fTVT-n.;T,II.SlF
^J
Cornell University
Library
The original of this bool< is in
the Cornell University Library.
There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.
http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924013863067
^mmmmS«^mJ;"^=' industry, past an
3 1924 013 863 067
THE WORLD'S
CANE SUGAR INDUSTRY
PAST AND PRESENT
BY
H. Cr PRINSEN-GEERLIGS
III
Late 'Director of the Sugar Experiment Station, 'Pe^alongan, Java.
AUTHOR OF
" Cane Sugar and its Manufacture^'
" Chemical Control in Cane Sugar Factories T
NORMAN RODGER
ALTRINCHAM
(Manchester)
1912
PREFACE
At a tim^ when, through the co-operation of numerous factors,
a new epoch of prosperity for the cane sugar industry has begun,
the opportunity seems to have arrived to bring together in a
coherent survey the past, the present, and the probable future
of the cane sugar industry in the different countries of production.
The various causes which have contributed to animating
with new vitality an industry, which by many writers was
already considered to be dying out, are still fresh in the mind
of the reader. One may mention here only the most con-
spicuous of these, viz., the Brussels Convention, the conquest
of Formosa by the Japanese, the tariff privileges granted by
the United States to the former Spanish colonies, and, last but
not leasf, the great advance of science in the province of sugar
cane cultivation and cane sugar manufacture — all of which has
occurred during the last twenty years.
I, personally, felt inclined to tackle this important subject,
the more so because, first of all, I myself have been an eye-
witness of the decline, and then the revival, of the cane sugar
industry ; and, further, because, as well through my own obser-
vations as through regular correspondence with authorities
on the subject in well-nigh every cane sugar producing country,
I am able to draw on the most reliable information concerning
that industry in every part of the world where it is found.
Apart from the private information which I gratefully
acknowledge here, I found many interesting data in the Archief
VOOR DE Java Suiker Industrie, in the International
Sugar Journal, and in all the other periodicals quoted in the
list on page iv., and in the various sources of reference men-
tioned at the end of each chapter.
I further beg to offer my thanks to Messrs. J. H. de Bussy,
of Amsterdam, who enabled me to study so many a valuable
and original book in their well-stocked reading room ; and to
Mr. Algernon E. Aspinall for his courtesy in allowing me to
reprint the beautiful maps of Barbados, Trinidad, and Jamaica
from his Pocket Guide to the West Indies.
I make use of this opportunity cordially to invite my
readers to write to me and draw my attention to any errors or
omissions which have struck them when reading the book.
All of these will be thankfully considered in a future edition.
H. C. PRINSEN GEERLIGS.
Wanningstraat 17,
Amsterdam,
1st July, 1912.-
LIST OF PERIODICALS CONSULTED IN THE
COMPOSITION OF THIS WORK.
Agricultural News.
American Sugar Journal and Beet Sugar Gazette.
Archief voor de Java Suiker Industrie.
Australian Sugar Journal.
Boletin Ofi&cial de la Secretaria de Agricultura, Industria y Comercio.
Buretin Agricole. ; ]'' J
Centrajfcilatt der Zuckerindustrie.
Cuban Review.
Deutsche Zuckerindustrie.
Hacendado Mexicano.
Indische Mercuur.
International Sugar Journal.
Journal des Fabricants de' Sucre.
Licht's Wochenberichte.
Louisiana Planter.
Planters' Monthly.
Revista industrial y agricola de Tucuman.
Revue Agricole de la Reunion.
Sucrerie Indigene et Coloniale.
West Indian Bulletin.
West India Committee Circular.
WiUett & Gray's Weekly Statistical Sugar^Trade Journal.
Zeitschrift des Vereins fiir die Zuckerindustrie.
CONTENTS
Part I.
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
CHAPTER I
General Survey of the History of the Cane Sugar Industry
FROM THE Beginning till the Introduction of the " Continental
System " . . . . . . .
Legendary origin of the sugar cane
Sugar cane in ancient history
The sugar industry during the Crusades
Kinds of sugar in the Middle Ages
The sugar industry after the voyages of discovery of the Portu
guese and Spaniards .....
Introduction of slavery .....
The sugar industry in Brazil, in the West Indian Islands, and ;n
Guiana ........
The sugar industry in Mauritius, India, and Java .
page
3
3
4
5
6
9
12
CHAPTER II
General Survey of the History of the Cane Sugar Industry
FROM the Introduction of the " Continental System " down
to the Present Day ......
Continental system ....
Discovery of sugar in the beetroot
Experiments with extraction of sugar from the beetroot
Experiments with extraction of sugar from grapes .
Beginning of the beet sugar industry .
Abolition of slavery ......
Production of beet and cane sugar between 1850 and 1903
Sugar premiums .....
Cartels .......
Additional and countervailing duties .
The Brussels Convention .....
Revival of the cane sugar industry
World's sugar production after the signing of the Brussels Con-
vention .......
13
13
13
14
15
16
19
21
23
27
29
37
38
39
Contents.
Part II.
The Condition of the Cane Sugar Industry in the Different Countries
of Production.
ASIA.
I
British India ......
1. Planted area and total production
2. Cane cultivation : —
(a) Tillage and Manuring
(&) Cane varieties, diseases, « and pests
3. Sugar manufacture ....
4. Prime cost, importation and transportation, excise, and
levied ......
5. The future . . . .
PAGE
43
43
47
49
.
.
50
excise, and
duties
60
68
Straits Settlements
Cochin China
II
III
IV
69
73
China .
74
I. Swatow .......
74
2. Amoy .......
. . . 76
3. Canton, Kowloon, Lappa ....
. . . 76
4. Kiungchow in the Island of Hainan
. . 76
5. Chunking in the Province of Szechuan
. . . 76
Japan
Formosa
V
VI
77
81
VII
The Philippines ..........
1. Geographical conditions, population, and modes of communica-
tion ..........
2. History of the Cane Sugar History .....
3. Cane cultivation and sugar manufacture
4. The future ....... . .
91
91
9.5
98
106
Contents.
Java— VIII page
Geographical location, climate, and area planted with cane . 107
History of the cane sugar industry . . . 115
Cane cultivation ... .... 121
Manufacture . . . . ... 131
Import and export duties, consumption, exportation, peaces
of destination ........ 139
6. Future ...... . . 142
EUROPE.
Spain . . . 144
NORTH AMERICA.
I
The United States of America ....... 150
II
Mexico ....... . . 161
Cuba— III ,
I; Geographical location, population, area planted with cane,
total sugar production ....... 166
2. History of the cane sugar industry . 172
3. Cane cultivation ...... . 176
4. Sugar manufacture ..... . 181
5. Export of sugar, prices. Reciprocity Treaty . . 184
6. Future .186
IV
San Domingo . . 190
V
Porto Rico . ' • .196
VI
British West Indian Islands —
1. Historical survey of the sugar industry . . 202
2. Cane cultivation and sugar manufacture . . 209
3. Survey of the industry in the different Islands :
(a) Barbados ....... . 212
(6) Trinidad . 216
(c) Jamaica .... .... 219
(d) Windward Islands ... . 222
(«) Leeward Islands . ..... 223
xi
Contents.
French Antilles — VII
1. Geographical location, climate, etc.
(a) Guadeloupe . .......
(b) Martinique ........
2. History of the cane sugar industry .....
3. Sugar cultivation, sugar manufacture, duties, production, and
costs ... ......
VIII
St.' Croix
PAGE
226
226
228
229
■ 231
243
Guatemala
Salvador
Honduras
British Honduras
Nicaragua
Costa Rica
Panama
CENTRAL AMERICA
245
246
247
247
248
249
251
Colombia
Venezuela .
British Guiana
Dutch Guiana
Ecuador
Peru
Bolivia
SOUTH AMERICA.
I
II
III
IV
VI
VII
xn
253
253
256
263
266
267
273
Brazil
Argentina
Paraguay
Contents,
VIII
IX
X
page
274
• 283
288
Madeira
Canary Islands
Angola
Liberia
AFRICA.
I
II
III
IV
290
293
! '
293
294
Egypt
Mozambique
Natal
VI
VII
Mauritius — VIII
1. Location, History, cane-planted area, total production
2. Cane cultivation, cane varieties, diseases and pests, sugar manu-
facture, output of sugar, production per acre, and cost
price ..........
3. Import and export duties. Government aid and financial situa-
tion, destination of the exported sugar ....
Reunion
295
300
303
306
311
318
322
xni
Contents.
AUSTRALASIA.
; . I . '• fag's
Commonwealth of Australia . . . . . . .' 330
Hawaiian Islands — II
1. Geographical conditions, climate, population, area planted
with cane, total sugar production . . 343
2. History of the cane sugar industry . . 348
3. Cane cultivation . . ...... 353
4. Sugar manufacture, sugar production per acre, cost price 358
5. Future . . . . . ... . . . 364
III ,
Fiji Islands . . . . . 365
IV
Tahiti ... . . ... 369
APPENDIX.
I. The text of the Brussels Sugar Convention .... 371
II. List of additional duties to be levied from bounty-fed sugar im-
ported into countries adhering to the Brussels Convention 378
III. Table of measures, weights, and currency mentioned in this work,
and their equivalents in British ones .... 379
INDEX.
General .... 383
Geographical and Proper Names 386
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT
PAGE
Fig. I. Stone mill in tlie Eastern Districts o* Agra . . 52
,, 2. Wooden mill from Gorakhpur . . '53
,, 3. Behea Iron Roller Mill ... . . 54
,, 4. Furnace for boiling cane juice into rab ... 55
,, 5. Scheme of a plant to make sugar from cane juice in the Philip-
pines (from Herbert S. Walker's The Sugar Industry in
the Island of Negros) ... . 100
,, 6. Evaporating Plant after Pere Labat . . 233
„ 7. Sugar factory, from the plans of Pere Labat (Figs. 6 and 7 are
taken from P^re Labat's work, Description des lies d' Amerique ,
1722) 234
LIST OF PLATES
Sugar factory, Ngelom, in Java . . Frontispiece
Sugar factory, Kohekirin, in Formosa . To face page 8g
Sugar 'factory, San Nicolas, in Spain ,, „ 145
Sugar factory, Tenango, in Mexico . . ,, ,, 161
Central Stewart, in Cuba . . < . ,, ,, 168
Vere Sugar Factory, in Jamaica . ,, ., 209
Tinley Manor Sugar Factory, Natal . „ ,, 305
LIST OF MAPS AND DIAGRAMS
Diagram showing World's Production of Raw Sugar in the different
Countries during 1900 (expressed in thousands of tons)
To face page xvi
Diagram showing World's Production of Raw Sugar in the different
Countries during 1910 (expressed in thousands of tons
To face -page i
Map of British India ...... ,, . 49
„ Formosa ... . . ,, ,, 81
„ the Philippines . . . . . . ,, ,. 97
„ Java ,, „ 113
„ Louisiana ....... ,, ,, 152
„ Cuba „ „ 176
„ Barbados . . . . . . . . . . 212
,, Trinidad .......... 216
„ Jamaica .......... 2ig
,, Mauritius ......... 320
„ Reunion 323
„ Hawaiian Islands . . . . . . . -352
Notes :—
(i) The maps of Barbados, Trinidad, and Jamaica are reproduced from
Aspinall's " Pocket Guide to the West Indies," by kind permission of the
Author.
(2) The map of Formosa is reproduced by permission of His Majesty's
Stationery Office, from British Consular Report, No. 3863 (1907) on Formosa.
World's Production of Raw Sugar in the dijff>'^ent Countries
during 1900.
Kxprrssecl in Thousands of Tons.
World's Froduction of Raw Sugar in the different Coiuitries
during 1910.
Expressed in Thousands (if Tons.
PART I.
General History of the Cane Sugar
Industry.
PART I.
General History of the Cane Sugar
Industry.
CHAPTER I.
General Survey of the History of the Cane Sugar Industry from
the Beginning till the Introduction of the
" Continental System."
In all probability the sugar cane originally came from India, more especially
from the banks of the Ganges. We cannot be absolutely certain of this, as
at the present day sugar cane in its wild state is not found anywhere.
The probability, however, of its originating from India is very strong,
as only the ancient literature of that country mentions sugar cane, while we
know for certain that it was conveyed to other countries by travellers and
sailors.
According to Hindu mythology, sugar cane was created by the famous
hermit Vishva Mitra to serve as heavenly food in the temporary paradise
which was organized by him for the sake of Raja Trishanku. This prince
had expressed his wish to be translated to heaven during his lifetime, but
Indra, the monarch of the celestial regions, had refused to admit him. In
order to meet his wish, Vishva Mitra prepared a temporary paradise for him,
but when a reconciliation between the two rajas was brought about, the para-
dise was demolished and all its luxuries destroyed except a few, including
sugar cane which was spread all over the land of mortals as a permanent
memorial of Vishva Mitra's miraculous deeds.
We find sugar cane mentioned in the Atharva Veda, one of the latter
3
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
portions of the sacred books of 'the Hindus, from which we quote the
following :
" Paritw^ paritantu nexunag^mawidwise YathsL mim kaminyaso yathS, man n^paga
assah."
" I have crowned thee with a shooting sugar cane, so that thou shalt not be averse
to me.''
The fellow-travellers of Alexander the Great, and afterwards writers who
made use of their notes, tell us of a reed growing in India which produced
honey without the aid of bees.
We also find sugar cane repeatedly mentioned as a tribute to the Emperor
of China from the Indian border provinces, which also accounts for sugar
cane having spread as far as the East.
Although sugar cane was known in. ancient times, we do not come across
any regular statement of sugar being made from cane at any period previous
to 300 — 600 A.D. It is a fact that Greek and Roman authors, such as Strabo,
Dioscorides, Pliny, and others, refer to a kind of honey made from cane
which grows in India, and some substance, " saccharon," which, also in the
East, is obtained from cane ; but on closer examination it does not appear
to have been sugar, being in some cases manna, and in others " tabaschir,"
a gelatinous silica which sometimes forms in the joints of some species of
bamboo.
The first kind of sugar mentioned was simply concentrated cane juice,
called " gur " in India and known under the name of " gud " in Sanskrit,
which (although we cannot be certain of it) points to the fact of " gur " having
been known in India even in prehistoric times.
We do know that in a.d. 627, at the time of the Conquest of Dastagerd in
Persia, sugar was among the spoils taken by the Byzantines ; and also that,
according to the Pen-tsao-kang-mu, a famous encyclopedia written in 1552
by Si-Shi-Tjin, the Emperor Tai Tsung (627 — 650) sent people to Behar, in
India, in order to learn 1 he art of sugar manufacture.
From that time the art of making sugar out of cane spread rapidly, being
considerably aided by the vast trade renaissance of the seventh, eighth, and
ninth centuries.
It was not restricted merely to evaporating the juice to dryness, but the
Arabs and Egyptians soon learnt how to purify raw sugar by re-crystalliza-
tion, and to make a great variety of sweetmeats out of the purified sugar.
Marco Polo, who visited China during 1270-1295, and other western
travellers after him, mention a great many sugar factories in South China
where sugar could be freely bought at low prices.
Although the Chinese had soon learned how to prepare a light-coloured
kind of sugar by draining off the raw molasses, the proper art of refining seems
to have been brought to China by people from Cairo subsequent to Marco
Polo's time
4
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
The Mohammedan writers, who refer to the sugar industry in India,
mention a great many kinds that, about the end of the thirteenth century,
were prepared from the evaporated cane juice by re-dissolving, clarifying it
,with milk, and then either concentrating it to solid matter, or crystaUi^ing
it into candy.
Further, we find that sugar cane was taken to Sicily by the Arabs in
703, and Sicilian sugar conveyed to Africa in goo. Sanutus writes in 130:3
that sugar cane was produced not only in the dominions belonging to
the Sultan, but also in the Christian countries of Cyprus, Rhodes, and
Sicily.
The Crusaders found extensive sugar cane plantations in Tripoli, Meso-
potamia, Palestine, Syria, Antioch, etc.
As early as 755, sugar cane was taken to Spain by Abdurrahman, and it
was especially on the south coast of Andalusia that it was cultivated, so that
as far back as the year 1150 Spain could boast of a flourishing sugar industry,
commanding an area of no less than 75,000 acres.
The Arabs and Chinese introduced sugar cane not only to the above-
mentioned countries, but also to the coast of the Mediterranean and the Indian
Ocean, consequently to Tunis, Morocco, Gambia, Madagascar, Siam, Sunda
Islands, the Philippines, Formosa, and Japan, and it flourished wherever it
was cultivated.
In all the countries mentioned, however, any regular sugar industry was
out of the question ; the cane was cultivated simply for the purpose of supply-
ing local wants, while before 1400, with the exception of China, a proper sugar
industry was carried on only in the countries round the Mediterranean.
The Crusaders looked upon sugar cane cultivation as a profitable venture,
and therefore interested themselves in it, making Tyre an important centre
of the sugar trade. Both the administration of- King Baldwin's dominions
and the different knighthoods founded extensive sugar cane plantations in
Palestine, in Antioch, in Syria, and in Cjrprus, and greatly improved the sugar
industry in those parts.
Egypt continued producing large quantities of very good sugar, which
met with a ready demand in all the markets round the Mediterranean. In
Sicily the sugar industry, which was in a flourishing state during the Norman
Conquest, gradually dwindled to such an extent that the Emperor Frederic II
thought it expedient to send to Tyre for two capable sugar manufacturers
in order to revise the almost forgotten art of sugar manufacture.
This sugar industry soon developed, a result partly due to the influence
of the instructors, and partly to the fact that the government began hence-
forward to patronize agriculture. Discord and war, however, soon had a
disastrous influence on the political affairs of the island, and about 1400 A.D.
the sugar industry was entirely abandoned. But after the restoration of
order under King Alfonso (1410 — 1418) prosperity returned, so that even in
5
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
1418 much sugar was being exported from Palermo, a great many suga^' cane
plantations and mills being found in 1450 in Sicily.
At the same time a sugar industry flourished in Spain, and was also taken
up in the south of France, where many of its inhabitants had acquired a thorough
knowledge of cane cultivation and sugar manufacture, through constantly
coming into contact with their Spanish neighbours and through their partici-
pation in the Crusades.
Consequently, all the countries round the Mediterranean were cane sugar
producing countries in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries : Spain, France,
Calabria, Sicily, C5rprus, Rhodes, Asia Minor, Egypt, Tripoli, Tunis, Morocco
all taking part, more or less, in the sugar industry. The sugar that was not
needed for their own consumption was chiefly exported via the Italian ports
of Venice, Pisa, and Genoa. The Crusaders who, when in the Far East, had
become accustomed to sugar, wished to continue its use after their return
home, and thus developed a brisk trade between the Italian towns and
Northern Europe, both by land and by sea.
The sugar was sold in the form of loaves, square blocks, or powder. The
small loaves were wrapped up in palm leaves, two at a time, with one base
lying against the other, sewn up in cloth, and marked with the seller's
trade mark.
Sometimes the loaves were packed in barrels, and the open spaces filled
in with dried cane leaves. Another way of packing was to knock the top off
the sugar-loaf and to put the truncated cones, thirty-six of them together
into a chest in two layers, while the open spaces, which were left, were filled
in with the broken-off tops. Finally, the chest was wrapped up in cloth
and the vendor's trade mark affixed.
Only the inferior kind of sugar was packed up in chests like this ; it went
by the name of cassonade, which means simply " packed in wooden boxes."
Later on, however, the name was also given to any inferior grade of sugar,
so that in course of time it has become the general term for inferior sugar.
Then there was sugar powder, which was obtained from inferior sugar
loaves crumpled to powder, and this also was sent away in chests and barrels.
Finally, there was sugar candy in a variety of tints between clear white and
brown.
The sugar industry in the countries round the Mediterranean flourished
up to the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth centuries;
Syria lost much of its importance as a sugar trade centre when, after the fall of
Acre in 1291, the Crusaders had to give up their conquests in Asia Minor ; but
Tyre and Beirut, Antioch and the Jordan Valley all continued producing large
quantities of sugar, while Damascus and Tripoli became sugar refining centres.
Cyprus, still tributary to Venice, extended its industry considerably, and
every year sent large supplies to the mother-town; while Egypt, too, still
produced considerable quantities of sugar.
6
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
All this prosperity, however, suddenly and unexpectedly came to an
end. In 1453 Constantinople was taken by the Turks, in 1461 Trebizonde
followed, and soon after the other commercial towns of Asia Minor and all
Genoa's colonies on the Black Sea were also conquered, so that the trade
relations between Europe and Asia Minor were no longer what was previously
the case. Moreover, the entire industry was much restricted during the Turkish
sovereignty, and the manufacture of sugar soon declined. In 1517 the Turks
attacked and conquered Cairo, and made Egypt a Turkish province, which
step had an equally fatal effect on the sugar industry there.
In 1532 Rhodes, and finally in 1571 Cyprus, were taken from the Venetians
and added to the Turkish dominions ; by this time, however, the sugar culti-
vation in these islands had already lost much of its importance, while the
industry of Sicily had quite dwindled away, so that within one hundred years
the once flourishing sugar industry of the Mediterranean was condemned to
extinction.
As early as 1419 the Portuguese had taken the sugar cane to Madeira,
where it grew up luxuriantly and developed so quickly that the island soon
produced unheard-of quantities of sugar, which were taken to Italy by Portu-
guese seafarers. In 1444 the Azores were captured and colonized by the
Portuguese ; between 1456 and 1462 the Cape Verde Isles followed ; San
Thome, Principe, and Annobon in the Gulf of Guinea were acquired in 1496,
while in the same year the Spanish colonized the Canary Islands, and assisted
in the establishment of sugar cultivation. Favoured by the mild and moist
climate of these islands, the cane grew luxuriantly, and was produced at so
little cost, with the help of African negro slaves, that the price of sugar fell
considerably, and both Cyprus and Sicily were obliged to abandon competi-
tion, so that in 1570 the sugar industry of these Mediterranean islands ceased
to exist.
When, the Portuguese West African colonies began to flourish, Bartholo-
mew Diaz sailed round the Cape of Good Hope, and in 1490 Vasco de Gama
reached Calicut by the unbroken sea route, the result of which was that Venice
lost its ascendancy as a trade centre, and the Portuguese distributed Indian
goods as well as those coming from their Own colonies, consequently opening
up new routes for the world's trade.
Still greater changes in the history of cane sugar were brought about by
the discovery of America, and the colonization of that vast territory — first
by the Spanish and the Portuguese, and later by the Dutch, the English, and
the French. In consequence of the colonization of Brazil, the Antilles and
Guiana, the production of sugar increased so rapidly that the latter, which up to
now had been a very costly article, only to be indulged in as a medicine or
as- a luxury by the very rich, became in quite a short time an article of
'common consumption.
Although previously the annual production of the principal sugar centres
7
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
was only some thousands of hundredweights, it was now possible to state the
production in thousands of tons.
The enormous progress in production was caused not only by the great
abundance of fertile land in a favoured climate, but also by the cheap labour
in the form of negro slaves obtained from the countries on the Gulf of Guinea.
Throughout the history of the cane sugar industry in tropical countries
the labour problem has .influenced the- whole production. When plenty of
labour is to be had, and soil and climate allow of sugar cultivation, cane sugar
production can flourish, while a decline immediately sets in when in any way
labour becomes scarce.
We shall repeatedly come across instances of this fact in the second part
of this Volume; when dealing with the industry in the different countries of
production, and this influence is so great that at the present time a few islands
would suffice to produce all the Sugar needed for the world's consumption if
the lack of the necessary cheap labour did not limit their power of production.
For this very reason Christopher Columbus's first attempt, made on his
second journey in 1493, to introduce sugar cane cultivation in San Domingo
resulted in loss for the time being. When, however, the Portuguese and the
Spanish, in imitation of what they had done in their own colonies on the West
Coast of Africa, took negro slaves from the Gulf of Guinea to America, the
industry was placed on a firmer footing, and spread to an unprecedented
extent. The aborigines of most islands disappeared soon after the conquest
by foreigners, and for the greater part were replaced by negro slaves from
Africa, who established their race in all the West Indian islands and the ad-
joining parts of the Cotitinent of America.
Up to the first half of the fifteenth century hardly any slavery existed
in Christian countries ; , it only occurred in Mohammedan lands.
Even in 1442 Henry the Navigator sent Moors, who were taken
prisoners, back to their own country, but later on, when it appeared to what
account they might be put, he began to deal differently with them. In the
year 1481 the Portuguese built three fortresses in Africa, namely, on the Gold
Coast, on an island in the Gulf of Guinea, and at Loango, and from these sent
slaves to the American possessions. In 1502 negro slaves were used m the
mines by the Spanish in Hispaniola (now San Domingo), and Charles the Fifth
granted the Genoese the privilege of importing every year as many as 4,000
into Cuba, Jamaica, and Porto Rico. But, quite independent of this monopoly,
the import of slaves greatly increased, and even in 1772 it amounted to 74,000,
supplied by the following nationalities : —
38,000. by the British.
20,000 ., ,, French.
4,000 ,, ., Dutch.
2,000 ,, ,, Danes.
10,000 ,, ,, Portuguese.
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
They hailed from Gambia, Sierra Leone, Las Palmas, the Gold Coast,
Whydah, Lagos, Benin, Boma, New Calabria, Cameroons, Loango and Ben-
guela, that is from the entire West Afritan Coast, and were distributed all
over the American and West Indian countries, so that a mixed population
of Americans, Africans and Europeans sprang up.
In Brazil, which in 1500 was discovered by Pinzon arid by, Cabral, sugar
cane was imported from Madeira, and in a very short time the sugar industry
there attained to considerable importance. ,In 1590 there were thirty-six
mills in Bahia, and sixty-six jn Pernambuco, which numbers continued in-
creasing, so that in 1600 the export from Brazil amounted to 60,000 chests
of sugar, each cpntaining 500 lbs. At that time Brazil belonged to Spain,
which in 1580 had, annexed Portugal and the Portuguese colonies. Because of
the truce with Spain the Dutch, who more than once had coveted the rich Portu-
guese colony, were compelled to suspend their plans of conquest till hostilities
were resumed,, When in 1621 the armistice had come to an end, the West
Indian Company, which was just founded, made up its mind to conquer Brazil,
in which attempt it succeeded in 1629, when Pernambuco was taken, and
consequently the whole of Brazil fell to the Dutch. It was at this time that
a great many sugar mills and plantations were destroyed, but the governor,
Joan Maurits, succeeded in resuscitating the sugar industry to the extent that
during the yeai;s i$36 — 1643 a total of 159,148 chests, each containing 500 lbs.
of white sugar, ,49,903 chests of muscovado, and 218,220 chests of brown sugar
were exported. In the year 1640 Portugal regained its independence, and
although a, treaty guaranteed the possession of Brazil by the Dutch, the Portu-
guese, helped by the Engljsh,, instigated a rebeUion which ended in the Dutch
being expelled in 1654, whereupon in 1661 Brazil was acknowledged a Portu-
guese possession under an indemnity of eight million guilders, paid to the
Dutch West Iridian Company.
In 1665 the Portuguese government committed a serious mistake in
banishing the 20,000 Dutchmen who then lived in Brazil ; and it was a two-
fold error,, because, in the first place, a great number of quiet and industrious
citizens were driven away, and, secondly, because the latter settled in the
neighbouring Caribbean Islands, where they introduced the sugar industry,
and consequently became in the long run formidable rivals of Brazil.
Meanwhile, it was impossible for Portugal to regain her former importance,
and a great many measures taken by her only tended to- favour the Portuguese
without at all developing the resources of their country. Moreover, gold
mines were discovered, in 1725 in the province of Minas Geraes, which caiised
the regular trade in field and factory to decHne, as many labourers found
work at the gold mines instead. The sugar factories could not stand these
successive blows, and a great many of them were deserted, with the result
that the sugar exportation fell rapidly.
After some time it recovered more or less, especially when, at the end of
the eighteenth century, a new cane, Otaheite (now known as Bourbon), was
9
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
introduced, which contained much more sugar. Still, Brazil has never since
attained its former importance in the sugar world.
In the year 1625 the island of St. Christopher (now St. Kitts) was occupied
by both the English and the French, and planted with sugar cane. Further,
the French conquered Guadaloupe and Martinique in 1635, ^^'^ the English
took Barbados in 1627, and Jamaica in 1656. Sugar cane cultivation was
introduced in all these islands, but the people there did not know how to
prepare good and durable sugar, till in 1655 the Dutch manufacturers, who
had been driven away from Brazil, came to settle there and put their knowledge
and experience, gained in Brazil, into practice.
After the French had successively occupied and deserted San Domingo,
France took permanent possession of this island in 1697, and it is from this
time that the flourishing state of the sugar industry there dates ; for a
ceniury it was one of the first among the cane sugar exporting West Indian
islands. On the whole the French colonies flourished more than the English,
which was partly owing to their more rational way of working, and partly to
the more liberal French trade policies. Because of the cruel way, however,
in which the French treated their negro slaves a rebellion broke out in 1791,
in which, within a very short time, almost the entire white population was
massacred or expelled, and sugar plantations and mills were destroyed and
burnt, so that San Domingo lost its ascendency, and has ever since been of
little importance in the sugar world.
After the fall of this sphere of activity, the other countries became more
prominent, especially Jamaica, which made the most of her opportunity, and
succeeded in doubling her yearly output in some twenty or thirty years, so
that at the end of the eighteenth century this island was first among the sugar
producing West Indian islands.
San Domingo's fall was also an incitement to Cuba to extend her sugar
cultivation.
Owing to her subjection to Spain, Cuba's sugar industry had to submit
to all sorts of restricting stipulations until 1772, after which date, however,
they ceased ; and henceforward the manufacture and export of sugar gra-
dually increased in quantity, and after 1791 expanded at such a rate that
even in 1802 it amounted to 40,800 tons.
The Dutch colonies, St. Eustatius and Cura9ao, and the Danish islands,
St. Croix, St. John, and San Thome, also profited by this general prosperity ;
and, especially during the Anierican War of Independence, became increasini^ly
important, not so much through producing sugar as through being good trade
centres for the smuggling of sugar in those stirring times.
In the meantime the sugar industry had also got a firm hold in the
other countries on the continent of South America, with the exception of
Brazil. In 1634 French people who were engaged in sugar cultivation
settled in Cayenne, and in 1640 in Surinam. This cultivation did not
amount to much for the first hundred years, even after the conquest of
10
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
Surinam, Demerara, Essequibo, and Berbice by the Dutch, owing to the
scarcity of labourers ; consequently, the importation of slaves on a large
scale was thought necessary for developing the sugar production in these
parts.
This want, of labour was gradually supplied, and when the hostilities
with the French, who had continually disturbed the pea;ce of the colony,
had come to an end, the manufacture of sugar began to flourish, and in the
year 1750 Surinam produced the maximum quantity of 12,300 tons of sugar,
a quantity never again reahzed in the eighteenth century. Essequibo, Ber-
bice, and Demerara also supplied some sugar, but disturbances prevailed, while
lack, of capital and lack of enterprise, together with careless financial manage-
ment, prevented any sound development of the industry. Through con-
tinuous wars the colonies fell to the French, then again to the English, then
reverted to the Dutch ; but in the end, with the exception of Surinam, they
i remained English possessions.
Finally, sugar was grown in Peru, Argentina, Chile, Mexico, Louisiana ;
also in Trinidad, which was taken by the English in 1792, but at the time of
which we speak this was of little consequence for the world's trade, as all the
sugar produced was used for local consumption.
According to Reesse, in his book on " De Suikerhandel van Amsterdam,"
page 225, the exportation of American colonies and countries during the last
years of the eighteenth century amounted to the following quantities (ex-
pressed in Amsterdam pounds and tons) ; —
Amsterdam Pounds
Tons
French Colonies (1788) . .
. 188,350,000
93.045
English .„ {1781— 1785)
yearly average
• 157.953.000
78,029
Danish Colonies (1768) . .
41,600,000
20,550
Cuba (1790)
. " 28,325,800
13,993
Brazil (1796)
69,384,000
34.276
Dutch Colonies (1785) . .
18,000,000
8,892
Owing to the large supplies of sugar from the Antilles and ^Brazil, the
sugar industry in Madeira, the Cape Verde Isles and Canary Isles had been
outrivalled, and sugar from these islands gradually disappeared from the sugar
markets. This was also the case with the sugar industry in the Islands of
the Gulf of Guinea, which previously in their turn, shortly after the commence-
ment of the great voyages of discovery by the Portuguese and Spaniards
in the fifteenth century, had destroyed the sugar industry of the countries
lying on the Mediterranean.
Sugar cane was also introduced by the French to the Isle de France (now
Mauritius) and Bourbon (now Reunion), and at about the end of the eighteenth
century people began to export sugar to Europe from this part of the world.
Finally, Eastern Asia should not be omitted from the list of important
II
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
sugar producing countries. On their first voyages the ships of the Dutch
East Indian Company carried Formosan, Bengal, and Siamese sugar to Amster-
dam, where it was sold at such a profit that they kept on importing it. In order
to be able to send still larger consignments of sugar, the Company had sugar
cane planted in Java itself, but before the plantations had had time to spread,
the price of sugar (in 1642) fell so considerably, in consequence of the large
Brazilian harvests, that the profits dwindled away, and it was necessary to
reduce the imports pf sugar from the East. During the time that elapsed
between the beginning of planting in Java and the disbanding of the East
Indian Company, the sugar produc^tion of this island experienced enormous
fluctuations. In 1710 a 14,000,000 lb. harvest was reaped ; between 1742
and 1748 absolutely nothing ; from 1751 to 1^60, 6,000,000 lbs. a year, which
quantity by no means came up to the amqunt exported by the Dutch West
Indian colonies. The sugar was sent both to the Netherlands and to Persia,
Japan, and other cour;tries. The English East Indian Company exported ^
large quantities of sugar from British India (" gur " as well as crystals) ; while,
moreover, a fair amount of Chinese, Formosan, and Indian sugar was sent to
New York, where, in consequence of fiscal restrictions, importations from
the East Indies were less onerous than from the much nearer West Indian
colonies.
It was a very bad time for the development of the cane sugar industry
when, during the last years of the eighteenth and the first years of the nine-
teenth centuries, France (first alone, but later on in combination with her
allies) was at war with Great Britain. The larger part of the hostilities took
place in West Indian waters, where the French and British, fleets not only
destroyed each other, but where also a great number of laden merchant ships
were captured, with consequent loss to sugar planters and merchants. East
Indian sugar, too, was often captured b}' privateers or men-of-war, while, on
the other hand, the French Government enacted all sorts of restricting stipu-
lations in order to deal a serious blow to British trade.
When, in the end. Great Britain reigned supreme at sea and succeeded
in preserving trade relations with the Continent, in spite of Napoleon's effort
to crush them out, the French Emperor in 1806 had recourse to what is known
as the " Continental System," which eventually dealt a disastrous blow to
the cane sugar industry.
Literature :
Sayld Muhammad Hadi. The Sugar Industry of the United Provinces of Agra and
Oudh.
F. 0. von Lippmann. GescMchte des Zuckers.
G. Washington Eves. West Indies.
J. J. Reasse. De Suikerhandel van Amsterdam. ' ' ''
12
, CHAPTER II.
General Survey of the History of the Cane Sugar Industry from the
Introduction of the " Continental System "
down to the Present Day.
Much to his regret, Napoleon did not succeed in humiliating his greatest
enemy, Great Britain, and had to give up his intention of attacking this country
when, in 1805, Nelson destroyed the French fleet off Trafalgar, consequently
preventing the landing of the French in England. As the struggle was not
to be brought to an end by fighting. Napoleon tried to isolate his enemy by
prohibiting all commercial intercourse between England and the Continent,
which for the greater part was submissive to him. In 1806 the Berlin decree
was issued, according to which all trade communication with Great Britain
was forbidden, and all colonial and British goods were confiscated. In answer
to this move, England prohibited ships of any nationality from approaching
French harbours on the penalty of confiscation ; whereupon Napoleon, in
his turn, by the Milan decree, confiscated any ship that had either submitted
to English examination or had paid dues in English harbours.
In short, the one party endeavoured to outdo the other in confiscating
goods and forbidding any intercourse ; so that the importation of sugar was
hindered, and prices went up to a figure that was previously unknown. It
is true that the Trianon decree later on allowed colonial products to enter,
but only under high import duties^ so the price of these articles was not
conducive to any widespread distribution, and only wealthy people could
afford to use sugar.
Napoleon did not conceal from himself the fact that this want of sugar
was most inconvenient to his subjects, but, in the first place, he was sure
trade would hit upon a means by which sugar might be brought from the
East to the West of Europe via the land route (Constantinople and Vienna) ;
secondly, he cherished great expectations as regards substitutes for cane sugar,
which might be produced in Europe and supply a much-felt want. Such were
the sugar produced from grapes and from beetroot — while strenuous endeavours
were also made to exitract sugar from apples, pears, plums, quinces, mulberries,
chestnuts, figs, sorghum and maize stalks, and from the sap of the nut and
maple trees ; but only from the two first-mentioned sources could sugar be
produced on a large and industrial scale.
In the year 1747 Marggraf, in a communication to the Royal Academy of
Science and Literature in Berlin, had shown that various kinds of beetroot,
the sweet taste of which was akeady known, contained sugar that could be
extracted and crystallized in a. fairly simple way. Other plants which had
13
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
a sweet taste also contained sugar, although in a less degree, but it was found
that in many cases it did not crystallize out, but remained as syrup, no matter
how long it was kept.
This discovery of crystallizable sugar occurring in plants that thrive in
a European clirnate was for a long time considered a mere laboratory demonstra-
tion without any practical importance, till in 1786 Achard began to occupy
himself with beetroot cultivation on his estate, Caulsdorf, near Berlin. He
planted beetroot there in the hope of finding a species rich in sugar, and at
the same time containing few impurities destructive to the yield ; but, because
of a fire which burnt down his house, as well as through financial difficulties,
it was not till 1799 that he made his result known. The King of Prussia,
Frederick Wilhelm III, took a great interest in this beetroot sugar manu-
facture, and after he was convinced of the truth of Achard' s information, he
bought, in 1801, the Crown land, Cunern, in Silesia, for experimenting on a
large scale, and provided Achard with the necessary means for the erection of
a sugar factory. Moreover, the king contributed towards the erection of
further sugar factories round Berlin, in Pomerania, and in Silesia, by means
of funds and advice, while he held out premiums to any farmer or manufacturer
who should work up more than twenty tons of beetroot a year.
Although the war calamities and defeats from which the Prussians suffered
after 1806 hindered the development of the sugar industry, yet the manu-
facture advanced so far that in 1810 it was possible to declare that this
industry had proved itself a success when properly conducted ; consequentl}',
the experiments at Cunern were discontinued. Hence, in 1812, this experi-
mental farm was turned into a school for the sugar industry, but, unfortu-
natelj', in 1813 it was destroyed by the ravages of war.
Achard' s important experiments caused much surprise all over Europe,
especially in France, the more so as Achard, being of French origin, had com-
municated with several French savants, and, as a result, had had his method
of working officially examined by the Physical Section of the Paris Academy,
who judged favourably of it. Notwithstanding this, since capitalists hesitated
to risk money on building sugar factories, only two were constructed, one
near Paris and one at St. Ouen, both of which, however, soon failed for want
pf adequate knowledge and through working with a very inferior kind of
beetroot, the beetroot sugar manufacture thus coming to an entire standstill
for some years. But although the industry had come to a temporary stop,
the possibilities were not overlooked ; and it is from this time that a number of
documents date, which show how much the French had the idea of a national
sugar industry at heart, and how everywhere, although on a small scale, people
fervently looked forward to the realization of this hope.
As, however, the manufacturing branch of the industry had given negative
rather than positive results, a great many scholars, especially Proust and
Parmentier, became interested in the preparation of sugar on a large scale
from grapes. Although it had long been known that a saccharine substance
14
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
could be obtained from grape-must by evaporating and cooling the residue,
it remained for the chemist Proust to point out in a lucid memoire the profit
obtainable from the manufacture of sugar from grapes. So we must look
to him as the real pioneer of this industry.
It also stood Proust in good stead, that shortly after the publication
of his memoire the " Continental System " was started, in consequence of
which cane sugar could only be imported at great expense and danger, the
demand for a substitute thus becoming great. About the same time the
chemist Parmentier had pubhshed an of&cial report, in which he advised his
countrymen not to manufacture beetroot sugar in France, as the French soil
would not allow the production of beetroots containing sugar.
Further, the extraction of sugar from must was greatly stimulated by
the fact that the Vine abounded in France, and brief instructions were issued
by the Government for preparing sjnrup and sugar from rnust for domestic
use. Where there was a dearth of sugar it was a great convenience for the
inhabitants of the vine-growing countries to be able themselves to produce
sugar easily from grapes, so this native sugar industry began immediately
to flourish.
Napoleon was greatly pleased to see the results of the attempts at sugar
production within the boundaries of his empire, hoping that such sugar might
supersede the cane sugar imported from America. He consequently ordered
his subjects to apply themselves vigorously to the manufacture of this sub-
stance, in order to extend its consumption to districts outside the vine-growing
provinces.
Proust succeeded in obtaining a solid sugar from concentrated syrups,
while Fouquet was able to work this into white sugar, which, though not
crystallizing in the same shape as cane sugar, corresponded in colour and
consistency to it. As a reward they received by Imperial decree sums of
money amounting to 100,000 francs in Proust's case, and 40,000 francs in
that of Fouquet, on condition that factories for grape-sugar should be founded
with the money in the south of France, and their factory secrets should be .
divulged.
A few months later Napoleon disposed of a sum of 200,000 francs, to be
divided among twelve factories that should produce the greatest amount of
sugar out ot grapes in proportion to the quantities manufactured. A minimum
weight of 10,000 kg. was necessary for those competing for the prize.
Parmentier, who had greatly exerted himself in the manufacture of sugar
from grape-must, and had done what he could in the way of giving hints and
instructions about that manufacture, finally wrote a memorandum dealing
with the best way in which to prepare this kind of sugar on a large scale, which
monograph contained much information for manufacturers.
The committee appointed to distribute prizes reported that, in 1811,
2,000,000' kg. of syrup and 500 kg. of sugar had been prepared from grapes,
but that only three establishments, whose yearly output of prepared sugar
15
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
and syrup exceeded 10,000 kg. were entitled to a prize. Consequently, only
three piizes of i6',666'66 francs each were awatded, and further a premium
of 12,006 francs to a fourth manufacturer who had prepared 4,500 kg.
The greatest apprehensions were entertained as to this national industry
when in 18 14,' 'owing to Napoleon's downfall and the revocation of the " Con-
tinental System," cane su'gar was freely imported again, and owing to its
low price de'alt a deadly blow to the manufacture of grape sugar.'
■ Although people expected great things of the grape sugar industry, their
feeling towards beetroot sugar piroduction had now greatlj' changed. The pri-
mary dislike for this' industry was latgely due to the influence of Parmentier,
who advocated the cause of sugar manufacture from grapes ; but the enterprise
and the never-ceasing activity of those in favour of^ the beetroot sugar in-
dustry led ultimately to Napoleon cohtribtiting generously towards the
manufacture of sugar from this plant: Thus in 1811 Napoleon ordeired 32,000
hectares to be planted with beetroot — to be equally distributed over the
several provinces^ — four schools were to be founded in which sugar manufacture
was to be taught, while on January ist, 1813, all further importation from
the East and West Indies was prohibited.
In 1812 the number of sugar schools was increased to five, the pupils
of which obtained scholarships, and the area devoted to beets amounted to
100,000 hectares; Further, 500 licences for the manufacture of beetroot sugar
were granted in France— that is, at least one in each department. Each
licensee was obliged to erect a factory, which was supposed to yield at least
10,000 kg. of sugar in the campaign of 1812-13, and in case one of them was
to improve the manufacture or increase its output the licence was extended,
on condition that no duty or excise should be raised on its produce during the
time of the licence. Finally, the decree also contained restrictions as regards
the foundation of four Imperial factories, which were to deliver up 2,000,000 kg.
of sugar in 1812-13, and of a small factory on the Crown land, Rambouillet,
with a capacity of 20,000 kg. of sugar.
In consequence of this decree no fewer than 338 licences were taken out
in 1812, four of which fell through, so that in the campaign 1812-13 334 sugar
factories must have been working on French soil, which, according to a report
by the Minister of the Interior, turned out 7,000,000 lbs. of sugar. The largest
among the factories was that of Crespel-Dellisse; founded at Lille in 1810,
where Spanish prisoners of war were employed as labourers. Many of them
had been used to working in the colonies, where they had come into contact
with the sugar industry, so that their knowledge and experience stood the
French enterprise in good stead.
In Austria, too, some factories were built in the nineteenth century,
which, because of the high price of sugar, yielded large piofits during the time
of the " Continental System."
Consequently, a promising beetroot sugar industry, soon capable of
supplying the wants of Europe, sprang up in 1813 all over Germany, France,
16
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
and Austria. But in 1814, when Napoleon had to abdicate, the " Continental
System " was abolished, and colonial sugar was admitted again into Continental
harbours. On account of this, the price of sugar feU so rapidly that it was
impossible for the new beet sugar industry to compete with cane sugar ; hence,
nearly all the factories which had just been opened were closed again.
However, an industry which had experienced such a rapid rise, thanks
to the patronage and support of Frederick Wilhelm of Prussia and the Emperor
Napoleon, and which had developed through the industry and devotion of
the entire population, was not destined to go to ruin just because of the great
change produced by Napoleon's fall. On the contrary, it was realized that
although the majority of the factories could riot possibly have obtained good
results, there were others where the manufacture of beetroot could be turned
into profit, even where American sugar had free access. Acting up to
Napoleon's commands, beetroots had been planted all over the country,
machinery had been erected in great haste, and work had been begun without
the slightest knowledge or experience being obtained, and attempts had even
been made to manufacture sugar from roots which had gone bad. This, of
course, led to the factories producing either no sugar, or such a bad type that
the enterprise resulted in a financial failure, and from 1814 onwards people were
generally disposed to distrust the beetroot sugar industry. However, Chaptal,
the Director-General of Commerce and Industry in France, kept drawing
the Prefect's attention to the beetroot sugar industry, while the chemist De
Dombasle of Nancy, published a paper in which he gave definite instructions for
the rational manufacture of beetroot sugar. In 1815 there were still about a
hundred sugar factories in France, and the average yearly output of beetroot
sugar amounted to 1,000 tons during the years 1816 — 1821. This industry
derived great profit from the fact that the importation of sugar from abroad
was heavily taxed, while the inland sugar was free from duty. In 1821, 49-5
francs duty was placed on every 100 kg. raw sugar from the French colonies,
and 70 francs on white sugar — while sugar from other parts was taxed 90
francs, which amount increased to 125 francs in i8ig. Later on the surtax
was increased on foreign sugar, while an extra duty was paid on sugar imported
in foreign ships. As in spite of these differential duties, the French still
complained, the refining of French colonial sugar intended for export was
made possible by a drawback of 120 francs per 100 kg. (restitution of duty)
being given on refined sugar when exported. Since this, however, was also
the case with exported home-grown sugar, on which no duty had been
paid, the State paid an export premium of 120 francs per 100 kg. beet
sugar. One can imagine that on account of this fiscal arrangement it
was not long before new sugar factories sprang up and old ones were
extended ; and that by 1836 about one-third of the sugar refined in France
was beetroot sugar. But the payment of the premium was a great
loss to the Exchequer, and that was why, in 1840, the French Government
proposed to buy up all the existing beetroot sugar factories for the sum of
17 B
General History of the Cane Sugar In,dustr.y.
40,000,000 francs, and to tax the, inland sugar at the samcTate as the cojoijial
sugar. This plan fell through, and, instead, beetroot sugar and cane sugar
were equalized in 1843. This was most detrimental to the home industry,
and von Lippmann tells us in his G^schichie des Zuckers ihst if it had not been
for the cane sugar- industry suffering severely on account of the abolition of
slavery, the beetroot sugar industry might have been utterly ruined by this
measure.
After 1836 the sugar industry in Germany made great progress ; the
Germans succeeded in getting more sugar out of the beet, consequently the
production became more and more profitable. The following table shows
the steady progress of the production : —
Year.
No. of
Factories.
Production.
In quintals
of 50 kg. In
tons.
Yield on
100 beetroot.
1836/37
122
28,162
1.383
5-51
1837/38
156
153.552
7.540
5-51
1840/41
145
284,102
13.951
5-88
1841/42
135
314.817
15.459
6-13
1844/45
, 98
259,360
12,736
6-67
1846/47
107
402,518
19,881
7-14
1848/49
145
717.154
35.217
. 7-27
1850/51
184
1,066,979
52.396
7-25
In Austria the beetroot sugar industry was again taken up in 1831 ; there
were a great many factories in existence by 1840, while in 1854 the amount
of sugar prepared in the country itself was equal to that imported from abroad ;
hence, towards the latter half of the nineteenth century — that is about fifty
years after the beetroot sugar industry had been introduced — it had been
generally adopted in Europe, and was likely to become a formidable rival to
the colonial cane sugar industry.
During the first decades following the revocation of the " Continental
System," this competition was hardly noticeable. The sugar consumption
in "Europe increased so rapidly that the beet sugar produced in European
countries did not supply the increased demand, and in spite of its home produc-
tion, rather more than less cane sugar was being imported into Europe. But the
cane sugar industry was not restricted to the same place during the first part of
the nineteenth century, and America practically lost the monopoly of the
sugar importation into Europe, which had been hers during the eighteenth
century.
This was partly due to J:he aboHtion of slavery in most of the European
18
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
colonies, and partly to the development of the cane sugar industry in other
non-American countries, such as British India, Java, etc. Indeed, the first
of these two causes had an exceptionally great influence on the cane sugar
industry in the majority of cases,, and brought some of them to the verge of
utter ruin. The sugar industry was so dependent upon slavery that the
abolition of the latter jeopardized its existence, and it was not till some twenty
or thirty years later that it became accustomed to the new state of affairs.
Unfortunately, this transition period coincided with an aitiiicial and con-
tinuous extension of the new beet sugar industry, which, supported by bounties
and privileges, tried to supplant cane sugar everywhere ; consequently, the
second half of the nineteenth century, especially the last fifteen years, was
most unprofitable for the cane sugar producers.
The long-planned abolition of slavery became in the period 1825 — 1850
a settled fact in most of the colonies under European government, while the
other colonies and republics set their negroes at liberty, either at that time or
else a little later on.
In 1776 the first motion for the abolition of slaves was submitted to the
British Parliament, and in 1787 a society for the suppression of slavery
Was founded in England, of which Wilberforce and Clai-kson were the ruhng
spirits. The agitation against slavery was ever after persevered in, the result
being that in 1807 a bill introduced by Lord Grenville was passed, pro-
hibiting all further slave-trading in British territory. Those, however, who
were slaves at that time remained so. On August i, 1834, the entire system
of slavery in the British colonies and possessions was abolished ; the owners
of the liberated slaves received an indemnification of ;^20,ooo,ooo, while,
as a measure of transition, it was resolved that the quondam slaves should
become apprentices of their former owners up till 1838 — and up till 1840
in the case of agriculturists ; and that the slaves should not be free to go
where they chose till after that time. The sum of £20,000,000 was divided
among the West, Indian colonies, the Cape, and Mauritius — the first-mentioned
receiving £16,500,000 sterling, while Mauritius and the Cape came in for the
remainder.
Although the indemnification was much appreciated, it could not buy
back the labourers so necessary for the sugar industry. The liberated slaves,
in many cases, refused to work, and in many of the islands they left the planta-
tions in great numbers, in consequence of whicfx the necessary work could not
be done, and the production of the British colonies in the We^t Indies dropped
considerably, their sugar exportation decreasing from 17,000 tons to 8,000,
On the other hand, the production of the other West Indian islands where
slavery was still in full force increased, and in order to grant the British colonies
some compensation a special import duty was placed on sugar produced in
countries where slaves were still kept. But in 1846 this difference in prices
was much reduced, to be entirely done away with in 1848, from which time
19 1:
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
onwards sugar was admitted to England on the same terms, whether imported
from colonies where slaves were still at work, or from those where the work
was done by other labourers.
Slavery was abolished in the French colonies in 1848, at the time of the
Second Republic ; in the Dutch West Indian colonies in 1863 ; in Porto
Rico in 1873 ; in St. Thomas in 1876 ; while in Cuba not until 1880. The
different states of the American continent likewise eventually abolished slavery,
this leading to a turning point in the sugar production of these countries.
Since slavery had n^ver been of much consequence, either in Asia or Australia,
the sugar production there gradually developed and filled the gap caused by
a decrease in American production.
Though there was a decrease in the number of labourers, the cane sugar
industry did not all at once dwindle. Fields once planted with the cane sugar,
as a rule yield year after year crops which only gradually diminish in quantity.
At the time of the abolition the fields had been planted and cared for,
while the roads and dykes were in a sound condition, so that during the follow-
ing years nothing needed to be done but harvesting the crop. Later on,
however, some necessary steps were omitted, -old exhausted plots which were
ready for ploughing-up, and which ought to have been planted anew, were
kept in constant cultivation for want of labourers, and consequently yielded
poor harvests. The roads, reservoirs and dykes gradually got into a bad state,
through not being kept in repair, while both cultivation and manufacture
were little improved.
Attempts were certainly made to supply the want of labour by the impor-
tation of indentured coolies fronv other parts, for which Chinese, free negroes
and British Indians were chosen ; but in most cases the supply was too expensive
and of too little avail to fill up so great a deficit of labour. Even in colonies
such as Demerara and Trinidad, where the immigration of British Indians
has given comparatively the best results, the amount of available labour is
not sufficient to do the same amount of excavation and dyke building which,
in the times of slavery, had been done with much more primitive implements
than those that are now at our disposal.
The same fact was noticeable all over America and in the African islands.
Both the British West Indian islands, as well as Surinam, Demerara, Cuba,
Brazil, Louisiana, Peru, Mauritius, Reunion, etc., suffered from lack of labour
and before one had got used to this new state of affairs, and had learned how
to do the work with a limited labour supply, the cane .sugar industry in ihe
emancipated countries had an anxious time of it. In some countries they
imported labour ; in others they either divided up the plantations into smaller
plots, which lower class planters had to work, or sold the plantations piece-
meal ; in short, all sorts of means were tried, but during this time of difficulty
the cane sugar industry could not properly develop, and was left far behind
20
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
by its reviving competitor, the beet sugar industry, as is shown by the following
table of the world's sugar production from 1852 to 1903* : —
Tons.
Tons.
Tons.
1852/53
202,810
1,260,404
(^ 1,463,214";^
86-0
1859/60
451.584
1,340,980
1,792,564
74-3
1864/65,
529,793
1,446,934
1,996,727
73-5
1869/70
846,422
1.740,793
2,586,915
67-3
1874/75
1,302,999
1,903,222
3,206,221
59-4
1880/81
1,820,734
2,027,052
3.847.786
1 52-7
1883/84
2,485,300
2,210,000
4,695,300
47-0
1884/85
2,679,400
2,225,000
4,904,400
45-4
1885/86
2,172,200
2,300,000
4,472,200
51-4
1886/87
2,686,700
i!, 400, 000
5,086,700
47-1
:887/88
2,367,200
2,541,000
4,908,200
51-7
1888/89
3-555.900
2,359,000
(:;;^,9I4,900 ,
40'0
1889/90
3.536,700
2,138,000
5,674,700
37-7
1890/91
3,679,800
2,597,000
6,276,800
41-2
1891/92
3,480,800
3,501,900
6,982,700
51-6
1892/93
3,380,700
3,040,500
6,421,200
47-3
1893/94
3.833.000
3,561,000
7,394.000
48-2
1894/95
4,725,800
3.531.400
8,257,200
42-7
1895/96
4,220,500
2,839,500
7,160,000
39-6
1896/97
4,801,500
2,841,900
7,643,400
372
1897/98
4,695,300
2,868,900
7,564,200
38-0
1898/99
4,689,600
2,995,400
7,785,000
38-5
1899/00
5,410,900
2,880,900
8,291,800
34-7
1900/01
5,943.700
3,646,000
9,589,700
38-0
1901/02
6,800,500
4,079,000
10,880,500
37-5
1902/03
5,208,700
4,163,900
9,372,600
44.4
fiut that the cane sugar industry was eclipsed by the more recent beet
sugar industry was not altogether due to the abolition of slaves, nor to want
of interest or enterprise among the owners ; other causes contributed to it,
which are of so much account in the history of the cane sugar industry during
the latter half of the nineteenth century and the first years of the twentieth,
that we shall deal with them more fully here.
When about 1830 the sugar industry in Germany began to revive after
its decline at Napoleon's fall, foreign sugar was much more heavily taxed
* Very varying figures as regards the total cane sugar harvest are repeatedly met with,
and these can only be explained by the fact that sometimes the total production of a country
is given and sometimes only its export. This is clearly shqwn by the fact that British
India, which produces over 2,000,000 tons of sugar does not appear on the older statistical
lists, while every beet sugar producing country is mentioned for its full production without
deducting what is used for its own consumption.
21
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
than inland produce, so that gradually inland sugar was exclusively used,
a nd the revenue from sugar duties became less and less. Since this loss was
made up for by an increase in the duty on home-grown_ sugar, colonial sugar
was no longer at such a great disadvantage. But the latter became scarce,
and the quantity of sug ar produce d at home so much exceeded the amotint
r equired for the German consumption that it became even possible to export
sugar. T he basis for the levying of the duty on beet sugar was a combination
of the weight of the roots, and their assumed rendiment of sugar, which latter
might have been exact at the outset, but which, through an improved system
of working in the factories, and especially through better raw material, gradually
produced a much lower figure than was really the case. So the amount of
sugar produced at the factories much exceeded the estimated quantity, and
as the excess of weight was exempt from duty, although it fetched the full
price plus excise when sold, the manufacturers enjoyed a considerable premium.
When exported to other countries the duty was returned, but it was calculated
according to the actual quantity exported, so that if a factory exported all
its sugar, a much greater amount of excise was returned than was originally
paid, in which case the premium would obviously have been paid by the
Exchequer. As long as the export from Germany remained insignificant,
this premium was of little consequence ; but the situation altered when, after
1875-6, the export rapidly increased, as may be judged from the following
table :—
Year.
Metric tons.
Exportation per cent,
on Production.
1875/76
56,121
—
1876/77
60,354
21-75
1877/78
96,778
25-60
1878/79
138,077
32-40 »
1879/80
134,486
32-85
1880/81
283,904
52-54
1881/82
314.410
■ 52.43
1882/83
472,551
56-58
1883/84
595>8i4
63-38
1884/85
673.727
59-99
Through this exportation, and the restitution of excise only partly paid,
the exporting manufacturers became the .richer, whereas the country got
less and less of the excise money. The import duties on sugar, which used
to amount to 12^ million marks in 1871-72-^and later on to 7 milhon — now
only brought in i^ milHon marks. The home consumption increased from
22
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
more than i200,ooo to about 400,000 metric tons. The duty on raw material
in 1871-72 realized 36 million marks, in 1872-73 almost 51 millions, in 1873^4
more than 56 millions, in 1884-85 as much as 166-4 millions. The restitution
of excise," on the other hand, increased still more, that is from 3| miUions during
the first years after 1870 to 96-3 and 128-5 milhons respectively during the
periods 1882-83 and 1884-85. The ' remainder of import duty and excise
which finally fell to th& Exchequer, after the drawbacks had been paid on
exportation amounted to the following figures : —
1881/82
58,456,658 marks
1882/83 ■ - • ■ ■
67,286,890 „
1883/84
47,788,316 „
1884/85
39,368,907 ,.
1885/86
24,500,000
1886/87
33,600,000 ,,
1887/88
14,670,000
It goes without saying that such a state of affairs could not last, and
that the Treasury could not possibly go on disbursing the amount of duty
on home consumed sugar almost entirely on drawbacks on exported goods, so
measures were taken to increase the excise, and to diminish the bonus on
export which led to a more favourable difference for the Exchequer, but left
the evil itself untouched.
In Austria-Hungary duty was levied according to the size of the diffusers
and the number of times they could be filled (not according to the number
of times they actually were filled) . In order to gain as nTucf^Augar as possible
above the " quota," the manufacturers tried their best to work with extremely
small diffusers at an enormous rate, so that, though there may have been a
little more sugar left in the slices, the profit on the untaxed sugar woyld be
more than sufficient to cover twice or several times this loss. When sugar
was exported the full amount of excise was returned, and that is why they
exported as much sugar as they possibly could, so that in 1875-76 there was
an excess of 135,556 florins paid as restitution of excise over and above the
total amount received by the State. So the exporters received more in the way
of a disguised export-bounty than the entire inland excise had amounted to.
This, of course, was only the case with exports, hence everything was
done to increase the amount. The surest way to attain that end was to lower
the price at which sugar was sold to foreign countries ; consequently, the
exporters did not pocket the premium in full, but gave part of it to foreign
buyers to secure their custom, that it might end in their retaining the bounty.
It was a good thing that just at this time of forced production and exporta-
tion the daily consumption of sugar increased considerably, both in England
and the United States, so that during the first years the surplus was entirely
23
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
disposed of ; this state of affairs, however, did not last long, and was upset
by the tremendous crisis of 1884-86, when the price fell to about half the
former amount.
France, during the second half of the nineteenth century, could boast
of a considerable sugar export trade, and although she had to have recourse
to foreign and colonial importation, which sugar was used as raw material
in the Paris refineries for the famous French loaves, a considerable surplus
for export was left, till, in the first years following 1880, .this surplus was super-
seded by a deficit, the import exceeding the export trade, and soon surpassing
the former surplys, Qwing to the slight difference between excise and import
duty (the surtax), it, became even possible to import, with profit, German
sugar into France.
In 1883-84 no less than 125,000 metric tons of sugar were imported from
abroad ; and their own produce and that from their colonies amounted to
474,000 and 76,000 tons respectively, while the sugar for their own consumption
amounted to only slightly over 400,000 tons ; but of the 125,000 tons of imported
sugar, 47,000 came from Germany and 15,000 from Austria, and it was especially
this invasion of German sugar, together with the sudden fall in price, that
stirred up the hostile feeling of the French, who had not got over their defeat
of 1870-71. All at once the surtax was increased to put an end to a further
influx of foreign sugar, but as this did not appease the French, nor give them
back their foimer export trade, disguised export bounties were resorted to.
As a basis of taxation a certain rendemeni of sugar out of the beetroot
was fixed, on which duty had to be paid ; the excess of product used to be
exempted from taxation, but eventually became lightly taxed, when the
Exchequer was too pressed to dispense with it.
The fixed quantity of sugar to be obtained from beetroot, which formed
the basis, was repeatfedly raised as circumstances required it, and the excess
was at one time exempted from duty and then again lightly taxed, which
regulation for a long time formed the standard according to which the French
sugar was taxed. It goes without saying that owing to an improved system
of manufacture in the factories and a better condition of raw material, the
excess product was very often a considerable one, so that a handsome premium
was allotted to the manufacturers, which gradually increased as more work
was done and a better product turned out. This, of course, resulted in an
unprecedented extension of the sugar industry, and also in the long-desired
return of a sugar exportation trade. Urged on by these examples, each
European beet sugar producing country drew up its legislation in such a manner
that open and disguised bounties on sugar exported were allotted, and it
was in their own interests that producers tried their very best to send as much
sugar as possible to foreign markets, in order to secure the export premium.
Consequently, the sugar production was unnaturally stimulated, so that the
price of sugar fell at the end of 1883, much to the detriment of all countries
concerned.
24
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
This lowering of prices, on the whole, affected the cane sugar industry
much more than that of beet sugar, because the latter was more in touch
with the interests of the European market, and the parties concerned in all
European countries knew how to obtain the support of their governments,
whereas those interested in the colonial industry hardly had a say in the matter.
The respective European governments were rather anxious to get rid
of these once approved bounties, and when, in 1886, Lord Salisbury convened
a meeting in London, in order to agree to a general abrogation of the bounties,
which would have been most beneficial to the colonial sugar industry, the
realization of this prospect seemid a not unlikely contingency.
While the smaller countries, as well as Austria and Germany, agreed 'to
the gradual abolition of bounties, France, on the contrary, having just adopted
as basis for its taxation scheme the Meline system — which was based on the
exemption of excedents — was opposed to this plan. For the rest, the British
consumers were greatly pleased with the existing state of affairs, and did not
think it wise to interfere for the sake of their colonies. Great Biitain, which
was not a sugar-producing country though a great consumer of sugar, was
doubtless the very best market for sugar exported by the principal producing
countries ; and, being compelled to dispose of their produce abroad, the
exporters offered their goods to the British market even below cost price,
just for the sake of the bounties held out to them. Owing to the rivalry among
the continental producers, the British consumers, especially the preserve manu-
facturers who were in the habit of using enormous quantities of sugar, got
as much sugar as they wanted at a price at which it was impossible for them
to produce it themselves. One can imagine that they wished this advantageous,
though abnormal, condition to continue, and that they did not approve of
measures put forward by their own Government to put an end to the system
for the sake of the West Indian colonists. Both through their own opposition
and through that of France, the London Conference resulted in nothing, and
things remained as they were, in spite of an unnatural production and many
defects.
To put an end to the fact that the return of the excise swallowed up a
substantial part, if not the whole, of the revenue and left little or nothing
for the Exchequer, a duty was levied on sugar consumed in Germany from
which the sugar for export was exempted, so that there was no need to give
restitution ; at the same time finished product instead of raw material was
being taxed.
This kind of excise was something one could rely upon, and amounted
to 40 or 50 million marks for the whole empire, a small sum considering the
enormous consumption. The amount of excise levied, however, on raw material
was absorbed by the excise restitution on exports, which, because of the new
system rather increased, the country itself thus deriving little benefit from the
several kinds of taxation.
In 1890 the German Government made up its mind to strip the sugar
25
General History of the Carte Sugar Industry.
industry of all its privileges, in order to swell the Exchequer with 'the full
amount of taxation. A new law was adopted, and it was resolved that from
1895 all bounties should be stopped, but a fixed export bounty in money
should be allotted by way of transition, as had been done in Austria, when
some time ago they had adopted the finished product instead of the raw material
as basis for taxation.' In 1891 a law was brought into foirce according to which
a direct export bounty was granted, amounting to 1-25 marks per loq kg.
of raw and refined sugar up to 98° polarization, arid to 2 marks per 100 kg.
of sugar of at least 99!°. In 1895 these bounties were to be reduced, to
be entirely done away with in 1897, so that by that time all export bounties
on sugar were to be a thing of the past.
Unfortunately, at this very time a griculture we nt through a crisis, in
consequence of large supplies of American cereals being e xported at such a low
price that European competition was killed for the time being. It became
necessary to find a substitute for corn, and as beetr oot was th e very thing
to take its pl ace, the lowering of corn prices necessarily led to a further exten-
"■ sion of the beet sugar cultivation. This in its turn was followed by an unpre-
cedented fall in sugar prices, compared with which that of 1884 was a mere
trifle^
In these circumstances the German Government could not possibly pass
any rrieasure to lower, much less to abolish, the bounties, all the more as none
of the other countries seemed inclined to follow their exainple ; this latter
attitude may be looked upon as a sure sign that a decrease in German exporta-
tion would mean an extension of the export trade of other countries, without
leading to any improvement generally. At the' request of the farmers, the
proposed restriction in output of 1895 was deferred, and through the so-called
" Antrag Paasche " it was doubled, so that the export bounty was raised to
2-50 marks per 100 kg. for raw sugar and 3-55 marks per 100 kg. for refined
sugar. This heavy bounty, called a " Kampfpramie," Was meant to favour
the export gugar still more, and consequently to compete with that of other
countries in the hopes of leaving Germany finally in full possession of the
trade. It was also meant to send up the cost so considerably that it would
become impossible for any country to go one better, and in this way they
would be obliged by co-operation to abolish bounties altogether. The result
was quite different from what was expected, for instead of forcing them to
give in, the raising of the German bounties induced their rivals to follow their
example, and raise their own bounties by a similar amount ; so that eight
months after the German law was enacted nothing had been gained, only
a greater amount of inoney was withheld from the Exchequer of the producing
countries, to be bestowed on foreign consumers, or even on the Exchequers
of foreign countries.
In 1897 the United States raised, besides a fixed duty, an extra tax on
sugar ; this extra taxation was aimed at the bounty System, and corresponded
with the bounties in amount, all the moriey derived from bounties allotted
26
General' History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
by the governments of the several European countries thus going to swell
the Treasury of the United States, an example which British India imitdted
some two years later.
The Austrian and Germari producers, apart from the profit ma.de by
the export bounties, which was greatly reduced by the low price sugar fetched
in the world's markets, enjoyed an extra profit by the introduction of the
so-called " Cartel " (or " Kartell "), in imitation of the Russian Normirovka.
The Russian Government fixes the quantity' of sugar required every
year for inland consumption, which quantity may be sold by the manufacturers
as their contingent. Next, the amount of sugar to be kept in reserve, and
to be sold when the price exceeds the amount stipulated by the Government
Committee (that is 4-30 roubles per pood in winter, or 4-45 roubles in summer)
is fixed. If the production exceeds the quantities destined for home con-
sumption and reserve, sugar may be exported, in which case the exporter
gets the duty at the rate of 175 roubles per pood returned, or is allowed to
sell the remainder in his own country ; but the duty in this case is doubled,
and consequently amounts to 3-5d roubles per pood. If it comes to this,
exportation becomes much more profitable, and as the fixed price is rather
high for the interior, one can easily afford to lose on the export and sell sugar
more cheaply, without running the risk of loss. There is another inducement
for the manufacturers to produce much sugar, namely, the stipulation that
the contingent in the profitable inland sugar market shall increase as the
total produce of the factory becomes more, for which reason also a large
production yields a greater profit. All th ese are reasons for providing the
foreign markets with cheaper sugar, at the expense of the home consumer ,
t hough the manufacturer profits by it. Perhaps this was simply done for
the purpose of keeping the sugar prices at hoine at one level, and of enabling
the producers to supply the home market without being dependent on inter-
national suppUes, and not for the purpose of extending the sugar exportation.
It, however, had that result ; and an import duty of 3 roubles gold per pood
(which put an end to the importation of foreign sugar, and made abnormally
high prices at home possible) greatly contributed to this.
All this system was brought about in Russia by government interference,
whereas in Germany and Austria the co-operation of manufacturers achieved
the same results. As early as 1890 the Austrian refiners had formed a Con-
federation or Cartel, in order to exploit the high surtaxes, by bringing for
the time being the production of refined sugar in line with the consumption.
Later on the contingent of sugar to be taken to the home market was fixed
for every refinery belonging to the Cartel. But owing to the lowering of
prices, and the promotion of other competing refineries, the temptation to
sell more than was stipulated proved to be too much for them, so that in 1894
the first Cartel was dissolved.
In 1898 a new association consisting of manufacturers and refiners was
founded, their principal stipulation being that the raw sugar manufacturers
27
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
were only to sell their product to refiners who belonged to the Cajtel ; that
as regards their contingent in the home sugar trade they were not allowed to
sell white sugar, while as regards the sale of the remainder to markets abroad,
they could please themselves. The supply of refined sugar for the home market
was contingented amongst the refiners, in return for which privilege they
had to allow a fixed price of 30 kronen per 100 kg. of raw sugar, the market price
of which was paid by the buyer and the difference by the Cartel, which ob-
tained the funds by simply raising the price of white sugar at home. Should the
Cartel be the only, seller, and the importation of foreign sugar become impossible
on account of the high surtax (the difference between taxes levied on imported
and inland sugar), the consumers would have to approve of these prices, and
pay- them as. long as the difference between the world's price and the price ,
fixed by the Cartel was lower than the surtax^
This profit was turned into a fund, through which the parties concerned
who had not yet acceded were brought into line, either by a temporary lowering
of prices when a factory was about to produce white sugar, or by buying up
shares in the recalcitrant enterprises. The remainder was used for paying
the difference between the market price (with 22 kronen as minimum) and
30 kronen, while what was then left fell to the refiners as Cartel profit.
The share in the profit for the raw sugar manufacturers amounted to : —
16,200,000 kronen in 1897/98
15,100,000 ,, ,, 1898/99
15.700,000 ,, ,, 1899/1900
20,600,000 ,, „ 1900/01
The Cartel profit for raw sugar manufacturers and refiners, is calculated
per 100 kg. refined sugar, which is taken to equal no kg. raw sugar, as follows : —
Price of refined sugar for the interior per 100 kg. . . . . kr. 85-00
Raw sugar no kg. at kronen 22 . . . kr. 24-2
Refining cost and profit . . . . . -, 7'56
Excise . . . . . . . . ,, 38-00
„ 69-76
Nett profit of Cartel . . . . . . . . kr. 15-24
With a market price of 22 kronen so much is added that the
fixed price of kronen 30 is arrived at ; consequently no kg.
at kronen 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,, 8-So
Leaving a nett Cartel profit for the refiners of . . . . . kr. 6-44
Whenever the raw sugar manufacturers receive 8-8o kronen, the refiner's
share in the entire Cartel profit amounts to 6-44 kronen, from which, of course,
the expenses, sometimes rather high, are not deducted.
28
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
Chiefly in imitation of Austria, Germany also founded a Cartel, which
fixed 1275 marks as minimum fixed price per 50 kg. : that is, exactly the same
as in Austria. The Cartel again pays to the raw sugar manufacturers the
difference between the market price and the fixed price, together with the
10 per cent, extra for the reduction of raw sugar to its equivalent of refined
sugar, like as in Austria no parts of raw sugar = 100 parts of refined.
If, for instance, the price of raw sugar in Magdeburg is io-6o marks per
50 kg., the Cartel pays to the combined raw sugar factories for each 50 kg.
sugar leaving the refineries : 1275 — io-6o=2-i54-io per cent == 2-36 ; this
has to be divided among the raw sugar factories according to their contingent.
Suppose that price should continue for a year, and the consumption amount
to 13,500,000 quintals of 50 kg., then the sum to be divided among the com-
bined raw sugar manufacturers would be 31,927,500 marks ; and should the
entire production have come up to 37,000,000 quintals, the German raw sugar
manufacturers would receive — as Cartel profit — a premium of 85 pf. per
quintal of 50 kg. on their whole production as long as they did not exceed
their contingents.
The disguised as well as the open bounties absorbed each year such an
amount of money that every country suffered from them, and desired most
fervently to see them abolished. It is impossible to ouote the exact amount,
as in some cases a specially low railwav tariff or a conveyance by sub -^irliy.prl
steamers was considered as a bounty . This made the United States alter
the amount of the countervailing duties continually, so as to correspond with
that of the bounty. At first, for instance, the contingenting of Russia sugar
was not looked upon as a disguised premium in the United States, and, con-
sequently, no countervailing dutj' was levied on it, while the same sugar when
imported into British India, where such taxes were also levied, was taxed
extra at Rs. 3.11.0 per cwt., afterwards reduced to Rs. 2.7.4. per cwt. for
refined sugar. Later on, America started to tax Russian sugar heavily ; and
the following table shows how much was to be paid as additional duty on
European sugar when imported into the United States, according to the
decree of 12th December, 1898 : —
per lb.
refined
Austria-Hungary
0-252 cents
Denmark
0-136 ,,
France . .
0-978 ,,
Germany
0-270
The Netherlands
0-322
Russia . .
0-627 ,,
Raw sugar was meant when not otherwise specified. Although not all
the data were given which made alterations repeatedly necessary, this table
shows the amount at which bounties were fixed, and the heavy tax they levied
on the producing countries.
29
General History of the Cane Suga.i: Industry.
To receive a much-coveted article below cost price was very welcome
to the countries to which the sugar was destined, and it must seem strange
that the governments of these very countries should insist on putting an end
to that state of affairs, while, oil the other, hand, countries which spent most
on the bounties opposed the proposed change with all their might.
Let us, therefore, first see what happened in the countries to which sugar
wcis exported.
In the United States there had long been 'an endeavour to produce as,
much sugar as, would supply their own wants, and that is why nothing was
left undone to improve the beet sugar cultivation, and to obtain sugar from
sorghum and m£.ple, as well as cane. The maple sugar industry did not pro-
gress much, while people were greatly disappointed in sorghum cultivation.
In the south the cane sugar industry slightly increased, although its production^
of about 250,000 tons in 1900 did not greatly exceed that of 1890 — which
r.mount could not possibly supply their enormous wants. In 1875 a reciprocity
treaty with Hawaii was signed, in -vVhich exemption of import duty was mutually
granted, so that Hawaiian sugar could enter America free of taxation. The
duty on imported raw sugar was not high at that time, but was ultimately
abolished by the McKinley tariff, after having been repeatedly lowered. In
order to satisfy the manufacturers at home, a premium of 2 cents, per lb. was
promised on sugar manufactured in America ; but Hawaii, not belonging
to the United States, was out of it. This premium, however, soon appeared
to be too much for the Treasury, so that as early as 1894 the Wilson tariff
fixed the import duty at 40 per cent, of the value, with an extra duty of o.i
per cent, per lb. for bounty-fed sugar. The reinstitution of this duty had
a twofold result : first, it got rid of the payment of bounties ; secondly, it
secured a better revenue to the Treasury. As the prices fell considerably just
at that time, the revenue was not great, while a general lowering of the prices
of corn and cotton was to be feared ; this all led to a strong wish for the exten-
sion of their sugar cultivation.
The result was a general tendency in favour of the raising of the import
duty, which was expressed by the Dingley tariff of 1897, with its import duty
of 0-95 to 1-825 cents per lb. of raw sugar, and 1-95 cents per lb. of refined.
In spite of. all these duties, the Hawaiian sugar came in freely : first,
because of its reciprocal treaty ; and later on, after 1898, through the annexa-
tion of the Hawaiian Islands, in virtue of which all the privileges of the sugar
grown in the States were enjoyed. This was not the case with sugar from Cuba,
Porto Rico, and the Philippines, which counties had also come under the rule
of America, out were not treated in quite the same way as their own producers
as regards sugar importation. It was nothing new to see the Hawaiian Islands
so highly favoured ; this really dated from a time when the United States
produced little sugar herself, and thought an increased sugar importation
from these islands rather expedient for her own wants. After a struggle it
30
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry,
was deci ded to levy 15 per cent, of the value of the Dingley tariff on Porto
Rican sugar, but in igpi the importation from that island entered altogethe r
free of duty.
On Cuban sugar a reduction of 20 per cent, qi the import duty was allowed,
and on Philippine sugar a reduction of 25 per cent., so that the several parties
in America were satisfied.
The Dingley tariff was responsible for another new measure exclusively
directed against the European continent, which was to the effect that over and
above the fixed duty an additional duty would be raised on all bounty-fed
sugar, to an amount corresponding with that of the bounty ; hence, the bounty
allotted by any European government on the exportation of white sugar
to America was gladly accepted by the Customs of the United States, without
its having been of any use to the country which had issued the bounty,
That the bounties were not abolished till five years later shows the mutual
feelings of jealousy which existed between the European States.
The cane sugar industry likewise suffered during the struggle between
the beet sugar producing countries just mentioned. That it was not altogether
ruined is due to the fact that the producers could not think of any article that
was a little more profitable, so that they were obliged to stick to this kind
of siigar, however hard they were put to it to make ends meet.
The British West Indian Islands were the worst off of all, and their in-
habitants continually asked the mother-country for help and support.
When Joseph Chamberlain, in 1895, became Colonial Secretary, one of
his first acts was to appoint a Royal Commission on the West Indies, which,
in January, 1897, began its inquiries and published the results in a full report
the same year.
The facts elucidated were much more serious than had been expected.
Through their isolation the islands were marked out for sugar production
only, and as the price of sugar went down at such a rate that it could only
be produced at a loss, their condition became deplorable and ruin imminent.
The Commission proposed, firstly, to establish agriculture on a small scale
by letting out small plots of land to negroes and coolies, and so encourage
them to grow other crops than cane ; secondly, to improve the means of con-
veyance between the islands, and so lead to a better export trade in fruit to
New York and London ; and, finally, to borrow the necessary funds for the
foundation of central factories. The cost was estimated at a lump sum of
£90,000, besides a yearly sum of ;f 27,000 for ten years, and of £20,000 during,
the next five years.
This report of the Commission gave rise to much controversy, and
it was clearly not only sympathy with the population of a part of the empire
that counted in the matter. The West Indian Islands are close to North
America, and are, no doubt, favourably situated as regards trade facilities
with the States. As they are British colonies', their produce is so heavily
taxed on entering the States that competition is out of the question. No
31
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
wonder, then, that the West Indian planters have often wished to be American
citizens, that their distress might come to an end. The United States, if it
were so incUned, could easily persuade the British colonies to join the Union,
and that is partly what the British Government wished to prevent.
Consequently, Chamberlain declared himself wiUing to make any sacrifice,
and even to exceed the amount proposed by the Commission. In 1898 subsidies
were granted, which soon proved inadequate to bring about permanent changes
for the better, as the capitalists, warned by the bad reports as to a steady
decline in the islands, shrank from further risking their money, and the local
governments economized on what they could — all of which made matters'
worse.
British India, too, had come to its turning point. The sugar cultivation
in that country must be considered as a branch of native industry, and each
village produces a sufficient quantity of sugar to supply its own wants, which
sugar the Hindus and Mahommedans preferred to the cheaper imported brands,
because they thought the latter were prepared with the aid of animal blood, or
charcoal from oxen or pigs' bones, a product they were not allowed to use.
Refined sugar was comparatively little used in the huge Indian Empire ;
the few refineries which refined the jaggery or sugar imported from the neigh-
bouring countries, including the supplies of white sugar from Mauritius, were
aU they wished for. White sugar from Europe, however, was offered at such
low prices and of such good quality that the native confectioners and manu-
facturers of sweets and sorbets dropped their religious scruples, and, without
mentioning it to their customers, began to use more and more refined sugar,
often mixed with the ordinary home-made sugar for fear of being found out.
This, of course, led to a considerable importation of cheap refined sugar,
while most of the inland and Mauritius sugar did not find buyers, much to the
detriment of Indian refiners. Although the discontent of the big refiners could
not bring the Government to take measures on their behalf, the distress of
the inland producers finally induced the Government to act. These sold
their produce, on which money had been advanced, to the many sugar bakeries,
but as the latter had still sugar left over from the preceding harvest, they
preferred to use it up first, instead of advancing money again. The second-
rate agriculturist in India (who had gone through many a time of famine and
epidemic, and only a short time ago had survived the invention of artificial
indigo, and the discovery of huge sources of petroleum which had deprived
him of a considerable means of income derived from his indigo and oil-seed
plantations) could not possibly afford a further retrenchment, and' it was almost
certain that the payment of taxes would soon become an impossibility, and
thus affect the revenue of the State.
Besides this, the Mauritius planters complained of the invasion of Euro-
pean refined sugar into India. This unfortunate island had suffered much
32.
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
from great drought, hurricanes, pestilence and cattle-plague, and had hardly
known how to bear up under it. As Australia no longer bought their produce,
their sugar went chiefly to India, but this source of demand also was threatened
with extinction, in which case South Africa cquld be their only market.
Both in India and in Mauritius there was a great desire for levying counter-
vailing duties in the first-mentioned country, as was done in America. This
wish was soon complied with, thanks to Chamberlain's influence, so that at the
beginning of 1899 the resolution for enforcing these taxes was passed, and
immediately became law.
Yet the law did not answer the purpose, for much European refined sugar
was still imported, especially from Austria and Germany, as the producers
from these countries still made enough profit by their Cartels to bear the in-
creased taxation.
However, in 1903, a new special duty was levied on the two kinds of
sugar, a duty covering the actual Cartel profit, and quoted at Rs. 3.3.9 per
cwt. Austrian sugar, and at Rs. 2.13.9 per cwt. German sugar. This fresh
taxation, of course, prevented aU further importation of these kinds of sugar.
The increase of the German bounties in 1897 had not resulted exactly
as anticipated, viz., in making matters so much worse that the condition might
become unbearable to others. On the contrary, it had led to an ever-increasing
amount of sugar being exported and a regular swelling of foreign Exchequers,
without restricting them in any way as regards their exchange of other goods.
Much against their wish, however, the representatives had been obliged
to agree to a further increase in the bounties ; but every now and then they
expressed the wish to abolish the bounties by general agree^nent ; the respec-
tive governments had already the right to reduce them as soon as occasion
offered itself.
When they were busy increasing the bounties, the Austrian and German
Governments by mutual agreement sounded France as to the possibility
of an entire and simultaneous abolition of all the bounties. It was France's
wish only to do away with the direct bounties, leaving the indirect ones, which
lay in the untaxed excedent, untouched.
That the United States looked upon the indirect bounties as genuine
ones, and not as affairs of internal administration, is proved by the fact that
in Washington the German bounty was considered to be 2-40 marks, the
Austrian 2-47 kronen, and the French I0'82 francs. Should England, as had
been repeatedly suggested, adopt the levying of countervailing duties, France
would suffer from it, so that she was wise to give in, in case the com-
peting nations should make a start at taking their international agreements
seriously.
33 c
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
This proved to be so, when in 1898, at the invitation of the Belgian Govern-
ment, a conference was held in Brussels, where Germany, Austria, Belgium,
Great Britain, the Netherlands, France, Russia, Spain, and Sweden were
represented. France, however, had demanded that the inland excise affairs
should not be discussed, while the other countries set up as a taxation basis
the quantity of sugar actually produced, so that a disguised bounty like that
of the French could not possibly exist any longer. As regards this difference
in opinion, neither party could gain its own, and on June i, 1898, the Conference
was adjouraed, it being left with Belgium to summon the members again
as soon as the preliminary negotiations, which would take place under' Bel-
gium's mediation, had gone so far that unanimity would be possible.
As we mentioned before, in 1899 British India, strongly influenced by
the British Government, had levied countervailing duties, which were taken
all round as a hint of what the mother-country could do too, when conferences
were of no avail. It was not unexpected, as the government measures in
the West Indies had led to nothing, and also as the British Government, which
in its war in South Africa wanted the support of the colonies badly, would do
anything to please them. After much negotiation, another conference was
held in December, 1901, in Brussels, but things had changed in the meantime.
The German and the Austrian sugar Cartels had been much discussed,
and it had been proved that the high surtax enabled the Germans and
Austrians to jsret such high prices in their own market, even when the direct
bounties were abolished, that their overproduction became excessive, and
t heir large exports forced down prices in outside markets. Belgium and Great
Britain therefore insisted on a considerable decrease in the surtax to the extent
that, though foreign sugar might be kept ou t of the country, it woul d not leave
enough margin to make the formation of Cartels profitable. Austria and
Germany did not approve of this, and it looked as if the conference would
again prove abortive, when the British Government declared that should this
conference result in nothing, they would lay before Parliament a proposal
either to prohibit bounty-fed sugar altogether, or to take other me9,sures, and
they pointed out how in British India a measure had already been considered
to the effect that an extra duty on Gerjnan and Austrian sugar would be levied,
to an amount equal to that of the Cartel profit.
This declaration put an end to, all, opposition, and on 5th March, 1902,
the Convention was signed by the representatives of Germany, Austria, Bel-
gium, Spain, France, Great Britain, Italy, The Netherlands, .Sweden, and
Norway. The Convention, which may be found in .extenso in Appendix I,
was to the following effect : —
The countries agreeing to the Convention pledged their word to abolish
all direct or indirect bounties on the production or exportation of sugar from
the date of issue, and not to grant new ones during the term of the Convention.
34
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
Ihe sugar factories, refineries, and factories where molasses are separated out,
will be considered bonded warehouses, and be superintended by Custom-house
officers.
The maximum surtax or difference between import duty and excise is
to amount to 6 francs per loo kg. of refined sugar, and 5 50 francs per 100 kg.
of raw sugar. All sugar coming from countries where bounties are granted
on the production or exportation of sugar is to be specially taxed, the extra
duty to be not less than what the bounty amounts to. At the same time, any
country will have the right to prohibit the importation of such kind of sugar.
The countries joining the Convention pledged themselves to allow each other's
own colonial sugar to enter at the lowest import duty when premiums are
not granted. Spain, Italy, and Sweden might do as they liked as regards
their sugar legislature, as long as they do not export any sugar, but agree to
modify their laws within a year according to the spirit of the Convention,
as soon as the Permanent Committee can prove that they export sugar. The
Convention was enforced on the ist of September, 1903, and was to remain
in force for five years. Unless notice was given by one of the participants
within twelve months before the date of expiration, the Convention was im-
plicitly understood to be prolonged for another year.
Moreover, a Permanent Commission was appointed, whose duty it was
to see that none of the contracting countries granted bounties ; and, if granted
in other countries, to ascertain to what extent they were given in order to
fix the sura to be levied, as an extra import duty by the Convention countries.
These sums are now an4 then made known, and the most recent list of them
is to be found in Appendix II.
Thus, after a lengthy struggle, the die was cast, and the bounty system
abolished : and, strange to say, through the help of the country that durin g
the last years preceding the Convention had enjoyed exceptional profits.
simply ow ing t o the fact that the sugar- was sold in their market below cost
price. O ne .can easily imagine that the wholesale sugar consumers in England —
such as jam, biscuit and chocolate manufacturers — were not pleased with
this, change in affairs, and that at the following electioij the sugar policy of
the government was used as a weapon against them. In igo5 the Conservatives
were turned out of power, and as the Liberal Government enjoyed the support
of the opponents of the Convention, it was thought necessary to comply with
their wishes. On 6th June, 1907, the Foreign Secretary informed the Per-
manent Com mittee that he considered the r estriction of the sugar importation
i ncompatib le with his policy and with t he interests of the English consumers
and manu facturers, so that he could not continue taxing those kinds of sugar
he avily which were declared to be bounty-fed . As long as the other contract-
ing countries would not interfere with Great Britain's policy of not increasing
the duties on these bountied sugars. His Majesty's government would be pleased
35
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
to continue as a participant in the thus modified Convention ; but should they
in this case consider England as no longer belonging to the Convention, she
would be only too pleased to withdraw.
Although the Convention had ceased to answer its original purpose, the
contracting countries, which were joined by Peru, Switzerland, and Luxem-
burg, were so satisfied with its results that they did not wish to have them
put an end to by a possible dissolution, and that is why, on 28th August, 1907,
they agreed to prolonging the Convention for another five years, to begin on
iSt September, T908. Their conditions would remain the same, with the
one exception that Great Britain should be exempted from the obligation
laid down in Art. 4 of the Convention, namely, that an extra duty amounting
at least to the bounty money was to be levied on bounty-fed sugar when im-
ported into Convention countries.
Russia, too, joined the Convention in September, 1908, under the reser-
vation that she should not have to alter her fiscal legislature and her present
excise regulations, nor increase the profits to be gained by the sugar manu-
facturers from the way in which the selling price at home should be fixed.
On the other hand, Russia pledged herself not to export more than 1,000,000
tons during the next five years to countries other than Finland, Persia, and
the remaining neighbouring Asiatic countries which could be reached by
land ; this restriction was enforced on ist September, 1907.
The thus modified Convention was prolonged to September, 1913, by
agreement on the part of all the contracting countries, and on the 15th March,
igi2, was again extended till 31st August, 1918, on almost the same terms
as the 1908 Convention, the difference being that Russia was allowed to
export 1,650,000 tons in the, seven years between September ist, 1911, and
August 31st, 1918,
T he Convention put an end to all pre ssure on the part of the sugar manu-
factu r ers to export sugar at any price, a nd many a government availed itself
of the fact that an export bounty need no longer be levied to lower the inland
sugar excise ; Germany, France, and Belgium reduced theirs considerably,
i n consequence" of "which the coiTsum ptibn price went down at such a rate
"and so "much more stigar wa s used that the total amount of excise had soon
risen again to what it used to be, and in some cases actuaHjTsurpassed the
old figure. '^ ~ ""'
The increased home consumption, of course, reduced the desire for exporta-
tion, so that both the measures taken in the leading European sugar producing
countries, i.e., the enforcing of the Convention and the excise reduction, limited
the exportation of cheap sugar to the foreign and especially British markets.
This result was most favourable to the cane sugar industry, in the first
place because sugar was no longer being exported below its prime cost ; and,
secondly, because the whole trade had got on a firmer footing. During the
36
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
conflict among the European powers as regards the sugar exportation, one was ;
never sure of what measures were to be taken next to promote the exports '
of one country or other, and of their influence on the sugar prices. This was
the reason why people did not wish to risk their money and interests in the
cane sugar industry of those countries which did not enjoy bounties, nor to
sink money in ultra-radical improvements which might prove to be a failure
on account of the world's price having been lowered in the meantime.
But people were set at ease after the Convention had come into force,
and they were certain that the European powers had abolished all their bounty
systems, and did not entertain the slightest wish to re-introduce them. Every-
where factories were re-installed and new enterprises set on foot, so that from
ist September, 1903, a new period began for the cane sugar industry.
The hard times this industry has experienced have not been without
a beneficial result, inasmuch as the planters and owners had been taught
how to be prepared for a struggle.
Up to 1880 the cane sugar industry had been carried on in haphazard
style, both economically and technically. Most of the owners of the sugar
factories lived well up to the income accruing from their possessions, and
did not invest much money on improving conditions ; in fact, as a rule, they
were prone to spend all their income without thinking of a proper reserve
fund. Consequently, they were absolutely unprepared for the struggle for
existence when luck changed and hard times began for them. Much to their
credit, this condition did not continue long ; they tried their utmost to improve
the canes and the sugar production, and left no stone unturned to lower the
prime cost of sugar by a more economical and rational production. Java
was leading in this respect ; after 1884 new capital was largely invested in
sugar enterprises .and in founding and keeping up experimental stations ;
everything was done for the practical application of science to this industry.
Moreover, all those interested in this branch of industry tried with success
to place the sugar cultivation on a firm footing through strict and economical
management and cordial co-operation. They also succeeded in getting their
undertakings fully equipped with the newest and best machinery and means'
of conveyance to be had, while leaving an ample reserve fund for untoward
circumstances, that they niight be more equal to the occasion than they were
in 1884.
The results of the application of science in this industry have far surpassed
the greatest expectations, so that when the Brussels Convention was signed
Java had already reorganized the cane sugar industry to such an extent that
immediate profit was yielded, while the other cane sugar producing countries
had still to go through a transition period before they could enjoy the benefits
resulting from the abolition of bounties.
The example set by Java was universally followed, and now experiment
stations and testing grounds and laboratories, for the benefit of planters and
37
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
manufacturers, are to be found in every sugar producing Country ; and it
is a fact that the cane sugar industry of the present day knows far better
how to turn to account any given area than it used to do before the crisis.-
But this great improvement in the quantity of cane sugar produced is
also in part due to altered politics of certain countries and colonies.
During the last years of the nineteenth century the Spanish colonies,
Cuba, Porto Rico, and the Philippines, suffered greatly from internal troubles,
which caused the cane sugar production, of Cuba especially, to fall to an in-
credible small quantity, while the development of this industry in other less
harassed countries had practicall}' come to a standstill.
When in 1898 peace was signed in Paris, Spain lost almost all her colonies,
having to part with Porto Rico and the Philippines, which became possessions
of the United States ; Cuba was declared an independent state, but was glad
to sign a reciprocal treaty with the great Republic, according to which either
country allowed the other a rebate of 20 per Cent, on import duties. A short
t ime after the annexation Porto Rican sugar could enter the United States
exempt from import duties, which privilege was also practically granted to
t he Philippines in 1909, so that sugar from these countries w as h ighly favoured
and this, of course, told on the improvement of their sugar industry .,
In their war with China, the Japanese conquered Formosa, where, soon
after the annexation, they began to extend the cane sugar industry, so that
a modernized sugar cultivat ion sprang up in these parts.
As Formosa is a part of the Japanese Empire, her sugar when imported
into Japan pays no import duty, except the consumption duty, thus enjoying
a great advantage over foreign sugar, which is subject to both duties.
Australia, Natal, and the American republics tax foreign sugar heavily,
while on inland sugar a much smaller, if any, duty is paid ; this, of course,
has led to a considerable change as regards sugar protection in quite a short
time.
Before the Brussels Convention had come into existence, the much privi-
l edged and protected beetroot sugar industry towered over the suffering and, ,
unprotected cane sugar cultivation, on which full import duties had to be paid
when exported to foreign markets. Nowadays we see the reverse. With the_
e xception of Russia and the United States, hardly any beetroot sugar prod u cing
c oantry of importance subsidizes its home industry, whereas a great many
c ane sugar producing countries now support their industry by means of
differential import duties, surtaxes, and direct governmental assistance, as
w ill be shown in subsequent pages of this boo k. Owing to the above-mentioned
advantages the cane sugar industry, in its turn, predominates nowadays,
bu t it will not be able to oust the beetroot sugar manufacture, especially
as an evergrowing consum.ption draws on both kinds of sugar, and, conse qu ently,
gives both of them a chance to spread and flourish. To how great an exten t
38
General History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
both branches of the industry have developed since the Brussels Convention
can be seen from the following table (in which also a column is entered which
does not include the British Indian industry, and this for the sake of com-
parison with the table on Page 21, which likewise omits the Indian output).
It shows that neither industry is inferior to the other, a state of equilibrium ,
which is not likely to cease! ~
World's production of sugar in tons in \
Convention : —
years after the Brussels
Including British India.
Not including British India.
Per
Per
Cane
Beet
cent.
Cane
Beet
cent.
Year.
Totai.
Sugar.
Sugar.
Cane
Sugar
Total.
Sugar.
Sugar.
Cane
Sugar
1903/04 .
—
—
—
—
10,080,000
4,234.000
5,746,000
42-0
1904/05 .
12,022,000
7,144,000
4,878,000
59-4
9,654,000
4,776,000
4,878,000
49-5
1905/06 .
14,007,000
6,834,000
7,173,000
48-8
12,085,000
4,910,000
7.173,000
40-9
1906/07 .
^4,799.oC'0
7,691,000
7,108,000
52-0
12,349,000
5,241,000
7,108,000
42-4
1907/08 .
13,861,000
6,866,000
6,995,000
49-5
ii,/45,ooo
4,750,000
6,995,000
40-5
1908/09 .
14,582,000
7,654,000
6,928,000
52-4
12,709,000
5,781,000
6,928,000
45-8
IQ09/10 .
14,981,000
8,303,000
6, 588,000
55-7
12,766,000
6,177,000
6,589,000
48-3
1910/11 .
16,687,000
8,115,000
8,572,000
48-6
14,587,000
6,015,000
8,572,000
41-2
1911/12 .
15,449,000
8,648,010
6,801,000
56-0
13.349,000
6,548,000
6,801,000
49-0
(estimate)
Literature :
Em. Legier. Histoire des Origines de la Fabrication du Sucre en France.
Paasche. Zucherindustrie und Zuckerhandel der Welt.
Stein. Zuckererieugung und Verbrauch der Welt.
Max Schieppel. Zuckerproduction iind ZuCerprdmien.
The West India Committee Circular.
30
PART IT.
The Condition of the Cane Sugar Industry in the
different Countries of " Production.
Asia.
I.
BRITISH INDIA.
I. — Planted Area and Total Production.
It is a most difficult, nay, an almost impossible, task to collect exact data relat-
ing to the area planted with sugar cane in the British Indian Empire, and the
quantity of sugar obtained from it. First of all, this empire contains districts
where statistical accounts are very much neglected ; secondly, the sugar
cane cultivation is not under the management of large undertakings, but is
everywhere carried on on a very small scale, so that any exact estimation
of the area becomes an impossibility.
Moreover, the planted sugar cane is by no means destined to be used
exclusively for the preparation of sugar; a considerable portion of it is sold
for chewing purposes, while what is left is turned into sugar in a very primitive
way. Supposing the statistics of the planted area to be exact, it would not
give us a clear idea as to what portion is destined for sugar preparation, for
one never can know beforehand, or later on, how much of the cane grown
there is used for direct consumption, and how much is ground and made into
sugar.
We should not forget this when the figures of the cane-planted area in
British India are being considered, and when the results of some years differ
greatly from those of other years. This does not point in the least to a great
difference in planting, but rather to a difference in opinion between the indi-
vidual estimates.
43
Asia.
The cane sugar cultivation is chiefly carried on in the following provinces :
I, Bengal ; 2, Eastern Bengal and Assam ; 3, United Provinces of Agra and
Oudh ; 4, Punjab ; 5, the North-West Provinces ; 6, Madras ; 7, Bomba}'
and Sind ; 8, the Central Provinces and Berar ; 9, Burma ; and 10, the
Rajput States. From these the six first mentioned have furnished useful
statistical data for years, as for some time has Bombay, too ; while those
of the other parts are most deficient and unreliable. Fortunately, the per-
centage of the provinces which afford useful data amounts to a high figure in
the total area planted with cane for sugar manufacture, so that their ratio
between planted area and finished production may easily be taken as the
average for British India.
According to the average statistics derived from five years' observation,
1904-5 to 1909-10, the quantity of seven out of the ten provinces amounts to
no less than 98-5 per cent, of the total cane- planted area, and that of the first-
mentioned six [i.e., excluding Bombay and Sind) to 95-4 per cent., so that
the results of the rest are not likely to influence much the average figure.
