very high price for the cane, namely, 40 pesetas 
per ton of cane delivered in the field (£x lis. 8d. per ton). 

The factories can be divided in two groups : the " trapiches " and the 

145 K 



Europe. 

" fabricas." The former' are insignificant undertakings which grind only 
a little cane, and concentrate the juice to table syrup, which is sold in tins. 
The fabricas are large undertakings which prepare as their first product pile 
sugar, -white powdered sugar as their second, yellow sugar as their third and 
fourth product, and, finally, work up the molasses into alcohol. The factories, 
as a rule, are well arranged, aild a kind of bagasse diffusion is generally in 
operation, which gives very satisfactory results. The bagasse that enters 
the diffusion battery with a content of 7 per cent, sugar and 70 per cent, water 
leaves it again with a content of 0-30 — 0-40 per cent, sugar, and 85 — 87 per 
cent, water, part of which is first expressed in mills, and afterwards the moist 
bagasse is dried on a concrete floor in the sunshine. The juice is sulphitated, 
made slightly allcaline with lime, heated, and clarified in the usual way. The 
clarified juice is filtered over animal charcoal, and the mud through bag filters. 
The dry mud from the filters is used as fodder for cattle. The syrup is again 
filtered over animal charcoal, and afterwards boiled to a fine-grained masse- 
cuite in the boiling pan and centrifugalled in the form of pile, which, when 
broken into little pieces, is used for direct consumption. The first molasses 
are boiled to a fine-grained white sugar, and the second molasses made into 
a dark, soft kind of sugar. 

The cane, as we said, costs 40 pesetas per ton, to which must be added 
6 pesetas for transport from the field to the factory, and 14 pesetas for manu- 
facturing expenses. A ton yields 209 lbs. of sugar, so that the production 
cost of sugar in Spain is not less than 63 pesetas per 220 lbs., or about £1 5s. 
per cwt. 

In the time when Spain still possessed her cane sugar colonies, whicih 
were accorded a preference by the mother country over the European beet 
industry, the condition of the cane sugar manufacture in Spain was not what 
could be described as a favourable one, and its yearly output only amounted 
to 35,000 tons. The importation of sugar came to the following quantities 
in tons : — 



Year. 


Spanish 


Other 


Total. 




Colonies. 


Countries. 




1893 


23.776 


1,679 


25.455 


1894 


41,332 


1,262 


42,594 


1895 


46,005 


924 


46,929 


1896 


36,808 


923 


37,731 


1897 


28,036 


28 


28,064 


1898 


8,668 


14 


8,682 


1899 


9,000 


299 


9,299 


1900 


103 


354 


457 


1901 


24 


71 


95 


1902 


8 


56 


64 



146 



Spain. 

The Spanish colonies used to send much sugar to the mother country 
and, as one can imagine, the inland sugar industry had ample scope to im^ 
prove when, after the war with the United States, these colonies were lost> . 
and, consequently, were deprived of all further protection from Spain. 

In 1892 the duty on sugar was fixed as follows : — 

Pesetas per 
100 kg. 
Foreign sugar . . . . . . . . 50- 

Sugar from Spanish colonies . . . . 33 -50 

Excise on sugar produced in Spain .. 20- 

As regards the last item, a rendement of 5 per cent, from both beetroot 
and cane was taken as the basis for taxation. 

In 1899, that is after Spain had lost her colonies, the import duty went up 
to 85 pesetas and the excise to 23, so that a surtax of 60 pesetas was allowed, 
which on the one hand prevented the importation of foreign sugar, but on 
the other promoted strongly the inland industry. By this means the beetroot 
sugar industry was exclusively benefited, and the production of cane sugar 
has rather diminished than increased since 1899. With the aid of the capital 
flowing back from the lost colonies, extensive stretches of land were planted 
with beetroot, especially in Andalusia, and a large number of factories was 
built which realized enormous profit. ■ Thus tempted, an ever-increasing 
number of speculators invested money in the beetroot sugar cultivation, so 
that it was not long before the country could supply its own wants, and this 
was soon followed by over-production, as any exportation was an impossibility. 

In 1903 there were 50 beetroot sugar factories, 32 large cane sugar factories, 
15 mills for syrup preparation, 11 refineries, and 2 factories for sorghum sugar 
and glucose. Prices, however, fell afterwards to such a degree that 
they could not cover the very considerable cost of production in Spain ; hence 
a period of great loss followed the short and glorious period of great profit. 
It is from this difficult time that there dates the Society of Sugar Producers, 
formed after lengthy negotiations. It went by the name of Sociedad General 
Azucarera de Espana, and included 43 beetroot sugar factories, 13 cane sugar 
factories, and 13 mills. It was decided to go on working with 40, and eventu- 
ally with 35, factories ; and in order to simplify the management, the country 
was divided into four zones (Central, Andalusia, North-East, and North-West) ; 
then the distribution of seed and manure was arranged among the beetroot 
producers, and a company was started for the sale of molasses. 

In this way the Sociedad expected to have the production well in hand, 
and to keep it in correspondence with requirements ; for the rest, they thought 
of improving the sugar quality of the beetroot by providing a good kind of 
seed, and, consequently, of lowering the cost of production, which would 
bring in its train a sound and lasting period of prosperity. This, however, 
was not so easy as it seemed to accomplish. First of all, a number of factories, 
especially cane sugar works, were left out of the society, and then a great many 

147 



Europe. 

former proprietors founded competing factories with the money derived from 
the first sale of their property to . the Sociedad ; so that, notwithstanding the 
stopping of a number of factories belonging to the Sociedad General, the Spanish 
production exceeded the consumption, which excess in 1904 amounted to one- 
third of the total yearly consumption. An attempt to export to England 
failed through a protest from the Belgian Government, based on the Brussels 
Sugar Convention, which compels the signatories to levy a penal duty on 
bounty-fed sugar from countries which, like Spain, have not submitted to the 
Convention. 

After much negotiation between the Sociedad General, the free factories, 
and the Government, they came to an agreement in 1907, according to which 
the consumption duty was raised to 35 pesetas per 100 kg.* (220 lbs.), and 
the erection of new sugar factories was prohibited within a radius of fifty 
miles of each existing factory. Factories which have not been working for 
five consecutive years are considered as non-existing. Further, the Govern- 
ment, in deliberation with the factories themselves, fixes the production of 
each factory for every year in accordance with its capacity. Should a factory 
exceed the fixed amount of production, the excess quantity will be put to 
account the next year. 

In 1910 there. were in Spain 21 factories and 13 mills for cane sugar, 3 
factories and 2 mills of which had not been working for some time. 

In the 18 factories and 11 mills — 11 of the factories belong to the Sociedad 
General — 188,660 tons of cane were ground, which produced 18,851 metric 
tons of sugar. The total production since 1900 has been as follows : — 





Sociedad factories. 


Free factories. 


Total. 


Year. 


Tons of 


Tons of 


Per 


Tons of 


Tons of 


Per 


Tons of 


Tons of 


Per 




Cane. 


Sugar. 


cent. 


Cane. 


Sugar. 


cent. 


Cane. 


Sugar. 


cent. 


igoo 


— 


— 


— 


356,182 


34,548 


970 


356,182 


34,548 


9-70 


1901 


— 


— 


— 


295.403 


27,998 


9-47 


295,403 


27,998 


9-47 


rgo2 


— 


— 


— 


226,329 


16,979 


7-50 


226,329 


16,979 


7-50 


1903 


— 


— 


— 


205,298 


21,677 


10-56 


205,298 


21,677 


10-56 


1904 


148,480 


12,558 


8-45 


112,551 


9,617 


8-54 


261,031 


22,175 


8-49 


1905 


144,726 


13.642 


9-42 


164,426 


15.177 


9-23 


309,152 


28,820 


9-32 


1906 


80,656 


6,765 


8-36 


105,060 


8.957 


8-52 


185.917 


15,722 


8-45 


1907 


96,007 


7,100 


7-38 


109,386 


8.993 


8-22 


205,393 


16,093 


7-83 


1908 


52,621 


5,818 


11-56 


74,839 


8,240 


II-OI 


127,460 


14,058 


9-05 


1909 


131,529 


10,423 


7-91 


119,474 


11,246 


9-36 


251,003 


21,669 


8-63 


1910 


67,803 


7,784 


11-48 


120,865 


11,067 


9-16 


188,668 


18,851 


9-92 



* This was raised to 37-5 pesetas on ist August, igii. 

148 



Spain. 

The crop for 1911 amounted to 18,000 tons. 

Of the 7,701 tons of molasses produced in 1908, 7,175 were worked up into 
brandy, 333 were consumed as human food, and the rest was used as cattle 
fodder. 

As may be seen from the steadily decreasing figures of production, the 
cane sugar industry in Spain has much to contend with. The area for cane 
plantations is small, and the climate is not very favourable for this branch 
of industry, so that it means great expense and no little trouble to obtain any 
satisfactory crops. It i^ a fact that a very high surtax keeps the inland price 
high, too, but this again hinders -the fconsuniption,. so'that Spain is not likely 
to consume more than the present quantity of fully 100,000 tons. This amount 
nowadays is being produced by the existing beet sugar and cane sugar fac- 
tories, while a number of beet sugar factories are not at present in operation, 
but in case of an eventual shortage of sugar are sure to take up work again 
in order to make up for the deficit. Most of the Convention countries are 
closed to bounty-fed sugar from Spain, so that Great Biitain only comes in 
for the export trade, and it will be most difficult considering the high production 
cost, to arrange the exportation in such' a way that a probable loss may be 
fully compensated by 'the high inland price of Sugar. "We can assume from 
this that any extension of the Spanish cane sugar industry is most unlikely. 

Literature : 

Paul Bouvier. La Culture dc la Canne a Sucre en Espagnc. 

Reports of the Commercial Attachi' to his Britannic Majesty's Embassy in Madrid. 



140 



North America. 



THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



The only portion of the United States situated on the Continent of America 
where sugar cane is cultivated is the territory round the Gulf of Mexico — 
Louisiana, Texas, Florida, and Gccrgia, the first of which is by far the most 
important. Both in Louisiana and Texas, the cane is worked up to sugar 
in well-installed factories, while in . both these and the other States much 
cane is crushed and the juice evaporated to a thick syrup, to be used for direct 
consumption. In Louisiana the cane production occurs in the south, especially 
along the banks of the Mississippi, the Bayou Teche*, and the Bayou La- 
fourche, while there are many cane sugar factories to be met with along the 
rivers in the western and southern parts outside those States. The greatest 
width of the Sugar Belt, from west to east, i.e., from Calcasieu to Jeflerson, 
amounts to i86 miles, while its greatest length, from north to south', i.e., from 
Rapides to Terrebonne, is 125 miles. In Texas the sugar industry is located 
near the sea in the south, while in South Georgia and in North Florida it is 
distributed throughout the districts. 

As the cane sugar producing region of the United States falls outside 
the tropics, a real winter time with frost is there experienced, so that the 
sugar industry has to make allowance for climatological circumstances that 
are unknown in most of the other cane cultivating countries. 

Some meteorological data collected in 1905 from many of the stations 
are given below. We may add that these data vary very little for other years : — 

* Bayou is the name given to slowly running, shallow, wide, and marshy rivers, 
which form branches of the Mississippi in the delta-territory formed by that river. 



The United States of America. 



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151 



North America. 

As may be seen from the list, all the sugar producing districts lie in the 
pliin, as the highest elevation above sea level does not exceed 83 ft. A dry 
time is not known in these parts, for even during the month which is most 
deficient in rain, a rather considerable quantity falls ; while the local rainfall 
of about 80 ins. is more than sufficient for the growth of the sugar cane! During 
the months December to February the frost may be heavy enough to cause 
the cane to freeze up ; hence the planters must be on their guard to take such 
measures as will reduce the damage to a minimum. During the autumn 
Equinox hurricanes from the Gulf of Mexico are known to blow across Louisiana, 
and cause havoc to the cane fields, which havoc is all the more considerable 
as the cane has just reached its greatest height at this time of the year, and, 
consequently, can least withstand the violence of the storm. 

Sugar cane was introduced into Louisiana in 1737 by the Jesuits, but 
the manufacture of sugar did not become of any importance till 1796, when 
an able manufacturer introduced a practical way of preparing sugar. This 
method was then very primitive, as the mills were driven by oxen or horses, 
and a good deal of sugar was lost in the bagasse and during the working up 
of the juice. During the early years of the nineteenth century the production 
did not amount to much, but it gradually improved, so that in 1823, the first 
year from which we have exact data, it yielded more than 15,000 tons, and 
did not stop long at that figure. Though the cane planted area and the yield of 
sugar expanded, the number of sugar plantations decreased, which means 
that the average area of the individual estates increased. In 1830 there were 
691 sugar plantations, with a population of 36,000 negro slaves ; while 
the figures for 1840 amounted respectively to 668 and 50,670. Later 
on the large plantations got into difficulties, but the number in 1853 
reached its maximum figure of 1,500, with an average area of 198 acres 
each. At this time, when slavery prevailed, the cane cultivation and sugar 
manufacture were in the hands of the same people, but after the Civil War 
the industry was almost reduced to beggary, and the slaves were set free", 
the old system could not possibly be kept up when the industry eventually 
revived, so from this time onward planting and manufacture were separated 
in the bulk of cases. Under the new conditions only a comparatively small 
number of manufacturers worked up the cane that had been grown by a great 
many farmers, and this led to the system of central factories now generally 
found in Louisiana. The large plantations lease stretches of land measuring 
25 to 60 acres to farmers who plant sugar cane for the factory at their own 
expense. Both the black and white populace take the land on lease, and this 
system is such a success that the centralization of the manufacture of cane 
sugar grown on extensive tracts of ground is still in vogue. In 1888-89 there 
were as many as 776 sugar factories in operation, which produced 144,878 
tons of sugar ; in 1898-99 the number of factories had gone down to 347, 
whereas their production had increased to 245,511 ; while in 1910 the number 
of factories amounted to 214, and their production to 325,000 tons of sugar. 

152 




LOUISIANA 



The United States' of America. 

In 1890 21 factories worked in the districts iDf Lower Terrebonne and Little 
Caillou Bayou, which have now been supplanted by one single large factory. 
The latter grinds, not only the cane from the same area as was crushed by 
the 21 factories together, but from some extra 2,000 acres of land that hitherto 
had not been planted with cane. In Texas there aire 9 factories, which between 
them grind the cane from 37,000 acres ; they produce besides sugar a large 
quantity of light and dark syrups for table use. 

For the rest, many plans are being entertained for the foundation of 
new plantations in the neighbourhood of the town of Brownsville, some of 
which plans have already been carried out, so that the production in Texas 
promises soon to become an important one. 

As in Louisiana, the temperature does not become favourable for the 
growth of cane till March, and as frost may be expected as early as December 
it is necessary for the planters to do all they can to promote a quick ripening 
of the cane, and to have the crop cut before it can be blighted by frost. They 
generally plant cane once every three years on the same soil ; first the plant- 
cane and first ratobns are reaped, after which maize is sown, and fihally a 
Gpecies of large pea ( Vigna sinensis) is sown directly the maize crop is gathered. 
At the end of the summer the pea-vines are ploughed, together with the maize 
stubble, into the earth, and four weeks afterwards the furrows are dug, 
at distances of 6 ft. to 6 ft. 8 ins. from each other. The cane is planted during 
the first days of October, if the state of the fields allow. For that purpose 
whole cane stalks are placed in two rows in the furrows, for which 8,000 lbs. 
cane per acre are allowed. The cane is then covered with a layer of loose 
earth from 5 to 6 ins. thick, and in this way it is protected from the frost 
which does not penetrate to that depth. Should one not be ready to plant, 
at the right time — that is, should the winter season have begun before the 
ground is in proper condition —the cane which is to be used for seed is cut, 
covered with dry leaves, and is put into furrows in order to protect it against 
frost. As soon as the spring arrives this cane is planted, while the covering 
layer of earth is for the greater part removed from the cane that was planted 
in the autumn, in order to promote the shooting out of buds and the budding 
of young sprouts. Manuring is carried on with stable dung, cotton-seed 
meal, kainite, phosphates, and nitrates, while sufficient drainage is constantly 
ensured. At the end of November the cane cutting is begun, while the dry 
leaves and the pieces of cane which remained in the field are burnt for the 
twofold purpose of killing the vermin and of preventing the drainage canals 
from getting obstructed by this rubbish. As long as no frost is expected 
the cane is kept in the field, to be reaped as it is wanted for grinding ; but as 
soon as the Meteorological Department prophesies a " cold wave," which 
may be detrimental to the standing cane, they make haste to get it cut. The 
cane is cut close to the ground, and the stalks are placed lengthwise in the 
plant-rows, and then covered with the dry cane leaves to be protected from frost. 
This treatment is called " windrowing," and is only applied when frost is ex- 

153 



North America. 

pected. During the cold winter season cane thus preserved may keep in good 
condition for weeks at a time, and its deterioration will be hardly noticeable ; 
but as soon as the warm weather returns such cane rapidly deteriorates in 
quality. One may assume that cane which has remained in the field, un- 
frozen, is the best, and that cut cane which is kept under leaves is not of the 
same good quality, while cane in the field once frozen is the least valuable 
of all. This shows that " windrowing " is an excellent preventative against 
frost, but is not harmless in itself, so that it should only be resorted to in an 
emergency. 

During the spring the stubble left in the ground is banked once more, 
and the cane is treated as in the first year ; while after the first ratooning the 
land is sown with maize, and afterwards with peas for the sake of green manure. ' 
As manual labour in Louisiana is very scarce and expensive, most of the 
work of digging furrows, cutting and banking is done by agricultural machinery, 
which leaves only the planting, trashing, and cleaning of cane to be done by 
hand. 

Since the beginning of the cane cultivation in Louisiana the Purple and 
Striped sugar canes have exclusively been planted ; but, chiefly as a conse- 
quence of the researches of the botanists of the sugar experiment stations, 
the seedling canes D 74 and D 95 obtained from Demerara have come in great 
demand. Besides an advantage in quantity of cane and sugar over the former 
types, the time of vegetation is also shorter, so that the canes ripen sooner, a 
feature which, on account of the short season allowed the Louisiana cane to 
ripen in, offers a great advantage. It has also been proved that the new cane 
is more resistant to damage done by storms, all of which goes far to make it 
likely that the new varieties of cane introduced from Demerara will supplant 
the older kinds. 

The labour question still- troubles Louisiana. After the abolition of 
slavery it was very difficult to find sufficient labour for the necessary treatment, 
so that the proprietors of land were obliged to lease parts of their ground to 
farmers. They still planted part of their land themselves, and as the farmers 
also had to employ hired labour it was by no means a way out of the difficulty. 
One of the first results of scarcity of labour is the general use of agricultural 
implements in order to do field work as much as possible by means of machinery 
requiring a minimum of labour. For the rest, the immigration of South 
Europeans, preferably Italians, via New Orleans^ was promoted as much 
as possible as a means to procure a steady importation of white labour accus- 
tomed to a warm temperature. 

In Texas a peculiar way of procuring labour prevails. The Government 
lends out convicts from the Penitentiary to the sugar planters for the tillage 
of the ground, and also under its own management plants cane with the help 
of convict labour. It is stated that in 1909 no less than 3,600 tons of sugar 
were prepared with the help of such labour, so that we may expect this system 
to be extended rather than be limited in the future. 

1.54 



The United States of America. 

With the exception of one factory, that of Magnoha, which obtains its juice 
by means of diffusion, milling is universally employed. The Magnolia factory 
is one of the very few where cane is successfully treated by diffusion, a fact 
that may be attributed to the highly exceptional circumstances under which 
it works. The factory lies on the Mississippi, which at that very spot is a 
stream of such width and strength of current that all the bagasse may be 
thrown into it to disappear forthwith. Then there is mineral oil in the ground 
close to the factory, which oil furnishes all the fuel at a minimum of expense, 
so that bagasse is not needed as fuel. As the drying of the bagasse for fuel 
is the great drawback in cane diffusion, it is clear that where this obstacle 
does not exist, the diffusion process is more likely to be a success than where 
the fuel question demands full and constant attention. Although the factories 
were mstalled in a fairly primitive way up till a short while ago, they have 
much improved since centralization was introduced, and most of the installa- 
tions now are on a par with the most modern plants. All the 214 factories 
working employ steam, 27 of them still use the open kettle system, but the 
rest are provided with vacuum pans. Of the 188,571 tons of Louisiana sugar 
produced in 1906-7, 3,093 tons were prepared with open kettles, 4,250 tons 
with open kettles and centrifugals, and 181,228 tons with vacuum pans and 
centrifugals. At the same time the factories produced 33,000,000 gallons 
of molasses. 

It is chiefly raw sugar, basis 96° polarization, that is manufactured, the 
runnings of which, as a rule, are sold as table-syrup after being again clarified. 
Some factories produce white sugar for direct consumption, but as people in 
the United States are accustomed to very superior white sugar, it is not easy 
to find buyers for the somewhat yellowish or grey plantation cane sugar, and 
it is better to sell the raw sugar to the refiners of New York and New Orleans. 
The manufacturers selling on the New York market receive the market price 
of sugar, and those selling in New Orleans a price corresponding to the New 
York quotation, minus the approximate cost of transportation from the 
factory to New York. 

In 1905-6 242,452 acres (99,000 hectares) were planted with cane in 
Louisiana, yielding 4;849,048 (short) tons of cane, or about 20 tons of cane per 
acre. Those factories that worked with open kettles did not realize more 
than 3-25 per cent, of sugar on the weight of cane ; those that used open 
kettles and centrifugals yielded 4-8 per cent. ; while the up-to-date factories 
reached 8 per cent. With a cane yield of 20 tons to the acre, this does not 
amount to more than 5,322 lbs. (2! tons) per acre. In the year 1910-11 
6-9 per cent, was the average output of sugar calculated over all the 
factories. That of Plaquemines did best, extracting as much as 8-6 per cent. 

The sugar production of Louisiana, beginning in 1827, and that of the 
other States from 1851 down to date, has been as follows, expressed in long 
tons of 2,240 lbs. : — 

155 



"North Amefica. ' 



1823 

1824 

1825 ■ 

1826 

1827 

1828 

1829 

1832 

1833 

1834 

1835 

1836 

1^37 

1838 

1839 
1840 
1841 
1842 

1843 
1844 

1845 
1846 
1847 
1848 
1849 
1850 



15.401 
11,807 

i5',40i 
23,161 

'36,452 
45.178 
24,640 

35.931 
37,482 

51,339 
15.401 

35.937 
28,925 

35.927 
59.049 
44.065 

46.257 
71,878 

51.347 
102,678 

142.723 
70,995 
123,214 
112,964 
120,465 
103,111 







Loui- 
siana. 
(Tons.) 


Other 

States. 
(Tons.) 


Total. 

(Tons.) 


Molasses. 


Year. 


Loui- 
siana. 
(Gallons.) 


Other 

States. 

(Gallons.) 


(Gallons.) 


1851/52 
1852/53 
1853/54 
1854/55 
1855/56 
1856/57 
1857/58 

1858/59 
1859/60 




115.197 
164,312 
224,188 

177,349 
113,664 

36,813 
137.542 
185,206 
113,410 


4,992 
6,852 
4,830 
4.380 
6,283 
5.348 
6,385 
8,169 

4.132 


120,189 
171,164 
229,018 
181,729 
119,947 
42,161 
143,927 
193,375 
117,542 


17,999,660 
25.769,030 
31,000,000 
23,113,620 
15,274,140 
4,882,'38o 
19,578,790 
24,887,760 
17,858,100 


673,920 
921,720 
643,080 
582,780 
844,470 
721,980 
871.975 
567,798 
411,114 


i8,673;58o 
26,690,750 
31,643,080 
23,696,400 
16,118,610 
5,604,360 
20,450,765 
25,455.558 
18,269,214 



156 



The United States of America. 











Molasses. 




Loui- 


Other 










■ 




Year. 


siana. 


States. 


Total. 


Loui- 


Other 






(Tons.) 

1 


(Tons.) 


(Tons.) 


siana. > 
(Gallons.) 


States. 
(Gallons.) 


(Gallons.) 


1860/61 


117.431 


4,313 


121,744 


18,414,550 


351,780 


18,766,330 


1861/62 


235,856 


5,138 


240,994 


36,982,505 


3,502,000 


40,484,505 


1862/63 


43,232 


2,768 


46,000 


7,619,000 


381,000 


8,000,000 


1863/64 


39,690 


250 


39,940 


2,303,000 


217,000 


2,520,000 


1864/65 


5,331 


177 


5,508 


765,000 


85,000 


850,000 


1865/66 


9,287 


348 


9,635 


1,128,000 


172,000 


1,300,000 


1866/67 


21,074 


3,348 


24,422 


2,570,000 


430,000 


3,000,000 


1867/68 


19,289 


4,518 


23,807 


2,800,000 


570,000 


3,370,000 


i868/6g 


42,617 


2,567 


45,184 


6,081,907 


764,000 


6,845,907 


1869/70 


44,382 


2,829 


47,211 


5,724,256 


2,004,544 


7,728,800 


1870/71 


75,369 


4,208 


79,577 


10,281,419 


619,000 


10,900,419 


1871/72 


65,635 


4,217 


69,852 


10,019,958 


681,000 


10,700,958 


1872/73 


55,891 


4,235 


60,126 


8,898,640 


601,000 


9,499,640 


1873/74 


46,078 


2,410 


48,488 


8,203,944 


507,000 


8,710,944 


1874/75 


60,100 


3,454 


63,554 


11,516,828 


674,000 


12,190,828 


1875/76 . 


72,958 


4,045 


77,003 


10,870,546 


1,380,000 


12,250,546 


1876/77 . 


85,102 


3,879 


88,981 


12,024,108 


876,000 


12,900,108 


1877/78 


65,835 


5,330 


71,165 


14,237,280 


913,000 


15,150,280 


1878/79 . 


106,909 


5,090 


111,999 


13,218,404 


1,005,000 


14,223,404 


1879/80 


■ 88,836 


3,199 


92,035 


12,189,190 


4,877,025 


17,066,215 


1880/81 


. 121,886 


5,500 


127,386 


15,255,030 


1,704,000 


16,959,030 


1881/82 


71,304 


5,000 


76,304 


9,691,104 


2,308,896 


12,000,000 


1882/83 


136,167 


7,000 


143,167 


15,716,755 


3,250,000 


18,966,755 


1883/84 


128,318 


6,800 


135,118 


15,277,316 


3,118,000 


18,395,316 


1884/85 


94,372 


6,500 


100,872 


11,761,608 


2,892,000 


14,653,608 


1885/86 


• 127,958 


7,200 


135,158 


17,863,732 


3,645,000 


21,508,732 


1886/87 


80,858 


4,535 


85.393 


10,254,894 2,114,100 


12,368,994 


1887/88 


• 157,970 


9,843 


167,813 


21,980,241 


4,651,^60 


26,631,501 


1888/89 


. 144,878 


9,031 


153,909 


15,288,580 


3,255,882 


18,484,462 


1889/90 


128,343 


4,089 


132,432 


18,431,988 


11,068,147 


29,500,135 


1890/91 


215.843 


6,107 


221,950 


23,152,104 


4,200,000 


27,232,104 


1891/92 


160,937 


4,500 


165,437 


16,429,868 


4,200,000 


20,629,868 


1892/93 


201,816 


5,000 


206,816 


17,025,997 


4,502,000 


21,527,997 


1893/94 


265,836 


6,854 


272,690 


18,469,529 


8,439,197 


26,908,726 


1894/95 


317,306 


8,288 


325,594 


28,334,513 


9,282,561 


37,617,074 


1895/96 . 


237,720 


4,973 


242,693 


21,663,411 


5,569,547 


27,232,958 



157 



North America. 





Loui- 
siana. 
(Tons ) 


Other 
States. 
(Tons). 


Total. 

(Tons). 


Molasses. 


Year. 


Loui- 
siana. 
(Gallons) . 


Other 

States. 
(Gallons). 


(Gallons). 


1896/97 

1897/98 . . 

1898/99 . . 

1899/00 

1900/01 

1901/02 

1902/03 

1903/04 

1904/05 

1905/06 

1906/07 

1907/08 

1908/09 

1909/10 

1910/11 


282,009 
310,447 

245,511 
147,164 
270,338 
321,676 
329,226 
228,476 
355,530 

336,751 
188,571 
302,855 

273,178 
269,431 
263,308 


5,570 

5,290 

5,266 

1,510 

2,891 

3,614 

3,723 

19,800 

15,000 

12,000 

13,000 

10,200 

10,368 

6,126 

5,004 


287,579 
315,737 
250,777 
148,674 

273,229 
325,290 

332,949 
248,276 

370,530 

348,751 
221,571 

313,055 
283,546 

275,557 
268,312 


20,820,130 
22,241,510 
24,952,188 
13,628,840 
31,419,689 

23,727,735 
28,069,571 
18,247,038 
33,302,854 
21,604,869 
33,000,000 
20,351,900 
29,970,750 
29,660,500 
28,862,400 


6,886,927 

7,093,634 
1,768,250 
10,838,903 
6,144,102 
7,680,127 
9,216,152 
6,912,114 
8,640,142 
6,048,100 
3,628,860 

4,717,518 
7,360,000 
7,470,000 
5,594,700 


27,707,057 

29,335,144 
26,720,438 
14,467,743 

37,563,790 
31,407,802 
37,285,723 
25,159,152 
41,942,996 
27,652,969 
36,628,860 
25,069,418 
37,330,750 
37,130,500 
34,457,100 



It can easily be imagined that in a country like Louisiana, where labour 
is expensive, and where owing to the circumstances mentioned above the 
sugar production per unit area is less than in those neighbouring tropical 
countries in which cane cultivation is carried on in a rational way, tlie cane 
sugar industry could not possibly exist if not protected against foreign com- 
petition by heavy protective duties. 

From the very beginning of the industry in the United States, the im- 
portation of raw and refined sugar has been subject to duties, while, with 
the exception of a short period about i860, no excise has been levied on inland 
produce. 

In 1789 the importation of raw sugar was taxed at i cent (American) 
per lb., which duty was gradually raised to amount to 3 cents in 1842. Later 
on it was continually changed ; at one time it was levied as a fixed percentage 
of the value, then again as a fixed amount for each kind of sugar according more 
or less to the patronage accorded by some class or other of people interested 
in it. In 1890, according to the McKinley tariff the importation of raw sugar 
was exempted, so that the price of sugar at once fell considerably, and but 
for other help offered, the Louisiana sugar industry would have been ruined 
by the importation of cheap foreign sugar. In order to counteract this, it 

158 



The United States of America. 

was decreed in 1891 that the Government should give 2 cents premium per 
pound on sugar produced in the country itself, but this production was of a 
very short duration, as only during the first two years were the premiums 
paid in full and directly, while it was paid only six months in the year after 
the conclusion of the 1893-94 campaign. For the crop of 1894-95 Congress 
only allotted a certain amount corresponding to o-8 cent per lb., while in 
the following year the import duty was restored and the premium abolished. 

In 1897 the import duty on raw sugar was fixed at 0-95 cent per lb. for 
sugar polarizing 75°, and if more with an increase of 0-035 cent per lb. for 
each degree above 75. For sugars above No. 16 D.S. the duty amounted 
to 1-95 cent ; these amounts have remained the same since the last tariff 
revision, with the exception of the import duty on the last kind of sugar, 
which has been reduced to i-go cent per lb. 

The raw sugar, basis 96°, consequently enjoys a protection of $37.75 
per ton, and the sugar in colour above No. 16 D.S. enjoys one of $42.56 ; so that 
it is quite poS,sible to manufacture cane sugar with profit in spite of less favour- 
able circumstances as regards climate and wages. A disadvantage of this 
protection is, however, that as a matter of course the manufacturers are 
restricted to the inland markets for the sale of their produce and even if the 
prices of the inland market are low they cannot export to foreign countries 
but are bound to submit to those home prices. The closely united American 
buyers of raw sugar avail themselves of this oppoitunity to buy Louisiana 
sugar at a lower price than that ruling on New York market. 

As the sugar buyers refine the greater part of the Louisiana crop at New 
Orleans and only a little goes to New York, this sugar involves hardly any 
expense for transport. In case the sellers should send their sugar to New 
York to be sold there this would amount to ts cent per lb. In consequence 
of this the refiners offer an amount that is on an average tb- cent per lb. less 
than the New York quotation, and profit by this difference in price, as they 
do not send on this sugar, but refine it on the spot. The sellers still make 
the same profit as when they ship the sugar to New York, so that it is 
immaterial to them whether they sell the sugar in their own district or in 
New York, and they, of course, choose the easier method. As the greatest 
strength of the refiners lies principally in the impossibility of exporting raw 
sugar- at a profit, the tV cent per lb. decrease in the sale price should be put 
to the account of the profit made by protection, which in the end would only 
come to 1-4975 cent per lb. 

The buyers cannot exceed the tt cent per lb. as a difference in price, for 
should they make use of their power to fix too wide a difference between the 
price of raw and of refined sugar, it might lead to the sugar manufacturers 
producing white sugar themselves, as is done by all the beetroot sugar factories 
in the United States. This will involve some difficulties, which, however-, 
seem to be of little moment, as the buyers content themselves with a margin 
of fV cent per lb., which, considering the great amount of sugar sold, comes 

159 



, North America. . 

to a good sum of money. The difficulties we refer to are of two different 
kinds : one technical, and the other commercial. First of all, the plantation 
sugar is not nearly so white and fine as the brilliant sugar from the refineries, 
to which the American consumer has become used. So it may involve much 
trouble to dispose of large quantities of white plantation sugar, especially in 
competition with the excellently organized sale system of the refined sugar 
manufacturers, which system is spread all over the United States by the Sugar 
Trust. This organization works so well, and is under such strict supervision, 
that it would not be difficult for the Sugar Trust to harass any opponent who 
dared to coinpete with their refined white sugar. 

The second drawback against the manufacture of white plantation sugar 
is this : the Louisiana sugar is sent to market during the months of November 
to February, consequently a little before or simultaneously with the Cuba 
sugar, and it is the buyers' policy to buy up the Louisiana sugar as quickly 
as possible, in order to prevent competition. After the month of March there 
is no uncontrolled stock of, sugar left in the country, and should the refiners 
expect an increased manufacture of white plantation sugar they would be able 
at the beginning of the Louisiana harvest to reduce the margin between raw 
sugar and refined sugar to so small a sum that the entire profit on white sugar 
manufacture would disappear. But should the Louisiana sugar be sold and 
the danger be over, they can easily go back to the old margin, having suppressed 
all danger of competition at very slight expense. 

The cane sugar industry of the United States is not likely to undergo 
any great changes. In igog the import duties reverted to what they used to 
be, and although some proposals have been made to considerably reduce and 
even to abolish the duty, it is not probable that these will pass into legislation. 
The great sugar buyers and refiners are more powerful than ever, and it has 
been their aim to keep conditions as stationary as possible by suppressing 
competition, so that the present state of affairs is not likely to change much 
for some years to come. 

The sugar consumption in the United States increases both individually 
and through increase in population, and is quite capable of absorbing the 
increased production of Cuba, Porto Rico, Hawaii, and even that of the Philip- 
pine Islands, should they produce the 300,000 tons of sugar they are allowed 
to export free of duty, so that for the next ten years the inland consumer is 
not likely to be crushed to death by their more advantageously placed tropical 
competitors. It is difficult to say what may happen should Cuba sugar become 
altogether exempted from import duty through a change in the political 
condition of that country, as this would affect the whole complex of existing 
conditions, and make all conjectures useless. We might just as well leave 
this question undiscussed, as any such exemption from duty seems for the 
moment out of question. 

Most probably the quantity of sugar produced within the continent of 
the United States will slowly increase, without developing to any unknown 
extent or experience any considerable decline. Should, however, the duty 

160 







TENA>.(iO SUUAK FACJTUKY IN MUXKXJ. 



Mexico. 

on foreign sugar in the United States be abolished or considerably reduced, 
such important changes in the production and supply of all surrounding coun- 
tries and in the United States would be the consequence, that it would be 
beyond the scope of this present work to deal with them here. 

Literature : 

Bouchereau's Louisiana Sugar Report. 
Directory of Louisiana Sugar Planters. 
Vogt. The Sugar Refining Industry in the U.S. 



II. 

MEXICO. 



The Republic of Mexico, or the United Mexican States, lies in the Southern 
part of North America, between 14° 31 ' and 32° 42' N. Lat. and 86° 46' to 
117° 8' W. Long Its greatest length is 1,938 miles, and its greatest width 
760 miles ; while its least width, near the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, only amounts 
to 134 miles. The area of the repubhc is 750,000 sq. miles, and the result of 
the last census in igoo gave 13,605,819 inhabitants, or 18 to the sq. mile ; 
19 per cent, of the population are white people, 43 per cent, are of mixed race, 
and 38 per cent, are of Indian race. 

The formation of the country is very curious. Because of a succession 
of terraces it has a sudden rise from the low sandy eastern sea coast on towards 
the west to a central tableland, which slopes in a north-western and south- 
eastern direction, and rises from 4,000 to 8,000 ft. above sea level. Above 
this plateau the snow-covered peaks of volcanoes, which for the greater part 
are extinct, stand out : the highest of these are Popocatepetl, Citlatepetl, 
and Ixtacihuatl, respectively 17,540, 17,362, and 16,076 ft. above sea level. 

Two ranges of high mountains in Mexico run parallel with the coast, 
the one along the Gulf of Mexico and the other along the coast of the Pacific. 
The first runs at a distance of from 10 to 100 miles from the coast, and has 
a very gently sloping plain between its foot and the sea ; while the Cordilleras, 
on the Pacific side, are only separated from it by a very narrow strip of land. 
Then spurs branch off from this mountain chain, crossing the country in 
different directions and dividing it into. valleys, which are covered with a fertile 
layer of earth of some considerable thickness, the result of the products of 
disintegration carried along by the rain. 

The east coast of Mexico, on the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea, 
is low, flat, and sandy, except at the mouth of the Tabasco River, where hills 
are found. On the Pacific Coast the land, as a rule, is low, but in places it 
is broken by the spurs of the Westerij Cordilleras. The principal gulfs are 
those of Mexico, California, and Tehuantepec ; and there are a number of 
important bays, including those of Guyamas, Santa Barbara, Topolobampo, 

161 L 



North America, 

and Navachiste in the Gulf of California; Conception, La Paz, and Muleje, 
on the west coast of the same gulf ; San Quintin, Magdalena, and Amejas, on 
the Pacific coast ; and San Bias and Valle de Banderas, on the coast of Tepic. 
The principal rivers are the Rio Grande, which is 1,550 miles long, and 
forms, from El Paso to the sea, the boundary between the United States and 
Mexico ; the Lerma, or Santiago ; the Mescala, or Balsas ; the Yaqui, the 
Grijalva, and many others. Through the terraced condition of the country 
all these rivers form cascades, and, consequently, are not suitable for naviga- 
tion ; but, on the other hand, are fit for power purposes. For the rest, many 
of the rivers are used for irrigation, by damming up and draining off the water. 
Owing to the great variation in height above the sea, the climate of Mexico 
varies for different parts of the country. Tropical heat is experienced on the 
sea coast, and in the low marshy regions near the Gulf of Mexico, and also 
in the valleys shut in by high mountains, but on the plateaus where most 
of the inhabitants live, the climate is much cooler, and is but moderately hot 
all the year through. The year is divided into two seasons, namely, a rainy 
season from June till November, and a dry time during the remaining months 
of the year. 

Meteorological observations for a number of places are as follows, the 
names of the places engaged in sugar cane cultivation being italicized : — 



1902. 
Locations. 



Colima 

Chihuahua 

Guadalajara 

Guanajuato 

Leon 

Mazatldn . . 

M6rida . . 

Mexico 

Monterrey 

Morelia . . 

Pachuca . . 

Puehla 

Queretaro 

Zacatecas 



Temperature in 
degrees Centigrade. 



Aver- 
age. 



Maxi- 
mum. 



Mini- 
mum. 



•■: 24-4 


36-5 


II-O 


i8-5 


37-0 


- 3-0 


. .. 20-0 


347 


5-0 


. iS-5 


34-5 


I'D 


. . i8-6 


34-5 


- 0-9 


. . 247 


33-3 


13-8 


■• 25-4 


40-8 


8-9 


■• 15-9 


30-6 


0-5 


. . 227 


38-5 


1-2 


.. i6-5 


31-9 


- I-O 


. . 16-9 


23-4 


7-0 


■■ 15-5 


28-6 


- 1-4 


.. i8-3 


34-8 


0-6 


.. 15-0 


30-6 


- 2-0 



o 



66 
46 

55 
50 
60 

74 
70 

55 
64 
62 
69 
64 
54 
55 





Fl 














Davs 


tS .; 






of 


■3 ■^ 


ram. 


^ .s 








cS 













H 



85 

74 
94 
63 

104 
70 
69 

1.31 
97 
77 
69 

no 

79 
86 



h 3 

ai 



■>< -S 



2675 
18-41 
31-66 

22-55 
16-27 
32-27 
17-78 
15-66 
22-62 
50-18 
36-04 
23-12 
18-94 



1-75 
1-69 
2-28 
2.37 

2-15 

1-60 

3-54 
5-66 
1-89 

1-73 
11-62 
2-94 
2-14 
1-13 



Month of 
heaviest 
rainfall. 



July 
July-Aug. 

July 



October 

July 

September 

July 
September 

July 

September 



162 



Mexico. 

The territory of the United Mexican States is divided into i Federal 
district, 27 States, and 2 Territories, the organization of which is almost the 
same as that of the corresponding parts of the United States of America. 
Its capital is Mexico, with 344,721 inhabitants (in 1905), situated 7,300 ft. 
above sea level ;" further important towns are Guadalajara, Puebla, Leon, 
Monterry, San Luis Potosi, Merida, Guanajuato, Pachuca, Morelia, Aguasca- 
lientes, Caxaca, Queretaro, Orizaba, Zacatecas, Durango, Chihuahua, and 
Vera Cruz. 

Mexico's railway system covers 9,900 mUes, most of the lines dating from 
twenty years ago. The railways connect the capital with the principal centres 
of population, trade, and industry, also with the seaports and with the United 
States. The Tehuantepec Railway connects the Atlantic with Pacific coast 
of Mexico vii the Tehuantepec Isthmus, while a number of branch Unes run 
from the harbours to the interior. Mexico has been estimated to contain 
5,745 sq. miles of dense forests, 217,000 sq. miles of wooded land, and 490,000 
sq. miles of uncultivated land. 

It is difficult to say exactly how many acres are devoted to the sugar 
industry, which is carried on in the very fertile lower parts on the Gulf of 
Mexico and the Pacific coast, and chiefly flourishes in the States of Morelos, 
Vera Cruz, Puebla, Michoacan, Jalisco, Sinaloa, Guerrero, and Tepic. 

This industry dates from a very early time, as Cortez is known to have 
possessed some sugar plantations in Izcalpam one year after the country 
was taken possession of. As early as 1553 sugar was exported from Mexico 
to Spain and Peru, and the sugar production continued to be profitable, and 
became increasingly important by the end of the eighteenth century, when 
through the desolation of San Domingo the greatest sugar producer disappeared 
from the scene, and other countries got a chance. During the nineteenth 
century the industry remained stationary, while for the last ten years it has 
gone up considerably owing to an increase in sugar prices. 

Both the cUmate and the soil of many parts of Mexico are extremely 
well suited for the cultivation of sugar cane, but as the rainfall is not plentiful, 
irrigation is necessary to obtain a proper kind of cane. From seven to nine 
ratoons are produced without it being necessary to plant afresh, and even with 
such a lengthy continuation, and a most sparing manuring and tillage, a yearly 
product of forty tons per acre, and even of sixty tons, is expected in the States 
of Vera Crux, Oaxaca, and Chiapas. 

The cane is rich in sugar, and very heavy, but the manufacture leaves 
so much to be desired that generally not more than 6 per cent, of the weight 
of cane is obtained in sugar. Most of the factories are extremely small, and 
produce only a few tons of sugar each year, while Mexico can boast of only a 
few big factories. 

The number and the production of the sugar factories in the different 
States amounted in 1910-11 to the following figures in metric tons :— 

163 



North America. 



State. 




Number. 


Tons of 
sugar. 


Tons of 
molasses. 


Campeche 






6 


265 


595 


Chiapas 






68 


485. ' 


602 


CoUma 








4 


1.550 


775 


Guerrero 








i6 


2,812 


2,070 


Jalisco 








28 


4.850 


2,356 


Mexico 








6 


351 


1,339 


Michoacan 








24 


10,350 


10,073 


Morelos 








35 


49.747 


16,673 


Nuevo Leon . 








I 


— 


500 


Oaxaca 








33 


3,217 


1,796 


Puebla 








14 


20,364 


9.987 


San Luis Potos 


1 






i6 


4,768 


4,880 


Sinaloa 








4 


12,255 


5,100 


Tabasco 








i6 


2,945 


1,901 


TamauHpas 








I 


2,810 


2,505 


Tepic . . 






2 


3,500 


1,200 


Vera Cruz 






39 


40,868 


21,341 


Yucatan 






i6 


465 


260 


Tc 


)tal . 


329 


161,602 


83,954 



During the last few years this production ^as 


as follows ■ 


— 


State. 


1905 /06. 


1906/07. 


1907/08. 


1908/09. 


1909/10. 


Campeche 


542 


1,446 


317 


314 


268 


Chiapas . . 


372 


732 _ 


776 


773 


554 


Colima . . 


1,740 


1,597 


1,545 


1,680 


1,680 


Guerrero 


2,096 


2,889 


2,766 


3,825 


2,807 


JaUsco . . 


6,196 


6.304 


5,602 


6,095 


> 5.431 


Mexico . . 


158 


190 


210 


301 


323 


Michoacan 


6,659 


7,493 


8,482 


9,187 


9.310 


Morelos . . 


35,662 


42,230 


48,220 


52,230 


48,547 


Nuevo Leon 


914 


924 


1,206 


800 


260 


Oaxaca . . 


1,477 


1,682 


1,698 


3,045 


3,205 


Puebla . . 


16,549 


16,739 


18,157 


20,207 


21,063 


San Luis Potosi 


1,925 


1,268 


2,035 


3,020 


4,284 


Sinaloa . . " . . 


8,540 


8,785 


6,347 


8,393 


10,462 


Tabasco 


1,967 


2,005 


2,045 


2,205 


2,480 


Tamaul^pas 


1,694 


1,578 • 


1,412 


600 


2,786 


Tepic 


3.500 


3,250 


3,300 


3.300 


3,500 


Vera Cruz 


16,297 


18,690 


18,243 


26,871 


30,483 


Yucatan 


1,241 


1,694 


924 

123,285 


429 


458 


Total 


107,529 


119,497, 


143.179 


147,905 



164 



Mexico. 

The production of the States of Morelas, Oaxaca, Puebla, and Vera Cruz 
has greatly increased, while that of Yucatan has considerably decreased. 

Besides this, about 50,000 tons concrete sugar (piloncillo or panela) are 
turned out yearly in a great number of small factories. 

The total production of crystallized sugar has been for the last eleven years 
as follows : — 











Metric tons 


I889/I900 




75,000 


1900/01 . 








95,000 


1901/02 








103,000 


1902/03 








112,000 


1903/04 . 








107,000 


1904/05 . 








107,000 


1905/06 . 








107,500 


1906/07 








119,000 


1907/08 . 








123,000 


1908/09 . 








143,000 


1909/10 








147.905 


I9I0/II . . 








161,602 



Of this sugar the following quantities were exported : — 

Tons 



1902/03 


149 
8,258 


1903/04 


16,490 


1904/05 


39.270 


1905/06 


5,198 


1906/07 


31,380 


1907/08 


5,686 


1908/09 


4,212 


1909/10 


11,104 



Since the 5th February, 1908, an import duty of 5 doUars Mexican (i 
Mexican doUar = 2s. o|d.) per 100 kg. (220 lbs.) of raw sugar has been levied 
on each kind. There used to be a. duty of half that value, so that this increase 
has not a little contributed towards the rise in the inland price of sugar, which 
has made the manufacture of sugar correspondingly more profitable than it 
used to be. 

The Mexican sugar industry promises much for the future ; even now, ' 
in spite of its very primitive method of cultivation and manufacture, the 
industry is rapidly expanding, and it is difficult to tell how great a future 
may be in store when new capital is invested in the estates, and efforts are 
made to carry on the sugar industry in a more modern and rational way. 
Labour is abundant and cheap, a large extent of very fertile land is still ur- 

165 



North America. 

cultivated, and as soon as this is provided with an irrigation system there is 
no reason to doubt the prospect of a cane production and a sugar yield equal 
to any that Java or Hawaii yields. 

The present political conditions of the country are not favourable for 
the extension of the industry, but as soon as order is restored, and. a stable 
Government is master of the situation, Mexico will soon increase her sugar 
production. ' 

Literature : 

Mexico. A Handbook. Edited by the International Bureau of American Republics. 

Reviata Azucavera. 

Sugar Report of the Hacendado Mexicano. 



III. 

CUBA. 

I. — Geographical Location, Population, Area planted with 
Cane, Total Sugar Production. 

Cuba is a long narrow island, shaped somewhat like the arc of a circle, the 
convex side of which faces north. It lies between 74° and 85° Long. West from 
Greenwich, and between 19° 40' and 23° 33' N. Lat. Cuba's total area, including 
the adjacent islands, is 45,887 sq. miles ; that of the island proper amounts 
to 43,319 sq. miles, and it is 730 miles long, while its breadth varies between 
22 miles in the province of Habana and 160 miles in the province of Oriente. 

The north coast is for the greater part steep and rocky, especially in the 
centre and eastern parts of the island, while it is flattest in the province of 
Pinar del Rio. The south coast is also steep and mountainous in the east, 
but low and marshy in many places beyond Cape Cruz. The part between 
Trinidad and Cienfuegos is again rocky. In accordance with this geographical 
condition, the seaport towns are found on the rocky coasts, most of them 
being situated on deep bays, which being narrow at the entrance provide 
a safe anchorage. 

The middle part of the island, namely, the provinces Havana, Matanzas, 
Santa Clara, and Camaguey, consists chiefly of extensive plains and shallow 
valleys, without mountains of any importance. The country is mountainous 
only at its two extremities, in Pinar del Rio and in Oriente, but mountain 
tops of any importance it has none. The mountains generally do not exceed 
2,000 ft. in height, though the highest peak, in Oriente, Pico Turquino, is 
reputed to be 8,320 ft. 

166 



Cuba. 

The numerous rivers are not of any length, and for the greater part are 
not navigable. Only the Rio Cauto in Oriente is navigable for vessels of 
any considerable draft. So far river water in Cuba has not been applied to 
irrigation purposes. 

The average annual temperature in Havana amounts to 24-2° C, with 
a maximum temperature of 37-5° and a minimum temperature of 10° C. ; 
in the centre and the south the temperature is higher, which is shown by the 
following tables of yearly average temperatures for the several provinces : — 



Province. 


1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 




°C. 


°C. 


°C. 


°C. 


°C. 


°C. 


Pinar del Rio 


24-3 


25-2 


25-6 


25-8 


25-0 


267 


Havana 


24-1 


24-2 


24-1 


24-0 


23-6 


24-8 


Matanzas 


— 


24-4 


24-4 


— 


23-5 


24-6 


Santa Clara . 


25-1 


— 


— 


25-9 


25-3 


25-0 


Camaguey . . 


25-5 


— 


25-8 


25-2 


24-8 


^5-9 


Oriente 


25-2 


25-4 


25-5 


24-9 


25-8 


24-9 



The warmest months are from May to October, while the lowest tempera- 
ture prevails in the months of December to March. The warm season is at 
the same time the rainy season, which generally happens to be from May 
to October, although it may come later or earlier. 

The quantity of rainfall and the number of rainy days has been on an 
average for the last five years as follows : — 





1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


Province. 














Mm. 


Ins. 


Days 

an 


Mm. 


Ins. 


Days 


Mm. 


Ins. 


Days 


Mm. 


Ins. 


Days 


Mm. 


Ins. 


Days 




1009-8 


89-75 


1600-0 


76-39 


118 


S-153 


84 96 


109 


2097-0 


%-6b 


94 


1997-0 


78-61 


96 


Bavana .. .. 


686-2 


25-06 


70 


1247-2 


49-10 


100 


1-832 


52 44 


11 


1183-1 


46-60 


81 


1059-4 


41 76 


93 




1113-7 


43-86 


106 


1348-7 


63 12 


106 


1-873 


73 74 


115 


1168-2 


46-60 


92 


1482 1 


58-86 


86 


Santa Clara 


1049-8 


41-37 


71 


— 


— 


— 


1-460 


57 48 


100 


1278-9 


60 37 


111 


1419 7 


65 91 


126 


Camaguey . . 




— 


— 


1133-4 


44-62 


148 


1-682 


62-28 


164 


1066-3 


41-60 


117 


916-2 


36 02 


114 


Oriente . . . . 


871-5 


34-31 


63 


1457-5 


57-34 


92 


1-420 


.55.91 


93 


662-0 


21-76 


74 


936 1 


36-88 


86 



The prevailing wind is north-east ; it is not a violent, but a steady wind. 
Then there are hurricanes that now and then come from the Caribbean Sea 
and sweep over the island, leaving a good deal of damage in their wake. These 
hurricanes are formed east of Cuba, and go first westward and then bend to the 
north ; and the later in the season they come the larger the circle to which 
they extend, and the more to the west they strike Cuba. In the beginning of 

167 



North America. 

the season— in July — East Cuba is more subject to damage from hurricanes, 
which are then distinguished by heavy rainfall and a fairly strong wind. Western 
Cuba comes in for them when, later in the season, they blow harder and are 
not accompanied by much rain ; while, as a rule, hardly any hurricanes are 
encountered after October. In 1906 a considerable quantity of cane was 
destroyed by a hurricane in the district between Matanzas cind Havana. 

As the results of the census of 1908 show, the population of Cuba amounted 
to 2,048,980 people, who were divided over the different provinces as follows : — 



Pinar del Rio 


240,372 


Havana 


538,010 


Matanzas . . 


239,812 


Santa Clara 


• • 457.431 


Camaguey 


118,269 


Oriente 


455,086 




2,048,890 



1,428,176 of these are whites, 620,804 coloured, and 228,741 are of foreign 
origin ; while 1,074,882 of the total population are men and 974,098 women. 

While nowadays the population amounts to more than 2,000,000, that 
is about 46 to the sq. mile, previous censuses have resulted in the following 
figures : — 

1774 . . . . . . . . . . 172,260 

1792 



1817 
1827 
1841 
1861 
1887 
1899 



272,301 
553.028 
704,487 
1,077,624 
1.396,530 
1,631,687 
1,572,727 



This table poitits to a considerable increase during the past ten years, 
,if the census of previous years was as trustworthy as the last one. There 
is, however, much reason to suppose that the late Spanish authorities gave 
too low a figure on each occasion, so that we cannot make sure of this apparently 
large increase. 

The exact figures of the number of immigrants have been known only 
since 1890, and up to 1902 they amounted on an average to 20,000 per annum. 
The years during the war 1896 — 1898 are left out, as immigration then came 
to a stop. 

Classified according to the different nationalities, the immigration for the 
last nine years has been as follows : — 

168 



Cuba. 



Nationalities. 


1902/03 


1903/04 


r 904 /or 


1905/06 


1906/07 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


Spanish 


9,716 


16,276 


35.161 


44.672 


22,178 


34.792 


21,305 


24,662 


30,913 


N. Americans 


1,066 


1,263 


1,849 


2.384 


1,709 


1.528 


1,841 


1.903 


1,572 


British 


375 


354 


374 


615 


2,204 


1,438 


1,667 


1.575 


993 


Itahans 


228 


374 


255 


339 


215 


215 


223 


194 


200 


French 


147 


194 


333 


369 


281 


257 


272 


240 


259 


Germans 


64 


104 


162 


176 


80 


83 


134 


103 


113 


Turks 


23 


88 


86 


228 


264 


231 


190 


277 


210 


W. Indians . . 


144 


233 


479 


1.550 


953 


i,6ro 


758 


553 


1.427 


Porto Ricans 


79 


223 


413 


738 


717 


619 


471 


578 


595 


Mexicans 


140 


173 


235 


254 


132 


188 


233 


185 


160 


Syrians 


192 


168 


372 


332 


294 


322 


289 


366 


466 


Arabs 


51 


39 


51 


207 


182 


•85 


50 


49 


38 


S. Americans 


169 


113 


250 


221 


143 


140 


121 


184 


155 


Scandinav'ns 


41 


69 


105 


126 


100 


lOI 


85 


40 


103 


Other Nation- 




















alities . . 


216 


146 


435 


341 


200 


238 


360 


377 


560 


Total 


12,651 


19,817 


40,560 


52,652 


29.572 


31.227 


27.999 


31.286 


37.764 



During the years 1906- 
as follows : — 



-1910 the immigration at the different ports was 



1906 


1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


Havana . . 


21,947 


23,618 


20,930 


23.477 


29,244 


Santiago de Cuba 


■ 6,334 


6,678 


6,157 


7,096 


7.791 


Nuevitas 


392 


397 


309 


291 


252 


Caibarien 


191 


144 


229 


4 


— 


Cienfuegos 


99 


188 


211 


113 


155 


Puerto Padre 


311 


81 


87 


204 


— 


Guantanamo 


300 


60 


9 


26 


239 


Other Ports 


98 

1 


61 


67 


75 


21 


Total 


29,572 


31,227 


27,999 


31,286 


37.764 



It is not known how many of those described as immigrants have left the 
country again, but this number no doubt must be rather considerable, as 
many of them only come for a single season at the end of which they return 

169 



North America. 

home. Consequently, the number of immigrants given here should by no 
means be considered as an acquisition to the population. \ 

Up to a short time ago the roads in Cuba were in a very deplorable state, 
and almost the entire transportation from town to town took place by sea. 
The rivers are not suitable for navigation, while when the Americans took 
over the administration of Cuba the main roads, except in the immediate 
vicinity of Habana and Santiago de Cuba, were either totally wanting, or 
were in an extremely bad condition. It was therefore of great importance to 
the development of the country that the extension of the railway system 
was taken energetically in hand, so that, apart from the numerous narrow- 
gauge railways which connect the sugar factories with the main lines, about 
1,000 miles of public railway are in operation. The map shows the now existing 
railways, which connect the harbour towns with the interior, and which, since 
the connection of Santa Clara with San Luis in 1902 established direct commu- 
nication between the western and eastern systems, are combined into one 
coherent and continuous railway system. The construction of cart roads has 
also made great strides in the different provinces since the emancipation of 
the repubhc from Spain. 

The sugar cane is cultivated in all the provinces of the island, and especi- 
ally in Santa Clara, Matanzas, and Oriente. The places where cane cultivation 
is carried on are represented by shading on the map. 

The proportion between the area planted with cane for the years 1904-05 
and 1908-09 in the different provinces, and their total area, and also with the 
area of arable land, is. classified in the table underneath. 

When cojisidering this table we must bear in mind that the area s6t forth 
as planted with sugar cane is not measured, but obtained by calculating back 
the probable area from the weight of cane, in which calculation 50,000 arrobas, 
or 506-63 tons of cane, are supposed to be equivalent to i caballeria, or 33|. 
acres, thus supposing a yield of 15-5 tons of cane per acre. 

Calculated in this way, the crop of 1910-11, which has yielded 1,158,985,514 
arrobas of cane, has come from 23,179 caballerias, or 772,657 acres of land, 
or from 2-84 per cent, of the area of the whole island. 



PrOTinoes. 


Area. 


Area fit for 
agriculture. 


Cane Planted Area. 
1904/06. 


Cane Planted Area. 
1908/09. 




Hectares 


X 


Hectares 


% 


Hec- 
tares 


% of the 
total 
area 


% of the 
arable 
land 


%of 
the 
total 


Hec- 
tares 


%ofthe 
total 
area 


%oftht 
arable 
land 


7. of 
the 
total 


Pinar del Rio . . 
Habana . . . . 
Matanzas . . 
Santa Clara . . 
Camaguey . . . . 
Oriente . . . . 


1,295,900 
717,948 
969 300 
2.740,047 
2,719,600 
3,229,212 


11-4 
6-3 
8-4 
21-7 
23 9 
28-8 


882 848 

620,420 

699,669 

1 496,706 

1,172,894 

1,627,639 


68-1 
86-4 
60 1) 
60 4 
43-1 
47-3 


6,814 
10,602 
46,366 
68 778 

8,867 
83,013 

174,460 

481 091 


0-62 
1-47 
4-83 
2'77 
0-32 
1-02 


0-70 
1-73 
7-97 
4-68 
0-47 
2 16 


4 
6 
27 
39 
6 
19 


7,271 
39 814 
81,086 
113,062 
22,311 
71,362 


66 
5 66 
8-62 
411 
0-82 
2 21 


0-82 
6-42 
13-61 
7-54 
1-91 
4-67 


2-16 
11 80 
24-S5 
33-70 

6-66 
21-27 


Total .. .. 
Acres . . . . 


11,396,000 
27,160,000 


100 


6,300,166 
16,668,000 


66-2 


163 


2 78 


100 


885,606 
829,036 


2-94 


653 


100-00 



170 



Cuba. 

This figure is not, however, to be considered as the real one, as besides the 
area necessary for actual cane cultivation, allowance must be made for extensive 
pastures in use for draught cattle, arable land for the cane planters, and the 
barren tracts of land in between, which because of their position cannot be 
used for anything else, and consequently must also be reckoned as ground 
occupied for cane plantation. We can safely assume the actual cane planted 
area to be twice as much as the nominally planted area, which results in more 
than 1,605,500 acres, or nearly 6 per cent., of the soil area being required. 

The land given out to sugar plantations is yet larger, as in many of these 
tracts forest land occurs, and none of the estates have used all the acreage 
at their disposal for cultivation. Thus, all things considered, about 2,500,000 
acres belong to the sugar plantations. The figures of about 15^ million acres 
for arable land must be accepted with reserve. Although the entire amount 
is put down as plantation ground, aU of it is not by a long way in actual culti- 
vation, and is not likely to be so for some time yet. 

No recent exact figures exist, as the last date from 1892, but it is taken 
for granted that the proportion of cultivated to uncultivated land has hardly 
changed at all. In 1892, 49 per cent, of the total cultivated area was covered 
with sugar cane ; if the same proportion stUl exists the entire area actually 
planted with agricultural produce would amount to no more than 1,600,000 
acres. If we add to this the ground occupied by towns, villages, houses, and 
the very extensive meadows, etc., all more or less destined for production if 
not exclusively planted with agricultural vegetation, we come to the figure 
of 15 J million acres already cited. 

The following table gives a full report of the production of the different 
provinces in tons of 2,240 lbs. for each year since the revival of the industry, 
while the number of factories in each province is mentioned : — 









1901/2. 


1902/3. 


1903 4. 


1904/5. 


1906/6. 


Provinces . 


1900A. 


Facto- 
ries. 


Tons. 


Facto- 
ries. 


Tons. 


Facto- 
ries. 


Tons. 


Facto- 
ries. 


Tons. 


Facto- 
ries. 


Tons. 


Pinar del Bio 
Havana 
Matanzas 
Santa Clara . . 
Camaguey . 
Oriente 


13,903 
60,832 
206,661 
248,955 
20,673 
61,901 


7 
18 
52 
62 

3 
26 


21,063 
89,139 
264,262 
328 761 
22,579 
137,970 


7 
20 
51 
68 

3 
27 


23,199 
104,091 
521,236 
391,761 

26 837 
186,749 


7 
20 
50 
66 

3 
28 


20,627 
130,460 
312,359 
885,746 

27,928 
175,163 


6 
21 
50 

ro 

4 
28 


21,828 
155,346 
341,716 
452,488 

30 178 
181,001 


6 
21 
53 
69 

6 
27 


26 334 
164,230 
34),S98 
479,634 

38,145 
178,495 


Total . . 


612,775 


168 


863,792 


171 


1,003,878 


174 


1,052,273 


179 


1,183,347 


181 


1,229 736 




1900/7. 


1907/8, 


1908/9. 


1909/10. 


1910/11. 






Provinces. 


Facto- 
ries. 


Tons. 


Facto- 
ries. 


Tons, 


Facto- 
ries. 


Tons. 


Facto- 
ries. 


Tons. 


Facto- 
ries. 


Tons. 




Pinar del Rio 

Havana 

Matanzas 

Santa Clara . . 

Camaguey 

Oriente 


7 
22 
65 
70 

4 
28 


33,651 
188 055 
.897,194 
620 424 

62,788 
256,098 


8 
18 
45 
60 


26 


22,833 
113,5'il 
217,726 
844,314 

62,919 
218,482 


8 
IS 
44 
68 

6 
26 


31,570 
188,197 
863,196 
510.078 

98 024 
336,753 


8 
18 
47 
66 

6 
25 


30,470 
195,034 
453,968 
604,198 
117,316 
403,868 


8 
17 
48 
68 

6 
26 


22,281 
140,533 
299 568 
550,950 
112 092 
848,876 




Total . . 


186 


1,414,310 


169 


969,276 


170 


1,621,S18 


170 


1,804,349 


168 


1,469,250 





171 



North America. 

II. — The History of the Cane Sugar Industry. 

Soon after the discovery of Cuba by Christopher Columbus in 1492, the 
sugar cane was introduced. There it found an extremely fertile soil for its 
growth and development, but the Spanish Government of the sixteenth and 
seventeenth centuries did not allow any full scope for Cuba's infant sugar 
industry. Indeed, after a few years sugar cane cultivation was forbidden, and 
even after that interdiction was withdrawn, monopolies and privileges have had 
such a restrictive influence that up to 1772 any real progress was out of question. 
After that year, however, any Spaniard was free to produce sugar, and this 
led to such an increased production that the exportation, which in 1760 only 
amounted to 4,392 tons, realized in 1780 about 12,000, and in 1790 14,163 
tons of sugar. The revolution and consequent ruin of the sugar industry in 
San Domingo in 1791 were responsible for the great impetus given to the develop- 
ment of the sugar trade in Cuba, as all the neighbouring countries were eager 
to fill the vacancies. Within ten years the number of factories increased from 
473 to 870, and the exportation amounted for 1792, 1796, and 1802 to 14,600, 
24,000, and 40,800 tons respectively. Owing to the unfavourable state of 
affairs in Europe during the first years of the nineteenth century, Cuba, like 
every other sugar producing country, suffered heavily ; but when, after Napo- 
leon's fall, the former regular commercial intercourse was restored, Cuba's 
sugar industry was able to expand once more. During the years 1826 — 1836 
the combined sugar exportation of the Caribbean Isles realized from 270,000 
to 350,000 tons, 80,000 to 170,000 tons of which were yielded by the English 
colonies, while the Spanish and French Caribbean Isles contributed the rest. 

Although the production had increased, the methods of cultivation and 
manufacture remained crude and primitive, and labour was difficult to procure. 
The aborigines had been exterminated soon after the conquest, and were 
replaced as a makeshift by African negro slaves. 

As long as the sugar industry remained on a small scale, the number of 
workmen was sufficient, but after the rapid extension it did not come up to the 
increasing demand, and the deficit was felt keenly, till in 1834, when the Gover- 
nor of Cuba, Miguel Tacon, contrary to the contracts with Spain and England, 
openly encouraged the slave trade, and consequently raised the African popula- 
tion of Cuba to a higher figure. It is due to these measures, as well as to Tacon's 
strong disapproval of all sorts of abuses which had become associated with the 
administration, that the sugar industry revived and entered upon a period of 
prosperity such as has not since been witnessed in the history of Cuba till the 
occupation of the United States in 1898. The sugar industry extended to 
unknown parts, and several fishing ports developed into well-frequented 
harbours. In spite of the heavy taxes, export duties, and special levies, which 
the Mother Country demanded of its colonies, the sugar experienced a great 
time of prosperity from 1835 till the first war against Spain. 

Although from 1850 onwards the sugar production and the number of sugar 

172 



Cuba. 

factories in Cuba were recorded in statistics, it was not till 1882 that they 
began to be reliable, when the incidence of an export duty procured fairly 
accurate figures. We know for a fact, however, that in 1870 the yearly output 
realized 610,300 tons, which were obtained from no fewer than 1,200 small 
factories. This lucrative period was brought to an end by the abolition of 
slavery as much as through the first war against Spain, the so-called " Ten 
Years' War," from 1868 — 1878. In 1872 all the children born from women 
slaves were declared free, while 1880 witnesged the total abolition of slavery, 
for which the owners were not indemnified. This great change as regards the 
labour problem dealt the sugar industry a heavy blow. Instead of being able 
to dispose of reliable and cheap labour on the estate, they had to look out for 
free labour, which was both scarce and expensive. At the same time, the 
country was suffering from the terrors of the war with Spain, which was carried 
on with great bitterness on either side, and led to the devastation of much 
property. The competition with beetroot sugar at that time became much more 
threatening, as this alternative source of sugar was protected by all sorts of 
privileges and bounties, and gradually became a powerful factor in the supplying 
of the world's demands. After the war was over the annual output rose 
again, so that in 1890 it realized 625,000 tons, which had been produced in 
about 470 factories. As the number of factories decreased, the number of 
undertakings for cane planting steadily mounted up. For want of labourers 
of their own, the manufacturers, soon after the aboUtion of slavery, resolved 
to give plots of land on lease to farmers, and to buy and work up their crops 
of cane, as well as that of entirely independent landowners. Thus a separation 
between plantation and manufacture was gradually brought about in Cuba, 
and was carried on so far that in the end cane was almost exclusively obtained 
by acquisition. The period of rest, following the end of the rebellion against 
Spain, was most beneficial to the development of the sugar industry, and in 
consequence its produce steadily increased, to reach its maximum of 1,054,214 
tons in 1894. In the following year, 1895, however, the last rebellion against 
Spain broke out ; after much calamity and devastation it ended in the Spanish- 
American War, and ultimately in the establishment of the Cuban Republic. 
This period of disturbance and strife is the worst in the entire history of Cuba ; 
on both sides much harm was done by killing cattle and burning and destroying 
property, all for the purpose of cutting off their opponents' means of livelihood. 
Owing to the destruction of the factories, the burning over of cane fields, and 
the extermination of draught cattle, it became almost an impossibility to 
carry on the sugar industry ; and in spite of the strict regulations issued by 
the Spanish authorities to go on grinding as long as it was feasible, the pro- 
duction in 1897 went down to as low a figure as 212,051 tons. It goes without 
saying that the industry recovered only slowly when the period of misery and 
destruction had come to an end, and was followed by a time of quiet. Numerous 
factories had been destroyed ; others had lost their cattle and seen their 
plantations devastated, their means of conveyance rendered unfit for use, and 

173 



North America. 

their working population reduced in number, and accustomed to an irregular 
life ; so that it took much time and trouble and capital to recreate a healthy 
state of affairs. Many manufacturers failed to realize the necessary funds 
for rebuilding their factories or reinstalling them, so they turned their lands 
into pastures, or became cane planters themselves for the sake of neighbour- 
ing " central factories." Others, again, who were able to get the necessary 
money, although at a high interest, extended their estates ; while most of 
them, unable to pay for the urgent factory repairs out of their own purse, 
turned their properties into joint stock companies, or sold them to fresh com- 
panies. Instead of the great number of semi-patriarchal owners at the head 
of smaU factories working on rather crude lines, there is now a smaller number 
of mostly very big factories (so-called centrales), which belong to companies 
and are founded on a much better commercial basis. This gradual conversion 
of small establishments into big ones still goes on, and whenever news from 
Cuba tells of a new company being created for the purpose of building a central 
factory, which is to produce 200,000 bags of sugar or more, it is in most cases 
not an entirely new enterprise, and the total production of the island will 
consequently not be raised by that amount ; it is in many cases simply the 
conversion of two or three small estates into a big one, to work up the cane 
of the still existing plantations. Besides these conversions, however, entirely 
new sugar estates are started, especially by American capitalists, on the north 
and south coast, and further in the interior of the island along the newly 
erected railroad, which connects Santiago de Cuba with Santa Clara 
and Havana, and has brought large extensions of excellent cane land within 
reach of cultivation. Although it must have been most unpleasant individually 
for the planters who were unlucky enough to see their property slip away, 
the sugar production of Cuba itself has been benefited by the modern methods 
of working that ask for concentration of labour ; and also by the fact that 
the cane sugar industry nowadays is being increasingly carried on by powerful 
companies, which through their greater access to all sorts of resources can 
better turn to account the natural advantages of soil and climate than the 
smaU planters would ever be able to do. 

The owners of the sugar factories working from 1906 till 1911 belonged 
to the following nationalities : — 



/ 


1906 


1907 


igo8 


1909 


1910 


1911 


Cubans 

Americans 

English, Spaniards, etc. 


78 
73 


73 
31 
82 


67 
36 
66 


67 
38 
65 


67 
38 
65 


64 
63 


Total 


181 ■ 


186 


169 


170 


170 


168 



174 



Cuba. 

Of the 170 factories in operation in 1911, 

57 belonged to individual owners, 

54 belonged to private firms, 

26 belonged to joint stock companies established in Cuba, and 

33 belonged to foreign joint stock companies. 

Closely connected with the diminution in the number of factories and the 
increase in the planted area, the average capacity of the factories has also 
greatly increased. We saw that in 1870 the average production of a factory 
was only 500 tons, or 3,500 bags ; in 1880 this figure had gone up to 1,300 
tons ; while in 1907, 1908, 1909, 1910, and 1911 the proportion expressed in 
bags of 325 Spanish pounds was as follows : — 





1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


More than 500,000 bags 


— 


— 


— 


I 


— 


More than 400,000 bags . . 


— 


— 


I • 


I 


I 


More than 200,000 bags 


3 


2 


3 


4 


3 


Between 150,000 and 200,000 bags 


4 


— 


4 


5 


1 


Between 100,000 and 150,000 bags 


25 


6 


16 


22 


19 


Between 50,000 and 100,000 bags 


61 


36 


55 


62 


54 


Between 25,000 and 50,000 bags 


51 


48 


50 


51 


38 


Less than 25,000 bags 


42 


76 


41 


24 


52 




186 


168 


170 


170 


168 



In 1909 the average production of each factory amounted to 56,803 bags 
for aU the existing plantations ; for those under Spanish and European manage- 
ment, 44,497 bags ; for those belonging to Cubans, 49,858 bags ; while for 
American estates it was 99,830 bags. 

In spite of the difference in the number of estates of each category (Cuban, 
American, and other nationalities), each of the three produced during the 
years 1907, 1908, and 1909 about one-third of the total sugar output. 

In igio the proportion was no longer the same, chiefly owing to the gigantic 
production of the larger factories (such as Chaparra, Preston, Boston, and 
others), so that the output of the American factories in 1910 amounted to 
35 per cent, of the total, and stayed at that figure in 1911 too. 

The total sugar production of Cuba has been in the years following 1850 
as below (but only the figures after 1882 are fully trustworthy) :— 

175 



North America. 



Year. 


Tons. 


Notes. 


Year. 


Tons. 


Notes. 


1850 


223,145 




1883 


460,327 


Internal dis- 


1851 


263,999 








turbances. 


1852 


251,609 




1884 


558,932 




1853 


322,000 




1885 


631,000 




1854 


374,000 




1886 


731,723 




1855 


392,000 




1887 


646,578 




1856 


348,000 




1888 


656,719 




1857 


355.000 




1889 


560,333 




1858 


385,000 




1890 


632,368 




1859 


536,000 




1891 


816,980 




i860 


447,000 




1892 


976,000 




1861 


446,000 




1893 


815,894 




1862 . 


525,000 




1894 


1,054,214 




1863 


507,000 




1895 


1,004,264 




1864 


575.000 




1896 


225,221 


^ Rebellion 


1865 


620,000 




1897 


212,051 


- against Spain. 


1866 


612,000 




1898 


305.543 


j Spanish- 


1867 


597,000 








Amer. war. 


1868 


749,000 




1899 


335.668 




1869 


726,000 




1900 


283,651 


Great drought. 


1870 


726,000 




1901 


612,775 




1871 


547,000 


Hurricane. 


1902 


863,792 




1872 


690,000 




1903 


1,003,873 




1873 


775.000 


10 years' war. 


1904 


1,052,273 




1874 


681,000 




1905 


1,183,347 




1875 


718,000 




1906 


1,229,736 




1876 


590,000 




1907 


1,444,310 


Particularly 


1877 


520,000 








favourable 


1878 


533,000 


y 






weather. 


1879 


670,000 




1908 


969.275 


Great drought. 