Making allowance for the above-mentioned uncertainties, and arriving
at an average from unknown figures, we obtain the following figures for the
total cane-planted area in acres in British India : —
1890/91
2,758,000
1891/92
3,100,000
1892/93
2,798,000
1893/94
2,897,000
1894/95
2,764,000
1895/96
2,930,000
1896/97
2,651,000
1897/98
2,648,000
1898/99
2,755,000
1899/00
2,693,000
1900/01
2,599,000
1901/02
2,474,000
1902/03
2,358,000
1903/04
2,280,000
1904/05
2,244,000
1905/06
2,110,800
1906/07
2,366,000
1907/08
2,681,000
1908/09
2,219,700
1909/10
2,157,000
I9I0/II
2,164,000
I9II/I2
2,370,000
44
British India.
The area divided over the different provinces was, as far as could be
fixed, as follows : —
Central
Eastern
United
North-
Bom-
Pro-
Year.
Bengal.
Bengal
Provinces
Punjab.
west
Madras
bay
vinces
Bur-
and
of Agra
Pro-
and
ma.
Assam.
& Oudh.
vinces.
Sind.
Berar.
1902/03
659,700
42,044
1,151,929
320,258
26,478
59,903
56,471
24,814
16,272
1903/04
645,400
40,555
1,089,660
330,767
27,224
54,740
59,251
19,397
13,108
1904/05
638,000
44,869
1,212,729
333,231
26,000
64,369
59,n6
23,465
11,213
1905/06
421,600
201,500
1,220,716
172,700
26,003
60,700
58,882
—
12,710
1906/07
424,500
199,900
1,386,700
257,600
28,600
52,500
49,090
—
—
1907/08
436,200
171,000
1,481,700
391,800
35,200
49,000
74,300
—
—
1908/09
375,100
169,200
1,119,400
365,600
27,500
43,700
83,500
—
—
1909/10
351,600
170,700
1,037,600
411,700
30,600
43,200
81,600
—
—
1910/11
346,600
177,400
1,059,500
388,000
32,700
47,200
80,100
—
—
1 9 1 1 / 1 2
34J,6oo
179,300
1,340,600
292,100
31.500
60,000
87,400
As regards these figur^^s, we may make the following remarks : -
Bengal. The considerable decrease noticeable as regards the figures
of planting since 1905 is only apparent, and solely due to the dividing up of
Bengal into two parts, by which fourteen districts were attached to Assam.
That is why the cane-planted area of Bengal has lost about 200,000 acres,
while that of Assam and Eastern Bengal has gained by the same amount.
Agra and Oudh. Of these two provinces, the former is by far the more
important for the sugar cane cultivation, as in this province alone about
950,000 acres are planted with sugar cane. The United Provinces are respon-
sible for half of the total cane-planted area in British India, so that this territory
is surely the most important for cane cultivation. /
Punjab. In the year 1905-6 we notice a sudden decrease in the number
of acres planted with cane, which decrease we shall also find in the
sugar production. The source from which we derive these figures, " The
Agricultural Statistics," does not explain the point any further, but as the
figures for the following years revert to the original amount, this falling off
is either only apparent or only temporary ; we need, therefore, not consider
it any further.
Bombay and Sind. A sudden temporary decline is to be noticed here,
too, during one of the years. For the year 1905-6 we find for Bombay the
figures 56,333 acres, and for Sind 2,549 ; while both of them fall to 49,090
in 1906-7, to rise again soon after. Although the cane-planted area in this
province is not extensive, the sugar production is of considerable importance, as
much more sugar is yielded per acre on irrigated land than in other parts
of India.
Central Provinces and Berar. There are no reliable statistics to be had
45
Asia.
from these parts, but it is known that in 1904-5, 21,390 acres were planted
with cane in the Central Provinces, and 2,076 in Berar.
Burma. The cane cultivation is chiefly met with in Lower Burma. Here
in 1905-6, which was an average year, 10,439 acres were planted with cane,
while 2,281 acres represented the Upper Burma harvest.
Independent Inland States in Rajputana and Central India. The joijit
cane-planted area of the States of Mysore, Jaipur, Gwahor, Bikanir, Marwar,
Tonk, Alwar, Kishangarh, Bharatpur, Jhalawar, and Kotah amounted to
about 40,000 acres, out of which Gwalior planted some 5,221, Jaipur 645,
Bharatpur 459, Tonk 340, Kotah 320, and Alwar 220 acres ; while as to the
rest we have no specified lists.
The total sugar production of British India comes to figures that vary
greatly in the different statistics given, which is not to be wondered at if we
realize that the cultivation of sugar cane and the manufacture of sugar rests
for the greater part with very small owners, so that it becomes a kind of home
industry. The produce when prepared is chiefly used for local consumption,
and what is left is consumed in the country itself, so that any exact production
statistics are an impossibility. The best figures are provided by the six first-
mentioned provinces at the beginning of this chapter, yet we suspect them
to be too low.
According to these statistical accounts, 2,307,618 acres are said to have
yielded from 1898 — 1906 for these six provinces an average of 1,988,211 tons
of raw sugar (gur, jaggery, or evaporated cane juice), or less than 0-9 ton
per acre (2,250 kg. per hectare).
This does not tally with other lists, which on the whole give higher amounts.
According to different statements, the production amounts to the following : —
Provinces.
Maunds*
per acre.
Tons per acre. Kg. per Hectare
Bengal
g
■>
o
u
+*
"a
P
/Meerut
Benares
Rbhilkhaiul
- Allahabad
Oudh
Agra
Average . .
Central Provinces
Rajputana
Bombay . .
Madras
Burma — ^first quality soil
second ,,
36
35
34
2S
30
22
33
30—40
32
29
25
07
10
85
21
I-
I-
I-
I-
0-1
I-
0-7 2-2
I- [o — 1-47
3-1
2 2i
1-3
0'9
* Maund = 82 28 lbs. = 37-35 '.
46
3718—5024
3320
3244
3145
2671
2766
2136
3043
1767--5533
2766—3697
7796
3718 — 6290
3269
2263
British India.
These figures no doubt hold good for very successful plantations, and,
consequently, they are too, high for the average. For this reason the true
amount will be between the two.
According to the of&cial statistics, the sugar production of the six
provinces, to which that of Bombay is added later on, amounts to the following
in tons of raw sugar or giir : —
Eastern
United
North-
Bengal
Provinces
west
Year.
Bengal.
and
Assam
of Affra Punjab.
& Oudh.
Pro-
vinces.
Madras.
Bombay
Total.
1899/1904
1
average
492,300
—
957,800 230,400
23,200
95.500
—
1,799,200
1904/05 ..
444,900
189,800
1,184,40b 238,300
22,606
90,000
—
2,169,000
1905/06 . .
452,300
162,700
884,800
89,000
22,800
114,500
—
1,725.300
1906/07 . .
419,300
193,500
1,264,600
212,800
32,800
100,400
12,1,874
2,345/200
1907/08 . .
407,800
175,300
916,700
238,700
32,200
92,000
184,200
2,046,900
1908/09 . .
255,900
174,900
844,200
265,600
30,100
81,000
221,200
1,872,900
I $09/ 10 . .
309,400
198,800
955,200
334.000
33.100
81,800
213,000
2,125,300
1910/11 . .
367,700
195,800
1,042,900
262,660
35.700
87,100
226,000
2,217,800
1911/12 ...
393.400
215,200
1,259,300
176,600
31,900
110,700
203,300
2,390,400
(estimate)
If we suppose these statistics to stand for 98-5 per cent of the total
cane planted area (since Bombay is represented also), the total production
for the whole of British India would amount to about 2,400,000 tons of
raw sugar, which no doubt is too low. From other statistics we obtain
a figure of 3,411,000 tons, to which is added 543,000 tons of palm sugar, so
that the production in the parts spoken of must come to no less than 4,000,000
tons. How far more exact this very high figure is than the lesser one just
mentioned is difficult to say, but as all the sugar is used for home consumption
and, consequently, is of no importance for the world's trade, we do not think
it necessary to trouble ourselves about it further. Although we consider
the official figures too low, we shall adhere to them, in order not to quote
figures which differ from other statistics.
IL— Cane Cultivation.
(a) Tillage and Manuring.'
iTi is easy to imagine that in such an extensive territory as British India the
cultivation methods in the different parts of the country do not always corres-
pond, being based on the results of meteorological circumstances, the quantity
of water available, the condition of the soil, etc. On the whole, however,
there is a similarity that enables them to be condensed into a short survey.
47
Asia.
As a rule, cane is planted in India as an annual only, and ratoons are
seldom grown, while cane is planted again on the same soil after some years'
interval ; manuring is accomplished by means of stable dung, or garbage
from the towns, or with the crushed oil cakes left as a residue from producing
oil. The cane is planted from February to April, and is reaped from the
middle of January up till the beginning of April the following year. The
cuttings are sometimes taken from the middle of the stalk, and sometimes
from the top ; they are out with three eyes, and are soaked for some days
before they are planted.
Three different methods of cultivation exist : the first method consists
in leaving the soil fallow for a whole year after the spring harvest, beginning
the ploughing after the first spells of rain and continuing till the planting time
commences. The second method is mostly applied to soil irrigated by means
of canals, in which case the ground is left fallow during the winter time after
an autumn harvest ; then ploughing is begun directly after the harvest is
reaped, and is repeated sometimes as much as forty times ; then the soil is
levelled," the manure is spread, and the furrows are dug. In the third type
of cultivation the soil is ploughed after a spring harvest, and immediately
prepared for the reception of the cane cuttings.
Then, where irrigation is possible, the soil is thoroughly moistened during
the planting time, and constantly watered afterwards, till the plants have at-
tained to their full height ; the soil is kept loose, and the young plants are
banked up, while drainage is carried out in the rainy season. From July till
October dry leaves are wound round the cane stems in order to ward off
attacks from jackals, wild boars, and mice, and also as a shelter from the wind,
which at this time generally blows severely from the direction of the Gulf of
Bengal.
In January and February the harvest is begun, and lasts till the end
of March or the beginning of April. When no ratoons are kept, which is generally
the case, the cane is dug .out and loosened with a pull from the roots. Only
in the district of Poona is much ratoon to be met with, but even then only
first ratoons, while in the other parts ratooning is an exception. For the
ratooning the cane is cut off with a sharp knife and the stump covered with
leaves, which are burnt in April. After a month, when the young shoots have
budded, the soil between the old plants is loosened, the cane being treated as
ordinary plant cane. As the ratoon ripens sooner than the planted cane,
the next crushing season the ratoons are dealt with first, and then the new
planted cane is ground. The cane that is not kept for ratooning is dug out
altogether, and not cut off at harvest time.
In British India much irrigation is carried out with river water, as well
as with well water, which is led across the country in canals that get narrower
and narrower as they proceed. Soil where no irrigation is available is first
planted with cane, after it has lain tallow for a whole year, and been .ploughed
repeatedly during that time. In this case the planting is done during the
48
British India.
months of November, December, and January, and cow dung is used for
manuring in quantities of 50 to 200 maunds per acre {4,500 to 18,000 kg. per
hectare, or 4,100 to 16,400 lbs. per acre). As soon as the cane has grown
up, the soil is covered with leaves to prevent evaporation, and to supply the
want of irrigation water in the best possible way.
(b) Cane Varieties, Diseases and Pests.
According to the use to which cane is put, i.e., whether it is to be used
for direct consumption, or as raw material in sugar manufacture, a great
variety of canes exist in British India which can, however, be placed under
three different heads, namely, the Ukh, the Ganna, and the Paunda.
The Ukh cane species occur most frequently ; they are chiefly planted for the
manufacture of sugar, and used by the lower classes only for chewing. They
have a hard rind and a hard internal tissue, are thin and rather short. The
leaves are small and narrow, while the stalk is scantily provided, and this
only on a few of the lower joints, with aerial roots. A great many joints
are hollow when the cane is ripe, while the fibrovascular bundles extend all
through the hollow space. The buds lie hidden, and generally are little de-
veloped. Being hard, this kind of cane is little subject to diseases and the
attacks of parasitps and wild animals.
The Ganna- cane species are exclusively cultivated as an article for direct
consumption as a dainty, except in Meerut, Rbhilkhand, Gorakhpur, and Benares
Divisions, where they are also used for sugar manufacture. They are generally
taller and thicker than the Ukh kinds, and their leaves are longer and broader too.
The rind, as a rule, is hard, but the interior is soft, and there is no inner cavity.
Although this kind of cane is very juicy, it is not so rich in sugar as the first-
mentioned species, and the sugar prepared from it is not of the same quality.
As the Ganna cane species are so much softer, they are more subject to attacks
from animal pests than the Ukh sorts, and they are also more liable to infection
with Colletotrichum falcatum. That is why their planting has been consider-
ably reduced during the last twenty years, especially in the district of Meerut,
where both kinds of cane were planted simultaneously, and where it was
noticeable how much more capable the Ukh cane was of resisting attacks
from parasites and other enemies than the other kind.
The introduction into India of the Paunda cane species dates from more
recent times. They are almost exclusively planted for direct consumption,
and, as a rule, in the neighbourhood of large towns. These kinds of cane
require much care and heavy manuring in their cultivation, and therefore
they are not thought fit for profitable sugar production. The stalks are tall
and thick, and have a hard rind and a very soft internal tissue without any
cavities ; their leaves are long and broad, and the aerial roots all along the
stems are much developed.
49 D
Asia.
Seedling cane is not met with in British India, which cannot be wondered
at when we realize the primitive stage at which cane sugar cultivation stands
there.
To the list of animal enemies met with belong wild boars, jackals, mice,
white ants, borers [Diatraea sacoharalis , Chilo simplex, and Chilo auricilia,
Scirpophaga auriUua, and Scirpophaga excerptalis, as well as Nonagria uni-
formis), beetles and grasshoppers. The parasitic types of fungi which do
most harm in British India are Thielaviopsis aethaceticus (pineapple disease,
or black rot), Colletotrichum falcaium (red smut), Trichosphaeria sacchari
a very common parasite, Ustilago -sacchari (smut), Sphaeronoema adiposum,
and some kinds of Cercospora and Leptosphaeria, which cause diseases in the
leaves. Then there is a phanerogainic parasite, namely, the Striga lutea,
a kind of broom-rape which vegetates on the cane roots, and sometimes is
capable, of destroying an entire cane harvest. This parasite is so harmful
and so difficult to exterminate that the cane growers take good care not to
plant cane where the Striga occurs.
Finally, the climate is anything but reliable, and the spells of drought
are sometimes so long that the cane is the worse for it ; that is why the crop
of 1908-9 was a failure. The low cane soil suffers much from inundations
in the rainy season, while the sugar cane in the western districts of the United
Provinces experiences much harm from severe frost.
III. — Sugar Manufacture.
According to the most reliable sources, the art of preparing sugar from
cane came originally from India ; the plant itself had long been known,
and so had the use of its juice as a luxury ; but the art of evaporation to a
solid substance is an Indian invention of about the seventh century, and
was spread all over the then known world.
Among the Mohammedan authors there is a certain Ibn-i-Batuta, who,
travelling in different parts of India at the end of the thirteenth century,
mentions in his Safar-ndmah the cultivation of several kinds of cane, but
does not go into particulars. The author of the Makhzan-ul-Adviyya, who
is an authority on medicinal plants, and also lived at the time of the Moham-
medan period in the Indian history, divides the sugar cane into three kinds,
i.e., paunda, a white, and a red type of cane. According to him the best white
cane is found in Bardwan and Murshidabad, in Patna, Gorakhpur, and Oudh ;
and the best red cane in Rajmahal, Agra, etc. Further, a number of sorts
of cane sugar are given, which go by different names ; although many of
those names have been altered since, most of the undermentioned preparations
are still manufactured in exactly the same way as described by the ancient
author, which shows, first of all, to how high a degree the manufacture of
50
British India.
sugar rose in India already at so early a period ; and, further, it points to
the conservative spirit among the inhabitants of that country, who have
clung to old traditions and customs.
These sorts are distinguished as follows : —
1. Qand-i-siyah. The solid product obtained by evaporating cane juice
to dryness.
2. Shakar-i-ahmar or Shakar-i-tan. The product obtained by concentrating
the juice considerably longer than No. i, and by rubbing the cooled
dry substance to powder.
3. Shakar-i-safed. Sugar obtained by refining raw sugar.
Nahat-i-safed. The product obtained by purifying Shakah-i-safed with
milk or albumen.
Shakar-i-sulaimdni. Obtained by refining No. 4 more thoroughly.
Qand. Obtained by boiUng No. 5 in water, and crystallizing its syrup
out into conical moulds.
Ihluj or Qand-i-mukarrar . Obtained by a further solution of Qand,
and of re-crystallizing its syrup out in oblong moulds.
Nahat-i-sanjari. Obtained by refining Qand-i-mukarrar.
Shakar-i-tabarzad. Obtained by boiling Qand with a tenth of its weight
of milk till it becomes solid.
10. Fdniz or " drops." Obtained by dissolving product No. 3 {Shakar-i-safed)
with water and milk, and by skimming it off.
Although the modern way of preparing sugar is sometimes applied, the
original processes are much more adhered to, and, consequently, demand
a fuller description.
The simplest way of extracting cane juice is to put the cane, cut up into
pieces, into a kind of stone or wooden mortar, and to crush it with a pestle
driven by oxen, while the juice runs into an earthenware vessel put under an
opening in the mortar waU. In former times the mortar was made by sawing
through a rather big tamarind tree about 3 ft. above the ground, and excavating
its stump , but as the right sort of trees was not always to be found in the
right spot, cut logs were also used after they had been hollowed and buried
into the earth for sonje length. Later on, similar mortars were made of stone,
and were considered a most desirable possession, so that it was a long time
before they were supplanted by the iron-roller mills. The accompanying
illustrations show amply the way in which this kind of mill works.
The pestle is a two-armed lever,- whose point of support lies on the edge
of the mortar, so that the cane is crushed between the mortar wall and the
pestle. A couple of oxen are put on the yoke, and are driven round, while
the driver stands on the extremity of the yoke in order to increase the pressure,
or puts some stones on it instead. (Fig. i.)
The first improvement was the mill with two vertical wooden rollers,
the longer of the two having a frame at the top connected with a capstan to
51
Asia.
which the oxen are attached. Both the rollers are provided with grooves and
corresponding teeth, so that when one is put into motion the other is also
turned round. The cane staUcs are then placed between the turning cylinders,
and the juice is pressed out of them. In the end these again were superseded
by mills with two or. three iron cylinders and gear wheels, which are called
Behea mUls, after the place where they were first introduced.
These mills express much more juice from the cane than the older mortar
and pestle mills, but to show how far this kind is from perfection we may
as well quote a few figures from the work of Saiyid Muhammad Hadi, " The
Sugar Industry of the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh," which states
the returns obtained through these Behea mills.
Fig.
STONE MILL IN THE EASTERN DISTRICTS OF AGRA.
Species
of Cane.
Average percentage of juice
from cane expressed by a
District,
2 Cylinder Mill
used by the
Cultivator.
3 Cylinder
Behea Mill.
Fyzabad
Farukhabad
Unao . . ' . .
Sarauti
Chin
52-27
56-33
50-01
62-50
61 -06
58-11
The results of a great many experiments on several kinds of cane gave
figures varying between 50 and 60 per cent., so that these can be considered
the average for the quantity of juice to be obtained from cane in India.
British India.
From the cane juice a great variety of sugar is prepared which, however,
either belongs to the gur or the rab brands.
For the preparation of gur the juice flowing out of the mill is strained
first through a coarse sieve, in order to prevent the pieces of coarse fibre from
passing through, and later on is caught in an earthenware pot which is sunk
in the earth. As soon as this pot is filled the contents are scooped out by
means of cans and placed in a number of vessels, which are put by in readiness
beside a furnace. While the juice is setthng all sorts of dirty matter rise,
floating to the surface to be skimmed off. This is a very superficial way of
purifying, and does not amount to much considering the dirtiness of the vessels,
which are seldom or never cleaned, in which the juice has to stand for a con-
which there is loss
nace (Fig. 4), as a
sometimes only of
contrivance of one
sunk into the
tiles round it. The
a subterraneous ba-
the pan, some other
siderable time, in addition to
caused by inversion. The fur-
rule, consists of three pans, though
one single pan. It is a very simple
or more shallow iron dishes
ground with a wall of bricks and
evaporation is carried on through
gasse furnace, which keeps heating
fuel being
sometimes ad-
ded. In a
great many
cases the juice
is only puri-
fied by being
skimmed off.
The juice is
treated first
in the first
pan, and when
the scum be-
gins to float on the surface after having been boiled, the clean juice is
transferred to the third pan, being left thexC to concentrate, the process
being finished by means of the second pan. Generally some milk-of-lime,
Glauber's salt, crude soda ash, or some Hibiscus escuUntus root extract is
added as a purifying agent. A mixture of anchusa leaf extract, soda, and
alum is used to give it a better colouring. The scum, which as a result of
the purifying process floats on the top, is skimmed off with a spoon, and kept
in a basin to be used as food for animals, and sometimes even for poor people.
When the juice under concentration becomes yellowish-brown, it is con-
stantly stirred, and as soon as bubbling becomes active a little of the substance
is rolled between finger ana thumb to a ball in order to judge of its consistency.
When it remains moderately soft after cooling, the concentration is considered
53
Fig. 2. WOODEN mill from gor-^khpor.
Asia.
sufficient, and the boiling process is stopped. With some kinds of gur the
hot mass is scooped out into earthenware moulds where it is left to cool,
and turn hard ; with other kinds it is kneaded first with wooden pestles in
an earthenware dish, and then, after being sufficiently cooled to be touched,
kneaded into balls or flattened on a cloth-covered mat and cut into triangular
pieces. To prevent the hot mass from sticking to the hands, the latter are
first dusted with wood ashes. The sundry balls and pieces are put aside to
dry in baskets, and when dry they are fit for consumption.
When soft and well crystallized, gur is well suited for refining, buf when
solidified into a hard mass, it can be used for direct consumption only, while
extremely hard and burnt gur never goes through the refining process at all
In case the cane should have been fallen, unripe, or if its juice should
have stood for too long a time, the quantity of reducing sugar it contains is so
txsaii
Bfairw.^^7J^?~».»,^a^^.^^-~»^■^nr,^
Fig. 3. BEHE.\ IRON ROLLER MILL.
considerable that it never can be-
come a dry sugar, but remains
viscous.
For the preparation of rab
almost the same method is followed
as for preparing gur, except that
more care is taken about cleanliness,
the iron pans then amounting to five.
These are properly cleaned every
morning, and more attention is paid
to the skimming and purifying pro-
cess, while the clarified juice is
strained through cloth before it is
evaporated to dryness. The con-
centration is not conducted so far as in the preparation of gur, so that a
thinner product is struck into the cooling vessels.
To promote a better crystallization it is well stirred in the pots in which
it is scooped, and within a few days changes into a moist, rather soft sub-
stance, which is sold together with the pot in which it is crystallized, and
the latter has therefore to be broken into pieces in order to get at the contents.
As rab is a semi-liquid mixture it is difficult to convey, and, consequently,
its use is restricted to the immediate neighbourhood of the place where it
is prepared. Gur, however, being a hard, solid matter, is easily sent long
distances." Gur is used partly for direct consumption and partly for refining
purposes, while rab is almost exclusively employed for refining.
A very primitive and simple way of refining is achieved by packing the
rab in sacks and getting a man to keep trampling on them, whereupon the syrup,
called shira, runs out, and a moist, whitish sugar, putri, is left, which may be
further refined.
54
ilk
55
Asia.
Sacks of rab are sometimes piled up on a floor covered with mats and
provided with little holes ; the syrup, trickling out of the sacks, soon collects
into a little well in the floor, while the process of draining off the molasses from
the raw sugar is greatly helped by placing big pieces of baked earth on the top
of the bags. Only half of the quantity of rab is turned into puiri or shakar, -
while half of this again is lost when refined to chini, or white sugar.
With this treatment the drained rab is put into pots which have an opening
at the bottom, and are covered with a layer oi wet water-plants, Hydrilla
verticillata. The water it contains trickles over the sugar crystals and dissolves
the adhering syrup, which runs out through an opening at the bottom. After
four or five days the plants are taken away, and the light-brown sugar [fachni)
is scraped off the surface, when a fresh layer of plants is placed again on what
is left, which process is repeated till all the syrup has drained out. The sugar
obtained in this way is in this form used for several purposes, or left to dry in
the sun, and kneaded by human feet in order to give it a lighter colour.
This method, modified in many ways, is applied to both rab and gur, and
its result, as a rule, is a more or less purified sugar. The syrup that first drains
off is either used for sweetening food, or is distilled after fermentation, whUe
the sugar syrup which is obtained later on, and which is richer in sugar through
some sugar being dissolved in it, is evaporated to dryness, and worked up to
a second kind of rab. The pachani, or kacha, or kacha qand obtained through
this process is sometimes dissolved again, clarified with skimmed milk, skimmed
off and strained through blankets and worked up to white sugar [pucka chini)
loaves [qand], or candy [misri), so that the scheme is as follows : —
Cane juice
evaporated to dryness
evaporated to a semi-solid substance
(rab)
pressed in bags
clarified not clarified
{shakar) [gur)
semi-refined syrup
[putri] [shira)
treated with water-plants
pachani | syrup [shira]
kneaded in the sun
[kacha chini, kacha qand, shakar)
boiled with milk, boiled with boiled with
strained, concentrated milk, strained, milk,
to dryness. and crystallized to strained,
[pucka chini) [misri) candy. poured into
moulds [qand).
5(5
Runnings evaporated to sugar again.
[lal bhura).
British India.
Through the primitive draining off and covering methods, much sugar
is lost, and that is why the Assistant-Director of Land Records and Agriculture
at Allahabad, Saiyid Muhammad Hadi, has tried to prepare rab in a more
rational way ; much sugar is now being prepared according to the so-called
Hadi process.
The difference is that the heating apparatus is constructed on much
more practical lines, and th&.t one can easily regulate the fire, so that there
is less chance of burning or of the juice decomposing.
Further, the cooled yab, or massecuite, is no longer separated into crystals
and molasses through the covering and draining-off process for the sake of
further purification, but in a handworked centrifugal. As can be seen, the
modifications brought about by the Hadi process are not in the least radical,
but the native sugar manufacture in British India is still at such a primitive
stage that a little improvement like this affects the yield of white sugar from
rab considerably.
The following figures may show what heavy losses are suffered from
the primitive refining methods of gur and rab.
The analyses of some ra\v and semi-refined sugars are as follows : —
Polariza-
tion.
Glucose.
Ash.
Water.
Un-
determined.
Nctt.
Gur
Rab . . . .
Putri .
71-80
76-20
80-20
82-30
10-65
6-48
5-30
6-10
3-76
5-94
1-76
1-60
8-50
7-48
9-40
7-34
5-29
3-90
3-34
2-66
42-35
40-02
66-10
68-20
The nett yield by these figures is the trade yield calculated by deducting from
the polarization the percentage of the glucose, and five times the percentage of
ash, and does not refer to the actual amount of white sugar obtained from it. This
is considerably less, and depends on the raw material. According to Hadi,
the buyers distinguish three kinds of rab as regards quality, and the following
productions on 100 parts of original raw sugar are obtained as the average
figure : —
Products.
1st class. 2nd class.
3rd class.
1st class of sugar
2nd ,,
Syrup
Loss
28-00
, 5-33
62-00
4-67
22-00
3-00
70-00
5-00
1600
4 00
74-50
5-50
57
Asia.
On an average a yield of only 20 to, 33 per cent, of sugar from rab is
obtained when working in the old way ; while a yield of 40 per cent, is easily
arrived at when the work is done with centrifugals according to the Hadi
process.
The production of sugar from the same quantity of raw material is sure
to increase gradually, but as British India adopts new ideas slowly, it will
take some time before each factory possesses centrifugals.
In spite of due encouragement from the Government, and the improved
prices, the modern methods of sugar industry do not spread. In 1896 there
were 236 sugar factories and refineries in India, while in 1900 the number
had dropped down to 203, employing 5,000 people ; and, consequently, could
not possibly have been of much importance. According to Financial and
Commercial Statistics, which since 1904 do not record factories employing
fewer than* 25 employees, there were in the year 1904 only 28 large sugar
refineries in India, with 4,612 employees.
Considering the small sugar production per acre, and the loss of raw sugar
through injudicious methods of purification, one might expect a sugar enter-
prise with plenty of funds, and carrying on the cane sugar cultivation according
to modern methods, to do well. Results, however, fall short of these expecta-
tions, as no increase in the number of enterprises, working ' after European
methods, is to be noticed, although the Brussels Convention has made com-
petition with beetroot sugar easy ; while their financial results are not promising
either.
Classified according to the provinces, the factories are as follows : —
In Bengal.
Sakri . . , . . . Production 200 tons.
Bara Chakia
Cossipore Refinery
Ottur . .
Soeraha
Burgohah
2,000
Refines chiefly Java sugar.
Production 2,500 tons.
800
Has stopped work.
Japaha Production 1,200 tons.
Kotchandpore . . Refines palm sugar.
Pursa Production 1,200 tons.
Tarpore . . . . Refines palm sugar.
Marhourah . . . . Production 12,000 tons, works with carbonatation plant
Maharajganj . Melts 20 tons of gur a day.
In the United Provinces of Agra and Gudh.
Cawnpore Sugar
Works . . . Refines exclusively gur.
Purtabpore . . . . Production 1,200 tons.
Rosa Refines gur and rah.
In the Punjab.
Punjab Sugar Works.
:;8
British India.
In the North- West Provinces.
Peshawar Sugar Manufacturing Co
In Bombay.
Poona Sugar Works.
Gaewar Sugar Works.
In Madras.
Aska.
Samalkot.
East India Distilleries and Sugar Factories, Ltd.
Gorihiduor.
Petal.
Podanur.
Bellary.
The East India Distilleries and Sugar Factories, Ltd. has sugar works m
Nellikam, Coimbatore, and Tinnevelly. They grind cane during the crushing
season, and at other times they refine cane and palm sugar.
These factories and refineries were originally founded for the purpose of
manufacturing sugar out of sugar cane, but in most cases it seems an impos-
sibility to get enough cane to work on steadily. The land in India is divided
up into such httle plots and belongs to so many owners that joint cane planta-
tions do not exist, so that the raw material has to be conveyed from places
at some distance, and only in small quantities. Owing to the indifference of
farmers this raw material, as a rule, is of a very inferior kind, and is not likely
to be improved by the slow methods of transport in vogue. As the supply
of cane leaves much to be desired, the manufacturers have been compelled
to work up gur and rab as well for the sake of constant work, and this, again,
has given rise to difficulties.
First of all, there is only a slight difference in price between the raw material
gur and the white sugar obtained from it ; moreover, among the orthodox
Hindu population there is a dislike for sugar prepared in the European way,
so that the chini made according to native methods fetches a far higher price
than the sugar refined in the big sugar works. The British India manufacturers
are at a great disadvantage all round : first, in comparison with foreign com-
petitors who have access to a far better and cheaper kind of raw material ;
and, secondly, when compared with their native rivals, who, although they
have to use the same raw material, get much higher prices for their produce.
The fact is, gur is generally used either as food aait is, or for baking pur-
poses, and it does not deteriorate in value should it contain much glucose or
its colour be dark through caramelization, which conditions mean loss to the
sugar refiner.
The European breweries do not think it a disadvantage vihen rab contains
glucose or is caramelized, so that a bad kind of raw material realizes the same
as a better kind, in consequence of which the refiner pays too much for the
inferior sort.
59
Asia.
As regards refining sugar, the modern refiner is better off, his loss being
less severe than that of the native manufacturer, who must make shift with
primitive implements. The latter, on the other hand, has hardly any instal-
lation costs, and does all the work himself, together with his family ; he can,
moreover, gain his livelihood in another way, and can stop his refining business
when prices become unprofitable, which a big undertaking cannot.
The sale price of native refined sugar is considerable, being much higher
than either the sugar prepared in up-to-date refineries or imported produce ;
and will, no doubt, continue to be so as long as religious and caste prejudices
are so strong against foreign sugar.
Animal charcoal is used for refining operations, and the ancient legends
about clarification with ox-blood still prevail. Hence the Hindus are much
opposed to the consumption of sugar thus prepared, and wish to take nothing
but chini sugar, which they think free from these admixtures.
Then there is the difficulty lest sugar worked up by the lowest caste should
be consumed by people of the superior castes to their defilement.
The native refiners have realized for some time that it would be far more
profitable for them to use European beetroot or Mauritius and Java cane sugar
as a raw material than the much more expensive futri or pachani, which is
got Ayith great difficulty from rob or gur. Consequently, this kind of sugar is
greatly supplemented by the once-despised foreign sugar, which is nowadays
much used by the devout high-caste native, who, of course, is ignorant of
the fact. The confectioners, too, have recourse to imported sugar for the
preparation of their sweetmeats, being sure of its better effect.
Thus the native refiner can make use of a better and cheaper material
than his European colleagues in British India. All these reasons go far to
show how it is possible for a gigantic empire such as British India to prepare
and- refine a large amount of sugar in an irrational and primitive way, and,
in addition, import a good deal of white sugar, modern economical methods
being scarcely employed at all.
IV. — Prime Cost. Importation and Transportation.
Excise and Duties levied.
The prime cost of an acre planted with cane varies much as regards the
different districts.
Watts, in his " Commercial Products of India," quotes the following figures
for prime cost and profit : —
60
British India.
Rupees per acre of cane.
Prime cost.
Profit.
Bengal
i6o
United Provinces
66—158
Central Provinces
164
38
Bombay
420
120 — 150
Madras
150
90
Burma
90
—
while Hadi has the following specified statements of a number of treatments
apphed in the districts of Agra and Oudh : —
DiSTBIOTS.
Ploughing
Hoeing and
Irrigation.
Seed.
Cost
of
Weedinjr.
Manure
Rent.
Number
Total.
Name of Tract.
Num-
(Jost.
So-ming.
.'^um-
Cost.
Source
of Water-
Cost.
ber.
ber.
of
ings.
K a. p.
R a. r.
R. a. p.
R. a r.
B. a. r.
R a. p.
U. a. P.
B. a. n.
Meerut
14
10. 8.0
8 0,0
2. 8.0
S
10. 0.0
canal
6
18. 0.
5.
12. 0.0
66. 0.0
Agra
IS
9. 0.0
10. 0.0
2. 6
6
18. 8.0
well and
20 14.10
8. 0.0
8 12.0
72. 8.0
Eohilkhand., ..
1.5
16. 0.0
12. 0.0
2. 4.0
5
11. 4
4
IB. 0.
9 0.0
13. 8.0
8'. 0.0
Allahabad , . ,
15
15 0.0
11. 0.0
2. 8.0
4
6. 0.0
Wtll
4
16 0.
6. 0.0
12. 0.0
67. II.
iinoeHsii ..
9
6.12.0
12. 0.0
2. 8.0
6
11 4.0
4
20. 0.
8, O.n
T. 8
68. 0.0
16
8. 0.0
10. 0.0
3.
11
9. 4.0
6
20. 0.
0.12
10.
67. "0
Gorakiipur . .
20
16. 0.0
9. 6.0
2. 4.0
14
15.13.0
4
12.13.10
7. '
12. 4.0
74.12.0
Luckcow
la
16. 0.0
9.' 0.0
3. 0.0
10
12. 0.0
4
18. 0.
10. 0.0
13. 0.0
80. 0.0
FyzaV'ad
ir
'r. 0.0
9. 0.0
3. 0.0
10
(i 0.0
5
15. 0.
9.
IS. 0,0
72. 0.0
The same author also quotes the cutting, crushing, and grinding cost
per acre of cane in the same districts, but with hired labour : —
40 men for cutting, stripping, and carrying to the mill, 2 annas
per head
Hire of an iron mill at 8 annas per day during fifteen days . .
Hire of bullocks for the same period at 8 annas each
Hire of the boiling pan, 2 annas a day
Wages of the man who keeps the mill supphed with cane and feeds
it, at 2 annas a day
Wages of the labourer who feeds the furnace, at 2 annas per day,
or li seers of gur . . . . . ■ ■ ■ ■ • ....
Earthen vessels . .
Fuel in addition to bagasse . .
Oil
R. a. p.
7 «
5
I 14
I 14
I rupee = 16 annas.
Total
I anna = 12 pics
61
I 14
8
2
6
36
I rupee = is. 4d.
Asia.
The total expenses consequently amount to 70 + 36 == 106 rupees for the
product of an acre, which is reckoned to be one ton, so that the prime cost
in the above case for gur is {y is. 4d. per ton, or 7s. id. per cwt.
This prime cost is fairly high, and figures provided by the manager of
Rosa factory mention 6s. 2d. as the price of gur per cwt., and 6s. 6d. as the
price of rab per cwt., while putri fetched 8s. gd. per cwt. Although these
prices do not come up to those quoted by Hadi, they are still so high, consider-
ing the inferior quality of the product, that it shows us clearly how difficult
it is for those engaged in this industry to produce out of this inferior kind of
raw material a refined sugar that can compete with a corresponding foreign
produce.
Besides the very considerable home product, British India also imported
a great amount of foreign sugar, which during the last ten years has been
derived from the following countries, and is reckoned in cwts. : —
1901/2*
1902/8
1903/4
1904/6
1905/6
2,340,717
712 440
177 682
201 665
1906/7
1907/8
1908/9
1909/10
1910/U
Beetroot Sugar.
Austria- Hungary
Germany
United Kingdcmt
Other countries . .
2,257,928
677,139
94,150
6,979
888,018
146,666
167,388
266,446
299,269
7,205
61,865
194,408
1,441,240
176,488
60,46 li
48,308
1 017 100
2,001 316
88,264
116,700
703,266
61,879
12 932
11.799
1,918,1.58
3 071
22,610
782,778
61,537
23,702
714.093
8,206
2,496
Total ..
Cane Sugar.
Mauritius . . . .
China . .
Java .. .. -..
Straits Settlement
tTnitodKlngdom 1
Other countries /
2,986,196
1,759,208
, 182,767
446,686
63,050
94,151
88,198
1,457,517
1,915,604
668,601
673 066
207,937
157,388
106,612
562,737
2 616,656
848,898
1 836,648
229,993
61 866
868,872
1,716,488
1.823,676
'285 027
2,091,508
211,040
60,462
351,163
3,482,404
2,015,476
1.39,628
1,685.891
160,868
177,682
176,920
3.823.630
2,310,023
51,279
3,804,866
88,988
88 266
114,286
■ 806,876
2,690,193
7,340
6.693,699
12,933
11,787
12,104
1,948,839
2 614,440
6,884
6,172,039
804
26,777
858,012
2,485 560
22,094
7,816,745
3.114
1,288
724,795
2,928,983
129,373
8,768 715
962
1428
Total
2,629,061
8,529,678
5,485,878
4,883,309
4,265,644
5,907,162
8,288,026
8 719,444
10,277,801
11 814,361
General Total
5,566,267
4,987,195
6,088,115
6,547,397
7,698,048
9,730,682
10,044,901
10,663,283
11,186,813
12,539,166
Only 500,000 to 600,000 cwts. of the total amount is raw sugar from
Java and Mauritius ; the rest is white sugar.
The sugar importations were not extensive till 1871-72, when they amounted
to 562,559 cwt. ; in 1881-82 they were as much as 982,266 cwt. ; while fbr
1801-92 we have 2,734,491 cwt. This was principally cane sugar from Mauri-
tius, but in 1895-96 the competition with beetroot sugar, chiefly from Germany,
became noticeable. In the same year the total amount imported was
2,730,693 cwt., 57 per cent, of which was Mauritius sugar, while the rest came
from Germany and from various cane-sugar producing countries. It is a fact that
in 1890-91 the importation from Germany just for once amounted to 700,000
cwt., but during the four following years it never exceeded 275,000 cwt.,
to rise suddenly to 718,000 cwt. in 1905-6. The next year Austria-Hungary,
* The statistical year in British India is from April ist to March 31st.
t The importations from the United Kingdom are reckoned to be half cane sugar and half
beetroot sugar, and that is why an equal amount of these two kinds is given in many years.
62
British India.
too, exported great quantities of sugar, so that these two countries are together
responsible for 880,000 cwt. In 1896-97 British India's total importation
amounted to 2,861,400 cwt., while the year after it had increased to 4,608,630
cwt., which, although other countries provide more than they used to do,
comes chiefly from Germany and Austria-Hungary. Both the Dingley tariff
in the United States and the competition with the French sugar on the EngUsh
markets induced the exporting firms of these countries to find new outlets
for their produce, and so British India got the benefit^f this surplus of foreign
sugar. To put a stop to this influx a law was passed in March, i8qq, which
entitled the Government to raise, besides the 1894 import duty of '^ per cent ..
equivalent duties on bountied sugar to the amoant of the bounty. The follow-
ing yeaf there was a decrease in sugar imports from 4,077,499 to 3,360,862
cwt., the German as well as Austrian supplies being less ; indeed, Germany
disappeared altogether from the lists. This decrease is not altogether due
to the countervailing duties, as the amount imported by countries which are
exempted from this duty either remained what it was, or went down. The
then prevailing high sugar prices, together with a famine in the west part
of India, must have caused the consumption to be reduced considerably,
while there might have been much sugar left in stock from the year preceding.
When, in the following year, the condition of the sugar trade improved, Germany
and Austria-Hungary came in again for a rather large amount, and it may be
seen from current statistics that while Mauritius imported 2,085,156 cwt.,
the figures of Germany and Austrian importation were respectively 1,321,330
and 201,980 cwt. The countervailing duties thus had not had a lasting in-
fluence, if any. In 1901-2 the importation of Austrian sugar had increased
to 2,257,928 cwt. ; while of the 577,139 cwt. sent by Germany no doubt some
came from Bohemia, being transhipped via Hamburg, as the countervailing
duty on German sugar is a little less than that on Austrian (Rs. 1.4.7 German ;
Rs. 1.7.4 Austrian). This practice was, however, put a stop to when it became
necessary to send with the imported sugar certificates of origin.
It was proved at the Conferences held preparatory to the Brussels Con-
vention that much profit was made in Germany and Austria, apart from
bounties, through the concentration of the sale by the Cartels. The latter
enabled the producers to keep sugar at a high price at home, so that they
could export sugar below prime cost, and yet realize on the whole a fair profit.
In order to annul this artificial competition, the Indian Government passed
a bill in June, 1902, that an extra duty should be levied to the amount of the
Cartel profit — namely, of 3.3.9 rupees per cwt. on Austrian sugar, and of
2.13.9 rupees on German sugar. On German sugar, for instance, a fixed duty
of 5 per cent, of the value, a countervailing duty of 1.4.7. rupees and a Cartel
tax of 2.13.9 rupees per cwt. was paid, while for Austrian sugar we find 5 per
cent, of the value + 1.7.4 + 3.3.9 rupees per cwt.
The effect of these duties was at once noticeable, the more so as they
were levied immediately after the law v/as enacted. Of the year 1901-2 three
63
Asia.
months had passed, so that for that period the law was in force only during
nine months, and yet we notice a decrease in importations, from Austria only
888,018 cwt., and from Germany only 14,566 cwt. Half of the amount of
Austrian sugar had come in in April, and neither German nor Austrian sugar
was imported after September, but the other countries, especially the Nether-
lands and Belgium, supplied more than they usually did. A greater quantity
of cane sugar was also imported, principally from the Straits and Hong Kong,
as the sugar mentioned in the statistical accounts of China is nothing but
sugar from Java and the Philippines refined in Hong Kong.
When, in September, 1903, the Brussels Convention was signed, by which
all bounties were abolished and the surtaxes were reduced to such an extent
that any Cartel profit was out of the question, the high countervailing and
additional duties disappeared too, and the import duty in every country
was fixed at 5 per cent of the value, with the exception of bounty-fed sugar
from countries not belonging to the Convention countries. Consequently,
the importation of European refined beetroot sugar increased, and had risen
in 1905-6 to the same height as in the best year before. During the time, how-
ever, when beetroot sugar had become practically excluded from importation,
Java began to supply large quantities, partly raw sugar and partly white,
the so-called " superior sugar " (above No. 25 D.S.), and in spite of an increase
in the importation of Austrian sugar, Java has held its own in the import trade
with British India, and its supplies have increased during the last few years ;
while Hong Kong's exports have gone down.
The import duty as we know amounts to 5 per cent of the value, which
is fixed according to the following scale (dating from January, 1909) : —
Sugar, crystallized beetroot
,, ,, and soft from China
,, ,, from Java No. 21 D.S. and higher
,, ' ,, ,, ., No. 16 — 20 D.S.
,, ,, ,, ,, No. 15 D.S. and lower
Mauritius No. 16 D.S. and higher
Molasses from Java
,, ,, other countries . .
No excise is levied in British India on its own produce.
As regards the specification of imported sugar throughout the empire,
the several kinds of beetroot sugar are found from November till May, while the
cane sugar suppUes are distributed over the whole year, though the period
from August till November is their special season. Bombay, Karachi, Calcutta,
and Madras are the harbours through which it is imported. In 1906-7 Bombay
received more than 2,000,000 cwt. of sugar, of which Bomba}' Presidency
Per cwt.
R
a.
10
II
10
9
8
9
8
2
4
3
British India.
got 843,000, the Central Provinces 367,000, the United Provinces 358,500,
and Rajputana and Central India 241,500 cwt. Karachi imported 1,863,000
cwt., which was chiefly sent to the Punjab, while Sind received only 355,000
cwt. The remaining 1,508,000 tons were not destined entirely for the Punjab,
but were for a large part conveyed across the frontier to Afghanistan and
Kashmir. In the Punjab the imported produce can be sold at a lower price
than sugar from the other provinces. This is because transit by railroad is
very inexpensive, the railway companies having in any case to run their trains
empty from the seaport town to the interior to fetch goods hundreds of miles
distant, so they think it more profitable to transport sugar at the same time,
be the freight tariff ever so low.
Calcutta imported 1,250,000 cwt. in 1906-7, out of which East Bengal
and Assam received 573,000 ; Bengal, 363,500 ; and the United Provinces
235.500. The importation of Madras finally amounted to only 111,400 cwt.
in the same year, which was consumed in the neighbouring country.
The sugar imports in cwts. during the last three years for the different
provinces have been as follows ; —
65
Asia.
0)
i
\r>
■* V3
„
"^ "-> tx 00
^
o -*
0^
n
a» 00
yi
» vJ-> 00 CO O
f)
00
?.
o
H
00
N «
IN.
CO vo 1-1 , w-t 00
00 Oi
C-l
s
ro
M
IN
tN N
CO
o
"^ 1-t
m
>-■ i-« in \0 i-<
■rr
vo CO
l-l
<a
u-1
>o ■*
vo
i>v cn >0 iJ^ 0\
l-l
VO vo
^^
O
m" m~ I-T
(-1
O
-
O
N O
Os \0 f* rn \0 O
u->
vo
V£J
■* t^
\j-\
■^
VO
M
»-< «
\r\
"O '^ ro M N
a
'^ O
ra
fS
vo
3" °
CD
po VO iJ^
T|- 00 O
a
tJ
O "
Oi M vo CO iM
rT\
CO VO
ro
t*^ N
u-i
VO M "1 ro bs.
00
^ ^
IN
M M M
co'
-^
"^ i^
PO"
tv. tx t>s ro 00
CO
M 00
CO
m
yf ^-i ci O T^n
u~.
'^^ HH
vo
O
M
<^ 10 a> VD O
vn
O CM
3
\o
O
0^ ^ O vo O
^^
<o o
-"^
m m CO VO IN.
vo
CM W
o
S
00
O Oi
CO
M C^ lo --t M
O
irl IN
CO
u-i
m
O CJi ro tJ- to
rs.
Tt CO
O i^^
u-.
M ^^ M m Lo
vr,
vo
is
M CO
O
t-i CO VO M CO
CO
bO '
l-l HI 1-i N
0^
S
CO
00
\0 "
n
Tt- -^- w w M
M
Ov -^
^
CD
ON ON
^s
CTi ■^ tN. \0 CO
O
■O
ON ro
■*
tN 00 N I>s '^
tN CO
O
^
c
00 vo
rs.
N ts. N N 1-1
n
CO 0\
'^
o
in
li-1
w ro
■LTi
C^i >0 CO 1-1 lo
tN
<M M
"«J-
N •-* M CO w
"
vri
>,
l>s
ON ON
^
lO 00 O i-« O
m
C) -^
^N.
5^
a '■"
M
Tf CO VO r^ C?\ VO
vo
^
o^
CT« VO '-••-< -"t
o^
l-l t>.
a
;§
fO C^
a
t^ Oi tN. CO tN.
n
vo CO
tN
in 00
VO N "^ tv 00
o^
O vo
VO
M CO CO I-i
«
N M
CO
S ^
'^00 fo o ^s Oi
CO
M lO
VTi
•^
O ON
PO
w 00 -^ Tj- vo
vo
o c^
VO
R*.
M
o o
ro
■* vo CO O VO
Vf)
CO W
VO
c
O
O M O^ vo tN.
CO
a\ IN.
w
C)
00 lo (N^ iH 00
In.
tN -^
fq
^-^
Ci
w »>» CO vo n
CO
M Ol
ro
ITN ^
N
ON
VO VO
yj
u-N M
rs
tv b^ lo \o o
V^l
M M
■s
M O
IM
ts. M CO -et vo
IN
Tt- 0\
fS
tN,
O «
^
tN. CO tv. -^ N
M
O M
■^
vn O
l-l
M 0\ CO CO Oi
vn
n «
Oi
"
N M
c»
« W
q;
ti
«
Tt vo
Oi
n
o
a
^ Tf
lO
tN -^ 00 O -^ oo
00 CO
o
M I-. M M
M
00 CO
3
o
Tf
w'
-* -^
W
CO
o
tN. Ll-l
u-i
M lo 00 VO VO
^
CO ^
;-(
Tj- \o \o
IN
lo u-i O O O
VO
tN vo
H
XI
hH
■!t- IV.
tX
VO t-< f
IN
,(M M
M
&
p
-t
Ti- l-l
CO CD
IN.
CO M
VO
tn
t>«.
rv ^
i-i
0\ ^ CO M
VO
M vo
^
o
o
I>^
00 t^
t^
•-I N '^ 1-1 CO
CO
HI Tf
CO
•d
■q- CO
M
i-i 1-1 VO n
^
0^ vo
(D
a)
cl
TJ-1
m ON
^
"^ CO O N tv.
CO
O
in
in N
K-l l-<
vo
CO O
o
M
W
"
M
NO Tt-
M
ts. 0» VO O M
VO
00 vo
NO
N
m NO
ro
O 0^ M -^ VO
M
vo N
o
t-x
CO M
i-H
■^ CO CO O M
VO
O w
NO
\r\ ^
C^
CO Oi Tf- 0^ O
O
vo" O"
M
■^
Tf NO
M IN. CO vo M
^
M IN.
O
w
U-1
ro 00 00
LO
CO tN tN VO 00
on
o o
tX
d
«
ON NO
00
w tJ- 00 O M
a\ fN
fcj:
00
O >o
i-i -^ o ^
tN
N vo
ON
C
Tj-
O ON
M M
a
vo Tf
00
ro
Tt H
i-« N
■Tl-
-^ rr,
o
W
CO
-♦-1
1
<
>— >
lllll
< cJ) O :zi (=)
>N^
c C. o
o
H
o
0>
HI
vo
\n
CO
CO
ON «
-^
CO
CO vn
vn
■*
r!^
M
nn
vn
M
Tt- -
CO
^ VO
00
Vf)
ON
O
HI
O M
00
O
7^ ON
tN
00
fe
rt
tN
r>l
CO
CO
vo
on
O CO
tN
00 N
ON
NO
CO
n
CO
vr, VO
ON
OO
C' M
o
CO
H
vo
vo
ON
HI
HI
In (N
HI HI
c:i
tN
00 vo
On
M
CO
CO
HI
o
C^t
CO i-<
tN
(N
-^ 00
-^
ON 1
CO
■^ vo
HI
ON 00
C^
CO
vo vo
tN
^^
Tf
n
<•>
VO
w -^
C-)
•^
CO tN
On
't '
OJ
''t
CO
ly-i
tN
00 M
CO
ON
ON «
C^J
ITN
-^
CO
CO
M
^ VO
tN
CO
CO ON
ON
ts
H
«
'^
C^
ON
'-'
In <s
CO
tN CO "^
f1
HI
HI HI
*~'
Cj
00
OO
or
In
tN CO
IN
N
M
CO
P)
00
o
CM
vo
O
N H.
CO
CO
HI vn
«
00
H
^ vo
Tf
tN
(N
ol Oi
CO
-^
O IN.
^N
00
1:;
HI
VI)
O
ON VO
ON
tN vo
Cn
irt
HI
VO
t-1 IN
O
■^
« vn
tN
ON
P4
*
S
O
n
HI
ri
VO
o -^
N
^
O vn
in
NO
vo
CO
tN
v;)
00
vn CN
r^.
CM
o ^
vn
CO
00
^
Oi
CO
IN
HI ON
ON
00 N
NO
•a
£3
CO
IN VO
tN
C>! vn
VO
Tt
CO
-t
■*
-^
N
M M
H*
l-l
00
3
05
S
"^
lO
vo
n\
n
vO
CO O
Ov
00 M
vo
ON
<u
«
VO
HI
CO
ON
M Oi
tN VO
vo tN
■*
a
■d
tN
-<*■ CO
vo
o
vn tN
C^
tN
00 CO
tN
ON ,
a
n
ON
00
■^ 00
n
CO
M CO
CI
ON
W
tN
tS
N
-+
in 00
vo
H. -4-
-+
O
C^l
HI
vo. CO
q
o
ON
M
CO
HI
tN >-i
M
ON
CO vo
vo
CO
vo
HI
M ■*
M
^
HI
d
Tt-
VO
CO
a>
CO
HI VO
c^
C^
O VO
B
tN
^
In
IN
OO
IN. IN
o
tN
CO vo
00
N ,
vn
N
vo
on
ON 00
CO
vo o
Tt-
o
d
HI
IN
N
'^ CO
M
CI e^
Cl
pq
Ci
n
n
HI
IX
CO vo 00
tN
Cv
CM vo
vr.
tU
vn
CO
IN CO
rl
CO
CO 00
N
d
■*
CO
VO
-*
l-l
HI HI
00
-^ VO tN
CM
ON
pq
Tt
vo
't
^
CO
VO CO
r.
CO
Cn vo
n
■*
rl-
-^ VO
OO
CT
vo 00
^
^
CM CO
ri
00
CO
vo
VO CO
00
CO
^ C^
CO
in
co
M
ff
CO
n
(■■1 HI
tv.
J_,
ON t-.
^
in
O
a)
M
■^
in CO
t)
C3
tN ON
*t
a!
^^
HI
c^
n
vo
00 vo
vo
vri
o -
^,
M
o
M
fTs
N
n
HI
■^
ON O
CN
S-H
J^
M
r^
-^
vn c^i
'"'
m
00
CO
VO
In
o
no
CO Tt-
•N
vo
■cf
<>
^
^
tN VO
vo CO
O
n
ON HI
ON
Tt-
C^
HI
HI
Ct
3
\Jr,
M
00
;^
V.O
O
'^
M
t^
CO -^ vo
vo
CO ON VO
ON
IN
CO
^N
CO
CO
CO
00
ON
no
C)
o
on
H. vn
ON
■*
3
1
oo
CO
tv
CO
"^
■* ^
CM
00
HI
'-'
tn
—
CO
vo
00
o
Y-i
O N
tv
CO
In. vn
^
t^
vn
CO
Vfl
CO
ON
ON tN
CO
ON -^
-^
00
.s
^s
M
tN
N
o
'-'
vo
CM O
CO
vo
ON
vo
-^
N
In
O vn
XJ~i
NO
en
C)
VO
vn
C^
OO
NO
CO
fq
B
tN
M
ON
,r
^
O. w
vo
-+
O N
CO
,_,
VO
Cn
VO
c>
■^ vo
CO
vo
ON VO
ON
■t
o
vo
■^
vri
N
CO M
O
00
CO CM
vo
vo
ON
^
ON
CM
vo O
N
no"
w
w
c*
ON
HI
VO
M
o
tN O
tN
-^
O tN
CO
■<f
t^
n
vO CO vo
f)
no
00
bfl
o
N
N
HI HI
HI
l-l «
^
0>
fl
^s
00
Ox
vn
\j~i
ON
tN VO
w
w
rl 1
+■
c
c
1— >
1— )
1^
<
September
October
November . .
December . .
January
February . .
March . .
I
66
British India.
O
K. >-
r^-^vO '-' O N rs.O"^
o
O^ >-
"^01 i>.vO c^cyi>-< MOO
o
00 iJ". *o
O cor0Q0'O'O.CJ*0^t^
rs.
fc
c3
t>s M C^
"^ij^oo i^cy*'-' o o tN
i/".
p*-l ro VO
^-' roroOoOOO OoOsO
i^
dJ
u-i NO f^
c^yso C7>N q^o_c^c^
1-1
o
N i-T i-T M n
ci"
M C^
r^tN.i-ivC *-* *-< ■^■<J-0^
ON
00 ts.
MMw*ocr>iN.oooai
CO
00 N 1J-.
^. ChO^tN O-(j-iJ->tv.'0
00
3
<^^"^-
"^■^cC,r^t-Zoo~ cocri^j"!
tc
o
^ ^ ^
i-i cocoOOO'^'OOOOO
H
N ,,..3,^,.
r^vO O O^N Cfioo t^t^
M
- pT t-T h-T
'-'
a
CO CO O
'-''O M M co'^O^tN.Lo
■Lr\
CO 00 o
■^OOOO POMOO M t^io
t^
-* en 00
O'^j^'O O W "^t^'^O
OO
pq
t\ fO
Ot^t-vO O^coo^O^c^
t-i
>-l CI lOLOU^COVO C» tN.
CO
g
O O 00
t^ts.r^tN.ClWMHHM
■LTi -U^ -^
foi/iii-, t^-!--tv^cr<)-< CO
«
OQ_ 00 00
t^oooo Ot-vO^O coo
a
"2
ro ro CO
ON ^f U-. fo u-i "^ cfl rC n"
\J~I
bo
CD
C» w (>-i u-i tJ- ■lo 1-1
tv
a
s
c^
en
li-i o a^
ooO-cooococOO-^
-+
M tN, M
\n c^ \C "-I cotj-n c»0
lO
-d
1>^ iri M
C7»C1 ■^O locovOvO'O
O
O
g
•-" oo" o"
^OiioON^^t-' ^J^OO "^
^3
cH
« -^ CD
M^OCO OiLoci O coiH
CI ciroNwi-«^-.K.
Ov
>.
O i^ cc
tT'O O'ONTf't'-' '-' CO
VO
u^ ON ^
t^^MOO i-i O lJ->0'•<:^0^
LO
cd
■^ "O^ ^n
Lni-f ^fO^J"''-" »-' O "^
XTl
a
InI -^ oc"
locoiX'.t'O <-< txWOO
\o
"O oc yD
C t^Tl-iooO -^coOVO
C)
o
CO H-l
li-i -^ N CO d CO CO
CO
«
CO
O N -^
t^ 0\ -lt, Q 0\ t-i c^ \j-iij-i
ON
CO t->. M
i-i-^'-MOOCltN.^O'-'
M
'cfl
-^ W M
COO 't^*^"^^ '^-'^-
N
bo
1
Tf lA CO
■<f o' t^ CO o" fC <-*" ci" vd
OO
-^ t^ \o
Tj-u-, w -^-"tVO 0\ O N
^
»-l l-l
co-^i-" OnvO ■^cocow
C»_
t-t
lO
CO 00 M
O tx'J^'^ONt-i coMvo
h-i
1— H
« O
coO'O ONIN.M t-« -+00
I>^
d
a\ « M_^
lo -"j- -tj- ui >o^ ci_ "^ w c_
°°-
o
m" vo" •-«"
n CO tv t-< M
tC
H
CIS
C^ w
CO CO 0\ 00
■ut
N
,-, W l-H M
o\
fO I^ ts-
coc^oo coloco'^^■^^»c^
^
O O covO'O u-lts^li-,c3^co0^^s.
^
IH
W M l-H
M M I-I
d
1
S
u-i
M
tC
ffl
>o ^ 1-
oovo -^o "->o o\-+oo
\o
S3
t-i
i^ y:i -<t
"+« ■'t'^'^'O -^ci t-^
00 O W-,
<^ -LT, 0\ -LTi
o^
d
tuo
00 t-<
h-( i-« ^^. lO
i<
pi
5j
CO
C/3
00 CTi t*v
^wVO low O Ou^»^t
O
"O -^ CO
■^MOO'O a«CO CTvCOVO
ON
TJ
"^ 9. '^
I-I 1-1 CO M HH O
CO
^-)
.3
\r\ O
00 *o" >J~t o"
>o
(U
i/)
»-
O CO t-i w
CI
<D
M
u-,
w
>.
"is* 'i-n -^
^^c^ w cooo -^oo w^
vO
^
u^ CI t^
Tf-<tO O cot^VO NOO
CO
B
■lo M
CiwMMwCOVOON
00
vd"
ni CC O" -^ 0~
k7
O
00
C» ■+ •<:t- -+
^
W
W
O^ N CO
00 >- u-t'+ONQO t~N.OO O
CO
13
G\ 00 "-I
Ni^, t^.-iN'-.\OOt^
^
o ^ -^
^ t-i cicit-t>%.C7»C?>
CO
c
tc "^
\o" tC cT lo
lO
<u
c^
« c<
^
ffl
*"*
^
. fe fe !r, >. .
'rf
4->
July ■
August
Septemt
October
Novemb
Decemb*
January
Februar
March .
■4-J
g
O
H
s
April
May
June
XI
'a
o
■a
a
a
(!<
r;
o
Tt
cu
cl
o
■■n
s
a
c
w
1?-
15 •«
10
s
ci
^
|-|
en
^'
>
5
53 ■a
Hh
n
is
a.
«
>,
u
:=!
S
o
ci
>
o
3
3
60
67
Asia.
Of the British Indian provinces the Punjab is the greatest consumer of imported
sugar ; then follow Bombay, the United Provinces, Eastern Bengal and Assam,
the Central Provinces and, last, Bengal ; which shows that districts which
have an important home industry have, as a rule, foreign imported sugar
placed on their markets.
The, sugar exportation of British India is not of much importance, though
it used to be of far more consequence. In 1851 India exported 1,607,508 cwt.,
1,506,051 of which went to the United Kingdom ; in 1861 these figures had
gone down to 845,961 and 696,012 respectively. This was almost entirely
refined sugar, but when the British refining industry made some progress,
the exportation of raw sugar increased, to be followed by a period of gradual
decrease. This also refers to white sugar.
Exportation of Sugar from British India in cwt.
Raw Sugar.
Refined Sugar
1877/78
366,997
477,128
1878/79
—
51,053
1882/92 (average)
1,145-685
1888/89 34.523
1892/04 „ ..
733.654
1904/05 ,
192,890
1905/06 .
230,498
1906/07
164,299
1907/08
198,843
20,564
1908/09
174.538
20,725
1909/10
123,440
21,40?
1910/11
175.095
26,732
V, — The Future.
It has repeatedly been pointed out by various people that should the
cultivation and manufacturing methods in India be only slightly improved
and modernized, the country would not only be able to supply its own wants,
but would also rank among the sugar exporting countries. This has been
said so often, and yet the planted area remains stationary, and the production
per acre does not increase, whereas the imports do. No doubt there are
important and insurmountable difficulties which prevent the immediate
extension and improvement of .the cane cultivation. What these are and
whether they are the outcome of conservatism or of poverty among the native
population, of too much dividing-up of property, or of lack of co-operation
it is hard to tell, and we do not see any promise of a radical chailge in the
near future,
68
Straits Settlements.
Consequently, there is every reason to believe that British India, in spite
of its gigantic sugar production, will remain for some time to come a sugar
importing country, to whose markets beet as well as cane sugar will continue
to be taken.
Literature :
Reports of the Netherlands Consuls of Bombay and Calcutta.
Agricultural Ledger.
Imperial Gazetteer for India.
Sir George Watt. Commercial Products of India.
NeWlands. Sugar : A Handbook for Planters and Refiners.
Agricultural Statistics of India.
Agricultural Journal of India. i
Saiyid Muhamad Hadi. Sugar Industry in the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh.
II.
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS.
On the Malay Peninsula, in the Province Wellesley, opposite the island of
Penang, and in the native State of Perak, a sugar industry is to be found
which used to be of more importance than it is now, as it is slowly but steadily
being supplanted by the cultivation of rubber.
Between the years 1890 and 1900 the sugar industry in these parts was
at its best, when in different spots ground was opened up and planted with
sugar cane, to be worked up into sugar in numerous factories by Europeans
and Chinese.
The first European sugar manufacturers who settled in the Mala}'- Peninsula
were Frenchmen from Mauritius, who,' in the nineteenth century, started
cane plantations opposite the Isle of Penang, and constructed factories, which
were abandoned when the ground round them became exhausted and covered
with weeds. Later on British from Demerara appeared on the scene, and
laid out the plantations in the manner they were used to in their former country,
being induced to do so because of the similarity between it and Demerara
as regards the condition of the soil.
As a matter of fact, all the plantations are to be found near rivers and
creeks, which are nothing but hollows in the plain not yet filled in by the
deposits of the sea, being simply sea creeks. They do not discharge fresh
water from inland, but are filled with tidal water, which is, of course, subject
to ebb and flow. The entire low coast is intersected by these creeks, which
wind through the country in all directions, and divide it up in a number of
little islands. It is a very moist climate, and because of its proximity to the
69
Asia.
equator there are no distinctly defined monsoons, but the amount of rain is
spread rather regularly all over the year, as the following table for 1905 shows : —
January
February
March
April
May ..
June . .
July ..
August
September
October
November
December
mm.
inches
163
6-5
149
6-0
363
14-0
169
6-6
160
6-25
230
9-2
109
4-3
221
87
254
lO-O
350
1375
126
50
224
88
Total
2,518 mm.
99-1 ins.
The average annual temperature is about 25°C. {77°F.), varying but
little for the different months.
There are no rivers to speak of, and irrigation is altogether out of the
question, so that cultivation is absolutely dependent on the rain ; this, how-
ever, on account of the equal distribution of the rainfall is no drawback. The
jungle land is given by the Government in " quit rent " to the farmers at
a low rate. In this way one can obtain immediate possession of extensive
tracts of land, but the places where Malay natives have settled down are
precisely marked off and excluded from the transaction. The first part of
the cultivation process is to provide the creeks with dykes to prevent salt
water from coming in at high tide. It is a much simpler plan to shut off these
creeks from the sea through a " stop, off," or dam, as near the sea as possible,
which saves the erection of dykes along the creeks and their by-streams It
is quite safe to do this, as they are only in contact with the sea, and do not
carry any water from the land. Only in case of Malay compounds lying on
the creek in an inland direction can such a damming off be brought about
by the promise of indemnification, as the sea-fisheries suffer much from it,
if they are not altogether stopped on that account, .^fter the sea water has
been barred from the land, the jungle is cut and the trees and weeds burned
or carried away, and ditches are dug throughout the land by way of drainage
canals. Near the sea these ditches end in a sort of wooden lock, with a move-
able gate which is fixed at the top, but can open seaward at the bottom. During
ebb the water being higher in the canal than outside pu.shes the gate open,
and flows into the sea. When, on the contrary, the sea water comes rushing
up in time of flood tide, it pushes the gate shut, and is thus barred from spread-
70
Straits Settlements.
ing over the land. Besides this network of drainage canals, a number of
wide canals is dug for navigation, and this also forms a coherent network
which, however, does not communicate with any of the drainage canals. These
canals for navigation are so deep that a well-laden barge can easily pass along,
so that all the necessary sugar cane can be transported by water. When
the newly laid out land has been rid of its superfluous saline content by the
rains, shallow furrows are dug, 120 ft. in length, at distances of 6 ft. apart,
wherein cane tops are planted, which soon grow up and do not require manuring
for the first year or so. A year after the planting is done the cane is cut,
and fresh cuttings are planted again in the same fields in such a manner that
the new rows lie between the old ones. Weeding is practised, and efforts
are made to keep down the " lalang " {Imperata arundinacea) , the roots of
which grow to an intertwined mass, and to prepare the soil for cane cultivation
again. In case of lack of labour for this purpose, the field is abandoned alto-
gether, and a fresh plot is taken up, so that cane cultivation in the Straits
has often caused a field which was originally arable land to be turned into a
" lalang" field, which only after nmch toil and labour can be made fit for
cane cultivation' again. The great di'awback of cane cultivation in Malay
Peninsula undertakings is lack of labour. The natives do not wish to do a
regular day's work, and that is why the planters have to employ labourers
from other countries.
Indentured Javanese are mostly employed in digging work, and British-
Indian coolies, chiefly from Madras, are used for field and factory work. These
immigrants leave their country under a three years' indenture, and earn from
fifteen to twenty dollar-cents (one Straits dollar — 2s. 4d.) a day, and when
doing piece-WQik they make more, as well as getting free housing and other
privileges. When their- time of indenture is over they may go on serving as
free labourers, and then, of course, receive higher wages, or receive more
money through piece-work. '
The importation of indentured coolies is carried on in the face of great
difficulties, and so it is very hard to have the entire plantation under one's
own management. In order to meet these difficulties in some way, the planters
have adopted another system besides that of planting under their own manage-
ment. They provide Chinese labourers with plots of fresh soil, the trees on
which are cut, and which have the necessary dykes and partitions. Each
Chinese contractor gets a plot of two orlong* (2I acres), and if they work
in co-operation, as is often the case among the Chinese, the combined workers
receive so many times that area as the number of workers amounts to. The
management procures the cane cuttings, and further advances them implements
and some money each month on credit. As soon as the cane is ripe, according
to the management's judgment, it is cut by the Chinese and taken to the
miU to be ci'ushed, 'either at their own expense or at that of the mill owner.
*i orlong = IJ acre = 0-535 hectare.
71
Asia.
The payment is 1-5 dollar-cents per gallon of juice, which money they receive
after the money advanced has been deducted. Proper control should, of
course, prevent the money advanced from exceeding the value of cane, and
should see to the work being done under a manager's supervision. This
system has given good results, but it is necessary to take good care not to
be altogether dependent on the Chinese farmers ; for that reason it is not
wise to dispose of all the land in this way, but rather to keep some portion
under European management. As a rule, one proceeds in the following way ;
the new land is given to Chinese farmers, who plant cane on it during three
consecutive years without manuring ; then the factory itself plants cane on it
year after year, without letting it lie fallow or be planted alternately with other
crops, but with the aid of manure. Finally, the " lalang" has to be dug out, or
a fresh start is made, abandoning the old soil altogether, which is used by
Chinese tapioca growers after they have succeeded in rooting out the weeds
by untiring efforts.
The canes that are planted are White or Chinese, Ribbon, Purple, or
Bourbon Cane (imported from Martinique). The White cane is grown by,
the Chinese labourers in preference to other kinds, because it grows to a
great height and weight, and contains plenty of juice that is easily ex-
tracted, so it is most profitable to them, as they are paid according to the
amount of juice extracted.
Both Ribbon and Purple canes are stunted in growth, and are subject
to disease, and their sugar quality is low, and yet the greater part of the planta-
tions consist of this kind. The Bourbon cane is tall, heavy, and rich in sugar,
and not very liable to disease. Borers are seldom met with, but a kind of
large beetle does occur, which tunnels the cane from bottom to top. The
old beetles lay their eggs on a manure heap, and through the compost they
gain access to the cane, so that the hatched insects, which are not cane
enemies by nature, are induced to attack cane.
The cane on the whole is 'short, and its juice poor, which is due to the
low soil, the scanty tillage, the little sunshine, and the steady rain. On the
best plantations no greater cane yields than 43,500 to 52,200 kg. per hectare,
or 17-3 to 2075 tons per acre, are realized.
The cost of an acre of cane is about $52, so that a ton of cane on the field
costs 12-40, which, together with transport expenses, costs the factory $2-56
to $3-20.
The Europeans manufacture a kind of white sugar, and obtain 7-5 per
cent, of sugar on the weight of cane. The Chinese work up the cane juice
to concentrated juice, like the British-Indian gur, and, of course, in this way
realize a greater quantity, as all the impurities of the juice remain in the sugar
and add to the weight.
In the year 1896 there were three European factories in the British Prb-
vince Wellesley, and one in the State of Perak, besides a great many Chinese
undertakings, most of which were equipped with steam power.
72
Cochin China.
The total cane planted area was estimated at 14,200 acres, or 5,670 hectares,
in 1898, and its total production at 15,000 tons. This increased up to the
year igoo, and amounted to 7,500 tons for Wellesley, and to 13,000 tons for
Perak ; but since rubber has become so much more profitable than sugar, a
great part of the land destined for cane cultivation has changed consider-
ably. In the first place, rubber does not require quite so much manual labour
as sugar cane, and the work is easier, so that it is not so difficult to get labour
for rubber as for cane fields. Moreover, rubber yields far more profit than
sugar ever will do ; and so, taking things as they are, the sugar industry of
the Straits Settlements is not likely to revive. In Wellesley three European
factories are still working, two of which grow sugar cane as a catch crop between
rows -of rubber trees, but will give this up when the latter grow up well. The
Chinese plantations in the provinces have all stopped working. The yearly sugar
production amounts at the present moment to 7,500 tons, all of which, except
what is required for local consumption, is sent to England ; but this is sure
to diminish in quantity. In Perak there are three Chinese sugar works, with
a yearly output of 4,000 tons, but these, too, are gradually giving up sugar
cultivation, in consequence of which the once promising sugar industry of the
Malay Peninsula will have died out in a very short time.
III.
COCHIN CHINA.
In the extensive French colonies of Cochin China, Annam, and Tonkin a
kind of impure, brown, raw sugar is prepared by the native population on
a large scale for their own consumption, but is very seldom exported ; and
it is said that in Annam especially the land is extremely suitable for cane
cultivation. It is impossible to get at the exact figures as regards the exten-
sion of this industry, but the yearly output is estimated at 50,000 tons of
raw brown sugar.
One hundred and ninety-two tons of sugar were im.ported into France
from Indo-China in 1897, but no figures of the French imports are available
for th3 other years.
n
Asia.
IV.
CHINA.
Ai THOUGH China during many centuries has cultivated sugar cane and pre-
pared cane sugar, this has never got past the stage of a home industry, and
sugar is still being prepared in the same primitive and wasteful way as it
was done centuries ago. Farmers often plant sugar cane on a small scale,
and what is not wanted for direct consumption is sold to small manufacturers,
who prepare sugar from it in a very simple way. The cane is ground between
vertical wooden or stone rollers, which are turned by cattle, and the cane has
to go through three times before being crushed sufficiently. The juice is
put into the boiling* pans, of which there are five as a rule, and, as has been
explained before, the juice is scooped from one pan into another as evaporation
proceeds. The rawest form of sugar is the concentrated and cooled cane
juice, from which a white sugar is gained by draining off and covering. For
this purpose the brown sugar is put into casks with perforated bottoms, and
is covered up with a layer of grass which is kept moist. The moisture from
the grass gradually trickles "down, penetrates the sugar, washes the brown
syrup from the crystals, and carries it away through the holes in the bottom,
while the moist soft white sugar is left as a residue. The syrup is used for
sweetening food or baking cakes, while the sugar, when dried in the sun, forms
the commercial article. This sugar is also melted again in hot water, and
slowly re-crystallized to candy. One can easily imagine that this most primitive
and yet expensive mode of preparation no longer holds its own in competition
with the far superior factory methods of the adjacent countries, and though
the sugar consumption in China increases, it is the foreign countries which
profit by this expanding demand, while the inland industry rather decreases.
Since the sugar industry in China, as has been pointed out, is a home
industry, the produce of which is consumed in the immediate neighbourhood
of its manufacture, we cannot very well give the exact figures of its output,
but when we go through the export figures of Chinese sugar to other Chinese
harbours, we see a gradual decrease in the quantify of sugar exported by
China, a fact which benefits Hong Kong, Java, Japan, and even Europe.
The principal producing districts are : —
I. SWATOW.'
The sugar cane here chiefly grows in the Prefecture of Chao Chow Fu
and its sugar, consisting of brown, white and candy sugar, is mostly exported
to the northern harbours of China, i.e., Shanghai, Newchang, Tientsin, Chin-
kiang, and Hankow, while only a small portion is transhipped to Hong Kong
Siam, and the Straits Settlements.
74
China.
The sugar exported by Swatow for the last few years has been as foUows-
in piculs of 133-13 lbs. and in tons : —
Brown.
White.
Total.
Year.
Piculs.
Tons.
Piculs.
Tons
Piculs.
Tons.
1891 .
. 826,888
49,613 ■
831,647
49,899
1,658,535
99,512
1892 .
. 625,708
37,542
563,287
33.797
1,188,995
71-339
1893 .
. 544,700
32,682
470,126
28,208
1,014,826
60,890
1894 .
• 457,969
27,478
464,488
27,869
922,457
55,347
1895 .
690,518
41,431
630,640
37,838
1,321,158
79,269
1896 .
• 701,231
42,074
625,854
37,551
1,327,085
79,625
1897 .
. 704,270
42,256
629,780
37,868
1,334,050
80,124
1898 .
■ 789,298
47,358
667,465
40,048
1,456,763
87,406
1899 .
1,028,218
61,693
796,910
47,815
1,825,128
109,508
1900 .
846,261
50,776
531,023
31,861
1,377,284
82,637
1901
814,402
48,864
572,198
34,332
1,386,600
83,196
1902 .
640,264
38,416
449,010
26,941
1,089,274
65,357
1903 .
590,974
35,45s
421,025
25,261
1,011,852
60,719
1904 .
591,974
35,518
473,563
28,414
1,065,537
63,933
1905 .
492,991
29,579
311,496
18,690
804,387
48,269
1906 .
325,821
19,599
231,443
13,807
557,264
33.406
1907 .
573,337
.34,400
316,845
19,011
890,182
53,4iT
1908
481,244
,28,875
346,231
20,774
827,475
49,649
1909 . .
297,018
17,821
198,221
11,893
495,239
29-714
igio . .
612,619
38,288
220,510
13,783
833.129
42,071
Owing to the heavy competition of Hong Kong and Java sugars in the
Yangtse Valley and the harbours of North China, the formerly large Swatow
exportation has sunk to a low figure.
It may be taken for granted that about 22,000 acres are planted with
cane in Swatow and that about 2,000 mills are engaged in sugar manufacture.
These work, on an average, 100 days every year, and yield between 600 and
1,000 piculs of sugar in harvest time. In the districts of Chfeng-hai cane
is being bought by the sugar manufacturers from the planters, but in other
districts where the plantations are more scattered each cane planter in his
turn hires the mill and grinds his own sugar cane.
The cane is planted in early spring, and is cut ten to twelve months later ;
then three ratoon crops are reaped, each of which takes a year. Finally, the
75
Asia.
roots are dug out, and the soil is planted with other crops. Oil cakes of soja
beans are used as manure.
2. Amoy
In the districts of Tungan and Chang Chow most of the planting is done.
The better kinds of sugar are exported to the northern harbours of China,
to Tientsin and Shanghai, and the inferior kinds to Foochow, Ningpo, Cheefoo,
and Newchang.
The last-mentioned harbour exports much less than it used to do, for
while in 1896 its exportation amounted to 278,761 cwts., in 1906 it had gone
down to 79,352 cwts., no doubt in part owing to t]ie competition of Java,
Hong Kong, and Japanese sugar. In 1909 the exportations of sugar amounted
to 79,478 cwts., and in 1910 to as much as 123,322 cwts
3. Canton, Kowloon, Lappa.
The principal sugar producing districts used to be Waichow, Tsinshing,
and Fungkow, but in consequence of bad crops, rebellion, and internal com-
motions the sugar production in thesc'provinces has deteriorated, and they
have ceased to be the important producers of yore. Formerly large quantities
of sugar were exported from Waichow to Hong Kong, but this is no longer the
case, and their only exportation of sweetstuffs is that of the sugar cane itself,
which is sold as a dainty. The export trade in 1903 amounted to 7,336 cwts.
of sugar, in 1906 only to 67, while in 1900 it was still 160,000 cwts
4. KlUNGCHOW IN THE ISLAND OF HAINAN.
Sugar is being produced in the Island of Hainan, South China, with Kiung-
chow as an export harbour. This sugar, as well as the sugar brought from
the opposite peninsula, Leichcw, is transhipped in steamers to Macao and
Hong Kong.
The exportation of raw sugar amounted to : —
174,501 cwts. in 1897. 192,752 cwts. in 1901.
120,041 ,, 1898. 294,803 ,, 1902.
175,548 ,, 1899. 68,028 „ 1909.
104,752 ,, 1900. 194,507 ,, 1910.
5. Chunking, in the Proving? Szechuan.
In addition to the provinces of the sea coast already mentioned, much
cane is planted and sugar produced in Central China, on the banks of the
Yangtse-Kiang. Here, too, manufacture is carried on as a home industry,
and though the quantity of sugar produced may be very large, it is not possible
to know the exact figures. The quantity of sugar exported to foreign parts
is known ; but as this is only an inconsiderable portion of the total production,
we might just as well leave it unmentioned. The kind of sugar is again of
a light brown colour, or fine crystal sugar made white through draining off
the molasses.
Besides its own sugar, which, although we cannot quote the exact figures,
seems to decrease instead of increasing, China demands more sugar, which
76
Japan.
is imported from abroad, viz., brown sugar from Java and the Philippines ;
white crystal and second sugar from Java ; and refined sugar from European
countries, Hong Kong, and Japan.
The import figures, both in piculs and in tons, have been for the last
twentj? years as follows : —
Year.
Piculs.
Tons.
Year.
Piculs.
Tons.
1891 .
290,035
17,402
1901 .
■ 2,564,787 .
■ 153,867
1892 .
531,614
■ 31,897
1902
. 4.473,222 .
268,393
1893 .
■ 1.549.297
• 92,958
1903 .
. 3,169,914 .
• 190,195
1894 .
. 1,823,890
• 109,433
1904 .
. 3,708,800 .
222,528
1895 .
. 1,483.217
■ 88,993
1905 .
. 4,496,164 .
■ 367,770
1896 .
. 1,636,129
98,168
1906 .
6,575,742 .
• 394,544
1897 .
. 2,298,427
■ 137,905
1907 .
. 5,095,100 .
305,706
1898 .
. 1,813,202
. 108,792
1908 .
. 4,129,080 .
• 247,745
1899 .
• 2,077,959
• 124,677
1909 .
■ 5,485,765 •
329,196
1900 .
. 1,291,289
• 77,474
19T0 .
• 4,255,543 ■
• 255,333
Literature :
C. Kraay. Sugar number of De Indische Mercuur.
British and American Consular Reports.
Imperial Maritime Customs Report.
V.
JAPAN.
In the several islands which form part of Japan proper, sugar cane is cultivated
and cane sugar prepared in a primitive way, which branch of industry has
developed during the last few years. The principal sugar cane cultivating
tract is found in the Riu-Kiu group, which extends to 24° N. Lat. In
1902 the islands Okinawa, Miyako, and Jajeyania, all belonging to the
same group, produced 19,788 tons of sugar, which quantity in 1908 rose to
26,377 fons. Then the Oshima Islands, south of Hondo, have a yearly output,
of 7,500 tons, and some sugar is grown in the northern islands, so that we
can fix 40,000 tons for the local sugar production of Japan.
Ihe sugar produced is brown, and is prepaied from juice in a very primi-
tive way, and is used entirely in the island of its production, or is transported
to Kagoshima and Osaka.
We may expect some change for the better in this very primitive state
of affairs, as a company with a capital of 2 million yen* has been floated,
called the " Okinama Seito Kabushiki Kaisha," in order to plant sugar cane
* : yen is about 2S id.
77
Asia.
in the Riu-Kiu Islands, and to work it up according to modern practice. We
do not possess any more details about this scheme, but as the Riu-Kiu Islands
are not far from Formosa, where the sugar industry flourishes, it is quite
possible that in these islands, too this branch of industry will do well, and
contribute towards the realization of the Japanese economic ideal, i.e., to
become independent of foreign countries as regards their sugar supply.
It has not attained to this ideal state yet, but the island of Formosa has
produced increasing quantities of sugar during the last five years ; while
we notice a steady decrease in the importation of foreign sugar into Japan,
which the following statistics show, and which during the present and future
years may become still more pronounced : —
Country
of origin.
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
China
666,996
862,604
223,008
207,954
271,489
117,402
114,044
81,211
111,972
110,626
9,460
Hong Eoug . . . .
1 217,947
1,473,012
411,708
260 834
347.880
111 976
46.414
62,820
75.877
46,004
27,277
Philippines .. ..
868,675
534,776
239, *77
67i,198
386,046
62,221
89,073
269 648
211,772
93,684
6,831
The Netherlands
—
4,261
669
—
—
—
—
—
—
United States
668
1,176
1,460
2,799
2 668
5,142
0,109
6 116
19,165
4,464
6,696
Hawaii
—
—
1,996
2
—
—
—
—
—
Germany . . . .
479,118
1,192,828
639,649
461,398
166,106
42,923
203 684
06,050
29,820
434
31
Great Britain . .
1,602
7,116
676
23
11
—
—
— ,
—
Australia . . . .
4,212
—
84
—
—
—
—
—
AuBtria-Huugary
439,162
660,860
177,952
, 422,243
28,072
845
65,669
32,394
6,326
1
Belgium . . . .
13,969
46,616
22,917
89,366
—
—
6,48-J
8
—
—
British India
8,173
4,657
26
—
3
—
—
—
—
Dutch India.. ..
447,991
390.287
476,191
1,830,766
2,642,lfl
1,822.672
3,186.910
2 690,383
2,863.903
1,986,023
1,954,101
France
171
464
454
206
235
—
; —
Russia
2,838
17,270
299
25,379
• 310,166
2,'640
3
166
Other Countries..
420,678
342,778
666 368
816
27
1,762
17,84«
88,680
6,266
278
160
Total piculs . .
4,045,785
4,928,076
2,661,212
3,923,483
4,104,753
2,168,473
3,786.127
3,296 385
3 323,641
2,241,507
2 003,446
In Tons . . . .
242,747
296,685
159,073
235,409
246 286
130 108
227,168
197,783
199,412
134,490
120,207
The following table shows the imports into Japan from Formosa, and
also the total imports : —
Importations from
Year.
Foreign Countries.
Formosa.
iotai.
Piculs.
Tons.
Piculs.
Tons.
Piculs.'
Tons.
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909 . .
1910
2,168,473
3,786,127
3,296,385
3,323,541
2,241,507
2,003,446
130,108
227,168
197,783
199,412
134,490
120,207
707,722
1,090,079
942,280
1,035,356
2,097,466
3,099,616
42,463
65,405
56,537
62,121
125,848
185,977
2,876,195
4,876,206
4,238,665
4,358,897
4,338,973
5,103,082
172,571
292,573
254,320
261,533
260,338
306,184
78
Japan.
The whole of this quantity is not consumed in Japan itself, for Japan
exports a considerable amount of refined sugar. This exportation first became
considerable after the war with China, and now yearly increases, as the following
figures show " —
Exports in tons of refined sugar and candy from Japan.
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1900
1910
Refined sugar
Candy
1,030
374
1,404
14,831
392
50,610
454
14.803
422
17.145
399
29,249
146
41,481
148
Total . .
15,223
51,064
15,225
17,544
29,395
41,629
The refined sugar is chiefly exported to China and Korea, while the exporta-
tion to other countries is of little account.
In 1907 the Japanese refineries began to work up Formosan sugar on a large
scale ; the Kolagashi Refiners' Group melted 40,593 piculs (2,436 tons) of
the total of 3,000,000 piculs (100,000 tons), which is the quantity usually melted
in all the Japanese refineries.
The reason why in the years preceding 1907 a comparatively small quan-
tity of Formosan sugar was worked up in the refineries is to be found in the
fact that this sugar generally was a brown concrete sugar, which was used
for direct consumption, while the raw cane sugar from Java was more suitable
for refining purposes. As Formosa is exporting more and more crystal sugar,
a greater portion of it is being refined, which means a gradual decrease in
the Java sugar importation.
Import duty has to be paid on foreign sugar imported into Japan, which
was levied until i6th July, 1911, as follows (in yen per picul) :. —
I.
2.
3-
4-
After the termination of the commercial treaties the import duty became
levied as follows : —
1. Sugar below No. 11 D.S. . . . . 2-50
2. Sugar from 11 — 15 D.S 3-10
3. Sugar from 15—18 D.S 3-35
4. Sugar from 18 — 21 D.S 4-25
5. Candy 7-40
6. Other kinds of sugar . . . . . . 4-65
79
General
Conventional
tariff.
tariff.
Sugar below No. 8 D.S.
. . 1-65
—
Sugar from 8—15 D.S.
2-25
—
Sugar from 15 — 20 D.S.
3-25
0748
Sugar No. 20 and higher
3-50
0-827
Asia.
When sugar imported from abroad is used for direct consumption, the
import duty is levied in full. But should the sugar be refined in Japanese
refineries, and its produce be used for consumption in Japan, then the Govern-
ment refunds a sum of 1-45 yen per picul sugar below No. 8, and a sum of
1-95 yen per picul sugar from Nos. 8 to 15. This amount of money refunded
is limited to 1,000,000 piculs, but i yen per picul is to be allowed on any excess
above this quantity. The subsidy for the year 1910-11 to refiners in this way
is estimated at 2,830,000 yen, or £288,896. When directly consumed, their
own and Formosan sugar enjoys a privilege of 1-65 and 2-25 yen, according
to its quality, and when refined a privilege of 1-65 yen— i'45 = 0'20 yen or
2-25 — 1-95 = 0-30 yen per picul. One can understand that foreign sugar
is used as much as possible for refining, while Formosan sugar is used for
direct consumption. As Formosa is gradually producing more and more
sugar, the amount of sugar gained will exceed the demand of unrefined sugar
for consumption, and, consequently, the refineries will use a steadily increasing
quantity of Formosan sugar for melting. It was decided to cancel the
drawback of foreign raw sugar refined in Japan on ist April, 1912, on the
ground that the new Customs tariff which came into force in July, 1911, will
give sufficient protection against the competition of foreign sugar ; but we
shall be surprised if the Japanese refiners, who have much to say in the matter,
are not indemnified in some way or other for the loss.
Besides the import duty on foreign sugar, Japan raises a consumptiop
duty or excise on all sugar consumed in the country, which, consequently,
has to be paid on imported as well as on native sugar.
This nowadays (in yen per picul) amounts to : —
Sugar below No. 8 D.S. :
I.
[a)
(6)
[e)
Brown sugar in barrels . .
Unrefined sugar, except centrifugalled
or sugar other than refined, which has
been manipulated, or made partially
or entirely by modern machinery
All others
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
Sugar No. 8 — 15 D.S. . .
Sugar, No 15—28 D.S. . .
Sugar, No. 18 — 21 D.S.
Sugar above No. 20 D.S.
Candy, crystal, or sugar cubes
2-50
3
5
7
8
9
10
At the present time one pays on foreign refined sugar a total of 0-827
+ 10 = 10-827 y^^ Psr picul, and on foreign sugar below No. 8, 1-65 + 3
= 4-65 yen per picul duty when used for consumption. It follows that all
these duties have caused sugar to be very expensive, and have also led to a
system of protection which aims at enabling Japan, in conjunction with
Formosa, eventually to supply her own wants in sugar.
80
TAIWAN OR FORMOSA.
[Reproduced, by permission of the Controller of His Majesty's Stationary Office, from
British Consular Report No. 3863 (1907) on Formosa.']
Formosa.
For the rest, it will depend upon legislature whether Japanese Tefineries,
strengthened by high home prices, shall come out first in the struggle with
sugar refined in Hong Kong, in the Yangtse Valley, and with Russian sugar
in Manchuria. As long as the present high protection holds goodi Japan
will be able to supply the above-mentioned markets with refined sugar, and
even extend the scope of her exportations ; but should the Government
as is- said, reduce its protection, it may be possible yet for Japan to produce
enough refined sugar for home consumption, but exportation abroad wHl
be out of the question then.
Literature :
Report of the Netherlands Consul at Kobe.
British and American Consular Reports.
VI.
FORMOSA.
Although Formosa forms part of the Japanese Empire, and is politically
united with it, her sugar industry is of quite a different character to that
of the other Japanese islands, and for that reason we propose to treat of it
separately.
The Island of Formosa (Taiwan) lies in the China Sea betwden 2i° 45'
and 25° 38' N. Lat. and 120° 10' — 122° E. Long. ; it is separated from the
mainland by the Straits of Formosa. Its entire area covers 13,504 sq. miles.
A mountain range runs through the island from north to south, which is flanked
by two subsidiary ranges. The highest peak of the middle range is 13,600 ft.
high, and that of the western range 9,290 ft. The highlands are rather rough,
and are covered with woods, but in the south-west there is an extensive plain,
which is well suited for agriculture, and here sugar is being cultivated.
The west coast is richer in bays and harbours than the east coast, so
that most of the towns are built on the former. Its climate is almost tropical,
and dependent on the monsoons ; the month of February is the coldest, with
an average temperature of 51-6° F. (10-9° C.) on the coast, and the month
of July is the hottest, with an average temperature of 72-5° F. (22-5° C).
The rainfall is very considerable, and in 1898 amounted for the town of Kelung
to no less than 206 ins.
Formosa, together with the Pescadores, on ist October, 1905 had a
population of 3,039,751 inhabitants— 57,335 of which were Japanese, 8,973
Chinese, 163 of other nationalities, 2,4q2,784 of Chinese origin from Fukin,
81 F
Asia.
397,195 Chinese from Kantung, 506 from other parts of China, and 46,432
semi-civilized and 36,363 uncivihzed savages. Of the latter about 35,076,
or almost the entire number, live in the wild mountainous district of Taito,
while the half-civilized tribes are found all over the islands.
The population of the Pescadores at the date given was 56,327, 2,083 of
which were Japanese.
As Formosa is very narrow, being not more than seventy-seven miles
wide, its rivers are short, and only the Dakusui and Tamsuikei are navigable.
The network of railway, on the other hand, which, of course, is restricted to
the western part of the island, is extensive, and joins the towns of Tainoku
with Kelung, and with Tainan and Takao.
Besides these public railways, there are extensive light railways on the
plantations for the transportation of cane and sugar, amounting in all to
220 miles ; they also connect the plantations with the main line.
The sugar industry in Formosa dates from a long while back ; we find
it mentioned that in 1622 the Dutch East Indian Company sent a cargo of
796 piculs (48 tons) of Formosan powder sugar to the Netherlands, which dis-
patch was now and then followed by others, till the flourishing state of the
sugar cultivation in the West Indian colonies made the importation of East
Indian sugar less profitable, and drove the Formosan sugar out of the western
markets. In spite of this, the sugar industry in Formosa spread so that during
the last years of Chinese dominion the sugar production amounted to 60,000
to 80,000 tons every year. The greater part of this consisted of a soft brown
finely-grained sugar, while only a small portion of the production was the
so-called " white sugar." The latter kind was obtained by draining off the
syrup from brown sugar, or by claying, and, consequently, was by no means
the white sugar of the present day.
When, in 1895, Formosa became part of the Japanese Empire, there were
about 1,000 small factories, which were all worked by buffaloes and prepared
brown or clayed sugar. Half this sugar was used for home consumption, and
the rest was exported to China and Japan by Chinese traders.
The species of cane that was mostly cultivated was a green variety that
yielded little juice, but which had the advantage over a red type that was
also grown in Formosa of never dying off, however much it was neglected,
which was usually the case. This kind of cane, called " Tekchia," is reckoned
to yield on an average 8 tons per acre (20,000 kg. per ha.) each crop. About
45 per cent, of juice on the cane was obtained, while the rendement of moist
brown sugar was 6 per cent, for the green sort of Tekchia, and 8 per cent, for
the red kind, i.e., an average of 9^ cwts. per acre (1,200 kg. per ha.).
Although the Japanese had seized the Island of Formosa, they found
subduing it no easy task, as the inhabitants did not at all like the idea of coming
under Japanese rule. First of all they founded a kind of republic, which,
after a heavy struggle, was suppressed by the Japanese ; and only in 1898
did the Japanese get possession of the island. In 1902 another armed rebellion
82
__-Ll
Formosa.
was suppressed ; but since then there has not been any further disturbance.
Not till 1900 could the Japanese authorities find time to think of repairing >
the damage done by the war, and of developing what resources the island
could boast of ; but then they set to-work with a zest which ^nay be realized
from the rapid way in which the sugar industry began to flourish. In June,
1902, a law was promulgated for the encouragement of sugar cultivation,
in consequence of which a Sugar Bureau was established in Tainan, to super-
intend all affairs dealing with the sugar industry. The first work done by
this office was to send out young Japanese students to countries where the
sugar industry was at a high degree of development, especially in Germany,
Java, and Hawaii, in order to study the industry thoroughly, and to report
what might be of use for Formosa. At the same time, other varieties of cane
were imported from foreign countries, planted in different places, and their
peculiarities studied.
The experimental station for the new cane was founded at Daimokko,
and it was not long before some of the new species appeared to excel the cane
planted hitherto in Formosa. The Striped Tanna and the Lahaina varieties
yielded a very satisfactory product, but required great quantities of irrigation
water and constant care, circumstances which were against their retention.
The Rose Bamboo, imported from Hawaii, on the contrary, could stand a
rougher treatment and an unsatisfactory water supply, and yet yield an output
gratifying in all respects, so that the planting of this kind of cane was strongly
recommended by the Sugar Bureau.
Apart from this, sugar factories which were founded obtained during
five years a GoverniAent subsidy of 6 per cent, yearly on the paid-up capital,
or a lump subsidy of 20 per cent, on the value of factory and installation.
There were other cases in which promoters borrowed machinery from the
Government for five years, which meant that the Government paid for the
machinery and claimed the money from the hirers only after five years had
elapsed. The cane planters could also get land on very moderate terms, and
even manure was gratuitously provided by the Government, on condition
that the planters pledged themselves not to leave off sugar cultivation for
the following five years. On ist April, 1911, most of these privileges were
withdrawn.
When these restrictions were being planned, the Taiwan Seito Kaisha.
(Taiwan Sugar Company) was founded in 1900, with a Government subsidy
of 60,000 yen for each of the first five years. The capital amounted to 500,000
yen, and it was meant to work up purchased cane and export the sugar. This
factory was ready in November, 1901, and began to grind, but the Chinese
farmers soon appeared to be unwilling to sell cane to the factory, so
' they resolved to plant cane for themselves. This led to an increase of the
capital to i million yen. The company reckoned on producing 30 tons of sugar
each day during the 150 crushing days, which would mean an output of 4,500
tons each crushing season ; but the first year, 1902, realized only 20,000 piculs,
83
Asia.
or 1,200 tons. This factory was favourably situated on the railway, halfway
between Takao and Tainan, and, moreover, was privileged in only having
to pay half of the tariff for having its goods conveyed by the State railway.
At the san;e time, two factories belonging to Chinese were started through
the assistance and pressure of the Government, both situated near Tainan.
Chiefly owing to difficulties experienced when sugar cane was bought, and
cilso because, they were not conversant with the modern kind of machinery
thrust upon them, and, finally, because of quarrels with the experts of the
Sugar Bureau, these two factories yielded little result, and all efforts to improve
the sugar industry proved of no avail. The Chinese farmers refused to sell
their cane to the manufacturers, and chose to grind it in their own buffalo
mills in the old primitive way, so that the Government's plans to turn For-
mosa into a second Java fell through. The natives, too, refused to plant the
new kind of cane, although the tops for planting could be had gratis, and
although they were provided with manure and irrigation facilities, and enjoyed
a subsidy if they would only plant a better kind of cane than the rubbish
they were hitherto wont to use.
When all their efforts for encouragement, guidance, and instruction were
opposed by the distrust and conservatism among the natives, the Japanese
Government took stronger measures, and in June, 1905, issued a set of or-
dinances to the following effect : —
Anyone wishing to erect a modern sugar factory must first obtain permis-
sion from the Director of the Sugar Bureau, who will mark out the district
within which the applicant is to be allowed to buy sugar cane, and where no
other sugar works may be started. Anyone planting sugar cane in that district
is under obligation to sell it to the factory, and is not free to export it outside
the district, nor to use it for any other purpose, so that the factory enjoys
the monopoly of buying all the sugar cane planted there. On the other hand,
the factory is bound to take aU the cane planted in the district, and is not free
to refuse a part of the planting should the supply exceed their wants. Cane
planters are not allowed to grind their cane in their own buffalo mills, unless
permitted to do so, and as the Sugar Bureau means to promote modern methods
of sugar cultivation, these licences are not easily granted.
In some districts which have no cane cultivation of their own, large
extensions of soil may be ceded free of cost to sugar undertakings. The only
condition stipulated is that the factory should really work at a certain time
with a capacity, arranged beforehand. When this is the case the land becomes
the property of the factory as soon as it is entirely cultivated ; but should
the concession not be acted on in good time, it is cancelled, and the factory
has to be pulled down.
These restrictions immediately influenced the industry for the better,
for at the present day fifteen big companies, with a paid-in capital of more
than ;^2,5oo,ooo sterling, manufacture sugar in the modern way in the Island
of Formosa.
84
Formosa.
In 1908 only two buffalo mills existed out of the 1,000 which were in
use at the time of Japan's conquest of this island. There were, however,
50 factories worked by steam, which ground 40 to 200 tons of cane every
twenty-four hours ; and 11 big sugar works, 7 of which have a capacity of
1,200 tons of cane per twenty-four hours, and 4 a capacity of 500 to 1,000 tons.
During 1909, 1910, and 1911 a great many new factories were added,
while for 1912 some more are under construction. At the present time (1911)
29 big factories are in working, and g are under construction, all of them brand
new, excellently fitted out, and equipped with the latest and most economical
machinery by British, American and German firms. In November, 1910;
it was announced that no more charters would be granted for the time being
for the formation of sugar manufacturering companies, nor for the extension
of existing mills, the object being to check the expected over-production of
sugar in the island in excess of the demands of Japan for direct consumption
and for refining, pending the opening of foreign markets. No period has
been fixed for this limitation, which is, however, officially stated to be a tem-
porary measure.
All the land on the west side set apart for the sugar industry is divided
among the big companies, while on the east side there are some 10,000 acres
available for the stigar cane cultivation, which the Sugar Bureau is willing
to dispose of should there be parties eager to apply. As the advantages on
the east coast for navigation are few as compared with the west, plenty of
ground remains to be disposed of, nobody having as yet applied for it.
This change in the state of affairs has, of course, been opposed by the native
farmers, so that the cane planted area of a district has, as a rule, gone down in
the year following the allotting of ground to a factory ; but as soon as the
farmers found that the produce of the cane sold to a factory exceeded that of
other crops, they gradually fell back again on cane cultivation, the more so
as it was advantageous owing to the Government's premium for planting
Rose Bamboo cane.
If the manufacturers are alive to their own interests, pay well for the cane,
and advance money to the planters in order to help them through the bad time
when the cane is still in the field, then the supply of cane will be so abundant
that there is more chance of the factory being too smaU to hold it than of the
raw material supply being insufficient. One should not forget that though
the manufacturers have the monopoly as regards buying cane, the planters
are not forced to plant it, so that should the factory offer too low a price
the planters grow other crops than cane, and as the factory cannot import
cane from other parts it cannot work at its full capacity, which, of course,
must mean great loss to an industrial undertaking. For this very reason the
cane price is kept high enough to be profitable for the planter, while it has
to be approved of by the Government as well.
85
Asia.
The factories built during the last four years have been erected without
any subsidy or help from the Government, which shows the satisfactory state
of affairs in Formosa, and the independent position of the manufacturers.
In order to support the planters and to extend the Rose Bamboo cane
cultivation, the Sugar Bureau provides manure to a value of 20 yen gratuitously
for each koh* planted with this kind of cane, on condition that the planter
himself puts 25 yen worth of manure (that is 45 yen in all) into the ground.
The manure can be bought at net cost from the Sugar Bureau, and paid for
after the harvest is reaped, and no interest will be charged.
In consequence of these favourable stipulations, the cultivation of Rose
Bamboo has much improved, and this kind of cane now forms 75 per
cent, of the total plantation, which will' soon consist of this variety altogether.
While the average production of the old variety of cane used to amount to
8 tons to the acre with a rendement of 6 per cent, of brown soft sugar, the
average output of Rose Bamboo per acre is 14 tons, 11 per cent, of which is
turned into centrifugal sugar : that is 30 cwts. of crystallized sugar against
gi cwts. of an inferior product of times past, which fetched only two-thirds
the price.
Owing to the energy of the Sugar Bureau, the produce per acre has become
five times as much as it used to be, both to the profit of the planter and that
of the manufacturer ; while the Government, through the consumption duty,
has also benefited by it. In 1909 60,987 koh, or 169,018 acres, land were
planted with sugar cane in Formosa ; while the figures for 1910 are 90,000 koh,
or 220,512 acres.
Irrigation in Formosa is still very primitive, and the plantations have
to depend chiefly on rain. Fortunately, the two monsoons in the south are
fairly regular, and one can be sure of much rain during the period from June
to September, and of a dry period between the months of November and April,
sq that cane can grow from January till October, and ripen afterwards. The
climate of the north is not nearly so favourable, and that is why most of the
small and all the big sugar undertakings are found crowded together in the
south.
The native farmers plough the land most unsatisfactorily with wooden
ploughs, but the more modern undertakings employ steam ploughs, which
turn over the soil thoroughly. The cane grows for one year, and is planted
afresh every year, without keeping ratoons. The crushing season begins in
November, and is over in May or in June at the latest, so that it amounts
to 150 grinding days.
The plant of the old-fashioned factories, as is everywhere the case with
primitive installations, consists of a battery of open pans placed over an open
fire, together with earthenware pots, in which the massecuite is cooled and
clayed, the product consisting of a soft fine brown or whitish sugar. The
* I koh = 2*45 acres or o'ggij hectare.
86
Formosa.
modern factories are up-to-date with crushers, ^ills, clarifiers, filter-presses,
quadruple effects, vacuum pans, crystallization-in-motion plant, centrifugals
and sugar dryers. Their produce is centrifugal sugar, colour No. 15 — 16 D.S.,
chiefly for exportation while the exhausted molasses is sold to the natives.
Bagasse is used as fuel, to which Japanese coal, delivered at the factory
for £1 15s. per ton, is added if necessary.
The factories nowadays generally pay 3 yen (6s. zjd.) per 10 piculs*
cane, and obtain about 11 per cent, of sugar out of it, so that a picul of sugar
costs 273 yen in raw material. When we allow i yen for manufacturing
cost, and 0-50 yen for other expenses, and another 0-50 yen for transportation,
etc., then the price of the sugar at the factory will cojne to 473 yen = 9s. gjd.
Add to this 5 yen for consumption duty (which is very seldom paid in full),
the cost price increases to 973 yen = £1 os. ijd. per picul. As the price in
Japan, however, is as high as 13 yen, it is evident that when transport costs
and other expenses are deducted, a considerable profit is still left to the sugar
manufacturers.
The amount of 3 yen per 10 piculs paid to the planters comes to 70 yen
per acre, at a production of 234 picul (14 tons) per acre ; whereas the planters,
when they had worked up the cane to brown sugar in their old-fashioned way,
would never have made more than 48 yen net profit, and had they treated the
old Tekchia cane, certainly not more than 24 yen per acre. Although the
manufacturers are able to obtain more profit, the planter is none the worse
for this new system as his gain also increases, which is simply due to a greater
amount of raw material yielded by the same area, and to a better production
of better paid sugar,, achieved with very little more trouble and expense.
At the time of the Chinese dominion the sugar trade of Formosa rested
entirely with Chinese and British merchants. The Chinese Government
raised an export duty of 18 cents (4jd.) per picul, and the sugar was sent to
China and Japan, where it was consumed.
During the years 1897 — 1901 the exportation amounted to 34,000 tons
on the average from Anping only, while that from Kelung was of little im-
portance.
In 1901 both consumption duty and import duty were raised on sugar
in Japan, and as Formosa forms part of the Japanese Empire, the sugar sent
straight, to Japan for consumption was exempted from import duty.
For this reason it was easy for Formosan sugar to supplant imported
brown and white sugar for consumption, and as their own country people
had less difficulty in importing sugar than foreigners had, the trade in Formosan
sugar soon fell into the hands of Japanese merchants in Yokohama and Kobe,
and the Chinese had to withdraw. The importation into Japan was further
promoted by an import duty on sugar destined for foreign countries of 0-50 yen
(is. ojd.) per picul.
* I Japanese picul= 133-33 lbs. or 60-5 kg.
87
Asia.
Later on, in 1906, this was changed into 0-45 yen per picul brown sugar,.
and 0-50 yen per picul white sugar, but as no Formosan sugar was exported,
this export duty did not at first amount to much.
As, however, sugar manufacturers looked for foreign markets for Formosa
sugar, they raised an agitation, in consequence of which the export duties
were abolished in November, igio.
The original consumption duty raised in 1901 was increased in 1906 —
a year of trouble — and also in 1908, and was modified again in 1909.
The amounts were, in yen per picul, as follows : —
1901
1906'
Sugar below No. 8 D.S.
I-
3-
„ from 8—15 D.S.
1-6
5-50
from 15 — 20 D.S.
2-2
8-50
„ above 20 and candy . .
2-8
10-
In 1909 there was a different kind of classification, and the consumption
duty was levied as follows : —
Class I. Sugar below No. 8 D.S. :
Brown sugar in barrels
Other kinds
,, II. Sugar between No. 8 and 15
„ III. „ „ No. 15 and 18
„ IV. ,, „ No. 18 and 20
,, V. ,, above No. 20
Candy, crystal sugar, cubes
2 yen
3
5
9
10
In April, 1911, the duty on the sugar from Class I. was changed as follows :-
[a) Brown sugar in barrels . . . . 2-00 yen
(h) Unrefined sugar, except centrifugalled 2-00 ,,
(c) All others . . . . . . . . 3-00 ,,
When imported into Japan for direct consumption, the Formosan sugar
enjoys the full protection of the Japanese import duty, and when imported
for refining purposes that of the difference between the import duty and the
drawback. There have been complaints about too low a classification of the
consumption duty on Formosan sugar by the Customs officers, who reckon
Formosan sugar to belong to a lower class for the payment of duty
than should be the case. How far there is cause for these complaints,
and how far this cause, if any, will continue to exist it is difficult to say ; but
even without this privilege the Formosan sugar has a great advantage over
other kinds of sugar when imported into Japan proper, and so it becomes clear
88
Formosa.
that so long as Japan is able to take it up, the entire Formosan sugar exporta-
tion is bound for Japan, and only the surplus will be sent to other countries.
In 1911 some 10,000 tons of Formosan sugar have actually been shipped to other
places than Japan, e.g., to China, Korea, Canada, and Hong Kong ; but as
the 1912 crop will be rather short, owing to hurricanes that befell the cane
in August, it is very ' improbable that such exportation will take place in
19 1 2 as well.
It is difficult to get the exact figures for the total production of Formosan
sugar, as nobody knows for certain how much of the brown sugar prepared
in the second-rate factories is consumed in the island itself. It is easier to
get at the figures of exportation, which show that a rapid increase in the sugar
production has been brought about by Japan's promotion of the sugar trade
The figures are as follows : —
Formosan Sugar in tons.
1901/02
46,893
1902/03
32,992
1903/04
58,968
1904/05
49.565
1905/06
63,359
1906/07
81,448
1907/08
68,450
1908/09
122,000
1909/10
160,000
I9I0/II
256,950
Of the 256,950 tons sugar produced in 1910/11, 59,000 tons were brown
sugar, and the rest centrifugal sugar. The first-mentioned sugar exceeded the
quantity exported in former years, as almost all Philippine sugar is now sent to
the United States because of the exemption from import duty there, so that
there is more room for Formosan sugar in Japan. For this reason a number
of licences was taken out a couple of years ago for the foundation of small
factories for brown sugar, which may lead to an increase in the quantity at
which it is now estimated.
The main increase, however, is due to the improved production of crystal
sugar. There is a constant addition of newly installed factories, while the
existing ones increase their production by turning their capacity to better
account, so that the importation of Formosan crystal sugar annually improves,
and may continue to do so.
According to the Dutch Consul's report at Kobe, there were in 1910
15 big sugar estates existing in the island of Formosa, 8 of which ran a number
of factories installed on the most modern plan, while the other 7 were hastening
to build factories for the rapid preparation of centrifugal sugar. Besides
the tracts marked out by the Sugar Bureau as fields of operation for the big
estates with their modern factories, there are stiU a number of old-fashioned
89
Asia.
sugar factories, which, provided with new machinery, manufacture exclu-
sively brown sugar.
The modern estates are capitalized as follows, and have the number of
factories mentioned either already at their disposal, or else under construc-
tion : —
Capital in million Ven.
Number
Production
Name.
of
Factorie.s.
in
Piculs
In Tons.
Nominal.
Paid-up.
1909-10.
Taiwan Seito Kaisha
10
6-9225
5
650,000
39,000
Meizi Seito Kaisha
5
2-5
3
150,000
9,000
Toyo Seito Kaisha
5
2-5 ^
2
150,000
9,000
Ensuiko Seito Kaisha
5
1-5
3
240,000
14,400
Takasago Seito Kaisha
2-5
0-625
I
—
—
Dai Nippon Seito Kaisha .
12
4
2
200,000
12,000
Niitaka Seito Kaisha
5-5
1-25
4
—
Hokko Seito Kaisha
2-5
—
I
—
Rinhogen Seito Kaisha
2-5
2-5
I
—
—
Formosa Sugar Dev. Co. .
0-8
0-8
I
100,000
6,000
Shinko Seito Kaisha
0-6
0-6
I
70,000
4,200
Shinchiku
0-3
—
I
—
—
Bain & Co. . .
0-3
0-3
I
40,000
2,400
Cada Seito Kaisha . .
0-2
0-2
I
—
—
Byoritsu
0-5
0-125
I
- —
—
1,600,000
96,000
According to the same authority, the total grinding capacity of the modern
undertakings amounted to 10,400 tons per twenty-four hours for the crushing
season 1909/10 ; but this was increased to 17,000 tons of cane for the year
1910/11, so that this latter season yielded the already-mentioned quantities
of 197,480 tons of crystal, and 59,000 tons of soft sugar. The construction of
more factories is under way, so that, if the weather had not been too unfavour-
able, in the year 1911/12 Formosa would have produced an amount of sugar
equal to that required by Japan for supplying her own wants, in addition
to her own production of 1,000,000 piculs (60,000 tons).
It is certain that Formosa will not be satisfied with this success, and will
aspire after greater things, and endeavour to export her produce to other
countries, either as raw sugar or as sugar refined in Japan.
We must not lose sight of the fact that the success achieved is greatly
due to the Government's powerful patronage, and the preferential treatment
accorded to Formosan sugar in Japan. The industry may, of course, lose all
90
The Philippines.
these privileges before long, in which case the pVesent state of affairs may
change altogether ; but we must not forget how in Europe at the time of the
sugar bounties refined sugar could be exported to foreign countries by the
levying of a high surtax and a clever co-operation of sugar refiners
and merchants. ,
The possibility of a great export trade in Formosan sugar depends on
Japanese inland politics, so that we cannot say anything certain about it.
We may predict, however, that Formosa will produce after 1912 a quantity
of sugar large enough to supply Japan's wants, and for the rest we must leave
things to the future.
Literature :
Summary of the Administration in Taiwan (Formosa).
Report of the British Consul at Tamsui, 1909.
Report of the Netherlands Consul at Kobe, 1910.
British, German and American Consular Reports.
VII.
THE PHILIPPINES.
I. — Geographical Conditions, Population and
Modes of Communication.
The group of islands called the Philippines lies in the Pacific Ocean, south-
east of the Chinese Empire, between 4° 10' and 21° 10' N. Lat., and 116° 40'
and 126° 53' E. Long. It consists of no fewer than 3,140 different islands,
greatly varying in size, which in all cover 127,853 sq. miles of land.
The names and areas of the principal islands are as follows : —
Mindanao .
. . 46,721 sq. miles
Luzon
■• 44.235
Samar _
■■ 5.448
Palawan .
■ ■ 5.037
Panay
.. 5,103
Negros
.. 4.854
Leyte
.• 4,214
Mindoro .
.. 4.108
Cebu
.. 1.782
Masbate .
Bohol
.- 1.732
.. 1,614
91
Asia.
But we must not forget to mention that these numbers stand for the combined
areas of the bigger and the neighbouring islands. As a whole, the Philippines
group is intersected by mountain ridges of a volcanic nature, which continue
under the sea, and join the different islands coherently together. The islands
possess some fifty volcanoes, active and partly extinct, while the country is^
always subject to earthquakes. The highest volcanoes are Apa, near Davao
Bay in Mindanao (10,331ft.), and Mayon, on Luzon, (8,970 ft.).
The coasts of the island are much indented, and are rich in favourable
landing places. The principal harbour is Manila, in Luzon, with a splendid
bay, which is sheltered from the fiercest typhoons by a breakwater, and,
consequently, is a safe port for large ships in the worst weather. The bay
is so deep that ocean vessels with full cargo can advance as far as the Pasi
River. Other important harbours are those of Cebu and Iloilo, while the
numerous islands can point to many other ports which are noted for their
navigable rivers. Both owing to the mountainous nature and the considerable
rairifall of these islands, a great many rivers exist which are of considerable
width but of only moderate length.
The streams descending from the mountains carry along the disintegrated
deposit of volcanic stones, and fill the hollows between the mountain ridges
with them, so that broad vaUeys of very fertile soil are created, which form
the banks of the river. In many cases the rivers inundate the surrounding
country in the rainy season, and cover it with a layer of mud, which occurrence
stops aU traffic on the spot when it is raining. The Rio Grande de Mindanao,
which with its numerous tributaries drains the extensive inland, is one of the
principal rivers, and joins the sea at the port of Cotta Bato, on the Celebes
Sea. Further, there is in Mindanao the Agusan River ; in Luzon the Cagayan
River, which flows out at Aparri into the Chinese Sea ; and the Panay River,
in Panay ; and many others. The three first-mentioned are navigable to
a great distance from their mouths, but only for small steamers.
Although the Philippine Islands are in the tropics, their meteorological
conditions vary so much that it is impossible to give any general data as regards
climate. On the whole, one can describe the sea coast climate' as moderate
between November and the beginning of March, fairly hot in March, July,
August and September, and extremely hot in April, May and June. The
nights, however, are always cool. The temperature in the mountains, of
course, is lower than at the coast, and greatly depends on the elevation above
sea level, so that fixed data are out of the question. The average monthly
temperature varies between 25° C. in January and 28-3° C. in May. The
yearly rainfall is on an average 74 ins., 50 of which fall in the months of July,
August, September, and October, and the rest during the other eight months.
92
as
The Philippines.
The monthly mean temperature for a period of twenty years is for Manila
follows expressed in degrees Centigrade ; —
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
March
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Mean
1883 .
• 25-2
25-6
277
28-2
287
27-1
267
27-4
26-5
26-5
26-0
24-1
26-6
1884 .
• 23-6
247
26-4
27-8
28-2
27-0
26-3
26-5
26-6
26-6
25-9
24-3
26-2
1885 .
. 24-6
24-4
26-1
27-3
28-5
28-3
27-3
27-1
27-6
27-3
26-4
25-2
267
1886 .
• 25-2
247
26-4
28-3
28-5
27-5
27-0
27-5
27-1
26-6
26-0
24-9
26-6
1887 .
• 25-2
25-3
267
277
277
27-6
27-1
27-3
26-3
26-4
26-1
25-4
26-6
1888 .
• 24-9
25-2
27-5
287
29-2
27-8
26-1
27-2
27-6
26-3
26-5
26-0
26-9
1889 .
• 25-8
26-4
27-5
29-4
30-3
287
27-5
27-3
27-5
27-1
26-5
24-0
27-4
1890 .
25-6
25-9
27-3
27-9
27-9
27-3
27-3
27-4
26-5
26-1
25-4
25-2
26-6
189I .
24-6
25-0
267
28-6
29-8
27-6
26-8
26-6
26-8
27-4
26-3
25-5
26-8
1892 .
25-3
26-0
27-1
28-0
28-8
28-1
27-3
27-0
267
27-1
25-8
25-0
26-9
1893 .
24-1
25-4
26-5
28-3
27-8
277
27-3
277
26-6
26-5
257
25-4
26-6
1894 .
247
25-0
26-6
28-2
28-0
277
27-2
27-3
26-8
26-9
25-6
25-0
26-6
1895 .
247
25-1
267
28-3
28-0
27-8
27-5
27-1
26-9
27-5
25-8
25-1
267
1896 .
24-6
25-8
27-2
28-4
27-6
28-0
27-3
26-4
27-2
27-2
26-4
25-3
26-8
1897 .
257
26-3
277
29-0
29-4
29-5
27-5
27-1
27-2
27-3
26-8
25-5
27-4
1898 .
25-5
26-2
26-3
27-9
28-2
27-6
267
27-3
27-2
26-9
26-1
257
26-8
;n899 .
25-3
25-0
257
27-9
28-1
27-5
27-0
27-0
27-3
27-0
25-8
257
26-6
1900 .
25-1
26-0
27-5
28-9
29-8
28-3
277
27-4
27-5
27-2
26-5
25-5
27-3
1901 .
25-3
25-2
26-6
28-4
28-9
28-3
27-6
26-8
277'
27-0
26-4
25-0
26-9
1902 .
25-4
24-0
267
28-1
28-8
28-2
27-2
27-0
267
28-8
26-1
25-8
267
Average
25-0
25-4
26-8
28-3
28-6
27-9
27-1
27-1
27-0
26-9
26-1
25-2
26-8
The period of rainfall for the different places depends on their position
as regards, the mountain ridges, which stop the trade-winds, and so force them
to yield up their moisture. That is why on the west coast of the islands they
have dry weather from November till May, and a rainy season from June till
October. On the east coast, on the other hand, the period between November
and May is noted for its rainfall, but during the months between June and
October there is not nearly so much rain as on the west coast. This refers
to the mountainous parts of the islands, while in the plains, which are exposed
to wind and not sheltered by mountain ranges, they have a very regular rainfall.
The Philippine .Islands are not far away from the t3rphoon area, which
makes the Chinese Seas unsafe. The typhoons usually come on between the
months of April and October, especially in September. An up-to-date and
well-established observatory in Manila foretells their approach through baro-
metric indications derived from a great number of stations, and warns all
the harbours that shipping may be aware of the impending danger. On land
93
Asia.
the typhoons do hardly any damage, and axe not nearly so disastrous in their
effects as the hurricanes are in Mauritius or in the islands of the Caribbean
Sea.
The population of the Philippine Islands, according to the census of 1903,
amounted to 7,635,426, 6,987,686 of whom were Christians and the rest Moham-
medans and heathen ; the density is, therefore, only 60 per sq. mile. The
population is densest in the province of Ilicos Sur, with 414, and in the provinces
of Cebu and Pangasinan with 337 inhabitants per sq. mile ; while the extensive
island of Mindanao has only 15 inhabitants per sq. mile.
Besides the old-established railway from Manila to Dagapan, about 720
miles of railway have been constructed in the Philippine Islands during the
last few years, to connect the best harbours with the most fertile part of the
interior ; 430 miles of them are constructed in the isle of Luzon, and about
300 miles in the Viscaya group, namely, Cebu, Negros, and Panay. In Negros
the port of Escalente, in the north, is connected with San Juan de Hog harbour,
on the west coast, via the richest sugar country of the Philippines. In Cebu
the Danao railway runs through densely populated parts along the east coast
for 80 miles southward ; while in Panay the important harbour of Iloilo, in
the south, is connected with the ports of Capiz and Batan, in the north, by
a main line of 95 miles and a branch line of 20 miles.
The isle of Luzon is, however, developing the most extensive railway
system. First of aU, on the most southern peninsula a railway is being con-
structed from Pasacoa to Albay with branch lines through the principal hemp-
producing parts of the island. From Manila there is already a railway running
to Dagapan, which is being extended in a northern direction to Loagag. Then
a smaller line goes from Dagapan to the summer resort of Baguio, situated
at a height of 5,000 ft. ; and, finally, Manila is going to have some more railway
connections with the interior, and a main line in a southern direction to Cavite,
Batangas, and Laguna on the south coast. All these lines are either finished
or under construction, and will soon bring the principal productive parts of
these populous islands into touch with the harbours in a convenient and in-
expensive way.
After the Americans took possession of the Philippines, not only the
railways, but also the main roads were taken note of and improved, as their
condition under Spanish rule left much to be desired, especially m the rainy
season.
Although sugar cane is used everywhere on the inhabited islands of the
Philippine group as a dainty, a regular sugar industry only exists in the islands
of Negros, Cebu, Luzon, and Leyte, covering 250,000 acres of ground, and
producing 207,219 tons of sugar for export in igii.
94
The Philippines.
11. — History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
The sugar cane itself and the art of preparing sugar therefrom was most
probably introduced into the Philippine Islands by the Chinese, as many
of the names of implements and the customs there in use point distinctly to-
a Chinese origin. When Magellan, in 1521, discovered these islands,he already
found a sugar industry in existence on a small scale, but entirely similar to
the Chinese system, and its product likewise similar to the Chinese product,
which fact points undoubtedly to the Chinese origin of this branch of industry.
Pope Alexander VI., in 1493, in order to prevent discord between the
rivals Spain and Portugal, divided the world into two parts, and, according
to the treaty of Tordesillas of 1494, allotted to Portugal all the newly discovered,
as well as the unknown countries, east of the meridian, which passes 470 miles
west of the Cape Verd Isles ; while Spain got everything lying west of this
line. Charles the Fifth sent out the Portuguese Ferdinand Magellan, who
had- enlisted with the Spanish, to navigate in a western direction, reach the
Moluccas, and take possession of them, as they lay west of the dividing line.
On this expedition round the southern point of America, Magellan discovered
the Philippine Islands, to which, however, no further attention was paid
till 1564, when a Spanish expedition set sail from Mexico, and in 1565 claimed
these islands in the name of the King of Spain. It took some time before
the possession was sufficiently confirmed, but, apart from a short period of
British dominion between the years 1762 and 1764, the Philippine Islands
continued under Spanish rule till 1898, when they fell to the United States.
In the year 1896, in consequence of the Spanish oppression, revolutionary
outbreaks were prevalent, but were forcibly suppressed by the Spanish Govern-
ment. The insurgents invoked the help of the Americans, who were then
waging war -with Spain. This led to the destruction of the Spanish fleet in
the harbour of Manila in 1898, and to the final conquest of that town by the
Americans on August 13th of the same year. It was, however, not the wish
of the revolutionaries to substitute an American government for a Spanish,
and so they proclaimed an independent national government, but were soon
driven out by the Americans, who had taken possession of the group of islands.
During the Spanish regime not much attention was paid to the develop-
ment of the resources of these islands ; the Spaniards were keener on building
churches and convents than on the construction of roads or the development
of the means of livelihood and the facilitation of industry. The religious
Orders had become increasingly powerful, and were the proprietors of consider-
able plots of land, which they allowed the natives to cultivate. These Orders
were far from desirous to suppress the population ; they were kind and con-
siderate, and aimed at nothing but the welfare of their proteges ; but they
could not be expected to achieve great things, nor to take a broad view in
business matters; consequently, the state of the industry remained most
primitive.
95
Asia.
That the general state of the country was not bad appears from the fairly
rapid increase inpopulation, which from 667,612 people in 1591 rose to 7,635,426
in 1903 — a tenfold increase was thus attained in 400 years. In 1871 the newly-
appointed Governor-General claimed both corvee and taxes, which caused
*much anger and friction among the population, and, in conjunction with
many other grievances as regards despotism and incapacity on the side of
the Spanish rulers, led to the loss of the Philippine Islands in the end.
The Philippines were not of any importance as a sugar producing country
till after 1849, in which year the island Negros, by command of the Spanish
Governor-General, was placed under the jurisdiction of the religious Order of
the Recoletos, one of the three communities of the Minorites. The governor
encouraged the sugar industry very much, and was unexpectedly assisted
by an increase in sugar prices through the Crimean war, so that it became
profitable to cultivate sugar for export purposes in Negros, Luzon and Cebu.
In spite of the bad roads, the unskilfulness of the sugar planters, the
lack of capital, and the primitive mills and factory installations, the sugar
exportation rapidly gained in importance to reach during the last years of
the Spanish Government, in 1893, its greatest output of 261,686 tons. Through
a financial crisis in consequence of a fall in the price of silver, and later on
through friction and turbulence, the industry went down in 1901 to as low
as 52,274 tons, but has since gradually increased to 207,219 tons in 1911.
Immediately after the United States had taken possession of the Philip-
pines, they tried hard to promote the well-being of the islands. They improved
the sanitary conditions everywhere, looked after transportation facilities and
harbours, began to construct an extensive railway system, put the educa-
tion of the natives on a sound basis, and opened up possibilities for getting
credit cheaply, all of which measures will perforce influence the sugar
industry for the better when once this influence becomes felt. Up to
then the greatest obstacles to a rapid development of the sugar industry had
been the poverty of the manufacturers and their dependence on money-
lenders, and a lack of good roads. All the sugar factories are small, and
installed in a primitive and uneconomical way, and are in the habit of losing
enormous quantities of sugar through the very bad system of juice extraction
and evaporation in open pans, and curing in' earthenware pots. It is not only
that the manufacturers are unable to obtain their sugar in a more rational
and profitable way, but they are also much in debt to the sugar buyers in
the seaport towns, so that large sums must be deducted for interest from
the price of sugar provided before there can be any thought of profit.
On the west -coast of Negros, the seat of the large sugar estates, there
are no seaports for ships, so that the sugar from each factory has first to be
taken to Iloilo in small sailing vessels, to be there laded into steamers. By
constructing a railway on Negros the object is to put the sugar districts in
direct communication with, the harbours of the island, and, consequently,
to avoid the difficulty of re-loading.
q6
The Philippines.
Although the American Government has put some funds at the disposal
of native peasants as credit, this has had hardly any effect : first of all,
because the sums advanced were not far-reaching enough ; and, secondly,
because the Filipinos feel too much the pressure of money-lenders to avail
themselves without restraint of this State assistance ; and we must not forget,
either, the national dislike for all that is new.
Besides the indirect help, the Government of the United States, in 1902,
allowed a drawback of 25 per cent, of the import duties on all sugar imported
into the territory of the United States from the Philippine Islands.
This has not been of much avail, as, to judge from the figures representing
the exportation of Philippine sugar, only very little has been imported into
the States since. As a matter of fact, the sugar is of such inferior quality
and is so impure that only a few of the American refiners can handle it, and
then only in small quantities together with a much larger amount of better
raw sugar. Most of the Philippine sugar is sent to the neighbouring countries
of China and Japan, where the far less fastidious population like to eat it in
the raw state.
This privilege, therefore, has not led to much, and that is why, in 1909,
it was extended- by a clause to the effect that each year the quantity of 300,000
tons of, sugar was to be allowed to be imported exempt from duty into the
United States, but that full import duty had to be paid on aU sugar above
that quantity. A restricting stipulation has been added to prevent some
first-rate manufacturer from establishing gigantic factories in the Philippine
Islands, grinding his cane very early, sending the sugar in fast steamers to
America, and thus getting his sugar imported free from duty ; while the less
enterprising native manufacurers, who lag behind, would enjoy none of
these privileges.
According to this stipulation, only those estates will be privileged that
are likely to export less than 500 tons sugar a year, while those that wish to
exceed the amount of 500 tons will be considered last. Further restrictions
involve a thorough investigation as regards the identity of the privileged
exporter to ensure that he who comes in for protection shall have produced
the sugar himself, and not act as a go-between for a leading manufacturer.
The obj ect is clear : the small manufacturer is always to have the first benefit of
free importation. As the existing production, however, only forms two-thirds
of the quantity allowed free from duty, and a good kind of sugar (basis 96°)
is much more welcome to the American refiners than the present universally
manufactured Philippine mat-sugar, we may suppose that should large factories
be erected according to modern methods,, they will be able to import their
sugar exempt from import duty into the United States, and it will be some
time before the American industry in the Philippines will increase sufficiently
to attain to or even exceed the limit of 300,000 tons allowed by America.
Most of this imported sugar will, no doubt, be sugar polarizing 96°, and
it will be a long time before the conservative small manufactuter will produce
97 . ^
Asia.
this kind on such a large scale that his part in the importation of sugar into
the United States can be so considerable as to cause uneasiness to the central
factories that may be estabhshed later on.
Up to three years ago there was a restriction which made it difficult for
American concerns to start large sugar establishments in the Philippines.
This restriction was to the effect that a single person was not allowed to occupy
more than 40 acres, and a company to occupy more than 2,500 acres ; accord-
ing to American ideas it was an impossibility to found a proper sugar enter-
prise on so small a tract of land. This seems to be no longer a restriction, as
the Government sells larger plots of ground, which, when the Americans took
possession of the islands, belonged to religious Orders, and have since been
bought from them. In a similar manner an agent of an American corporation
bought in 1909 no less than 55,000 acres of friar land in the isle of Mindoro
for the sum of $361,000 ; and Hawaiian sugar planters have bought 20,000
acres from the Calamba convent in the province of Laguna, in Luzon, in order
to establish a sugar undertaking on that spot, which by rail and boat is con-
nected with Manila.
The corporation just mentioned has already formed a company named
the Mindoro Development Company, which has built a sugar factory on the
site. So we may expect great things of the Philippine Islands in the near
future.
III. — Cane Cultivation and Sugar Manufacture.
In the Philippines it is the custom to burn the. trash, and to plough up
the soil immediately after the cane is reaped, or as soon as the weather permits.
This is chiefly done with inefficient wooden ploughs, although gradually superior
American iron ploughs have been introduced, allowing of a better tillage.
After the big lumps have been broken by a harrow, the furrows are dug 6 ins.
deep, and at 30 — 60 ins. distance from centre to centre. All this happens
in the months between November and April in soil that has just been planted
■with cane ; in the case of tilling fallow land the work is begun in July or
August, in order to have everything ready for the time of planting. For
planting purposes one takes the white tops of the cane, in most cases first
soaked in water in order to germinate better. Generally the cuttings are
planted at 16 ins. distance from each other, so that an acre will hold 10,000
of them. The sets are laid into the furrows sloping slightly, so that a very
little of one end peeps out of the soil ; four or five weeks after planting the
weeding and banking are done, but manuring is out of the question.
In July, at the time of the rain monsoon, some more banking and weeding
is carried out, this concluding the field activities, so that nothing is left but
harvesting.
Cane is not planted afresh every year, but allowed to ratoon. In some
parts nothing else but first ratoons is kept ; but in case of a rich and deep
98
The Philippines.
soil one can reap as many as eight crops before planting afresh. The plant
cane is usually reaped from eleven to fourteen months after it has been planted,
and the ratoon always after one year.
The variety of cane mostly planted in Luzon is a white or yellowish sort,
while the Morada, or Purple Cane, is exclusively planted in Negros. Only a
little white and black cane is found in some places in this island.
Of parasites, grasshoppers and a species of coco-beetle are most to be
feared ; while an epidemic among the water buffaloes, which are used both
for ploughing and driving mills, greatly contributed towards a considerable
decline in the sugar industry in 1901.
The planters have much difficulty in getting regular labour. They recruit
labourers froni the other islands, but are obliged to advance money before
these are wilHng to come, while the legal security is not great, and the
trustworthiness of the borrower not high, either ; so that breach of contract
and loss of the money advanced is frequently experienced, and, of course,
impedes any regular progress of affairs.
Plant cane is reckoned to yield 2-5 tons of sugar per acre ; first ratoon
2-0 tons ; second ratoon 1-75 tons ; third ratoon 1-5 tons ; fourth ratoon
1-25 tons. A field that does not yield more than o-8 ton sugar per acre is
hot thought fit for ratooning, and has to be planted again. It also depends,
of course, on the small or large supply of labour, on the amount of land, etc.,
as one sooner thinks of planting again with an abundance of labour and land,
than when there is a scarcity of both.
Considering the smaller production of first and second ratoons, one can
safely reckon half of the total product to be supplied by plant cane, and the
other half by the first and subsequent ratoons.
The prime cost of cane, of course, has much to do with the production
per acre, and also with the type and the fertility of the soil. Allowing 40
centavos de peso Philippino (10 pence) for day wages, the cost of an acre of
plant cane amounts to 1872 pesos (from the burning over of the field to the
cutting), not reckoning cost of cattle, implements and superintendence. When
calculated in the same way, the cost of an acre of first and second ratoon
amounts to 9-65 pesos, so that an average acre of cane in the field comes to
14-32 pesos, for tillage and seed. Allowing a yield of 24 piculs* sugar per
acre, the cultivation of a picul sugar is reckoned to cost 60 centavos (is. 3d.).
In cutting the cane much care is not taken, so that tall cane stumps often
stick out of the ground, which, naturally, causes direct loss. The bigger
estates have at their disposal portable rails with trucks, or a fixed railroad with
movable sidings, while the smaller ones transport the cane by means of bullock
or carabao (water-buffalo) carts of 30 piculs capacity. The cutting of the
cane comes to 12-5 to 20 centavos per picul sugar, and the transport to the
mill costs 10 — 25 centavos per picul sugar, varying with the distance to be
covered.
* I Philippine picul = 63-28 kg. or 137^ lbs.
99
Asia.
The installation of the factories is rather primitive. In 1907 in the Philip-
pine Islands 1,075 little factories were found — 528 working with steam, 470
with carabaos or human power,' and 77 with water power. The number of
carabao mills steadily diminishes, and will soon become nil, while water mills
are only limited to the very unimportant little factories in the interior, where
mountain streams yield a very inexpensive supply of power. The majority
of the factories grind 50 — 60 tons, or 800 — i',ooo piculs, cane a day in a single
mill, without second crushing, so that the loss of sugar in bagasse is very con-
siderable, and the bagasse is so moist that it is unfit for fuel without being
dried in the sun.
Evaporation in vacuum pans, and the use of centrifugals, are not known
in the Philippine factories, the juice being clarified with a little lime and evapora-
ted to dryness in a fcattery of five or six hemispherical pans or " cauas."
The following diagram gives a clear idea of what the installation of such
a factory is like : —
Fig. 5. SCHEME of a plant to make sugar from cane juice in the PHILIPPINES.
There are generally two distinct batteries built over separate furnaces,
having only the No. 5, or juice-receiving " caua " in common. The two
100
The Philippines.
batteries are fired tHrough a separate lurnace, and the furnace chambers
converge into one under the boiler, which, moreover, can be heated from the
side too. The juice coming from the mill is freed from the suspended particles
of bagasse by being strained through a clotji or wire screen, and then comes
into a " caua," where it is warmed up to 70 or 80° C, some of the lighter im-
purities rising to the surface in the form of a froth, which is skimmed off and
thrown into the scum-tanks at one side. From time to time, as required,
juice is ladled with a kerosene tin into the smaller " cauas," where it is mixed
with. lime. In Nos. 3 and 2 the first violent ebullition occurs, and the im-
purities that float to the top are steadily skimmed off and thrown into the
scum-tanks. The juice, left by the scum, tends to flow back, and the remainder
now and then flows to a strainer, from which the extracted juice returns to the
mill juice tanks. When the juice is properly concentrated, the thick mass
is quickly ladled into woodeh crystallizers, where it is stirred with a spade
till it coagulates to a soft crystalUne substance, when it is ready for
transportation.
Philippine sugar is classified commercially under two main headings,
which are subdivided again into numbers.
Sugar that polarizes above 80° is called " Superior," and is subdivided
as follows : —
No. I from 87 — 88-9° (or higher) average 88° polarization.
No. 2 ,, 85 — SS-g" average 86° polarization.
No. 3 „ 80-84-9° „ 82-5° „
The difference in price between grades has ordinarily been 25 centavos
per picul, but since Philippine sugar is now more and more bought for shipment
to New York this simple and harmonious scale of prices is disturbed. Accord-
ing to the New York basis of o-i cent gold per lb. for each degree difference
in polarization, the difference in price between Nos. i and 2 would be
56 centavos per picul, and between Nos. 2 and 3 98 cenj:avos per picul.
When large purchases of "Superior" are made, and nothing special
is stipulated, I of No. i quality, | of No. 2, and | of No. 3 may be reckoned,
the price for assorted being midway between Nos. 2 and 3, and its average
polarization 84°. Of late years rather more No. i has been produced, so that
26 per cent. No. i, 18 per cent. No. 2, and 56 per cent. No. 3 is nearer the
figure, the average polarization of the lot coming to 84-4°.
Besides the "Superior" sugar, there is; —
" Humedo " (wet) . from 76 — 79-9° polarization.
"Corriente" (current) from" 70— 75-9°.
" Humedo " is quoted at about i peso less than No. 3, while " Corriente "
has no fixed ratio to the other grades. The relative amount of these two
grades produced is rather difficult to estimate, since much is mixed together
and sold to Chinese buyers as " wet " sugar, regardless of its polarization ;
1 01
25-0
per
cent.
5-0
2-5
>,
lO-O
„
1-5
It
44-0
per
cent.
Asia.
while the better grade of " humedo " is frequently worked off by blending
it in small quantities with No. 3 superior. Climatic conditions during different
years also affect the proportion of low-grade sugars, but generally it varies
between 10 and 20 per cent, of the total production. The average production
consists of 85 per cent, superior of 84° polarization, and 15 per cent, of wet
at 75° polarization, with an average polarization for the whole of 82-6°.
Manufacture, as is seen, is most primitive, and although all the molasses
are kept in the product, so that no loss is suffered as regards this waste sub-
stance, the sucrose loss from material to finished product in Iloilo amounts to
no less than 44 per cent., classified as follows : —
In the bagasse . .
In the scum skimmed off in the boiling
• process
By inversion, caramelization, etc.
Burned, spilled, stolen, and unaccounted for
Tare, loss of weight in transport, etc.
The cane as ordinarily ground in the mills averages 14-75 per cent, of
sugar, so the yield in sucrose on the weight of the cane amounts to 8-26 per
cent., or almost exactly 10 per cent, of raw sugar polarizing 82-6. This does
not hold good for all parts of the islands, but we may reckon an average of
something between 9 per cent, and iij per cent.
The manufacturing cost of a picul of sugar may be estimated at 63 centavos
per picul, when it is done under a single management. If, on the other
hand, as is sometimes the case, the grinding, the sugar boiling, and the bagasse
drying are each done by different people, who have to share in the profit,
manufacture cost$ 72 centavos per picul. Then the sugar has to be carted
to the lorcha (a small flat-bottomed schooner), which carries it to the ports
of exportation. Next, commission amounting to 2 per cent, has to be paid,
so that for extra expenses we may calculate 53 centavos per picul.
Hence the net cost of sugar is estimated generally, per picul, to be as
follows : —
Ploughing, planting, and caring for cane
sugar until it is ready for cutting o-6o pesos
Cutting the cane and carting, it to the
mill . . . . . . . . . . 0-32
Manufacture . . . . . . . . 0-63
Shipping, and placing on market . . 0-53 „
2 -08 pesos
102
The Philippines.
This does not include cost of buffaloes, implements, machinery, survey,
interest on capital, working capita;l, but only states the cost price in wages
and all direct expenses. Herbert S. Walker, in his essay on the sugar industry
in the isle of Negros, gives an estimate of the other expenses, and arrives at
a rate of interest of lo per cent, on fixed and working capital, and lo per cent,
depreciation per annum — an additional cost of sugar at the coast of 4-15
pesos per picul. On the other hand, most of the planters are not able to raise
money at 10 per cent, interest, but have to pay considerably more, so that
the cost price of that kind of sugar polarizing 82° exceeds 4-15 pesos (8s. 8d.).
In the case of the few planters using their own capital, if no interest is charged
on this, the cost of production, including all amortization and maintenance,
expenses, would be reduced to 3-38 pesos per picul.
This leaves a fair profit, as sugar in Manila and Iloilo brings per picul
in pesos (in November, 1909) : —
Per picul.
Per ton.
Superior No. i . .
7-50
II8-59
No. 2 ..
7-25
114-63
„ No. 3 • •
7-00
110-68
average (assorted)
7-12
112-66
Humedo (wet)
5-62
68-96
Corriente (current)
4-00
63-24
On the New York market the price quoted for Iloilo " Assorted " is prac-
tically constant at i cent gold per lb. less than that of 96° centrifugal, so that
the price of Philippine sugar is to be inferred from the New York quotations.
In 1907 there were in all 1,075 small factories, classified as follows : —
Number
Driven
Driven
Average
Island.
Province.
of
by
by
Production
produc-
Factories
Steam.
Cattle.
in Pesos.
tion in
Pesos.
Luzon
Pampanga
.-
194
131
48'
758,691
3,911
,^
Bulacan
38
3
35
83,070
2,186
Tarlac and Capiz
35
12
21
62,206
T-'in
Bataan
18
10
—
46,520
2,584
La Laguna
23
10
13
40,551
1.763
Cavite . .
15
—
13
27452
1,830
Batangas
8
I
7
16,063
2,008
Pangasinan . .
4
2
2
8,354
2,089
La Union
3
2
I
6,600
2,200
Miramis
3
,
3
6,586
2,195
Carried forwar
d
331
171
143
1,056,093
22,543
103
Asia.
Number
Driven
Driven
Average
Island.
Province.
of
by
by
Production
produc-
Factories
Steam.
Cattle.
in Pesos.
tion in
Pesos.
Brought forward
331
171
143
1,056,093
22,543
Luzon
Sorsogon
4
—
4
6,350
1.588
t*
Rizal
3
—
3
6,190
2,063
1)
Nueva Ecija
4
—
4
5.219
1.305
Negros
Negros Occidental .
531
291
194
4.644.398
8.747
n
Oriental
38
32
6
325.611
8.569
Panay
Iloilo
62 ■
26
36
372.399
6,006
,,
Antique
14
2
9
26,018
1.858
Cebu
Cebu
69
59
63
149,268
2,163
Leyte
Leyte
Total
9
I
8
11,460
1.273
1.075
528
470
6,603,006
6,142
The estates employed in all about 45,247 labourers. The largest of- all
in that year was Talisey, in Negros, which produced 300 piculs, or 20 tons,
of sugar each day.
The entire exportation of sugar, dating from the year when it became
important down to the present day, is given, together with the names of the
countries of destination, in the following table (the figures indicate metric
tons) : —
f
United
States.
United
Kingdom.
Cjnt.
Europe.
Australia
Canada.
China,
Japan, etc.
Year.
Atlantic
Pacific
Total.
Ocean.
Ocean.
1849 •• •
11.545
6,094
5.593
—
—
—
23,232
1850/54 •
13.952
9,616
8,048
935
—
—
32,551
1855/59 •
21,369
14,040
6,967
1,903
—
—
44,279
i860 .. .
27.231
10,976
13.204
4,342
—
55,753
1861 .
26,666
18,550
4.885
2,626
—
■ —
52,727
1862 .
37.603
1,162
28,413
6,482
4,160
—
2,922
80,742
1863 .
26,886
819
15.424
3.422
4,786
—
23,672
75,009
1864 .
41.854
429
1.794
6,346
9.043
-^
4.319
63,785
1865 .
20,292
939
11,543
4.290
8,202
—
9.910
55,176
1866 .
29,417
685
3.607
5.365
8,234
—
7,528
54,836
1867 .
31.715
1,788
7,617
6,156
5,111
—
12,17 -^
64.559
1868 .
51,216
660
6,061
11,601
2.753
—
1,789
74,080
1869 .
32.055
437
7,202
21,497
7.546
—
90
68,827
1870 .
40,547
2,307
7,156
19.039
4,100
—
5,063
78,212
104
The
Philippines.
1
United States.
United
Kingdom.
Cont.
Etirope.
Australia.
Canada.
China,
Japan, etc.
Year.
Atlantic
Pacific
Total.
Ocean.
Ocean.
187I . . . .
34.744
3,592
8,737
34.121
6,240
—
31
87,465
1872 .. ..
52,773
2,766
7,277
24,418
7,801
—
491
95,526
1873 ■'■ ..
35.266
' 4,468
13,649
27,412
8,409
—
134
89,338
1874 .. ..
41,637
2,545
7.924
37.038
14,178
—
540
103,862
1875 .. .
63,074
1.777
7,703
41.693
11,855
—
87
126,188
1876 .. ..
49.352
1.549
974
59.467
19,066
—
22
130,430
1877 .. .
55.406
2,528
—
55.138
9.179
—
160
122,411
1878 .. .
46,572
3,133
1,681
47,109
16,892
—
2,639
117,926
1879 •■ ■
69,151
2,168
—
53.237
2,839
—
7,409
134,804
1880 . . .
69,818
4.490
575
97,908
5.048
—
2,909
180,748
1881 .. .
108,909
9-532
3,120
80,419
4.949
—
4,488
211,417
1882 .. .
66,162
3,162
1.559
75,907
2,081
—
2,122
150,993
1883 .. .
56,309
9,214
—
140,656
8,874
—
183
215,236
1884 . . .
18,721
8.073
—
77.191
12,437
—
6,503
122,925
1885 .. .
33.292
4.175
—
147.997
4.829
—
22,498
212,791
1886 .. .
26,448
5,442
—
130.883
4,000
19,012
185,785
1887 .. .
29,887
4.510
89
118,997
4.500
—
21,165
159,146
1888 .. .
35.155
4,629
86
74,064
34.293
10,500
26,529
185,256
1889 . . .
54.874
5.123
— 1 112,223
17,819
14,728
14,160
218,927
1890 . .
40,041
3.926
. 5
35.482
5.145
26,883
36,042
147.520
189I . . .
48,819
2.337
—
60,022
—
36,570
18,712
166,464
1892 . .
73.837
3,032
—
61,542
—
32,575
76,218
247,686
1893 .. .
98.572
4.344
—
61,103
—
19,610
78,057
261,686
1894 .. .
61,139
4.119
—
36,420
—
20,465
72,176
194,313
1895 .. .
92,212
4,009
200
40,593
— '
19,022
74,887
230,929
1896 . . .
39.312
3,547
—
78,489
■ —
20,135
88,430
229,913
1897 .. .
47.037
1,775
—
- 15.223
—
9.130
128,928
202,093
1898 .. .
46,780
180
—
27,997
—
—
105,863
180,820
1899 .. .
17,967
2
—
22,105
—
—
52,980
93,054
1900 . .
. 12,748
—
—
2,100
—
—
47,896
62,744
I90I . .
27
—
—
1,975
—
—
50,272
52,274
1902 . .
. 5,912
—
—
2.550
—
—
83,610
92,072
1903 . . .
—
—
—
33.805
—
—
55,755
89,560
1904 .. .
• 4.350
—
—
20,893
—
—
58,740
83.983
1905 .. .
500
—
—
42.930
—
—
61,563
104.993
1906 . .
—
—
—
—
11,726
—
112,657
124.383
1907 . . .
. 11.663
—
—
8,698
2,002
1 ■ —
99,615
121,978
1908 . .
. 10,944.
—
—
45.969
—
! —
85.535
142,448
1909 .. .
—
—
—
50,223
—
j —
77.065
■ 127,288
I9IO . .
— ,
, —
—
84,681
12,932
— -
18,733
116,346
I9II .
—
—
—
168,461
105
17,700
' ^
21,058
207,219
Asia.
The import duty in the PhiHppine Islands has been since 5th August,
1907, as follows : —
Raw sugar, $372 (American) per 100 kilos.
Refined $4-23 „ „ ,, „
but as no sugar is being imported into the islands, this duty counts for nothing.
Then there is an export duty of 5 cents (American) per 100 kilos on all
sugar not bound for the States. Sugar destined for other Philippine Islands
or for American harbours is exempted from it.
IV.— Future.
As regards the prospect of the cane sugar industry in the Philippine
Islands, all forebodings point to gigantic progress in the near future, which
may be caused either by improvement and development of the existing under-
takings, or by the establishment of large central factories, with American
capital, either on land now occupied by the Philippine population, or else on
newly prepared soil. This follows when we consider that it was actually
possible to produce sugar that could compete with others in the world's
market, at a time when machinery was most primitive and uneconomical,
and when irrigation and agriculture and means of transportation left much
to be desired, and the manufacturers were poor and much in debt, while the
product was burdened with an export duty in its own country, and handi-
capped by import duties in almost every country of destination.
The American Government has established at Iloilo, in Panay, a Sugar
Bureau, where the different kinds of cane are being examined, and where the
best manuring methods will be investigated. Then there is a bank for the
native producer to get credit from at little cost, which guarantees him against
excessive interest, and enables him to turn the produce of his land to a better
account. As we saw, the actual production cost of sugar treated in a primitive
way was quite low, and we can therefore guess what it will be when well-
selected cane varieties are properly planted, manured, and kept in irrigated
land ; when cane is carried by railways to an economically working central
factory, where it will be worked up to centrifugal sugar ; when it is sent to
America in fast steamers ; and when it enters free and enjoys a premium of
no less than 1-685 cents per lb. for sugar basis 96° over sugar from other sources
which have no special treaty with the United States.
There is land and irrigation water in abundance, but labour is scarce,
as the country is as thinly populated on the average as Cuba. Now that
the latter, however, in spite of its small number of inhabitants and lack of
irrigation, has a greater yearly output of sugar than any other country in the
106
Java.
world, it does not seem to interfere with the important extension of the sugar
industry, while we should not lose sight of the fact that each of the two bigger
islands, Luzon and Mindoro, covers a slightly larger area than, for instance,
Cuba does, so that it is not unlikely that considerable areas will be planted
with sugar cane.
Besides the Filipinos, the American firms are sure to benefit by these
facilities — no doubt far more so. Through the purchase of 55,000 acres of
friar land in Mindoro and elsewhere by American sugar magnates, and of
20,000 acres in Luzon by Hawaiian planters, they have begun to turn to account
the treasures which the soil of the Philippine Islands offers to the sugar industry ;
and, encouraged as it is by the protection of the United States, it may have,
in the end, a future such as we dare not yet put down in figures.
Books of Reference —
Literature :
Hamilton M. Wright. A Handbook of the Philippines.
Bulletins of the U.S. Department of Agriculture.
British Consular Reports.
Report of the Philippine Commission for 1906.
Herbert S. Wallcer. The Sugar Industry in the Island of Negros.
VIIL
JAVA.
I. —Geographical Location, Climate and Area
planted with Cane.
The island of Java is situated in the Indian Ocean, between 105° 12' 37" and
II4'' 36' 4" E. Long, and between 5° 52' 30" and 8° 46' 51" S. Lat.
Its total area, not including Madura, amounts to 48,688 sq. miles ; its
greatest length measures 657 miles, while its breadth varies from 13 to 50
miles. It is narrowest in the western, middle, and eastern parts, while broader
stretches of land lie between.
The north coast is low and muddy, and broken up by several unimportant
bays, which, though in the dry season they may serve as sheltered landing
places, during the wet monsoon are unsuitable as roadsteads.
The road of Soerabaja only is an exception, while the seaport of Tand-
jong Priok is an artificial one on the muddy coast land. At Rembang the
flat north coast is broken up by steep limestone mountains, east of which
107
Asia.
stretches again ttie alluvial plain. The south coast is steep, and in some places
rocky. Sometimes dune formation is met with ; in most cases, however,
it is surrounded by steep cliffs, while the heavy breakers which generally
prevail on that part of the coast make the navigation of sea-going craft an
impossibility. The sheltered harbour of Tjilatjap alone is an excellent sea-
port, and the only natural port in the entire island
As regards the orography, one can divide Java into three parts, which
are separated by dividing lines running south of Cheribon and Semarang.
Of the entire western part, the north coast is almost wholly taken up by the
alluvial plain, which sometimes stretches across one-third of the entire width,
while the centre and. the south parts consist of extensive highlands. Towards
the centre of Java the mountainous land becomes very narrow, and there are
alluvial tracts on the north as well as on the south coast that do not attain in
width to the former. In East Java one finds in the north two low and broad
limestone mountain ranges, while a similar chain runs along the greater part
of the south coast. Through the longitudinal axis of the island, or very close
to it, goes a range of volcanoes, some of which are not active, while the others
emit smoke or sand, and are repeatedly in eruption.
Java possesses a great many rivers, the direction of flow of which is influ-
enced by that of the principal mountain chain or to the general slope of the
country. Most of these rivers break up the north coast, and others, the smaller
ones, the south coast. Although the slope is chiefly northward, the principal
rivers, though running parallel with the limestone mountains in East Java, have
a more northern or north-eastern direction. That is why the two principal
rivers in the east part of Java, the Solo and the Brantas, are larger than those
^in the west, which flow from the mountains, where they rise, straight into the
sea. Besides the two big rivers, we ought to mention the Tji Manoek, the
Tji Taroem, the Tji Tandoei, and the Serijoe river as being available for
navigation, while all the others are important from an agricultural point of
view, as they supply the water for irrigating the arable land. Owing to the
heavy rainfall in Java, and the short course of the rivers, the effluence of the
rivers varies for the different seasons. . While many of the rivers during the
dry season contain but little or no water, in the rainy monsoon they often
change into roaring mountain torrents, which devastate the country by over-
flowing their banks. On the occasion of these inundations very large quantities
of products of disintegration of rocks or matter emitted from the volcanoes
are carried along, and ar^ partly deposited on the land and partly carried out
as mud to sea. The deposal of this fine kind of disintegrated mud has given
rise to the alluvial plains along the river beds and on the north coast, and as
this forrnation still goes on the coast gradually extends in a northern direction,
and the mouths of the rivers get shallow, so that the harbours must be kept
at their proper draught by dredging. The deposit of mattef. emitted by
volcanoes and spread by inundation is less profitable than the disintegrated
products, as the coarse pieces of lava will cover the arable land, and will not
T08
Java.
form a fertile layer for some years, when the disintegration process will be
sufficiently advanced.
The amount of silt in the river water greatly varies according to the
season, and to the soil the river passes through. . There are times when only
a few milligrams of mud are found per litre, while at other times the water
contains i grm. of silt per litre or more.
Java lies altogether in the tropics, and has a fairly constant annual tem-
perature ; a considerable amount of moisture and rain, with little wind, prevails.
The average annual temperature for the whole of Java is 25-94° C, and the
difference between the warmest and coolest months is not more than 1° C,
as the warmest months, May and October, have an average temperature of
26-39° ^'id 26-37", ^^'^ the coolest, January and February, one of 25-35° and
25 "39" respectively. Neither the day differences nor the hourly differences
during the same day amount to much. In the most extreme case, the greatest
deviation during the years from 1866 to 1905 observed at Batavia'was 13-5° C,
and in the least case no more than 0-9'' C.
The average figures for Batavia between 1866 and 1900 were as follows :
Observations at Batavia, 5° 11' o" 5. Lat. 107" 7' ig" JE. Long.
Tem-
Absolute
Relative
perature.
Moisture.
Moisture.
January
25-40
20-94
87-1
February
25-43
21-10
87-5
March
25-86
21-22
85-9
April
26-30
21-51
• 85-0
May . .
26-44
21-31
83-6
June . .
26-03
20-66
83-1
July ..
2577
1973
80-8
August
26-01
19-21
777
September
26-36
19-54
77-5
October
26-48
20-07
79-0
November
26-20
20-55
82-0
December
25-68
20-69
84-8
Average
26-00
20-54
82-8
«*-
109
Asia.
and in some sugar cane cultivating areas we find : —
Observations made at Kagok (Pekalongan Residency), 109° 12' 30* E. Long.,
6° 95' 10'' S. Lat., the altitude of the instruments above the sea level being 151/1.
Average Temperature.
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apl.
May.
June
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Average
1889
26-9
26-8
26-8
27-5
27-3
26-4
26-0
26-2
26-5
27-3
27-1
26-8
26-8
1890
26-8
26-3
26-5
26-7
26-2
25-9
25-6
25-4
26-2
26-4
26-3
26-2
26-2
1891
26' 2
25-9
26-3
26-6
26-6
25-9
25-3
25-4
27-0
27-9
26-9
27-0
26-4
1892
25-7
26-2
26-4
26-2
26-2
26-0
2S-8
26-0
26-5
26-7
26-1
26'2
26-2
1893 ••
25-4
25-4
25-9
26-4
26-5
26.0
25-9
26-2
26-6
26-8
26-3
26-0
26-1
1894 • ■
25-7
25-7
25-9
26-3
25-9
25-4
25-5
25-7
26-3
27-3
26-3
26' 2
26-0
1895 ..
25-6
25-9
26-1
26-5
25-6
26-2
25-5
25-5
26-8
27-1
26-8
20-I
26-2
1895 ■•
26-1
25-9
26-2
26-2
26-3
25-6
25-5
26-1
26-8
27-9
27-6
26-4
26-4
1897 • •
26-9
26-2
26-9
27-0
26-9
26-9
26-2
26-2
27-3
28-0
27-2
26-8
26-9
1898
26-2
26-4
26-4
266
26-6
26-1
25.8
26-0
26-7
26-9
26-7
26-5
26-5
Average . .
26-1
26-1
26-3
26-5
26-5
26-1
25-7
25-9
26-7
27-2
26-7
26-4
26-5
Average Relative Moisture of
the Air.
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
lAar.
Apl.
May.
June
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Average
1899 .
83
85
84
83
82
84
80
74
76
76
77
77
81
1890
80
82
83
80
82
82
79
77
73
76
80
81
80
1891
82
81
82
81
74
77
69
65
63
64
72
79
74
1892 .
86
85
86
86
80
78
79
78
73
78
81
80
81
1893 •
85
87
84
82
84
84
79
76
79
77
88
83
82
1894 .
87
87
85
82
82
81
76
59
77
75
80
87
80
1895 .
87
88
85
84
84
86
87
78
69
73
78
86
79
1896
87
89
88
88
81
75
72
68
65
67
75
86
76
1897 .
84
88
85
84
78
74
77
69
67
74
77
80
79
1898
84
87
83
84
81
85
78
78-
77
77
78
82
81
Average .
85
86
84
83
81
81
78
71
72
74
79
82
79-3
110
Java.
Observations at Pekalongan. 109° 40' 26" E. Long., 6° 52' 39" S. Za/.
Altitude of instruments above the level of the sea, i^/t.
Average Temperature.
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apl.
May.
June
July-
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Average
1902 . .
1903 . .
1904 . .
1905 . .
1906 . .
26-49
27-73
26-07
26-64
26-41
25-91
26-67
25-93
26-07
27-25
26-43
27-07
26-56
27-26
27-10
27-96
27-36
26-83
26-90
27-02
27-47
27-71
26-70
27-05
27-28
26-68
26-78
26-39
27-10
26-71
25-94
26-39
26-16
25-93
26-82
26-33
26-83
26-29
26-19
26-88
26-75
27-30
26-99
26-86
26-88
27-92
27-81
27-38
27-82
27-43
28-70
26-99
26-83
27-56
26-47
27-54
26-10
26-29
27-53
26-42
27-01
27-02
26-54
26-91
26-89
Average . .
26-67
26-64
26-69
27.21
27-14
26-73
26-25
26-50
26-96
27-67
27-31
26-98
26-87
Average Relative Moisture of the Air.
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apl.
May.
June
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Average
1902
90
91
89
^83
79
78
79
79
75
74
71
82
80-8
1903
83
88
84
85
85
82
85
79
80
80
83
86
83-3
1904 .\
89
88
86
84
84
86
86
83
82
84
85
88
85-4
1905
86
87
84
85
84
83
81
80
80
79
89
84
83-5
1906
89
86
85
85
84
83
83
82
84
81
87
88
84-6
Average . .
Observations at Pasoeroean during the years 1901-06.
Average Temperature.
Year.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apl.
May.
June
July.
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Average
1901
27-3
27-1
27-1
28-2
27-8
27-S
26-7
26-8
27-4
28-7
29-0
28-0
27-60
1902 . .
27-7
26-6
27-2
28-0
27-8
27-3
25-8
27-0
26-9
28-2
29-3
28-6
27-62
1903 . .
28-5
27-4
27-6
27-2
27-6
27- 1
27-1
27-4
28-0
29-0
28-7
26-6
27-72
1904 ..
27-2
26-9
26-6
27-4
27-3
27-1
26-7
27-1
27-7
28-7
28-7
27-9
27-44
1905 . .
27-3
26-7
28-0
27-5
27-5
27-4
26-8
26-4
27-6
28-8
29-2
29-2
27-70
1906 . .
27-1
28-1
27-9
28-1
28-0
27-0
27-2
27-8
28-5
29-3
27-8
28-0
27-90
Average . .
27-52
27-13
27-40
27-70
27-67
27 23
26-89
27-08
27-68
28-78
28-78
28-05
27-65
III
Asia,
Relative Moisture.
Year.
Jan.
Feb:
Mar.
Apl.
May.
June
July-
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Average
1901
80-3
81-3
82-0
75-3
70-7
76-0
75-3
67-0
61-7
62-0
67-7
75-3
72-88
1902
76-3
Bo- 3
78-0
70-3
71-0
69-0
65-0
65-0
63-0
62-3
62-7
73-0
69-60
1903
75 -o
80-0
80-3
79-3
76-0
71-0
67-3
63-7
63-0
63-7
70-5
81-5
72 60
1904 . .
77-0
80-0
80-3
76-0
76-0
73-0
70-7
66-7
64-3
64-3
67-6
73-4
72-49
1905
78-0
81-3
76-7
78-7
76-3
70-0
67-3
67-8
65-0
61-0
64-3
70-0
71-37
1906
82-3
78-7
7T7
76-0
73-7
70-0
69-0
55-0
68-3
64-0
74-7
75-3
7289
Average . .
7-8-15
80-27
78-83
75-93
73-95
71-50
69- 1 c
65-87
64-22
62-89
69-58
74-75
71-97
The rainfall varies greatly for the -whole year in different parts of the
country. As a rule, it rains more in the -west than in the east, and there is
also more rain in the mountains than in the plains. From May to September
the east monsoon or dry season prevails, -while the -west monsoon, or rainy
season, extends from November till March. Bet-ween the monsoons there are
intervening periods, -which are distinguished by great heat and an oppressive
atmosphere. The monsoons begin and end later as one goes further east-ward,
so that the foregoing months are not to be considered as limits of these periods
for every place.
For a great many stations in these parts of the plain which are fit 'for
cane cultivation, the average rainfall in inches of a great many years has been
as follo-ws -. —
Stations.
Jan.
Feb.
Mar.
Apl.
May.
June
July
Aug.
Sept.
Oct.
Nov. Dec.
Total
Cheribon
17-13
14-65
14-69
7-95
5-28
4-33
2-72
0-87
1-18
2-44
1
6-06 14-80
92-10
Semarang
14-6:
14-13
8-90
7-36
5-04
3-35
3-11
2-56
3-70
5-39
7-28
10-47
85-90
Soerabaja
12-09
10-98
10-39
6-58
4-45
3-50
2-01
0-83
0-55
1-57
4-57
9-65
67-17.
Pasoeroean . .
9-06
10-39
7-95
5-12
3-03
2-44
I-IO
0-24
0-16
o-Si
2-24
6-61
48-85
Probolinggo
9-25
9-69
6-10
3-98
2-52
1-77
0-79
0-39
0-16
0-47
2-44
6-46
44-02
Beznoeki
12-80
11-81
7-09
3-39
2-17
1-54
0-98
0-24
0-12
0-28 2-24
7-60
50-26
Banjoemas . .
13-35
11-50
13-35
10-04
7-68
5-55
4-06
2-99
3-66
12-17
17-13
17-95
119-43
Djokjakarta
13-78
12-48
12-91
8-15
5-39
3-90
1-89
1-22
1-50
3-74
9-57
13-90
88-43
Soerakarta . .
:2-87
12-95
11-81
8-03
4-88
3-86
2-24
1-85
i-8i
4-06
8-78
10-51
83-65
Madioen
12-44
lo-gi
10-12
8-82
5-08
2-99
1-61
1-06
1-22
2-64
787
9-61
74-37
Dj ember
14-65
15-24
14-37
8-98
6-22
4-37
2-95
2-17
3-07
6-30
11-26
14-17
103-75
Sitobpndo . .
10-67
8-66
6-30
2-36
1-97
1-14
0-63
0-16
0-16
0-75
2-05
5-79
40-63
The barometric readings in Java do not vary much all through the year.
During the forty years bet-ween 1866 and 1905 the average reading at Batavia
-was 758-77 mm. (30 inches), -with a maximum of 764-41 and a minimum of
112
108°
109-
110°
11 r
11 3-
114"
aBoompjes Isles
Kari-moendjawa Isles
•
- 4''
xJAVA
Scale 1 : 2,000,000.
ways.
Tramroutes.
^-v.^-\ Rivers.
Q Cspibals oP Residencies.
Boundaries oF Residencies.
s%** Su9ar Plantations.
^sev " ^<-indtriad7VoqU
108'
109°
llO'LE.ofGr
111°
112°
113*
114°
Java.
752-39- The greatest variance observed in one day did not amount to more
than 5-56 mm. (0-25 ins.) ; the smallest 1-40 mm.
As may be seen from these lists, Java does not suffer from cyclones, which
in other countries often cause great havoc.
The population of Java, including Madura, amounted to 30,098,008
on 31st December, 1905, and, leaving the island of Madura out, to 28,604,719.
These are divided as follows : —
Natives
Europeans .
Chinese
Arabs
Other foreign Orientals
28,227,983
64.305
292,108
17.562
2,761
28,604,719
The population has increased marvellously, in spite of a considerable
emigration to other parts of the Archipelago, while except that of a few
Europeans, Chinese, and other Orientals, no immigration has taken place.
The figures representing the censuses of 1824-62 only showed from 6 to 13
million inhabitants ; but the later censuses of Java and Madura have realized
the following figures : —
1880
1885
1890
1895
1900
1905
19.794.559
21,467,445
23,914.564
25,697,701
28,746,638
30,098,108
Java is intersected with a network of well-kept roads, both footpaths and
cart roads. Owing to the direction of the mountain chains, the traffic goes
better along the island than from north to south ; although here, in this latter
respect, the roads are numerous, too, and each of the mountains is traversed
by a main road that connects the north and south of the island.
Right through the island from west to east, from sea to sea, runs a railway,
which at many points has branch lines which run to the coast northwards
and southwards. Further, in addition to this, there is a network of well-
developed tramways, which connect all parts of the country with the main
line.
For the rest, there is a splendid connection with the several harbours
across the sea through the mail and steamship service, which makes it quite
easy to send goods from one place to another, so that no single district is cut
off from the outer world.
113 H
Asia.
The sugar industry is only carried on in Mid and East Java, the western
boundary being formed by the Tjimanoek, although some small plantations
are met with west of this river. In Mid Java the entire northern plain from the
Tjimanoek to, the limestone mountains of Rembang is given up to the sugar
industry, and from the sea up to the foot of the middle mountains cane planta-
tions are found. In the corresponding plain south of the central mountains
an important sugar industry is met with, which, however, begins more to
the east, because in the south the mountains stretch further in an eastern
direction than they do in the north. In East Java the sugar industry is most
prominent in the extensive valley of the Brantas, further, in the alluVial north
coast of the narrow eastern streak of that island, and in the tableland between
the volcanoes in the residencies of Madioen and Kediri. On the map the
cane sugar centres are indicated by shading.
The cane planted area for the harvest of 1910 amounted to 314,335 acres
which are divided over the different residencies, and to which, for the sake
of comparison, are added the figures of some previous years.
Area Planted with Cane for Crop in Hectares.
Crop I9II. 135,780 hectares = 335,591 acres, divided as follows : —
Residencies.
1895
1900
1905
1910
1911
Cheribon
5.901
6,901
7-779
9,019
9,114
Pekalongan
7,287
8,762
9,984
10,759
11,060
Bagelen and Banjoemas
2,443
2.731
3.605
4,707
6,345
Djokdja
5.972
5,588
7.335
10,716
11,062
Solo
5.769
6,406
7,018
8,248
9.015
Semarang
7.372
7.804
8,105
8,636
8,990
Rembang
750
—
—
—
—
Madioen
2,410
3.321
3,894
4,446
4.803
Kediri
6,351
8,744
12,288
17.625
19.493
Soerabaja
16,891
19,806
23,806
26,253
26,358
Pasoeroean
12,887
13.584
14,710
20,143
22,766
Bezoeki
5,019
5.602
6,906
6,709
6,774
Total hectares
79,152
89,248
105,430
127,261
135.780
Equal to acres
195,505
220,440
260,412
314,335
335.591
These figures stand for the number of hectares that have been planted
with cane for one of the harvests, and as no cane in Java is kept from the pre-
ceding year, but every year yields a new crop, they also represent the number
of reaped hectares of this planting.
114
Java.
The actual area taken up by the sugar industry covers much more ground,
as more than a year is required for the whole vegetation period, and the sugar
cane cultivation in Java generally demands triennial change. Each acre
of actually planted cane requires altogether three acres of available ground,
so that the planting alone makes 3 x 314,335 = 943,005 acres of ground
necessary. Further, nurseries are needed for the cultivation of cuttings,
while the factory buildings and compounds require ground as well, so that we
can reckon that 1,000,000 out of the 10,000,000 acres of arable land in Java,
or 10 per cent, is given up to the sugar cane cultivation, two-thirds of which
is not occupied by cane, for the moment being planted with other crops.
In the following list one finds expressed the sugar production and the
number of factories of each residency of recent years, the former in piculs
of 6176 kg. and metric tons of 2,200 lbs. : —
1899
1904
1909
1911
Residencies
Piculs
Tohs
1
1
Piculs
Tons
i
Piculs
Tons
S
1
Piculs
Tons
16
eribon . .
kalODgan
gelen and
Banjoemas
okdja . .
lo
I
827 706
1,226,645
381,200
782,200
861,200
1,008,200
420,784
1,199,848
2,852,091
1,693,805
739,785
51,093
76,651
23,531
48,284
63 160
62,235
26,971
74.083
176 055
98.888
46,666
15
11
6
13
10
14
6
16
39
81
13
1.138,298
1,780,656
639,187
1,210,789
1,033 818
1,375,806
666,259
1,998.896
3,919 504
2,177,897
895,427
70,265
109 917
83,283
74 740
63,785
84,926
84,964
123.368
241,946
134,438
55,273
12
16
6
15
16
14
6
17
39
29
12
1,466,222
1,983,452
659,689
1,621,374
1,283,992
1,5^4,867
740,846
2,484,679
4,030,362
2,667,499
939,557
89.890
122,435
40,716
100,086
79,269
94 127
46,731
153,369
248.787
164.660
37 997
13
15
6
18
16
12
6
19
38
29
11
1,678,036
2,048,207
1.074,778
1,997,847
1,635,687
1,620,285
851,930
8,172.726
5,240,894
3,612,061
1,173,363
96,099
126,377
06,379
124,114
96,258
100,934
S'2,600
196 962
317,448
218,143
72,165
12
15
7
18
16
cuarang . .
mbang ..
Ldioen . .
diri
srabaja . .
Boeroean
zoeki
' 2
6
21
38
29
11
Total ..
11,891,809
734,062
182
16,635,531
l,0'i6,.SS4
179
19,392,319
1,197,005
182
23,745,802
1,466,569
186
II.— The History of the Java Cane Sugar Industry.
Since times immemorial sugar cane has been planted in Java, where it
was introduced by Chinese or Hindus, who regarded the cane as a dainty,
and probably squeezed out the juice and evaporated it to dryness on a smaU
scale. The Chinese traveller, Fahian, who visited Java in 424, mentions the
presence of sugar cane in the island, so that, considering the many commercial
relations between Java and China, India and Arabia, there is no doubt as
to the knowledge of evaporating the juice to a soft brown sugar existing on
the island, as well as in the countries it traded with.
That a sugar industry in its present-day form should have already been
in existence when the Dutch arrived at Jakatra (a sugar industry the produce
115
Asia.
of which was divided into sugar and molasses) is an erroneous supposition
originating from a misinterpreted fact by van Gorkom, and by other authors
who imitated him, as regards the occurrence of arrack-distilleries in the
above place.* .
During the first years following the conquest of Jakatra, which gave
the Dutch a firm footing in Java, nothing much was done for the encourage-
ment or extension of the sugar industry, because the East Indian Company
was mainly a commercial undertaking more intent on the carrying on of trade
in Eastern produce than on the production of any commodities by itself.
The sugar which was transported by the Company to its fatherland during
the first years after its existence consisted of the produce of China, Formosa,
Siam, and Bengal, and not till after 1637 did the first shipment of Java sugar
take place. In that very year the exportation of Bantam sugar amounted to
as much as 10,000 piculs (618 tons), and as the sugar profits were very tempting,
and the foreign article was not always to be had, the Company resolved to
erect sugar cane mills on their property in the neighbourhood of Batavia,
and to establish a sugar industry of their own.
The Company allotted ground to Chinese sugar manufacturers and bestowed
a great many privileges on them, e.g., a licence for cutting free firewood
for the sugar manufacture out of the woods, etc., on condition that the entire
produce should be delivered to the Company at a price to be fixed by itself.
These prices were 6, 5, and 4 rijksdaaldersf respectively per picul for first,
second, or third quality ; but the next year i rijksdaalder was deducted from
each class. The Company kept changing the terms, the quantities to be de-
livered, and the prices, so that the sugar industry was ever in a state
of uncertainty, and the number of factories and the quality of their output
were not twd years running the same. Moreover, the industry suffered from
wars, disturbances, and diseases among the canes and the cattle which were
used both for ploughing and for driving the mills, and from lack of labour.
In the year 1648 the sugar harvest in the Company's territory amounted to
2,000 piculs (124 tons), which in 1652 had increased to 11,712 piculs (723
tons), as the Brazilian disturbances created a greater demand for Eastern
sugar in Europe. When the West Indies on the other hand began to supply
more sugar, the period of prosperity came to an end again for the time being ;
* Although nowadays in Java arrack is almost exclusively prepared from the molasses
remaining from the sugar manufacture, this substance should not be considered as the
sole raw material of this liquor, so that the existence of arrack distilleries does not imply
the presence of sugar factories. Arrack was originally a beverage made from rice, and
in China a, good deal of it is manufactured from glutinous rice ; but palm wine and cane
juice would do just as weU for its preparation, so that the distilling of arrack out of molasses
dates from a much later period than its manufacture from malted rice, palm wine, or
similar juices, and the arrack distilleries do not go far to prove the existenCie of a sugar
industry.
•f I rijksdaalder = 4s. 2d. i Java picul = 6176 kg. or 136 lbs. avoird.
116
Java.
while the Bantam war, about 1660, hkewise prevented the development of
the sugar industry. In 1652, 20 sugar mills were working, but in 1660 only
10 of these were in use, while the other 10 had discontinued operations. After
peace was concluded with Bantam, in 1684, owing to the ever-growing power
of the Company a better state of affairs began ; in 1710 as many as 130 sugar
mills were working, and the sugar industry spread to Bantam, Cheribon,
and Japara. The commercial politics of the Company were not consistent
with any large production of Eastern goods. There was nothing they
feared so much as an abundance of any product, and a reduction in price
in consequence of it, so acting up to this the Company prohibited the erection
of any more sugar factories, and stipulated that no mill was to be allowed to
yield more than 300 piculs (18 tons) sugar yearly, so that a maximum product
of 40,000 piculs (2,470 tons) was fixed. This quantity, however, was not
realized by a long way, as in 1745 the number of sugar factories in the terri-
tories surrounding Batavia had fallen to 65. The Company then fixed on
70 as the maximum number of these factories, which was raised to 80
in 1750. However, the number of factories actually grew less, but their output
increased, so that in 1779 only 55 supplied in all 100,000 piculs (6,176 tons)
sugar , to the company, exclusive of the molasses, which they were free to sell
to other people.
In 1795 the East Indian Company was dissolved, and Java came under
the direct management of the Batavian Republic, which was afterwards called
the Kingdom of Holland, and when that kingdom became part of France,
it became French too ; but in 1811 it was seized by England, only to be
returned to the Netherlands in 1816.
During all this period the restrictions as regards the sugar industry kept
changing. The manufacturers' complaint during the management of the
East Indian Company had always been the same, namely, that they were
obliged to deliver all their produce to the company, which in its turn did not
feel any obligation as regards taking a fixed quantity of sugar, so that
the business was most uncertain, as the planters could never prepare for any
pre-arranged production. In order to remedy this, it was decreed in 1797.
that the factories in the surroundings of Batavia should produce 15,000 baskets
(of 375 lbs.) of sugar, and were to be free to dispose of any excess production
at their own risk. The share of every miU in the contingent quantity of sugar
was fixed according to the condition of the mills, the condition of the crops,
etc.
For the north and east coast also similar regulations were fixed. In
1794 there were in these parts 31 sugar factories, which together were capable
of producing 2,000,000 lbs. of sugar, an amount they wished to increase till
4,000,000 lbs. should be reserved for the Government, and another 1,000,000 lbs.
be left for sale to outsiders. For this purpose the owners of the existing and
the new mills were to receive unfilled plots of ground for plantation purposes,
and the Government was to advance money to the amount of half the expected
117
Asia.
harvest, the price of which was fixed at 4J rijksdaalders per picul, first quality.
The proposed regulations, however, were not brought into force, so that the
production of that part of the island never realized more than 2,000,000 lbs.
In the surroundings of Batavia this system had good results, the more so as
the Government kept su'pporting the manufacture of sugar by raising the
advances and the sugar prices. The sugar production of Java consequently
rose during the first years of the nineteenth century, to be followed by a time
of marked decline. The unfavourable political situation in Europe, Holland's
forced alliance with France, and the activity of the British privateering ham-
pered the free intercourse of trade so much that Java sugar had to lie stored
up in the island, any transportation being out of the question. The Govern-
ment still lived in the hopes of peace being restored in the future, and in spite
of the existing large stock-in-trade, it kept encouraging the manufacturers
to remain working, in order that when the war should cease, the industry
might not be found in an inactive state.
As the Government's stock of sugar yearly increased, and as it was no
longer fllought desirable to have so much capital lying inactive, the Governor-
General Daendels in 1809 abandoned the policy hitherto followed, and granted
the manufacturers freedom to dispose of their goods ; but, as ill-luck would
have it, the sugar cultivation became free just at the time when selling the
produce became an impossibility. The British occupation during the years
1811-16 confirmed that state of affairs. We may safely call this a complete
check for the industry, for we see that in 1813 the total Java production
amounted to only 10,000 piculs (618 tons), a figure that in 1816 had gone up
only to 20,000 piculs (1,235 tons).
After these colonies in 1816 had reverted to the Netherlands, the new
government provisionally maintained the system of a free sugar industry ;
but the sugar manufacturers had suffered so severely that although they were
certain of getting fheir crop sold, their business remained stagnant. When
in 1826 Governor-General du Bus de Guisignies came to Java, the entire sugar
production did not exceed 19,795 piculs (1,223 tons). This statesman started
advancing money once more, and knew how to encourage the sugar production
so much that in 1830, at the end of his term of office, the. production had risen
to 108^640 piculs (6,710 tons). He was succeeded by Governor-General van
den Bosch, who was provided with well-nigh absolute power, and among
other things was especially instructed to take measures to make Java produce
for the mother-country. These measures include one known by the name
of the " Cultural System," which, as regards the sugar industry, consisted
of the following regulations : —
The native population of the districts suited for sugar growing was to
give up one-third of its arable land for the planting of sugar cane, to be dis-
posed of as necessity required, so that the entire third need not be taken into
cultivation. Further, the native population was to till the fields, supply
fuel, draught and ploughing cattle, and in this way was exempted from corvde
118
Java.
duty. All labour was to be paid out of the money the given produce fetched,
from which the requisite land tax was to be deducted first. In order to work
up the cane to sugar, sugar contracts were drawn up with private parties
who received loans in money for the erection of factories. The contracting
parties were to deliver all their produce to the Government at a fixed price,
and were allowed to redeem the money advanced by means of sugar supplies.
In the beginning the profits for the State and for the sugar manufacturers
were meagre ; in fact, the transaction even resulted in loss during the first
years the system was tried, and it was not without some trouble that private
individuals were won over to the idea of entering into sugar contracts. Later
on the regulations were revised and improved, the manufacturers being allowed
to dispose of part of the sugar at their own risk, so that their interest in a
profitable manufacture became keener ; there was thenceforward a change
for the better noticeable in the state of affairs, and the Java sugar industry
gradually became a profitable business, both for the Exchequer and for the
manufacturer. When, by 1870, the sugar manufacture was settled on a sound
basis, it was considered time for the Government to withdraw from any direct
participation in the production, and so new regulations were made as follows : —
The direct interference of the State with the sugar industry was restricted
to the growing of the cane. This made it necessary for the Government to
dispose of part of the land and the labour of the population, on condition that
a proper price should be paid both for ground and labour,- and that when the
crop in the field was given to the contractor he should provide for the further
tending, cutting, and transportation of the cane out of his own purse, without any
assistance from the Government. Beginning with 1879, the original plantations
stipulated by contract were to be diminished by one-thirteenth every year,
so that in 1891 the connection of the Government with the sugar cultivation
and industry was to come to an end. The manufacturers could freely dispose
^of the sugar they produced, and pay as rent for the land they were planting
on with the aid of Government intermediary up till 1891 a fixed price for the
cane, and, further, a fixed premium, which is reckoned on the basis of production
during the years 1864-69. On the private plantations a fixed premium of
25 guilders (or 1^2 is.) per bouw* is due to the Government. In order to come
to the assistance of industry which was not in prosperous circumstances
the premium on the private-grown cane was done away within 1886, and the
premium on the Government plantations was reduced to half between the
years 1887 and 1891, on condition that the payment of the other half should
be postponed till the years 1892-96.
Just at the time these new regulations were introduced, Java was struck
by two calamities, which brought the sugar industry to the verge of ruin. The
enormous beetroot sugar production referred to in the first part of this volume
caused the price of sugar to go down considerably in 1882-84, so that it event-
ually fell below net cost price. At the same time a mysterious disease, which
* I bouw = 500 sq. Rhineland rods= f74 acres.
119
_ Asia
has not been explained in spite of careful and continuous investigations on
the part of several able botanists and plant pathologists, attacked the cane
plantations, and did great harm. Noticed first in 1884, in the western part
of the island, this disease (called sereh) spread eastwards, and caused a con-
siderable decrease in production everywhere. The sugar manufacturers,
oppressed by the two evils, did not lose courage ; they put considerable capital
into their industry, and invoked the aid of science to help them to improve
their cultivation and manufacturing methods. Three experimental stations
were founded for the purpose of combating the sereh disease, which have done
good work outside their original scope, and which have given useful infor-
mation as regards planting and manufacturing methods, chemical analysis,
and control, and even now as regards mechanical installations of factories.
Capital was provided by the Dutch capitalists and invested in the calamity-
stricken industry, science was practically applied, and the estates were managed
in an economical, rational, and energetic manner. This praiseworthy com- ,
bination of energy, science and capital not only saved the Java sugar industry
from utter ruin, but also placed it among the foremost cane sugar-producing
countries, so that for years Java has been an example to other countries,
who recognize it to be expedient to carry on the cane sugar industry in a scientific
manner.
So much active power and rational application of science was sure to
be crowned with success, and it is due to these circumstances that the Java
sugar industry, in the dark days just before the Brussels Convention, was
never destitute, but could hold its own, unprotected as it was. Even during
the last years of the nineteenth century the planted area increased so much
that the Government began to fear that arable land for other articles of food
would fall short, and therefore took measures to stop the extension of the
cane plantations. As that fear soon appeared to be without foundation, the
extension, as will be seen, went on regularly, and is still going on.
A statement of the total production in metric tons, from the early years
following the introduction of the Cultural System down to the present time,
shows the steady and uninterrupted growth of this production :—
1840
47-040
I85I . . .
120,345
I84I . . .
45.901
1852 . . .
76,007
1842 . . .
51,128
1853 ■ • •
111,727
1843 •• .
56,436
1854 . . .
112,094
1844 . . .
63,421
1855 • • •
103,963
1845 • ■ •
90,962
1856 . . .
125,101
1846 . . .
87,647
1857 ■ • •
106,157
1847 . . .
82,738
1858 . . .
132,824
1^48 . . .
89,931
1859 • • •
. 133,682
1849 . . .
105,126
i860 . . .
136,153
1850 . . .
86,519
I86I , . ,
136,889
120
Java.
1802 . . .
145,047
1863 . . .
131.799
1864 . . .
140,224
1865- .. .
137,893
1866 . . .
142,290
1867 . . .
133.049
1868 . . .
■ 178,784
1869 . . .
182,461
1870 . . .
152,595
187I . . .
190,866
1872 . . .
209,299
1873 . . .
199,068
1874 . . .
201,502
1875 . . .
193,634
1876 . . .
237,870
1877 ■ • ■
245,814
1878 . . .
224,689
1879 • • •
233,302
1880 . . .
216,179
1881 . . .
279,207
1882 . . .
292,005
1883 . . .
324.704
1884 . . .
394.247
1885 . . .
380,046
1886 . . .
356,022
1887 . . .
• 375.784
1888 . . .
355,334
1889 . . .
332,997
1890 . . .
399.999
189I . . .
406,800
1892 . . .
422,000
1893 . ■ .
479,660
1894 . . .
530,963
1895 . . .
• 581.569
1896 . . .
534.390
1897 .. .
586,299
1898 . . .
725.030
1899 . . .
762,447
1900 . .
744.257
I9OI . . .
803,735
1902 . .
897,130
1903 • • •
944.798
1904 . . .
• 1,055,043
1905 • • •
1,039,178
1906 . .
. 1,067,798
1907 . . .
1,210,127
1908 . . .
, 1,241,885
1909 . .
. 1,247,260
I9IO . . .
. 1,278,420
I9II . . .
. 1,466,569
III. — Cane Cultivation.
Cane cultivation, as a rule, is carried on in Java on land which is not the
planter's property, but is rented by him either for a single crop or for a com-
paratively small number of years ; though sometimes he gets it on perpetual
lease. Nearly all the cane ground by the sugar factories is planted under
their own management, and only a very small part is bought from native
growers, so that the manufacturers are cane planters as well, and both agri-
culture and manufacture are controlled by the sanie people.
Most of the sugar factories get their arable land by voluntary agreement
with the population, i.e., they hire land for one harvest only from " dessas,"
or villages, round the factories, and work them under estate control with their
own labourers. They never hire more than is wanted for their immediate
needs, but leave the rest to the owners, who use it for rice and other crops.
According to the civil regulations, it is forbidden to hire more than one-third
of the arable land belonging to a dessa ; moreover, a maximum planting area
has been fixed for every factory, which cannot be exceeded when hiring. When
121
Asia.
people wish to found a new factory or extend the plantation of an existing
one, permission from the Governor-General is first required and only granted
when it is sufficiently proved that the step will not be detrimental to the
economical interests of the native population : which are, that enough ground
shall be left for the cultivation of articles of food, and that there is sufficient
irrigation water for both the cultivation of these articles and of cane. In
Djocdjakarta and Soerakarta, the so-called Principalities, hiring has more
the character of perpetual leasing ; extensive stretches of land are hired from
the native princes for a number of years at a time, and plots of that land selected
for cane cultivation. The remaining land is given to the native population,
who grow food crops on their own account in return for payment in money,
in produce, or in labour. Finally, a few sugar estates are established on long
leases, where the land is ceded to the estate for seventy-five years on payment
of annual rent. In this case there of course results a large surplus of ground,
and suitable plots for cane cultivation have to be selected.
' While in one case only such ground as is wanted for cane cultivation
that very year is hired, in the two other cases large plots of ground are partly
cultivated with cane, and partly grown with other crops, either by the estate
itself or by natives at their own expense or joint account.
The planting is exclusively done on irrigated land, and a triennial rotation
of crops is practised. In some parts where the soil is scarce, one meets with
a two-year rotation, and in other places a four-year is met with ; but a triennial
one is the rule, and in every case cane is planted after a rice crop. The follow-
ing scheme approximately indicates the succession of crops, although it is
not an exclusive example. Sometimes tapioca or some other crop is planted
instead of rice, so that then only one rice crop finds its place between two cane
harvests.
September..
September to November
November to April
April to November
November to April
April to September of the next
year . . . . . . cane, etc
cane crop.
beans, maize, etc.
rice.
fallow, beans, indigo, etc.
rice.
As soon as the rice is reaped, the field operations are begun. The land,
for months together, has been saturated with water ; all sorts of reducing
processes have taken place there, and oxygen is altogether wanting. In order
to make this soil fit again for cane, it should be exposed to sun and wind. For
this purpose, first, a deep ditch which carries off the water, and also serves
to supply irrigation water later on, is dug. Then the plot is divided up into
pieces of one-tenth or one-twelfth of a bouw through cross ditches, and, finally,
the furrows are dug in which the cane is to be planted. These generally measure
30 ft. in length by a little more than i ft. in depth, and are placed at a distance
122
Java.
of 4 or 5 ft. apart. Their width is i or i.| ft., 'and the displaced earth is piled
up between the furrows. In some places where the condition of the ground
allows it, ploughing is first done, and afterwards the digging of furrows with
spades is commenced. When the plot is " open " it looks like a network of
trenches, which remain in that position during five or six weeks exposed
to the sun. The wet clods become dry, crumble up, assume a lighter colour,
and in the end a light-grey, powdery soil instead of a lot of wet, cold, black
clods is obtained. During the drying-up, and also after the planting of
the cane, grass has to be repeatedly weeded away, which becomes especially
necessary when the cane is not yet well developed. As soon as it i^ full
grown, however, it will produce shade which will cause the weeds to wither.
When the land has been in this condition for some time, the soil is thoroughly
loosened again in the furrows where the cuttings are planted directly or in
holes.
The cuttings are put in the loosened subsoil in the furrows, then covered
with a layer of earth and irrigated repeatedly every four or five days. As
the planting time happens to be in the dry monsoon, it is thus necessary to
irrigate the cane plantations. In most cases the irrigation installation is
already ready for use, as the same fields used for rice cultivation serve as cane
plots. These installations, ditches, and 'canals are hired together with the
land, while the irrigation water is given by the Government, according to
a plan of division drawn up beforehand, which allows for the size of the planta-
tions of sugar cane; the extent of those of the native population, and the
amount of disposable water. As the latter is not always adequate, the sugar
factories often have large pumping stations for the irrigation of their land,
when should the quantity of water from the canal supply not prove sufficient
the water pumped up is used.
Manuring is done either simultaneously with the planting, or later on,
and sometimes at both times, to an average amount of £/^ 3s. 4d. each bouw,
or £2 6s. 8d. per acre. Manuring is almost exclusively carried on with nitro-
genous compounds, sulphate of ammonia, oil-cakes (boengkil) from arachis
nuts, kapok-seed, castor beans or cotton-seed, bat-dung, but most of all with
sulphate of ammonia. Potash and phosphoric acid are seldom applied, the
former almost never, and phosphoric acid in the form of superphosphate and
basic slag only in combination with great quantities of ammonium sulphate
on soils rich in lime, which are found in the residencies of Djokdja, Solo,
and Semarang. The silt yearly deposited by the rivers contains so much
potash and phosphoric acid in combination with other elements, but which are
set free by disintegration processes, that the cane, as a rule, does not want any
more ; and experiments have shown us that any increase in the quantity of
potash and phosphoric acid in most cases does not lead to any better cane
and sugar production.
As the cane grows up it is banked with loose soil, which up to that time
has been heaped up between the rows. Finally, good care is taken by the time
123
Asia.
the heavy rains of the west monsoon are due that the cane is entirely banked up,
and stands on fairly high banks, so that the rain water can run off instead of
being forced to collect round the roots of the cane. As soon as the cane has
ripened, which takes from eleven to fifteen months according to the kind of
cane and the state of the weather, it is reaped and then dug out as deep as
the root.
^Ratoons, as known in most cane sugar producing countries where, in
many cases, they are most profitable, are not grown in Java, but every year
the past year's crop is reaped,, and nothing is kept for a following harvest.
This is due to the fact that the first and following ratoons yield so much
smaller a crop that, owing to the heavy rent and the small amount of dis-
posable land, if becomes an absolute necessity to obtain as much cane sugar
as possible from the little area of land ; while labour in Java is so abundant
and cheap that it pays well in the end to spend more money on labour
connected with the yearly planting.
As compared with most of the other cane-growing colonies, where land is
abundant and cheap, and labour is scarce and expensive, Java, with its 30,000,000
inhabitants, wants the land badly for the cultivation of articles of food, so
that the ground disposable for cane growth becomes costly and very limited.
On the other hand, this extensive population offers an ample supply of cheap
and readily accessible labour, which counterbalances the first-mentioned
disadvantage. This explains why it is advisable to proceed in Java quite
differently from the manner in which they work in Cuba, and why it is necessary
in Java to obtain as much cane, and from the cane as much sugar, as possible
through intensive tillage, manuring, careful up- keep, and constant care ;
whereas in other countries the quantity of cane produced by a unit of area
does not count so much, as there is an abundance of ground to be got for
little money.
In the years preceding 1850 a kind of white cane was planted, until a
sugar manufacturer from Cheribon, Gonsalves, noticed that a kind of dark
red cane, which for centuries had existed among the plantations, yielded far
more sugar than the white cane, but at the same time was harder and not so
easy to crush. He had cuttings of that cane collected and planted in a seques-
tered spot in his ground, and showed the Government officials, who up to
that time had objected to the planting of this dark variety, how much more
sugar was to be had from it than from the white cane. The difference was
considerable, and it soon appeared that the new cane had not only the advantage
of a larger yield in sugar, but was also less susceptible to damage by heavy rains,
as well as by drought, while it would thrive in both light and heavy soils. It
was not long before the Black Cheribon cane, as it was called, was being
planted everywhere in Java, and this, no doubt, greatly contributed towards
increasing the sugar production. But this favourable state of affairs was
not destined to last long. In 1882 a planter from the most westerly district
'of Java noticed that part of his cane did not grow more than a few feet high,
124
Java.
and formed a bunch of shoots and leaves, while yielding no well-developed
cane stalks. The following year the same thing happened in the more easterly
plantations, the new disease spreading further, till, in 1892, it had gone so far
as the Bali Straits. Only the mountainous regions and the interior were
exempt from the disease, and have continued so owing to very severe
quarantine laws. Because of the shape assumed by the plants that were struck
with the disease, it went by the name of sereh, as the canes resembled clods of
Citrondla grass {Andropogon schoemanthus ; Javanese sereh).
The phenomena of the disease in its worst phase are absolute stagnation of
growth, together with the sprouting of buds and aerial rootlets after the first
months of vegetation ; in case the disease should be less serious, stagnation
only occurs after the cane has attained to a certain height, so that the financial
loss is then not so ruinous as with a more severe attack. At any rate, a decrease
in th6 quantity of cane to be reaped cannot fail to be noticed, but as the plant
does not die, the sugar content remains satisfactory, and the yield of sugar
from the same weight of sereh-stxicken cane is not less than that from cane in
a sound condition. It appeared that ratoons suffered much more from the
disease than plant cane, and that when tops of attacked cane were planted the
disease showed itself in a far more severe form than was the case with tops
from sound cane ; finally, that cane planted from sound sets in infected soils
did riot become attacked by sereh till after two generations. A first measure
taken against the fatal disease was to avoid planting cuttings out of infected
plots, so new fields were planted with cuttings coming from the more easterly
uninfected regions. There was a regular transportation of cuttings from east
to west, which the Government assisted by lowering the freight charges on
the State railways, and in 1888 and 1889 even by transporting the seed free
of cost along their lines ; but as the disease spread more and more eastward
the need of this plant-seed increased while the supply diminished, so that this
assistance was only of temporary avail. With the aid of the experimen,t
statipns, which were established in the meantime, cane varieties were obtained
from all parts , of the world within reach in order to try and find a variety
which would be able to withstand sereh, and possess the same good qualities as
the Black Cheribon cane does. At the same time, nurseries were laid out in
remote spots in the mountains in order that fresh and sound plant-seed might
always be available. The planters also did their utmost to keep the sereh-
free districts immune from it by means of disinfection and quarantine, and
they began to start extensive scientific experiments in order to discover the
nature and the propagation of the disease.
Among the newly imported varieties there were some that, although
not altogether immune from sereh, were fairly resistant to it : such varieties as
the Loethers, Muntok, Canne Morte or Yellow Fiji cine, etc. ; but however
welcome these might havd been at a time when the sugai industry was much
pestered by untoward circumstances, they could not now altogether supplant
the Black Cheribon cane. Some sorts did give adequate returns, but were not
■12-5
Asia.
so rich in sugar ; others were sensitive as regards the soil, and required either
a hght or a heavy soil, or could not stand much moistiire, so that the new
varieties could not be entirely substituted for the Black Cheribon. As long
as fresh supplies of plant cane weie provided from the mountain nurseries,
and not more than one generation was planted, while ratoons were never
kept, sereh could easily be avoided, and good crops obtained. But although
the yields were satisfactory the expense caused by the renewing of plant-seed
was so heavy that this method had soon to be given up. For one bouw
of cane in the field would take as many as 40 piculs of cuttings, which
cost 2s. per picul in the mountainous regions where they were raised, and,
delivered in the field, perhaps 3s. 4d., so that a bouw of new cane cost
£6 13s. 4d. in tops from mountain nurseries, and supposing this to yield 100
piculs of sugar, no less than 12 per cent, of the cost of production would be
wanted for plant-seed. As only part of the plots was planted with tops
from mountain nurseries, and the rest with tops from the cane field itself,
the avera,ge cost of plant-seed became less, but about 1900 it was estimated
at the average price of lod. per picul sugar.
The discovery of the propagation of cane through seed, made by Soltwedel
in Java in 1887, and by Harrison and Bovell in Barbados in 1888, independently
of one another, revived the hope of obtaining a better species of cane.
As sereh was attributed by many people to a weakening in consequence
of the continuous asexual propagation, it was evident that if this supposition
was right sereh would not attack the new kinds of cane obtained from seed.