1880 


530,000 




1909 


1,521,818 




1881 


493,000 


MO 


r- 1910 


1,804,349 




1882 


595,000 


m 


1- 1911 


1,469,250 






' 




1912 


1,800,000 


Estimate. 



III. — Cane Cultivation. 

The price paid for land varies greatly for the different provinces. In Pinar 
del Rio a caballeria (33 -16 acres) is to be had for $200, unless fit for tobacco 
cultivation or adapted for irrigation, in which case the price goes up enormously. 

176 



Cuba. 

In Havana the cost of land is from I400 to $2,000 per caballeria, in Matanzas 
and Santa Clara from $300 to $800, and in Camaguey and Oriente the price 
is only from $100 to S300, while one can easily be suited for less than $100 
per caballeria when buying larger tracts. 

Only a very small part of the soil is fit for irrigation with water from weUs ; 
those parts occur in the provinces of Pinar del Rio and Havana. All the 
remaining ground is dependent on rainfall. 

As has been mentioned before, the cane is partly planted by the factories 
themselves and partly by independent farmers [colonos). These again plant 
the cane either on their own ground or on ground they hire from the estates. 
In the ye^r 1904-5 the different categories bore the following relation : 













Planted by colonos. 


CO 




Total 
planted 


Total. 


Planted by 
the Estate 











' 


d 


Piovince. 


area. 






itself. 


Ou ground of 
the Estate. 


On their own 
ground. 




i 




Cabs* 


Cords 


Cabs 


Cords 


Cabs 


Cords 


Cabs 


Cords 


Cabs 


Cords 




3 

iz; 


Pinar del Rio 


576 


198 


t507 


312 


141 


— 


155 


15 


211 


297 


253 


Havana 


1,600 


74 


790 


72 


149 


— 


251 


55 


390 


17 


147 


Matanzas ... 


4.617 


266 


3 455 


182 


916 


40 


1,176 


50 


I 363 


92 


533 


Santa Clara ... 


9,275 


276 


5.125 


16: 


1,206 


243 


1,297 


285 


2,620 


261 


1.923 


Camaguey 


2,924 


81 


660 


— 


366 


— 


287 


— 


7 


— 


— 


Oriente 


4.149 


208 


2.459 


231 


955 


176 


960 


55 


504 


■ — ■ 


785 


Total 


23.594 


131 


12,998 


319 


3.774 


135 


4.127 


136 


5.097 


19 


3.641 



But little care is bestowed on the planting, and yet the sugar cane once 
planted yields ample crops for years, and that without any manuring or tillage to 
speak of. When in the end the cane is considered too old for a further crop, 
and the old stubbles are removed, the same soil when planted anew wiU }deld 
again very satisfactory crops for years, and that without any rotation of 
crops, till finally being exhausted it will be abandoned and used as pasture 
land. 

When cane is planted on new soil, the jungle is first cut, the valuable logs 
are carried away and the rest is burnt, only the royal palms being left standing, 
as they are of great value, because their leaves can be used as thatch and their 
seeds serve as food for pigs. The cane tops are planted in the moderately 
levelled and ploughed ground at 6 ft. distance from each other, covered with 
earth, and left to grow. 

* I caballeria = 342 cordeles = 13-42 hectares = 33-16 acres, 
t Here, too, the planted area has not been measured, but calculated from the obtained 
weight of cane, in which case 50,000 arrobas cane are taken for i caballeria. 

177 M 



North America. 

If the weather is favourable, i.e., rainy and warm, the cane will grow well, 
but should drought follow the planting it will stop the growth, and the young 
cane is sure to die, thus making fresh planting necessary. In Cuba one dis- 
tinguishes spring and autumn planting. The first falls before or during the 
first months of the rainy season — that is in April, Maj , and June ; and should 
the rain come in time the cane can be reaped in March and April of the following 
year. Should the rain set in later, the cane will have no time to ripen, and 
as the grinding season will be broken by new rains, the spring cane cannot 
be groimd till December in the following crushing season. 

The autumn cane planted at the end of the rainy season in the soaked soil 
does not get ripe till December of the following year, or in the beginning of 
the year after, so that it may be cut by March. 

Grinding is undertaken exclusively in the dry weather, so that it must be 
put off tiU the ground is well dried. Hard roads are of rare occurrence in Cuba, 
and the cane, as a rule, has to be carried by ox carts from the fields to the weigh- 
ing bridge, from whence it is further transported by train to the factory. As 
long as the soil is dry the heavy carts, with a load of 300 arrobas (7,500 lbs.) of 
cane drawn by three pairs of oxen, can easily do the work ; but comparatively 
hght showers, i.e., of two inches, cause the ground to become so soft that the 
vehicles get stuck deeply in the earth, transportation becoming an impossibiUty. 
Consequently, grinding should be begun immediately rain is over, i.e., in 
December, as the work has to be stopped when the next showers come, which 
may happen either as early as April or not before July. Further on, when 
discussing the future of the cane industry in Cuba, it will be shown of how much 
importance this uncertainty as regards the duration of the rainy season may 
be for the sugar production of that island. 

The cane is cut close to the ground with a machete, a kind of cutlass, then 
stripped of its tops and cut into pieces two or three feet in length. These are 
bound into bundles and piled up on ox carts, which are driven to the factory 
or to the weighing stations in the fields, where they are weighed and laden 
into railway trucks for transportation to the mills. Very often the cut cane 
is left lying in the field for some time before it is carried away. Frequently 
no hurry as regards the transportation of the cut cane is shown, and this often 
causes the extremities to dry up to some extent. But as cutting and grinding 
is usually done during the cold months of the year, the deterioration of cane 
thus neglected is far less than might be the case should cane be thus treated 
in hotter countries. Even if there was thought of improving this state of 
affairs, it would soon be realized how difficult the matter is, as labour is scarce, 
and a regular supply of cane is all that can be expected ; so things are best 
left as they are. 

After the cane is cut, the stumps are covered with dry leaves to prevent 
too great an evaporation, and owing to the natural moisture of the ground 
and the occasional showers the cane will soon shoot up again, and, as a rule, 
is once more ripe twelve months after the cutting. The sugar content of first 

ttX 



Cuba. 

V and second ratoon canes is supposed' to be highest, while after the second ratoons 
the yield of cane becomes less. Generally five to six ratoons are grown, but 
very often this number is exceeded as circumstances require. A good crop 
should yield at least 80,000 arrobas per caballeria (62,000 lbs. or 27-8 tons per 
acre), although sometimes 100,000 and even 160,000 arrobas are obtained. 
The average crop is 50,000 arrobas per caballeria (17-33 tons to the acre). As 
soon as a plot promises no larger a crop than 20,000 arrobas per caballeria (say 
seven tons to the acre) it is usual to plant anew, providing there is no lack of 
labour. But when labour is scarce, and it is too late in the season to expect 
a timely harvest from the cane by the following crushing season, it is better to 
keep on the same cane for another year as this is more profitable in the end. 
The same field may happen to yield a crop exceeding 20,000 arrobas, in which 
case it is kept again for further ratoons, so that at the best of times fields may 
stm 3.ield quite satisfactory crops without requiring any fresh planting, after 
having been cut uninterruptedly for 30 seasons. 

Field treatment does not amount to much ; on some modern estates it 
simply involves cutting and weeding the grass regularly, and going with a 
plough, drawn by oxen, between the rows in order to loosen the soU after the 
cutting is done ; but even this loosening of the earth is often neglected, so that 
reaping the crop is the only treatment the cane plantations regularly witness 
besides that of planting and weeding. 

The cane varieties which are most in vogue in Cuba are the cana blanca 
and the cana cristaUina ; they are pale green and soft varieties, and easy to 
crush. Another kind found there is the caiia rojo or red cane, a very inferior 
and hard kind which is difficult to grind. The latter is chiefly planted along 
the edges of the plots, in order to give stray cattle the impression that the 
entire plot is planted with this unpalatable kind of vegetation. 

The cost of planting new cane depends greatly on the quality of the soil, 
on the wages to be paid, etc., but may be reckoned to amount to $1,000 to 
$1,400 per caballeria — $1,200 {Ij 4s. gd. per acre) on an average. The cost of 
first and following ratoons, of course, is much less, as it simply involves loosen- 
ing the soil, cutting the grass, and weeding. It is to be estimated at $340 
per caballeria, or ;^io 2S. 2d. per acre. 

$400 is paid for cutting and cleaning the cane, $200 for loading, and 
$200 for transportation. The cost of a caballeria of planted cane from the 
time of planting till it is brought to the mill thus comes to about $1,900 to 
$2,000 per caballeria (£12 is. 4d. per acre), and under the best conditions 
may drop to $1,700 (;fio 4s. 8d. per acre). 

If we take for granted that the once planted cane only yields five crops, 
the total expense of the planting will amount to $2,760, plus cost of cutting, 
loading, and transportation ($4,000) ; that is, altogether, $6,760 per caballeria. 
. For the rest, we take as an average production 50,000 arrobas, or 250,000 
arrobas altogether, so that each aroba of cane wiU have cost $0-207 — 
6d. per cwt. — ^including conveyance to the mill. While ground is to be got for 

179 



North America. 

§100 per caballeria, which, when half of it is planted, comes to $200 net, it 
will not cost more than $20 per caballeria each year, even at the rate of 10 
per cent., that is about id. per 50 arrobas, which only imperceptibly raises the 
cost price of sugar cane. 

If the cane can be cut more than five times, the heavy cost of first planting 
will be distributed over more crops, so that the cost of cane goes down, 
and as in most cases more than four ratoons are reaped, the figure of los. per 
ton cane delivered at the mill will be rather too high than too low an 
estimate. 

When buying cane from the colonos the price is not expressed in money 
value, but in per cents of sugar on 100 parts of cane. The seller generally gets 
an amount of 5 per cent, of the weight in cane paid in sugar, or, if desired, its 
equivalent in money calculated at the Havana quotation on the day of delivery. 
This figure of 5 per cent, is no fixed amount ; it may be less when the colonos 
have had much money advanced, or may increase when there is lack of cane, so 
that the planters are able to clairfi what price they wish. These prices are 
basejd on clean cane in bundles delivered on the scale, and have nothing what- 
ever to do with the sugar content of the raw material, so that the manufacturer 
does not gain much profit from this compromise should the sugar content be 
low. 

Cane diseases are hardly ever met with in Cuba, which is a very good thing 
for that country, for should a serious infectious disease make its appearance, 
it would be almost impossible to stamp it out, so that the harm done would 
be widespread. The plantations being close together, any isolation of fields 
that are attacked by the disease is out of the question ; moreover, labour is too 
scarce to weed out the infected plants and to plant new fields. For this reason 
it is to be considered a great advantage for the Cuban sugar industry that the 
fertility of the soil allows the sugar cane to be treated as though it were a weed, 
which once planted wants hardly any further care or treatment, and is proof 
against attacks from fungoid and other diseases. 

Mice are the only animal enemies ; these in dry years get in great numbers 
into the sugar cane fields and gnaw the canes. At the approach of the rainy 
season they disappear as quickly as they come. Then stray cattle are a nuisance, 
for they make short work of fences, and invade the cane plantations. Borers, 
both the Scirfophaga and the Chilo, are of frequent occurrence, and sometimes 
cartloads of cane show traces of being infested on each stick by borers. In 
not one case are the attacks followed by infection through fungi, so that the 
financial loss caused by the borers may be estimated at very little. Far greater 
damage is done by cane fires, which here, like everywhere else, are mainly due 
to incendiarism. This crime is so often at the bottom of cane fires in Cuba 
that such a fire goes by the name of " candela " (candle), in consequence of 
the trick of putting a burning candle among the dry cane leaves. 

Meteorological conditions are of much more importance for the cane 
production than any of the above-mentioned sources of loss. The cane depends 

180 



Cuba. 

on rain for its water supply, and, therefore, a long spell of drought may have 
a very disastrous effect on the growth of the young cane, so that the cane 
production in Cuba greatly depends on weather circumstances. Further, 
hurricanes may cause damage either by laying low the erect cane or by tearing 
it from its roots ; and in consequence of this it will be in poor condition the 
following year. It is estimated that cane swept by hurricanes, and conse- 
quently fallen cane, yields i to ij per cent, less sugar than would have been 
the case if there had been no storm, which when one has to give 5 per cent, of 
the weight of cane in sugar as cost price, while it realizes 10 per cent., means a 
decrease of 20 to 30 per cent, in the profits. A further consequence of the 
damage by hurricanes is that the roots, as a rule, will not have got over their 
strain by the following year, so that the yield of sugar in the next crop still 
experiences the bad effects of the hurricane. 



IV. — Sugar Manufacture. 

It is the custom to convey the cane from the fields to the mills by the 
estate railways, for which purpose extensive tracks with sidings run in all 
directions, along which the cane, when cut into lengths, is steadily conveyed 
to the factory. Close to the sugar works is the railway yard, in which the 
trains on arrival can be shunted till the trucks can be taken to the miU elevator. 
Most of the Cuban factories have double crushing, with or without maceration, 
and some of them use a crusher as well. The biggest and best-arranged are 
those with triple crushing and a crusher applying maceration ; while it is 
quite an exception for a factory to have four or five mills in tandem. 

The juice is limed with a mixture of lime and water prepared on the spot, 
as most of the manufacturers are of opinion that the success of clarification 
entirely depends on the use of milk of lime that has been mixed immediately 
before, and not some time in advance. The limed juice when exactly neutral 
goes through heaters, and is clarified either by simple clarification , or through 
superheat clarifiers according to Deming's system. The clarified juice on 
being syphoned off goes through Danek or similar filters, while the scum is 
filtered through filter-presses. The clarified juice is concentrated in a number 
of triple effects of very smaU dimensions ; quadruple effects are very rare, 
yet if the factories would go in for a considerable extension of their evaporating 
plant, a much more economical use of steam in the evaporation might be 
obtained, which would greatly diminish the amount of additional fuel required 
in most cases. 

In the boihng process the returning of molasses is much in vogue, and in 
modern factories they often succeed in obtaining exhausted molasses of 30° 
purity directly after the second strike, which molasses is sold to alcohol dis- 
tillers. 

In the more ancient factories first and second sugars are made, in which 

181 



North America 

case molasses of 50° purity is obtained, to be chielly sold in America, where it 
is consumed as table syrup. The sugar in the centrifugals is not " covered," but 
the molasses is spun off as far as possible, and the sugar is packed in bags of 
325 Spanish pounds without being dried artificially, and therefore in a some- 
what sticky condition. In a great many factories the sugar of the second 
strike is mixed with that of the first, either in the crystallizers or in the 
Centrifugals, or even after the centrifugalling is done, whereas others seU their 
" second product separately. Hence, in some cases, second sugar is mentioned 
in statistics as first sugar, while it is mentioned separately in other cases, so 
that the quantities of first and second sugar [azucar de guarapa and azucar 
de miel) do not always bear the same relation to each other. 

The first sugar is sold on basis of polarization 96°, plus ^ cent per lb. 
for each degree higher than that figure, and less tV cent per lb. for each degree 
under, with fractions in proportion. Second sugar is sold on basis of polariza- 
tion of 89°, plus -sV cent per lb. for each degree higher than 89, and less A cents 
for each degree lower. 

The price of exhausted molasses is 3 to 4 cents per gallon (of 378 litres) 
delivered at the factory, while molasses of about 50° purity fetches 8 cents. 

At one time rum and alcohol were distilled from the molasses, but since 
the Government has levied an excise on distillery products, this branch of 
the industry has been given up on the sugar plantations, and only a few dis- 
tilleries are found in the island. By far the greater part of the exhausted 
molasses is sold to the so-called " Whiskey Trust " in the United States ; 
but some is sent to Europe, and some is distilled on the island itself, while the 
remainder is thrown away as useless ; the rich molasses is sold to the United 
States as an article of food. 

Bagasse is used as fuel, and the cane trash is left in the field as a protection 
for the planted cane against drying up by the sun. The production of steam 
is not economically regulated, and the furnaces work with a great excess of air, 
in consequence of which the quantity of bagasse, notwithstanding a fibre 
content of 10 or 11 per cent, in cane, is insufficient as fuel (and this while macera- 
tion is only sparingly applied, and only one sort of raw sugar is manufactured), 
so that wood as extra fuel is everywhere much used. 

The capacity of the factories, of course, varies greatly. There are very 
small installations as well as very big ones ; the new American factories, for 
instance, can grind as much as 3,600 short tons (of 2,000 lbs.) per 24 hours in 
three sets of miUs, each of which consists of one crusher and three 3-roller 
mills — II roUs in each. 

In spite of this great capacity of the mills, the juice extraction is not so 
large as is the case in Java or in Hawaii. This may be accounted for in two 
ways ; in Cuba the crop greatly depends on the weather, and grinding is ex- 
clusively done in the dry season, for should the rainy season set in before the 
crushing is finished, the cane that is stiU in the field would be past reaping, 
which would mean a complete loss for that harvest. One can imagine that 
those engaged in grinding are simply and exclusively intent on getting the 

182 



Cuba. 

greatest quantity of material ground in the shortest time, and pay minor 
attention to the quantity of sugar to be obtained from the crushed cane, a 
quantity that slow and careful treatment might, of course, increase. 

Then the wages paid in Cuba are very high, and amount to $i or $1.50 
a day ; the same wages are paid to labourers for working up a large vessel of 
juice as for treating the contents of a smaller vessel, so that it becomes advis- 
able to make the quantities of cane to be worked as large as possible, and let 
the inevitable wages cover as much output as possible. 

It is for these two reasons that the Cuban manufacturers working with 
very powerful American mills and machinery do not extract the same amount 
of sugar from the cane as do, for instance, the Hawaiian manufacturers with 
the same type of plant. Consequently, the loss of sugar in the bagasse exceeds 
that in other countries, while the loss of sugar in filter-presses, molasses, and 
unaccounted for in those factories where the loss is noted down shows 
nothing abnormal compared with factories in other centres. 

Chemical control is still but little apphed in the Cuban factories ; however, 
a number of estates belonging to American and Spanish firms have introduced 
a well-arranged system of control corresponding to that in Java and Hawaii, 
the production figures of which would allow of comparison. It would, how- 
ever, be of little avail to quote these figures here, as only the best arranged and 
managed estates would be considered, and therefore no light would be 
thrown on the general condition of the average factory in Cuba. 

The increase in the quantities of sugar obtained from 100 parts of cane 
during the several seasons shows an improvement ; the quantities amount to 
the following percentages for the different provinces : — 



PROVINCE. 


1902/03 


1903/04 


1904/05 


1905/06 


1906/Or 1907/08 


1908/09 


1909/10 


1910/11 


Pinar del Rio 


977 


10-03 


IO-47 


9 54 


1033 


1 1- 14 


10-44 


II-OS 


"•73 


Havana 


9-13 


10-26 


10-94 


9-6o 


10-10 


11-45 


io-o6 


11-14 


11-47 


Matanzas 


9-47 


9-71 


10-18 


9-60 


9-62 


10-56 


10-69 


11-23 


"■39 


Santa Clara 


9-68 


10-22 


10-15 


10-01 


10-28 


10-84 


10-84 


U-32 


11-58 


Camaguey 


9-47 


9-51 


10-02 


10-40 


10-63 


10-68 


10-56 


11-03 


11-94 


Oriente 


9-43 


9-59 


9-91 


9-79 


10-74 


10-20 


10-31 


11-07 


11-83 


Gen. average 


9-54 


9-88 


10-22 


9-81 


10-16 


10-66 


10-90 


II-2I 


11-62 



Although the yield of sugar depends first of all on the sugar content of the 
cane and the purity of the juice, and only secondly on the manufacture, the 
constant increase of the figure representing the yield of sugar points to a steady 
improvement, though no figures are given representing sugar content and 
purity. Little is known about the sugar content of cane ; the only thing we 
know is that at the beginning of the crushing season it is rather low and corres- 
ponds to 8 per cent, of sugar obtained in bags from 100 parts of cane, but 
gradually it increases, and finally allows of a yield of 12 per cent, or more if the 

183 



North America. 

weather is favourable and dry. Should it begin to rain again at the end of the 
grinding season, the cane starts growing again, and the sugar content, the purity 
and the 3derd of sugar drop. However tempting it may be to put off grinding 
till the cane is richer in sugar content, it must not be carried too far for fear of 
running the risk of not being ready by the time the dry season is over and 
the rainy season sets in again, thereby making the cane transport almost 
impossible. 

The cost price of sugar depends primarily on that of the raw material 
and on the percentage it yields ; and, finally, on the expense of manufacture, 
packing, and transportation to the harbour. Suppose loo arrobas of cane have 
cost the miU $2.70, and yield 10 per cent, of sugar, the cost of i arroba of sugar 
in raw material would be $0.27 ; suppose the cost of manufacture to amount 
to $0.10 per arroba, and that of transportation to $0.05, then the cost price 
of sugar delivered in the warehouses on the coast will come to 42 cents per 
arroba — 7s. 6d. per cwt., not including interest on amortisation, capital and 
loans, renewal of machinery, etc. Should all these items be taken into con- 
sideration, the total cost price will be from 2 to 2^ cents per lb., being equivalent 
to gs. 4d. to los. 6d. per cwt., according to a number of data obtained in 1907, 
by the Committee of Ways and Means in the United States. 

Doubtless there are estates in which the cost price is far less, owing to 
a favourable situation near the sea, which decreases the transportation expenses. 
Willett and Gray quoted in 1910 as cost price of Cuba sugar at average f.o.b. 
Cuba 1-85 cent per lb., and at average c.i.f. New York 1-95 cent. They fixed 
2 cents per lb. as maximum f.o.b. Cuba cost pries, and 1-5 cent per lb. as the 
minimum. Their figures, consequently, are lower on the whole than those 
quoted by the manufacturers in 1907. 

The transport cost by railway sometimes form's a considerable part of 
the expense ; it amounts, for instance, to 60 cents a bag of 325 Spanish pounds 
— that is about o-2 cents per lb., or about ii^d. per cwt. — for aU factories 
which have goods conveyed to the coast by the Cuba Railway Co., irrespective 
of distance. 

Since March, 1911, the Cuban Republic has levied an import duty of $x per 
100 kg. of raw, and $075 per roo kg. of white sugar, which duties are in accord- 
ance with the surtax stipulated by the Brussels Convention. 



V. — Exportation of Sugar, Prices, Reciprocity Contract. 

The greater part of the sugar produced in Cuba is'exportfed to foreign coun- 
tries, while only a very small portion, not exceeding 60,000 or 70,000 tons a year, 
is refined in the island itself, in two or three small sugar houses in Cardenas. 
Of late years the sugar exported has been sent chiefly to the United States, 
only a comparatively small quantity going to Europe. ;) This preference is 

184 



Cuba. 

accounted for by the fact that owing to a reciprocity treaty the import duties 
into the United- States for Cuban goods have been reduced by 20 per cent, 
of the general tariff. While the general import duty of sugar of 96° polariza- 
tion is i'685 cents per lb., only 1-35 cents have to be paid on Cuban sugar, 
which means no small preference for this kind of sugar. Through the active 
co-operation of the American buyers this preference does not altogether go 
to the Cuban producers, but chiefly falls to the organized American refiners. 
As in most years the Cubans have no option but to go to the American market, 
the refiners make the most of it by bidding less for Cuban sugar than for Java 
or other foreign sugar of the same quality, which being unprotected corres- 
ponds in price with free sugar, and consequently can fetch the world's price. 
They can easily do this as long as they take care to bid so much below the 
world's price as will keep it within 20 per cent, of the import duty, in which 
case their price would still be a httle higher than the net world's price. Only 
when their margin exceeds the 20 per cent, will it become more profitable 
for the Cuban planters to offer their sugar in the open market ; but the buyers 
take good care to prevent this till their wants are provided for, so that so 
long as the refiners want the raw sugar Cuban sugar must needs go to America, 
and the full preference fall to the share of the buyers. 

A single instance may suffice : at the beginning of November, 1908, the 
price of Java refining crystals, 96° polarization, was 3-98 cents per lb., including 
import duty, while Cuba ditto fetched 3-86 cents. As 1-685 cents is paid as 
import duty on Java sugar, the importer would receive 3-98 — 1-685 = 2-295 
cents ; whereas the Cuba importer, because of his reduced duties, only paid 
1-35 cents duty, and consequently would receive 3-86 — 1-35 = 2-51 cents. 
At the same time the parity in England was 4-16 cents, or 4-16 — 1-685 = 
2-475 cents, not including duty. The price realized in that country only just 
exceeds the world's parity, and that is why the Cuban producer; as a rule, would 
not entertain the thought of taking his sugar to any other market than America ; 
it becomes clear, too, that he only receives 0-04 cent of the preference of 
20 per cent, on the duties, which amounts to 0-335, while the remaining 0-295 
cent swells the pockets of the buyers. 

When, however, as was the case in 1910 and 1911, the price of beetroot sugar 
is exceedingly high in Europe, and the American refiners are amply provided 
with sugar, then it cannot matter to them to keep the American parity for 
Cuban sugar just above the European ; and, in consequence, part of the Cuban 
crop will go to Europe. As soon as the shortage in Europe is over, the European 
parity will be lower than the American, and Cuban sugar will again go to the 
United States. 

The sugar exported is chiefly raw sugar, both first and second sugars, 
while the exportation of refined sugar to Spain, Uruguay, and the United States 
is of little importance, and does not exceed two to three thousand tons yearly. 

The shipments from the ports during the last six years have been as 
follows : — 

185 



North America. 



Ports 


1904/05 


1905/06 


1906/07 


1907/08 


1908/09 


1909/10 


1910/11 


Havana 


118,705 


163,162 


159,843 


132,173 


197,846 


198,902 


107,762 


Matanzas 


124,974 


199,249 


207,182 


96,357 


172.727 


218, 8l2 


168,690 


Cardenas 


139,625 


167,831 


183,815 


111,799 


192,929 


236,462 


174.047 


Sagua 


73,841 


94.252 


106,980 


54,oS6 


102,677 


140.555 


116,123 


Caibarien 


65,924 


95,055 


91,093 


81,915 


98,982 


123,204 


119,299 


Nuevitas 


9,642 


19,897 


35,044 


16,608 


27,863 


36,308 


23.925 


Puerto Padre 


24,810 


28,744 


47,880 










Gibara 


25,804 


13,902 


10,893 


[ 79,219 


141,385 


166,847 


138,870 


Banes 


24.785 


23,996 


40,252 


30,713 


33,743 


36,308 


36,816 


Nipe 


— 


329 


41,711 


17,909 


40,796 


64,101 


41,291 


Guantanamo 


38,731 


33,009 


55,870 


43,978 


61,971 


79,014 


69,511 


Santiago de Cuba 


7,678 


17,288 


12,471 


7,591 


8,543 


11,101 


14,585 


Manzanillo 


40,168 


44,468 


49,393 


48,490 


67,791 


68,074 


74,994 


St. Cruz del Sur ... 


9,438 


9,423 


9,053 


12,426 


15,287 


17.355 


18,157 


Tunas de Zaza . . . 


5,333 


4,650 


1,480 


2,219 


2,964 


3,443 


2,564 


Trinidad 


4,727 


10,451 


9,495 


5,030 


88,443 


11,458 


8,116 


Cienfuegos 


165,318 


254.901 


233,623 


150,733 


234,488 


277,232 


248,303 


Jucaro 


■ — • 


— 


— 


9,743 


35,221 


43,500 


49,123 


Total exportation 


878,911 


1,180,623 


1,296,088 


908,989 


1,443,876 


1.733,164 


1,412,173 



The distribution of the exportation has been for the last years as follows : — 





1907 


1908 


1909 


1910 


1911 


United States, 4 ports 
north of Hatteras 

United States, New Or- 
leans, Galveston, ^.nd 
Charleston 

Europe and Canada 


1,213,389 

131,534 
864 


878,624 
27,389 


1,330,215 
113,347 


1,428,271 

177,761 
127,132 


1,218,335 

192,552 
1,286 




1,345,787 


906,013 


1,443,562 


1,733,164 


1,412,173 



VI.— Future. 

The fact that the very considerable sugar production of Cuba, now amount- 
ing to almost two milhon tons, is only reaped from a very small area of ground, 
has more than once given rise to predictions as to the further possibility -of 
Cuba providing the entire world with sugar, or at least trebling its present 

186 



Cuba. 

production, if only it were given the chance. Although this prospect at first 
sight may seem not unlikely, circumstances will always be against it. Trebling 
the production is as yet out of the question, though the future may prove other- 
wise. We have noticed before that, in spite of statistical reports that quote 
6 per cent, of the land as planted with cane, the cane producing the 1,800,000 
tons of sugar is drawn . nowadays from land equal altogether to half Cuba's 
entire area. This moiety, however, has been planted so extensively, and so 
much ground still lies uncultivated, that some further area of cane is likely to 
be planted, which, however, cannot amount to much. 

We should not forget the circumstance that the Spanish were born agricul- 
turists, and were wide-awake when selecting their lands. One may be sure 
that the stretches of land which yield twenty to thirty cane crops without 
replanting are of the very best, .and that large extents of land which are left 
barren, or are used as pasture land for draught cattle, would never have yielded 
more than three crops without replanting. While now for lack of labour the 
profit of later ratoons may make up for the loss on first ratoons, it is clear, that 
such ground in Cuba is altogether unfit for cane cultivation, so that the land 
at present in cultivation most likely contains a maximum of cane land, or 
at any rate would not offer scope for extension. This, however, need not 
prevent all extension of the cane planted area, for as long as the proportion 
of suitable cane lands to less suitable soil is the same for cultivated and still 
uncultivated ground, there will be some 750,000 more acres to dispose of, 
which might augment the present production. 

There are stUl large extents of virgin soil which may be used for cultivation, 
and would not be inferior to the best cane soil that Cuba possesses. Even if 
the land is a little out of the way, the present facilities for conveyance are quite 
equal to overcoming distances as long as enough capital is invested in the 
enterprise. Those estabhshed by American capitaUsts on the north-east coast, 
for instance, show what money can do, for gigantic sugar factories, the most 
important of which produces in one year more than 480,000 bags, or about 
^0,000 tons, of sugar, have sprung up on entirely new and uncultivated land. 
The three largest of the new factories in the north-east in combination produced 
in 1909 no less than 1,135,000 bags of sugar. For the rest, the greater part of the 
province of Camaguey, formerly shut off from the world's commerce, has been 
put into communication with the coast through the Cuba Railway, in conse- 
quence of which some big sugar works have been erected, existing factories 
extended, and new ones put under construction. A glance at the following 
table of sugar production in the parts through which the new line goes wUl 
show how within a few years after the completion of the railway the sugar 
production of that neighbourhood has gone up, while large new undertakings 
are contemplated. 

Production of sugar estates situated on the Cuban Railroad in bags of 
325 Spanish pounds : — 

187 



North America. 





1902 


1911 


Jatibonico 

Stewart 

Tuinicu 

S. Antonio 

Hatillo 

Santa Anna 

Union 






25,000 
25,000 
5,000 
25,000 
30,000 


124,258 

210,412 

71.500 

55,255 

9.252 . 
52,461 
53.681 








110,000 


576,809 



Moreover, the increase in production need not exclusivelj? be the outcome 
of the extension of planted area, but may also be caused by an improvement 
in the cane and sugar obtained per unit of area, both of which are open to 
improvement ; and this may easily be effected by turning a number of badly 
installed small factories into a single well-arranged large one, as in many cases 
has already proved a success. The juice extraction, although still nothing great, 
is in much better condition than it used to be, while the different losses ex- 
perienced in the well-managed and controlled factories are not greater than in 
any other model factory in the world. There are still a number of concerns 
where they work in the old style, but these are gradually becoming fewer, and 
will continue to decrease as the advantage of modern methods of working 
becomes more and more evident. The next thing to be done is to prepare a better 
kind of sugar, viz., a dry kind that will keep, instead of the moist and sticky 
sugar that requires to be refined at once if it is not to lose its good qualities in 
the warehouse. No doubt this improvement will be carried out in a few years' 
time, in which case Cuba by then will produce the same output of sugar of a 
similar quality on 100 parts of indicated sucrose in juice as, for instance, Java 
does. 

An increase of the cane production per acre will not, however, be so easily 
obtained. Importation of foreign cane species capable of a better product or 
of seedling cane varieties, is not welcome in Cuba, because the people there are 
famiUar with the varieties now in use, while new kinds have to be tried first. 
Such a trial means no great risk in countries where planting is done every year, 
for should the crop be a failure, it only affects that year, and means no further 
loss ; but in Cuba they plant once every seven years, so that planting the wrong 
kind of cane involves ruin. But it is not only the kind of cane that matters 
so much, for the production might also be greatly improved through a better 
method of tillage, maintenance, etc. The Cubans are aware of this fact, and 
it is much to their regret that cane is being treated in such a primitive way, and 

188 



Cuba. 

is never transported till some time after the cutting is done. Scarcity of labour 
is at the bottom of this, and prevents a rapid and -wide extension of the Cuban 
sugar industry. 

Cuba, as we know, is very thinly populated ; the native race is far from 
strong, and multiplies only at a slow rate. The only way to secure a consider- 
able-increase of labour is through immigration, and, as we said before, this 
source, too, is of little effect. After the years 1904-05 and 1905-06 had seen 
an immigration of some 50,000 men, that number has gone down since to 
30,000, and it is difficult to reckon those who returned that same year. The 
immigrants are mostly Spanish people, and are reckoned to be the best workers 
by far. The fair, strongly-built, and sober immigrants from Galicia, in the 
north of Spain, work hard and steadily, and many of them settle in Cuba for 
good, or return every year after they have been home ; but the immigration 
of these excellent workers tends to decrease rather than increase. People are 
doing better in Spain itself, so that many a Spaniard who formerly had to look for 
work outside his own country, nowadays can stay at home and earn his livelihood 
in Spain itself, which he of course, prefers to do. Then there are also many who 
have settled in Cuba, but on hearing of the better state of affairs at home are 
glad to go back — all of which means a decrease in the number of labourers in 
Cuba. Finally, the Spanish Government does not encourage the emigration 
of its industrious country people to a foreign land, and rather stops the progress 
of emigration by demanding of the steam navigation companies a contribution 
on each exported passenger, which means an increase in the cost of emigration, 
and indirectly a decrease in emigration itself. North Americans do not like to go 
and work in Cuba ; they are much better off in their own country, where the 
climate is cooler, and better fit for manual labour. The immigration of Italians, 
once looked upon as a certainty, has resulted in nothing. 

The difficulty as regards the supply of labourers is much against a rapid 
development of the industry, yet a steady improvement is to be, expected, 
and considering what causes brought about a decrease in former times, we 
see that they were chiefly of a political nature, or were the result of climatic 
circumstances, so that it is interesting to examine how far these influences are 
to be feared in the future. 

After the Spanish- American War was over, the United States, on 20th 
May, 1902, restored Cuba's independence, and when in 1906 President Palma 
failed to prove a match for his rebellious political opponents, the American 
troops came again in September, 1906, and restored peace in a very short time. 
During the time of the American intervention the authorities worked hard to 
bring about the consohdation of the affairs of the republic, and on 28th January, 
1909, Cuba was again proclaimed as an independent State by the United States 
of America. There are two possibilities in the future : either that no repeti- 
tion of the revolutionary outbreaks occurs, or that the recurrence of hostilities 
demands the return of the Americans, who in that event wiU settle in Cuba for 
good, so as to maintain order. Still, in the future there is little fear of further 

189 



North America. 

serious distiirbances such as might impair the steady development of the 
cane sugar industry. 

It is quite a different thing with the cHmatic conditions. It is quite possible 
that Cuba may be devastated by hurricanes, or that a lengthy period of drought 
may prevent the growth of cane, or that the rainy season may set in earlier 
than is usual, and put an end to the crushing much before the usual time, 
thus yielding a smaller crop. The remarkably small crop of 1907-8 was chiefly 
due to a long speU of drought in 1907, which stunted the growth of the then 
planted cane. AU these climatic circumstances, however, only affect the crop 
season of that particular year, or else the following year. The cane itself, 
however, is not any the worse for it, and may later on produce a far better 
crop if the weather is favourable. Consequently, the influence, of meteoro- 
logical conditions may cause the Cuban crop to fluctuate greatly, making it. 
difficult to estimate a crop beforehand ; but these fluctuations cannot have 
any disastrous effect on the steady progress of production, which in 1912 
is sure to amount to more than 1,800,000 tons, and may even increase, so long 
as the reciprocity treaty with the United States remains in force, and high 
import duties on foreign sugar are raised in the United States. 
•\ 
Books of Reference. 

Handbook of Cuba. 

Industria Azucurera y sus derivados. 

Riqueza agricolo-industrial y riqueza forestal. 

Estadistica general. Comercio exterior. 

Boletin official de la Secretaria de Agricultura Industria y Comercio. 

Immigracion y movimiento de pasageros en Cuba. 

Santiago Dods. Glimpses of the History of Cuba. 

Theo. Brookes. Review of the Condition, Progress, and Future Outlook of Jthe Sugar Industry 

in Cuba. 
E. 0. V. Lippmann. Geschichte des Zuchers. 



IV. 

SAN DOMINGO. 



The Isle of Hayti, of which San Domingo forms the eastern part, lies in the 
Caribbean Sea, between 17° 37' and 19° 57' N. Lat. and 68° 21' and 74° 30' 
W. Long. It is separated from Cuba by the Windward Passage and from 
Porto Rico by the Mona Passage, and is the largest but one — namely, Cuba — 
of the Caribbean Isles. Its greatest length amounts to 390 miles, its least width 
to 25, and its greatest width to 164 miles. The area is 77,253 sq. miles, and the 
population amounts to 1,900,000 inhabitants. 

190 



San Domingo. 

The island is very mountainous, and contains three separate mountain 
ranges, which extend in an east to west direction, and are separated from each 
other by wide, fertile plains. Hayti is watered by a great many rivers, all of 
which are silted up with sand, and therefore unnavigable. The climate is 
moist and hot ; there are periodical wet and dry seasons that Y^ry in time 
and duration in the different parts of the island. In the district of San Pedro 
• de Macoris, the most important for sugar cane cultivation, the dry time is 
from December till May, and the rainy season from June till December. The 
annual rainfall amounts to 60 ins., which is not sufficient for the growth of 
cane, so that artificial irrigation is necessary. The average yearly temperature 
is 26-5° C. (79-2° F.) ; the average monthly temperature for July, 28-8° C. 
(84° F.), and for January, 24-1° C. (75-4° F.). The country suffers much from 
earthquakes and hurricanes, while volcanic eruptions are of frequent occurrence. 

Hayti vv'as discovered by Columbus in 1492 ; he called it Espanola, which 
in course of time was latinized to Hispaniola. At the time of the discovery 
the population amounted to about one million people, but the Spanish con- 
quistadores compelled the physically weak population to undertake such heavy 
labour 'in the mines that it soon became extinct. In 1505 the Spaniards began 
to import negro slaves in order to overcome the lack of labour, but the supply 
was limited to a maximum of 4,000 per annum by a royal decree dated 1517, 
which, however, was not always fully maintained. 

In 1630 a number of buccaneers, driven out of St. Kitts, conquered the 
western part of the island, and retained possession till 1697, when, on the 
occasion of the peace of Rijswijk, it fell to France. This territory was called 
Saint Domingue, while the rest remained Spanish and went by the name of 
San Domingo. 

The flourishing state of the colony dated from this time, and was chiefly due 
to the extension of the sugar industry. In 1790 the number of factories was 
no fewer than 800, while during the years before upon an average 65,000 tons of 
sugar were exported, to be increased in 1789 to 53,000 tons of brown and 27,000 
tons of white sugar. Unfortunately, such an enormous production impHed 
great exertion on the part of the slaves. Many thousands of negroes were 
employed at heavy labour in Ot'der to produce such large quantities, and as only 
a few white people lived among these blacks this unequal proportion in the end 
led to a catastrophe, which ultimately ruined the prosperity of the island for 
good. The fact was, a large mulatto population had sprung up, which, as 
the children or descendants of white fathers, wanted to be privileged above the 
pure black Africans. These privileges were granted them during the first 
years of the French revolution. Yet a spirit of unrest and fermentation per- 
sisted, and resulted in a terrible insurrection of the coloured people on 23rd 
August, 1791, which, after the seizure of Cap Franc-ais, spread aU over the 
island. A chapter of horrors and a general destruction followed in its train ; 
more than 2,000 white people were massacred, while the rest fled, leaving their 
possessions behind. More than a thousand sugar and other plantations were 

191 



North America. 

destroyed, and the entire sugar industry was ruined, so that the once important 
sugar trade came to a sudden standstill. In 1793, when the Spanish and 
English combined attacked the colony, the French Government declared the 
slaves in San Domingo free. The French by thus ameliorating the lot of the 
black population hoped to retain the island ; they not only succeeded in this 
purpose, but at the Peace of Basel, in 1795, they also obtained the eastern or 
Spanish territory, and consequently the entire island became French. This ' 
state of affairs was, however, not to last long, as the commander-in-chief, 
Toussaint de I'Ouverture, appointed by the Directory, tried to establish an 
independent governm.ent. Napoleon, then First Consul, embarked an army 
to San Domingo for the purpose of reconquering the island. In this he suc- 
ceeded, but when the French tried to restore slavery another rebellion broke 
out, and led to the whites abandoning the island in 1803, since when it has 
remained under negro dominion. Dessalines, the leader of the insurrection, 
gave the island its old name of Hayti again, and turned it first into a republic, 
and afterwards into an " empire." Since that time the country has been subject 
to all sorts of disturbances, which are not over yet, and may last for some time 
to come. In 1844 the eastern part separated and formed the Republic of San 
Domingo, while the western part is still called the Republic of Hayti. 

In Hayti the sugar industry is of hardly any consequence, and what cane 
is cultivated there is used for chewing, or its juice is worked into an alcoholic 
beverage, tafia, and only seldom into sugar. 

The greater part of the island of San Domingo, possessing an area of 24,300 
sq. miles, is but scantily populated, there not being more than 500,000 people. 
Cane is planted in the south, near San Pedro de Macoris, in the plains of Arua 
and Romana, and in the river valleys near San Domingo, i.e., only on the south 
coast ; while the interior is devoid of sugar estates. The factories, as a rule, 
have their own ground, but grow only part of the cane themselves, while the 
rest is planted by " colonos." The latter receive their ground without having 
to pay rent for it, on condition that they plant cane ; they also get money 
advanced to them, while agricultural implements and draught cattle are lent 
them. They are supposed to find their own labourers, and have to deliver the 
cane at a price, stipulated beforehand, at the loading places of the railroads laid 
out by the estates, which railroads convey it to the factory. They employ as 
labourers the Dominicans, or negroes from the neighbouring islands, who come 
to stay for a season at the employers' expense. They come from St. Thom6, 
St. Eustatius, St. Kitts, St. Martin, and other islands in December, and leave 
again in May. Their wages are 50 — 75 cents (American) per day of twelve 
hours. 

The soil of the sugar districts is of hmestone formation, which through 
volcanic action has been raised and broken in places. Here and there the soil 
is covered with a thin layer of vegetable earth, 3 ins. to i ft. in thickness, 
while in some places i J and sometimes even 2 ft. of good black or red soil covers 
the hard limestone subsoil. Water easily penetrates this limestone, so that 

■ 192 



San Domingo. 

the arable earth rapidly dries up. Irrigation when necessary is not carried on 
with river water, but with water out of artesian wells, which rnay be bored any- 
where in these limestone mountains. 

The cane variety that is most planted.is the " caiia cristalina," a yellowish- 
green coloured type of cane with green stripes ; then follows to a much smaller 
extent the " cana blanca," a pale-yellow cane with a high sugar content. These 
two kinds are the same as are exclusively found in Cuba. Soil treatment 
amounts to very little, while manuring is altogether neglected. When virgin 
ground is planted, cuttings are put into the ground two or three of them together, 
in a slanting position, and are partly covered with earthy this is when the bush 
is cut and burnt. Planting is done at distances of 7 x 7 ft., or 6 x 7 ft., or 
even of 9 x 9 ft. in the level ground, without furrows or holes having been 
made beforehand. At the end of fourteen to sixteen months the cane is con- 
sidered ripe, and is cut ; first and subsequent ratoons are kept and cut every 
year till the yield gets too small to make it worth while retaining the ratoons 
any longer. When they begin planting afresh, which is sometimes done at once, 
and sometimes after some years' interval, the old plants are removed with a 
plough, furrows are dug 4 to 6 ins. deep and 5 to 6 ft. apart, in which the new 
cuttings are planted at 4 to 5 ft. distance from each other. Only plant-cane 
is banked ; and after it is cut the stubbles are covered with trash and the 
soil between is levelled, but no more banldng is done. The plant cane or 
virgin soil yields an incredibly high cane crop, while the cane is exceptionally tall 
and heavy, and can produce ?s much as ninety tons cane per acre. The quality, 
on the other hand, is poor, and it is the sort of cane that yields more syrup 
than sugar. The ratoons yield a much lighter crop, but of a far better quahty, 
and ratoons are cut till the figure representing the production has gone down to 
eighteen tons per acre, when planting is recommenced. One can only expect 
such good first results in districts where the layer of arable earth rich in humus 
is very thick, in which case it is quite possible to reap crops for fifteen or twenty 
years before the yield will have gone down to its lowest efficiency. One does 
not get such satisfactory results from less fertile soil, where it is necessary to 
plant afresh after five to ten years. 

The average cane yield of an estate which plants from 3,000 to 4,500 
acres of cane is estimated at 23-8 tons of cane per acre, which, of course, varies 
according to the condition of the soil and the relation between the quantity of 
plant cane and ratoon. Planting, as a rule, is carried on in June as well as in 
October, while reaping takes place from December to April. 

The factories are still installed in a rather old-fashioned way. In most cases 
cane is only crushed once, and even should it be crushed more often, macera- 
tion is dispensed with. • The juice is purified by clarification and by subsiding ; 
filter-presses are seldom used, and for want of them the mud is simply caused 
to run off. The juice is evaporated and treated in triple-effects and vacuum 
pans. The sugar, a first product of 95 — 97 polarization, is packed in bags : 

193 N 



North America, 



while the seconds of 86° polarization are sometimes remelted. The exhausted 
molasses is used either for the manufacture of rum or is thrown away. 

In spite of the primitive installation of the factories, the cane yields 9 — 11 
per cent, of sugar, as the raw material in San Domingo is of very good quality, 
and often contains juice exceeding 20° Brix, with a purity of 85 — 90°. This 
is when the cane is crushed only once. 

The farmers, as a rule, get sjd. per cwt. cane, so that, including railway 
freight, it comes to about 4d. per cwt. 

The cost price of sugar prepared in the old-fashioned factories amounts 
to about $36 per ton (8s. 3d. per cwt.), and that of sugar prepared in the more 
modernized factories comes to $25 per ton (5s. 9d. per cwt., or iis. 5d, per 
100 kg.). 

The sugar is sent to the United States or to Great Britain, according to 
the current market quotation, while part of the production is consumed in 
San Domingo or Haiti, either as raw sugar or as white sugar, after it has been 
washed in the centrifugal. 

Sugar used to be taxed with an export duty of $0-25 per 100 kg., but this 
tax has been abolished, and sugar is nowadays exempted from all duties and 
excise. An import duty on a scale approved of by the Brussels Convention 
acts as a bar to the importation of sugar, but as sugar is not imported at aU it 
has no need to be enforced. The production of San Domingo during the last 
few years has amounted to the following quantities in long tons : — 
Year. Tons, 

1903/04 . . . . . . . . . . 47,000 



1904/05 
1905/06 
1906/07 
1907/08 
1908/09 
1909/10 
1910/11 



47,000 
55.000 
60,000 
62,235 

69,483 
93.003 
76,296 



The greater part of this production is exported to the countries enumerated 
below (expressed in long tons) : — 



Countries. 


1905. 


1906. 


1907. 


1908. 


1909. 


1910. 


United States 


46,345 


52,452 


40,483 


61,996 


66,740 


89,896 


Great Britain 


529 


788 


7,606 


— 


714 


623 


Germany . . 


57 


358 


174 


— 


2 


. 


France 


— 


136 


— 


— 


1,007 


— 


Italy _ 


— 


— 


66 


— 


— 


-- 


Cuba 


— 


— 


7 


-— 


■ — 


— 


Porto Rico 


— ' 


— 


— 


— 


51 


— 


Other countries 


478 


150 


968 


151 


969 


926 


Total . . . : 


47,409 


53,884 


48,304 


62,057 


60,483 


Qi,445 



194 



San Domingo, 

The names, areas, and localities of the concerns ar3 as follows : — 



Name. 


Area. 


District. 


Angelina 
Consuelo 
Porvenir 
Santa F€ 
Christobal Colon 
San Luis 
San Isidor 

Italia 

Ocoa . . 

Azuano 

Ansonsa 


hectares. acres. 

8,000 20,000 

8,500 21,250 
6,600 16,500 
6,000 15,000 
7,000 17,500 
1,600 4,000 
5,000 12,500 
5,200 13,000 
3.500 8,750 
4,000 ' 10,000 
3,000 7,500 


San Pedro de Macoris. 

Santo Domingo 
Azua. 

.1 




58,700 146,750 





.With the exception of the Christobal Colon factory, which belongs to 
Cubans, all these sugar factories are under American management. In the 
district of Romano an American company, which has also great interests in 
Porto Rico, plants cane for the purpose of transporting it to their Porto Rican 
miUs, to be crushed there, so that the product may enter the United States 
free of duty. The same company also purchases cane from colonos for 5 per 
cent, sugar value ; also for transporting it to their Porto Rican mill. 

Not the entire area of 146,750 acres is, of course,, planted with cane, for 
part of it lies fallow or is used as grazing land. The ground in most parts of 
the southern plains is most fertile, and yields an excellent cane crop, so that 
it seems extremely weU fitted for cane cultivation. 

■ Owing to lack of funds, the installations are behind the times, and the 
combination of an unstable government and everlasting internal troubles 
tends to keep foreign capitalists away. Although there seems to have been 
some inclination- of late to instal factories on a more modern system, which 
may be looked upon as some improvement, the industry is not lilcely to extend 
much so long as the native political state of affairs does not change for the 
better, which seems, as yet, an impossibiUty. 



195 



North America. 



PORTO RICO. 

The island of Porto Rico is the most easterly of the large Caribbean Isles, 
and lies at the entrance to the Caribbean Sea, between i8° 30' and 17° 55' 
N. I.at., and 68° and 65° 10' W. Long. It is in the shape of a rectangle, 100 
miles in length, and 36 in width ; and has an area of 3,140 sq. miles. 

The island is very mountainous, and with the exception of a narrow border 
of flat coast land, it consists of rows of hills and a great many vaUeys. A larger 
chain of hiUs stretches from east to west, right through the centre of the island, 
which, however, is broken up to such an extent that any coherence hardly 
exists. Its highest peak is El Yunque, in the north-east, at a height of 4,900 ft. 
above sea level. Numerous rivers run through the valleys ; there are about 
fifty of them, varying in size between shallow little streams in dry weather to 
wild mountain torrents in the rainy season. 

Although the Porto Rican coast can boast of a great many harbours, all 
of them are more or less shallow, and only navigable for small craft. Those 
of San Juan, Guanica, and Jobos are partly land-locked, while the harbours 
of Arecibo, Aguadilla, and Mayaguez and Ponce are simply open roads. The 
climate of Porto Rico is uniformly warm, the yearly temperature varj'ing 
between 66 and 86° F., but the daily differences are barely noticeable. 
The month of January has the lowest average temperature, and that of August 
the highest, but the maximum temperatures occur in the month of May. 
The highest maximum ever observed at the meteorological observatory at 
San Juan was 34-4° C. (94° F.) in May, 1903, and the lowest minimum 17-2° C. 
(63° F.) in March of the same year. 

The year is divided into two seasons : a wet one from April till November, 
and a dry one from December till March. About 47 ins. of rain falls during 
the first season, and about 10 ins. during the rest of the year. The rainfall, 
however, is not equally divided all over the island ; more rain is experienced 
on the northern side than on the southern coast, as the trade winds coming 
from the east drop most of their moisture north of the hiU slopes, and lose 
much of their moisture by the time they have reached the southern half of 
the island. Like the other West Indian islands, Porto Rico is much subjected 
to hurricanes. T^ie one of August 8, 1899, did a tremendous amount of damage, 
both in loss of life and properly, and destroyed great numbers of plantations, 
factories, houses and crops. 

The soil is very fertile, and in the north may be cultivated without irriga- 
tion, but in the south, where the sugar cane chiefly grows, recourse must be 
had to artificial irrigation. 

The population of Porto Rico amounted to 953,243 inhabitants, according 
to the census of 1899, 589,426, or 61 -8 per cent., of whom were put down as 

196 



Porto Rico. 

whites ; but many of these were doubtless of miKed extraction. The census 
return of 31st December, igog, gave the total of 1,118,017. 

The two big towns of the island (San Juan, in the north, and Ponce, in the 
southV have each a population of about 30,000 inhabitants, and there are 
besid s other towns of lesser importance. A railway running by a circuitous 
route through the west along the flat coast connects the two, while the sugar 
plantations have made railroads which, later on, when connected up with the 
main hne, may be converted into public lines. 

Porto Rico was discovered by Columbus in 1403, and in 1505 Pinzon was 
allowed to build a fortress on the spot. The name Porto Rico dates from 
1521, when discoveries of gold were made, while San Juan got its name from 
its founder, Juan Ponce de Leon. Both country and inhabitants were divided 
among the Spanish conquerors, who proved such tyrants that when, in 1544, 
the King of Spain ordered the inhabitants to be set free the population, originally 
estimated at 600,000 people, had dwindled down to some few hundreds. Many 
of them had died, and others had emigrated to Peru and Mexico ; but the 
Spaniards did not take long to fill the vacant places by a supply of slaves from 
Africa. 

For years Porto Rico was involved in constant war. At one time it was 
the English who came to harass the country ; at other times independent 
pirates and buccaneers caused trouble ; now and then a rebellion among the 
slaves occurred, or Dutch fleets tried to take possession of the colony, so that 
Spain, during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries had to be 
constantly on the alert in order to hold her own among her envious neigh- 
bours. 

The population, of course, could not thrive in the midst of all this strife, 
and at the beginning of the nineteenth century the island was still very thinly 
populated, containing only 155,426 inhabitants. The country could not pay 
the cost of its own government, so that a considerable deficit had to be made 
up by the Mexican surplus. Up to 1778 only Spaniards had been allowed to 
settle in Porto Rico, but after that the privilege was extended to people of 
other nationalities, on condition that they were Roman CathoUcs, while in 
1815 immigration became possible for anyone. Foreigners were encouraged 
to come to Porto Rico, where privileges of Spanish citizenship were held out 
to them, and where land belonging to the dominion was offered thsm as free 
property. 

These foreigners were promised exemption from export duty on their 
produce, and exemption from import duty on their implements and necessaries ; 
while they would be free to import as many slaves as they wished. 

These liberal inducements tempted a great many planters from the French 
and British Caribbean Isles, who came to Porto Rico supplied with knowledge, 
capital, and a number of slaves ; and they had a great and beneficial influence 
on the development of the island. 

Later on the population was swelled by immigrants from Hayti, San 

1 97 



North America. 

Domingo, and Venezuela, who had been diiven away from their homes through 
war and insurrection. 

The rapid increase of the population in the nineteenth century is evident 
from the following table, which gives the various census returns : — 



1802 






163,192 


I8I2 






183,014 


1820 






230,622 


1827 






302,672 


1830 






■ 323.838 


1836 






357.086 


i860 






. 583.308 


1877 






. 73I.64S 


1887 






798,565 


1897 






980,911 


1899 






953.243 


1909 






. 1,118,017 



In 1873 a most important event for the colony was the resolution of the 
Republican Spanish Government to abolish slavery in Spanish possessions, so 
that 34,000 slaves in Porto Rico were declared free. 

During the years following on 1880 the Spanish Government was most 
arbitrary in its decrees, and carried on a system of persecution which roused a 
feeling of aversion against Spain. Owing to remonstrances on the part of 
foreign nations more liberal laws were promulgated in 1896, and autonomy was 
even granted to the colony in 1897, but this reform came too late. 
On 2ist April, i8g8, the Spanish governor declared the island to be at war with 
the United States, and it ended in the incorporation of Porto Rico into the 
States on 25th July of the same year. 

During the Spanish dominion hardly anything was done on behalf of the 
island ; the roads were in a very bad condition, and the population was de- 
prived of all instruction, being kept in a state of mental incapacity. The 
owners of the plantations were poor, and were harassed by debts and mort- 
gages, so that the economical conditions of the island left much to be desired. 

Once annexed to the United States, conditions changed for the better. 
Although the sugar exportation had remained an important feature, it had 
dropped considerably, while the cultivation of coffee was considered of primary 
importance. It had been sent to Spain, being imported there free of duty, 
and was privileged by the protective duties levied on foreign coffee. When, 
however, Porto Rico was taken over by the United States, this privilege ceased, 
full duty having then to be paid on Porto Rican coffee imported into Spain. 
The United States gave no import duty on coffee, hence Porto Rico was in 
this respect not benefited through her cession to the States. Finally, the 
hurricane of 1899 caused extensive damage among the coffee plantations ; 

. iq8 



Porto Rico. 

this, of course, had a disastrous effect on the coffee cultivation. On the other 
hand, the incorporation of Porto Rico had a very favourable influence on the 
sugar industry. As early as 1899 the United States allowed a reduction of 
85 per cent, on the import duty on sugar, while in - JSgi -the importation of 
sugar became free altogether, so that Porto Rico has since profited by the 
full protection of i-68' cents per lb. of raw sugar. 

In order to prevent capitalists from availing themselves of this favourable 
opportunity to buy land on a large scale for the cultivation of sugar cane, 
find thus to deprive the native owner of his property, a law was passed in igoo 
(that is, previous to the date of absolute exemption from duty) called the 
Forraker Act, which stipulated that no company should be allowed to possess 
more than 500 acres (or 200 hectares) of land, and that no shareholder of any 
one agricultural company should be entitled to have shares in any other similar 
partnership. 

This restriction, no doubt, was meant to benefit the Porto Rican peasant 
proprietors through the advantage of duty-free sugar, and to prevent large 
foreign companies from pocketing the profits ; nevertheless, this stipulation 
had not the desired effect. The big owners lived outside tiie island, 'while the 
small farmers lacked money and energy to carry on their industry vigorously. 
Foreign capital, which was kept back through this restricting law, was the 
very thing wanted for the establishment of a flourishing sugar industry. So, 
later on, this law was deviated from in spirit, though not in letter, and of late 
years extensive sugar estates have been started in Porto Rico with American, 
British, and French capital, which have more than trebled the sugar production 
since 1902. 

About 400,000 acres, or 20 per cent., of the 2,000,000 acres Porto Rico 
covers, are used for cultivation, half of which are taken up by sugar cane culti- 
vation. The sugar cane grows on the alluvial plats along the coast ; on the 
south coast there is still plenty of space for more cane than has yet been planted. 
Should it eventually" be utilized, it would involve expensive irrigation works, 
as in that event it is intended to conduct water from the northern part of 
the country, where the rainfall is abundant, to the south by means of aque- 
ducts tunneUing through the hills. 

The big sugar factories buy the cane from the colonos, who plant it either 
on their own land, or on ground hired from the factory, while each company, 
at the same time, plants about half of the cane under its own management. 
The price of cane generally amounts to 5 per cent, sugar of the weight in cane, 
though it varies at times. 

Before planting is begun the land is ploughed twice, after which the furrows 
are dug, and these depending on the nature of the soil are from 400 to 800 ft. 
in length. On heavy soil exposed to much rain they plant in furrows, which 
are 2 ft. in depth and 8 ft. apart ; the cuttings are planted in a double row 
at a distance of 4 ft. from each other. The plant holes are i^ ft. square and 
half a foot in depth. The tops and sometimes the entire upper part of the 

199 



North America. 

stalk are used as seed, while each plant hole contains two or even more of 
them. 

When the soil is dry and sandy they plant in shallower holes, and in one 
row ; according to the fertility of the soily the distance between these rows 
varies from 4J to 6 ft. 

The fields are kept in a clean condition, and are banked by means of hoes 
after the plants bud, and during the growth of the cane. Manure is hardly 
ever applied, neither is the cane trashed. 

Cane is generally planted during the months of September to December, 
and is crushed in the following grinding season, which begins in January — 
that is, alter an interval of 14 — 18 months. Such cane is called " cafia de frio " 
or " de gran cultura " ; it yields the largest crop. Then another kind of cane, 
called " cafia de pequeiia cultura " or " caiia de medio tiempo," is planted 
from January till March, and is crushed the next season, when it is about one 
year old. Finally, there is a kind called " cana de primavero," which is planted 
from March till June. In case of a very favourable season, it is also crushed 
iii the following season — that is, when it is 10 — 12 months old ; but should it 
not be rich in sugar, it is kept over and opens the following crushing season, 
that is a year later. After the cane is cut, first, second, and third ratoons are 
grown, and then the cane is planted anew. The first and second ratoons yield 
the best results, plant cane comes next in productiveness, while third and 
subsequent ratoons give inferior results. Ratoons are cut every year, and 
formerly these were kept for twelve years, but this is now known to be bad 
policy, so nowadays after four or five years the fields are planted afresh. 

Most of the cane diseases and parasites found in other countries are of 
frequent occurrence in Porto Rico, but as cultivation is only in its elementary 
stage, little attention is paid to these pests. 

With the exception of a few years rich in sugar production, the average 
5delds have amounted to 20 tons per acre, which, assuming them to be American 
tons of 2,000 lbs., is equivalent to 44,730 kg. per hectare. 

The cane is cut with a machete as close to the ground as possible, and 
carried to the factory or to the railway depots by ox-carts, from which it is con- 
veyed to the miU by rail. 

The factories have been but recently installed, and so are provided with 
the best and latest machinery, while the operations are carried on according to 
scientific methods. The juice extraction is obtained by triple crushing with 
maceration, while the only factory in Porto Rico — La Fortuna — which tried 
the bagasse diffusion process after Naudet's system, has given it up entirely. 
Almost the only Porto Rican product is raw sugar, basis 96°; only about 10,000 
tons of the crop is muscovado, and about 14,000 tons after products. The 
exhausted molasses of about 40° purity is partly worked up to rum, and partly 
exported to be used for consumption. 

The principal factories are the following, the production of which during 
1910-11 is given in short tons : — 

20c 





Porto Rico. 






Guanica . . 




57.251 


Aguirre 








25,639 


Fajardo 








25,015 


Plazuela . . 








16,600 


Cambalache 








14.135 


J uncos 








12,750 


San Vincente 








12,592 


Coloso 








11,096 


Lafayette 








8,933 


Mercedita I. 








8,797 


Machete . . 








8,623 


Monserrate 








8,050 


Juapita 








7,401 


Canovanas 








7.546 


Constancia 








7.194 



The remaining central factories, 29 in number, are all much smaller, and 
the smallest, Santa Isabel, produced in 1910-11 only 34 tons of sugar. Then 
there are 24 smaller factories with steam power, and 72 driven by oxen, which 
produce muscovado ; while stiU other sugar enterprises are planned or already 
under construction. 

As Porto Rican sugar may be imported into the United States free of 
duty, all sugar not wanted for local requirements is sent to America as a matter 
of course. 

In 1853 the sugar exportation of Porto Rico amounted to 112,000 tons ; 
it dropped to 70,000 tons in 1854, and neither increased nor decreased during 
the following twenty years. In 1870 and 1871 the production realized once 
more 105,000 tons, to drop to 89,000 tons in 1885, and to 65,000 tons in 1886. 
During the past twenty years it has been as follows, in long tons : — 



1891/92 


70,000 


1892/93 . . 


56,000 


1893/94 • ■ 


43,000 


1894/95 . . 


48,500 


1895/96 . . 


55.000 


1896/97 . . 


54,000 


1897/98 . . 


55.000 


1898/99 . . 


54,000 


I899/I900 . . 


35.000 


1900/01 


62,000 


1901/02 


82,000 


1902/03 . . 


• . . 104,000 


1903/04 . . 


130,000 


1904/05 ■ • 


145,000 


1905/06 . . 


210,000 



201 



North America. 



1906/07 
1907/08 
1908/09 
igog/io 
1910/11 



194,000 
214,489 

258,363 
308,000 
295,000 



Great things are anticipated for the sugar industry in Porto Rico. Labour 
is cheap and abundant, and the people employed are willing. The climate is 
favourable, and when a greater water supply is available in the southern part 
of the island, on the completion of the irrigation works which have just been 
planned, and for which a 4 per cent, loan of $3,000,000 has been raised, still 
larger tracts of ground that used to be too arid for cultivation may be turned 
into cane growing areas. 

Enterprising and powerful American companies have already started 
large central factories in the plain of Ponce and Juana Diaz, and have bought 
up other already existing sugar works, and plant sugar cane oh a very large 
scale in that part of the country. The profit is considerable, as Porto Rican 
sugar is admitted into the United States free of import duty, and consequently 
has a great advantage over the Cuban, Javanese, and West Indian sugar. It 
is difficult to say to what extent the output may increase, but one may be sure 
of an important extension in the near future, commensurate with the progress 
that has been experienced since 1902. 



VI. 

BRITISH WEST INDIES. 

I. — Historical Survey of the Sugar Industry. 

The British West Indies vary so much as regards climate, character of the soil, 
population and history that it is not possible to discuss these separately. For 
this reason we must confine ourselves now to a general survey of the history of 
the industry, indicating the points in common, while- further on some details 
relating to each of the islands or group of islands wiUibe given. 

All, or at least the principal, of these islands were consecutively discovered 
by Columbus, and the names then received have been mostly kept, only a few 
having since been changed. 

Some of the islands were colonized at once by the Spanish, while others 
were only invaded after a time, while the French, the English, and Dutch 
were responsible for many conquests. All through the seventeenth and eigh- 
teenth centuries continjual war was waged in the Caribbean Sea, and. a great 
many of the islands were repeatedly captured and lost again, or kept in com- 

202 



British West Indies. 

mon possession to be restored at the next declaration of peace, so that most of 
them in course of time have changed hands several times. After the wars 
between France and Great Britain at the beginning of the nineteenth century 
things settled down, and with the exception of some unimportant changes, 
the possessions of the different powers have remained as they were in 1814. 
The British West Indian Possessions are grouped as follows : — 

1. Bahama Islands. 

2. Barbados. 

3. Jamaica, with Turk's and Caicos Islands. 

4. Trinidad and Tobago. 

5. The Windward Islands, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada, and the 

Grenadines.' 

6. Leeward Islands, Antigua with Barbados and Redonda, St. Kilts, 

Nevis and Anguilla, Montserrat, Dominica and the Virgin Islands. 

The sugar industry was immediately introduced after the islands had been 
taken possession of, and this necessitated the importation of negro slaves. 
In 1562 Sir John Hawkins began to import them, and in 1568 Sir Francis Drake 
followed his example. At the end of the sixteenth century Dutch slave- 
traders supplied a great many blacks, while the formation of two English- 
African companies for the purpose of providing British colonies with slaves 
date from 1662 and 1672 respectively. In consequence of this, at the end of 
the sixteenth century some 25,000 negroes were yearly imported to British 
colonies on British vessels. 

Although at this time the people on the British islands knew how to prepare 
sugar, the sugar industry did not attain any importance tiU after 1654, when 
the Dutch colonists driven from Brazil with their capital, knowledge, and slaves 
settled on several French and British islands, where they soon produced ^a 
good and marketable kind of sugar. Barbados and Jamaica especially were 
soon largely planted with sugar cane, and exported large quantities of sugar 
to the Mother Country. They suffered much, however, from French com- 
petition, as the inhabitants of the French islands of Saint Domingue, Martinique, 
and Guadeloupe far excelled in the manufacture of sugar at a lower cost price. 
From an investigation carried out by the British Government, it soon appeared 
that it was not only the methods of cultivation and manufacture among the 
British colonists that were inferior to those of the French, but that, in addition, 
heavy taxes and an export duty of 4I per cent, of the value on aU exported 
■goods greatly injured the industry. Then sugar refining was forbidden, so 
that there was no inducement to try and improve the manufacture ; and last, 
and not least, the British Government levied heavy import duties on all sugar 
and syrup imported from the Antilles to the North American colonies, which 
caused the natural market of the West Indian colonies to be closed. In spite 
of all these untoward circumstances, the production increased, especially 
when in 1791, through the destruction of the sugar plantations in San Domingo 
this formidable competition disappeared from the scene. 

203 



North America. 

Besides the loss of this great rival, the West Indian Islands experienced 
another unexpected piece of luck, when at the end of the eighteenth century 
a newly imported species of cane proved to be heavier in weight and richer in 
sugar content thah the cane variety hitherto planted. This new kind was the 
Otaheite or Bourbon cane that had been conveyed from the Malabar Coast to 
the Isle of Bourbon, and was sent to Cayenne, Martinique, and Guadeloupe 
by the French Government. It was introduced from the French Antilles to 
British Guiana and the British Antilles, and we know that William Firebrace 
took it to Barbados in 1796. Sir John Palfrey, at the end of the eighteenth 
century, imported it straight from Otaheite into Antigua, while Captain Bligh 
introduced it from the same country into Jamaica in 1796. 

According to von Humboldt, the sugar exportation of the British West 
Indian colonies amounted to the following figures between 1698 and 1806 : — 



1698 — 1712 
1727— 1733 
1761— 1765 
1771— 1775 
1781— 1785 
1791— 1795 
1801 — 1806 



20,000 tons 

50,000 ,, 

75,000 „ 

92,000 „ 

79,000 „ 

101,000 „ 

169,000 „ 



This prosperity ended, however, when slavery was abolished in the British 
possessions, as we have already had occasion to mention (see pages 19 and 20). 

The sugar production did not, however, all at once drop through the 
abolition of slavery ; it was a gradual downfall. The once well-tilled fields 
kept yielding good crops for years after they had been deprived of regular 
maintenance, but they began to diminish gradually, so that in consequence 
the new measures did not show themselves forcibly till some twenty or thirty 
years after. 

It was a great grievance of the sugar planters that slavery was still in 
full force with their neighbours — ^for the French colonies did not follow Great 
Britain's example till 1840, the Dutch not until 1863, Porto Rico not until 
1873, St. Thomas only in 1876, while Cuba brought up the rear in 1880. It 
is true that Great Britain levied an import duty on sugar produced by slave 
labour, but in 1846 this penalty became greatly reduced, to disappear altogether 
a few years later, so that cane sugar produced by slaves was taxed the same 
as sugar coming from colonies where slavery was abolished, when imported 
into Great Britain. 

When in 1834 labour was urgently wanted, an effort was first made to 
import free labourers from Madeira, St. Helena, Rio, and Sierra Leone into the 
West Indies, but these efforts proved ultimately futile. In 1845 they began 
to import coolies from British India on a small scale ; and this importation, 
under the supervision of the British Indian Government, has since taken place 

204 



British West Indies. 

continuously on a large scale, except during the years 1849 and 1850, when 
it was temporarily stopped. 

The coolies are recruited in British India by an Immigration agent in 
Government employ, with headquarters at Calcutta. They are sent to the 
West Indies, and distributed among the different applicants, to whom they 
are to be indentured for five years at is. ijd. a day for men, and 8d. a day 
for women. Those who have entered the colony before the 5th of August, 
1898, are entitled to their passage back to India on payment of a quarter of the 
fare in case of men, and of one-sixth of the fare for women, while the rest has 
to be paid by the planter. Nowadays a ten years' stay in the country entitles 
them to a free passage home on paying half of the fare for men, and one-third 
for women. Besides these, a great many regulations are made for the benefit 
of the immigrants, while special officials called " Protectors of Immigrants " 
see to the strict enforcement of these rules. 

In 1845 the first immigrants arrived in Trinidad and Jamaica, and in 
1849 came to St. Lucia ; but only Trinidad affords a case of negroes haviiig 
been successfully replaced by British Indian labourers. In the two last- 
mentioned islands immigration has been as irregular as in the other British 
West Indian islands. 

Slavery had hardly been abolished in Cuba in 1886, by which time all the 
West Indian possessions had come to the same position in this respect, when 
a new difficulty cropped up in the way of competition. The European beet- 
root sugar industry had been bolstered up by bounties and privileges to such 
an extent that it steadily expanded, and had to fall back more and more on its 
export trade in order to maintain its flourishing condition. 

In the first part of this volume it was shown how the bounties and cartels, 
which the European beetroot sugar manufacturers enjoyed, tended to lower the 
price of sugar to such an extent that sugar was to be had below cost price in 
the world's market. The manufacturers in protected countries, where the 
sugar consumption amounted to a considerable figure, could easily stand this 
state of affairs, but those in unprotected countries, where the loss on exported 
sugar could not be made good by the home consumption, were hard put to 
make ends meet. This was still more so the case with the inhabitants of the 
West Indian Islands, whose sole occupation for centuries had been to plant and 
manufacture sugar, and who now found this industry disappearing. 

The West Indian sugar manufacturers constantly complained, but the 
British public could not disabuse their minds of the picture of sugar magnates 
surrounded by a halo of extravagant splendour, and so would not take these 
complaints seriously. The British Government, however, was fain to see the 
West Indian colonists content and well at ease, for fear they should otherwise 
wish to be incorporated into the United States. At this very time the States 
were negotiating with Denmark for the sale of the Danish Antilles, and if it 
had not been for one adverse vote, the Danish Parliament would have agreed. 
AU this shows how much more America had become interested in the Antilles 

205 



North America. 

than it used to be. It was apparent, too, through the internal troubles in 
Cuba and Porto Rico, how the Americans had made their influence felt in these 
parts, so that there was every reason to fear that these colonies would be lost 
to Great Britain if the United States Government seriously wanted to annex 
them. 

Consequently, the British Government had to study the West Indian 
question, and secure their loyalty by having all their grievances removed. 
It meant quick and thorough help, for the interests at stake were considerable 
enough to make great sacrifices necessary. No sacrifice was deemed too great 
for the conquest of the West Indian possessions in the flourishing time of the 
sugar industry. AU through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries war 
had been waged for its supremacy, and at each treaty of peace that concluded 
a war between European powers the restitution or retention of some West 
Indian islands always afforded important discussions during the negotiations, 
which shows how much importance was attached to the possession of these 
fertile regions. It was not tiU after many heavy wars and bloody sea-fights 
against the Spanish, French, and Dutch, and expeditions against buccaneers 
and filibusters, that Great Britain got the ascendency in the Caribbean Sea, 
and the name of each British naval celebrity was at some time or other connec- 
ted with a West Indian victory. 

Although the West Indian possessions had decreased in wealth, their glory 
was still vividly remembered by the British, and it would have meant a severe 
blow to Imperialism and the devotion of the Colonies and Dominions beyond 
the Seas for the Mother Country if the oldest colonies which through blood and 
strife had become theirs should have been lost at this crisis. During the last 
years of the nineteenth century, more than at any other time, British Imper- 
ialists felt that nothing should be left undone to bring Mother Country and 
Colonies together, and to strengthen the bond of rmion, even if the British 
West Indies were never to revert to their old prosperity. But this supposition 
was not in accord with the facts, and the far-seeing British statesmen were 
weU aware of the possibility that another time of prosperity might be in store 
for these colonies. By the time of the completion of the Panama Canal, 
the new trade route would go through the Caribbean Sea, in which case a 
flourishing island-colony with magnificent harbours and gulfs and fertile 
soils would be a valuable possession for Great Britain. With this prospect in 
view, it was realized that the West Indies should be made into a prosperous and 
flourishing possession at whatever cost. Money temporarily spent by the 
Mother Country on its colonies could not be wasted, and in case of neglect the 
government of these islands should be open to appeal to the Treasury at home. 

In consequence of these considerations, help was granted, in i8q8, in 
the following manner : — 

I. By establishing farmers as owners, especially on the Crown lands in 
St. Vincent. 

206 



British West Indies. 

2. By promoting industries other than the sugar industry : (a) by estab- 
lishing a special agricultural department under the supervision of a competent 
expert for the purpose of studying the cultivation of useful plants in the islands, 
the headquarters being at Barbados, while experimental stations and labora- 
tories were to be established on the other islands as weU. The cost was to be 
£4,500 for the first year, and £17,500 for the following years. Were results to 
prove satisfactory, they intended to go on with this Department till the colonies 
could afford to defray the expenses themselves. (6) By improving the existing 
steamship connections by a direct route to Canada, an improved service between 
Jamaica and Great Britain, and a fortnightly steamboat communication between 
the Islands. The expenses were to come to £5,000 for the first year, and to 
£20,000 for the following years. 

3. By the Government guaranteeing a 3 per cent, loan of £750,000 during 
ten years for the foundation of central factories in Antigua, St. Kitts, and 
Barbados. 

The Department of Agriculture was not long in starting ; it comprises 
a head department with laboratory and station in Barbados, and branch 
botanical stations in Antigua, Tobago, Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Lucia, 
Dominica, Montserrat, St. Kitts, and British Honduras. There are also in- 
dependent Agricultural Departments in British Guiana, Trinidad, and 
Jamaica. 

The institutions in Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad, Antigiia, Demerara, 
St. Kitts, and Montserrat are devoted mainly to the sugar industry, and have 
done most useful and important work by investigating the best means of 
manuring cane and establishing the best cane varieties, and by cultivating 
seedling canes and combatting the numerous diseases and pests. 

The other measures adopted by the Government on behalf of the sugar 
industry did not have the results that were expected. 

Canada had allowed 25 per cent, discount off its import duty on aU produce 
from the British colonies, but this deduction was not enough to tempt the 
planters to send their sugar to Canada instead of to New York. The United 
States levied besides their uniform import duty on sugar an additional so- 
caUed " compensating duty " on aU bounty-fed sugar, amounting to the value 
of the bounty. As aU European sugar was bountied, in contrast to the free 
West Indian sugar, the latter when imported into the United States enjoyed 
an advantage greater than when imported into Canada, where no countervailing 
duties were known, and where the British colonial sugar only enjoyed a rebate 
of 25 per cent., which deduction in most cases was less than the countervailing 
duty on European sugar when imported into the United States.* 

* In 1900 for instance the advantage of 25 per cent, on the import dutj' in Canada 
amounted to 18 cents per 100 lbs. sugar of 96 polarization while the countervailing duty 
on German sugar in the States was 27 cents. 

207 



North America. 

Again, the capitalists were afraid of risking their money in the British 
West Indian sugar industry, and did not participate in loans for the erection 
of central factories, so that the proposed 3 per cent, loan of ^^750, 000 was not 
achieved. In the first place, the complaints about the decline and unsatis- 
factory condition of the industry in the West Indian Islands had drawn atten- 
tion to these parts, but at the same time had frightened capital away, so that 
aU efforts to raise money for the establishment of central factories proved a 
failure. Secondly, the fierce competition of the bounties was in full force for 
the sake of encouraging the exportation of the beetroot sugar from the several 
producing countries. Each measure taken by a government to further the 
exportation of its produce was sure to be followed by a corresponding measure 
on the part of other governments, which resulted in a steady fall of the world's 
price of sugar, and made it an impossibility for unprotected countries to make 
any profit out of the manufacture of sugar. One can imagine that in such 
circumstances even Great Britain's offer to guarantee during ten years 3 per 
cent, interest on the loan for central factories did not tempt anyone to take 
an interest in the sugar industry of the West Indian Islands. 

Chamberlain was weU aware of this fact, and as the West Indies and 
Mauritius, together with the British Indian sugar refiners, wanted help urgently, 
he carried through the Brussels Convention, when the negotiations over the 
abolition of bounties threatened to result in failure again. 

In addition a grant of £250,000 was made by ParUament to cover the 
pressing needs of the sugar planters for the year immediately preceding the 
coming into force of the Brussels Convention. 

In consequence of this Convention, the compensating duties on European 
sugar in the Ufiited States were no longer levied, and sugar from the West 
Indies was admitted into the States on the same basis of duty as European 
beetroot sugar ; thus it was no longer privileged in that country. In Canada, 
however, it stUl enjoyed this advantage ; consequently, the importation of 
West Indian sugar into that country began to increase, especially as, in 1900, 
the rebate on the duty on British colonial sugar had gone up to 33I per cent. 

To give an idea of the extent to which the importation of sugar from the 
West Indies into Canada has increased, while that from other countries has 
dropped, we quote the following table, where general tariff means full import 
duty, preferential tariff the decreased duty on sugar from the British Empire, 
and surtax tariff the duty on German sugar raised by a surtax since 1903. The 
sugar from the British Empire was almost exclusively West Indian and Dem- 
erara, with small quantities of refined sugar from England and raw sugar from 
British India, British Africa, and Fiji. 



208 



British West Indies, 



Year. 


General 


Preferential 


Surtax 


Total. 




tariff. 


tariff. 


tariff. 






lbs. 


IbS; 


lbs. 


lbs. 


1902/03 


326,824,196. 


, 43,251,261 


— 


370,075,457 


1903/04 


288,150,338 


ioo,09i;559 


128,9-35 


388,370,832 


1904/05 


100,128,451 


290,414,865 


1.344 


390,544,660 


1905/06 


71,740,809 


274,863,036 


148,753 


346,752,598 


1906/07 


77,919,591 


371,042,486 


446 


448,962,528 


1907/08 


51,867,068 


393.584.054 


— 


445,451,122 


1908/09 


51,158,971 


392,802,583 


— 


443,961,554 


1909/10 


149,538,843 


348,249,538 


— 


497,788,481 


1910/11 


183,518,288 


390,589,876 


— 


574,108,164 



The West Indian sugar industry not only benefited by the Brussels Con- 
vention, but also by other advantages as mentioned in the first part of this 
volume, such as a better and more regular world's price of sugar and a greater 
stability and certainty for the industry, which can now proceed uninterruptedly 
and need not fear fresh changes as regards bounties or further privileges to 
the beetroot sugar industry. 

After the Convention was brought into force the necessary funds for 
establishing central factories in Antigua and St. Kitts were found ; the Govern- 
ment central factories in Barbados are still hanging fire in consequence of peculiar 
difficulties, although private central factories are being established without 
Government assistance. A central factory has also been established in St. 
Kitts, while great and important additions have been made to the working of 
factories in Trinidad. Although, as may be gleaned from the following 
pages, the condition of the sugar industry in the West Indian Islands is far 
from brilliant, yet the feeling of despondency belongs to the past, and the 
efforts of the British Government to make the West Indian population con- 
tented British subjects at any cost have had satisfactory results. 



II.— Cane Cultivation and Sugar Manufacture 

The sugar cane cultivation varies in the different islands as regards con- 
dition of the soil and available labour ; cane must be treated differently in 
low-lying, marshy regions from that in hilly, undulating country ; while in islands 
such as Barbados, where properties are small and the population dense, cane 
can be grown much more intensively than in islands where the inhabitants are 
few and far between. 

Sugar cane used to be cultivated in fields belonging entirely to the sugar 
plantations, but when the difficulties about insufficient labour became 

209 O 



North America. 

increasingly stringent, the planters took refuge in a system of cane farming in 
many of the islands. Pieces of ground were allotted or sold to small planters 
who, supported by loans of money or other help, grew cane at their own risk 
for the purpose of selling it to the factory. Opinions differ as to the wisdom 
of thus separating the planting from the manufacturing interests ; there are 
people who emphasize the advantages, while others, on the contrary, show 
up the faults of the system. The great advantage, of course, is that cane is 
now obtained by free labour and without any risk from land that under other 
circumstances would yield nothing. But a drawback of the regulation is that 
farmers who are short of capital cannot or will not spend much money on 
manuring and soil improvement, and only try to get as much out of the land 
as possible, which, of course, has a bad influence on the fertility of the soil. 
Then the manufacturer has little or no control over the planting and main- 
tenance compared with what he has under his own management, and although 
it is by far the best plan for a regular establishment to have a certain quantity 
of cane brought daily to the mill, cane farming does not allow this quite so 
well as planting by the estate does. Finally, it is not possible for the manu- 
facturers to exercise sufficient control over the quality of the cane delivered, so 
that it is often unripe cane and cane with impure juice that they receive to grind. 

However bad conditions may be, their own labourers are not capable of 
cultivating and harvesting any sufficiently large quantity of cane ; so as they 
wish to produce a sufficient amount of raw material to keep the factory work- 
ing at its proper capacity, they are obliged to let ground to independent farmers. 
They have to take both the advantages and the drawbacks of this system 
into consideration. 

Up to a few years ago Bourbon or Otaheite cane was almost the only variety 
planted in the West Indies, but during the years 1892 and 1895 and 1896 this 
cane variety was all at once generally affected by a disease, which considerably 
diminished its power of production, and caused its cultivation to be abandoned 
in most of the islands. It has been supplanted in Barbados by the White Trans- 
parent cane, and there and elsewhere by several of the seedling varieties grown 
at the experimental stations in Barbados and Demerara, especially B 208, B 147, 
D 145, and D 625. 

In Jamaica the Bourbon cane was never very popular ; White Transparent 
or Mont Blanc cane was chiefly planted. Bourbon cane is still found in Trini- 
dad and St. Lucia, but in Barbados, Antigua, and St. Kitts other kinds have 
replaced it. 

In most of the islands the ground is treated according to the Reynoso 
system, with furrows 18 ft. in length and 5 to 7 ft. apart from centre to centre. 
In Barbados, where the hard coral cliffs are only covered with a thin layer of 
arable soil, the cane is not planted in rows, but in plant holes which are from 
15 to 18 ins. in length, from 6 to 12 ins. deep, and from 8 to 12 ins. wide. In 
one acre, as a rule, 3,000 of such holes occur. 

The cane is cut after twelve to fifteen months, when ratoons are kept ; 
the leaves are worked under the soil with forks to provide the necessary humus, 

210 



British West Indies. 



and the cane is left to grow and be cut again a year later. This is sometimes 
repeated five times, or even more, after which new cuttings are planted in rows 
between the places of the former ones, so that the part of the soil that had not 
been used is given a turn. As long as the cane is still short, weeds are carefully 
removed, and the soil is manured with stable dung, superphosphate, basic slag, 
sulphate of ammonia, chili saltpetre, or guano, or mixtures of any of these 
manures. While the cane is still young the dead cane shoots are replaced by 
new ones, which are obtained by chopping off a piece of cane stool from the 
same plot arid replanting it. 

Among the pests that harm the cane, fats and the borers come first, 
while most of the known fungous diseases occur in the West Indian Islands. 
The most important among them are the " rind " and the " root " disease, 
which have caused a decrease in the area of Bourbon cane. Pineapple disease, 
red smut, and Marasmius sacchari are found in all the islands, and often cause 
great damage. 

Although most of the factories in the West Indies are up-to-date, there 
are still many, especially in Barbados, that work in the old style, with open 
pans, and produce the old-fashioned muscovado sugar. 

The preparation of this sugar is accomplished as follows : — The cane juice 
heated to boiling point is put in clarifying pans, where it is tempered and 
subsided; then the clarified juice flows into the so-called " copper walls," 
a series of three or more big open copper vessels, called " tayches," in which it 
is concentrated. Under these vessels is an open fire, fed by sun-dried bagasse, 
cane trash, and wood. The juice enters the first pan, and as it concentrates it 
is scooped out into the second, and so on. There are factories where the last 
percentage of water is not evaporated above an open fire, but in a separate 
pan with steam, called the Aspinall pan. / 

When the concentrated juice has reached the requisite degree of density, 
it is scooped out into big square tanks, in which the sugar crystallizes. There 
is sometimes a stirring apparatus inside which keeps the massecuite moving, 
but generally the latter is allowed to crystallize at rest. 

When the crystallization process is complete, the boiled mass is filled into 
big wooden barrels or hogsheads with perforated bottoms. These barrels stand 
in racks over drainage troughs, and remain there two or three weeks, till the 
molasses between the sugar crystals has drained off as much as possible. Then 
the holes are closed with wooden plugs, and the hogshead is fit to be transported. 

The analysis of the sugars prepared in this way is approximately as follows : 



1 I 


2 


3 


4 


Polarization 

Glucose 

Ash 

Water 

Undetermined . . 


88-6 
5-30 
0-47 
3-42 

2-21 


86-2 

4-40 
2-66 
372 

3-02 


83-9 
5-92 

2-12 

4-66 
4-30 


83-0 
6-98' 
1-02 

3-84 
4-26 


Total 


100-00 


100-00 


100-00 


100-00 



2ri 



North America. 

Analyses of some of the syrups drained off from the muscovado are as 
follows : — 





A 


B 


C 


D 


E 


F 


Sucrose 


557 


51-6 


56-2 


49-8 


46-9 


507 


Glucose 


10-3 


8-1 


II -4 


14-4 


24-2 


6-8 


Organic non-sugar 


5-4 


5-3 


4-8 


8-2 


2-7 


10-4 


Ash 


3-2 


4-2 


2-8 


2-9 


8-1 


5-0 


Moisture 


25-4 


30-8 


24-8 


247 


22-9 


27-1 


Total . . 


100-00 


100-00 


100-00 


100-00 


100-00 


100- 00 



III. — Survey of the Industry in the different Islands. 



(a) BARBADOS. 

Barbados, the most western of the West Indian Islands, lies at 13° 4' 
N. Lat. and 59° 37' W. Long. ; it is 21 miles in length and 14 miles in width, 
has an area of 166 sq. miles, and possessed in April, 1911, a population of 
171,982 inhabitants, that is 1,036 to the sq. mile. 

The island is of coral formation, covered with a very thin layer of fertile 
soil, which, it is said, is derived from volcanic ash from La Soufriere, of St. 
Vincent, that has been driven there by the wind after eruptions. Only the 
north-eastern district, Scotland, is at all hilly. Not only does the Barbados 
subsoil consist chiefly of coral, but the island is surrounded by coral reefs, 
which at some places stretch far into the sea, and are dangerous to navigation. 
The island is very fiat and only .rises in the parish of St. Andrews in terraces 
to a height of 1,105 ft. 

Barbados does not possess any natural harbours, though the open road 
of Carlisle Bay, on the west coast, is well sheltered, and offers a safe anchorage 
for ships. There are not any rivers of importance in the island ; rainwater 
rapidly penetrates the porous coral, to collect in subterranean wells and springs. 
The climate of the island is pleasant and favourable. The temperature, as a 
rule, varies between 24° and 30° C. (75° and 86° F.), while the minimum night 
temperature in the coolest season is occasionally as low as 63° F. 

212 




Reproduced, by kind permiasion, from " The Pocket Guide to the West Indies " by Algernvn E. Aspimtt 



Svcor/brds G-e^iaT'ophiccJ. Esta.'b'' 



British West Indies. 

The rainfall for the last twelve years amounted to the following quantities, 
expressed in mm. and inches : — 





Mm. 


Inchc? 


i8c)7 


1826 


r^-TS 


1898 


1735 


68 


1899 


1270 


50 


1900 


1549 _■ 


6o-5 


1901 


2297 


90-5 


1902 


1401 


55 


1903 


1681 


66 


190^ 


1484 


• 58-5 


1905 


1362 


53-6 


1906 


17S0 


70 


1907 


1192 


47 


1908 


IITQ 


44 



Bridgetown (of 16,648 inhabitants in April, 1911) is the capital of the 
island, while the other towns are of little consequence. A narrow-gauge railway 
connects the capital in the south-west with St. Andrew's Church, on the north- 
east coast, a distance of twenty-four miles, which journey is covered in two 
hours. 

Barbados was discovered by the Portuguese in 1536 ; they named the 
island Barbados after the trees with long parasitical drooping plants which 
they found there. 

Tn 1605 Barbados was taken possession of by the English, but was not 
colonized by them till 1626. At first it was the private property of sorrie English 
noblemen, but later became a possession of the British Government on pay- 
ment of an indemnity to the last possessor. Lord Carlisle, which was raised 
by an export duty of 4^ per cent, ai valorem on all articles exported from 
Barbados. This unusual indemnification, which was paid by the Barbados 
traders for a transaction in which the British Crown did benefit, was in force 
in spite of much opposition from 1686 till 1838, when its payment was abolished. 

Barbados was the first island under British rule to plant sugar cane. 
Under Philip Bell's governorship the sugar industry was established" there, 
and slaves were introduced ; but not till the Dutch colonists, who had been 
driven away from Brazil, came and brought their knowledge and experience 
with them did the sugar industry begin to flourish. During the seventeenth 
and eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries, Barbados be- 
came one of the principal sugar-producing countries. The island delivered 
exclusively muscovado sugar in hogsheads, and not in white loaves as the 
French Antilles used to do. 

In consequence of the dense population on this small island, it is entirely 
cultivated, and as the inhabitants had not exclusively to rely on the sugar 

213 



Npr|h Ajjierica, _ . , 

industry, they were not so stricken by the consequences of the abolition of 
slavery and by the decreased profits as other British colonies were. 

On the emancipation of slaves, in 1834, the Barbados plantation owners 
got an indemnity of ;fi,720,345 for no fewer than 83,176 slaves, and as there 
are no great distances to cover in the island, which made it unnecessary for the 
emancipated bla,cks to withdraw from the interior, a great many of them began 
to work as free labourers in the plantations, so that after all the abolition of 
slavery was not detrimental to the sugar industry. 

In i8g8 the British Government decided to make Barbados the headquarters 
of the.Imperial Department of Agriculture, which latter has since done so_ much 
good by its scientific investigations, by giving expert advice, and by experi- 
menting with manures, seedlings, etc. At the same time, a sum of money 
was found as a 3 per cent, loan for the establishment of a central factory, but 
in spite of the proposal being kept to the front ever since, the plan has not yet 
been carried out. 

In Barbados the land is divided into very small estates, and up to 
recently each plantation had its own mill. At the present time there are no 
fewer than 335 sugar factories, 221 of which are driven by windmills. In 
recent years, however, plans have been executed for the improvement of the 
factory installations, and some ten factories are equipped now with modern 
machinery. 

The area planted with cane is estimated at 60,000 acres. The cane planted 
used to be exclusively Bourbon, but this variety, that at one time yielded 
most satisfactory crops, steadily dropped in quality, and has been practically 
abandoned. Its place has been taken by seedlings raised in the island, and 
by the White Transparent. 

The cultivation is done thoroughly, as labour is abundant and cheap. 
There is, of course, the possibility of drought and hurricanes having a bad 
influence on the crop, while the cane diseases of general occurrence — such as 
root disease, red smut, rind disease, cane borers, and grubs-^do considerable 
harm at times. Only a very few factories in Barbados possess a vacuum pan, 
while most of them prepare muscovado in the old way. This is not a case of 
headstrongness or conservatism, but simply the result of the great value the 
molasses of the so-called " open kettle " sugar has, and for this very reason it 
is transhipped in large quantities to the United States, Can9,da, and New- 
foundland. 

The introduction of the vacuum pan process would produce a larger 
quantity of sugar, but molasses of sin inferior and unsaleable kind. The present 
price of molasses of about 55° polarization is £2 los. per ton, while there were 
times when it fetched as much as £5 to £6 per ton. 

The sugar content of the cane, on an average, amounts to 13-5 percent. ; 
about 7 1 per cent, muscovado sugar, and some 3-5 per cent, molasses, are 
obtained from it. 

It is difificult to state the cost price of sugar, as it depends greatly on the 

214 



British West Indies. 



proportion between sugar and molasses derived from the same juice. One 
generally reckons ^^8 per ton of muscovado of about 84° polarization, which 
covers the value of the syrup produced simultaneously. 

The production of Barbados has been as follows during the fifty years 

1886 40,047 

1887 60,263 

1888 63,882 

1889 57,106 

1890 74,606 

1891 44,226 

1892 51.849 

1893 .^. .. .. 58,765 

1894 57.967 

1895 33.331 

1896 45,170 

1897 51,275 

1898 46,878 

1899 ' 40,442 

1900 .. .. .. 44,250 

1901 56,912 

1902 45,576 

1903 33.795 

1904 55,785 

1905 41,210 

1906 50,630 

1907 33,033 

1908 31,353 

1909 15,571 

1910 36,389 

1911 32,514 

Since 1903 a large and increasing amount of syrup was transhipped, 

besides sugar and molasses. Bovell assumes 315 gallons of syrup of 41° Beaume 
to correspond in sugar value to one hogshead of sugar and 80 gallons of molasses, 
and it is according to this basis that he reckons the total sugar production 
for the years 1904 — 1908 to be as follows : — 



860 to 1910, 


jxpressed i 


n long tons 


i860 . . 




• 37.350 


I86I . 






• 43.614 


1862 . 






• 40,355 


1863 . 






• 36.996 


1864 . 






• 31,675 


1865 . 






• 41,307 


1866 . 






• 50,105 


1867 . 






• 46,725 


1868 . 






• 50,960 


1869 . 






• 29,465 


1870 . 






■ 34.363 


I87I . 






47,166 


1872 . 






■ 34.372 


1873 . 






• 32,669 


1874 . 






■ 41.377 


1875 ■ 






■ 56,875 


IS76 . 






■ 32,676 


1877 . 






■ 43.545 


1878 . 






• 38,073 


1879 ,. 






50,001 


1880 . 






• 47,439 


I88I . 






• 45,073 


1882 . 






48,269 


1883 . 






46,242 


1884 . 






• 54,263 


1885 . 






• 52,694 



Year. 


Sugar. 


Molasses. 


Total. 


1904 


55.785 


151 


55,936 


1905 .. 


41,210 


2,239 


43.449 


1906 . . 


50,630 


7,296 


57.926 


1907 


33.033 


12,462 


45,495 


1908 


31.353 


10,248 


41,601 



2IS 



North America. 

Barbados sugar is chiefly exported to England, but is also sent to the 
United States and Canada. No export duty is levied on sugar leaving the 
island, but there is an import duty of 2S. per loo lbs. 

A considerable increase in production is not to be expected. All the 
available ground has already been used for cane cultivation, and the growing 
of other agricultural crops and cotton takes up so much land that any extension 
of the cane-planted area is out of the question. The sugar estates are mostly 
in the hands of small owners, who have already mortgaged their property 
heavily, and would never be able to raise capital for the puipose of working 
on a larger scale, and of reaping better crops. Besides, the owners cling to 
their land, and only reluctantly entertain offers from British capitalists to buy 
the land in Barbados for the establishment of central sugar factories which 
would turn to account the Governments' loan. From all this we may gather 
that radical changes are not likely to occur in the sugar industry in Barbados 
for some time to come. 

Literature : 

G. Washington Eves. West Indies. 

The West India Committee Circular. 

J. R. Bovell. Comparison of the Bourbon sugar cane with other varieties. 

Publication of the West India Imperial Agricultural Department. 

G. Hughes. Natural History of Barbados. 

H. R. Schomburgh. History of Barbados. 

West Indies in Canada igio. 

A. E. Asplnall. Pocket Guide to the West Indies. 

Sinckler. Handbook of Barbados. 



(b) TRINIDAD. 

The Island of Trinidad lies in the southern part of the Caribbean Sea, 
between io° and io° 50' N. Lat. and 61° and 62° W. Long. It is separated 
from the Venezuelan coast by the Gulf of Paria and the two narrow straits of 
Bocas, one the Dragon's Mouth, north of, and one, the Serpent's Mouth, south 
of the gulf. The area of the island is 1,754 square miles, its greatest length 
being 53 miles and its greatest breadth 40 miles. The coast is flat, and extensive 
lagoons or marshes are found all over the island. The ground rises in the 
centre and in the north, so that from there a number of rivers flow into the 
sea in all directions. The principal harbours. Port of Spain and San Fernando, 
are situated on the west coast, where navigation is commonest. 

The climate of Trinidad is very even ; the temperature varies between 
21° and 30-5° C. (70° and 87° F.). In 1905 the average temperature was 
25-5° C. The rainfall of that same year amounted to 70 ins., while the average 
annual rainfall was 5675 ins. during the years 1862 — 1905 ; in the tracts 
given to cane cultivation they can reckon on 80 ins. The rainy season com- 
mences in June and lasts five or six months ; August is generally the wettest 
month. The island is out of the path of hurricanes, so that the terror of the 

216 




Reproducedfby kind permiaeion, from " The Pocket Quide to the West Indies " by Algernon E. Aspinufi 



Stanford ^^ Preographical Fistub^ 



British West Indies. 

other West Indian Islands does not trouble them. Neither earthquakes, 
volcanic eruptions, nor long spells of drought afflict this island, so that as 
regards climate and geographical position it has much to be thankful for. 

Trinidad was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1498 ; he called 
the island Trinidad in consequence of a hill-top branching off into three ridges 
which caught his eye at a distance. About ninety years after the discovery 
of the island the Spaniards took possession of it, and founded the town of San 
Jose de Aruna, at some distance from the coast ; this now goes by the name 
of St. Joseph. In 1797 the English took the island from the Spanish, and since 
then it has remained a British colony. 

The Indian aborigines were soon exterminated by their Spanish conquerors, 
and have since been replaced by repeated supplies of African negro slaves. In 
1780 a Frenchman from the neighbouring island of Grenada visited Trinidad, 
and was so struck with the fertility of the soil that he asked permission to settle 
there with a great number of colonists of French and Creole origin. Later on, 
in 1845-46, the population was strengthened by Portuguese who were driven 
from Madeira on account of religious persecutions, and took refuge in Trinidad. 
The population was also very considerably swelled by British Indian immigrants, 
who some years after the abolition of slavery, in 1834, were imported into 
Trinidad under contract, and now form one-third of the whole population. 
When the English took possession of the island the number of inhabitants 
amounted to 17,718 ; in 1838 it had increased to 39,328, in 1891 to 200,028, 
and in 1906 to 315,000, about 100,000 of whom were of British Indian origin. 
This works out at 181 inhabitants per square mile, a very high figure for this 
part of the world. 

The capital of the island. Port of Spain, is situated on the Gulf of Paria, 
and contains about 60,000 inhabitants. Other towns are San Fernando, 
Princes Town, Arima, St. Joseph, and Couva, the principal of which has a 
population not exceeding 7,600 inhabitants, and, consequently, is of little 
importance. 

A railwBjy runs from Port of Spain in an eastern direction to Sangre Grande, 
5i miles east of Port of Spain. St. Joseph lies on the railway, and from there 
another line runs in a southern direction, which near Cunupia, 7-|- miles from 
St. Joseph, branches off into two lines. One goes due south as far as San 
Fernando and Princes Town, while the other runs in a south-eastern direction 
to Tabaquite. The whole length of the railway is about 100 miles. Then 
there is a regular steamboat service between Port of Spain and San Fernando 
and the smaller seaport towns of the west coast and the islands in the Bocas 
Straits. 

The soil of Trinidad is very fertile, and is very suitable for sugar cane, 
cacao, coffee, tobacco, and lemon cultivation, while the woods produce ex- 
cellent timber. The sugar industry is only carried on in the western centre 
of the island, namely, in the districts of Tacarigua, Caroni, Couva, Naparima, 
and in a small portion of the Savannah Grande. The soil here consists of a 

217 



North America. 

dark clay, which is considered excellent for sugar cane ; while the sandy soil 
of the westernmost tracts produces numerous coconuts, and the cacao grown 
on the hill slopes in Monts^rrat in the north thrives well. It is chiefly due to 
this fitness of the soil for such various kinds of staple products that Trinidad 
has not suffered like most of the British West Indian possessions from the 
consequences of low sugar prices since 1890. While others had to depend 
exclusively on the sugar cultivation, and became destitute when this branch 
of industry failed to bring them profit, Trinidad was much more able to endure 
these bad times, and has even known prosperity in spite of untoward circum- 
stances. 

In the years following 1895 many owners of plantations were forced, 
through bad times, to let part of their land to farmers, who used it for growing 
cane, which cane they sold to the factories. This system has gradually spread, 
so that nowadays about one-fourth of the sugar produced is derived from 
purchased cane, while the rest is grown by the plantations themselves. 

The crushing season begins with the dry season, that is in January, and 
lasts till May or June. 

There are 16 sugar factories in Trinidad that in 1909 produced 52,972 
tons of sugar, obtained from 606,464 tons of cane, which means a yield of sugar 
of 874 per cent. 451,801 tons of this cane, yielding 39,553 tons of sugar, were 
planted by the estates themselves, and the balance, 154,663 tons of cane, 
yielding 13,419 tons of sugar, was bought from cane farmers. Altogether, 
11,401 of those planters took part in the production, 6,077 of whom were East 
Indians and 5,324 West Indians. 



For the ten preceding years these figures were as follows : — 


^ 




Tons of Cane Ground. 


Sugar 


Yield of 


Number of Farmers. 




1 








Year. 


On their 

own 
Estate. 


Bought 
Cane. 


Total. 


Produced. 


Sugar. 


East 
Indians. 


West 
Indians. 


1900 


364,355 


105,996 


470,351 


41,269 


8-8o 


2,826 


3,591 


I90I 


434,003 


169,918 


603,921 


51,077 


8-45 


3.829 


4.737 


1902 


337,911 


184,867 


522,778 


44,913 


8-56 


4.506 


4,850 


1903 


337,632 


166,590 


504,222 


46,029 


9-13 


4.443 


4,440 


1904 


385,015 


171,947 


556,962 


50,744 


8-95 


4,646 


4,685 


1905 


244,418 


144,868 


389,286 


38,240 


9-82 


5,424 


5,462 


1906 ' . . 


397.912 


237,844 . 


635,756 


62,975 


9-91 


6,127 


5.446 


1907 


373,577 


169,709 


543-286 


50,564 


9-30 


6,557 


5,777 


1908 


380,334 


139,442 


519.756 


48,933 


9-42 


5,922 


5,619 


1909 


451,801 


154,663 


606,464 


52,972 


8-94 


5,912 


5,488 



218 



13 3 2 I 




J 



British West Indies. 

The following amounts of sugar have been exported from Trinidad : — 

1906 . . . . 56,455 tons. 1909 . . . . 44,413 tons. 

1907 .. .. 45,631 „ 1910 .. .. 44,139 „ 
190,8 . . . . 41,626 „ 1911 . . . . 36,645 ,, 

In the years before 1898 one-third of the Trinidad sugar was sent to Great 
Britain, and the rest to the United States ; but that did not long continue, 
as from ist August, 1897, Canada yielded a rebate of 25 per cent, in import 
duty on sugar produced in all the British West Indian possessions increased 
later to a preferentialduty of 31 J cents per 100 lbs. 96° crystals. In conse- 
quence of this, Canada, in conjunction with Great Britain, and the United 
States, has become one of the regular consumers of Trinidad sugar since 1899, 
while a small amount is sent to neighbouring South American States and other 
West Indian Islands. 

(c) JAMAICA. 

The Island of Jamaica lies in the northern part of the Caribbean Sea, 
90 miles south of Cuba, between 17° 43' and 18° 32' N. Lat. and 76° 11' and 
78° 2' 50" W. Long. The greatest length of the island amounts to 144 miles, 
its greatest width to 49 miles, its narrowest part (from Kingston to Annotta 
Bay) 21 J miles. Its total aiea iS 4,207 square miles, and its population in 1911, 
831,123 inhabitants, or 198 to the square mile. 

The island is very mountainous, the mountain chains running chiefly fiom 
east to west, with spurs to the north-west and south-east, the latter ending 
in the well-known Blue Mountains, the highest top of which rises 7,360 ft. 
above sea level. 

Jamaica has a greatly indented coast-line, with many bays and harbours, 
the best known of which are Port Antonio, at the eastern extremity of the 
north coast, and Old Harbour and Kingston, both on the south coast. Kingston 
Bay is a deep and wide sheet of water, protected against the waves of the 
Caribbean Sea by a long isthmus called the Palisades. Port Royal is situated 
at its extremity. 

Jamaica possesses many rivers and streams, most of them with a rapid 
current. In the south-west is the Black River, which is navigable for 130 
miles, while in the north-east there is the Rio Grande. The Rio Cobre, which 
falls into Kingston Harbour, the Plantain Garden River, the Martha Brae, and 
others are of much less importance. 

In consequence of the great variations in height above sea level, the 
climate varies greatly for the different parts of Jamaica. Close to the sea 
.the temperature fluctuates between 20° and 30° C. (68° and 86° F.) but in 
the mountains the thermometer in the coolest nights goes down I0 7° C. (45° F.). 

Though rain may occur all through the summer, there are two months. 
May and October, when rain falls in greater quantities than usual. The 
total rainfall amounts to about 40 ins. 

Jamaica lies in the route of hurricanes, and these sometimes do immense 
damage, while the island is also subject to earthquakes. 

219 



North America. 

Jamaica is intersected by excellent roads, which, as the mountain slopes 
are far from steep, make easy intercourse possible between the different parts 
of the island. For the rest, a railway connects Kingston with Montego Bay 
via Spanish Town, while a branch line runs froin Spanish Town to Poit Antonio. 
The total length of the railway runs to i8o miles. 

Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494, and was named by him 
San J ago ; it -however soon reverted to its original name, Jamaica. 

The Spanish colonized the island as early as the beginning of the sixteenth 
century, and in 1523 founded a town, San Jago de la Vega on the south coast, 
which now goes by the name of Spanish Town. 

The country has suffered much from wars — it was often a scene of hos- 
tilities between English, Spaniards, and runaway slaves (Maroons), the latter 
siding either with the Spaniards or the English, or weie sometimes against 
both. Jamaica for some time was the centre and headquarters of the buc- 
caneers who infested the West Indian seas and robbed whoever it suited them. 
The town of Port Royal was their headquarters, on the isthmus near Kingston 
Bay, which town was destroyed by an earthquake in 1682. After having been 
conquered several times, and as often recaptured, Jamaica was finally ceded 
to England at the peace concluded at Madrid in 1670, and has remained ever 
since a British possession. 

As soon as the civil wars were subdued, the sugar industry of Jamaica 
entered upon a flourishing period, to which not only the sugar, but also the 
secondary product, rum, contributed greatly. 

The emancipation of slaves hit Jamaica a severe blow ; the liberated 
negroes left the solitary plantations, which went to decay at once. The low 
prices of sugar in the years between 1890 and igoo, too, were fatal to this 
colony, and had it not been for its special product, Jamaica rum, which always 
commands a high price, the island would have been ruined altogether. 

When Chamberlain, in 1898, proposed to give financial support to the 
West Indian islands at the expense' of the Mother-Country, he was specially 
mindful of Jamaica. We may consider the improved mail service between 
Jamaica and Bristol an outcome of this proposition, through which fruit, 
especially bananas, was quickly transported to the centres of consumption 
in temperate climates. - 

In 1890 some bunches of bananas had been transhipped to London, but 
not until 1898 did this importation become of any moment. At the present 
day the export of bananas amounts to about 15,000,000 bunches, and has 
exceeded in value both that of sugar and rum, as the following table for the 
1907 returns shows : — 





i 


i 


of Fruit 




972,273 


bananas 


842,689 




citrus fruits . . 


90,468 




of Sugar 




122,328 


of Rum 




98.923 



220 



British West Indies. 

Of the planted area of 750,000 acres in 1906, 26,180 acres were planted 
with sugar cane, 60,000 with bananas, and 27,170 with coffee, while the rest 
was occupied with coconuts, cacao, pimento, vegetables, and pasture land. 

The cane-planted area is not in proportion to the quantity of sugar pro- 
duced, but we must remember that cane is not exclusively used for the manu- 
facture of sugar. A considerable quantity of cane juice is directly worked up 
into rum, while the boiled massecuite is purposely made to yield little sugar, 
for the sake of getting a large quantity of a pure kind of material for the pro- 
duction of rum. 

There are 83 (chiefly small) sugar factories in Jamaica, of which only three 
are so-called central factories ; only 12 of the remaining 80 sugar works have 
vacuum pans, the others prepare muscovado and rum. 

The cost price of sugar cannot be fixed with certainty, as it is greatly 
influenced by the proportions of sugar and rum prepared from the same quantity 
of cane. 

The production during the last twenty years has amounted to the following 



s, expressed 


m long ton 


3 ; — 






1892 23,654 


1893 . 






21,872 


1894 . 








24,149 


1895 . 








23.45-' 


1896 . 








22,995 


1897 . 








16,331 


1898 . 








14,462 


1899 . 








18,326 


1900 . 








19.823 


1901 . 








16,083 


1902 . 








20,323 


1903 . 








13.574 


1904 . 








9.903 


1905 . 








11.935 


1906 . 








21,823 


1907 . 








13,971 


1908 . 








24,000 


1909 . 








■ 18,823 


1910 . 








. 19,960 


1911 . 






• ■ 194M 


.iterature : 











B. Pulley Burry. Jamaica as it is. 

Algernon E. Aspinall. Pochet Guide to the ^Vesi Indies. 

The West India Committee Circular. 

Beckford. A descriptive Account of the Island 0] Jamaica. 



221 



North America. 



{d) WINDWARD ISLANDS. 



Among the islets comprising the Windward group only two occur that 
used to have a sugar industry of ariy importance, viz., St. Lucia and St. Vincent. 

Their location, dimensions, and population are given in the following 
table : — , 



^ Island. 


Latitude 


Longi- 
tude 


Greatest 

Length 

Miles 


Greatest 
Width 
Miles 


Area 
Sq. miles 


Popula- 
tion. , 


St. Lucia 

St.. Vincent . . 


13° 50' 
13° 10' 


60° 58' 

60'' 57' 


40 
18 


21 
II 


233 
140 


48,637 
41.877 



Both the islands are mountainous and of volcanic origin, and craters 
abound that quite recently have been in violent eruption. The climate is rather 
damp and hot ; ' the rainfall amounts to 80 to 100 ins. ; the wet season lasts 
from August to November ; February is the coolest and July the hottest. The 
temperature varies between 15° and 34° C, and at night it is cool, as a rule. 

These islands not only suffer from volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, 
but also from hurricanes, the approach of which is generally indicated by the 
meteorological stations, so that the damage done by them has grown con- 
siderably less of late. 

Both these islands were discovered by Columbus, respectively on St. 
Vincent's Day, 1498, and St. Lucia's Day, 1502. Like all the smaller Antilles, 
they were involved in much struggle during the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries, and have repeatedly changed possession, to be annexed by England 
in the end. 

The sugar industry used to flourish in St. Vincent from 1805 to 1829 ; 
18,000 to 20,000 hogsheads of sugar were exported. After the abolition of 
slavery this prosperous trade at once came to an end ; in 1873 the exportation 
was no more than 8,491 tons of sugar, in 1883 9,255, in 1887 5,088, in 1890 
6,176, and in 1897 2,896 tons, to drop since to about 600 tons muscovado sugar. 

In St. Lucia the sugar industry is in a somewhat better plight ; there are 
four central factories that produce vacuum pan sugar, while the exports have 
amounted to an average of about 5,000 tons during the last five years. This 
amount is not likely to increase, so that the two islands together contribute 
no more than some 5,000 tons a year to the world's supply. 

The exports of these two islands during the last seventeen years have 
amounted to the following quantities in long tons : — 



222 



British West Indies. 





St. Lucia. 


St. Vincent. 


1894 




. 






4.485 


2,727 


1895 












3.627 


2,585 


1896 












3,548 


2.555 


1897 












3.859 


2,772 


1898 












3.751 


1,865 


1899 












3,989 


361 


1900 












4,018 


567 


I90I 












4,772 


887 


1902 












4,278 


645 


1903 












3,884 


262 


1904 










. ' 5,161 


930 


1905 












4,834 


350 


1906 












5.795 


549 


1907 , . 












5.365 


298 


1908 












4.977 


224 


1909 












5.518 


288 


I9I0 










• j . 5.220 


280 






(e 


) LE 


EWAl 


IT 


) ISLANDS. 





The Leeward Islands group consists of the islands of Antigua, Montserrat, 
St. Kitts, Nevis, AnguiUa, Dominica, and the Virgin Islands. They lie in the 
Caribbean Sea, between 15° and 19° N. Lat. and 61" and 65° W. Long. The 
total area of the islands covers 600 square miles, while their population amounts 
to about 125,000 inhabitants. 

Location, dimensions, and population of the different islands are given 
in the following table : — 



Island. 


North 
Latitude. 


West 
Longitude 


Area in 
Sq. Miles. 


Greatest 
Length 
in Miles. 


Greatest 

Width 

in Miles. 


Popu- 
lation. 


Antigua 


17" 6' 


61° 45' 


170 


20 


— 


32,265 


Montserrat . . 


16° 45' 


61" 


334 


10 


7 


12,196 


St. Kitts 


17° 18' 


62° 46' 


65 


23 


— 


26,283 


Nevis 


17" 10' 


62° 33' 


50 


— 


— 


12,945 


Anguilla 


18° 


64° 


35 


30 


3 


4.075 


Dominica 


15° 25' 


61° 15' 


305 


28 


15 


33,863 


Virgin Islands 


— 


— 


58 


— ■ 


— 


5.562 



223 



North America. 

All the islands are volcanic, and most of them are surrounded by coral 
reefs. Antigua is volcanic in the south and south-west, but it is composed of 
coral in the north and north-east. The island has many natural harbours, of 
which that of St. John is the most important. The capital, St. John, with 
9,000 inhabitants, is situated there. 

Montserrat is also mountainous ; it consists of a row of circular hills that 
have developed into a mountain chain. 

St. Kitts, or St. Christopher, has a mountainous centre, consisting of 
rows of hills which run from south-east to north-west, with Mount Misery 
of more "than 3,280 ft. as the highest peak. 

Nevis is nothing more than a large volcanic cone, 3,900 ft. high, the sides 
of which are well wooded. 

The Island of Anguilla is only a narrow ledge of rock rising from the sea. 

Dominica, the largest of the group, shows all the characteristics of a 
volcanic island, and is the only one where rivers are found. In all the others 
the rain water immediately penetrates into the ground without forming streams. 

The Virgin Islands form a group of about fifty small islets and reefs, 
many of which attain to a considerable height above the sea level. Tortola, 
Virgin Gorda, Anegada, Salt Island, and St. Peter are the principal ones. 

All these islands generally suffer more or less from drought ; the yearly, 
rainfall in Antigua is about 40 ins ; that in St. Kitts a little more, viz., between 
50 and 60 ; that in Nevis from 43 to 80 ins. 

All these islands were discovered and named by Columbus on his second 
voyage in 1493 and 1494. 

Antigua got its name from a church at Seville, St. Maria la Antigua ; 
Montserrat from a convent in Spain where Loyola planned the Order of the 
Jesuits ; St. Kitts, a corruption of the name St. Christopher, received its 
name from Columbus' patron saint ; and Nevis is derived from the mountain 
Neives, near Barcelona, since the volcanic conewrapped in clouds resembled 
a snow-cap at the time of the discovery. Anguilla got its name from its snake- 
like shape. Dominica was discovered on a Sunday ; while the Virgin Islands 
are said to have been called after the 11,000 legendary virgins. 

All these islands have been taken possession of and colonized by the 
British," Spanish, Dutch, and French. During the frequent wars they changed 
hands every now and then ; under a certain treaty of peace they were ceded 
to France, but under another they became English, which they have remained. 
Since 1871 they have formed a Federation, with Antigua as the seat of govern- 
ment, and they are divided into different presidencies. 

Although all these islands produced sugar for export during the eighteenth 
and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries, the sugar industry dwindled 
greatly after the abolition of slavery. As a matter of fact, it is now only 
carried on in Antigua, Montserrat, St. Kitts, and Nevis, and of these only in 
Antigua and St. Kitts to such a degree that exportation is possible. 

In Antigua there are two central factories, one of which was founded with 

224 



British West Indies, 



the financial aid of the British Government in the form of a 3 per cent, con- 
soUdated loan ; in St. Kitts there are also two central factories working, while a 
number of small muscovado factories are in operation in the other islands' that 
go to swell the sugar industry. 

For want of rivers in these islands, irrigation is a matter of difficulty, 
and the long sustained drought causes the sugar production to be an uncertain 
factor, which leads to greatly varying annual output. 

The exportation of Antigua alone has been for the last thirty years, ex- 
pressed in long tons, as below : — 



1881 
1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 
1895 



8,645 
12,769 
10,518 

13.721 
11,848 
12,271 
14.052 
14.925 
14.413 
16,120 
12,091 
15.302 
14.562 
12,342 
6,685 



1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 



13.714 
12,766 

6,968 
10,084 

7,622 

9.125 
12,611 
10,494 
11,940 

7,829 
13,238 
10,806 

13.451 
12,075 

18,145 



The exportation of St. Christopher, Nevis, and Montserrat, etc. 
amounted to the following figures for some of the last few years : — 



has 





St. Kitts and 






Year. 


Nevis. 


Montserrat. 


Dominica. 


1890 . 




17.409 


1,442 


2,349 


1891 






13,149 


1,131 


1,662 


1892 . 






18,156 


2,540 


2,251 


1895 . 






13,360 


711 


762 


1896 . 






15,037 


1,778 


609 


1897 . 






14,681 


813 


559 


1903 . 






13,511 


870 


225 


1904 . 






14,190 


513 


130 


1905 . 






12,345 


239 


181 


1906 . 






15,898 


652 


82 


1907 . 






12,346 


60 


107 


1908 . 






11,044 


89 


24 


1909 . 






12,321 


84 


— 


1910 . 






8,671 


54 


— 



225 



North America. 

This table shows that only St. Kitts, Nevis and Antigua are still of any 
importance as regards the sugar industry, and even they are not likely to 
extend their trade as the years go by, but will, no doubt, remain stationary. 



VII. 

FRENCH ANTILLES. 

I.— Geographical Location, Climate, etc. 

(a)— GUADELOUPE. 

Guadeloupe comprises two islands divided by a strait six miles long and 
thirty-six miles broad. These two islands situated on either side of the Riviere 
Salee, are called Basse Terre and Grande Terre. The islands lie north of 
Martinique, between 15° 59' and 16° 14' N. Lat. and 63" 51' and 61" 4' W. Long. 

The island Grande Terre has an area of 220 sq. miles ; Guadeloupe, or 
Basse Terre, an area of 365 sq. miles ; while some lesser islands which belong 
to the group, among which is Marie Galante, together cover an area of 115 
sq. miles. 

The island Grande Terre is of triangular shape, and has a coastline of 164 
miles ; while Basse Terre is oval in shape, and has a compass of 112 miles. 

The population of this group amounted to 182,000 inhabitants on ist 
January, 1892 : that is, 264 per sq. mile. In 1903 14,862 of these were immi- 
grants. 

Basse Terre is of volcanic origin, and was the product of four volcanic 
centres, namely, the Soufriere, the Morne-sans-toucher, les deux Mamelles, 
and the Grosse Montagne. Besides these big craters, there are still a number 
of lesser ones, while several hot wells are to be found. 

Grande Terre, however, is a limestone rock, which rises only a short 
distance above sea level, and is covered with a layer of disintegrated calcareous 
earth, very porous to water. The soil of Basse Terre is a stiff clay, the result 
of the disintegration of volcanic trachytes and basalts. 

The climate of both these islands is the same — moist and warm. On 
account of the great porosity of the soil no rivers or streams occur in Grande 
Terre, while the firm clay soil of Basse Terre causes the abundant rain-water 
to run into the sea by a number of brooks. The average temperature of Guade- 
loupe is as follows for the different months :— 

226 





French Antilles. 






°c. 


January . . 






• 24-52 


February 








■ 24-17 


March . . 








• 24-74 


April 








. 25-72 


May 








■ 26-55 


June 








. 27-02 


July . . . 








. 27-21 


August . . 








. 27-62 


September 








. 27-58 


October 








. 26-87 


November 








. 26-26 


December 








. 25-28 



Total 



26-13 



while the rainfall in millimetres is distributed as follows : — 



Month. 


1897. 


1898. 


1899. 


1900. 


1901. 


1902. 


January- 




n 


58 


104 


55 


169 ' 


35 


February 




73 


53 


41 


59 


28 


20 


March 




141 


47 


41 


51 


25 


31 


April 




73 


15 


44 


64 


8 


109 


May 




300 


98 


55 


108 


129 


79 


June 




108 


65 


121 


142 


393 


114 


July 




186 


296 


174 


199 


327 


68 


August 




179 


153 


16 


223 


219 


245 


September . . 




188 


395 


141 


97 


139 


191 


October 




64 


139 


245 


234 


154 


300 


November . . 




155 


241 


305 


lOI 


48 


181 


December 




303 


70 


71 


76 


100 


215 


Total 


1,747 


1,630 


1,358 


1,389 


1,739 


1,588 



or an average of 59 ins. 



The principal towns are Pointe a Pitre in Grande Terre, and Basse Terre 
in Guadeloupe ; besides these there is the town Grand Bourg, in the island 
of Maria Galante. 

Guadeloupe was discovered by Columbus in 1493 ; he named it after 
the convent of the same name in Estramadura. In 1635 it was taken possession 
of by a number of Frenchmen, and remained French tiU the Enghsh captured 

227 



North America. 

it in 1759. Since that time it' has been alternately under English and French 
dominion, but it fell to Sweden in 1810. In 1814 the French reconquered 
it, but had to give it up to England in 1815, though only for a very short time, 
for it was returned to France that same year. 



[b) MARTINIQUE. 

The Island of Martinique lies in the Caribbean Sea, between 14" 52' N. Lat. 
and 63° 16' and 63° 31' W. Long. It has an area of 3,820 sq. miles ; its greatest 
length is 50 miles ; its greatest width 19 miles ; and its circumference, not 
including the capes, amounts to 217 miles. On the ist January, 1902, its 
census was 204,000,- or 535 inhabitants to the sq. mile, but since the Mount 
Pele catastrophe, occurring that same year, in which 35,000 persons lost their 
lives, the number has been greatly reduced. 

Martinique is by no means flat ; the northern volcanic par^ consists of 
pumice-stone and lava, while the southern part is clay soil. During the dry 
season the numerous streams dry up, to change into wild mountain torrents 
during the rains. The well-known volcano, Mount Pel6, lies at the northern- 
most point of the island. 

The climate is hot and moist, and shows the following characteristics : — 





Aver, 
temp. 


Hygro- 
meter. 


Baro- 
meter. 


Rain monthly 
in mm. 


Dry Season. 

r. Nov. — Feb 

2. Mar. — April . . 


257 
26-9 

28-0 

29-3 


87-2 
85-0 

86-8 
94-8 


757-4 
758-5 

758:9 
757-6 


148 in 18 days 
100 in 15 


Wet Season. 

1. May — half of July . . 

2. Half of July— Oct. . . 


792 mm. 

201 in 19 days 
233 in 19 ,. 


Yearly average 


27-2 


88-4 


758-1 


2-158 in 197 days per y'r 



The rainfall may vary considerably according to the locaUty, and in some 
years it wiU amount to more than 275 ins. in Port de France, the greater part 
of which falls during the period July to September. 

The coast is deeply indented, but the bays are almost inaccessible through 

228 



French Antilles. 

the numerous coral reefs. The best harbours are those of Port de France and 
of Saint Pierre, on which towns of the same name are situated. 

Martinique was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and was colonized in 
1635 by a number of French people from St. Christopher. In 1664 the French 
Government bought the island from these colonists, and kept it in spite of 
the frequent wars. Then the English conquered it, and returned it several 
times in the course of time, but it was ultimately restored to France by the 
Treaty of Paiis in 1814. 



11. — History of the Sugar Industry. 

Immediately after the French took possession of these islands, a start 
was made in the planting of sugar, but the first plantation of any importance 
dates from 1655, when the Dutchmen driven from Brazil settled in Martinique 
with their capital and slaves. The industry soon grew in importance, so 
•much so that the sugar exportation to France formed a considerable part of 
the French overseas trade in the seventeenth century. 

Owing to decrees promulgated by Colbert, it had become impossible to 
import foreign sugar into France, as the differential import duties of 1664 
protected the importation of raw sugar from French colonies so far above that 
of raw sugar of foreign origin that it almost meant prohibition for the latter. 
On the other side, the import duty on white sugar so much exceeded that on 
raw sugar that importation of white sugar from their own colonies, and especially 
that of refined sugar into France, likewise became an impossibility. Although 
the colonial planters really possessed a monopoly of the raw sugar trade, they 
lost the chance of selling refined sugar, with the result that the sugar refineries 
established in Martinique had to cease operations. In 1669 the refining of sugar 
was' prohibited in the colonies, as was the export of raw sugar to foreign ports, 
and an export duty was levied amounting to 3 per cent, of the value of sugar 
sent to France. In 1682 this prohibition was removed as regards raw sugar ; 
on the other hand, the import duty on refined sugar was increased so much 
above that on raw sugar that it would have been impossible for the refiners to 
compete with the French. Afterwards the planters took up the preparation 
of clayed sugar (which will be fully described in the following pages), and 
exported it to North America and to the Mediterranean ports, so that the 
French refiners did not attain their object, viz., to refine the sugar produced 
in their own colonies exclusively in the mother country. 

It was for this reason that in 1717 all restrictions on the imports were 
repealed, and import duties on French goods were actually abohshed in the 
colonies, thus establishing almost complete free trade between the mother 

229 



North America. 

country and colonies. All this caused the sugar industry in the French colonies 
to flourish, and Martinique, Guadeloupe, and San Domingo, in the end, pro- 
duced larger quantities of sugar than France was able to refine or consume — 
the remainder was then allowed to be exported to other countries. 

At the end of the eighteenth century conditiofis were no longer so favour- 
;able. San Domingo was devastated, and the other islands suffered much 
from the frequent wars between France and England, as a great many of 
these were fought in the Caribbean Sea, thus creating no little uncertainty 
in trading circles. 

After the treaty of peace signed in Paris, both these colonies were restored 
to France ; whereupon the sugar industry began to flourish once more, its 
production steadily increasing, till in 1848 the abolition of slavery caused the 
quantity of sugar produced to drop considerably. 

As soon as slavery was put an end to, and the colonies were deprived of 
their customary labour, everything was done to supply them with free labourers 
from other parts. In 1852. a ship's captain was permitted to recruit 4,000 
labourers in British India within six years at a premium of 500 francs for each 
immigrant: Part of the indemnification that was granted to the slave-owners 
by the Government at the time of the emancipation of slaves was destined for 
this purpose, while the Government added a yearly subsidy of 100,000 — 150,000 
francs. When 1,191 Indians had arrived, this undertaking ceased to work, 
but not long afterwards a company resumed the business, and imported 9,158 
Indians to Martinique between 1855 to 1862, all but 200 of whom stayed in 
the island when their five years' contract had expired. 

In 1861 France and England came to an agreement regarding the regula- 
tion of the immigration of British Indians to the French Antilles. These 
■immigrants were recruited in the French towns of Pondicherry, Yanaon, 
Karikal, and in Calcutta under the superintendence of a British of&cial, and 
were sent to Martinique ; and in this way 25,509 labourers arrived in the 
island between 1862 and 1884, 4,041 of which returned home at the end of 
their term of indenture. At the request of the General Council of India, 
of&cial immigration was abolished in 1885, and since then the immigration of 
Indians has ceased altogether. 

Besides the British Indians, free negroes from the West Coast of Africa 
used to be imported, but this, too, did not last because of the great difficulties 
encountered. Then the buying of negro slaves from the Congo and Loango 
and the exportation of them to the Antilles was commenced. On arrival at 
the Antilles they were liberated, and were allowed to go back to their native 
country when the time of their indenture had expired. This brought 9,090 
negroes to the Antilles. 

Then some hundreds of Chinese from Canton were imported, not to mention 
Some Annamites ; but since 1889 all immigration has come to an end. 

230 



French Antilles. 

Between 1854 3-nd 1889 the following foreign labourers were imported 
into Guadeloupe : — 

Indians . . . . . . . . . . 42,595 

Africans . . . . . . . . 6,600 

Chinese . . . . . . . . . 500 

Annamites . .... 272 



49,967 



But on 1st January, 1874, only 15,947 Indians were left, the remainder having 
either returned home, migrated to other islands, or died. 

In 1901 the foreign population in Martinique only amounted to : — 

Indians . . . . . . . . . 3,764 

Africans 5,345 

Chinese . . . . . . . . . . 430 



9.539 



This shows how far the labour problem is still from solution, and the fact 
that all enjoy the same privileges, including franchise, and spend far too much 
time in discussing politics, does not improve conditions. In 1910 serious 
disturbances of a political nature occurred again in Guadeloupe, which had an 
injurious effect on the quiet development of the sugar industry. There is no 
sign of extension of this industry in either of the islands ; the production of 
Martinique remains stationary at 36,000 tons, like that of Guadeloupe, while 
fifty years ago their outputs were respectively 32,000 and 25,000 tons of sugar. 



III. — Sugar Cane Cultivation, Sugar Manufacture, Duties, 
Production, and Costs. 

In Martinique sugar cane cultivation is carried out on the narrow strip 
of alluvial land along the coast, and on the hills in the interior, where heavy 
showers wash away the arable soil and thus hinder the cane's growth. In 
Guadeloupe, also, the sugar estates are on flat coastland, though a few estates 
are found in the small island of Maria Galante. 

231 



North America. 

Formerly sugar was manufactured in a number of small factories, but 
since 1865 larger houses have been built, and cane is cultivated by the smaller 
planters for sale to the central factories. 

The ground used for cane is first stripped of its existing vegetation, and 
is then ploughed. Then shallow furrows are dug by means of 9. plough 4I ft. 
apart and 20 ins. deep. As much rain falls in the islands during the wet season, 
it is necessary to prevent stagnant water remaining in the fields by an adequate 
system of drainage. During the period from October to January the cuttings 
are planted in holes which have been dug 5 ins. deep in rows at a distance of 
3 to 5 ft. from each other. After three weeks the cane is banked up and manured 
with stable dung, filter-press mud, sulphate of ammonia. Chili- saltpetre, super- 
phosphate, basic slag, or mixtures of these. Further, the soil between the 
plants is repeatedly loosened and the cane trashed* several times to be cut 
about a year after it is planted. Generally no more than two ratoon crops are 
grown, and these are cut once a year. Then the land is left to lie fallow for 
some years, when the whole process as described above is repeated. 

Otaheite or Bourbon cane is chiefly planted ; it was first imported from 
Reunion to the Antilles at the end of the eighteenth century. But this cane 
variety is supposed to have degenerated, and consequently is inferior to what 
it used to be ; hence seedling varieties from Demerara and Barbados, especially 
the tjrpes B 147, B 109, D 208, and D 145 have since been utilized. 

Rats and several kinds of borers are great enemies to the cane in the 
French Antilles, while the universal fungous leaf -and -stalk diseases are also 
found here. 

The quantity of cane reaped per unit of planted area very much depends 
on the age of the cane after planting. While a yield of 24 tons per acre (60,000 
kg. per hectare) is expected from plant cane, it drops to 16 tons for first ratoons, 
to 8 tons for second ratoons, and even to 4 tons for third ratoons. These 
figures, of course, do not hold good for all kinds of land, but they are the average 
at which the different crops work out. 

The cane is carried by men or mules from the fields to the large carts 
which convey it along the hard roads to the factories. 

Railways with locomotives, or narrow-gauge lines with mules pulling 
the trucks are often employed. 

It was in these islands that sugar manufacture was first carried on in a 
rational scientific way, and the methods invented there have gradually been 
copied by most of the other sugar-producing countries. For this reason we 
venture to give the following description of the manufacture of raw and refined 
sugar as Pere Labat records it in his book on the American islands, written 
in 1722 : — 

* Trashing means removing the dried cane leaves. 

232 



French Antilles. 




1) 


ifl 


u 


bo 






^ 


3 


m 


(D 




J3 




+J 


vA 


tH 


1 


n 






M 


r, 




a 




n 


0<d 


p 


J3 




■-) 


(n 





< 

E4 
U 

« 
W 

H 

< 

J5 



PI 



o 



"g;^ 



3 
a) 0) H 

l-l o.fcl 

a; 



.« 



■o 



be <•§ 

S o 

53 9 
o f^ 

- <u 

- a 
OS 



m 






233 



North America. 

The cane juice is evaporated in a series of five, or sometimes six, open 
copper pans standing in a row over a furnace heated with bagasse and wood. 
Each succeeding vessel is smaller than the preceding one, and each is placed a 
little higher than the one befoie, so that when boiling over it is impossible for 
juice of less density to flow into the further concentrated mass. All v^sels 
go by different names, and, beginning at the biggest, these are : la grande 
chaudi^re, la propre, la lessive, le flambeau, le sirop, and la batterie. 



Sztcferie.. de trea ■ 
e^curpen/iti 




Fig. 7. Sugar Factory as described by Pere Laeat. 



For clarification a mixture of lime and a solution of wood ash is used ; 
consequently, nothing but impure caustic potash to which, in some cases, a 
little powdered crude antimony is added. The juice first enters the " grande 
chaudi^re " when the clarifying medium is added and is boiled with it. The 
froth forming is constantly scooped off and as soon as the juice has become 
clear enough it is rapidly poured into the " propre" and, after a little alkali 
has been added, is again boiled and skimmed off. Then the juice is' scooped out 
into th^ " lessive," when potash lye and an extract of salt herbs is added 

234 



French Antilles. ' 

to it, and it is skimmed in turn. The juice subsequently passes through the 
" flambeau," the " sirop," and at last finds itself in the " batterie," where it is 
concentrated as much as possible. 

The temperature is highest here, and the syrup foams up. through the 
intense heat, but is prevented from boiling over by adding small quantities 
of oil ; the syrup is boiled string-proof, and the concentrated mass is scooped 
out into the cooling vessels, where it is stirred slightly till grain begins to form. 
After the latter has been thoroughly stirred into the mass in order to divide it 
evenly, the crystallizing mass is poured into the moulds where it is to cool. 
When sufiiciently cooled, it is put into hogsheads, the bottoms of which are 
provided with three holes at least. The hogsheads stand on a frame of 
lattice-work above a receptacle for the treacle, and pieces of sugar cane or 
banana-stalk are put into the holes so that it can drain off but sugar cannot 
come through them. The molasses contained in the mass trickles slowly through 
the holes, leaving crystallized sugar amounting to about 50 per cent, of the 
total weight. The holes are filled up with wooden plugs, and the cask with 
its contents is sent out as raw sugar. The molasses is not boiled any further, 
but is used for the manufacture of rum. 

Besides this raw sugar much white sugar, called sucre ierrS, was prepared. 
The best and ripest cane was taken for this purpose and was clarified with 
as little lime as possible, no antimony being used, for although the latter makes 
the juice clear, it also causes a dark colour. Then the juice is not simply 
scooped from one pan into another, but is strained through cloth each time : 
first through coarse cloth, and later on through some of a finer texture. The 
juice that is concentrated string-proof in the battery is ladled into earthenware 
sugar-loaf moulds, which are capable of holding 30 — ^35 lbs. of massecuite or 
20 — 21 lbs. of white sugar. These moulds are provided with holes at the 
bottom, which have to be plugged before the moulds are filled. 

The latter are first filled one quarter full, then to the middle, next three- 
fourths fuU, so that filling is done in four stages. A quarter of an hour after 
the last instalment of massecuite is added, a layer of crystals appears on the 
top of it, which should be stirred carefully into the mass, after which the con- 
tents of the vessel are left to cool. After a day or so, the plugs are puUed out 
of the holes, and the mass is pierced with a hard piece of wood, to let the treacle 
run freely from the mould. Each pot fits into another one, so that the molasses 
running out may be collected without loss. Now and then attention is paid 
to the way the molasses trickles down, i.e., whether it goes evenly or not ; should 
this not be the case, and should it adhere to the crystals, the massecuite is 
remelted and poured in a second time ; but should it proceed satisfactorily 
claying is proceeded with. The top part of the loaves when not even and 
smooth, and when showing dark stains, is scratched off and returned to the 
pans. Then a few good specimens of loaves are crushed to powder and used 
for covering the scraped loaves, and after the mass is pressed together with a 
hammer a level and smooth surface remains. Further, an exceedingly fine 

23s 



North America. 

mixture is got by mixing a special sort of clay coming from Rouen with water, 
for the purpose of pouring it on the top of the sugar in the moulds, to fill them 
full to the brim. The water must trickle evenly from the clay through the 
sugar, and windows and doors are shut to prevent evaporation, the moulds 
being left like this for nine or ten days. The now fully dried-up clay is then 
removed, the sugar loaf is cleaned on the surface, and given a fresh amount of 
clay and water, then left for another nine or ten days. The clay is removed, 
the loaves are taken out of the mould and left to dry in the air. Then they 
are dried in a special drying room, which is gradually heated, after which the 
dry sugar is crushed to powder with wooden pestles. 

The fine sugar is packed into barrels of 600 to 700 lbs. net weight and 
dispatched. The first syrup is worked up into rum, or is turned into a second 
product sugar, while the covering syrup is always worked up to a second kind 
of sugar, the so-called cassonade. 

At the present day this old-fashioned method of sugar manufacture has been 
quite abandoned, and sugar is being produced in. the French Antilles in as 
modern a manner as elsewhere. The cane is generally crushed twice, mostly in 
two different mills, sometimes twice in the same mill. In the first case. macera- 
tion is often applied, varying between 10 and 30 per cent, of the weight of 
cane. In front of the mill a dtfibreur Faure is found in these islands, an appara- 
tus corresponding to the Krajewski crusher, but less powerful and not giving 
the same results. 

The quantity of bagasse is generally not sufficient to supply all the fuel 
necessary for the factory, and therefore wood and coal have to be used in 
addition. The latter is rather expensive, and comes to 37 to 50 francs per 
ton, according to the freight charges. It is sometimes imported as ballast 
by sailing vessels, which are to take the sugar away, in which case the price 
is considerably lower than if a journey were made specially to convey the coal. 
The juice is sulphitated cold, and pumped into defecation pans, where it is 
heated. Fifty to sixty grams of fine powdered quicklime are added to each 
hectolitre of juice, after which the juice is heated till the scum begins to crack, 
and at this point the steam is shut off. By syphoning off the juice is divided 
into clarified juice and mud : the first goes to the evaporators, while the latter 
is subsided once more or filtered in filter presses. The filter-press-cakes are 
considered a favourite food for cattle, horses, and mules. 

The juice is next concentrated in double, triple, or quadruple effects, 
but aU of these are old-fashioned in construction, and lack the latest devices 
for saving steam. The very primitive juice evaporation in Guadeloupe and 
Martinique no doubt accounts for the extremely heavy consumption of fuel 
in the sugar factories, which, of course, leads to the cutting down of timber, 
and, by the devastation of forest, causes the continuous drought that the 
planters have every cause to complain of. 

The pans are small and old-fashioned in construction ; crystallization- 
in-motion is not in use ; the centrifugals, too, are very out-of-date and slow 

236 



French Antilles. 

in their manipulation. In Martinique the massecuite falls from the vacuum 
pans into large receptacles placed under them, while in Guadeloupe it falls into 
waggons. It flows from these into pug mills, after which it is centrifugalled ; 
later on, the sugar is packed in barrels of i6 cwt. net or in bags of loo kg. 
The molasses are boiled string-proof, and are cooled and centrifugalled again ; 
as a rule, three or four products are turned out, after which the molasses is 
sent to the distillery to be worked into rum. 

When the law of 1882 was in full force, sugar from the French Antilles 
enjoyed a handsome bounty when imported into the mother-country, because 
13 per cent, tare was allowed for sugar in barrels, while the actual tare was 
really much less. It was accepted, for instance, that a barrel of sugar weighing 
I metric ton gross contained 870 kg. of sugar, while the actual contents were as 
much as 925. The duty at the time amounted to 60 francs per 100 kg., so 
that no less than 55 x 0-60 = 33 francs of the duty were exempted per ton. 
Now that the duty is reduced to 25 francs, this profit has become much 
less — so much so that it does not pay to apply the more expensive method of 
packing in barrels since the consumption duty was lowered. 

E. Legier quotes a few figures as regards the manufacture which follow 
here : — 





Average 

Case. 
Per Cent. 


Unfavour- 
able Case. 
Per Cent. 


Yield of sugar on 100 cane 
Loss in bagasse 

,, molasses 

,, manufacture 


9-70 
2-15 

175 
0-90 


8-00 
3-45 
1-75 
1-40 


Sugar in cane . . 

Yield of juice on 100 cane 

Litres of juice on 100 kg. cane . . 

Density of juice 

Fibre on 100 cane . . 

Sucrose on 100 juice 

Purity of juice 

Molasses on 100 cane 


14-50 

75- 
69-70 

1-0770 
12- 
16-47 
86 

4-15 


14-60 

66- 
61-40 
1-0750 

12- 
15-70 
84 
4-15 



In 1865 the first central factories, La Pointe Simon and Lareinty, were 
built, but were shut down after some time. Others, however, were added, so 
that at the present day there are 18 sugar factories in Guadeloupe and 15 in 
Martinique. 

237 






o 





North America. 




They are divided over the districts 


as follows : — 




/ 


Pointe a Pitre . . 


I 


/Lamentin . . 


2 


^• 


Sainte Anne 


2 




Petit Bourg 


I 


E^ 


Saint Francois . . 


2 




Riviere Salee 


I 


•S 


La Moule 


2 




Trois Rivieres 


I 




Port Louis 


I 


OJ 


Marin 


I 


c 


Petit Canal 


I 


■2- 


Vauclin 


I 




Morne a I'eau 


I 


M 


Fran9ois 


I 


„ /Sainte Rose 


I 


s 1 


Robert 


I 




Bale Mahault 


I 


c 


Trinite 


2 


chI 


Capesteire 


2 




Sainte Marie 


I 


a; ^ /-Grand Bourg 


I 




Mariget 


I 


5; CO - 

\ e (5 


Marie Galante 
Capesterre 


2 

I 




Grand' Anse 
^Basse Pointe 


I 
I 



15 



The cost price of cane depends on various circumstances, so that it is 
rather difficult to quote any average figure. At any rate, it is no lower than 
12 francs per 1000 kg., while a great many manufacturers are not able to 
produce cane for less than 13 to 14 francs per 1,000 kg. 

The following table gives an instance of the prices of cane and of the data 
that contribute to it. It is quoted in francs per metric ton : — 





Plant Cane. 


1st Ratoon 


Salaries . . 
General Expenses 
Manuring 

Transportation costs . . 
Cutting . . 


6-96 

3- 

3- 

0-35 

o-8o 


5-28 

3- 

3-86 

0-40 

I- 




14-11 


13-54 



The manufacturers do not plant the sugar cane themselves, but buy it 
from the small farmers, and their method of fixing the price is most intricate, 
but seems to be approved by all parties concerned. 

Before the central factories were established, sugar used to be prepared 
according to Pere Labat's method, and sugar called " Bonne quatrieme," 
considered to be of first importance, influenced the price quotation. The 
factories at first paid for cane 5J per cent, of the weight of cane in " bonne 

238 



French Antilles. 

quatrieme " sugar, according to the market price at Saint Pierre. In 1876 
a premium was paid above that price, should the profit have been more than 
14 per cent. ; consequently, the cane growers shared the extra profit. When 
the price of sugar went steadily down, the cane (in 1884) was paid for on, the 
basis of 6 per cent, of the weight of cane in " bonne quatrieme " sugar, and 
a share of all excess above 14 per cent, was out of the question, as the manu- 
facturers, owing to the low sugar price, had so considerably run into debt 
that their profit went entirely towards payments of interest. Later on they 
decided not to fix a price depending Cjn that of the sugar, but to fix a minimum 
of what the cost price of cane would come to, and to pay a premium, called 
" majoration," above that price should more profit be made. The minimum 
was fixed at 32 francs for 100 kg. sugar, or at 6 per cent, at 19-20 francs per 
ton cane. 

In 1884 a law was passed to establish the " detaxe coloniale," which was 
a kind of premium on crystal sugar from the French colonies, the amount of 
which was to be fixed every year,but which actually always amounted to 20 francs 
per 100 kg., and allowed of a decrease in import duty on French colonial sugar 
over sugar of other origin. So it became increasingly profitable to export 
to France, and as raw sugar was not in demand in that countiy, the " bonne 
quatrieme " gradually disappeared from the market, and no quotation of it 
was kept, which made the standard for the estimation disappear. 

A way out of the difficulty was devised by taking the price of sugar 
88° on the Paris market as basis, and by supposing the trade yield of " bonne 
quatrieme sugar to amount to 70°. Consequently, the piice of this kind of 
sugar was fixed at 70/88 of the price of beetroot sugar in Paris, but as the 
latter is quoted in that city while the " bonne quatrieme" is at Saint Pierre, 
there was a deduction for cost of freight at 5 francs per 100 kg. for Martinique, 
and 6 francs for Guadeloupe. As, however, the colonial producer enjoyed the 
" d6taxe coloniale," the price was increased by 70 per cent, of this profit, 
which discount disappeared when France joined the Brussels Convention. 

The present quotations are as follows : — 

Martinique. — The basis of payment is 6 per cent, of the weight of cane 
in " bonne quatrieme " sugar, including a premium, in accordance with the 
profit of the factory. Should, for instance, the price of " bonne quatrieme " 
be quoted at 22-61 francs, 5 francs is to be deducted for freight, but 1-71 francs 
must be added for the still valid " detaxe de distance," so that the price comes 
to 22-6i — 5 + 171 = I9'32 francs. This at 6 per cent, raises it to 19-32 X 60 
-^ 100 ^ ii'59 francs, as the price of 1,000 kg. of cane. To this is added the 
" majoration " which is found by taking 28 francs as the price of sugar under 
all circumstances — even should it actually be less, and fixing the price of cane 
at 28 X 60 -=- 100 = 16-80 francs. When the crushing season is over the 
net profit of the factory is decided on, and the extra profit is divided among 
the shareholders and the cane producers. 

At the present moment the following method is under consideration : 

2.39 



North America. 

The cane growers receive 6 per cent, of sugar for every loo parts of cane paid 
according to the raatket price ; next 3 per cent, of the profit is given to the 
shareholders as interest on their capital. For the rest, the cane suppliers 
get a first " maj oration " by taking 24 francs as basis of the sugar price and 
paying in excess whatever they might have lost. In our example of 11-59 
francs, it would be 14-40 — 11-59 = 2-81 per ton. The rest of the profit is 
divided as follows : the manager gets 5 per cent., and the balance of 95 per 
cent, is equally divided among shareholders and cane producers, the latter 
in proportion to the quantity of cane supplied. In this way cane may fetch 
20 to 25 francs per ton. 

Guadeloupe. — As basis of payment, the average price of sugar, 88° on 
the Paris Exchange, is taken for the month in which the cane is delivered. This 
calculation again depends on a trade rendement 0170 per cent, of the " bonne 
quatrieme," so that, when the price of sugar in Paris is 27 francs, the basis of 
Guadeloupe becomes 27 X 70/88 = 22-61. From this 6 francs for freight is 
deducted, which leaves 16-61 to be diminished by 0-35 francs as exchange charges, 
by 1-66 francs as export duty, and 0-20 francs for a statistical duty (altogether 
2-21 francs), leaving in the end 14-41 francs. As cane is paid for on the basis 
of 6i per cent, of this sugar, the planter, consequently, will receive 14-41 X 65 
■i- 100 = 9-36 francs per ton of cane, to which should be added : the " detaxe 
de distance " at 2-25 francs per 100 kg. sugar of 92, and the exchange, 
which together come to 1-92 francs per ton of cane; so that the final price 
will amount to 9-36 + 1-92 = 11-28 francs per ton. 

All this shows that when reckoned according to this system, the price 
of cane in Martinique is better than that in Guadeloupe. In Guadeloupe one 
of the large sugar manufacturers would much rather do away with this method 
of calculation, and from 1910 would give the fixed price of 12 francs per metric 
ton, independent of prices on the Paris exchange. 

We saw how difficult it was to produce cane at a price lower than 13 to 
14 francs, ^0 that should the planter only get 12 francs for it, he cannot be 
accused of piling on profits. It is not to be wondered at that the small planter 
loses through sugar cane cultivation, and has to sell his ground or let it lie 
fallow, should his neighbours be unable to pay a certain price to buy it. At 
the best he starts on the cultivation of other crops ; but all this points to a 
diminution in the cane cultivation and a decrease in importance for these 
islands as regards the sugar industry. 

As long as the factories are installed in such a primitive way that cane with 14 
per cent, sucrose does not yield more than 8-20 commercial sugar, it is impossible 
to pay more for cane. Should, however, more capital be spent on buying 
machinery, etc., the yield of cane would be improved, and cane could be bought 
at a far higher price, while the manufacturers would make more profit than 
they do at present. Yet this prospect is still far from being realized, as the 
French spirit of enterprise is at its best when not far from home, and shrinks 
from experimenting in remote regions. 

240 



French Antilles. 

On the other hand, the planter by exerting himself a little more might 
easily reap a better crop of cane, in which case the price of 12 francs would pay 
him equally well, as it does his neighbours in the other Antilles. There, too, 
it is lack of enterprise, capital, and industry that are chiefly against the French 
planter, while he cherishes greater expectations from political speculations 
than from actual labour and exertion, which, of course, do not make for im- 
provement in the present state of affairs. 