But this was not the case, and it appeared that cane raised from seed was
as well susceptible to sereh as cane from cuttings. Wakker, Moquette, Bouricius,
Kobus, and others, through their scientific crossing experiments, succeeded
in producing new varieties of cane which were not susceptible to sereh disease,
and which were both heavy in weight and rich in sugar. These kinds, after
they had been reared from seed, were propagated through cuttings, and are
now reproduced aU over the cane plantations. The cultivation of new species
is stiU in progress, and even now in Java there are a great many cane varieties
which have gradually supplanted the old Cheribon cane. A heavy blow was
dealt to the latter cane by the so-called dongkellan disease^ which caused much
of the Black cane to die all over Eastern Java, and thereby contributed greatly
to the wholesale substitution of that kind of cane by the seedling canes. Some
of these latter ripen early, some late ; some prefer a light soil, others a heavy
one ; some are proof against drought, othefs can stand much moisture ; in
short, there is so much choice that every manufacturer can choose a special
kind to suit a special time of the season, and a special part of his plantation,
and always provide the mills with fresh ripe cane. There is still a necessity
to keep on special nurseries for cuttings, but as these need not be in distant
parts the cost of carriage to the fields has become considerably less.
Experiments destined to select from a number of cuttings those richest in
sugar through chemical selection as regards sugar content and through physical
126
Java.
selection, as regards specific weight, and to plant them, relying on hereditary
reproduction of the high qualities, have ultimately proved useless in spite
of a short period of apparent success.
Besides the sereh^ the cane suffers greatly from infectious diseases caused
by parasitical fungi. Some of these attack the roots, others the stalks, or leaves
and leaf-sheaths, but only a few of these diseases are highly injurious, namely,
the Pineapple disease or Black Rot, caused by Thielaviopsis aethaceticus , and
the Red Smut brought about by Colletotrichum falcatum. The first-mentioned
fungus possesses highly resistant spores, and once it gets a hold in the fields
it is most difficult to exterminate. It sometimes occurs on the ends of cuttings,
and penetrates them till it has got at the young plant, which- generally dies
soon after. To prevent this, the cutting is soaked in Bordeaux mixture,
which renders the penetration of the moulds an impossibility. This disease
is only dangerous to the very young cane plants. As soon as these have reached
the stage of no longer being dependent on the seed, but possess their own roots,
the danger is past.
On the other hand, the other disease mentioned. Red Smut, only threatens
the grown-up cane plant. The slightest wound serves as an opening for the
penetration of the fungus Colletotrichum, which develops and attacks the
cane.
It is rather remarkable that really pernicious disease germs, such as smut
and others, cause so little damage to the cane, while fungi, on the other hand,
though harmless in themselves, do so much damage. This may be explained
by the fact that the crop is dug out and planted anew every year, so that the
dangerous diseases have no time to spread or get a firm hold. Yet the large
open wound surfaces of the cuttings give ample scope to the development
of facultative parasites, which find everything in readiness for them.
As soon as the cane has attained to some height, it may be attacked by
animal enemies. We need only mention termites or white ants, boring cater-
pillars, beetle-larv?e, beetles, and mice. There are plenty of others which,
however, do not accomplish any great mischief. Grasshoppers, usually so
pernicious in tropical countries, cause little damage in Java for want of a
desert where they can quietly mature, and then attack the plantations in
great swarms. The caterpillars, especially the boring variety, are by far the
most dangerous and injurious, while the leaf-eating caterpillars do very little
harm. Five kinds of borers have been discovered up to now, all of which
attack cane in their special way.
Owing to improved varieties of cane, rational treatment and manuring
of the fields, and extremely punctilious superintendence, the cane production
per unit of area has considerably increased during the last sixteen years, as
the following statistics dealing with the production of the different residencies
will show : —
127
Asia.
1893/4.
1894/5-
1895/6.
189,6/7.
RESIDENCIES.
Piouls
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Piouls
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,210 lbs.
per acre.
Piculs
per
Bouw,
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Piouls
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2, 240 lbs.
per acre.
Bezoeki . .
824
28-564
900
31-198
831
28-807
934
32-377
Probolinggo .
832
28-941
903
31-225
734
25-444
861
9-854
Pasoeroean
666
23-187
723
25-063
669
23-191
706
24-473
Soerabaja
857
29-718
897
31-095
785
27-213
883
30-609
Kediri
848
29-397
1037
35-948
884
30-649
957
33-175
Madioen . .
664
23-018
821
. 28-460
701
24-300
781
27-074
Rembang
—
591
20-487
229
7-962
372
13-890
Japara . .
688
23-850
858
29-743
743
25-756
815
28-253
Semarang
619
21-458
798
27-663
639
22-151
752
26-068
Solo
. 705
24-439
835
28-946
787
27-282
845
29-293
Djokdja . .
827
28-668
986
34-180
946
32-793
1030
35-705
Ban] oemas
Bagelen . .
[ 593
20-556
885
30-679
788
27-317
1016
35-220
Pekalongan .
870
30-158
912
31-874
815
28-253
952
33-001
Tegal . . .
840
29-119
963
33-357
811
28-114
875
30-332
Cheribon
694
24-058
813
23-183
30-887
771
26-727
800
27-732
East Java*
808
28-010
891
775
26-866
868
30-097
Middle Java .
721
24-994
878
30-436
804
27-871
903
31-302
West Java
788
27,-317
895
31-026
30-783
801
27-767
27-351
858
"875""
29-743
Average
782
27-108
888
789
30-332
19c
>2/3
19c
>3/4
19c
4/5
1905/6
RESIDENCIES.
Piouls
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2 240 lbs.
per acre.
Piouls
p r
Bouw
Tons of
2 240 lbs.
per acre.
Piouls
per
B uw.
Tons of
2 240 lbs.
per acre.
Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre
Bezoeki . .
II26
38-566
II06
38-339
1056
36.606
1072
37-160
Pasoeroean
971
33-660
1095
37-959
1098
38-063
1093
37-889
Soerabaja
1033
35-809
1 137
39-414
1097
38-028
1077
37-334
Kediri
I166
40-419
1203
41-702
II89
41-217
1202
41-667
Madioen . .
929
32-204
924
32-031
1027
35-601
996
34-5261
Semarang
980
33-972
1067
36-988
985
34-156
1039
36-017
Solo . . .
988
34-250
1088
37-716
1060
36-745
- 1079
37-403
Djokdja . . .
1043
36-156
III2
38-547
II29
39-137
1 142
39-587
Banj oemas
Bagelen . .
1 1239
1043
42-950
995
34-492
1042
36-121
II72
40-627
Pekalongan .
36-156
1109
38-443
I164
40-350
IIO4
38-270
Cheribon
959
1050
33-244
886
30-713
lOIO
35-012
994
34-457!
East Java*
36-398
1114
38-617
II06
38-339
1102
■38-200
Middle Java .
1034
35-844
1075
37-265
1052
36-467
1099
38-097
West Java
1009
1039
34-977
1018
,35-290
II05
38-305
1058
36-676
Average
36-017
1089
37-750
1092
37-854
1094
37-924
* The division of Java into west, middle and east Java does not tally with tiie one given on Page
Solo, Djokdja, Bagelen, and Banjoemas to Middle ; and Madioen, Kediri, Soerabaja, Pasoeroean and
were Japara with Semarang, and Tegal with Pekalongan ; that is why since 1900 the production of the
128
Java.
1897/8
1898/9
1899/
1900
I900/1
190
1/2
Piouls Tons of
Piouls 1
Tons of
Piculs
Tons of
Piculs
Tons of
Piculs
Tons of
per 2,240 lbs.
per
2 240 lbs.
per
2,240 lbs.
per
2,240 lbs.
per
2 240 lbs.
Bouw. per acre.
Bouw.
per acre.
Bouw.
per acre.
Bouw.
per acre.
Bouw.
per acre.
1052
36-467
1033
35-809
I0I2
35-081
IOI7
35-255
942
32-654
907
31-441
871
30-193
938
32-516
891
30-887
[835$
28-946
808
28-010
840
29-119
854
29-604
799
27-697
1047
36:295
IO3I
35-740
998
34-596
939
32-550
921
31-927
III3
38-582
1045
36-226
1058
36-676
870
30-158
961
33-313
928
32-170
860
29-819
804
27-861
747
25-895
782
27-108
370
13-826
—
—
—
—
—
—
946
32-793
903
31-302
991
34-353
894
30-991
■ 858
29-743
lOII
35-047
912
31-614
893
30-956
826
28-633
1027
35-631
955
33-106
996
34-526
747
25-895
898
31-130
1098
38-063
946
32-793
1092
37-854
882
30-574
988
34-250
II90
41-563
993
34-422
1063
36-849
771
26-727
1089
37-750
993
1039
34-422
36-017
836
916
28-980
31-753
1048
1008
36-330
34-943
1074
971
37-230
33-660
I1O7I
37-126
962
33-347
833
28-876
803
27-836
835
28-946
860
29-819
999
34-630
978
33-903
972
33-694
901
31-233
902
31-267
1042
36-121
947
32-828
IOI9
35-324
829
28737
932
32-307
lOOI
34700
868
30-097
938
32-516
927
32-135
981
34-007
lOOI
34700
949
32-897
979
33-937
888
30-783
922
31-961
1906/7
19c
,7/8
igc
38/9
190
9/10
1910/11
Piouls
Tons of
PiculB
Tons of
Piouls
Tons of
Piouls
Tons of
Piculs
Tons of
per
2,240 lbs.
per
2,240 lbs.
per
2 240 lbs.
per
2,240 lbs.
per
2,240 lbs.
f Bouw.
per acre.
Bouw.
per acre.
Bouw.
per acre.
Bouw.
per acre.
Bouw.
per acre.
' 1202
41-667
II82
40-794
1 142
39-587
II23
38-929
i;209
41-910
1086
37-646
II43
39-622
mo
38-478
II 17
38-731
1154
40-020
' 1 169
40-523
II72
40-627
II70
40-558
II57
40-118
1326
45-966
III4
38-617
1 1302
45-133
1207
41-841
II38
39-448
1186
41 -113
1087
37-681
! 1 145
39-692
II56
40-073
1044
36-191
1167
40-464
1054
36-537
1222
42-360
II93
41-355
II23
38-929
1 142
39-587
1 192
41-320
1296
44-926
II74
40-697
II43
39-622
1199
41-559
II94
41-390
1341
46-486
I2I4
42-084
1 163
40-315
1238
42-915
"I5
38-652
1362
47-213
1238
42-916
III2
38-547
1176
40-766
1027
35-601
1234
42-707
1235
42-912
II56
40-080
1230
42-638
lOOI
34-700
1064
36-884
1098
38-063
990
34-318
1130
39-171
"35
39-345
1192
41-320
1164
40-350
II33
39-275
1224
42-430
1143
39-612
1298
44-996
1200
41-598
II40.
39-518
1193
41-345
1016
35-220
1156
40-073
1 172
40-627
IO81
37-473
1 185
41-078
1118
38-756
1213
41-977
II72
1
40-627
II26
39-033
1210
41-945
108. In sugar circles Cheribon and Pekalongan are supposed to belong to West Java ; Semarang,
Bezoeki to Kast Java. + In 1900 the residencies Pasoercean and Probolinggo were united, so
component parts of the united residencies is no longer given separately.
129 I
Asia.
To judge from the above table, it is clear that no fixed cost price of cane
can be set down, as the cane production per unit of area varies greatly, and the
cost of the different operations for the different parts of the country is not
the same either. From a great many annual reports of sugar factories we
may infer, however, that the net cost price of cane in the field — that is, without
cutting and carting wages, but including the items of land rent, cutting, culti-
vation, manuring and wages — amounts to 4d. to 5d. per picul, or from 5s. 4d.
to 6s. iid. per ton. Higher and lower figures may occur, but most of the
data at our disposal for igog vary between these two values.
In the Archief voor de Java Suikerindustrie, igo8, on page 830, we find
the average cost of cane for igoi-igo5, on one of the best managed sugar
estates in Java, specified as follows ;
European employes
Native labour
Rent of land
Cultural expenses
Watching expenses
Manure . .
Premiums for killing vermin
Disinfection of tops
Import of cuttings
Various expenses
Seedling nurseries in the plain
Various costs for bridges and roads
Mountain tiurseries
3 : —
£
s.
d.
£
s.
d.
2,620
18
4
1,561
• ■ • 3.515
10
■ ■ 15.330
II
8
425
8
4
5.943
8
4
430
13
4
70
15
£2g,8g8
5
n
\j
590
13
4
166
18
4
137
15
895
6
R
roads . .
215
16
8
..
4725
8
4
£35.734
16
8
The average planted area amounted for those years to 1,345 touws =
2,358 acres, so that the total cost of sugar cane in the field per bouw amounted
to £26 IIS. 8d. {£15 3s. id. per acre), or 4s. gd. per picul cane (6s. 7d. per metric
ton), not including interest, management, taxes, and other expenses.
130
Java.
IV.— Manufacture.
The manufacture of sugar from sugar cane in Java has attained to great
perfection, and may serve as an example of a well managed and well con-
trolled business. The ample investment of funds in the newest machinery,
the activity of the sugar experiment stations, the adequate training of sugar
chemists and factory chiefs — all these have contributed towards making the
Java sugar industry a model one, of which it may rightly be proud.
In other works by the author the manufacture and the methods of control
have been fully dealt with, so that it may suffice here to refer but briefly to
them. It need only be pointed out that as a method for juice extraction
mill crushing is exclusively employed ; as a rule, a crusher or a shredder is
used with three or sometimes four mills, and usually maceration with water
and with last mill juice. The juice is generally clarified with a little lime,
sometimes followed by a neutralization with sulphurous acid ; while some
factories which prepare white sugar apply the double carbonatation process.
Evaporation and boiling is exclusively done in vacuo, all massecuites are cooled
in motion and separated into sugar and syrup in centrifugals. Centrifugal
sugar is dried in a revolving roller by means of hot air before being packed
into bags and baskets.
According to the figures of the Mutual Control of Javan Sugar Factories,
the extraction and losses of sugar have been during the last ten years as
follows : —
\
§S
■OS c
Sucrose obtained on
Sucrose lost on 100
°i
io
" So
100 parts <
)f
parts of Cane in
§0
s °
2
.s »
'J) 11
Sucrose extra
Juice on 100 ]
Sucrose in
Year.
g
s §
go
si
i
4J
U
Molasses &
undeter-
mined
Total.
1899 .
' 13-99
12-63
90-3
11-27
80-58
89-23
1-36
O-IO
1-26
2-72
1900 .
12-26
11-04
90-1
9-62
78-53
87-15
1-22
O-IO
1-32
2-64
I90I .
\ 12-68
11-44
90-2
10-21
80-51
89-25
1-24
0-09
I-I4
2-47
1902 .
13-43
12-22
91-0
—
—
—
T-21
0-09
—
^
1903 .
12-40
11-23
90-6
9-94
81-07
89-58
1-T7
0-09
1-08
2-35
1904 .
13-04
11-92
91-4
10-77
82-58
90-35
1-12
O-IO
1-05
2-27
1905 .
12-66
11-54
91-2
10-33
81-69
89-51
1-12
0-09
I-I2
2-33
1906 .
12-38
11-26
90-9
9-98
80-64
88-74
1-13
0-og
I-18
2-40
1907 .
13-11
11-96
gi-2
10-75
82-00
89-gi
1-15
O-IO
I-II
2-36
1908 .
12-30
11-19
91-0
10-05
81-73
89-63
i-ii
0-09
1-05
2-25
1909 .
12-16
11-07
90-7
9-89
81-33
88-38
1-09
O-IO
1-08
2-27
I9IO .
12-54
11-43
91-2
10-26
81-82
89-76
i-ii
O-IO
1-07
2-28
131
Asia.
The yields of sugar from cane in the different residencies during the last
fifteen years have been as follows :—
Residencies
1S97
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
190S
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
Bezoeki . .
9-48
9-40
9-74
8-76
9-84
9 97
8-96
9-37
9-33
9-21
11-29
9 43
9-52
9-21
10 1
Probollnggo*
Pasoeroean.,
9 73
10-3O
10-29
10-64
10-26
10-94
5-47
10 09
9-77
10 34
1 10 88
11 18
10 46
10-05
9-93
11-49
9-80
9-74
9 96
9-5
Soerabaja . .
10-28
1017
10 89
9-40
9-92
10-71
10-29
10 56
10-54
10-09
12-49
9 80
9-93
10-42
10-4
Kediri .. ..
8 93
9 61
10 58
8-43
8 71
1016
8-92
9-9
9 14
8 91
11 61
8-98
8.93
9-66
9-7
Madioen
11-16
11-39
11-84
10-66
11-07
11-27
10-79
12-14
11 20
11-26
12 63
10-70
10-76
11-00
10-8
Bembang . .
11-76
9-36
—
Japara*
SemaraBg ..
11-20
9-84
11-11
9 76
11-69
10-95
10-36
10-63
10 83
10-79
1 11-47
10-59
11-68
11-22
10-61
11 97
10 83
10-86
11 00
11-8
Solo ..
10-54
10-26
10 89
9-32
10-60
11 12
9 95
10-36
10 81
9-87
12-64
9-76
9-83
10 06
10-2
Djokdja .
Banjoemas . .
Bagel en
10-23
1 10-19
10-17
11.17
9 01
10-58
10-79
10 01
11-01
10 71
10-46
13-34
10-53
9-60
10 04
10-4
9-96
11-19
9-12
10-32
10-75
9-92
10 72
10-44
9-88
11 67
10 03
9-83
10 67
10-2
Pekaloi]ga;D^
Tegal . . . .
10-06
10 22
10-37
10 68
12-26
12 00
10-81
10-68
11-08
11-20
|ll-42
10-66
11-78
11-U
10-63
11-69
10-91
10 98
11-00
10 7
Cheiibon
9-71
10-18
10-72
10 74
10-72
11-01
10-66
11-86
1087
10-68
11-54
10-67
11-06
11 29
10-9
East Java . ,
9-90
10 09
10 68
929
9-71
10 47
9 84
10-39
10-06
9-7R
11-95
9 62
9-20
10-09
10-1
Middle Java
10-47
10.33
11 20
9-65
10-63
11-07
10-12
10-97
10-72
10 26
12-6-2
10-34
10-05
10-37
10-6
West Java .
1000
10-39
11 62
10-72
1100
11-26
10-66
1179
11-02
11-25
11-63
10-85
10-74
U;ll
10-8
Average . .
10-06
10-21
10-94
9-67
10-16
10-77
10 03
10-74
10-87
10-04
12-03
10-00 9-97
10-33
10-26
In these statistics the yield of sugar is calculated by taking the quantity
of first sugar and second sugar for the full weight, to which is added half of
the black stroop weight. If on loo cane 8-39 per cent, white sugar, 0-37
per cent, refining crystals, i-8o per cent, second sugar, and 0-38 per cent,
black stroop are yielded, the rendement is calculated as follows : —
White sugar
Refining crystals
Second sugar . .
Black stroop
8-39
=
8-39
0-37
=
0-37
i-8o
. =
i-8o
0-38 -
- 2
= 0-19
1075
Total rendement
A most instructive lot of figures is to be gleaned from the statistics of
Government plantations between the years 1840 to 1888, and from the statistics
of the Archief voor de Java Suikerindustrie from 1903 up to now, which clearly
shows the extraordinarily high degree in which the sugar production of the
same area has increased during the last sixty years.
The increase of sugar production per bouw dates from 1872, when the
sugar manufacture was no more interfered with by the Government, and the sugar
needed no more to be passed over to the State warehouses, but could be freely
disposed of. It became, therefore, profitable to the manufacturers to try and
increase the output of their land, as everything which they produced went to
* See footnote on page 128.
132
Java.
their benefit, whereas in former years their interest in the production was
very small.
During the years from 1840 to 1872 the production per bouw of the Govern-
ment's plantations amounted to :—
1840/44
■ ■ 23-38
1844/49
• ■ 30-54
1850/54
■- 33-58
1855/59
.. 38-89
1860/64
• • 43-25
1865/70
• - 49-74
23-38 piculs, or 0-809 tons per acre
1-058
I -163
1-347
1-499
1-723
This rose to an average of 65-28 piculs during the years 1872/76, and
amounted in
1877 .
to 67-62 piculs, (
3r 2.343 to
1878 .
. 64-38 „ ,
, 2.231 „
1879 .
. 62-08 „
, 2-152 „
1880 .
. 60-30 „
, 2-090 ,,
I88I .
• 75-12 „
, 2-605 .,
1882 .
. 75-28 „ ,
, 2-609 "
1883 .
. 84-27 „ ,
, 2-920 ,.
1884 .
- 92-75 ..
. 3-215 „
1885 .
. 87-42 „
, 3-030 „
1886 .
. 89-74 „
, 3-110 „
1887 .
• 97-99 ,'
. 3-396 „
1888 .
. 94-00 ,,
, 3-258 ,.
After 1888, the Government's sugar production was so much reduced that
the production figures per bouw as regards this cultivation do not give any
satisfactory indication of the total production. Not tiU 1893 were any figures
of production compiled by private cultivators to be relied upon ; these figures
were first published in the Ar chief voor de Java Suikerindustrie, and have
since been continued.
From them we gather that after the great improvement during the years
following 1872, there followed a period of stagnation during the sereh years
circa 1890, which, however, for reasons mentioned above, was followed by
a sharp revival that is stiU in progiess, and the end of which is not to be expected
for some time yet.
^33
Asia.
1 893/4.
1894/5.
1895/6.
1896/7.
RESIDENCIES.
Pieula
p»r
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Picula
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs,
per acre.
Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tore of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Bezoeki . .
8i-o
2-808
83-35
2-891
83-55
2-887
88-0
3-050
Probolinggo . .
85-05
2-946
89-3
3-095
76-55
2-655
83-9
2 908
Pasoeroean
71-1
2-464
79-35
2-755
72-10
2-500
73-1
2-534
Soerabaia
88-65
3-070
89-75
3-IIO
84-75
2-940
90-35
3-132
Kediri
79-15
2-740
88-15
3-055
82-0
2-842
85-45
2-962
Madioen . .
79-95
2-770
90-15
3-125
80-25
2-783
87-1
3-020
Rembang
40-55
1-405
56-1
1-945
21-6
0-749
43-85
2-906
Japara . .
75-10
2-602
87-45
3-033
84-15
2-919
91-25
3-162
Semarang
67-20
2-330
77-85
2-697
68-4
2-371
73-75
2-555
Solo
72-85
2-500
78-6
2-725
82-95
2-874
89-2
3-092
Djokdja . .
90-05
3-120
96-45
3-345
99-1
3-436
105-35
3-642
Ban] oemas
Bagelen . .
56-7
69-95
1-955
2-420
■ 83-55
2-895
83-25
2-885
103-55
3-591
Pekalongan .
93-85
3-250
91-2
3-161
86-8
3-009
95-7
3-317
Tegal
95-75
3-318
97-7
3-386
89-85
3-114
89-45
3-100
Cheribon
71-05
2-462
81-7
2-832
80-3
2-783
77-55
2-687
East Java* .
82-35
2-850
86-85
3-012
81-13
2-812
85-93
2-977
Middle Java .
76-J5
2-636
85-63
2-967
86-26
2-989
94-54
3-275
West Java
85-75
3-005
90-24
3-127
86-52
2-998
85-69
2-970
Average
81-15
2-812
86-94
3-012
83-29
2-887
88-16
3-057
19c
2/3-
190
3/4.
1904/5.
1905/6.
RESIDENCIES.
PieulB
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Piculs
per
Bouw,
Tons of
2 240 lbs.
per acre
Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Bezoeki . .
. 100-8
3-494
100-8
3-494
98-6
3-418
98-8
3-425
Pasoeroean
- 99-2
3-439 ■
103-6
3-590
II0-4
3-827
108-5
3-761
Soerabaia
■ 106-35
3-674
IIO-5
3-830
115 -7
4-012
108-6
3-765
Kediri . . .
.1 104-0
3-605
I20-I
4-167
108-7
3-768
107 -I
3-713
Madioen . .
. 100-3
3-476
II9-8
4-156
115-1
3-992
II2-2
3-890
Semarang
. 104-0
3-605
123-7
4-292
110-5
3-831
IIO-3
3-823
Solo . . .
• 97-55
3-380
II2-7
3-907
109-2
3-785
106-6
3-695
Djokdja . .
• 104-45
3-620
122-4
4-247
121-0
4-198
II9-5
4-145
Banj oemas
Bagelen . .
Pekalongan .
123-0
4-268
106-6
3-695
108-8
3-772
II5-8
4-016
. lOI-I
3-505
130-6
4-534
129-3
4-488
1 17 -4
4-072
Cheribon
. 102-25
3-485
3-580
105-0
3-640
109-8
3-806
105-1
3-644
East Java
■ 103-25
II5-7
4-012
111-2
3-855
107-7
3-733
Middle Java .
. 104-8
3-633
I18-O
4-093
II2-8
3-9II
112-8
3-911
West Java
. 107-6
3-710
I20-I
4-167
I2I-8
II3-3
4-226
119-0
4-128
Average
■ 104-35
3-617
II7-O
4-058
3-928
104-8
3-633
*
See note
on page 1
28.
Java.
1897/8.
1898/9.
1899/
1900.
1 900/ 1.
190
1/2.
Picula
per
Bouw.
Tons ot
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per aci e.
Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
9S-95
3-430
100-6
3-487
88-7
3-074
94-95
3-290
94-85
3-287
93-30
3-234
89-6
3-106
88-8
3-078
87-1
3-020
• 86-6t
3-002
85-30
2-956
91-85
3-183
86-35
2-993
82-7
2-866
106-55
3-676
II2-3
3-883
93-95
3-257
93-1
3-228
98-8
3-425
107-05
3-709
IIO-5
3-814
89-25
3-097
75-75
2-625
97-7
3-386
105-75
3-641
loi-g
3-534
85-0
3-946
82-7
2-866
88-15
3-055
34-5
1-196
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
104-95
3-639
105-6
3-661
102-75
3-559
96-85
3-357
■ 98-35
' 3-408
98-7
3-421
99-85
3-461
93-65
3-246
89-15
3-090
105-25
3-641
104-1
3-609
92-95
3-221
79-25
2-746
99-6
3-453
111-7
3-850
105-65
3-662
98-3
3-307
92-85
3-218
106-65
3-680
118-3
4-093
111-25
3-858^
96-95
3-362
79-65
2-760
117-3
4-068
103-0
3-570
102-55
3-552
113-25
3-935
119-05
4-129
■122-4
4-247
109-95
3-812
109-85
3-806
107-55
3-729
108-75
3-772
97-9
3-393
89-1
3-089
86-2
2-988
89-55
3-103
94-75
3-383
100-9
3-500
104-4
3-619
90-3
3-130
87-55
3-034
94-55
3-276
107-65
3-711
105-35
3-642
97-4
3-376-
88-15
3-055
103-3
3-580
104-0
3-605
100-05
3-467
100-7
93-75
3-490
3-249
101-95
3-532
II0-5
3-814
103-15
3-571
103-95
3-601
90-1
3-124
99-35
3-443
190
6/7.
190
7/8.
190
8/9.
1909/10.
191C
/"
Picula
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,'J40 lbs.
per acre.
Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
■ Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
Piculs
per
Bouw.
Tons of
2,240 lbs.
per acre.
II3-O
3-918
III-4
3-862
108-7
3-768
1 13 -5
3-920
122-5
4-247
II4-9
3-984
II2-0
3-883
io8-i
3-748
III. I
3-870
iio-i
3-812
125-0
4-348
II4-9
3-984
II6-2
4-030
120-6
4-180
138-5
4-801
I16-I
4-027
I16-9
4-054
107-8
3-897
108-8
3-773
II5-5
4-004
126-3
4-383
122-5
4-250
125-4
4-352
114-8
3-980
125-9
4-364
1 19 -6
4-149
132-4
4-597
129-5
4-495
123-5
4-280
130-0
4-506
126-4
4-387
126-5
4-390
II5-4
4-002
115-0
3-986
1 21 -7
4-220
133-7
4-642
141 -4
4-912
II6-6
4-044
ii6-o8
4-018
1 28 -I
4-40
1 15 -7
4-012
136-6
4.744
I2I-8
4-226
117-6
4-076
1 20-1
4-163
II7-I
4-062
134-7
4-677
135-0
4-688
127-2
4-408
1 31 -4
4-555
II5-4
4-002
113-6
3-939
I2I-4
4-212
111-8
3-876
122-9
4-260
II9-5
4-145
1 14-7
3-977
II2-0
3-883
114-4
3-990
123-5
4-281
125-2
4-345
134-3
4-663
120-7
4-187
118,2
4-098
125-3
4-343
II5-9
4-019
125-0
4-338
128-9
4-474
121-7
4-219
127-6
4-423
120-3
4-173
121-3
4-208
I16-8
4-051
116-3
4-033
1 241
4-302
t See note on page 129.
Asia.
The kind of sugar shipped from Java has recently gone through some
changes. During the years 1894 to 1902 sugar was almost exclusively delivered
as raw sugar Nos. 11 — 14*, and 5 to 8 per cent, black stroop or sack sugar.
The second sugar was melted and worked up to raw first again, while only a few
factories prepared white sugar. After 1902, when Java gradually lost the Ameri-
can market and was directed to the British-Indian and the Chinese markets,
white first and second sugars were prepared in larger quantities, so that these two
kinds together represented in 1910 and 1911 more than one-third of the total
production. The second sugar, at first hardly even in demand, was later pro-
duced in Ughter colours, whereupon it more readily found buyers, and latterly
has fetched such a price and been so much in demand that in 1906 more than
7 per cent, of the total production consisted of this brand. This was fol-
lowed, however, by a reaction, and the percentage of second sugar fell, although
it still accounts for 5 per cent, of the export trade. The black stroop up to
1898 represented 8 per cent, of the production, till through the introduction
of processes involving the returning of molasses during the first strike, the
quantity of sack sugar produced has dropped considerably, and is still
decreasing. In percentage of the total production, the relation of the
quantities of each kind has been for the last fifteen years as follows : —
Superior Sugar. — A crystallized sugar as white as possible and whiter than No. 25
Dutch Standard. It is sold according to type of sample, without reference to the polari-
zation.
First Sugar No. 18 and higher : very light-coloured crystallized sugar, which corres-
ponds in colour with that of the numbers of the Dutch Standard. It is sold according
to sample, without reference to polarization.
First Sugar, No. le, to 17. — Also going by the name of European Assortment. A light-
coloured crystallized sugar corresponding in colour with that of the samples of the Dutch
Standard Nos. 15 to 17. The basis of polarization is 98.0.
First Sugar, No. 12 and higher or so-called American Assortment, or refining crystals.
A moist, dark-coloured, and well-crystallised type of sugar corresponding in colour with
samples of the Dutch Standard Nos. 12 to 14. The basis of polarization is 96.5.
Red Sugar or Gula Merah. — A dark-coloured kind of sugar, corresponding in colour
with samples of the Dutch Standard Nos. 8 to 10. It is prepared from syrup with first
molasses, and sold according to sample without having to attain a certain polarization.
Superior Second Sugar. — A fine-grained white kind of sugar, which is delivered accord-
ing to sample without having to attain a certain polarization.
Second Sugar No. 14, — A light-coloured, finely-grained sugar. It need not attain a
certain polarization.
Centrifugalled Sack Sugar. — A dark after-product of the same colour as No. 8 of the
Dutch Standard. It is viscous, and sticks together ; no special analysis is wanted, but
at least 80 polarization is expected. It must come up to a good saleable quality.
Ordinary Sack Sugar. — Sticky magma of fine crystals and adhering molasses
obtained by draining ofi in mat bags. It is not sold by polarization, but has to be of a
good saleable quality, while a polarization of 72 — 75 is expected.
Java.
ASSORTMENT.
1896
1
1897 1898 1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1 90s
1906
1907
igo8 1909
1
I9I0 I9II
Sack sugar ...' 8-2
7-8
5-5
5-0
4-7
48
6-4
5-2
4-2
4-4
4-6
3-6
3-3
3-2
3-1
2-2
Gula merah ...' —
—
—
— 1 —
—
0-2
O-I
—
—
0-3
O-I
O-I
—
—
10 — 13 D.S. ...1 —
II-8
—
— '
—
—
—
—
— ■
—
— ^
—
—
—
—
1-7
II— 14 D.S. ...' —
36-0 65-4
l6-2
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
2
12—14 D.S. ...
58-4
14-6 13-1
67-2
81 8
8l-2
76-1
71-8
75-8
74-2
6o-2
56-8
59-2
40 5
31-8
27-0
13 D.S. and
higlrer
—
o-i
o-i
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
1-6
—
—
14 D.S
—
0-6
—
—
—
0-4
—
—
1-2
—
—
0-7
—
1
—
15 D.S
31-6
i6-o
.V.3
I-O
4-2
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
O-I
15—17 D.S. ...
— ■
9-2
10-8
8-3
5-3
8-2
II-8
14-3
6-4
4-8
5-6
2-4
1,5
0-7
—
-1
16 D.S
05
1-7
0-5
0-2
1-4
2-5
I- 1
3-5
5-3
5-S
14-0
13-5
13-1
24-8
30-2
33 4
16 D.S. and
higher
—
O'l
—
0-3
0-2
04
0-9
0-8
I- 1
—
2-3
1-4
0-8
0-4
—
—
18 — ig D.S.
0-3
o-i
—
—
—
0-4
—
0-8
0-9
0-6
0-8
0-2
0-2
— —
19—20 D.S.
0-8
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
20 D.S
—
— .
06
08
09
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
—
0-3
—
—
20 D.S. and
higher
—
1-7
0-4
0-7
1-0
—
—
—
—
0-3
0-8
2-1
2-5
0-2
—
02
Superior
0-2
0-3
0-3
0-3
0-5
2-5
3-1
4-3
5-2
8-5
II-6
i8-6
19-3
28-1
34-9
35-2
Total
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
The prime cost of sugar, first of all, depends on the class which is produced,
on the cost, price and the quality of the cane, on the distance between the
factory and 'the harbour, and also on the factory installation. Generally
speaking, it may be taken that the manufacture of superior sugar costs is.
more than the brown sugar, basis 96-5, and that of sugar Nos. 18 — 20 6d.
more per picul — that is allowing for the diminished rendement. But these
figures, of course, vary.
According to van den Berg, the cost price of sugar during the years 1885-88
was, not including interest on the fixed capital or floating capital, or loans : —
1885
1886
1887
1888
Per picul.
Per ton.
/8.17
£11 6s. od.
/ 7-72
;fio IIS. 8d.
/ 6.68
£9 3S. 2d.
/ 6.67
£9 2S. 10 ^d
When allowing an average interest of / 0.88 per picul or £1 4s. 2d. per
ton, we come to / 7.55 or ;^io 7s. per ton as the cost price of sugar during
1888. Engelberts calculated this figure for the years circa 1900, and his
calculation on the returns' of iii factories, or 60 per cent, of the total
number which produced 7,835,700 piculs, or 60 per cent, of the total Java
crop,*gave the following data : —
137
Asia.
All over
Examined
Java.
Factories.
Number . . . . 185
Ill
Piculs cane per bouw 979
1055
Piculs sugar per bouw 93-69
102-23
Rendement . . . . 9-57
9-69
ories which procured the figures were
considered the best, in
which case the sugar cost / 5.64* per picul or £7 14s. 7|d. per ton, including
all expenses of management, planting, manufacture, shipping, or conveying
to the harbour, maintenance of factory, machinery, buildings, interest on
floating capital, and commission on the sale of the produce. This does not
include expense of new machinery for the extension of the factory installation
or of new transportation plant for the transport of cane, or the interest on the
capital and debts. If one reckons, as van den Berg did, t 0.88 per picul or
£1 4s. 2d. per ton, for interest and administration expenses, the cost price
will amount to / 5.52 per picul or £y lis. 4d. per ton.
H. 's. Jacob published at the same time a specification of the prime cost
of sugar, estimated for 212 factories during the years 1899 — 1902, and arrived
at the following figures : —
Per picul.
1899 / 5-50
1900 . . . . . . / 6.27
1901 . . . . . . / 6.24
1902 / 5-59
This includes interest on floating capital, but no interest or mortgage on
fixed capital, which really should be added to be exact.
The amount of £y los. 8d. is specified by him as follows : —
Per ton.
£7
los. 8d.
£8
IIS. iid.
£8
IIS. od.
£7
13s. 2d.
Per picul.
Per ton.
Employes . .
/ 0-50
£0
I2S.
5d.
Agriculture . .
/ 2-00
£2
15s.
8id.
Transport of Cane. .
/ o-6o
;^0
i6s.
64d.
Fuel
/ 0-07
£0
IS.
iid.
Wages
/ 0-14
£0
33-
lod.
Sundries
/ 0-07
£0
IS.
iid.
Packing
/ o-i6
£0
4s.
44d.
Transport of Sugar
/ 0-31
£0
8s.
7d.
Maintenance
/ 0-32
£0
8s.
9d.
Diverse expenses . .
/ 0-17
£0
4s.
9d.
Commission
/ 0-27
£0
7s.
6d.
New machinery
/ 0-59
£0
i6s.
2d.
Interest
/ 0-30
£0
8s.
24d.
Total
/ 5-50
£7
lOS.
8d.
/ stands for floi;in or guilder = is. 8d.
138
Java.
The yearly reports of the different joint stock companies give various
figtires as the cost price of sugar on the several estates, which vary so much as
regards the class of sugar, the distance from the seaport, the interest on capital
due, the produce, etc., that it is impossible to quote any fixed amount as cost
price. Generally speaking, we may consider H. 's. Jacob's figures still to hold
good, so that the cost price of the sugar Nos. ii — 13 D.S. comes to / 5.50 per
picul or £7 los. 8d. per long ton, including all expenses except interest on
the capital.
v.— Import and Export Duties, Consumption, Exportation,
Places of Destination.
Sugar entering into the Dutch East Indies is not subject to a special
sugar duty, but, like all other articles of food, is taxed with an import duty
which since the recent rise has been fixed at 12 per cent, of the value. Pre-
vious to 1884 an export duty of 3d. was paid per cwt. of sugar, which in 1884
was lowered to i|d. It was suspended, however, from July i, 1887, till July
I, 1892, and was abolished in 1898.
The consumption of cane sugar of European standard is not great, and
amounts to about 50,000 tons every year for the entire archipelago. This
does not seem much for a population of 40,000,000 people who are very fond
of dainties and sweet things ; but we should remember that besides the sugar
industry carried on by European methods there is also a flourishing native
sugar industry, which produces an unknown but considerable amount. All
over the island sugar is being prepared on a small scale from sugar cane and
palm trees, which is much in demand in all the markets in the Dutch Indies,
and almost entirely supplies the want of sugar among the native population.
The sugar produced in the European sugar works is chiefly consumed by the
Europeans, Chinese, and wealthy natives, while the bulk of the inhabitants
like to stick to the sugar prepared from cane and palms in the orthodox way,
and prefer evaporated juice to crystals. Part of the crystallized sugar re-
crystallized to candy is, however, also in demand by the natives.
The greater portion by far of Java sugar is exported to foreign countries.
During the years previous to 1880 a fair amount of this sugar was sent to the
Netherlands, but when that country itself began to produce an increasing
amount of beetroot sugar, and consequently wanted no cane sugar from the
colonies, the demand for cane sugar to be worked up in Holland ceased to
exist, and, with the exception of the occasions when there has been a
dearth of beetroot sugar, Java sugar has not been refined in Holland since.
From that time a great amount of Java sugar went to England, and soon
after the United States also became a regular buyer ; but when the latter
began to supply its wants with sugar from its own colonies, and from countries
with which it had entered into reciprocal treaties, Java had to look out for
some other market — and so sugar has been exported to Hong Kong, too.
During the last few years the exportation of brown sugar to Japan, and especially
of white sugar to British India, has become of increasing importance, as the
statistical data clearly show.
139
Asia.
o
en
a
I—!
s
o
bp
in
CIS
O CTi "O 00 u-i O
o
in ■T^ O 'O m VO
01
s
in
lo ro VO M C
^4
to
0> 00 o o\ C\ i^
*o
o\
^
O^ l^ M CO i^ 1 j !
CO
*
§
CO m >-< t-i CO 1-1
rf in CO O N CTi
1 :?
1
M
^D
1-. h-. K. T^
H
00 m 00 o\ N «
m
^
-ff
00
l-H
riD w w
^
o
a. N a» ij^ t^ o
M
Tt O C7> 00 <T> 0^
\c
m
9
"~t '^ t^ i-H o -^
tv
O
CO O CO CO ■^ CO
IN
CO
cT n" ix 00 6^ 1 1 1
In
Oi
m
3
M VO m CO c^^
>:? CO CO ci" CO d"
Oi
1 :£
1
CO
CO
>j^ N -^ M 0^ ' ' '
CO
o
O CO "O CO 'O CO
' -^
-<t
Ph
s
O d ro M CO -^
CO N i-T CO
00
l-v O "^ M N u-i M
W
O^ O 'O 00 in O
M •-■
o
'st" O^ ^ ^ 0\ t^ i-i
o
rft
m O W •-' f^ O
00
01
el
00^ CTv N O "O "-. 1 1
T
to
O 00 00 O^ o; 00
■^
1
o\
o
CO tC ro i-T hC o" 1 1
«"
o
>^ d\ >^ O t^ f^
1
t-Tl
H
CO CO CO lO CO
o
H
M VO IN. Vl- M CO
CO
tN
00
MM l-H
^
^
^
CO M
^D
Oi 0\ 00 N w O u^
CO
lo -t CO *0 M N
O I'"'
IN.
I— 1
VO "^ M 00 ■^ m CO
IN.
s.
\0 O 0^ CO o 00
N «
M « M u-i u-i o t-*
q_
o
CO
o ^ cj; "-^ '>;»• «
tN.
3
o
i-C -^ oo" *^ -^ ^ 1 1
in
}-i
"3
o
d\ i< N tC o~ tN
^
1
-*
vo CO CO ^ M a» ' '
O
r^ 00 VO \0 ov "^
o
s
M N lo t:!- M -^t-
O^
s
M CT\ t-" c^ N m
m
d
cT m" ci"
CO
in m" N
O 0\ N lo xo ^s lo
CO
M CO 0^ -^ M 00
^ M
CO
<M -^ 00 T|- CO CO
O
s
\D ■* O « -O ■'^
O
g
u-1 tv. tv 00 O 0\ 1 1
q\
(S M in O 00 tN.
O
1
m
o
t^ 0^ t^ N lo M 1 1
■^
"5\
o
\0 -Ri- CO O P», '^
CO
1
M
4
00
H
O ■* -^ t^ M
o
H
M O *-< fn '-' «
(N
CO
1-1 M h-l
m
m M
Ix
O N l>s tN, CO "^ CT>
M
d ■* O O m IN.
N O
1
m
<Jv "^ m C?i CO C?i l>*
O^
0\ -^d- CO CO VO '-'
o o
CO VO VO *o CO' M
«
45
N 0\ i>v O « *^
^_
'"'
3
o
O" -^ fO od" cT in I 1
in
00
1
CO N 00 •-h' oo" -^
«
1
00_
M
■<1- N tN, o 00 m ' '
tx
VO "O >-' m O CO
tx
^
t^ -^ t^ l>* CO
i-i
oo"
CM
N M N M M CO
od" M
CO
O I^ m O in CO CO
CO
N bs "^ « tN O
CO ■<*•
o
en
rv. tv. CO o o^ CO M
rv.
to
3
■* O CO O t^^ t^
00
In.
CO M l>v 00 O O 1 1
M
■^ 00 m « N M
Oi
[
CO
o
w o> O t^ Tl- o 1 1
CO
O
m m « W 00 -^
00
1
tx
■21
H
M h-l
4
-i
H
VO in 00
■^ 1-1
•^
tN
00
■^ r^ O O CO CO t^
t^
00
0^
o ^ -d- ^^ ^ ^
In N
tN
O *-" t^ -^ O^ vo O
M
N O f^ '-•'-' O
tJ- oo
c;
00^ 00^ -^ -^ N^ t-^_ N
M
CO
^_^ tN q^ -^ o_ tN
CO
*"*
3
cT in m" in VO" in
-=?
M
3
o
d\ d *^ -^ ^ d
tc.
1
tN.
d
M O « ■* yD M ' '
C^
m t-^ -^ vo -^ o^
o
ilH
"O 'O CO t^ t^
M
fc
m ■^ M CO
CO
m" i-T i-T
tN.
I-T \iS w
VO m
Q> "^ M N 00 m M
CO --t CO M '^ Oi
CO CO '^ in tx M M
tN^
to
00 in in in !-• ro
CO
CO
1-1 CO M M M m , ,
M
M CO "^ T^ VO O
M
I
CO
-> n > » n -
o
Qi t-t CTi O m M I 1
I>*
1-1 Ov cl m O
1-1
1
o
-21
H
« M
00
H
CS Cr> CO in CO
01 1-1
in
00
0^
'^ '^ N -^ m (M
M
t^ ■^ O^ CO 00 i-"
m O
^
oj
^O CO 00 N in Tf cr»
Tl-
Cy> m VO 00 Ov 00
o\ C
M M N N ■^ t:1- M
o^
00
cn
O O -^ O CO CO
o
3
O
o
CO M rv. CO m "O
W fv. m VO O *0
d
1
OS
Tt O Ov N CO 00 ' '
^
■^ ■^- N CO 0^ 00
M
In
s
m O fv >0 f-i
N
s
CO 00 m tJ- tJ-
__co_i-r t-T
l<
-^ N
00
CO N ^£> 'O O \D CO
VO
O M VO "O m CO
O^ o
in
s
h-l ■^ CO M o\ o f^
^
g
\0 CO N *0 00 1-*
^
in
Oi in tN. 00^ CO 00 1 [
M
in N t^ O O M
N
CO
rC -rf N O"" -^ O" 1 1
o
00 N 00 m" in CO
^•
t^
o.
H
O CO CO 00 M
H
o
"o"
00
lo in in CO -q- 0^ N
CO
00
in O CO N O "<t
N fS
tx
o
.3
\0 tv. -^ ■* CO tv M
O
to
o\ 1- o a -n- o
-^ O
■^
!*
in 00 m O CO "O
^
O VO W in CO 0\
M CO
o
M
3
o
3
o
Tj- OO O 00 f VO
d
r|- tN CO M M -^
■<*■
d
(^
O "O CO O r-^ fo ' '
M
CO O O m 00 0\
CO
o
s
O) CO in CO CO
CO h-T m"
DO
vd
£
00 O fO "O N
rf m" m"
oo"
u
^3
13
• • ■ : : : : °
u
O
'■'■'■'■ ^ '■'■'■ u
■ rf
)H
c
3
■ M ,o
-g ;^ ^
: ^ : fS m u : (u
^_,
C
?
-1
■ J • pi 03
'3 :
O
0)
f-i.
s a 3 ;a -a « .s S'.a
1 1 1 -3 :5 1
3 B 3 ^ G P
tin
g
o
H
w < <; o m tn H !-.(/)
W < < O FQ tJ)
C/1
ft
<
o
^
s
*
140
Java.
Shipments of Java sugar from ist May — 30th April.
Tt- t-. tv \0 «
'-' M '^ VO "O
CO
ro VO tN. N
^ -^ N ^ t--
d
M "^ i-i Tt- l>s -*
e!:!
0^
d\ Tt 0" 1 "^ ' t^ '
00 CO tH M rv. "O
Oi f^
M -^ CO "O 'O
•■D
ro
h-l M
?
00 CO in N I>s N
CO
^
t^ 'O M M M
r-^ -^ in CO tN^
^
fO fv 00 ^-^ t^
CO ■^ CO 0> tv CO
CTi
g
Tt O^ 10 r*^ -^ \
m CO t>s ^v. 1^
0^ HI « « t^
CO
S
hH rr> ^ M
N ■<- w -*
m
\o
N « l-H l-H
pomf^-^'O t^c^VD
•H M CO 00 t» "^
CO
i^r>.oo roi>^0 C
'^ m CO -^ M M
C^
VO»^oo Ocooo >-> tI
M m -^ -^ VO "O
VO
H
00 Lo'Oi-'io ■^""
Tf CO 11 VO
t>x u^ un n M N
l-l tx « Oi -^
w M
M »H
u-i
-^
V
CO^"^i-< I>.0 -^00 (S i-< 01^ N
Oco ^sC^'-« i-t COM
rv \o '-. M -^ "-H
u-.0\t-'i-.MNcOi^
in m c^ ^ 0^
t>v
.3
cotv.pn-^'O tN
oi ^ -^ t\
tN.t^-^tN.'sJ-M OiCO
CO N "^ 'O i^
0^
Ph
N -^ t-i c4 CO M t*^
M 00 Oi m »0
w
M M -^
« hH M
'
Oi M t-" CO "O
m CO O^ Qi \0 CO
00
CO
0\ ''^ CO t-^ c^) CO
CO Oi 0^ 01 w
c^
'd
W t;}- l-i tS t-t in M 1
CO ^ iJ~i 00 m O^
xt
H
'^ ^o ij-^ '-' vo a> »>v '
CO CO W M "O
o\
CO 00 0^ "-I "-i '-'^
t^ CO in I>* Tf
^
N M
Y
Oi 10 M CO 1J~1 CO
"O -^ !>. 00 CO
2:
t^ M LO -^ o) 00 10
a* CO CTi CO C^
■*
M Nf -* CO CO ^p 10
CO m \0 in n ^
t^
3
■^ f "-< w^
tv, hH Tf -^ Oi
ON
LO "^ CO *0 y^ >-•
00 "O tN. tN. in
PW
m ■^ u-i i-H c^ a^ '-'
1-00 '<*■'-' t^
■^
1-1 l-l
«-i CO M w
■^
—
1-1
in i-« t-i
CO O^ VO Tt"
CO
in -"^ C^ CO xn VO
VO VO l>s (7> 10
>-(
m
vo f^ 1 00 CO I
mi-. ] 'O M M
c^
§
hT -"^ 06" 1 0" C^ 10 1
00" t^ 1 00" 6 ^
^
M t^ MM
ts. C VO CO -^
-^
fn
r-i
CO
M
CO
?
M
CTi CO "^ 00 M n
00 t^ 1-1 m
Ci
VO « f \0 -^t N
^ VO CO VO
^
00 tJ- CO in 0\
m CO 0\' Tf
CO
S
iO*t% W in 1-1 ^
CO « w t^
.y
0) M f^ ' r>^ c^ 00 '
tN. o> ' M a> \o
Ph
« w w ro
tv) ^ hi ■t:j- \0
t^
^
hH m t-H
CO
• ■ d '
M-H
: : J3 : : : : :
■+J
. . ri
: : ^ : : : :, :
S
Europe
Port Said f.o.
Delaware Breal
Boston
Vancouver f.o.
Barbados f.o.
Azores f.o.
United States
Australia . . ,
Hong Kong
Cliina
Japan
British India
Singapore f.o.
H
m "O 0* U-)
t^ ON M h-i w C^ ^s.
CO
m tN» MO
VO N « IN. m -^
^n
en
CO N W CO
^s. m VD CO M Tj-
VO
FJ
« l< I -^ 0" 1
l*«* CO ^ in 1-1 m
cf
i>v 00 1 M M 1
« « ''t « m
00
1
H
hH
M w -^
lo 0\ T 00
CI ^ d CO -^ tN^ >-i
S^
-. \o ^
CO r^ in M CO t}-
en
10 N CO CO
CO CO N VO d
00
-■^ cT m in NO ^f tN.
n CO 1 0\ CO 1
VO t-^ 1-1 i-i -^ Oi
^
l-i CO CO
CO CO N CO 00
Ov
HI
ro CO \D a\ -q-
ON CO vO ■-' ■rr CO
CO •£> VO IH CO
>-■ ON tN ON *0 C
O^ "O CO \0 ^0
VO "-■ m CO CO VO *0
VO
H
rv m \o" 00" M 1
tN "^ m M -^ M
C^ M 1
H
M
CJ CO
0^
1
t-t
>-> XJ^ \0
VO tx Tf ON I-I CO M
i-< rs. 00 t^ t>s
«-i ON CO CO CO CO m
•"■
tf.
KH ON Tf hi
^ On CO Iv. 00 "^ N
t>*
3
CO CO M l-i I
m (N ^ 1
Ph
in d in CO CO M
-^
CO 1-1 NO M
ts
M n I>s -^
ON
CO 00 LO m "<^
M VO ^ M
H
ON in tv^ C^ CO
ON -r!- -^ VO i-i t>^ .
00
CO N •-■ -^ 1
w CO 6" « 00" cf
N '-' CO '
i-i CO
NO I-. w M w '
>-( I-I CO
CO
•-'
C» m ON 1-" m
CO CO ON w On
"O 00 VC NO i>^
ON
tX
"'
oi
"lO t^ >-o CO l-l
00 0_ vo_ VO
3
ri ^ Ov ^ 1
N CO 00 in in
CLh
ON CO "-< m
vq 1-1 t^ Tf «
ON
M Tt
N 1-1 m
—
CO in ON r^ o\
00 tv. M I-I m NO
^
CO ON Tj- O^ 'O
VO CO M 10 ON N
m
en
-^ NO ^ M •-«
Cn. VO ci m I-I .
H
00 in t^ N ON 00
M CO ■rf oi m C0~
C* tv^ CO i-<
Tj- w >-«
Ot
0.
l-t IH
*-• M CO
1
I-I
On 00 "-1 <n i-i
VO M in IX ^O
o>
tv. CO ON >-i M 00
I-I ON CO CO
*-t
cn
►-H tV. ■<;(- 1-1 CO 'O
VO VO CO M m CO
1-1
3
w Tl- in ON 00 ON
w w CO ON tX i
tv, Tl- M On ■* O)
M M 'O ON w 1
P.
CO M CO 1-1 10
ts
IN «
d CO in
ts.
M
■^ -Cv, i>. On I-" N
1-1 ON M ON M tx
ON
m tJ- tJ- m ON CO
N ^
-4-
en
t^ '^ « Tl- t^v
NO ^ ON Tj- IS. .
00
Pi
s2
tN. -^ CO t--^ tN.
irC CO CO Ov 6" co~
CO
i-i CO CO i-( r) »-(
■^ M ON Tf t1- VO
NO
hH
I-I hH h-l
00
CO 00 CO ON in ON
1-1 ON CO m I-I
tv.cominrv.'^>0 oivO invo i-«
CO
ON
t-l
to
■^ t^ ■'^ CO ON N
00 ON m 1-1 w
3
fs. Cs. t^ N ON c^
01 ON 'cf ts. -'^l- CO 1
Cn. m m CO "^ NO
CO Is. W N in 1-1 i
PM
N m M M "^ i-i
CO CO t- -^ NO >-•
ON
CI
M CO d w
CO
'"'
: : ■ : ■
M-l
: : ^ : : -
.....
n3 -
H
urope
ort Said ...
elaware Bre
ancouver f.o
nited States
zores f.o.
Hong Kong
China
Japan
British India
Australia . . .
Singapore f.o.
Diverse
■3
H
W a, P > p <
141
Asia.
VI.— Future.
Java's sugar production has steadily improved since 1890, when the
sereh disease and the consequence of the sugar crisis had been overcoine by
a powerful economical and judicious management.
Something peculiar strikes us in the figures of production, namely, that
the weight of the sugar produced will all at once rise after some years' interval,
to remain almost stationary during the following years, and then experience
a period of considerable increase again. Thus the years 1894, i8g8, 1904,
1907 and 1911 are marked by a sudden rise, while the production of the inter-
mediate years was stationary.
There is not the slightest reason why we should expect the end of progress
yet. ^The production of sugar per unit of area is ever rising ; the rational
methods of labouring, manuring, and treatment of the soil, together with
the selection of those kinds of cane that thrive best in the respective soil,
and a shortened campaign through improved methods of juice extraction
and manufacture, have contributed to a steadily increasing crop per acre,
and that while the sugar content of the cane has slightly dropped, as the figures
on page 132 have shown.
Great things are to be expected when the cross-fertilization of cane varieties
for the sake of new species of cane is successfully^ accomplished ; attention
wiU be paid not only to a high cane produce, but also to a satisfactory sugar
content. Then there is the experience that a high sugar content always goes
together with a superior purity, so that, in consequence of an increase of sugar
content in cane juice, the yield of sugar improves for the following two reasons :
first of all, because the juice contains more sugar ; and, secondly, because this
increased amount of sugar yields a greater percentage of rendement through
the purer condition of the juice. So there is every reason to believe that
the sugar production per unit of area will increase, and that the cane planted
area of Java will grow larger, too. Everywhere bigger stretches of ground
are being prepared for cane and rice cultivation through a new irrigation
system, and although a period of five years has been stipulated as the interval
before newly irrigated land should be let to cane sugar factories, still, in
the end, more arable land for cane growing will be at their disposal, and the
industrialists will not be long availing themselves of it. Sugar cane is also
planted on jungle land after it has been carefully made fit at great expense,
and the ever-recurring flow of applications for licences to build new sugar
factories shows how little the spirit of enterprise slackens. So we cannot
but expect either a steady or a sudden extension of the Java sugar industry,
if we base our hopes on the quick rate at which it has improved since
1890.
142
Java.
Whenever, owing to changed circumstances, one of the markets, where
Java sugar used to be imported, was lost to that industry, the Java manu-
facturers, as a rule, were energetic enough to plan the exportation to another
market, and to take good care to prepare sijch kind of sugar as was most in
demand, so that the Java product has always been thought much of, and has
come up to the highest expectations.
As energy, enterprise, knowledge, and science are all to the fore in Java,
we may hope for the best results in the future.
143
Europe.
I.
SPAIN.
Spain is the only European country where sugar cane is still cultivated on
a commercial scale, and this cultivation is restricted to that part of Andalusia
which lies between Almeria and Gibraltar, it being the only part of the penin-
sula where climatological circumstances allow the sugar cane to thrive.
A high average temperature and a total lack of frost are only to be met
with in Spain on the Mediterranean coast, where in the irrigated parts of the
country, especially on the alluvial stretches of land in the midst of the valleys,
sugar cane cultivation is carried on.
Three kinds of cane are planted in Spain : the white, red, and striped ;
and the particular species is chosen according to the nature of the soil. The
white cane only thrives on well-manured soil of a good quality ; its average
sugar content may attain to 15 per cent, of the weight of cane, but its yield
is low, and seldom amounts to more than 15 to 18 tons per acre. Plant cane
takes a year to ripen, but first and subsequent ratoons take two years. The
red cane thrives best on ground with a deep and moist layer of earth ; it is
stronger than the white cane, and demands good manuring. In the best of
circumstances the cane yield will amount to 32 tons per acre, and, as compared
with white cane, the ratoons of this variety also ripen in one year. As long
as good care is taken to manure every year with readily assimilable fertilizers,
one is sure to reap crops from the same canes for five years running. Altb lugh
its yield exceeds that of the white cane, the sugar quality of the red cane is
lower, and becomes more so as it is cultivated further east of Gibraltar. In
the Malaga Plains the sugar content of cane runs to 13 — 14 per cent., with
0-5 — 1-2 per cent, reducing sugars. The striped cane corresponds wit 1 the
red as regards productiveness of cane and other circumstances, but is Tiost
inconsistent in its yield of sugar.
These three kinds of cane are planted in the same way. The Jar^d is
laid out with cane after it has born different crops such as wheat, oarley,
maize, or sweet potatoes for at least three years. In January and February
the soil is ploughed deeply, while large quantities of stable dung (12 to 16 tons
to the acre) are put into the soil. In March the furrows are dug, about 3|- ft.
apart from each other, 12 in. deep, and 8 in. wide, which are hollowed out
with spades and dressed with manure when former supplies are thought in-
sufficient. Besides stable dung, superphosphates, sulphate of ammonia,
144
irM
I' (
I I
\'
I'
M
Uf> ji
Spain.
Chili saltpetre, basic slag, and sometimes fish guano coming from the sardine
and tunny fisheries, are also employed. Basic slag is generally given before
the ploughing is done, while the fish guano, superphosphate and two-thirds
of the sulphate of ammonia are laid in the furrows just before the planting,
and the rest of the ammonia and the Chili saltpetre is used as a top dressing
when the plants are banked up.
For planting, the tops of the cane are used, from which the youngest still
colourless joints are removed. Two parallel rows are planted in every furrow,
this necessitating a large quantity of seed material, viz., 9,800 lbs. per acre.
This may be explained by the fact that in the comparatively cool climate
of Andalusia they cannot rely upon the formation of secondary stalks, so
that enough primary stalks must be provided for. Moreover, a great many
of these die when a cold or wet spell of weather immediately follows the plant-
ing. The seed is covered with a thin layer of earth and watered, so that the
soil gets fairly moist ; this degree of moisture is kept up, by means of irriga-
tion water, as long as possible till the end of the period of vegetation. Occa-
sionally, as the growth of cane proceeds, the cane is banked. Then the field
is made quite level with a hoe, or better still with a plough, and, finally, the
cane is banked for the last time, so that the rows now stand slightly elevated
and banked earth and shallow gutters alternate where the rows used to be,
the whole forming a connected system. The irrigation water is admitted,
and flows slowly through the entire gutter system all over the field, following
the natural slope of the ground. During the summer the land is irrigated
every ten or fifteen days, and about 40,000 gallons of water per acre are used
each time.
The cane ripens in March, when it is cut and worked up ; the grinding
season lasts till May. The cane is cut close to the ground with knives, and
after being cleaned is taken to the factory. The leaves are conveyed to the
stables, where they serve as straw for the cattle, while the rest is burnt, this
operation at the same time destroying the parasites. Some more manuring is
done, either with stable dung or guano ; the earth between the rows is loosened
by means of a plough ; and the cane plants left in the ground are now so
much shortened that only two nodes are left on each stalk. This is done to
prevent too big a formation of secondary stalks which are unlikely to keep
alive, so that now only the budding shoots come up, instead of the primary
stems of tl\e year before. Then the young shoots are covered, manured, and
irrigated, and cut after a year in the same way as explained above, which
process is repeated so long as the field yields a satisfactory crop.
As may be seen from the above, the mode of cultivation is very expensive ;
a most intensive treatment and manuring are necessary for the little part
of Spain that is fit for cane cultivation in order to yield a profitable crop.
The manufacturers pay a very high price for the cane, namely, 40 pesetas
per ton of cane delivered in the field (£x lis. 8d. per ton).
The factories can be divided in two groups : the " trapiches " and the
145 K
Europe.
" fabricas." The former' are insignificant undertakings which grind only
a little cane, and concentrate the juice to table syrup, which is sold in tins.
The fabricas are large undertakings which prepare as their first product pile
sugar, -white powdered sugar as their second, yellow sugar as their third and
fourth product, and, finally, work up the molasses into alcohol. The factories,
as a rule, are well arranged, aild a kind of bagasse diffusion is generally in
operation, which gives very satisfactory results. The bagasse that enters
the diffusion battery with a content of 7 per cent, sugar and 70 per cent, water
leaves it again with a content of 0-30 — 0-40 per cent, sugar, and 85 — 87 per
cent, water, part of which is first expressed in mills, and afterwards the moist
bagasse is dried on a concrete floor in the sunshine. The juice is sulphitated,
made slightly allcaline with lime, heated, and clarified in the usual way. The
clarified juice is filtered over animal charcoal, and the mud through bag filters.
The dry mud from the filters is used as fodder for cattle. The syrup is again
filtered over animal charcoal, and afterwards boiled to a fine-grained masse-
cuite in the boiling pan and centrifugalled in the form of pile, which, when
broken into little pieces, is used for direct consumption. The first molasses
are boiled to a fine-grained white sugar, and the second molasses made into
a dark, soft kind of sugar.
The cane, as we said, costs 40 pesetas per ton, to which must be added
6 pesetas for transport from the field to the factory, and 14 pesetas for manu-
facturing expenses. A ton yields 209 lbs. of sugar, so that the production
cost of sugar in Spain is not less than 63 pesetas per 220 lbs., or about £1 5s.
per cwt.
In the time when Spain still possessed her cane sugar colonies, whicih
were accorded a preference by the mother country over the European beet
industry, the condition of the cane sugar manufacture in Spain was not what
could be described as a favourable one, and its yearly output only amounted
to 35,000 tons. The importation of sugar came to the following quantities
in tons : —
Year.
Spanish
Other
Total.
Colonies.
Countries.
1893
23.776
1,679
25.455
1894
41,332
1,262
42,594
1895
46,005
924
46,929
1896
36,808
923
37,731
1897
28,036
28
28,064
1898
8,668
14
8,682
1899
9,000
299
9,299
1900
103
354
457
1901
24
71
95
1902
8
56
64
146
Spain.
The Spanish colonies used to send much sugar to the mother country
and, as one can imagine, the inland sugar industry had ample scope to im^
prove when, after the war with the United States, these colonies were lost> .
and, consequently, were deprived of all further protection from Spain.
In 1892 the duty on sugar was fixed as follows : —
Pesetas per
100 kg.
Foreign sugar . . . . . . . . 50-
Sugar from Spanish colonies . . . . 33 -50
Excise on sugar produced in Spain .. 20-
As regards the last item, a rendement of 5 per cent, from both beetroot
and cane was taken as the basis for taxation.
In 1899, that is after Spain had lost her colonies, the import duty went up
to 85 pesetas and the excise to 23, so that a surtax of 60 pesetas was allowed,
which on the one hand prevented the importation of foreign sugar, but on
the other promoted strongly the inland industry. By this means the beetroot
sugar industry was exclusively benefited, and the production of cane sugar
has rather diminished than increased since 1899. With the aid of the capital
flowing back from the lost colonies, extensive stretches of land were planted
with beetroot, especially in Andalusia, and a large number of factories was
built which realized enormous profit. ■ Thus tempted, an ever-increasing
number of speculators invested money in the beetroot sugar cultivation, so
that it was not long before the country could supply its own wants, and this
was soon followed by over-production, as any exportation was an impossibility.
In 1903 there were 50 beetroot sugar factories, 32 large cane sugar factories,
15 mills for syrup preparation, 11 refineries, and 2 factories for sorghum sugar
and glucose. Prices, however, fell afterwards to such a degree that
they could not cover the very considerable cost of production in Spain ; hence
a period of great loss followed the short and glorious period of great profit.
It is from this difficult time that there dates the Society of Sugar Producers,
formed after lengthy negotiations. It went by the name of Sociedad General
Azucarera de Espana, and included 43 beetroot sugar factories, 13 cane sugar
factories, and 13 mills. It was decided to go on working with 40, and eventu-
ally with 35, factories ; and in order to simplify the management, the country
was divided into four zones (Central, Andalusia, North-East, and North-West) ;
then the distribution of seed and manure was arranged among the beetroot
producers, and a company was started for the sale of molasses.
In this way the Sociedad expected to have the production well in hand,
and to keep it in correspondence with requirements ; for the rest, they thought
of improving the sugar quality of the beetroot by providing a good kind of
seed, and, consequently, of lowering the cost of production, which would
bring in its train a sound and lasting period of prosperity. This, however,
was not so easy as it seemed to accomplish. First of all, a number of factories,
especially cane sugar works, were left out of the society, and then a great many
147
Europe.
former proprietors founded competing factories with the money derived from
the first sale of their property to . the Sociedad ; so that, notwithstanding the
stopping of a number of factories belonging to the Sociedad General, the Spanish
production exceeded the consumption, which excess in 1904 amounted to one-
third of the total yearly consumption. An attempt to export to England
failed through a protest from the Belgian Government, based on the Brussels
Sugar Convention, which compels the signatories to levy a penal duty on
bounty-fed sugar from countries which, like Spain, have not submitted to the
Convention.
After much negotiation between the Sociedad General, the free factories,
and the Government, they came to an agreement in 1907, according to which
the consumption duty was raised to 35 pesetas per 100 kg.* (220 lbs.), and
the erection of new sugar factories was prohibited within a radius of fifty
miles of each existing factory. Factories which have not been working for
five consecutive years are considered as non-existing. Further, the Govern-
ment, in deliberation with the factories themselves, fixes the production of
each factory for every year in accordance with its capacity. Should a factory
exceed the fixed amount of production, the excess quantity will be put to
account the next year.
In 1910 there. were in Spain 21 factories and 13 mills for cane sugar, 3
factories and 2 mills of which had not been working for some time.
In the 18 factories and 11 mills — 11 of the factories belong to the Sociedad
General — 188,660 tons of cane were ground, which produced 18,851 metric
tons of sugar. The total production since 1900 has been as follows : —
Sociedad factories.
Free factories.
Total.
Year.
Tons of
Tons of
Per
Tons of
Tons of
Per
Tons of
Tons of
Per
Cane.
Sugar.
cent.
Cane.
Sugar.
cent.
Cane.
Sugar.
cent.
igoo
—
—
—
356,182
34,548
970
356,182
34,548
9-70
1901
—
—
—
295.403
27,998
9-47
295,403
27,998
9-47
rgo2
—
—
—
226,329
16,979
7-50
226,329
16,979
7-50
1903
—
—
—
205,298
21,677
10-56
205,298
21,677
10-56
1904
148,480
12,558
8-45
112,551
9,617
8-54
261,031
22,175
8-49
1905
144,726
13.642
9-42
164,426
15.177
9-23
309,152
28,820
9-32
1906
80,656
6,765
8-36
105,060
8.957
8-52
185.917
15,722
8-45
1907
96,007
7,100
7-38
109,386
8.993
8-22
205,393
16,093
7-83
1908
52,621
5,818
11-56
74,839
8,240
II-OI
127,460
14,058
9-05
1909
131,529
10,423
7-91
119,474
11,246
9-36
251,003
21,669
8-63
1910
67,803
7,784
11-48
120,865
11,067
9-16
188,668
18,851
9-92
* This was raised to 37-5 pesetas on ist August, igii.
148
Spain.
The crop for 1911 amounted to 18,000 tons.
Of the 7,701 tons of molasses produced in 1908, 7,175 were worked up into
brandy, 333 were consumed as human food, and the rest was used as cattle
fodder.
As may be seen from the steadily decreasing figures of production, the
cane sugar industry in Spain has much to contend with. The area for cane
plantations is small, and the climate is not very favourable for this branch
of industry, so that it means great expense and no little trouble to obtain any
satisfactory crops. It i^ a fact that a very high surtax keeps the inland price
high, too, but this again hinders -the fconsuniption,. so'that Spain is not likely
to consume more than the present quantity of fully 100,000 tons. This amount
nowadays is being produced by the existing beet sugar and cane sugar fac-
tories, while a number of beet sugar factories are not at present in operation,
but in case of an eventual shortage of sugar are sure to take up work again
in order to make up for the deficit. Most of the Convention countries are
closed to bounty-fed sugar from Spain, so that Great Biitain only comes in
for the export trade, and it will be most difficult considering the high production
cost, to arrange the exportation in such' a way that a probable loss may be
fully compensated by 'the high inland price of Sugar. "We can assume from
this that any extension of the Spanish cane sugar industry is most unlikely.
Literature :
Paul Bouvier. La Culture dc la Canne a Sucre en Espagnc.
Reports of the Commercial Attachi' to his Britannic Majesty's Embassy in Madrid.
140
North America.
THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.
The only portion of the United States situated on the Continent of America
where sugar cane is cultivated is the territory round the Gulf of Mexico —
Louisiana, Texas, Florida, and Gccrgia, the first of which is by far the most
important. Both in Louisiana and Texas, the cane is worked up to sugar
in well-installed factories, while in . both these and the other States much
cane is crushed and the juice evaporated to a thick syrup, to be used for direct
consumption. In Louisiana the cane production occurs in the south, especially
along the banks of the Mississippi, the Bayou Teche*, and the Bayou La-
fourche, while there are many cane sugar factories to be met with along the
rivers in the western and southern parts outside those States. The greatest
width of the Sugar Belt, from west to east, i.e., from Calcasieu to Jeflerson,
amounts to i86 miles, while its greatest length, from north to south', i.e., from
Rapides to Terrebonne, is 125 miles. In Texas the sugar industry is located
near the sea in the south, while in South Georgia and in North Florida it is
distributed throughout the districts.
As the cane sugar producing region of the United States falls outside
the tropics, a real winter time with frost is there experienced, so that the
sugar industry has to make allowance for climatological circumstances that
are unknown in most of the other cane cultivating countries.
Some meteorological data collected in 1905 from many of the stations
are given below. We may add that these data vary very little for other years : —
* Bayou is the name given to slowly running, shallow, wide, and marshy rivers,
which form branches of the Mississippi in the delta-territory formed by that river.
The United States of America.
•pUIM
am JO uot:jo3ji{-[
W
CO 'co ' W
1
W W 1 .1
c/j ;z; cAj 1 1^; '
1 W . . 1
' CO Z W '
1 1
•sAbp Jimvx
JO jaquinjvi
H in r t>
CO (O H
H H ' H
1
t^ CO en On CO ON
CO 00 M H 00
H H M H
1 CO H !>, ON
H (SI H
' H H H H
00 1
00 1
a
J3
4-
o
O CO <!
1
p is D
< ^<
1 +j 4-J ^ -M
' Z
|i
Mini-
mum
in one
month
<N H ' CO
1
00 ON On -^ ON 00
t-, op N C-, 9
CO CO CO CO N 6
, (SI in N 00
'p op ip c->
' H IN (NO H
CO '
4
c
o
1— .< fe
1
ph 1-1 <: 1— , <!
1 ui^^s
& 1
C/}
Maxi-
mum
in one
month.
OH 00
H H H
1
CM ON M N H
CO ^N op vp in ^
ON H CO H 00 ON
H H H H
in CO On
1 ON t^ -Jt- ip
1 00 IN Tt- N
H H H H
CO
°? 1
t^ 1
o
H
O IN O
N -Jj- 1 Op
6 ob 1 in
00 Cv »>.
1
CO C^ CO •<*■
^ ON op ON Tj-
ON 6 in CO N Jf^
C-, ON On 00 00 VO
in 00 i>^ -^
1 cv (Y1 9 in
1 H H 6 ■V
00 00 00 00
CO
-o
rt ■
u
.2f
g
O
S
a
H
IS
fj N N <SI
-^ -^ -^ -^
H K H H
CO
H
C>J N N H N
■V -^ -^ vi) . -^
H H H 0) H
IN IN W IN N H
CO T|- Tj- V -V VO
H H H H H CO
CO IN
H H
Op vp ro <Si
00 lO On 00
1 1 1 1
9
6
H
1
op IN 9 N CO
00 t-^ 6 00 ON
H '
1 1 1 1 1
CO CO IN tv CO
Cn ON 00 t^ ON
1 1 ! '1 1
1
CO Cv
1 1
vp Op ON op
On ijn 00 in
0^
op op vp vD vp
in 6 On 00 ON IN
MM H
op vp op ip
in 00 in IN
CO PI H
op
6
(N)
v~i in
H H
•(^ B
S
7I- yp -Jf t~s IT)
, tv 6^ C-> iJn vo
CO CO ro CO CO
p C^ t^ t^ CO T
On in in NO "O
CO CO CO CO CO CO
1 CO 9 vp CO
VO CO -^ VD
CO CO CO CO
9
CO
CO
6 tv
^ CO
Aver-
age
for the
year.
CO t^ t^
a^ 00 1 C^
H H H
1
H !>, CO
1 ON -Jt- vp 1 1
1 On On On 1 1
H H H
in CO CO in
1 00 On 6 On
M n i:<i >-{
1
H
^ 1
ON 1
H
Bas aA
UI xsAai
oq'E :jq§TaH
1 Cv 00
1 Cv ir> N
CO CO 1 0) N
CO H On 1 CN| CO
1 in in 00 CO
1 ^ H 00
CO
1 1
Parish.
.2 •
Is
CO H
Vermillion
Rapides . .
E. Baton rouge
Ascension . .
Rapides . .
Ascension. .
St. Mary . .
St. Landry
Terrebonne
Lafayette . .
Calcasieu . .
Plaquemines
St. Landry
Iberia
Orleans
St. Landry
.s
s
!
i
1
!
1
o
■■0
in
::::::::::::::::■::
Abbeville . .
Alexandria -
Baton rouge
Burnside
1
Donaldsonville
Franklin
Grand coteau
Houma
Lafayette . .
Lake Charles
Lawrence , .
Melville
New Iberia
New Orleans
Opelousas . .
w
Cm
<L> n
J"
K CO
151
North America.
As may be seen from the list, all the sugar producing districts lie in the
pliin, as the highest elevation above sea level does not exceed 83 ft. A dry
time is not known in these parts, for even during the month which is most
deficient in rain, a rather considerable quantity falls ; while the local rainfall
of about 80 ins. is more than sufficient for the growth of the sugar cane! During
the months December to February the frost may be heavy enough to cause
the cane to freeze up ; hence the planters must be on their guard to take such
measures as will reduce the damage to a minimum. During the autumn
Equinox hurricanes from the Gulf of Mexico are known to blow across Louisiana,
and cause havoc to the cane fields, which havoc is all the more considerable
as the cane has just reached its greatest height at this time of the year, and,
consequently, can least withstand the violence of the storm.
Sugar cane was introduced into Louisiana in 1737 by the Jesuits, but
the manufacture of sugar did not become of any importance till 1796, when
an able manufacturer introduced a practical way of preparing sugar. This
method was then very primitive, as the mills were driven by oxen or horses,
and a good deal of sugar was lost in the bagasse and during the working up
of the juice. During the early years of the nineteenth century the production
did not amount to much, but it gradually improved, so that in 1823, the first
year from which we have exact data, it yielded more than 15,000 tons, and
did not stop long at that figure. Though the cane planted area and the yield of
sugar expanded, the number of sugar plantations decreased, which means
that the average area of the individual estates increased. In 1830 there were
691 sugar plantations, with a population of 36,000 negro slaves ; while
the figures for 1840 amounted respectively to 668 and 50,670. Later
on the large plantations got into difficulties, but the number in 1853
reached its maximum figure of 1,500, with an average area of 198 acres
each. At this time, when slavery prevailed, the cane cultivation and sugar
manufacture were in the hands of the same people, but after the Civil War
the industry was almost reduced to beggary, and the slaves were set free",
the old system could not possibly be kept up when the industry eventually
revived, so from this time onward planting and manufacture were separated
in the bulk of cases. Under the new conditions only a comparatively small
number of manufacturers worked up the cane that had been grown by a great
many farmers, and this led to the system of central factories now generally
found in Louisiana. The large plantations lease stretches of land measuring
25 to 60 acres to farmers who plant sugar cane for the factory at their own
expense. Both the black and white populace take the land on lease, and this
system is such a success that the centralization of the manufacture of cane
sugar grown on extensive tracts of ground is still in vogue. In 1888-89 there
were as many as 776 sugar factories in operation, which produced 144,878
tons of sugar ; in 1898-99 the number of factories had gone down to 347,
whereas their production had increased to 245,511 ; while in 1910 the number
of factories amounted to 214, and their production to 325,000 tons of sugar.
152
LOUISIANA
The United States' of America.
In 1890 21 factories worked in the districts iDf Lower Terrebonne and Little
Caillou Bayou, which have now been supplanted by one single large factory.
The latter grinds, not only the cane from the same area as was crushed by
the 21 factories together, but from some extra 2,000 acres of land that hitherto
had not been planted with cane. In Texas there aire 9 factories, which between
them grind the cane from 37,000 acres ; they produce besides sugar a large
quantity of light and dark syrups for table use.
For the rest, many plans are being entertained for the foundation of
new plantations in the neighbourhood of the town of Brownsville, some of
which plans have already been carried out, so that the production in Texas
promises soon to become an important one.
As in Louisiana, the temperature does not become favourable for the
growth of cane till March, and as frost may be expected as early as December
it is necessary for the planters to do all they can to promote a quick ripening
of the cane, and to have the crop cut before it can be blighted by frost. They
generally plant cane once every three years on the same soil ; first the plant-
cane and first ratobns are reaped, after which maize is sown, and fihally a
Gpecies of large pea ( Vigna sinensis) is sown directly the maize crop is gathered.
At the end of the summer the pea-vines are ploughed, together with the maize
stubble, into the earth, and four weeks afterwards the furrows are dug,
at distances of 6 ft. to 6 ft. 8 ins. from each other. The cane is planted during
the first days of October, if the state of the fields allow. For that purpose
whole cane stalks are placed in two rows in the furrows, for which 8,000 lbs.
cane per acre are allowed. The cane is then covered with a layer of loose
earth from 5 to 6 ins. thick, and in this way it is protected from the frost
which does not penetrate to that depth. Should one not be ready to plant,
at the right time — that is, should the winter season have begun before the
ground is in proper condition —the cane which is to be used for seed is cut,
covered with dry leaves, and is put into furrows in order to protect it against
frost. As soon as the spring arrives this cane is planted, while the covering
layer of earth is for the greater part removed from the cane that was planted
in the autumn, in order to promote the shooting out of buds and the budding
of young sprouts. Manuring is carried on with stable dung, cotton-seed
meal, kainite, phosphates, and nitrates, while sufficient drainage is constantly
ensured. At the end of November the cane cutting is begun, while the dry
leaves and the pieces of cane which remained in the field are burnt for the
twofold purpose of killing the vermin and of preventing the drainage canals
from getting obstructed by this rubbish. As long as no frost is expected
the cane is kept in the field, to be reaped as it is wanted for grinding ; but as
soon as the Meteorological Department prophesies a " cold wave," which
may be detrimental to the standing cane, they make haste to get it cut. The
cane is cut close to the ground, and the stalks are placed lengthwise in the
plant-rows, and then covered with the dry cane leaves to be protected from frost.
This treatment is called " windrowing," and is only applied when frost is ex-
153
North America.
pected. During the cold winter season cane thus preserved may keep in good
condition for weeks at a time, and its deterioration will be hardly noticeable ;
but as soon as the warm weather returns such cane rapidly deteriorates in
quality. One may assume that cane which has remained in the field, un-
frozen, is the best, and that cut cane which is kept under leaves is not of the
same good quality, while cane in the field once frozen is the least valuable
of all. This shows that " windrowing " is an excellent preventative against
frost, but is not harmless in itself, so that it should only be resorted to in an
emergency.
During the spring the stubble left in the ground is banked once more,
and the cane is treated as in the first year ; while after the first ratooning the
land is sown with maize, and afterwards with peas for the sake of green manure. '
As manual labour in Louisiana is very scarce and expensive, most of the
work of digging furrows, cutting and banking is done by agricultural machinery,
which leaves only the planting, trashing, and cleaning of cane to be done by
hand.
Since the beginning of the cane cultivation in Louisiana the Purple and
Striped sugar canes have exclusively been planted ; but, chiefly as a conse-
quence of the researches of the botanists of the sugar experiment stations,
the seedling canes D 74 and D 95 obtained from Demerara have come in great
demand. Besides an advantage in quantity of cane and sugar over the former
types, the time of vegetation is also shorter, so that the canes ripen sooner, a
feature which, on account of the short season allowed the Louisiana cane to
ripen in, offers a great advantage. It has also been proved that the new cane
is more resistant to damage done by storms, all of which goes far to make it
likely that the new varieties of cane introduced from Demerara will supplant
the older kinds.
The labour question still- troubles Louisiana. After the abolition of
slavery it was very difficult to find sufficient labour for the necessary treatment,
so that the proprietors of land were obliged to lease parts of their ground to
farmers. They still planted part of their land themselves, and as the farmers
also had to employ hired labour it was by no means a way out of the difficulty.
One of the first results of scarcity of labour is the general use of agricultural
implements in order to do field work as much as possible by means of machinery
requiring a minimum of labour. For the rest, the immigration of South
Europeans, preferably Italians, via New Orleans^ was promoted as much
as possible as a means to procure a steady importation of white labour accus-
tomed to a warm temperature.
In Texas a peculiar way of procuring labour prevails. The Government
lends out convicts from the Penitentiary to the sugar planters for the tillage
of the ground, and also under its own management plants cane with the help
of convict labour. It is stated that in 1909 no less than 3,600 tons of sugar
were prepared with the help of such labour, so that we may expect this system
to be extended rather than be limited in the future.
1.54
The United States of America.
With the exception of one factory, that of Magnoha, which obtains its juice
by means of diffusion, milling is universally employed. The Magnolia factory
is one of the very few where cane is successfully treated by diffusion, a fact
that may be attributed to the highly exceptional circumstances under which
it works. The factory lies on the Mississippi, which at that very spot is a
stream of such width and strength of current that all the bagasse may be
thrown into it to disappear forthwith. Then there is mineral oil in the ground
close to the factory, which oil furnishes all the fuel at a minimum of expense,
so that bagasse is not needed as fuel. As the drying of the bagasse for fuel
is the great drawback in cane diffusion, it is clear that where this obstacle
does not exist, the diffusion process is more likely to be a success than where
the fuel question demands full and constant attention. Although the factories
were mstalled in a fairly primitive way up till a short while ago, they have
much improved since centralization was introduced, and most of the installa-
tions now are on a par with the most modern plants. All the 214 factories
working employ steam, 27 of them still use the open kettle system, but the
rest are provided with vacuum pans. Of the 188,571 tons of Louisiana sugar
produced in 1906-7, 3,093 tons were prepared with open kettles, 4,250 tons
with open kettles and centrifugals, and 181,228 tons with vacuum pans and
centrifugals. At the same time the factories produced 33,000,000 gallons
of molasses.
It is chiefly raw sugar, basis 96° polarization, that is manufactured, the
runnings of which, as a rule, are sold as table-syrup after being again clarified.
Some factories produce white sugar for direct consumption, but as people in
the United States are accustomed to very superior white sugar, it is not easy
to find buyers for the somewhat yellowish or grey plantation cane sugar, and
it is better to sell the raw sugar to the refiners of New York and New Orleans.
The manufacturers selling on the New York market receive the market price
of sugar, and those selling in New Orleans a price corresponding to the New
York quotation, minus the approximate cost of transportation from the
factory to New York.
In 1905-6 242,452 acres (99,000 hectares) were planted with cane in
Louisiana, yielding 4;849,048 (short) tons of cane, or about 20 tons of cane per
acre. Those factories that worked with open kettles did not realize more
than 3-25 per cent, of sugar on the weight of cane ; those that used open
kettles and centrifugals yielded 4-8 per cent. ; while the up-to-date factories
reached 8 per cent. With a cane yield of 20 tons to the acre, this does not
amount to more than 5,322 lbs. (2! tons) per acre. In the year 1910-11
6-9 per cent, was the average output of sugar calculated over all the
factories. That of Plaquemines did best, extracting as much as 8-6 per cent.
The sugar production of Louisiana, beginning in 1827, and that of the
other States from 1851 down to date, has been as follows, expressed in long
tons of 2,240 lbs. : —
155
"North Amefica. '
1823
1824
1825 ■
1826
1827
1828
1829
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1^37
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1845
1846
1847
1848
1849
1850
15.401
11,807
i5',40i
23,161
'36,452
45.178
24,640
35.931
37,482
51,339
15.401
35.937
28,925
35.927
59.049
44.065
46.257
71,878
51.347
102,678
142.723
70,995
123,214
112,964
120,465
103,111
Loui-
siana.
(Tons.)
Other
States.
(Tons.)
Total.
(Tons.)
Molasses.
Year.
Loui-
siana.
(Gallons.)
Other
States.
(Gallons.)
(Gallons.)
1851/52
1852/53
1853/54
1854/55
1855/56
1856/57
1857/58
1858/59
1859/60
115.197
164,312
224,188
177,349
113,664
36,813
137.542
185,206
113,410
4,992
6,852
4,830
4.380
6,283
5.348
6,385
8,169
4.132
120,189
171,164
229,018
181,729
119,947
42,161
143,927
193,375
117,542
17,999,660
25.769,030
31,000,000
23,113,620
15,274,140
4,882,'38o
19,578,790
24,887,760
17,858,100
673,920
921,720
643,080
582,780
844,470
721,980
871.975
567,798
411,114
i8,673;58o
26,690,750
31,643,080
23,696,400
16,118,610
5,604,360
20,450,765
25,455.558
18,269,214
156
The United States of America.
Molasses.
Loui-
Other
■
Year.
siana.
States.
Total.
Loui-
Other
(Tons.)
1
(Tons.)
(Tons.)
siana. >
(Gallons.)
States.
(Gallons.)
(Gallons.)
1860/61
117.431
4,313
121,744
18,414,550
351,780
18,766,330
1861/62
235,856
5,138
240,994
36,982,505
3,502,000
40,484,505
1862/63
43,232
2,768
46,000
7,619,000
381,000
8,000,000
1863/64
39,690
250
39,940
2,303,000
217,000
2,520,000
1864/65
5,331
177
5,508
765,000
85,000
850,000
1865/66
9,287
348
9,635
1,128,000
172,000
1,300,000
1866/67
21,074
3,348
24,422
2,570,000
430,000
3,000,000
1867/68
19,289
4,518
23,807
2,800,000
570,000
3,370,000
i868/6g
42,617
2,567
45,184
6,081,907
764,000
6,845,907
1869/70
44,382
2,829
47,211
5,724,256
2,004,544
7,728,800
1870/71
75,369
4,208
79,577
10,281,419
619,000
10,900,419
1871/72
65,635
4,217
69,852
10,019,958
681,000
10,700,958
1872/73
55,891
4,235
60,126
8,898,640
601,000
9,499,640
1873/74
46,078
2,410
48,488
8,203,944
507,000
8,710,944
1874/75
60,100
3,454
63,554
11,516,828
674,000
12,190,828
1875/76 .
72,958
4,045
77,003
10,870,546
1,380,000
12,250,546
1876/77 .
85,102
3,879
88,981
12,024,108
876,000
12,900,108
1877/78
65,835
5,330
71,165
14,237,280
913,000
15,150,280
1878/79 .
106,909
5,090
111,999
13,218,404
1,005,000
14,223,404
1879/80
■ 88,836
3,199
92,035
12,189,190
4,877,025
17,066,215
1880/81
. 121,886
5,500
127,386
15,255,030
1,704,000
16,959,030
1881/82
71,304
5,000
76,304
9,691,104
2,308,896
12,000,000
1882/83
136,167
7,000
143,167
15,716,755
3,250,000
18,966,755
1883/84
128,318
6,800
135,118
15,277,316
3,118,000
18,395,316
1884/85
94,372
6,500
100,872
11,761,608
2,892,000
14,653,608
1885/86
• 127,958
7,200
135,158
17,863,732
3,645,000
21,508,732
1886/87
80,858
4,535
85.393
10,254,894 2,114,100
12,368,994
1887/88
• 157,970
9,843
167,813
21,980,241
4,651,^60
26,631,501
1888/89
. 144,878
9,031
153,909
15,288,580
3,255,882
18,484,462
1889/90
128,343
4,089
132,432
18,431,988
11,068,147
29,500,135
1890/91
215.843
6,107
221,950
23,152,104
4,200,000
27,232,104
1891/92
160,937
4,500
165,437
16,429,868
4,200,000
20,629,868
1892/93
201,816
5,000
206,816
17,025,997
4,502,000
21,527,997
1893/94
265,836
6,854
272,690
18,469,529
8,439,197
26,908,726
1894/95
317,306
8,288
325,594
28,334,513
9,282,561
37,617,074
1895/96 .
237,720
4,973
242,693
21,663,411
5,569,547
27,232,958
157
North America.
Loui-
siana.
(Tons )
Other
States.
(Tons).
Total.
(Tons).
Molasses.
Year.
Loui-
siana.
(Gallons) .
Other
States.
(Gallons).
(Gallons).
1896/97
1897/98 . .
1898/99 . .
1899/00
1900/01
1901/02
1902/03
1903/04
1904/05
1905/06
1906/07
1907/08
1908/09
1909/10
1910/11
282,009
310,447
245,511
147,164
270,338
321,676
329,226
228,476
355,530
336,751
188,571
302,855
273,178
269,431
263,308
5,570
5,290
5,266
1,510
2,891
3,614
3,723
19,800
15,000
12,000
13,000
10,200
10,368
6,126
5,004
287,579
315,737
250,777
148,674
273,229
325,290
332,949
248,276
370,530
348,751
221,571
313,055
283,546
275,557
268,312
20,820,130
22,241,510
24,952,188
13,628,840
31,419,689
23,727,735
28,069,571
18,247,038
33,302,854
21,604,869
33,000,000
20,351,900
29,970,750
29,660,500
28,862,400
6,886,927
7,093,634
1,768,250
10,838,903
6,144,102
7,680,127
9,216,152
6,912,114
8,640,142
6,048,100
3,628,860
4,717,518
7,360,000
7,470,000
5,594,700
27,707,057
29,335,144
26,720,438
14,467,743
37,563,790
31,407,802
37,285,723
25,159,152
41,942,996
27,652,969
36,628,860
25,069,418
37,330,750
37,130,500
34,457,100
It can easily be imagined that in a country like Louisiana, where labour
is expensive, and where owing to the circumstances mentioned above the
sugar production per unit area is less than in those neighbouring tropical
countries in which cane cultivation is carried on in a rational way, tlie cane
sugar industry could not possibly exist if not protected against foreign com-
petition by heavy protective duties.
From the very beginning of the industry in the United States, the im-
portation of raw and refined sugar has been subject to duties, while, with
the exception of a short period about i860, no excise has been levied on inland
produce.
In 1789 the importation of raw sugar was taxed at i cent (American)
per lb., which duty was gradually raised to amount to 3 cents in 1842. Later
on it was continually changed ; at one time it was levied as a fixed percentage
of the value, then again as a fixed amount for each kind of sugar according more
or less to the patronage accorded by some class or other of people interested
in it. In 1890, according to the McKinley tariff the importation of raw sugar
was exempted, so that the price of sugar at once fell considerably, and but
for other help offered, the Louisiana sugar industry would have been ruined
by the importation of cheap foreign sugar. In order to counteract this, it
158
The United States of America.
was decreed in 1891 that the Government should give 2 cents premium per
pound on sugar produced in the country itself, but this production was of a
very short duration, as only during the first two years were the premiums
paid in full and directly, while it was paid only six months in the year after
the conclusion of the 1893-94 campaign. For the crop of 1894-95 Congress
only allotted a certain amount corresponding to o-8 cent per lb., while in
the following year the import duty was restored and the premium abolished.
In 1897 the import duty on raw sugar was fixed at 0-95 cent per lb. for
sugar polarizing 75°, and if more with an increase of 0-035 cent per lb. for
each degree above 75. For sugars above No. 16 D.S. the duty amounted
to 1-95 cent ; these amounts have remained the same since the last tariff
revision, with the exception of the import duty on the last kind of sugar,
which has been reduced to i-go cent per lb.
The raw sugar, basis 96°, consequently enjoys a protection of $37.75
per ton, and the sugar in colour above No. 16 D.S. enjoys one of $42.56 ; so that
it is quite poS,sible to manufacture cane sugar with profit in spite of less favour-
able circumstances as regards climate and wages. A disadvantage of this
protection is, however, that as a matter of course the manufacturers are
restricted to the inland markets for the sale of their produce and even if the
prices of the inland market are low they cannot export to foreign countries
but are bound to submit to those home prices. The closely united American
buyers of raw sugar avail themselves of this oppoitunity to buy Louisiana
sugar at a lower price than that ruling on New York market.
As the sugar buyers refine the greater part of the Louisiana crop at New
Orleans and only a little goes to New York, this sugar involves hardly any
expense for transport. In case the sellers should send their sugar to New
York to be sold there this would amount to ts cent per lb. In consequence
of this the refiners offer an amount that is on an average tb- cent per lb. less
than the New York quotation, and profit by this difference in price, as they
do not send on this sugar, but refine it on the spot. The sellers still make
the same profit as when they ship the sugar to New York, so that it is
immaterial to them whether they sell the sugar in their own district or in
New York, and they, of course, choose the easier method. As the greatest
strength of the refiners lies principally in the impossibility of exporting raw
sugar- at a profit, the tV cent per lb. decrease in the sale price should be put
to the account of the profit made by protection, which in the end would only
come to 1-4975 cent per lb.
The buyers cannot exceed the tt cent per lb. as a difference in price, for
should they make use of their power to fix too wide a difference between the
price of raw and of refined sugar, it might lead to the sugar manufacturers
producing white sugar themselves, as is done by all the beetroot sugar factories
in the United States. This will involve some difficulties, which, however-,
seem to be of little moment, as the buyers content themselves with a margin
of fV cent per lb., which, considering the great amount of sugar sold, comes
159
, North America. .
to a good sum of money. The difficulties we refer to are of two different
kinds : one technical, and the other commercial. First of all, the plantation
sugar is not nearly so white and fine as the brilliant sugar from the refineries,
to which the American consumer has become used. So it may involve much
trouble to dispose of large quantities of white plantation sugar, especially in
competition with the excellently organized sale system of the refined sugar
manufacturers, which system is spread all over the United States by the Sugar
Trust. This organization works so well, and is under such strict supervision,
that it would not be difficult for the Sugar Trust to harass any opponent who
dared to coinpete with their refined white sugar.
The second drawback against the manufacture of white plantation sugar
is this : the Louisiana sugar is sent to market during the months of November
to February, consequently a little before or simultaneously with the Cuba
sugar, and it is the buyers' policy to buy up the Louisiana sugar as quickly
as possible, in order to prevent competition. After the month of March there
is no uncontrolled stock of, sugar left in the country, and should the refiners
expect an increased manufacture of white plantation sugar they would be able
at the beginning of the Louisiana harvest to reduce the margin between raw
sugar and refined sugar to so small a sum that the entire profit on white sugar
manufacture would disappear. But should the Louisiana sugar be sold and
the danger be over, they can easily go back to the old margin, having suppressed
all danger of competition at very slight expense.
The cane sugar industry of the United States is not likely to undergo
any great changes. In igog the import duties reverted to what they used to
be, and although some proposals have been made to considerably reduce and
even to abolish the duty, it is not probable that these will pass into legislation.
The great sugar buyers and refiners are more powerful than ever, and it has
been their aim to keep conditions as stationary as possible by suppressing
competition, so that the present state of affairs is not likely to change much
for some years to come.
The sugar consumption in the United States increases both individually
and through increase in population, and is quite capable of absorbing the
increased production of Cuba, Porto Rico, Hawaii, and even that of the Philip-
pine Islands, should they produce the 300,000 tons of sugar they are allowed
to export free of duty, so that for the next ten years the inland consumer is
not likely to be crushed to death by their more advantageously placed tropical
competitors. It is difficult to say what may happen should Cuba sugar become
altogether exempted from import duty through a change in the political
condition of that country, as this would affect the whole complex of existing
conditions, and make all conjectures useless. We might just as well leave
this question undiscussed, as any such exemption from duty seems for the
moment out of question.
Most probably the quantity of sugar produced within the continent of
the United States will slowly increase, without developing to any unknown
extent or experience any considerable decline. Should, however, the duty
160
TENA>.(iO SUUAK FACJTUKY IN MUXKXJ.
Mexico.
on foreign sugar in the United States be abolished or considerably reduced,
such important changes in the production and supply of all surrounding coun-
tries and in the United States would be the consequence, that it would be
beyond the scope of this present work to deal with them here.
Literature :
Bouchereau's Louisiana Sugar Report.
Directory of Louisiana Sugar Planters.
Vogt. The Sugar Refining Industry in the U.S.
II.
MEXICO.
The Republic of Mexico, or the United Mexican States, lies in the Southern
part of North America, between 14° 31 ' and 32° 42' N. Lat. and 86° 46' to
117° 8' W. Long Its greatest length is 1,938 miles, and its greatest width
760 miles ; while its least width, near the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, only amounts
to 134 miles. The area of the repubhc is 750,000 sq. miles, and the result of
the last census in igoo gave 13,605,819 inhabitants, or 18 to the sq. mile ;
19 per cent, of the population are white people, 43 per cent, are of mixed race,
and 38 per cent, are of Indian race.
The formation of the country is very curious. Because of a succession
of terraces it has a sudden rise from the low sandy eastern sea coast on towards
the west to a central tableland, which slopes in a north-western and south-
eastern direction, and rises from 4,000 to 8,000 ft. above sea level. Above
this plateau the snow-covered peaks of volcanoes, which for the greater part
are extinct, stand out : the highest of these are Popocatepetl, Citlatepetl,
and Ixtacihuatl, respectively 17,540, 17,362, and 16,076 ft. above sea level.
Two ranges of high mountains in Mexico run parallel with the coast,
the one along the Gulf of Mexico and the other along the coast of the Pacific.
The first runs at a distance of from 10 to 100 miles from the coast, and has
a very gently sloping plain between its foot and the sea ; while the Cordilleras,
on the Pacific side, are only separated from it by a very narrow strip of land.
Then spurs branch off from this mountain chain, crossing the country in
different directions and dividing it into. valleys, which are covered with a fertile
layer of earth of some considerable thickness, the result of the products of
disintegration carried along by the rain.
The east coast of Mexico, on the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean Sea,
is low, flat, and sandy, except at the mouth of the Tabasco River, where hills
are found. On the Pacific Coast the land, as a rule, is low, but in places it
is broken by the spurs of the Westerij Cordilleras. The principal gulfs are
those of Mexico, California, and Tehuantepec ; and there are a number of
important bays, including those of Guyamas, Santa Barbara, Topolobampo,
161 L
North America,
and Navachiste in the Gulf of California; Conception, La Paz, and Muleje,
on the west coast of the same gulf ; San Quintin, Magdalena, and Amejas, on
the Pacific coast ; and San Bias and Valle de Banderas, on the coast of Tepic.
The principal rivers are the Rio Grande, which is 1,550 miles long, and
forms, from El Paso to the sea, the boundary between the United States and
Mexico ; the Lerma, or Santiago ; the Mescala, or Balsas ; the Yaqui, the
Grijalva, and many others. Through the terraced condition of the country
all these rivers form cascades, and, consequently, are not suitable for naviga-
tion ; but, on the other hand, are fit for power purposes. For the rest, many
of the rivers are used for irrigation, by damming up and draining off the water.