There is no excise on sugar in the French Antilles, but an export duty of 
1-20 francs per 100 kg. is paid, for Martinique with 10 and for Guadeloupe with 
40 per cent, addition on account of local Government charges ; an export duty 
of 0-50 francs is paid on treacle from Martinique, and of only o-io francs on 
treacle from Guadeloupe. Then there is a statistical duty of 0-15 francs per 
coUo. 

Sugar from the French colonies, however, enjoys a discount on the import 
duty of 2-25 francs per 100 kg. sugar of 92 as " detaxe de distance " when im- 
ported into the mother-country. The import duties are in accordance with 
the Brussels Convention — that is, on sugar from countries adhering to the 
Convention 6 francs is paid per 106 kg. of refined sugar and 5-50 francs for 
raw sugar, while it is prohibited to import sugar from countries not belonging 
to the Convention, though it may be stored as bonded goods. Then an " octroi 
de mer " of 20 francs per 100 kg. is paid on sugar when imported into Martinique, 
which is a kind of municipal excise. When imported into Guadeloupe this 
" octroi de mer " only amounts to 10 francs per 100 kg. As, however, no 
foreign sugar is imported into these islands, these regulations are never enforced. 

The future of the sugar industry in the French Antilles is far from promis- 
ing. There is always lack of labour, for although there are inhabitants enough, 
these do not wish to work for any time at a stretch ; hence there is no relying 
on them for carrying out work promptly. Moreover, the local councils are 
against the immigration of British Indians, because their members are coloured 
people who are afraid of losing their preponderance by that influx, and are 
uncertain to obtain any more work, even if they choose to ask- for it. It is 
obvious that nobody would think of employing unwilling negroes when it is 
possible to obtain the more reliable immigrants. 

This shows how little chance there is of reaping a better crop of cane, 
and one can easily imagine that capitalists are not eager to risk their money 
in the improvement of the factories, however necessary these may be. As 
soon as the immigration of British Indian coolies is made possible, the sugar 
industry will enter upon a period of prosperity, but the present political 
feelings both of the white and of the coloured people in these islands are sure to 
be against such a measure. 

The sugar exportation for the two islands has been since the first quarter 
of the nineteenth century up till now as follows in metric tons : — 



241 



North America. 



Year. 


Martinique 


Guadeloupe 


Year. 


Martinique 


Guadeloupe 


Year. 


Martinique 


Guadeloupe 


1816 


— 


5,305 


1848 


18,153 


20,453 


1880 


38,592 


41.322 


1817 


— 


17,895 


1849 


19,522 


17,709 


1881 


42,090 


42,276 


1818 


16,068 


21,126 


1850 


15,069 


12,832 


1882 


47,887 


57.501 


1819 


18,160 


18,737 


1851 


23,408 


20,046 


1883 


46,857 


51.619 


1820 


21,447 


22,300 


1852 


26,116 


17,292 


1884 


49.370 


55,257 


1821 


22,078 


23,019 


1853 


22,358 


16,679 


1885 


38,786 


41,131 


1822 


20,173 


23,477 


1854 


24,929 


23,558 


1886 


30,199 


36,678 


1823 


20,587 


24,324 


1855 


20,790 


22,158 


1887 


39.582 


54,940 


1824 


20,294 


30,645 


1856 


28,181 


22,506 


1888 


30,434 


48,354 


1825 


26,477 


24,015 


1857 


26,371 


22,462 


1889 


35.965 


45,173 


1826 


28,425 


34,330 


1858 


28,048 


28,494 


1890 


33,598 


47,438 


1827 


24,576 


28,266 


1859 


29,706 


27,666 


1891 


32,376 


30,329 


1828 


33,339 


35,810 


i860 


32,954 


28,800 


1892 


19,528 


46,016 


1829 


29,083 


38,812 


1861 


31,837 


17.316 


1893 


32,737 


41.158 


1830 


28,282 


22,898 


1862 


32,101 


31,312 


1894 


36,937 


43.732 


1831 


27,846 


35,056 


1863 


30,458 


30,266 


1895 


29,329 


29,866 


1832 


22,493 


33,279 


1864 


24,161 


15,906 


1896 


34.430 


43.300 


1833 


20,059 


30,827 


1865 


30,491 


24,457 


1897 


34.734 


40,127 


1834 


26,258 


37,928 


1866 


34,657 


33,942 


1898 


31,469 


37,136 


■1835 


24,379 


32,097 


1867 


29,403 


22,759 


1899 


31.665 


39,889 


1836 


22,447 


34,994 


1868 


37,671 


30,792 


1900 


33.767 


28,342 


1837 


20,458 


25,057 


1869 


37,330 


28,600 


19OI 


39.749 


38,697 


1838 


26,161 


35,124 


1870 


38,314 


34,216 


1902 


39.530 


40,637 


1839 


28,723 


36,672 


1871 


41,821 


38,434 


1903 


29,036 


38,499 


1840 


21,681 


29,944 


1872 


39,700 


31,508 


1904 


23.939 


35.916 


1841 


24,948 


29,136 


1873 


37,515 


35,844 


1905 


30,187 


27.336 


1842 


27,989 


35,137 


1874 


43,441 


34,855 


1906 


42,233 


43.217 


1843 


25,479 


27,169 


1875 


50,526 


48,032 


1907 


36,924 


38,961 


1844 


33,110 


34,555 


1876 


38,845 


35,470 


1908 


35,937 


36,055 


1845 


30,031 


33,748 


1877 


40,502 


43,215 


1909 


37,757 


25,211 


1846 


25,580 


26,372 


1878 


44,218 


48,118 


I910 


39.940 


45,000 


1847 


31,338 


37,894 


1879 


46,869 


47,635 


I9II 
I912 


35,438 
40,00a* 


39,000 
40,000* 



Emile Legier. La Martinique et la Guadeloupe. 

Emile Legier. L'lndustrie sucriere a la Martinique et la Guadeloupe. 

* Estimate. 



!42 



St. Croix. 



VIII. 

ST. CROIX. 

The Island of St. Croix, which belongs geographically to the Virgin Islands 
and politically to Denmark, lies at i8° N. Lat. and 65° W. Long., and has an 
area of tj sq. miles and a population numbering 19,683 people. A range of 
hills runs parallel to the coast on the west side, the highest summit of which is 
the Blue Mountain. The principal towns are Bassin and Christiansted, on 
the north coast, and Frederiksted, on the west coast. The island was dis- 
covered by Columbus in 1494, and was colonized by the English and Dutch 
in 1643. Since that time it has alternately been English, Spanish, and French, 
to fall to the Maltese knights, who sold it to the King of Denmark in 1733. 
During the first years of the nineteenth century it was repeatedly taken by 
the English and renounced, till in 1814 it became a Danish possession. In 
1 901 the Danish Antilles would have been ceded to the United States if it had 
not been for the Danish National Assembly, who refused to give their consent. 

About 10,000 of the 50,000 acres which form the area of the island are 
cultivated, chiefly with sugar cane. The Island of St. Croix was the first of 
the West Indian Islands in which sugar cane was planted, and the sugar in- 
dustry was in a flourishing state there during the time of slavery, as it was in 
' the neighbouring Island of St. Thomas, also a Danish possession. 

When in 1848 slavery was abolished in the Danish colonies, the sugar 
industry began to decline, and has revived only recently, when the landowners 
divided the ground into plots of 250 acres each to lease to cane farmers. Origin- 
ally each plantation had a little cane factory of its own, in which muscovado 
sugar was prepared, but nowadays there are only seven small sugar works 
left, and the other planters sell their cane to central factories. 

The latter number four, namely : — 

Lower Love . . Working 600 tons of cane daily. 

Bethlehem . . „ 500 „ 

Central . . . . ,, 600 

La Grange . . ,, 250 

In 1908 the cane suffered much from a period of intense drought, and the 
crop was a failure ; but 1910 yielded an improved crop. 

The sugar factories do not, as a rule, make much profit ; only during the 
last few years, while sugar prices have been high, has the cultivation paid. 

243 



North America. 

The sugar, chiefly raw vacuum pan sugar, basis 96, is sent to the United 
States and to Great Britain. The production has been for the past sixteen 
years, in long tons, as follows : — 



1896/97 








13,000 


1897/98 








13,000 


1898/99 








12,000 


1899/00 








12,000 


1900/01 








13,000 


1901/02 








13,000 


1902/03 








13,000 


1903/04 








ii3,ooo 


1904/05 








11,000 


1905/06 








. 13,000 


1906/07 








13,000 


1907/08 








13,000 


1908/09 








14,000 


1909/10 








15,000 


I9IO/II 








13,000 



244 



Central America. 



GUATEMALA. 

The Guatemala Republic lies in Central America, at 30° 42' to 17" 49' 
N. Lat. and 88° 10' to 92" 30' W. Long. Its area amounts to 48,600 sq. miles, 
and its population numbers 1,991,261 inhabitants. 

In Guatemala about 6,000 acres are planted with cane, half of which 
belong to large estates that go in for the preparation of centrifugal sugar, 
while the other half is taken up by smaller concerns that produce panela or 
dolce (evaporated cane juice). > 

Of the latter there are about 40, and of the former 11, all of which are 
situated in the district Guatemala. The principal of these, Pantaleon, pro- 
duced 2,000 tons of sugar in 1908-09, while Concepcion had an output of 1,500 
and Chocola of 1,000 tons ; the others are still smaller, and the smallest, 
Torolita, did not produce more than 100 tons of sugar and 50 tons of molasses 
that very year. The total production of the big sugar factories was for ; — 



1902/03 


■ 8,524 , 


10 OLlj 


^cti a.1 


, i,goi , 


1903/04 


• 7.640 , 






, 1,824 . 


1904/05 . 


• 7-502 , 






, 1,600 


1905/06 


■ 6,795 , 






, 2,256 


1906/07 . 


• 7.412 , 






. 2,513 , 


1907/08 


• 7.521 , 






, 2,616 


1908/09 . 


7,260 , 






. 2,835 , 


1909/10 


• 7,110 , 






. 2,715 , 


I9IO/II 


. 7,110 






, 2,715 , 



The production, as shown by the above table, keeps fairly stationary. 

Besides this quantity of centrifugal sugar, an equal amount of brown sugar 
(" panela ") is being produced, so that the entire crop amounts to some 15,000 
tons of sugar. 

The yearly consumption accounts for about 11,500 tons ; and the balance 
of 2,500 tons, or about one-fifth of the total production, is exported. The last 
few exportation figures have been : — 

1907 2,117 tons 

1908 2,771 „ 

1909 2,278 ,, 

1910 2,232 „ 

245 



Central America. 

Both centrifugal sugar and " panela " are exported ; the " panela " 
exported to England amounted to 1,472 tons in 1907, and to 690 tons in 1908. 
It is used for brewing stout. 

Up to 1st October, igio, an import duty of 0-23 pesos per kg. sugar was 
raised ; but since then it has been free from duty when imported. 



II. 

SALVADOR. 

The Salvador Republic is the smallest of all the Central American States. 
Its area only covers 8,150 sq. miles, but, on the other hand, it has the densest 
population among the countries forming the American Continent — 1,707,000 
inhabitants, or 209 per sq. mile. 

Two mountain chains with numerous branches, which sometimes attain 
to considerable height, cross the country for almost its entire length. 

Nearly everywhere in Salvador there are cane plantations yielding the 
native brown sugar called " panela." There is also a number of sugar fac- 
tories where crystallized sugar is prepared ; this is partly consumed in the 
country itself, and partly exported to other countries. 

The total production has been during the last few years as follows, ex- 
pressed in metric tons. The number of factories is included in the table : — 



Year. 


Number of 
Factories. 


Sugar. 


Molasses. 


"Panela." 


1901/02 


6 


6,086 


1,369 


12,000 


1902/03 


6 


6,604 


1,875 ' 


11,000 


1903/04 


7 


6,300 


2,070 


10,000 


1904/05 . 


6 


5,588 


1,540 


10,000 


1905/06 


6 


5,994 


1,238 


10,000 


1906/07 


6 


6,048 


1,118 


10,000 


1907/08 


6 


5,490 


1,098 


10,000 


1908/09 


6 


6,242 


1,248 


10,000 


1909/10 


6 


6,356 


1,248 


10,000 


1910/11 


6 


7,380 


2,373 


10,000 



246 



Honduras 
III. 

HONDURAS. 

The Honduras Republic extends from 13° 10' to 16° N. Lat. and from 83° 
20' to 89° 30' W. Long. Its greatest length is about 400 miles, and its greatest 
breadth 186 miles. Its total area amounts to about 46,250 sq. miles, and its 
population numbers about 745,000 inhabitants. 

Sugar cane is cultivated all over the country, as it grows well in the uplands 
and on the mountain slopes to a height of 10,000 to 13,000 ft. It is worked 
in a number of small factories scattered all over the country, in which the mills 
are driven by oxen, a kind of raw sugar, or rather evaporated cane juice, being 
prepared. We cannot light upon any exact figures representing the amount 
of sugar produced, but approximately the yearly sugar production is estimated 
at 1,500 tons of raw. 

The cane-planted area is supposed to be 12,500 acres. The import duty 
on sugar is 5 centavos per half kilo, or 8s. 4d. per cwt. 



IV. 



BRITISH HONDURAS. 



British Honduras lies in the Caribbean Sea, at 18° 29' to 15° 54' N. Lat., 
and 88° 10' to 89° 9' W. Long. Its greatest length is 174 miles, and its greatest 
width 68 miles, while its area covers 8,598 sq. miles. Its population numbers 
about 40,500 people. 

In spite of many an effort to promote its sugar industry, the latter has 
never come to anything much, most probably owing to lack of labour. In 
1909 thfere were 49 sugar factories working, two of which used oil motors, 
II worked with steam, while 36 were driven by cattle. One factory prepares 
white sugar, another brown sugar, while sometimes molasses is worked up 
into alcohol. The sugar production from 1894 to 1910 was as follows ; — 
1894 . . . . 586 tons 1902 . . . . 792 tons 



1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 



633 
687 
312 
606 

215 
484 

633 



1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 



504 
519 
570 
630 
616 
605 
410 
400 



The import duties amount to 3 cents per pound of refined sugar, and ij 
cents per pound of raw 

, 247 



Central America, 



V. 

NICARAGUA. 

The Nicaragua Republic lies in Central America, between io° 45' and 
15° 6' N. Lat. and 83° 10' and 87" 35' W. Long. It has an area of 47,880 sq. 
miles, and a population of 430,000 people. 

In all the western districts of the country sugar cane is planted, especially 
in the Chinandega and Leon districts, which contain the biggest factories. 
No sugar undertakings are found on the Atlantic coast. 

The area of the plantations expressed in hectares is as follows : — 





1906/07. 


1907/08. 


Chinandega 

Leon 

Other districts 


1,282 

585 

2,533 


1,707 

791 

2,379 


~ ^ 1 f Hectares 
Total . . \ ^ 

[Acres 


4,400 
10,870 


4,877 
12,500 



.Owing to the high sugar prices in San Francisco, where part of the Nicar- 
agua sugar is sent, more cane was planted in 1907 than ever had been grown 
before, but as soon as the prices dropped the planted area decreased in extent. 

It soon appeared that it was of little profit to ship to the United States, 
so this exportation did not continue long. Cane, as a rule, is reaped ten to 
fourteen months after it has been planted, which generally is done during the 
dry months, December to the end of April. In the crop year, 1907/08, there 
were 1,203 small sugar plantations in Nicaragua, each of them having a small 
mill of its own, besides five big factories : 964 of the smaller factories worked 
with wooden mills, 1,184 were driven by cattle, 14 by steam, and 5 by water. 
About one-third of the smaller factories are found in thenorth and thesequestered 
departments Nueva Segovia and Matagalpa, where about one-tenth of the 
entire cane cultivation is planted. The smaller factories, or " trapiches," 
make only brown sugar (" dolce " or " panela ") : this is " concrete " sugar, 
or evaporated cane juice, and is also consumed at home. 

The large factories all belong to the Nicaraguans ; they are well-installed, 
and prepare a kind of crystallized sugar, which is destined both for refining 
purposes and for direct consumption. 

The crushing season generally lasts 100 days. In Chinandega a yield of 
40 Spanish hundredweights (of loi lbs.) of sugar is expected from each man- 
zana (17 acres), that is 2,340 lbs. per acre. All the important sugar works 

248 ' 



Costa Rica. 

lie near the railway, which conveys the sugar to Corinto harbour. The molasses 
is sold to the brandy distillers, who have cane plantations of their own. In 
Nicaragua brandy distilling is a Government monopoly ; the Government ' 
have, however, leased the distilling business and the trade in spirits to a com- 
pany. All the alcohol produced in Nicaragua has to be sold to that company, 
which places the product on the market. The total sugar production is about 
5,000 tons of refined and 1,500 tons of raw sugar, or " dolce " ; some of it is 
exported to the neighbouring republics, but this trade is of little importance 
and amounted to but 600 tons in 1899 and to 180 tons in 1901, to 300 tons 
in 1903 and to 206 tons in 1905. The wages paid are low : a field labourer, 
for instance, earns 2^ pesos paper (i peso = 6d.) for a seven-hours' day ; a 
factory labourer earns 3 pesos for 12 hours' work daily, and so on. But there 
is a lack of labour, and the production is not likely to, exceed the consumption 
for some time to come, remaining 6,000 to 7,000 tons a year. 

During the last few years the total production has been as follows : — 



1902/03 


4,640 tons 


1903/04 


• ■ 4.235 ,. 


1904/05 


• • 4.235 ■■ 


1905/06 


4.400 .. 


1906/07 


• 3.905 .. 


1907/08 


• • 4.175 .. 


1908/09 


•• 3.950- ,. 


1909/10 


■ ■ 3.450 „ 


I9I0/II 


. . 3.450 .. 



All this is centrifugal sugar ; for the rest, the country produces yearly on an 
average 700 to 800 tons of evaporated cane juice (" panela " or concrete sugar) 
and 1,200 tons of molasses, which is worked up into alcohol. 



VI. 



COSTA RICA. 

Costa Rica lies in Central America, between Panama and Nicaragua, 
between 81° 40' and 85° 40' W. Long, and 8° and 11° 16' N. Lat. Its area 
amounts to 23,000 sq. miles, and in 1909 its population was 368,780 people, 
most of whom are Creoles ; there are some thousands of Indians, a few negroes, 
and 6,000 foreigners. The population is densest in the highlands of San Jose 
and Carthago, and in the valley of the Rio Grande. It is in the first-mentioned 
plateau that the capital, San Jose, with its 25,000 inhabitants, is situated. 

249 



Central America. 



The cane planted area was for :- 

1905 

1906 

1907 



25,900 acres 
27,670 „ 
27,950 „ 



Two-thirds of the planted area is in San Jos6 and Alajuela, consequently 
in the hills, and the remaining one-third is on the Pacific coast. In the latter 
plain the cane is reaped i| years after it has been planted, but it takes two 
years on the plateau before the cane has sufficiently ripened. 

Costa Rica has a great many small factories in which raw brown sugar, 
or rather concentrated cane juice, is manufactured ; then there is also a 
number of larger factories preparing crystaUized sugar. The figures of these 
two categories were as follows up to two years ago : — ■ 





Small 


Metric tons 


Large 


Metric tons 


Year. 


factories. 


sugar per 
day. 


factories. 


sugar per 
day. 


1904 


770 


130 


4 


4 


1905 


1,660 


307 


16 


23 


1906 


1,769 


264 


16 


25 


1907 


1,711 


230 


15 


27 



In 1909, 13 of the 15 large factories worked and produced in all 2,466 tons 
of sugar ; the biggest of these turned out 467, and the smallest only 10 tons. 
Some 2,000 tons out of the 2,466 consisted of brown sugar, or " dolce," while 
the balance was composed of white sugar. 

The molasses, like part of the brown sugar, is worked up into brandy in 
the Government factories, and over and above the entire quantity of molasses 
the following amounts of brown sugar were sold • — 



1905 
1906 
1907 



1,591 tons 
1,047 - 
955 ' „ 



But not all the sugar was fermented, for when sugar went up in price and 
became scarce in the country, the administration sold 218 tons of sugar in 1907, 
and imported alcohol from Cuba for the inland market. The sudden increase 
of sugar factories after 1904 is due to the law of i8th August of that same 
year, according to which an impolrt duty of 0-02 colon (colon = 2s.) is raised 
per kg. of white sugar, and 0-03 colon per kg. of brown sugar. 

250 



Panama. 

The price of white sugar, which used to be lo colons for a Spanish hundred- 
weight of loi lbs., has gone up to i8, and the price of brown sugar has increased 
from 4 to lo or 12 colons, and as the difference in piice between these two 
kinds of sugar is only very slight, the consumption of white sugar has increased. 
In spite of high protecting duties, the cane-planted area does not extend : 
first of all, because they cannot be sure of these duties remaining in force 
which makes it a great risk putting money in this sugar industry ; and, secondly, 
because the roads are bad and impassable in the rainy season, and make the 
transportation of cane and sugar very difficult. Finally, there is no capital 
to be found in the country itself, and foreign capitalists are loath to risk 
money in Central American undertakings ; besides, the inhabitants lack a 
spirit of enterprise, and wages are excessively high, i.e., i-8o colons for a field 
labourer working ten hours daily, which exceeds the wages in the neighbouring 
country of Nicaragua. The production of all kinds of sugar, taken together, 
does not exceed 4,000 tons, and any change for the better is not likely. The 
sugar produced is not sufficient to supply the wants of the country, so that 
small quantities of sugar have now and then to be imported from neighbouring 
states. 

3,912 tons of sugar 



1902/03 






. 3,856 


1903/04 






• 3.275 


1904/05 






• 2,306 


1905/06 






■ 1.377 


1906/07 






■ 2,365 


1907/08 






• 2,415 


1908/09 






. 2,466 


1909/10 






• 2,245 


I910/II 






• 2,275 



together with, on an average, 1,500 tons of molasses. 

In 1910 a decree was issued, according to which all sugar for twenty years 
to come was to be exempted from duty when imported intp Costa Rica ; this 
exemption included harbour dues as well. 



VII. 

PANAMA. 

The Panama Republic, which lies between Costa Rica and Colombia, 
covers an area of 31,650 sq. miles, and has a population of 361,000 people. A 
great amount of sugar cane is already being planted to serve in the preparation 
of brown sugar or to be used as a dainty, and the Government has begun 
to start large sugar undertakings for the sake of supplying what sugar is wanted 

251 



Central America. 

in the country itself, for up to now there has been considerable importation of 
sugar from Peru, Salvador, and Costa Rica. A contract has been drawn up 
with an American for the purpose of establishing a small sugar factory on 
Government property, while plans for the installation of a ■second factory in 
the capital, Panama, are under consideration. This concession involves the 
disposal of large tracts of land, exemption from import duties on necessary 
machinery and material, exemption from Government and municipal taxes 
on produced sugar, while $2-50 has to be paid per 100 lbs. when imported 
from abroad. 

With so much protection the sugar industry in Panama cannot fail to 
become successful, as the soil is fertile and the climate is favourable for cane 
cultivation. So it will not be long before Panama is able to supply its own 
want of sugar, and to dispense with all foreign importation. 



252 



South America. 



I. 

COLOMBIA. 



The Republic of Colombia lies between 12° 35' N-*. Lat. and 2° 40' S. Lat., 
and between 68° and 79° W. Long, on the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean 
Sea. It has an area of 488,500 sq. miles, and its population only numbers four 
millions. 

Several small sugar mills are found aU over the country for the purpose 
of crushing cane. The juice is either consumed as it is, or is worked up 
to brown sugar, which latter occasionally is purified to white sugar by 
" claying." The brown sugar (" panela ") is chiefly consumed by the lower 
classes, at such a low price that it is an impossibility for foreign sugar to com- 
pete with it. We cannot say for certain what the total production is, as the 
sugar is manufactured in so many small factories. A big factory, however, 
has been built in Sincerin, near Carthagena, which works up the cane grown 
on 1,850 acres, and is said to have produced in 1909 6 J tons per acre, or 16,000 
kg. sugar per hectare. It, however, seems to us an exaggeration to credit 
Colombia with any such production. But as soon as transportation facilities 
allow of it more sugar factories will spring up. Colombia at the present time 
does not produce enough sugar to supply her own wants ; the gap is filled 
by a small importation of refined sugar from Germany. 



II. 

VENEZUELA. 



The Republic of the United States of Venezuela is situated on the north 
coast of South America, between 1° 40' S. Lat. and 12" 26' N. Lat., and 57° 2' 
and 73° 29' W. Long. Its area is 450,000 sq. miles ; the greatest distance 
from north to south is 770 miles, and that from east to west 1,037 miles. 

According to the most recent census, Venezuela had a population of 
2,633,671 inhabitants, or about 6 to the sq. mile. 

Venezuela is a very mountainous country, and contains three important 
mountain chains. The first is a spur of the Andes, which breaks off into two 
ridges. The first of these runs from Pamplona in a northern direction to Ocana 
and gradually slopes down, while the other, running in a north-easterly direction, 

253 



South America. 

forms a chain of high mountains, which have summits covered with eternal 
snow in spite of the tropical climate. The second mountain range runs parallel 
to the Caribbean Sea from east to west ; while the third range covers the entire 
territory of Venezuelan Guiana, and forms a convex tableland of wide area. 
Owing to the considerable difference in altitude above the sea level, the climate 
in Venezuela varies for the different parts, and this makes it possible to divide 
the country in three belts. The highest summits of the Merida mountain 
chain are i8,oqo ft. above sea level ; there, where the thermometer on an 
average registers 2° to 3° above zero, vegetation ceases to exist, and just above 
is the eterrtal snow. Between 2,000 and 7,000 ft. above the level of the sea 
is the eternal temperate zone, with a temperature varying between 18° and 
20° C. It is here that the agricultural districts are found and most agricul- 
tural crops are grown. In the still lower regions from the sea level up to 
2,000 feet, the climate is tropical, and the temperature fluctuates between 
25 and 33° C. (77—92° F.) 

In Venezuela there are, properly speaking, only two seasons — a dry and 
a wet one. The first commences as soon as the sun enters the tropic of Capri- 
corn, and the second begins when it enters the tropic of Cancer ; so that the 
rainy season is from April to October, when the temperature is highest. During 
the dry season the temperature is cool and pleasant. 

At Caracas the average yearly temperature is 66-2° F. ; the highest 
maximum temperature was 84-2° F. (29° C), and the lowest minimum 48-2° F. 
{9° C.) during the years 1891 to 1902. The rainfall for these years according 
to the Cajigal Observatory at Caracas amounted to the following quantities, 
in millimetres : — 





S 


6 

C4 

Jo 




5. 
< 


^ 
S 


c 

D 
1— > 


^ 
a 


n 

< 


V 

e 

0. 
w 


1^ 
<U 






<u 

e 

> 


12; 


B 

U 

Q 


■3 



H 


1891 


187 


4 


i6-i 


48-6 


154-2 


45-3 


165 


69-3 


96-6 


I12-I 


82-3 


42-8 


755 


1892 


33-2 


33 


36-9 


95-9 


185-5 


159-9 


194-3 


i22-g 


957 


138 


88-6 


19 


1,202-9 


1893 


4 


8-6 


07 


29-3 


1367 


71'2 


213-2 


43 


146 


I5I-8 


79-4 


92-3 


976-2 


1894 


23-6 


15-5 


5-1 





42-3 


30-6 


60-9 


127-8 


99-3 


64-8 


78-9 


53-2 


602 


1895 


60-9 


3-6 


137 


177 


45 


136-8 


56 


65-4 


93-9 


II7-3 


134 


40-1 


784-4 


1896 


13-2 


0-2 


4-8 


II5-3 


no 


ii8-4 


36-6 


69-8 


33-2 


64-5 


128 


54-2 


748-2 


1897 


407 


3-8 





5-4 


79 


99-1 


126-1 


92-4 


38-6 


139-2 


80-3 


78-2 


782-8 


1898 


15-9 





68-3 


177 


23-9 


78-8 


107-2 


150-9 


103-3 


79-4 


105-2 


12-3 


762-9 


1899 


15-5 


4-4 


2-1 








116 


63-5 


88-5 


101-3 


113-9 


58-8 


477 


611 -7 


1900 


22-2 


47 


49-6 


197 


14-4 


88-3 


185-2 


140-5 


38-1 


141-3 


109-5 





863-5 


190T 


16-4 


0-4 


i-i 


0-9 


38-6 


■76-9 


186-9 


Il8-2 


75-4 


141-4 


129-1 


38 


823-3 


1902 


61 -6 








15-3 


84-4 


124-9 


94-7 


75-4 


178 


52-5 


27 


68-3 


782-1 



254 



Venezuela. 

Sugar cane grows in all parts of Venezuela, with the exception of the 
mountainous regions, as irrigation cannot be obtained there. Both climate 
and soil are well fit for cane cultivation, and where irrigation can be applied 
success is certain. 

Four different kinds are planted : the CrioUa or native cane, the Otaite 
or Otaheite, the Batavia, and the Salangore. The first kind contains the 
highest sugar content, and is used most for sugar manufacture ; while Batavia 
cane is generally used for the production of rum. Planting and reaping of 
cane are done in such a way that grinding is possible all the year through, 
and consequently any definite crushing season is not necessary, as with most 
cane sugar producing countries. The cane cultivation is seldom carried on 
by the owners of the land themselves. The ground is mostly divided among 
" medianeros," who plant and look after the cane and cut it when ripe, after 
which they take it to the mill. Half of the profit goes to the landowner, the 
other half to the planter. The " medianeros " can plant beans, maize, or 
wheat on their, soil in the time between two cane crops, which products they 
can consider their own. Still, as a rule, they keep their ground constantly 
planted with sugar cane, with as little rotation of crops as possible. 

The plantation producing the largest quantity of crystal sugar is situated 
in the State of Zulia, close to Maracaibo, and not far from the large lake of 
the same name ; the sugar which is produced in that place is delivered as 
white sugar, and sold in packets of half a pound, which are sent all over the 
country in chests of loo Spanish pounds (loi lbs. avoir d.). Other large 
factories producing white sugar lie close to La Guira, and near Guatire in the 
State of Miranda. 

For the rest, much brown sugar {" papelon ") is manufactured ; this, 
again, is the same concentrated cane juice we have Come across under various 
names in Central-and South American countries. The most important planta- 
tion for this article is near the capital, Caracas ; its production is 400 to 475 
tons yearly. Then there is another factory close to the first-mentioned, but 
in the province of Libertador, while a great many smaller factories are spread 
all over the country. The form in which the sugar appears varies for the 
different parts of the country. In this Federal distrio.t, and in the States of 
Miranda and Aragua, sugar is sold in cyHndrical lumps of 34 lbs. ; in the 
State Carabobo it is sold in the same shape, but the pieces weigh only i| lbs. ; 
while in the States Merida, Trujillo, Tachira, Zulia, Falcon, and Lara the sugar 
is delivered in squares of 3 J lbs. 

Finally, much alcohol is distilled from cane ; the best district for it is 
in the neighbourhood of Caracas, where a factory is capable of turning out 
more than one million bottles of brandy in addition to 300 tons of brown sugar. 

The sugar production of Venezuela slightly exceeds its sugar consumption, 
so that it allows of some being exported. The sugar manufacturers have agreed 
to set aside 20 per cent, of their produce for export in order to prevent a surplus 
in the country itself, and by so doing to keep the price of sugar up. In conse- 

255 



South America. 

quence of this, February, 1910, saw 500 tons of crystal sugar find its way to 
the London market, while two or three hundred tons of " panela " were ex- 
ported to Germany and Holland. In 1909-11 the exportation of papelon 
amounted to 2,255 tons. 

Venezuela raises an import duty of 0-25 bolivar* per loi lbs. avoird. of 
muscovado or raw sugar, burnt or granulated sugar for beer manufacture, 
and an import duty of 075 bolivar on white or refined sugar, while the im- 
portation of molasses and honey is prohibited. 

Since 1910 an export bounty has been granted on sugar when exported 
in larger quantities than 100 Spanish hundredweights (of loi lbs.) ; this bounty 
was started at 0-50 bolivar per 100 lbs., but is to decrease 20 per cent, each 
year, so that in 1915 it will have disappeared altogether. 

In spite of this export bounty, and the agreement between the manu- 
facturers to divert a certain part of their product for export, Venezuela is 
not likely soon to belong to the leading sugar exporting countries. 

Literature : 

Handbook of Venezuela. 



III. 

BRITISH GUIANA. 

British Guiana lies on the north-east coast of South America, between 
1° and 9° N. Lat. and 57" and 62° W. Long. ; it has an area of 90,500 sq. 
miles, and a population of only 296,041, or about 3 per sq. mile should the 
population be spread over the whole area. But this would not be a fair com- 
parison, as, apart from the comparatively small gold area, only the coast 
and the country along the rivers are inhabited. 

In the interior there are numerous mountain chains, and among them 
extensive savannahs or grassy plains and thick woods. Roraima is the highest 
mountain peak ; it is 8,740 ft. above sea level, and its summit is difficult of 
access owing to its peculiar formation. The sea-coast is marshy, and consists 
of mud and clay, which is carried by the Amazon from the Brazilian interior 
and deposited in the sea. The width of this alluvial ground varies greatly, 
being widest near Berbice. The clay is sometimes mahy feet deep, and in 
some places there are reefs of sand, lime, and shell. These reefs, sometimes 
forming a regular series of dunes, generally run parallel to the coastline. 

The principal rivers of British Guiana are the Essequibo, the Demerara, 
the Berbice, and the Corentyne, the latter forming the boundary between 
British and Dutch Guiana. The Essequibo rises in the Acarai mountains, 
not far from the Equator, and traverses about 620 miles, including the bends. 

* Bolivar = lod. 

256 



British Guiana. 

It has a great many tributaries, and it widens in the flat lowland so considerably 
that it forms a stream i8 miles broad, with numerous islands, some of which 
are 12 to 15 miles in length. Rapids in its upper course cause the river to be 
navigable only up to 50 miles from its mouth. The much smaller Demerara 
River, the source of which is not yet known, is navigable up to 75 miles from 
its mouth ; this river, too, widens in the low reaches, and at its junction with 
the sea has a width of 1} miles. The Berbice is navigable for small craft up 
to 186 miles above its mouth, and on reaching the sea it has a width of 2J 
miles ; while the Corentyne — which, like the Essequibo, has its source near the 
Equator and forms numerous big cascades — is navigable for more than 150 
miles, and has a width of jo miles when entering the sea. In consequence of 
its flat and low coast, Bi^itish Guiana has no natural harbours, but the very 
broad estuaries form excellent anchorages for fairly big ships. The climate 
is warm and moist, and very even, without sudden changes to cold or hot 
weather. There is only one rainy and one dry season in the interior- — that 
is from the end of April to the middle of August, but near the coast, where 
the sugar estates are located, two wet and two dry seasons are experienced. 
The chief rainy season begins about the middle of April and lasts till August — 
the winds are westerly during that time ; this period is followed by a lengthy 
dry period up to November, when the short rainy season begins and lasts till 
the end of Januaiy, after which the short dry period prevails till April. During 
the dry season the wind is always from the sea. Hurricanes do not occur in 
Guiana, and even the equinoctial gales are not violent, and cause very little 
damage. 

The average annual temperature in Georgetown amounts to 80° F. 
(267° C.) ; it seldom exceeds 89-6° F. (32° C.) or is lower than 75° F. {24° C). 
The average rainfall is about 90 ins. yearly. 

The principal towns are Georgetown, on the Demerara, with 49,000 in- 
habitants, and New Amsterdam, on the Berbice, with a population of 7,500 ; 
while, besides, there are a few unimportant villages. A rail«aj' runs from 
Georgetown to Rossignol in an eastern direction, and westwards from George- 
town to Greenwich Park, for some 75 miles in all. The first journey takes 
3 1 hours, the second only 45 mins. 

Some 125,000 acres of the entire area of this colony are used for cultivation, 
39,000 of which are planted with sugar cane. 

Columbus, in 1498, caught sight of Guiana from the sea, but Alonso de 
Ojeda was the first actually to visit it in 1499 ; while Pinzon, in 1500, went up 
some of the rivers. When trying to find the wonderland " Eldorado," which 
was supposed to exist in those regions. Sir Walter Raleigh came to Guiana 
in 1595, and met with his death afterwards in that place. Some years 
previously Dutch pirates had settled on the banks of the Essequibo river ; 
they were driven away by the Spanish and Indians in 1596 ; the Dutchmen, 
however, came back to the same spot, and in 1613 built a fortress called 
" Kijk over Al " on a little island at the mouth of that same river. The 

257 R 



South America. 

colony Essequibo joined the Dutch West Indian Company as soon as this 
was founded, and was under its management up to its dissolution in 1791. 

In 1624 Abraham van Peere founded a colony on the Berbice river, which, 
in 1732, came under the protection of the States-General of the United Pro- 
vinces. Demerara used to be a subdivision of Essequibo, but in 1765 it got a 
Governor of its own, and through the immigration of colonists from the British 
West Indian Islands it increased in importance till this colony gradually 
became the leading one of the three. 

In 1781 the three colonies were conquered by British freebooters, who 
handed them over to an expedition sent out by the Governor of Barbados. 
Later on the country was returned to its former owners, only to be reconquered, 
whereupon, in 1815, it became a British possession for good and all. 

For some time the colonies were under separate managements, but in 
1831 Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo were united into one colony, called 
British Guiana, while their own names only survived as the names of counties 
of which the new colony consisted. The population, which at the time of 
the union, in 1831, had amounted to 98,000 people, has increased in course of 
time, as will be shown by the following table : — 



I84I 


98,154 


I88I . . 


252,186 


I85I . . 


135,994 


I89I . . 


278,328 


I86I . . 


155,907 


1904 . . 


301,923 


I87I 


193,491 


I9II . ., 


296,041 



The considerable increase is due to British Indian indentured labourers ; 
the number of British East Indians amounted to 21,045 in 1861, to 32,681 in 
1871, to 65,161 in 1881, and to 122,824 in 1891. 

During the Dutch occupation the colonies of Essequibo and Berbice, 
and later on Demerara, produced rather considerable quantities of sugar, which 
came from the drained swamps along the sea coast and along the banks of the 
rivers ; that is why a great many of the existing sugar plantations still have 
Dutch names, these dating from the time preceding the British occupation. 

Since the Otaheite or Bourbon cane was introduced, in 1795, into this 
colony, the sugar industry had first a prosperous time, then remained almost 
stationary, to enter gradually upon a period of greater importance, which, 
however, had its fluctuations. 

Like the West Indian Islands, Demerara also suffered from the conse- 
quences of the abolition of slavery ; but as the introduction of British Indian 
coolies proved to be a great success, the lack of labour has never been felt so 
keenly here as it was in many of the neighbouring islands. 

In 1808 the trade in African slaves was prohibited, notwithstanding which 
slaves did enter the country. When, in 1817, a census was taken for the first 
time, the slaves numbered 101,712, but gradually their number decreased, and 
in 1834 it only amounted to 82,824, which was the number coming in for 

258 



British Guiana. 

compensation. After the aboUtion, they tried to get free labourers from the 
neighbouring West Indian Islands and from Madeira. In this latter island 
much harm was caused to the cultivation of the vine by disease, and many 
people who had lost their means of livelihood in that way emigrated to British 
Guiana, where they settled. In 1840 the British Government allowed the 
importation of free African immigrants from the British possessions in Africa ; 
moreover, the number of immigrants was swelled by negroes imported from 
Africa, by Brazilians, Cubans, and other slave traders, who were captured by 
British men-of-war, which set the slaves free. In the years 1840 to 1865 this 
number amounted to no less than 13,355 emancipated blacks, who arrived in 
British Guiana and worked there as free labourers. 

When Brazil, as well as other countries, also abolished slavery, the slave- 
trade and the setting free of slaves came to an end, and this supply of labour 
ceased to exist. In 1867 even the importation of free black people from the 
British African possessions was forbidden. In 1853 two shiploads of Chinese 
immigrants landed, and since 1859 Chinese labourers were systematically 
supplied up to 1866, when the Chinese Government wished the immigrants to 
be sent back to the mother-country at the end of this indenture at the expense 
of the colony. But as it was not the aim of the immigration to send the people 
back again, the immigration of Chinese labour soon came to an end. Later on 
it was agreed that the immigrants should receive a sum of $50 at the end of 
their five years' service, which would enable them to pay their own passage 
if they wished to go back to China. This stipulation brought new immigrants : 
in 1874 388 left China, in 1878 another 515 came, but since then this source of 
labour has ceased. The immigration of British Indians proved a far greater 
success ; once they gave it a trial in 1838, these immigrants have come regularly 
to the country from 1845 down to the present date. They are indentured for 
five years, and only at the end of the five years following the expiration of their 
contract are they entitled to a journey home free of charge. During these 
extra five years, and even after, they can work as free labourers, while they 
can easily become owners of small plots of land. Of this last opportunity a 
great many Indians have availed themselves, so that the number of Indian 
settlers in British Guiana increases yearly. From the very beginning of this 
immigration up to now 225,231 British Indians have been sent to British Guiana 
as indentured coolies, 57,554 of whom have gone back to their country. Then 
there are also a great many Indians who after a short stay in India come back 
to Demerara at their expense as free labourers ; but these, of course, are not 
mentioned in the statistical lists. In 1908 there were 12,539 indentured 
British Indian coolies and 58,388 free labourers, or 70,927 in all, including 
men, women, and children. 

By far the greater part of the sugar plantations lies along the sea shore, 
all of them in drained marshes which are protected by massive dykes, and 
are drained into the sea either by pumping out with steam pumps or by 
sluices. The plantations on the banks of the rivers are also " empoldered " 

259 



South America. 

and drained through sluices into the rivers. On March 31st, 191 1, the entire 
amount of drained marshes of the colony was 160,000 acres, no less than 81,000 
acres of which were used for cane cultivation. The sugar plantations are of 
oblong shape lying side by side, having one of the short sides facing the sea or 
the river. They originally had each an area of 500 to 1,000 acres, but many 
have now been amalgamated. A massive dyke is built at the front facing 
either river or sea, while the dykes at the side and at the back are, as a rule, 
much less elaborate. A broad main road generally runs in the middle of the 
plantation, having a navigation canal on either side. This canal contains fresh 
water, sea-water being carefully kept out bjf a sluice, which can be opened at 
the time of ebb in order to carry off any surplus of fresh water, and can be closed 
in times of flood. In addition, there are short feeding canals running at right 
angles to these. They, however, are not put in communication with the 
drainage canals, so they can, if need be, contain salt water. When a drainage 
canal passes a navigation canal, it is conducted underneath by means of a 
syphon. The cane fields lie between these navigation canals, and are 
separated by smaller drainage canals ; their size, as a rule, varies between 10 
and 20 acres. The canals in British Guiana are generally of the following 
dimensions : the larger navigation canals have a width of 16 to 20 ft. at the 
top, and 12 to 16 ft. at the bottom, and a depth of 4 to 5 ft. The smaller 
navigation canals have a width of 12 ft. above and of 9 ft. below, and are from 
4 to 5 ft. deep. The larger drainage canals are 15 ft. wide at the top and 4 ft. 
deep. The dimensions of the lesser irrigation canals are : 2 to 3 ft. wide at 
the top, i| to 2 ft. at the bottom, and 3 ft. deep. In the fields the beds are 
between 24 and 36 ft., and the furrows running across them are at 6 to 7 ft. 
distance from centre to centre. 

To prepare new land for cane cultivation, the trees are cut down, 
the grass and weeds aie removed, canals and furrows are dug, and the 
cane tops are planted. Weeding is carried out after a month's interval, and 
in case of a sufficient rainfall the cane will have grown high enough by 
that time to prevent any further growth of weeds, so that further weeding will 
no longer be necessary. Then the young cane is banked, and the soil between 
the furrows is loosened by means of forks, in order to leave space and air to 
the cane plants and to promote their root development. Five months after 
planting, the cane is trashed and the weeds are removed, if necessary ; the 
whole proceeding being repeated three months later. When the cane is about 
one year old it is trashed for the last time, and is reaped a fortnight later. 
Once it is cut the soil is again loosened with forks, the dry leaves are put under- 
ground in the spaces between the rows, and the cane plants bud out afresh, to 
be cut again after a year's time. In British Guiana ratoons are kept two or three 
years on the same land ; as soon as the crop gets too scanty, however, the plot 
of land is left fallow, and another plot is chosen. . Up to a short time ago it was 
only Bourbon cane that was planted in British Guiana ; but recently they 
have been planting a great many seedling cane varieties, of which the D. 625, 

260 



British Guiana. 



D. 145, D. 100, and D. 208 are the principal. One may state for certain that 
more than half of the present-day plantations consist of the progeny of seedUng 
canes. Basic slag and superphosphate, guano, potash manures, and sulphate 
of ammonia are mostly used as manure, together with all disposable stable 
dung from the cattle. 

The cane is exclusively transported by water, along the navigation canals 
in flat-bottomed punts. The factories are, on the whole, well-fitted out, 
all having powerful mills, and using vacuum pans. Besides the ordinary raw 
sugar polarizing 96° and second sugar, a kind of coarse-grained yeUow-coloured 
raw sugar, the so-called " Demerara crystals," is also manufactured. The 
colour is produced by working with acid juice throughout ; chloride of tin 
being added in the vacuum pan to preserve the yellow tint. From i to 5 
per cent, is lost by inversion. The bulk of the molasses is converted into 
rum, while a considerable proportion is mixed with dry fine bagasse, and is 
sent to the United Kingdom under the name of " molascuit," as a patent- 
dry cattle fodder containing sugar. 

When the ground is virgin soil, fresh plantations yield in Demerara at their 
best 60 to 70 tons of cane per acre {150,000 to 160,000 kg. per hectare), but 
the average crop is much less, and will just attain to 20 tons per acre (or 50,000 
kg. per hectare), .while the yield of sugar does not exceed 8| per cent, on 
100 cane. 

The number of sugar factories has decreased considerably of late, a fact 
chiefly due to the amalgamation of many small ones into a few large enter- 
prises. A large number of estates were abandoned on account of the emancipa- 
tion of slavery, chiefly on account of the heavy expenses involved in 
reclaiming and digging. 

In 1891 the cane-planted area covered 78,777 acres, in 1895 it was only 
'68,000, and in 1908 it covered 73,471 acres occupied by plantations, and 2,500 
acres by cane farmers. The number of sugar pjantations amounted to 64 in 
1895, but has since gone down to 42. According to their size they are and 
have been divided as follows : — 

1895 1908 

More than 7,000 acres . . . . — . . i 



,, 


" 


3,000 
2,000 
1,000 


.ess 


than 


1,000 



4 
23 
37 

64 



4 
6 

25 
6 

42 



261 





South America. 




The yield of sugar has been since 


1826 as follows 


1826 . 


43,378 


1869 . 




1827 


62,272 


1870 . 




1828 . 


55.752 


1871 . 




1829 • 


. 58,586 


1872 . 




1830 . 


•• 59,790 


1873 • 




1831 . 


• • 58,058 


1874 . 




1832 . 


54,962 


1875 • 




1833 . 


54,588 


1876 . 




1834 . 


47.155 


1877 . 




1835 . 


•■ 57,577 


1878 . 




1836 . 


■ 48,999 


1879 . 




1837 ■ 


54,666 


1880 . 




1838 . 


47,983 


1881 . 




1839 ■ 


33,680 


1882 . 




1840 


35,619 


1883 . 




1841 


29,925 


1884 . 




1842 


31,685 


1885 . 




1843 • 


32,271 


1886 . 




1844 . 


34,125 


1887 . 




1845 • 


34.681 


1888 . 




1846 


22,935 


1889 . 




1847 ■ 


• ■ 41.307 


1890 . 




1848 


40,784 


1891 . 




1S49 • 


29,672 


1892/93 


1850 


32,692 


1893/94 


1851 . 


37.655 


1894/95 


1852 . 


48.737 


1895/96 


1853 • 


38,802 


1896/97 


1854 • 


48,632 


1897/98 


1855 ■ 


48.447 


1898/99 


1856 . 


45.156 


1899/00 


1857 ■ 


51.420 


1900/01 


1858 . 


• • 51.552 


1901/02 


1859 . 


48,072 


1902/03 


i860 . 


54,423 


1903/04 


1861 . 


63,305 


1904/05 


1862 . 


56,875 


1905/06 


1863 . 


67,462 


1906/07 


1864 . 


64,248 


1907/08 


1865 . 


75,356 


1908/09 


1866 . 


80,132 


1909/10 


1867 


72,385 


1910/11 


1868 . 


78,776 


1911/12 


(estim 



in long 



tons : — 
66,598 

75,075 
92,178 

77,094 

83,391 
86,578 
82,195 
104,667 
97,261 
75,316 
92,436 
95,370 

89.844 
120,654 

113.396 
121,840 

93,390 
108,748 
131,127 
105,118 
112,376 
102,553 

113,719 
112,880 

107,771 

102,502 

101,059 

107,073 

100,839 

96,648 

84.783 

94,745 

105,694 

120,127 

125.949 
106,716 
125,217 
120,334 

99.730 
117,176 
115,842 
100,954 

86,000 



262 



British Guiana. 

What has been said about sugar in the West Indian Islands also holds 
good for Demerara sugar ; part of that sugar is sent to Great Britain and 
part to Canada, while the rest is exported to the United States. 

The quantities have been as follows during the last seven years : — 





, 1905. 


1906. 


1907. 


1908. 


1909. 


1910. 


1911. 


United Kingdom 

United States 

Canada 


19,311 
28,608 
65,328 


16,411 
40,454 
62,895 


23,921 

5.372 

70,642 


23,921 
17.856 
68,880 


29,505 
13.726 
72,458 


29,191 
20,263 
56,249 


12,103 ( 

27,099 

59,249 


Total 


113,247 


119,760 


99,207 


110,657 


115,689 


106,439 


98.451 



No great changes are expected in the condition of the sugar industry of 
British Guiana in the near future. As we have just pointed out, an increase 
of cane-planted area is not likely, on account of expensive labour ; a decrease 
is more probable instead, as the British Indian immigrants seqm inclined to 
apply themselves increasingly to rice cultivation. Further, in Demerara 
proper, the land available has become restricted. The labour distribution is 
well organized, the exports of sugar to Canada and Great Britain leave nothing 
to be desired, so that the sugar industry in Demerara is still a remunerative 
business, and most likely will continue to be so, although it is no longer in 
the flourishing state it used to be. 

Books of Reference : 

British Guiana Directory. 

West Indian Bulletin. 

Algernon E. Aspinall. Guide to the West Indies. 

Noel Deerr. Cane Sugar. 

J. Sibinga Mulder. Mededeelingen betreffende de Suikerindustrie in Suriname en Demerara. 



IV. 



DUTCH GUIANA. 



Dutch Guiana or Surinam lies on the north coast of South America, between 
2 and 6° N. Lat. and 54 and 57° W. Long., between British and French Guiana, 
from which it is separated respectively by the Corentyne and the Maroni 
rivers. Its area covers 49,800 sq. miles, and the census returns on 31st December, 

263 



South America. 



1909, gave it a population of 89,906 pe.ople, of which 862 were Europeans, 
7,442 were Dutch Indians, and 16,203 British Indians, while 65,000 were 
aborigines. 

The country near the coast and the immediate neighbourhood of the rivers 
is inhabited, while the rest, 99-9 per cent, of the entire area, is stiU wilderness. 
The climate is moist and warm, which the following Paramaribo observations 
show : — 

RAINFALL IN MILLIMETRES. 



Tear 




1- 


^ 
u 


& 


& 




>. 
3 


-S 


1 


s 


1 


S 

.0 

s 


"S 




•-3 


t 


38 3 


< 




1^ 


^ 


■< 








S5 


S 


H 


1897 .. 


47-2 


99-8 


227 4 


377-4 


337-7 


208-8 


136-4 


122 


74-3 


399-8 


198 6 


2260 7 


1809 .. 


171-S 


89 4 


177-2 


36-8 


120 8 


313 7 


144-1 


69-1 


21 5 


46 6 


64 


45 9 


1240 


1 


1900 .. 


'.iSo-l 


328 


322 1 


2-i3-4 


371-8 


210-4 


87-3 


129-8 


82-6 


166 2 


131-3 


114-4 


2395 


4 


1901 .. 


17ii-9 


lOS-7 


257 


271-6 


316.9 


234 2 


179-7 


206 2 


101-1 


117 7 


203 


220 9 


2290 


8 


1902 .. 


182 -4 


658-3 


222-3 


622-4 


26-i-4 


400-6 


314-1 


160-8 


57-9 


07 8 


194-6 


171 9 


8091 


5 


1903 .. 


168-3 


144 7 


460-1 


434-3 


319 7 


413-3 


171 3 


191 1 


69 9 


41-4 


26 


171-1 


2456 


2 


1904 .. '.. 


163 7 


166-8 


640 4 


241-5 


862-5 


262-5 


274-0 


41-8 


62 6 


1115 5 


166 


278-1 


2664 


3 


190S .. 


120-i 


145-1 


748 


366 S 


336-0 


453 9 


313-1 


65 11 


38 


OS 3 


1-22 


318 5 


2421 


9 


1(10,5 


169 -3 


26 2 


173-4 


368-7 


307 3 


182 4 


171-4 


lSO-1 


71 


102-0 


145-1 


lis 6 


1945-5 


1907 


17S--5 


338.0 


321 2 


6S4-3 


453-8 


302 4 


252-2 


89*7 


108 9 


74-S 


59 I! 


200-7 


2918 4 


1908 .. 


145 4 


321-4 


133-0 


145 1 


347-1 


262-2 


291-0 


219-4 


62 7 


24-6 


1-25 


173-0 


2251-0 


Average of 


























41 years . . 


221-1 


176-3 


223-9 


240-9 


313-6 


267-0 


229 S 


214 7 


60-4 


72-9 


198-4 


222 9 


2351 



Temperature in degrees C. :- 



Month. 


8 a.m." 


2 p.m. 


6 p.m. 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Mini- 
mum. 


January.. 






243 


29-1 


26-0 


30-3 


21-5 


February 






23-8 


27-9 


25-9 


29-4 


22-2 


March . . 






24-9 


287 


26-2 


29-3 


22-8 


April 






25-1 


28-3 


26-1 


29-5 


22-8 


May 






25-1 


28-2 


26-2 


29-3 


23-2 


June 






24-6 


28-5 


25-5 


29-8 


22-8 


July • ■ 






24-9 


29-4 


26-6 


30-5 


22-8 


August . . 






25-4 


30-4 


26-7 


31-5 


23-1 


September 






26-4 


327 


28-2 


33-2 


23-9 


October 






26-1 


317 


27-3 


> 32-8 


22-8 


November 






25-5 


28-9 


26-2 


3I-I 


22-4 


December 






24-6 


28-4 


25-9 


30-3 


22-4 



In the south there are the high Tumua-Humac and Acarai Mountains, 
where the large rivers, which form the boundaries between the neighbouring 
colonies derive their source. Then there are the Nickerie, Coppename, Sara- 

264 



Dutch Guiana. 

macca, and the Surinam Rivers, as well as the Commewyne, a tributary of the 
Surinam. The Surinam is navigable up to lOO miles from its mouth. 

The capital, Paramaribo, has 32,600 inhabitants, Nickerie has 1,700 
inhabitants, and there are some smaller towns. A railway runs in an almost 
southerly direction from Paramaribo to Kadjoe, and covers some 82 miles; 
otherwise transportation of goods and people is generally done by water, and 
occasionally along country roads. 

Surinam was discovered in 1499 by Amerigo Vespucci, but it was not 
before 1603 that the English colonized it. Later on, French emigrants from 
Cayenne settled in the place, where they established a few sugar plantations ^ 
on a small scale. The Dutch conquered Surinam in 1667, and in 1683 sold 
it to the Dutch West India Company, which later on disposed of a part of it 
to the town of Amsterdam, and to Aersen van Sommelsdyk, who became 
governor of this Colony. 

The sugar industry was greatly extended by the introduction of slaves, 
who were supplied in large quantities as a monopoly of the West India Com- 
pany. In 1712 the French invaded the country and destroyed several sugar 
plantations, causing the slaves to run away and never return.' These maroons, 
continually reinforced by runaway slaves, remained in the woods, and kept 
attacking the settlements. Their guerilla warfare lasted for fifty years, till in 
1758 they gave it up, whereupon the so-called " bush-negroes " were emanci- 
pated. Then a better time began for that colony, but if the owners were able 
to make money, they also knew how to spend it, for they got more and more 
into debt. In 1799 Surinam was conquered by the English, and after several 
phases of restoring and reconquering, it in the end became a Dutch possession, 
and has remained so ever since. In 1858 the trade in slaves was forbidden, 
and in 1863 slavery was abolished altogether on the Dutch West Indian colonies, 
while the owners of slaves got some slight compensation. 

The liberated slaves were put under State supervision for ten years, after 
which they were considered free citizens. The abolition of slavery here, as 
in other countries, caused a great desertion of labour, so that work could not 
be done properly in the plantations. An effort has been made to improve 
that state of affairs by importing indentured British Indian coolies, and also 
Javanese. In spite of this resort, the supply does not fill the gap, and lack of 
labour is still the general complaint. 

The sugar industry is carried on on drained marshes in exactly the same 
way as it is in British Guiana. At the present time there are five sugar factories 
which make molasses and rum as well as sugar, but are far from flourishing. 
Some years ago the possibility of founding a central factory, which was to 
work up the sugar cane cultivated by small farmers on ground allotted to 
them by the Government, was considered. It, however, soon appeared that 
there would not be people enough before long to get a sufficient quantity of cane 
to keep a sugar factory of any considerable capacity going, so that this plan 

265 



South America. 

was never carried out. The cane variety chiefly planted in Surinam is Bourbon, 
while there are also small plantations of other varieties. 

On virgin soil the cane yields 5 tons of sugar per acre (or 12,500 kg. per 
hectare) ; on ground having been used in cultivation for some time the cane 
yields from 3 to 5 tons (7,500 to 12,500 kg. per hectare) . The average yield 
is supposed to be 39 tons of cane and 3-8 tons of sugar per acre. The sugar, 
for the greater part, is sent to New York, and only a little is exported to the 
Netherlands. The total production has been during the last years as follows 
(expressed in metric tons of 2,200 lbs.) : — 



1900 




12,950 1906 


12,635 


I90I 




12,721 1907 


11,930 


1902 




13,147 1908 


11,999 


1903 




12,073 1909 


10,938 


1904 




11,001 1910 


12,055 


1905 




10,790 1911 


14,459 


The exportation has been as follows since 1715 : — 




1715 




9,766 1855 .. 


15.409 


1725 




11,095 1865 


8,222 


1735 




8,585 1875 .. 


10,393 


1745 




11,427 1885 


5.497 


1750 




12,302 1895 


8,152 


1755 




8,208 1900 


10,142 


1765 




10,062 1901 


10,080 


1775 




10,128 1902 


8,748 


1784 




7,171 1903 .. 


7.443 


1794 




12,142 1904 


9.380 


1805 




5,862 1905 


8,405 


1816 




5,784 1906 


11,014 


1825 




11,908 1907 


10,372 


1835 




18,887 1908 


9,018 


1845 




14,894 1909 


7.352 



Surinam's sugar industry does not look promising. It is always the in- 
evitable lack of labour that retards progress. The production will most likely 
keep's tationary at 10,000 to 15,000 tons ; any increase is not to be expected. 



V. 



ECUADOR. 

Ecuador is situated on the west coast of South America, between i" 23' 
N. Lat. and 4° 45' S. Lat., and between 73° 10' and 81° W. Long. It has an 

266 



Ecuador. 

area of 118,650 sq. miles, and a population of 1,272,000 citizens, and about 
200,000 wild Indians. ' 

The country is very mountainous, and is traversed in a north and south 
direction by two mountain-chains, with a number of high volcanoes, partly 
active and partly extinct. There are lowlands near the coast, ,while vast high- 
lands, the so-called Inter-Andes territory, are found between the two mountain 
ranges. There are on the coast only two gulfs of any importance, the Guayaquil 
and the Ancon Bays. The rivers flow from the Andes either to the Pacific 
or to the Amazon. The climate in the lowlands along the coast is hot and 
damp, whDe in the highlands it is cool and even. The sugar industry is exclu- 
sively carried on in the lowlands, near the coast in the Province of Guayaquil. 
The cane crop is reaped in the months from July till November, and even as 
late as December. 

Till a short while ago it was difficult to transport sugar to the exterior 
from Guayaquil, as the high cost for carriage via the Andes added too much 
to the price. Part of the sugar used to go by sea to Chile and Colombia, while 
Colombia used to send sugar to Quito and other market towns in the Andes. 
Since 1902, when a railway was constructed which runs to Riobamba, this 
drawback has ceased, and all the sugar prepared in Ecuador is consumed in 
the country itself, and some sugar is imported. Up till 1907 Ecuador used to 
raise an import duty on sugar of 4 cents per kg. (i6s. 8d. per 100 kg.), but 
this duty has been abolished since, so that sugar can be freely imported into 
that country now. This, of course, first of all caused a drop in the price of 
sugar of $2 to $3 per 200 lbs., which is equivalent to the amount of the import 
duty. The sugar production for the last few years has been as follows, ex- 
pressed in metric tons :— 

1904 . . . . 6,400 1908 . . . . 7,000 

,1905 . . . . 5.900 1909 . . . . 7,600 

1906 . . . . 6,900 1910 . . . . 8,750 

1907 . . . . 7,100 

The production does not supply the local wants altogether, so that some sugar 
has still to be imported. 



VI 

PERU. 

Peru lies"on the west coast^of South America, between 3° 30' and 18° 45' 
S. Lat. and 70° and 81" 40' W. Long. It has an area of 690,000 sq. miles, and 
a population of 4,500,000. 

At some distance from the coast the high Andes mountains run parallel 
with it, leaving a narrow streak of land near the sea, intersected by several 
little rivers. 

26" 



South America. 

There are a great many good seaport towns on the Pacific coast, Lima 
and Callao being the most impo^^tant. Owing to the very mountainous clrarac- 
ter of the country, the climate naturally varies. While little rain falls on the 
Pacific side of the Andes, that is, the part where most of the sugar industry 
is carried on, there is much rain, as a. rule, on the eastern side, and that is why 
the latter consists of well-wooded country, while the western part has hardly 
any forest. Although Peru lies absolutely within the tropics, its temperature 
is seldom very high, as the following figures will show : — 



Average Temperature observed on the Cartavio Estate in degrees C. 



Months. 


1904. 


1905. 


1906. 


1907. 


January 




22-22 


23-33 


22-90 


25-04 


February 




22-00 


24-44 


,24-56 


26-93 


March 




22-22 


21-11 


24-26 


24-93 


April 




20-12 


22-78 


22-00 


21-37 


May 




20-20 


2I-II 


19-32 


18-98 


June 




18-89 


20-55 


17-26 


17-77 


July .. .. . 




19-44 


I9-II 


17-12 


18-44 


August . . 




20-00 


19-20 


17-54 


18-88 


September 




18-89 


18-93 


18-70 


18-87 


October . . 




20-00 


19-43 


19-22 


19-13 


November 




20-00 


19-81 


20-66 


20-57 


December 




2I-II 


21-48 


22-12 


21-55 



During the same years the highest maximum temperature was 35-3° C. 
(95-5° F.), and the lowest minimum was 11-1° C. (52-0° F.). 

Sugar cane cultivation is exclusively carried on along the narrow strip of 
land between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, and in the valleys which stretch 
from the seacoast to the mountains. This territory covers the entire coast 
between 6° and 16° S. Lat., while estates lie in the vaUeys of the following 
mountain streams : Lambayeque, Pacasmayo, Chicama, Santa, Huama, Lima, 
Caiiete, and Tambo ; with' their harbours : Eten, Pacasmayo, Huanchaco, 
Salaverry, Chimote, Jamanco, Supe, Huacho, Callao, Cerro Azul, and MoUendo. 
In addition, there is a number of small plantations spread all over the interior 
having small factories, which crush the cane by means of wooden rollers, and 
work up the juice to " chancaca " or " panela " (evaporated cane juice), 
or to " jonque" (brandy). 

As was mentioned above, the cane plantations coming in for regular 
sugar manufacture are all found on the west coast. The rainfall is of 
httle consequence in these parts, and it would be impossible to get a good 

268 



Peru, 

cane crop without irrigation. So irrigation on a large scale is applied by 
damming up and distributing the numerous mountain streams which ilow 
from the Cordilleras to the Pacific Ocean. These mountain streams contain 
much water when heavy rains fall on the mountains, but their outflow is small 
in the dry season, so that it is necessary to be careful with the irrigation supply, 
for which purpose a special irrigation service is appointed by the Government, 
who see to the water being equally divided among the different applicants. 
As the cane cultivation tracts in Peru have no special periods of rainy and dry 
weather, planting and reaping can be done at any time of the year ; there 
are instances of factories not having had to stop for years together for any 
longer period than is necessary for cleaning and carrying out repairs. 

The land devoted to cane cultivation is first treated by a Fowler steam- 
plough, then it is harrowed and rolled. After that it is time to dig the ditches for 
irrigation and drainage, and the furrows ; the latter cannot be dug till the 
land is divided up by roads and footpaths into plots of 330 ft. in length and 
160 ft. in width. The irrigation and drainage canals are dug alongside these 
roads and footpaths ; afterwards the furrows are hoUowed out by a wooden 
plough ; these, according to the state of the soil, being dug at a distance of 
9 to 15 ft. apart from centre to centre. 

The cane tops put into the furrows are cut from the healthiest looking 
stalks, and are planted in a sloping direction, so that their top ends stick out 
of the soU. As soon as the plants are a iqot high, weeding the fields is begun, 
which weeding is repeated till the danger of the cane getting smothered 'by 
weeds is past. About five months after the cane has been planted it is banked, 
and manured with guano from the neighbouring islands, or a mixture of guano 
and ashes from the factory, or potassium sulphate. Sometimes lime, saltpetre, 
or other suitable fertilizer is added to the manure ; but guano, which is cheap 
in Peru, is the chief component of the sugar cane manure. 

During the vegetation period, cane is now and then irrigated ; on soil which 
is moist on account of the abundance of subsoil water so that it wants little 
irrigating, only once every season, while other kinds of soil require supplying 
with water as many as twenty-four times during the same period. On an 
average, five applications is supposed to be sufficient. The wet ground is 
drained by open canals, and sometimes by pipes ; dry ground does not need 
drainage, the water which had run into the field by irrigation being left to 
penetrate the soil. 

It takes twenty to twenty-four months for the planted cane to ripen, 
depending on local circumstances and the disposable supply of irrigation water. 
After the first crop, ratoons are grown several times, and these ripen in a 
much shorter time than the first crop does. Five ratoons of cane are cut, 
and sometimes this is extended to ten, which, of course, covers a space of 
fifteen to twenty years. This, however, is an exception ; five ratoons taking 
up nine years are of general occurrence, during which time a single planting 
yields successive crops. 

269 



South America. 

The cane very seldom flowers ; still, it does so enough to enable the experi- 
ment station at Lima to cultivate seedling cane varieties on a large scale, in 
order to procure better cane varieties for agriculture. Up to now none of these 
kinds have been introduced for cultivation on a large scale, but considering the 
great use these seedling varieties have been to other cane cultivating countries, 
they may contribute greatly to the cane production in Peru before long. At 
the present time the average yield of the varieties now cultivated — the white, 
the yellow-green, and the red — is 34 tons per acre, or 85,000 kg. per hectare, 
after a vegetation of 22 months ; but as soon as a better organized treatment 
of the soil and of irrigation and manuring is applied, and a better type of 
cane is obtained, there is no reason why a yield equal to that obtained by the 
cane cultivators in Java and Hawaii should not be obtained in Peru, as the 
ground and the climate are very well suited to cane cultivation. 

The cane does not sufEer much from disease and pests ; rats, which have 
such an injurious effect in neighbouring countries, do little damage in Peru. 
The only insect pests which do any considerable harm are the borers, though 
these are indirectly combatted by choosing onlyuninfected cane tops for planting. 

When reaping thfe cane, it is cut close to the ground by the machete ; 
the top part is removed, and the cane, either as it is or cut irf two, is put on 
railway wa.gons and conveyed to the factories. These factories, as a rule, are not 
installed in modern style ; in most cases this is due to lack of capital, which 
prevents the gradual substitution of the old mills and machinery by new in- 
ventions, but as the general condition of Peru is improving and sugar fetches 
higher prices than it used to do, this country will doubtless not lag behind, but 
will eventually instal most of the factories with modern plant, which will 
make the low yield of sugar rise considerably. 

The sugar cane in Peru has a high fibre content, through its lengthy 
vegetation in a dry climate, and consequently little juice ; but the latter is 
rich in sugar, and at the same time particularly pure. Consequently, 15 per 
cent, fibre on cane and 20° Brix at 92-5 purity and 0-46 per cent, glucose in 
first mill juice often occurs. Through the combined influence of a high fibre 
content, a high sugar content in juice, and weak mills, the loss of sugar in 
bagasse is exceedingly great, and on an average amounts to 3 per cent, on 
100 cane. In spite of the high sugar content of cane juice, the yield of sugar 
is not particularly high for these very reasons, and amounts to 10 per cent., 
7-5 per cent, of which is first, 2-5 per cent, second, and 0-5 per cent, third 
product. 

When planted on virgin soil, plant cane has yielded crops of 8 tons of 
sugar per acre, or 20,000 kg. per hectare, but the average amount is 3 tons, 
or 7,500 kg. per hectare, a figure that may soon increase thanks to the im- 
provement in machinery. By far the bulk of the sugar production in Peru 
is a brown raw kind of 96-5° polarization ; but they also manufacture white 
sugar. for local consumption, which is obtained by washing the brown sugar in 
the centrifugals. Part of the raw sugar, called " Peruvian crystals," is sent 

270 



Peru. 

to the United States ; the rest, together with part of the molasses, goes to 
Liverpool. What is left from the second and third products is exported to 
a refinery in Chile, while alcohol is distilled from the molasses, chiefly in Bolivia. 

There used to be a refinery in the Caiiete district, and one in the district 
of Lambayeque, but these are no longer working, so that no refinery is at 
present to be found in Peru. 

A short time after Peru was conquered by Francisco Pizarro, sugar cane 
was imported into that country, and in 1570 the first sugar was commercially 
manufactured there. The sugar industry at first suffered from the competition 
of Mexican sugar, but it was not long before their own sugar supplied their 
wants. As in all American countries, the sugar industry was carried on by 
negro slaves, but after the abolition of slavery they endeavoured to procure 
labourers from other countries. No fewer than 90,000 Chinese were imported 
from Macao between 1849 and 1874, who were not treated any better than 
slaves ; in consequence of this, so many died that the Macao Government 
prohibited all further recruiting. There are still some 25,000 Chinese residing 
in Peru, but no longer engaged in the sugar industry ; they have settled as 
tradespeople in the towns. The field and factory work is done by native 
Indians of the country, so that foreign labour is no longer required. 

In i860 a great change took place in the primitive condition of the Peruvian 
sugar industry. Much capital, including foreign money, was put into the sugar 
undertakings, factories were installed with the most modern machinery, and 
Peru became a sugar-producing country that could compare with the very 
best. Large profits were made, and much money was spent, too, though not 
on the maintenance or the improvement of installations. When, in 1875, 
the period of low sugar prices came, the sugar estates had not got stamina 
enough to bear up under the stress of competition, and gradually they ran 
deep into debt. The industry also suffered from the fatal war against Chile 
in 1878, while afterwards sundry revolutions disturbed the peace of the country. 
But since the disturbances in 1895 Peru has had peace and quiet, and the sugar 
industry has greatly extended, chiefly owing to the rise in sugar prices through 
the Brussels Convention. In 1906 a sugar experiment station was established 
near Lima, which has made a point of studying the manuring and irrigation 
problems thoroughly and diligently, and is trying to get a more profitable 
cane variety than the one at present used. In addition, the cultivation and 
manufacturing methods are being improved upon, all of which points to a 
revival of the Peruvian cane sugar industry. 

At the present moment Peru possesses 47 modern sugar factories, 
the principal of whicji are : Patapo, T uman , Cayalti, Pomalca, and Pucala, 
all round Eten harbour ; then there is Lurifico, near the Pacasmaya harbour ; 
Casa Grande, Sausal, Roma, Laredo, Cartavio, and Chiguito, near Salaverry 
port ; Tambo Real, San Jacinto and San Jose, near Chimbote ; Paramonga, 
San Nicolas, Humaya, and Andalusia, nor far from Huacho harbour ; La 

271 



South America. 

Estrella, Caudivilla, Chacra Cerro, Infantes and Monte Rico, St. Clara and 
Narranjal, near Callao ; and the British Sugai Estates, near Cerro Azul. 

The factory of Casa Grande, in the Chicama Valley, the yearly product of 
which is, on an average, 25,000 tons of sugar, is considered the most important. 
The others are of less capacity, still are of such a size that they cannot plant 
the full amount of the cane needed, but have to buy some of it from farmers. 
There are cases in which these farmers get 65 per cent, of the value of sugar 
.and alcohol manufactured from the cane which they have planted, cut and 
delivered at the factory door ; in other cases the factory pays the expenses 
of cutting and transportation, and then only pays 50 per cent, of that value. 
A third agreement is that the value of the cane is to be estimated by the 
degrees Be. of the juice and according to the sugar quotations ruling in 
Liverpool. 

About 125,000 acres are planted with cane, which area may be extended 
in the near future. 

The production for the last few years has amounted to the following 
quantities, expressed in metric tons, while the export figures are also given 
in the list :■ — 



Year. 


Production. 


Exportation. 


1894 






74,690 


65,000 


1895 






78-541 


75,000 


1896 






75735 


71.735 


1897 






111,080 


108,080 


1898 






110,373 


105,713 


1899 






109,070 


103,707 


1900 






118,173 


112,223 


1901 






119,956 


. 113.956 


1902 






123,906 


117,362 


1903 






147.123 


127,620 


1904 






156,500 


131,957 


1905 






160,366 


134,234 


1906 






169,418 


136,729 


1907 






141,193 


121,932 


1908 






157,294 


137,670 


1909 






150,000 


138,177 


1910 






190,000 


160,000 


1911 






187,000 




1912 






195,000 (estimate) 





Besides the sugar manufactured in the modern way, some nine to ten 
thousand tons of evaporated cane juice or " chancaca " are produced and 
consumed in the country itself. 

272 



Peru. 

Since July, 1910, the import duty on sugar in Peru has been as follows : — 

For sugar from countries belonging to the Brussels Convention ; 

Refined or its equivalent . . . . per 100 kg. : 2-44 Sol* 

Other kinds „ 100. „ 2-23 „ 

For sugar from other countries . 

Candy per kg. : 0-20 Sol 

White or other sugars . . . . . . „ 0-13 „ 

As we said above, the cane sugar industry in Peru may be greatly extended. 
Both soil and climate allow of expansion, and should the irrigation works now 
being planned be carried out, a considerable extension of ground will be dis- 
posable for cane cultivation. Besides that, improvements in manuring, in 
the treatment of and the kind of cane used, may increase the product per acre, 
while an improvement in the mechanical installations of the factories should 
lead towards obtaining a better product from the raw material. Now that 
the' political circumstances are favourable, and sufficient labour is to be found 
in the country itself, we may expect great things from Peru's sugar production.. 

Books of Reference : 

Memoria de la Estaci6n Experimental y Laboratorio para cafia de azucar en Lima.. 

La Cultivation du sucre dans le Perou par M. Cesar Broggi. 

The Sugar Industry in Peru, by Thomas F. Sedgwick. 

Zuckerindustrie in Peru, von Alfredo Solf. 

The Cane Sugar Industry in Peru, by F. Zerban. 



VII. 

BOLIVIA. 



The Republic of Bolivia is situated in the centre of South America between 
57° 30' and 73° 47' 30" W. Long, and 6° 30' and 26° 52' S. Lat. Its area covers 
567,000 sq. miles, its greatest length being 1,280 miles from north to south, and 
its greatest width 865 miles from east to west. According to the returns of 
the last census of September,^ 1910, the population amounted to 1,816,217 
people, including the nomadic tribes on the northern and eastern frontiers, 
which means about three inhabitants to the sq. mile. About 250,000 are 
white people, 550,000 are half-bred, 1,100,000 are Indians, and 4,000 are negroes. 

Bolivia is very mountainous ; in the west are found the Cordilleras, which 
divide into two branches, and enclose an extensive tableland of 40,000 
sq. miles at a height of about 13,000 ft. The mountains that surround this 
plateau have a great many high peaks covered with eternal snow, so that all 
climates are represented in this country, although Bolivia lies within the 
tropics. 

* I Sol @ 100 centavos = 2S. 

273 S 



South America. 

In the lowest parts, where the vegetation is tropical, the average yearly 
temperature varies between 66° and 72° F., but some days may be subject 
to differences of 36° F. in consequence of cool southern winds ; this uneven 
climate is experienced chiefly in the southern plains. In the north they ex- 
perience a heavier rainfall than in the south ; the average rainfall amounts 
to 31J ins. yearly over the whole country, with a maximum of 33^ in the north 
and one of agj- in the south. The sugar industry is chiefly carried on in the 
Province of Santa Cruz; the people of Potosi, and the eastern and north- 
eastern part of Chuquisaca are engaged in it, but to no great extent. Altogether 
there are about thirty little factories, each of which produces from 50 to 500 
tons of sugar yearly, all consumed in the country itself. The production 
does not, however, cover the demand for sugar, so that some importation of 
sugar from adjacent countries is necessary. The sugar industry in Bolivia 
is still in an early stage of development ; there are no good roads, and the 
small factories are installed in a most primitive manner, which makes the 
manufacturing cost very high. Departmental and local excises very much 
affect the industry, for sugar being exported from Santa Cruz to another province 
in Bolivia is first taxed by a provincial excise of 4s. 2d. per 100 kg., and then 
is subject to a local tax at the place of destination. The total amount of 
raw sugar exported from 'Santa Cruz to the other provinces does not exceed 
700 tons, while the entire production of the country seldom exceeds 1,000 tons. 



VIII. 

BRAZIL. 



The only parts of the gigantic Brazilian Republic where sugar cane is 
cultivated, and where cane sugar is manufactured, are States on the 
coast, namely, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, and Parahyba in the north, and 
Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and Sao Paulo in the centre of the huge territory. All 
these places lie between 4 and 21° S. Lat., consequently in the tropics, and 
being on the east coast of South America within reach of the moist eastern 
winds, they get sufficient rainfall for the proper cultivation of the sugar cane. 
The big harbours of Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio and Santos lie in the same terri- 
tory, and make the exportation of sugar to foreign countries by sea quite an 
easy matter ; on tjie other hand, the transport of sugar to the several States 
of the Union is attended with great difficulties, as the roads are bad and the 
distances considerable. 

Brazil was discovered in 1500 by Pinzon, one of Columbus' companions, 
and the same year it was taken possession of by Cabral in the name of the 
King of Portugal. It was not till 1531 that any colonizing of this possession 
was attempted, as her Indian possessions at that time required all the attention 
and resources of Portugal. One of the first things done by the colonists was 
the founding of a sugar factory in the Isle of St. Vincent, occupying that -part 

274 



Brazil 

of the territory which is now taken up by Sao Paulo. Both soil and climate 
of Brazil is exceedingly fit for cane cultivation, and this made the factories 
increase in number ; in 1580 there were already as many as 120, and in 1590 
there were 36 sugar mills in Bahia and 66 in Pernambuco. In 1580 Portugal 
and all the Portuguese possessions were annexed by Spain, and this made 
Brazil a Spanish colony. Thereupon an opportunity presented itself of which 
the numerous enemies of the King of Spain availed themselves to attack 
this rich country. In 1621, at the end of the twelve years' truce, the Dutch 
West Indian Company planned the conquest of Brazil, and carried it out by 
taking Bahia in 1624 ; but the following year the Dutch were driven away 
again by the Spaniards. The Dutch, however, settled in Pernambuco in 
1629, and succeeded not only in extending their territory as far as Maranhao 
in the north and Rio Real, near Bahia, in the south, but also in conquering 
the West African outposts, Sao Thome and Angola, and diverting the supply of 
negro slaves quietly to their own territory, thus dealing a great blow to their 
enemies. Joan Maurits van Nassau, who was appointed Governor in 1637, 
tried his very best to revive the sugar industry, which had greatly suffered 
from the wars and marauding expeditions, and actually achieved what he 
intended, for, when in 1644 he had to relinquish his post, Brazil had regained 
its former importance as a sugar producing colony. In 1640 Portugal had 
shaken off Spain's supremacy, whereupon the Portuguese, being proud of their 
nationality, keenly resented the loss of Brazil, their most important colony, 
and so made plans to recapture it. In 1642 the Dutch were driven away from 
Maranhao, in 1645 from Tabocas and Casa Forte, and, finally, they had to give 
up Recif after a long siege. Although Brazil had become Portuguese once 
more, the Dutch were still living there, and carried on their sugar industry 
undisturbed till, in 1655, when they were forced to leave owing to a Govern- 
ment decree. This resolution, of course, dealt a heavy blow to the sugar 
industry, as the manufacturers took their slaves, their capital, and their know- / 
ledge with 'them, and settled in the Antilles, to continue their occupation there. 
Although Brazil had been the principal sugar producing colony which supphed 
the wants of the entire world, the establishment of the Dutch in the Antilles 
led to competition which, in the end, got the better of Brazil. As early as the 
beginning of the eighteenth century the Antilles had forged ahead of Brazil, 
and gradually became the great sugar producers ; while Brazil began to lose 
much of its former importance. 

In 1825 Portugal acknowledged Brazil's independence, and at one time 
the latter became an empire under the Emperor Don Pedro I ; but the country 
suffered continually from rebellions and agitations caused by partisans from 
the different provinces. Later on, from 1851 to 1854 and 1865 to 1870, Brazil 
waged bloody and expensive wars with the neighbouring republics, which 
ended in her acquisition of free navigation on the tributaries of the Plata River 
and on the Parao^uay River, and put the Brazilian provinces in communication 
with each other and with the outer world. 

275 



South America. 

The abohtion of slavery was a question that greatly influenced the internal 
state of affairs. In accordance with a contract entered into with Great Britain 
in 1826, Brazil had bound herself to prohibit and to suppiess the trading in 
African negi-o slaves from 1830 onwards. When, however, Brazil did not act 
up to this contract, the British Parliament passed the Aberdeen Bill in 1845, 
which authorized the English men-of-war to capture all slavers met in Brazilian 
waters, to liberate the slaves, and to summon the dealers to British law-courts. 
This action on the part of Great Britain was humiliating to the Brazilian 
Government, who thereupon took good care to suppress the importation of 
slaves altogether. In 1871 a bill was passed which decreed that any child that 
should be born of a slave woman was to be considered free ; it also led to funds 
being raised for the emancipation of slaves. Besides these measures taken 
by the Government, a great many private individuals and societies took it 
upon them to emancipate and redeem slaves, thus reducing their number to 
a minimum. The year 1888 chronicled the total abolition of slavery without 
any indemnification' to. the former owners. The latter joined the republican 
party and a great many other malcontents, and in 1889 succeeded in over- 
coming the monarchy and founding a republic. After some further disturbance, 
in which the army and the navy took part, and which had for its object the 
restoration of the monarchy, peace ensued, and has prevailed up to now. 

There are two kinds of sugar factories in Brazil : the " usines," or recently 
installed factories, where crystal sugar is manufactured ; and the " engenhos," 
or small sugar mills, which produce evaporated cane juice. 

In 1904 the factories were divided over the several States as follows : — 



State. 


Usines. 


1 

B 
c 


Total, 


Production. 




Diffu- 
sion. 


Single 
Crushing 


Double 
Crushing 


Metric 
Tons. 


Sacks of 
60 kg. 


Pernambuco 


I 


40 


6 


1,500 


1.547 


156,000 


2,600,000 


Alogoas 
Sergipe 
Bahia 


— 


4 

15 

2 


3 

I 
21 


850 
650 
200 


857 

666 
223 


36,000 
30,000 
18,000 


600,000 
500,000 
300,000 


Parahyba Norte . . 
Rio Grande Norte 


— 


2 

I 


— 


100 


102 
151 


4,000 
4,000 


70,000 
80,000 


Maranhao . . 


— 


2 


I 


60 


63 


3,000 


50,000 


Rio de Janeiro . . 


I 


35 


5 


30 


71 


27,000 


460,000 


Sao Paulo 


I 


6 


5 


20 


32 


15,000 


250^000 


Minas 


■ — 


3 


— 


50 


53 


2,000 


40,000 


Other States 


— 


5 


— 


230 


235 


3,000 


50,000 


Total . . 


3 


115 


42 


3,840 


4,000 


298,000 


5,000,000 



276 



Brazil. 

Although Pernambuco produces by far the greatest quantity of sugar, 
the Bahia industry is much more up-to-date, as 21 of the 23 usines work with 
double crushing, while most of the other States use usines with but single 
crushing. 

When studying the Brazil sugar industry, it is apparent that it is carried 
on in three different centres, namely, in the North, in the Middle, and 
in the South. The cultivation methods, both in the north and in the centre, 
are practically the same, and show but little difference from the usage of by- 
gone days in Brazil. Holes 8 ins. deep are dug '5 ft. apart, in which pieces of 
cane 8 ins. in length are put. These are covered up with earth without any 
manure ; after five weeks the soil is loosened, and the cane is left to grow for 
fifteen months, at the end of which time it is ripe and very often has a high 
sugar content. In the third sugar belt, the State of Sao Paulo, the cane is 
better looked after, and modern cultural methods are followed. Here, in 
the months September to April, the cane is planted in the following way : When- 
ever new land is to be cultivated, all the trees and shrubs are cut down and 
burnt, and the soil is treated with a plough or a spade. Afterwards furrows 
8 ins. deep are dug about 4 ft. distant from each other, in which the tops, 
I ft. long, are put in a row at 4 ins. distance from each other. In the case of 
ratoons, the land to be planted is first weeded and covered with compost 
manure, whereupon the ground is well ploughed up, furrows are dug, and 
cuttings are planted in the same way as described above. 

After about twenty days the cane has appeared, and when it has reached 
a height of about 8 ins., the soil between the cane plants is loosened with 
spades, a treatment which is repeated four to six times, according to the nature 
of the soil. Irrigation is not applied, as rainfall, is exclusively relied upon. 
In the case of a sufficiency, the cane will ripen in fourteen to sixteer* months 
after planting, and it is cut from June till the middle of November, when the 
rainfall is so heavy that harvesting has to be abandoned. After the cane is 
cut, the dry cane leaves left in the fields are burnt, as a preventive against 
borers, beetles, and other injurious pests. Then the plough goes as close as 
possible to the old plants and cuts off part of the roots, thus forming a stimulus 
to a new growth. The eyes bud out again, new cane stalks appear, and the 
earth is loosened again, as was done for the plant cane. After twelve to four- 
teen months the cane is cut again, and four to six ratoons are generally grown, 
after which the cane is dug out, the land manured, ploughed up, provided with 
fresh furrows, and planted anew. 

The type of cane planted will greatly depend on the nature of the soil and 
the situation of the estate. In the north we find Cayenne, Cristallina, Salan- 
gore. Bamboo, etc., all varieties that require a warm and dry cHmate ; while 
we find Louziers or Bois Rouge cane is planted in Sao Paulo. SeedUng varie- 
ties are much experimented with, although they are very seldom taken up 
for cultivation on a large scale. 

The yield of cane depends on the variety, the nature of the soil, the rain- 

277 i 



South America. 

fall, etc., and varies between 20 and 30 tons per acre (or 50,000 to 70,000 kg. 
per hectare) for first ratoons, and a smaller quantity for further ratoons. The 
sugar content is often very high, and attains to 18 per cent. Cane is planted 
by colonos on land belonging to the estate, and sold to the factory. The colonos 
get a free house, pasture land for their cattle, wood for fuel and timber for 
sheds and storehouses.. In addition, each group receives 6 to 24 quarteis* 
of land, depending on the number of persons, this land being already planted 
with cane, so that the contracting party is only responsible for further labour 
of maintenance and the crops, for which the colono gets 60 milreisf per quarteis 
or £2 los. per acre. Supposing the yield to be twenty tons, the cane would 
cost to the manufacturer £2 los. -^ 20 = 2s. 6d. per ton for maintenance and 
harvesting. 

Besides this class of workmen, there are also indentured labourers, who 
receive unfilled soil, together with houses, pasture land and cane tops ; but 
they have to look after the tilling of the soil and the cultivation of the cane. 
When the cane is ripe it is cut and put on carts, and it fetches the following 
market price in Sao Paulo per bag (of 60 kg.) of sugar :— 

Price per bag of sugar. Price per ton of cane. ' 

18 milreis or less 7 milreis 

18—24 .. 8 

24—35 „ 10 

Over 35 milreis 12 ,, 

In Bahia 5 milreis is paid for a ton of cane when the price of sugar is 
200 reis per kg., and for every difference of 10 reis, 300 reis is paid above or 
under the standard price. 

Most of the sugar is produced in small factories, " enghenos " or 
" banques," and only a comparatively small part is manufactured in the 
usines. The mode of preparation in the first is as follows : The cane is pressed 
between a pair of hard wooden rollers, and the strained juice is boiled string- 
proof in copper pans. Then the massecuite is poured into big wooden moulds 
which taper, off like cones toward the bottom, which is perforated. When 
the mould is being filled the holes are stopped up, but as soon as the substance 
has got cold, the stoppers are taken out and the treacle runs through the holes 
into a kind of gutter to the distillery, to be worked up into alcohol. Then a 
thick mixture of water and clay is calpefully spread on the sugar in the moulds. 
The water slowly trickles through the sugar, washes the crystals clean, and 
after some time the contents are taken out of the moulds. The top layer of 
sugar is white, or almost white ; the middle is yellow, and the bottom one is 
brown. The two first kinds are dried on mats, and the third on the floor in 
the sun, after which they are packed in calico bags containing 60 kg. or 132 lbs. 
each. 

* 4 quarteis = I aliquare, or 6 acres, 
t I Brazilian tililreis of paper = is. 4CI. 

278 



Brazil. 

Although the cane sometimes contains 15 per cent, of sugar, the sugar 
obtained in this way is not more than 5 to 6 per cent, on the weight of cane. 
Even sugar prepared in usines only stands for 9 per cent, of the weight of 
cane, which is generally due to the unsatisfactory mill pressure. In these 
factories the juice is strongly sulphitated, neutralized with lime, boiled, settled, 
and then boiled to grain. After being cooled in wagons or tanks, the massecuite 
is centrifugalled, and the runnings are boiled once more. The molasses obtained 
from this process is used for the preparation of alcohol or brandy. 
The output is distinguished as follows : — ■ 

Cristaes blancos (white sugar washed in the centrifugals). 

Cristaes amarellos (" Deiperara " sugar, yellow, first product). 

Mascavinhos (fine-grained, light-coloured, second product). 

Mascavos (very dark-coloured after-product). 
The raw sugar produced in the sugar factories is only partly consumed as 
such, and most of it undergoes a refining process before it goes ii^to consump- 
tion. Attempts have repeatedly been made in Brazil to purify sugar in large 
refineries, as is done in Europe, but they have never been a success. In Per- 
nambucd a large factory was built which was supposed to work according to 
Steff ens' washing process, and to make cubes and granulated, but after a year's 
working they had to stop. A second refinery was built in Campos, but no 
longer exists, and has sold its machinery to raw sugar factories ; while about 
eight years ago another factory was opened in Rio de Janeiro, with no better 
results. These failures can only be accounted for by the high wages, excessive 
prices for coal and transport charges, and the restricted demand for sugar 
refined after European fashion. 

The so-called " area " or sand sugar prepared in very small refineries is 
much more in demand with the Brazilians, and consequently finds a readier 
sale. This kmd of sugar is a smooth, moist, fine-grained product, strongly 
smelling of molasses, and which contains about 2 per cent, of reducing sugars 
and I to ij per cent, of ash, and has a polarization of 91°. The white sort is 
prepared by dissolving the crystal sugar in water to form a syrup of 31° Be, 
by clarifying with blood, and then filtering it over animal charcoal. Then the 
clarified syrup is boiled to a water content of about 4 per cent, over the open fire 
at 130° C, after which it is taken off the fire, a little crystalhzed sugar is put into 
it, and it is stirred with a wooden trowel till the mass has become cold, dry, and 
powdery. In the same way yellow sugar, the so-called " terzira," is obtained 
by dissolving the " Demerara " crystals in water, and by turning the fluid into 
a dry, fine-grained product, in the same way as described above, but this time 
without any clarif5dng or filtering. The caramel taste and smell make this sugar 
a favourite sweetening agent, for which the) pubhc is quite willing to pay a better 
price than for the fine sugar refined in European fashion. While the daily 
sugar consumption of Rio de Janeiro is supposed to be 1,200 bags of sugar of 
132 lbs., the consumption of " terzira " is estimated at 800 to 900 bags, which 
proves the popularity of this kind of sugar. 

279 



South America. 

It does not take much skill or large well-installed factories to prepare 
" terzira," and that is why it is so well fitted for the native industry, especially 
carried on by shopkeepers and confectioners, who can sell their goods direct 
to the public. As a large refinery cannot possibly prepare " terzira " in a 
mechanical manner, and as it wants a go-between to bring it into contact with 
the consumers, and finally, owing to the heavy transport expenses, can 
only reach a restricted number of consumers, it is no use starting a big sugar 
refinery in Brazil, as the failure of earlier results has shown. 

Of late years the Brazilian Government has done what it could to promote 
the sugar industry, but its efforts have been of very little avail up to the present 
time. In 1875 the Government guaranteed an interest of 7 per cent, on the 
capital spent in the building of central factories. The maximum number of 
factories was fixed for each State, and the period was appointed when interest 
and capital had to be returned. In 1881 this law was modified, and although 
the guaranteed interest dropped to 6 per cent., the latter regulation had better 
results than the earlier one, as the repayment was divided over a larger period. 
All at once twenty concessions were granted, and a foreign company was also 
started. In 1889 the provinces having become States got their own Govern- 
ments, and the State of Pernambuco granted an allowance of 250 million 
reis gold (according to legal currency, £28,125) to forty factoiies that were to 
be capable of crushing 200 tons of cane a day. This allowance was to be 
paid back by the factories concerned after the third grinding season in twenty 
instalments, one each year. The allowances were increased by later laws, ' 
but they led to nothing tangible ; in fact, some factories they had started to 
build were never finished. 

Sugar cultivation and manufacture in Brazil have remained of little 
consequence, and the exceedingly high costs of transportation make it im- 
possible for Brazil to compete successfully with other sugar producing countries. 
In 1908 a kind of sugar trust was established, the " Coligagao Assucareira," 
the members of which pledged themselves to take 20 per cent, from their 
production for a combined exportation. In January, 1909, this amount was 
increased to 40 per cent., but after a year it appeared impossible to carry out 
this plan of keeping up the sugar prices by a large exportation, to such a height 
that the losses suffered through th'e exportation might be made up for by the 
greater profit the home trade would obtain. In 1906 an import duty of 200 reis 
per kg. was levied, and when, owing to the above-mentioned increase in prices, 
beetroot sugar could be successfully imported from Germany, the Government, 
on 27th March, 1908, raised the import duty to 400 reis per kg., and this pre- 
vented all further import of foreign sugar. In consequence of this, Brazil 
has to rely on its own sugar production exclusively, and as the bad roads make 
carriage expensive, and some States levy high export duties, whereas others 
raise import duty on goods imported from other States, it is extremely difficult 
to get a clean insight into the sugar trade and sugar prices of Brazil, and stil] 
more sb to give an adequate survey of it. This also refers to the production 
and the exportation. Sugar is being manufactured on so many small farms 

280 



Brazil. 



and estates to be retailed to the native consumers, that all we can do is to guess 
at the quantity of sugar produced. 

It is just the same with the " export trade." It sometimes implies ex- 
portation to foreign countries, while in other instances it includes exportation 
to neighbouring States, which dual definition fnakes statistics most unreliable. 
So it is only under every reserve that the following figures are given as jegards 
the export trade from Brazil since 1820. Those of the years before 1889 may 
be considered more reliable than those of the years following : — 



1820 








75,000 tons 


I83I . . 








83,000 „ 


1832 . . 








91,000 „ 


1833 ■ • 








99,000 „ 


1834 . • 








83,000 „ 


1839 — 1844 yeai 


-ly average . 






82,500 „ 


1846— 1857 .. 


1) 






132,400 „ 


1869 — 1874 


.. 






1.53.300 „ 


1875 ■ • 








123,000 „ 


1876 . . 








88,400 „ 


1877 . . 








133,000 „ 


1878 








170,540 ,. 


1879 ■ • 








187,540 „ 


1880 








246,461 „ 


1881 








161,258 „ 


1882 . . 








\ 246,769 „ 


1883 . . 








223,865 „ 


1884 








329.376 „ 


1885 . . 








274,312 „ 


1886 _ .. 








112,340 „ 


1887 ' . . 








226,010 „ 




Production ir 


1 Pernambucc 




1888 . . . . 


186,750 tons 


1896 . . 


. . 159,460 tons 


1889 . . . . 


129,525 ., 


1897 .. 


.. 124,428 „ 


1890 . . . . 


111,675 „ 


1898 . . 


. . 131,820 ,, 


1891 . . . . 


156,750 „ 


1899 . . 


. . 109,650 „ 


1892 . . . . 


137.625 „ 


1900 . . 


-. 128,475 „ 


1893 . . . . 


133,200 ,, 


1901 . . 


■ ■ 139.441 .. 


1894 . . . . 


178,100 „ 


1902 


•• 178.977 -. 


1895 . . . . 


208,275 „ 






Productioi 


1 in Brazil. 


1891 . . . . 


185,000 tons 


1897 . . . . 205,000 tons 


1892 


200,000 ,, 


1898 . . . . 151,500 „ 


1893 . . . . 


275,000 „ 


1899 . . . . 175,000 „ 


1894 . . . . 


275,000 ,, 


1900 . . . . 256,460 ,, 


1895 . . . . 


225,000 „ 


1901 . . . . 312,957 „ 


1896 . . . . 


210,000 „ 


19c 


)2 . . 


■ • 254,693 „ 



281 



South America. 



197,000 tons 
248,000 „ 
253,000 „ 
270,000 „ 
348,000 „ 

(estim.) I 
The sugar exports of Brazil were destined for the following countries the 
last few years, and amounted to the following quantities, expressed in long tons — 



1903 ■ • 


. . 187,500 tons 


1908 . . . . 


1904 . . 


. . 197,000 „ 


1909 . . . . 


1905 . . 


. . 195,000 ,, 


1910 . . . . 


1906 


.. 275,000 „ 


1911 . . 


1907 . . 


. , 260,000 „ 


1912 . . . . 



I9I0/II. 



1909/10. 1908/09. 



1907/08. 



From Pernambuco to : 
Europe . . 
United States . . 
Argentina 
Brazilian harbours 

Total 



6,941 



144,270 



35.864 
1,408 

15.955 
93.964 



151,211 



147,191 



36,006 

11,011 

6,666 

118,934 



172,617 



380 

458 

3.630 

89,841 



94.309 





1909/10. 


1908/09. 


1907/08. 


From Maceio to : 








Europe 


17.311 


10,329 


12 


United States 


200 


1,238 


— 


Argentina 


434 


783 


— 


Brazilian harbours . . 


25,008 


28,673 
41,023 


20,145 


Total 


42,953 


20,157 


From Bahia to : 








Europe 


no 


2.975 


I 


United States 


— 


— 




Argentina 


— 


29 


62 


Brazilian harbours . . 


16,967 


11,601 


6,974 


Total 


17,077 


14.605 


7,037 


Total Exportation to : 








Europe 


53,285 


49.310 


393 


United States 


1,608 


12,249 


458 


Argentina 


16,389 


7.478 


3.692 


Total to foreign countries 


71,282 


- 69,037 


4.543 


To Brazilian harbours 


135,939 


159,208 


116,960 


Grand total 


207,221 


228,245 


121,503 



282 



Brazil. 

Opinions are divided as to the future of Brazil as a sugar producing country. 
In the north the sugar industry may still be called profitable on account of 
the low wages, especially as a sugar estate in that part makes a profit the 
veiy first year. The conservative nature of th,e population, however, is against 
the introduction of modern methods of working, as they require more labour. 

Exports decrease steadily as the United States can get as much sugar 
as they wish for from Cuba and Porto Rico, and consequently can do without 
Brazilian sugar. The sugar prices in the country can only be kept high by 
an artificial export trade ; as soon as the latter ceases, the sugar prices 
will go down to such an extent that any profit will be out of the question. 
Not until the cultivation and, especially, the manufacturing methods are 
greatly improved, which would cause the price to fall considerably, can any 
extension of the sugar industry be looked for without an artificial export 
trade. On the other hand, everything is done to supplant the sugar industry 
by the more profitable cotton and cacao cultivation, and this makes the near 
extension of the Brazilian cane sugar industry an improbability. 

Books of Reference : 
United States of Brazil. A Geographical Sketch. 
P. Stolle. Zeitschr. f. d. Ruben Ind. 1907, 107. 
Reports of the British Consulate in Pernambuco. 
Reese. Geschiedenis van den A msterdamschen Suikerhandel. 
Report of Vice-Consul Rhind of an Inquiry into the Sugar Industry in Brazil. 



IX. 

ARGENTINA. 



The extensive Argentine Republic in the south-east of South America 
stretches from 22° to 56° S. Lat., has an area of 1,135,485 sq. miles, and accord- 
ing to the last census has a population of 5,410,028 inhabitants, including 
the half-wild nomads. As only the most northern part of Argentina lies in 
the tropics, and as that part happens to be very mountainous, only a very 
small portion of the country is fit for cane cultivation, 28° S. Lat. being the 
hmit for its production. It is only found in the Provinces of Tucuman 
(8,950 sq. miles), Salta (62,254 sq. miles), and Jujuy (19,000 sq. miles), and 
in the territories Formosa (4,140 sq. miles), Chaco (55,600 sq. miles), and 
Missiones (11,300 sq. miles), all of which are situated in the northern part of 
the Argentine Republic. 

The western part of the Provinces of Tucuman and Salta, and the whole 
of Jujuy are mountainous, the mountains having tops covered with snow 
and slopes decked with a luxurious vegetation. The north-west portion of 
this province is a plateau over 10,000 ft. above sea-level, in part fertile and 
in part barren. The eastern part of Tucuman and Salta is composed of fertile, 

283 



South America. 

well-watered plains, exceedingly well suited for sugar cane cultivation. The 
three mentioned territories consist chiefly of flat country, marshy in some 
places, and covered with extensive forests in other parts. It is very thinly 
populated, and rivers are the only means of transportation, as roads are still 
lacking. 

The average temperature and rainfall of the cane-planted area in Argentina 
are as follows : — 





Yearly Average 
in ihe Period. 


Temperature in Degrees C. 


Rain in 
Millimetres. 


Days of 
Rain. 


District. 


Average 


Maxi- 
mum. 


Mini- 
mum. 


Average 


Maxi- 
mum in 
a month. 


Tucuman . . 
Salta 
Formosa . . 


1855—1896 
1882— 1893 
1879 — 1892 


19-56 
17-47 
21-87 


40-6 

35-0 

40-0 


-3-2 

— 4-3 

— 0-5 


935-3 
551-4 


328-0 
408-0 


65 
46 



The atmospheric moisture, as a rule, is low, which makes the heat quite 
bearable in the warm season ; the nights, moreover, are cool. During Septem- 
ber and October a scorching north wind will all at once be followed by a cold 
south wind, so that the people there may experience in one day changes in 
temperature of 27° F. (15° C). In winter time the temperature at times falls 
below zero, much to the detriment of the cane, which it affects in weight and 
sugar content, but although it makes the leaves wither and brown, the frost 
never kills the cane outright. 

In the cane cultivating districts, the rainy season is from October to March, 
and the dry one from April to September. 

In 1901 some 8,350,000 acres of the area of Argentina were cultivated, 
115,000 of which formed cane areas. These figures have not undergone any 
material change since. 

The Argentine cane sugar industry has only recently sprung up. In 
1871 the total sugar production only amounted to 1,000 tons, but since then it 
has developed rapidly, owing to several causes. First of all, the Government 
levied a high import duty on foreign sugar, so that the price of sugar in the 
interior went up, thus encouraging production ; secondly, there was a con- 
siderable margin between the inland silver currency with which the cane was 
paid for, and the foreign gold currency after which foreign countries fix the 
world's price. In consequence of these advantag,es, the sugar production 
increased so much that in 1894 it exceeded the requirements of consumption, 
and imported sugar was no longer necessary ; some sugar was even left unsold. 
This led to an excess of production in the Argentine Republic, to get rid of 

284 



Argentina. 

which the Government granted an export premium, with the result that a con- 
siderable amount of sugar was exported, chietly to Great Britain. At the 
same time, the manufacturers formed a cartel to limit the amount of sugar 
produced, and this actually led to a much smaller annual output than was 
realized during 1894 and i8g6. This decrease had become necessary, as exporta- 
tion did not run as smoothly as was desired ; the neighbouring South American 
States, for instance, barring their frontiers to Argentine sugar. The United 
States levied compensatory duties over and above their ordinary import duty ; 
and Great Britain, too, was expected before long to put a stop to the importa- 
tion of bounty-fed sugar. It was therefore resolved to hmit the production 
in the following manner : A fixed quantity of 71,500 tons was contingented 
over all the then existing factories in Tucuman, so that every one of the twenty- 
one smaller factories was allowed to produce a quantity of 1,000 to 4,500 tons 
exempted from duty, while the two biggest factories respectively came in for 
8,500 and 20,000 tons. A duty of half a peso (paper) had to be paid on every 
100 kg. in excess, while factories not yet in operation when this law was enacted 
would have to pay this duty on a quarter of their produce. Part of this money 
was to go towards a fund for indemnifying such planters as would abandon 
the planted cane or destroy it, or do anything except work it up to alcohol or 
sugar. The indemnification was 60 pesos per acre for a successful plantation, 
and less for an unsuccessful one. Then some of the money was used for the pay- 
ment of an export bounty to the amount of 16 centavos (paper) per kg., while 
the rest went to the Exchequer. 

Through the Brussels Convention this export bounty was rendered futile, 
as all the countries adhering to the Convention pledged themselves to levy a 
special duty on bounty-fed sugar amounting to the sum of the bounty ; hence 
offering a premium was useless, and sugar receiving a bounty was on neither a 
better nor a worse footing than sugar without one. In 1905 both premium and 
sugar duty were abandoned, and only an import duty of 9 centavos (gold) 
per kg. sugar of 96° and of 7 centavos per kg. brown sugar was maintained. 

From 1st June, 1912, the import duty is fixed at o-o88 pesos (gold) per kg, 
on refined sugar or sugar polarizing over 96°, to be diminished each year by 0-002 
till ist July, 1921, when it will be 0-070 pesos. Sugar under 96° pays o-o68 pesos 
per kg., with a decrease by 0-002 till a minimum of 0-05. In case the sugar 
prices rise over 4-10 pesos per 100 kg., these duties will be reduced. Over and 
above these duties, Argentina levies additional duties from bounty-fed foreign 
sugar, in accordance with the stipulations of the Brussels Convention. 

Nowadays the production covers the consumption ; a little sugar is some- 
times imported or exported, but within recent years Argentina has supplied 
its own wants. No excise is levied, no export duty is paid ; consequently, the 
inland manufacturer enjoys all the protection of the import duty, which now 
amounts to iSsh. 3d. per cwt. of sugar of 96° polarization, and to i6sh. per 
cwt. of brown sugar. '* 

285 



South America. 



The production during the last twenty-two years has been as follows, in 



metric tons : — 






1890 


40,000 


1901 


1891 


40,000 


1902 


1892 


75,000 


1903 


1893 . 


75,000 


1904 


1894 . 


103,000 


1905 


1895 . 


130,000 


1906 


1896 


163,000 


1907 


1897 . 


111,617 


1908 


1898 


75.538 


1909 


1899 . 


90,268 


1910 


1900 


117,208 


1911 



158,154 

123,081 
142,895 
128,104 

130,596 

114,000 

91,488 

161,772 
124,811 
143,000 
180,092 



Generally only one cane variety is planted, i.e., a hard, dark-coloured kind 
which the Spanish brought from Peru or Mexico years ago. There are other 
kinds on trial, among which are some good varieties from Java, but these 
are not yet in general use. The furrows are dug about 3 ft. distance from 
each other, in which the pieces of cane are put in a row. Tops are not made use 
of, and the cane to be planted is neither selected nor disinfected. Planting is 
generally done in September or October, that is at the beginning of the rainy 
season. On most of the estates the cane is irrigated by water from the Rio 
Sali or other streams ; artificial manure is hardly ever applied, and stable 
manure not at all. The cane is weeded, banked, and cut as low down as possible 
as soon as it is ripe. When they are not afraid of frost, first and second ratoons 
are kept as many as five times ; but in places where the cane is apt to be frost- 
bitten the planter prefers to plant afresh every year. The cane suffers from 
borers and fungous diseases, but no measures are taken to protect them from 
these. One can hardly wonder at the poor crops this kind of cane yields, 
considering the unfavourable condition of the soil and the small amount of 
care taken. They reap 9 to 15 tons of cane per acre if the soil is bad, 11 to 
17 tons from average soil, and fully 18 tons on selected land. Though the 
cultivation may be in a poor state, the factories are in very good condition, 
being large and well installed, and equipped with the newest inventions. 

The cane is taken to the factories by rail, and thrown on the mill-carriers 
by means of mechanical dischargers. All the mills are driven by steam ; 
there is triple-crushing with maceration, sulphitation of the juice, crystallization- 
in-motion, in short everything that is newest and best. The sugar that is 
prepared is chiefly white sugar of 98° polarization, while the molasses are 
worked up to alcohol. Some factories manufacture pure white sugar for 
consumption, but most of them send their produce to the sugar refineries in 
Rosario. 

As the cane is very poor, the yield of sugar is small, even if the manufacture 
of the sugar from the cane is as thorough as possible. In 1907 the yield was 6^50 

286 



Argentina. 

per cent, of the weight on cane, and in 1908 it was on an average 8-15 per cent. ; 
while the maximum for a factory was 10-03 per cent., covering the whole crop, 
and the minimum 5-61 per cent. 

In Tucuman there are 29 sugar factories, 27 of which worked in 1911. 
The 27 combined ground 2,008,805 tons of cane in that year, and obtained 
152,965 tons of sugar, or 7-65 per cent. 

In the other provinces there are thirteen factories, which have a total pro- 
duction of : — 



Tucuman . . 

Jujuy 

Salta 

Chaco 

Other provinces 



152,965 tons in 27 factories. 
23,026 ,, ,, 3 
1,176 ,, ,, 2 
1,907 .. .. 4 
1,019 „ .- 4 ,, 



Total . . . . 180,092 tons in 40 factories. 



One can easily imagine that, considering the low price cane fetches, the 
cost price of sugar, even for well-installed factories, must be very high, 
being, for instance, £18 per ton of sugar. Therefore, but for the fiscal 
protection the Argentine sugar industry would soon come to an end ; with these 
duties, it is a profitable business so long as the production does not exceed the 
home consumption, for if the production can supply the country's wants, as 
happens to be the case now, the sugar manufacturers enjoy the protection of 
these high import duties. Even in case of a slight surplus the manufacturers 
need not be alarmed, for the profit made on sugar for home consumption would 
be considerable enough to make up for any possible loss on the export of the 
surplus sugar. Only when the production appreciably exceeds the home con- 
sumption shall we have a repetition of the 1895 experience, and export premiums 
have to be resorted to in order to get rid of the sugar. 

These export premiums, however, could not have existed any longer, 
according to the Brussels Convention, if Great Britain in igo8 had not got 
herself exempted fiom the regulation that bounty-fed sugar if imported should 
be specially taxed to an amount equivalent to the bounty ; but now Great 
Britain again allows bounty-fed sugar from countries where the difference 
between excise and import duty exceeds 6 francs per 100 kg. of white sugar 
and 5-50 francs per 100 kg. of raw. Any considerable export trade from the 
Argentine Republic is out of the question just now ; the production just covers 
the consumption, and this condition is not likely to change. 

Books of Reference : 

Revista Azucarera. 

Handbook for the Argentine Republic. 

Revista Industrial y Agricola de Tucuman. 

287 



South America. 



PARAGUAY. 

' Paraguay is a republic, entirely surrounded by land, and lies in the centre 
of South America, between 22° 4' and 27" 30' S. Lat., and between 54° 32' 
and 61° 20' W. Long. It has an area of 112,000 sq. miles, and its population 
in 1889 amounted to 636,571 inhabitants, 100,000 6f whorn are Indians. 

The climate may be described as pleasant ; it rains through all the year, 
so that no long spell of drought can cause harm to vegetation. The average 
temperature of the capital, Asuncion, is 22 — 23° C. (72° F.), and the average 
difference between summer (October to March) and winter (April to September) 
temperatures is about 6° C. (11° F.). The maximum reading of the ther- 
mometer in Asuncion has been 41° C. (io5°8- F.), but for years at a time the 
temperature has never been higher than 37° C. (98° F.), while the minimum 
temperature is 2 to 3° C. (37° F.), and is consequently never below zero. 

The average rainfall during the period 1877 and 1891 has been as follows 
(expressed in mm.) : — 



Month. 


Total. 


Maximum. 


Minimum. 


January . . 


/ 




146 


390 


46 


February . . 






140 


610 


32 


March 




' 


190 


321 


53 


April 






174 


445 


37 


May 






134 


288 


II 


June 






85 


232 


14 


July . . . 






70 


121 


16 


August 






56 


131 


5 


September 






99 


167 


29 


October . . 






162 


204 


42 


November . . 






135 


253 


25 


December 






153 


262 


64 


Total .. ■ .. J 


1,554 mm- 




or 61 -2 ins. 







Sugar cane is planted in aU parts of the Republic, and the sugar cane 
cultivation is by far the most profitable of all the crops, as owing to the favour- 
ably moist climate and the absence of periods of drought, cane can grow with 
great ease without any trouble or expense, and may be reaped regularly for 
five to fifteen years from the same stools. It does not need any other treatment, 

288 



Paraguay. 

but that of planting and reaping and occasional weeding and loosening of the 
soil after each crop. Up to some time ago, the canes were exclusively crushed 
in wooden mills driven by oxen, and the juice was not concentrated beyond a 
thick syrup, which was stored in bags of cowhide ; but now even on small 
estates there are iron mills, while much sugar in crystallized form is cured 
by centrifugalhng. t 

In 1901 the cane-planted area in Paraguay amounted to 26,000 acres, 
and one acre of cane land is expected to yield on an average twelve tons of 
cane, of which a greater or smaller amount of sugar may be gained according 
to the power of the mills. Besides sugar and syrup, brandy is made from 
the cane juice. Apart from innumerable small factories, there are several 
big ones in Paraguay, the biggest of which is on the Tebicuary River, near 
Villa Rica, with an output of 350 to 400 tons of sugar yearly. The production 
of the country is, however, much below its requirements ; hence, the importa- 
tion of about 250 to 300 tons of sugar each year. 

A duty of 70 per cent, of the value is paid on sugar when imported into 
Paraguay, while raw sugar in bags, imported via Villa Encarnacion, to be used 
on the Paraguay tea or " mat^ " estates, enjoys a reduction of 25 per cent., and 
when imported via San Jose a reduction of 10 per cent, on the duty. 



289 



Africa. 



MADEIRA. 

The Isle of Madeira lies in the Atlantic Ocean, about 450 miles from th-j 
African coast, between 33" 37' and 32° 51' N. Lat., and between 16° 37' and 
17'' 16' W. Long. It has an area of 286 sq. miles, its greatest length being 
38 miles, and its greatest width 15 miles. It is a very mountainous country, 
rising steeply from the sea and forming a lofty ridge, the highest point of which 
is 5,500 ft. above sea level. Its climate is uniformly warm : the average 
yearly temperature on the south coast is i8'8°C. (65° F.), and that on the 
north coast a little less. There is no greater difference between winter and 
summer temperatures for any given place than 6° C. (11° F.). The average 
rainfall amounts to 28 ins. The population, amounting to 132,000 people, 
consists chiefly of Portuguese ; there are also Italians, Moors, and descendants 
of the negroes formerly imported as slaves. 

Funchal is the only place of importance. Madeira was known to exist 
as early, or earlier, than the Middle Ages ; but it did not attain any importance 
till the Portuguese colonized it on one of their exploring voyages to the west 
and south. It was taken possession of by them in 1410, to become Spanish 
in conjunction with Portugal in 1580. In 1640 it was restored to Portugal, 
as soon as the latter became an independent country again ; save for a short 
period of Enghsh occupation, 1807 to 1814, it has been, and still is, a Portuguese 
possession. 

The first Portuguese colonists took sugar cane from Sicily to Madeira, 
where the fertile disintegrated basalt soil was excellent ground for the cane 
to thrive in, promoted by the mild and lovely climate. After the Portuguese 
had penetrated more southwards, and had settled in Guinea, they used to 
send negro slaves from this part to Madeira to till the ground. The cane 
sugar industry rose to a then unknown height, in consequence of which the 
centre of this branch of industry was moved from the Mediterranean coast to 
the Portuguese colonies in West Africa. This was not to last long, however, 
for as soon as America was discovered the Spanish and Portuguese colonists 
took sugar cane to the tropical countries, which proved to have a still better 
soil, and the cultivation of cane there yielded such a plentiful supply of sugar, 

290 



Madeira. 

sold at a very low price, that this industry soon got ahead of that of Madeira. 
In course of time the sugar cultivation has more than once been wrecked 
by diseases and pests. In 1502 the cane was ruined by borers, after which 
it was planted afresh. As such calamities caused repeated harm, the status 
of the cane cultivation naturally fluctuated. As a rule, cane cultivation and 
vine growing were alternately of first importance. During the years 1846 
to 1852 the vineyards were damaged by Oidium (a fungous disease), in conse- 
quence of which they were turned into cane fields by their owners. In 1864 
the cultivation of the vine was taken up again, but was attacked by the Phyl- 
loxera in 1873 ; but later on it became increasingly important, and now 
again forms the principal factor of the export trade. Since a law was promul- 
gated, in 1903, for the promotion of the sugar industry, the state of affairs 
has been as follows : The planting of sugar cane is free, so is the manufacture 
of biandy from it, but the manufacture of sugar and the strong class of alcohol 
so necessary for Madeira wine is a monopoly only granted to two factories. 
One of these two only makes alcohol, but the other both alcohol and sugar. 
The fact is, there are a great many cane planters in the island who sell their 
cane, as it is, to the factories, or crush it themselves and work the juice up intO' 
brandy. They sell retail as much brandy as they like ; while the rest is taken 
to the factories, where it is worked up to alcohol of high strength. The factories 
are obliged to buy all the cane and brandy offered them. Against the obligation 
of buying the cane at the extremely high price of £3 6s. 8d. per ton, there is 
the monopoly they have in the manufacture of sugar and of alcohol, large 
quantities of which are wanted for wine making, and the reduction allowed 
them in the import duty of £1 5s. per ton on imported foreign molasses, which 
can be used for distilling alcohol, and often is of such a good quality that it 
still yields a fair amount of sugar first. Another privilege of the factory is the 
right to introduce sugar exempjt from duty into Portugalj while foreign sugar 
is heavily taxed when imported into that country. This duty amounts to 
120 reis* per kg. {£j. 4s. per cwt.) for sugar below No. 20 D.S. and 145 reis 
per kg. {£1 9s. per cwt.) for sugar above No. 20 D.S., which shows that Madeira 
sugar enjoys a good premium, and accounts for the sugar industry existing in 
that island. But for this protection the industry could not possibly be carried 
on, for, as it is, it is far from being an important one, as will be shown further on. 
The regulation mentioned above had its drawbacks, as the small planters 
began to grow great quantities of cane, and supplied the factories with such 
large amounts of cane and brandy that the latter could easily get sugar and 
alcohol enough from this source to supply Portugal's whole demand for sugar, 
and to fiu-nish Madeira with alcohol. The importation of beet sugar molasses 
from Hamburg was therefore no longer necessary. This did away with the 
advantage of a reduced import duty which the monopolists were to enjoy on 
molasses imported from abroad, and consequently upset their calculations. 
Every now and then the quantity of sugar to be imported free into Portugal 

* 1,000 reis = 4s. 

291 



Africa. 

has to be fixed, as the Uteral regulation about free importation, dating from 
the time when the total production was about i,ooo tons of sugar, may become 
a great tax on Portugal's Exchequer, should the sugar production and im- 
portation from Madeira increase too much. 

For some years the hard British Indian cane variety, the Uba, has been 
planted in order to prevent attacks of disease among the canes, and has proved 
a success. Sugar cane is planted on the lowest levels near the coast, and is 
generally taken to the factory in carts when the crushing season begins in 
March. The factory is installed with mills, and the bagasse diffusion system 
of Naudet gives satisfaction here, though in other places, e.g., in Cuba and 
Porto Rico, it was not satisfactory, chiefly on account of the heavy expense 
for fuel. This seems strange, but this apparent contradiction may be explained 
by the fact that cane in Cuba and Porto Rico need not cost more than los. 
per ton, whereas in Madeira it never costs less than £3 6s. So it is in the 
latter country quite worth while to spend some money on tr5dng to extract 
from this costly raw material as great a percentage of sugar as possible ; while 
in other countries, where cane is cheap, it pays better not to go to any great 
expense, and to leave some sugar in the bagasse than to incur the heavy cost 
of total extraction. 

During the last eleven years the production of cane and the use made of it 
have been as foUows (expressed in metric tons) : — 



Year. 


Total 
Cane. 


Cane for 
Sugar. 


Cane for 
Alcohol. 


Year. 


Total 
Cane. 


Cane for 
Sugar. 


Cane for 
Alcohol. 


1900 . . . . 

1901 • . . . . 

1902 . . . . 

1903 . . . . 

1904 

1905 . . . . 


30,000 
21,000 
25,000 
19,000 
20,000 
28,000 


12,000 
6,000 
8,000 
6,000 

8,000 
14,000 


18,000 
15,000 
17,000 
13,000 
12,000 
14,000 


1906 . . 
1907.. .. 
1908 . . . . 
1909.. .. 
I910.. .. 


33,000 
45,000 
50,000 
60,000 

68,000 


20,000 
21,000 
24,000 

33,000 
36,000 


13,000 
24,000 
26,000 
27,000 
32,000 



The yield of sugar in 1906 amounted to 1,800 tons, or 9 per cen^. ; in 1907 
to 1,840 tons, or 8-8 per cent. ; in 1908 to 2,125 tons, or 9-1 per cent. About 
700 tons of this sugar were exported to Lisbon and Oporto in 1908, while the 
rest was used for home consumption. The export to Portugal was 1,650 
tons in 1909. 

This all shows that while the conditions are unnatural, and a monopolist 
has to pay ten times as much for his cane as many of his fellowmen in tropical 
countries have for theirs, the sugar industry can only be carried on on a small 
scale, and should be considered rather in the light of a relic of a greater past, 
than as a vital branch of present-day industry. 



292 



The Canary Islands. 

THE CANARY ISLANDS. 

The Canary Isles, lying in the Atlantic Ocean, between 27° 30' and 29° 30' 
N. Lat., and 13° 17' and 18° 10' W. Long., form a Spanish province, and consist 
of seven large and five smaller inhabited islands. Their total area amounts 
to 3,000 sq. miles, and they have a population of 360,000 inhabitants. 

After the voyages of exploration at the end of the fifteenth and the begin- 
ning of the sixteenth centuries, these islands were colonized, and from that 
time dates the introduction of the sugar industry, which soon began to flourish, 
so that Canary sugar was known as a good commercial product as early as the 
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. But competition with American cane, 
and later on with European beetroot sugar, caused the Canary industry to 
decrease in importance, till gradually it became of no consequence. Grand 
Canary is the only island where" sorhe cane is still cultivated ; everywhere 
else its production is nil. The soil once utilized for cane cultivation is gradually 
being used for the banana export trade. The amount of sugar these islands 
yield does not supply the wants of the small population ; as a matter of fact, 
beetroot sugar has to be imported every year in increasing amount. About 
1900 the sugar imported from England and Germany only amounted to 200 
to 300 tons, but in 1909 it had risen to 600 tons. 



III. 

ANGOLA. 



Only a little sugar cane is cultivated near the harbour of Benguela, in 
the Dombe Grande District, belonging to the large Portuguese colony of Angola, 
which stretches along the south-west coast of Africa, between 6° and 17° S. Lat. 
and 12° and 25° W. Long., and has an area of 509,000 sq. miles and a population 
of 4,180,000 inhabitants. An extensive plain is found running from the sea 
to Lobita, through which will pass the projected railway to Katanga, in the 
Congo. 

The principal sugar estate of Angola is the Parceria Santa Theresa do 
Luracho ; it does not, however, produce sugar, it simply works up the cane 
juice to rum, to be sold to the natives. More recently the duty on the manu- 
facture of spirits has been increased so much on account of the Alcohol Conven- 
tion that profit is out of the question, and for this reason cane cultivation on 
those estates has been supplanted by that of cotton and oil palms. 

The " Companhia do Dombe Grande " used to occupy itself exclusively 
with the preparation of rum, but it has recently begun to work up cane to sugar. 
Further, there are some smaller estates where cotton, tobacco, and oil palms 

293 



Africa. 

are grown instead of cane, so that the cultivation of sugar cane in this colony 
is very restricted. 

Great things were expected from the privilege Portugal held out to its 
African colonies, namely, a reduction of 50 per cent, in the import.duty into 
Portugal for a maximum of 6,000 tons for each colony, which is equal to a 
premium of ^fii 17s. per ton of raw sugar, as the full duty is 120 reis per kg. 
on raw, and 145 reis per kg. on white sugar. But in spite of this handsome 
preferential treatment, the manufacture and export of sugar in Angola have 
remained insignificant, and there is no present indication of a revival. 



IV. 

LIBERIA. 



A little sugar cane is cultivated and a little cane sugar manufactured 
in the Liberian Republic, lying between 8° and 12° W. Long, and 4° and 9° 
N. Lat. on the west coast of Africa. This cane is chiefly found on the banks 
of the St. Paul, Cavalla, and other rivers, the soil of which seems exceedingly 
well fitted for canes and capable of producing very tall and heavy t5rpes. 

When virgin soil is to be planted with cane, the shrubs are cut in January 
and the trees in February, and two or three weeks afterwards the rubbish is 
burnt and cane tops are planted in shallow furrows in the untilled soil. After 
the cane is banked and the weeds are removed between the rows, the cane is 
left to grow undisturbed, to be finally cut a year after the planting time. Then 
first, second, and third ratoons are kept, after which fresh tops are planted. 

Only syrup, as a rule, is made from the cane, the juice being concentrated 
and sold in tins of 5 gallons or 25 litres. Sugar is also made by evaporating 
the juice a little further, and by pouring it into barrels when sufficiently con- 
centrated, where it is left to cool and crystallize. After being boiled the 
crystallized massecuite is scooped into barrels with a perforated bottom, which 
allows the molasses to trickle through, and leaves behind crystals that are sold 
locally. Cane juice, as well as treacle and molasses, is worked up to rum, 
which is easily sold. 

White sugar is not manufactured in Liberia, being only imported from 
Europe. The industry is only of very recent date. Both capital and enterprise 
are lacking in Liberia, and this prevents the industry from becoming important ; 
and in spite of an import duty of a little more than 3d. per pound of brown 
sugar and id. per pound of white sugar, the home production is not sufficient 
to supply the consumption, however little this may be. Exact figures as 
regards the sugar production are not to be obtained, and the data that are 
given only refer to isolated cases, and not to the conditions in general. 

294 



Egypt. 



EGYPT. 

Only that part of Egypt stretching along the banks of the Nile is devoted 
to the cane sugar industry, that is from a little south of Cairo up to Assouan, 
near the Sudanese frontiers. This tract covers a distance of 4° to 30° N. Lat., 
but although this stretch of land is of considerable extent as regards length, 
it is only of restricted width, being limited by the narrow Nile Valley, which is 
only a few miles broad at its narrowest part, and twelve miles at its widest, 
the desert stretching away from it on both sides. The ground fit for cane 
cultivation is chiefly situated on the left bank of the Nile, as on the right bank 
the desert mountains reach to the river in many places. For this very reason 
all the factories have been built on the left bank. Rainfall is very scanty in 
these parts. There are years in which there is no rain at all, so that the humidity 
of the air falls to a very low figure. Indeed, were it not for irrigation, cane culti- 
vation would be impossible ; but on the big estates it is splendidly carried out, 
and large pumping stations exist to pump up the river water and by means of 
canals to irrigate the cane throughout the year with the necessary water. 
Small fields are irrigated by means of water-wheels, which are moved by 
buffaloes or by hand-power. In order to increase the irrigated area, the 
Government in 1902 had a large dam erected across the Nile, near Assouan, 
through which large reservoirs are filled at the time of the annual rise of the 
Nile (in the months of June and September), to be drawn from during the dry 
months. In the cane districts the temperature varies between 28° and 43° C. 
(82° and 110° F.) during the summer months, and between 10° and 30° C. 
(50° and 86° F.) during the winter. The nights generally are cool ; in winter 
sometimes they are so cold as to have the sugar canes nipped by frost, an 
inevitable loss to the planters. While Egypt in the Middle Ages was known 
for the extent of its cane plantations and the skilfulness of its inhabitants in 
manufacturing sugar of all sorts therefrom, the industry ceased altogether in 
1517, when Egypt was conquered by the Turks, who ruined the country out- 
right. As a matter of fact, some sugar cane was still planted and a little sugar 
was manufactured subsequently, but it Wcis no longer an industry worthy of 
the name, and not till the beginning of the nineteenth century was the manu- 
facture resumed on a practical scale. In 1850 Ismael Pasha ordered sugar 
cane to be brought from Jamaica, and in 1855 the Government began to en- 
courage the manufacture of sugar ; but it was not till 1877 that a well-estab- 
lished national sugar industry began to exist. The factories no longer belonged 
to the Khedive, but fell to a Government Committee, the Dariah Sanieh, which 
was not long in building several factories, and in 1896 it could boast of an 
output exceeding 75,000 tons of sugar. At that time cotton only fetched very 
low prices, so that sugar cane was the most profitable plant ^for the fellahs to 
grow ; but when the price of cotton went up and better profits were promised, 

295 



Africa. 

they no longer planted sugar cane exclusively. In 1893 a French Society, 
called the " Society Generale des Sucreries d'Egypte," began to manufacture 
sugar, and for this purpose built three large factories, which as early as 1900 
produced as much as 30,000 tons of sugar. In 1903 the Darieh Sanieh sold its 
nine factories (not the planting area) to the " Societe Generale," which thus 
almost got the monopoly of sugar manufacture in Egypt. There are still a few 
small factories that occasionally work, but their sugar production is not worth 
mentioning. The " Societe " shut up some of the newly-acquired factories, 
and kept en working with the others, but the amount of cane that was brought 
to the mills was not sufficient to make them run at their full capacity, and so 
their profits were almost nil. In 1905 there was a big financial crisis also 
affecting the business, but all this seems now to belong to the past, and the 
company expect soon to extend their cane-planted area, and to increase the 
quantity of cane to be crushed. 

In 1898 — 1899 Egypt had an area under cane of 88,000 acres ; in 1903 
— 1904 it had gone down to 50,000 ; and in 1907 — 1908, the worst year on 
record, it only touched 40,000 ; but at present the area seems to be increasing. 

In 1905 — 1906 685,000 tons of cane were worked up, 5delding 63,634 tons 
of sugar ; in 1906 — 1907 the figures were 415,000 and 41,664 ; in 1907 — 1908 
they were 253,459 ^^^ 28,541 respectively ; while in 1908— 1909 359,360 tons 
of cane were brought to the mill, and 34,844 tons of sugar were produced ; 
and in 1909 — 1910 553,376 tons of cane were worked up, which yielded 59,279 
tons of sugar. The figures for 1910 — 1911 were 472,344 tons of cane, and 49,403 
of sugar. 

The present existing sugar factories and their capacities are as follows : — 



Factories 


of the " Soci( 


;te Generale." 


Group Ibrahimieh 


! 


■ 


Bibeh . . 


1,800 tons of 


cane per 24 hours (closed) 


Mattai . . 


1,800 „ 


J, It It 


Abou Kourgas . . 


2,000 ,, 


1) tt 11 


Rodah . . 


1,800 , 


(closed) 


Cheick Fadl 


1,500 „ 


,, ,, ,, 


Southern Group : 






Nag Hamadi . . 


2,500 „ 


,, ,, ,, 


Ernant . . 


1,000 ,, 


It tt It 


Motana . . 


500 „ 


ti 11 tt 


Kom Ombo 


3,000 „ 


It It tt 



Factories belonging to other owners : 
Tarchont . . (closed). 

Beni Kora 
Belianeh 

Egyptian Sugar and Land Co. (closed). 
Demeus . . 2,000 tons of sugar yearly. 

296 



Egypt. 

In addition, the " Societe " possesses a very big refinery at El Hawamdieh, 
which deals with not only the raw sugar from its working factories, but 
also raw sugar imported from other countries. This refinery is capable of 
working up 230 tons of sugar daily ; in 1909 it worked up 49,354 tons of sugar, 
20,040 tons of which came from its own factories, while 29,314 tons were raw 
Java sugar. In 1910 the amount of raw sugar worked up was 60,000 tons. 

The manufacturers buy the cane from the planters, who are either big 
estate owners or small farmers who rent a few acres and plant cane on them. 
The ground destined for cane growing is ploughed up in the autumn, and after- 
wards is tilled two or three times in February of the next year. In the same 
month the furrows are dug ^it'ith a spade or a plough, 8 ins. deep, and soon after 
pieces of cane 16 to 20 ins. long are planted in two rows in the furrows. Not 
only are tops used for this purpose such as are employed in most of the other 
sugar-producing countries, but all of the cane is cut into lengths. Large 
quantities of cane are used as seed, namely, 6,700 lbs. per acre. This is done 
in the months of March and April, the planted cane is covered with earth and 
watered. Then they start to irrigate ; ten days later they irrigate once more, and 
keep this up till the end of October, after which the intervals are fourteen to 
twenty days, according to the appearance of the cane, while irrigation is stopped 
after October in order to give the cane opportunity to ripen. Reaping is begun 
at the end of December, and kept up till the beginning of April, at the end of 
the grinding season. The cane variety most in use up to a short time ago was 
a red kind very much like Bourbon cane, which will thoroughly ripen in the 
short time allowed it. The " Societe Generale " has recently ordered cane 
from Java, and has had the cuttings distributed arriong the cane farmers. 
This kind of cane is said to yield 25 to 30 per cent, more cane than the old 
types. It is nothing extraordinary that on growing these improved tops the 
quantity of cane obtained should increase, considering that the Arabs, who 
have to supply their own sets, were formerly in the habit of having the attacked, 
diseased, damaged, or fallen stalks, which they could not sell to the factory, for 
this very purpose. The manure they use is stable dung and " ruins " manure ; 
but pigeons' dung from caves, and, recently, artificial manures have also been 
used. 

When the cane is cut, camels convey it to the railways, by which it is 
carried to the factory ; as a rule, one ratoon crop is grown after a crop of plant 
cane ; then the land is sown with cotton or beans, and lies fallow a whole year ; 
after which period it is planted with cane again, so that once every four years 
, cane is planted in the same field. 

The yield of cane very much depends on the kind of soil and the disposable 
quantity of irrigation water ; while the temperature during the vegetative 
period also influences the yield. On an average 24 tons of cane per acre are 
expected from plant cane and 16 tons from ratoons. 

The factories buy the cane at 1575 frs. per ton, so that for a production 
of fifty tons of cane per hectare, it realizes 787-50 frs. and 15-50 frs. for dry 
leaves, amounting altogether to 803 frs. 

297 



Africa. 



The " Soci6te Generale's " greatest trouble is want of cane, their factories 
being so vast and well installed that they might easily work up much larger 
quantities than they have done lately. The " Societe " therefore does its 
very best to encourage cane cultivation. Owing to the high price of land, 
it is not possible to plant its own cane, but it is willing to advance money to 
planters to improve the roads, and is disposed to give a better price for cane 
coming far, and consequently having to pay heavier transportation charges. All 
these measures seem to have taken effect, and the once steadily decreasing 
quantity of cane to be worked up has changed into an increasing amount. 

As has been said before, the factories are estabhshed on a good basis, 
and are installed throughout with the newest machinery. For want of suffi- 
cient cane brought to the mill, this modern installation does not show to ad- 
vantage, but should the factories ever work at full capacity they would deal 
with tremendous quantities of cane most economically and with a minimum 
of loss. They generally manufacture but one kind, that is raw sugar for the 
refinery, and occasionally white sugar for direct consumption. The molasses 
is distilled to alcohol. 



The average yield amounts to 


— 






1st product . . 


9-80 per cent. 


on 


100 cane 


2nd 


0-45 .. 




100 „ 


3rd ,. .. .. 


0-17 „ 




100 „ 


In all . . 


10-42 per cent. 


on 


100 ,, 


Molasses 


2-25 per cent. 


on 


100 ,, 


Total production 


12-67 psr cent. 


on 


100 ,, 



In the last years of the working of the Dariah Sanieh, the yield was : — 
1895 9-60 1899 9-32 

1896 .. .. .. 10-23 1900 9"95 

1897 .. .. .. 11-02 1901.. .. .. 10-39 

1898 8-79 

In the year 1906 — 1907 the statistics of the five factories belonging to 
" Societe Generale de Sucreries and de la Raffinerie d'Egypt " were as 



the 



follows : — 





TonB of 

Cane 

Worked. 


Sugar 

OouTeut 

of 

Cane. 


Yield. 


Production 
in Tons. 


Cost of 


Factory 


- Firi-t 
Product 


Second 
Product. 


Total. 


in f re. 
per 100 kg. 


Mattai 

Aboukourgas 

Nag Hamadi 

Cheikh Fadl 

Ernant 


40,671 
73.590 
147,520 
97,180 
55.905 


, 12-75 
12-91 
12-49 
12-66 
13-18 


9-56 
10-37 

9-86 
10-22 
10-03 


0-75 
0-21 

0-95 


10-31 

10-58' 

9-86 

10-22 

io-g8 


3.891 
7.633 
14.597 
9.934 
5,609 


28-42 
23-62 
28-42 
24-81 
24-47 


Average and total 


414,866 


12-73 10-03 


0-13 


10-16 41,664 


26-14 



298 



Egypt. 

In 1910 the average yield was 1071 per cent, of sugar of 96-4 per cent, 
polarization. Since November ist, 1909, the following regulation about 
import duties and excises has been issued for the ensuing ten years :— 

1. On all foreign sugar imported by the Societe Generale up to 31st 
October, 1910, a duty of 5 per cent, ad valorem was to be paid, while 20 piastres 
(4s.) is to be paid on home produce (this duty used to be 7s. on the first 40,000 
tons and 6s. for the rest). 

2. The import duty was to be 64 per cent, ad valorem from ist November, 
1910, till 31st October, 1911. 

3. It is now 8 per cent., dating from ist November, 1911, till the end of 
the agreement, while the rate of excise duty will rest at 4s. per ton. 

4. The total amount of the excise should not be less than 10,000 Egyptian 
pounds* ; while, on the other hand, nothing should be paid in excess to what 
it used to be at the time of the 7s. and 6s. tariff. 

5. Beginning with ist November, 1909, the paid excise was to be returned 
in case sugar should be exported, namely, in such a manner that the returned 
excise should never exceed the excise of the preceding year. 

The total production of Egypt has been for the last fifteen years, expressed 
in metric tons : — 



1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 
1902 
1903 
1904 



101,000 
80,000 
88,000 
98,500 
95,000 
98,000 
70,000 
60,000 



1905. 
1906. 
1907. 
1908 . , 
1909., 
1910 . , 
1911. , 



60,000 

63,634 
41,664 

25,541 
34,844 
55,330 
49,403 



Besides this quantity of locally produced sugar, Egypt imports a consider- 
able amount of sugar, which is shown by the following table : — 





Sugar Imports 


into Egypt in 1 


ons. 






Origin. 


1904. 


1905. 


1906. 


1907. 


1908. 


1909. 


1910. 


England 


10 


12 


20 


II 


8 







Germany 


35 


22 


11.751 


245 


191 


368 


125 


Austria 


43 


8,860 


13,012 


16,837 


4.155 


, 7,815 


10,927 


Belgium 


28 


555 


3.279 


81 


— 


— 


— 


Java 


6,227 


17.416 


6,415 


3.093 


11,108 


i?,584 


19,790 


France... 


3 


168 


1,041 


10 


10 


— 


— 


Russia 


11,540 


11,973 


— 


4,610 


37.792 


22,404 


1.371 


Total 


20,;94 


39,409 


34.419 


24,890 


53,255 


49.171 


32.213 



•^ 1 £E = 20s. 6d. 



299 



Africa. 

In 1911 Egypt imported 25,493 tons of sugar. 

Egypt used to export much sugar to Turkey and Asia Minor, and candy 
to the champagne vineyards in France. The latter buy their candy from 
Egypt because they think cane sugar the only sugar that wiU not interfere 
with the taste of the champagne. In 1906 the exports came to £45,000, in 
1907 to £38,250 ; in 1908 some 11,377 ^Jags of sugar of 100 kg. were exported 
to Djeddah, and 5,284 bags to Rheims, which showed a great decrease. In 
1909 the total export of sugar was 5,868 tons, chiefly to Turkey and Arabia ; 
in 1910, 6,384 tons, of which 5,828 went to Turkey ; while the 1911 exportations 
amounted to 10,821 tons. The increased consumption of Egypt and the Sudan 
takes up nearly all the sugar produced and refined in Egypt, and allows of a 
considerable amount being imported into those countries as well. In 1908 — 
1909 the consumption for Egypt and the Sudan was 78,457 tons of sugar, 
61,740 of which were provided by the " Societ6 Gen^rale," while the rest was 
imported. The consumption m 1910 — 1911 amounted to 80,527 tons. Egypt 
can easily produce a larger quantity, of sugar than it does at present without 
having to be afraid of over-production in its own country ; and since the 
" Societe Generale " does what it can to improve the quality of the cane, and 
to advance money to the farmers, and to encourage them to grow cane, the cane 
production is likely to exceed the crops of the last few years ; the factories are 
quite capable of working up much more cane than they have done, which shows 
that the Egyptian sugar production has dwindled solely for lack of cane. As 
the cotton industry has not been the success they expected it to be, the farmers, 
no doubt, will take up cane cultivation once more, and by so doing will remove 
the only obstacle to the further development of the Egyptian sugar production. 

Books of Reference : 

Walter Tiemann. The Sugar Cane in Egypt. 

La Cullure de la Canne d Sucre en Bgypte {Journ. de I'Agric). 

Bouricius and Cohen. Ben en under over de rietsuikerindustrie in Egypte. 



VI. 

MOZAMBIQUE. 



The Portuguese colony of Mozambique lies on the east coast of Africa, 
between 10° and 27° S. Lat. and 30° and 41° W. Long. Its area covers 300,000 
sq. miles, and its population is estimated at 800,000 inhabitants. Only along 
the banks of the Zambesi and the Limpopo rivers is sugar cane cultivated and 
cane sugar manufactured. This industry is of very recent date, as it was only 
in 1896 that the " Companhia d'Assucar de Mozambique " was founded, 
which built a factory near Mopea. In 1897 the Companhia Assucareira da 
Africa Oriental Portuguese was established, which in 1900 started a sugar 
factory in Marromeu. In addition an English company, the " Sena Sugar 

300 



Mozambique. 

Factory Company," was responsible for a factory started a:t Chimbue, so that 
sugar is now being produced by three factories. Then others were constructed, 
so that we may expect a considerable extension of the sugar industry in Portu- 
guese East Africa before long. 

The production of these three factories has been from the beginning as 
follows, in long tons : — 





1898 


1899 


1900 


1901 


1902 


1903 


1904 


1905 


1906 


1907 


1908 


Mopea . . . 
Marromeu 
Chimbue 


1, 000 


1,630 


2,560 
1,310 


1,250 
300 


1,792 
2,970 


2,050 
1,200 


3.700 
3.750 


3.62s 
2,470 


3.16s 
700 


1,820 
1,300 


6,000 
1,500 
5.16s 


Total ... 


1,000 


1,630 


3.870 


1.550 


4.762 


3.520 


7.450 


6,095 


3.86s 


3,120 


12,665 



In 1909 the total production amounted to 17,362 tons, while that of 1910 
was 15,714, and that of 1911 27,700 tons. Rum used to be distilled from 
molasses, which rum could be imported into the Transvaal free from duty, as 
Mozambique enjoyed trade privileges with that country when importing goods 
via Delagoa Bay. After the war, and since the Confederation of the South 
African colonies, this advantage has ceased to exist, and the profit on the 
manufacture of alcohol has disappeared. 



In 1909 the area under cane was as follows :- 



Mopea 

Marromeu 

Chimbue 



4,000 acres 

5,139 ., 
3,100 „ 



Total 



12,239 



Owing to the extension of these, and the establishment of other estates 
we may put down the area under cane in Mozambique at the present date as 
30,000 acres. 

The climate of Mozambique is generally warm, but very changeable. 
From November till March it is very warm and rainy ; the rest of the time it 
is dry and cooler. During the months May to July the temperature often drops 
to 20° C. (68° F.), and the day and night readings are apt to vary considerably. 
The soil is a rich clay, sometimes mixed with sand ; on the banks of the Lim- 
popo River the cane lands stretch along the banks at a gentle slope, so that 
irrigation with river water is available by a process of damming-up. The 
banks of the Zambesi River, however, are high and steep, and for that reason, 
the irrigation water has to be raised by powerful pumps, to be distributed 
over the country through a network of canals. 

301 



Africa. 

Nowadays Vha cane, imported from India, which seems to be a success 
all over South Africa, is planted. The planting season begins with the rainy 
period in December or January, and the cane is irrigated if necessary till 
May or June of the following year, when the harvesting commences, to end in 
November. As the cane fields depend for their success on irrigation, they 
are laid out in long strips along the banks of the rivers or at the side of lagoons, 
from whence the irrigation water can be obtained by damming or pumping. 

Ratoon is kept for fifteen months or longer, after which the cane is cut 
every year. A cane production of 36 tons to the acre, yielding 10 per cent, 
sugar or 3-6 tons, is generally expected, but we very much doubt whether this 
average yield is really attained. The plants often suffer from drought or 
from grasshoppers, which, of course, affect the crops for the worse, as may be 
seen from the above-mentioned irregular figures of production from the different 
estates. 

The newer factories are of modern construction, and are kept up-to-date 
by the purchase of the most perfect kind of machinery. 

On sugar exported a duty of i per cent, ad valorem is levied, but when it 
is imported into Portugal and into the States of the South African Union it 
enjoys great privileges. In 1902 a reduction of 50 per cent, was allowed on 
the import duty on sugar sent to Portugal from Mozambique, and from Portu- 
guese East India and Timor for fifteen years up to a maximum of 6,000 tons 
for each of the two colonies. As this duty amounts to 120 reis per kg. or 2^d. 
per lb. of raw sugar, and 145 reis per kg. or 3d. per lb. of white sugar, the first 
6,000 tons of raw sugar from Mozambique enjoy a drawback of £11 13s. per 
metric ton. All quantities above 6,000 are fully taxed, which explains why in 
1908, when Mozambique exported almost twice 6,000 tons, the excess was not 
sent to Lisbon, but to Antwerp and the Transvaal. Besides this very consider- 
able protection accorded the Mozambique sugar when imported into Portugal, 
it, up to June, 1912, also enjoyed privileges in the colony itself. An import 
duty amounting to £16 per ton was levied on foreign sugar, while an excise of 
20 reis per kg., or about £i\ per ton, is paid on sugar consumed in the country 
itself. The surtax was, consequently, no less than £12, per ton ; but in the 
middle of 1912 the import duty was lowered to 30 reis per kg., doing away with 
the privilege. At the present time the sugar consumption in Mozambique 
and the interior is not very considerable, and is not likely to extend, as there 
are but few white people, and the natives have not acquired the habit of using 
sugar as a food. 

When Mozambique sugar is imported into the Transvaal it is exempted 
from import duty, which means ^5 per ton of white and £3 los. per ton of raw 
sugar ; hence the Portuguese colony is privileged above other foreign importers. 
Moreover, the sugar enjoys 9, rebate of 40 per cent, in railway rates. The unifica- 
tion of the British South African colonies threatens to put an end to this state 
of affairs, as the Governments of Cape Colony, Orange River Colony, and 
Natal have put an extra duty on Mozambique sugar of /)s. 8d. per 

302 



Mozambique. 

100 lbs. of refined and 4s. lod. per 100 lbs. of raw above the ordinary import 
duty just referred to. At the present time, however, Mozambique sugar is 
imported free of duty into the Transvaal, and as there are no longer any inland 
customs barriers in British South Africa this sugar also goes untaxed from 
Transvaal into the other States of the South African Union. 

The Mozambique sugar industry may be considered a promising one. 
There are extensive stretches of fertile soil, with great facilities for irrigation, 
to be obtained for httle outlay. Labour is near at hand, but there is not 
enough of it. The expensive transportation of sugar is a great drawback. 
It might be sent by water, if the transport did not happen to coincide with the 
time of great drought, which reduces the Zambesi to a low level, and prevents 
the boats carrying more than a very little cargo at a time, so that the cost of 
carriage would be heavy. 

On the whole, sugar can be prepared in Mozambique at very low cost, 
and the recently established new plantations wiU doubtless lead to a considerable 
increase in the sugar production. 



VII. 

NATAL. 



In Natal the sugar industry is carried on along the coast between Durban 
and the mouth of the Tugela River ; and hkewise in Zululand, between 28° 
and 30° S. Lat., that is outside the tropics. Natal's sugar industry only dates 
from 1850, when a few planters began to crush a little cane in small mills, and 
to work the juice up to sugar. Not till 1878 wasi the first modern sugar factory 
driven by steam founded at Mount Edgecombe by sugar manufacturers from 
Mauritius. Since that time the sugar industry has steadily improved ; more 
factories have been built, while the existing ones have extended their cane 
production, till at the present time there are no fewer than thirty-four in 
operation, their output being estimated to amount to 92,000 tons in 1911-12. 
Besides the land originally given up to sugar cultivation, viz., the tract on the 
coast north of Durban, much cane has lately been planted successfully in 
Zululand, and the sugar industry will no doubt extend considerably in that 
territory, as the founding of a great many large and well-installed sugar fac- 
tories is being considered. 

As Natal hes outside the tropics, it takes longer for cane to ripen there 
than in most of the other sugar-producing countries. It takes plant cane 
two years, and first and second ratoons eighteen months, which means three 
crops from one single planting within five years. At the end of the five years 
the cane is planted over again. The cane variety most in vogue nowadays is 
the Uba, the hard, yellow cane from British India, which, as we have already 
had occasion to remark, proves a success wherever it is planted in South Africa. 

303 



Africa. 

For manure stable dung and cane ash are used, while phosphatic manures 
have also been tried. The cut cane is taken by means of railway trucks to the 
factories, which used to be most primitively installed, but are now being 
improved by the owners. The raw sugar is refined in the country itself, except 
the amount of raw sugar that is consumed as it is. There is one refinery at South 
Coast Junction belonging to a firm of raw sugar manufacturers, which delivers 
100 tons of sugar daily, and before long may be capable of twice this output. 
Then there is another refinery to work up the sugar coming from the four central 
factories belonging to Sir Liege Hulett & Sons. As soon as all these refineries 
are fully employed. Natal will be able to provide the South African Union with 
white sugar, and will not require any from abroad. At the present moment 
it cannot do without imported sugar, as the consumption of British South 
Africa is about 90,000 to 100,000 tons per annum. 

The labourers are Kaf&rs and British Indian immigrants ; but the planters 
are better satisfied with the work of the latter, as they work more steadily. 

The British Indians are indentured for five years, at the end of which time 
they have to sign for two more years or have to return to India, unless they 
should be able to pay a yearly contribution of £3, ^yhich enables them to stay 
in the country and become landowners. During the time of indenture they 
receive los. per month the first year, which is increased by is. each subsequent 
year ; over and above this they get food, quarters, and medical attendance 
free, so that they have only to find clothes. 

The Indian Government has now prohibited Indians going to Natal, 
because they are alleged to be ill-treated ; so that the labour problem in Natal 
has entered on a new and less favourable phase, which may greatly retard 
progress. 

The trade among the different South African States used to be very com- 
plicated, as everyone of them had their own import duties, and granted different 
kinds of privileges to different countries. Mozambique sugar, for instance, 
was exempted from duty when imported into the Transvaal, while Natal sugar 
was taxed, and this state of affairs remained in force a couple of years after 
the former Boer Republics had come under British rule. 

In 1906, however, a Convention was drawn up, according to which the 
British South African colonies guaranteed each other free trade, while import 
duties on sugar from abroad were fixed as follows : — 

For adherents to the Brussels Convention : £ s. d. 