Owing to the great variation in height above the sea, the climate of Mexico
varies for different parts of the country. Tropical heat is experienced on the
sea coast, and in the low marshy regions near the Gulf of Mexico, and also
in the valleys shut in by high mountains, but on the plateaus where most
of the inhabitants live, the climate is much cooler, and is but moderately hot
all the year through. The year is divided into two seasons, namely, a rainy
season from June till November, and a dry time during the remaining months
of the year.
Meteorological observations for a number of places are as follows, the
names of the places engaged in sugar cane cultivation being italicized : —
1902.
Locations.
Colima
Chihuahua
Guadalajara
Guanajuato
Leon
Mazatldn . .
M6rida . .
Mexico
Monterrey
Morelia . .
Pachuca . .
Puehla
Queretaro
Zacatecas
Temperature in
degrees Centigrade.
Aver-
age.
Maxi-
mum.
Mini-
mum.
•■: 24-4
36-5
II-O
i8-5
37-0
- 3-0
. .. 20-0
347
5-0
. iS-5
34-5
I'D
. . i8-6
34-5
- 0-9
. . 247
33-3
13-8
■• 25-4
40-8
8-9
■• 15-9
30-6
0-5
. . 227
38-5
1-2
.. i6-5
31-9
- I-O
. . 16-9
23-4
7-0
■■ 15-5
28-6
- 1-4
.. i8-3
34-8
0-6
.. 15-0
30-6
- 2-0
o
66
46
55
50
60
74
70
55
64
62
69
64
54
55
Fl
Davs
tS .;
of
■3 ■^
ram.
^ .s
cS
H
85
74
94
63
104
70
69
1.31
97
77
69
no
79
86
h 3
ai
■>< -S
2675
18-41
31-66
22-55
16-27
32-27
17-78
15-66
22-62
50-18
36-04
23-12
18-94
1-75
1-69
2-28
2.37
2-15
1-60
3-54
5-66
1-89
1-73
11-62
2-94
2-14
1-13
Month of
heaviest
rainfall.
July
July-Aug.
July
October
July
September
July
September
July
September
162
Mexico.
The territory of the United Mexican States is divided into i Federal
district, 27 States, and 2 Territories, the organization of which is almost the
same as that of the corresponding parts of the United States of America.
Its capital is Mexico, with 344,721 inhabitants (in 1905), situated 7,300 ft.
above sea level ;" further important towns are Guadalajara, Puebla, Leon,
Monterry, San Luis Potosi, Merida, Guanajuato, Pachuca, Morelia, Aguasca-
lientes, Caxaca, Queretaro, Orizaba, Zacatecas, Durango, Chihuahua, and
Vera Cruz.
Mexico's railway system covers 9,900 mUes, most of the lines dating from
twenty years ago. The railways connect the capital with the principal centres
of population, trade, and industry, also with the seaports and with the United
States. The Tehuantepec Railway connects the Atlantic with Pacific coast
of Mexico vii the Tehuantepec Isthmus, while a number of branch Unes run
from the harbours to the interior. Mexico has been estimated to contain
5,745 sq. miles of dense forests, 217,000 sq. miles of wooded land, and 490,000
sq. miles of uncultivated land.
It is difficult to say exactly how many acres are devoted to the sugar
industry, which is carried on in the very fertile lower parts on the Gulf of
Mexico and the Pacific coast, and chiefly flourishes in the States of Morelos,
Vera Cruz, Puebla, Michoacan, Jalisco, Sinaloa, Guerrero, and Tepic.
This industry dates from a very early time, as Cortez is known to have
possessed some sugar plantations in Izcalpam one year after the country
was taken possession of. As early as 1553 sugar was exported from Mexico
to Spain and Peru, and the sugar production continued to be profitable, and
became increasingly important by the end of the eighteenth century, when
through the desolation of San Domingo the greatest sugar producer disappeared
from the scene, and other countries got a chance. During the nineteenth
century the industry remained stationary, while for the last ten years it has
gone up considerably owing to an increase in sugar prices.
Both the cUmate and the soil of many parts of Mexico are extremely
well suited for the cultivation of sugar cane, but as the rainfall is not plentiful,
irrigation is necessary to obtain a proper kind of cane. From seven to nine
ratoons are produced without it being necessary to plant afresh, and even with
such a lengthy continuation, and a most sparing manuring and tillage, a yearly
product of forty tons per acre, and even of sixty tons, is expected in the States
of Vera Crux, Oaxaca, and Chiapas.
The cane is rich in sugar, and very heavy, but the manufacture leaves
so much to be desired that generally not more than 6 per cent, of the weight
of cane is obtained in sugar. Most of the factories are extremely small, and
produce only a few tons of sugar each year, while Mexico can boast of only a
few big factories.
The number and the production of the sugar factories in the different
States amounted in 1910-11 to the following figures in metric tons :—
163
North America.
State.
Number.
Tons of
sugar.
Tons of
molasses.
Campeche
6
265
595
Chiapas
68
485. '
602
CoUma
4
1.550
775
Guerrero
i6
2,812
2,070
Jalisco
28
4.850
2,356
Mexico
6
351
1,339
Michoacan
24
10,350
10,073
Morelos
35
49.747
16,673
Nuevo Leon .
I
—
500
Oaxaca
33
3,217
1,796
Puebla
14
20,364
9.987
San Luis Potos
1
i6
4,768
4,880
Sinaloa
4
12,255
5,100
Tabasco
i6
2,945
1,901
TamauHpas
I
2,810
2,505
Tepic . .
2
3,500
1,200
Vera Cruz
39
40,868
21,341
Yucatan
i6
465
260
Tc
)tal .
329
161,602
83,954
During the last few years this production ^as
as follows ■
—
State.
1905 /06.
1906/07.
1907/08.
1908/09.
1909/10.
Campeche
542
1,446
317
314
268
Chiapas . .
372
732 _
776
773
554
Colima . .
1,740
1,597
1,545
1,680
1,680
Guerrero
2,096
2,889
2,766
3,825
2,807
JaUsco . .
6,196
6.304
5,602
6,095
> 5.431
Mexico . .
158
190
210
301
323
Michoacan
6,659
7,493
8,482
9,187
9.310
Morelos . .
35,662
42,230
48,220
52,230
48,547
Nuevo Leon
914
924
1,206
800
260
Oaxaca . .
1,477
1,682
1,698
3,045
3,205
Puebla . .
16,549
16,739
18,157
20,207
21,063
San Luis Potosi
1,925
1,268
2,035
3,020
4,284
Sinaloa . . " . .
8,540
8,785
6,347
8,393
10,462
Tabasco
1,967
2,005
2,045
2,205
2,480
Tamaul^pas
1,694
1,578 •
1,412
600
2,786
Tepic
3.500
3,250
3,300
3.300
3,500
Vera Cruz
16,297
18,690
18,243
26,871
30,483
Yucatan
1,241
1,694
924
123,285
429
458
Total
107,529
119,497,
143.179
147,905
164
Mexico.
The production of the States of Morelas, Oaxaca, Puebla, and Vera Cruz
has greatly increased, while that of Yucatan has considerably decreased.
Besides this, about 50,000 tons concrete sugar (piloncillo or panela) are
turned out yearly in a great number of small factories.
The total production of crystallized sugar has been for the last eleven years
as follows : —
Metric tons
I889/I900
75,000
1900/01 .
95,000
1901/02
103,000
1902/03
112,000
1903/04 .
107,000
1904/05 .
107,000
1905/06 .
107,500
1906/07
119,000
1907/08 .
123,000
1908/09 .
143,000
1909/10
147.905
I9I0/II . .
161,602
Of this sugar the following quantities were exported : —
Tons
1902/03
149
8,258
1903/04
16,490
1904/05
39.270
1905/06
5,198
1906/07
31,380
1907/08
5,686
1908/09
4,212
1909/10
11,104
Since the 5th February, 1908, an import duty of 5 doUars Mexican (i
Mexican doUar = 2s. o|d.) per 100 kg. (220 lbs.) of raw sugar has been levied
on each kind. There used to be a. duty of half that value, so that this increase
has not a little contributed towards the rise in the inland price of sugar, which
has made the manufacture of sugar correspondingly more profitable than it
used to be.
The Mexican sugar industry promises much for the future ; even now, '
in spite of its very primitive method of cultivation and manufacture, the
industry is rapidly expanding, and it is difficult to tell how great a future
may be in store when new capital is invested in the estates, and efforts are
made to carry on the sugar industry in a more modern and rational way.
Labour is abundant and cheap, a large extent of very fertile land is still ur-
165
North America.
cultivated, and as soon as this is provided with an irrigation system there is
no reason to doubt the prospect of a cane production and a sugar yield equal
to any that Java or Hawaii yields.
The present political conditions of the country are not favourable for
the extension of the industry, but as soon as order is restored, and. a stable
Government is master of the situation, Mexico will soon increase her sugar
production. '
Literature :
Mexico. A Handbook. Edited by the International Bureau of American Republics.
Reviata Azucavera.
Sugar Report of the Hacendado Mexicano.
III.
CUBA.
I. — Geographical Location, Population, Area planted with
Cane, Total Sugar Production.
Cuba is a long narrow island, shaped somewhat like the arc of a circle, the
convex side of which faces north. It lies between 74° and 85° Long. West from
Greenwich, and between 19° 40' and 23° 33' N. Lat. Cuba's total area, including
the adjacent islands, is 45,887 sq. miles ; that of the island proper amounts
to 43,319 sq. miles, and it is 730 miles long, while its breadth varies between
22 miles in the province of Habana and 160 miles in the province of Oriente.
The north coast is for the greater part steep and rocky, especially in the
centre and eastern parts of the island, while it is flattest in the province of
Pinar del Rio. The south coast is also steep and mountainous in the east,
but low and marshy in many places beyond Cape Cruz. The part between
Trinidad and Cienfuegos is again rocky. In accordance with this geographical
condition, the seaport towns are found on the rocky coasts, most of them
being situated on deep bays, which being narrow at the entrance provide
a safe anchorage.
The middle part of the island, namely, the provinces Havana, Matanzas,
Santa Clara, and Camaguey, consists chiefly of extensive plains and shallow
valleys, without mountains of any importance. The country is mountainous
only at its two extremities, in Pinar del Rio and in Oriente, but mountain
tops of any importance it has none. The mountains generally do not exceed
2,000 ft. in height, though the highest peak, in Oriente, Pico Turquino, is
reputed to be 8,320 ft.
166
Cuba.
The numerous rivers are not of any length, and for the greater part are
not navigable. Only the Rio Cauto in Oriente is navigable for vessels of
any considerable draft. So far river water in Cuba has not been applied to
irrigation purposes.
The average annual temperature in Havana amounts to 24-2° C, with
a maximum temperature of 37-5° and a minimum temperature of 10° C. ;
in the centre and the south the temperature is higher, which is shown by the
following tables of yearly average temperatures for the several provinces : —
Province.
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
°C.
°C.
°C.
°C.
°C.
°C.
Pinar del Rio
24-3
25-2
25-6
25-8
25-0
267
Havana
24-1
24-2
24-1
24-0
23-6
24-8
Matanzas
—
24-4
24-4
—
23-5
24-6
Santa Clara .
25-1
—
—
25-9
25-3
25-0
Camaguey . .
25-5
—
25-8
25-2
24-8
^5-9
Oriente
25-2
25-4
25-5
24-9
25-8
24-9
The warmest months are from May to October, while the lowest tempera-
ture prevails in the months of December to March. The warm season is at
the same time the rainy season, which generally happens to be from May
to October, although it may come later or earlier.
The quantity of rainfall and the number of rainy days has been on an
average for the last five years as follows : —
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
Province.
Mm.
Ins.
Days
an
Mm.
Ins.
Days
Mm.
Ins.
Days
Mm.
Ins.
Days
Mm.
Ins.
Days
1009-8
89-75
1600-0
76-39
118
S-153
84 96
109
2097-0
%-6b
94
1997-0
78-61
96
Bavana .. ..
686-2
25-06
70
1247-2
49-10
100
1-832
52 44
11
1183-1
46-60
81
1059-4
41 76
93
1113-7
43-86
106
1348-7
63 12
106
1-873
73 74
115
1168-2
46-60
92
1482 1
58-86
86
Santa Clara
1049-8
41-37
71
—
—
—
1-460
57 48
100
1278-9
60 37
111
1419 7
65 91
126
Camaguey . .
—
—
1133-4
44-62
148
1-682
62-28
164
1066-3
41-60
117
916-2
36 02
114
Oriente . . . .
871-5
34-31
63
1457-5
57-34
92
1-420
.55.91
93
662-0
21-76
74
936 1
36-88
86
The prevailing wind is north-east ; it is not a violent, but a steady wind.
Then there are hurricanes that now and then come from the Caribbean Sea
and sweep over the island, leaving a good deal of damage in their wake. These
hurricanes are formed east of Cuba, and go first westward and then bend to the
north ; and the later in the season they come the larger the circle to which
they extend, and the more to the west they strike Cuba. In the beginning of
167
North America.
the season— in July — East Cuba is more subject to damage from hurricanes,
which are then distinguished by heavy rainfall and a fairly strong wind. Western
Cuba comes in for them when, later in the season, they blow harder and are
not accompanied by much rain ; while, as a rule, hardly any hurricanes are
encountered after October. In 1906 a considerable quantity of cane was
destroyed by a hurricane in the district between Matanzas cind Havana.
As the results of the census of 1908 show, the population of Cuba amounted
to 2,048,980 people, who were divided over the different provinces as follows : —
Pinar del Rio
240,372
Havana
538,010
Matanzas . .
239,812
Santa Clara
• • 457.431
Camaguey
118,269
Oriente
455,086
2,048,890
1,428,176 of these are whites, 620,804 coloured, and 228,741 are of foreign
origin ; while 1,074,882 of the total population are men and 974,098 women.
While nowadays the population amounts to more than 2,000,000, that
is about 46 to the sq. mile, previous censuses have resulted in the following
figures : —
1774 . . . . . . . . . . 172,260
1792
1817
1827
1841
1861
1887
1899
272,301
553.028
704,487
1,077,624
1.396,530
1,631,687
1,572,727
This table poitits to a considerable increase during the past ten years,
,if the census of previous years was as trustworthy as the last one. There
is, however, much reason to suppose that the late Spanish authorities gave
too low a figure on each occasion, so that we cannot make sure of this apparently
large increase.
The exact figures of the number of immigrants have been known only
since 1890, and up to 1902 they amounted on an average to 20,000 per annum.
The years during the war 1896 — 1898 are left out, as immigration then came
to a stop.
Classified according to the different nationalities, the immigration for the
last nine years has been as follows : —
168
Cuba.
Nationalities.
1902/03
1903/04
r 904 /or
1905/06
1906/07
1907
1908
1909
1910
Spanish
9,716
16,276
35.161
44.672
22,178
34.792
21,305
24,662
30,913
N. Americans
1,066
1,263
1,849
2.384
1,709
1.528
1,841
1.903
1,572
British
375
354
374
615
2,204
1,438
1,667
1.575
993
Itahans
228
374
255
339
215
215
223
194
200
French
147
194
333
369
281
257
272
240
259
Germans
64
104
162
176
80
83
134
103
113
Turks
23
88
86
228
264
231
190
277
210
W. Indians . .
144
233
479
1.550
953
i,6ro
758
553
1.427
Porto Ricans
79
223
413
738
717
619
471
578
595
Mexicans
140
173
235
254
132
188
233
185
160
Syrians
192
168
372
332
294
322
289
366
466
Arabs
51
39
51
207
182
•85
50
49
38
S. Americans
169
113
250
221
143
140
121
184
155
Scandinav'ns
41
69
105
126
100
lOI
85
40
103
Other Nation-
alities . .
216
146
435
341
200
238
360
377
560
Total
12,651
19,817
40,560
52,652
29.572
31.227
27.999
31.286
37.764
During the years 1906-
as follows : —
-1910 the immigration at the different ports was
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
Havana . .
21,947
23,618
20,930
23.477
29,244
Santiago de Cuba
■ 6,334
6,678
6,157
7,096
7.791
Nuevitas
392
397
309
291
252
Caibarien
191
144
229
4
—
Cienfuegos
99
188
211
113
155
Puerto Padre
311
81
87
204
—
Guantanamo
300
60
9
26
239
Other Ports
98
1
61
67
75
21
Total
29,572
31,227
27,999
31,286
37.764
It is not known how many of those described as immigrants have left the
country again, but this number no doubt must be rather considerable, as
many of them only come for a single season at the end of which they return
169
North America.
home. Consequently, the number of immigrants given here should by no
means be considered as an acquisition to the population. \
Up to a short time ago the roads in Cuba were in a very deplorable state,
and almost the entire transportation from town to town took place by sea.
The rivers are not suitable for navigation, while when the Americans took
over the administration of Cuba the main roads, except in the immediate
vicinity of Habana and Santiago de Cuba, were either totally wanting, or
were in an extremely bad condition. It was therefore of great importance to
the development of the country that the extension of the railway system
was taken energetically in hand, so that, apart from the numerous narrow-
gauge railways which connect the sugar factories with the main lines, about
1,000 miles of public railway are in operation. The map shows the now existing
railways, which connect the harbour towns with the interior, and which, since
the connection of Santa Clara with San Luis in 1902 established direct commu-
nication between the western and eastern systems, are combined into one
coherent and continuous railway system. The construction of cart roads has
also made great strides in the different provinces since the emancipation of
the repubhc from Spain.
The sugar cane is cultivated in all the provinces of the island, and especi-
ally in Santa Clara, Matanzas, and Oriente. The places where cane cultivation
is carried on are represented by shading on the map.
The proportion between the area planted with cane for the years 1904-05
and 1908-09 in the different provinces, and their total area, and also with the
area of arable land, is. classified in the table underneath.
When cojisidering this table we must bear in mind that the area s6t forth
as planted with sugar cane is not measured, but obtained by calculating back
the probable area from the weight of cane, in which calculation 50,000 arrobas,
or 506-63 tons of cane, are supposed to be equivalent to i caballeria, or 33|.
acres, thus supposing a yield of 15-5 tons of cane per acre.
Calculated in this way, the crop of 1910-11, which has yielded 1,158,985,514
arrobas of cane, has come from 23,179 caballerias, or 772,657 acres of land,
or from 2-84 per cent, of the area of the whole island.
PrOTinoes.
Area.
Area fit for
agriculture.
Cane Planted Area.
1904/06.
Cane Planted Area.
1908/09.
Hectares
X
Hectares
%
Hec-
tares
% of the
total
area
% of the
arable
land
%of
the
total
Hec-
tares
%ofthe
total
area
%oftht
arable
land
7. of
the
total
Pinar del Rio . .
Habana . . . .
Matanzas . .
Santa Clara . .
Camaguey . . . .
Oriente . . . .
1,295,900
717,948
969 300
2.740,047
2,719,600
3,229,212
11-4
6-3
8-4
21-7
23 9
28-8
882 848
620,420
699,669
1 496,706
1,172,894
1,627,639
68-1
86-4
60 1)
60 4
43-1
47-3
6,814
10,602
46,366
68 778
8,867
83,013
174,460
481 091
0-62
1-47
4-83
2'77
0-32
1-02
0-70
1-73
7-97
4-68
0-47
2 16
4
6
27
39
6
19
7,271
39 814
81,086
113,062
22,311
71,362
66
5 66
8-62
411
0-82
2 21
0-82
6-42
13-61
7-54
1-91
4-67
2-16
11 80
24-S5
33-70
6-66
21-27
Total .. ..
Acres . . . .
11,396,000
27,160,000
100
6,300,166
16,668,000
66-2
163
2 78
100
885,606
829,036
2-94
653
100-00
170
Cuba.
This figure is not, however, to be considered as the real one, as besides the
area necessary for actual cane cultivation, allowance must be made for extensive
pastures in use for draught cattle, arable land for the cane planters, and the
barren tracts of land in between, which because of their position cannot be
used for anything else, and consequently must also be reckoned as ground
occupied for cane plantation. We can safely assume the actual cane planted
area to be twice as much as the nominally planted area, which results in more
than 1,605,500 acres, or nearly 6 per cent., of the soil area being required.
The land given out to sugar plantations is yet larger, as in many of these
tracts forest land occurs, and none of the estates have used all the acreage
at their disposal for cultivation. Thus, all things considered, about 2,500,000
acres belong to the sugar plantations. The figures of about 15^ million acres
for arable land must be accepted with reserve. Although the entire amount
is put down as plantation ground, aU of it is not by a long way in actual culti-
vation, and is not likely to be so for some time yet.
No recent exact figures exist, as the last date from 1892, but it is taken
for granted that the proportion of cultivated to uncultivated land has hardly
changed at all. In 1892, 49 per cent, of the total cultivated area was covered
with sugar cane ; if the same proportion stUl exists the entire area actually
planted with agricultural produce would amount to no more than 1,600,000
acres. If we add to this the ground occupied by towns, villages, houses, and
the very extensive meadows, etc., all more or less destined for production if
not exclusively planted with agricultural vegetation, we come to the figure
of 15 J million acres already cited.
The following table gives a full report of the production of the different
provinces in tons of 2,240 lbs. for each year since the revival of the industry,
while the number of factories in each province is mentioned : —
1901/2.
1902/3.
1903 4.
1904/5.
1906/6.
Provinces .
1900A.
Facto-
ries.
Tons.
Facto-
ries.
Tons.
Facto-
ries.
Tons.
Facto-
ries.
Tons.
Facto-
ries.
Tons.
Pinar del Bio
Havana
Matanzas
Santa Clara . .
Camaguey .
Oriente
13,903
60,832
206,661
248,955
20,673
61,901
7
18
52
62
3
26
21,063
89,139
264,262
328 761
22,579
137,970
7
20
51
68
3
27
23,199
104,091
521,236
391,761
26 837
186,749
7
20
50
66
3
28
20,627
130,460
312,359
885,746
27,928
175,163
6
21
50
ro
4
28
21,828
155,346
341,716
452,488
30 178
181,001
6
21
53
69
6
27
26 334
164,230
34),S98
479,634
38,145
178,495
Total . .
612,775
168
863,792
171
1,003,878
174
1,052,273
179
1,183,347
181
1,229 736
1900/7.
1907/8,
1908/9.
1909/10.
1910/11.
Provinces.
Facto-
ries.
Tons.
Facto-
ries.
Tons,
Facto-
ries.
Tons.
Facto-
ries.
Tons.
Facto-
ries.
Tons.
Pinar del Rio
Havana
Matanzas
Santa Clara . .
Camaguey
Oriente
7
22
65
70
4
28
33,651
188 055
.897,194
620 424
62,788
256,098
8
18
45
60
26
22,833
113,5'il
217,726
844,314
62,919
218,482
8
IS
44
68
6
26
31,570
188,197
863,196
510.078
98 024
336,753
8
18
47
66
6
25
30,470
195,034
453,968
604,198
117,316
403,868
8
17
48
68
6
26
22,281
140,533
299 568
550,950
112 092
848,876
Total . .
186
1,414,310
169
969,276
170
1,621,S18
170
1,804,349
168
1,469,250
171
North America.
II. — The History of the Cane Sugar Industry.
Soon after the discovery of Cuba by Christopher Columbus in 1492, the
sugar cane was introduced. There it found an extremely fertile soil for its
growth and development, but the Spanish Government of the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries did not allow any full scope for Cuba's infant sugar
industry. Indeed, after a few years sugar cane cultivation was forbidden, and
even after that interdiction was withdrawn, monopolies and privileges have had
such a restrictive influence that up to 1772 any real progress was out of question.
After that year, however, any Spaniard was free to produce sugar, and this
led to such an increased production that the exportation, which in 1760 only
amounted to 4,392 tons, realized in 1780 about 12,000, and in 1790 14,163
tons of sugar. The revolution and consequent ruin of the sugar industry in
San Domingo in 1791 were responsible for the great impetus given to the develop-
ment of the sugar trade in Cuba, as all the neighbouring countries were eager
to fill the vacancies. Within ten years the number of factories increased from
473 to 870, and the exportation amounted for 1792, 1796, and 1802 to 14,600,
24,000, and 40,800 tons respectively. Owing to the unfavourable state of
affairs in Europe during the first years of the nineteenth century, Cuba, like
every other sugar producing country, suffered heavily ; but when, after Napo-
leon's fall, the former regular commercial intercourse was restored, Cuba's
sugar industry was able to expand once more. During the years 1826 — 1836
the combined sugar exportation of the Caribbean Isles realized from 270,000
to 350,000 tons, 80,000 to 170,000 tons of which were yielded by the English
colonies, while the Spanish and French Caribbean Isles contributed the rest.
Although the production had increased, the methods of cultivation and
manufacture remained crude and primitive, and labour was difficult to procure.
The aborigines had been exterminated soon after the conquest, and were
replaced as a makeshift by African negro slaves.
As long as the sugar industry remained on a small scale, the number of
workmen was sufficient, but after the rapid extension it did not come up to the
increasing demand, and the deficit was felt keenly, till in 1834, when the Gover-
nor of Cuba, Miguel Tacon, contrary to the contracts with Spain and England,
openly encouraged the slave trade, and consequently raised the African popula-
tion of Cuba to a higher figure. It is due to these measures, as well as to Tacon's
strong disapproval of all sorts of abuses which had become associated with the
administration, that the sugar industry revived and entered upon a period of
prosperity such as has not since been witnessed in the history of Cuba till the
occupation of the United States in 1898. The sugar industry extended to
unknown parts, and several fishing ports developed into well-frequented
harbours. In spite of the heavy taxes, export duties, and special levies, which
the Mother Country demanded of its colonies, the sugar experienced a great
time of prosperity from 1835 till the first war against Spain.
Although from 1850 onwards the sugar production and the number of sugar
172
Cuba.
factories in Cuba were recorded in statistics, it was not till 1882 that they
began to be reliable, when the incidence of an export duty procured fairly
accurate figures. We know for a fact, however, that in 1870 the yearly output
realized 610,300 tons, which were obtained from no fewer than 1,200 small
factories. This lucrative period was brought to an end by the abolition of
slavery as much as through the first war against Spain, the so-called " Ten
Years' War," from 1868 — 1878. In 1872 all the children born from women
slaves were declared free, while 1880 witnesged the total abolition of slavery,
for which the owners were not indemnified. This great change as regards the
labour problem dealt the sugar industry a heavy blow. Instead of being able
to dispose of reliable and cheap labour on the estate, they had to look out for
free labour, which was both scarce and expensive. At the same time, the
country was suffering from the terrors of the war with Spain, which was carried
on with great bitterness on either side, and led to the devastation of much
property. The competition with beetroot sugar at that time became much more
threatening, as this alternative source of sugar was protected by all sorts of
privileges and bounties, and gradually became a powerful factor in the supplying
of the world's demands. After the war was over the annual output rose
again, so that in 1890 it realized 625,000 tons, which had been produced in
about 470 factories. As the number of factories decreased, the number of
undertakings for cane planting steadily mounted up. For want of labourers
of their own, the manufacturers, soon after the aboUtion of slavery, resolved
to give plots of land on lease to farmers, and to buy and work up their crops
of cane, as well as that of entirely independent landowners. Thus a separation
between plantation and manufacture was gradually brought about in Cuba,
and was carried on so far that in the end cane was almost exclusively obtained
by acquisition. The period of rest, following the end of the rebellion against
Spain, was most beneficial to the development of the sugar industry, and in
consequence its produce steadily increased, to reach its maximum of 1,054,214
tons in 1894. In the following year, 1895, however, the last rebellion against
Spain broke out ; after much calamity and devastation it ended in the Spanish-
American War, and ultimately in the establishment of the Cuban Republic.
This period of disturbance and strife is the worst in the entire history of Cuba ;
on both sides much harm was done by killing cattle and burning and destroying
property, all for the purpose of cutting off their opponents' means of livelihood.
Owing to the destruction of the factories, the burning over of cane fields, and
the extermination of draught cattle, it became almost an impossibility to
carry on the sugar industry ; and in spite of the strict regulations issued by
the Spanish authorities to go on grinding as long as it was feasible, the pro-
duction in 1897 went down to as low a figure as 212,051 tons. It goes without
saying that the industry recovered only slowly when the period of misery and
destruction had come to an end, and was followed by a time of quiet. Numerous
factories had been destroyed ; others had lost their cattle and seen their
plantations devastated, their means of conveyance rendered unfit for use, and
173
North America.
their working population reduced in number, and accustomed to an irregular
life ; so that it took much time and trouble and capital to recreate a healthy
state of affairs. Many manufacturers failed to realize the necessary funds
for rebuilding their factories or reinstalling them, so they turned their lands
into pastures, or became cane planters themselves for the sake of neighbour-
ing " central factories." Others, again, who were able to get the necessary
money, although at a high interest, extended their estates ; while most of
them, unable to pay for the urgent factory repairs out of their own purse,
turned their properties into joint stock companies, or sold them to fresh com-
panies. Instead of the great number of semi-patriarchal owners at the head
of smaU factories working on rather crude lines, there is now a smaller number
of mostly very big factories (so-called centrales), which belong to companies
and are founded on a much better commercial basis. This gradual conversion
of small establishments into big ones still goes on, and whenever news from
Cuba tells of a new company being created for the purpose of building a central
factory, which is to produce 200,000 bags of sugar or more, it is in most cases
not an entirely new enterprise, and the total production of the island will
consequently not be raised by that amount ; it is in many cases simply the
conversion of two or three small estates into a big one, to work up the cane
of the still existing plantations. Besides these conversions, however, entirely
new sugar estates are started, especially by American capitalists, on the north
and south coast, and further in the interior of the island along the newly
erected railroad, which connects Santiago de Cuba with Santa Clara
and Havana, and has brought large extensions of excellent cane land within
reach of cultivation. Although it must have been most unpleasant individually
for the planters who were unlucky enough to see their property slip away,
the sugar production of Cuba itself has been benefited by the modern methods
of working that ask for concentration of labour ; and also by the fact that
the cane sugar industry nowadays is being increasingly carried on by powerful
companies, which through their greater access to all sorts of resources can
better turn to account the natural advantages of soil and climate than the
smaU planters would ever be able to do.
The owners of the sugar factories working from 1906 till 1911 belonged
to the following nationalities : —
/
1906
1907
igo8
1909
1910
1911
Cubans
Americans
English, Spaniards, etc.
78
73
73
31
82
67
36
66
67
38
65
67
38
65
64
63
Total
181 ■
186
169
170
170
168
174
Cuba.
Of the 170 factories in operation in 1911,
57 belonged to individual owners,
54 belonged to private firms,
26 belonged to joint stock companies established in Cuba, and
33 belonged to foreign joint stock companies.
Closely connected with the diminution in the number of factories and the
increase in the planted area, the average capacity of the factories has also
greatly increased. We saw that in 1870 the average production of a factory
was only 500 tons, or 3,500 bags ; in 1880 this figure had gone up to 1,300
tons ; while in 1907, 1908, 1909, 1910, and 1911 the proportion expressed in
bags of 325 Spanish pounds was as follows : —
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
More than 500,000 bags
—
—
—
I
—
More than 400,000 bags . .
—
—
I •
I
I
More than 200,000 bags
3
2
3
4
3
Between 150,000 and 200,000 bags
4
—
4
5
1
Between 100,000 and 150,000 bags
25
6
16
22
19
Between 50,000 and 100,000 bags
61
36
55
62
54
Between 25,000 and 50,000 bags
51
48
50
51
38
Less than 25,000 bags
42
76
41
24
52
186
168
170
170
168
In 1909 the average production of each factory amounted to 56,803 bags
for aU the existing plantations ; for those under Spanish and European manage-
ment, 44,497 bags ; for those belonging to Cubans, 49,858 bags ; while for
American estates it was 99,830 bags.
In spite of the difference in the number of estates of each category (Cuban,
American, and other nationalities), each of the three produced during the
years 1907, 1908, and 1909 about one-third of the total sugar output.
In igio the proportion was no longer the same, chiefly owing to the gigantic
production of the larger factories (such as Chaparra, Preston, Boston, and
others), so that the output of the American factories in 1910 amounted to
35 per cent, of the total, and stayed at that figure in 1911 too.
The total sugar production of Cuba has been in the years following 1850
as below (but only the figures after 1882 are fully trustworthy) :—
175
North America.
Year.
Tons.
Notes.
Year.
Tons.
Notes.
1850
223,145
1883
460,327
Internal dis-
1851
263,999
turbances.
1852
251,609
1884
558,932
1853
322,000
1885
631,000
1854
374,000
1886
731,723
1855
392,000
1887
646,578
1856
348,000
1888
656,719
1857
355.000
1889
560,333
1858
385,000
1890
632,368
1859
536,000
1891
816,980
i860
447,000
1892
976,000
1861
446,000
1893
815,894
1862 .
525,000
1894
1,054,214
1863
507,000
1895
1,004,264
1864
575.000
1896
225,221
^ Rebellion
1865
620,000
1897
212,051
- against Spain.
1866
612,000
1898
305.543
j Spanish-
1867
597,000
Amer. war.
1868
749,000
1899
335.668
1869
726,000
1900
283,651
Great drought.
1870
726,000
1901
612,775
1871
547,000
Hurricane.
1902
863,792
1872
690,000
1903
1,003,873
1873
775.000
10 years' war.
1904
1,052,273
1874
681,000
1905
1,183,347
1875
718,000
1906
1,229,736
1876
590,000
1907
1,444,310
Particularly
1877
520,000
favourable
1878
533,000
y
weather.
1879
670,000
1908
969.275
Great drought.
1880
530,000
1909
1,521,818
1881
493,000
MO
r- 1910
1,804,349
1882
595,000
m
1- 1911
1,469,250
'
1912
1,800,000
Estimate.
III. — Cane Cultivation.
The price paid for land varies greatly for the different provinces. In Pinar
del Rio a caballeria (33 -16 acres) is to be had for $200, unless fit for tobacco
cultivation or adapted for irrigation, in which case the price goes up enormously.
176
Cuba.
In Havana the cost of land is from I400 to $2,000 per caballeria, in Matanzas
and Santa Clara from $300 to $800, and in Camaguey and Oriente the price
is only from $100 to S300, while one can easily be suited for less than $100
per caballeria when buying larger tracts.
Only a very small part of the soil is fit for irrigation with water from weUs ;
those parts occur in the provinces of Pinar del Rio and Havana. All the
remaining ground is dependent on rainfall.
As has been mentioned before, the cane is partly planted by the factories
themselves and partly by independent farmers [colonos). These again plant
the cane either on their own ground or on ground they hire from the estates.
In the ye^r 1904-5 the different categories bore the following relation :
Planted by colonos.
CO
Total
planted
Total.
Planted by
the Estate
'
d
Piovince.
area.
itself.
Ou ground of
the Estate.
On their own
ground.
i
Cabs*
Cords
Cabs
Cords
Cabs
Cords
Cabs
Cords
Cabs
Cords
3
iz;
Pinar del Rio
576
198
t507
312
141
—
155
15
211
297
253
Havana
1,600
74
790
72
149
—
251
55
390
17
147
Matanzas ...
4.617
266
3 455
182
916
40
1,176
50
I 363
92
533
Santa Clara ...
9,275
276
5.125
16:
1,206
243
1,297
285
2,620
261
1.923
Camaguey
2,924
81
660
—
366
—
287
—
7
—
—
Oriente
4.149
208
2.459
231
955
176
960
55
504
■ — ■
785
Total
23.594
131
12,998
319
3.774
135
4.127
136
5.097
19
3.641
But little care is bestowed on the planting, and yet the sugar cane once
planted yields ample crops for years, and that without any manuring or tillage to
speak of. When in the end the cane is considered too old for a further crop,
and the old stubbles are removed, the same soil when planted anew wiU }deld
again very satisfactory crops for years, and that without any rotation of
crops, till finally being exhausted it will be abandoned and used as pasture
land.
When cane is planted on new soil, the jungle is first cut, the valuable logs
are carried away and the rest is burnt, only the royal palms being left standing,
as they are of great value, because their leaves can be used as thatch and their
seeds serve as food for pigs. The cane tops are planted in the moderately
levelled and ploughed ground at 6 ft. distance from each other, covered with
earth, and left to grow.
* I caballeria = 342 cordeles = 13-42 hectares = 33-16 acres,
t Here, too, the planted area has not been measured, but calculated from the obtained
weight of cane, in which case 50,000 arrobas cane are taken for i caballeria.
177 M
North America.
If the weather is favourable, i.e., rainy and warm, the cane will grow well,
but should drought follow the planting it will stop the growth, and the young
cane is sure to die, thus making fresh planting necessary. In Cuba one dis-
tinguishes spring and autumn planting. The first falls before or during the
first months of the rainy season — that is in April, Maj , and June ; and should
the rain come in time the cane can be reaped in March and April of the following
year. Should the rain set in later, the cane will have no time to ripen, and
as the grinding season will be broken by new rains, the spring cane cannot
be groimd till December in the following crushing season.
The autumn cane planted at the end of the rainy season in the soaked soil
does not get ripe till December of the following year, or in the beginning of
the year after, so that it may be cut by March.
Grinding is undertaken exclusively in the dry weather, so that it must be
put off tiU the ground is well dried. Hard roads are of rare occurrence in Cuba,
and the cane, as a rule, has to be carried by ox carts from the fields to the weigh-
ing bridge, from whence it is further transported by train to the factory. As
long as the soil is dry the heavy carts, with a load of 300 arrobas (7,500 lbs.) of
cane drawn by three pairs of oxen, can easily do the work ; but comparatively
hght showers, i.e., of two inches, cause the ground to become so soft that the
vehicles get stuck deeply in the earth, transportation becoming an impossibiUty.
Consequently, grinding should be begun immediately rain is over, i.e., in
December, as the work has to be stopped when the next showers come, which
may happen either as early as April or not before July. Further on, when
discussing the future of the cane industry in Cuba, it will be shown of how much
importance this uncertainty as regards the duration of the rainy season may
be for the sugar production of that island.
The cane is cut close to the ground with a machete, a kind of cutlass, then
stripped of its tops and cut into pieces two or three feet in length. These are
bound into bundles and piled up on ox carts, which are driven to the factory
or to the weighing stations in the fields, where they are weighed and laden
into railway trucks for transportation to the mills. Very often the cut cane
is left lying in the field for some time before it is carried away. Frequently
no hurry as regards the transportation of the cut cane is shown, and this often
causes the extremities to dry up to some extent. But as cutting and grinding
is usually done during the cold months of the year, the deterioration of cane
thus neglected is far less than might be the case should cane be thus treated
in hotter countries. Even if there was thought of improving this state of
affairs, it would soon be realized how difficult the matter is, as labour is scarce,
and a regular supply of cane is all that can be expected ; so things are best
left as they are.
After the cane is cut, the stumps are covered with dry leaves to prevent
too great an evaporation, and owing to the natural moisture of the ground
and the occasional showers the cane will soon shoot up again, and, as a rule,
is once more ripe twelve months after the cutting. The sugar content of first
ttX
Cuba.
V and second ratoon canes is supposed' to be highest, while after the second ratoons
the yield of cane becomes less. Generally five to six ratoons are grown, but
very often this number is exceeded as circumstances require. A good crop
should yield at least 80,000 arrobas per caballeria (62,000 lbs. or 27-8 tons per
acre), although sometimes 100,000 and even 160,000 arrobas are obtained.
The average crop is 50,000 arrobas per caballeria (17-33 tons to the acre). As
soon as a plot promises no larger a crop than 20,000 arrobas per caballeria (say
seven tons to the acre) it is usual to plant anew, providing there is no lack of
labour. But when labour is scarce, and it is too late in the season to expect
a timely harvest from the cane by the following crushing season, it is better to
keep on the same cane for another year as this is more profitable in the end.
The same field may happen to yield a crop exceeding 20,000 arrobas, in which
case it is kept again for further ratoons, so that at the best of times fields may
stm 3.ield quite satisfactory crops without requiring any fresh planting, after
having been cut uninterruptedly for 30 seasons.
Field treatment does not amount to much ; on some modern estates it
simply involves cutting and weeding the grass regularly, and going with a
plough, drawn by oxen, between the rows in order to loosen the soU after the
cutting is done ; but even this loosening of the earth is often neglected, so that
reaping the crop is the only treatment the cane plantations regularly witness
besides that of planting and weeding.
The cane varieties which are most in vogue in Cuba are the cana blanca
and the cana cristaUina ; they are pale green and soft varieties, and easy to
crush. Another kind found there is the caiia rojo or red cane, a very inferior
and hard kind which is difficult to grind. The latter is chiefly planted along
the edges of the plots, in order to give stray cattle the impression that the
entire plot is planted with this unpalatable kind of vegetation.
The cost of planting new cane depends greatly on the quality of the soil,
on the wages to be paid, etc., but may be reckoned to amount to $1,000 to
$1,400 per caballeria — $1,200 {Ij 4s. gd. per acre) on an average. The cost of
first and following ratoons, of course, is much less, as it simply involves loosen-
ing the soil, cutting the grass, and weeding. It is to be estimated at $340
per caballeria, or ;^io 2S. 2d. per acre.
$400 is paid for cutting and cleaning the cane, $200 for loading, and
$200 for transportation. The cost of a caballeria of planted cane from the
time of planting till it is brought to the mill thus comes to about $1,900 to
$2,000 per caballeria (£12 is. 4d. per acre), and under the best conditions
may drop to $1,700 (;fio 4s. 8d. per acre).
If we take for granted that the once planted cane only yields five crops,
the total expense of the planting will amount to $2,760, plus cost of cutting,
loading, and transportation ($4,000) ; that is, altogether, $6,760 per caballeria.
. For the rest, we take as an average production 50,000 arrobas, or 250,000
arrobas altogether, so that each aroba of cane wiU have cost $0-207 —
6d. per cwt. — ^including conveyance to the mill. While ground is to be got for
179
North America.
§100 per caballeria, which, when half of it is planted, comes to $200 net, it
will not cost more than $20 per caballeria each year, even at the rate of 10
per cent., that is about id. per 50 arrobas, which only imperceptibly raises the
cost price of sugar cane.
If the cane can be cut more than five times, the heavy cost of first planting
will be distributed over more crops, so that the cost of cane goes down,
and as in most cases more than four ratoons are reaped, the figure of los. per
ton cane delivered at the mill will be rather too high than too low an
estimate.
When buying cane from the colonos the price is not expressed in money
value, but in per cents of sugar on 100 parts of cane. The seller generally gets
an amount of 5 per cent, of the weight in cane paid in sugar, or, if desired, its
equivalent in money calculated at the Havana quotation on the day of delivery.
This figure of 5 per cent, is no fixed amount ; it may be less when the colonos
have had much money advanced, or may increase when there is lack of cane, so
that the planters are able to clairfi what price they wish. These prices are
basejd on clean cane in bundles delivered on the scale, and have nothing what-
ever to do with the sugar content of the raw material, so that the manufacturer
does not gain much profit from this compromise should the sugar content be
low.
Cane diseases are hardly ever met with in Cuba, which is a very good thing
for that country, for should a serious infectious disease make its appearance,
it would be almost impossible to stamp it out, so that the harm done would
be widespread. The plantations being close together, any isolation of fields
that are attacked by the disease is out of the question ; moreover, labour is too
scarce to weed out the infected plants and to plant new fields. For this reason
it is to be considered a great advantage for the Cuban sugar industry that the
fertility of the soil allows the sugar cane to be treated as though it were a weed,
which once planted wants hardly any further care or treatment, and is proof
against attacks from fungoid and other diseases.
Mice are the only animal enemies ; these in dry years get in great numbers
into the sugar cane fields and gnaw the canes. At the approach of the rainy
season they disappear as quickly as they come. Then stray cattle are a nuisance,
for they make short work of fences, and invade the cane plantations. Borers,
both the Scirfophaga and the Chilo, are of frequent occurrence, and sometimes
cartloads of cane show traces of being infested on each stick by borers. In
not one case are the attacks followed by infection through fungi, so that the
financial loss caused by the borers may be estimated at very little. Far greater
damage is done by cane fires, which here, like everywhere else, are mainly due
to incendiarism. This crime is so often at the bottom of cane fires in Cuba
that such a fire goes by the name of " candela " (candle), in consequence of
the trick of putting a burning candle among the dry cane leaves.
Meteorological conditions are of much more importance for the cane
production than any of the above-mentioned sources of loss. The cane depends
180
Cuba.
on rain for its water supply, and, therefore, a long spell of drought may have
a very disastrous effect on the growth of the young cane, so that the cane
production in Cuba greatly depends on weather circumstances. Further,
hurricanes may cause damage either by laying low the erect cane or by tearing
it from its roots ; and in consequence of this it will be in poor condition the
following year. It is estimated that cane swept by hurricanes, and conse-
quently fallen cane, yields i to ij per cent, less sugar than would have been
the case if there had been no storm, which when one has to give 5 per cent, of
the weight of cane in sugar as cost price, while it realizes 10 per cent., means a
decrease of 20 to 30 per cent, in the profits. A further consequence of the
damage by hurricanes is that the roots, as a rule, will not have got over their
strain by the following year, so that the yield of sugar in the next crop still
experiences the bad effects of the hurricane.
IV. — Sugar Manufacture.
It is the custom to convey the cane from the fields to the mills by the
estate railways, for which purpose extensive tracks with sidings run in all
directions, along which the cane, when cut into lengths, is steadily conveyed
to the factory. Close to the sugar works is the railway yard, in which the
trains on arrival can be shunted till the trucks can be taken to the miU elevator.
Most of the Cuban factories have double crushing, with or without maceration,
and some of them use a crusher as well. The biggest and best-arranged are
those with triple crushing and a crusher applying maceration ; while it is
quite an exception for a factory to have four or five mills in tandem.
The juice is limed with a mixture of lime and water prepared on the spot,
as most of the manufacturers are of opinion that the success of clarification
entirely depends on the use of milk of lime that has been mixed immediately
before, and not some time in advance. The limed juice when exactly neutral
goes through heaters, and is clarified either by simple clarification , or through
superheat clarifiers according to Deming's system. The clarified juice on
being syphoned off goes through Danek or similar filters, while the scum is
filtered through filter-presses. The clarified juice is concentrated in a number
of triple effects of very smaU dimensions ; quadruple effects are very rare,
yet if the factories would go in for a considerable extension of their evaporating
plant, a much more economical use of steam in the evaporation might be
obtained, which would greatly diminish the amount of additional fuel required
in most cases.
In the boihng process the returning of molasses is much in vogue, and in
modern factories they often succeed in obtaining exhausted molasses of 30°
purity directly after the second strike, which molasses is sold to alcohol dis-
tillers.
In the more ancient factories first and second sugars are made, in which
181
North America
case molasses of 50° purity is obtained, to be chielly sold in America, where it
is consumed as table syrup. The sugar in the centrifugals is not " covered," but
the molasses is spun off as far as possible, and the sugar is packed in bags of
325 Spanish pounds without being dried artificially, and therefore in a some-
what sticky condition. In a great many factories the sugar of the second
strike is mixed with that of the first, either in the crystallizers or in the
Centrifugals, or even after the centrifugalling is done, whereas others seU their
" second product separately. Hence, in some cases, second sugar is mentioned
in statistics as first sugar, while it is mentioned separately in other cases, so
that the quantities of first and second sugar [azucar de guarapa and azucar
de miel) do not always bear the same relation to each other.
The first sugar is sold on basis of polarization 96°, plus ^ cent per lb.
for each degree higher than that figure, and less tV cent per lb. for each degree
under, with fractions in proportion. Second sugar is sold on basis of polariza-
tion of 89°, plus -sV cent per lb. for each degree higher than 89, and less A cents
for each degree lower.
The price of exhausted molasses is 3 to 4 cents per gallon (of 378 litres)
delivered at the factory, while molasses of about 50° purity fetches 8 cents.
At one time rum and alcohol were distilled from the molasses, but since
the Government has levied an excise on distillery products, this branch of
the industry has been given up on the sugar plantations, and only a few dis-
tilleries are found in the island. By far the greater part of the exhausted
molasses is sold to the so-called " Whiskey Trust " in the United States ;
but some is sent to Europe, and some is distilled on the island itself, while the
remainder is thrown away as useless ; the rich molasses is sold to the United
States as an article of food.
Bagasse is used as fuel, and the cane trash is left in the field as a protection
for the planted cane against drying up by the sun. The production of steam
is not economically regulated, and the furnaces work with a great excess of air,
in consequence of which the quantity of bagasse, notwithstanding a fibre
content of 10 or 11 per cent, in cane, is insufficient as fuel (and this while macera-
tion is only sparingly applied, and only one sort of raw sugar is manufactured),
so that wood as extra fuel is everywhere much used.
The capacity of the factories, of course, varies greatly. There are very
small installations as well as very big ones ; the new American factories, for
instance, can grind as much as 3,600 short tons (of 2,000 lbs.) per 24 hours in
three sets of miUs, each of which consists of one crusher and three 3-roller
mills — II roUs in each.
In spite of this great capacity of the mills, the juice extraction is not so
large as is the case in Java or in Hawaii. This may be accounted for in two
ways ; in Cuba the crop greatly depends on the weather, and grinding is ex-
clusively done in the dry season, for should the rainy season set in before the
crushing is finished, the cane that is stiU in the field would be past reaping,
which would mean a complete loss for that harvest. One can imagine that
those engaged in grinding are simply and exclusively intent on getting the
182
Cuba.
greatest quantity of material ground in the shortest time, and pay minor
attention to the quantity of sugar to be obtained from the crushed cane, a
quantity that slow and careful treatment might, of course, increase.
Then the wages paid in Cuba are very high, and amount to $i or $1.50
a day ; the same wages are paid to labourers for working up a large vessel of
juice as for treating the contents of a smaller vessel, so that it becomes advis-
able to make the quantities of cane to be worked as large as possible, and let
the inevitable wages cover as much output as possible.
It is for these two reasons that the Cuban manufacturers working with
very powerful American mills and machinery do not extract the same amount
of sugar from the cane as do, for instance, the Hawaiian manufacturers with
the same type of plant. Consequently, the loss of sugar in the bagasse exceeds
that in other countries, while the loss of sugar in filter-presses, molasses, and
unaccounted for in those factories where the loss is noted down shows
nothing abnormal compared with factories in other centres.
Chemical control is still but little apphed in the Cuban factories ; however,
a number of estates belonging to American and Spanish firms have introduced
a well-arranged system of control corresponding to that in Java and Hawaii,
the production figures of which would allow of comparison. It would, how-
ever, be of little avail to quote these figures here, as only the best arranged and
managed estates would be considered, and therefore no light would be
thrown on the general condition of the average factory in Cuba.
The increase in the quantities of sugar obtained from 100 parts of cane
during the several seasons shows an improvement ; the quantities amount to
the following percentages for the different provinces : —
PROVINCE.
1902/03
1903/04
1904/05
1905/06
1906/Or 1907/08
1908/09
1909/10
1910/11
Pinar del Rio
977
10-03
IO-47
9 54
1033
1 1- 14
10-44
II-OS
"•73
Havana
9-13
10-26
10-94
9-6o
10-10
11-45
io-o6
11-14
11-47
Matanzas
9-47
9-71
10-18
9-60
9-62
10-56
10-69
11-23
"■39
Santa Clara
9-68
10-22
10-15
10-01
10-28
10-84
10-84
U-32
11-58
Camaguey
9-47
9-51
10-02
10-40
10-63
10-68
10-56
11-03
11-94
Oriente
9-43
9-59
9-91
9-79
10-74
10-20
10-31
11-07
11-83
Gen. average
9-54
9-88
10-22
9-81
10-16
10-66
10-90
II-2I
11-62
Although the yield of sugar depends first of all on the sugar content of the
cane and the purity of the juice, and only secondly on the manufacture, the
constant increase of the figure representing the yield of sugar points to a steady
improvement, though no figures are given representing sugar content and
purity. Little is known about the sugar content of cane ; the only thing we
know is that at the beginning of the crushing season it is rather low and corres-
ponds to 8 per cent, of sugar obtained in bags from 100 parts of cane, but
gradually it increases, and finally allows of a yield of 12 per cent, or more if the
183
North America.
weather is favourable and dry. Should it begin to rain again at the end of the
grinding season, the cane starts growing again, and the sugar content, the purity
and the 3derd of sugar drop. However tempting it may be to put off grinding
till the cane is richer in sugar content, it must not be carried too far for fear of
running the risk of not being ready by the time the dry season is over and
the rainy season sets in again, thereby making the cane transport almost
impossible.
The cost price of sugar depends primarily on that of the raw material
and on the percentage it yields ; and, finally, on the expense of manufacture,
packing, and transportation to the harbour. Suppose loo arrobas of cane have
cost the miU $2.70, and yield 10 per cent, of sugar, the cost of i arroba of sugar
in raw material would be $0.27 ; suppose the cost of manufacture to amount
to $0.10 per arroba, and that of transportation to $0.05, then the cost price
of sugar delivered in the warehouses on the coast will come to 42 cents per
arroba — 7s. 6d. per cwt., not including interest on amortisation, capital and
loans, renewal of machinery, etc. Should all these items be taken into con-
sideration, the total cost price will be from 2 to 2^ cents per lb., being equivalent
to gs. 4d. to los. 6d. per cwt., according to a number of data obtained in 1907,
by the Committee of Ways and Means in the United States.
Doubtless there are estates in which the cost price is far less, owing to
a favourable situation near the sea, which decreases the transportation expenses.
Willett and Gray quoted in 1910 as cost price of Cuba sugar at average f.o.b.
Cuba 1-85 cent per lb., and at average c.i.f. New York 1-95 cent. They fixed
2 cents per lb. as maximum f.o.b. Cuba cost pries, and 1-5 cent per lb. as the
minimum. Their figures, consequently, are lower on the whole than those
quoted by the manufacturers in 1907.
The transport cost by railway sometimes form's a considerable part of
the expense ; it amounts, for instance, to 60 cents a bag of 325 Spanish pounds
— that is about o-2 cents per lb., or about ii^d. per cwt. — for aU factories
which have goods conveyed to the coast by the Cuba Railway Co., irrespective
of distance.
Since March, 1911, the Cuban Republic has levied an import duty of $x per
100 kg. of raw, and $075 per roo kg. of white sugar, which duties are in accord-
ance with the surtax stipulated by the Brussels Convention.
V. — Exportation of Sugar, Prices, Reciprocity Contract.
The greater part of the sugar produced in Cuba is'exportfed to foreign coun-
tries, while only a very small portion, not exceeding 60,000 or 70,000 tons a year,
is refined in the island itself, in two or three small sugar houses in Cardenas.
Of late years the sugar exported has been sent chiefly to the United States,
only a comparatively small quantity going to Europe. ;) This preference is
184
Cuba.
accounted for by the fact that owing to a reciprocity treaty the import duties
into the United- States for Cuban goods have been reduced by 20 per cent,
of the general tariff. While the general import duty of sugar of 96° polariza-
tion is i'685 cents per lb., only 1-35 cents have to be paid on Cuban sugar,
which means no small preference for this kind of sugar. Through the active
co-operation of the American buyers this preference does not altogether go
to the Cuban producers, but chiefly falls to the organized American refiners.
As in most years the Cubans have no option but to go to the American market,
the refiners make the most of it by bidding less for Cuban sugar than for Java
or other foreign sugar of the same quality, which being unprotected corres-
ponds in price with free sugar, and consequently can fetch the world's price.
They can easily do this as long as they take care to bid so much below the
world's price as will keep it within 20 per cent, of the import duty, in which
case their price would still be a httle higher than the net world's price. Only
when their margin exceeds the 20 per cent, will it become more profitable
for the Cuban planters to offer their sugar in the open market ; but the buyers
take good care to prevent this till their wants are provided for, so that so
long as the refiners want the raw sugar Cuban sugar must needs go to America,
and the full preference fall to the share of the buyers.
A single instance may suffice : at the beginning of November, 1908, the
price of Java refining crystals, 96° polarization, was 3-98 cents per lb., including
import duty, while Cuba ditto fetched 3-86 cents. As 1-685 cents is paid as
import duty on Java sugar, the importer would receive 3-98 — 1-685 = 2-295
cents ; whereas the Cuba importer, because of his reduced duties, only paid
1-35 cents duty, and consequently would receive 3-86 — 1-35 = 2-51 cents.
At the same time the parity in England was 4-16 cents, or 4-16 — 1-685 =
2-475 cents, not including duty. The price realized in that country only just
exceeds the world's parity, and that is why the Cuban producer; as a rule, would
not entertain the thought of taking his sugar to any other market than America ;
it becomes clear, too, that he only receives 0-04 cent of the preference of
20 per cent, on the duties, which amounts to 0-335, while the remaining 0-295
cent swells the pockets of the buyers.
When, however, as was the case in 1910 and 1911, the price of beetroot sugar
is exceedingly high in Europe, and the American refiners are amply provided
with sugar, then it cannot matter to them to keep the American parity for
Cuban sugar just above the European ; and, in consequence, part of the Cuban
crop will go to Europe. As soon as the shortage in Europe is over, the European
parity will be lower than the American, and Cuban sugar will again go to the
United States.
The sugar exported is chiefly raw sugar, both first and second sugars,
while the exportation of refined sugar to Spain, Uruguay, and the United States
is of little importance, and does not exceed two to three thousand tons yearly.
The shipments from the ports during the last six years have been as
follows : —
185
North America.
Ports
1904/05
1905/06
1906/07
1907/08
1908/09
1909/10
1910/11
Havana
118,705
163,162
159,843
132,173
197,846
198,902
107,762
Matanzas
124,974
199,249
207,182
96,357
172.727
218, 8l2
168,690
Cardenas
139,625
167,831
183,815
111,799
192,929
236,462
174.047
Sagua
73,841
94.252
106,980
54,oS6
102,677
140.555
116,123
Caibarien
65,924
95,055
91,093
81,915
98,982
123,204
119,299
Nuevitas
9,642
19,897
35,044
16,608
27,863
36,308
23.925
Puerto Padre
24,810
28,744
47,880
Gibara
25,804
13,902
10,893
[ 79,219
141,385
166,847
138,870
Banes
24.785
23,996
40,252
30,713
33,743
36,308
36,816
Nipe
—
329
41,711
17,909
40,796
64,101
41,291
Guantanamo
38,731
33,009
55,870
43,978
61,971
79,014
69,511
Santiago de Cuba
7,678
17,288
12,471
7,591
8,543
11,101
14,585
Manzanillo
40,168
44,468
49,393
48,490
67,791
68,074
74,994
St. Cruz del Sur ...
9,438
9,423
9,053
12,426
15,287
17.355
18,157
Tunas de Zaza . . .
5,333
4,650
1,480
2,219
2,964
3,443
2,564
Trinidad
4,727
10,451
9,495
5,030
88,443
11,458
8,116
Cienfuegos
165,318
254.901
233,623
150,733
234,488
277,232
248,303
Jucaro
■ — •
—
—
9,743
35,221
43,500
49,123
Total exportation
878,911
1,180,623
1,296,088
908,989
1,443,876
1.733,164
1,412,173
The distribution of the exportation has been for the last years as follows : —
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
United States, 4 ports
north of Hatteras
United States, New Or-
leans, Galveston, ^.nd
Charleston
Europe and Canada
1,213,389
131,534
864
878,624
27,389
1,330,215
113,347
1,428,271
177,761
127,132
1,218,335
192,552
1,286
1,345,787
906,013
1,443,562
1,733,164
1,412,173
VI.— Future.
The fact that the very considerable sugar production of Cuba, now amount-
ing to almost two milhon tons, is only reaped from a very small area of ground,
has more than once given rise to predictions as to the further possibility -of
Cuba providing the entire world with sugar, or at least trebling its present
186
Cuba.
production, if only it were given the chance. Although this prospect at first
sight may seem not unlikely, circumstances will always be against it. Trebling
the production is as yet out of the question, though the future may prove other-
wise. We have noticed before that, in spite of statistical reports that quote
6 per cent, of the land as planted with cane, the cane producing the 1,800,000
tons of sugar is drawn . nowadays from land equal altogether to half Cuba's
entire area. This moiety, however, has been planted so extensively, and so
much ground still lies uncultivated, that some further area of cane is likely to
be planted, which, however, cannot amount to much.
We should not forget the circumstance that the Spanish were born agricul-
turists, and were wide-awake when selecting their lands. One may be sure
that the stretches of land which yield twenty to thirty cane crops without
replanting are of the very best, .and that large extents of land which are left
barren, or are used as pasture land for draught cattle, would never have yielded
more than three crops without replanting. While now for lack of labour the
profit of later ratoons may make up for the loss on first ratoons, it is clear, that
such ground in Cuba is altogether unfit for cane cultivation, so that the land
at present in cultivation most likely contains a maximum of cane land, or
at any rate would not offer scope for extension. This, however, need not
prevent all extension of the cane planted area, for as long as the proportion
of suitable cane lands to less suitable soil is the same for cultivated and still
uncultivated ground, there will be some 750,000 more acres to dispose of,
which might augment the present production.
There are stUl large extents of virgin soil which may be used for cultivation,
and would not be inferior to the best cane soil that Cuba possesses. Even if
the land is a little out of the way, the present facilities for conveyance are quite
equal to overcoming distances as long as enough capital is invested in the
enterprise. Those estabhshed by American capitaUsts on the north-east coast,
for instance, show what money can do, for gigantic sugar factories, the most
important of which produces in one year more than 480,000 bags, or about
^0,000 tons, of sugar, have sprung up on entirely new and uncultivated land.
The three largest of the new factories in the north-east in combination produced
in 1909 no less than 1,135,000 bags of sugar. For the rest, the greater part of the
province of Camaguey, formerly shut off from the world's commerce, has been
put into communication with the coast through the Cuba Railway, in conse-
quence of which some big sugar works have been erected, existing factories
extended, and new ones put under construction. A glance at the following
table of sugar production in the parts through which the new line goes wUl
show how within a few years after the completion of the railway the sugar
production of that neighbourhood has gone up, while large new undertakings
are contemplated.
Production of sugar estates situated on the Cuban Railroad in bags of
325 Spanish pounds : —
187
North America.
1902
1911
Jatibonico
Stewart
Tuinicu
S. Antonio
Hatillo
Santa Anna
Union
25,000
25,000
5,000
25,000
30,000
124,258
210,412
71.500
55,255
9.252 .
52,461
53.681
110,000
576,809
Moreover, the increase in production need not exclusivelj? be the outcome
of the extension of planted area, but may also be caused by an improvement
in the cane and sugar obtained per unit of area, both of which are open to
improvement ; and this may easily be effected by turning a number of badly
installed small factories into a single well-arranged large one, as in many cases
has already proved a success. The juice extraction, although still nothing great,
is in much better condition than it used to be, while the different losses ex-
perienced in the well-managed and controlled factories are not greater than in
any other model factory in the world. There are still a number of concerns
where they work in the old style, but these are gradually becoming fewer, and
will continue to decrease as the advantage of modern methods of working
becomes more and more evident. The next thing to be done is to prepare a better
kind of sugar, viz., a dry kind that will keep, instead of the moist and sticky
sugar that requires to be refined at once if it is not to lose its good qualities in
the warehouse. No doubt this improvement will be carried out in a few years'
time, in which case Cuba by then will produce the same output of sugar of a
similar quality on 100 parts of indicated sucrose in juice as, for instance, Java
does.
An increase of the cane production per acre will not, however, be so easily
obtained. Importation of foreign cane species capable of a better product or
of seedling cane varieties, is not welcome in Cuba, because the people there are
famiUar with the varieties now in use, while new kinds have to be tried first.
Such a trial means no great risk in countries where planting is done every year,
for should the crop be a failure, it only affects that year, and means no further
loss ; but in Cuba they plant once every seven years, so that planting the wrong
kind of cane involves ruin. But it is not only the kind of cane that matters
so much, for the production might also be greatly improved through a better
method of tillage, maintenance, etc. The Cubans are aware of this fact, and
it is much to their regret that cane is being treated in such a primitive way, and
188
Cuba.
is never transported till some time after the cutting is done. Scarcity of labour
is at the bottom of this, and prevents a rapid and -wide extension of the Cuban
sugar industry.
Cuba, as we know, is very thinly populated ; the native race is far from
strong, and multiplies only at a slow rate. The only way to secure a consider-
able-increase of labour is through immigration, and, as we said before, this
source, too, is of little effect. After the years 1904-05 and 1905-06 had seen
an immigration of some 50,000 men, that number has gone down since to
30,000, and it is difficult to reckon those who returned that same year. The
immigrants are mostly Spanish people, and are reckoned to be the best workers
by far. The fair, strongly-built, and sober immigrants from Galicia, in the
north of Spain, work hard and steadily, and many of them settle in Cuba for
good, or return every year after they have been home ; but the immigration
of these excellent workers tends to decrease rather than increase. People are
doing better in Spain itself, so that many a Spaniard who formerly had to look for
work outside his own country, nowadays can stay at home and earn his livelihood
in Spain itself, which he of course, prefers to do. Then there are also many who
have settled in Cuba, but on hearing of the better state of affairs at home are
glad to go back — all of which means a decrease in the number of labourers in
Cuba. Finally, the Spanish Government does not encourage the emigration
of its industrious country people to a foreign land, and rather stops the progress
of emigration by demanding of the steam navigation companies a contribution
on each exported passenger, which means an increase in the cost of emigration,
and indirectly a decrease in emigration itself. North Americans do not like to go
and work in Cuba ; they are much better off in their own country, where the
climate is cooler, and better fit for manual labour. The immigration of Italians,
once looked upon as a certainty, has resulted in nothing.
The difficulty as regards the supply of labourers is much against a rapid
development of the industry, yet a steady improvement is to be, expected,
and considering what causes brought about a decrease in former times, we
see that they were chiefly of a political nature, or were the result of climatic
circumstances, so that it is interesting to examine how far these influences are
to be feared in the future.
After the Spanish- American War was over, the United States, on 20th
May, 1902, restored Cuba's independence, and when in 1906 President Palma
failed to prove a match for his rebellious political opponents, the American
troops came again in September, 1906, and restored peace in a very short time.
During the time of the American intervention the authorities worked hard to
bring about the consohdation of the affairs of the republic, and on 28th January,
1909, Cuba was again proclaimed as an independent State by the United States
of America. There are two possibilities in the future : either that no repeti-
tion of the revolutionary outbreaks occurs, or that the recurrence of hostilities
demands the return of the Americans, who in that event wiU settle in Cuba for
good, so as to maintain order. Still, in the future there is little fear of further
189
North America.
serious distiirbances such as might impair the steady development of the
cane sugar industry.
It is quite a different thing with the cHmatic conditions. It is quite possible
that Cuba may be devastated by hurricanes, or that a lengthy period of drought
may prevent the growth of cane, or that the rainy season may set in earlier
than is usual, and put an end to the crushing much before the usual time,
thus yielding a smaller crop. The remarkably small crop of 1907-8 was chiefly
due to a long speU of drought in 1907, which stunted the growth of the then
planted cane. AU these climatic circumstances, however, only affect the crop
season of that particular year, or else the following year. The cane itself,
however, is not any the worse for it, and may later on produce a far better
crop if the weather is favourable. Consequently, the influence, of meteoro-
logical conditions may cause the Cuban crop to fluctuate greatly, making it.
difficult to estimate a crop beforehand ; but these fluctuations cannot have
any disastrous effect on the steady progress of production, which in 1912
is sure to amount to more than 1,800,000 tons, and may even increase, so long
as the reciprocity treaty with the United States remains in force, and high
import duties on foreign sugar are raised in the United States.
•\
Books of Reference.
Handbook of Cuba.
Industria Azucurera y sus derivados.
Riqueza agricolo-industrial y riqueza forestal.
Estadistica general. Comercio exterior.
Boletin official de la Secretaria de Agricultura Industria y Comercio.
Immigracion y movimiento de pasageros en Cuba.
Santiago Dods. Glimpses of the History of Cuba.
Theo. Brookes. Review of the Condition, Progress, and Future Outlook of Jthe Sugar Industry
in Cuba.
E. 0. V. Lippmann. Geschichte des Zuchers.
IV.
SAN DOMINGO.
The Isle of Hayti, of which San Domingo forms the eastern part, lies in the
Caribbean Sea, between 17° 37' and 19° 57' N. Lat. and 68° 21' and 74° 30'
W. Long. It is separated from Cuba by the Windward Passage and from
Porto Rico by the Mona Passage, and is the largest but one — namely, Cuba —
of the Caribbean Isles. Its greatest length amounts to 390 miles, its least width
to 25, and its greatest width to 164 miles. The area is 77,253 sq. miles, and the
population amounts to 1,900,000 inhabitants.
190
San Domingo.
The island is very mountainous, and contains three separate mountain
ranges, which extend in an east to west direction, and are separated from each
other by wide, fertile plains. Hayti is watered by a great many rivers, all of
which are silted up with sand, and therefore unnavigable. The climate is
moist and hot ; there are periodical wet and dry seasons that Y^ry in time
and duration in the different parts of the island. In the district of San Pedro
• de Macoris, the most important for sugar cane cultivation, the dry time is
from December till May, and the rainy season from June till December. The
annual rainfall amounts to 60 ins., which is not sufficient for the growth of
cane, so that artificial irrigation is necessary. The average yearly temperature
is 26-5° C. (79-2° F.) ; the average monthly temperature for July, 28-8° C.
(84° F.), and for January, 24-1° C. (75-4° F.). The country suffers much from
earthquakes and hurricanes, while volcanic eruptions are of frequent occurrence.
Hayti vv'as discovered by Columbus in 1492 ; he called it Espanola, which
in course of time was latinized to Hispaniola. At the time of the discovery
the population amounted to about one million people, but the Spanish con-
quistadores compelled the physically weak population to undertake such heavy
labour 'in the mines that it soon became extinct. In 1505 the Spaniards began
to import negro slaves in order to overcome the lack of labour, but the supply
was limited to a maximum of 4,000 per annum by a royal decree dated 1517,
which, however, was not always fully maintained.
In 1630 a number of buccaneers, driven out of St. Kitts, conquered the
western part of the island, and retained possession till 1697, when, on the
occasion of the peace of Rijswijk, it fell to France. This territory was called
Saint Domingue, while the rest remained Spanish and went by the name of
San Domingo.
The flourishing state of the colony dated from this time, and was chiefly due
to the extension of the sugar industry. In 1790 the number of factories was
no fewer than 800, while during the years before upon an average 65,000 tons of
sugar were exported, to be increased in 1789 to 53,000 tons of brown and 27,000
tons of white sugar. Unfortunately, such an enormous production impHed
great exertion on the part of the slaves. Many thousands of negroes were
employed at heavy labour in Ot'der to produce such large quantities, and as only
a few white people lived among these blacks this unequal proportion in the end
led to a catastrophe, which ultimately ruined the prosperity of the island for
good. The fact was, a large mulatto population had sprung up, which, as
the children or descendants of white fathers, wanted to be privileged above the
pure black Africans. These privileges were granted them during the first
years of the French revolution. Yet a spirit of unrest and fermentation per-
sisted, and resulted in a terrible insurrection of the coloured people on 23rd
August, 1791, which, after the seizure of Cap Franc-ais, spread aU over the
island. A chapter of horrors and a general destruction followed in its train ;
more than 2,000 white people were massacred, while the rest fled, leaving their
possessions behind. More than a thousand sugar and other plantations were
191
North America.
destroyed, and the entire sugar industry was ruined, so that the once important
sugar trade came to a sudden standstill. In 1793, when the Spanish and
English combined attacked the colony, the French Government declared the
slaves in San Domingo free. The French by thus ameliorating the lot of the
black population hoped to retain the island ; they not only succeeded in this
purpose, but at the Peace of Basel, in 1795, they also obtained the eastern or
Spanish territory, and consequently the entire island became French. This '
state of affairs was, however, not to last long, as the commander-in-chief,
Toussaint de I'Ouverture, appointed by the Directory, tried to establish an
independent governm.ent. Napoleon, then First Consul, embarked an army
to San Domingo for the purpose of reconquering the island. In this he suc-
ceeded, but when the French tried to restore slavery another rebellion broke
out, and led to the whites abandoning the island in 1803, since when it has
remained under negro dominion. Dessalines, the leader of the insurrection,
gave the island its old name of Hayti again, and turned it first into a republic,
and afterwards into an " empire." Since that time the country has been subject
to all sorts of disturbances, which are not over yet, and may last for some time
to come. In 1844 the eastern part separated and formed the Republic of San
Domingo, while the western part is still called the Republic of Hayti.
In Hayti the sugar industry is of hardly any consequence, and what cane
is cultivated there is used for chewing, or its juice is worked into an alcoholic
beverage, tafia, and only seldom into sugar.
The greater part of the island of San Domingo, possessing an area of 24,300
sq. miles, is but scantily populated, there not being more than 500,000 people.
Cane is planted in the south, near San Pedro de Macoris, in the plains of Arua
and Romana, and in the river valleys near San Domingo, i.e., only on the south
coast ; while the interior is devoid of sugar estates. The factories, as a rule,
have their own ground, but grow only part of the cane themselves, while the
rest is planted by " colonos." The latter receive their ground without having
to pay rent for it, on condition that they plant cane ; they also get money
advanced to them, while agricultural implements and draught cattle are lent
them. They are supposed to find their own labourers, and have to deliver the
cane at a price, stipulated beforehand, at the loading places of the railroads laid
out by the estates, which railroads convey it to the factory. They employ as
labourers the Dominicans, or negroes from the neighbouring islands, who come
to stay for a season at the employers' expense. They come from St. Thom6,
St. Eustatius, St. Kitts, St. Martin, and other islands in December, and leave
again in May. Their wages are 50 — 75 cents (American) per day of twelve
hours.
The soil of the sugar districts is of hmestone formation, which through
volcanic action has been raised and broken in places. Here and there the soil
is covered with a thin layer of vegetable earth, 3 ins. to i ft. in thickness,
while in some places i J and sometimes even 2 ft. of good black or red soil covers
the hard limestone subsoil. Water easily penetrates this limestone, so that
■ 192
San Domingo.
the arable earth rapidly dries up. Irrigation when necessary is not carried on
with river water, but with water out of artesian wells, which rnay be bored any-
where in these limestone mountains.
The cane variety that is most planted.is the " caiia cristalina," a yellowish-
green coloured type of cane with green stripes ; then follows to a much smaller
extent the " cana blanca," a pale-yellow cane with a high sugar content. These
two kinds are the same as are exclusively found in Cuba. Soil treatment
amounts to very little, while manuring is altogether neglected. When virgin
ground is planted, cuttings are put into the ground two or three of them together,
in a slanting position, and are partly covered with earthy this is when the bush
is cut and burnt. Planting is done at distances of 7 x 7 ft., or 6 x 7 ft., or
even of 9 x 9 ft. in the level ground, without furrows or holes having been
made beforehand. At the end of fourteen to sixteen months the cane is con-
sidered ripe, and is cut ; first and subsequent ratoons are kept and cut every
year till the yield gets too small to make it worth while retaining the ratoons
any longer. When they begin planting afresh, which is sometimes done at once,
and sometimes after some years' interval, the old plants are removed with a
plough, furrows are dug 4 to 6 ins. deep and 5 to 6 ft. apart, in which the new
cuttings are planted at 4 to 5 ft. distance from each other. Only plant-cane
is banked ; and after it is cut the stubbles are covered with trash and the
soil between is levelled, but no more banldng is done. The plant cane or
virgin soil yields an incredibly high cane crop, while the cane is exceptionally tall
and heavy, and can produce ?s much as ninety tons cane per acre. The quality,
on the other hand, is poor, and it is the sort of cane that yields more syrup
than sugar. The ratoons yield a much lighter crop, but of a far better quahty,
and ratoons are cut till the figure representing the production has gone down to
eighteen tons per acre, when planting is recommenced. One can only expect
such good first results in districts where the layer of arable earth rich in humus
is very thick, in which case it is quite possible to reap crops for fifteen or twenty
years before the yield will have gone down to its lowest efficiency. One does
not get such satisfactory results from less fertile soil, where it is necessary to
plant afresh after five to ten years.
The average cane yield of an estate which plants from 3,000 to 4,500
acres of cane is estimated at 23-8 tons of cane per acre, which, of course, varies
according to the condition of the soil and the relation between the quantity of
plant cane and ratoon. Planting, as a rule, is carried on in June as well as in
October, while reaping takes place from December to April.
The factories are still installed in a rather old-fashioned way. In most cases
cane is only crushed once, and even should it be crushed more often, macera-
tion is dispensed with. • The juice is purified by clarification and by subsiding ;
filter-presses are seldom used, and for want of them the mud is simply caused
to run off. The juice is evaporated and treated in triple-effects and vacuum
pans. The sugar, a first product of 95 — 97 polarization, is packed in bags :
193 N
North America,
while the seconds of 86° polarization are sometimes remelted. The exhausted
molasses is used either for the manufacture of rum or is thrown away.
In spite of the primitive installation of the factories, the cane yields 9 — 11
per cent, of sugar, as the raw material in San Domingo is of very good quality,
and often contains juice exceeding 20° Brix, with a purity of 85 — 90°. This
is when the cane is crushed only once.
The farmers, as a rule, get sjd. per cwt. cane, so that, including railway
freight, it comes to about 4d. per cwt.
The cost price of sugar prepared in the old-fashioned factories amounts
to about $36 per ton (8s. 3d. per cwt.), and that of sugar prepared in the more
modernized factories comes to $25 per ton (5s. 9d. per cwt., or iis. 5d, per
100 kg.).
The sugar is sent to the United States or to Great Britain, according to
the current market quotation, while part of the production is consumed in
San Domingo or Haiti, either as raw sugar or as white sugar, after it has been
washed in the centrifugal.
Sugar used to be taxed with an export duty of $0-25 per 100 kg., but this
tax has been abolished, and sugar is nowadays exempted from all duties and
excise. An import duty on a scale approved of by the Brussels Convention
acts as a bar to the importation of sugar, but as sugar is not imported at aU it
has no need to be enforced. The production of San Domingo during the last
few years has amounted to the following quantities in long tons : —
Year. Tons,
1903/04 . . . . . . . . . . 47,000
1904/05
1905/06
1906/07
1907/08
1908/09
1909/10
1910/11
47,000
55.000
60,000
62,235
69,483
93.003
76,296
The greater part of this production is exported to the countries enumerated
below (expressed in long tons) : —
Countries.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
United States
46,345
52,452
40,483
61,996
66,740
89,896
Great Britain
529
788
7,606
—
714
623
Germany . .
57
358
174
—
2
.
France
—
136
—
—
1,007
—
Italy _
—
—
66
—
—
--
Cuba
—
—
7
-—
■ —
—
Porto Rico
— '
—
—
—
51
—
Other countries
478
150
968
151
969
926
Total . . . :
47,409
53,884
48,304
62,057
60,483
Qi,445
194
San Domingo,
The names, areas, and localities of the concerns ar3 as follows : —
Name.
Area.
District.
Angelina
Consuelo
Porvenir
Santa F€
Christobal Colon
San Luis
San Isidor
Italia
Ocoa . .
Azuano
Ansonsa
hectares. acres.
8,000 20,000
8,500 21,250
6,600 16,500
6,000 15,000
7,000 17,500
1,600 4,000
5,000 12,500
5,200 13,000
3.500 8,750
4,000 ' 10,000
3,000 7,500
San Pedro de Macoris.
Santo Domingo
Azua.
.1
58,700 146,750
.With the exception of the Christobal Colon factory, which belongs to
Cubans, all these sugar factories are under American management. In the
district of Romano an American company, which has also great interests in
Porto Rico, plants cane for the purpose of transporting it to their Porto Rican
miUs, to be crushed there, so that the product may enter the United States
free of duty. The same company also purchases cane from colonos for 5 per
cent, sugar value ; also for transporting it to their Porto Rican mill.
Not the entire area of 146,750 acres is, of course,, planted with cane, for
part of it lies fallow or is used as grazing land. The ground in most parts of
the southern plains is most fertile, and yields an excellent cane crop, so that
it seems extremely weU fitted for cane cultivation.
■ Owing to lack of funds, the installations are behind the times, and the
combination of an unstable government and everlasting internal troubles
tends to keep foreign capitalists away. Although there seems to have been
some inclination- of late to instal factories on a more modern system, which
may be looked upon as some improvement, the industry is not lilcely to extend
much so long as the native political state of affairs does not change for the
better, which seems, as yet, an impossibiUty.
195
North America.
PORTO RICO.
The island of Porto Rico is the most easterly of the large Caribbean Isles,
and lies at the entrance to the Caribbean Sea, between i8° 30' and 17° 55'
N. I.at., and 68° and 65° 10' W. Long. It is in the shape of a rectangle, 100
miles in length, and 36 in width ; and has an area of 3,140 sq. miles.
The island is very mountainous, and with the exception of a narrow border
of flat coast land, it consists of rows of hills and a great many vaUeys. A larger
chain of hiUs stretches from east to west, right through the centre of the island,
which, however, is broken up to such an extent that any coherence hardly
exists. Its highest peak is El Yunque, in the north-east, at a height of 4,900 ft.
above sea level. Numerous rivers run through the valleys ; there are about
fifty of them, varying in size between shallow little streams in dry weather to
wild mountain torrents in the rainy season.
Although the Porto Rican coast can boast of a great many harbours, all
of them are more or less shallow, and only navigable for small craft. Those
of San Juan, Guanica, and Jobos are partly land-locked, while the harbours
of Arecibo, Aguadilla, and Mayaguez and Ponce are simply open roads. The
climate of Porto Rico is uniformly warm, the yearly temperature varj'ing
between 66 and 86° F., but the daily differences are barely noticeable.
The month of January has the lowest average temperature, and that of August
the highest, but the maximum temperatures occur in the month of May.
The highest maximum ever observed at the meteorological observatory at
San Juan was 34-4° C. (94° F.) in May, 1903, and the lowest minimum 17-2° C.
(63° F.) in March of the same year.
The year is divided into two seasons : a wet one from April till November,
and a dry one from December till March. About 47 ins. of rain falls during
the first season, and about 10 ins. during the rest of the year. The rainfall,
however, is not equally divided all over the island ; more rain is experienced
on the northern side than on the southern coast, as the trade winds coming
from the east drop most of their moisture north of the hiU slopes, and lose
much of their moisture by the time they have reached the southern half of
the island. Like the other West Indian islands, Porto Rico is much subjected
to hurricanes. T^ie one of August 8, 1899, did a tremendous amount of damage,
both in loss of life and properly, and destroyed great numbers of plantations,
factories, houses and crops.
The soil is very fertile, and in the north may be cultivated without irriga-
tion, but in the south, where the sugar cane chiefly grows, recourse must be
had to artificial irrigation.
The population of Porto Rico amounted to 953,243 inhabitants, according
to the census of 1899, 589,426, or 61 -8 per cent., of whom were put down as
196
Porto Rico.
whites ; but many of these were doubtless of miKed extraction. The census
return of 31st December, igog, gave the total of 1,118,017.
The two big towns of the island (San Juan, in the north, and Ponce, in the
southV have each a population of about 30,000 inhabitants, and there are
besid s other towns of lesser importance. A railway running by a circuitous
route through the west along the flat coast connects the two, while the sugar
plantations have made railroads which, later on, when connected up with the
main hne, may be converted into public lines.
Porto Rico was discovered by Columbus in 1403, and in 1505 Pinzon was
allowed to build a fortress on the spot. The name Porto Rico dates from
1521, when discoveries of gold were made, while San Juan got its name from
its founder, Juan Ponce de Leon. Both country and inhabitants were divided
among the Spanish conquerors, who proved such tyrants that when, in 1544,
the King of Spain ordered the inhabitants to be set free the population, originally
estimated at 600,000 people, had dwindled down to some few hundreds. Many
of them had died, and others had emigrated to Peru and Mexico ; but the
Spaniards did not take long to fill the vacant places by a supply of slaves from
Africa.
For years Porto Rico was involved in constant war. At one time it was
the English who came to harass the country ; at other times independent
pirates and buccaneers caused trouble ; now and then a rebellion among the
slaves occurred, or Dutch fleets tried to take possession of the colony, so that
Spain, during the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries had to be
constantly on the alert in order to hold her own among her envious neigh-
bours.
The population, of course, could not thrive in the midst of all this strife,
and at the beginning of the nineteenth century the island was still very thinly
populated, containing only 155,426 inhabitants. The country could not pay
the cost of its own government, so that a considerable deficit had to be made
up by the Mexican surplus. Up to 1778 only Spaniards had been allowed to
settle in Porto Rico, but after that the privilege was extended to people of
other nationalities, on condition that they were Roman CathoUcs, while in
1815 immigration became possible for anyone. Foreigners were encouraged
to come to Porto Rico, where privileges of Spanish citizenship were held out
to them, and where land belonging to the dominion was offered thsm as free
property.
These foreigners were promised exemption from export duty on their
produce, and exemption from import duty on their implements and necessaries ;
while they would be free to import as many slaves as they wished.
These liberal inducements tempted a great many planters from the French
and British Caribbean Isles, who came to Porto Rico supplied with knowledge,
capital, and a number of slaves ; and they had a great and beneficial influence
on the development of the island.
Later on the population was swelled by immigrants from Hayti, San
1 97
North America.
Domingo, and Venezuela, who had been diiven away from their homes through
war and insurrection.
The rapid increase of the population in the nineteenth century is evident
from the following table, which gives the various census returns : —
1802
163,192
I8I2
183,014
1820
230,622
1827
302,672
1830
■ 323.838
1836
357.086
i860
. 583.308
1877
. 73I.64S
1887
798,565
1897
980,911
1899
953.243
1909
. 1,118,017
In 1873 a most important event for the colony was the resolution of the
Republican Spanish Government to abolish slavery in Spanish possessions, so
that 34,000 slaves in Porto Rico were declared free.
During the years following on 1880 the Spanish Government was most
arbitrary in its decrees, and carried on a system of persecution which roused a
feeling of aversion against Spain. Owing to remonstrances on the part of
foreign nations more liberal laws were promulgated in 1896, and autonomy was
even granted to the colony in 1897, but this reform came too late.
On 2ist April, i8g8, the Spanish governor declared the island to be at war with
the United States, and it ended in the incorporation of Porto Rico into the
States on 25th July of the same year.
During the Spanish dominion hardly anything was done on behalf of the
island ; the roads were in a very bad condition, and the population was de-
prived of all instruction, being kept in a state of mental incapacity. The
owners of the plantations were poor, and were harassed by debts and mort-
gages, so that the economical conditions of the island left much to be desired.
Once annexed to the United States, conditions changed for the better.
Although the sugar exportation had remained an important feature, it had
dropped considerably, while the cultivation of coffee was considered of primary
importance. It had been sent to Spain, being imported there free of duty,
and was privileged by the protective duties levied on foreign coffee. When,
however, Porto Rico was taken over by the United States, this privilege ceased,
full duty having then to be paid on Porto Rican coffee imported into Spain.
The United States gave no import duty on coffee, hence Porto Rico was in
this respect not benefited through her cession to the States. Finally, the
hurricane of 1899 caused extensive damage among the coffee plantations ;
. iq8
Porto Rico.
this, of course, had a disastrous effect on the coffee cultivation. On the other
hand, the incorporation of Porto Rico had a very favourable influence on the
sugar industry. As early as 1899 the United States allowed a reduction of
85 per cent, on the import duty on sugar, while in - JSgi -the importation of
sugar became free altogether, so that Porto Rico has since profited by the
full protection of i-68' cents per lb. of raw sugar.
In order to prevent capitalists from availing themselves of this favourable
opportunity to buy land on a large scale for the cultivation of sugar cane,
find thus to deprive the native owner of his property, a law was passed in igoo
(that is, previous to the date of absolute exemption from duty) called the
Forraker Act, which stipulated that no company should be allowed to possess
more than 500 acres (or 200 hectares) of land, and that no shareholder of any
one agricultural company should be entitled to have shares in any other similar
partnership.
This restriction, no doubt, was meant to benefit the Porto Rican peasant
proprietors through the advantage of duty-free sugar, and to prevent large
foreign companies from pocketing the profits ; nevertheless, this stipulation
had not the desired effect. The big owners lived outside tiie island, 'while the
small farmers lacked money and energy to carry on their industry vigorously.
Foreign capital, which was kept back through this restricting law, was the
very thing wanted for the establishment of a flourishing sugar industry. So,
later on, this law was deviated from in spirit, though not in letter, and of late
years extensive sugar estates have been started in Porto Rico with American,
British, and French capital, which have more than trebled the sugar production
since 1902.
About 400,000 acres, or 20 per cent., of the 2,000,000 acres Porto Rico
covers, are used for cultivation, half of which are taken up by sugar cane culti-
vation. The sugar cane grows on the alluvial plats along the coast ; on the
south coast there is still plenty of space for more cane than has yet been planted.
Should it eventually" be utilized, it would involve expensive irrigation works,
as in that event it is intended to conduct water from the northern part of
the country, where the rainfall is abundant, to the south by means of aque-
ducts tunneUing through the hills.
The big sugar factories buy the cane from the colonos, who plant it either
on their own land, or on ground hired from the factory, while each company,
at the same time, plants about half of the cane under its own management.
The price of cane generally amounts to 5 per cent, sugar of the weight in cane,
though it varies at times.
Before planting is begun the land is ploughed twice, after which the furrows
are dug, and these depending on the nature of the soil are from 400 to 800 ft.
in length. On heavy soil exposed to much rain they plant in furrows, which
are 2 ft. in depth and 8 ft. apart ; the cuttings are planted in a double row
at a distance of 4 ft. from each other. The plant holes are i^ ft. square and
half a foot in depth. The tops and sometimes the entire upper part of the
199
North America.
stalk are used as seed, while each plant hole contains two or even more of
them.
When the soil is dry and sandy they plant in shallower holes, and in one
row ; according to the fertility of the soily the distance between these rows
varies from 4J to 6 ft.
The fields are kept in a clean condition, and are banked by means of hoes
after the plants bud, and during the growth of the cane. Manure is hardly
ever applied, neither is the cane trashed.
Cane is generally planted during the months of September to December,
and is crushed in the following grinding season, which begins in January —
that is, alter an interval of 14 — 18 months. Such cane is called " cafia de frio "
or " de gran cultura " ; it yields the largest crop. Then another kind of cane,
called " cafia de pequeiia cultura " or " caiia de medio tiempo," is planted
from January till March, and is crushed the next season, when it is about one
year old. Finally, there is a kind called " cana de primavero," which is planted
from March till June. In case of a very favourable season, it is also crushed
iii the following season — that is, when it is 10 — 12 months old ; but should it
not be rich in sugar, it is kept over and opens the following crushing season,
that is a year later. After the cane is cut, first, second, and third ratoons are
grown, and then the cane is planted anew. The first and second ratoons yield
the best results, plant cane comes next in productiveness, while third and
subsequent ratoons give inferior results. Ratoons are cut every year, and
formerly these were kept for twelve years, but this is now known to be bad
policy, so nowadays after four or five years the fields are planted afresh.
Most of the cane diseases and parasites found in other countries are of
frequent occurrence in Porto Rico, but as cultivation is only in its elementary
stage, little attention is paid to these pests.
With the exception of a few years rich in sugar production, the average
5delds have amounted to 20 tons per acre, which, assuming them to be American
tons of 2,000 lbs., is equivalent to 44,730 kg. per hectare.
The cane is cut with a machete as close to the ground as possible, and
carried to the factory or to the railway depots by ox-carts, from which it is con-
veyed to the miU by rail.
The factories have been but recently installed, and so are provided with
the best and latest machinery, while the operations are carried on according to
scientific methods. The juice extraction is obtained by triple crushing with
maceration, while the only factory in Porto Rico — La Fortuna — which tried
the bagasse diffusion process after Naudet's system, has given it up entirely.
Almost the only Porto Rican product is raw sugar, basis 96°; only about 10,000
tons of the crop is muscovado, and about 14,000 tons after products. The
exhausted molasses of about 40° purity is partly worked up to rum, and partly
exported to be used for consumption.
The principal factories are the following, the production of which during
1910-11 is given in short tons : —
20c
Porto Rico.
Guanica . .
57.251
Aguirre
25,639
Fajardo
25,015
Plazuela . .
16,600
Cambalache
14.135
J uncos
12,750
San Vincente
12,592
Coloso
11,096
Lafayette
8,933
Mercedita I.
8,797
Machete . .
8,623
Monserrate
8,050
Juapita
7,401
Canovanas
7.546
Constancia
7.194
The remaining central factories, 29 in number, are all much smaller, and
the smallest, Santa Isabel, produced in 1910-11 only 34 tons of sugar. Then
there are 24 smaller factories with steam power, and 72 driven by oxen, which
produce muscovado ; while stiU other sugar enterprises are planned or already
under construction.
As Porto Rican sugar may be imported into the United States free of
duty, all sugar not wanted for local requirements is sent to America as a matter
of course.
In 1853 the sugar exportation of Porto Rico amounted to 112,000 tons ;
it dropped to 70,000 tons in 1854, and neither increased nor decreased during
the following twenty years. In 1870 and 1871 the production realized once
more 105,000 tons, to drop to 89,000 tons in 1885, and to 65,000 tons in 1886.
During the past twenty years it has been as follows, in long tons : —
1891/92
70,000
1892/93 . .
56,000
1893/94 • ■
43,000
1894/95 . .
48,500
1895/96 . .
55.000
1896/97 . .
54,000
1897/98 . .
55.000
1898/99 . .
54,000
I899/I900 . .
35.000
1900/01
62,000
1901/02
82,000
1902/03 . .
• . . 104,000
1903/04 . .
130,000
1904/05 ■ •
145,000
1905/06 . .
210,000
201
North America.
1906/07
1907/08
1908/09
igog/io
1910/11
194,000
214,489
258,363
308,000
295,000
Great things are anticipated for the sugar industry in Porto Rico. Labour
is cheap and abundant, and the people employed are willing. The climate is
favourable, and when a greater water supply is available in the southern part
of the island, on the completion of the irrigation works which have just been
planned, and for which a 4 per cent, loan of $3,000,000 has been raised, still
larger tracts of ground that used to be too arid for cultivation may be turned
into cane growing areas.
Enterprising and powerful American companies have already started
large central factories in the plain of Ponce and Juana Diaz, and have bought
up other already existing sugar works, and plant sugar cane oh a very large
scale in that part of the country. The profit is considerable, as Porto Rican
sugar is admitted into the United States free of import duty, and consequently
has a great advantage over the Cuban, Javanese, and West Indian sugar. It
is difficult to say to what extent the output may increase, but one may be sure
of an important extension in the near future, commensurate with the progress
that has been experienced since 1902.
VI.
BRITISH WEST INDIES.
I. — Historical Survey of the Sugar Industry.
The British West Indies vary so much as regards climate, character of the soil,
population and history that it is not possible to discuss these separately. For
this reason we must confine ourselves now to a general survey of the history of
the industry, indicating the points in common, while- further on some details
relating to each of the islands or group of islands wiUibe given.
All, or at least the principal, of these islands were consecutively discovered
by Columbus, and the names then received have been mostly kept, only a few
having since been changed.
Some of the islands were colonized at once by the Spanish, while others
were only invaded after a time, while the French, the English, and Dutch
were responsible for many conquests. All through the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth centuries continjual war was waged in the Caribbean Sea, and. a great
many of the islands were repeatedly captured and lost again, or kept in com-
202
British West Indies.
mon possession to be restored at the next declaration of peace, so that most of
them in course of time have changed hands several times. After the wars
between France and Great Britain at the beginning of the nineteenth century
things settled down, and with the exception of some unimportant changes,
the possessions of the different powers have remained as they were in 1814.
The British West Indian Possessions are grouped as follows : —
1. Bahama Islands.
2. Barbados.
3. Jamaica, with Turk's and Caicos Islands.
4. Trinidad and Tobago.
5. The Windward Islands, St. Lucia, St. Vincent, Grenada, and the
Grenadines.'
6. Leeward Islands, Antigua with Barbados and Redonda, St. Kilts,
Nevis and Anguilla, Montserrat, Dominica and the Virgin Islands.
The sugar industry was immediately introduced after the islands had been
taken possession of, and this necessitated the importation of negro slaves.
In 1562 Sir John Hawkins began to import them, and in 1568 Sir Francis Drake
followed his example. At the end of the sixteenth century Dutch slave-
traders supplied a great many blacks, while the formation of two English-
African companies for the purpose of providing British colonies with slaves
date from 1662 and 1672 respectively. In consequence of this, at the end of
the sixteenth century some 25,000 negroes were yearly imported to British
colonies on British vessels.
Although at this time the people on the British islands knew how to prepare
sugar, the sugar industry did not attain any importance tiU after 1654, when
the Dutch colonists driven from Brazil with their capital, knowledge, and slaves
settled on several French and British islands, where they soon produced ^a
good and marketable kind of sugar. Barbados and Jamaica especially were
soon largely planted with sugar cane, and exported large quantities of sugar
to the Mother Country. They suffered much, however, from French com-
petition, as the inhabitants of the French islands of Saint Domingue, Martinique,
and Guadeloupe far excelled in the manufacture of sugar at a lower cost price.
From an investigation carried out by the British Government, it soon appeared
that it was not only the methods of cultivation and manufacture among the
British colonists that were inferior to those of the French, but that, in addition,
heavy taxes and an export duty of 4I per cent, of the value on aU exported
■goods greatly injured the industry. Then sugar refining was forbidden, so
that there was no inducement to try and improve the manufacture ; and last,
and not least, the British Government levied heavy import duties on all sugar
and syrup imported from the Antilles to the North American colonies, which
caused the natural market of the West Indian colonies to be closed. In spite
of all these untoward circumstances, the production increased, especially
when in 1791, through the destruction of the sugar plantations in San Domingo
this formidable competition disappeared from the scene.
203
North America.
Besides the loss of this great rival, the West Indian Islands experienced
another unexpected piece of luck, when at the end of the eighteenth century
a newly imported species of cane proved to be heavier in weight and richer in
sugar content thah the cane variety hitherto planted. This new kind was the
Otaheite or Bourbon cane that had been conveyed from the Malabar Coast to
the Isle of Bourbon, and was sent to Cayenne, Martinique, and Guadeloupe
by the French Government. It was introduced from the French Antilles to
British Guiana and the British Antilles, and we know that William Firebrace
took it to Barbados in 1796. Sir John Palfrey, at the end of the eighteenth
century, imported it straight from Otaheite into Antigua, while Captain Bligh
introduced it from the same country into Jamaica in 1796.
According to von Humboldt, the sugar exportation of the British West
Indian colonies amounted to the following figures between 1698 and 1806 : —
1698 — 1712
1727— 1733
1761— 1765
1771— 1775
1781— 1785
1791— 1795
1801 — 1806
20,000 tons
50,000 ,,
75,000 „
92,000 „
79,000 „
101,000 „
169,000 „
This prosperity ended, however, when slavery was abolished in the British
possessions, as we have already had occasion to mention (see pages 19 and 20).
The sugar production did not, however, all at once drop through the
abolition of slavery ; it was a gradual downfall. The once well-tilled fields
kept yielding good crops for years after they had been deprived of regular
maintenance, but they began to diminish gradually, so that in consequence
the new measures did not show themselves forcibly till some twenty or thirty
years after.
It was a great grievance of the sugar planters that slavery was still in
full force with their neighbours — ^for the French colonies did not follow Great
Britain's example till 1840, the Dutch not until 1863, Porto Rico not until
1873, St. Thomas only in 1876, while Cuba brought up the rear in 1880. It
is true that Great Britain levied an import duty on sugar produced by slave
labour, but in 1846 this penalty became greatly reduced, to disappear altogether
a few years later, so that cane sugar produced by slaves was taxed the same
as sugar coming from colonies where slavery was abolished, when imported
into Great Britain.
When in 1834 labour was urgently wanted, an effort was first made to
import free labourers from Madeira, St. Helena, Rio, and Sierra Leone into the
West Indies, but these efforts proved ultimately futile. In 1845 they began
to import coolies from British India on a small scale ; and this importation,
under the supervision of the British Indian Government, has since taken place
204
British West Indies.
continuously on a large scale, except during the years 1849 and 1850, when
it was temporarily stopped.
The coolies are recruited in British India by an Immigration agent in
Government employ, with headquarters at Calcutta. They are sent to the
West Indies, and distributed among the different applicants, to whom they
are to be indentured for five years at is. ijd. a day for men, and 8d. a day
for women. Those who have entered the colony before the 5th of August,
1898, are entitled to their passage back to India on payment of a quarter of the
fare in case of men, and of one-sixth of the fare for women, while the rest has
to be paid by the planter. Nowadays a ten years' stay in the country entitles
them to a free passage home on paying half of the fare for men, and one-third
for women. Besides these, a great many regulations are made for the benefit
of the immigrants, while special officials called " Protectors of Immigrants "
see to the strict enforcement of these rules.
In 1845 the first immigrants arrived in Trinidad and Jamaica, and in
1849 came to St. Lucia ; but only Trinidad affords a case of negroes haviiig
been successfully replaced by British Indian labourers. In the two last-
mentioned islands immigration has been as irregular as in the other British
West Indian islands.
Slavery had hardly been abolished in Cuba in 1886, by which time all the
West Indian possessions had come to the same position in this respect, when
a new difficulty cropped up in the way of competition. The European beet-
root sugar industry had been bolstered up by bounties and privileges to such
an extent that it steadily expanded, and had to fall back more and more on its
export trade in order to maintain its flourishing condition.