Candy, loaf, castor, cubes, etc. . . . . per 100 lbs. 050 

„ „ . . . . per ton 5 o 

Other sugar, golden syrup, maple syrup, molasses sac 

charum, treacle, etc. . . . . . . per 100 lbs. 036 

„ ,, ,, ,, . . per ton 3 10 o 

Saccharin and the like . . . . . . per lb. 100 

Bounty-fed sugar is taxed with additional duties according to the stipula- 
tions of the Brussels Permanent Committee. 

304 



/J 






1 


J 


k^ 




Natal. 

The sugar production of Natal has amounted for the last seventeen years to 
the following quantities, in long tons : — • 



1894 .. 










• 19.369 


1895 ■• 










20,508 


1896 . . 










20,651 


1897 .. 










• 20,245 


1898 . . 










29,186 


1899 .. 










. Boer War 


1900 . . 










. 16,689 


I90I . . 










36,662 


1902 . . 










• 21,095 


1903 .. 










• 33,944 


1904 .■. 










• 19.238 


1905 .. 










• 26,158 


1906 . . 










• 21,479 


1907 .. 










■ 24,223 


1908 . . 










■ 31.999 


1909 .. 










■ 77.491 


I9I0 . . 










■ 84,437 


I9II . . 










92,000 


I9I2 . . 

Ll-.* J j.:_ 




_ _i J _ - 


1 _ J _. 




. 106,000 (esti 

■ J _ jl r 



Besides this production, a good deal of sugar is imported from abroad. 
Natal sends much of its own sugar and that from foreign countries to the 
neighbouring States. The figures of imports and exports vary for every year, 
and those representing exports seem to us to be unreliable, as the values appear 
to be out of reason in a great many instances. 

The sugar industry of Natal is likely to flourish before long. There is 
land and labour enough to judge from the present state of affairs for good 
and extensive cane cultivation ; the factories have been, or are being, well 
installed. Finally, the British South African Union has done away with 
interstate customs boundaries, in consequence of which sugar may be trans- 
ported all over the extensive territory free from duty ; while a rather high import 
duty of about 5s. per cwt. levied on foreign sugar makes outside competition 
impossible. Then sugar is transported at a low rate by the railways, so that 
it is easy for Natal to compete with tropical cane sugar-producing countries, 
although Natal itself does not he within the tropics. After the labour problem 
is fully solved, it will not be long before this colony wiU be capable of producing 
all the 100,000 tons of refined sugar that South Africa needs for her home con- 
sumption ; but as things are at present, some sugar has still to be imported. 



305 



Africa. 
VIII. 

MAURITIUS. 

I. — Location, History, Cane-planted Area, Total Production. 

Mauritius is an island lying in the Indian Ocean, between 19° 58' and 
20° 32' S. Lat. and 57" 17' and 57° 57' E. Long., and is separated from Mada- 
gascar by a strait 560 miles wide. Its area covers 742 sq. miles, its greatest 
length being 13J miles and its greatest width 22 miles. 

Mauritius is of volcanic origin, and is surrounded by a coral reef which is 
submerged at high tide. Only in three places does the land rise steep from the 
sea, where there are openings in the coral reef. There are only two good 
harbours to be found on the highly indented coast, namely. Port Louis, the 
capital, on the west, and Port Bourbon on the east coast. 

A low-lying coastland extends around the entire island, with the exception 
of the south-west ; this coastland widens in the north, and forms the flat 
districts of Pamplemousses and Riviere du Rempart. A central tableland 
covers more than half of the entire area, and rises from 800 to 2,000 ft. above 
the level of the sea. Rows of steep hills of peculiar shape separate this high- 
land in the north, west, and north-west from the lowlands, save in places 
where an opening affords access, as, for example, from Plaines Wilhems to 
the Black River district and to Port Louis. 

In the east three parallel rows of well-wooded hills run from east to west, 
and form a transition from highland to low coastland. A mountain ridge 
which runs across the highlands from north-east to south-west forms the 
principal watershed of the island. Owing to their enormous affluence, the 
numerous rivers are of no use for navigation ; they generally run through 
deep, densely overgrown ravines. As, however, the forests on the slopes have 
been cut down, they are capable of becoming raging mountain streams in the 
rainy season 

There is only one big lake, the Mare aux Vacoas, 1,950 ft. above sea level, 
which has an area of li sq. miles. This used to be a marsh, but the Colonial 
Government has turned it into a reservoir by damming up its out-flowing 
canal, which reservoir provides the towns of Plaines Wilhems with water. 

The temperature of Mauritius is not particularly high ; at the Observatory 
at Pamplemousses an average year temperature of 21 — 22-5° C. (70 — 72° F.) 
was observed during the years 1897 to 1902. December, January, February, 
and March are the warmest months, while the temperature falls during the 
period April to June, to rise again from June till December. In December, 
1900, a maximum temperature of 34-8° C. (94-5° F.) was recorded, while the 
minimum temperature in May was 10-4° C. (507° F.). The average maximum 
is 25-6° C. (78° F.), and the average minimum 17-5° C. (63-5° F.). The average 
yearly rainfall was for the ten years period 1893 to 1902 79 ins. over the island. 

306 



Mauritius. 

With the exception of a few very dry years — such as 1897 and 1900, with a 
rainfall of 63-2 and 59-8 mm. respectively — the fluctuation in rainfall records 
does not amount to much. The month of March is the wettest, and that of 
October the driest ; while the wet months, as a rule, come during the warm sea- 
son, and the dry months belong to the cold spell. More rain is observed to fall 
on the windward or eastern side than on the lee-side or south and west part 
of the country ; the difference in height above the sea level likewise influences 
the rainfall ; and, as will be pointed out later on, Mauritius is subject to a 
great many cyclones, which generally occur between December and April ; 
as a rule, they are accompanied by rain, so that the cyclone period is at the 
same time the wettest period. 

According to the 1901 census, the population of Mauritius, not including 
the garrison, amounted to : — 

People of European, African, or mixed origin . . 108,428 

People born in Mauritius from Indian parents . . 198,878 

Immigrants born in India . . . . . . . . 60,208 

Chinese . . . . . . . . . . . 3.509 



371.023 



The inhabitants who are not of Asiatic extraction are either the descendants- 
of the original French colonists or of the slaves who were imported from Mada- 
gascar and the African Continent. These two races have mixed together, or 
have mixed with the later British Indians, so that the coloured Creole popu- 
lation consists of the mixture of three types of people. The Indian population 
dates from the abohtion of slavery, 1834 to 1839. As the Kberated slaves, 
numbering 49,365 according to the 1841 census, did not choose to work after 
their emancipation, coolies were imported from India, a proceeding that has- 
been kept up save for a few intervals tiU the present day, although in 1908 
and 1909 no indentured coohes were recruited. The Chinese, as a rule, are- 
shopkeepers, and the Arabs are very often merchants of some importance. 

During the decade 1891 to 1901 the total number of inhabitants had only 
increased by 435 ; the original population was 2,731 fewer than it used to be, 
while the Indian population increased by 3,166 inhabitants. The number of 
deaths is balanced by that of births ; but this proportion was less favour- 
able with the old Mauritian population, which points to a steadily increasing 
British ladian majority. The sanitary conditions leave much to be desired 
and the death rate is high : in 1903 it was 35-9 per 1,000 inhabitants. 

Owing to the steep and mountainous country, Mauritius does not possess 
any waterways, but it has 130 miles of public railway, viz., two lines from 
Port Louis to Grande Riviere Sud Est, one along the north and one right across 
the island. Then there is a line from Port Louis to Mahebourg, with a branch 
line to Souillac, in Savanne ; and, finally, there is a hue to the Black River 

307 



Africa. 

district. All these railways are single line, and are intersected by a number 
of stations and passing places. 

In connection with these main lines, there is a number of private railway 
lines, while tram-lines were laid in 1902, when the surra disease had made a 
gap among the bullocks and mules, and the Government helped to have these 
lines constructed for the transport of cane. 

Port Louis is the capital of the island ; it is rather unfavourably situated, as 
being surrounded by mountains it cannot get the benefit of the south-east 
trade wind. Since a malaria epidemic in 1866, its population has steadily 
decreased, for though Port Loi^s numbered 74,426 inhabitants in 1861, this 
had dropped to 52,740 in 1901, and can hardly be more than 50,000 at the 
present day. Many of the well-to-do inhabitants preferred to hve near the 
railway stations in the district of Plaines Wilhems. The second town in size 
is Mah6bourg, with 20,000 inhabitants. What other towns exist are smaller 
stiU. 

Mauritius was discovered by Mascarenhas, a Portuguese, in 1505, and 
remained Portuguese or Spanish till 1598. Afterwards it remained unattached, 
till in 1644 it was taken possession of by the Dutch, who gave it the name of 
Mauritius. After being abandoned by the Dutch in 1712, it fell to the French 
in 1715, when it was called Isle de France. It continued a French possession 
tiU 1810, after which it fell to the British, who have held it ever since, and who 
restored the old name of Mauritius. It used to be of greater strategical value 
to the Enghsh than it is now, and that is why it was called " the Malta of the 
Indian Ocean " or " Star and Key to the Indian Ocean." 

In 1650 the Dutch took sugar cane from Java to Mauritius, but this branch 
of cultivation was not a success ; in 1747 sugar cane was imported once more 
while Governor Mah6 de la Bourdonnais was in office. In 1750 a sugar estate 
was in operation in the most northern district of the island, named Pample- 
mousses, which undertaking belonged to the Governor's brother, Mah6 de la 
Villebague. The industry soon extended, and for a long time it was the only 
profitable one. The production of 1816 amounted to 4,000 tons, prepared in 
68 mills, but in 1825 it was extended and improved when Mauritian sugar, on 
being imported into Great Britain, enjoyed similar or equal rights as did the 
West Indian sugar. Another cause of improvement was the success of the 
importation of British Indian coohes after the abolition of slavery, when the 
sugar exportation of 1855 rose to 120,000 tons. This was a stationary figure 
during the following forty years, till in 1895 the production all at once rose again 
considerably, thanks to improvements in the cultivation and manufacturing 
methods. 

At the present day 173,958 out of the total area of 472,750 acres are 
cultivated, but a considerable part of the country Ues fallow owing to the slight 
rainfall and the lack of irrigation works. Another part is given up to woods, 
and towns and villages take up some space. 

308 



Mauritius. 
The X73,958 acres of cultivated area are divided as follows : 



Sugar cane . . 
Aloe fibre 
Other vegetation 



151.134 
20,709 

2,115 



173,958 
which shows that sugar cane is the staple crop. 

Sugar cane is planted all over the island where soil and water conditions 
allow*. It is met with from the coast up to a height of 1,400 or 1,500 ft., but 
higher than 1,500 ft. it is too cold for profitable cultivation ; 600 to 800 ft., 
or even less, is considered the most suitable. There are four different belts 
as regards fitness of soil for cane cultivation ; the first, including the districts 
of Pamplemousses and Riviere du Rempart together with the coast of Flacq, 
is very dry, and does not get more than 40 to 50 ins. of rain yearly, which is not at 
all evenly distributed, so that there are lengthy dry periods to be recorded. 
Owing to the regular cutting down of forest, irrigation supplies yield less and 
less water, in consequence of which this belt has a great many estates fewer 
than formerly. 

The second belt surrounds the central highland ; the latter gets sufficient 
rain, even as much as 200 ins., but the low temperature that prevails in this 
district prevents heavy crops from being reaped here. The third belt is in 
the southern part of the island ; it does not exceed 600 ft. in height, and gets 
enough rain. The district of the Black River, on the western coast, on the 
contrary suffers continually from drought, and hardly ever gets more than 
20 ins. of rain a year. The three sugar estates in that district are for this 
reason all well irrigated, and if the irrigation plants were improved and extended, 
that part of the country would be capable of producing yet more cane. 

The total production and the exportation of sugar and molasses have 
been as follows for the last twenty-eight years, all the figures being expressed 
in metric tons : — 







Exportation 


Exportation 


Year. 


Production. 


of sugar. 


of molasses. 


i884/85t 


126.347 


127,784 


310 


1885/86 


117,615 


115,299 


1,195 


1886/87 


100,381 


102,376 


3,450 


1887/88 


121,024 


124,073 


6,060 


1888/89 


130,337 


132,173 


3,905 


1889/90 


127,714 


124,565 


5,893 



* The cane-planted area is shown shaded on the Map. 
j The statistical year is from August ist to July 31SI. 



Africa. 





Exportation 


Exportation 


Year. Production. 

i 


of sugar. 


of molasses. 


1890/91 




126,483 


130,220 


4,690 


1891/92 




114,583 


113,813 


5,621 


1892/93 




69,044 


68,519 


3,359 


1893/94 




138,965 


139,752 


7,415 


1894/95 




116,874 


113,793 


9,808 


1895/96 




142,857 


142,646 


8,553 


1896/97 




150.749 


152,678 


13,636 


1897/98 




121 772 


121,694 


12,967 


1898/99 




183,624 


186,487 


12,681 


1899/1900 




157,404 


157,025 


14,929 


1900/01 




183,433 


175,025 


19,613 


1901/02 




153,639 


147,828 


15.378 


1902/03 




141,684 


150,350 


11,412 


1903/04 




215,697 


218,532 


18,404 


1904/05 




142,253 


137,899 


11,095 


1905/06 




186,007 


191,765 


18,597 


1906/07 




214,699 


211,464 


14,000 


1907/08 




163,911 


169,161 


11,838 


1908/09 




195,897 


191,271 




1909/10 




252,905 


235,184 




1910/11 




222,837 


217,413 





1911/12 




169,145 , 


160,000 





The figures of production and of exportation do not always tally ; in 
most cases the latter exceed the former, in spite of a slight home consumption. 
This difference can only be accounted for by the fact that the quantity of the 
production is expressed in bags estimated to contain 170 lbs. These bags, 
no doubt, do not always contain the same weight, so that the total weight 
does not quite come to 170 times the number of bags. The sugar when exported 
is invariably weighed, so we must take the export figure to be the correct one, 
and as the sugar consumption is estimated at 27 lbs. per head of population, 
we get to the probable figure of production by adding about 4,000 tons to the 
export figure. 



310 



Mauritius. 

II. — Cane Cultivation, Cane Varieties, Diseases and Pests, 
Sugar Manufacture, Output of Sugar, Production per Acre 

and Cost Price. 

The soil of Mauritius is, on the whole, a very light clayland, through 
which water easily penetrates, so easily indeed that the soil soon dries up, 
to which the presence of big holes covered with a thin layer of crust at a little 
distance under the'surface greatly contributes. In some places the layer of 
clay is even and rather thick, while in other places the soil is full of big pieces 
of lava, which prevent the land from being ploughed^ The cane is generally 
planted in holes, 2,800 to the acre, which is supposed to be better than planting 
in rows ; especially because cane in holes is much more sheltered from storms. 

The holes are placed 3 ft. apart in rows 3 or 4 ft. from each other. They 
plant two top ends in each hole, cover them slightly with earth, water them, 
and leave them to sprout. When the young shoots are well developed, manure 
in the form of sulphate of ammonia, saltpetre, superphosphate, and potash 
fertilizers or mixtures of them, is put on' the plants, and when the cane, has 
grown to some height a quantity of rotten stable dung is added. In addition, 
the fields are weeded and trashed, and as soon as the cane is ripe it is cut. 

The time the cane takes to ripen depends very much on the locality, the 
kind of cane, and whether it is plant cane or ratoon. The planting in the high 
and colder districts begins in September, and goes on till May or June ; while 
at warmer levels the planting season lasts till July or as late as August. In 
temperate regions the chief planting is done from December to February. 
Grinding is begun in August, which gives the cane in cool regions two years 
to grow before it is reaped, the cane of warm tracts a little more than one year, 
and the cane in temperate regions 18 to 20 months. When ratoons are grown 
they are manured with guano or other manurial mixtures and stable dung. 
The ratoon caile is cut after one year, if possible. In the higher parts of the 
country, where it takes ratoons two years to ripen, a makeshift is to cut the 
cane late in the crushing season, to keep ratoons for another year, and to cut 
them at the beginning of the third year, that is after 20 to 22 months of vegeta- 
tion. Formerly fourth or fifth ratoons were cultivated, but as the quantity 
of cane reaped was found to decrease gradually on account of the exhaustion 
of the soil, nowadays only second and third ratoons, taking up about five 
years, are grown. After this the cane is dug out, and the soil is sown with 
leguminosae [Phaseolus lunatiis) and Pois Mascate {Mucuna utilis). After a few 
years these are pulled out and forked under in the planting holes, in order to 
increase the fertility of the soil with the humus and the nitrogen absorbed 
from the atmosphere. 

A great many cane varieties are grown in Mauritius, some of which were 
thought much of at one time, to be abandoned subsequently when they were 
found to be prone to disease. In 1856 a great many borers occurred in the 

3" 



Africa. 

cane ; in 1864 it was a louse, the " pou-^-poche blanche," which pJayed such 
havoc among the then prevalent cane variety, that they resolved, in 1866 to 
1870, to import new cane varieties from Java, Trinidad, British Guiana, Queens- 
land, Hawaii, and other countries. In 1862 the Louzier cane was discovered 
as a sport of an existing type, and was planted almost all over the island from 
1862 to 1875. As it has since been subject to disease, it has now been discarded ; 
while the White and Striped Tanna species from Java seem now to be popular. 
Besides these, there are the Port Mackay, the Iscambine, and other well-known 
varieties ; while some years ago seedling canes were suddenly adopted with 
great enthusiasm, though the step was of doubtful wisdom. Having heard 
about the success of West Indian and Java seedUng varieties, it was conse- 
quently thought any seedHng cane would have better results than their existing 
types. For this reason fields were planted with some kind or other of seedling 
cane without making sure whether that kind would answer the purpose. But 
the chaos thus brought about was not to last long, for at the present time, 
besides the ordinary plant cane, only a few seedling cane varieties are thriving 
in Mauritius. These came from Barbados and Demerara, especially D. 145, 
D. 130, and B. 208. 

The sugar industry of Mauritius is, as we observed, subject to many 
difficulties. First, there is prolonged drought from which the cane often suffers, 
especially on that side of the island furthest from the prevailing winds which 
does not experience their influence till after the rain has fallen. As the cane 
cultivation takes up a considerable amount of land, the woods have been cut 
down, and this has interfered with the equal distribution of the rain. Pample- 
mousses and Rempart, vs^hich used to be the richest districts, are now the poorest, 
and many of their irrigation canals have become useless because the water 
that was to fill them is wanting. Moreover, Mauritius is in the route of cyclones, 
which now and then rage in great force and damage both buildings and crops. 
The cyclone season is from December to April or May, and c^s the crushing 
season begins in August, a late cyclone may just strike it when it is full-grown 
and least able to resist the force of the wind. 

The cane itself is attacked by all sorts of disesises and pests, the borers, 
the Sesamia nonagrioides in particular, doing a lot of harm. These insects 
were imported from Java years ago together with the grass [Panicum) that 
was to be used as fodder for cargoes of ponies when transported to Mauritius. 
The caterpillars were hidden among the grass, appeared as moths and laid 
their eggs on the sugar cane, which ever since has been infested with them. 
A method of combatting the pest is to search the newly-planted fields and cut 
off the shoots still containing caterpillars, and use the former as fodder, but it 
does not succeed in exterminating the pest. Another insect much found 
among the canes is the shot-borer beetle {Xyleborus ferforans). According to 
the opinion of some people, it is found on living canes, while others think it is 
only found on the dead plant. Most of the diseases known in other countries — 
such as Smut, Black Rot, Red Smut, and Root Disease, etc. — are found here, 

312 



Mauritius. 

too ; also a so-called Gum Disease, discovered in 1894, which, according to 
some investigations, is due to bacteria, and is apt to do much damage. 

In igoi the stock of cattle in Mauritius suffered severely from the Surra 
disease, which carried off one-third of the draught bullocks and two-thirds of the 
mules, and also affected the cane industry indirectly by disorganizing the 
cane transportation through want of cattle, lack of stable dung being another 
effect. 

Several estates through lack of capital have been forced to give up 
planting cane themselves, and lease large pieces of land to British Indian 
immigrants, who grow cane on it, and sell the cane to the factories. Other 
estates have been divided and sold piecemeal to British. Indian immigrants, 
who when living close to the factory can easily have the cane carted there, 
but should they live at some distance away the cane is transported by the State 
railways. The small planter is never sure of his business; for should there be 
an abundance of cane» the manufacturers might not want to buy the whole 
lot, in which case the planter does not know what to do with it ; on the other 
hand, should the crop turn out insufficient for the estates, the small planter 
can charge a high price for his cane, and consequently make some profit. But 
for this industrious and numerous class of. British Indian cane planters, the 
sugar industry of Mauritius would soon come to a stop, for which reason a 
system of planting by independent farmers is to be recommended in a way, 
although it likewise has its drawbacks. The old Mauritian planter used to 
spend much money and labour in manuring and in the maintenance of the 
fertility of the soil in general ; while the Indian, who only thinks of immediate 
profit, is too economical as regards manuring and tillage, and robs the soil on 
a large scale. 

During the years 1894 to 1898, on an average 3,500 to 4,000 tons of sulphate 
of ammonia were imported into Mauritius, together with 100 to 120 tons 
Chili saltpetre (sodium nitrate), 1,000 to 1,100 tons 0' superphosphate, 500 
to 350 tons of other phosphates, 1,800 to 1,900 tons of saltpetre (potassium 
nitrate), 120 to 130 tons of sulphate of potash, 6,000 to 8,000 tons of guano 
from the Seychelles and other islands, which means in all 14,000 tons of im- 
ported manure. Supposing that 75,000 acres are yearly manured, we come 
to the average of 420 lbs. artificial manure per acre. But we cannot in practice 
speak of an average manuring, as the Indian is not hkely to add any artificial 
manure to his stable dung. This shows how large a quantity of manure the 
old Mauritian uses to give to his land ; and that, at the same time, should the 
land become Indian property the ground would soon be the poorer for it and 
have a bad effect on the sugar production. 

The old planters maintain that thirty or forty years ago they used to 

reap from their plantations sown with the old kind of cane 5 to 6 tons of sugar 

per arpent*, or 10 to 12 metric tons of sugar per hectare ; while now they 

have to be content with 2 to 2^ tons per arpent (4,000 to 5,000 kg. per hectare). 

* I arpent = 1-04 acres. 



Africa. 

The crop the Indian plantations yield is far less than this, as 14^ tons of cane 
seems to be their average crop per acre. 

It is difficult to say how far these old-time stories are true, but it is a fact 
that the production of planted cane nowadays amounts to 30 tons of first and 
20 tons of second ratoons, the yield being 9 per cent. ; hence on an average 
2 to 2^ tons of sugar are obtained from an acre of cane that takes twelve to 
twenty-two months to riperi. 

The proportion between the quantity of plant cane and that of ratoons 
is for the foUowing districts as follows : — 



District. 


Plant cane. 


Ratoons. 


Pamplemousses 

Riviere du Rempart 

Flacq .... 

Grand Port . . ... 

Plaine Wilhems . ... 

Black River . . . . 

Moka . . ... 

Savanne 


23-3 

22-1 

24-4 
22-4 
24-0 

27-5 
22-5 
26-4 


767 

77-9 
75-6 
77-6 
76-0 
72-5 
77-5 
73-6 



The proportion is hence about 1-3 ; from this and the preceding figure 
we can easily assume a cane production of 50,000 lbs. (or say 22^ tons) per 
acre. 

We cannot tell for certain how many plantations are engaged in sugar 
cane cultivation, as there are a great many whose yearly output amounts to 
but a few cartloads. The estates which have more than 100 acres of cane 
planted are divided as follows : — 



More than 1,000 acres 
Between 500 and 1,000 
Between 100 and 500 



31 
44 
68 



The planted area of the big undertakings amounts to 83,900 acres, while 
the area under cane belonging to the Indians is estimated at 47,500 acres. 

The labourers for field and factory work are recruited in British India. 
The planters enter into a contract with the coolies for five years, at the end 
of which time the agreement may be renewed from year to year. There is 
no lack of labour, so that in Mauritius they are not troubled by that stock com- 
plaint of most cane sugar producing countries. Once or twice a year the planters 
apply to the Immigration Bureau, and state the number of labourers required. 
When the coolies arrive they are distributed by the Bureau among the different 

314 



Mauritius. 

plantations, the owners of which have to pay 170 rupees* towards the transporta- 
tion expenses of the coolies. The wages of the latter vary according to the work 
done. The newcomers are employed for field work ; after a year or two they 
get more important work in the field or in the factories. The wages which 
vary from 8 to g rupees per month are paid every week, and above this they get 
each 5 rupees' worth of rice, oil, and salt every month. They have free medical 
attendance and medicine from the employers. Most free day-labourers receive 
o-6o to 075 rupees per day in case of men, and 0-30 to 0-50 rupees for women, 
in which case there is no question of all the above privileges, such as free medical 
treatment, etc., being granted. After the end of their indenture, a great many 
of the imported British Indians remain in the country, or come back after having 
returned for a short time to their native land, and as their immigration dates 
from the abolition of slavery in 1834, if is clear that by now several generations 
of Indians have lived in Mauritius, and have made this island their permanent 
home. This, of course, has solved the labour difficulty, in so far that since 
igo8 no more indentured coolies have had to be imported. 

The cane which the sugar manufacturers cannot themselves plant is bought 
from European or Indian planters, and then crushed. In this transaction 
two different systems may be followed, according to the quantity of cane 
offered. In the case of big transactions, the planter receives 6-5 or 7 per cent, 
of the weight in cane paid in sugar or in money equivalent at the average 
market price. This refers to the dehvery of cut cane to the weighing bridge or 
to the tram halt. When cane is bought from smaller planters they simply pay 
8 to 10-50 rupees (9 rupees on an average) per ton, also for cane delivered 
at the factory. In most cases the cane is laden into carts of 2 to 2 J tons capa- 
city, and conveyed to the factory in a train of ten to twelve wagons, the load 
and the number of carts depending greatly on the slope of the ground. In 
many places with steep slopes, and where the roads are traversed by deep 
ravines, they transport by cable carriers. Some estates transport their cane 
by the State railways, in which case they pay very low rates ; but one of 
the drawbacks of this mode of transportation is that these wagons are run in 
the ordinary train service, so that the cane does not get worked up till a long 
time after it is cut. 

The number of sugar factories gradually decreases : between 1875 and 
1881 there were 171 ; in 1891, 131 ; in 1901, 115 ; and in 1910 the number 
had gone down to 64. As, however, the total sugar production is not any less, 
the average capacity of the factories must have increased considerably. In 
many places they have turned two or three small factories into one, and the 
old machinery they have combined into one bigger plant ; but this does not 
always mean modernizing the old installations. 

Up to some time ago the factories were not at all modernly installed ; 
the mills were of but low power, and the whole installation was old-fashioned, 
and far from economical. Since 1900, however, matters have been much 

* I rupee @ 100 cents. = is. 4d. Rs. 170 = £11 6s. 8d. 



Africa. 



improved, and double and triple crushing, with maceration, is found everywhere, 
together with evaporation and boiling in vacuum, crystallizers, etc. ; in short, 
all the most modern apparatus. But not a single factory is altogether up-to- 
date ; it always has some old-fashioned item among its machinery. This 
of course, is due to the fact that by turning small estates into big ones use is 
made of the old material as much as possible ; while some new odd pieces are 
bought to complete the plant. The furnaces do not seem altogether a success, 
and consume a good deal of fuel, consisting of bagasse as well as cane trash and 
wood. Six factories manufacture over 50 tons of sugar per '24 hours, while 
the others produce something between 20 and 50 tons. 

The kinds of sugar which Mauritius produces are distinguished as follows : — 

Polarization 
Vesou or white first product . . . . . . 98-5 

First after-product sugar, white crystals . . 97-5^-98 
Second ,, „ ,, yellow „ . . 88-0 

Third ,, ,, ,, dark yellow crystals 84 — 86 

In addition, there is bro-\^ sugar, while the remaining molasses, polarizing 
about 40°, is also sold. 

The average polarization of the total production of Mauritius sugar is 
estimated at 967 per cent. 

As regards the chemical control, Mauritius is still behind the times. ' Only 
23 out of the 64 factories, consequently a little more than one-third, possess 
a proper chemist of their own ; and when chemical control is exercised, the 
methods of analysis are obsolete, and no unity exists in the application and 
calculation of the data obtained, so that the figures representing sugar losses 
and sugar yield are far from exact. 

With this reservation, we can place the average sugar content of cane at 
1377 per cent., which in 1911 yielded the following quantities of sugar of 
967 per cent, on an average. 



Number of factories. 


Per cent, of the total. ' 


Yield. 


3 


4-68 


below 9-5 


7 


10-94 


9-5—10 


14 


21-87 


10— 10-5 


17 


26-56 


10-5—1075 


7 


10-95 


1075— II 


10 


15-62 


II— 1 1 -5 


6 


9-38 


above 11 



The maximum was 12-26 per cent, yield on cane with 15-13 sucrose, 
and the minimum 9-24 per cent, on cane with 13-13 per cent, sucrose. 

316 



Mauritius. 



As may be seen from the figures given for a number of factories during 
the period 1904 to 1909, a great improvement is to be noticed : — 











Yield on 100 sucrose 




Year. 


Yield 


on 100 cane. 


in cane. 


1904/05 








9-92 


•73-5 


1905/06 










10-00 


74-1 


1906/07 










10-12 


75-0 


1907/08 








! 


10-41 


77-1 


1908/09 










10-56 


78-2 


1909/10 










10-56 


78-3 


I9I0/II 










10-63 


78-5 



■ The quantity of sugar for each of the districts is given in the following 
table ; we have, however, to add that the total exceeds the figure of production 
given on page 310, which may be due to the conversion of bags into kilograms. 



District. 




1910/11 


1909/10 


1908/09 


1907/08 


1906/07 


1904/05 


Savanne ... 


12 


42.475-9 


46,267-5 


35,859-1 


29,946-2 


39,720-8 


22,613-8 


Grand Port 


12 


41.192-9 


46,135-3 


35.431-7 


30,234-2 


41,925-5 


26,096-5 


Flacq 


8 


38,494-4 


42,995-8 


32,907-3 


34,227-9 


47,209-4 


33.517-6 


Moka 


7 


35.496-8 


40,469-1 


32,7.63-5 


25,617-1 


30,875-5 


21,983-5 


Riviere du Rempart 


8 


27,188-4 


31,197-8 


23,705-6 


15,675-6 


23,807-5 


17,096-7 


Pamplemousses ... 


9 


20,921-5 


26,699-8 


19,291-8 


15,461-2 


20,600-9 


13,908-9 


Plain es Wilhems. . . 


4 


13.375-0 


15,007- 


11,875-8 


9,68o- 


11,699-5 


5.191-4 


Riviere Noire 


2 


3.692-1 


4,222-3 


4,062-3 


3,241- 


4,292-8 


3,250- 


Total 


62 


222,837-0 


252,994-6 


195,897-1 


164,083-2 


220,131-9 


143,658-4 



Four factories state the following as the average cost of production for the 
years between 1893 and 1907 — the prices at which the sugar is sold being also 
given. 





Average cost of 






Year. 


production per 


Market price per 


Gain or loss. 




50 kg. 


50 kg. 






Rs. 


Rs. 


Rs. 


1893 


6-71 


10-21 


+ 3-50 


1894 


974 


9-69 


-0-05 


1895 


7-26 


975 


+ 2-49 


1896 


7-61 


8-24 


+ 0-63 • 



317 



Africa. 



Year. 


Average cost of 
production per 

50 kg. 

Rs. 


Market price per 

50 kg. 

Rs. 


Gain or loss. 
Rs. 


1897 .. 




7-46 


8-15 


+ 0-69 


1898 . . 




5-44 


7-12 


+ 1-68 


1899 . 




5-89 


8-15 


+ 2-26 


1900 . . 




578 


8-75 


+ 2-97 


1901 '. . 




7-52 


7-25 


- 0-27 


1902 . . 




8-14 


7-25 


- 0-89 


1903 . . 




6-58 


6-75 


+ 0-17 


1904 . . 




6-67 


970 


+ 3-03 


1905 . . 




5-97 


7-00 


+ 1-03 


1906 




5-52 


6-6o 


+ i-o8 


1907 




6-41 


7-60 


+ 1-19 



A report on ten other factories gives for 1908 the cost price at Rs. 6-94 per 

50 kg., and a market price of Rs. 7-85, which means a gain of Rs. 0-91 per 50 kg. 

A calculation of another factory comes to Rs. 6 per 50 kg., as follows : — 



Raw material . . 
Manufacture 
General expenses 
Transport to the harbour 



4-50 Rs. 

1-20 

0-15 „ 

0-15 „ 



6-00 



Import and Export Duties, Government Assistance, Financial 
Affairs, and Place of Destination of Sugar Exported. 

Mauritius levies an export duty of 32 cents per 100 kg. of sugar ; of this 
2 cents goes towards the maintenance of the Experiment Station. The export 
duty on molasses is 40 cents on a barrel of about 6 cwt. The import duty 
amounts to Rs. 2 per 100 kg. of raw sugar, while that on refined sugar and 
candy is Rs. 4-50. 

Although the idea of levying export duty on the principal article of the 
export trade is not in accordance with modern economical points of view, this 
export duty is a means of making the sugar industry contribute towards the 
financial affairs of the State, and considering the help the Government have 

318 



Mauritius. 

given to the sugar industry, it is only fair they should in their turn get some- 
thing out of it. 

The financial position of the Mauritius sugar industry is far from favour- 
able, and in times of great stress the owners of the estates would have been 
bankrupt but for the timely help of the Mother country. In 1892 a violent 
hurricane caused much damage to buildings and to vegetation ; it was on this 
occasion that the British Government lent Rs. 5,868,450 to the planters, and 
Rs. 700,500 to the owners of the factories at 5 per cent., with regular redemption 
up till 1924. On 30th June, 1909, Rs. 3,101,673 and Rs. 668,701 had been 
paid up respectively, while only Rs. 22,255 were still in arrears, Rs. 14,355 
of this being due to the non-payment of one borrower. Then the Govern- 
ment had to purchase two estates in order to realize Rs. 6,500 and Rs. 100,000 
which were owing to the Government ; but further losses it has not suffered. 
' In 1898, when the Mauritian planters had got into a fix again, the Govern- 
ment was considerate enough to lend Rs. 1,491,000 for one year, which sum 
has also been paid back. In 1902 another bad time, brought about by a lowering 
of prices, a hurricane, and an infectious cattle disease, was experienced — all of 
which causes had an injurious effect on the cane production. The Govern- 
ment was ready again to help, and in 1908 loaned an amount of ;^i85,i85 to 
planters, in order to enable them to construct narrow-gauge railways and other 
transport systems and £197,732 to forty-three sugar factories and three small 
planters in order to secure a better cultivation. 

The first loan, known as the " Mechanical Transport Loan," was to be 
repaid, together with 5 per cent, interest, in twenty half-yearly instalments, 
and this has been done so far without any difficulty ; in 1909 as much as 
£102,354 was repaid. The second loan, called " Advance in Aid Loan," had 
to be reimbursed with 6 per cent, interest by June, 1903, or in two instalments 
by June, 1903 and 1904. This, however, did not work quite so smoothly, 
but at the end of 1906 all the money had been paid in, so that the Government 
has not been out of pocket on account of these loans, except in the case of the 
Rs. 22,255. 

Encouraged by this success, the Department of Agriculture in 1907 asked 
for another loan of £600,000 in order to enable the sugar manufacturers to 
modernize their machinery ; and another £100,000 in order to buy land for 
reforestation ; while^ later on, £200,000 was asked for raising a fund for 
the sugar planting, with, an eye to better cultivation. Before consenting to 
this, the British Government sent a Commission to Mauritius, for the purpose 
of examining thoroughly into the condition of the island, and of the industry, 
and to propose measures for their improvement should these be required. 

This Commission visited Mauritius from 22nd May to 29th September, 
1909, and presented their Report in April, 1910. The conclusion arrived at 
was that the condition of Mauritius as a sugar-producing country was, on 
the whole, not unsatisfactory. Though the soil may be less fertile than the 
soil of many another country, still it is capable of good crops if manuring 

319 



Africa. 

and tillage are properly carried out. Labour in Mauritius is cheap, abundant, 
and reliable ; the railway system is extensive, and forms a connection with 
the excellent country roads and narrow-gauge lines, so that all the conditions 
that make for success are fulfilled. One weak point is that sugar is Mauritius' 
only industry, so that fluctuations in prices or a disease amongst the canes or 
draught-cattle must of necessity affect the whole island. This is the more so 
in that the financial position of planters and manufacturers is not strong, and 
one year's adversity will be enough to make them dependent on State assistance, 
as the Commission has forcibly pointed out. First of all, most of the sugar 
estates are heavily mortgaged at 7 to 9 per cent, interest. Next, 34 of the 65 
sugar factories have contracted other debts besides those with the Government ; 
55 factories being under a combined debt of Rs. 12,000,000 (that is including 
the loans) ; the other 11 factories have no debts whatever, but the numerous 
cane planters who have no factories are badly off in this way. 

But it is not only these mortgages on land and factories they have to pay 
off ; most of the planters have also borrowed floating capital. About April 
they have generally used up all the money received from the last year's crop, 
and new money has to be borrowed from lenders under the security of the 
crop for the completion of the harvest in the field, and for, the planting of new 
cane. These money-lenders are generally merchants or brokers who have 
something to do with British Indian sugar merchants, and consequently can 
influence the sale-price of the product. The interest, as a rule, amounts to 
10 per cent., and the commission on the goods sold 2| per cent. ; these rates 
vary, of course, according to the financial position of the party borrowing 
money. 

Besides having to pay a large sum as interest on mortgages and floating 
capital, the manufacturer is also handicapped through his debts by having to 
depend on the sugar merchants, who choose their time for selling sugar, however 
inconvenient this may be for the planter. Then the manufacturer has to buy 
his implements and necessaries through his money-lender, and consequently 
has not much to say as regards the choice of goods, which, again, may mean 
financial loss to him. The planters' and manufacturers' dependence as de- 
scribed above is considered a great drawback by the Commission, and is at the 
bottom of the present unsatisfactory condition of the sugar industry in Mauri- 
tius ; and for this very reason the Commission recommended, besides an improved 
railway system and a campaign against malaria, the necessity of granting a loan 
not exceeding ;fii5,ooo, £15,000 of which should go towards assisting the small 
planters in their periodical troubles. Moreover, a Department of Agriculture 
would have to be created similar to that in British India, while the irrigation 
problem must be studied thoroughly. The authorities have not yet resolved 
on anything, but the British Government, no doubt, will grant the loan. 

The exportation of sugar for the last twelve years has been destined for 
the following countries, the figures representing tons of 2,240 lbs. — 

320 



Mauritius. 



COUNTRY. 


1899/1900 


1900/01 


1901/02 


1902/03 


1903/04 


Europe 
British India 
Australia . . 
South Africa 
America . . 
Other countries . . 


9.785 
82,055 

14.252 

29.578 

16,032 

2,227 


16,728 

109,274 

9,290 

31,860 

6,415 

. 1,701 


16,587 
103,675 

3.735 ; 
21,190 

"2,641 


15.778 
89,398 
8,416 
28,589 

8,065 


28,602 

140,112 

6,231 

37.314 

3.731 


Total . . 


153.929 


175,268- 


147,828 


150,306 


215,031 



COUNTRY. 


1904/05 1905/06 


1906/07 


1907/08 


1908/09 1909/10 


1910/11 


Europe 


9.3491 7.304 


24,249 


21,188 


22,791 


46,699 


52,485 


Bombay . . 


66,294 90,587 


101,767 


86,162 


96,086 


97,621 


106,454 


Calcutta . . 


6,620, 11,695 


15,350 


8,905 


8,151 


21,596 


5.404 


Kurachi . . 


3,468; 4,460 


16,650 


14,271 


21,892 


28,743 


24,614 


Australia . . 


1.2161 5,348 


4.324 


3.334 


2,462 


3.108 


2.159 


South Africa 


39,010' 43,342 


34.836 


23,486 


18,089 


16,066 


20,879 


America . . 


5,498, 4,824 


3.392 


7.959 


15,208^ 9.526 


— 


Hong Kong 


I 4,272 19,079 


6,611 


345 


8 


6.517 


867 


Othjr countries . . 


931 


846 


3.572 


1,604 


4.551 


Total . . 


135,727:186,639 


208,133 


166,496 


188,259 231,480 


217.413 



Most of the molasses is sent to British India, the rest to South Africa ; hence 
the total export of sugar products is chiefly directed to the neighbouring British 
Indian peninsula, with which Mauritius has many points in common, e.g., as 
to currency. Bombay is the Indian port to which Mauritius sugar is chiefly 
shipped, then comes Calcutta. South Africa also buys Mauritius sugar, 
although the amount dwindles every year, as South Africa itself tends to 
produce her own sugar, especially in Natal, Zululand, and Mozambique ; in 
the end she may not want any more sugar from Mauritius, so that British India 
and England will eventually be the sole buyers of the Mauritian product. 

Apart from the high interest the manufacturers have to pay to the sugar 
merchants, they are also dependent on them in having to put up with lower prices 
than the sugar might fetch in a free market, if it was not for the sugar merchants' 

321 V 



Africa. 

interference. Then Mauritius cannot always rely on British India as a buyer, 
for during the years 1898 to 1903 Austrian and German ' sugars flooded the 
British Indian markets, because of the low prices at which they could be sold 
owing to, the Cartel bounties. This was a severe blow to both the Mauritius 
sugar industry and the British Indian refineries. In 1899 a compensating 
duty equal to the amount of the bounty paid on sugar when exported from the 
producing country was levied in India ; this was done by way of compensation 
to those affected branches of industry, and when this measure did not prove 
adequate, the import duty on Austrian and German sugars .was again raised in 
1903 by a sum corresponding to the surplus profit made by the Cartels in those 
countries. This duty, of course, made it impossible for German and Austrian 
sugar to be imported, aiid not till all bounties on European beetroot sugar 
were abolished, and the Cartel profit disappeared through the provisions of the 
Brussels Convention, did this unequal competition cease to exist. Mauritius, 
however, has another powerful competitor on the British Indian market in 
Java, which exports white sugar to India in larger quantities every year. But 
these supplies are readily absorbed in India, so that this does not affect the 
price of the sugar, nor does it supplant Mauritius sugar in any way. 

To judge from the present state of affairs, the sugar industry of Mauritius 
is not hkely to expand, even should the proposals for ameliorating the existing 
conditions, as given above, become law ; it will retain its present position for 
some time to come. 

Books of Reference : 

Report of the Mauritius Royal Commission, 1909. 

James Forrester Anderson. The Sugar Industry of Mauritius. 

Noel Deerr. Some Notes on the Sugar Industry of Mauritius. 

Deutsche Consulatsberichte. 

Rapports annuels de la Station agronomique de I' He de Maurice. 



IX. 

REUNION. 



The Island of Reimion lies in the Indian Ocean at 20° 51' S. Lat. and 53" 10' 
E.'Long. Its area is estimated at 970 sq. miles, its population being 173,315. 
Its greatest length amounts to 44 miles, its greatest width 31 miles. Reunion 
is of volcanic formation, and may have been the result of consecutive eruptions, 
the main crater having shifted in a north-west south-east direction. At the 
present time it lies in the south-east of the island, and forms an isolated moun- 

322 



Reunir"' 

t' in, in the mid' ^ the mountainous tract bearing traces of former volcanoes 
now extinct. The hole island is a mountainous cone, the highest peak of which, 
the Piton des Neiges, is 10,000 ft. high. Then there are the summits of Piton 
de la Fournaise, still an active volcano, 8,600 ft. high, and the Piton du Petit 
Bernard, 8,330 ft. high. A great many rivers flow from the mountains into the 
sea in all directions ; they have no length to speak of, and are of no use to naviga- 
tion. The climate of the island is tropical, and varies according to the locality. 
I.e., the lee or windward side. From April to November a south-west wind 
blows steadily and with great force, and after touching the high mountain-chain 
splits into two. One branch follows the coast from the south-east in a northern 
direction, then bends to the west, as far as the capital, St. Denis, where it 
reaches the sea ; the other branch follows the coast in a south to west direction, 
and joins the first branch a long way out at sea. 

The cyclones that infest these parts approach the island from the north- 
east, and do not make themselves felt till they come to the seaport of Sainte 
Rose. As the mountains block the path of the wind, it is not till twelve hours 
after that the cyclone penetrates to the western side of the island ; this leaves 
the authorities time enough to warn by telegraph the people on the lee side of 
the coming danger, so that they may take measures to minimize the damage. 

It is the high mountains, again, that make the clouds discharge their 
moisture on the east and south-east sides, and leave the north and west coast 
drier than the windward side of Reunion. Owing to the frequent gales and 
cyclones, the rqads form no safe anchorage for ships ; consequently, an artificial 
harbour has had to be built near Pointe de Galets as a shelter to navigation. 

Along the west and north coast a narrow-gauge railway has been constructed 
from St. Pierre to St. Benoit via Saint Paul, Pointe des Galets and St. Denis — 
totalling in length 78 miles. This hne, covering two-thirds of the entire 
circumference of the island, runs along the coast all the way except between 
St. Denis and St. Benoit, where it goes inland for some distance. As a great 
many streams from the mountain ranges running into the sea are crossed by 
the railroad at right angles, a comparatively large number of bridges and other 
artificial works had to be built for the mileage ; there is one 6-mile tunnel in 
the mountainous district between Possession and St. Denis, which tunnel is 
only broken by the valleys of the Ravine a Jacques and of the Grande 
Chaloupe. The Southern districts, Sainte Rose, Saint Philippe, and Saint 
Joseph, being very mountainous, have no railway connections whatever. 

Besides the railway mentioned there are wide, metalled roads, a main road 
all around the island, and other smaller ones that connect the towns ; altogether, 
they cover 322 miles. 

The Portuguese discovered Reunion and called it Santa Appolina, but the 
island changed its name to Mascareigna, after Pedro Mascarenhas, who visited 
the place in 1505, as well as Mauritius and Rodriguez. 

323 



Africa. 

The Portuguese had to leave the island in 1638, when it was taken possession 
of by Salomon Goubert in the name of the French King Louis XIII. The latter 
used it as a sort of convict colony for prisoners from Madagascar, but it was not 
a success as a colony till in 1665 the French East Indian Company took the 
island in hand, to which they gave the name of Isle Bourbon, and turned it into 
a flourishing colony. In 1764, however, it fell to the French Government, as 
the French Indian Company had experienced bad times ; and in 1776 it was 
united to Mauritius, then called Isle de France, and formed into one colony. 
In 1790 the island was renamed Reunion, and from that time it sent its delegates 
to the National Assembly. 

In Napoleon's time it changed its name again, this time for He Bonaparte ; 
in 1810 it was taken by the English, and in 1815 it was returned to France and 
was then called He Bourbon again. Finally, the Second Republic changed 
He Bourbon to Reunion once more, which name it has kept ever since. 

In 1848 slavery was abolished, the owners were indemnified, and the slaves 
themselves changed into French citizens, who in 1870 obtained the franchise. 
After the abolition of slavery it was made clear here as well as everywhere 
else that emancipated slaves cannot be turned into steady labourers, so that 
the gap in the labour had to be filled by indentured immigrants from British 
India, who were such a success that in 1870 no fewer than 62,000 Indian immi- 
grants were employed in Reunion, and the sugar production amounted to 60,000 
to 70,000 tons. The coffee plantations were also in a flourishing state ; so 
were agriculture, commerce, and navigation. 

In 1882 the immigration from India came to an end, England being opposed 
to it, and from this time we notice a gradual deterioration in many respects. 
The lack of labour soon became critical, and at the present time not more than 
16,000 British labourers are employed in the island, too small a number to be 
adequate, so that the sugar cane plantations had to be limited, and this, of 
course, affected the yearly output of sugar, and reduced it to half the amount 
it had once been. Attempts were made to get labourers from the East African 
coast, but without success, as these labourers were unsuitable, and the compe- 
tition with Natal meant too much. It was no use either to endeavour to obtain 
immigrants from Tonkin and Java ; so that the sugar industry of Reunion is 
retarded by a constant lack of labour in both field and factory. 

StiU the cane production per acre in 1895 was double the amount it used 
to be in 1880, and the sugar yield has increased from 9 per cent, to 10 per cent, 
in that time ; but the planted area has gone down 40 per cent., so that never- 
theless the total increase does not amount to much. 

The sugar industry dates from 1806, when terrible cyclones played havoc 
among the coffee and clove plantations, and made the people look for an annual 
plant that, when destroyed, would not mean the loss of many years' trouble 
and expense. 

The improvement in both the industry and the population of the island 
may be seen from the following table referring to the years 1815 to i860 : — 

324 



Reunion. 




Since i860 the sugar production has amounted to the following quantities, 
expressed in metric tons : — 



1861/70 (average) 

1870 

1871 

1872 

1873 
1874 

1875 
1876 
1877 
1878 
1879 
1880 
1881 
1882 
1883 



48.413 
23-533 
33,100 

30,419 
36,353 
,32,176 

35,449 
34,262 
40,380 
33,031 
21,175 
27.373 
24,709 
33,020 
37.799 



1884. 






• 37,972 


1885. 






■ 34,732 


1886. 






■ 31.389 


1887. 






• 35.031 


1888. 






■ 25,418 


1889. 






■ 36,165 


1890. 






38,410 


I89I. 






• 38,949 


1892. 






• 35.971 


1893. 






■ 39.829 


1894. 






■ 37.748 


1895. 






• 44.747 


1896. 






■ 40,447 


1897. 






. 31,488 


1898. 






• 37.781 



325 



Africa. 



1899 .. 


• ■ 35,000 


1905 . . 


38,000 


1900 . . 


• • 42,631 


1906 . . 


■ ■ 44,689 


I90I . . 


30,120 


1907.. ' .. 


■ ■ 39,380 


1902 . . 


• • 39,624 


1908 . . 


• • 41,187 


1903 •• 


• 41,617 


1909.. 


. . 41,087 


1904 .. 


30,000 


1910.. 


• • 45,549 



At the present moment it is accepted that 62,000 to 70,000 acres are planted 
with cane, 26,000 of which are cut every year. The cane is planted from July 
till March, according to the location of the estate and to custom. The soil is 
first ploughed up, and then rectangular holes are made i ft. deep, 22 to 24 ins. 
long and 5 to 8 in. wide, at 3 ft. distance from each other in rows also 3 ft. 
apart, so that 2,400 plant holes are dug on one acre. They put one or two tops 
with at least three buds in each hole, and as soon as the cane has sprung up it 
is banked, weeded, and manured with stable dung or with artificial manure ; 
while green manure with leguminoss is applied at the time when the ground 
is not planted with cane. 

The cane, both plant and ratoon, is reaped about 14 to 20 months after 
planting. 

The following table gives a clear insight into the consecutive crops 1 of 
planted cane, and it shows that they only plant once on the same soil during 
eight to twenty years : — 





Low-lying ground from 


High-lying un-irrigated land 




I — 100 feet above sea level. 


100 — 2,000 feet above sea level 


First year 


Planting done in July and 
August ' 


Planting done Oct. — Nov. 


Second year 


First crop in November . . 




Third 


Second crop in December 


First crop 


Fourth 






Fifth 


Third crop in July, lying 
fallow, green manure 


Second crop 


Sixth 


Maize 




Seventh „ 

■1 


Manioc 


Third crop in July, lying 
fallow, green manure 


Eighth „ 


Cane planting 


Maize, manioc, and cane 
again the tenth year 



In Reunion a great many cane varieties are in vogue, as each planter 
seems to affect a special type. In addition to the old varieties, there are also 

326 



Reunion. 



some descendants of seedling canes, although one never comes across a specimen 
of this kind that excels in any way. 

Among animal pests of the cane we may mention the borers and aphis ; 
while smut, yellow spot disease, gum disease, and sereh are among the 
parasitical diseases. The greatest obstacle to the development of the sugar 
industry is scarcity of labour, as has been pointed out above. Although the 
number of immigrants in Reunion amounted to 68,469 in i860, it went down 
to 41,045 in 1881, and to 13,578 in 1902, who belonged to the following 
races : — 





31 Dec, 1881 


31 Dec, 1902 


Indians 

Africans 

Chinese 


27.034 

13.518 

493 


6,636 

5.934 
1,008 




41.045 


13,578 



These figures also include servants, and persons who are not employed by 
the cane cultivators ; and for want of fresh supplies the amount has considerably 
decreased since. 

Reunion had twenty-four sugar factories in 1909, distributed over the 
different districts as follows : — 



Sainte Marie 






• 3 


Saint Andr6 




.. 3 


Bras Panot 




2 


Saint Benoit 




I 


Sainte Rose 






I 


Saint Joseph 






I 


Saint Pierre 






• 4 


Saint Louis 






I 


Saint Leu 






2 


Trois Bassins 






I 


Saint Paul 






• 5 



24 



It is almost impossible to state the exact figures of production, but those 
at our disposal show how the cultivation suffers from want of proper labour, 
which has a bad effect on the cane weight. The following table, giving the 
production of fifteen factories, will demonstrate this fact : — 

327 



Africa. 









Kg. cane per hectare. 




Plant cane. 


Total amount of cane. 


1882 






29,852 


1883 








34,064 


1884 








36,330 


1885 








37,182 


1886 








37,233 


1887 








39,052 


1889 








50,596 


1890 








50,649 


I89I 






70,000 


49,263 


1892 






63,213 


45,719 (cyclone) 


1893 






72,550 


51,382 


1894 






75,371 


56,927 


1895 






83.913. 


60,937 


1896 






74,665 


60,495 


1897 






67,699 


54,229 


1898 






65,923 


55,729 


1899 






56,403 


44,179 (cyclone) 


1900 






68,215 


52,059 


I90I 






58,018 


45,326 


Average . . 


68,724 


52,385 


Tons per acre 


\ 


27-390 


21-485 



The cost price of cane delivered on the factory scales is calculated at 20 frs. 
per ton, although it may be more or less according to the weather, the distance 
between the factory and the fields, and to the labour supply. 

During the last few years cane has fetched from 15 to 18 frs. per ton, or 
5-6 to 6-2 per cent, of the weight of the cane, in first sugar or its equivalent in 
money. The planters have not made much profit, but can just keep things 
going, for, including everything, we may put down 12 to 22 frs. as the price 
cane costs the planters when employing hired labour, and 12 to 15 frs. for 
planters who do all the work themselves. 

The princpal manufacturing concern is the Credit Foncier Colonial, which 
owns the best estates, numbering seven. It plants one-seventh of the cane 
produced in the island, and adds so much bought cane to it that the amount 
of cane worked up and sugar exported by the company comes to one-third of the 
entire production. As it has got plenty of capital, it can itself export its sugar 
to France, and enjoy the " detaxe de distance," a discount which is allowed on 
cane sugar when imported from French colonies into the Mother-country. 

328 



Reunion. 



The smaller manufacturers who do not possess any capital have been the 
recipients of money advances from British Indian merchants, and consequently 
they are obliged to sell their sugar at a lower price, and any profit is out of the 
question. In igo6 no fewer than 9,000 tons of sugar went to Bombay in pay- 
ment for rice sent to Reunion ; but in other years almost the entire exportation 
of sugar was destined for France. 

They tried, as in Mauritius and some of the Antilles, to let out small plots 
of ground for cane cultivation, but there wag no demand for them, and the whole 
project was a failure. The topography of the island does not allow of central 
factories being founded amidst a large extent of soil tilled by farmers. It may 
be tried on the windward side, where the factories should lie on the coast ; 
but on the lee side the roads would be far too bad, the transport too difficult, 
and the distance to the railway too great to carry on the industry on such a 
large scale. 

On the sugar exported 2 per cent, of the value is levied as an export duty, 
in addition to an extra duty of 8J centimes per 100 kg. and a statistical duty of 
3 centimes per 100 kg. When Reunion sugar is imported into France it enjoys 
a reduction on the import duty, a detaxe de distance equal to the actual freight 
of sugar from the colony to the Mother-country up to the maximum of 2-80 
francs per 100 kg. white, and 2-33 francs per 100 kg. raw sugar. 

As the actual freight cost always exceeds this maximum, the detaxe de 
distance on Reunion sugar may be estimated at this maximum amount. 

The Brussels Permanent Commission does not look upon this rebate as a 
premium, as the sugar is simply put on the same footing as sugar originating 
in the Mother-country. The amounts of sugar imported from Reunion into 
France have been as follows for the past ten years, expressed in metric tons : — 
1901/02 . . . . 23,364 1906/07 . . . . 29,190 

1902/03 . . . . 32,080 1907/08 . . . . 38,194 

1903/04 . . . . 44.147 1908/09 . . . . ^ 41.917 

1904/05 . . . . 27,912 1909/10 ■ . . . . 38.558 

1905/06 . . . . 18,883 1910/11 . . . . 39,000 

As to the prospect of the sugar industry in Reunion, it depends largely on 
the labour problem. Should the immigration of British Indians be re-estab- 
lished, then there is not a single reason why this sugar industry should not 
flourish hke that of the neighbouring island of Mauritius. Both climate and 
soil are favourable, and as long as there are enough labourers to till the soil 
at the proper seasons, to look after the cane, and to keep the factories going, 
the sugar industry will soon double its output. Should, however, immigration 
not be available — as is very hkely — Reunion will not regain any of her old pros- 
perity, and her sugar production will remain as it is now. 



Books of Reference : 
A. G. Garsau'.t. Notice sur la Ri'union. 

LeDn Colson. Culture et Industrie de la Canne a Sucre aux lies Hawaii et i la Reunion. 

329 



Australasia. 



THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA. 

In the Commonwealth of Australia, cane sugar cultivation is only met with 
in the northern states, and along the coast of New South Wales, and also in the 
sub-tropical parts of Queensland. In the first-mentioned territory the sugar 
industry is carried on in the districts which are watered by the Richmond, 
Tweed and Clarence rivers, and have a soil and chmate fit for this cultivation. 

At one time sugar cane was planted on the Mackay River, but as it suffered 
much from frost this has been given up and other vegetation cultivated instead, 
or the breeding of cattle and the production of dairy products have been sub- 
stituted. 

The southern border line of cane cultivation in Austraha is 30" S. Lat., 
and the entire slip of land used for cane cultivation stretches obliquely between 
147° and 153° W. Long. 

In Queensland the principal sugar districts are Bundaberg at 25° S. Lat., 
Mackay at 18°, and the rainy region on the Hubert River at 19° S. Lat. up to 
Port Douglas at 16° S. Lat. 

One part of the sugar cultivating area of Australia still lies within the 
tropics, but the southern part falls outside, thus causing the yearly production 
and the sugar content of the cane to differ very greatly even for states so close 
together as Queensland and New South Wales. As the cane area comprises 
only a very narrow strip of land which stretches lengthwise over a vast mileage 
from north to south, it is almost impossible to lay down figures as to tempera- 
ture and rainfall. Figures and data relating to the meteorological condition 
of a number of places do exist, but they vary so much that they cannot be a 
true representation of the weather or temperature of the entire sugar producing 
area. It may suffice to say that frost is observed occasionally in the south of 
Queensland and in New South Wales, and does much harm to the cane. In 
the north of Queensland, on the other hand, the temperature never drops to 
freezing point, although the changes in temperature are great, and the difference 
between summer and winter is rather considerable. The northern tropical 
part is distinguished by two seasons — the north-west monsoon prevails from 
October to April, and the dry south-east monsoon from April to October. The 

330 



The Commonwealth of Australia. 

climate is very changeable, and the country now and then experiences long 
spells of drought, which even affect the moist regions on the east coast, and 
occasion a great deal of loss of sugar cane. 

The yearly rainfall decreases from north to south ; in the most northernly 
sugar district it amounts to 80 ins. ; in Mackay it just comes up to 40 ins. ; 
while the neighbourhood of Brisbane is noted for its scanty rainfall, and this 
part, properly speaking, cannot be considered fit for cane cultivation. 

The sugar cultivation in Australia is of very recent date ; the first cane 
was planted in Queensland by Captain Louis Hope, near the Logan River ; 
while in 1863 a few pounds of sugar were prepared in the Botanical Gardens 
at Brisbane by Mr. Bunot by way of experiment, to show that Australia could 
yield crystallized sugar, though most people were then of a different opinion. 
In consequence of this successful experimentation, a great many small factories 
on the streams south of Brisbane began to take up this new cultivation, while a 
sugar manufacturer called Porter went round with a floating mill, the " Walrus," 
to all the planters living near the rivers to work up their cane to sugar. Brisbane 
soon appeared to lie too much in the southern latitude to make cane cultivation 
a profitable business, and that is why the sugar industry begun in South Queens- 
land was transferred to the neighbourhood of Mackay and carried on there on 
a larger scale. The first cane was planted in 1864, and the first sugar factory, 
Alexandra Mill, produced 230 tons of sugar, in 1868, in addition to 148 hogsheads 
of rum. Since 1870 the sugar industry has gone up considerably in extent, so 
that in 1879 the Mackay district was capable of producing as much as 10,000 
tons of sugar. 

In order to obtain the necessary labour in the warm chmate of tropical 
Queensland, natives of the South Sea Islands, so-called Kanakas, were imported 
in 1866, and in 1868 the recruiting and distributing of labourers was taken 
over by the Government. The ship-owners who shipped the Kanakas were 
authorized by the Government, and had to carry an official whose duty it was to 
see that the natives enhsted of their own free will, and were aware of the con- 
ditions to which they bound themselves. They were indentured for three 
years, received a house, food, and clothing, and £7 to £8 in money yearly. 
At the end of the three years they were entitled to a free passage home, but 
many of them preferred to stay where they were when their time was up, and 
to get employment as free labourers. These Kanakas worked in the fields only, 
for which labour they were exceedingly well-fitted, much more so than for the 
factories, where white labour was employed. 

This plan of procuring labour had very good results ; a great many cheap 
and efficient labourers came to the country and helped to extend the sugar 
industry. But the latter is only carried on in a very small part of Queensland, 
as the rest of the country has nothing whatever to do with this trade, and its 
interests he in quite a different direction. Although the white labourers could 
find ample work in the factories, they were, however, so much opposed to the 
employment of coloured labour that they succeeded in getting a Royal 

331 



Australasia. 

Commission appointed in 1884 for the purpose of studying the Kanaka question. 
In consequence of the Report returned by this Commission, the then Premier, 
Sir Samuel Griffith, proposed to prohibit all further Kanaka immigration from 
1890. But the sugar industry soon felt the injurious effect of this resolution 
of their Government. Capitalists became unwilling to invest money in Aus- 
tralian sugar estates, and the general opinion was so much against these pro- 
posals that the Government were obhged to withdraw them and allow fresh 
supphes of Kanakas to enter the cane districts. But in order to promote the 
sugar industry'with white labourers exclusively, and to prove that their idea 
could very well be carried out, the Government of Queensland in 1889 advanced 
money to two groups of farmers to the amount of £25,000 and ^^20,000 respect- 
ively at 5 per cent, interest and 3 per cent, yearly redemption. These two groups 
founded two sugar factories, " North Eton " and " Racecourse Mill,"which 
were to work up the cane which would be cultivated by white farmers on their 
own land with the help of white employees. Five years afterwards, in 1893, 
the ,Sugar Works Guarantee Act was brought into force. This act authorized 
the Colonial Minister of Finance to enable companies to borrow money for 
defraying expenses which the building of sugar factories would entail, but not 
until they were certain of a sufficient amount of cane-planted area to guarantee 
a profitable working up of the cane in a large size factory. 

The Queensland Government guaranteed the redemption of the capital 
in fifteen years, and an interest of 5 per cent, for the rest of the capital. The 
Exchequer, on the other hand, was entitled to a first mortgage on the ground 
and factories, and should the companies not be able to pay interest and redemp- 
tion regularly, the Minister of Finance would have the right to fix the price of 
cane, and to take possession of and manage the factory and cane-planted area 
till arrears should be paid. The Exchequer would be entitled also to sell the 
factory by public auction. According to an amendment to this law dating 
from 1895, the Government had also a right to buy up all the shares in sugar 
factories that were put up for sale at the Government's expense, which made 
the Government become a shareholder in the particularly subsidized sugar 
factories. A number of factories were immediately founded in consequence 
of this regulation, and the two factories already existing were turned into 
joint stock companies having the same rights as the newly-founded ones. 

Altogether twelve factories and a tramUne were conducted by this Guaran- 
tee Act, which did away with a great many factories that, up to that time, 
had got cane from the lands now reserved for the new undertakings. It soon 
appeared that it would take more than capital and modern installations to carry 
on a sugar concern well ; and that experience, knowledge, and ability were 
indispensable factors to making it a success. 

To procure the Government's guarantee they had only to build a sugar 
factory and to leave the management to a Committee formed by shareholders, 
who were mostly cane planters, without having to submit to Government 
supervision. The management, it is true, rested with cane planters, but not 

332 



The Commonwealth of Australia. 

with sugar manufacturers or directors of large financial firms ; so that it was 
not to be wondered at that the financial part of the business turned out a failure 
and neither redemption nor interest were paid in time. Not till this unsatis- 
factory state of affairs had lasted for some years did the Government appoint 
an inspector to supervise the factories, and see what was wrong with them, 
and find out how to remedy the defect. 

On 30th July, 1902, £514,000 had been spent on the thirteen companies ; 
£90,855 had since been paid as interest and redemption, while £70,090 was 
still in arrears. 

The estates in question may be divided into three groups, for which the 
following measures were proposed to be taken : — 

A. Factories which were well managed, and had never fallen short of 
their indebtedness towards the Exchequer. There was no reason to interfere 
and it sufficed for the Government to tender advice if necessary. 

B. Factories tiiat are well arranged and in good condition, but have not 
acted up to their obligations towards the Exchequer. For this category 
a co-operation of company and Government was proposed, which might be 
granted under the following terms : 

1. The management of the estate, together with the Government, 
were to take measures to promote a sufficient supply of cane. 

2. The technical control and the management were to be superin- 
tended by an expert appointed by the Government. 

3. The machinery was not to be extended or added to unle:s the 
Government approved of the plan. 

4. The price to be paid for cane was fixed by the Minister of Finance 
(at any rate, not without his knowledge). 

5. No price was to be accepted for sugar unless the Government 
approved of it. 

6. No loan was to be contracted unless the Government consented 
to it. 

After the price of the cane should have been paid and after the expenses 
of maintenance and manufacture would have been defrayed by the sale of the 
sugar, the remainder was to go to the Exchequer till arrears of redemption and 
interest were made good. When, however, it was agreed that the company 
should pay a certain fixed sum, every amount that was earned in excess to this 
sum would go towards a reserve fund, which would be used for paying the 
redemption money in bad times to come. 

C. Factories which had once been neghgent and could not guarantee better 
management in the future were simply taken possession of by the Government. 

These resolutions were accepted : three factories fell under A, four under 
B, while the Government took possession of five factories that had been abso- 
lutely in arrears and managed them at its own risk. Dr. Maxwell was appointed 
as expert to assume the management ; this he did with great energy, and soon 

333 



Australasia. 

after his appointment, in 1903, he succeeded in bringing about better results 
as far as these inefficient factories were concerned. The principal reason why 
these undertakings were a failure at first, and later on a success, lay in the 
quantity of cane planted. The shareholders were not in a condition to plant 
enough to keep the factories going, and the managers did not offer non-share- 
holders such prices for their cane as to enable them to take up this branch of 
cultivation. But as soon as it became a Government business there was no 
longer any distinction made between shareholders and outsiders, and only one 
price was paid by one and all. 

Within three years' time the quantity of cane delivered at these factories 
increased by 72 per cent., and is still increasing, so that the industry can be 
carried on much more economically, and all but three factories have become 
free again from the Government's control. The " B " factories have been 
returned to their former owners, while the " C " factories were changed into 
new joint stock companies, which carried on the business. 

Besides the twelve factories which were founded under the Sugar Works 
Guarantee Act, Queensland possesses a number of free factories, which up to 
now have been working and providing for themselves, and have had nothing 
to do with Government assistance. It is not likely that the Government will 
embark again on another extension of assistance of the sugar industry, for 
although a great many maintain that the quantity of sugar that Australia 
imports yearly might be supplied by Queensland, if it was not for want of fac- 
tories, the Government turns a deaf ear to these representations, and does not 
propose anything in the way of more guaranteed factories. 

Although after 1901 the sugar industry had been founded on a more solid 
basis by Government support, the planters had to complain ere long of some 
act of Government legislation. In 1901 the Australian colonies had united to 
form the Commonwealth of Australia, and one of the first resolutions passed 
by the new Parliament was the so-called Pacific Island Labourers' Act. At 
the time of the foundation of the Commonwealth, the Labour party had become 
very powerful, and insisted that Australia be occupied by white people only, 
and that all coloured races should be barred from entering. In 1901 about 
12,000 coloured labourers were working in the cane fields, 10,000 of whom were 
Kanakas or inhabitants of the South Sea Islands, while the rest were British 
Indians, Japanese, or Chinese. For the rest there were about 50,000 other 
coloured people in AustraHa, chiefly Asiatics (Chinese) ; but these were mer- 
chants and joiners, cooks, pearl-divers, and other types of artizans, who entered 
the country at their own risk and could not be barred. The bill dealing with 
the Kanakas, which was passed in 1901, prohibited all immigration from- 
31st March, 1904. All agreements with Kanakas were legally annulled on 
31st December, 1906, and any Kanaka who was found in the country after 
1906 was to be sent back to lus native island. 

Notwithstanding strong opposition on the part of the Queensland Premier, 
the bill became law, and accordingly more than 9,000 Kanakas were expelled 

334 



The Commonwealth of Austraha. 

in the years 1906, 1907, and 1908 from Australia, very often against their wish, 
in order that it might become a " white man's land." 

This act on the part of the Labour Party had serious consequences for the 
Australian sugar industry, however proud the partisans of this policy may be 
of the fact that 92 per cent, of the total sugar production in Austraha is obtained 
by white labour. 

The following tables state the quantity of sugar produced by white and 
by coloured labourers ; they also give the amount of premiums and excise. 



Year. 



Tons of sugar produced 



White 
labour. 



Coloured 
labour. 



Total. 



Percentage of sugar 
produced with 



White 
labour. 



Coloured 
labour. 



Quantity of j 

bounty -fed 

cane, 

in tons. 



Amount o 
premium n ^. 



1902 
1903 
1904 

1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
I9IO 



1902. . 
1903 . . 
1904.. 
1905 . . 
1906 . . 
1907.. 
1908 . . 
1909.. 
I9IO. . 



12,254 
24,406 

39.404 
50,897 

127,539 
162,480 

132,078 

118,364 

187,956 



65,581 
65,456 
105,616 
101,362 
54-619 
22,583 
18,322 
14,452 
19-384 



77-835 

89,862 

145,020 

152,259 
182,158 
185,063 
150,400 
132,816 
207,340 



157 
27-2 
27-2 

33-4 
70-0 
87-8 
87-8 
89-1 
907 



84-3 
72-8 
72-8 
66-6 
30-0 

12-2 
12-2 
10-9 

8-3 



105,364 
222,537 

378.885 I 
502,061 1 

1.195.673 i 
1,452,400 I 
1,273,762 
1,048,166 



24.493 
50,652 
85,301 
111,872 
285,420 
499,068 
436,403 
365-297 
590,879 



NEW SOUTH WALES. 



19-434 


1,526 


20,960 


927 


7-3 


181,665 


19-236 


2,561 


21,797 


88-3 


117 


200,847 


17,812 


1-838 


19,650 


907 


9-3 


180,535 


18,019 


1,964 


19-983 


90-2 


9-8 


181,170 


21,805 


I-6I3 


23.418 


93-1 


6-9 


205,797 


28,247 


934 


29,181 


96-8 


3-2 


260,271 


14.351 


964 


15-315 


937 


6-3 


135.652 


13-839 


815 


14.654 


94-4 


5-6 


122,781 


17,010 


990 


18,000 


95-1 


4-9 


160,311 



36,333 
40,154 
36,107 

36,234 
42,790 
78,080 
40,687 

36,834 
45.731 



The opponents of the present policy take a different view of the matter, 
and say that one should tfiot lose sight of the fact that a sugar crop takes four 
to five years to mature, and that when they plant from September till April 
of one year they do not reap any crop till April to December of the next year. 

When the great drought of 1902 was over, every available Kanaka was 
set to work to till as much land for the cane cultivation, and plant as much 
cane as they were capable of in order to get as much labour out of them before 

335 



Australasia. 

1904 arrived. They anticipated the time when the Kanakas would have 

gone, and the remaining white labourers would just be able to manage the 

crop, and would be none too many for the labour of planting. We notice a 

considerable increase in the cane-planted area while the Kanakas were still 

being employed, and a temporary decrease after they had gone. 

I. Acres of cane planted during the last Kanaka years : — 

1902/03 1903/04 1904/05 1905/06 

85,338 iii,5i6 120,317 134.107 

II. Acres of cane planted after they had gone : 

1906/07 1907/08 1908/10 1910/11 1911/12 

133,284 126,810 123,902 128,178 141,779 

One should hot overlook the fact that fields planted in 1905 were not 
abandoned till 1909, so that the influence of a decreased amount of labour 
would not be fully felt till 1910. 

The white labourers who were employed instead of the coloured race 
had higher wages and did less work, while they kept bothering the planters by 
repeated strikes and their constant demands for better payment. The labour 
problem in Queensland has just entered upon a critical stage ; in the tropical 
regions fit for sugar cultivation white labour cannot be used, while employing 
coloured labour raises trouble, and in southern parts where white labour would 
come in useful the climate is such as to prevent any cane cultivation flourishing. 
So in order to promote cane growing by whites they hit upon another expedient. 

The import duty on sugar into the Commonwealth of Australia amounts 
to £6 per ton, while only £4 excise is levied on sugar produced in the country 
itself, which means a protection of {2, per ton. 

Sugar grown by white labourers only enjoys a decrease in excise amounting 
to £3 ; consequently only £1 is paid per ton, and the protection enjoyed amounts 
in this case to £5. But to come in for this they have to be able to prove that 
none but white labour was used, and that these labourers were paid according 
to regulations issued by the Government. As the Labour Party in Australia 
has great influence, and is much in favour of rigorous measures, both planters 
and manufacturers 'are forced to pay exorbitant wages in order to get hold of 
the rebate on the excise. As circumstsmces are at present, we cannot call the 
condition of the Australian sugar planter and sugar manufacturer satisfactory, 
owing to a rather unfavourable climate, to the Government regulations as re- 
gards coloured labour, and to the preposterous demands of the white employees, 
so that we are not surprised that the sugar production has been decreasing for 
the last few years, and most likely will continue to do so, though the sugar 
consumption of that country is steadily increasing.' 

At the present moment the system of central factories extends over the 
entire Australian sugar industry, including both free factories and those under 
Government supervision. A great many of the big estates are divided up into 
small plots, on which cane is grown and sold to the factories at a price calcu- 
lated according to the density of th& juice. The factories sell their sugar to a 

336 



The Commonwealth of Australia. 

large company, the Colonial Sugar Refining Company, which has the monopoly 
of the sugar and fixes the prices. This company lets a good deal of land to the 
cane planters, who supply the factories with cane, and has caused the number 
of planters to increase enormously during the last few years. However advan- 
tageous this system may be, it has this drawback that the smaller planter cannot 
possibly give the necessary attention to the cane all the year through, nor can 
he apply regular manuring and tillage. 

There is not much to be said about the cane cultivation itself. Irrigation 
has been carried out more than formerly, because the advantages of a regular 
water supply have been recognised. When irrigation cannot be arranged by 
damming up the rivers and streams and distributing the water all over the 
fields, pumping stations which supply the necessary amount of water have been 
constructed. The cane is planted from September to April, and is reaped 
between ist July and 31st December of the following year. In New South 
Wales the cane is left two years before it is cut, while in Queensland part of the 
cane is cut after fourteen months, and the rest left on the fields. Second and 
third ratoons are always grown, especially when they have not enough labour 
for planting afresh. 

The number of factories, the acres of cut cane, and the quantity in tons 
of sugar have been for Queensland since 1876 as follows : — 



Year. 


Number of 


Acres of cut 


Tons of sugar 


factories. 


cane 


produced. 


1876/77 


70 


7.245 


8,214 


1877/78 


59 


8,043 


12.243 


1878/79 


68 


10,702 


13,525 


1879/80 


70 


11,409 


18,714 


1880/81 


83 


12,306 


^ 15,564 


1881/82 


103 


15,550 


19,051 


1882/83 


120 


16,874 


15,702 


1883/84 


152 


25,792 


36,148 


1884/85 


166 


29,951 


32,010 


1885/86 


166 


40,756 


59,225 


1886/87 


160 


36,104 


56,859 


1887/88 


118 


34,821 


57,960 


1888/89 


106 


30,821 


34,022 


1889/90 


125 


31,239 


44,411 


1890/91 


no 


39,435 


69,983 


1891/92* 


68 


36,821 


51,209 


1892/93 


72 


40,572 


61,386 


1893/94 


6k 


43,670 


76,146 



* Since 1892 only estates thai ground iheir own cane. 

337 



Australasia. 



Year. 


Number of 


Acres of cut 


Tons of sugar 


factories. 


cane. 


produced. 


1894/95 


62 


49.839 


91,712 


1895/96 


64 


55.771 


86,255 


1896/97 


81 


83,093 


109,774 


1897/98 


62 


65,432 


97,916 


1898/99 


62 


82,391 


163,734 


1899/00 


58 


79,435 


123,289 


1900/01 


58 


72,651 


92,554 


1901/02 


52 


78;i6o 


120,858 


1902/03 


43 


59,102 


77,835 


1903/04 


39 


60,375 


89,862 


1904/05 


53 


82,741 


145,020 


1905/06 


53 


96,093 


152,259 


1906/07 


53 


98,194 


182,188 


1907/08 


54 


94,384 


185,063 


1908/09 


54 


92,219 


150,400 


1909/10 


54 


80,095 


132,816 


1910/11 


54 


99,634 


207,340 


1911/12 


54 


96,396 


176,076 



Since 1882 the sugar production has been as fohows, in tons per acre : — 



1882 
1883 
1884 
1885 
1886 
1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 
1894 

1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 



0-98 

1-38 
i-ii 

1-45 
1-69 

1-65 
1-07 
1-36 
1-69 

1-39 
I-5I 
1-74 

1-84 
1-55 
I-5I 
1-50 
1-99 
1-55 

1-28 



33^ 



The Commonwealth of Australia. 



igoi 
1902 

1903 
1904 
1905 
1906 
1907 
1908 
1909 
1910 
1911 



55 
67 

52 
78 

59 
59 
88 
00 
64 
08 
86 



Although the sugar production per unit of area has increased a little during 
these last thirty years, it is still of small amount compared with that of tropical 
countries, being but 1-5 tons per acre, and this figure is especially unsatisfactory, 
because it may refer to the acres reaped in one year, and because the number 
of acres planted with cane in one year is much more, as all the cane in'the fields 
is not reaped annually. A comparison between the fi3;ures of the planted and 
the cut area is given in the following table : — 



Year. 


Planted 
acres. 


Cut acres. 


Cane in 
tons. 


Sugar in 
tons. 


1904/05 




120,317 


82,741 


1,326,989 


145,020 


1905/06 




134.107 


96,093 


1. 415. 745 


152,259 


1906/07 




133.284 


98,194 


1,728,780 


182,158 


1907/08 




126,810 


94.384 


1,665,028 


185,063 


1908/09 




123,902 


92,219 


1.433.315 


150,400 


1909/10 




128,178 


80,095 


1,163.591 


132,816 


1910/11 




141,779 


99.634 


1.564,993 


207,340 



This shows at the same time that the sugar yield from cane has been about 
10-95 per cent. s^ 

The corresponding figures of New South Wales are as follows : — i ' 



Year. 



1870/71 
1871/72 
1872/73 



Productive 
acres. 

1,475 
1.995 
3.470 



Non- 
productive 
acres. 

2,607 

2.339 
2,001 

339 



Tons of 
cane. 



Tons of 
sugar. 





Australasia. 










Non- 






Year. 


Productive 


productive 


Tons of 


Tons of 




acres. 


acres. 


cane. 


sugar. 


1873/74 


3.565 


3.105 


— 


— 


1874/75 


4.087 


4.453 


— 


— 


1875/76 


3.654 


2,800 


99.430 


— 


1876/77 


3,524 


3.231 


99.978 


— 


1877/78 


3.331 


3.735 


104,192 


— 


1878/79 


2.949 


4.489 


126,119 


— 


1879/80 


3.676 


4,102 


121,676 


— 


1880/81 


4.465 


6,506 


128,752 


— 


1881/82 


4,983 


7,184 


169,192 


— 


1882/83 


6,362 . 


7,176 


204,547 


— 


1883/84 


7.583 


7.401 


105,323 


— 


1884/85 


6.997 


10,520 


239,347 


— 


1885/86 


9.583 


6,835 


167,959 


— 


1886/87 


5,915 


9,202 


273,928 


— 


1887/88 


8,380 


6,907 


110,218 


— 


1888/89 


9.997 


10,284 


168,862 


— 


1889/90 


7.348 


11,382 


277,252 


— 


1890/91 


8.344 


12,102 


185,258 


— 


1891/92 


8,623 


13.639' 


264,832 


— 


1892/93 


11,560 


15,191 


252,606' 


— 


1893/94 


11.750 


16,357 


264,254 


— 


1894/95 


14,204 


18.705 


207,771 


■ — 


1895/96 


14.398 


18,259 


207,771 


— 


1896/97 


18,194 


12,859 


120,276 


— 


1897/98 


12,936 


12,929 


269,068 


— 


1898/99 


14.578 


10,181 


289;2o6 


— 


1899/00 


9.435 


13.082 


170,500 


— 


1900/01 


10,472 


11,642 


199,118 


— 


1901/02 


8.750 


12,019 


187,711 


— 


1902/03 


8,899 


11,402 


183.105 


21,612 


1903/04 


10,405 


9,814 


227,511 


21,812 


1904/05 


9.772 


11,753 


199,640 


19.650 


1905/06 


21.205 


201,998 


19,983 


1906/07 


20,601 


221,560 


23,418 


1907/08 


9,916 


8,037 


277.390 


29,181 


1908/09 


6.957 


10,024 


144,760 


15,315 


1909/10 


6,480 


8.457 


131,081 


14,654 


1910/11 


5.596 


8.005 


160,311 


18,828 



340 



The Commonwealth of Australia. 



The quantity of cane and sugar per acre reaped is higher here than in 
Queensland, being in 1907-08, 1908-09, and 1909-10 respectively 27-97, 20-88, 
and 20-23 tons of cane, and 2-93, 2-20, and 2-28 tons of sugar. One should not 
forget the fact that this cane is two years old, and that the quEintity of sugar 
per planted acre amounts to a very small percentage, as it very seldom attains 
to I ton per acre on the average, and is very often below that figure. 

As to the cost of production of cane, we give the following figures from an 
article in the Ausl.ralian Sugar Journal, which figures represent the average, 
and are by no means exceptional : — 

Field 12. 

1906. 1,408 tons 18 cwt. cane Wages 

Rent . . 
Own salary 

1907. 1,316 ,, 17 ,, ,, Wages, 

Rent . . 
Own salary 

1908. 955 „ 6 „ „ Wages 

Rent . . 
Interest 
Own salary 

Field 8a. 

1906. 1,221 tons 8 cwt. cane Wages 

Rent . . 
Own salary 

1907. 1,363 ,, 17 ,, „ Wages 

Rent . . 
, Own salary 

1908. 1,061 „ 8 „ „ Wages 

Rent . . 
Own salary 

Field m. 
1906/07. 1,162 tons 9 cwt. cane Wages 

Rent . . 
Own salary 

1908. 1,057 " 13 .. .. Wages 

Rent . . 
Own salary 

Value of installation ^400, 20 per cent, of which is 
Taxes in one year 

Total cost for 9,452 tons 16 cwt. cane 

341 



- - £192 


13 


3 






220 












50 












283 


14 









220 












50 












290 


17 









220 












.. 56 


4- 


2 






50 
















-£1,633 


8 


7 


■■ ;fi38 


3 


2 






140 












50 












. . 142 


7 









140 












50 












■- 175 


2 









240 












50 
















— ^1,025 


12 


2 


■ ;f644 


10 


II 






200 












100 












•• 149 


16 


6 






100 












50 







/ y A A 


7 


5 






ti'244 


-edeemed 


yearly £240 








• • • ■ 




90 










- • £4,233 


8 


2 



Australasia. 



or 8s. io|d. per ton ; to which has to be added the cost of reaping at 4s. 9Jd. 
per ton, so that the total cost per ton amounted to 13s. 8Jd. 

The factories pay for the cane according to different rates, but on an 
average about lis. to 13s , while the planter receives a prennium of 6s. per ton 
when the cane is cultivated by white labour. 

The calculation of price was for one factory as follows : For cane with 
9 to 12 per cent, sugar content lis. is paid ; for cane of 12 to 13 per cent., 12s. ; 
and for cane of 13 per cent, or more sugar content, 13s. ; while cane containing 
less than 9 per cent, of sugar can be refused or paid less for according to the 
analysis. For burnt cane is. less per ton is obtained. 

During the first five years of Federal Tai'iff, the following prices were paid for 
cane by the central factories and by the factories of the Colonial Sugar Refining 
Company : — 



Year. 


Central factories. 


C. S. R. Co. 


1901/02 

1902/03 

1903/04 

1904/05 . . ■ . . 

1905/06 


301,811 tons 
202,421 
285,070 ,, 
448.318 „ 
449.727 .. 


i4/6i 

i5/6i 

15/44 

16/3 

15/64 


336,396 tons 
230,852 „ 
250,130 ., 

337.335 .. 
383,885 „ 


13/7I 
ife/9i 

15/10 

17/14 
14/84 




1,687,417 tons 


15/64 


1,588,598 tons 


15/74 



10 


9 


I 


II 


3 


5 


12 


2 


54 



The sugar realized on an average the following sums : — 
1906/07 . . . . . . . . /lo 14 8 per ton 

1907/08 . . 
1908/09 . . 
1909/10 . . 

and was bought by the Colonial Sugar Refining Company (the only sugar buyer) 
exclusively at these average prices. 

The sugar industry in Australia is thus far from satisfactory. The inhabi- 
tants of the districts where no sugar is cultivated complain because an import 
duty of £6 per ton makes sugar too expensive, while the sugar manufacturers, 
on the other hand, are not pleased either that they have to do without proper 
legal protection. They maintain that an excise of ■£i\, with an import duty of 
£6, only leaves them a protection of £2 per ton, and that they have paid for their 
bounty of ^^3 on cane cultivated by white labour too dearly, by having had to 
expel their black labourers, and by having become dependent on white labour 
which is not always reliable. 

While their neighbours in Hawaii are benefited by a protection in the 
form of an import duty of £g per ton on foreign sugar entering the United 

342 



The Commonwealth of Australia. 

States, and are themselves exempted from import duty and excise, the Austra- 
lian sugar planters, on the other hand, come to the conclusion that their in- 
dustry, far from deriving money from the Exchequer, rather helps to swell' 
the latter. 

In 1906-07, for instance, excise brought in ^^741,929, and ^^567,248 was 
paid as premium, which left £164,781 for the Exchequer ; in 1907-08 these 
figures were respectively £751,163, £477,090, and £274,773. In 1908-09 the 
premium, however, cast £402,131, and in 1909-10 £579,133, so that the -Ex- 
chequer's share in comparison with that of the planters is decreasing. The 
prospect the proposals of the premium held out, namely, that Australia would 
soon supply her own sugar wants, has not been realized. With a consumption 
of more than 200,000 tons, about 50,000 tons, or 25 per cent., is being imported 
chiefly from Java, Hong Kong, Fiji, and Mauritius ; and as the consumption 
increases and the production goes down — with the exception of the production 
of 1910 — this proportion is hkely to become increasingly unfavourable. 

In New South Wales the more profitable industry of dairy products 
is preferred ; while cane is simply cultivated for the sake of the factories which 
otherwise would be rendered useless. In the north of Queensland there is the 
difficulty of getting enough labourers who can stand the climate ; while in the 
south unfavourable climatic circumstances reduce the cane area. At the 
beginning of 1910 a Commission was appointed to investigate the condition 
of the sugar industry, and to ascertain whether the present protection given 
by the Government was adequate, and if not how to extend it successfully. As 
long as the result of these investigations is unknown, we cannot say much on 
the prospect of the Australian sugar industry in the near future, which, as it 
is, looks far from promising. 

Literature : 
The Australian Sugar Journal. 
Yearbook of Australia. 



II. 

THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 

I. — Geographical Location, Climate, Population, Cane-planted 
Area, Total Sugar, Production. 

The group of the Hawaiian Islands lies in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean, 
between 18° 54' and 22° 14' N. Lat. and 154° 18' and 160° 13' W. Long, from 
Greenwich. It consists of eight inhabited islands, forming one group, with seme 

343 



Australasia. 



smaller uninhabited islets at ' some distance to the north. The total area 
amounts to 6,455 sq. miles, divided among the different islands as follows :— 



Island. 


Sq. miles. 


Sq. kilometres. 


Hawaii . . 


4,015 


10,360 


Maui 


728 


1,879 


Oahu 


598 


1,514 


Kauai . . , 


547 


1,412 


Molokai . . 


261 


674 


Lanai . . . . • 


139 


359 


Niihau 


97 


251 


Kahoolawe 


1 69 


171 


Uninhabited islands 


6 


15 


Total 


6,455 


15,635 



All these islands are the result of volcanic upheavals of the soil, dating from 
fairly recent periods. 

The largest island, Hawaii — from which the entire group derives its name — 
is of recent date, and covered with lava not long since formed by the extensive 
volcanoes of the island. The coast, especially on the north-west, rises steeply 
from the sea, and gradually slopes up towards the mountain tops, so that no 
level seashore is to be found here. There are not any harbours to speak of 
except H.lo Harbour, which is not a safe anchorage at all. The highest mountain 
peaks are Mauna Kea, 13,900 ft., Mauna Loa, 13,600 ft., Hualalai, 8,300 ft., 
while the extensive volcano of Kilauea only measures 5,500 ft. 

The island Maui is of much older geographical formation than Hawaii, 
and can boast of extensive plains. Its highest mountain peak is that of Halea- 
kala, 10,000 ft. high. The scantily populated Molokai and the two smaller 
islands, Lanai and Kahoolawe, are grouped together — the latter two being 
almost uninhabited, and are used as pasture land for cattle. 

Oahu is likewise of ancient formation, and has already gone through so 
many upheavals of the ground that the exact site of the volcano crater which 
created the island is difficult to trace. Owing to these changes in the level of 
the land, it is interspersed with coral cliffs, which seem to be pushed between 
the original layer of lava, and the subsequently formed products of disintegra- 
tion. Instead of a few craters, as are found in the other islands, Oahu possesses 
two nearly parallel mountain ranges, between which a plateau is found that 
slopes down to the sea both in a northern and a southern direction. 

On the south side the capital of the Hawaiian group, Honolulu, is situated 
on a very fine bay excellently suited for navigation. 

344 



The Hawaiian Islands. 

Kauai is the oldest island of the group, consisting of a peak, Waileale, 
5,250 ft. high, and its disintegration products. This mountain rises from the 
sea as a deeply grooved mass of rock, while a great many of its spurs run out 
to sea. Between these spurs the disintegration products carried along by the 
rain have settled and formed a number of valleys, which lead on the coast into 
some small harbours. 

Niihau, lying close to Kauai, is of some importance. In consequence of 
the mountainous nature of these smaller islands, they do not possess any navig- 
able rivers — with the exception of Kauai, which can boast of several streams 
which, flowing from the mountains, run through the alluvial ground to the sea, 
and are to some extent navigable near their mouths. 

The climate of the Hawaiian Islands varies little all the year through, 
and all over the island group. The north-east trade wind is the prevaihng one 
which blows 264 days out of the 365 every year, and carries along quantities 
of moisture. The high mountains keep the wind back, force it to rise, and in 
this way bring on a heavy rainfall on the north-east and eastern slopes of the 
mountain ; while the rainfall on the lee side is very slight, and is sometimes 
lacking altogether. Some parts of the island group have as much as 200 ins. 
yearly of rainfall, while other parts are stated at 2 ins. ; and others, again, 
derive some rain from south-west gales, which are very rare. So it is impossible 
to quote any average rainfall for Hawaii, as the position of the different localities 
is the greatest factor for obtaining rain and sunshine. As, however, this 
factor is the same all the year through, the climate of each place is fairly steady 
during the twelve months, and a succession of cold, warm, dry, and wet seasons 
is not experienced here. 

The average temperature in Honolulu has been for a period of fifteen years 
227 to 23-3° C. (72° to 74° F.) ; for the same period the observed maximum 
temperature was 317° C. (88-3° F). ; while the minimum temperature was 
never lower than ii-i° C. (52° F.), which was observed for a few hours. On 
climbing the mountains one will find a lower temperature, of course, and the 
highest mountain tops, even in this tropical climate, are covered with snow 
all the year round. The temperature on the windward side is generally lower 
than on the lee side, while the humidity of the atmosphere is higher, though 
it is stiU comparatively low. 

The wind is seldom violent, and hurricanes, though prevaihng in other 
tropical parts, do not occur here. 

Though the following meteorological data, collected in 1908, only refer 
to Honolulu, and cannot be looked upon as characteristic of the Hawaii group 
as a whole, we think it worth while to quote them : — 



345 



Australasia. 





£ 

II 

p 

> 


a 
is 

li 
It 


S 
II 

< 


1 


S.2 


<i5 

(J 

II 
P. 




7 
i 

1 




Days with 


Month. 


0, 





as 


S 

.9 




.g 

si- 
s , 
10 


g 


CO 



s 


January 


22-0 


24-9 


ig-i 


12-7 


6-3 


77 


4-1 


8 


4 











February 


22-2 


24-9 


ig-S 


86-9 


42-9 


75 


5-8 


II 


10 


5 


I- 


I 


March 


22-4 


25-0 


19-8 


205-5 


130-0 


59 


6-5 


14 


II 


6 


2 





April 


22-6 


25-3 


19-9 


15-0 


4-0 


70 


6-0 , 


13 


5 











May 


23-9 


266 


21-3 


9-8 


5-4 


72 


5-5 


5 


2 











June 


24-1 


26-7 


21-5 


9-9 


5-6 


68 


5-6 


II 


2 











July 


24-7 


27-2 


22-2 


4-1 2-2 


68 


5-6 


6 


2 











August 


25-1 


27-8 


22-4 


23-1 


13-9 


74 


4-8 


9 


5 


I 





- 


September 


25-0 


27-6 


22-6 


19-0 


I2-I 


67 


5-1 


10 


4 


I 





I 


October 


24-6 


27-2 


21-9 


5-6 


2-2 


67 


4-5 


7 


2 











November 


23- [ 


26-0 


20-3 


27-9 


12-7 


73 


3-6 


5 


4 


2 








December 


22-2 


24-7 


19-7 


68-1 


31-2 


68 


5-5 


13 


8 


4 








Average . . . 


23-5 


25-1 


20-6 


488-6 




70 


5-2. 


112 


59 


19 


3 


2 



According to the census returns of January, 1908, tlie population of the 
Hawaiian Islands amounted to 218,462, distributed over the several islands 
as follows : — 

Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . 59,621 



Maui and surrounding islands 

Oahu 

Kauai and adjacent islands 

Total . . 



39,980 

95.398 
23,463 

218,462 



The census returns of ist January, 1910, only gave 191,909 inhabitants 
for all the islands ; 45,000 of these inhabit the capital, Honolulu ; while the 
second town, Hilo in Hawaii, accounts for 4,500. The aborigines number 
only 35,000, which number is steadily decreasing, as the race is dying out. 
The other nationalities consist of white people born in the island and half- 
breeds, American, Portuguese, Chinese, and especially Japanese, the latter 
of whom number some 85,000. The Portuguese hail principally from the 
Azores, but as the state of affairs in their own country is improving, their 
number decreases, because they return home ; but a great number of them 
have done well in the Hawaiian Islands, and prefer to remain there. 

With the exception of Honolulu and Hilo, there are hardly any towns, 
and the centres of population are seldom any better than villages ; while the 
population is densest on the sugar estates. There is regular communication 
between the several islands by means of steamers of the Inter-Island Steam 

346 



The Hawaiian Islands 

Navigation Co., plying from coast to coast ; while the islands themselves have 
excellent roads, which, of course, follow the coast line where possible. 

Over and above the. many railroads on the sugar estates that are used for 
cane transportation, there are five railway companies. These are the Oahu 
Railway, 70 miles in length, connecting Honolulu with the extreme north point 
of Oahu, where it joins the shorter Koolaua Railway ; the Hilo Railway, run- 
ning from Hilo to a point nine miles distant from the Kilaue volcano ; 
the Kohala Railway, running from the sugar estates neat- Kohala to the sea, 
and joining the Kahului Railway connecting this harbour town with several 
sugar estates in Maui. 

Sugar cane is only grown in the four large islands, Hawaii, Oahu, Maui, and 
Kauai, for which cultivation the following areas have been planted with cane : — 



Island. 


1904 
Acres. 


1905 
Acres. 


1906 
Acres. 


1907 
Acres. 


1908 
Acres. 


1909 
Acres. 


1910 
Acres. 


Hawaii 
Maui 
Oahu 
Kauai 


47.058 

13.949 
15.832 
14.959 


45,002 
15,116 
18.783 
15.542 


44,984 

15,971 
18,178 
17,096 


47.907 
16,724 

18,995 
16,289 


46,896 
16,778 

20,497 
17,209 


49,67.2 
18,501 
20,329 
17,626 


52,447 
18,864 

20,543 
18,392 


Total . . 


91,798 


95.443 


96,229 


99.915 


101,380 


106,218 


110,246 



As, however, the crop from the entire planted area is not reaped every year, the 
canes taking a much longer vegetative period than twelve months, it cannot be 
far wide of the mark to estimate the entire cane-planted area of the Hawaiian 
Islands at 225,000 acres, although higher figures are sometimes quoted. 

The sugar production of the last nineteen years has been in the several 
islands as follows, expressed in long tons : — 



Island. 


18<)2/9i 


1893/94 


1S9-1/95 


1S93 9B 1 ISIIC, 97 I 1897/98 1898,99 


1899/00 1900/01 


Hawaii 

Maui 

Oahu 

Kauai 


50,962 
29,170 
17.736 
38,400 


64,484 
30,080 
16,788 

37.-^48 


55.038 
24.764 
1^,566 
38,228 


98,602 
25.054 
3I.94S 
46,123 


"3. 157 
36,649 
25,829 

48.584 


81,791 
40,208 
30,518 

52.355 


104,678 
48,562 
40,911 
58,356 


102,878 
51,203 
47.879 
56,561 


120,194 
52,097 
88,869 
60,301 


Total 


136,268 148,600 133,596 


201,727 


224,219 204,832 


252,507 


258,520 


321,461 


Island. 


1901 '02 


1902/03 


1903/04 


1904/05 


1906/00 


1900/07 


1907/08 


1908,09 


1909/10 


1010/11 


Hawaii . . . 
Maui 

Oahu . . . 
Kauai . . . 


108,299 
50,648 
96,312 
62,250 


152,379 
75.693 

108,094 
54,896 


109,701 
69,630 
91,088 
57.684 


112,861 

89.693 

109,906 

68,136 


122,991 
91,928 

101,562 
66,744 


128,474 
93.546 

106,493 
64.358 


160,856 
109,490 

122,333 
72,609 


153.875 

120,183 

123,592 

£0,167 


142,728 

124,513 

114,864 

80,508 


172,729 

89,883 

118,869 

124,514 


Total ... 


377.509 


391,062 


328,103 


380,576 


383.225 


392,871 


465,288 


477.817 


462.613 


505.995 



347 



Australasia. 

II. — History of the Cane Sugar In*lustry in the Hawaiian 
I Islands. 

Although we have some reports of a Japanese junk touching at Maui 
in the thirteenth century, and of a Spanish ship calling in 1550 on the south 
coast of Hawaii on its way from Mexico to the Philippines, our knowledge of the 
Hawaiian Islands really only dates from 1778, when Captain Cook discovered 
them. He found sugar cane already growing, and the natives using the product 
as a dainty ; still, it was not till 1837 that the exportation of sugar from those 
islands is mentioned, an exportation amounting to only 4,286 lbs., or less than 
two tons. This exportation, however, soon increased considerably, and in 
1876, the year the reciprocal treaty with the United States was entered upon, 
it realized as much as 11,600 tons 

The real beginning of the Hawaiian sugar industry dates from the time of 
this reciprocal treaty, which turned the Hawaiian Islands into a vassal state 
of the United States. As this treaty and its effects have influenced the entire 
sugar industry, it may be as well to touch on this subject somewhat fully here. 

In 1855 negotiations were opened with a view to drawing up a reciprocal 
treaty between the United States and the Kingdom of Hawaii ; but although 
the Foreign Secretary at Washington was much in favour of the proposal, it 
was not ratified by the Senate. In 1867 it was again approved of by the Hawaiian 
Government and the President of the United States, but again voted down by 
the Senate, till in 1875 the treaty was signed to take effect from September, 
1876. According to this treaty, the principal products of the Hawaiian Islands, 
rice and raw sugar (known in San Francisco as " Sandwich Islands Sugar "), 
were altogether exempted from import duty in the United States ; while nearly 
all kinds of agricultural produce and goods from the United States enjoyed 
a similar privilege when imported into Hawaii. This treaty was to hold good 
for seven years, with the option at the end of that time of renewing it indefinitely, 
unless one of the parties should wish it to terminate, and gave twelve months' 
notice. 

The principal reason for entering upon this agreement was not so much 
the commercial advantage for the United States as political considerations and 
State interests. The measure was recommended by both pohtical parties in 
the Congress as a means of obtaining ascendency in the affairs of the Hawaiian 
Islands, and to make the Hawaiian Islands virtually part of the United States, 
both commercially and industrially, and so prevent foreign powers from getting , 
any footing there — a most dangerous possibility for the west coast of the 
United States, in case of war. 

Before this treaty was signed the population of the Hawaiian Islands 
was rapidly decreasing, and the trade of the islands was deteriorating also in 
consequence of the bad times the whale fishery encountered. Although the soil 
was very well fitted for cane cultivation, it was no fit place for the sugar industry, 

' 348 



The Hawaiian Islands. 

as labour was scarce and expensive, and the import duties in the United States, 
their only market, were too high to make any profit possible. 

In 1875 there was a proposal to get Hindoos from British India to come 
and live on these islands, in order to supply the lack of labour cheaply and 
abundantly, for which Great Britain's acquiescence was sought. Moreover, the 
Australian colonies were gaining in importance commercially, so that they were 
looked upon as the market for Hawaiian sugar, instead of the United States. 
An attempt was actually made to send the entire crop of 1876-77 to Australia, 
in the hope that Hawaii might one day become independent of the United 
States, both politically and economically, and might be turned into a British 
colony. As soon as the United States became aware of this move, they readily 
seized the opportunity, and entered into the above reciprocal treaty, which 
allowed raw sugar to be imported into the United States free from any duty 
whatever. At that time the duty used to amount to 40 per cent, of the value, 
so that the value of the sugar all at once increased by 40 per cent., and became 
on that account a highly profitable product. 

The first sugar factory in the Hawaiian Islands dates from 1835, when 
a mill was built in Koloa, driven by oxen, which crushed the cane. In 1861 the 
number of factories had expanded to 22, — 9 of which were driven by steam, 
12 by water, and i by animal power. Just before the agreement was drawn up, 
the factories numbered 33 ; while fifteen months later the number had increased 
to 46. The table at the end of this chapter shows clearly how the sugar industry 
has developed since 1877. 

This reciprocal agreement was not only a boon to the sugar industry, 
but also to every trade connected with it, such as manure and machinery manu- 
facture, navigation, etc., so that America benefited by it indirectly, although 
Hawaii, of course, derived most direct financial profit. This consideration, 
and the advantage that the only possible basis of operation for a hostile fleet 
belonged to a friendly disposed nation, caused this agreement to be retained 
sine die, in spite of the many attacks made on it in Congress. We need not be 
surprised at these attacks when we think of the envy with which both the 
American sugar producers and the Exchequer looked upon this ever-increasing 
Hawaiian sugar importation into America, which threatened the home industry 
and the public revenue. 

In 1891 King Kalakaua died, and was succeeded by his sister, Lihuokalani, 
but the latter was not equal to suppressing the revolutionaries ; in conse- 
quence, Hawaii was created a republic in 1893, to be incorporated into the 
Union in 1898— after the sovereignty had already once been offered in vain 
to the United States. 

This incorporation, as might be expected, led to a flourishing increase in 
the sugar industry. As long as the exemption from import duties in America was 
guaranteed by a treaty between the two powers which was exposed to all sorts of 
attacks and might be cancelled at any moment, the sugar industry could not rest 
on a firm footing. All this changed when the repubUc was incorporated into the 

349 



Australasia. 

United States, and Hawaiian sugar, as a matter of course, was admitted free from 
any duty into San Francisco and New York. A great many new sugar companies 
with large capital were founded, while l!ie existing ones extended their capital in 
order to increase their sphere of activity. Other companies shared this desire 
for extension, and as most of the capital was found by men of limited means — 
citizens of the Hawaiian Islands — it ended in bankruptcy or in straightened 
circumstances for the people who had procured the money. But these conse- 
quences of excessive speculation soon disappeared, after a period of judicious 
management, and it was not long before the sugar industry was placed on a 
firmer footing, with a bright prospect in store for it. In 1897 to 1898 — that 
is, a little time before the annexation — the production only amounted to 
229,000 tons, while in 1901-02 it had gone up to 360,000 tons — that is 60 per 
cent, increase in four years' time. Besides these political and economical causes, 
there was another that greatly contributed to the improvement of the sugar 
industry, and will continue doing so in future, namely, the application of irriga- 
tion from the rivers and artesian wells. As was stated at the beginning of this 
chapter, the rainfall is unevenly distributed over the different parts of the 
islands. Whereas the north-east and east coast get plenty of rain, the rainfall 
in the west and south-west is so slight that it cannot bring about the ripening 
of the cane. In consequence thereof the area fit for sugar cultivation was very 
restricted, so that, still, in 1882, competent experts estimated the disposable 
cane-growing land for the combined island group at 72,500 acres, of which only 
34,000 acres per annum were available for reaping. As a matter of fact, irrigation 
works were started in 1887 to collect the water of the mountain streams and dis- 
tribute it over the land ; but owing to the uncertainty of the reciprocal contract 
and the subsequent vissicitudes of the siigar industry, they shrank from spending 
much money on supplying the estates with extensive irrigation works. Previous 
to the annexation, the Lihue waterworks were built in the Island of Kauai 
in 1882 ; those at Hamakua in 1876 ; the Hawaiian Commercial and the Waihea 
works in 1878 ; and the Makaweli works in 1890. When after the annexation 
of the Hawaiian Islands by the United States the sugar industry obtained a firmer 
footing, capitalists invested larger sums in irrigation works, and numerous 
gigantic systems for the distribution of water over the barren land date from 
this time. It was not only the diversion of mountain streams through tunnels, 
ditches, and syphons, but large reservoirs were constructed to collect the 
effluence of rivers which water was led through artificial canals and distributed 
all over the estates by aqueducts. A third mode of water supply is the artesian 
wells, which, especially in Oahu, supply a large quantity of water. Part of the 
rainfall does not reach the sea by the rivers, but penetrates into the porous soil 
and flows to the sea through sub"Soil rivers, which can be reached by means of 
artesian wells, and brought to the surface again by pumping. At the present 
moment there are about 1,500 miles of irrigated canals in the Hawaiian Islands, 
70 miles of which are tunnel ; then there are 250 reservoits, containing alto- 
gether 8,000 milhon gallons and 428 artesian wells capable of 500 million 

350 



The Hawaiian Islands. 



gallons daily ; and besides these there are some subterranean sources which 
carry loo million gallons of water daily. All this water from subterranean 
sources is pumped up by steam pumps of a total of 27,000 horse-power to a height 
of some 500 ft., and flows through 70 miles of iron pipes 16 to 54 ins. in diameter. 
Part of this water is transported across ravines, sometimes 650 ft. deep, by 
suspended syphons. All this shows what great energy and what large sums of 
money have been expended on the irrigation works in anticipation of great 
returns. One of the consequences of this broadly conceived irrigation system 
has been a considerable increase in the planted area ; another has been an 
increase in the production of these irrigated plantations. The quantity of 
acres irrigated and not irrigated, and the quantity of reaped cane during the 
j'ears 1895 to 1910 were as follows : — 





Acres of 


Acres of 


Acres of 


Year. 


Irrigated land. 


non-irrigated land 


area reaped. 


1895 .. 


23.454 


23.945 


47,399 


1896 . . 


25,950 


29,779 


55,729 


1897 . . 


23,101 


30,724 


53,825 


1898 . . 


24,507 


30,728 


55,235 


1899 . . 


27,380 


32,928 


60,308 


1900 


27,090 


39,628 


66,718 


1901 . . 


34.740 


43,878 


78,618 


1902 . . 


38,987 


41,966 


80,953 


1903 


42,097 


51,253 


93.392 


1904 


42,810 


48,987 


91,797 


1905 


48,668 


46,775 


95,443 


1906 


50,112 


46,117 


96,329 


1907 


50,624 


49,292 


99,916 


1908 


53.104 


48,276 


101,380 


1909 


54,896 


51,232 


106,127 


1910 


55,973 


54,273 


110,246 



While at first the non-irrigated land was most in evidence, after 1904 it 
has been the other way about, and irrigated land forms the greater proportion 
of the cultivated soil. 

Simultaneously with the introduction of irrigation, the methods of culti- 
vation and the factory installations were improved upon, and a rational method 
of manuring tried, so that we may say that the Hawaiian sugar industry began 
to flourish after 1898, and it will most likely continue to do so for years to come. 

The number of sugar estates in the Hawaiian Islands at the present time 

amount to 53 26 of which are found in Hawaii, 10 in Kauai, 10 in Oahu, and 

7 in Maui. Not all of them, however, possess a sugar factory, as the factories 
number 48 ; and 5 estates have to leave the grinding of their cane to neigh- 
bouring sugar mills. 

351 



Australasia. 



The figures representing the exportation of sugar from the Hawaiian 
Islands were from its first year, 1837, ^P to 1867, as follows, expressed in long 
tons : — 



1837 • 






2 1857 . 






311 


1838 . 






40 1858 . 






540 


1839 . 






45 1859 . 






. 815 


1840* . 






161 i860 . 






644 


i84it . 






27 1861 . 






• 1,149 


1842! . 






— 1862 . 






• 1.340 


1843 • 






511 1863 . 






2,360 


1844 . 






229 1864 . 






• 4,780 


1845 • 






• , 135 1865 . 






. 6,840 


1846 






134 1866 . 






• 7.920 


1847 . 






265 1867 . 






• 7.740 


1848 . 






223 1868 . 






8,170 


1849 • 






282 1869 . 






. 8,168 


1850 . 






334 1870 . 






. 8,385 


1851 . 






10 1871 . 






• 9.720 


1852 . 






312 1872 . 






7,690 


1853 ■ 






286 1873 . 






. 10,300 


1854 • 






257 1874 . 






. 10,970 


1855 • 






130 1875 . 






. 11,200 


1856 . 






248 1876 . 






. 11,640 


le total production of sugar, dating from 1876 until now, is exp 


following table, also in long tons . : — 


1877 . 






. 11,410 1894 . . 


. 148,000 


1878 . 






. 17,240 1895 . 






• 134.500 


1879 . 






. 21,870 1896 . 






. 202,000 


1880 . 






. 28,400 1897 . 






. 223,000 


1881 . 






. 41,860 1898 . 






. 204,000 


1882 . 






. 51,000 1899 . 






• 253,000 


1883 . 






. 51,000 1900 . 






. 258,000 


1884 . 






. 64,500 1901 . 






. 321,000 


1885 . 






. 77,500 1902 . 






. 317,000 


1886 . 






. 96,500 1903 . 






. 391,000 


1887 . 






. 95,000 1904 . 






. 328,000 


1888 . 






. 105,000 1905 . 






. 381,000 


1889 . 






. 108,000 1906 . 






. 383,000 


1890 . 






. 116,000 1907 . 






• 393.000 


1891 . 






. 123,000 1908 . 






. 465,000 


1892 . 






. 110,000 1909 . 






. 478,000 


1893 . 






. 136,000 1910 . 
1911 . 






. 463,000 
• 505.995 



* These figures indicate the period January till August. 

i For 1841 the figures are given for the time August, 1840, to August, 1841. 

J There are no separate data for 1842, but they may be included in those of 1841. 



The Hawaiian Islands. 



III. — Cane Cultivation. 

The land necessary for agriculture may be obtained from the Government 
either on perpetual lease or freehold. As the soil in these islands is intersected 
in many places by large extents of wild and hard rocky tracts, nicely bordered 
plots of arable land cannot be expected, barren as well as fertile ground being 
intermingled. For this reason the ground is classified under three kinds of 
arable land, two kinds of pasture land, and in woodland. 

The Government land is exclusively sold by auction at a minimum price 
fixed by the officials. Pasture land is sold at $2 to $5 per acre, land for the culti- 
vation of vegetables at I5 to $25, while land for cane cultivation may fetch from 
$28 to $60 per acre. These are exceedingly easy terms for the smaller farmers to 
obtain land, and are made so in order tp create a class of smaller farmers, who 
are protected against land speculators. These terms simply amount to the possi- 
bihty of buying land at about 25 per cent, of the estimated value ; while the 
payments may be made in instalments, and no interest has to be paid during the 
first five years. Five per cent, of the sale price has to be paid cash down, 5 per 
cent, after two years, and 5 per cent, every following year, which means that the 
sum has to be paid over within twenty years. The buyer is obliged to have at 
least 20 per cent, of the arable land cultivated within two years' time, and 10 per 
cent, more every following year, till a minimum is reached of 50 per cent., while 
the land not fit for cultivation has to be planted with trees ; five trees per acre 
during the first two years, and five trees more per acre for each following year, 
till the obligatory minimum of twenty five trees per acre shall be reached. 
All these regulations tend to make it easy for Americans to settle in Hawaii 
without being obliged to have recourse to money in advance or other obligations 
in order to get a plot of land as their property ; while they, at the same time, 
form a colony of Americans in the Pacific as an advance guard and protection 
on the west side for the great republic. 

The total amount of arable land is 568,000 acres (or 228,000 hectares) 
which is distributed as follows : — 

12,000 acres used in rice cultivation. 

225,000 ,, planted with cane. 

15,000 „ fit for cane cultivation. 

326,000 „ fit for small agriculture. 

The big sugar estates became at once owners of the ground, and were, at 
the same time, entitled to use the water from the subsoil, of which, as we saw, 
they made excellent use. Their position is indicated on the map by shading ; 
they occupy the wide strips and slopes on the sea coast and up the mountain 
spurs. 

The principal valley for sugar cultivation is that round Pearl Loch near 

353 Y 



Australasia. 

Honolulu, in Oahu, where an area of less than 40 sq. miles, cultivated by three 
companies, jaelds about 100,000 tons of sugar. 

Before planting is begun the land is thoroughly ploughed up by steam 
ploughs wherever the depth of the loose arable soil allows of it ; after which 
it is levelled down and furrows 30 ft. long, i J to 2 ft. wide, and i J ft. deep are 
cut 5 ft. apart. In these furrows tops are planted, which are cut 12 ins. long 
and put in one or two rows close together, lengthways of the furrows ; after 
which these are covered with earth and then watered. At first this is done 
every two days, and afterwards it is repeated at increasing intervals, till the 
cane is ripe. After some time they manure, bank, and weed occasionally ; and 
by the time the cane ripens it has been trashed once or oftener. The months 
from May till August are best for planting ; by this time the cane may have 
attained to a sufficient height to endure the winter cold, which often causes 
stagnation of growth ; while, at the same time, it is not then old enough to 
begin flowering, which it does in November. Should the planter for want of 
labour be obhged to start earlier in order to get all the cane planted, he 
would run the risk of seeing the cane when only slightly grown, in flower at the 
time when the winter cold commences ; this, of course, would involve the loss 
of the still immature cane. In order to prevent this, the cane planted in March 
or April is cut off close to the ground in July, and then left to bud out and grow 
up together with the cane that was planted at the most favourable planting 
season. During the winter it will grow slowly, and during the following summer 
will shoot up tremendously, and finally fall down ; but it will keep growing 
till it is 20 to 30 ft. in length, and begin flowering in the second November of its 
existence, and be full-grown eighteen months after it was first planted. - 

Here the crushing is not regulated by the time of lowest rainfall, because 
the weather all through the year is subject to great changes, but by the state 
of ripeness of the cane and quantity of the expected crop. Only very few 
planters begin to crush on the ist of November, some start in December ; but 
in January the crushing season ought to be in full swing all over the sugar 
belt. 

After the crop is reaped, ratoons are generally cultivated. For this 
purpose the trash left in the field is removed and burnt, the soil is levelled and 
irrigated, then manured and banked. In case the field is reaped early — for 
instance, in December or January — ratoons wiU grow up so well that in Novem- 
ber they will fiowej again, and will be ready to be cut by the following harvest 
time. These ratoons being ripe one year after they are cut are called " short 
ratoons." Should, however, the harvest be left till late, preventing the ratoon 
cane from reaching the stage of. flowering in November, it is left to grow till 
the following crushing season, in which case it will be cut after twenty-two 
to twenty-four months' vegetation. This is called " long ratoons," and the 
long duration of the growing process easily explains why such fluctuations 
occur between the cane-planted areas and crops reaped every year. It goes 
without saying that the crops from the " short ratoons " are much smaller 

354 



The Hawaiian Islands. 

than those from long ones and from plant cane. After having kept on ratoons 
for several crops, that is about six to ten years after first planting, the soil is 
ploughed up and planted anew immediately afterwards. 

The cane varieties most prevalent in the Hawaiian Islands are Lahaina, 
Yellow Caledonia, and Rose Bamboo cane ; while a few seedling cane varieties 
from Demerara are cultivated too, or are on tried at the experiment stations. 

In Oahu and Maui, Lahaina cane is exclusively cultivated, and Yellow 
Caledonia is in evidence in Hawaii, while the Kauai plantations plant both 
these kinds together with Rose Bamboo. 

The Lahaina cane got its name from an estate in Maui, where it was first 
planted. It is said to have been imported there from Otaheite, where it seems 
to have been indigenous, although we cannot state this as a fact. 

The Rose Bamboo cane somewhat resembles the Cheribon cane of Java ; 
while Yellow Caledonia is said to be identical with the White cane grown in 
Cuba. 

Much trouble is taken as regards manuring ; sulphate of ammonia, Chili 
saltpetre, potash and phosphate are used, and the total sum of money spent 
on manures is estimated at 22 million dollars, or an average of $4-65 for each 
ton of sugar produced, or $22-20 for each acre harvested. It seems to take a 
heavier manure each time to keep the cane production up to the same standard. 

The former director of the Hawaiian Experiment Station has shown re- 
peatedly that it is quite easy to wash out the soil of the Hawaiian Isles, and 
that a heavy rate of irrigation can soon do away with the content of available 
potash and lime from the soil, so that an alarming decrease in these con- 
stituents in the land is even now noticeable, although the irrigation installa- 
tions have only been in use for a very short time. This property indeed proves 
to be a great drawback to the otherwise successful application, and it seems 
that the remarkably favourable effect it had in the beginning is partly due to 
using up what stock of necessary plant food there was to be obtained from 
the subsoil. As soon as this food ceases to be found, it will take a still larger 
amount of manure to keep the sugar production up to the old standard. 

Cane is generally transported from the fields by narrow-gauge railways, 
of which 840 miles of fixed and moveable railroad exist in the different islands, 
together with 120 engines and 8,500 wagons. Besides this mode of transporta- 
tion, there are 370 miles of water-gutters, the so-called " flumes," and 40 miles 
of suspended aerial ropeways for the transportation of cane from the more highly 
situated fields to the factories. The flume system is often appHed, especially 
in Hawaii ; there are even factories that get their whole supply conveyed in 
this way — ^whereas in Oahu, where no river water is obtainable, this system 
could never be applied. 

These flumes are shallow and boarded on each side, slightly sloping down 
from the fields to the factory, and ending in a kind of grate close to the mills. 
In the fields the cane is cut in pieces of 4 to 5 ft. long, and thrown into the 
gutter, so that a constant stream of cut cane keeps flowing to the factory. 

355 



Australasia. 

When the cane has come to the grating it is retained there, while the water 
streams through the bars and is used later on for condensing the vapour of the 
evaporators and vacuum pans, or is pumped up again for transport purposes. 

The cane from the fields not lying along the railway or water-flumes is 
taken to the mill by carts drawn by mules. As the temperature of the islands 
is not very high and the humidity of the atmosphere never gets excessive, cut cane 
keeps much longer without deteriorating, than it does in hotter countries, so 
that people are not in such a great hurry to get the reaped cane crushed as they 
are in Java and Cuba. 

In igio 43,131 hands were working on the sugar estates, 25,808 of whom 
were engaged on field work and 7,060 in the factory ; while the rest were acting 
as managers, foremen, and clerks. The 7,060 factory labourers are subdivided 
into 1,200 Eirtizans, 2,522 skilled labourers, and 4,388 unskilled hands. The 
labour problem is still a difficult one to solve in the Hawaiian Islands. The 
natives, who are not numerous and are far from industrious, as a rule fiU the 
places of carmen, but do no regular field or factory work. In order to supply 
the want of labour everything has been tried : Germans, Scandinavians, Portu- 
guese from Portugal and the Azores, Spaniards, Chinese, FiUpinos, Japanese, 
Russians from Vladivostok, West Indians, and even negroes have been im- 
ported ; but the European nationalities, with the exception of the Portuguese, 
could not endure the heavy field work in a tropical climate. 

The economical conditions in the Azores are steadily improving, and 
consequently lessen the inducement for Portuguese labourers to try their 
f ortime in Hawaii ; Portuguese immigration is therefore tincertain, and at the 
same time expensive. In 1909 as many as 874 Portuguese — men, women, and 
children — immigrated from the Azores, costing on an average $90 a head ; 
adult males cost $235, and adult females $145 ; but children (of whom there 
were many) were much less. 

As long as Hawaii was still a kingdom and an independent republic, the 
immigration of indentured European labourers was quite an easy matter, and 
in this way South Europe provided a good deal of comparatively cheap labour. 

Once annexed, Hawaii came under American laws, which consider inden- 
tured immigration as a sort of slavery, and consequently forbid it As Euro- 
pean labourers do not like to risk leaving home in such circumstances, and 
very often have not the means to pay their passage, the American 
immigration law has actually put a stop to this easy way of procuring labour, 
and has dealt a nasty blow to the Hawaiian planters, which should be considered 
over and against the advantages of this annexation. Another clause of this 
law forbids further immigration of Chinese into the dominion of the United 
States, consequently into Hawaii ; so a second source of immigration is 
excluded. 

At the present time the Japanese is the only nation that comes to Hawaii 
in large numbers to work in the fields and stay on for some time with the inten- 
tion of earning a handsome sum of money, and then departing either for Japan 

356 



The Hawaiian Islands, 

or for the' United States when the language has been mastered. Thanks to 
the restricting regulations, the Japanese irnmigration has decreased much of 
late, as more Japanese leave the country than enter it, and this, of course, has 
led to the immigration of other races. Then they tried to get Russians from 
Manchuria and Siberia to settle in Hawaii, their numbers having risen to 1,300 
the last two years. It is cheaper to send these people to Hawaii than Portu- 
guese immigrants, as the fare of a Russian on an average amounts to $70, 
namely, $165 for a man, $100 for a woman, and a much smaller sum for a 
child. Up to now the results of this type of immigration may be called very 
satisfactory, but we cannot be certain yet of their wish to stay on or of their 
enduring power to stand the work in tropical fields. They have also tried to 
get some thousand labourers from the Phihppines, but though the mode of 
working of this people leaves much to be desired, the Hawaiian planters readily 
put up with their drawbacks, being glad of the help obtained. 

In order to save labour, several field operations have already been aban- 
doned : for instance, trashing the cane, which means saving much manual 
labour, has been given up. Then the cane plots that are to be cut down are now 
burnt over, as this greatly diminishes work, for it is much easier to cut the 
burnt down cane than the green cane leaves full of sharp edges and hairs. 

Rats are among the greatest enemies to the Hawaiian cane. Attempts 
have been made to exterminate them by introducing a sort of weasel, but this 
has not had satisfactory results. Then the borers do a great deal of 
harm. They are not caterpillars in this case, but black beetles, called Spheno- 
phorus obscurus. This beetle deposits its eggs in the higher nodes of the cane, 
where the leaf-sheaths stand out from the stalk, and when the eggs are hatched 
the larv£e get into the cane, where they tm-n into grubs and destroy the entire 
inner tissue of the cane. The harm they do is considerable, and, according to 
an article in a magazine the truth of which we cannot altogether vouch for, 
is estimated at $2,000,000 a year. 

The Entomological Division of the Hawaiian Experiment Station has tried 
to find parasites of this beetle and cultivate them in hopes of being able to exter- 
minate the pest, as they once were able to exterminate the " leaf-hopper " 
(Perkinsiella saccharicida) . This insect, a kind of very small bug, sucks the 
middle nerve of the leaves, and causes so much damage that, small as it is though 
large in number, the sugar crop of some estates is said to have been diminished 
by 10 per cent. The same bug occurs in many other sugar-producing countries, 
such as Java, but never does so much harm there as parasitical enemies, espec- 
ially ichneumon flies, are also found there, and impede too rapid a multipUcation 
of this insect. The Perkinsiella, unfortunately, seems to have come to Hawaii 
from Queensland enclosed in a parcel of cane, but the parasite, worst of aU, 
was left behind, and here in a new country, without its usual enemies, it multi- 
pUed at an incredibly quick rate, and did much harm. The Experiment 
Station of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters appointed a number of practical ento- 
mologists who set about searching for the accompanying parasites wherever 

357 



Australasia. 

the bug was found. When found they cultivated them, and sent them to 
Honolulu to attack their natural enemies. As the ichneumon flies, however, 
could not travel the distance from Java to Honolulu, for instance, without a 
break, an intermediate station was founded in Hong Kong, where a great 
number of them were cultivated on sugar cane under a gauze cover, in order 
to enable the parasites to give birth to a new generation before their span of 
life should terminate. In this way they succeeded in conveying a number 
parasites, the principal of which are the Paranagrus optahilis and Paranagrus 
perforator ; there are also the Anagrus frequens and Ootetrastichus heatus. A 
few years after the introduction of the parasites, an experiment showed that 
87 per cent, of the eggs of the leaf-hopper were infested with larvae of the 
ichneumon fly, so that we may consider this danger as past. 

Further, red smut and marasmius are of frequent occurrence, as well as 
other less important diseases, all of which, however, are combatted by dis- 
infecting the cuttings with Bordeaux mixture, which is highly recommended 
for this purpose by the Experiment Station. 



IV. — Sugar Manufacture, Sugar Production per Acre, Cost 
Price, Kind of Sugar and its Destination. 

The manufacture of sugar from sugar cane in the Hawaiian Islands is 
carried on in the very best possible way ; this may be partly due to the fact 
that the owners of the factories live in the islands, and can see for themselves 
what their concerns require. Their factories are installed with the best machinery 
to be had, and work under fairly good chemical and technical control. Then 
the cane here is of excellent quality, and produces far richer and purer juice 
than in other cane-growing countries. Peru alone can boast of having an 
equally good kind of cane, but, on the whole, the cane of other countries is 
much inferior to the Hawaiian cane in sugar content and purity. Some fac- 
tories crush from March till May cane of 17 per cent, sugar, and the highest 
average figure on a weekly statistical list was for April, 1909 — no less than 
17-81 per cent., the crusher juice having a density of 23-23° Brix. The highest 
monthly averages for 1909 were 16-81 per cent., 15-89, 15-87, and 15-85 per 
cent, on a 100 of cane. All these figures refer to Lahaina cane in rainless regions, 
but planted under irrigation. It was planted in June, 1907, flowered in Novem- 
ber, igo8, and was crushed from March to May, 1909 ; so that it stood in the 
field for almost twenty-two months. 

Ratoons from one-year-old cane grown in parts dependent on rain never 
realize so high a juice content. The juice nowadays is exclusively expressed 
by means of mills ; diffusion has been tried in some facto;:ies, but these shared 

33« 



The Hawaiian Islands. 

the common lot of diffusion plants in cane sugar factories, being soon super- 
seded by mills. In many cases one crusher and three or four 3-roller mills have 
been cortibined into one system with one or two engines, maceration with water 
and with last mill juice, and hydraulic pressure on the rollers. The extraction 
results thus arrived at are never met with elsewhere, nor have they been sur- 
passed. With so high a sugar content as the Hawaiian cane possesses, the sugar 
content of the bagasse is reduced to 3 per cent., and the loss of sugar on extrac- 
tion to 0-65 on 100 cane ; while the extraction of sugar on 100 of sugai in the cane 
reaches 95 per cent. — but not without maceration of sometimes more than 30 
per cent. This is not only due to the excellent way of working of the American 
mills, but also to the hardness of the cane through having ripened in a dry 
climate, and to the fact that in Hawaii they need not hurry to such an extent 
as they have to in other countries, and can take their time over the crushing 
operations. In Cuba, for instance, where the mills are equally powerful, work 
has to be expedited to get the cane crushed before the rainy season sets in, 
and harvesting cane would be out of the question ; while in Java work has to 
be carried out quickly, too, in order to get the grinding season over before the 
cane dies, or loses in sugar content. In Hawaii the cane in the field keeps in 
good condition long after it is full-grown, while no early rainy season is to be 
feared, so that there is not a single reason for hurrying over the grinding, but 
everybody can work carefully, and try to get as much sugar as possible out of 
the canes. The manufacture calls for no special mention. The juice is limed ; 
clarifying is generally done in Deming's superheat or similar installations, 
and the juice is evaporated in triple or quadruple effects. The syrup, without 
being further clarified, is evaporated to a well-concentrated massecuite, which, 
when centrifugalled, produces a raw sugar of about 97° polarization (so-called 
" A " sugar) and first molasses of about 70° purity. This is boiled to grain and 
the massecuite is cooled and then yields a sugar of about 95° polarization (the 
" B " sugar), and exhausted molasses of about 30 apparent purity. Only one 
factory, the Honolulu Plantation Company, makes exclusively crystalhzed 
and crushed white sugar to the amount of 20,000 short tons a year, to be exported 
to San Francisco as well as for home consumption. The exhausted molasses is 
used partly as cattle fodder or as fuel for' the furnaces in conjunction with a 
special burner ; while a considerable part is thrown away as waste, as excise 
regulations forbid working up the last molasses to alcohol. 

Owing to the high sugar content of the cane, as well as to the high purity 
of the juice and the high juice extraction by the mills, the sugar yield on 100 
cane is extremely high in Hawaii. In 1908 the maximum amount of one factory 
during a whole year was 14-36, while the minimum still came up to 1078 ; i2-6i 
per cent, could be taken as an average figure, so that one may conclude that in 
1908 8 -18 tons of cane were needed for one ton of sugar. For 1909 and 1910 these 
figures have respectively been 7-67 and 7-99 tons of cane for one ton of sugar, 
being equal to yields of 13-04 and 12-52 per cent. The yield from irrigated cane 
is higher than that from non-irrigated. The chemical control of the sugar house 

359 



Australasia. 

work is generally well managed, and analyses and calculations have been 
uniformly conducted for the last few years, ' according to methods adopted by 
the Hawaiian Sugar Chemists' Association, which are founded on the same system 
as those applied in Java and Cuba ; the results obtained in the different islands 
can therefore be accurately compared. The fibre content of the cane is generally 
very high — on an average i2-8 per cent., with a maximum of 15 and a minimum 
of 10 per cent. ; as the bagasse is pressed quite dry, and the manufacture of raw 
sugar crystals does not require much steam, it can stand ample maceration and 
a lot of extra water to be evaporated without the attendants having to have 
recourse to additional fuel. Moreover, the factories are still new, and generally 
installed in a practical manner as regards steam production and application, so 
that most of them can make their bagasse suffice. Those which are short of fuel 
fall back on molasses as additional fuel, or on crude oil, which is imported 
in tank steamers and is sprayed into the furnace by means of injectors. 

The sugar production per area was during the years 1897 to 1907 for the 
different islands as follows, expressed in short tons per acre and kg. per hec- 
tare : — 





Oahu. 


Kauai. 


Maui. 


Hawaii. 


YjBAR. 


Short 

Tons per 

acre. 


Kg. per 

hectare. 


Short 

Tons per 

acre. 


Kg. per 
hectare. 


Short 

Tons per 

acre. 


Kg. per 
hectare. 


Short ' 
Tons per 
acre. 


Kg. per 
hectare. 


1897 . . 


5-38 


12,069 


5-60 


12,547 


472 


10,576 


4-21 


9,429 


1898 


6 /) 


14,249 


5-39 


I2,0fil 


5 45 


12,198 


2-98 


6,677 


1899 . . 


7jb 


i&,466 


5-88 


13.179 


585 


13,106 


348 


7,799 


1900 


7-38 


16,531 


5-34 


11,963 


5-50 


12,320 


3-36 


7,533 


I9OI 


7-29 


16,335 


5-21 


11,674 


5-12 


11,465 


3-30 


7,401 


1902 


7-09 


15799 


4-89 


10,947 


474 


10,640 


3-03 


6,792 


1903 . . 


7-26 


16,254 


4-26 


10,362 


5 -80 


12,984 


3-50 


7,845 


1904 . . 


6-44 


14435 


4-32 


9.373 


5-56 


12,514 


2-64 


5,915 


1905 . . 


6-55 


14,680 


4-61 


10,234 


6-64 


14,882 


2-83 


6,347 


1906 


6-24 


13,670 


4-37 


9799 


6-44 


14,440 


3-09 


7,134 


1907 . . 


6-28 


14,067 


4-43 


9.928 


6-26 


14,032 


3-02 


6,766 


1908 


6-68 


14,970 


473 


10,618 


7-31 


16,362 


3-83 


8,616 


1909 . . 


6-6i 


14.795 


5-03 


11,280 


7-27 


16,201 


3-46 


7,745 


I9IO 


6-26 


14.023 


4-90 


10,964 


7-39 


16,538 


3-03 


6,788 



360 



The Hawaiian Islands. 

The production all over the territory was as follows, on the whole, and 
sub-divided into irrigated and non-irrigated land : — 





On the whole 


Irrigated 


Non-irrigated 


Year. 


land. 


land. 


land. 
















Tons 


Kg. per 


Tons 


Kg. per 


Tons 


Kg. 'per 




per 


hec- 


per 


hec- 


per 


hec- 




acre. 


tare. 


acre. 


tare. 


acre. 


tare. 


1895. 




3-24 


7.249 


3-83 


8,589 


2-65 


5.947 


1896. 






4-07 


9,126 


4-52 


10,116 


3-68 


8,276 


1897. 






4-66 


10,451 


5 -08 


11.369 


4-35 


9.755 


1898. 






4-15 


9.303 


5-63 


12,622 


2-97 


6,646 


1899. 






4-69 


10,503 


6-o8 


13,616 


3-53 


7,936 


1900. 






4-54 


10,164 


6-12 


13.724 


3-13 


7.013 


1901. 






4-57 


10,232 


6-19 


13.874 


3-28 


7,348 


1902. 






4-37 


9.793 


5-84 


13.083 


3-00 


6.737 


1903. 




4-69 


10,511 


6-19 


13.862 


3-86 


7.759 


1904. 




4-00 


8,966 


5 -60 


12,557 


2 -60 


5.827 


1905. 


i 4-48 


10,030 


6-o8 


13.614 


2-8l 


6,309 


1906. 




4-47 


10,018 


576 


13,009 


3-07 


7.077 


1907. 




4-41 


9.885 


5-57 


12,552 


3-02 


6,778 


1908. 




■5-14 


11,488 


6-33 


14,123 


3-83 


8,588 


1909. 




5-03 


IT 227 


648 


14.447 


3-48 


7.746 


1910. 




4-69 


10,503 


6-27 


14.035 


3-06 


6,875 



This shows that the irrigated plantations yield much better results than, 
those depending on rain, and that the Island of Hawaii, where most of the 
plantations are not irrigated, produces much less sugar per area than the 
weU irrigated Island of Oahu does. It also shows that the soil of the Hawaiian 
Islands, on the whole, does not yield that high sugar production such as is often 
mentioned in journals or current talk. These favourable reports are due to the 
fact that a few sugar estates are found in the neighbourhood of Honolulu, 
which are favoured by a deep layer of fertile soil, are well sheltered, and pro- 
vided with an excellent irrigation installation, all of which, of course, leads to 
extremely high cane and sugar yields. As most travellers do not get any 
further than the neighbourhood of Honolulu, the things seen there are apt to be 
taken as in the ordinary run — and so reports such as of Hawaii yielding 12 tons 
of sugar per acre get afloat. Under favourable circumstances some field or other 
may yield such a production, but this figure has never been attained all through 
a crushing season. The famous Ewa plantation in Oahu near Honolulu 

361 



Australasia. 

yielded in 1908 275, 145 -175 tons of cane from 3,79574 acres, or 69-88 tons per 
acre, and made 34-340 tons of sugar out of these or 8-8 tons per acre. The 
planted area was as follows :— 



Plant cane 






544-04 


Long first ratoons 






537-24 


Long second ratoons 






• 1,285-48 


Long third ratoons 






215-54 


Long fourth ratoons 






558-91 


Long fifth ratoons 






38-38 


Short ratoons 






616-15 


Total 


• 3.795-74 acres 



The cost price of sugar, of course, depends on several circumstances, so 
that it is absolutely impossible even to give an approximate figure for it. Van 
Hoorn mentions in the ArcMef voor de Java Suiker Industrie, 1909, page 579, 
that the cost price of sugar from Oahu delivered in Honolulu in 1908 amounted 
to $34 per ton, or 7s. per cwt. Oahu, as a matter of fact, is very well situated, 
and this accounts for the much lower cost price here than at any other factory 
in the Island of Hawaii, which yields us the following data : 2,810 acres of 
cane-field yielded 11,953 tons of sugar, or 4-25 tons per acre. 



The cost of production was : — Per ton 

Planting . . . . . . . . . . 19-57 

Cutting . . . . . . . . . . 2-18 

Transport . . . . . . . . . . 2-47 

Loading . . . . . . . . . . 1-14 

Manufacturing cost . . . . . . 6-30 

Carriage to the seaport . . . . 1-50 

General expenses.. .. .. .. 7-50 

Freightage to the U.S., Commission, etc. 14-40 

Total $55-06 



This cost included no less than $30. per acre for artificial manure. 

With the exception of about 20,000 short tons of white sugar produced 
by the Honolulu Plantation Company, all Hawaiian sugar is raw sugar destined 
for refining purposes. It is sold by contract to the American Sugar Refining 
Company at San Francisco and to the Californian and Hawaiian Sugar Refining 
Company, also estabhshed in San Francisco. During the last few years about 

362 



The Hawaiian Islands. 

three-fifths of the exported sugar was shipped to the Atlantic coast, and the 
rest to the Pacific ports of the United States. 

In 1909 San Francisco received 161,236 out of the 393,000 tons from 
Hawaii ; in 1908 200,534 out of the 465,000, in 1909 208,661 out of the 478,000, 
in 1910 201,317 out of the 463,000 to;is, and in 1911 227,690 out of the 505,995 
tons. The sugar is sold at New York prices, basis 96° Cuban centrifugal sugars 
plus import duty. For sugars destined for New York or Philadelphia one- 
tenth of a cent is deducted from that price per pound ; while for those destined 
for San Francisco the deduction is three-eighths of a cent. Apart from this 
the ordinary custom is followed ; for instance, the price appUes to 96° polariza- 
tion, with an increase of ^V cents per pound for each degree above and a decrease 
of xV cent for each degree below 96. 

Consequently, should the price of duty-paid Cuba 96° centrifugals be 4-05 
cents, Hawaiian sugar of 97° polarization would realize in San Francisco 4-05 
— |-|-i5^ir=37o| cents ; and in New York 3-98^, or respectively 74-125 and 
77-625 dollars per short ton 

This shows that in being dependent on American buyers the Hawaiian 
producers do not, enjoy fully the protection given to foreign sugars of 1-685 
cents per pound on 96° polarization by the high import duty. First of all, 
the Cuban price, as has been stated before, is always lower than the world's 
price owing to the working of the Trusts ; hence free Java sugar, for instance, 
fetches a higher price in the American market than Cuban sugar would do. 
As the world's price quoted by New York is not taken as beisis, but the price paid 
for Cuban sugar, Hawaii first of all shares the same lot, and then makes less foi 
its sugar than sugar from free countries does. Again, they most arbitrarily de- 
duct respectively o-io and 0-375 cents per pound, and, worst of all, the Hawaiian 
producer is compelled as an American citizen to send his goods in American 
bottoms, which brings about a monopoly that naturally drives up the prices to 
no small extent." So while we should not make fight of the fact that Hawaiian 
sugar enjoys a protection of 1-685 cents per pound, or 7s. lod. per cwt., there is 
the disadvantage of freight cost being extremely high, and of sugar fetching less 
in America than free sugar, and that in addition something is deducted from 
the already low price. The first of these drawbacks must be put up with, 
but these other disadvantages are already neutralized to some extent by the 
fact that Hawaiian planters themselves have founded a refinery of their own 
at Crockett, near San Francisco, the Californian and Hawaiian Sugar Refining 
Company, which works up 80 per cent, of the Hawaiian crop transported to 
the Pacific coast ; hence the lower price received for raw sugar comes to the 
good of their own refinery, and, finally, neutralizes the deficit. The only 
disadvantage left is the higher freight cost, but as the protection amounts to 
$3370 per to"' ^'^^ ^^^ entire cost of freight does not come to more than 
$11 to $14, citizenship of the United States must, on the whole, be advanta- 
geous for Hawaii, and be looked upon as a matter of fife or death. Where sugar 
fetches $80 per ton without including deductions, and costs $55 to dehver it 

363 



Australasia. 

in America, it goes without saying that Hawaii could not possibly keep up her 
sugar production if it was not for the $33 protection in the $80, or in . other 
words, if it did not continue to enjoy the same protection the United States 
grant now to their own producers. 



V. — The Future. 



From the foregoing we may conclude that the future of the cane sugar 
industry in the Hawaiian Islands, first of all, depends on the fiscal policy of the 
United States.. Should the Americans decide to abolish or considerably 
diminish the import duties on sugar, thus placing the consumption price of 
sugar in the United States on a level with the world's price that free sugar 
fetches, this would deal a heavy blow to the Hawaiian sugar industry, and 
almost destroy it. Although the duties on sugar in the United States have been 
almost untouched by the action of the Payne tariff, the discontent prevailing 
in American circles as regards the heavy protective tariff has become increasingly 
strong of late, and it is an open question whether the first Cabinet change wiU 
not lead to a modification in the import duties on sugar, to Hawaii's immediate 
detriment. 

In the Hawaiian Islands there are still large tracts of land that might be 
turned into sugar cane plantations ; while there is also ground that could be 
made more productive if irrigation were applied. Where some estates make 
six tons per acre and others three, there is still the possibility of increasing this 
lower production by improving the cultural methods and selecting suitable 
cane. Where irrigation is prone to wash out and eliminate the mineral con- 
stituents of the soil which have collected for ages, this shortage can be made 
up by appljnng artificial manure, so that it need not lead to any decrease in 
returns. If more American small farmers would settle in these islands, the 
most necessary articles of food might be supphed by farmers instead of by 
China or Japan, which would mean a reduction in the price of nearly all articles 
of consumption, and make life out there a little less expensive. Scarcity of 
labour, however, is the greatest obstacle to further extension of the sugar 
industry, and as long as the laws on immigration are not modified a further 
noticeable increase in production will be out of question for the present. Pro- 
posals have already been made to issue exceptional regulations on the immigra- 
tion laws, either by allowing Portuguese to be accepted by contract and with 
money advanced, or by admitting a limited number of Chinese manual labourers 
into the islands. In order to prevent their invading the United States, or 
competing with American workmen in the Hawaiian Islands, stipulations might 
be made that they should only come in for field work, and that they are not to 
be allowed into the United States, the latter stipulation also being enacted 
against Chinese living in Hawaii. 

364 



Hawaii. 

When the Government of the United States will allow and promote the 
immigration of field labourers in one way or other, the sugar industry of Hawaii 
will, no doubt, enter upon "a period of greater extension, as this would be the 
last factor to ensure complete success. 

Books of Reference 

Royal D. Mead. A History of the Progress of the Sugar Industry of Hawaii since the Reci- 
procity Treaty of 1876. 
British Consular Reports. 
The Climate of Hawaii. 
Hawaii and its Agricultural Possibilities. 
Maps, Guides, and Pamphlets issued by the Hawaii Promotion Committee, 



III. 

THE FIJI ISLANDS. 

The Fiji Islands he in the Pacific Ocean, between 15° 47' and 
21° 4' S. Lat., and between 176° 51' W. Long., and 175° 38' E. Long. They 
consist of six groups, composing in all two big and 253 small islands. Their 
total area is 8,054 sq. miles, and their inhabitants amounted to 116,684 in 
1901. The two bigger islands have respectively areas of 4,550 and 2,500 sq. 
miles ; about eighty of the smaller islands are inhabited, while the rest have 
no population at all. 

The bigger islands are of volcanic formation and mountainous, while the 
smaller ones are coral islands. The climate is warm and moist, and the soil 
of the big islands is fertile and suitable for all sorts of tropical vegetation. 

Suva, in Viti-Levu, is the capital, possessing a good harbour ; what other 
towns there are are of no importance. 

The Fiji Islands were discovered by Tasman in 1643 ; in 1773 Cook visited 
them, and after him came other travellers. Its king in 1853 offered Great Britain 
the sovereignty of his islsind kingdom, in order to escape punishment at the 
hands of the United States, but the offer was not accepted. In 1858 it was 
renewed and declined once more ; but finally, in 1874, the islands became a 
colony of the British Empire. 

Sugar is the principal article produced, and is cultivated in the Islands of 
Viti-Levu and Vanua-Levu ; while the Island of Taviuni also possesses land 
fit for sugar cultivation, which may be turned to account later on. About 
1880 the Colonial Sugar Refining Company began to grow cane, and a few years 
afterwards the Fiji Sugar Company followed its example, but the first-named 
company had the greatest interest by far in the industry. The early factories 
were at first most primitive, but soon improved, and as early as 1883 an export- 
ation of 5,232 tons of sugar was recorded. The labour difficulty at first retarded 

365 



Australasia. 

developments. The aborigines could not be got to do regular work, and when 
the inhabitants of neighbouring islands, like Tonga and the Solomon Islands 
were tried for this purpose, they proved better workers ; still the importation 
of this type of labour was no success in the end. Finally, the British Colonial 
Government came to their succour, arid allowed British Indian coolies to immi- 
grate on the same terms as prevailed in the West Indian colonies. The coolies 
are recruited by Government officials in the districts round Calcutta, as required 
by the planters, and conveyed to Suva by the Government. On arriving 
there they are distributed among the plantations for five years' indenture, 
and have the option to renew after that time is expired. The coolies are 
generally provided in the proportion of two men to one woman. The planters 
return the money advanced to the Government, and pay the coolies the following 
wages : 25s. per month for an indentured male labourer, and 20s. for an in- 
dentured female worker. A man can usually make is. a day, and a woman 
gd. a day when engaged on piecework. Lodging, medical treatment, and 
medicine are provided by the estate, but the workmen have to find their own 
food, which does not come to much, and they are soon able to put by some 
money, which they convert into silver ornaments, an investment easy to trans- 
port and to keep possession of. 

In order to be able eventually to do away with the necessity of having to 
import and keep indentured coolies at great expense and under legal diffi- 
culties, the sugar manufacturers have tried to keep on the British Indians as 
free labourers after they have served their indenture, and to give a group of 
labourers the usage of plots of land — some sixty acres in extent — for culti- 
vation. The land is first prepared for the cane, and the latter planted before 
the British Indians assume possession under the superintendence of the factory 
staff. During the time it takes the cane to grow, each indentured labourer 
gets IS. for each 9-hour working day by way of payment in advance, which 
money, together with tillage expenses, is deducted later on when they settle 
the money the cane crop has fetched. 

We give an example of the mode of settling this payment for a plot 60 
acres in size, yielding 1,843 tons of cane, which cane was sold at 4s. per ton 
(standing) in the field ; — 

1,843 tons at 4s. 

Wages in advance at is. per day 

Cutting wages advanced by the factory 

Cleaning and loading expenses paid in advance 



i 


s. d. 


i 


s. d. 






368 


12 


141 


ig II 






66 









8 


18 II 










216 


18 10 








£151 


13 2 



36b 



The Fiji Islands. 



So the planters get a sum of £151 13s. 2d. at the end of the harvest, and 
as it had taken 2,595 days of work, it means an extra daily premium of is. 2d., 
which, together with the is. advanced as wages, comes to 2s. 2d. ; consequently, 
quite a little sum accrues for the planter. And then this is not a specially good 
piece of land, as there are instances of 3s. for a day's work. We should remem- 
ber that this 2s. 2d. a day only refers to the work done in planting the cane, 
and does not refer to the daily wages during the time the cane is ripening. 

It will happen, of course, that cane does not want any attention when grow- 
ing, thus leaving the farmers time to occupy themselves with other work, 
such as the la3dng out of new fields, the cutting and transporting of cane, etc. 
This is sometimes classed as day work, but more generally as contract work ; 
this latter arrangement being a better one in that it leaves the planter free to 
shelve his work for the time, and give his whole attention to his own cane 
when it needs his special care. 

It is clear that it takes a good deal of management and tact to see to the 
several interests — those of the factory, of the planters, the Indians' interests, 
and the planting on ground under lease ; for all these various conditions make 
it necessary for the land to be planted and tilled at different times, so that the 
labourers should have work all through the year. As all these difficulties seem 
to have been overcome, this system of cane planting in instalments is much in 
vogue — the Indians being rather partial to the system, and it leads to an 
increasing amount of production, which at the present moment is estimated 
at about 80,000 tons. In spite of the large profits the planters make, the cane 
when delivered at the mill does not cost too much for the manufacturers. 

According to the following specification, the net cost of cane comes to 7s. 
per ton. The expenses of working the same plot of ground of 60 acres, yielding 
1,843 tons of cane were as foUows : — 



Ploughing 
Harrowing . . 
Making of furrows . . 
Making ready for planting 
Actual planting 

Supplying 

Ploughing between the rows 

Banking . .' 

Portable railway and transport 

Implements . . 

866 coolies at 5d. per task 

289 hours at is. yjd. 

466 mules at is. ofd. 

898 oxen at 2|d. 

Survey, administration 



60 acres at 30s 
367 



£ s. 


d. 


5 2 


9 


I 4 





9 8 


3 


I 14 





18 8 


9 


5 I 





2 12 


6 


I 7 


9 


5 2 





6 12 





18 


10 


23 18 





24 15 


I 


9 7 


I 


90 






Australasia. 



2 595 coolies for planting at 5d. per task 
Paid for 1,843 tons of cane at 4s. 



£ s. d. 

• 54 I 2 

■ 363 7 3 

£645 7 3 



which for 1,843 tons of cane is 7s. per ton. 

One disadvantage of this system of having the planting done by contract 
is that the planters are no longer in close touch with the farmers, but lose their 
hold over them, and cannot compel them to work intensively, nor can they let 
them share irrigation expenses. Much ratoon is grown, little money is spent 
on inanuring or irrigation ; hence the sugar production seldom exceeds three 
tons to the acre. 

The factories, on the other hand, are excellently installed, and supplied 
with triple crushing and maceration and gieen bagasse furnaces ; in short, with 
all modem machinery. The Colonial Sugar Refining Company possesses four 
big sugar factories, three of which are in Viti-Levu, and one at Labasa, in the 
Island of Vanua-Levu. 

In addition, there are a few smaller factories, which either belong to the 
Colonial Sugar Refining Company, or sell their production to them. Nearly all 
Fiji sugar is sent to Auckland, New Zealand, where it is treated in the refinery 
of the Colonial Company. 

The sugar exportation from the Fiji Islands has amounted to the following 
quantities in tons : — 



1883 
1886 
1889 
1892 

1895 
1896 
1897 
1898 
1899 
1900 
1901 



5,232 


1902 


11,887 


1903 


I3.4II 


1904 


19,202 


1905 


23.571 


1906 


27,788 


1907 


27.432 


1908 


34,540 


1909 


31,210 


I9IO 


32,098 


I9II 


31,751 


I9I2 



35.901 
46,438 
52,138 
65.517 
38.487 

66,596 
66.149 
68,942 
68,900 
75,000 
80,000 

(estimate). 