In the first part of this volume it was shown how the bounties and cartels,
which the European beetroot sugar manufacturers enjoyed, tended to lower the
price of sugar to such an extent that sugar was to be had below cost price in
the world's market. The manufacturers in protected countries, where the
sugar consumption amounted to a considerable figure, could easily stand this
state of affairs, but those in unprotected countries, where the loss on exported
sugar could not be made good by the home consumption, were hard put to
make ends meet. This was still more so the case with the inhabitants of the
West Indian Islands, whose sole occupation for centuries had been to plant and
manufacture sugar, and who now found this industry disappearing.
The West Indian sugar manufacturers constantly complained, but the
British public could not disabuse their minds of the picture of sugar magnates
surrounded by a halo of extravagant splendour, and so would not take these
complaints seriously. The British Government, however, was fain to see the
West Indian colonists content and well at ease, for fear they should otherwise
wish to be incorporated into the United States. At this very time the States
were negotiating with Denmark for the sale of the Danish Antilles, and if it
had not been for one adverse vote, the Danish Parliament would have agreed.
AU this shows how much more America had become interested in the Antilles
205
North America.
than it used to be. It was apparent, too, through the internal troubles in
Cuba and Porto Rico, how the Americans had made their influence felt in these
parts, so that there was every reason to fear that these colonies would be lost
to Great Britain if the United States Government seriously wanted to annex
them.
Consequently, the British Government had to study the West Indian
question, and secure their loyalty by having all their grievances removed.
It meant quick and thorough help, for the interests at stake were considerable
enough to make great sacrifices necessary. No sacrifice was deemed too great
for the conquest of the West Indian possessions in the flourishing time of the
sugar industry. AU through the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries war
had been waged for its supremacy, and at each treaty of peace that concluded
a war between European powers the restitution or retention of some West
Indian islands always afforded important discussions during the negotiations,
which shows how much importance was attached to the possession of these
fertile regions. It was not tiU after many heavy wars and bloody sea-fights
against the Spanish, French, and Dutch, and expeditions against buccaneers
and filibusters, that Great Britain got the ascendency in the Caribbean Sea,
and the name of each British naval celebrity was at some time or other connec-
ted with a West Indian victory.
Although the West Indian possessions had decreased in wealth, their glory
was still vividly remembered by the British, and it would have meant a severe
blow to Imperialism and the devotion of the Colonies and Dominions beyond
the Seas for the Mother Country if the oldest colonies which through blood and
strife had become theirs should have been lost at this crisis. During the last
years of the nineteenth century, more than at any other time, British Imper-
ialists felt that nothing should be left undone to bring Mother Country and
Colonies together, and to strengthen the bond of rmion, even if the British
West Indies were never to revert to their old prosperity. But this supposition
was not in accord with the facts, and the far-seeing British statesmen were
weU aware of the possibility that another time of prosperity might be in store
for these colonies. By the time of the completion of the Panama Canal,
the new trade route would go through the Caribbean Sea, in which case a
flourishing island-colony with magnificent harbours and gulfs and fertile
soils would be a valuable possession for Great Britain. With this prospect in
view, it was realized that the West Indies should be made into a prosperous and
flourishing possession at whatever cost. Money temporarily spent by the
Mother Country on its colonies could not be wasted, and in case of neglect the
government of these islands should be open to appeal to the Treasury at home.
In consequence of these considerations, help was granted, in i8q8, in
the following manner : —
I. By establishing farmers as owners, especially on the Crown lands in
St. Vincent.
206
British West Indies.
2. By promoting industries other than the sugar industry : (a) by estab-
lishing a special agricultural department under the supervision of a competent
expert for the purpose of studying the cultivation of useful plants in the islands,
the headquarters being at Barbados, while experimental stations and labora-
tories were to be established on the other islands as weU. The cost was to be
£4,500 for the first year, and £17,500 for the following years. Were results to
prove satisfactory, they intended to go on with this Department till the colonies
could afford to defray the expenses themselves. (6) By improving the existing
steamship connections by a direct route to Canada, an improved service between
Jamaica and Great Britain, and a fortnightly steamboat communication between
the Islands. The expenses were to come to £5,000 for the first year, and to
£20,000 for the following years.
3. By the Government guaranteeing a 3 per cent, loan of £750,000 during
ten years for the foundation of central factories in Antigua, St. Kitts, and
Barbados.
The Department of Agriculture was not long in starting ; it comprises
a head department with laboratory and station in Barbados, and branch
botanical stations in Antigua, Tobago, Grenada, St. Vincent, St. Lucia,
Dominica, Montserrat, St. Kitts, and British Honduras. There are also in-
dependent Agricultural Departments in British Guiana, Trinidad, and
Jamaica.
The institutions in Barbados, Jamaica, Trinidad, Antigiia, Demerara,
St. Kitts, and Montserrat are devoted mainly to the sugar industry, and have
done most useful and important work by investigating the best means of
manuring cane and establishing the best cane varieties, and by cultivating
seedling canes and combatting the numerous diseases and pests.
The other measures adopted by the Government on behalf of the sugar
industry did not have the results that were expected.
Canada had allowed 25 per cent, discount off its import duty on aU produce
from the British colonies, but this deduction was not enough to tempt the
planters to send their sugar to Canada instead of to New York. The United
States levied besides their uniform import duty on sugar an additional so-
caUed " compensating duty " on aU bounty-fed sugar, amounting to the value
of the bounty. As aU European sugar was bountied, in contrast to the free
West Indian sugar, the latter when imported into the United States enjoyed
an advantage greater than when imported into Canada, where no countervailing
duties were known, and where the British colonial sugar only enjoyed a rebate
of 25 per cent., which deduction in most cases was less than the countervailing
duty on European sugar when imported into the United States.*
* In 1900 for instance the advantage of 25 per cent, on the import dutj' in Canada
amounted to 18 cents per 100 lbs. sugar of 96 polarization while the countervailing duty
on German sugar in the States was 27 cents.
207
North America.
Again, the capitalists were afraid of risking their money in the British
West Indian sugar industry, and did not participate in loans for the erection
of central factories, so that the proposed 3 per cent, loan of ^^750, 000 was not
achieved. In the first place, the complaints about the decline and unsatis-
factory condition of the industry in the West Indian Islands had drawn atten-
tion to these parts, but at the same time had frightened capital away, so that
aU efforts to raise money for the establishment of central factories proved a
failure. Secondly, the fierce competition of the bounties was in full force for
the sake of encouraging the exportation of the beetroot sugar from the several
producing countries. Each measure taken by a government to further the
exportation of its produce was sure to be followed by a corresponding measure
on the part of other governments, which resulted in a steady fall of the world's
price of sugar, and made it an impossibility for unprotected countries to make
any profit out of the manufacture of sugar. One can imagine that in such
circumstances even Great Britain's offer to guarantee during ten years 3 per
cent, interest on the loan for central factories did not tempt anyone to take
an interest in the sugar industry of the West Indian Islands.
Chamberlain was weU aware of this fact, and as the West Indies and
Mauritius, together with the British Indian sugar refiners, wanted help urgently,
he carried through the Brussels Convention, when the negotiations over the
abolition of bounties threatened to result in failure again.
In addition a grant of £250,000 was made by ParUament to cover the
pressing needs of the sugar planters for the year immediately preceding the
coming into force of the Brussels Convention.
In consequence of this Convention, the compensating duties on European
sugar in the Ufiited States were no longer levied, and sugar from the West
Indies was admitted into the States on the same basis of duty as European
beetroot sugar ; thus it was no longer privileged in that country. In Canada,
however, it stUl enjoyed this advantage ; consequently, the importation of
West Indian sugar into that country began to increase, especially as, in 1900,
the rebate on the duty on British colonial sugar had gone up to 33I per cent.
To give an idea of the extent to which the importation of sugar from the
West Indies into Canada has increased, while that from other countries has
dropped, we quote the following table, where general tariff means full import
duty, preferential tariff the decreased duty on sugar from the British Empire,
and surtax tariff the duty on German sugar raised by a surtax since 1903. The
sugar from the British Empire was almost exclusively West Indian and Dem-
erara, with small quantities of refined sugar from England and raw sugar from
British India, British Africa, and Fiji.
208
British West Indies,
Year.
General
Preferential
Surtax
Total.
tariff.
tariff.
tariff.
lbs.
IbS;
lbs.
lbs.
1902/03
326,824,196.
, 43,251,261
—
370,075,457
1903/04
288,150,338
ioo,09i;559
128,9-35
388,370,832
1904/05
100,128,451
290,414,865
1.344
390,544,660
1905/06
71,740,809
274,863,036
148,753
346,752,598
1906/07
77,919,591
371,042,486
446
448,962,528
1907/08
51,867,068
393.584.054
—
445,451,122
1908/09
51,158,971
392,802,583
—
443,961,554
1909/10
149,538,843
348,249,538
—
497,788,481
1910/11
183,518,288
390,589,876
—
574,108,164
The West Indian sugar industry not only benefited by the Brussels Con-
vention, but also by other advantages as mentioned in the first part of this
volume, such as a better and more regular world's price of sugar and a greater
stability and certainty for the industry, which can now proceed uninterruptedly
and need not fear fresh changes as regards bounties or further privileges to
the beetroot sugar industry.
After the Convention was brought into force the necessary funds for
establishing central factories in Antigua and St. Kitts were found ; the Govern-
ment central factories in Barbados are still hanging fire in consequence of peculiar
difficulties, although private central factories are being established without
Government assistance. A central factory has also been established in St.
Kitts, while great and important additions have been made to the working of
factories in Trinidad. Although, as may be gleaned from the following
pages, the condition of the sugar industry in the West Indian Islands is far
from brilliant, yet the feeling of despondency belongs to the past, and the
efforts of the British Government to make the West Indian population con-
tented British subjects at any cost have had satisfactory results.
II.— Cane Cultivation and Sugar Manufacture
The sugar cane cultivation varies in the different islands as regards con-
dition of the soil and available labour ; cane must be treated differently in
low-lying, marshy regions from that in hilly, undulating country ; while in islands
such as Barbados, where properties are small and the population dense, cane
can be grown much more intensively than in islands where the inhabitants are
few and far between.
Sugar cane used to be cultivated in fields belonging entirely to the sugar
plantations, but when the difficulties about insufficient labour became
209 O
North America.
increasingly stringent, the planters took refuge in a system of cane farming in
many of the islands. Pieces of ground were allotted or sold to small planters
who, supported by loans of money or other help, grew cane at their own risk
for the purpose of selling it to the factory. Opinions differ as to the wisdom
of thus separating the planting from the manufacturing interests ; there are
people who emphasize the advantages, while others, on the contrary, show
up the faults of the system. The great advantage, of course, is that cane is
now obtained by free labour and without any risk from land that under other
circumstances would yield nothing. But a drawback of the regulation is that
farmers who are short of capital cannot or will not spend much money on
manuring and soil improvement, and only try to get as much out of the land
as possible, which, of course, has a bad influence on the fertility of the soil.
Then the manufacturer has little or no control over the planting and main-
tenance compared with what he has under his own management, and although
it is by far the best plan for a regular establishment to have a certain quantity
of cane brought daily to the mill, cane farming does not allow this quite so
well as planting by the estate does. Finally, it is not possible for the manu-
facturers to exercise sufficient control over the quality of the cane delivered, so
that it is often unripe cane and cane with impure juice that they receive to grind.
However bad conditions may be, their own labourers are not capable of
cultivating and harvesting any sufficiently large quantity of cane ; so as they
wish to produce a sufficient amount of raw material to keep the factory work-
ing at its proper capacity, they are obliged to let ground to independent farmers.
They have to take both the advantages and the drawbacks of this system
into consideration.
Up to a few years ago Bourbon or Otaheite cane was almost the only variety
planted in the West Indies, but during the years 1892 and 1895 and 1896 this
cane variety was all at once generally affected by a disease, which considerably
diminished its power of production, and caused its cultivation to be abandoned
in most of the islands. It has been supplanted in Barbados by the White Trans-
parent cane, and there and elsewhere by several of the seedling varieties grown
at the experimental stations in Barbados and Demerara, especially B 208, B 147,
D 145, and D 625.
In Jamaica the Bourbon cane was never very popular ; White Transparent
or Mont Blanc cane was chiefly planted. Bourbon cane is still found in Trini-
dad and St. Lucia, but in Barbados, Antigua, and St. Kitts other kinds have
replaced it.
In most of the islands the ground is treated according to the Reynoso
system, with furrows 18 ft. in length and 5 to 7 ft. apart from centre to centre.
In Barbados, where the hard coral cliffs are only covered with a thin layer of
arable soil, the cane is not planted in rows, but in plant holes which are from
15 to 18 ins. in length, from 6 to 12 ins. deep, and from 8 to 12 ins. wide. In
one acre, as a rule, 3,000 of such holes occur.
The cane is cut after twelve to fifteen months, when ratoons are kept ;
the leaves are worked under the soil with forks to provide the necessary humus,
210
British West Indies.
and the cane is left to grow and be cut again a year later. This is sometimes
repeated five times, or even more, after which new cuttings are planted in rows
between the places of the former ones, so that the part of the soil that had not
been used is given a turn. As long as the cane is still short, weeds are carefully
removed, and the soil is manured with stable dung, superphosphate, basic slag,
sulphate of ammonia, chili saltpetre, or guano, or mixtures of any of these
manures. While the cane is still young the dead cane shoots are replaced by
new ones, which are obtained by chopping off a piece of cane stool from the
same plot arid replanting it.
Among the pests that harm the cane, fats and the borers come first,
while most of the known fungous diseases occur in the West Indian Islands.
The most important among them are the " rind " and the " root " disease,
which have caused a decrease in the area of Bourbon cane. Pineapple disease,
red smut, and Marasmius sacchari are found in all the islands, and often cause
great damage.
Although most of the factories in the West Indies are up-to-date, there
are still many, especially in Barbados, that work in the old style, with open
pans, and produce the old-fashioned muscovado sugar.
The preparation of this sugar is accomplished as follows : — The cane juice
heated to boiling point is put in clarifying pans, where it is tempered and
subsided; then the clarified juice flows into the so-called " copper walls,"
a series of three or more big open copper vessels, called " tayches," in which it
is concentrated. Under these vessels is an open fire, fed by sun-dried bagasse,
cane trash, and wood. The juice enters the first pan, and as it concentrates it
is scooped out into the second, and so on. There are factories where the last
percentage of water is not evaporated above an open fire, but in a separate
pan with steam, called the Aspinall pan. /
When the concentrated juice has reached the requisite degree of density,
it is scooped out into big square tanks, in which the sugar crystallizes. There
is sometimes a stirring apparatus inside which keeps the massecuite moving,
but generally the latter is allowed to crystallize at rest.
When the crystallization process is complete, the boiled mass is filled into
big wooden barrels or hogsheads with perforated bottoms. These barrels stand
in racks over drainage troughs, and remain there two or three weeks, till the
molasses between the sugar crystals has drained off as much as possible. Then
the holes are closed with wooden plugs, and the hogshead is fit to be transported.
The analysis of the sugars prepared in this way is approximately as follows :
1 I
2
3
4
Polarization
Glucose
Ash
Water
Undetermined . .
88-6
5-30
0-47
3-42
2-21
86-2
4-40
2-66
372
3-02
83-9
5-92
2-12
4-66
4-30
83-0
6-98'
1-02
3-84
4-26
Total
100-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
2ri
North America.
Analyses of some of the syrups drained off from the muscovado are as
follows : —
A
B
C
D
E
F
Sucrose
557
51-6
56-2
49-8
46-9
507
Glucose
10-3
8-1
II -4
14-4
24-2
6-8
Organic non-sugar
5-4
5-3
4-8
8-2
2-7
10-4
Ash
3-2
4-2
2-8
2-9
8-1
5-0
Moisture
25-4
30-8
24-8
247
22-9
27-1
Total . .
100-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
100-00
100- 00
III. — Survey of the Industry in the different Islands.
(a) BARBADOS.
Barbados, the most western of the West Indian Islands, lies at 13° 4'
N. Lat. and 59° 37' W. Long. ; it is 21 miles in length and 14 miles in width,
has an area of 166 sq. miles, and possessed in April, 1911, a population of
171,982 inhabitants, that is 1,036 to the sq. mile.
The island is of coral formation, covered with a very thin layer of fertile
soil, which, it is said, is derived from volcanic ash from La Soufriere, of St.
Vincent, that has been driven there by the wind after eruptions. Only the
north-eastern district, Scotland, is at all hilly. Not only does the Barbados
subsoil consist chiefly of coral, but the island is surrounded by coral reefs,
which at some places stretch far into the sea, and are dangerous to navigation.
The island is very fiat and only .rises in the parish of St. Andrews in terraces
to a height of 1,105 ft.
Barbados does not possess any natural harbours, though the open road
of Carlisle Bay, on the west coast, is well sheltered, and offers a safe anchorage
for ships. There are not any rivers of importance in the island ; rainwater
rapidly penetrates the porous coral, to collect in subterranean wells and springs.
The climate of the island is pleasant and favourable. The temperature, as a
rule, varies between 24° and 30° C. (75° and 86° F.), while the minimum night
temperature in the coolest season is occasionally as low as 63° F.
212
Reproduced, by kind permiasion, from " The Pocket Guide to the West Indies " by Algernvn E. Aspimtt
Svcor/brds G-e^iaT'ophiccJ. Esta.'b''
British West Indies.
The rainfall for the last twelve years amounted to the following quantities,
expressed in mm. and inches : —
Mm.
Inchc?
i8c)7
1826
r^-TS
1898
1735
68
1899
1270
50
1900
1549 _■
6o-5
1901
2297
90-5
1902
1401
55
1903
1681
66
190^
1484
• 58-5
1905
1362
53-6
1906
17S0
70
1907
1192
47
1908
IITQ
44
Bridgetown (of 16,648 inhabitants in April, 1911) is the capital of the
island, while the other towns are of little consequence. A narrow-gauge railway
connects the capital in the south-west with St. Andrew's Church, on the north-
east coast, a distance of twenty-four miles, which journey is covered in two
hours.
Barbados was discovered by the Portuguese in 1536 ; they named the
island Barbados after the trees with long parasitical drooping plants which
they found there.
Tn 1605 Barbados was taken possession of by the English, but was not
colonized by them till 1626. At first it was the private property of sorrie English
noblemen, but later became a possession of the British Government on pay-
ment of an indemnity to the last possessor. Lord Carlisle, which was raised
by an export duty of 4^ per cent, ai valorem on all articles exported from
Barbados. This unusual indemnification, which was paid by the Barbados
traders for a transaction in which the British Crown did benefit, was in force
in spite of much opposition from 1686 till 1838, when its payment was abolished.
Barbados was the first island under British rule to plant sugar cane.
Under Philip Bell's governorship the sugar industry was established" there,
and slaves were introduced ; but not till the Dutch colonists, who had been
driven away from Brazil, came and brought their knowledge and experience
with them did the sugar industry begin to flourish. During the seventeenth
and eighteenth and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries, Barbados be-
came one of the principal sugar-producing countries. The island delivered
exclusively muscovado sugar in hogsheads, and not in white loaves as the
French Antilles used to do.
In consequence of the dense population on this small island, it is entirely
cultivated, and as the inhabitants had not exclusively to rely on the sugar
213
Npr|h Ajjierica, _ . ,
industry, they were not so stricken by the consequences of the abolition of
slavery and by the decreased profits as other British colonies were.
On the emancipation of slaves, in 1834, the Barbados plantation owners
got an indemnity of ;fi,720,345 for no fewer than 83,176 slaves, and as there
are no great distances to cover in the island, which made it unnecessary for the
emancipated bla,cks to withdraw from the interior, a great many of them began
to work as free labourers in the plantations, so that after all the abolition of
slavery was not detrimental to the sugar industry.
In i8g8 the British Government decided to make Barbados the headquarters
of the.Imperial Department of Agriculture, which latter has since done so_ much
good by its scientific investigations, by giving expert advice, and by experi-
menting with manures, seedlings, etc. At the same time, a sum of money
was found as a 3 per cent, loan for the establishment of a central factory, but
in spite of the proposal being kept to the front ever since, the plan has not yet
been carried out.
In Barbados the land is divided into very small estates, and up to
recently each plantation had its own mill. At the present time there are no
fewer than 335 sugar factories, 221 of which are driven by windmills. In
recent years, however, plans have been executed for the improvement of the
factory installations, and some ten factories are equipped now with modern
machinery.
The area planted with cane is estimated at 60,000 acres. The cane planted
used to be exclusively Bourbon, but this variety, that at one time yielded
most satisfactory crops, steadily dropped in quality, and has been practically
abandoned. Its place has been taken by seedlings raised in the island, and
by the White Transparent.
The cultivation is done thoroughly, as labour is abundant and cheap.
There is, of course, the possibility of drought and hurricanes having a bad
influence on the crop, while the cane diseases of general occurrence — such as
root disease, red smut, rind disease, cane borers, and grubs-^do considerable
harm at times. Only a very few factories in Barbados possess a vacuum pan,
while most of them prepare muscovado in the old way. This is not a case of
headstrongness or conservatism, but simply the result of the great value the
molasses of the so-called " open kettle " sugar has, and for this very reason it
is transhipped in large quantities to the United States, Can9,da, and New-
foundland.
The introduction of the vacuum pan process would produce a larger
quantity of sugar, but molasses of sin inferior and unsaleable kind. The present
price of molasses of about 55° polarization is £2 los. per ton, while there were
times when it fetched as much as £5 to £6 per ton.
The sugar content of the cane, on an average, amounts to 13-5 percent. ;
about 7 1 per cent, muscovado sugar, and some 3-5 per cent, molasses, are
obtained from it.
It is difificult to state the cost price of sugar, as it depends greatly on the
214
British West Indies.
proportion between sugar and molasses derived from the same juice. One
generally reckons ^^8 per ton of muscovado of about 84° polarization, which
covers the value of the syrup produced simultaneously.
The production of Barbados has been as follows during the fifty years
1886 40,047
1887 60,263
1888 63,882
1889 57,106
1890 74,606
1891 44,226
1892 51.849
1893 .^. .. .. 58,765
1894 57.967
1895 33.331
1896 45,170
1897 51,275
1898 46,878
1899 ' 40,442
1900 .. .. .. 44,250
1901 56,912
1902 45,576
1903 33.795
1904 55,785
1905 41,210
1906 50,630
1907 33,033
1908 31,353
1909 15,571
1910 36,389
1911 32,514
Since 1903 a large and increasing amount of syrup was transhipped,
besides sugar and molasses. Bovell assumes 315 gallons of syrup of 41° Beaume
to correspond in sugar value to one hogshead of sugar and 80 gallons of molasses,
and it is according to this basis that he reckons the total sugar production
for the years 1904 — 1908 to be as follows : —
860 to 1910,
jxpressed i
n long tons
i860 . .
• 37.350
I86I .
• 43.614
1862 .
• 40,355
1863 .
• 36.996
1864 .
• 31,675
1865 .
• 41,307
1866 .
• 50,105
1867 .
• 46,725
1868 .
• 50,960
1869 .
• 29,465
1870 .
■ 34.363
I87I .
47,166
1872 .
■ 34.372
1873 .
• 32,669
1874 .
■ 41.377
1875 ■
■ 56,875
IS76 .
■ 32,676
1877 .
■ 43.545
1878 .
• 38,073
1879 ,.
50,001
1880 .
• 47,439
I88I .
• 45,073
1882 .
48,269
1883 .
46,242
1884 .
• 54,263
1885 .
• 52,694
Year.
Sugar.
Molasses.
Total.
1904
55.785
151
55,936
1905 ..
41,210
2,239
43.449
1906 . .
50,630
7,296
57.926
1907
33.033
12,462
45,495
1908
31.353
10,248
41,601
2IS
North America.
Barbados sugar is chiefly exported to England, but is also sent to the
United States and Canada. No export duty is levied on sugar leaving the
island, but there is an import duty of 2S. per loo lbs.
A considerable increase in production is not to be expected. All the
available ground has already been used for cane cultivation, and the growing
of other agricultural crops and cotton takes up so much land that any extension
of the cane-planted area is out of the question. The sugar estates are mostly
in the hands of small owners, who have already mortgaged their property
heavily, and would never be able to raise capital for the puipose of working
on a larger scale, and of reaping better crops. Besides, the owners cling to
their land, and only reluctantly entertain offers from British capitalists to buy
the land in Barbados for the establishment of central sugar factories which
would turn to account the Governments' loan. From all this we may gather
that radical changes are not likely to occur in the sugar industry in Barbados
for some time to come.
Literature :
G. Washington Eves. West Indies.
The West India Committee Circular.
J. R. Bovell. Comparison of the Bourbon sugar cane with other varieties.
Publication of the West India Imperial Agricultural Department.
G. Hughes. Natural History of Barbados.
H. R. Schomburgh. History of Barbados.
West Indies in Canada igio.
A. E. Asplnall. Pocket Guide to the West Indies.
Sinckler. Handbook of Barbados.
(b) TRINIDAD.
The Island of Trinidad lies in the southern part of the Caribbean Sea,
between io° and io° 50' N. Lat. and 61° and 62° W. Long. It is separated
from the Venezuelan coast by the Gulf of Paria and the two narrow straits of
Bocas, one the Dragon's Mouth, north of, and one, the Serpent's Mouth, south
of the gulf. The area of the island is 1,754 square miles, its greatest length
being 53 miles and its greatest breadth 40 miles. The coast is flat, and extensive
lagoons or marshes are found all over the island. The ground rises in the
centre and in the north, so that from there a number of rivers flow into the
sea in all directions. The principal harbours. Port of Spain and San Fernando,
are situated on the west coast, where navigation is commonest.
The climate of Trinidad is very even ; the temperature varies between
21° and 30-5° C. (70° and 87° F.). In 1905 the average temperature was
25-5° C. The rainfall of that same year amounted to 70 ins., while the average
annual rainfall was 5675 ins. during the years 1862 — 1905 ; in the tracts
given to cane cultivation they can reckon on 80 ins. The rainy season com-
mences in June and lasts five or six months ; August is generally the wettest
month. The island is out of the path of hurricanes, so that the terror of the
216
Reproducedfby kind permiaeion, from " The Pocket Quide to the West Indies " by Algernon E. Aspinufi
Stanford ^^ Preographical Fistub^
British West Indies.
other West Indian Islands does not trouble them. Neither earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, nor long spells of drought afflict this island, so that as
regards climate and geographical position it has much to be thankful for.
Trinidad was discovered by Christopher Columbus in 1498 ; he called
the island Trinidad in consequence of a hill-top branching off into three ridges
which caught his eye at a distance. About ninety years after the discovery
of the island the Spaniards took possession of it, and founded the town of San
Jose de Aruna, at some distance from the coast ; this now goes by the name
of St. Joseph. In 1797 the English took the island from the Spanish, and since
then it has remained a British colony.
The Indian aborigines were soon exterminated by their Spanish conquerors,
and have since been replaced by repeated supplies of African negro slaves. In
1780 a Frenchman from the neighbouring island of Grenada visited Trinidad,
and was so struck with the fertility of the soil that he asked permission to settle
there with a great number of colonists of French and Creole origin. Later on,
in 1845-46, the population was strengthened by Portuguese who were driven
from Madeira on account of religious persecutions, and took refuge in Trinidad.
The population was also very considerably swelled by British Indian immigrants,
who some years after the abolition of slavery, in 1834, were imported into
Trinidad under contract, and now form one-third of the whole population.
When the English took possession of the island the number of inhabitants
amounted to 17,718 ; in 1838 it had increased to 39,328, in 1891 to 200,028,
and in 1906 to 315,000, about 100,000 of whom were of British Indian origin.
This works out at 181 inhabitants per square mile, a very high figure for this
part of the world.
The capital of the island. Port of Spain, is situated on the Gulf of Paria,
and contains about 60,000 inhabitants. Other towns are San Fernando,
Princes Town, Arima, St. Joseph, and Couva, the principal of which has a
population not exceeding 7,600 inhabitants, and, consequently, is of little
importance.
A railwBjy runs from Port of Spain in an eastern direction to Sangre Grande,
5i miles east of Port of Spain. St. Joseph lies on the railway, and from there
another line runs in a southern direction, which near Cunupia, 7-|- miles from
St. Joseph, branches off into two lines. One goes due south as far as San
Fernando and Princes Town, while the other runs in a south-eastern direction
to Tabaquite. The whole length of the railway is about 100 miles. Then
there is a regular steamboat service between Port of Spain and San Fernando
and the smaller seaport towns of the west coast and the islands in the Bocas
Straits.
The soil of Trinidad is very fertile, and is very suitable for sugar cane,
cacao, coffee, tobacco, and lemon cultivation, while the woods produce ex-
cellent timber. The sugar industry is only carried on in the western centre
of the island, namely, in the districts of Tacarigua, Caroni, Couva, Naparima,
and in a small portion of the Savannah Grande. The soil here consists of a
217
North America.
dark clay, which is considered excellent for sugar cane ; while the sandy soil
of the westernmost tracts produces numerous coconuts, and the cacao grown
on the hill slopes in Monts^rrat in the north thrives well. It is chiefly due to
this fitness of the soil for such various kinds of staple products that Trinidad
has not suffered like most of the British West Indian possessions from the
consequences of low sugar prices since 1890. While others had to depend
exclusively on the sugar cultivation, and became destitute when this branch
of industry failed to bring them profit, Trinidad was much more able to endure
these bad times, and has even known prosperity in spite of untoward circum-
stances.
In the years following 1895 many owners of plantations were forced,
through bad times, to let part of their land to farmers, who used it for growing
cane, which cane they sold to the factories. This system has gradually spread,
so that nowadays about one-fourth of the sugar produced is derived from
purchased cane, while the rest is grown by the plantations themselves.
The crushing season begins with the dry season, that is in January, and
lasts till May or June.
There are 16 sugar factories in Trinidad that in 1909 produced 52,972
tons of sugar, obtained from 606,464 tons of cane, which means a yield of sugar
of 874 per cent. 451,801 tons of this cane, yielding 39,553 tons of sugar, were
planted by the estates themselves, and the balance, 154,663 tons of cane,
yielding 13,419 tons of sugar, was bought from cane farmers. Altogether,
11,401 of those planters took part in the production, 6,077 of whom were East
Indians and 5,324 West Indians.
For the ten preceding years these figures were as follows : —
^
Tons of Cane Ground.
Sugar
Yield of
Number of Farmers.
1
Year.
On their
own
Estate.
Bought
Cane.
Total.
Produced.
Sugar.
East
Indians.
West
Indians.
1900
364,355
105,996
470,351
41,269
8-8o
2,826
3,591
I90I
434,003
169,918
603,921
51,077
8-45
3.829
4.737
1902
337,911
184,867
522,778
44,913
8-56
4.506
4,850
1903
337,632
166,590
504,222
46,029
9-13
4.443
4,440
1904
385,015
171,947
556,962
50,744
8-95
4,646
4,685
1905
244,418
144,868
389,286
38,240
9-82
5,424
5,462
1906 ' . .
397.912
237,844 .
635,756
62,975
9-91
6,127
5.446
1907
373,577
169,709
543-286
50,564
9-30
6,557
5,777
1908
380,334
139,442
519.756
48,933
9-42
5,922
5,619
1909
451,801
154,663
606,464
52,972
8-94
5,912
5,488
218
13 3 2 I
J
British West Indies.
The following amounts of sugar have been exported from Trinidad : —
1906 . . . . 56,455 tons. 1909 . . . . 44,413 tons.
1907 .. .. 45,631 „ 1910 .. .. 44,139 „
190,8 . . . . 41,626 „ 1911 . . . . 36,645 ,,
In the years before 1898 one-third of the Trinidad sugar was sent to Great
Britain, and the rest to the United States ; but that did not long continue,
as from ist August, 1897, Canada yielded a rebate of 25 per cent, in import
duty on sugar produced in all the British West Indian possessions increased
later to a preferentialduty of 31 J cents per 100 lbs. 96° crystals. In conse-
quence of this, Canada, in conjunction with Great Britain, and the United
States, has become one of the regular consumers of Trinidad sugar since 1899,
while a small amount is sent to neighbouring South American States and other
West Indian Islands.
(c) JAMAICA.
The Island of Jamaica lies in the northern part of the Caribbean Sea,
90 miles south of Cuba, between 17° 43' and 18° 32' N. Lat. and 76° 11' and
78° 2' 50" W. Long. The greatest length of the island amounts to 144 miles,
its greatest width to 49 miles, its narrowest part (from Kingston to Annotta
Bay) 21 J miles. Its total aiea iS 4,207 square miles, and its population in 1911,
831,123 inhabitants, or 198 to the square mile.
The island is very mountainous, the mountain chains running chiefly fiom
east to west, with spurs to the north-west and south-east, the latter ending
in the well-known Blue Mountains, the highest top of which rises 7,360 ft.
above sea level.
Jamaica has a greatly indented coast-line, with many bays and harbours,
the best known of which are Port Antonio, at the eastern extremity of the
north coast, and Old Harbour and Kingston, both on the south coast. Kingston
Bay is a deep and wide sheet of water, protected against the waves of the
Caribbean Sea by a long isthmus called the Palisades. Port Royal is situated
at its extremity.
Jamaica possesses many rivers and streams, most of them with a rapid
current. In the south-west is the Black River, which is navigable for 130
miles, while in the north-east there is the Rio Grande. The Rio Cobre, which
falls into Kingston Harbour, the Plantain Garden River, the Martha Brae, and
others are of much less importance.
In consequence of the great variations in height above sea level, the
climate varies greatly for the different parts of Jamaica. Close to the sea
.the temperature fluctuates between 20° and 30° C. (68° and 86° F.) but in
the mountains the thermometer in the coolest nights goes down I0 7° C. (45° F.).
Though rain may occur all through the summer, there are two months.
May and October, when rain falls in greater quantities than usual. The
total rainfall amounts to about 40 ins.
Jamaica lies in the route of hurricanes, and these sometimes do immense
damage, while the island is also subject to earthquakes.
219
North America.
Jamaica is intersected by excellent roads, which, as the mountain slopes
are far from steep, make easy intercourse possible between the different parts
of the island. For the rest, a railway connects Kingston with Montego Bay
via Spanish Town, while a branch line runs froin Spanish Town to Poit Antonio.
The total length of the railway runs to i8o miles.
Jamaica was discovered by Columbus in 1494, and was named by him
San J ago ; it -however soon reverted to its original name, Jamaica.
The Spanish colonized the island as early as the beginning of the sixteenth
century, and in 1523 founded a town, San Jago de la Vega on the south coast,
which now goes by the name of Spanish Town.
The country has suffered much from wars — it was often a scene of hos-
tilities between English, Spaniards, and runaway slaves (Maroons), the latter
siding either with the Spaniards or the English, or weie sometimes against
both. Jamaica for some time was the centre and headquarters of the buc-
caneers who infested the West Indian seas and robbed whoever it suited them.
The town of Port Royal was their headquarters, on the isthmus near Kingston
Bay, which town was destroyed by an earthquake in 1682. After having been
conquered several times, and as often recaptured, Jamaica was finally ceded
to England at the peace concluded at Madrid in 1670, and has remained ever
since a British possession.
As soon as the civil wars were subdued, the sugar industry of Jamaica
entered upon a flourishing period, to which not only the sugar, but also the
secondary product, rum, contributed greatly.
The emancipation of slaves hit Jamaica a severe blow ; the liberated
negroes left the solitary plantations, which went to decay at once. The low
prices of sugar in the years between 1890 and igoo, too, were fatal to this
colony, and had it not been for its special product, Jamaica rum, which always
commands a high price, the island would have been ruined altogether.
When Chamberlain, in 1898, proposed to give financial support to the
West Indian islands at the expense' of the Mother-Country, he was specially
mindful of Jamaica. We may consider the improved mail service between
Jamaica and Bristol an outcome of this proposition, through which fruit,
especially bananas, was quickly transported to the centres of consumption
in temperate climates. -
In 1890 some bunches of bananas had been transhipped to London, but
not until 1898 did this importation become of any moment. At the present
day the export of bananas amounts to about 15,000,000 bunches, and has
exceeded in value both that of sugar and rum, as the following table for the
1907 returns shows : —
i
i
of Fruit
972,273
bananas
842,689
citrus fruits . .
90,468
of Sugar
122,328
of Rum
98.923
220
British West Indies.
Of the planted area of 750,000 acres in 1906, 26,180 acres were planted
with sugar cane, 60,000 with bananas, and 27,170 with coffee, while the rest
was occupied with coconuts, cacao, pimento, vegetables, and pasture land.
The cane-planted area is not in proportion to the quantity of sugar pro-
duced, but we must remember that cane is not exclusively used for the manu-
facture of sugar. A considerable quantity of cane juice is directly worked up
into rum, while the boiled massecuite is purposely made to yield little sugar,
for the sake of getting a large quantity of a pure kind of material for the pro-
duction of rum.
There are 83 (chiefly small) sugar factories in Jamaica, of which only three
are so-called central factories ; only 12 of the remaining 80 sugar works have
vacuum pans, the others prepare muscovado and rum.
The cost price of sugar cannot be fixed with certainty, as it is greatly
influenced by the proportions of sugar and rum prepared from the same quantity
of cane.
The production during the last twenty years has amounted to the following
s, expressed
m long ton
3 ; —
1892 23,654
1893 .
21,872
1894 .
24,149
1895 .
23.45-'
1896 .
22,995
1897 .
16,331
1898 .
14,462
1899 .
18,326
1900 .
19.823
1901 .
16,083
1902 .
20,323
1903 .
13.574
1904 .
9.903
1905 .
11.935
1906 .
21,823
1907 .
13,971
1908 .
24,000
1909 .
■ 18,823
1910 .
. 19,960
1911 .
• ■ 194M
.iterature :
B. Pulley Burry. Jamaica as it is.
Algernon E. Aspinall. Pochet Guide to the ^Vesi Indies.
The West India Committee Circular.
Beckford. A descriptive Account of the Island 0] Jamaica.
221
North America.
{d) WINDWARD ISLANDS.
Among the islets comprising the Windward group only two occur that
used to have a sugar industry of ariy importance, viz., St. Lucia and St. Vincent.
Their location, dimensions, and population are given in the following
table : — ,
^ Island.
Latitude
Longi-
tude
Greatest
Length
Miles
Greatest
Width
Miles
Area
Sq. miles
Popula-
tion. ,
St. Lucia
St.. Vincent . .
13° 50'
13° 10'
60° 58'
60'' 57'
40
18
21
II
233
140
48,637
41.877
Both the islands are mountainous and of volcanic origin, and craters
abound that quite recently have been in violent eruption. The climate is rather
damp and hot ; ' the rainfall amounts to 80 to 100 ins. ; the wet season lasts
from August to November ; February is the coolest and July the hottest. The
temperature varies between 15° and 34° C, and at night it is cool, as a rule.
These islands not only suffer from volcanic eruptions and earthquakes,
but also from hurricanes, the approach of which is generally indicated by the
meteorological stations, so that the damage done by them has grown con-
siderably less of late.
Both these islands were discovered by Columbus, respectively on St.
Vincent's Day, 1498, and St. Lucia's Day, 1502. Like all the smaller Antilles,
they were involved in much struggle during the seventeenth and eighteenth
centuries, and have repeatedly changed possession, to be annexed by England
in the end.
The sugar industry used to flourish in St. Vincent from 1805 to 1829 ;
18,000 to 20,000 hogsheads of sugar were exported. After the abolition of
slavery this prosperous trade at once came to an end ; in 1873 the exportation
was no more than 8,491 tons of sugar, in 1883 9,255, in 1887 5,088, in 1890
6,176, and in 1897 2,896 tons, to drop since to about 600 tons muscovado sugar.
In St. Lucia the sugar industry is in a somewhat better plight ; there are
four central factories that produce vacuum pan sugar, while the exports have
amounted to an average of about 5,000 tons during the last five years. This
amount is not likely to increase, so that the two islands together contribute
no more than some 5,000 tons a year to the world's supply.
The exports of these two islands during the last seventeen years have
amounted to the following quantities in long tons : —
222
British West Indies.
St. Lucia.
St. Vincent.
1894
.
4.485
2,727
1895
3.627
2,585
1896
3,548
2.555
1897
3.859
2,772
1898
3.751
1,865
1899
3,989
361
1900
4,018
567
I90I
4,772
887
1902
4,278
645
1903
3,884
262
1904
. ' 5,161
930
1905
4,834
350
1906
5.795
549
1907 , .
5.365
298
1908
4.977
224
1909
5.518
288
I9I0
• j . 5.220
280
(e
) LE
EWAl
IT
) ISLANDS.
The Leeward Islands group consists of the islands of Antigua, Montserrat,
St. Kitts, Nevis, AnguiUa, Dominica, and the Virgin Islands. They lie in the
Caribbean Sea, between 15° and 19° N. Lat. and 61" and 65° W. Long. The
total area of the islands covers 600 square miles, while their population amounts
to about 125,000 inhabitants.
Location, dimensions, and population of the different islands are given
in the following table : —
Island.
North
Latitude.
West
Longitude
Area in
Sq. Miles.
Greatest
Length
in Miles.
Greatest
Width
in Miles.
Popu-
lation.
Antigua
17" 6'
61° 45'
170
20
—
32,265
Montserrat . .
16° 45'
61"
334
10
7
12,196
St. Kitts
17° 18'
62° 46'
65
23
—
26,283
Nevis
17" 10'
62° 33'
50
—
—
12,945
Anguilla
18°
64°
35
30
3
4.075
Dominica
15° 25'
61° 15'
305
28
15
33,863
Virgin Islands
—
—
58
— ■
—
5.562
223
North America.
All the islands are volcanic, and most of them are surrounded by coral
reefs. Antigua is volcanic in the south and south-west, but it is composed of
coral in the north and north-east. The island has many natural harbours, of
which that of St. John is the most important. The capital, St. John, with
9,000 inhabitants, is situated there.
Montserrat is also mountainous ; it consists of a row of circular hills that
have developed into a mountain chain.
St. Kitts, or St. Christopher, has a mountainous centre, consisting of
rows of hills which run from south-east to north-west, with Mount Misery
of more "than 3,280 ft. as the highest peak.
Nevis is nothing more than a large volcanic cone, 3,900 ft. high, the sides
of which are well wooded.
The Island of Anguilla is only a narrow ledge of rock rising from the sea.
Dominica, the largest of the group, shows all the characteristics of a
volcanic island, and is the only one where rivers are found. In all the others
the rain water immediately penetrates into the ground without forming streams.
The Virgin Islands form a group of about fifty small islets and reefs,
many of which attain to a considerable height above the sea level. Tortola,
Virgin Gorda, Anegada, Salt Island, and St. Peter are the principal ones.
All these islands generally suffer more or less from drought ; the yearly,
rainfall in Antigua is about 40 ins ; that in St. Kitts a little more, viz., between
50 and 60 ; that in Nevis from 43 to 80 ins.
All these islands were discovered and named by Columbus on his second
voyage in 1493 and 1494.
Antigua got its name from a church at Seville, St. Maria la Antigua ;
Montserrat from a convent in Spain where Loyola planned the Order of the
Jesuits ; St. Kitts, a corruption of the name St. Christopher, received its
name from Columbus' patron saint ; and Nevis is derived from the mountain
Neives, near Barcelona, since the volcanic conewrapped in clouds resembled
a snow-cap at the time of the discovery. Anguilla got its name from its snake-
like shape. Dominica was discovered on a Sunday ; while the Virgin Islands
are said to have been called after the 11,000 legendary virgins.
All these islands have been taken possession of and colonized by the
British," Spanish, Dutch, and French. During the frequent wars they changed
hands every now and then ; under a certain treaty of peace they were ceded
to France, but under another they became English, which they have remained.
Since 1871 they have formed a Federation, with Antigua as the seat of govern-
ment, and they are divided into different presidencies.
Although all these islands produced sugar for export during the eighteenth
and the beginning of the nineteenth centuries, the sugar industry dwindled
greatly after the abolition of slavery. As a matter of fact, it is now only
carried on in Antigua, Montserrat, St. Kitts, and Nevis, and of these only in
Antigua and St. Kitts to such a degree that exportation is possible.
In Antigua there are two central factories, one of which was founded with
224
British West Indies,
the financial aid of the British Government in the form of a 3 per cent, con-
soUdated loan ; in St. Kitts there are also two central factories working, while a
number of small muscovado factories are in operation in the other islands' that
go to swell the sugar industry.
For want of rivers in these islands, irrigation is a matter of difficulty,
and the long sustained drought causes the sugar production to be an uncertain
factor, which leads to greatly varying annual output.
The exportation of Antigua alone has been for the last thirty years, ex-
pressed in long tons, as below : —
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
8,645
12,769
10,518
13.721
11,848
12,271
14.052
14.925
14.413
16,120
12,091
15.302
14.562
12,342
6,685
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
13.714
12,766
6,968
10,084
7,622
9.125
12,611
10,494
11,940
7,829
13,238
10,806
13.451
12,075
18,145
The exportation of St. Christopher, Nevis, and Montserrat, etc.
amounted to the following figures for some of the last few years : —
has
St. Kitts and
Year.
Nevis.
Montserrat.
Dominica.
1890 .
17.409
1,442
2,349
1891
13,149
1,131
1,662
1892 .
18,156
2,540
2,251
1895 .
13,360
711
762
1896 .
15,037
1,778
609
1897 .
14,681
813
559
1903 .
13,511
870
225
1904 .
14,190
513
130
1905 .
12,345
239
181
1906 .
15,898
652
82
1907 .
12,346
60
107
1908 .
11,044
89
24
1909 .
12,321
84
—
1910 .
8,671
54
—
225
North America.
This table shows that only St. Kitts, Nevis and Antigua are still of any
importance as regards the sugar industry, and even they are not likely to
extend their trade as the years go by, but will, no doubt, remain stationary.
VII.
FRENCH ANTILLES.
I.— Geographical Location, Climate, etc.
(a)— GUADELOUPE.
Guadeloupe comprises two islands divided by a strait six miles long and
thirty-six miles broad. These two islands situated on either side of the Riviere
Salee, are called Basse Terre and Grande Terre. The islands lie north of
Martinique, between 15° 59' and 16° 14' N. Lat. and 63" 51' and 61" 4' W. Long.
The island Grande Terre has an area of 220 sq. miles ; Guadeloupe, or
Basse Terre, an area of 365 sq. miles ; while some lesser islands which belong
to the group, among which is Marie Galante, together cover an area of 115
sq. miles.
The island Grande Terre is of triangular shape, and has a coastline of 164
miles ; while Basse Terre is oval in shape, and has a compass of 112 miles.
The population of this group amounted to 182,000 inhabitants on ist
January, 1892 : that is, 264 per sq. mile. In 1903 14,862 of these were immi-
grants.
Basse Terre is of volcanic origin, and was the product of four volcanic
centres, namely, the Soufriere, the Morne-sans-toucher, les deux Mamelles,
and the Grosse Montagne. Besides these big craters, there are still a number
of lesser ones, while several hot wells are to be found.
Grande Terre, however, is a limestone rock, which rises only a short
distance above sea level, and is covered with a layer of disintegrated calcareous
earth, very porous to water. The soil of Basse Terre is a stiff clay, the result
of the disintegration of volcanic trachytes and basalts.
The climate of both these islands is the same — moist and warm. On
account of the great porosity of the soil no rivers or streams occur in Grande
Terre, while the firm clay soil of Basse Terre causes the abundant rain-water
to run into the sea by a number of brooks. The average temperature of Guade-
loupe is as follows for the different months :—
226
French Antilles.
°c.
January . .
• 24-52
February
■ 24-17
March . .
• 24-74
April
. 25-72
May
■ 26-55
June
. 27-02
July . . .
. 27-21
August . .
. 27-62
September
. 27-58
October
. 26-87
November
. 26-26
December
. 25-28
Total
26-13
while the rainfall in millimetres is distributed as follows : —
Month.
1897.
1898.
1899.
1900.
1901.
1902.
January-
n
58
104
55
169 '
35
February
73
53
41
59
28
20
March
141
47
41
51
25
31
April
73
15
44
64
8
109
May
300
98
55
108
129
79
June
108
65
121
142
393
114
July
186
296
174
199
327
68
August
179
153
16
223
219
245
September . .
188
395
141
97
139
191
October
64
139
245
234
154
300
November . .
155
241
305
lOI
48
181
December
303
70
71
76
100
215
Total
1,747
1,630
1,358
1,389
1,739
1,588
or an average of 59 ins.
The principal towns are Pointe a Pitre in Grande Terre, and Basse Terre
in Guadeloupe ; besides these there is the town Grand Bourg, in the island
of Maria Galante.
Guadeloupe was discovered by Columbus in 1493 ; he named it after
the convent of the same name in Estramadura. In 1635 it was taken possession
of by a number of Frenchmen, and remained French tiU the Enghsh captured
227
North America.
it in 1759. Since that time it' has been alternately under English and French
dominion, but it fell to Sweden in 1810. In 1814 the French reconquered
it, but had to give it up to England in 1815, though only for a very short time,
for it was returned to France that same year.
[b) MARTINIQUE.
The Island of Martinique lies in the Caribbean Sea, between 14" 52' N. Lat.
and 63° 16' and 63° 31' W. Long. It has an area of 3,820 sq. miles ; its greatest
length is 50 miles ; its greatest width 19 miles ; and its circumference, not
including the capes, amounts to 217 miles. On the ist January, 1902, its
census was 204,000,- or 535 inhabitants to the sq. mile, but since the Mount
Pele catastrophe, occurring that same year, in which 35,000 persons lost their
lives, the number has been greatly reduced.
Martinique is by no means flat ; the northern volcanic par^ consists of
pumice-stone and lava, while the southern part is clay soil. During the dry
season the numerous streams dry up, to change into wild mountain torrents
during the rains. The well-known volcano, Mount Pel6, lies at the northern-
most point of the island.
The climate is hot and moist, and shows the following characteristics : —
Aver,
temp.
Hygro-
meter.
Baro-
meter.
Rain monthly
in mm.
Dry Season.
r. Nov. — Feb
2. Mar. — April . .
257
26-9
28-0
29-3
87-2
85-0
86-8
94-8
757-4
758-5
758:9
757-6
148 in 18 days
100 in 15
Wet Season.
1. May — half of July . .
2. Half of July— Oct. . .
792 mm.
201 in 19 days
233 in 19 ,.
Yearly average
27-2
88-4
758-1
2-158 in 197 days per y'r
The rainfall may vary considerably according to the locaUty, and in some
years it wiU amount to more than 275 ins. in Port de France, the greater part
of which falls during the period July to September.
The coast is deeply indented, but the bays are almost inaccessible through
228
French Antilles.
the numerous coral reefs. The best harbours are those of Port de France and
of Saint Pierre, on which towns of the same name are situated.
Martinique was discovered by Columbus in 1493, and was colonized in
1635 by a number of French people from St. Christopher. In 1664 the French
Government bought the island from these colonists, and kept it in spite of
the frequent wars. Then the English conquered it, and returned it several
times in the course of time, but it was ultimately restored to France by the
Treaty of Paiis in 1814.
11. — History of the Sugar Industry.
Immediately after the French took possession of these islands, a start
was made in the planting of sugar, but the first plantation of any importance
dates from 1655, when the Dutchmen driven from Brazil settled in Martinique
with their capital and slaves. The industry soon grew in importance, so
•much so that the sugar exportation to France formed a considerable part of
the French overseas trade in the seventeenth century.
Owing to decrees promulgated by Colbert, it had become impossible to
import foreign sugar into France, as the differential import duties of 1664
protected the importation of raw sugar from French colonies so far above that
of raw sugar of foreign origin that it almost meant prohibition for the latter.
On the other side, the import duty on white sugar so much exceeded that on
raw sugar that importation of white sugar from their own colonies, and especially
that of refined sugar into France, likewise became an impossibility. Although
the colonial planters really possessed a monopoly of the raw sugar trade, they
lost the chance of selling refined sugar, with the result that the sugar refineries
established in Martinique had to cease operations. In 1669 the refining of sugar
was' prohibited in the colonies, as was the export of raw sugar to foreign ports,
and an export duty was levied amounting to 3 per cent, of the value of sugar
sent to France. In 1682 this prohibition was removed as regards raw sugar ;
on the other hand, the import duty on refined sugar was increased so much
above that on raw sugar that it would have been impossible for the refiners to
compete with the French. Afterwards the planters took up the preparation
of clayed sugar (which will be fully described in the following pages), and
exported it to North America and to the Mediterranean ports, so that the
French refiners did not attain their object, viz., to refine the sugar produced
in their own colonies exclusively in the mother country.
It was for this reason that in 1717 all restrictions on the imports were
repealed, and import duties on French goods were actually abohshed in the
colonies, thus establishing almost complete free trade between the mother
229
North America.
country and colonies. All this caused the sugar industry in the French colonies
to flourish, and Martinique, Guadeloupe, and San Domingo, in the end, pro-
duced larger quantities of sugar than France was able to refine or consume —
the remainder was then allowed to be exported to other countries.
At the end of the eighteenth century conditiofis were no longer so favour-
;able. San Domingo was devastated, and the other islands suffered much
from the frequent wars between France and England, as a great many of
these were fought in the Caribbean Sea, thus creating no little uncertainty
in trading circles.
After the treaty of peace signed in Paris, both these colonies were restored
to France ; whereupon the sugar industry began to flourish once more, its
production steadily increasing, till in 1848 the abolition of slavery caused the
quantity of sugar produced to drop considerably.
As soon as slavery was put an end to, and the colonies were deprived of
their customary labour, everything was done to supply them with free labourers
from other parts. In 1852. a ship's captain was permitted to recruit 4,000
labourers in British India within six years at a premium of 500 francs for each
immigrant: Part of the indemnification that was granted to the slave-owners
by the Government at the time of the emancipation of slaves was destined for
this purpose, while the Government added a yearly subsidy of 100,000 — 150,000
francs. When 1,191 Indians had arrived, this undertaking ceased to work,
but not long afterwards a company resumed the business, and imported 9,158
Indians to Martinique between 1855 to 1862, all but 200 of whom stayed in
the island when their five years' contract had expired.
In 1861 France and England came to an agreement regarding the regula-
tion of the immigration of British Indians to the French Antilles. These
■immigrants were recruited in the French towns of Pondicherry, Yanaon,
Karikal, and in Calcutta under the superintendence of a British of&cial, and
were sent to Martinique ; and in this way 25,509 labourers arrived in the
island between 1862 and 1884, 4,041 of which returned home at the end of
their term of indenture. At the request of the General Council of India,
of&cial immigration was abolished in 1885, and since then the immigration of
Indians has ceased altogether.
Besides the British Indians, free negroes from the West Coast of Africa
used to be imported, but this, too, did not last because of the great difficulties
encountered. Then the buying of negro slaves from the Congo and Loango
and the exportation of them to the Antilles was commenced. On arrival at
the Antilles they were liberated, and were allowed to go back to their native
country when the time of their indenture had expired. This brought 9,090
negroes to the Antilles.
Then some hundreds of Chinese from Canton were imported, not to mention
Some Annamites ; but since 1889 all immigration has come to an end.
230
French Antilles.
Between 1854 3-nd 1889 the following foreign labourers were imported
into Guadeloupe : —
Indians . . . . . . . . . . 42,595
Africans . . . . . . . . 6,600
Chinese . . . . . . . . . 500
Annamites . .... 272
49,967
But on 1st January, 1874, only 15,947 Indians were left, the remainder having
either returned home, migrated to other islands, or died.
In 1901 the foreign population in Martinique only amounted to : —
Indians . . . . . . . . . 3,764
Africans 5,345
Chinese . . . . . . . . . . 430
9.539
This shows how far the labour problem is still from solution, and the fact
that all enjoy the same privileges, including franchise, and spend far too much
time in discussing politics, does not improve conditions. In 1910 serious
disturbances of a political nature occurred again in Guadeloupe, which had an
injurious effect on the quiet development of the sugar industry. There is no
sign of extension of this industry in either of the islands ; the production of
Martinique remains stationary at 36,000 tons, like that of Guadeloupe, while
fifty years ago their outputs were respectively 32,000 and 25,000 tons of sugar.
III. — Sugar Cane Cultivation, Sugar Manufacture, Duties,
Production, and Costs.
In Martinique sugar cane cultivation is carried out on the narrow strip
of alluvial land along the coast, and on the hills in the interior, where heavy
showers wash away the arable soil and thus hinder the cane's growth. In
Guadeloupe, also, the sugar estates are on flat coastland, though a few estates
are found in the small island of Maria Galante.
231
North America.
Formerly sugar was manufactured in a number of small factories, but
since 1865 larger houses have been built, and cane is cultivated by the smaller
planters for sale to the central factories.
The ground used for cane is first stripped of its existing vegetation, and
is then ploughed. Then shallow furrows are dug by means of 9. plough 4I ft.
apart and 20 ins. deep. As much rain falls in the islands during the wet season,
it is necessary to prevent stagnant water remaining in the fields by an adequate
system of drainage. During the period from October to January the cuttings
are planted in holes which have been dug 5 ins. deep in rows at a distance of
3 to 5 ft. from each other. After three weeks the cane is banked up and manured
with stable dung, filter-press mud, sulphate of ammonia. Chili- saltpetre, super-
phosphate, basic slag, or mixtures of these. Further, the soil between the
plants is repeatedly loosened and the cane trashed* several times to be cut
about a year after it is planted. Generally no more than two ratoon crops are
grown, and these are cut once a year. Then the land is left to lie fallow for
some years, when the whole process as described above is repeated.
Otaheite or Bourbon cane is chiefly planted ; it was first imported from
Reunion to the Antilles at the end of the eighteenth century. But this cane
variety is supposed to have degenerated, and consequently is inferior to what
it used to be ; hence seedling varieties from Demerara and Barbados, especially
the tjrpes B 147, B 109, D 208, and D 145 have since been utilized.
Rats and several kinds of borers are great enemies to the cane in the
French Antilles, while the universal fungous leaf -and -stalk diseases are also
found here.
The quantity of cane reaped per unit of planted area very much depends
on the age of the cane after planting. While a yield of 24 tons per acre (60,000
kg. per hectare) is expected from plant cane, it drops to 16 tons for first ratoons,
to 8 tons for second ratoons, and even to 4 tons for third ratoons. These
figures, of course, do not hold good for all kinds of land, but they are the average
at which the different crops work out.
The cane is carried by men or mules from the fields to the large carts
which convey it along the hard roads to the factories.
Railways with locomotives, or narrow-gauge lines with mules pulling
the trucks are often employed.
It was in these islands that sugar manufacture was first carried on in a
rational scientific way, and the methods invented there have gradually been
copied by most of the other sugar-producing countries. For this reason we
venture to give the following description of the manufacture of raw and refined
sugar as Pere Labat records it in his book on the American islands, written
in 1722 : —
* Trashing means removing the dried cane leaves.
232
French Antilles.
1)
ifl
u
bo
^
3
m
(D
J3
+J
vA
tH
1
n
M
r,
a
n
0<d
p
J3
■-)
(n
<
E4
U
«
W
H
<
J5
PI
o
"g;^
3
a) 0) H
l-l o.fcl
a;
.«
■o
be <•§
S o
53 9
o f^
- <u
- a
OS
m
233
North America.
The cane juice is evaporated in a series of five, or sometimes six, open
copper pans standing in a row over a furnace heated with bagasse and wood.
Each succeeding vessel is smaller than the preceding one, and each is placed a
little higher than the one befoie, so that when boiling over it is impossible for
juice of less density to flow into the further concentrated mass. All v^sels
go by different names, and, beginning at the biggest, these are : la grande
chaudi^re, la propre, la lessive, le flambeau, le sirop, and la batterie.
Sztcferie.. de trea ■
e^curpen/iti
Fig. 7. Sugar Factory as described by Pere Laeat.
For clarification a mixture of lime and a solution of wood ash is used ;
consequently, nothing but impure caustic potash to which, in some cases, a
little powdered crude antimony is added. The juice first enters the " grande
chaudi^re " when the clarifying medium is added and is boiled with it. The
froth forming is constantly scooped off and as soon as the juice has become
clear enough it is rapidly poured into the " propre" and, after a little alkali
has been added, is again boiled and skimmed off. Then the juice is' scooped out
into th^ " lessive," when potash lye and an extract of salt herbs is added
234
French Antilles. '
to it, and it is skimmed in turn. The juice subsequently passes through the
" flambeau," the " sirop," and at last finds itself in the " batterie," where it is
concentrated as much as possible.
The temperature is highest here, and the syrup foams up. through the
intense heat, but is prevented from boiling over by adding small quantities
of oil ; the syrup is boiled string-proof, and the concentrated mass is scooped
out into the cooling vessels, where it is stirred slightly till grain begins to form.
After the latter has been thoroughly stirred into the mass in order to divide it
evenly, the crystallizing mass is poured into the moulds where it is to cool.
When sufiiciently cooled, it is put into hogsheads, the bottoms of which are
provided with three holes at least. The hogsheads stand on a frame of
lattice-work above a receptacle for the treacle, and pieces of sugar cane or
banana-stalk are put into the holes so that it can drain off but sugar cannot
come through them. The molasses contained in the mass trickles slowly through
the holes, leaving crystallized sugar amounting to about 50 per cent, of the
total weight. The holes are filled up with wooden plugs, and the cask with
its contents is sent out as raw sugar. The molasses is not boiled any further,
but is used for the manufacture of rum.
Besides this raw sugar much white sugar, called sucre ierrS, was prepared.
The best and ripest cane was taken for this purpose and was clarified with
as little lime as possible, no antimony being used, for although the latter makes
the juice clear, it also causes a dark colour. Then the juice is not simply
scooped from one pan into another, but is strained through cloth each time :
first through coarse cloth, and later on through some of a finer texture. The
juice that is concentrated string-proof in the battery is ladled into earthenware
sugar-loaf moulds, which are capable of holding 30 — ^35 lbs. of massecuite or
20 — 21 lbs. of white sugar. These moulds are provided with holes at the
bottom, which have to be plugged before the moulds are filled.
The latter are first filled one quarter full, then to the middle, next three-
fourths fuU, so that filling is done in four stages. A quarter of an hour after
the last instalment of massecuite is added, a layer of crystals appears on the
top of it, which should be stirred carefully into the mass, after which the con-
tents of the vessel are left to cool. After a day or so, the plugs are puUed out
of the holes, and the mass is pierced with a hard piece of wood, to let the treacle
run freely from the mould. Each pot fits into another one, so that the molasses
running out may be collected without loss. Now and then attention is paid
to the way the molasses trickles down, i.e., whether it goes evenly or not ; should
this not be the case, and should it adhere to the crystals, the massecuite is
remelted and poured in a second time ; but should it proceed satisfactorily
claying is proceeded with. The top part of the loaves when not even and
smooth, and when showing dark stains, is scratched off and returned to the
pans. Then a few good specimens of loaves are crushed to powder and used
for covering the scraped loaves, and after the mass is pressed together with a
hammer a level and smooth surface remains. Further, an exceedingly fine
23s
North America.
mixture is got by mixing a special sort of clay coming from Rouen with water,
for the purpose of pouring it on the top of the sugar in the moulds, to fill them
full to the brim. The water must trickle evenly from the clay through the
sugar, and windows and doors are shut to prevent evaporation, the moulds
being left like this for nine or ten days. The now fully dried-up clay is then
removed, the sugar loaf is cleaned on the surface, and given a fresh amount of
clay and water, then left for another nine or ten days. The clay is removed,
the loaves are taken out of the mould and left to dry in the air. Then they
are dried in a special drying room, which is gradually heated, after which the
dry sugar is crushed to powder with wooden pestles.
The fine sugar is packed into barrels of 600 to 700 lbs. net weight and
dispatched. The first syrup is worked up into rum, or is turned into a second
product sugar, while the covering syrup is always worked up to a second kind
of sugar, the so-called cassonade.
At the present day this old-fashioned method of sugar manufacture has been
quite abandoned, and sugar is being produced in. the French Antilles in as
modern a manner as elsewhere. The cane is generally crushed twice, mostly in
two different mills, sometimes twice in the same mill. In the first case. macera-
tion is often applied, varying between 10 and 30 per cent, of the weight of
cane. In front of the mill a dtfibreur Faure is found in these islands, an appara-
tus corresponding to the Krajewski crusher, but less powerful and not giving
the same results.
The quantity of bagasse is generally not sufficient to supply all the fuel
necessary for the factory, and therefore wood and coal have to be used in
addition. The latter is rather expensive, and comes to 37 to 50 francs per
ton, according to the freight charges. It is sometimes imported as ballast
by sailing vessels, which are to take the sugar away, in which case the price
is considerably lower than if a journey were made specially to convey the coal.
The juice is sulphitated cold, and pumped into defecation pans, where it is
heated. Fifty to sixty grams of fine powdered quicklime are added to each
hectolitre of juice, after which the juice is heated till the scum begins to crack,
and at this point the steam is shut off. By syphoning off the juice is divided
into clarified juice and mud : the first goes to the evaporators, while the latter
is subsided once more or filtered in filter presses. The filter-press-cakes are
considered a favourite food for cattle, horses, and mules.
The juice is next concentrated in double, triple, or quadruple effects,
but aU of these are old-fashioned in construction, and lack the latest devices
for saving steam. The very primitive juice evaporation in Guadeloupe and
Martinique no doubt accounts for the extremely heavy consumption of fuel
in the sugar factories, which, of course, leads to the cutting down of timber,
and, by the devastation of forest, causes the continuous drought that the
planters have every cause to complain of.
The pans are small and old-fashioned in construction ; crystallization-
in-motion is not in use ; the centrifugals, too, are very out-of-date and slow
236
French Antilles.
in their manipulation. In Martinique the massecuite falls from the vacuum
pans into large receptacles placed under them, while in Guadeloupe it falls into
waggons. It flows from these into pug mills, after which it is centrifugalled ;
later on, the sugar is packed in barrels of i6 cwt. net or in bags of loo kg.
The molasses are boiled string-proof, and are cooled and centrifugalled again ;
as a rule, three or four products are turned out, after which the molasses is
sent to the distillery to be worked into rum.
When the law of 1882 was in full force, sugar from the French Antilles
enjoyed a handsome bounty when imported into the mother-country, because
13 per cent, tare was allowed for sugar in barrels, while the actual tare was
really much less. It was accepted, for instance, that a barrel of sugar weighing
I metric ton gross contained 870 kg. of sugar, while the actual contents were as
much as 925. The duty at the time amounted to 60 francs per 100 kg., so
that no less than 55 x 0-60 = 33 francs of the duty were exempted per ton.
Now that the duty is reduced to 25 francs, this profit has become much
less — so much so that it does not pay to apply the more expensive method of
packing in barrels since the consumption duty was lowered.
E. Legier quotes a few figures as regards the manufacture which follow
here : —
Average
Case.
Per Cent.
Unfavour-
able Case.
Per Cent.
Yield of sugar on 100 cane
Loss in bagasse
,, molasses
,, manufacture
9-70
2-15
175
0-90
8-00
3-45
1-75
1-40
Sugar in cane . .
Yield of juice on 100 cane
Litres of juice on 100 kg. cane . .
Density of juice
Fibre on 100 cane . .
Sucrose on 100 juice
Purity of juice
Molasses on 100 cane
14-50
75-
69-70
1-0770
12-
16-47
86
4-15
14-60
66-
61-40
1-0750
12-
15-70
84
4-15
In 1865 the first central factories, La Pointe Simon and Lareinty, were
built, but were shut down after some time. Others, however, were added, so
that at the present day there are 18 sugar factories in Guadeloupe and 15 in
Martinique.
237
o
North America.
They are divided over the districts
as follows : —
/
Pointe a Pitre . .
I
/Lamentin . .
2
^•
Sainte Anne
2
Petit Bourg
I
E^
Saint Francois . .
2
Riviere Salee
I
•S
La Moule
2
Trois Rivieres
I
Port Louis
I
OJ
Marin
I
c
Petit Canal
I
■2-
Vauclin
I
Morne a I'eau
I
M
Fran9ois
I
„ /Sainte Rose
I
s 1
Robert
I
Bale Mahault
I
c
Trinite
2
chI
Capesteire
2
Sainte Marie
I
a; ^ /-Grand Bourg
I
Mariget
I
5; CO -
\ e (5
Marie Galante
Capesterre
2
I
Grand' Anse
^Basse Pointe
I
I
15
The cost price of cane depends on various circumstances, so that it is
rather difficult to quote any average figure. At any rate, it is no lower than
12 francs per 1000 kg., while a great many manufacturers are not able to
produce cane for less than 13 to 14 francs per 1,000 kg.
The following table gives an instance of the prices of cane and of the data
that contribute to it. It is quoted in francs per metric ton : —
Plant Cane.
1st Ratoon
Salaries . .
General Expenses
Manuring
Transportation costs . .
Cutting . .
6-96
3-
3-
0-35
o-8o
5-28
3-
3-86
0-40
I-
14-11
13-54
The manufacturers do not plant the sugar cane themselves, but buy it
from the small farmers, and their method of fixing the price is most intricate,
but seems to be approved by all parties concerned.
Before the central factories were established, sugar used to be prepared
according to Pere Labat's method, and sugar called " Bonne quatrieme,"
considered to be of first importance, influenced the price quotation. The
factories at first paid for cane 5J per cent, of the weight of cane in " bonne
238
French Antilles.
quatrieme " sugar, according to the market price at Saint Pierre. In 1876
a premium was paid above that price, should the profit have been more than
14 per cent. ; consequently, the cane growers shared the extra profit. When
the price of sugar went steadily down, the cane (in 1884) was paid for on, the
basis of 6 per cent, of the weight of cane in " bonne quatrieme " sugar, and
a share of all excess above 14 per cent, was out of the question, as the manu-
facturers, owing to the low sugar price, had so considerably run into debt
that their profit went entirely towards payments of interest. Later on they
decided not to fix a price depending Cjn that of the sugar, but to fix a minimum
of what the cost price of cane would come to, and to pay a premium, called
" majoration," above that price should more profit be made. The minimum
was fixed at 32 francs for 100 kg. sugar, or at 6 per cent, at 19-20 francs per
ton cane.
In 1884 a law was passed to establish the " detaxe coloniale," which was
a kind of premium on crystal sugar from the French colonies, the amount of
which was to be fixed every year,but which actually always amounted to 20 francs
per 100 kg., and allowed of a decrease in import duty on French colonial sugar
over sugar of other origin. So it became increasingly profitable to export
to France, and as raw sugar was not in demand in that countiy, the " bonne
quatrieme " gradually disappeared from the market, and no quotation of it
was kept, which made the standard for the estimation disappear.
A way out of the difficulty was devised by taking the price of sugar
88° on the Paris market as basis, and by supposing the trade yield of " bonne
quatrieme sugar to amount to 70°. Consequently, the piice of this kind of
sugar was fixed at 70/88 of the price of beetroot sugar in Paris, but as the
latter is quoted in that city while the " bonne quatrieme" is at Saint Pierre,
there was a deduction for cost of freight at 5 francs per 100 kg. for Martinique,
and 6 francs for Guadeloupe. As, however, the colonial producer enjoyed the
" d6taxe coloniale," the price was increased by 70 per cent, of this profit,
which discount disappeared when France joined the Brussels Convention.
The present quotations are as follows : —
Martinique. — The basis of payment is 6 per cent, of the weight of cane
in " bonne quatrieme " sugar, including a premium, in accordance with the
profit of the factory. Should, for instance, the price of " bonne quatrieme "
be quoted at 22-61 francs, 5 francs is to be deducted for freight, but 1-71 francs
must be added for the still valid " detaxe de distance," so that the price comes
to 22-6i — 5 + 171 = I9'32 francs. This at 6 per cent, raises it to 19-32 X 60
-^ 100 ^ ii'59 francs, as the price of 1,000 kg. of cane. To this is added the
" majoration " which is found by taking 28 francs as the price of sugar under
all circumstances — even should it actually be less, and fixing the price of cane
at 28 X 60 -=- 100 = 16-80 francs. When the crushing season is over the
net profit of the factory is decided on, and the extra profit is divided among
the shareholders and the cane producers.
At the present moment the following method is under consideration :
2.39
North America.
The cane growers receive 6 per cent, of sugar for every loo parts of cane paid
according to the raatket price ; next 3 per cent, of the profit is given to the
shareholders as interest on their capital. For the rest, the cane suppliers
get a first " maj oration " by taking 24 francs as basis of the sugar price and
paying in excess whatever they might have lost. In our example of 11-59
francs, it would be 14-40 — 11-59 = 2-81 per ton. The rest of the profit is
divided as follows : the manager gets 5 per cent., and the balance of 95 per
cent, is equally divided among shareholders and cane producers, the latter
in proportion to the quantity of cane supplied. In this way cane may fetch
20 to 25 francs per ton.
Guadeloupe. — As basis of payment, the average price of sugar, 88° on
the Paris Exchange, is taken for the month in which the cane is delivered. This
calculation again depends on a trade rendement 0170 per cent, of the " bonne
quatrieme," so that, when the price of sugar in Paris is 27 francs, the basis of
Guadeloupe becomes 27 X 70/88 = 22-61. From this 6 francs for freight is
deducted, which leaves 16-61 to be diminished by 0-35 francs as exchange charges,
by 1-66 francs as export duty, and 0-20 francs for a statistical duty (altogether
2-21 francs), leaving in the end 14-41 francs. As cane is paid for on the basis
of 6i per cent, of this sugar, the planter, consequently, will receive 14-41 X 65
■i- 100 = 9-36 francs per ton of cane, to which should be added : the " detaxe
de distance " at 2-25 francs per 100 kg. sugar of 92, and the exchange,
which together come to 1-92 francs per ton of cane; so that the final price
will amount to 9-36 + 1-92 = 11-28 francs per ton.
All this shows that when reckoned according to this system, the price
of cane in Martinique is better than that in Guadeloupe. In Guadeloupe one
of the large sugar manufacturers would much rather do away with this method
of calculation, and from 1910 would give the fixed price of 12 francs per metric
ton, independent of prices on the Paris exchange.
We saw how difficult it was to produce cane at a price lower than 13 to
14 francs, ^0 that should the planter only get 12 francs for it, he cannot be
accused of piling on profits. It is not to be wondered at that the small planter
loses through sugar cane cultivation, and has to sell his ground or let it lie
fallow, should his neighbours be unable to pay a certain price to buy it. At
the best he starts on the cultivation of other crops ; but all this points to a
diminution in the cane cultivation and a decrease in importance for these
islands as regards the sugar industry.
As long as the factories are installed in such a primitive way that cane with 14
per cent, sucrose does not yield more than 8-20 commercial sugar, it is impossible
to pay more for cane. Should, however, more capital be spent on buying
machinery, etc., the yield of cane would be improved, and cane could be bought
at a far higher price, while the manufacturers would make more profit than
they do at present. Yet this prospect is still far from being realized, as the
French spirit of enterprise is at its best when not far from home, and shrinks
from experimenting in remote regions.
240
French Antilles.
On the other hand, the planter by exerting himself a little more might
easily reap a better crop of cane, in which case the price of 12 francs would pay
him equally well, as it does his neighbours in the other Antilles. There, too,
it is lack of enterprise, capital, and industry that are chiefly against the French
planter, while he cherishes greater expectations from political speculations
than from actual labour and exertion, which, of course, do not make for im-
provement in the present state of affairs.
There is no excise on sugar in the French Antilles, but an export duty of
1-20 francs per 100 kg. is paid, for Martinique with 10 and for Guadeloupe with
40 per cent, addition on account of local Government charges ; an export duty
of 0-50 francs is paid on treacle from Martinique, and of only o-io francs on
treacle from Guadeloupe. Then there is a statistical duty of 0-15 francs per
coUo.
Sugar from the French colonies, however, enjoys a discount on the import
duty of 2-25 francs per 100 kg. sugar of 92 as " detaxe de distance " when im-
ported into the mother-country. The import duties are in accordance with
the Brussels Convention — that is, on sugar from countries adhering to the
Convention 6 francs is paid per 106 kg. of refined sugar and 5-50 francs for
raw sugar, while it is prohibited to import sugar from countries not belonging
to the Convention, though it may be stored as bonded goods. Then an " octroi
de mer " of 20 francs per 100 kg. is paid on sugar when imported into Martinique,
which is a kind of municipal excise. When imported into Guadeloupe this
" octroi de mer " only amounts to 10 francs per 100 kg. As, however, no
foreign sugar is imported into these islands, these regulations are never enforced.
The future of the sugar industry in the French Antilles is far from promis-
ing. There is always lack of labour, for although there are inhabitants enough,
these do not wish to work for any time at a stretch ; hence there is no relying
on them for carrying out work promptly. Moreover, the local councils are
against the immigration of British Indians, because their members are coloured
people who are afraid of losing their preponderance by that influx, and are
uncertain to obtain any more work, even if they choose to ask- for it. It is
obvious that nobody would think of employing unwilling negroes when it is
possible to obtain the more reliable immigrants.
This shows how little chance there is of reaping a better crop of cane,
and one can easily imagine that capitalists are not eager to risk their money
in the improvement of the factories, however necessary these may be. As
soon as the immigration of British Indian coolies is made possible, the sugar
industry will enter upon a period of prosperity, but the present political
feelings both of the white and of the coloured people in these islands are sure to
be against such a measure.
The sugar exportation for the two islands has been since the first quarter
of the nineteenth century up till now as follows in metric tons : —
241
North America.
Year.
Martinique
Guadeloupe
Year.
Martinique
Guadeloupe
Year.
Martinique
Guadeloupe
1816
—
5,305
1848
18,153
20,453
1880
38,592
41.322
1817
—
17,895
1849
19,522
17,709
1881
42,090
42,276
1818
16,068
21,126
1850
15,069
12,832
1882
47,887
57.501
1819
18,160
18,737
1851
23,408
20,046
1883
46,857
51.619
1820
21,447
22,300
1852
26,116
17,292
1884
49.370
55,257
1821
22,078
23,019
1853
22,358
16,679
1885
38,786
41,131
1822
20,173
23,477
1854
24,929
23,558
1886
30,199
36,678
1823
20,587
24,324
1855
20,790
22,158
1887
39.582
54,940
1824
20,294
30,645
1856
28,181
22,506
1888
30,434
48,354
1825
26,477
24,015
1857
26,371
22,462
1889
35.965
45,173
1826
28,425
34,330
1858
28,048
28,494
1890
33,598
47,438
1827
24,576
28,266
1859
29,706
27,666
1891
32,376
30,329
1828
33,339
35,810
i860
32,954
28,800
1892
19,528
46,016
1829
29,083
38,812
1861
31,837
17.316
1893
32,737
41.158
1830
28,282
22,898
1862
32,101
31,312
1894
36,937
43.732
1831
27,846
35,056
1863
30,458
30,266
1895
29,329
29,866
1832
22,493
33,279
1864
24,161
15,906
1896
34.430
43.300
1833
20,059
30,827
1865
30,491
24,457
1897
34.734
40,127
1834
26,258
37,928
1866
34,657
33,942
1898
31,469
37,136
■1835
24,379
32,097
1867
29,403
22,759
1899
31.665
39,889
1836
22,447
34,994
1868
37,671
30,792
1900
33.767
28,342
1837
20,458
25,057
1869
37,330
28,600
19OI
39.749
38,697
1838
26,161
35,124
1870
38,314
34,216
1902
39.530
40,637
1839
28,723
36,672
1871
41,821
38,434
1903
29,036
38,499
1840
21,681
29,944
1872
39,700
31,508
1904
23.939
35.916
1841
24,948
29,136
1873
37,515
35,844
1905
30,187
27.336
1842
27,989
35,137
1874
43,441
34,855
1906
42,233
43.217
1843
25,479
27,169
1875
50,526
48,032
1907
36,924
38,961
1844
33,110
34,555
1876
38,845
35,470
1908
35,937
36,055
1845
30,031
33,748
1877
40,502
43,215
1909
37,757
25,211
1846
25,580
26,372
1878
44,218
48,118
I910
39.940
45,000
1847
31,338
37,894
1879
46,869
47,635
I9II
I912
35,438
40,00a*
39,000
40,000*
Emile Legier. La Martinique et la Guadeloupe.
Emile Legier. L'lndustrie sucriere a la Martinique et la Guadeloupe.
* Estimate.
!42
St. Croix.
VIII.
ST. CROIX.
The Island of St. Croix, which belongs geographically to the Virgin Islands
and politically to Denmark, lies at i8° N. Lat. and 65° W. Long., and has an
area of tj sq. miles and a population numbering 19,683 people. A range of
hills runs parallel to the coast on the west side, the highest summit of which is
the Blue Mountain. The principal towns are Bassin and Christiansted, on
the north coast, and Frederiksted, on the west coast. The island was dis-
covered by Columbus in 1494, and was colonized by the English and Dutch
in 1643. Since that time it has alternately been English, Spanish, and French,
to fall to the Maltese knights, who sold it to the King of Denmark in 1733.
During the first years of the nineteenth century it was repeatedly taken by
the English and renounced, till in 1814 it became a Danish possession. In
1 901 the Danish Antilles would have been ceded to the United States if it had
not been for the Danish National Assembly, who refused to give their consent.
About 10,000 of the 50,000 acres which form the area of the island are
cultivated, chiefly with sugar cane. The Island of St. Croix was the first of
the West Indian Islands in which sugar cane was planted, and the sugar in-
dustry was in a flourishing state there during the time of slavery, as it was in
' the neighbouring Island of St. Thomas, also a Danish possession.
When in 1848 slavery was abolished in the Danish colonies, the sugar
industry began to decline, and has revived only recently, when the landowners
divided the ground into plots of 250 acres each to lease to cane farmers. Origin-
ally each plantation had a little cane factory of its own, in which muscovado
sugar was prepared, but nowadays there are only seven small sugar works
left, and the other planters sell their cane to central factories.
The latter number four, namely : —
Lower Love . . Working 600 tons of cane daily.
Bethlehem . . „ 500 „
Central . . . . ,, 600
La Grange . . ,, 250
In 1908 the cane suffered much from a period of intense drought, and the
crop was a failure ; but 1910 yielded an improved crop.
The sugar factories do not, as a rule, make much profit ; only during the
last few years, while sugar prices have been high, has the cultivation paid.
243
North America.
The sugar, chiefly raw vacuum pan sugar, basis 96, is sent to the United
States and to Great Britain. The production has been for the past sixteen
years, in long tons, as follows : —
1896/97
13,000
1897/98
13,000
1898/99
12,000
1899/00
12,000
1900/01
13,000
1901/02
13,000
1902/03
13,000
1903/04
ii3,ooo
1904/05
11,000
1905/06
. 13,000
1906/07
13,000
1907/08
13,000
1908/09
14,000
1909/10
15,000
I9IO/II
13,000
244
Central America.
GUATEMALA.
The Guatemala Republic lies in Central America, at 30° 42' to 17" 49'
N. Lat. and 88° 10' to 92" 30' W. Long. Its area amounts to 48,600 sq. miles,
and its population numbers 1,991,261 inhabitants.
In Guatemala about 6,000 acres are planted with cane, half of which
belong to large estates that go in for the preparation of centrifugal sugar,
while the other half is taken up by smaller concerns that produce panela or
dolce (evaporated cane juice). >
Of the latter there are about 40, and of the former 11, all of which are
situated in the district Guatemala. The principal of these, Pantaleon, pro-
duced 2,000 tons of sugar in 1908-09, while Concepcion had an output of 1,500
and Chocola of 1,000 tons ; the others are still smaller, and the smallest,
Torolita, did not produce more than 100 tons of sugar and 50 tons of molasses
that very year. The total production of the big sugar factories was for ; —
1902/03
■ 8,524 ,
10 OLlj
^cti a.1
, i,goi ,
1903/04
• 7.640 ,
, 1,824 .
1904/05 .
• 7-502 ,
, 1,600
1905/06
■ 6,795 ,
, 2,256
1906/07 .
• 7.412 ,
. 2,513 ,
1907/08
• 7.521 ,
, 2,616
1908/09 .
7,260 ,
. 2,835 ,
1909/10
• 7,110 ,
. 2,715 ,
I9IO/II
. 7,110
, 2,715 ,
The production, as shown by the above table, keeps fairly stationary.
Besides this quantity of centrifugal sugar, an equal amount of brown sugar
(" panela ") is being produced, so that the entire crop amounts to some 15,000
tons of sugar.
The yearly consumption accounts for about 11,500 tons ; and the balance
of 2,500 tons, or about one-fifth of the total production, is exported. The last
few exportation figures have been : —
1907 2,117 tons
1908 2,771 „
1909 2,278 ,,
1910 2,232 „
245
Central America.
Both centrifugal sugar and " panela " are exported ; the " panela "
exported to England amounted to 1,472 tons in 1907, and to 690 tons in 1908.
It is used for brewing stout.
Up to 1st October, igio, an import duty of 0-23 pesos per kg. sugar was
raised ; but since then it has been free from duty when imported.
II.
SALVADOR.
The Salvador Republic is the smallest of all the Central American States.
Its area only covers 8,150 sq. miles, but, on the other hand, it has the densest
population among the countries forming the American Continent — 1,707,000
inhabitants, or 209 per sq. mile.
Two mountain chains with numerous branches, which sometimes attain
to considerable height, cross the country for almost its entire length.
Nearly everywhere in Salvador there are cane plantations yielding the
native brown sugar called " panela." There is also a number of sugar fac-
tories where crystallized sugar is prepared ; this is partly consumed in the
country itself, and partly exported to other countries.
The total production has been during the last few years as follows, ex-
pressed in metric tons. The number of factories is included in the table : —
Year.
Number of
Factories.
Sugar.
Molasses.
"Panela."
1901/02
6
6,086
1,369
12,000
1902/03
6
6,604
1,875 '
11,000
1903/04
7
6,300
2,070
10,000
1904/05 .
6
5,588
1,540
10,000
1905/06
6
5,994
1,238
10,000
1906/07
6
6,048
1,118
10,000
1907/08
6
5,490
1,098
10,000
1908/09
6
6,242
1,248
10,000
1909/10
6
6,356
1,248
10,000
1910/11
6
7,380
2,373
10,000
246
Honduras
III.
HONDURAS.
The Honduras Republic extends from 13° 10' to 16° N. Lat. and from 83°
20' to 89° 30' W. Long. Its greatest length is about 400 miles, and its greatest
breadth 186 miles. Its total area amounts to about 46,250 sq. miles, and its
population numbers about 745,000 inhabitants.
Sugar cane is cultivated all over the country, as it grows well in the uplands
and on the mountain slopes to a height of 10,000 to 13,000 ft. It is worked
in a number of small factories scattered all over the country, in which the mills
are driven by oxen, a kind of raw sugar, or rather evaporated cane juice, being
prepared. We cannot light upon any exact figures representing the amount
of sugar produced, but approximately the yearly sugar production is estimated
at 1,500 tons of raw.
The cane-planted area is supposed to be 12,500 acres. The import duty
on sugar is 5 centavos per half kilo, or 8s. 4d. per cwt.
IV.
BRITISH HONDURAS.
British Honduras lies in the Caribbean Sea, at 18° 29' to 15° 54' N. Lat.,
and 88° 10' to 89° 9' W. Long. Its greatest length is 174 miles, and its greatest
width 68 miles, while its area covers 8,598 sq. miles. Its population numbers
about 40,500 people.
In spite of many an effort to promote its sugar industry, the latter has
never come to anything much, most probably owing to lack of labour. In
1909 thfere were 49 sugar factories working, two of which used oil motors,
II worked with steam, while 36 were driven by cattle. One factory prepares
white sugar, another brown sugar, while sometimes molasses is worked up
into alcohol. The sugar production from 1894 to 1910 was as follows ; —
1894 . . . . 586 tons 1902 . . . . 792 tons
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
633
687
312
606
215
484
633
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
504
519
570
630
616
605
410
400
The import duties amount to 3 cents per pound of refined sugar, and ij
cents per pound of raw
, 247
Central America,
V.
NICARAGUA.
The Nicaragua Republic lies in Central America, between io° 45' and
15° 6' N. Lat. and 83° 10' and 87" 35' W. Long. It has an area of 47,880 sq.
miles, and a population of 430,000 people.
In all the western districts of the country sugar cane is planted, especially
in the Chinandega and Leon districts, which contain the biggest factories.
No sugar undertakings are found on the Atlantic coast.
The area of the plantations expressed in hectares is as follows : —
1906/07.
1907/08.
Chinandega
Leon
Other districts
1,282
585
2,533
1,707
791
2,379
~ ^ 1 f Hectares
Total . . \ ^
[Acres
4,400
10,870
4,877
12,500
.Owing to the high sugar prices in San Francisco, where part of the Nicar-
agua sugar is sent, more cane was planted in 1907 than ever had been grown
before, but as soon as the prices dropped the planted area decreased in extent.
It soon appeared that it was of little profit to ship to the United States,
so this exportation did not continue long. Cane, as a rule, is reaped ten to
fourteen months after it has been planted, which generally is done during the
dry months, December to the end of April. In the crop year, 1907/08, there
were 1,203 small sugar plantations in Nicaragua, each of them having a small
mill of its own, besides five big factories : 964 of the smaller factories worked
with wooden mills, 1,184 were driven by cattle, 14 by steam, and 5 by water.
About one-third of the smaller factories are found in thenorth and thesequestered
departments Nueva Segovia and Matagalpa, where about one-tenth of the
entire cane cultivation is planted. The smaller factories, or " trapiches,"
make only brown sugar (" dolce " or " panela ") : this is " concrete " sugar,
or evaporated cane juice, and is also consumed at home.
The large factories all belong to the Nicaraguans ; they are well-installed,
and prepare a kind of crystallized sugar, which is destined both for refining
purposes and for direct consumption.
The crushing season generally lasts 100 days. In Chinandega a yield of
40 Spanish hundredweights (of loi lbs.) of sugar is expected from each man-
zana (17 acres), that is 2,340 lbs. per acre. All the important sugar works
248 '
Costa Rica.
lie near the railway, which conveys the sugar to Corinto harbour. The molasses
is sold to the brandy distillers, who have cane plantations of their own. In
Nicaragua brandy distilling is a Government monopoly ; the Government '
have, however, leased the distilling business and the trade in spirits to a com-
pany. All the alcohol produced in Nicaragua has to be sold to that company,
which places the product on the market. The total sugar production is about
5,000 tons of refined and 1,500 tons of raw sugar, or " dolce " ; some of it is
exported to the neighbouring republics, but this trade is of little importance
and amounted to but 600 tons in 1899 and to 180 tons in 1901, to 300 tons
in 1903 and to 206 tons in 1905. The wages paid are low : a field labourer,
for instance, earns 2^ pesos paper (i peso = 6d.) for a seven-hours' day ; a
factory labourer earns 3 pesos for 12 hours' work daily, and so on. But there
is a lack of labour, and the production is not likely to, exceed the consumption
for some time to come, remaining 6,000 to 7,000 tons a year.
During the last few years the total production has been as follows : —
1902/03
4,640 tons
1903/04
• ■ 4.235 ,.
1904/05
• • 4.235 ■■
1905/06
4.400 ..
1906/07
• 3.905 ..
1907/08
• • 4.175 ..
1908/09
•• 3.950- ,.
1909/10
■ ■ 3.450 „
I9I0/II
. . 3.450 ..
All this is centrifugal sugar ; for the rest, the country produces yearly on an
average 700 to 800 tons of evaporated cane juice (" panela " or concrete sugar)
and 1,200 tons of molasses, which is worked up into alcohol.
VI.
COSTA RICA.
Costa Rica lies in Central America, between Panama and Nicaragua,
between 81° 40' and 85° 40' W. Long, and 8° and 11° 16' N. Lat. Its area
amounts to 23,000 sq. miles, and in 1909 its population was 368,780 people,
most of whom are Creoles ; there are some thousands of Indians, a few negroes,
and 6,000 foreigners. The population is densest in the highlands of San Jose
and Carthago, and in the valley of the Rio Grande. It is in the first-mentioned
plateau that the capital, San Jose, with its 25,000 inhabitants, is situated.
249
Central America.
The cane planted area was for :-
1905
1906
1907
25,900 acres
27,670 „
27,950 „
Two-thirds of the planted area is in San Jos6 and Alajuela, consequently
in the hills, and the remaining one-third is on the Pacific coast. In the latter
plain the cane is reaped i| years after it has been planted, but it takes two
years on the plateau before the cane has sufficiently ripened.
Costa Rica has a great many small factories in which raw brown sugar,
or rather concentrated cane juice, is manufactured ; then there is also a
number of larger factories preparing crystaUized sugar. The figures of these
two categories were as follows up to two years ago : — ■
Small
Metric tons
Large
Metric tons
Year.
factories.
sugar per
day.
factories.
sugar per
day.
1904
770
130
4
4
1905
1,660
307
16
23
1906
1,769
264
16
25
1907
1,711
230
15
27
In 1909, 13 of the 15 large factories worked and produced in all 2,466 tons
of sugar ; the biggest of these turned out 467, and the smallest only 10 tons.
Some 2,000 tons out of the 2,466 consisted of brown sugar, or " dolce," while
the balance was composed of white sugar.
The molasses, like part of the brown sugar, is worked up into brandy in
the Government factories, and over and above the entire quantity of molasses
the following amounts of brown sugar were sold • —
1905
1906
1907
1,591 tons
1,047 -
955 ' „
But not all the sugar was fermented, for when sugar went up in price and
became scarce in the country, the administration sold 218 tons of sugar in 1907,
and imported alcohol from Cuba for the inland market. The sudden increase
of sugar factories after 1904 is due to the law of i8th August of that same
year, according to which an impolrt duty of 0-02 colon (colon = 2s.) is raised
per kg. of white sugar, and 0-03 colon per kg. of brown sugar.
250
Panama.
The price of white sugar, which used to be lo colons for a Spanish hundred-
weight of loi lbs., has gone up to i8, and the price of brown sugar has increased
from 4 to lo or 12 colons, and as the difference in piice between these two
kinds of sugar is only very slight, the consumption of white sugar has increased.
In spite of high protecting duties, the cane-planted area does not extend :
first of all, because they cannot be sure of these duties remaining in force
which makes it a great risk putting money in this sugar industry ; and, secondly,
because the roads are bad and impassable in the rainy season, and make the
transportation of cane and sugar very difficult. Finally, there is no capital
to be found in the country itself, and foreign capitalists are loath to risk
money in Central American undertakings ; besides, the inhabitants lack a
spirit of enterprise, and wages are excessively high, i.e., i-8o colons for a field
labourer working ten hours daily, which exceeds the wages in the neighbouring
country of Nicaragua. The production of all kinds of sugar, taken together,
does not exceed 4,000 tons, and any change for the better is not likely. The
sugar produced is not sufficient to supply the wants of the country, so that
small quantities of sugar have now and then to be imported from neighbouring
states.
3,912 tons of sugar
1902/03
. 3,856
1903/04
• 3.275
1904/05
• 2,306
1905/06
■ 1.377
1906/07
■ 2,365
1907/08
• 2,415
1908/09
. 2,466
1909/10
• 2,245
I910/II
• 2,275
together with, on an average, 1,500 tons of molasses.
In 1910 a decree was issued, according to which all sugar for twenty years
to come was to be exempted from duty when imported intp Costa Rica ; this
exemption included harbour dues as well.
VII.
PANAMA.
The Panama Republic, which lies between Costa Rica and Colombia,
covers an area of 31,650 sq. miles, and has a population of 361,000 people. A
great amount of sugar cane is already being planted to serve in the preparation
of brown sugar or to be used as a dainty, and the Government has begun
to start large sugar undertakings for the sake of supplying what sugar is wanted
251
Central America.
in the country itself, for up to now there has been considerable importation of
sugar from Peru, Salvador, and Costa Rica. A contract has been drawn up
with an American for the purpose of establishing a small sugar factory on
Government property, while plans for the installation of a ■second factory in
the capital, Panama, are under consideration. This concession involves the
disposal of large tracts of land, exemption from import duties on necessary
machinery and material, exemption from Government and municipal taxes
on produced sugar, while $2-50 has to be paid per 100 lbs. when imported
from abroad.
With so much protection the sugar industry in Panama cannot fail to
become successful, as the soil is fertile and the climate is favourable for cane
cultivation. So it will not be long before Panama is able to supply its own
want of sugar, and to dispense with all foreign importation.
252
South America.
I.
COLOMBIA.
The Republic of Colombia lies between 12° 35' N-*. Lat. and 2° 40' S. Lat.,
and between 68° and 79° W. Long, on the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean
Sea. It has an area of 488,500 sq. miles, and its population only numbers four
millions.
Several small sugar mills are found aU over the country for the purpose
of crushing cane. The juice is either consumed as it is, or is worked up
to brown sugar, which latter occasionally is purified to white sugar by
" claying." The brown sugar (" panela ") is chiefly consumed by the lower
classes, at such a low price that it is an impossibility for foreign sugar to com-
pete with it. We cannot say for certain what the total production is, as the
sugar is manufactured in so many small factories. A big factory, however,
has been built in Sincerin, near Carthagena, which works up the cane grown
on 1,850 acres, and is said to have produced in 1909 6 J tons per acre, or 16,000
kg. sugar per hectare. It, however, seems to us an exaggeration to credit
Colombia with any such production. But as soon as transportation facilities
allow of it more sugar factories will spring up. Colombia at the present time
does not produce enough sugar to supply her own wants ; the gap is filled
by a small importation of refined sugar from Germany.
II.
VENEZUELA.
The Republic of the United States of Venezuela is situated on the north
coast of South America, between 1° 40' S. Lat. and 12" 26' N. Lat., and 57° 2'
and 73° 29' W. Long. Its area is 450,000 sq. miles ; the greatest distance
from north to south is 770 miles, and that from east to west 1,037 miles.
According to the most recent census, Venezuela had a population of
2,633,671 inhabitants, or about 6 to the sq. mile.
Venezuela is a very mountainous country, and contains three important
mountain chains. The first is a spur of the Andes, which breaks off into two
ridges. The first of these runs from Pamplona in a northern direction to Ocana
and gradually slopes down, while the other, running in a north-easterly direction,
253
South America.
forms a chain of high mountains, which have summits covered with eternal
snow in spite of the tropical climate. The second mountain range runs parallel
to the Caribbean Sea from east to west ; while the third range covers the entire
territory of Venezuelan Guiana, and forms a convex tableland of wide area.
Owing to the considerable difference in altitude above the sea level, the climate
in Venezuela varies for the different parts, and this makes it possible to divide
the country in three belts. The highest summits of the Merida mountain
chain are i8,oqo ft. above sea level ; there, where the thermometer on an
average registers 2° to 3° above zero, vegetation ceases to exist, and just above
is the eterrtal snow. Between 2,000 and 7,000 ft. above the level of the sea
is the eternal temperate zone, with a temperature varying between 18° and
20° C. It is here that the agricultural districts are found and most agricul-
tural crops are grown. In the still lower regions from the sea level up to
2,000 feet, the climate is tropical, and the temperature fluctuates between
25 and 33° C. (77—92° F.)
In Venezuela there are, properly speaking, only two seasons — a dry and
a wet one. The first commences as soon as the sun enters the tropic of Capri-
corn, and the second begins when it enters the tropic of Cancer ; so that the
rainy season is from April to October, when the temperature is highest. During
the dry season the temperature is cool and pleasant.
At Caracas the average yearly temperature is 66-2° F. ; the highest
maximum temperature was 84-2° F. (29° C), and the lowest minimum 48-2° F.
{9° C.) during the years 1891 to 1902. The rainfall for these years according
to the Cajigal Observatory at Caracas amounted to the following quantities,
in millimetres : —
S
6
C4
Jo
5.
<
^
S
c
D
1— >
^
a
n
<
V
e
0.
w
1^
<U
<u
e
>
12;
B
U
Q
■3
H
1891
187
4
i6-i
48-6
154-2
45-3
165
69-3
96-6
I12-I
82-3
42-8
755
1892
33-2
33
36-9
95-9
185-5
159-9
194-3
i22-g
957
138
88-6
19
1,202-9
1893
4
8-6
07
29-3
1367
71'2
213-2
43
146
I5I-8
79-4
92-3
976-2
1894
23-6
15-5
5-1
42-3
30-6
60-9
127-8
99-3
64-8
78-9
53-2
602
1895
60-9
3-6
137
177
45
136-8
56
65-4
93-9
II7-3
134
40-1
784-4
1896
13-2
0-2
4-8
II5-3
no
ii8-4
36-6
69-8
33-2
64-5
128
54-2
748-2
1897
407
3-8
5-4
79
99-1
126-1
92-4
38-6
139-2
80-3
78-2
782-8
1898
15-9
68-3
177
23-9
78-8
107-2
150-9
103-3
79-4
105-2
12-3
762-9
1899
15-5
4-4
2-1
116
63-5
88-5
101-3
113-9
58-8
477
611 -7
1900
22-2
47
49-6
197
14-4
88-3
185-2
140-5
38-1
141-3
109-5
863-5
190T
16-4
0-4
i-i
0-9
38-6
■76-9
186-9
Il8-2
75-4
141-4
129-1
38
823-3
1902
61 -6
15-3
84-4
124-9
94-7
75-4
178
52-5
27
68-3
782-1
254
Venezuela.