36? 



Tahiti. 
IV. 

TAHITI. 

Tahiti, a French possession, belongs to the Society Islands in the Pacific 
Ocean, in i8o° W. Long, and 17° S. Lat. It is mountainous and scantily 
populated. Attempts have been repeatedly made to introduce the sugar 
industry, but so far in vain. 

The native population are disinchned for steady work, and as Tahiti is a 
French colony, working with indentured British Indian coolies is out of the 
question here. Sugar when Imported is very heavily taxed, and so cannot be 
introduced from other countries with any profit. The population is not con- 
siderable enough to carry on a flourishing sugar industry. 

Up to 1892 not more than 40 tons of sugar was its yearly production ; 
in 1894 a big plantation close to the capital, Papeete, which had been abandoned, 
was started again, and about 25 acres were planted, and yielded 67 tons of sugar. 
The next year 40 acres yielded 94 tons ; while in 1897 124 tons were produced. 
In 1898 the crop attained to 83 tons, and in 1899 it was 207 tons ; the 
industry has since developed to such an extent that two factories together 
produce 400 to 450 tons of sugar yearly, which amount just supplies the home 
consumption. Hence, only a very little refined sugar has to be imported 
from France and the United States ; and raw sugar is no longer imported 
from New Zealand at all. 



Sf'-Q 



Appendix. 
I. 

International Convention relative to Bounties on Sugar. 



Signed at Brussels, March ^th, 1902. 



His Majesty the German Emperor, King of Prussia, in the name of the 
German Empire ; His Majesty the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia, &c., 
&c., and Apostolic King of Hungary ; His Majesty the King of the Belgians ; 
His Majesty the King of Spain, and, in his name. Her Majesty the Queen- 
Regent of the Kingdom ; the President of the French Republic ; His Majesty 
the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britian and Ireland, and of the 
British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India ; His Majesty the King 
of Italy ; Her Majesty the Queen of the Netherlands ; His Majesty the King of 
Sweden and Norway ; 

Desiring, on the one hand, to equalize the conditions of the competition 
between beet and cane sugar from various countries, and, on the other hand, 
to promote the consumption of sugar ; 

And considering that this twofold result cannot be attained otherwise 
than by the abolition of bounties and by the limitation of the surtax ; 

Have resolved to conclude a Convention to this effect, and have appointed 
their Plenipotentiaries ; 

Who, having exchanged their full powers, found to be in good and due 
form, have agreed on the following Articles : — 

ARTICLE I. 

The High Contracting Parties engage to suppress, from the date of the 
coming into force of the present Convention, the direct and indirect bounties 
by which the production or exportation of sugar may profit, and not to establish 
bounties of such a kind during the whole continuance of the said Convention. 
For the application of this provision, sugar-sweetened products, such as pre 
serves, chocolates, biscuits, condensed milk, and all other analogous products 
containing, in a notable proportion, artificially incorporated sugar, are assimi- 
lated to sugar. 

371 



Appendix. 

The preceding paragraph applies to all advantages derived directly or 
indirectly, by tjae several categories of producers, from State fiscal legislation, 
and in particular to — 

(a) Direct bonuses granted on exportation ; 

(b) Direct bonuses granted to production ; 

(c) Total or partial exemptions from taxation which profit a part of the 
products of msmufacture ; 

(d) Profits derived from excess of yield ; 

(e) Profits derived from too high a drawback ; 

(/) Advantages derived from any surtax in excess of the rate fixed by 
Article IIL 

ARTICLE II, 

The High Contracting Parties engage to place in bond, under the contin- 
uous supervision, both by day and by night, of Revenue officers, sugar factories 
and sugar refineries, as well as factories for the extraction of 'sugar from molasses. 

For this purpose, the factories shall be so arranged as to afford every guar- 
antee against the surreptitious removal of sugar, and the officers shall have 
the right of entry into all parts of the factories. 

Check registers shall be kept respecting one or more of the processes of 
manufacture, and finished sugar shall be placed in special warehouses affording 
every requisite guarantee of security. 

ARTICLE III. 

The High Contracting Parties engage to limit the surtax — that is to say, 
the difference between the rate of duty or taxation to which foreign sugar is 
liable and the rate of duty or taxation to which home-produced sugar is subject 
— to a maximum of 6 fr. per loo kg. on refined sugar and on sugar which may 
be classed as refined, and to 5 fr. 50 c. on other sugar. 

This provision is not intended to apply to the rate of import duty in 
countries which produce no- sugar ; neither is it applicable to the by-products 
of sugar manufacture and of sugar refining. 

ARTICLE IV. 

The High Contracting Parties engage to impose a special duty on the 
importation into their territories of sugar from those countries which may 
grant bounties either on production or on exportation. 

This duty shall not be less than the amount of the bounties, direct or in- 
direct, granted in the country of origin. The High Contracting Parties reserve 
to themselves, each so far as concerns itself, the right to prohibit the importation 
of bounty-fed sugar. 

In order to calculate the amount of the advantages eventually derived 
from the surtax specified under letter (/) of Article I, the figure fixed by 

372 



Appendix. 

Article III is deducted from the amount of this surtax'; half of this difference 
is considered to represent the bounty, the Permanent Commission instituted 
by Article VII having the right, at the request of a Contracting State, to revise 
the figure thus obtained. 

ARTICLE V. 

The High Contracting Parties engage reciprocally to admit at the lowest 
rates of their tariffs of import duties sugar the produce either of the Contracting 
States or of those Colonies or possessions of the said States which do not grant 
bounties, and to which the obligations of Article VIII are applicable. 

Cane sagar and beet sugar may not be subjected to different duties. 



ARTICLE VI. 

Spain, Italy, and Sweden shall be exempted from the engagement which 
forms the subject of Articles I, II, and III, so long as they do not export sugar. 

Those States engage to adapt their sugar legislation to the provisions of 
the Convention within one year — or earlier if possible — from the time at which 
the Permanent Commission shall have found that the above-mentioned 
condition has ceased to exist. 

ARTICLE VII. 

The High Contracting Parties agree to establish a Permanent Commission 
charged with supervising the execution of the provisions of the present Con- 
vention. 

This Commission shall be composed of Delegates of the several Contracting. 
States, and a Permanent Bureau shall be attached to it. The Commission elects 
its President ; it will sit at Brussels and will assemble at the summons of the 
President. 

The duties of the Delegates will be : — 

(a) To pronounce whether in the Contracting States no direct or indirect 
bounty is granted on the production or on the exportation of sugar. 

(6) To pronounce whether the States referred to in Article VI continue to 
fulfil the special condition foreseen by that Article. 

(c) To pronounce whether bounties exist in the non-signatory States, 
and to estimate the amount .thereof for the purposes of Article IV. 

(d) To deliver an opinion on contested questions. 

(e) To-prepare for consideration requests for admission to the Union made 
by States which have not taken part in the present Convention. 

It will be the duty of the Permanent Bureau to collect, translate, arrange, 
and publish information of aU kinds respecting legislation on, and statistics 
of, sugar, not only in the Contracting States, but in other States as- weU. 

In order to insure the execution of the preceding provisions, the High Con- 

[373] 



Appendix. 

tracting Parties shall communicate, through the diplomatic channel, to the Bel- 
gian Government, which shall forward them to the Commission, the Laws, 
Orders, and Regulations on the taxation of sugar which are or may in the 
future be in force in their respective countries, as well as statistical information 
relative to the object of the present Convention. 

Each of the High Contracting Parties may be represented on the Com- 
mission by a Delegate, or by a Delegate and Assistant Delegates. 

Austria and Hungary shall be considered as separate Contracting Parties. 

The first meeting of the Commission shall be held in Brussels, under 
arrangements to be made by the Belgian Government, at least three months 
before the coming into force of the present Convention. 

The duty of the Commission shall be limited to findings and investigations. 
It shall draw up a report on all questions submitted to it, and forward the same 
to the Belgian Government, which shall communicate it to the States interested, 
and, at the request of one of the High Contracting Parties, shall convoke a 
Conference, which shall take such decisions or measures as circumstances 
demand. 

The findmgs and calculations referred to under letters {b) and (c) must, 
however, be acted on by the Contracting States ; they will be passed by a vote 
of the majority — each Contracting State having one vote — and they will take 
effect in two months' time at the latest. Should one of the Contracting States 
consider it necessary to appeal against a decision of the Commission, the said 
State must, within eight days of notification to it of the said decision, require 
a fresh meeting of the Commission ; the Commission will immediately hold 
a meeting, and will pronounce its final decision within one month of the date 
of the appeal. The new decision shall take effect, at latest, within two months 
of its delivery. The same procedure will be followed with regard to the prepara- 
tion for consideration of demands for admission provided for imder letter (e). 

The expenses incurred on account of the organization and working of the 
Permanent Bureau and of the Commission — excepting the salaries or allowances 
of the Delegates, who shall be paid by their respective countries — shall be borne 
by aU the Contracting States, and shall be divided among them in a manner 
to be determined by the Commission. 



ARTICLE VIII. 

The High Con tracting Parties engage, for themselves and for their Colonies 
or possessions, exception being made in the case of the self-governing Colonies 
of Great -Britain and the British East Indies, to take the necessary measures 
to prevent bounty-fed sugar which has passed in transit through the territory 
of a Contracting State from enjoying the benefits of the Convention in the 
market to which it is being sent. The Permanent Commission shall make the 
necessary proposals with regard to this matter. 

374 



Appendix. 

ARTICLE rx. 

States which have not taken part in the present Convention shall be 
admitted to adhere to it at their request, and after concurrence has been 
expressed by the Permanent Commission. 

The request shall be addressed through the diplomatic channel to the 
Belgian Government, which shall undertake, when occasion arises, to notify 
the adhesion to all the other Governments. The adhesion shall entail, as of 
right, acceptance of all the obligations and admission to all the advantages 
stipulated by the present Convention, and will take effect as from the ist 
September following the dispatch of the notification by the Belgian Govern- 
ment to the other Contracting States. 

ARTICLE X. 

The present Convention shall come into force from the ist September, 
1903. 

It shall remain in force for five years from that date, and in the case of 
none of the High Contracting Parties having notified to the Belgian Government, 
twelve months before the expiration of the said period of five years, its intention 
of terminating the effects thereof, it shall continue to remain in force for one 
year, and so on from year to year. 

In the event of one of the Contracting States denouncing the Convention, 
such denunciation shall have effect only in respect to such State ; the other 
States shall retain, until the 31st October, of the year in which the denunciation 
takes place, the right of notifying their intention of withdrawing as from the 
1st September of the following year. If one of these latter States desires to 
exercise this right, the Belgian Government shaU summon a Conference at 
Brussels within three months to consider the measures to be taken 

ARTICLE XL 

The provisions of the present Convention shall apply to the oversea Pro- 
vinces, Colonies, and foreign possessions of the High Contracting Parties. 
The British and Netherland Colonies and possessions are excepted, save as 
regards the provisions forming the object of Articles V. and VIII. 

The position of the British and Netherland Colonies and possessions is 
furthermore regulated by the Declarations inserted in the Final ProtocoL 

ARTICLE XII. 
The fulfilment of the mutual engagements contained in the present Con- 
vention is subject, as fa'' as necessary, to the completion of the formahties 
and requirements established by the Constitutional laws of each of the Con- 
tracting States 

375 



Appendix. 

The present Convention shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be 
deposited at the Ministry for Foreign Affairs at Brussels, on the ist February, 
1903, or earlier if possible. 

It is understood that the present Convention shall become binding, as of 
right, only if it is ratified by those at least of the Contracting States who are 
not the subject of the exceptional provision of Article VI. Should one or more 
of the said States not have deposited their ratifications within the period 
stipulated, the Belgian Government shall immediately take steps to obtain a 
decision by the other Signatory Powers as to whether the present Convention 
shall come into force among them alone. 

In faith whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the present 
Convention. 

Done at Brussels, in single copy, March 5, 1902. 

Final Protocol. 

On proceeding to the signature of the Sugar Convention concluded this day 
between the Governments of Germany, of Austria and of Hungary, of Belgium, 
of Spain, of France, of Great Britain, of Italy, of the Netherlands, and of Sweden, 
the undersigned Plenipotentiaries have agreed as follows : — 

As regards Article III. 

Considering that the object of the surtax is the effectual protection ot the 
home markets of the producing countries, the High Contracting Parties reserve 
to themselves the right, each as concerns itself, to propose an increase of the 
surtax, should considerable quantities of sugar produced by one of the Con- 
tracting States enter their territories ; this increase would only apply to sugar 
produced by that State. 

The proposal must be addressed to the Permanent Commission, which will 
decide, at an early date, by a vote of the majority, whether there is good 
ground for the proposed measure, as to the period for which it shall be enforced, 
and as to the rate of the increase ; the latter shall not exceed i fr. per 100 kg. 

The assent of the Commission shall only be'given when the invasion of the 
market concerned is the consequence of real economic inferiority, and not the 
result of a factitious increase in price brought about by an agreement among 
producers. 

As regards Article XI. 

(A.) I. The Government of Great Britain declares that no bounty, 
direct or indirect, shall be granted to the sugar of the Crown Colonies during 
the continaance of the Convention. 

2 It also declares as an exceptional measure, and reserving in principle 
entire liberty of action as regards the fiscal relations between the tJnited 
Kingdom and its Colonies and possessions, that, during the continuance of the 

376 



Appendix. 

Convention, no preference will be granted in the United Kingdom to Colonial 
sugar as against sugar from the Contracting States. 

3. Lastly, it declares that the Convention will be submiljted by it to the 
■ self-governing Colonies and to the East Indies, so that they may have an oppor- 
tunity of giving their adhesion to it. 

It is understood that the Government of His Britannic Majesty has power 
to adhere to the Convention on behalf of the Crown Colonies. 

(B.) The Government of the Netherlands declares that diiring the con- 
tinuance of the Convention no bounty, direct or indirect, shall be granted to 
sugar from the Netherland Colonies, and that such sugar shall not be admitted 
into the Netherlands at a lower Tariff than that applied to sugar from the 
Contracting States. 

The present Final Protocol, which shall be ratified at the same time as 
the Convention concluded this day, shall be regarded as forming an integral 
part of the Convention, and shall have the same force, value, and duration. 

In faith whereof the Plenipotentiaries have drawn up the present Protocol. 

Done at Brussels, the 5th March, 1902. 



377 



II. 

List of Countervailing Duties to be levied by every Country adhering to the 
Brussels Convention (except Great Britain) on importation of bounty- 
fed Sugar from the followring sources. As fixed by the Permanent 
Commission at Brussels in August, 191 1. 







Countervailing 


Origin. 


Description of Sugar. 


Duty in francs per 
100 kg. 




Refined, or polarizing 96° 






and more 


19-90 


Argentina 


■ Unrefined or polarizing 






under 96° 


15-05 


r 


Candy 








10-50 


Commonwealth of Australia \ 


Raw. . 
Refined 








0-94 
5-62 


Brazil | 


Raw. . 
Refined 








36-00 
35-00 


British South Africa . . \ 


Raw. . 
Refined 








2-05 
3-89 




Refined whole or crushed . 




13-51 




White, crystaUized or 






crushed . . 


10-86 


Chile , 


CrystaUized, first product or 






moscobada (cassonade) 


6-45. 




Crude (chancaca or con- 






creto) 




5-98 


1 


White 




20-50 


Costa Rica . . 


Other kinds of refined 




15-00 


1 


Raw 




15-25 


Japan 


Refined, candy 




2-6l 


Canada 


Refined 




3-63 


Mexico 


Raw and refined . . 




3-00 


Nicaragua 


Raw 

Refined '. . 




34-75 
34-50 


Mozambique . . 


Raw 

Refined 




13-50 
13-00 


Rumania . . . . .A 


Raw 

Refined 




15-15 

20-00 


Spain . . 


Raw and refined . . 




19-50 



378 



Measures. 

III. 

Table of Measures, Weights and Currency, with their sub-divisions and 
their British equivalents. 

A. MEASURES. 

Foot = 12 inches = 0-304794 metre. 
Inch = 0-02539954 metre. 

Kilometre = 3,280 feet 10 inches = 0-62137 mile. 
Metre = 39-37 inches. 
Mile = 1,609-315 metres. 
Yard = 3 feet = 0-9144 metre. 
Acre = 4,046-71 square metres. 

. Aliquiere (Brazil) = 4 quarteis = 5-98 acres = 2-42 hectare?. 
Are = 100 metres = 119-6 square yards. 
Arpent (Mauritius) = i"043 -'cres = 4,221 square metres. 
Bouw (Java) = 500 square Rhineland rods = 1-747 ^^^^ = 7.096-5 square 

metres. 
Caballeria (Cuba) = 342 cordelas = 33-16 acres = 13- ;2 hectares 
Hectare = 10,000 square metres = 2-471 acres. 
Ij^dh ^Formosa and Japan) = 2-45 acres = 0-9915 hectare. 
Mananza (Nicaragua) = 1-70 rcre = 0-69 hectare. 
Square Metre = 1,550 square inches. 

Orlong (Straits Settlements) ij acre = 0-535 hectare. \ 

Square Rhineland Rod (Java) = 17-21 square yards = 14-39 square metres. 
Gallon (Imperial) = 4 quarts = 4-545963 litres. 
Gallon (American) = 0-832 Imperial gallon = 3-785 litres. 
Hectolitre = 100 litres = 22 Imperial gallons = 26-417 American gallons. 
Litre = 0-88 quart. 
Hogshead {see under ' Weights.'). 
Sack (see under ' Weights '). 

B. WEIGHTS. 

Arroba = 25.3175 11^. avoird. = 11-5 kg. 

Himdredweight (Great Britain and British Colonies) = 112 lbs. = 50-80235 

kg. 
Hundredweight (Spain and Spanish countries) = 100 Spanish pounds = 

101-27 lbs. avoird. = 46 kg. 
Himdredweight (Old German) = 100 German pounds = 114-44 lbs. avoird. 
Hogshead (British West Indies) = | ton = 889 kg. 
Kilogram (kg.) = 2-2046 lbs. avoird. 
Maund Bazar (British India) = 40 seers = 100 pounds Troy = 82-30 lbs. 

avoird. = 37-3242 kg. 
Picul (China) = 133-27 lbs. = 60-453 kg. 
Picul (Japan) = 133-33 lbs. = 60-5 kg 

.379 



Weights. 

Picul (Java) = 125 Amsteidam pounds = 136-16 lbs. = 61761302 kg. 

Picul (Philippine Islands) = 139-44 lbs. = 63-25 kg. 

Picul (Straits Settlements) = 133-33 lbs. = 60-5 leg. 

Pood (Russia) = 36-112 lbs. avoird. = 16-3805 kg. 

Pound (Great Britain) = 0-4535925 kg. 

Pound (American) = 0-45304 kg. 

Pound (Span and former colonies) = 1-0143 lbs. avoird. = 0-46 kg. 

Ton (United States and territories) = 2,000 lbs. = 906-08 kg. 

Ton (English and statistical) = 2,240 lbs. avoird. = 1,016-047 kg. 

Ton (metric) = 1,000 kg. = 2,204-60 lbs. avoird. 

Sack (Brazil) = 132-27 lbs. = 60 kg. 

Sack (Cuba) = 325 Spanish pounds = 330 lbs. = 149-5 kg. (This is sometimes 

reckoned to be one-seventh of an English ton or 320 lbs. avoird. 
Sack (France) = 220 lbs. = 100 kg. 
Sack (Mauritius) = 170 lbs. = 77 kg. 
Ton (Spanish, for cane only) = 100 arrobas = 2,531-75 lbs. = 1,150-24 kg. 

C. CURRENCY. 

BoUvar (Venezuela) = 100 centimos = lod. 

Colon (Costa Rica) = 100 centavos = 2S. 

Dollar (Mexico) = 100 centavos = 2S. ojd. 

DoUar (Straits Settlements) = 100 cents. = 2s. 4d. 

Dollar (United States) = 100 cents = 4s. 2d. 

Franc (France and colonies) = 100 centimes = 9Jd. 

Gulden (Netherland) = 100 cents = is. 8d. 

Krone (Austria) = 100 heUer = lod. 

Mark (Germany) = 100 pfennig = is. 

Milrei gold (Brazil) = 1,000 reis = 2s. 3d. 

Milreis paper (Brazil) = 1,000 reis = is. 3d. 

Milreis (Portugal and colonies) = 1,000 reis = 4s. 

Peseta (Spain) = 100 centimos = 9Jd. 

Peso gold (Argentina) = 100 centavos = 4s. id. 

Peso paper (Argentina) = is. 8d. 

Peso (Guatemala) = 100 centavos = 4s. id. 

Peso (Honduras) = 100 centavos = 4s. id. 

Peso (Nicaragua) paper = 100 cent vos = 6d. 

Peso (Philippines) = 100 centavos = 2s. id. 

Pound (Egypt) = 100 piasters = 19s. lod. 

Rouble (Russia) = 100 kopecks = 3s. 2d. 

Rupee (British India) = 16 annas = 192 pies = is. 4d. 

Rupee (Mauritius) = 100 cents = is. 4d. 

Rijksdaalder (Netherland) = 4s. 2d. 

Sol (Peru) = 100 centavos = 2s. 

Yen (Japan) = 100 sen = 2s. id. 

380 



Addenda. 



IV. 



ADDENDA. 
At Page 6i : — 

Sugar imported into India in 1911-12 : 
Beet Sugar. 

From Austria-Hungary . . 241,433 cwt. 

Germany 9,821 ,, 

United Kingdom . . .. 

,, Other countries . . . . 2,506 

Total 253,760 cwt. 

Cane Sugar. 

From Mauritius . . . . . . 1,709,773 cwt. 

China 12,656 

Java . . . . . . 8,190,469 ,, 

Straits Settlements . . 767 ,, 

United Kin ;^dom. . .. — 

Other countries . . . . 4,408 „ 

Total 9,918,073 cwt. 

Grand total . . . . 10,171,833 cwt. 



At Page 68 :— 

Exportation of sugar from British India in 1911-12 : 175,895 cwt. raw 
sugar ; 25,388 cwt. refined sugar. 



At page 209 : — 



1911/12 



General 

Tariff. 

208,969,811 lbs. 



Preferential 

Tariff. 

375,831,681 lbs. 



Total. 
584 801,492 lbs. 



^Si 



At Page 104 : — 

Sugar Production and Area Planted with Sugar 
Provinces of the Philippines in the year 191 1. 



Cane in the different 



Provinces. 



Sugar Produclion. 



Piculs. 



Metric 
Tons. 



Hectares 

planted 

with 

Cane. 



Kg. of 

b ugar per 

Hectare. 



Knglish 

Tons of 

Sugar per 

Acre. 



Island. 



Albay . . 

Ambos Camarines 

Antique 

Bataan . . 

Batangas 

Bohol . . 

Bulacan 

Cagayan 

Capiz 

Cavite . . 

Cebu 



Ilocos Norte 
Ilocos Sur 
Iloilo . . 
Isabela . . 
La Laguna 
La Union 
Leyte . . 
Mindoro . . 
Misamis 
Moro 

Montanosa 
Nueva Ecija 
Nueva Vizcaya 
Occidental Negros 
Oriental Negros 
Palawan 
Pamparga 
Pangasinan 
Rizal . . 
Samar . . 
Sarsogon 
Surigao . . 
Tarloa . . 
Tarebas 
Zambales 

Total 



1,146 

3,081 
53,186 

7491 
190,955 

1,941 
54,442 

2,154 

6,729 

24,910 

33,007 

41,443 
101,116 
124,564 

475 
23,880 

24,934 

10,854 

177 

726 

1,620 

2,274 

10,055 

617 

973,231 

48,266 

60 

454,264 
35338 

30,345 
8,622 
7,292 

425 
115,810 

15,148 
2,692 



. 2,413,270 ^152,639 



72 

195 

3,364 

474 

12,078 

123 

3,443 
136 
426 

1,576 
2,008 
2,621 
6,396 
7,879 
30 
1,510 

1,577 

687 

II 

46 

102 

144 

636 

39 

61,557 

3,053 

4 

28,732 

2,235 

1,919 

545 
461 
27 
7,325 
958 
170 



141 

367 
1,580 

341 

5,183 

166 

2,935 
281 

385 

1,198 

1,866 

2,338 

3,412 

3,308 

42 

741 

1,018 

815 

19 

34 

119 

175 

527 

60 

26,820 

1,410 

5 

16,551 

2,794 

1,752 

667 

398 

47 

4,427 

1,005 

141 



514 

531 

2,129 

1,389 
2,330 

739 
1,173 

484 
1,105 
1,315 
1,118 
1,121 
1,874 
2,311 

715 
2,038 

1,549 
843 
589 

1,350 
861 
821 

1,206 
650 

2,295 

2,165 
759 

1,735 
800 

1,095 
818 

1,159 
572 

1,654 
953 

1,207 



83,168 



1,836 



0-205 
0-212 
0-849 

0-554 

0-934 

0-296 

0-4 

0-190 

0-439 
0-523 
0-445 
0-447 
0-748 
0-919 
0-289 
0-812 
o-6i6 
0-336 
0-245 

0-537 
0-345 
0-326 
6-481 
0-264 
0-915 
0-863 
0-308 
0-691 
0-317 

0-435 
0-342 
0-462 
0-238 
0-659 
0-380 
0-481 



Luzon. 

Panay. 
Luzon. 

Bohol. 
Luzon. 
Mindanao, 



Cebu. 
Luzon. 

Panay. 

Basilan. 

Luzon. 

Leyte. 

Mindoro. 

Luzon. 



Luzon. 

,, 
Negros. 

Palawan. 
Luzon. 



Samar. 
Luzon. 
Mindanao. 
Luzon. 



0-734 



382 



General Index. 



A PAGE 

Abolition of Slavery i8, 154, 173, 192 

198, 204, 214, 221, 230, 244, 271, 275 

258; 263, 307, 309, 324 

Additional duty 29 

American Wai: of Independence . 10 

Amount of rain 70, 82, 92, 93, 112, 151 

162, 167, 196, 212, 216, 220, 221, 224 

227, 228, 255, 264, 271, 284, 288, 289 

310, 331, 345, 346 

" Antrag Paasche " 27 

" Archief voor de Java Suikerindus- 

trie" 362 

" Atharva Veda " 3 

Australian Sugar Journal . . . 341 
Aversion against sugar manufactured 

by European methods . . . .32 
Areas of some factories .... 195 



Banishment of Dutchmen from 

Brazil . . .9, 203, 214, 229, 275 
Beetroot sugar . . . .13, 16, 17 

Berlin Decree 13 

Bounties 10, 22, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 37 

63, 64, 106, 206, 238, 255, 293 

Brussels Conference . . . • 33, 63 

Brussels Sugar Convention 33, 34, 35 

36, 38, 64, 120, 240, 271, 287, 322 



Cane cultivation 47, 48, 73, 98, 
123, 144, 153, 178, 193. 200, 
214, 231, 232, 260, 261, 269, 
286, 295, 296, 297, 303, 312, 



Cane fires 

Cane-planted area 44, 45, 73 

107, 113, 114. 144. 153. 163, 

177, 195, 200, 214, 221, 244, 

250, 261, 284, 289, 296, 309, 

336, 347. 350, 



115,121 
201, 210 
271, 276 
314. 326 
336, 354 

. .180 

, 76. 94 
170, 171 
247, 248 
314, 325 
353- 362 



C PAGE 

Cane varieties 49, 51, 64, 65, 72, 83, 98 
124, 126, 144, 179, 193, 200, 202, 214 
232, 255, 261, 277, 286, 303, 313, 326 

355 

Cartel 26, 28, 64 

Cartel profit . . 28, 29, 33, 206 

Cassonade 6, 236 

Census 113, 168, 196, 197, 198, 217 
226, 245, 247, 248, 249, 251, 253, 254 

256, 258, 263, 266, 268, 273 283, 288 
290, 293, 300, 307, 322, 347, 365 

Climatological data 70, 82, 92, 107, 144 
162, 167, 190, 216, 220, 221, 226, 228 

257, 263, 266, 288, 290, 301, 330, 345 

365 
Colonos . . . 176, 180, 192, 277 
Concrete sugar .... 79, 248 
Continental system 12, 15, 16, 17, 18 
Countervailing duties . . • 33, 34 
Creation of sugar cane (legend) . . 3 

Crimean War 96 

Cultural system 118 



Development of the beetroot sugar 

industry 15 

Development of the cane sugar 

industry 4 

Differential duties . . . . 17 

Dingley tariff 30, 31, 63 

Diseases and pests 11, 49, 72, 120, 125 
142, 180, 181, 201, 210, 214, 232, 270 
286, 291, 312, 313, 326, 357 

Drawback 80, 88 

Duties 25, 33, 37, 63 



Export duties . . . 139, 255, 318, 329 

Export of sugar 11, 22, 24, 68, 74, 75 

76 77, 79, 89, 96, 97, 104, 105, 146 



383 



General Index. 



216 
283 
263 
68 
209 



Export of-sugar (continued) page 

184, 186, 195, 202, 204, 223, 224, 225 
243, 283, 299, 321, 325, 352, 368 



Forraker Act 199 

Free negroes . . . .20, 230, 259 
Future of the sugar industry in : 

Angola 293 

Argentina 28S 

Australia 343 

Barbados 

Brazil 

British Guiana 

British India .... 

British West Indian Islands 

Cuba 187 

300 

91 
241 

105 

364 

80 

142 

322 

165 
302 

304 

252 

273 
202 

329 
196 
148 
266 

- 73 
219 
161 
255 



Egypt 

Formosa 

French Antilles 

Philippines . 

Hawaiian Islands . 

Japan . . . 

Java 

Mauritius 

Mexico . 

Mozambique 

Natal . . 

Panama 

Peru 

Porto Rico . 

Reunion 

San Domingo . 

Spain 

Surinam . . 

Straits Settlements 

Trinidad 

United States of America 

Venezuela .... 



General Historical Survey . . 3 — 39 

H 

Help granted to the British West 
Indies 206 

History of the cane sugar industry : 
General survey . . . ■ 3. ^3 



History of Argentina . . 
Australia . 
Brazil . 
British Guiana 



284 
331 
275 
258 



H PAGE 

History of British West Indies : 

General survey . 203 

Barbjados 

Jamaica . 

Leeward Islands 

St. Vincent . 

Trinidad 
History of the Canary Islands 
„ China .... 

Cuba .... 
Egypt . . . 
British India . 
Philippines 
Formosa . 
French Antilles . 
Hawaiian Islands 
Japan . . . 
Java . 
Madeira . 
Mauritius 
,, Mexico 

Natal . 
Peru . 
Porto Rico 
R6union . 
St. Croix . 
,, San Domingo 

Spain .... 
Straits Settlements 
Surinam . 



Humidity 



214 

221 

223 

223 

217 

293 

73 

172 

296 

43 

95 

81 

229 

348 

77 

115 

290 

313 
163 

303 
271 
199 
32.5 
243 
191 
146 
69 
265 
United States of America 152 



III 



I 



Immigration Law (America) . 356 
Imports of sugar 62, 63, 64, 63, 66, 77 

78, 79, 208, 209, 243, 293, 299, 334 
Import duty on sugar 19, 23, 29, 38 

105, 139, 185, 272, 266, 291, 299, 302 
304, 318, 329, 336, 342, 343, 363 
Increase in sugar consumption . . 18 
Indemnification of the owners of 

liberated slaves 19 



K 

" Kampfpramie " 26 

Kinds of sugar 4.. 6, 9, 12, 51, 53, 56 
,^8i, 88, 98, loi, 103, 132, 137, 182, 235 

245. 279, 316 



384 



General Index. 



L PACK 

Legend about the creation of sugar 

cane . - o 

London Conference 25 

Lowering of prices 25 

m 

McKinley Tariff .... 30^ ijq 
Makhzan-ul-Adviyya . . . .50 

Manna . 4 

Manufacture 50, 98, 130, 146, 155, 163 
173. 174. 181, 186, 194, 210, 2^2, 233 
234. 235, 236, 237, 263, 265, 266, 276 
286, 289, 295, 304, 315, 316, 359, 360 

361 
" Materialsteuer "... .25 

" Medianeras " 255 

Meline system 2"^ 

Modification of Sugar Convention . 36 

Milan decree 13 

Mills, Kinds of 52, 73, 85, 100, 183, 359 
Misfortune in Mauritius .... 33 

N 

Negro rebellion .... 10, 191 
Negro slavery 8, 18, 172, 173, 191, 203 

217, 275, 290 



Pacific Islands Labourers' Act . .334 

Packing of sugar in early ages . . 6 

Peace of Madrid .... 38 221 

Paris .... 38, 288 

Rijswijk 191 

Pen-Tsao-kang-moe 4 

Permanent Commission .... 35 

Pests and Diseases 11, 49, 72, 120, 125 

142; 180, 181, 201, 210, 214, 232, 270 

286, 291, 312, 313, 326, 357 



Production 
74, 82, 83 
134- 142, 
164, 165, 
X83, 188, 
219, 221, 
249, 250, 
274, 277, 
292, 293, 
310, 311, 
337. 338, 



18, 21, 
, 114, 116 

148, 153, 
171. 172, 

191, 193. 
231. 244, 
251-, 255, 
281, 282, 
296, 298, 
314. 316, 
340, 341. 



39, 46, 47, 59, 73 
, 120, 128, 132, 133 
155, 156, 157, 158 

173, 174. 175, 176 
194, 201, 215, 217 
245, 246, 247, 248 
261, 262, 270, 272 
285, 286, 287, 289 
299. 301, 303. 304 
317. 325, 328, 335 
342, 347. 352, 360 
361, 368 



PAGE 



Prime cost 60, 61, 87, 99, 102, 103, 130 
136, 138, 146, 180, 184, 194, 214, 221 
230, 277, 287, 317, 318, 329, 342, 362 

366, 367 



Rain . 70,93,112,151,162,167,212 
227, 228, 255, 263, 284, 288, 289, 346 
Raismg sugar bounty in Germany 26, 33 
Rational Manufacture of Beetroot 

Sugar (Instructions for the) . . 17 
Reciprocity treaty . . 184, 185, 348 
Rebellion in San Domingo . 10, 191 
Recovering beetroot sugar duties . 22 
Relation of the quantities of assort- 
ments 

Re-opening of Sugar Conference 
Re5nioso System .... 
Rising of sugar prices 



137 

34 

210 

13 



38s 



S 

Safai-namah 50 

Sereh disease 120, 142 

Shipments of Java sugar . 140, 141 
Society for the suppression of slavery 19 
State of affairs in British West 

Indies 32, 59 

Substitutes for cane sugar ... 13 

From sap of maple trees . . 13, 30 

nut trees ... 13 

,, ,, sorghum stalks . 13, 30 

Sugar analysis .... 58, 211 

Sugar bounties 19, 22, 23, 25, 29, 31 

33. 37. 63. 64, 106, 206, 237, 255, 293 

Sugar bureau . . 83, 84, 85, 86, 106 

Sugar cane industry . . . . 4, 20 

Sugar Convention, Brussels 33, 34, 35 

36, 38, 64, 120, 240,^ 271, 287, 322 

Sugar cultivation 47, 48, 74, 98, 115 

121, 123, 144, 153, 176, 193, 200, 201 

210, 214, 231, 232, 260, 261, 269, 271 

276, 286, 295, 296, 297, 303, 312, 314 

326, 336, 354 

Sugar duty in Germany .... 23 

Sugar exports 22, 24, 68, 73, 75, 76, 77 

79, 89, 96, 97, 104, 105, 146, 184, 186 

195, 204, 223, 224, 225, 283, 299, 321 

325. 352, 368 

Sugar imports 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, yy, 78 

79, 208, 209, 243, 293, 299, 334 

2A 



General Index. 



S 



PAGE 



Sugar manufacture 50, 98, 130, 146 

155. 163, 173, 174, 181, 183, 194, 210 

2^.2, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 263, 265 

266, 276, 277, 286, 289, 295, 304, 315 

„ ^ . 316,359.360 

bugar producing countries in early 

ages .6 

Sugar production and rendement . 18 
21, 22, 39, 46, 47, 53, 59, 73, 82, 83 
"4. 115. 120, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133 
134. 135, 142, 148, 153, 155. 156, 157 
158, 164, 165, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175 
176, 183, 188, 194, 201, 215, 217, 218 
221, 231, 237, 244, 245, 246, 247, 249 
251, 255, 261, 262, 263, 266, 272, 276 
281, 282, 286, 287, 289, 292, 293, 296 
298, 299, 301, 304, 310, 311, 316, 317 
325, 328, 335. 337. 338, 340, 341. 342 
347, 352, 360, 361, 368 

Sugar schools 16 

Sugar Works Guarantee Act 332, 334 
Surtax 17, 24, 27, 28, 34, 35, 64, 146 

302 

T 

Tables on : 

Additional Duties 29 

Amount of Rain 70, 93, 112, 151 

162, 167, 212, 227, 228, 255, 263, 284 

■ 288, 289, 346 

Analyses 57, 211 

Areas of some factories . . 195 

Cartel profits 28 

Exports II, 68, 75, 'j'j , 79, 89, 104 
105, 186, 195, 202, 204, 223, 224 
225. 243, 283, 321, 325, 352, 368 

Factories go, 103 

Factories in the French Antilles 239 

Humidity iii 

Imports 62, 67, 77, 1]%, 79, 146, 209 

210, 329 



T PAGE 

Import duty ... 65, 272 

Irrigated land . . . . . .351 

Location, dimensions, population 
of some West Indian Islands . 224 

Number of slaves 8 

Production of beetroot sugar . 18 
Prime cost- 61, 102, 130, 136, 138 
317, 318, 362 
Planted area 44, 45, 114, 170, 177 
248, 325, 347, 362 
Relation of the quantity of assort- 
ments 137 

Relation between newly planted 

cane and ratoons . . . .314 

Shipment of Java sugar . 140, 141 

Sugar duty in Germany . . .23 

Sugar production and rendement 21 

22, 39, 46, 47, 53, 59, 115, 120, 128 

129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 148 

156, 157, 158, 164, 165, 171, 175 

176, 183, 188, 194, 201, 215, 218 

221, 237, 244, 245, 246, 247, ^49 

251, 261, 263, 266, 286, 272, 276 

281, 282, 286, 287, 292, 296, 298 

299. 301, 304. 310, 311, 316, 317 

325. 328, 335, 337, 338, 340, 341 

342, 347. 352, 360, 361 

Temperature 109, no, in, 151, 162 

167, 227, 228, 265, 267, 284, 346 

World's sugar production 21, 39 

Temperature 93, 109, no, in, 151 

162, 167, 191, 196, 212, 220, 221, 227 

228, 254, 265, 268, 273, 284, 288, 296 

307. 331. 346 
Trianon decree . . ... 13 
Twelve years' truce 275 

W 

Want of sugar 

World's production of sugar 

Wilson Tariff .... 



13, 30 

21.39 

• 30 



Geographical and Proper Names. 



Abbeville . 
Abdurrahman 
Aberdeen Bill 
Abou Kourgas 
Acarai Mountains 



PACK 

• 151 

• 5 
. 276 
. 296 

256, 264 



Acre 

Achard 

Afghanistan 

Africa 

Africa 



PAGE 

. 6 

• 14 

• 65 
. 290 

5,8 



3S6 



Index. 



Africans . 

Agra . 

Aguadilla 

Aguascalientes . 

Aguirre 

Agusan River 

Alagoas . 

Alajuela . 

Alexander the Great 

Alexandra Mill . 

Alexandria .... 

Alfonso V 

Almeria 

Alonso de Ojeda 

Alwar 

Amazon River . 
American Sugar Refining 
Amerigo Vespucci . 

America 

American Possessions . 
Amoy 



PAGE 

231, 326 

44. 45, 50, 52 
. 196 

• 163 
201 

92 

• 274 

• 250 

4 

• 331 

• 151 

• • ■ 5 

• 144 
■ • -257 
... 46 

256, 266 
Company 362 

• • ■ 265 



Andalusia 

Anegada 

Angelina 

Angola 

Angola 

Anguilla 

Annam 

Annamites 

Annobon 

Ansonsa 

Antigua 

Antilles 

Apa . 

Aparri . 

Arabia 

Arabs . 

Aragua 

Arecibo 

Argentina 

Argentina 

Arima 

Asia Minor 



5, 145. 



■ 76 
147, 271 



[203, 

,9,11 



. 224 

• 195 

• 293 

• 275 
203, 224 

• 73 
230, 231 

• 7 
■ 195 

207, 210, 224 
, 172, 205, 275 
. . 92 
. . 92 

■ • 115 
4. 5, 169 

■ • 255 
196 

. . 283 

II, 283 

. 217 

6, 7, 300 



A PAGE 

Assam. . . 44, 45, 65, 68 

Assouan . 295 

Auckland 368 

Austria 17, 18, 23, 25, 29, 32, 33, 63, 64 

Australasia 330 

Australia .... . . 330 

Australia 20, 32, 38, 140, 141, 321, 349 

Azores 7,114,346,356 

Aska 59 

Araa 192 

Azuano 195 



B 



Bay of Amejas . 

Ancan 

Concepcion 

Guyamas 

Guayaquil 

Kingston 

La Paz . 

Magdalena 

Muleje . 

Navachiste 

San Bias 

San Quintin 

Santa Barbara . 

Topolobampo 

Valle de Banderas . 

Babylon 

Bagelen . . 114. 116, 128, 132, 134 

Bahama Islands 203 

Bahia .... 8, 274, 275, 276, 277 
Baie Mahault . .... 238 

Baldwin (King) 5 

Balsas ... .... 162 

Banjoemas 112, 114, 115, 128, 132, 134 

Bantam 116 

Barbados 213 

Barbados g, 32.. 141, 203, 204, 206, 207 

210, 258, 311 

Bardwan 50 

Basse Terre 226 

Bassin 243 

Batavian Republic . . . .117 



162 
266 
161 
162 
266 
219 
162 
162 
162 
162 
162 
162 
161 
161 
162 
4 



387 



Index. 



B PAGE 

Batan 94 

Batangas 94 

Batavia . . ■ 116 

Baton Rouge 151 

Bayou Lafourche 150 

Bayou Teche 150 

Behar 4 

Beirut 6 

Belgium .... . . 33, 64 

Belianeh 296 

Bel], Philip 213 

Benares 49 

Bengal 44-45, 59, "6 

Benguela 8, 293 

Beni Kora 296 

Benin ... 8 

Berar 44, 46 

Berbice . . .10, 11, 256, 257, 258 

Berg, van den 136 

Berlin 14 

Besoeki . 112, 114, 116, 128, 132, 134 

Bethlehem 243 

Bharatpur 46 

Bibeh . . .... 296 

Bikanir . . 46 

Black River district .... 306 

Black Sea 7 

Bligh ... 204 

Blue Mountains ... . . 219 

Bocas 216, 217 

Bohol 91 

Bolivia 273 

Bombay 44, 45, 47, 59- 64, 68, 321, 322 

Bomy 8 

Bosch, van den 118 

Boston 141, 175 

Bourbon 9, 11, 204 

Bouricius . . ... 126 

Bovell ... . . 126, 215 

Bras Panot 327 

Brantas . . ... 108, 114 

Brazil 274 

Brazil . 8, 9, 10, 11, 20, 229, 256, 259 



B PAGE 

Bridgetown 213 

Brisbane 33i 

British Sugar Estates . . . .272 

British Guiana 256 

British Guiana . . . 204, 265, 312 
British Honduras .... 247 

British Honduras 207 

British Indians ... .20, 326 

British India .... -43 

British India . 21, 26, 140, 141 
British West Indian Islands . 202 
British West Indian Islands 8, 10, 12 

19 
Buccaneers . . . 191, 197, 206, 220 

Bunot 331 

Bundaberg 330 

Burma 44, 4^ 

Burnside . 151 

Bus de Guisignies 118 

Bush-negroes 265 

Byzantines 4 

C 

Cabral 8, 274 

Cagayan River 92 

Caibarien 169 

Caicos Islands 203 

Cairo . 7, 295 

Calabria 6 

Calcasieu 150 

Calcutta . . .65, 230, 231, 232, 366 

Calicut 8 

Californian and Hawaiian Sugar 

Refining Company . . 362, 363 

Callao 268 

Camaguey 166, 167, 168, 170, 171, 176 

177, 183 

Cameroons 8 

Cambalache 201 

Campeche 164 

Campos . . 279 

Canada . . 207, 208, 216, 219, 263 

Canary Islands 293 

Canary Islands 7, n 



388 



Index, 



O PAGE 

Canete 268, 271 

Canton 76, 230 

Capesterre 238 

Cap Francais igi 

Cape Cruz . 166 

Cape Colony ... ... 19 

Cape of Good Hope 7 

Cape Verde Islands ... 7, n 

Capiz .... .... 94 

Carabobo . 255 

Caracas 254, 255 

Cardenas 184 

Caribbean Sea 162, 202, 206, 220, 224 

230, 247, 254 

Carlisle (Lord) 213 

Carlisle Bay 212 

Caroni 217 

Cartavio 271 

Carthago . 249 

Cartavio 271 

Casa Grande 271, 272 

Casa Forte .... 275 

Caudivilla . ... 272 

Caulsdorf 14 

Cavalla ... ! . 294 

Cavite ... .... 94 

Cayalti ... ... 271 

Cayenne 10, 204, 265 

Cebu 91, 94, 96 

Celebes Sea 92 

Central America 245 

Central Provinces . . 44, 46, 65, 68 
Cerro Azul . . . 269, 272 

Chaco 283, 287 

Chamberlain, Joseph . 31, 32, 33 

208, 221 
Chang Chow ... • 1^ 

Chao Chow Fu 74 

Chaparra . . ■ ^75 

Chaptal .... -17 

Chacra Cerro . .... 272 

Charles V . 8 

Cheefoo ... ■ • 7° 



«-» PAGE 

Cheick Fadl 296 

Cheng-hai 75 

Cheribon 108, 112, 114, 115, 128, 132, 134 

Cherryville 151 

Chiapas . ... 163, 164 

Chicama . 268 

Chicama Valley . . . . 272 

Chihuahua . . . 162 

Chile .... .11, 267, 271 

Chimbote 271 

Chimbue . . ... 301 

China > . . 74 

China 4, 38, 97, 115, 116, 140, 141, 364 

Chinandega 248 

Chinese Sea q2 

Chinese 5, 20, 230, 231, 271, 308, 326 

334, 347. 356 

Chinkiang 74 

Chiguito . . .... 271 

Chocola 245 

Christobal Colon ..... 195 

C^iristiansted 243 

Chunking 76 

Cienfuegos 166, 169 

Citlatepetl 161 

Clarence River 350 

Clarkson 19 

Cochin China . .... 73 

Colbert 229 

Coliga(;.ao Assucareira .... 280 
Colima .... . 162, 164 

Colonial Sugar Refining Company 337 

342, 365. 368 

Coloso . 201 

Colombia 253 

Colombia . 267 

Columbus, Christopher 6, 172, 191, 197 
202, 217, 220, 221, 224, 227, 228, 243 

257. 274 
Commew5me 265 

Commonwealth of Australia . 330 

Companhia Assucareira da Africa 

Oriental Portugueza .... 300 



389 



Index. 



C PAGE 

Companhia d'Assucar de Mo9am- 

bique 300 

Companhia do Dombe Grande . . 293 

Concepcion . 245 

Congo 230, 293 

Constantinople . . . 7, 13 

Conzuelo 195 

Cook 348,365 

Coppename ... ... 264 

Cordilleras .... 162, 269, 273 

Corent5me 256 

Corinto 249 

Cortez 163 

Costa Rica 249 

Costa Rica 252 

Cotabato . . . ... 92 

Couva 217 

Credit Fonder Colonial . . . 329 
Crespel-Dellisse . ... 17 

Crockett .... ... 363 

Cuba 166 

Cuba 8, 10, II, 20, 31, 38, 124, ifti 

168, 171, 172, 175, 180, 183, 195, 202 

204, 205, 206, 250, 283, 292, 359 



Cubans 

Cunern 

Cunupia 

Cura9ao 

Cyprus 



Daendels 

Dagapan 

Dakusui 

Damascus 

Danao 

Danish 

Danish Antilles . 

Danish Colonies . 

Darieh Sanieh . 

Dastagerd 

Davao Bay . 

Delaware Breakwater 

Delagoa Bay 



• 174 

• 14 
. 217 
. 10 

5, 6,7 

. 118 

94 
82 

■ 7 
94 

8 

■ 243 
II, 205 

296 

• 4 

• 92 

• 141 

• 301 



D PAGE 

Demerara 10, 11, 20, 69, 154, 207, 208 
214, 256, 257, 258, 313, 355 

Demeus 296 

Denmark 205, 243 

Dessalines • 192 

Diaz, Bartholomew . . 7 

Dioscorides 4 

Djember . . 112 

Djokdja . 112, 114, 115, 122, 128, 132 

134 
Dombasle, de . . . 17 

Dombe Grande . . . . 293 

Dominica .... 203, 207, 224 
Dom Pedro I . . . 275 

Donaldsonville ... . . 151 

Drake, Sir Francis . 203 

Durango . .... . 163 

Durban 303 

Dutch 8, 9, ID, 116, 202, 206, 224, 244 

257. 308, 309 

Dutch Colonies 11 

E 
Eastern Asia . ... 11 

Eastern Bengal . . 44, 45, 65, 68 

East Indian Company : 

Dutch . . .11, 12, 82, 116, 117 
English . ... .12 

French .... . 324 

Ecuador 266 

Egypt . . . 295 

Egypt 5. 6. 7 

Egyptians 4 

Egyptian Sugar and Land Company 296 

Eldorado 257 

England 11, 13, 119, 216, 221, 230, 246 

293. 325 

Engelberts 137 

Enghsh 8, 9, 11, 174, 202, 214, 217, 220 
224, 228, 244, 265, 309 

Ernant . 296 

Espariola ... .... 191 

Essequibo . . . 10, 11, 256, 258 
Estramadura 227 



390 



Index. 



E PAGE 

Estrella, la . . . ... 272 

Eten 268, 271 

Europe 144 

Europe . 7, 17, 18, 140, 141, 283, 321 
Ewa plantation 362 



Fahian .... 


■ "5 


Fajardo . 


. 201 


Falcon 


• • 255 


Fiji Islands 


• • 365 


Fiji Islands . 


208, 343 


Fiji Sugar Company 


■ ■ 365 


Filibusters .... 


. 206 


Filipinos .... 


■ 356 


Finland ... 


. . 36 


Firebrace, William . 


■ . . 204 


Flacq ... . , 


317 


Florida . 


150 


Foochow 


. . 76 


Formosa . 


. 81 


Formosa .... 5, 6 


, 78, 82, 116 


Fortuna, la . 


. 200 


Fouquet 


• 15 


Fran9ois . 


. . 238 


Franklin 


■ . 151 



France 6, 9, 11, 12, 17, 24, 25, 33, 117 
191, 195, 202, 229, 299, 368 

French Antilles 226 

French Colonies 11 

French 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 169, 202, 206 
224, 227, 229, 230, 308 

Frederic II 5 

Frederiksted 243 

Friedrich Wilhelm III . . . 14, 17 
Fungkow 76 



Gambia . 
Ganges 
Ganna 
Genoa 

Genoese Colonies 
Genoese . 
Georgetown . 
Georgia . 



3 

49 

6 

7 



257 
150 



G PAGE 

Germany 17, 18, 22, 25, 29, 33, 64, 83 
85, 195, 281, 293 

Germans 169, 356 

Gibraltar 144 

Gulf of California 162 

„ Guinea ... 7, 8, 11, 13 

,, Mexico .... 152, 161 

Tehuantepec .... 161 

Paria .... 216, 217 

Gorakhpur 49 

Gorkom, van 116 

Goubert, Salomon 324 

Gold Coast 8 

Grand Canary 293 

Grand' Anse 238 

Grand Bourg .... 227, 238 

Grand Coteau 151 

Grande Chaloupe ....'. 323 
Grande Riviere Sud Est . . . 307 

Grande Terre 226 

Grand Port 317 

Grange, la 243 

Greenwich Park 257 

Grenada 203, 207, 217 

Grenadines . 203 

GrenviUe 19 

Griffith, Sir Samuel .... 332 

Great Britain 12, 13, 19, 25, 33, 85 

149, 184, 195, 202, 204, 206, 244, 263 

275. 285, 349, 365 

Great Ocean 3 

Grosse Montagne 226 

Grijalva 162 

Guadalajara 162 

Guadeloupe 226 

Guadeloupe 9, 204, 229, 236, 237, 241 

Guaira, la 255 

Guanajuato 162 

Guanica 196, 201 

Guantanamo 169 

Guatemala 245 

Guatire 255 

Guayaquil 267 

Guerrero 163, 164 



391 



Index 



Guiana 
Gwalior 



PAGE 

• 7 

• 46 



H 



Habana 166, 167, 168, 169, 171, 

Hainan . 

Hayti ... . iqo, 192 

Haleakala 

Hamburg .... 

Hankow . ... . . 

Harrison, J. B. 
Hatillo .... 

Hawaiian Islands . . . . 

Hawaiian Islands ' 30, 83, 166, 183 

313. 343. 347. 348, 350, 
Hawamdieh . 
Hawkins, Sir John 
Holy Land 
Henry the Navigator 
Herbert River 
Hindus 
Hilo . . 
Hispaniola 
Holland . 
Hondo 
Honduras 

Hongkong 64, 75, 76, 81, 141, 321, 
Honolulu 345, 346, 347, 354, 357, 
Honolulu Plantation Company 
Hoorn, van 
Hope, Louis 
Houma 
Huacho . 
Hualalai . 
Huanchaco 
HUama 
Humaya . 
Humboldt, von 



344. 



Ibrahimieh 
He Bonaparte 
He Bourbon . 
Iloilo . . 
Ilicos Sur 



268. 



92, 103, 



174 

183 

76 

197 

344 
291 

74 

126 
188 

343 
270 

351 

297 

203 

6 

8 

330 

32 

347 

191 

II 

n 
247 

343 

362 
362 
362 
331 
151 
271 

344 
268 
268 
271 
204 

296 
324 
324 
106 

94 



I page 

India 3. 4- 5. 12, 18 

Indra 3 

Infantes 272 

Inter-Island Steam Navigation 

Company 347 

Italians 169 

Italia 195 

Isle de France . . . . 11, 308 

Ismael Pasha 295 

Ixtacihuatl 161 

J 
Jaipur . . .... 46 

Jajeyama . . . . . . JJ 

Jakatra 116, 118 

Jalisco 163, 164 

Jamaica 219 

Jamaica 8, 9, 10, 203, 204, 205, 206 

220, 295 

Japan 77 

Japan- . 5,12,89,97,140,141,364 
Japanese ..... 334, 347, 356 
Japara .... 117, 128, 132, 134 
Jatibonico .... . . 188 

Java 107 

Java II, 87, 83, 113, 116, 120, 124, 126 

141, 166, 183, 202, 270, 286, 313, 322 

343. 356, 358, 359 

Jefferson 150 

Jesuits . 152 

Jhalawar .46 

Joan Maurits van Nassau . . 9, 275 
Jobos ... ... 196 

Jordan Valley ...... 6 

Juana Diaz 202 

Juan Ponce de Leon . . . .197 

Jujuy 283, 287 

Juncos . . 201 

K 

Kadjoe 265 

Kagoshima 77 

Kahoolawe . . . . 344, 345 

Kanakas 331, 334 

Karachi 65, 321 

Karikal 230 



392 



Index. 



K PAGE 

Kashmir 5^ 

Katanga 293 

Kauai . 344. 345, 346, 347. 35°, 351 
Kediri . . 114, 115, 128, 132, 134 

Kilauea 344. 347 

King Baldwin . - 5 

Kingston . 21'g 

Kingston Harbour .... 220 

Kishangarh .46 

Kiungchow -76 

Kobus, J. D. . . . 49, 126 

Kohala 347 

Kowloen 76 

Crusaders 5. 6, 7 

Kijk over Al 257 



Labasa 
Labat 
Lafayette 
Lagos . 



• • 367 
. 238 

151, 201 

• • 9 



Laguna 94, 98 

Lake Charles 151 

Lambayeque .... 268, 271 

Lamentin 239 

Lanai 344 

Lappa 7& 

Lara 255 

Laredo 271 

Lareinty . 237 

Lawrence 151 

Legier, Em 237 

Leichow 76 

Leon 162, 248 

Lerma . . 162 

Leyte 91, 94 

Liberia .... . . 294 

Libertador 255 

Liege Hulett & Sons . . 304 

Lihue 350 

IJKuokalami .... 349 

Lille .16 

Lima 268, 270 

Limpopo 300, 301 

Lippmann, von .... .18 

39 



L PAGE 

Lurifico 271 

Little Caillou Bayou . . . 153 

Liverpool .... . . 272 

Loagag . . . . "^^ . 94 

Loango 8, 230 

Lobita ... . 293 

Logan River 331 

London 25, 31 



Louis XIII 
Louisiana 



II, 20, 150, 152, 



153. 

155. 



324 
154 
158 
243 
224 



Lower Love 

Loyola . .... 

Luxemburg 36 

Luzon . 91, 92, 94, 96, 98, 99, 107 
IVI 



Macao 

Macarenhas . 

Machete . 

Mackay . 

Mackay River 

Madagascar . 

Madeira . 

Madeira . 7, 

Madioen . 113, 

Madras 

Magdeburg . 

Magellan, Ferdinand 

Magnolia .... 

Mahebourg . 

Mahe de la Bourdonnais 

Mahe de la Villebague 

Malabar . 

Malaga 

Maltese knights . 

Mamelles, les deux 

Manchuria 

Manila . . . 

Maracaibo 

Maranhao 

Marco Paulo . 

Mare aux Vacoas 

Marggraf . 

Marie Galante 



76, 271 

.308 

. 201 

• • 330. 331 

• • -330 

5. 306, 307. 324 

. 290 

8, II, 204, 217, 259 

114, 115, 128, 132, 134 

44, 59. 63, 71 
■ 29 



92 



95 
155 
308 

309 
309 
204 
144 

243 

226 

357 
103 

■ 255 

• 275 

■ 4 

• 306 

• 13 
226, 238 



98. 



Index. 



m 



Mariget .... 

Marin . . 

Morocco . 

Maroons . 

Marromeu 

Martha Brae River . 

Martinique . 

Martinique . g, 204 

Marwar 

Masbate .... 

Mascareigna . 

Mascarenhas, Pedro 

Matagalpa 

Matanzas 166, 167, 



Mattai . . 
Maui . 
Mauna Kea 
Mauna Loa . 
Mauritius . 
Mauritius 11, 



344. 



19, 20 



Maxwell, Dr. 
May ague z 
Mayon 
Mazatfan . 
McKinley 
Mediterranean 
Mehemet Ali 
Meline 
Melville . 
Mercedita I 
Merida 
Merut 
Mescala 
Mesopotamia 
Mexicans . 
Mexico . 
Mexico II, 162, 
Michoacan 
Minas Geraes 
Mindanao 
Mindoro . 
Miranda . 



163 



PAGE 
238 
238 

5,6 
220 
300 
219 
228 

226, 236, 237, 241 
46 

91 
324 
324 
248 

168, 170, 171, 177 

'^ll, 183 

. 296 

346, 347. 351, 355 

• • • -344 

• • • -344 
. . . 306 

32, 33, 63, 69, 94 

255, 313, 324, 343 

333 

196 

92 

162 

. 30 

5 

296 

25 

151 

^01 

162, 255 



49 
162 

5 
169 
161 

164, 197, 271, 286 
• 163, 164 
.... 9 
. 91, 92, 94, 106 
... 91, 98 
• • • -255 



Missiones 

Mississippi 

Miyako 

Moka . 

Mollendo 

Molokai 

Monserrat 

Montego Bay 

Monterico 

Monterrey 

Mont Pele 

Moors 

Mopea 

Moquettc 

Morelos 

Morelia 

Morne a I'eau 

Morne sans toucher 

Morris, Sir D. 

Montana . 

Moule, la . . 

Mount Edgecombe 

Mozambique . 

Murshidabad 

Mysore 



M PAGE 

. . 283 
150, 155 
• - 77 
317 
. . 268 

344. 345 

201, 203, 207, 217, 224, 225 

220 

271 

. 162 

228 



N 



Nag Hamadi 

Nantes 

Naparima 

Napoleon 

Narranjal 

Natal 

Natal . . 

Netherlands 

Negros 



300 
126 
163, 164, 165 
162 
238 
226 
206 
296 
240 

303 
300 

50 
46 



296 

201 

217 

12, 13, 15, 17, 22, 172, 192 

272 

303 

38 

12, 33, 64, 117, 265 

91, 94, 96, 97, 98, 102 

Neives 224 

Nelson . . 123 

Nevis 203, 224, 225 

Newchang • 75, 76 

New Amsterdam 257 

New Calabar 8 

New Zealand ... . 368 
New South Wales . 330, 335, 336, 343 
New Iberia 151 



394 



Index. 



N PAGE 

New Orleans 151, 155 

New York . 12, 32, 89, 136, 350, 363 
Nicaragua . 248 

Nicaragua . . ... 249 

Nickerie . . 264 

Niihau 344, 345 

Ningpo . ... -76 

Normirovka . . . 26 

North Americans . . 169, 194, 183 
North Eton . . . 332 

North Florida . . 150 

Norway . . .... 34 

Nueva 248 

Nuevitas 169 

Nuevo Leon . 164 

Nile .... .... 295 

O 
Oahu 344, 345, 346, 347, 351. 354. 356 

362 
Oaxaca . . . 162, 163, 164, 165 
Ocana . . ... 253 

Ocoa 195 

Okinama Seito Kabushiku Kaisha 78 

Okinawa • 7^ 

Old Harbour . . 219 

Opelousas . . ... 151 

Oriente 166, 167, 168, 170, 171, 176 

177- 183 
Orizaba .... 162 

Osaka . . -77 

Oshima Islands • 77 

Otaheite 9 

Oudh . . 44. 45, 5i, 59. 68 

P 

Paasche 26 

Pacasmaya . • • .269,271 

Pachuca ... • -162 

Palawan .... • 9^ 

Palermo 

Palestine . . • ■ 5 

Palfrey, Sir John • ■ 204 

Palma .... ■ ^^9 

Palmas ^ 

Pamplemousses 306, 307, 309, 3M> 3^7 



P P.AGE 

Pamploma 253 

Panama 251 

Panama . . .... 249 

Panama Canal 206 

Pangasinan 94 

Panay . . . . 91, 92, 94, 106 

Pantaleon 245 

Papeete . 369 

Paraguay 289 

Paraguay River 275 

Parahyba 274 

Paramaribo . . . . . 265 

Paramonga 271 

Parceria Santa Theresa do Luracho 293 

Parmentier 14. 16 

Paris 15. 240 

Pasig River 92 

Paso, El 162 

Pasoeroean 112, 114, 116, 128, 132, 134 

Patapo 271 

Patna 50 

Paunda . . 49 

Pope Alexander \T 95 

Pearl Loch 353 

Peere, Abraham van .... 257 
Pekalongan . 114, 116, 128, 132, 134 

Penang 69 

Perak 69, 73 

Pere Labat .... 233, 234, 235 
Pernambuco 8, 9, 274, 275, 276, 279 

280, 282, 283 

Peru 267 

Peru 11,20,36,163,197,252,271,286,358 

Persia 4, 12, 39 

Pescadores 81 

Petit Bourg 237 

Petit Canal 237 

Philadelphia 363 

Philippines 91 

Philippines . . 5, 31, 38, 89, 96, 347 
Pinar del Rio . 166, 167, 168, 170, 171 

176, 177, 183 
Pinzon .... 8, 197, 257, 275 
Pisa 6 

395 



Index. 



f PAGE 

Piton de la Foumaise .... 323 

Piton des Neiges 323 

Piton du Petit Bernard . . . 323 
Plaines Wilhems . . . 306, 317 
Plantain Garden River . . . 220 

Plata River 275 

Plazuela 201 

Plinius 4 

Point o Pitre .... 227, 238 

Pointe des Galets 323 

Pointe Simon 237 

Pomalca . 271 

Pomerania 15 

Ponce ... . 196, 197 202 

Pondicherry . 230 

Popocatepetl . . . 161 

Porter 331 

Port Antonia . . . 218, 219 

Bourbon 305 

de France 228 

Douglas .... 330 

Eads 151 

Louis . . . 237,307,308 

of Spain . . 216, 217 

Royal . . . . . 220 

Said 141 

Porto Rico 196 

Porto Rico 8, 20, 31, 38, 160, 195, 196 
204, 206, 283, 292 

Porto Ricans 169 

Portugal . . 8, 9, 95, 275, 302, 356 
Portuguese Colonies .... 8 
Portuguese Seafarers .... 7 
Portuguese 7, 8, 214, 217, 290, 347, 356 

Porvenir 195 

Possession 323 

Potpsi . . . . . 163 

Preston . . . 175 

Princes Town . . 217 

Principe 7 

Probolingo . . 112, 128, 132, 134 
Proust . . . . 14, 15 

Pucala 271 

Puebla . . . 162, 163, 164, 165 



P PAGE 

Puerto Padre 169 

Punjab .... 44,45,59,65,68 

Q 

Queensland 312, 330, 33;, 332, 334 
335, 336, 341, 343, 358 

Queretaro 163 

R 

Racecourse Mill 332 

Raja Trishanku 3 

Rajmahal 50 

Rajputana 44, 46, 65 

Raleigh, Sir Walter . . . .257 

Rapides 150 

Ravine a Jacques 323 

Recif 275 



Recoletos 




. 96 


Redonda 


203 


Reesse . .... 


. II 


Rembang . . 107, 114, 115, 


128, 132 




134 


Rempart 


. '^14 


Reserve . 




• ■ 151 


Reunion . . 




323 


Reunion . 


II 


20, 232 


Rhodes 




5,6,7 


Richmond River 




■ 330 


Riu Kiu . . 




. . 7« 


Rio Cauto . 




. 167 


,, Cobre 




. 21Q 


,, de Janeiro . 


• 274, 


279, 280 


,, Grande . 


. 162, 


220, 249 


„ Grande de Mindanao . 


. . 92 


„ Real 


. 27S 


„ SaH . 


. . 286 


Riviere du Rempart 306, 309 


314, 317 


Noire .... 


■ • 317 


„ Salee 


226, 239 


Robert . 


• ■ 239 


Rodah ... 


. 296 


Rodriguez . ... 


■ • 323 


Rohilkand .... 


• • 49 


Rome 


271 


Romana .... 


. 192 


Roraima . 




• • 256 



Index. 



R PAGE 

Rosignol 257 

Royal Commission on the West 

Indies 31 

Rouen . 236 

Russia 27, 

Russians 



34. 36, 38 
356, 357 



S 



Saccharon 
St. Andre 
St. Andrews . 
St. Anne . 
St. Benoit 
St. Christopher 
St. Christopher 



324, 



322 



4 
327 
. 212 
• • 239 
324. 327 
225, 229 
. 10, 224 



St. Clara 272 

St. Croix . 243 

St. Croix 10, 244 

St. Denis .... . 323, 324 

St. Dominique .... . 203 

St. Eustatius .... .10 

St. Fran9ois 238 

St. Helena 204 

St. John 10 

St. Joseph .... 217, 323, 327 
St. Kitts 10, 191, 203, 207, 210, 217, 224 

St. Louis 327 

St. Leu 327 

St. Lucia . . 203, 205, 207, 210, 221 

,St. Marie 239, 327 

St. Ouen 14 

St. Paul 295, 323, 327 

St. Peter 224 

St. Philippe 323 

St. Pierre . . 228, 240, 323, 327 

St. Rose 239, 322, 327 

St. Thomas ... 10, 20, 204, 244 
St. Vincent . 203, 207, 212, 227, 275 
Saiyid Muhamad Hadi . . 52, 57, 61 
Salaverry 
Salisbury, Lord 



Salta . 
Salt Island 
Salvador 
Salvador . 



. 271 
• 25 

.283,287 
. 224 
. 246 

• • 252 



Samar 

San Antonio 
San Domingo 
San Domingo 



S PAGE 

. 91 

188 

igo 

. 8, 9, 10, 163, 172, 190 
191, 192, 198, 230 
216, 217 
248, 348, 350, 362, 363 

195 



San Fernando 

San Francisco 

San Isidor 

San Jacinto . 271 

San Jago ... . . . 220 

San Jago de la Vega . . . 220 

San Jose 249, 250, 271 

San Jose de Arufia . . .217 

San Juan .... 196, 197 

San Juan de Hog 94 

San Luis . . . 163, 164, 195 

San Nicolas 271 

San Pedro de Macoris . . 191, 192 

San Vincente 201 

Sangre Grande 217 

Santa 268 

Santa Anna 188 

Apollina 324 

Clara 166, 167, 168, 170, 171 
174, 176, 177, 183 

.. Fe 195 

,, Maria la Antigua . . . 224 
Santiago 162 



Santiago de Cuba 


• 169, 174 


Santos .... 


■ 274 


Sanutus .... 


■ 5 


Sao Thome 


• 7. 275 


Sao Paulo 


■ 274, 276 


Saramacco 


. . . 264 


Sausal 


. 271 


Savannah Grande . 


. 217 


Savanne . 


307, 317 


Scandinavians 


■ 169, 356 


Scotland .... 


. . . 212 


Schriever 


■ • 151 


Segovia .... 


. . . 248 



Semarang 107,112,114,116,128,132,134 

Sena factory < 300 

Serajoe River 108 



197 



Index. 



S 

Sergipe 

Siam ... .5 

Siberia ... 

Sicily 

Sierra Leone 

Silesia 

Sinaloa 

Sincerin 

Singapore . . . 141 

Si-Shi-Tjin 

Sitobondo 

s' Jacob, Mr. H 

Sociedad General Azucarera 

Espana 

Societe Generale des Sucreries 



PACK 

• 274 
, 74. 116 

• 357 
5, 6, 7 

8, 204 

• 14 
163, 164 

■ • 253 
,165,358 
, . 4 

113 
. . 138 
de 



Sudan . ... 

Sunda Islands 

Soerabaja 107, 112, 114, 116, 128 

Soerakarta 

Solo . . . 114, 116, 128, 

Solomon Islands 

Solo River . . . . 

Soltwedel 

Sommelsdijk, Aersen van . 

Soufriere 

Souillac 

South Africa 

South African Union 

South America 

South America . 

South Americans 

South Coast Junction . 

South. Georgia .... 

Spanish Town .... 

Spain 

Spain . .5,6, 8, 33, 95, 163, 

Spaniards 7, 8, 169, 174, 183, 

217, 220, 224, 275, 

Stewart 

Strabo 

Straits Settlements . 
Straits Settlements 
Surinam 



• 147 
296, 298 
299, 300 

• 295 

5 

.132,134 
J12, 122 

132, 134 

. 366 

. 108 

126 

, . 265 

212, 226 



• 307 

• 321 
303. 304 

• 253 

• 33 
169 

304 
. 150 
. 220 
' • 144 
191. 275 
206, 202 
286, 356 
. . 188 

• • 4 
. . 65 

• 69, 74 

. 26^ 



Surinam 

Surinam Rivers . 

Surroundings of Batavia 

Suva . 

Syria . 

Syrians 

Sweden 

Switzerland 



PAGE 

10, II, 20 
■ • 265 
. . 117 
. . 366 

5, 7 
. 169 

34. 227 

. . 36 



82, 



Tabaquite 

Tabaschir 

Tabasco . 

Tabasco River . 

Tabocas ... 

Tacarigua . . . . 

Tachira .... 

Tacon, Miquel ... 

Tahiti 

Tainan 82, 

Tainoku ... 

Tai-Tsung 

Taiwan . . . . . 

Takao 

Tamaulipas . 

Tambo 

Tambo Real . 

Tamsuikei 

Tandjong Priok 

Tarchont . 

Tasman . 

•Taviuni 365 

Tebicuary River . . .. . .289 

Tweed River . .... 330 

Tegal 128, 132, 134 

Tehuantepec 161 

Tepic 162, 163, 164 

Terrebonne 150 

Texas 150, 154 

Tientsin . 74, 76 

Timor . 302 

Timor Deli 140 

Tjilatjap 108 

Tji Manoek 108, 113 

Tji Tandoei 108 

398 



. 217 

4 
. 164 
. 161 
■ 275- 
. 217 

• 255 
172 

• 369 
83.84 

. 82 

4 
. 81 

84 
164 
268 
271 

82 
107 
296 
365 



Index. 



Tji Taroem 

Tobago 

Tonga Islands 

Tonkin 

Tordesillas 

Torolita . 

Tortola 

Toussaint de 

Trafalgar . 

Transvaal 

Trebizonde 

Trinidad 

Trinidad 11,20,166,203,205 



rOuverture 



PAGE 

. loS 

203, 207 

365 

73 

95 

245 

224 

192 

13 
301, 302 

7 
216 
206, 210 



Trinit6 

Trois Bassins 

Trois Rivieres 

Tripoli 

Trujillo 

Tsinshing 

Tucuman 

Tugela River 

Tuinicu 

Tuman 

Tumua Humac 

Tungan 

Tunis . 

Turks . 

Turkish Empire 

Turks Islands 

Turkey 

Tyre . 



217, 313 
238 

327 
238 
6,7 
255 
76 
283, 287 

303 
188 
271 
264 

• 76 
.5,6 
7,169 

• 7 

• 203 

■ 300 

■ 5.7 



U 



United States of America . . 150 

United States of America^-^07^267-^, 30 

31, 33, 38, 85, 80^ 140, 141, 162 

172, 184, 195, i^, 205, 208, 216, 218 

244, 263, 271, 283, 285, 321, 348, 363 

364, 365, 368 

Union 188 



Vancouver 
Vanua Levu 
Vauclin 



. . 141 
365, 367 
. ■ 239 



V PAGE 

Vasco de Gama . . . .8 

Venetians ... . . 7, 8 

Venice ... . . . 6, 7 

Venezuelan Guiana . . . 254 

Venezuela 253 

Venezuela . . .... 201 

Vera Gruz .... 163, 164, 165 

Villa Encarnacion . . 289 

Villa Rica . . . 289 

Virgin Gorda 224 

Virgin Islands . . . 203, 224, 243 

Viscaya Islands 94 

Vishva-Mitra . . .3 

Viti Levu . . . 365, 367 

Vladivostok 356 

Vienna 13 

W 
Waichow ... .... 76 

Waileale . . • • 345 

Wakker 126 

Walker, Herbert S. . . . . 103 

" Walrus," The 331 

Washington 35, 348 

Watts . 60 

WeUesley .... . 69, 73 

West Indian Company : Dutch 8, 237 

265, 275 
West Indian Islands . 8, 10, 12, 19 
West Indians . . ... 169 

Whydah 8 

Wilberforce ... . . 19 

Willett and Gray 184 

Wilson 30 

Y 

Yaqui 162 

Yanaon 230 

Yangtse-Kiang 'j'j 

Yucatan 164, 165 

Yunque, el 196 

Z 

Zacatecas 162 

Zambesi 300, 301 

Zuha 255 

Zululand 303 



399 



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WEST INDIES : 

Cuba. 

Barbados, 

Jamaica, 

Trinidad, 

Antigua, 

Porto Rico, 

St. Vincent, 

St. Croix, 

Martinique, 

Guadeloupe, 

St. Domingo. 

SOUTH AMERICA. 

British Guiana, 

Surinam, 

Brazil, 

Argentina, 

Peru. 

MEXICO. 



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HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. 

AUSTRALASIA : 

Queensland, 

New South Wales, 

Victoria, 

Fiji. 

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 

JAVA. 

JAPAN. 

FORMOSA. 

CHINA. 

STRAITS SETTLEMENTS. 



INDIA. 

MAURITIUS. 

NATAL. 

CANARY ISLANDS. 

MADEIRA. 

EGYPT. 

EUROPE : 

Germany, 

Austria-Hungary, 

France, 

Holland, 

Belgium, 

Sweden, 

Spain, 

Italy. 



SCALE OF CHARGES FOR ADVERTISEIVIENTS sent on application. 

All Communications to be addressed to " THE. INTERNATIONAL SUGAR 
JOURNAL," Altrincham, Manchester. 



An Engineering Firm, after trying the advertising columns of the 
" International Sugar Journal;" for a year, wrote : — 
" We will be pleased to extend our advertisement in the Journal for a year, 
and may we at the same time congratulate you on your publication ? As an 
advertising medium it is not to be equalled."