Sugar cane grows in all parts of Venezuela, with the exception of the
mountainous regions, as irrigation cannot be obtained there. Both climate
and soil are well fit for cane cultivation, and where irrigation can be applied
success is certain.
Four different kinds are planted : the CrioUa or native cane, the Otaite
or Otaheite, the Batavia, and the Salangore. The first kind contains the
highest sugar content, and is used most for sugar manufacture ; while Batavia
cane is generally used for the production of rum. Planting and reaping of
cane are done in such a way that grinding is possible all the year through,
and consequently any definite crushing season is not necessary, as with most
cane sugar producing countries. The cane cultivation is seldom carried on
by the owners of the land themselves. The ground is mostly divided among
" medianeros," who plant and look after the cane and cut it when ripe, after
which they take it to the mill. Half of the profit goes to the landowner, the
other half to the planter. The " medianeros " can plant beans, maize, or
wheat on their, soil in the time between two cane crops, which products they
can consider their own. Still, as a rule, they keep their ground constantly
planted with sugar cane, with as little rotation of crops as possible.
The plantation producing the largest quantity of crystal sugar is situated
in the State of Zulia, close to Maracaibo, and not far from the large lake of
the same name ; the sugar which is produced in that place is delivered as
white sugar, and sold in packets of half a pound, which are sent all over the
country in chests of loo Spanish pounds (loi lbs. avoir d.). Other large
factories producing white sugar lie close to La Guira, and near Guatire in the
State of Miranda.
For the rest, much brown sugar {" papelon ") is manufactured ; this,
again, is the same concentrated cane juice we have Come across under various
names in Central-and South American countries. The most important planta-
tion for this article is near the capital, Caracas ; its production is 400 to 475
tons yearly. Then there is another factory close to the first-mentioned, but
in the province of Libertador, while a great many smaller factories are spread
all over the country. The form in which the sugar appears varies for the
different parts of the country. In this Federal distrio.t, and in the States of
Miranda and Aragua, sugar is sold in cyHndrical lumps of 34 lbs. ; in the
State Carabobo it is sold in the same shape, but the pieces weigh only i| lbs. ;
while in the States Merida, Trujillo, Tachira, Zulia, Falcon, and Lara the sugar
is delivered in squares of 3 J lbs.
Finally, much alcohol is distilled from cane ; the best district for it is
in the neighbourhood of Caracas, where a factory is capable of turning out
more than one million bottles of brandy in addition to 300 tons of brown sugar.
The sugar production of Venezuela slightly exceeds its sugar consumption,
so that it allows of some being exported. The sugar manufacturers have agreed
to set aside 20 per cent, of their produce for export in order to prevent a surplus
in the country itself, and by so doing to keep the price of sugar up. In conse-
255
South America.
quence of this, February, 1910, saw 500 tons of crystal sugar find its way to
the London market, while two or three hundred tons of " panela " were ex-
ported to Germany and Holland. In 1909-11 the exportation of papelon
amounted to 2,255 tons.
Venezuela raises an import duty of 0-25 bolivar* per loi lbs. avoird. of
muscovado or raw sugar, burnt or granulated sugar for beer manufacture,
and an import duty of 075 bolivar on white or refined sugar, while the im-
portation of molasses and honey is prohibited.
Since 1910 an export bounty has been granted on sugar when exported
in larger quantities than 100 Spanish hundredweights (of loi lbs.) ; this bounty
was started at 0-50 bolivar per 100 lbs., but is to decrease 20 per cent, each
year, so that in 1915 it will have disappeared altogether.
In spite of this export bounty, and the agreement between the manu-
facturers to divert a certain part of their product for export, Venezuela is
not likely soon to belong to the leading sugar exporting countries.
Literature :
Handbook of Venezuela.
III.
BRITISH GUIANA.
British Guiana lies on the north-east coast of South America, between
1° and 9° N. Lat. and 57" and 62° W. Long. ; it has an area of 90,500 sq.
miles, and a population of only 296,041, or about 3 per sq. mile should the
population be spread over the whole area. But this would not be a fair com-
parison, as, apart from the comparatively small gold area, only the coast
and the country along the rivers are inhabited.
In the interior there are numerous mountain chains, and among them
extensive savannahs or grassy plains and thick woods. Roraima is the highest
mountain peak ; it is 8,740 ft. above sea level, and its summit is difficult of
access owing to its peculiar formation. The sea-coast is marshy, and consists
of mud and clay, which is carried by the Amazon from the Brazilian interior
and deposited in the sea. The width of this alluvial ground varies greatly,
being widest near Berbice. The clay is sometimes mahy feet deep, and in
some places there are reefs of sand, lime, and shell. These reefs, sometimes
forming a regular series of dunes, generally run parallel to the coastline.
The principal rivers of British Guiana are the Essequibo, the Demerara,
the Berbice, and the Corentyne, the latter forming the boundary between
British and Dutch Guiana. The Essequibo rises in the Acarai mountains,
not far from the Equator, and traverses about 620 miles, including the bends.
* Bolivar = lod.
256
British Guiana.
It has a great many tributaries, and it widens in the flat lowland so considerably
that it forms a stream i8 miles broad, with numerous islands, some of which
are 12 to 15 miles in length. Rapids in its upper course cause the river to be
navigable only up to 50 miles from its mouth. The much smaller Demerara
River, the source of which is not yet known, is navigable up to 75 miles from
its mouth ; this river, too, widens in the low reaches, and at its junction with
the sea has a width of 1} miles. The Berbice is navigable for small craft up
to 186 miles above its mouth, and on reaching the sea it has a width of 2J
miles ; while the Corentyne — which, like the Essequibo, has its source near the
Equator and forms numerous big cascades — is navigable for more than 150
miles, and has a width of jo miles when entering the sea. In consequence of
its flat and low coast, Bi^itish Guiana has no natural harbours, but the very
broad estuaries form excellent anchorages for fairly big ships. The climate
is warm and moist, and very even, without sudden changes to cold or hot
weather. There is only one rainy and one dry season in the interior- — that
is from the end of April to the middle of August, but near the coast, where
the sugar estates are located, two wet and two dry seasons are experienced.
The chief rainy season begins about the middle of April and lasts till August —
the winds are westerly during that time ; this period is followed by a lengthy
dry period up to November, when the short rainy season begins and lasts till
the end of Januaiy, after which the short dry period prevails till April. During
the dry season the wind is always from the sea. Hurricanes do not occur in
Guiana, and even the equinoctial gales are not violent, and cause very little
damage.
The average annual temperature in Georgetown amounts to 80° F.
(267° C.) ; it seldom exceeds 89-6° F. (32° C.) or is lower than 75° F. {24° C).
The average rainfall is about 90 ins. yearly.
The principal towns are Georgetown, on the Demerara, with 49,000 in-
habitants, and New Amsterdam, on the Berbice, with a population of 7,500 ;
while, besides, there are a few unimportant villages. A rail«aj' runs from
Georgetown to Rossignol in an eastern direction, and westwards from George-
town to Greenwich Park, for some 75 miles in all. The first journey takes
3 1 hours, the second only 45 mins.
Some 125,000 acres of the entire area of this colony are used for cultivation,
39,000 of which are planted with sugar cane.
Columbus, in 1498, caught sight of Guiana from the sea, but Alonso de
Ojeda was the first actually to visit it in 1499 ; while Pinzon, in 1500, went up
some of the rivers. When trying to find the wonderland " Eldorado," which
was supposed to exist in those regions. Sir Walter Raleigh came to Guiana
in 1595, and met with his death afterwards in that place. Some years
previously Dutch pirates had settled on the banks of the Essequibo river ;
they were driven away by the Spanish and Indians in 1596 ; the Dutchmen,
however, came back to the same spot, and in 1613 built a fortress called
" Kijk over Al " on a little island at the mouth of that same river. The
257 R
South America.
colony Essequibo joined the Dutch West Indian Company as soon as this
was founded, and was under its management up to its dissolution in 1791.
In 1624 Abraham van Peere founded a colony on the Berbice river, which,
in 1732, came under the protection of the States-General of the United Pro-
vinces. Demerara used to be a subdivision of Essequibo, but in 1765 it got a
Governor of its own, and through the immigration of colonists from the British
West Indian Islands it increased in importance till this colony gradually
became the leading one of the three.
In 1781 the three colonies were conquered by British freebooters, who
handed them over to an expedition sent out by the Governor of Barbados.
Later on the country was returned to its former owners, only to be reconquered,
whereupon, in 1815, it became a British possession for good and all.
For some time the colonies were under separate managements, but in
1831 Berbice, Demerara, and Essequibo were united into one colony, called
British Guiana, while their own names only survived as the names of counties
of which the new colony consisted. The population, which at the time of
the union, in 1831, had amounted to 98,000 people, has increased in course of
time, as will be shown by the following table : —
I84I
98,154
I88I . .
252,186
I85I . .
135,994
I89I . .
278,328
I86I . .
155,907
1904 . .
301,923
I87I
193,491
I9II . .,
296,041
The considerable increase is due to British Indian indentured labourers ;
the number of British East Indians amounted to 21,045 in 1861, to 32,681 in
1871, to 65,161 in 1881, and to 122,824 in 1891.
During the Dutch occupation the colonies of Essequibo and Berbice,
and later on Demerara, produced rather considerable quantities of sugar, which
came from the drained swamps along the sea coast and along the banks of the
rivers ; that is why a great many of the existing sugar plantations still have
Dutch names, these dating from the time preceding the British occupation.
Since the Otaheite or Bourbon cane was introduced, in 1795, into this
colony, the sugar industry had first a prosperous time, then remained almost
stationary, to enter gradually upon a period of greater importance, which,
however, had its fluctuations.
Like the West Indian Islands, Demerara also suffered from the conse-
quences of the abolition of slavery ; but as the introduction of British Indian
coolies proved to be a great success, the lack of labour has never been felt so
keenly here as it was in many of the neighbouring islands.
In 1808 the trade in African slaves was prohibited, notwithstanding which
slaves did enter the country. When, in 1817, a census was taken for the first
time, the slaves numbered 101,712, but gradually their number decreased, and
in 1834 it only amounted to 82,824, which was the number coming in for
258
British Guiana.
compensation. After the aboUtion, they tried to get free labourers from the
neighbouring West Indian Islands and from Madeira. In this latter island
much harm was caused to the cultivation of the vine by disease, and many
people who had lost their means of livelihood in that way emigrated to British
Guiana, where they settled. In 1840 the British Government allowed the
importation of free African immigrants from the British possessions in Africa ;
moreover, the number of immigrants was swelled by negroes imported from
Africa, by Brazilians, Cubans, and other slave traders, who were captured by
British men-of-war, which set the slaves free. In the years 1840 to 1865 this
number amounted to no less than 13,355 emancipated blacks, who arrived in
British Guiana and worked there as free labourers.
When Brazil, as well as other countries, also abolished slavery, the slave-
trade and the setting free of slaves came to an end, and this supply of labour
ceased to exist. In 1867 even the importation of free black people from the
British African possessions was forbidden. In 1853 two shiploads of Chinese
immigrants landed, and since 1859 Chinese labourers were systematically
supplied up to 1866, when the Chinese Government wished the immigrants to
be sent back to the mother-country at the end of this indenture at the expense
of the colony. But as it was not the aim of the immigration to send the people
back again, the immigration of Chinese labour soon came to an end. Later on
it was agreed that the immigrants should receive a sum of $50 at the end of
their five years' service, which would enable them to pay their own passage
if they wished to go back to China. This stipulation brought new immigrants :
in 1874 388 left China, in 1878 another 515 came, but since then this source of
labour has ceased. The immigration of British Indians proved a far greater
success ; once they gave it a trial in 1838, these immigrants have come regularly
to the country from 1845 down to the present date. They are indentured for
five years, and only at the end of the five years following the expiration of their
contract are they entitled to a journey home free of charge. During these
extra five years, and even after, they can work as free labourers, while they
can easily become owners of small plots of land. Of this last opportunity a
great many Indians have availed themselves, so that the number of Indian
settlers in British Guiana increases yearly. From the very beginning of this
immigration up to now 225,231 British Indians have been sent to British Guiana
as indentured coolies, 57,554 of whom have gone back to their country. Then
there are also a great many Indians who after a short stay in India come back
to Demerara at their expense as free labourers ; but these, of course, are not
mentioned in the statistical lists. In 1908 there were 12,539 indentured
British Indian coolies and 58,388 free labourers, or 70,927 in all, including
men, women, and children.
By far the greater part of the sugar plantations lies along the sea shore,
all of them in drained marshes which are protected by massive dykes, and
are drained into the sea either by pumping out with steam pumps or by
sluices. The plantations on the banks of the rivers are also " empoldered "
259
South America.
and drained through sluices into the rivers. On March 31st, 191 1, the entire
amount of drained marshes of the colony was 160,000 acres, no less than 81,000
acres of which were used for cane cultivation. The sugar plantations are of
oblong shape lying side by side, having one of the short sides facing the sea or
the river. They originally had each an area of 500 to 1,000 acres, but many
have now been amalgamated. A massive dyke is built at the front facing
either river or sea, while the dykes at the side and at the back are, as a rule,
much less elaborate. A broad main road generally runs in the middle of the
plantation, having a navigation canal on either side. This canal contains fresh
water, sea-water being carefully kept out bjf a sluice, which can be opened at
the time of ebb in order to carry off any surplus of fresh water, and can be closed
in times of flood. In addition, there are short feeding canals running at right
angles to these. They, however, are not put in communication with the
drainage canals, so they can, if need be, contain salt water. When a drainage
canal passes a navigation canal, it is conducted underneath by means of a
syphon. The cane fields lie between these navigation canals, and are
separated by smaller drainage canals ; their size, as a rule, varies between 10
and 20 acres. The canals in British Guiana are generally of the following
dimensions : the larger navigation canals have a width of 16 to 20 ft. at the
top, and 12 to 16 ft. at the bottom, and a depth of 4 to 5 ft. The smaller
navigation canals have a width of 12 ft. above and of 9 ft. below, and are from
4 to 5 ft. deep. The larger drainage canals are 15 ft. wide at the top and 4 ft.
deep. The dimensions of the lesser irrigation canals are : 2 to 3 ft. wide at
the top, i| to 2 ft. at the bottom, and 3 ft. deep. In the fields the beds are
between 24 and 36 ft., and the furrows running across them are at 6 to 7 ft.
distance from centre to centre.
To prepare new land for cane cultivation, the trees are cut down,
the grass and weeds aie removed, canals and furrows are dug, and the
cane tops are planted. Weeding is carried out after a month's interval, and
in case of a sufficient rainfall the cane will have grown high enough by
that time to prevent any further growth of weeds, so that further weeding will
no longer be necessary. Then the young cane is banked, and the soil between
the furrows is loosened by means of forks, in order to leave space and air to
the cane plants and to promote their root development. Five months after
planting, the cane is trashed and the weeds are removed, if necessary ; the
whole proceeding being repeated three months later. When the cane is about
one year old it is trashed for the last time, and is reaped a fortnight later.
Once it is cut the soil is again loosened with forks, the dry leaves are put under-
ground in the spaces between the rows, and the cane plants bud out afresh, to
be cut again after a year's time. In British Guiana ratoons are kept two or three
years on the same land ; as soon as the crop gets too scanty, however, the plot
of land is left fallow, and another plot is chosen. . Up to a short time ago it was
only Bourbon cane that was planted in British Guiana ; but recently they
have been planting a great many seedling cane varieties, of which the D. 625,
260
British Guiana.
D. 145, D. 100, and D. 208 are the principal. One may state for certain that
more than half of the present-day plantations consist of the progeny of seedUng
canes. Basic slag and superphosphate, guano, potash manures, and sulphate
of ammonia are mostly used as manure, together with all disposable stable
dung from the cattle.
The cane is exclusively transported by water, along the navigation canals
in flat-bottomed punts. The factories are, on the whole, well-fitted out,
all having powerful mills, and using vacuum pans. Besides the ordinary raw
sugar polarizing 96° and second sugar, a kind of coarse-grained yeUow-coloured
raw sugar, the so-called " Demerara crystals," is also manufactured. The
colour is produced by working with acid juice throughout ; chloride of tin
being added in the vacuum pan to preserve the yellow tint. From i to 5
per cent, is lost by inversion. The bulk of the molasses is converted into
rum, while a considerable proportion is mixed with dry fine bagasse, and is
sent to the United Kingdom under the name of " molascuit," as a patent-
dry cattle fodder containing sugar.
When the ground is virgin soil, fresh plantations yield in Demerara at their
best 60 to 70 tons of cane per acre {150,000 to 160,000 kg. per hectare), but
the average crop is much less, and will just attain to 20 tons per acre (or 50,000
kg. per hectare), .while the yield of sugar does not exceed 8| per cent, on
100 cane.
The number of sugar factories has decreased considerably of late, a fact
chiefly due to the amalgamation of many small ones into a few large enter-
prises. A large number of estates were abandoned on account of the emancipa-
tion of slavery, chiefly on account of the heavy expenses involved in
reclaiming and digging.
In 1891 the cane-planted area covered 78,777 acres, in 1895 it was only
'68,000, and in 1908 it covered 73,471 acres occupied by plantations, and 2,500
acres by cane farmers. The number of sugar pjantations amounted to 64 in
1895, but has since gone down to 42. According to their size they are and
have been divided as follows : —
1895 1908
More than 7,000 acres . . . . — . . i
,,
"
3,000
2,000
1,000
.ess
than
1,000
4
23
37
64
4
6
25
6
42
261
South America.
The yield of sugar has been since
1826 as follows
1826 .
43,378
1869 .
1827
62,272
1870 .
1828 .
55.752
1871 .
1829 •
. 58,586
1872 .
1830 .
•• 59,790
1873 •
1831 .
• • 58,058
1874 .
1832 .
54,962
1875 •
1833 .
54,588
1876 .
1834 .
47.155
1877 .
1835 .
•■ 57,577
1878 .
1836 .
■ 48,999
1879 .
1837 ■
54,666
1880 .
1838 .
47,983
1881 .
1839 ■
33,680
1882 .
1840
35,619
1883 .
1841
29,925
1884 .
1842
31,685
1885 .
1843 •
32,271
1886 .
1844 .
34,125
1887 .
1845 •
34.681
1888 .
1846
22,935
1889 .
1847 ■
• ■ 41.307
1890 .
1848
40,784
1891 .
1S49 •
29,672
1892/93
1850
32,692
1893/94
1851 .
37.655
1894/95
1852 .
48.737
1895/96
1853 •
38,802
1896/97
1854 •
48,632
1897/98
1855 ■
48.447
1898/99
1856 .
45.156
1899/00
1857 ■
51.420
1900/01
1858 .
• • 51.552
1901/02
1859 .
48,072
1902/03
i860 .
54,423
1903/04
1861 .
63,305
1904/05
1862 .
56,875
1905/06
1863 .
67,462
1906/07
1864 .
64,248
1907/08
1865 .
75,356
1908/09
1866 .
80,132
1909/10
1867
72,385
1910/11
1868 .
78,776
1911/12
(estim
in long
tons : —
66,598
75,075
92,178
77,094
83,391
86,578
82,195
104,667
97,261
75,316
92,436
95,370
89.844
120,654
113.396
121,840
93,390
108,748
131,127
105,118
112,376
102,553
113,719
112,880
107,771
102,502
101,059
107,073
100,839
96,648
84.783
94,745
105,694
120,127
125.949
106,716
125,217
120,334
99.730
117,176
115,842
100,954
86,000
262
British Guiana.
What has been said about sugar in the West Indian Islands also holds
good for Demerara sugar ; part of that sugar is sent to Great Britain and
part to Canada, while the rest is exported to the United States.
The quantities have been as follows during the last seven years : —
, 1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
1911.
United Kingdom
United States
Canada
19,311
28,608
65,328
16,411
40,454
62,895
23,921
5.372
70,642
23,921
17.856
68,880
29,505
13.726
72,458
29,191
20,263
56,249
12,103 (
27,099
59,249
Total
113,247
119,760
99,207
110,657
115,689
106,439
98.451
No great changes are expected in the condition of the sugar industry of
British Guiana in the near future. As we have just pointed out, an increase
of cane-planted area is not likely, on account of expensive labour ; a decrease
is more probable instead, as the British Indian immigrants seqm inclined to
apply themselves increasingly to rice cultivation. Further, in Demerara
proper, the land available has become restricted. The labour distribution is
well organized, the exports of sugar to Canada and Great Britain leave nothing
to be desired, so that the sugar industry in Demerara is still a remunerative
business, and most likely will continue to be so, although it is no longer in
the flourishing state it used to be.
Books of Reference :
British Guiana Directory.
West Indian Bulletin.
Algernon E. Aspinall. Guide to the West Indies.
Noel Deerr. Cane Sugar.
J. Sibinga Mulder. Mededeelingen betreffende de Suikerindustrie in Suriname en Demerara.
IV.
DUTCH GUIANA.
Dutch Guiana or Surinam lies on the north coast of South America, between
2 and 6° N. Lat. and 54 and 57° W. Long., between British and French Guiana,
from which it is separated respectively by the Corentyne and the Maroni
rivers. Its area covers 49,800 sq. miles, and the census returns on 31st December,
263
South America.
1909, gave it a population of 89,906 pe.ople, of which 862 were Europeans,
7,442 were Dutch Indians, and 16,203 British Indians, while 65,000 were
aborigines.
The country near the coast and the immediate neighbourhood of the rivers
is inhabited, while the rest, 99-9 per cent, of the entire area, is stiU wilderness.
The climate is moist and warm, which the following Paramaribo observations
show : —
RAINFALL IN MILLIMETRES.
Tear
1-
^
u
&
&
>.
3
-S
1
s
1
S
.0
s
"S
•-3
t
38 3
<
1^
^
■<
S5
S
H
1897 ..
47-2
99-8
227 4
377-4
337-7
208-8
136-4
122
74-3
399-8
198 6
2260 7
1809 ..
171-S
89 4
177-2
36-8
120 8
313 7
144-1
69-1
21 5
46 6
64
45 9
1240
1
1900 ..
'.iSo-l
328
322 1
2-i3-4
371-8
210-4
87-3
129-8
82-6
166 2
131-3
114-4
2395
4
1901 ..
17ii-9
lOS-7
257
271-6
316.9
234 2
179-7
206 2
101-1
117 7
203
220 9
2290
8
1902 ..
182 -4
658-3
222-3
622-4
26-i-4
400-6
314-1
160-8
57-9
07 8
194-6
171 9
8091
5
1903 ..
168-3
144 7
460-1
434-3
319 7
413-3
171 3
191 1
69 9
41-4
26
171-1
2456
2
1904 .. '..
163 7
166-8
640 4
241-5
862-5
262-5
274-0
41-8
62 6
1115 5
166
278-1
2664
3
190S ..
120-i
145-1
748
366 S
336-0
453 9
313-1
65 11
38
OS 3
1-22
318 5
2421
9
1(10,5
169 -3
26 2
173-4
368-7
307 3
182 4
171-4
lSO-1
71
102-0
145-1
lis 6
1945-5
1907
17S--5
338.0
321 2
6S4-3
453-8
302 4
252-2
89*7
108 9
74-S
59 I!
200-7
2918 4
1908 ..
145 4
321-4
133-0
145 1
347-1
262-2
291-0
219-4
62 7
24-6
1-25
173-0
2251-0
Average of
41 years . .
221-1
176-3
223-9
240-9
313-6
267-0
229 S
214 7
60-4
72-9
198-4
222 9
2351
Temperature in degrees C. :-
Month.
8 a.m."
2 p.m.
6 p.m.
Maxi-
mum.
Mini-
mum.
January..
243
29-1
26-0
30-3
21-5
February
23-8
27-9
25-9
29-4
22-2
March . .
24-9
287
26-2
29-3
22-8
April
25-1
28-3
26-1
29-5
22-8
May
25-1
28-2
26-2
29-3
23-2
June
24-6
28-5
25-5
29-8
22-8
July • ■
24-9
29-4
26-6
30-5
22-8
August . .
25-4
30-4
26-7
31-5
23-1
September
26-4
327
28-2
33-2
23-9
October
26-1
317
27-3
> 32-8
22-8
November
25-5
28-9
26-2
3I-I
22-4
December
24-6
28-4
25-9
30-3
22-4
In the south there are the high Tumua-Humac and Acarai Mountains,
where the large rivers, which form the boundaries between the neighbouring
colonies derive their source. Then there are the Nickerie, Coppename, Sara-
264
Dutch Guiana.
macca, and the Surinam Rivers, as well as the Commewyne, a tributary of the
Surinam. The Surinam is navigable up to lOO miles from its mouth.
The capital, Paramaribo, has 32,600 inhabitants, Nickerie has 1,700
inhabitants, and there are some smaller towns. A railway runs in an almost
southerly direction from Paramaribo to Kadjoe, and covers some 82 miles;
otherwise transportation of goods and people is generally done by water, and
occasionally along country roads.
Surinam was discovered in 1499 by Amerigo Vespucci, but it was not
before 1603 that the English colonized it. Later on, French emigrants from
Cayenne settled in the place, where they established a few sugar plantations ^
on a small scale. The Dutch conquered Surinam in 1667, and in 1683 sold
it to the Dutch West India Company, which later on disposed of a part of it
to the town of Amsterdam, and to Aersen van Sommelsdyk, who became
governor of this Colony.
The sugar industry was greatly extended by the introduction of slaves,
who were supplied in large quantities as a monopoly of the West India Com-
pany. In 1712 the French invaded the country and destroyed several sugar
plantations, causing the slaves to run away and never return.' These maroons,
continually reinforced by runaway slaves, remained in the woods, and kept
attacking the settlements. Their guerilla warfare lasted for fifty years, till in
1758 they gave it up, whereupon the so-called " bush-negroes " were emanci-
pated. Then a better time began for that colony, but if the owners were able
to make money, they also knew how to spend it, for they got more and more
into debt. In 1799 Surinam was conquered by the English, and after several
phases of restoring and reconquering, it in the end became a Dutch possession,
and has remained so ever since. In 1858 the trade in slaves was forbidden,
and in 1863 slavery was abolished altogether on the Dutch West Indian colonies,
while the owners of slaves got some slight compensation.
The liberated slaves were put under State supervision for ten years, after
which they were considered free citizens. The abolition of slavery here, as
in other countries, caused a great desertion of labour, so that work could not
be done properly in the plantations. An effort has been made to improve
that state of affairs by importing indentured British Indian coolies, and also
Javanese. In spite of this resort, the supply does not fill the gap, and lack of
labour is still the general complaint.
The sugar industry is carried on on drained marshes in exactly the same
way as it is in British Guiana. At the present time there are five sugar factories
which make molasses and rum as well as sugar, but are far from flourishing.
Some years ago the possibility of founding a central factory, which was to
work up the sugar cane cultivated by small farmers on ground allotted to
them by the Government, was considered. It, however, soon appeared that
there would not be people enough before long to get a sufficient quantity of cane
to keep a sugar factory of any considerable capacity going, so that this plan
265
South America.
was never carried out. The cane variety chiefly planted in Surinam is Bourbon,
while there are also small plantations of other varieties.
On virgin soil the cane yields 5 tons of sugar per acre (or 12,500 kg. per
hectare) ; on ground having been used in cultivation for some time the cane
yields from 3 to 5 tons (7,500 to 12,500 kg. per hectare) . The average yield
is supposed to be 39 tons of cane and 3-8 tons of sugar per acre. The sugar,
for the greater part, is sent to New York, and only a little is exported to the
Netherlands. The total production has been during the last years as follows
(expressed in metric tons of 2,200 lbs.) : —
1900
12,950 1906
12,635
I90I
12,721 1907
11,930
1902
13,147 1908
11,999
1903
12,073 1909
10,938
1904
11,001 1910
12,055
1905
10,790 1911
14,459
The exportation has been as follows since 1715 : —
1715
9,766 1855 ..
15.409
1725
11,095 1865
8,222
1735
8,585 1875 ..
10,393
1745
11,427 1885
5.497
1750
12,302 1895
8,152
1755
8,208 1900
10,142
1765
10,062 1901
10,080
1775
10,128 1902
8,748
1784
7,171 1903 ..
7.443
1794
12,142 1904
9.380
1805
5,862 1905
8,405
1816
5,784 1906
11,014
1825
11,908 1907
10,372
1835
18,887 1908
9,018
1845
14,894 1909
7.352
Surinam's sugar industry does not look promising. It is always the in-
evitable lack of labour that retards progress. The production will most likely
keep's tationary at 10,000 to 15,000 tons ; any increase is not to be expected.
V.
ECUADOR.
Ecuador is situated on the west coast of South America, between i" 23'
N. Lat. and 4° 45' S. Lat., and between 73° 10' and 81° W. Long. It has an
266
Ecuador.
area of 118,650 sq. miles, and a population of 1,272,000 citizens, and about
200,000 wild Indians. '
The country is very mountainous, and is traversed in a north and south
direction by two mountain-chains, with a number of high volcanoes, partly
active and partly extinct. There are lowlands near the coast, ,while vast high-
lands, the so-called Inter-Andes territory, are found between the two mountain
ranges. There are on the coast only two gulfs of any importance, the Guayaquil
and the Ancon Bays. The rivers flow from the Andes either to the Pacific
or to the Amazon. The climate in the lowlands along the coast is hot and
damp, whDe in the highlands it is cool and even. The sugar industry is exclu-
sively carried on in the lowlands, near the coast in the Province of Guayaquil.
The cane crop is reaped in the months from July till November, and even as
late as December.
Till a short while ago it was difficult to transport sugar to the exterior
from Guayaquil, as the high cost for carriage via the Andes added too much
to the price. Part of the sugar used to go by sea to Chile and Colombia, while
Colombia used to send sugar to Quito and other market towns in the Andes.
Since 1902, when a railway was constructed which runs to Riobamba, this
drawback has ceased, and all the sugar prepared in Ecuador is consumed in
the country itself, and some sugar is imported. Up till 1907 Ecuador used to
raise an import duty on sugar of 4 cents per kg. (i6s. 8d. per 100 kg.), but
this duty has been abolished since, so that sugar can be freely imported into
that country now. This, of course, first of all caused a drop in the price of
sugar of $2 to $3 per 200 lbs., which is equivalent to the amount of the import
duty. The sugar production for the last few years has been as follows, ex-
pressed in metric tons :—
1904 . . . . 6,400 1908 . . . . 7,000
,1905 . . . . 5.900 1909 . . . . 7,600
1906 . . . . 6,900 1910 . . . . 8,750
1907 . . . . 7,100
The production does not supply the local wants altogether, so that some sugar
has still to be imported.
VI
PERU.
Peru lies"on the west coast^of South America, between 3° 30' and 18° 45'
S. Lat. and 70° and 81" 40' W. Long. It has an area of 690,000 sq. miles, and
a population of 4,500,000.
At some distance from the coast the high Andes mountains run parallel
with it, leaving a narrow streak of land near the sea, intersected by several
little rivers.
26"
South America.
There are a great many good seaport towns on the Pacific coast, Lima
and Callao being the most impo^^tant. Owing to the very mountainous clrarac-
ter of the country, the climate naturally varies. While little rain falls on the
Pacific side of the Andes, that is, the part where most of the sugar industry
is carried on, there is much rain, as a. rule, on the eastern side, and that is why
the latter consists of well-wooded country, while the western part has hardly
any forest. Although Peru lies absolutely within the tropics, its temperature
is seldom very high, as the following figures will show : —
Average Temperature observed on the Cartavio Estate in degrees C.
Months.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
January
22-22
23-33
22-90
25-04
February
22-00
24-44
,24-56
26-93
March
22-22
21-11
24-26
24-93
April
20-12
22-78
22-00
21-37
May
20-20
2I-II
19-32
18-98
June
18-89
20-55
17-26
17-77
July .. .. .
19-44
I9-II
17-12
18-44
August . .
20-00
19-20
17-54
18-88
September
18-89
18-93
18-70
18-87
October . .
20-00
19-43
19-22
19-13
November
20-00
19-81
20-66
20-57
December
2I-II
21-48
22-12
21-55
During the same years the highest maximum temperature was 35-3° C.
(95-5° F.), and the lowest minimum was 11-1° C. (52-0° F.).
Sugar cane cultivation is exclusively carried on along the narrow strip of
land between the Andes and the Pacific Ocean, and in the valleys which stretch
from the seacoast to the mountains. This territory covers the entire coast
between 6° and 16° S. Lat., while estates lie in the vaUeys of the following
mountain streams : Lambayeque, Pacasmayo, Chicama, Santa, Huama, Lima,
Caiiete, and Tambo ; with' their harbours : Eten, Pacasmayo, Huanchaco,
Salaverry, Chimote, Jamanco, Supe, Huacho, Callao, Cerro Azul, and MoUendo.
In addition, there is a number of small plantations spread all over the interior
having small factories, which crush the cane by means of wooden rollers, and
work up the juice to " chancaca " or " panela " (evaporated cane juice),
or to " jonque" (brandy).
As was mentioned above, the cane plantations coming in for regular
sugar manufacture are all found on the west coast. The rainfall is of
httle consequence in these parts, and it would be impossible to get a good
268
Peru,
cane crop without irrigation. So irrigation on a large scale is applied by
damming up and distributing the numerous mountain streams which ilow
from the Cordilleras to the Pacific Ocean. These mountain streams contain
much water when heavy rains fall on the mountains, but their outflow is small
in the dry season, so that it is necessary to be careful with the irrigation supply,
for which purpose a special irrigation service is appointed by the Government,
who see to the water being equally divided among the different applicants.
As the cane cultivation tracts in Peru have no special periods of rainy and dry
weather, planting and reaping can be done at any time of the year ; there
are instances of factories not having had to stop for years together for any
longer period than is necessary for cleaning and carrying out repairs.
The land devoted to cane cultivation is first treated by a Fowler steam-
plough, then it is harrowed and rolled. After that it is time to dig the ditches for
irrigation and drainage, and the furrows ; the latter cannot be dug till the
land is divided up by roads and footpaths into plots of 330 ft. in length and
160 ft. in width. The irrigation and drainage canals are dug alongside these
roads and footpaths ; afterwards the furrows are hoUowed out by a wooden
plough ; these, according to the state of the soil, being dug at a distance of
9 to 15 ft. apart from centre to centre.
The cane tops put into the furrows are cut from the healthiest looking
stalks, and are planted in a sloping direction, so that their top ends stick out
of the soU. As soon as the plants are a iqot high, weeding the fields is begun,
which weeding is repeated till the danger of the cane getting smothered 'by
weeds is past. About five months after the cane has been planted it is banked,
and manured with guano from the neighbouring islands, or a mixture of guano
and ashes from the factory, or potassium sulphate. Sometimes lime, saltpetre,
or other suitable fertilizer is added to the manure ; but guano, which is cheap
in Peru, is the chief component of the sugar cane manure.
During the vegetation period, cane is now and then irrigated ; on soil which
is moist on account of the abundance of subsoil water so that it wants little
irrigating, only once every season, while other kinds of soil require supplying
with water as many as twenty-four times during the same period. On an
average, five applications is supposed to be sufficient. The wet ground is
drained by open canals, and sometimes by pipes ; dry ground does not need
drainage, the water which had run into the field by irrigation being left to
penetrate the soil.
It takes twenty to twenty-four months for the planted cane to ripen,
depending on local circumstances and the disposable supply of irrigation water.
After the first crop, ratoons are grown several times, and these ripen in a
much shorter time than the first crop does. Five ratoons of cane are cut,
and sometimes this is extended to ten, which, of course, covers a space of
fifteen to twenty years. This, however, is an exception ; five ratoons taking
up nine years are of general occurrence, during which time a single planting
yields successive crops.
269
South America.
The cane very seldom flowers ; still, it does so enough to enable the experi-
ment station at Lima to cultivate seedling cane varieties on a large scale, in
order to procure better cane varieties for agriculture. Up to now none of these
kinds have been introduced for cultivation on a large scale, but considering the
great use these seedling varieties have been to other cane cultivating countries,
they may contribute greatly to the cane production in Peru before long. At
the present time the average yield of the varieties now cultivated — the white,
the yellow-green, and the red — is 34 tons per acre, or 85,000 kg. per hectare,
after a vegetation of 22 months ; but as soon as a better organized treatment
of the soil and of irrigation and manuring is applied, and a better type of
cane is obtained, there is no reason why a yield equal to that obtained by the
cane cultivators in Java and Hawaii should not be obtained in Peru, as the
ground and the climate are very well suited to cane cultivation.
The cane does not sufEer much from disease and pests ; rats, which have
such an injurious effect in neighbouring countries, do little damage in Peru.
The only insect pests which do any considerable harm are the borers, though
these are indirectly combatted by choosing onlyuninfected cane tops for planting.
When reaping thfe cane, it is cut close to the ground by the machete ;
the top part is removed, and the cane, either as it is or cut irf two, is put on
railway wa.gons and conveyed to the factories. These factories, as a rule, are not
installed in modern style ; in most cases this is due to lack of capital, which
prevents the gradual substitution of the old mills and machinery by new in-
ventions, but as the general condition of Peru is improving and sugar fetches
higher prices than it used to do, this country will doubtless not lag behind, but
will eventually instal most of the factories with modern plant, which will
make the low yield of sugar rise considerably.
The sugar cane in Peru has a high fibre content, through its lengthy
vegetation in a dry climate, and consequently little juice ; but the latter is
rich in sugar, and at the same time particularly pure. Consequently, 15 per
cent, fibre on cane and 20° Brix at 92-5 purity and 0-46 per cent, glucose in
first mill juice often occurs. Through the combined influence of a high fibre
content, a high sugar content in juice, and weak mills, the loss of sugar in
bagasse is exceedingly great, and on an average amounts to 3 per cent, on
100 cane. In spite of the high sugar content of cane juice, the yield of sugar
is not particularly high for these very reasons, and amounts to 10 per cent.,
7-5 per cent, of which is first, 2-5 per cent, second, and 0-5 per cent, third
product.
When planted on virgin soil, plant cane has yielded crops of 8 tons of
sugar per acre, or 20,000 kg. per hectare, but the average amount is 3 tons,
or 7,500 kg. per hectare, a figure that may soon increase thanks to the im-
provement in machinery. By far the bulk of the sugar production in Peru
is a brown raw kind of 96-5° polarization ; but they also manufacture white
sugar. for local consumption, which is obtained by washing the brown sugar in
the centrifugals. Part of the raw sugar, called " Peruvian crystals," is sent
270
Peru.
to the United States ; the rest, together with part of the molasses, goes to
Liverpool. What is left from the second and third products is exported to
a refinery in Chile, while alcohol is distilled from the molasses, chiefly in Bolivia.
There used to be a refinery in the Caiiete district, and one in the district
of Lambayeque, but these are no longer working, so that no refinery is at
present to be found in Peru.
A short time after Peru was conquered by Francisco Pizarro, sugar cane
was imported into that country, and in 1570 the first sugar was commercially
manufactured there. The sugar industry at first suffered from the competition
of Mexican sugar, but it was not long before their own sugar supplied their
wants. As in all American countries, the sugar industry was carried on by
negro slaves, but after the abolition of slavery they endeavoured to procure
labourers from other countries. No fewer than 90,000 Chinese were imported
from Macao between 1849 and 1874, who were not treated any better than
slaves ; in consequence of this, so many died that the Macao Government
prohibited all further recruiting. There are still some 25,000 Chinese residing
in Peru, but no longer engaged in the sugar industry ; they have settled as
tradespeople in the towns. The field and factory work is done by native
Indians of the country, so that foreign labour is no longer required.
In i860 a great change took place in the primitive condition of the Peruvian
sugar industry. Much capital, including foreign money, was put into the sugar
undertakings, factories were installed with the most modern machinery, and
Peru became a sugar-producing country that could compare with the very
best. Large profits were made, and much money was spent, too, though not
on the maintenance or the improvement of installations. When, in 1875,
the period of low sugar prices came, the sugar estates had not got stamina
enough to bear up under the stress of competition, and gradually they ran
deep into debt. The industry also suffered from the fatal war against Chile
in 1878, while afterwards sundry revolutions disturbed the peace of the country.
But since the disturbances in 1895 Peru has had peace and quiet, and the sugar
industry has greatly extended, chiefly owing to the rise in sugar prices through
the Brussels Convention. In 1906 a sugar experiment station was established
near Lima, which has made a point of studying the manuring and irrigation
problems thoroughly and diligently, and is trying to get a more profitable
cane variety than the one at present used. In addition, the cultivation and
manufacturing methods are being improved upon, all of which points to a
revival of the Peruvian cane sugar industry.
At the present moment Peru possesses 47 modern sugar factories,
the principal of whicji are : Patapo, T uman , Cayalti, Pomalca, and Pucala,
all round Eten harbour ; then there is Lurifico, near the Pacasmaya harbour ;
Casa Grande, Sausal, Roma, Laredo, Cartavio, and Chiguito, near Salaverry
port ; Tambo Real, San Jacinto and San Jose, near Chimbote ; Paramonga,
San Nicolas, Humaya, and Andalusia, nor far from Huacho harbour ; La
271
South America.
Estrella, Caudivilla, Chacra Cerro, Infantes and Monte Rico, St. Clara and
Narranjal, near Callao ; and the British Sugai Estates, near Cerro Azul.
The factory of Casa Grande, in the Chicama Valley, the yearly product of
which is, on an average, 25,000 tons of sugar, is considered the most important.
The others are of less capacity, still are of such a size that they cannot plant
the full amount of the cane needed, but have to buy some of it from farmers.
There are cases in which these farmers get 65 per cent, of the value of sugar
.and alcohol manufactured from the cane which they have planted, cut and
delivered at the factory door ; in other cases the factory pays the expenses
of cutting and transportation, and then only pays 50 per cent, of that value.
A third agreement is that the value of the cane is to be estimated by the
degrees Be. of the juice and according to the sugar quotations ruling in
Liverpool.
About 125,000 acres are planted with cane, which area may be extended
in the near future.
The production for the last few years has amounted to the following
quantities, expressed in metric tons, while the export figures are also given
in the list :■ —
Year.
Production.
Exportation.
1894
74,690
65,000
1895
78-541
75,000
1896
75735
71.735
1897
111,080
108,080
1898
110,373
105,713
1899
109,070
103,707
1900
118,173
112,223
1901
119,956
. 113.956
1902
123,906
117,362
1903
147.123
127,620
1904
156,500
131,957
1905
160,366
134,234
1906
169,418
136,729
1907
141,193
121,932
1908
157,294
137,670
1909
150,000
138,177
1910
190,000
160,000
1911
187,000
1912
195,000 (estimate)
Besides the sugar manufactured in the modern way, some nine to ten
thousand tons of evaporated cane juice or " chancaca " are produced and
consumed in the country itself.
272
Peru.
Since July, 1910, the import duty on sugar in Peru has been as follows : —
For sugar from countries belonging to the Brussels Convention ;
Refined or its equivalent . . . . per 100 kg. : 2-44 Sol*
Other kinds „ 100. „ 2-23 „
For sugar from other countries .
Candy per kg. : 0-20 Sol
White or other sugars . . . . . . „ 0-13 „
As we said above, the cane sugar industry in Peru may be greatly extended.
Both soil and climate allow of expansion, and should the irrigation works now
being planned be carried out, a considerable extension of ground will be dis-
posable for cane cultivation. Besides that, improvements in manuring, in
the treatment of and the kind of cane used, may increase the product per acre,
while an improvement in the mechanical installations of the factories should
lead towards obtaining a better product from the raw material. Now that
the' political circumstances are favourable, and sufficient labour is to be found
in the country itself, we may expect great things from Peru's sugar production..
Books of Reference :
Memoria de la Estaci6n Experimental y Laboratorio para cafia de azucar en Lima..
La Cultivation du sucre dans le Perou par M. Cesar Broggi.
The Sugar Industry in Peru, by Thomas F. Sedgwick.
Zuckerindustrie in Peru, von Alfredo Solf.
The Cane Sugar Industry in Peru, by F. Zerban.
VII.
BOLIVIA.
The Republic of Bolivia is situated in the centre of South America between
57° 30' and 73° 47' 30" W. Long, and 6° 30' and 26° 52' S. Lat. Its area covers
567,000 sq. miles, its greatest length being 1,280 miles from north to south, and
its greatest width 865 miles from east to west. According to the returns of
the last census of September,^ 1910, the population amounted to 1,816,217
people, including the nomadic tribes on the northern and eastern frontiers,
which means about three inhabitants to the sq. mile. About 250,000 are
white people, 550,000 are half-bred, 1,100,000 are Indians, and 4,000 are negroes.
Bolivia is very mountainous ; in the west are found the Cordilleras, which
divide into two branches, and enclose an extensive tableland of 40,000
sq. miles at a height of about 13,000 ft. The mountains that surround this
plateau have a great many high peaks covered with eternal snow, so that all
climates are represented in this country, although Bolivia lies within the
tropics.
* I Sol @ 100 centavos = 2S.
273 S
South America.
In the lowest parts, where the vegetation is tropical, the average yearly
temperature varies between 66° and 72° F., but some days may be subject
to differences of 36° F. in consequence of cool southern winds ; this uneven
climate is experienced chiefly in the southern plains. In the north they ex-
perience a heavier rainfall than in the south ; the average rainfall amounts
to 31J ins. yearly over the whole country, with a maximum of 33^ in the north
and one of agj- in the south. The sugar industry is chiefly carried on in the
Province of Santa Cruz; the people of Potosi, and the eastern and north-
eastern part of Chuquisaca are engaged in it, but to no great extent. Altogether
there are about thirty little factories, each of which produces from 50 to 500
tons of sugar yearly, all consumed in the country itself. The production
does not, however, cover the demand for sugar, so that some importation of
sugar from adjacent countries is necessary. The sugar industry in Bolivia
is still in an early stage of development ; there are no good roads, and the
small factories are installed in a most primitive manner, which makes the
manufacturing cost very high. Departmental and local excises very much
affect the industry, for sugar being exported from Santa Cruz to another province
in Bolivia is first taxed by a provincial excise of 4s. 2d. per 100 kg., and then
is subject to a local tax at the place of destination. The total amount of
raw sugar exported from 'Santa Cruz to the other provinces does not exceed
700 tons, while the entire production of the country seldom exceeds 1,000 tons.
VIII.
BRAZIL.
The only parts of the gigantic Brazilian Republic where sugar cane is
cultivated, and where cane sugar is manufactured, are States on the
coast, namely, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, and Parahyba in the north, and
Bahia, Rio de Janeiro, and Sao Paulo in the centre of the huge territory. All
these places lie between 4 and 21° S. Lat., consequently in the tropics, and
being on the east coast of South America within reach of the moist eastern
winds, they get sufficient rainfall for the proper cultivation of the sugar cane.
The big harbours of Pernambuco, Bahia, Rio and Santos lie in the same terri-
tory, and make the exportation of sugar to foreign countries by sea quite an
easy matter ; on tjie other hand, the transport of sugar to the several States
of the Union is attended with great difficulties, as the roads are bad and the
distances considerable.
Brazil was discovered in 1500 by Pinzon, one of Columbus' companions,
and the same year it was taken possession of by Cabral in the name of the
King of Portugal. It was not till 1531 that any colonizing of this possession
was attempted, as her Indian possessions at that time required all the attention
and resources of Portugal. One of the first things done by the colonists was
the founding of a sugar factory in the Isle of St. Vincent, occupying that -part
274
Brazil
of the territory which is now taken up by Sao Paulo. Both soil and climate
of Brazil is exceedingly fit for cane cultivation, and this made the factories
increase in number ; in 1580 there were already as many as 120, and in 1590
there were 36 sugar mills in Bahia and 66 in Pernambuco. In 1580 Portugal
and all the Portuguese possessions were annexed by Spain, and this made
Brazil a Spanish colony. Thereupon an opportunity presented itself of which
the numerous enemies of the King of Spain availed themselves to attack
this rich country. In 1621, at the end of the twelve years' truce, the Dutch
West Indian Company planned the conquest of Brazil, and carried it out by
taking Bahia in 1624 ; but the following year the Dutch were driven away
again by the Spaniards. The Dutch, however, settled in Pernambuco in
1629, and succeeded not only in extending their territory as far as Maranhao
in the north and Rio Real, near Bahia, in the south, but also in conquering
the West African outposts, Sao Thome and Angola, and diverting the supply of
negro slaves quietly to their own territory, thus dealing a great blow to their
enemies. Joan Maurits van Nassau, who was appointed Governor in 1637,
tried his very best to revive the sugar industry, which had greatly suffered
from the wars and marauding expeditions, and actually achieved what he
intended, for, when in 1644 he had to relinquish his post, Brazil had regained
its former importance as a sugar producing colony. In 1640 Portugal had
shaken off Spain's supremacy, whereupon the Portuguese, being proud of their
nationality, keenly resented the loss of Brazil, their most important colony,
and so made plans to recapture it. In 1642 the Dutch were driven away from
Maranhao, in 1645 from Tabocas and Casa Forte, and, finally, they had to give
up Recif after a long siege. Although Brazil had become Portuguese once
more, the Dutch were still living there, and carried on their sugar industry
undisturbed till, in 1655, when they were forced to leave owing to a Govern-
ment decree. This resolution, of course, dealt a heavy blow to the sugar
industry, as the manufacturers took their slaves, their capital, and their know- /
ledge with 'them, and settled in the Antilles, to continue their occupation there.
Although Brazil had been the principal sugar producing colony which supphed
the wants of the entire world, the establishment of the Dutch in the Antilles
led to competition which, in the end, got the better of Brazil. As early as the
beginning of the eighteenth century the Antilles had forged ahead of Brazil,
and gradually became the great sugar producers ; while Brazil began to lose
much of its former importance.
In 1825 Portugal acknowledged Brazil's independence, and at one time
the latter became an empire under the Emperor Don Pedro I ; but the country
suffered continually from rebellions and agitations caused by partisans from
the different provinces. Later on, from 1851 to 1854 and 1865 to 1870, Brazil
waged bloody and expensive wars with the neighbouring republics, which
ended in her acquisition of free navigation on the tributaries of the Plata River
and on the Parao^uay River, and put the Brazilian provinces in communication
with each other and with the outer world.
275
South America.
The abohtion of slavery was a question that greatly influenced the internal
state of affairs. In accordance with a contract entered into with Great Britain
in 1826, Brazil had bound herself to prohibit and to suppiess the trading in
African negi-o slaves from 1830 onwards. When, however, Brazil did not act
up to this contract, the British Parliament passed the Aberdeen Bill in 1845,
which authorized the English men-of-war to capture all slavers met in Brazilian
waters, to liberate the slaves, and to summon the dealers to British law-courts.
This action on the part of Great Britain was humiliating to the Brazilian
Government, who thereupon took good care to suppress the importation of
slaves altogether. In 1871 a bill was passed which decreed that any child that
should be born of a slave woman was to be considered free ; it also led to funds
being raised for the emancipation of slaves. Besides these measures taken
by the Government, a great many private individuals and societies took it
upon them to emancipate and redeem slaves, thus reducing their number to
a minimum. The year 1888 chronicled the total abolition of slavery without
any indemnification' to. the former owners. The latter joined the republican
party and a great many other malcontents, and in 1889 succeeded in over-
coming the monarchy and founding a republic. After some further disturbance,
in which the army and the navy took part, and which had for its object the
restoration of the monarchy, peace ensued, and has prevailed up to now.
There are two kinds of sugar factories in Brazil : the " usines," or recently
installed factories, where crystal sugar is manufactured ; and the " engenhos,"
or small sugar mills, which produce evaporated cane juice.
In 1904 the factories were divided over the several States as follows : —
State.
Usines.
1
B
c
Total,
Production.
Diffu-
sion.
Single
Crushing
Double
Crushing
Metric
Tons.
Sacks of
60 kg.
Pernambuco
I
40
6
1,500
1.547
156,000
2,600,000
Alogoas
Sergipe
Bahia
—
4
15
2
3
I
21
850
650
200
857
666
223
36,000
30,000
18,000
600,000
500,000
300,000
Parahyba Norte . .
Rio Grande Norte
—
2
I
—
100
102
151
4,000
4,000
70,000
80,000
Maranhao . .
—
2
I
60
63
3,000
50,000
Rio de Janeiro . .
I
35
5
30
71
27,000
460,000
Sao Paulo
I
6
5
20
32
15,000
250^000
Minas
■ —
3
—
50
53
2,000
40,000
Other States
—
5
—
230
235
3,000
50,000
Total . .
3
115
42
3,840
4,000
298,000
5,000,000
276
Brazil.
Although Pernambuco produces by far the greatest quantity of sugar,
the Bahia industry is much more up-to-date, as 21 of the 23 usines work with
double crushing, while most of the other States use usines with but single
crushing.
When studying the Brazil sugar industry, it is apparent that it is carried
on in three different centres, namely, in the North, in the Middle, and
in the South. The cultivation methods, both in the north and in the centre,
are practically the same, and show but little difference from the usage of by-
gone days in Brazil. Holes 8 ins. deep are dug '5 ft. apart, in which pieces of
cane 8 ins. in length are put. These are covered up with earth without any
manure ; after five weeks the soil is loosened, and the cane is left to grow for
fifteen months, at the end of which time it is ripe and very often has a high
sugar content. In the third sugar belt, the State of Sao Paulo, the cane is
better looked after, and modern cultural methods are followed. Here, in
the months September to April, the cane is planted in the following way : When-
ever new land is to be cultivated, all the trees and shrubs are cut down and
burnt, and the soil is treated with a plough or a spade. Afterwards furrows
8 ins. deep are dug about 4 ft. distant from each other, in which the tops,
I ft. long, are put in a row at 4 ins. distance from each other. In the case of
ratoons, the land to be planted is first weeded and covered with compost
manure, whereupon the ground is well ploughed up, furrows are dug, and
cuttings are planted in the same way as described above.
After about twenty days the cane has appeared, and when it has reached
a height of about 8 ins., the soil between the cane plants is loosened with
spades, a treatment which is repeated four to six times, according to the nature
of the soil. Irrigation is not applied, as rainfall, is exclusively relied upon.
In the case of a sufficiency, the cane will ripen in fourteen to sixteer* months
after planting, and it is cut from June till the middle of November, when the
rainfall is so heavy that harvesting has to be abandoned. After the cane is
cut, the dry cane leaves left in the fields are burnt, as a preventive against
borers, beetles, and other injurious pests. Then the plough goes as close as
possible to the old plants and cuts off part of the roots, thus forming a stimulus
to a new growth. The eyes bud out again, new cane stalks appear, and the
earth is loosened again, as was done for the plant cane. After twelve to four-
teen months the cane is cut again, and four to six ratoons are generally grown,
after which the cane is dug out, the land manured, ploughed up, provided with
fresh furrows, and planted anew.
The type of cane planted will greatly depend on the nature of the soil and
the situation of the estate. In the north we find Cayenne, Cristallina, Salan-
gore. Bamboo, etc., all varieties that require a warm and dry cHmate ; while
we find Louziers or Bois Rouge cane is planted in Sao Paulo. SeedUng varie-
ties are much experimented with, although they are very seldom taken up
for cultivation on a large scale.
The yield of cane depends on the variety, the nature of the soil, the rain-
277 i
South America.
fall, etc., and varies between 20 and 30 tons per acre (or 50,000 to 70,000 kg.
per hectare) for first ratoons, and a smaller quantity for further ratoons. The
sugar content is often very high, and attains to 18 per cent. Cane is planted
by colonos on land belonging to the estate, and sold to the factory. The colonos
get a free house, pasture land for their cattle, wood for fuel and timber for
sheds and storehouses.. In addition, each group receives 6 to 24 quarteis*
of land, depending on the number of persons, this land being already planted
with cane, so that the contracting party is only responsible for further labour
of maintenance and the crops, for which the colono gets 60 milreisf per quarteis
or £2 los. per acre. Supposing the yield to be twenty tons, the cane would
cost to the manufacturer £2 los. -^ 20 = 2s. 6d. per ton for maintenance and
harvesting.
Besides this class of workmen, there are also indentured labourers, who
receive unfilled soil, together with houses, pasture land and cane tops ; but
they have to look after the tilling of the soil and the cultivation of the cane.
When the cane is ripe it is cut and put on carts, and it fetches the following
market price in Sao Paulo per bag (of 60 kg.) of sugar :—
Price per bag of sugar. Price per ton of cane. '
18 milreis or less 7 milreis
18—24 .. 8
24—35 „ 10
Over 35 milreis 12 ,,
In Bahia 5 milreis is paid for a ton of cane when the price of sugar is
200 reis per kg., and for every difference of 10 reis, 300 reis is paid above or
under the standard price.
Most of the sugar is produced in small factories, " enghenos " or
" banques," and only a comparatively small part is manufactured in the
usines. The mode of preparation in the first is as follows : The cane is pressed
between a pair of hard wooden rollers, and the strained juice is boiled string-
proof in copper pans. Then the massecuite is poured into big wooden moulds
which taper, off like cones toward the bottom, which is perforated. When
the mould is being filled the holes are stopped up, but as soon as the substance
has got cold, the stoppers are taken out and the treacle runs through the holes
into a kind of gutter to the distillery, to be worked up into alcohol. Then a
thick mixture of water and clay is calpefully spread on the sugar in the moulds.
The water slowly trickles through the sugar, washes the crystals clean, and
after some time the contents are taken out of the moulds. The top layer of
sugar is white, or almost white ; the middle is yellow, and the bottom one is
brown. The two first kinds are dried on mats, and the third on the floor in
the sun, after which they are packed in calico bags containing 60 kg. or 132 lbs.
each.
* 4 quarteis = I aliquare, or 6 acres,
t I Brazilian tililreis of paper = is. 4CI.
278
Brazil.
Although the cane sometimes contains 15 per cent, of sugar, the sugar
obtained in this way is not more than 5 to 6 per cent, on the weight of cane.
Even sugar prepared in usines only stands for 9 per cent, of the weight of
cane, which is generally due to the unsatisfactory mill pressure. In these
factories the juice is strongly sulphitated, neutralized with lime, boiled, settled,
and then boiled to grain. After being cooled in wagons or tanks, the massecuite
is centrifugalled, and the runnings are boiled once more. The molasses obtained
from this process is used for the preparation of alcohol or brandy.
The output is distinguished as follows : — ■
Cristaes blancos (white sugar washed in the centrifugals).
Cristaes amarellos (" Deiperara " sugar, yellow, first product).
Mascavinhos (fine-grained, light-coloured, second product).
Mascavos (very dark-coloured after-product).
The raw sugar produced in the sugar factories is only partly consumed as
such, and most of it undergoes a refining process before it goes ii^to consump-
tion. Attempts have repeatedly been made in Brazil to purify sugar in large
refineries, as is done in Europe, but they have never been a success. In Per-
nambucd a large factory was built which was supposed to work according to
Steff ens' washing process, and to make cubes and granulated, but after a year's
working they had to stop. A second refinery was built in Campos, but no
longer exists, and has sold its machinery to raw sugar factories ; while about
eight years ago another factory was opened in Rio de Janeiro, with no better
results. These failures can only be accounted for by the high wages, excessive
prices for coal and transport charges, and the restricted demand for sugar
refined after European fashion.
The so-called " area " or sand sugar prepared in very small refineries is
much more in demand with the Brazilians, and consequently finds a readier
sale. This kmd of sugar is a smooth, moist, fine-grained product, strongly
smelling of molasses, and which contains about 2 per cent, of reducing sugars
and I to ij per cent, of ash, and has a polarization of 91°. The white sort is
prepared by dissolving the crystal sugar in water to form a syrup of 31° Be,
by clarifying with blood, and then filtering it over animal charcoal. Then the
clarified syrup is boiled to a water content of about 4 per cent, over the open fire
at 130° C, after which it is taken off the fire, a little crystalhzed sugar is put into
it, and it is stirred with a wooden trowel till the mass has become cold, dry, and
powdery. In the same way yellow sugar, the so-called " terzira," is obtained
by dissolving the " Demerara " crystals in water, and by turning the fluid into
a dry, fine-grained product, in the same way as described above, but this time
without any clarif5dng or filtering. The caramel taste and smell make this sugar
a favourite sweetening agent, for which the) pubhc is quite willing to pay a better
price than for the fine sugar refined in European fashion. While the daily
sugar consumption of Rio de Janeiro is supposed to be 1,200 bags of sugar of
132 lbs., the consumption of " terzira " is estimated at 800 to 900 bags, which
proves the popularity of this kind of sugar.
279
South America.
It does not take much skill or large well-installed factories to prepare
" terzira," and that is why it is so well fitted for the native industry, especially
carried on by shopkeepers and confectioners, who can sell their goods direct
to the public. As a large refinery cannot possibly prepare " terzira " in a
mechanical manner, and as it wants a go-between to bring it into contact with
the consumers, and finally, owing to the heavy transport expenses, can
only reach a restricted number of consumers, it is no use starting a big sugar
refinery in Brazil, as the failure of earlier results has shown.
Of late years the Brazilian Government has done what it could to promote
the sugar industry, but its efforts have been of very little avail up to the present
time. In 1875 the Government guaranteed an interest of 7 per cent, on the
capital spent in the building of central factories. The maximum number of
factories was fixed for each State, and the period was appointed when interest
and capital had to be returned. In 1881 this law was modified, and although
the guaranteed interest dropped to 6 per cent., the latter regulation had better
results than the earlier one, as the repayment was divided over a larger period.
All at once twenty concessions were granted, and a foreign company was also
started. In 1889 the provinces having become States got their own Govern-
ments, and the State of Pernambuco granted an allowance of 250 million
reis gold (according to legal currency, £28,125) to forty factoiies that were to
be capable of crushing 200 tons of cane a day. This allowance was to be
paid back by the factories concerned after the third grinding season in twenty
instalments, one each year. The allowances were increased by later laws, '
but they led to nothing tangible ; in fact, some factories they had started to
build were never finished.
Sugar cultivation and manufacture in Brazil have remained of little
consequence, and the exceedingly high costs of transportation make it im-
possible for Brazil to compete successfully with other sugar producing countries.
In 1908 a kind of sugar trust was established, the " Coligagao Assucareira,"
the members of which pledged themselves to take 20 per cent, from their
production for a combined exportation. In January, 1909, this amount was
increased to 40 per cent., but after a year it appeared impossible to carry out
this plan of keeping up the sugar prices by a large exportation, to such a height
that the losses suffered through th'e exportation might be made up for by the
greater profit the home trade would obtain. In 1906 an import duty of 200 reis
per kg. was levied, and when, owing to the above-mentioned increase in prices,
beetroot sugar could be successfully imported from Germany, the Government,
on 27th March, 1908, raised the import duty to 400 reis per kg., and this pre-
vented all further import of foreign sugar. In consequence of this, Brazil
has to rely on its own sugar production exclusively, and as the bad roads make
carriage expensive, and some States levy high export duties, whereas others
raise import duty on goods imported from other States, it is extremely difficult
to get a clean insight into the sugar trade and sugar prices of Brazil, and stil]
more sb to give an adequate survey of it. This also refers to the production
and the exportation. Sugar is being manufactured on so many small farms
280
Brazil.
and estates to be retailed to the native consumers, that all we can do is to guess
at the quantity of sugar produced.
It is just the same with the " export trade." It sometimes implies ex-
portation to foreign countries, while in other instances it includes exportation
to neighbouring States, which dual definition fnakes statistics most unreliable.
So it is only under every reserve that the following figures are given as jegards
the export trade from Brazil since 1820. Those of the years before 1889 may
be considered more reliable than those of the years following : —
1820
75,000 tons
I83I . .
83,000 „
1832 . .
91,000 „
1833 ■ •
99,000 „
1834 . •
83,000 „
1839 — 1844 yeai
-ly average .
82,500 „
1846— 1857 ..
1)
132,400 „
1869 — 1874
..
1.53.300 „
1875 ■ •
123,000 „
1876 . .
88,400 „
1877 . .
133,000 „
1878
170,540 ,.
1879 ■ •
187,540 „
1880
246,461 „
1881
161,258 „
1882 . .
\ 246,769 „
1883 . .
223,865 „
1884
329.376 „
1885 . .
274,312 „
1886 _ ..
112,340 „
1887 ' . .
226,010 „
Production ir
1 Pernambucc
1888 . . . .
186,750 tons
1896 . .
. . 159,460 tons
1889 . . . .
129,525 .,
1897 ..
.. 124,428 „
1890 . . . .
111,675 „
1898 . .
. . 131,820 ,,
1891 . . . .
156,750 „
1899 . .
. . 109,650 „
1892 . . . .
137.625 „
1900 . .
-. 128,475 „
1893 . . . .
133,200 ,,
1901 . .
■ ■ 139.441 ..
1894 . . . .
178,100 „
1902
•• 178.977 -.
1895 . . . .
208,275 „
Productioi
1 in Brazil.
1891 . . . .
185,000 tons
1897 . . . . 205,000 tons
1892
200,000 ,,
1898 . . . . 151,500 „
1893 . . . .
275,000 „
1899 . . . . 175,000 „
1894 . . . .
275,000 ,,
1900 . . . . 256,460 ,,
1895 . . . .
225,000 „
1901 . . . . 312,957 „
1896 . . . .
210,000 „
19c
)2 . .
■ • 254,693 „
281
South America.
197,000 tons
248,000 „
253,000 „
270,000 „
348,000 „
(estim.) I
The sugar exports of Brazil were destined for the following countries the
last few years, and amounted to the following quantities, expressed in long tons —
1903 ■ •
. . 187,500 tons
1908 . . . .
1904 . .
. . 197,000 „
1909 . . . .
1905 . .
. . 195,000 ,,
1910 . . . .
1906
.. 275,000 „
1911 . .
1907 . .
. , 260,000 „
1912 . . . .
I9I0/II.
1909/10. 1908/09.
1907/08.
From Pernambuco to :
Europe . .
United States . .
Argentina
Brazilian harbours
Total
6,941
144,270
35.864
1,408
15.955
93.964
151,211
147,191
36,006
11,011
6,666
118,934
172,617
380
458
3.630
89,841
94.309
1909/10.
1908/09.
1907/08.
From Maceio to :
Europe
17.311
10,329
12
United States
200
1,238
—
Argentina
434
783
—
Brazilian harbours . .
25,008
28,673
41,023
20,145
Total
42,953
20,157
From Bahia to :
Europe
no
2.975
I
United States
—
—
Argentina
—
29
62
Brazilian harbours . .
16,967
11,601
6,974
Total
17,077
14.605
7,037
Total Exportation to :
Europe
53,285
49.310
393
United States
1,608
12,249
458
Argentina
16,389
7.478
3.692
Total to foreign countries
71,282
- 69,037
4.543
To Brazilian harbours
135,939
159,208
116,960
Grand total
207,221
228,245
121,503
282
Brazil.
Opinions are divided as to the future of Brazil as a sugar producing country.
In the north the sugar industry may still be called profitable on account of
the low wages, especially as a sugar estate in that part makes a profit the
veiy first year. The conservative nature of th,e population, however, is against
the introduction of modern methods of working, as they require more labour.
Exports decrease steadily as the United States can get as much sugar
as they wish for from Cuba and Porto Rico, and consequently can do without
Brazilian sugar. The sugar prices in the country can only be kept high by
an artificial export trade ; as soon as the latter ceases, the sugar prices
will go down to such an extent that any profit will be out of the question.
Not until the cultivation and, especially, the manufacturing methods are
greatly improved, which would cause the price to fall considerably, can any
extension of the sugar industry be looked for without an artificial export
trade. On the other hand, everything is done to supplant the sugar industry
by the more profitable cotton and cacao cultivation, and this makes the near
extension of the Brazilian cane sugar industry an improbability.
Books of Reference :
United States of Brazil. A Geographical Sketch.
P. Stolle. Zeitschr. f. d. Ruben Ind. 1907, 107.
Reports of the British Consulate in Pernambuco.
Reese. Geschiedenis van den A msterdamschen Suikerhandel.
Report of Vice-Consul Rhind of an Inquiry into the Sugar Industry in Brazil.
IX.
ARGENTINA.
The extensive Argentine Republic in the south-east of South America
stretches from 22° to 56° S. Lat., has an area of 1,135,485 sq. miles, and accord-
ing to the last census has a population of 5,410,028 inhabitants, including
the half-wild nomads. As only the most northern part of Argentina lies in
the tropics, and as that part happens to be very mountainous, only a very
small portion of the country is fit for cane cultivation, 28° S. Lat. being the
hmit for its production. It is only found in the Provinces of Tucuman
(8,950 sq. miles), Salta (62,254 sq. miles), and Jujuy (19,000 sq. miles), and
in the territories Formosa (4,140 sq. miles), Chaco (55,600 sq. miles), and
Missiones (11,300 sq. miles), all of which are situated in the northern part of
the Argentine Republic.
The western part of the Provinces of Tucuman and Salta, and the whole
of Jujuy are mountainous, the mountains having tops covered with snow
and slopes decked with a luxurious vegetation. The north-west portion of
this province is a plateau over 10,000 ft. above sea-level, in part fertile and
in part barren. The eastern part of Tucuman and Salta is composed of fertile,
283
South America.
well-watered plains, exceedingly well suited for sugar cane cultivation. The
three mentioned territories consist chiefly of flat country, marshy in some
places, and covered with extensive forests in other parts. It is very thinly
populated, and rivers are the only means of transportation, as roads are still
lacking.
The average temperature and rainfall of the cane-planted area in Argentina
are as follows : —
Yearly Average
in ihe Period.
Temperature in Degrees C.
Rain in
Millimetres.
Days of
Rain.
District.
Average
Maxi-
mum.
Mini-
mum.
Average
Maxi-
mum in
a month.
Tucuman . .
Salta
Formosa . .
1855—1896
1882— 1893
1879 — 1892
19-56
17-47
21-87
40-6
35-0
40-0
-3-2
— 4-3
— 0-5
935-3
551-4
328-0
408-0
65
46
The atmospheric moisture, as a rule, is low, which makes the heat quite
bearable in the warm season ; the nights, moreover, are cool. During Septem-
ber and October a scorching north wind will all at once be followed by a cold
south wind, so that the people there may experience in one day changes in
temperature of 27° F. (15° C). In winter time the temperature at times falls
below zero, much to the detriment of the cane, which it affects in weight and
sugar content, but although it makes the leaves wither and brown, the frost
never kills the cane outright.
In the cane cultivating districts, the rainy season is from October to March,
and the dry one from April to September.
In 1901 some 8,350,000 acres of the area of Argentina were cultivated,
115,000 of which formed cane areas. These figures have not undergone any
material change since.
The Argentine cane sugar industry has only recently sprung up. In
1871 the total sugar production only amounted to 1,000 tons, but since then it
has developed rapidly, owing to several causes. First of all, the Government
levied a high import duty on foreign sugar, so that the price of sugar in the
interior went up, thus encouraging production ; secondly, there was a con-
siderable margin between the inland silver currency with which the cane was
paid for, and the foreign gold currency after which foreign countries fix the
world's price. In consequence of these advantag,es, the sugar production
increased so much that in 1894 it exceeded the requirements of consumption,
and imported sugar was no longer necessary ; some sugar was even left unsold.
This led to an excess of production in the Argentine Republic, to get rid of
284
Argentina.
which the Government granted an export premium, with the result that a con-
siderable amount of sugar was exported, chietly to Great Britain. At the
same time, the manufacturers formed a cartel to limit the amount of sugar
produced, and this actually led to a much smaller annual output than was
realized during 1894 and i8g6. This decrease had become necessary, as exporta-
tion did not run as smoothly as was desired ; the neighbouring South American
States, for instance, barring their frontiers to Argentine sugar. The United
States levied compensatory duties over and above their ordinary import duty ;
and Great Britain, too, was expected before long to put a stop to the importa-
tion of bounty-fed sugar. It was therefore resolved to hmit the production
in the following manner : A fixed quantity of 71,500 tons was contingented
over all the then existing factories in Tucuman, so that every one of the twenty-
one smaller factories was allowed to produce a quantity of 1,000 to 4,500 tons
exempted from duty, while the two biggest factories respectively came in for
8,500 and 20,000 tons. A duty of half a peso (paper) had to be paid on every
100 kg. in excess, while factories not yet in operation when this law was enacted
would have to pay this duty on a quarter of their produce. Part of this money
was to go towards a fund for indemnifying such planters as would abandon
the planted cane or destroy it, or do anything except work it up to alcohol or
sugar. The indemnification was 60 pesos per acre for a successful plantation,
and less for an unsuccessful one. Then some of the money was used for the pay-
ment of an export bounty to the amount of 16 centavos (paper) per kg., while
the rest went to the Exchequer.
Through the Brussels Convention this export bounty was rendered futile,
as all the countries adhering to the Convention pledged themselves to levy a
special duty on bounty-fed sugar amounting to the sum of the bounty ; hence
offering a premium was useless, and sugar receiving a bounty was on neither a
better nor a worse footing than sugar without one. In 1905 both premium and
sugar duty were abandoned, and only an import duty of 9 centavos (gold)
per kg. sugar of 96° and of 7 centavos per kg. brown sugar was maintained.
From 1st June, 1912, the import duty is fixed at o-o88 pesos (gold) per kg,
on refined sugar or sugar polarizing over 96°, to be diminished each year by 0-002
till ist July, 1921, when it will be 0-070 pesos. Sugar under 96° pays o-o68 pesos
per kg., with a decrease by 0-002 till a minimum of 0-05. In case the sugar
prices rise over 4-10 pesos per 100 kg., these duties will be reduced. Over and
above these duties, Argentina levies additional duties from bounty-fed foreign
sugar, in accordance with the stipulations of the Brussels Convention.
Nowadays the production covers the consumption ; a little sugar is some-
times imported or exported, but within recent years Argentina has supplied
its own wants. No excise is levied, no export duty is paid ; consequently, the
inland manufacturer enjoys all the protection of the import duty, which now
amounts to iSsh. 3d. per cwt. of sugar of 96° polarization, and to i6sh. per
cwt. of brown sugar. '*
285
South America.
The production during the last twenty-two years has been as follows, in
metric tons : —
1890
40,000
1901
1891
40,000
1902
1892
75,000
1903
1893 .
75,000
1904
1894 .
103,000
1905
1895 .
130,000
1906
1896
163,000
1907
1897 .
111,617
1908
1898
75.538
1909
1899 .
90,268
1910
1900
117,208
1911
158,154
123,081
142,895
128,104
130,596
114,000
91,488
161,772
124,811
143,000
180,092
Generally only one cane variety is planted, i.e., a hard, dark-coloured kind
which the Spanish brought from Peru or Mexico years ago. There are other
kinds on trial, among which are some good varieties from Java, but these
are not yet in general use. The furrows are dug about 3 ft. distance from
each other, in which the pieces of cane are put in a row. Tops are not made use
of, and the cane to be planted is neither selected nor disinfected. Planting is
generally done in September or October, that is at the beginning of the rainy
season. On most of the estates the cane is irrigated by water from the Rio
Sali or other streams ; artificial manure is hardly ever applied, and stable
manure not at all. The cane is weeded, banked, and cut as low down as possible
as soon as it is ripe. When they are not afraid of frost, first and second ratoons
are kept as many as five times ; but in places where the cane is apt to be frost-
bitten the planter prefers to plant afresh every year. The cane suffers from
borers and fungous diseases, but no measures are taken to protect them from
these. One can hardly wonder at the poor crops this kind of cane yields,
considering the unfavourable condition of the soil and the small amount of
care taken. They reap 9 to 15 tons of cane per acre if the soil is bad, 11 to
17 tons from average soil, and fully 18 tons on selected land. Though the
cultivation may be in a poor state, the factories are in very good condition,
being large and well installed, and equipped with the newest inventions.
The cane is taken to the factories by rail, and thrown on the mill-carriers
by means of mechanical dischargers. All the mills are driven by steam ;
there is triple-crushing with maceration, sulphitation of the juice, crystallization-
in-motion, in short everything that is newest and best. The sugar that is
prepared is chiefly white sugar of 98° polarization, while the molasses are
worked up to alcohol. Some factories manufacture pure white sugar for
consumption, but most of them send their produce to the sugar refineries in
Rosario.
As the cane is very poor, the yield of sugar is small, even if the manufacture
of the sugar from the cane is as thorough as possible. In 1907 the yield was 6^50
286
Argentina.
per cent, of the weight on cane, and in 1908 it was on an average 8-15 per cent. ;
while the maximum for a factory was 10-03 per cent., covering the whole crop,
and the minimum 5-61 per cent.
In Tucuman there are 29 sugar factories, 27 of which worked in 1911.
The 27 combined ground 2,008,805 tons of cane in that year, and obtained
152,965 tons of sugar, or 7-65 per cent.
In the other provinces there are thirteen factories, which have a total pro-
duction of : —
Tucuman . .
Jujuy
Salta
Chaco
Other provinces
152,965 tons in 27 factories.
23,026 ,, ,, 3
1,176 ,, ,, 2
1,907 .. .. 4
1,019 „ .- 4 ,,
Total . . . . 180,092 tons in 40 factories.
One can easily imagine that, considering the low price cane fetches, the
cost price of sugar, even for well-installed factories, must be very high,
being, for instance, £18 per ton of sugar. Therefore, but for the fiscal
protection the Argentine sugar industry would soon come to an end ; with these
duties, it is a profitable business so long as the production does not exceed the
home consumption, for if the production can supply the country's wants, as
happens to be the case now, the sugar manufacturers enjoy the protection of
these high import duties. Even in case of a slight surplus the manufacturers
need not be alarmed, for the profit made on sugar for home consumption would
be considerable enough to make up for any possible loss on the export of the
surplus sugar. Only when the production appreciably exceeds the home con-
sumption shall we have a repetition of the 1895 experience, and export premiums
have to be resorted to in order to get rid of the sugar.
These export premiums, however, could not have existed any longer,
according to the Brussels Convention, if Great Britain in igo8 had not got
herself exempted fiom the regulation that bounty-fed sugar if imported should
be specially taxed to an amount equivalent to the bounty ; but now Great
Britain again allows bounty-fed sugar from countries where the difference
between excise and import duty exceeds 6 francs per 100 kg. of white sugar
and 5-50 francs per 100 kg. of raw. Any considerable export trade from the
Argentine Republic is out of the question just now ; the production just covers
the consumption, and this condition is not likely to change.
Books of Reference :
Revista Azucarera.
Handbook for the Argentine Republic.
Revista Industrial y Agricola de Tucuman.
287
South America.
PARAGUAY.
' Paraguay is a republic, entirely surrounded by land, and lies in the centre
of South America, between 22° 4' and 27" 30' S. Lat., and between 54° 32'
and 61° 20' W. Long. It has an area of 112,000 sq. miles, and its population
in 1889 amounted to 636,571 inhabitants, 100,000 6f whorn are Indians.
The climate may be described as pleasant ; it rains through all the year,
so that no long spell of drought can cause harm to vegetation. The average
temperature of the capital, Asuncion, is 22 — 23° C. (72° F.), and the average
difference between summer (October to March) and winter (April to September)
temperatures is about 6° C. (11° F.). The maximum reading of the ther-
mometer in Asuncion has been 41° C. (io5°8- F.), but for years at a time the
temperature has never been higher than 37° C. (98° F.), while the minimum
temperature is 2 to 3° C. (37° F.), and is consequently never below zero.
The average rainfall during the period 1877 and 1891 has been as follows
(expressed in mm.) : —
Month.
Total.
Maximum.
Minimum.
January . .
/
146
390
46
February . .
140
610
32
March
'
190
321
53
April
174
445
37
May
134
288
II
June
85
232
14
July . . .
70
121
16
August
56
131
5
September
99
167
29
October . .
162
204
42
November . .
135
253
25
December
153
262
64
Total .. ■ .. J
1,554 mm-
or 61 -2 ins.
Sugar cane is planted in aU parts of the Republic, and the sugar cane
cultivation is by far the most profitable of all the crops, as owing to the favour-
ably moist climate and the absence of periods of drought, cane can grow with
great ease without any trouble or expense, and may be reaped regularly for
five to fifteen years from the same stools. It does not need any other treatment,
288
Paraguay.
but that of planting and reaping and occasional weeding and loosening of the
soil after each crop. Up to some time ago, the canes were exclusively crushed
in wooden mills driven by oxen, and the juice was not concentrated beyond a
thick syrup, which was stored in bags of cowhide ; but now even on small
estates there are iron mills, while much sugar in crystallized form is cured
by centrifugalhng. t
In 1901 the cane-planted area in Paraguay amounted to 26,000 acres,
and one acre of cane land is expected to yield on an average twelve tons of
cane, of which a greater or smaller amount of sugar may be gained according
to the power of the mills. Besides sugar and syrup, brandy is made from
the cane juice. Apart from innumerable small factories, there are several
big ones in Paraguay, the biggest of which is on the Tebicuary River, near
Villa Rica, with an output of 350 to 400 tons of sugar yearly. The production
of the country is, however, much below its requirements ; hence, the importa-
tion of about 250 to 300 tons of sugar each year.
A duty of 70 per cent, of the value is paid on sugar when imported into
Paraguay, while raw sugar in bags, imported via Villa Encarnacion, to be used
on the Paraguay tea or " mat^ " estates, enjoys a reduction of 25 per cent., and
when imported via San Jose a reduction of 10 per cent, on the duty.
289
Africa.
MADEIRA.
The Isle of Madeira lies in the Atlantic Ocean, about 450 miles from th-j
African coast, between 33" 37' and 32° 51' N. Lat., and between 16° 37' and
17'' 16' W. Long. It has an area of 286 sq. miles, its greatest length being
38 miles, and its greatest width 15 miles. It is a very mountainous country,
rising steeply from the sea and forming a lofty ridge, the highest point of which
is 5,500 ft. above sea level. Its climate is uniformly warm : the average
yearly temperature on the south coast is i8'8°C. (65° F.), and that on the
north coast a little less. There is no greater difference between winter and
summer temperatures for any given place than 6° C. (11° F.). The average
rainfall amounts to 28 ins. The population, amounting to 132,000 people,
consists chiefly of Portuguese ; there are also Italians, Moors, and descendants
of the negroes formerly imported as slaves.
Funchal is the only place of importance. Madeira was known to exist
as early, or earlier, than the Middle Ages ; but it did not attain any importance
till the Portuguese colonized it on one of their exploring voyages to the west
and south. It was taken possession of by them in 1410, to become Spanish
in conjunction with Portugal in 1580. In 1640 it was restored to Portugal,
as soon as the latter became an independent country again ; save for a short
period of Enghsh occupation, 1807 to 1814, it has been, and still is, a Portuguese
possession.
The first Portuguese colonists took sugar cane from Sicily to Madeira,
where the fertile disintegrated basalt soil was excellent ground for the cane
to thrive in, promoted by the mild and lovely climate. After the Portuguese
had penetrated more southwards, and had settled in Guinea, they used to
send negro slaves from this part to Madeira to till the ground. The cane
sugar industry rose to a then unknown height, in consequence of which the
centre of this branch of industry was moved from the Mediterranean coast to
the Portuguese colonies in West Africa. This was not to last long, however,
for as soon as America was discovered the Spanish and Portuguese colonists
took sugar cane to the tropical countries, which proved to have a still better
soil, and the cultivation of cane there yielded such a plentiful supply of sugar,
290
Madeira.
sold at a very low price, that this industry soon got ahead of that of Madeira.
In course of time the sugar cultivation has more than once been wrecked
by diseases and pests. In 1502 the cane was ruined by borers, after which
it was planted afresh. As such calamities caused repeated harm, the status
of the cane cultivation naturally fluctuated. As a rule, cane cultivation and
vine growing were alternately of first importance. During the years 1846
to 1852 the vineyards were damaged by Oidium (a fungous disease), in conse-
quence of which they were turned into cane fields by their owners. In 1864
the cultivation of the vine was taken up again, but was attacked by the Phyl-
loxera in 1873 ; but later on it became increasingly important, and now
again forms the principal factor of the export trade. Since a law was promul-
gated, in 1903, for the promotion of the sugar industry, the state of affairs
has been as follows : The planting of sugar cane is free, so is the manufacture
of biandy from it, but the manufacture of sugar and the strong class of alcohol
so necessary for Madeira wine is a monopoly only granted to two factories.
One of these two only makes alcohol, but the other both alcohol and sugar.
The fact is, there are a great many cane planters in the island who sell their
cane, as it is, to the factories, or crush it themselves and work the juice up intO'
brandy. They sell retail as much brandy as they like ; while the rest is taken
to the factories, where it is worked up to alcohol of high strength. The factories
are obliged to buy all the cane and brandy offered them. Against the obligation
of buying the cane at the extremely high price of £3 6s. 8d. per ton, there is
the monopoly they have in the manufacture of sugar and of alcohol, large
quantities of which are wanted for wine making, and the reduction allowed
them in the import duty of £1 5s. per ton on imported foreign molasses, which
can be used for distilling alcohol, and often is of such a good quality that it
still yields a fair amount of sugar first. Another privilege of the factory is the
right to introduce sugar exempjt from duty into Portugalj while foreign sugar
is heavily taxed when imported into that country. This duty amounts to
120 reis* per kg. {£j. 4s. per cwt.) for sugar below No. 20 D.S. and 145 reis
per kg. {£1 9s. per cwt.) for sugar above No. 20 D.S., which shows that Madeira
sugar enjoys a good premium, and accounts for the sugar industry existing in
that island. But for this protection the industry could not possibly be carried
on, for, as it is, it is far from being an important one, as will be shown further on.
The regulation mentioned above had its drawbacks, as the small planters
began to grow great quantities of cane, and supplied the factories with such
large amounts of cane and brandy that the latter could easily get sugar and
alcohol enough from this source to supply Portugal's whole demand for sugar,
and to fiu-nish Madeira with alcohol. The importation of beet sugar molasses
from Hamburg was therefore no longer necessary. This did away with the
advantage of a reduced import duty which the monopolists were to enjoy on
molasses imported from abroad, and consequently upset their calculations.
Every now and then the quantity of sugar to be imported free into Portugal
* 1,000 reis = 4s.
291
Africa.
has to be fixed, as the Uteral regulation about free importation, dating from
the time when the total production was about i,ooo tons of sugar, may become
a great tax on Portugal's Exchequer, should the sugar production and im-
portation from Madeira increase too much.
For some years the hard British Indian cane variety, the Uba, has been
planted in order to prevent attacks of disease among the canes, and has proved
a success. Sugar cane is planted on the lowest levels near the coast, and is
generally taken to the factory in carts when the crushing season begins in
March. The factory is installed with mills, and the bagasse diffusion system
of Naudet gives satisfaction here, though in other places, e.g., in Cuba and
Porto Rico, it was not satisfactory, chiefly on account of the heavy expense
for fuel. This seems strange, but this apparent contradiction may be explained
by the fact that cane in Cuba and Porto Rico need not cost more than los.
per ton, whereas in Madeira it never costs less than £3 6s. So it is in the
latter country quite worth while to spend some money on tr5dng to extract
from this costly raw material as great a percentage of sugar as possible ; while
in other countries, where cane is cheap, it pays better not to go to any great
expense, and to leave some sugar in the bagasse than to incur the heavy cost
of total extraction.
During the last eleven years the production of cane and the use made of it
have been as foUows (expressed in metric tons) : —
Year.
Total
Cane.
Cane for
Sugar.
Cane for
Alcohol.
Year.
Total
Cane.
Cane for
Sugar.
Cane for
Alcohol.
1900 . . . .
1901 • . . . .
1902 . . . .
1903 . . . .
1904
1905 . . . .
30,000
21,000
25,000
19,000
20,000
28,000
12,000
6,000
8,000
6,000
8,000
14,000
18,000
15,000
17,000
13,000
12,000
14,000
1906 . .
1907.. ..
1908 . . . .
1909.. ..
I910.. ..
33,000
45,000
50,000
60,000
68,000
20,000
21,000
24,000
33,000
36,000
13,000
24,000
26,000
27,000
32,000
The yield of sugar in 1906 amounted to 1,800 tons, or 9 per cen^. ; in 1907
to 1,840 tons, or 8-8 per cent. ; in 1908 to 2,125 tons, or 9-1 per cent. About
700 tons of this sugar were exported to Lisbon and Oporto in 1908, while the
rest was used for home consumption. The export to Portugal was 1,650
tons in 1909.
This all shows that while the conditions are unnatural, and a monopolist
has to pay ten times as much for his cane as many of his fellowmen in tropical
countries have for theirs, the sugar industry can only be carried on on a small
scale, and should be considered rather in the light of a relic of a greater past,
than as a vital branch of present-day industry.
292
The Canary Islands.
THE CANARY ISLANDS.
The Canary Isles, lying in the Atlantic Ocean, between 27° 30' and 29° 30'
N. Lat., and 13° 17' and 18° 10' W. Long., form a Spanish province, and consist
of seven large and five smaller inhabited islands. Their total area amounts
to 3,000 sq. miles, and they have a population of 360,000 inhabitants.
After the voyages of exploration at the end of the fifteenth and the begin-
ning of the sixteenth centuries, these islands were colonized, and from that
time dates the introduction of the sugar industry, which soon began to flourish,
so that Canary sugar was known as a good commercial product as early as the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. But competition with American cane,
and later on with European beetroot sugar, caused the Canary industry to
decrease in importance, till gradually it became of no consequence. Grand
Canary is the only island where" sorhe cane is still cultivated ; everywhere
else its production is nil. The soil once utilized for cane cultivation is gradually
being used for the banana export trade. The amount of sugar these islands
yield does not supply the wants of the small population ; as a matter of fact,
beetroot sugar has to be imported every year in increasing amount. About
1900 the sugar imported from England and Germany only amounted to 200
to 300 tons, but in 1909 it had risen to 600 tons.
III.
ANGOLA.
Only a little sugar cane is cultivated near the harbour of Benguela, in
the Dombe Grande District, belonging to the large Portuguese colony of Angola,
which stretches along the south-west coast of Africa, between 6° and 17° S. Lat.
and 12° and 25° W. Long., and has an area of 509,000 sq. miles and a population
of 4,180,000 inhabitants. An extensive plain is found running from the sea
to Lobita, through which will pass the projected railway to Katanga, in the
Congo.
The principal sugar estate of Angola is the Parceria Santa Theresa do
Luracho ; it does not, however, produce sugar, it simply works up the cane
juice to rum, to be sold to the natives. More recently the duty on the manu-
facture of spirits has been increased so much on account of the Alcohol Conven-
tion that profit is out of the question, and for this reason cane cultivation on
those estates has been supplanted by that of cotton and oil palms.
The " Companhia do Dombe Grande " used to occupy itself exclusively
with the preparation of rum, but it has recently begun to work up cane to sugar.
Further, there are some smaller estates where cotton, tobacco, and oil palms
293
Africa.
are grown instead of cane, so that the cultivation of sugar cane in this colony
is very restricted.
Great things were expected from the privilege Portugal held out to its
African colonies, namely, a reduction of 50 per cent, in the import.duty into
Portugal for a maximum of 6,000 tons for each colony, which is equal to a
premium of ^fii 17s. per ton of raw sugar, as the full duty is 120 reis per kg.
on raw, and 145 reis per kg. on white sugar. But in spite of this handsome
preferential treatment, the manufacture and export of sugar in Angola have
remained insignificant, and there is no present indication of a revival.
IV.
LIBERIA.
A little sugar cane is cultivated and a little cane sugar manufactured
in the Liberian Republic, lying between 8° and 12° W. Long, and 4° and 9°
N. Lat. on the west coast of Africa. This cane is chiefly found on the banks
of the St. Paul, Cavalla, and other rivers, the soil of which seems exceedingly
well fitted for canes and capable of producing very tall and heavy t5rpes.
When virgin soil is to be planted with cane, the shrubs are cut in January
and the trees in February, and two or three weeks afterwards the rubbish is
burnt and cane tops are planted in shallow furrows in the untilled soil. After
the cane is banked and the weeds are removed between the rows, the cane is
left to grow undisturbed, to be finally cut a year after the planting time. Then
first, second, and third ratoons are kept, after which fresh tops are planted.
Only syrup, as a rule, is made from the cane, the juice being concentrated
and sold in tins of 5 gallons or 25 litres. Sugar is also made by evaporating
the juice a little further, and by pouring it into barrels when sufficiently con-
centrated, where it is left to cool and crystallize. After being boiled the
crystallized massecuite is scooped into barrels with a perforated bottom, which
allows the molasses to trickle through, and leaves behind crystals that are sold
locally. Cane juice, as well as treacle and molasses, is worked up to rum,
which is easily sold.
White sugar is not manufactured in Liberia, being only imported from
Europe. The industry is only of very recent date. Both capital and enterprise
are lacking in Liberia, and this prevents the industry from becoming important ;
and in spite of an import duty of a little more than 3d. per pound of brown
sugar and id. per pound of white sugar, the home production is not sufficient
to supply the consumption, however little this may be. Exact figures as
regards the sugar production are not to be obtained, and the data that are
given only refer to isolated cases, and not to the conditions in general.
294
Egypt.
EGYPT.
Only that part of Egypt stretching along the banks of the Nile is devoted
to the cane sugar industry, that is from a little south of Cairo up to Assouan,
near the Sudanese frontiers. This tract covers a distance of 4° to 30° N. Lat.,
but although this stretch of land is of considerable extent as regards length,
it is only of restricted width, being limited by the narrow Nile Valley, which is
only a few miles broad at its narrowest part, and twelve miles at its widest,
the desert stretching away from it on both sides. The ground fit for cane
cultivation is chiefly situated on the left bank of the Nile, as on the right bank
the desert mountains reach to the river in many places. For this very reason
all the factories have been built on the left bank. Rainfall is very scanty in
these parts. There are years in which there is no rain at all, so that the humidity
of the air falls to a very low figure. Indeed, were it not for irrigation, cane culti-
vation would be impossible ; but on the big estates it is splendidly carried out,
and large pumping stations exist to pump up the river water and by means of
canals to irrigate the cane throughout the year with the necessary water.
Small fields are irrigated by means of water-wheels, which are moved by
buffaloes or by hand-power. In order to increase the irrigated area, the
Government in 1902 had a large dam erected across the Nile, near Assouan,
through which large reservoirs are filled at the time of the annual rise of the
Nile (in the months of June and September), to be drawn from during the dry
months. In the cane districts the temperature varies between 28° and 43° C.
(82° and 110° F.) during the summer months, and between 10° and 30° C.
(50° and 86° F.) during the winter. The nights generally are cool ; in winter
sometimes they are so cold as to have the sugar canes nipped by frost, an
inevitable loss to the planters. While Egypt in the Middle Ages was known
for the extent of its cane plantations and the skilfulness of its inhabitants in
manufacturing sugar of all sorts therefrom, the industry ceased altogether in
1517, when Egypt was conquered by the Turks, who ruined the country out-
right. As a matter of fact, some sugar cane was still planted and a little sugar
was manufactured subsequently, but it Wcis no longer an industry worthy of
the name, and not till the beginning of the nineteenth century was the manu-
facture resumed on a practical scale. In 1850 Ismael Pasha ordered sugar
cane to be brought from Jamaica, and in 1855 the Government began to en-
courage the manufacture of sugar ; but it was not till 1877 that a well-estab-
lished national sugar industry began to exist. The factories no longer belonged
to the Khedive, but fell to a Government Committee, the Dariah Sanieh, which
was not long in building several factories, and in 1896 it could boast of an
output exceeding 75,000 tons of sugar. At that time cotton only fetched very
low prices, so that sugar cane was the most profitable plant ^for the fellahs to
grow ; but when the price of cotton went up and better profits were promised,
295
Africa.
they no longer planted sugar cane exclusively. In 1893 a French Society,
called the " Society Generale des Sucreries d'Egypte," began to manufacture
sugar, and for this purpose built three large factories, which as early as 1900
produced as much as 30,000 tons of sugar. In 1903 the Darieh Sanieh sold its
nine factories (not the planting area) to the " Societe Generale," which thus
almost got the monopoly of sugar manufacture in Egypt. There are still a few
small factories that occasionally work, but their sugar production is not worth
mentioning. The " Societe " shut up some of the newly-acquired factories,
and kept en working with the others, but the amount of cane that was brought
to the mills was not sufficient to make them run at their full capacity, and so
their profits were almost nil. In 1905 there was a big financial crisis also
affecting the business, but all this seems now to belong to the past, and the
company expect soon to extend their cane-planted area, and to increase the
quantity of cane to be crushed.
In 1898 — 1899 Egypt had an area under cane of 88,000 acres ; in 1903
— 1904 it had gone down to 50,000 ; and in 1907 — 1908, the worst year on
record, it only touched 40,000 ; but at present the area seems to be increasing.
In 1905 — 1906 685,000 tons of cane were worked up, 5delding 63,634 tons
of sugar ; in 1906 — 1907 the figures were 415,000 and 41,664 ; in 1907 — 1908
they were 253,459 ^^^ 28,541 respectively ; while in 1908— 1909 359,360 tons
of cane were brought to the mill, and 34,844 tons of sugar were produced ;
and in 1909 — 1910 553,376 tons of cane were worked up, which yielded 59,279
tons of sugar. The figures for 1910 — 1911 were 472,344 tons of cane, and 49,403
of sugar.
The present existing sugar factories and their capacities are as follows : —
Factories
of the " Soci(
;te Generale."
Group Ibrahimieh
!
■
Bibeh . .
1,800 tons of
cane per 24 hours (closed)
Mattai . .
1,800 „
J, It It
Abou Kourgas . .
2,000 ,,
1) tt 11
Rodah . .
1,800 ,
(closed)
Cheick Fadl
1,500 „
,, ,, ,,
Southern Group :
Nag Hamadi . .
2,500 „
,, ,, ,,
Ernant . .
1,000 ,,
It tt It
Motana . .
500 „
ti 11 tt
Kom Ombo
3,000 „
It It tt
Factories belonging to other owners :
Tarchont . . (closed).
Beni Kora
Belianeh
Egyptian Sugar and Land Co. (closed).
Demeus . . 2,000 tons of sugar yearly.
296
Egypt.
In addition, the " Societe " possesses a very big refinery at El Hawamdieh,
which deals with not only the raw sugar from its working factories, but
also raw sugar imported from other countries. This refinery is capable of
working up 230 tons of sugar daily ; in 1909 it worked up 49,354 tons of sugar,
20,040 tons of which came from its own factories, while 29,314 tons were raw
Java sugar. In 1910 the amount of raw sugar worked up was 60,000 tons.
The manufacturers buy the cane from the planters, who are either big
estate owners or small farmers who rent a few acres and plant cane on them.
The ground destined for cane growing is ploughed up in the autumn, and after-
wards is tilled two or three times in February of the next year. In the same
month the furrows are dug ^it'ith a spade or a plough, 8 ins. deep, and soon after
pieces of cane 16 to 20 ins. long are planted in two rows in the furrows. Not
only are tops used for this purpose such as are employed in most of the other
sugar-producing countries, but all of the cane is cut into lengths. Large
quantities of cane are used as seed, namely, 6,700 lbs. per acre. This is done
in the months of March and April, the planted cane is covered with earth and
watered. Then they start to irrigate ; ten days later they irrigate once more, and
keep this up till the end of October, after which the intervals are fourteen to
twenty days, according to the appearance of the cane, while irrigation is stopped
after October in order to give the cane opportunity to ripen. Reaping is begun
at the end of December, and kept up till the beginning of April, at the end of
the grinding season. The cane variety most in use up to a short time ago was
a red kind very much like Bourbon cane, which will thoroughly ripen in the
short time allowed it. The " Societe Generale " has recently ordered cane
from Java, and has had the cuttings distributed arriong the cane farmers.
This kind of cane is said to yield 25 to 30 per cent, more cane than the old
types. It is nothing extraordinary that on growing these improved tops the
quantity of cane obtained should increase, considering that the Arabs, who
have to supply their own sets, were formerly in the habit of having the attacked,
diseased, damaged, or fallen stalks, which they could not sell to the factory, for
this very purpose. The manure they use is stable dung and " ruins " manure ;
but pigeons' dung from caves, and, recently, artificial manures have also been
used.
When the cane is cut, camels convey it to the railways, by which it is
carried to the factory ; as a rule, one ratoon crop is grown after a crop of plant
cane ; then the land is sown with cotton or beans, and lies fallow a whole year ;
after which period it is planted with cane again, so that once every four years
, cane is planted in the same field.
The yield of cane very much depends on the kind of soil and the disposable
quantity of irrigation water ; while the temperature during the vegetative
period also influences the yield. On an average 24 tons of cane per acre are
expected from plant cane and 16 tons from ratoons.
The factories buy the cane at 1575 frs. per ton, so that for a production
of fifty tons of cane per hectare, it realizes 787-50 frs. and 15-50 frs. for dry
leaves, amounting altogether to 803 frs.
297
Africa.
The " Soci6te Generale's " greatest trouble is want of cane, their factories
being so vast and well installed that they might easily work up much larger
quantities than they have done lately. The " Societe " therefore does its
very best to encourage cane cultivation. Owing to the high price of land,
it is not possible to plant its own cane, but it is willing to advance money to
planters to improve the roads, and is disposed to give a better price for cane
coming far, and consequently having to pay heavier transportation charges. All
these measures seem to have taken effect, and the once steadily decreasing
quantity of cane to be worked up has changed into an increasing amount.
As has been said before, the factories are estabhshed on a good basis,
and are installed throughout with the newest machinery. For want of suffi-
cient cane brought to the mill, this modern installation does not show to ad-
vantage, but should the factories ever work at full capacity they would deal
with tremendous quantities of cane most economically and with a minimum
of loss. They generally manufacture but one kind, that is raw sugar for the
refinery, and occasionally white sugar for direct consumption. The molasses
is distilled to alcohol.
The average yield amounts to
—
1st product . .
9-80 per cent.
on
100 cane
2nd
0-45 ..
100 „
3rd ,. .. ..
0-17 „
100 „
In all . .
10-42 per cent.
on
100 ,,
Molasses
2-25 per cent.
on
100 ,,
Total production
12-67 psr cent.
on
100 ,,
In the last years of the working of the Dariah Sanieh, the yield was : —
1895 9-60 1899 9-32
1896 .. .. .. 10-23 1900 9"95
1897 .. .. .. 11-02 1901.. .. .. 10-39
1898 8-79
In the year 1906 — 1907 the statistics of the five factories belonging to
" Societe Generale de Sucreries and de la Raffinerie d'Egypt " were as
the
follows : —
TonB of
Cane
Worked.
Sugar
OouTeut
of
Cane.
Yield.
Production
in Tons.
Cost of
Factory
- Firi-t
Product
Second
Product.
Total.
in f re.
per 100 kg.
Mattai
Aboukourgas
Nag Hamadi
Cheikh Fadl
Ernant
40,671
73.590
147,520
97,180
55.905
, 12-75
12-91
12-49
12-66
13-18
9-56
10-37
9-86
10-22
10-03
0-75
0-21
0-95
10-31
10-58'
9-86
10-22
io-g8
3.891
7.633
14.597
9.934
5,609
28-42
23-62
28-42
24-81
24-47
Average and total
414,866
12-73 10-03
0-13
10-16 41,664
26-14
298
Egypt.
In 1910 the average yield was 1071 per cent, of sugar of 96-4 per cent,
polarization. Since November ist, 1909, the following regulation about
import duties and excises has been issued for the ensuing ten years :—
1. On all foreign sugar imported by the Societe Generale up to 31st
October, 1910, a duty of 5 per cent, ad valorem was to be paid, while 20 piastres
(4s.) is to be paid on home produce (this duty used to be 7s. on the first 40,000
tons and 6s. for the rest).
2. The import duty was to be 64 per cent, ad valorem from ist November,
1910, till 31st October, 1911.
3. It is now 8 per cent., dating from ist November, 1911, till the end of
the agreement, while the rate of excise duty will rest at 4s. per ton.
4. The total amount of the excise should not be less than 10,000 Egyptian
pounds* ; while, on the other hand, nothing should be paid in excess to what
it used to be at the time of the 7s. and 6s. tariff.
5. Beginning with ist November, 1909, the paid excise was to be returned
in case sugar should be exported, namely, in such a manner that the returned
excise should never exceed the excise of the preceding year.
The total production of Egypt has been for the last fifteen years, expressed
in metric tons : —
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
101,000
80,000
88,000
98,500
95,000
98,000
70,000
60,000
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908 . ,
1909.,
1910 . ,
1911. ,
60,000
63,634
41,664
25,541
34,844
55,330
49,403
Besides this quantity of locally produced sugar, Egypt imports a consider-
able amount of sugar, which is shown by the following table : —
Sugar Imports
into Egypt in 1
ons.
Origin.
1904.
1905.
1906.
1907.
1908.
1909.
1910.
England
10
12
20
II
8
Germany
35
22
11.751
245
191
368
125
Austria
43
8,860
13,012
16,837
4.155
, 7,815
10,927
Belgium
28
555
3.279
81
—
—
—
Java
6,227
17.416
6,415
3.093
11,108
i?,584
19,790
France...
3
168
1,041
10
10
—
—
Russia
11,540
11,973
—
4,610
37.792
22,404
1.371
Total
20,;94
39,409
34.419
24,890
53,255
49.171
32.213
•^ 1 £E = 20s. 6d.
299
Africa.
In 1911 Egypt imported 25,493 tons of sugar.
Egypt used to export much sugar to Turkey and Asia Minor, and candy
to the champagne vineyards in France. The latter buy their candy from
Egypt because they think cane sugar the only sugar that wiU not interfere
with the taste of the champagne. In 1906 the exports came to £45,000, in
1907 to £38,250 ; in 1908 some 11,377 ^Jags of sugar of 100 kg. were exported
to Djeddah, and 5,284 bags to Rheims, which showed a great decrease. In
1909 the total export of sugar was 5,868 tons, chiefly to Turkey and Arabia ;
in 1910, 6,384 tons, of which 5,828 went to Turkey ; while the 1911 exportations
amounted to 10,821 tons. The increased consumption of Egypt and the Sudan
takes up nearly all the sugar produced and refined in Egypt, and allows of a
considerable amount being imported into those countries as well. In 1908 —
1909 the consumption for Egypt and the Sudan was 78,457 tons of sugar,
61,740 of which were provided by the " Societ6 Gen^rale," while the rest was
imported. The consumption m 1910 — 1911 amounted to 80,527 tons. Egypt
can easily produce a larger quantity, of sugar than it does at present without
having to be afraid of over-production in its own country ; and since the
" Societe Generale " does what it can to improve the quality of the cane, and
to advance money to the farmers, and to encourage them to grow cane, the cane
production is likely to exceed the crops of the last few years ; the factories are
quite capable of working up much more cane than they have done, which shows
that the Egyptian sugar production has dwindled solely for lack of cane. As
the cotton industry has not been the success they expected it to be, the farmers,
no doubt, will take up cane cultivation once more, and by so doing will remove
the only obstacle to the further development of the Egyptian sugar production.
Books of Reference :
Walter Tiemann. The Sugar Cane in Egypt.
La Cullure de la Canne d Sucre en Bgypte {Journ. de I'Agric).
Bouricius and Cohen. Ben en under over de rietsuikerindustrie in Egypte.
VI.
MOZAMBIQUE.
The Portuguese colony of Mozambique lies on the east coast of Africa,
between 10° and 27° S. Lat. and 30° and 41° W. Long. Its area covers 300,000
sq. miles, and its population is estimated at 800,000 inhabitants. Only along
the banks of the Zambesi and the Limpopo rivers is sugar cane cultivated and
cane sugar manufactured. This industry is of very recent date, as it was only
in 1896 that the " Companhia d'Assucar de Mozambique " was founded,
which built a factory near Mopea. In 1897 the Companhia Assucareira da
Africa Oriental Portuguese was established, which in 1900 started a sugar
factory in Marromeu. In addition an English company, the " Sena Sugar
300
Mozambique.
Factory Company," was responsible for a factory started a:t Chimbue, so that
sugar is now being produced by three factories. Then others were constructed,
so that we may expect a considerable extension of the sugar industry in Portu-
guese East Africa before long.
The production of these three factories has been from the beginning as
follows, in long tons : —
1898
1899
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
Mopea . . .
Marromeu
Chimbue
1, 000
1,630
2,560
1,310
1,250
300
1,792
2,970
2,050
1,200
3.700
3.750
3.62s
2,470
3.16s
700
1,820
1,300
6,000
1,500
5.16s
Total ...
1,000
1,630
3.870
1.550
4.762
3.520
7.450
6,095
3.86s
3,120
12,665
In 1909 the total production amounted to 17,362 tons, while that of 1910
was 15,714, and that of 1911 27,700 tons. Rum used to be distilled from
molasses, which rum could be imported into the Transvaal free from duty, as
Mozambique enjoyed trade privileges with that country when importing goods
via Delagoa Bay. After the war, and since the Confederation of the South
African colonies, this advantage has ceased to exist, and the profit on the
manufacture of alcohol has disappeared.
In 1909 the area under cane was as follows :-
Mopea
Marromeu
Chimbue
4,000 acres
5,139 .,
3,100 „
Total
12,239
Owing to the extension of these, and the establishment of other estates
we may put down the area under cane in Mozambique at the present date as
30,000 acres.
The climate of Mozambique is generally warm, but very changeable.
From November till March it is very warm and rainy ; the rest of the time it
is dry and cooler. During the months May to July the temperature often drops
to 20° C. (68° F.), and the day and night readings are apt to vary considerably.
The soil is a rich clay, sometimes mixed with sand ; on the banks of the Lim-
popo River the cane lands stretch along the banks at a gentle slope, so that
irrigation with river water is available by a process of damming-up. The
banks of the Zambesi River, however, are high and steep, and for that reason,
the irrigation water has to be raised by powerful pumps, to be distributed
over the country through a network of canals.
301
Africa.
Nowadays Vha cane, imported from India, which seems to be a success
all over South Africa, is planted. The planting season begins with the rainy
period in December or January, and the cane is irrigated if necessary till
May or June of the following year, when the harvesting commences, to end in
November. As the cane fields depend for their success on irrigation, they
are laid out in long strips along the banks of the rivers or at the side of lagoons,
from whence the irrigation water can be obtained by damming or pumping.
Ratoon is kept for fifteen months or longer, after which the cane is cut
every year. A cane production of 36 tons to the acre, yielding 10 per cent,
sugar or 3-6 tons, is generally expected, but we very much doubt whether this
average yield is really attained. The plants often suffer from drought or
from grasshoppers, which, of course, affect the crops for the worse, as may be
seen from the above-mentioned irregular figures of production from the different
estates.
The newer factories are of modern construction, and are kept up-to-date
by the purchase of the most perfect kind of machinery.
On sugar exported a duty of i per cent, ad valorem is levied, but when it
is imported into Portugal and into the States of the South African Union it
enjoys great privileges. In 1902 a reduction of 50 per cent, was allowed on
the import duty on sugar sent to Portugal from Mozambique, and from Portu-
guese East India and Timor for fifteen years up to a maximum of 6,000 tons
for each of the two colonies. As this duty amounts to 120 reis per kg. or 2^d.
per lb. of raw sugar, and 145 reis per kg. or 3d. per lb. of white sugar, the first
6,000 tons of raw sugar from Mozambique enjoy a drawback of £11 13s. per
metric ton. All quantities above 6,000 are fully taxed, which explains why in
1908, when Mozambique exported almost twice 6,000 tons, the excess was not
sent to Lisbon, but to Antwerp and the Transvaal. Besides this very consider-
able protection accorded the Mozambique sugar when imported into Portugal,
it, up to June, 1912, also enjoyed privileges in the colony itself. An import
duty amounting to £16 per ton was levied on foreign sugar, while an excise of
20 reis per kg., or about £i\ per ton, is paid on sugar consumed in the country
itself. The surtax was, consequently, no less than £12, per ton ; but in the
middle of 1912 the import duty was lowered to 30 reis per kg., doing away with
the privilege. At the present time the sugar consumption in Mozambique
and the interior is not very considerable, and is not likely to extend, as there
are but few white people, and the natives have not acquired the habit of using
sugar as a food.
When Mozambique sugar is imported into the Transvaal it is exempted
from import duty, which means ^5 per ton of white and £3 los. per ton of raw
sugar ; hence the Portuguese colony is privileged above other foreign importers.
Moreover, the sugar enjoys 9, rebate of 40 per cent, in railway rates. The unifica-
tion of the British South African colonies threatens to put an end to this state
of affairs, as the Governments of Cape Colony, Orange River Colony, and
Natal have put an extra duty on Mozambique sugar of /)s. 8d. per
302
Mozambique.
100 lbs. of refined and 4s. lod. per 100 lbs. of raw above the ordinary import
duty just referred to. At the present time, however, Mozambique sugar is
imported free of duty into the Transvaal, and as there are no longer any inland
customs barriers in British South Africa this sugar also goes untaxed from
Transvaal into the other States of the South African Union.
The Mozambique sugar industry may be considered a promising one.
There are extensive stretches of fertile soil, with great facilities for irrigation,
to be obtained for httle outlay. Labour is near at hand, but there is not
enough of it. The expensive transportation of sugar is a great drawback.
It might be sent by water, if the transport did not happen to coincide with the
time of great drought, which reduces the Zambesi to a low level, and prevents
the boats carrying more than a very little cargo at a time, so that the cost of
carriage would be heavy.
On the whole, sugar can be prepared in Mozambique at very low cost,
and the recently established new plantations wiU doubtless lead to a considerable
increase in the sugar production.
VII.
NATAL.
In Natal the sugar industry is carried on along the coast between Durban
and the mouth of the Tugela River ; and hkewise in Zululand, between 28°
and 30° S. Lat., that is outside the tropics. Natal's sugar industry only dates
from 1850, when a few planters began to crush a little cane in small mills, and
to work the juice up to sugar. Not till 1878 wasi the first modern sugar factory
driven by steam founded at Mount Edgecombe by sugar manufacturers from
Mauritius. Since that time the sugar industry has steadily improved ; more
factories have been built, while the existing ones have extended their cane
production, till at the present time there are no fewer than thirty-four in
operation, their output being estimated to amount to 92,000 tons in 1911-12.
Besides the land originally given up to sugar cultivation, viz., the tract on the
coast north of Durban, much cane has lately been planted successfully in
Zululand, and the sugar industry will no doubt extend considerably in that
territory, as the founding of a great many large and well-installed sugar fac-
tories is being considered.
As Natal hes outside the tropics, it takes longer for cane to ripen there
than in most of the other sugar-producing countries. It takes plant cane
two years, and first and second ratoons eighteen months, which means three
crops from one single planting within five years. At the end of the five years
the cane is planted over again. The cane variety most in vogue nowadays is
the Uba, the hard, yellow cane from British India, which, as we have already
had occasion to remark, proves a success wherever it is planted in South Africa.
303
Africa.
For manure stable dung and cane ash are used, while phosphatic manures
have also been tried. The cut cane is taken by means of railway trucks to the
factories, which used to be most primitively installed, but are now being
improved by the owners. The raw sugar is refined in the country itself, except
the amount of raw sugar that is consumed as it is. There is one refinery at South
Coast Junction belonging to a firm of raw sugar manufacturers, which delivers
100 tons of sugar daily, and before long may be capable of twice this output.
Then there is another refinery to work up the sugar coming from the four central
factories belonging to Sir Liege Hulett & Sons. As soon as all these refineries
are fully employed. Natal will be able to provide the South African Union with
white sugar, and will not require any from abroad. At the present moment
it cannot do without imported sugar, as the consumption of British South
Africa is about 90,000 to 100,000 tons per annum.
The labourers are Kaf&rs and British Indian immigrants ; but the planters
are better satisfied with the work of the latter, as they work more steadily.
The British Indians are indentured for five years, at the end of which time
they have to sign for two more years or have to return to India, unless they
should be able to pay a yearly contribution of £3, ^yhich enables them to stay
in the country and become landowners. During the time of indenture they
receive los. per month the first year, which is increased by is. each subsequent
year ; over and above this they get food, quarters, and medical attendance
free, so that they have only to find clothes.
The Indian Government has now prohibited Indians going to Natal,
because they are alleged to be ill-treated ; so that the labour problem in Natal
has entered on a new and less favourable phase, which may greatly retard
progress.
The trade among the different South African States used to be very com-
plicated, as everyone of them had their own import duties, and granted different
kinds of privileges to different countries. Mozambique sugar, for instance,
was exempted from duty when imported into the Transvaal, while Natal sugar
was taxed, and this state of affairs remained in force a couple of years after
the former Boer Republics had come under British rule.
In 1906, however, a Convention was drawn up, according to which the
British South African colonies guaranteed each other free trade, while import
duties on sugar from abroad were fixed as follows : —
For adherents to the Brussels Convention : £ s. d.
Candy, loaf, castor, cubes, etc. . . . . per 100 lbs. 050
„ „ . . . . per ton 5 o
Other sugar, golden syrup, maple syrup, molasses sac
charum, treacle, etc. . . . . . . per 100 lbs. 036
„ ,, ,, ,, . . per ton 3 10 o
Saccharin and the like . . . . . . per lb. 100
Bounty-fed sugar is taxed with additional duties according to the stipula-
tions of the Brussels Permanent Committee.
304
/J
1
J
k^
Natal.
The sugar production of Natal has amounted for the last seventeen years to
the following quantities, in long tons : — •
1894 ..
• 19.369
1895 ■•
20,508
1896 . .
20,651
1897 ..
• 20,245
1898 . .
29,186
1899 ..
. Boer War
1900 . .
. 16,689
I90I . .
36,662
1902 . .
• 21,095
1903 ..
• 33,944
1904 .■.
• 19.238
1905 ..
• 26,158
1906 . .
• 21,479
1907 ..
■ 24,223
1908 . .
■ 31.999
1909 ..
■ 77.491
I9I0 . .
■ 84,437
I9II . .
92,000
I9I2 . .
Ll-.* J j.:_
_ _i J _ -
1 _ J _.
. 106,000 (esti
■ J _ jl r
Besides this production, a good deal of sugar is imported from abroad.
Natal sends much of its own sugar and that from foreign countries to the
neighbouring States. The figures of imports and exports vary for every year,
and those representing exports seem to us to be unreliable, as the values appear
to be out of reason in a great many instances.
The sugar industry of Natal is likely to flourish before long. There is
land and labour enough to judge from the present state of affairs for good
and extensive cane cultivation ; the factories have been, or are being, well
installed. Finally, the British South African Union has done away with
interstate customs boundaries, in consequence of which sugar may be trans-
ported all over the extensive territory free from duty ; while a rather high import
duty of about 5s. per cwt. levied on foreign sugar makes outside competition
impossible. Then sugar is transported at a low rate by the railways, so that
it is easy for Natal to compete with tropical cane sugar-producing countries,
although Natal itself does not he within the tropics. After the labour problem
is fully solved, it will not be long before this colony wiU be capable of producing
all the 100,000 tons of refined sugar that South Africa needs for her home con-
sumption ; but as things are at present, some sugar has still to be imported.
305
Africa.
VIII.
MAURITIUS.
I. — Location, History, Cane-planted Area, Total Production.
Mauritius is an island lying in the Indian Ocean, between 19° 58' and
20° 32' S. Lat. and 57" 17' and 57° 57' E. Long., and is separated from Mada-
gascar by a strait 560 miles wide. Its area covers 742 sq. miles, its greatest
length being 13J miles and its greatest width 22 miles.
Mauritius is of volcanic origin, and is surrounded by a coral reef which is
submerged at high tide. Only in three places does the land rise steep from the
sea, where there are openings in the coral reef. There are only two good
harbours to be found on the highly indented coast, namely. Port Louis, the
capital, on the west, and Port Bourbon on the east coast.
A low-lying coastland extends around the entire island, with the exception
of the south-west ; this coastland widens in the north, and forms the flat
districts of Pamplemousses and Riviere du Rempart. A central tableland
covers more than half of the entire area, and rises from 800 to 2,000 ft. above
the level of the sea. Rows of steep hills of peculiar shape separate this high-
land in the north, west, and north-west from the lowlands, save in places
where an opening affords access, as, for example, from Plaines Wilhems to
the Black River district and to Port Louis.
In the east three parallel rows of well-wooded hills run from east to west,
and form a transition from highland to low coastland. A mountain ridge
which runs across the highlands from north-east to south-west forms the
principal watershed of the island. Owing to their enormous affluence, the
numerous rivers are of no use for navigation ; they generally run through
deep, densely overgrown ravines. As, however, the forests on the slopes have
been cut down, they are capable of becoming raging mountain streams in the
rainy season
There is only one big lake, the Mare aux Vacoas, 1,950 ft. above sea level,
which has an area of li sq. miles. This used to be a marsh, but the Colonial
Government has turned it into a reservoir by damming up its out-flowing
canal, which reservoir provides the towns of Plaines Wilhems with water.
The temperature of Mauritius is not particularly high ; at the Observatory
at Pamplemousses an average year temperature of 21 — 22-5° C. (70 — 72° F.)
was observed during the years 1897 to 1902. December, January, February,
and March are the warmest months, while the temperature falls during the
period April to June, to rise again from June till December. In December,
1900, a maximum temperature of 34-8° C. (94-5° F.) was recorded, while the
minimum temperature in May was 10-4° C. (507° F.). The average maximum
is 25-6° C. (78° F.), and the average minimum 17-5° C. (63-5° F.). The average
yearly rainfall was for the ten years period 1893 to 1902 79 ins. over the island.
306
Mauritius.
With the exception of a few very dry years — such as 1897 and 1900, with a
rainfall of 63-2 and 59-8 mm. respectively — the fluctuation in rainfall records
does not amount to much. The month of March is the wettest, and that of
October the driest ; while the wet months, as a rule, come during the warm sea-
son, and the dry months belong to the cold spell. More rain is observed to fall
on the windward or eastern side than on the lee-side or south and west part
of the country ; the difference in height above the sea level likewise influences
the rainfall ; and, as will be pointed out later on, Mauritius is subject to a
great many cyclones, which generally occur between December and April ;
as a rule, they are accompanied by rain, so that the cyclone period is at the
same time the wettest period.
According to the 1901 census, the population of Mauritius, not including
the garrison, amounted to : —
People of European, African, or mixed origin . . 108,428
People born in Mauritius from Indian parents . . 198,878
Immigrants born in India . . . . . . . . 60,208
Chinese . . . . . . . . . . . 3.509
371.023
The inhabitants who are not of Asiatic extraction are either the descendants-
of the original French colonists or of the slaves who were imported from Mada-
gascar and the African Continent. These two races have mixed together, or
have mixed with the later British Indians, so that the coloured Creole popu-
lation consists of the mixture of three types of people. The Indian population
dates from the abohtion of slavery, 1834 to 1839. As the Kberated slaves,
numbering 49,365 according to the 1841 census, did not choose to work after
their emancipation, coolies were imported from India, a proceeding that has-
been kept up save for a few intervals tiU the present day, although in 1908
and 1909 no indentured coohes were recruited. The Chinese, as a rule, are-
shopkeepers, and the Arabs are very often merchants of some importance.
During the decade 1891 to 1901 the total number of inhabitants had only
increased by 435 ; the original population was 2,731 fewer than it used to be,
while the Indian population increased by 3,166 inhabitants. The number of
deaths is balanced by that of births ; but this proportion was less favour-
able with the old Mauritian population, which points to a steadily increasing
British ladian majority. The sanitary conditions leave much to be desired
and the death rate is high : in 1903 it was 35-9 per 1,000 inhabitants.
Owing to the steep and mountainous country, Mauritius does not possess
any waterways, but it has 130 miles of public railway, viz., two lines from
Port Louis to Grande Riviere Sud Est, one along the north and one right across
the island. Then there is a line from Port Louis to Mahebourg, with a branch
line to Souillac, in Savanne ; and, finally, there is a hue to the Black River
307
Africa.
district. All these railways are single line, and are intersected by a number
of stations and passing places.
In connection with these main lines, there is a number of private railway
lines, while tram-lines were laid in 1902, when the surra disease had made a
gap among the bullocks and mules, and the Government helped to have these
lines constructed for the transport of cane.
Port Louis is the capital of the island ; it is rather unfavourably situated, as
being surrounded by mountains it cannot get the benefit of the south-east
trade wind. Since a malaria epidemic in 1866, its population has steadily
decreased, for though Port Loi^s numbered 74,426 inhabitants in 1861, this
had dropped to 52,740 in 1901, and can hardly be more than 50,000 at the
present day. Many of the well-to-do inhabitants preferred to hve near the
railway stations in the district of Plaines Wilhems. The second town in size
is Mah6bourg, with 20,000 inhabitants. What other towns exist are smaller
stiU.
Mauritius was discovered by Mascarenhas, a Portuguese, in 1505, and
remained Portuguese or Spanish till 1598. Afterwards it remained unattached,
till in 1644 it was taken possession of by the Dutch, who gave it the name of
Mauritius. After being abandoned by the Dutch in 1712, it fell to the French
in 1715, when it was called Isle de France. It continued a French possession
tiU 1810, after which it fell to the British, who have held it ever since, and who
restored the old name of Mauritius. It used to be of greater strategical value
to the Enghsh than it is now, and that is why it was called " the Malta of the
Indian Ocean " or " Star and Key to the Indian Ocean."
In 1650 the Dutch took sugar cane from Java to Mauritius, but this branch
of cultivation was not a success ; in 1747 sugar cane was imported once more
while Governor Mah6 de la Bourdonnais was in office. In 1750 a sugar estate
was in operation in the most northern district of the island, named Pample-
mousses, which undertaking belonged to the Governor's brother, Mah6 de la
Villebague. The industry soon extended, and for a long time it was the only
profitable one. The production of 1816 amounted to 4,000 tons, prepared in
68 mills, but in 1825 it was extended and improved when Mauritian sugar, on
being imported into Great Britain, enjoyed similar or equal rights as did the
West Indian sugar. Another cause of improvement was the success of the
importation of British Indian coohes after the abolition of slavery, when the
sugar exportation of 1855 rose to 120,000 tons. This was a stationary figure
during the following forty years, till in 1895 the production all at once rose again
considerably, thanks to improvements in the cultivation and manufacturing
methods.
At the present day 173,958 out of the total area of 472,750 acres are
cultivated, but a considerable part of the country Ues fallow owing to the slight
rainfall and the lack of irrigation works. Another part is given up to woods,
and towns and villages take up some space.
308
Mauritius.
The X73,958 acres of cultivated area are divided as follows :
Sugar cane . .
Aloe fibre
Other vegetation
151.134
20,709
2,115
173,958
which shows that sugar cane is the staple crop.
Sugar cane is planted all over the island where soil and water conditions
allow*. It is met with from the coast up to a height of 1,400 or 1,500 ft., but
higher than 1,500 ft. it is too cold for profitable cultivation ; 600 to 800 ft.,
or even less, is considered the most suitable. There are four different belts
as regards fitness of soil for cane cultivation ; the first, including the districts
of Pamplemousses and Riviere du Rempart together with the coast of Flacq,
is very dry, and does not get more than 40 to 50 ins. of rain yearly, which is not at
all evenly distributed, so that there are lengthy dry periods to be recorded.
Owing to the regular cutting down of forest, irrigation supplies yield less and
less water, in consequence of which this belt has a great many estates fewer
than formerly.
The second belt surrounds the central highland ; the latter gets sufficient
rain, even as much as 200 ins., but the low temperature that prevails in this
district prevents heavy crops from being reaped here. The third belt is in
the southern part of the island ; it does not exceed 600 ft. in height, and gets
enough rain. The district of the Black River, on the western coast, on the
contrary suffers continually from drought, and hardly ever gets more than
20 ins. of rain a year. The three sugar estates in that district are for this
reason all well irrigated, and if the irrigation plants were improved and extended,
that part of the country would be capable of producing yet more cane.
The total production and the exportation of sugar and molasses have
been as follows for the last twenty-eight years, all the figures being expressed
in metric tons : —
Exportation
Exportation
Year.
Production.
of sugar.
of molasses.
i884/85t
126.347
127,784
310
1885/86
117,615
115,299
1,195
1886/87
100,381
102,376
3,450
1887/88
121,024
124,073
6,060
1888/89
130,337
132,173
3,905
1889/90
127,714
124,565
5,893
* The cane-planted area is shown shaded on the Map.
j The statistical year is from August ist to July 31SI.
Africa.
Exportation
Exportation
Year. Production.
i
of sugar.
of molasses.
1890/91
126,483
130,220
4,690
1891/92
114,583
113,813
5,621
1892/93
69,044
68,519
3,359
1893/94
138,965
139,752
7,415
1894/95
116,874
113,793
9,808
1895/96
142,857
142,646
8,553
1896/97
150.749
152,678
13,636
1897/98
121 772
121,694
12,967
1898/99
183,624
186,487
12,681
1899/1900
157,404
157,025
14,929
1900/01
183,433
175,025
19,613
1901/02
153,639
147,828
15.378
1902/03
141,684
150,350
11,412
1903/04
215,697
218,532
18,404
1904/05
142,253
137,899
11,095
1905/06
186,007
191,765
18,597
1906/07
214,699
211,464
14,000
1907/08
163,911
169,161
11,838
1908/09
195,897
191,271
1909/10
252,905
235,184
1910/11
222,837
217,413
1911/12
169,145 ,
160,000
The figures of production and of exportation do not always tally ; in
most cases the latter exceed the former, in spite of a slight home consumption.
This difference can only be accounted for by the fact that the quantity of the
production is expressed in bags estimated to contain 170 lbs. These bags,
no doubt, do not always contain the same weight, so that the total weight
does not quite come to 170 times the number of bags. The sugar when exported
is invariably weighed, so we must take the export figure to be the correct one,
and as the sugar consumption is estimated at 27 lbs. per head of population,
we get to the probable figure of production by adding about 4,000 tons to the
export figure.
310
Mauritius.
II. — Cane Cultivation, Cane Varieties, Diseases and Pests,
Sugar Manufacture, Output of Sugar, Production per Acre
and Cost Price.
The soil of Mauritius is, on the whole, a very light clayland, through
which water easily penetrates, so easily indeed that the soil soon dries up,
to which the presence of big holes covered with a thin layer of crust at a little
distance under the'surface greatly contributes. In some places the layer of
clay is even and rather thick, while in other places the soil is full of big pieces
of lava, which prevent the land from being ploughed^ The cane is generally
planted in holes, 2,800 to the acre, which is supposed to be better than planting
in rows ; especially because cane in holes is much more sheltered from storms.
The holes are placed 3 ft. apart in rows 3 or 4 ft. from each other. They
plant two top ends in each hole, cover them slightly with earth, water them,
and leave them to sprout. When the young shoots are well developed, manure
in the form of sulphate of ammonia, saltpetre, superphosphate, and potash
fertilizers or mixtures of them, is put on' the plants, and when the cane, has
grown to some height a quantity of rotten stable dung is added. In addition,
the fields are weeded and trashed, and as soon as the cane is ripe it is cut.
The time the cane takes to ripen depends very much on the locality, the
kind of cane, and whether it is plant cane or ratoon. The planting in the high
and colder districts begins in September, and goes on till May or June ; while
at warmer levels the planting season lasts till July or as late as August. In
temperate regions the chief planting is done from December to February.
Grinding is begun in August, which gives the cane in cool regions two years
to grow before it is reaped, the cane of warm tracts a little more than one year,
and the cane in temperate regions 18 to 20 months. When ratoons are grown
they are manured with guano or other manurial mixtures and stable dung.
The ratoon caile is cut after one year, if possible. In the higher parts of the
country, where it takes ratoons two years to ripen, a makeshift is to cut the
cane late in the crushing season, to keep ratoons for another year, and to cut
them at the beginning of the third year, that is after 20 to 22 months of vegeta-
tion. Formerly fourth or fifth ratoons were cultivated, but as the quantity
of cane reaped was found to decrease gradually on account of the exhaustion
of the soil, nowadays only second and third ratoons, taking up about five
years, are grown. After this the cane is dug out, and the soil is sown with
leguminosae [Phaseolus lunatiis) and Pois Mascate {Mucuna utilis). After a few
years these are pulled out and forked under in the planting holes, in order to
increase the fertility of the soil with the humus and the nitrogen absorbed
from the atmosphere.
A great many cane varieties are grown in Mauritius, some of which were
thought much of at one time, to be abandoned subsequently when they were
found to be prone to disease. In 1856 a great many borers occurred in the
3"
Africa.
cane ; in 1864 it was a louse, the " pou-^-poche blanche," which pJayed such
havoc among the then prevalent cane variety, that they resolved, in 1866 to
1870, to import new cane varieties from Java, Trinidad, British Guiana, Queens-
land, Hawaii, and other countries. In 1862 the Louzier cane was discovered
as a sport of an existing type, and was planted almost all over the island from
1862 to 1875. As it has since been subject to disease, it has now been discarded ;
while the White and Striped Tanna species from Java seem now to be popular.
Besides these, there are the Port Mackay, the Iscambine, and other well-known
varieties ; while some years ago seedling canes were suddenly adopted with
great enthusiasm, though the step was of doubtful wisdom. Having heard
about the success of West Indian and Java seedUng varieties, it was conse-
quently thought any seedHng cane would have better results than their existing
types. For this reason fields were planted with some kind or other of seedling
cane without making sure whether that kind would answer the purpose. But
the chaos thus brought about was not to last long, for at the present time,
besides the ordinary plant cane, only a few seedling cane varieties are thriving
in Mauritius. These came from Barbados and Demerara, especially D. 145,
D. 130, and B. 208.
The sugar industry of Mauritius is, as we observed, subject to many
difficulties. First, there is prolonged drought from which the cane often suffers,
especially on that side of the island furthest from the prevailing winds which
does not experience their influence till after the rain has fallen. As the cane
cultivation takes up a considerable amount of land, the woods have been cut
down, and this has interfered with the equal distribution of the rain. Pample-
mousses and Rempart, vs^hich used to be the richest districts, are now the poorest,
and many of their irrigation canals have become useless because the water
that was to fill them is wanting. Moreover, Mauritius is in the route of cyclones,
which now and then rage in great force and damage both buildings and crops.
The cyclone season is from December to April or May, and c^s the crushing
season begins in August, a late cyclone may just strike it when it is full-grown
and least able to resist the force of the wind.
The cane itself is attacked by all sorts of disesises and pests, the borers,
the Sesamia nonagrioides in particular, doing a lot of harm. These insects
were imported from Java years ago together with the grass [Panicum) that
was to be used as fodder for cargoes of ponies when transported to Mauritius.
The caterpillars were hidden among the grass, appeared as moths and laid
their eggs on the sugar cane, which ever since has been infested with them.
A method of combatting the pest is to search the newly-planted fields and cut
off the shoots still containing caterpillars, and use the former as fodder, but it
does not succeed in exterminating the pest. Another insect much found
among the canes is the shot-borer beetle {Xyleborus ferforans). According to
the opinion of some people, it is found on living canes, while others think it is
only found on the dead plant. Most of the diseases known in other countries —
such as Smut, Black Rot, Red Smut, and Root Disease, etc. — are found here,
312
Mauritius.
too ; also a so-called Gum Disease, discovered in 1894, which, according to
some investigations, is due to bacteria, and is apt to do much damage.
In igoi the stock of cattle in Mauritius suffered severely from the Surra
disease, which carried off one-third of the draught bullocks and two-thirds of the
mules, and also affected the cane industry indirectly by disorganizing the
cane transportation through want of cattle, lack of stable dung being another
effect.
Several estates through lack of capital have been forced to give up
planting cane themselves, and lease large pieces of land to British Indian
immigrants, who grow cane on it, and sell the cane to the factories. Other
estates have been divided and sold piecemeal to British. Indian immigrants,
who when living close to the factory can easily have the cane carted there,
but should they live at some distance away the cane is transported by the State
railways. The small planter is never sure of his business; for should there be
an abundance of cane» the manufacturers might not want to buy the whole
lot, in which case the planter does not know what to do with it ; on the other
hand, should the crop turn out insufficient for the estates, the small planter
can charge a high price for his cane, and consequently make some profit. But
for this industrious and numerous class of. British Indian cane planters, the
sugar industry of Mauritius would soon come to a stop, for which reason a
system of planting by independent farmers is to be recommended in a way,
although it likewise has its drawbacks. The old Mauritian planter used to
spend much money and labour in manuring and in the maintenance of the
fertility of the soil in general ; while the Indian, who only thinks of immediate
profit, is too economical as regards manuring and tillage, and robs the soil on
a large scale.
During the years 1894 to 1898, on an average 3,500 to 4,000 tons of sulphate
of ammonia were imported into Mauritius, together with 100 to 120 tons
Chili saltpetre (sodium nitrate), 1,000 to 1,100 tons 0' superphosphate, 500
to 350 tons of other phosphates, 1,800 to 1,900 tons of saltpetre (potassium
nitrate), 120 to 130 tons of sulphate of potash, 6,000 to 8,000 tons of guano
from the Seychelles and other islands, which means in all 14,000 tons of im-
ported manure. Supposing that 75,000 acres are yearly manured, we come
to the average of 420 lbs. artificial manure per acre. But we cannot in practice
speak of an average manuring, as the Indian is not hkely to add any artificial
manure to his stable dung. This shows how large a quantity of manure the
old Mauritian uses to give to his land ; and that, at the same time, should the
land become Indian property the ground would soon be the poorer for it and
have a bad effect on the sugar production.
The old planters maintain that thirty or forty years ago they used to
reap from their plantations sown with the old kind of cane 5 to 6 tons of sugar
per arpent*, or 10 to 12 metric tons of sugar per hectare ; while now they
have to be content with 2 to 2^ tons per arpent (4,000 to 5,000 kg. per hectare).
* I arpent = 1-04 acres.
Africa.
The crop the Indian plantations yield is far less than this, as 14^ tons of cane
seems to be their average crop per acre.
It is difficult to say how far these old-time stories are true, but it is a fact
that the production of planted cane nowadays amounts to 30 tons of first and
20 tons of second ratoons, the yield being 9 per cent. ; hence on an average
2 to 2^ tons of sugar are obtained from an acre of cane that takes twelve to
twenty-two months to riperi.
The proportion between the quantity of plant cane and that of ratoons
is for the foUowing districts as follows : —
District.
Plant cane.
Ratoons.
Pamplemousses
Riviere du Rempart
Flacq ....
Grand Port . . ...
Plaine Wilhems . ...
Black River . . . .
Moka . . ...
Savanne
23-3
22-1
24-4
22-4
24-0
27-5
22-5
26-4
767
77-9
75-6
77-6
76-0
72-5
77-5
73-6
The proportion is hence about 1-3 ; from this and the preceding figure
we can easily assume a cane production of 50,000 lbs. (or say 22^ tons) per
acre.
We cannot tell for certain how many plantations are engaged in sugar
cane cultivation, as there are a great many whose yearly output amounts to
but a few cartloads. The estates which have more than 100 acres of cane
planted are divided as follows : —
More than 1,000 acres
Between 500 and 1,000
Between 100 and 500
31
44
68
The planted area of the big undertakings amounts to 83,900 acres, while
the area under cane belonging to the Indians is estimated at 47,500 acres.
The labourers for field and factory work are recruited in British India.
The planters enter into a contract with the coolies for five years, at the end
of which time the agreement may be renewed from year to year. There is
no lack of labour, so that in Mauritius they are not troubled by that stock com-
plaint of most cane sugar producing countries. Once or twice a year the planters
apply to the Immigration Bureau, and state the number of labourers required.
When the coolies arrive they are distributed by the Bureau among the different
314
Mauritius.
plantations, the owners of which have to pay 170 rupees* towards the transporta-
tion expenses of the coolies. The wages of the latter vary according to the work
done. The newcomers are employed for field work ; after a year or two they
get more important work in the field or in the factories. The wages which
vary from 8 to g rupees per month are paid every week, and above this they get
each 5 rupees' worth of rice, oil, and salt every month. They have free medical
attendance and medicine from the employers. Most free day-labourers receive
o-6o to 075 rupees per day in case of men, and 0-30 to 0-50 rupees for women,
in which case there is no question of all the above privileges, such as free medical
treatment, etc., being granted. After the end of their indenture, a great many
of the imported British Indians remain in the country, or come back after having
returned for a short time to their native land, and as their immigration dates
from the abolition of slavery in 1834, if is clear that by now several generations
of Indians have lived in Mauritius, and have made this island their permanent
home. This, of course, has solved the labour difficulty, in so far that since
igo8 no more indentured coolies have had to be imported.
The cane which the sugar manufacturers cannot themselves plant is bought
from European or Indian planters, and then crushed. In this transaction
two different systems may be followed, according to the quantity of cane
offered. In the case of big transactions, the planter receives 6-5 or 7 per cent,
of the weight in cane paid in sugar or in money equivalent at the average
market price. This refers to the dehvery of cut cane to the weighing bridge or
to the tram halt. When cane is bought from smaller planters they simply pay
8 to 10-50 rupees (9 rupees on an average) per ton, also for cane delivered
at the factory. In most cases the cane is laden into carts of 2 to 2 J tons capa-
city, and conveyed to the factory in a train of ten to twelve wagons, the load
and the number of carts depending greatly on the slope of the ground. In
many places with steep slopes, and where the roads are traversed by deep
ravines, they transport by cable carriers. Some estates transport their cane
by the State railways, in which case they pay very low rates ; but one of
the drawbacks of this mode of transportation is that these wagons are run in
the ordinary train service, so that the cane does not get worked up till a long
time after it is cut.
The number of sugar factories gradually decreases : between 1875 and
1881 there were 171 ; in 1891, 131 ; in 1901, 115 ; and in 1910 the number
had gone down to 64. As, however, the total sugar production is not any less,
the average capacity of the factories must have increased considerably. In
many places they have turned two or three small factories into one, and the
old machinery they have combined into one bigger plant ; but this does not
always mean modernizing the old installations.
Up to some time ago the factories were not at all modernly installed ;
the mills were of but low power, and the whole installation was old-fashioned,
and far from economical. Since 1900, however, matters have been much
* I rupee @ 100 cents. = is. 4d. Rs. 170 = £11 6s. 8d.
Africa.
improved, and double and triple crushing, with maceration, is found everywhere,
together with evaporation and boiling in vacuum, crystallizers, etc. ; in short,
all the most modern apparatus. But not a single factory is altogether up-to-
date ; it always has some old-fashioned item among its machinery. This
of course, is due to the fact that by turning small estates into big ones use is
made of the old material as much as possible ; while some new odd pieces are
bought to complete the plant. The furnaces do not seem altogether a success,
and consume a good deal of fuel, consisting of bagasse as well as cane trash and
wood. Six factories manufacture over 50 tons of sugar per '24 hours, while
the others produce something between 20 and 50 tons.
The kinds of sugar which Mauritius produces are distinguished as follows : —
Polarization
Vesou or white first product . . . . . . 98-5
First after-product sugar, white crystals . . 97-5^-98
Second ,, „ ,, yellow „ . . 88-0
Third ,, ,, ,, dark yellow crystals 84 — 86
In addition, there is bro-\^ sugar, while the remaining molasses, polarizing
about 40°, is also sold.
The average polarization of the total production of Mauritius sugar is
estimated at 967 per cent.
As regards the chemical control, Mauritius is still behind the times. ' Only
23 out of the 64 factories, consequently a little more than one-third, possess
a proper chemist of their own ; and when chemical control is exercised, the
methods of analysis are obsolete, and no unity exists in the application and
calculation of the data obtained, so that the figures representing sugar losses
and sugar yield are far from exact.
With this reservation, we can place the average sugar content of cane at
1377 per cent., which in 1911 yielded the following quantities of sugar of
967 per cent, on an average.
Number of factories.
Per cent, of the total. '
Yield.
3
4-68
below 9-5
7
10-94
9-5—10
14
21-87
10— 10-5
17
26-56
10-5—1075
7
10-95
1075— II
10
15-62
II— 1 1 -5
6
9-38
above 11
The maximum was 12-26 per cent, yield on cane with 15-13 sucrose,
and the minimum 9-24 per cent, on cane with 13-13 per cent, sucrose.
316
Mauritius.
As may be seen from the figures given for a number of factories during
the period 1904 to 1909, a great improvement is to be noticed : —
Yield on 100 sucrose
Year.
Yield
on 100 cane.
in cane.
1904/05
9-92
•73-5
1905/06
10-00
74-1
1906/07
10-12
75-0
1907/08
!
10-41
77-1
1908/09
10-56
78-2
1909/10
10-56
78-3
I9I0/II
10-63
78-5
■ The quantity of sugar for each of the districts is given in the following
table ; we have, however, to add that the total exceeds the figure of production
given on page 310, which may be due to the conversion of bags into kilograms.
District.
1910/11
1909/10
1908/09
1907/08
1906/07
1904/05
Savanne ...
12
42.475-9
46,267-5
35,859-1
29,946-2
39,720-8
22,613-8
Grand Port
12
41.192-9
46,135-3
35.431-7
30,234-2
41,925-5
26,096-5
Flacq
8
38,494-4
42,995-8
32,907-3
34,227-9
47,209-4
33.517-6
Moka
7
35.496-8
40,469-1
32,7.63-5
25,617-1
30,875-5
21,983-5
Riviere du Rempart
8
27,188-4
31,197-8
23,705-6
15,675-6
23,807-5
17,096-7
Pamplemousses ...
9
20,921-5
26,699-8
19,291-8
15,461-2
20,600-9
13,908-9
Plain es Wilhems. . .
4
13.375-0
15,007-
11,875-8
9,68o-
11,699-5
5.191-4
Riviere Noire
2
3.692-1
4,222-3
4,062-3
3,241-
4,292-8
3,250-
Total
62
222,837-0
252,994-6
195,897-1
164,083-2
220,131-9
143,658-4
Four factories state the following as the average cost of production for the
years between 1893 and 1907 — the prices at which the sugar is sold being also
given.
Average cost of
Year.
production per
Market price per
Gain or loss.
50 kg.
50 kg.
Rs.
Rs.
Rs.
1893
6-71
10-21
+ 3-50
1894
974
9-69
-0-05
1895
7-26
975
+ 2-49
1896
7-61
8-24
+ 0-63 •
317
Africa.
Year.
Average cost of
production per
50 kg.
Rs.
Market price per
50 kg.
Rs.
Gain or loss.
Rs.
1897 ..
7-46
8-15
+ 0-69
1898 . .
5-44
7-12
+ 1-68
1899 .
5-89
8-15
+ 2-26
1900 . .
578
8-75
+ 2-97
1901 '. .
7-52
7-25
- 0-27
1902 . .
8-14
7-25
- 0-89
1903 . .
6-58
6-75
+ 0-17
1904 . .
6-67
970
+ 3-03
1905 . .
5-97
7-00
+ 1-03
1906
5-52
6-6o
+ i-o8
1907
6-41
7-60
+ 1-19
A report on ten other factories gives for 1908 the cost price at Rs. 6-94 per
50 kg., and a market price of Rs. 7-85, which means a gain of Rs. 0-91 per 50 kg.
A calculation of another factory comes to Rs. 6 per 50 kg., as follows : —
Raw material . .
Manufacture
General expenses
Transport to the harbour
4-50 Rs.
1-20
0-15 „
0-15 „
6-00
Import and Export Duties, Government Assistance, Financial
Affairs, and Place of Destination of Sugar Exported.
Mauritius levies an export duty of 32 cents per 100 kg. of sugar ; of this
2 cents goes towards the maintenance of the Experiment Station. The export
duty on molasses is 40 cents on a barrel of about 6 cwt. The import duty
amounts to Rs. 2 per 100 kg. of raw sugar, while that on refined sugar and
candy is Rs. 4-50.
Although the idea of levying export duty on the principal article of the
export trade is not in accordance with modern economical points of view, this
export duty is a means of making the sugar industry contribute towards the
financial affairs of the State, and considering the help the Government have
318
Mauritius.
given to the sugar industry, it is only fair they should in their turn get some-
thing out of it.
The financial position of the Mauritius sugar industry is far from favour-
able, and in times of great stress the owners of the estates would have been
bankrupt but for the timely help of the Mother country. In 1892 a violent
hurricane caused much damage to buildings and to vegetation ; it was on this
occasion that the British Government lent Rs. 5,868,450 to the planters, and
Rs. 700,500 to the owners of the factories at 5 per cent., with regular redemption
up till 1924. On 30th June, 1909, Rs. 3,101,673 and Rs. 668,701 had been
paid up respectively, while only Rs. 22,255 were still in arrears, Rs. 14,355
of this being due to the non-payment of one borrower. Then the Govern-
ment had to purchase two estates in order to realize Rs. 6,500 and Rs. 100,000
which were owing to the Government ; but further losses it has not suffered.
' In 1898, when the Mauritian planters had got into a fix again, the Govern-
ment was considerate enough to lend Rs. 1,491,000 for one year, which sum
has also been paid back. In 1902 another bad time, brought about by a lowering
of prices, a hurricane, and an infectious cattle disease, was experienced — all of
which causes had an injurious effect on the cane production. The Govern-
ment was ready again to help, and in 1908 loaned an amount of ;^i85,i85 to
planters, in order to enable them to construct narrow-gauge railways and other
transport systems and £197,732 to forty-three sugar factories and three small
planters in order to secure a better cultivation.
The first loan, known as the " Mechanical Transport Loan," was to be
repaid, together with 5 per cent, interest, in twenty half-yearly instalments,
and this has been done so far without any difficulty ; in 1909 as much as
£102,354 was repaid. The second loan, called " Advance in Aid Loan," had
to be reimbursed with 6 per cent, interest by June, 1903, or in two instalments
by June, 1903 and 1904. This, however, did not work quite so smoothly,
but at the end of 1906 all the money had been paid in, so that the Government
has not been out of pocket on account of these loans, except in the case of the
Rs. 22,255.
Encouraged by this success, the Department of Agriculture in 1907 asked
for another loan of £600,000 in order to enable the sugar manufacturers to
modernize their machinery ; and another £100,000 in order to buy land for
reforestation ; while^ later on, £200,000 was asked for raising a fund for
the sugar planting, with, an eye to better cultivation. Before consenting to
this, the British Government sent a Commission to Mauritius, for the purpose
of examining thoroughly into the condition of the island, and of the industry,
and to propose measures for their improvement should these be required.
This Commission visited Mauritius from 22nd May to 29th September,
1909, and presented their Report in April, 1910. The conclusion arrived at
was that the condition of Mauritius as a sugar-producing country was, on
the whole, not unsatisfactory. Though the soil may be less fertile than the
soil of many another country, still it is capable of good crops if manuring
319
Africa.
and tillage are properly carried out. Labour in Mauritius is cheap, abundant,
and reliable ; the railway system is extensive, and forms a connection with
the excellent country roads and narrow-gauge lines, so that all the conditions
that make for success are fulfilled. One weak point is that sugar is Mauritius'
only industry, so that fluctuations in prices or a disease amongst the canes or
draught-cattle must of necessity affect the whole island. This is the more so
in that the financial position of planters and manufacturers is not strong, and
one year's adversity will be enough to make them dependent on State assistance,
as the Commission has forcibly pointed out. First of all, most of the sugar
estates are heavily mortgaged at 7 to 9 per cent, interest. Next, 34 of the 65
sugar factories have contracted other debts besides those with the Government ;
55 factories being under a combined debt of Rs. 12,000,000 (that is including
the loans) ; the other 11 factories have no debts whatever, but the numerous
cane planters who have no factories are badly off in this way.
But it is not only these mortgages on land and factories they have to pay
off ; most of the planters have also borrowed floating capital. About April
they have generally used up all the money received from the last year's crop,
and new money has to be borrowed from lenders under the security of the
crop for the completion of the harvest in the field, and for, the planting of new
cane. These money-lenders are generally merchants or brokers who have
something to do with British Indian sugar merchants, and consequently can
influence the sale-price of the product. The interest, as a rule, amounts to
10 per cent., and the commission on the goods sold 2| per cent. ; these rates
vary, of course, according to the financial position of the party borrowing
money.
Besides having to pay a large sum as interest on mortgages and floating
capital, the manufacturer is also handicapped through his debts by having to
depend on the sugar merchants, who choose their time for selling sugar, however
inconvenient this may be for the planter. Then the manufacturer has to buy
his implements and necessaries through his money-lender, and consequently
has not much to say as regards the choice of goods, which, again, may mean
financial loss to him. The planters' and manufacturers' dependence as de-
scribed above is considered a great drawback by the Commission, and is at the
bottom of the present unsatisfactory condition of the sugar industry in Mauri-
tius ; and for this very reason the Commission recommended, besides an improved
railway system and a campaign against malaria, the necessity of granting a loan
not exceeding ;fii5,ooo, £15,000 of which should go towards assisting the small
planters in their periodical troubles. Moreover, a Department of Agriculture
would have to be created similar to that in British India, while the irrigation
problem must be studied thoroughly. The authorities have not yet resolved
on anything, but the British Government, no doubt, will grant the loan.
The exportation of sugar for the last twelve years has been destined for
the following countries, the figures representing tons of 2,240 lbs. —
320
Mauritius.
COUNTRY.
1899/1900
1900/01
1901/02
1902/03
1903/04
Europe
British India
Australia . .
South Africa
America . .
Other countries . .
9.785
82,055
14.252
29.578
16,032
2,227
16,728
109,274
9,290
31,860
6,415
. 1,701
16,587
103,675
3.735 ;
21,190
"2,641
15.778
89,398
8,416
28,589
8,065
28,602
140,112
6,231
37.314
3.731
Total . .
153.929
175,268-
147,828
150,306
215,031
COUNTRY.
1904/05 1905/06
1906/07
1907/08
1908/09 1909/10
1910/11
Europe
9.3491 7.304
24,249
21,188
22,791
46,699
52,485
Bombay . .
66,294 90,587
101,767
86,162
96,086
97,621
106,454
Calcutta . .
6,620, 11,695
15,350
8,905
8,151
21,596
5.404
Kurachi . .
3,468; 4,460
16,650
14,271
21,892
28,743
24,614
Australia . .
1.2161 5,348
4.324
3.334
2,462
3.108
2.159
South Africa
39,010' 43,342
34.836
23,486
18,089
16,066
20,879
America . .
5,498, 4,824
3.392
7.959
15,208^ 9.526
—
Hong Kong
I 4,272 19,079
6,611
345
8
6.517
867
Othjr countries . .
931
846
3.572
1,604
4.551
Total . .
135,727:186,639
208,133
166,496
188,259 231,480
217.413
Most of the molasses is sent to British India, the rest to South Africa ; hence
the total export of sugar products is chiefly directed to the neighbouring British
Indian peninsula, with which Mauritius has many points in common, e.g., as
to currency. Bombay is the Indian port to which Mauritius sugar is chiefly
shipped, then comes Calcutta. South Africa also buys Mauritius sugar,
although the amount dwindles every year, as South Africa itself tends to
produce her own sugar, especially in Natal, Zululand, and Mozambique ; in
the end she may not want any more sugar from Mauritius, so that British India
and England will eventually be the sole buyers of the Mauritian product.
Apart from the high interest the manufacturers have to pay to the sugar
merchants, they are also dependent on them in having to put up with lower prices
than the sugar might fetch in a free market, if it was not for the sugar merchants'
321 V
Africa.
interference. Then Mauritius cannot always rely on British India as a buyer,
for during the years 1898 to 1903 Austrian and German ' sugars flooded the
British Indian markets, because of the low prices at which they could be sold
owing to, the Cartel bounties. This was a severe blow to both the Mauritius
sugar industry and the British Indian refineries. In 1899 a compensating
duty equal to the amount of the bounty paid on sugar when exported from the
producing country was levied in India ; this was done by way of compensation
to those affected branches of industry, and when this measure did not prove
adequate, the import duty on Austrian and German sugars .was again raised in
1903 by a sum corresponding to the surplus profit made by the Cartels in those
countries. This duty, of course, made it impossible for German and Austrian
sugar to be imported, aiid not till all bounties on European beetroot sugar
were abolished, and the Cartel profit disappeared through the provisions of the
Brussels Convention, did this unequal competition cease to exist. Mauritius,
however, has another powerful competitor on the British Indian market in
Java, which exports white sugar to India in larger quantities every year. But
these supplies are readily absorbed in India, so that this does not affect the
price of the sugar, nor does it supplant Mauritius sugar in any way.
To judge from the present state of affairs, the sugar industry of Mauritius
is not hkely to expand, even should the proposals for ameliorating the existing
conditions, as given above, become law ; it will retain its present position for
some time to come.
Books of Reference :
Report of the Mauritius Royal Commission, 1909.
James Forrester Anderson. The Sugar Industry of Mauritius.
Noel Deerr. Some Notes on the Sugar Industry of Mauritius.
Deutsche Consulatsberichte.
Rapports annuels de la Station agronomique de I' He de Maurice.
IX.
REUNION.
The Island of Reimion lies in the Indian Ocean at 20° 51' S. Lat. and 53" 10'
E.'Long. Its area is estimated at 970 sq. miles, its population being 173,315.
Its greatest length amounts to 44 miles, its greatest width 31 miles. Reunion
is of volcanic formation, and may have been the result of consecutive eruptions,
the main crater having shifted in a north-west south-east direction. At the
present time it lies in the south-east of the island, and forms an isolated moun-
322
Reunir"'
t' in, in the mid' ^ the mountainous tract bearing traces of former volcanoes
now extinct. The hole island is a mountainous cone, the highest peak of which,
the Piton des Neiges, is 10,000 ft. high. Then there are the summits of Piton
de la Fournaise, still an active volcano, 8,600 ft. high, and the Piton du Petit
Bernard, 8,330 ft. high. A great many rivers flow from the mountains into the
sea in all directions ; they have no length to speak of, and are of no use to naviga-
tion. The climate of the island is tropical, and varies according to the locality.
I.e., the lee or windward side. From April to November a south-west wind
blows steadily and with great force, and after touching the high mountain-chain
splits into two. One branch follows the coast from the south-east in a northern
direction, then bends to the west, as far as the capital, St. Denis, where it
reaches the sea ; the other branch follows the coast in a south to west direction,
and joins the first branch a long way out at sea.
The cyclones that infest these parts approach the island from the north-
east, and do not make themselves felt till they come to the seaport of Sainte
Rose. As the mountains block the path of the wind, it is not till twelve hours
after that the cyclone penetrates to the western side of the island ; this leaves
the authorities time enough to warn by telegraph the people on the lee side of
the coming danger, so that they may take measures to minimize the damage.
It is the high mountains, again, that make the clouds discharge their
moisture on the east and south-east sides, and leave the north and west coast
drier than the windward side of Reunion. Owing to the frequent gales and
cyclones, the rqads form no safe anchorage for ships ; consequently, an artificial
harbour has had to be built near Pointe de Galets as a shelter to navigation.
Along the west and north coast a narrow-gauge railway has been constructed
from St. Pierre to St. Benoit via Saint Paul, Pointe des Galets and St. Denis —
totalling in length 78 miles. This hne, covering two-thirds of the entire
circumference of the island, runs along the coast all the way except between
St. Denis and St. Benoit, where it goes inland for some distance. As a great
many streams from the mountain ranges running into the sea are crossed by
the railroad at right angles, a comparatively large number of bridges and other
artificial works had to be built for the mileage ; there is one 6-mile tunnel in
the mountainous district between Possession and St. Denis, which tunnel is
only broken by the valleys of the Ravine a Jacques and of the Grande
Chaloupe. The Southern districts, Sainte Rose, Saint Philippe, and Saint
Joseph, being very mountainous, have no railway connections whatever.
Besides the railway mentioned there are wide, metalled roads, a main road
all around the island, and other smaller ones that connect the towns ; altogether,
they cover 322 miles.
The Portuguese discovered Reunion and called it Santa Appolina, but the
island changed its name to Mascareigna, after Pedro Mascarenhas, who visited
the place in 1505, as well as Mauritius and Rodriguez.
323
Africa.
The Portuguese had to leave the island in 1638, when it was taken possession
of by Salomon Goubert in the name of the French King Louis XIII. The latter
used it as a sort of convict colony for prisoners from Madagascar, but it was not
a success as a colony till in 1665 the French East Indian Company took the
island in hand, to which they gave the name of Isle Bourbon, and turned it into
a flourishing colony. In 1764, however, it fell to the French Government, as
the French Indian Company had experienced bad times ; and in 1776 it was
united to Mauritius, then called Isle de France, and formed into one colony.
In 1790 the island was renamed Reunion, and from that time it sent its delegates
to the National Assembly.
In Napoleon's time it changed its name again, this time for He Bonaparte ;
in 1810 it was taken by the English, and in 1815 it was returned to France and
was then called He Bourbon again. Finally, the Second Republic changed
He Bourbon to Reunion once more, which name it has kept ever since.
In 1848 slavery was abolished, the owners were indemnified, and the slaves
themselves changed into French citizens, who in 1870 obtained the franchise.
After the abolition of slavery it was made clear here as well as everywhere
else that emancipated slaves cannot be turned into steady labourers, so that
the gap in the labour had to be filled by indentured immigrants from British
India, who were such a success that in 1870 no fewer than 62,000 Indian immi-
grants were employed in Reunion, and the sugar production amounted to 60,000
to 70,000 tons. The coffee plantations were also in a flourishing state ; so
were agriculture, commerce, and navigation.
In 1882 the immigration from India came to an end, England being opposed
to it, and from this time we notice a gradual deterioration in many respects.
The lack of labour soon became critical, and at the present time not more than
16,000 British labourers are employed in the island, too small a number to be
adequate, so that the sugar cane plantations had to be limited, and this, of
course, affected the yearly output of sugar, and reduced it to half the amount
it had once been. Attempts were made to get labourers from the East African
coast, but without success, as these labourers were unsuitable, and the compe-
tition with Natal meant too much. It was no use either to endeavour to obtain
immigrants from Tonkin and Java ; so that the sugar industry of Reunion is
retarded by a constant lack of labour in both field and factory.
StiU the cane production per acre in 1895 was double the amount it used
to be in 1880, and the sugar yield has increased from 9 per cent, to 10 per cent,
in that time ; but the planted area has gone down 40 per cent., so that never-
theless the total increase does not amount to much.
The sugar industry dates from 1806, when terrible cyclones played havoc
among the coffee and clove plantations, and made the people look for an annual
plant that, when destroyed, would not mean the loss of many years' trouble
and expense.
The improvement in both the industry and the population of the island
may be seen from the following table referring to the years 1815 to i860 : —
324
Reunion.
Since i860 the sugar production has amounted to the following quantities,
expressed in metric tons : —
1861/70 (average)
1870
1871
1872
1873
1874
1875
1876
1877
1878
1879
1880
1881
1882
1883
48.413
23-533
33,100
30,419
36,353
,32,176
35,449
34,262
40,380
33,031
21,175
27.373
24,709
33,020
37.799
1884.
• 37,972
1885.
■ 34,732
1886.
■ 31.389
1887.
• 35.031
1888.
■ 25,418
1889.
■ 36,165
1890.
38,410
I89I.
• 38,949
1892.
• 35.971
1893.
■ 39.829
1894.
■ 37.748
1895.
• 44.747
1896.
■ 40,447
1897.
. 31,488
1898.
• 37.781
325
Africa.
1899 ..
• ■ 35,000
1905 . .
38,000
1900 . .
• • 42,631
1906 . .
■ ■ 44,689
I90I . .
30,120
1907.. ' ..
■ ■ 39,380
1902 . .
• • 39,624
1908 . .
• • 41,187
1903 ••
• 41,617
1909..
. . 41,087
1904 ..
30,000
1910..
• • 45,549
At the present moment it is accepted that 62,000 to 70,000 acres are planted
with cane, 26,000 of which are cut every year. The cane is planted from July
till March, according to the location of the estate and to custom. The soil is
first ploughed up, and then rectangular holes are made i ft. deep, 22 to 24 ins.
long and 5 to 8 in. wide, at 3 ft. distance from each other in rows also 3 ft.
apart, so that 2,400 plant holes are dug on one acre. They put one or two tops
with at least three buds in each hole, and as soon as the cane has sprung up it
is banked, weeded, and manured with stable dung or with artificial manure ;
while green manure with leguminoss is applied at the time when the ground
is not planted with cane.
The cane, both plant and ratoon, is reaped about 14 to 20 months after
planting.
The following table gives a clear insight into the consecutive crops 1 of
planted cane, and it shows that they only plant once on the same soil during
eight to twenty years : —
Low-lying ground from
High-lying un-irrigated land
I — 100 feet above sea level.
100 — 2,000 feet above sea level
First year
Planting done in July and
August '
Planting done Oct. — Nov.
Second year
First crop in November . .
Third
Second crop in December
First crop
Fourth
Fifth
Third crop in July, lying
fallow, green manure
Second crop
Sixth
Maize
Seventh „
■1
Manioc
Third crop in July, lying
fallow, green manure
Eighth „
Cane planting
Maize, manioc, and cane
again the tenth year
In Reunion a great many cane varieties are in vogue, as each planter
seems to affect a special type. In addition to the old varieties, there are also
326
Reunion.
some descendants of seedling canes, although one never comes across a specimen
of this kind that excels in any way.
Among animal pests of the cane we may mention the borers and aphis ;
while smut, yellow spot disease, gum disease, and sereh are among the
parasitical diseases. The greatest obstacle to the development of the sugar
industry is scarcity of labour, as has been pointed out above. Although the
number of immigrants in Reunion amounted to 68,469 in i860, it went down
to 41,045 in 1881, and to 13,578 in 1902, who belonged to the following
races : —
31 Dec, 1881
31 Dec, 1902
Indians
Africans
Chinese
27.034
13.518
493
6,636
5.934
1,008
41.045
13,578
These figures also include servants, and persons who are not employed by
the cane cultivators ; and for want of fresh supplies the amount has considerably
decreased since.
Reunion had twenty-four sugar factories in 1909, distributed over the
different districts as follows : —
Sainte Marie
• 3
Saint Andr6
.. 3
Bras Panot
2
Saint Benoit
I
Sainte Rose
I
Saint Joseph
I
Saint Pierre
• 4
Saint Louis
I
Saint Leu
2
Trois Bassins
I
Saint Paul
• 5
24
It is almost impossible to state the exact figures of production, but those
at our disposal show how the cultivation suffers from want of proper labour,
which has a bad effect on the cane weight. The following table, giving the
production of fifteen factories, will demonstrate this fact : —
327
Africa.
Kg. cane per hectare.
Plant cane.
Total amount of cane.
1882
29,852
1883
34,064
1884
36,330
1885
37,182
1886
37,233
1887
39,052
1889
50,596
1890
50,649
I89I
70,000
49,263
1892
63,213
45,719 (cyclone)
1893
72,550
51,382
1894
75,371
56,927
1895
83.913.
60,937
1896
74,665
60,495
1897
67,699
54,229
1898
65,923
55,729
1899
56,403
44,179 (cyclone)
1900
68,215
52,059
I90I
58,018
45,326
Average . .
68,724
52,385
Tons per acre
\
27-390
21-485
The cost price of cane delivered on the factory scales is calculated at 20 frs.
per ton, although it may be more or less according to the weather, the distance
between the factory and the fields, and to the labour supply.
During the last few years cane has fetched from 15 to 18 frs. per ton, or
5-6 to 6-2 per cent, of the weight of the cane, in first sugar or its equivalent in
money. The planters have not made much profit, but can just keep things
going, for, including everything, we may put down 12 to 22 frs. as the price
cane costs the planters when employing hired labour, and 12 to 15 frs. for
planters who do all the work themselves.
The princpal manufacturing concern is the Credit Foncier Colonial, which
owns the best estates, numbering seven. It plants one-seventh of the cane
produced in the island, and adds so much bought cane to it that the amount
of cane worked up and sugar exported by the company comes to one-third of the
entire production. As it has got plenty of capital, it can itself export its sugar
to France, and enjoy the " detaxe de distance," a discount which is allowed on
cane sugar when imported from French colonies into the Mother-country.
328
Reunion.
The smaller manufacturers who do not possess any capital have been the
recipients of money advances from British Indian merchants, and consequently
they are obliged to sell their sugar at a lower price, and any profit is out of the
question. In igo6 no fewer than 9,000 tons of sugar went to Bombay in pay-
ment for rice sent to Reunion ; but in other years almost the entire exportation
of sugar was destined for France.
They tried, as in Mauritius and some of the Antilles, to let out small plots
of ground for cane cultivation, but there wag no demand for them, and the whole
project was a failure. The topography of the island does not allow of central
factories being founded amidst a large extent of soil tilled by farmers. It may
be tried on the windward side, where the factories should lie on the coast ;
but on the lee side the roads would be far too bad, the transport too difficult,
and the distance to the railway too great to carry on the industry on such a
large scale.
On the sugar exported 2 per cent, of the value is levied as an export duty,
in addition to an extra duty of 8J centimes per 100 kg. and a statistical duty of
3 centimes per 100 kg. When Reunion sugar is imported into France it enjoys
a reduction on the import duty, a detaxe de distance equal to the actual freight
of sugar from the colony to the Mother-country up to the maximum of 2-80
francs per 100 kg. white, and 2-33 francs per 100 kg. raw sugar.
As the actual freight cost always exceeds this maximum, the detaxe de
distance on Reunion sugar may be estimated at this maximum amount.
The Brussels Permanent Commission does not look upon this rebate as a
premium, as the sugar is simply put on the same footing as sugar originating
in the Mother-country. The amounts of sugar imported from Reunion into
France have been as follows for the past ten years, expressed in metric tons : —
1901/02 . . . . 23,364 1906/07 . . . . 29,190
1902/03 . . . . 32,080 1907/08 . . . . 38,194
1903/04 . . . . 44.147 1908/09 . . . . ^ 41.917
1904/05 . . . . 27,912 1909/10 ■ . . . . 38.558
1905/06 . . . . 18,883 1910/11 . . . . 39,000
As to the prospect of the sugar industry in Reunion, it depends largely on
the labour problem. Should the immigration of British Indians be re-estab-
lished, then there is not a single reason why this sugar industry should not
flourish hke that of the neighbouring island of Mauritius. Both climate and
soil are favourable, and as long as there are enough labourers to till the soil
at the proper seasons, to look after the cane, and to keep the factories going,
the sugar industry will soon double its output. Should, however, immigration
not be available — as is very hkely — Reunion will not regain any of her old pros-
perity, and her sugar production will remain as it is now.
Books of Reference :
A. G. Garsau'.t. Notice sur la Ri'union.
LeDn Colson. Culture et Industrie de la Canne a Sucre aux lies Hawaii et i la Reunion.
329
Australasia.
THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA.
In the Commonwealth of Australia, cane sugar cultivation is only met with
in the northern states, and along the coast of New South Wales, and also in the
sub-tropical parts of Queensland. In the first-mentioned territory the sugar
industry is carried on in the districts which are watered by the Richmond,
Tweed and Clarence rivers, and have a soil and chmate fit for this cultivation.
At one time sugar cane was planted on the Mackay River, but as it suffered
much from frost this has been given up and other vegetation cultivated instead,
or the breeding of cattle and the production of dairy products have been sub-
stituted.
The southern border line of cane cultivation in Austraha is 30" S. Lat.,
and the entire slip of land used for cane cultivation stretches obliquely between
147° and 153° W. Long.
In Queensland the principal sugar districts are Bundaberg at 25° S. Lat.,
Mackay at 18°, and the rainy region on the Hubert River at 19° S. Lat. up to
Port Douglas at 16° S. Lat.
One part of the sugar cultivating area of Australia still lies within the
tropics, but the southern part falls outside, thus causing the yearly production
and the sugar content of the cane to differ very greatly even for states so close
together as Queensland and New South Wales. As the cane area comprises
only a very narrow strip of land which stretches lengthwise over a vast mileage
from north to south, it is almost impossible to lay down figures as to tempera-
ture and rainfall. Figures and data relating to the meteorological condition
of a number of places do exist, but they vary so much that they cannot be a
true representation of the weather or temperature of the entire sugar producing
area. It may suffice to say that frost is observed occasionally in the south of
Queensland and in New South Wales, and does much harm to the cane. In
the north of Queensland, on the other hand, the temperature never drops to
freezing point, although the changes in temperature are great, and the difference
between summer and winter is rather considerable. The northern tropical
part is distinguished by two seasons — the north-west monsoon prevails from
October to April, and the dry south-east monsoon from April to October. The
330
The Commonwealth of Australia.
climate is very changeable, and the country now and then experiences long
spells of drought, which even affect the moist regions on the east coast, and
occasion a great deal of loss of sugar cane.
The yearly rainfall decreases from north to south ; in the most northernly
sugar district it amounts to 80 ins. ; in Mackay it just comes up to 40 ins. ;
while the neighbourhood of Brisbane is noted for its scanty rainfall, and this
part, properly speaking, cannot be considered fit for cane cultivation.
The sugar cultivation in Australia is of very recent date ; the first cane
was planted in Queensland by Captain Louis Hope, near the Logan River ;
while in 1863 a few pounds of sugar were prepared in the Botanical Gardens
at Brisbane by Mr. Bunot by way of experiment, to show that Australia could
yield crystallized sugar, though most people were then of a different opinion.
In consequence of this successful experimentation, a great many small factories
on the streams south of Brisbane began to take up this new cultivation, while a
sugar manufacturer called Porter went round with a floating mill, the " Walrus,"
to all the planters living near the rivers to work up their cane to sugar. Brisbane
soon appeared to lie too much in the southern latitude to make cane cultivation
a profitable business, and that is why the sugar industry begun in South Queens-
land was transferred to the neighbourhood of Mackay and carried on there on
a larger scale. The first cane was planted in 1864, and the first sugar factory,
Alexandra Mill, produced 230 tons of sugar, in 1868, in addition to 148 hogsheads
of rum. Since 1870 the sugar industry has gone up considerably in extent, so
that in 1879 the Mackay district was capable of producing as much as 10,000
tons of sugar.
In order to obtain the necessary labour in the warm chmate of tropical
Queensland, natives of the South Sea Islands, so-called Kanakas, were imported
in 1866, and in 1868 the recruiting and distributing of labourers was taken
over by the Government. The ship-owners who shipped the Kanakas were
authorized by the Government, and had to carry an official whose duty it was to
see that the natives enhsted of their own free will, and were aware of the con-
ditions to which they bound themselves. They were indentured for three
years, received a house, food, and clothing, and £7 to £8 in money yearly.
At the end of the three years they were entitled to a free passage home, but
many of them preferred to stay where they were when their time was up, and
to get employment as free labourers. These Kanakas worked in the fields only,
for which labour they were exceedingly well-fitted, much more so than for the
factories, where white labour was employed.
This plan of procuring labour had very good results ; a great many cheap
and efficient labourers came to the country and helped to extend the sugar
industry. But the latter is only carried on in a very small part of Queensland,
as the rest of the country has nothing whatever to do with this trade, and its
interests he in quite a different direction. Although the white labourers could
find ample work in the factories, they were, however, so much opposed to the
employment of coloured labour that they succeeded in getting a Royal
331
Australasia.
Commission appointed in 1884 for the purpose of studying the Kanaka question.
In consequence of the Report returned by this Commission, the then Premier,
Sir Samuel Griffith, proposed to prohibit all further Kanaka immigration from
1890. But the sugar industry soon felt the injurious effect of this resolution
of their Government. Capitalists became unwilling to invest money in Aus-
tralian sugar estates, and the general opinion was so much against these pro-
posals that the Government were obhged to withdraw them and allow fresh
supphes of Kanakas to enter the cane districts. But in order to promote the
sugar industry'with white labourers exclusively, and to prove that their idea
could very well be carried out, the Government of Queensland in 1889 advanced
money to two groups of farmers to the amount of £25,000 and ^^20,000 respect-
ively at 5 per cent, interest and 3 per cent, yearly redemption. These two groups
founded two sugar factories, " North Eton " and " Racecourse Mill,"which
were to work up the cane which would be cultivated by white farmers on their
own land with the help of white employees. Five years afterwards, in 1893,
the ,Sugar Works Guarantee Act was brought into force. This act authorized
the Colonial Minister of Finance to enable companies to borrow money for
defraying expenses which the building of sugar factories would entail, but not
until they were certain of a sufficient amount of cane-planted area to guarantee
a profitable working up of the cane in a large size factory.
The Queensland Government guaranteed the redemption of the capital
in fifteen years, and an interest of 5 per cent, for the rest of the capital. The
Exchequer, on the other hand, was entitled to a first mortgage on the ground
and factories, and should the companies not be able to pay interest and redemp-
tion regularly, the Minister of Finance would have the right to fix the price of
cane, and to take possession of and manage the factory and cane-planted area
till arrears should be paid. The Exchequer would be entitled also to sell the
factory by public auction. According to an amendment to this law dating
from 1895, the Government had also a right to buy up all the shares in sugar
factories that were put up for sale at the Government's expense, which made
the Government become a shareholder in the particularly subsidized sugar
factories. A number of factories were immediately founded in consequence
of this regulation, and the two factories already existing were turned into
joint stock companies having the same rights as the newly-founded ones.
Altogether twelve factories and a tramUne were conducted by this Guaran-
tee Act, which did away with a great many factories that, up to that time,
had got cane from the lands now reserved for the new undertakings. It soon
appeared that it would take more than capital and modern installations to carry
on a sugar concern well ; and that experience, knowledge, and ability were
indispensable factors to making it a success.
To procure the Government's guarantee they had only to build a sugar
factory and to leave the management to a Committee formed by shareholders,
who were mostly cane planters, without having to submit to Government
supervision. The management, it is true, rested with cane planters, but not
332
The Commonwealth of Australia.
with sugar manufacturers or directors of large financial firms ; so that it was
not to be wondered at that the financial part of the business turned out a failure
and neither redemption nor interest were paid in time. Not till this unsatis-
factory state of affairs had lasted for some years did the Government appoint
an inspector to supervise the factories, and see what was wrong with them,
and find out how to remedy the defect.
On 30th July, 1902, £514,000 had been spent on the thirteen companies ;
£90,855 had since been paid as interest and redemption, while £70,090 was
still in arrears.
The estates in question may be divided into three groups, for which the
following measures were proposed to be taken : —
A. Factories which were well managed, and had never fallen short of
their indebtedness towards the Exchequer. There was no reason to interfere
and it sufficed for the Government to tender advice if necessary.
B. Factories tiiat are well arranged and in good condition, but have not
acted up to their obligations towards the Exchequer. For this category
a co-operation of company and Government was proposed, which might be
granted under the following terms :
1. The management of the estate, together with the Government,
were to take measures to promote a sufficient supply of cane.
2. The technical control and the management were to be superin-
tended by an expert appointed by the Government.
3. The machinery was not to be extended or added to unle:s the
Government approved of the plan.
4. The price to be paid for cane was fixed by the Minister of Finance
(at any rate, not without his knowledge).
5. No price was to be accepted for sugar unless the Government
approved of it.
6. No loan was to be contracted unless the Government consented
to it.
After the price of the cane should have been paid and after the expenses
of maintenance and manufacture would have been defrayed by the sale of the
sugar, the remainder was to go to the Exchequer till arrears of redemption and
interest were made good. When, however, it was agreed that the company
should pay a certain fixed sum, every amount that was earned in excess to this
sum would go towards a reserve fund, which would be used for paying the
redemption money in bad times to come.
C. Factories which had once been neghgent and could not guarantee better
management in the future were simply taken possession of by the Government.
These resolutions were accepted : three factories fell under A, four under
B, while the Government took possession of five factories that had been abso-
lutely in arrears and managed them at its own risk. Dr. Maxwell was appointed
as expert to assume the management ; this he did with great energy, and soon
333
Australasia.
after his appointment, in 1903, he succeeded in bringing about better results
as far as these inefficient factories were concerned. The principal reason why
these undertakings were a failure at first, and later on a success, lay in the
quantity of cane planted. The shareholders were not in a condition to plant
enough to keep the factories going, and the managers did not offer non-share-
holders such prices for their cane as to enable them to take up this branch of
cultivation. But as soon as it became a Government business there was no
longer any distinction made between shareholders and outsiders, and only one
price was paid by one and all.
Within three years' time the quantity of cane delivered at these factories
increased by 72 per cent., and is still increasing, so that the industry can be
carried on much more economically, and all but three factories have become
free again from the Government's control. The " B " factories have been
returned to their former owners, while the " C " factories were changed into
new joint stock companies, which carried on the business.
Besides the twelve factories which were founded under the Sugar Works
Guarantee Act, Queensland possesses a number of free factories, which up to
now have been working and providing for themselves, and have had nothing
to do with Government assistance. It is not likely that the Government will
embark again on another extension of assistance of the sugar industry, for
although a great many maintain that the quantity of sugar that Australia
imports yearly might be supplied by Queensland, if it was not for want of fac-
tories, the Government turns a deaf ear to these representations, and does not
propose anything in the way of more guaranteed factories.
Although after 1901 the sugar industry had been founded on a more solid
basis by Government support, the planters had to complain ere long of some
act of Government legislation. In 1901 the Australian colonies had united to
form the Commonwealth of Australia, and one of the first resolutions passed
by the new Parliament was the so-called Pacific Island Labourers' Act. At
the time of the foundation of the Commonwealth, the Labour party had become
very powerful, and insisted that Australia be occupied by white people only,
and that all coloured races should be barred from entering. In 1901 about
12,000 coloured labourers were working in the cane fields, 10,000 of whom were
Kanakas or inhabitants of the South Sea Islands, while the rest were British
Indians, Japanese, or Chinese. For the rest there were about 50,000 other
coloured people in AustraHa, chiefly Asiatics (Chinese) ; but these were mer-
chants and joiners, cooks, pearl-divers, and other types of artizans, who entered
the country at their own risk and could not be barred. The bill dealing with
the Kanakas, which was passed in 1901, prohibited all immigration from-
31st March, 1904. All agreements with Kanakas were legally annulled on
31st December, 1906, and any Kanaka who was found in the country after
1906 was to be sent back to lus native island.
Notwithstanding strong opposition on the part of the Queensland Premier,
the bill became law, and accordingly more than 9,000 Kanakas were expelled
334
The Commonwealth of Austraha.
in the years 1906, 1907, and 1908 from Australia, very often against their wish,
in order that it might become a " white man's land."
This act on the part of the Labour Party had serious consequences for the
Australian sugar industry, however proud the partisans of this policy may be
of the fact that 92 per cent, of the total sugar production in Austraha is obtained
by white labour.
The following tables state the quantity of sugar produced by white and
by coloured labourers ; they also give the amount of premiums and excise.
Year.
Tons of sugar produced
White
labour.
Coloured
labour.
Total.
Percentage of sugar
produced with
White
labour.
Coloured
labour.
Quantity of j
bounty -fed
cane,
in tons.
Amount o
premium n ^.
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
I9IO
1902. .
1903 . .
1904..
1905 . .
1906 . .
1907..
1908 . .
1909..
I9IO. .
12,254
24,406
39.404
50,897
127,539
162,480
132,078
118,364
187,956
65,581
65,456
105,616
101,362
54-619
22,583
18,322
14,452
19-384
77-835
89,862
145,020
152,259
182,158
185,063
150,400
132,816
207,340
157
27-2
27-2
33-4
70-0
87-8
87-8
89-1
907
84-3
72-8
72-8
66-6
30-0
12-2
12-2
10-9
8-3
105,364
222,537
378.885 I
502,061 1
1.195.673 i
1,452,400 I
1,273,762
1,048,166
24.493
50,652
85,301
111,872
285,420
499,068
436,403
365-297
590,879
NEW SOUTH WALES.
19-434
1,526
20,960
927
7-3
181,665
19-236
2,561
21,797
88-3
117
200,847
17,812
1-838
19,650
907
9-3
180,535
18,019
1,964
19-983
90-2
9-8
181,170
21,805
I-6I3
23.418
93-1
6-9
205,797
28,247
934
29,181
96-8
3-2
260,271
14.351
964
15-315
937
6-3
135.652
13-839
815
14.654
94-4
5-6
122,781
17,010
990
18,000
95-1
4-9
160,311
36,333
40,154
36,107
36,234
42,790
78,080
40,687
36,834
45.731
The opponents of the present policy take a different view of the matter,
and say that one should tfiot lose sight of the fact that a sugar crop takes four
to five years to mature, and that when they plant from September till April
of one year they do not reap any crop till April to December of the next year.
When the great drought of 1902 was over, every available Kanaka was
set to work to till as much land for the cane cultivation, and plant as much
cane as they were capable of in order to get as much labour out of them before
335
Australasia.
1904 arrived. They anticipated the time when the Kanakas would have
gone, and the remaining white labourers would just be able to manage the
crop, and would be none too many for the labour of planting. We notice a
considerable increase in the cane-planted area while the Kanakas were still
being employed, and a temporary decrease after they had gone.
I. Acres of cane planted during the last Kanaka years : —
1902/03 1903/04 1904/05 1905/06
85,338 iii,5i6 120,317 134.107
II. Acres of cane planted after they had gone :
1906/07 1907/08 1908/10 1910/11 1911/12
133,284 126,810 123,902 128,178 141,779
One should hot overlook the fact that fields planted in 1905 were not
abandoned till 1909, so that the influence of a decreased amount of labour
would not be fully felt till 1910.
The white labourers who were employed instead of the coloured race
had higher wages and did less work, while they kept bothering the planters by
repeated strikes and their constant demands for better payment. The labour
problem in Queensland has just entered upon a critical stage ; in the tropical
regions fit for sugar cultivation white labour cannot be used, while employing
coloured labour raises trouble, and in southern parts where white labour would
come in useful the climate is such as to prevent any cane cultivation flourishing.
So in order to promote cane growing by whites they hit upon another expedient.
The import duty on sugar into the Commonwealth of Australia amounts
to £6 per ton, while only £4 excise is levied on sugar produced in the country
itself, which means a protection of {2, per ton.
Sugar grown by white labourers only enjoys a decrease in excise amounting
to £3 ; consequently only £1 is paid per ton, and the protection enjoyed amounts
in this case to £5. But to come in for this they have to be able to prove that
none but white labour was used, and that these labourers were paid according
to regulations issued by the Government. As the Labour Party in Australia
has great influence, and is much in favour of rigorous measures, both planters
and manufacturers 'are forced to pay exorbitant wages in order to get hold of
the rebate on the excise. As circumstsmces are at present, we cannot call the
condition of the Australian sugar planter and sugar manufacturer satisfactory,
owing to a rather unfavourable climate, to the Government regulations as re-
gards coloured labour, and to the preposterous demands of the white employees,
so that we are not surprised that the sugar production has been decreasing for
the last few years, and most likely will continue to do so, though the sugar
consumption of that country is steadily increasing.'
At the present moment the system of central factories extends over the
entire Australian sugar industry, including both free factories and those under
Government supervision. A great many of the big estates are divided up into
small plots, on which cane is grown and sold to the factories at a price calcu-
lated according to the density of th& juice. The factories sell their sugar to a
336
The Commonwealth of Australia.
large company, the Colonial Sugar Refining Company, which has the monopoly
of the sugar and fixes the prices. This company lets a good deal of land to the
cane planters, who supply the factories with cane, and has caused the number
of planters to increase enormously during the last few years. However advan-
tageous this system may be, it has this drawback that the smaller planter cannot
possibly give the necessary attention to the cane all the year through, nor can
he apply regular manuring and tillage.
There is not much to be said about the cane cultivation itself. Irrigation
has been carried out more than formerly, because the advantages of a regular
water supply have been recognised. When irrigation cannot be arranged by
damming up the rivers and streams and distributing the water all over the
fields, pumping stations which supply the necessary amount of water have been
constructed. The cane is planted from September to April, and is reaped
between ist July and 31st December of the following year. In New South
Wales the cane is left two years before it is cut, while in Queensland part of the
cane is cut after fourteen months, and the rest left on the fields. Second and
third ratoons are always grown, especially when they have not enough labour
for planting afresh.
The number of factories, the acres of cut cane, and the quantity in tons
of sugar have been for Queensland since 1876 as follows : —
Year.
Number of
Acres of cut
Tons of sugar
factories.
cane
produced.
1876/77
70
7.245
8,214
1877/78
59
8,043
12.243
1878/79
68
10,702
13,525
1879/80
70
11,409
18,714
1880/81
83
12,306
^ 15,564
1881/82
103
15,550
19,051
1882/83
120
16,874
15,702
1883/84
152
25,792
36,148
1884/85
166
29,951
32,010
1885/86
166
40,756
59,225
1886/87
160
36,104
56,859
1887/88
118
34,821
57,960
1888/89
106
30,821
34,022
1889/90
125
31,239
44,411
1890/91
no
39,435
69,983
1891/92*
68
36,821
51,209
1892/93
72
40,572
61,386
1893/94
6k
43,670
76,146
* Since 1892 only estates thai ground iheir own cane.
337
Australasia.
Year.
Number of
Acres of cut
Tons of sugar
factories.
cane.
produced.
1894/95
62
49.839
91,712
1895/96
64
55.771
86,255
1896/97
81
83,093
109,774
1897/98
62
65,432
97,916
1898/99
62
82,391
163,734
1899/00
58
79,435
123,289
1900/01
58
72,651
92,554
1901/02
52
78;i6o
120,858
1902/03
43
59,102
77,835
1903/04
39
60,375
89,862
1904/05
53
82,741
145,020
1905/06
53
96,093
152,259
1906/07
53
98,194
182,188
1907/08
54
94,384
185,063
1908/09
54
92,219
150,400
1909/10
54
80,095
132,816
1910/11
54
99,634
207,340
1911/12
54
96,396
176,076
Since 1882 the sugar production has been as fohows, in tons per acre : —
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
0-98
1-38
i-ii
1-45
1-69
1-65
1-07
1-36
1-69
1-39
I-5I
1-74
1-84
1-55
I-5I
1-50
1-99
1-55
1-28
33^
The Commonwealth of Australia.
igoi
1902
1903
1904
1905
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911
55
67
52
78
59
59
88
00
64
08
86
Although the sugar production per unit of area has increased a little during
these last thirty years, it is still of small amount compared with that of tropical
countries, being but 1-5 tons per acre, and this figure is especially unsatisfactory,
because it may refer to the acres reaped in one year, and because the number
of acres planted with cane in one year is much more, as all the cane in'the fields
is not reaped annually. A comparison between the fi3;ures of the planted and
the cut area is given in the following table : —
Year.
Planted
acres.
Cut acres.
Cane in
tons.
Sugar in
tons.
1904/05
120,317
82,741
1,326,989
145,020
1905/06
134.107
96,093
1. 415. 745
152,259
1906/07
133.284
98,194
1,728,780
182,158
1907/08
126,810
94.384
1,665,028
185,063
1908/09
123,902
92,219
1.433.315
150,400
1909/10
128,178
80,095
1,163.591
132,816
1910/11
141,779
99.634
1.564,993
207,340
This shows at the same time that the sugar yield from cane has been about
10-95 per cent. s^
The corresponding figures of New South Wales are as follows : — i '
Year.
1870/71
1871/72
1872/73
Productive
acres.
1,475
1.995
3.470
Non-
productive
acres.
2,607
2.339
2,001
339
Tons of
cane.
Tons of
sugar.
Australasia.
Non-
Year.
Productive
productive
Tons of
Tons of
acres.
acres.
cane.
sugar.
1873/74
3.565
3.105
—
—
1874/75
4.087
4.453
—
—
1875/76
3.654
2,800
99.430
—
1876/77
3,524
3.231
99.978
—
1877/78
3.331
3.735
104,192
—
1878/79
2.949
4.489
126,119
—
1879/80
3.676
4,102
121,676
—
1880/81
4.465
6,506
128,752
—
1881/82
4,983
7,184
169,192
—
1882/83
6,362 .
7,176
204,547
—
1883/84
7.583
7.401
105,323
—
1884/85
6.997
10,520
239,347
—
1885/86
9.583
6,835
167,959
—
1886/87
5,915
9,202
273,928
—
1887/88
8,380
6,907
110,218
—
1888/89
9.997
10,284
168,862
—
1889/90
7.348
11,382
277,252
—
1890/91
8.344
12,102
185,258
—
1891/92
8,623
13.639'
264,832
—
1892/93
11,560
15,191
252,606'
—
1893/94
11.750
16,357
264,254
—
1894/95
14,204
18.705
207,771
■ —
1895/96
14.398
18,259
207,771
—
1896/97
18,194
12,859
120,276
—
1897/98
12,936
12,929
269,068
—
1898/99
14.578
10,181
289;2o6
—
1899/00
9.435
13.082
170,500
—
1900/01
10,472
11,642
199,118
—
1901/02
8.750
12,019
187,711
—
1902/03
8,899
11,402
183.105
21,612
1903/04
10,405
9,814
227,511
21,812
1904/05
9.772
11,753
199,640
19.650
1905/06
21.205
201,998
19,983
1906/07
20,601
221,560
23,418
1907/08
9,916
8,037
277.390
29,181
1908/09
6.957
10,024
144,760
15,315
1909/10
6,480
8.457
131,081
14,654
1910/11
5.596
8.005
160,311
18,828
340
The Commonwealth of Australia.
The quantity of cane and sugar per acre reaped is higher here than in
Queensland, being in 1907-08, 1908-09, and 1909-10 respectively 27-97, 20-88,
and 20-23 tons of cane, and 2-93, 2-20, and 2-28 tons of sugar. One should not
forget the fact that this cane is two years old, and that the quEintity of sugar
per planted acre amounts to a very small percentage, as it very seldom attains
to I ton per acre on the average, and is very often below that figure.
As to the cost of production of cane, we give the following figures from an
article in the Ausl.ralian Sugar Journal, which figures represent the average,
and are by no means exceptional : —
Field 12.
1906. 1,408 tons 18 cwt. cane Wages
Rent . .
Own salary
1907. 1,316 ,, 17 ,, ,, Wages,
Rent . .
Own salary
1908. 955 „ 6 „ „ Wages
Rent . .
Interest
Own salary
Field 8a.
1906. 1,221 tons 8 cwt. cane Wages
Rent . .
Own salary
1907. 1,363 ,, 17 ,, „ Wages
Rent . .
, Own salary
1908. 1,061 „ 8 „ „ Wages
Rent . .
Own salary
Field m.
1906/07. 1,162 tons 9 cwt. cane Wages
Rent . .
Own salary
1908. 1,057 " 13 .. .. Wages
Rent . .
Own salary
Value of installation ^400, 20 per cent, of which is
Taxes in one year
Total cost for 9,452 tons 16 cwt. cane
341
- - £192
13
3
220
50
283
14
220
50
290
17
220
.. 56
4-
2
50
-£1,633
8
7
■■ ;fi38
3
2
140
50
. . 142
7
140
50
■- 175
2
240
50
— ^1,025
12
2
■ ;f644
10
II
200
100
•• 149
16
6
100
50
/ y A A
7
5
ti'244
-edeemed
yearly £240
• • • ■
90
- • £4,233
8
2
Australasia.
or 8s. io|d. per ton ; to which has to be added the cost of reaping at 4s. 9Jd.
per ton, so that the total cost per ton amounted to 13s. 8Jd.
The factories pay for the cane according to different rates, but on an
average about lis. to 13s , while the planter receives a prennium of 6s. per ton
when the cane is cultivated by white labour.
The calculation of price was for one factory as follows : For cane with
9 to 12 per cent, sugar content lis. is paid ; for cane of 12 to 13 per cent., 12s. ;
and for cane of 13 per cent, or more sugar content, 13s. ; while cane containing
less than 9 per cent, of sugar can be refused or paid less for according to the
analysis. For burnt cane is. less per ton is obtained.
During the first five years of Federal Tai'iff, the following prices were paid for
cane by the central factories and by the factories of the Colonial Sugar Refining
Company : —
Year.
Central factories.
C. S. R. Co.
1901/02
1902/03
1903/04
1904/05 . . ■ . .
1905/06
301,811 tons
202,421
285,070 ,,
448.318 „
449.727 ..
i4/6i
i5/6i
15/44
16/3
15/64
336,396 tons
230,852 „
250,130 .,
337.335 ..
383,885 „
13/7I
ife/9i
15/10
17/14
14/84
1,687,417 tons
15/64
1,588,598 tons
15/74
10
9
I
II
3
5
12
2
54
The sugar realized on an average the following sums : —
1906/07 . . . . . . . . /lo 14 8 per ton
1907/08 . .
1908/09 . .
1909/10 . .
and was bought by the Colonial Sugar Refining Company (the only sugar buyer)
exclusively at these average prices.
The sugar industry in Australia is thus far from satisfactory. The inhabi-
tants of the districts where no sugar is cultivated complain because an import
duty of £6 per ton makes sugar too expensive, while the sugar manufacturers,
on the other hand, are not pleased either that they have to do without proper
legal protection. They maintain that an excise of ■£i\, with an import duty of
£6, only leaves them a protection of £2 per ton, and that they have paid for their
bounty of ^^3 on cane cultivated by white labour too dearly, by having had to
expel their black labourers, and by having become dependent on white labour
which is not always reliable.
While their neighbours in Hawaii are benefited by a protection in the
form of an import duty of £g per ton on foreign sugar entering the United
342
The Commonwealth of Australia.
States, and are themselves exempted from import duty and excise, the Austra-
lian sugar planters, on the other hand, come to the conclusion that their in-
dustry, far from deriving money from the Exchequer, rather helps to swell'
the latter.
In 1906-07, for instance, excise brought in ^^741,929, and ^^567,248 was
paid as premium, which left £164,781 for the Exchequer ; in 1907-08 these
figures were respectively £751,163, £477,090, and £274,773. In 1908-09 the
premium, however, cast £402,131, and in 1909-10 £579,133, so that the -Ex-
chequer's share in comparison with that of the planters is decreasing. The
prospect the proposals of the premium held out, namely, that Australia would
soon supply her own sugar wants, has not been realized. With a consumption
of more than 200,000 tons, about 50,000 tons, or 25 per cent., is being imported
chiefly from Java, Hong Kong, Fiji, and Mauritius ; and as the consumption
increases and the production goes down — with the exception of the production
of 1910 — this proportion is hkely to become increasingly unfavourable.
In New South Wales the more profitable industry of dairy products
is preferred ; while cane is simply cultivated for the sake of the factories which
otherwise would be rendered useless. In the north of Queensland there is the
difficulty of getting enough labourers who can stand the climate ; while in the
south unfavourable climatic circumstances reduce the cane area. At the
beginning of 1910 a Commission was appointed to investigate the condition
of the sugar industry, and to ascertain whether the present protection given
by the Government was adequate, and if not how to extend it successfully. As
long as the result of these investigations is unknown, we cannot say much on
the prospect of the Australian sugar industry in the near future, which, as it
is, looks far from promising.
Literature :
The Australian Sugar Journal.
Yearbook of Australia.
II.
THE HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.
I. — Geographical Location, Climate, Population, Cane-planted
Area, Total Sugar, Production.
The group of the Hawaiian Islands lies in the northern part of the Pacific Ocean,
between 18° 54' and 22° 14' N. Lat. and 154° 18' and 160° 13' W. Long, from
Greenwich. It consists of eight inhabited islands, forming one group, with seme
343
Australasia.
smaller uninhabited islets at ' some distance to the north. The total area
amounts to 6,455 sq. miles, divided among the different islands as follows :—
Island.
Sq. miles.
Sq. kilometres.
Hawaii . .
4,015
10,360
Maui
728
1,879
Oahu
598
1,514
Kauai . . ,
547
1,412
Molokai . .
261
674
Lanai . . . . •
139
359
Niihau
97
251
Kahoolawe
1 69
171
Uninhabited islands
6
15
Total
6,455
15,635
All these islands are the result of volcanic upheavals of the soil, dating from
fairly recent periods.
The largest island, Hawaii — from which the entire group derives its name —
is of recent date, and covered with lava not long since formed by the extensive
volcanoes of the island. The coast, especially on the north-west, rises steeply
from the sea, and gradually slopes up towards the mountain tops, so that no
level seashore is to be found here. There are not any harbours to speak of
except H.lo Harbour, which is not a safe anchorage at all. The highest mountain
peaks are Mauna Kea, 13,900 ft., Mauna Loa, 13,600 ft., Hualalai, 8,300 ft.,
while the extensive volcano of Kilauea only measures 5,500 ft.
The island Maui is of much older geographical formation than Hawaii,
and can boast of extensive plains. Its highest mountain peak is that of Halea-
kala, 10,000 ft. high. The scantily populated Molokai and the two smaller
islands, Lanai and Kahoolawe, are grouped together — the latter two being
almost uninhabited, and are used as pasture land for cattle.
Oahu is likewise of ancient formation, and has already gone through so
many upheavals of the ground that the exact site of the volcano crater which
created the island is difficult to trace. Owing to these changes in the level of
the land, it is interspersed with coral cliffs, which seem to be pushed between
the original layer of lava, and the subsequently formed products of disintegra-
tion. Instead of a few craters, as are found in the other islands, Oahu possesses
two nearly parallel mountain ranges, between which a plateau is found that
slopes down to the sea both in a northern and a southern direction.
On the south side the capital of the Hawaiian group, Honolulu, is situated
on a very fine bay excellently suited for navigation.
344
The Hawaiian Islands.
Kauai is the oldest island of the group, consisting of a peak, Waileale,
5,250 ft. high, and its disintegration products. This mountain rises from the
sea as a deeply grooved mass of rock, while a great many of its spurs run out
to sea. Between these spurs the disintegration products carried along by the
rain have settled and formed a number of valleys, which lead on the coast into
some small harbours.
Niihau, lying close to Kauai, is of some importance. In consequence of
the mountainous nature of these smaller islands, they do not possess any navig-
able rivers — with the exception of Kauai, which can boast of several streams
which, flowing from the mountains, run through the alluvial ground to the sea,
and are to some extent navigable near their mouths.
The climate of the Hawaiian Islands varies little all the year through,
and all over the island group. The north-east trade wind is the prevaihng one
which blows 264 days out of the 365 every year, and carries along quantities
of moisture. The high mountains keep the wind back, force it to rise, and in
this way bring on a heavy rainfall on the north-east and eastern slopes of the
mountain ; while the rainfall on the lee side is very slight, and is sometimes
lacking altogether. Some parts of the island group have as much as 200 ins.
yearly of rainfall, while other parts are stated at 2 ins. ; and others, again,
derive some rain from south-west gales, which are very rare. So it is impossible
to quote any average rainfall for Hawaii, as the position of the different localities
is the greatest factor for obtaining rain and sunshine. As, however, this
factor is the same all the year through, the climate of each place is fairly steady
during the twelve months, and a succession of cold, warm, dry, and wet seasons
is not experienced here.
The average temperature in Honolulu has been for a period of fifteen years
227 to 23-3° C. (72° to 74° F.) ; for the same period the observed maximum
temperature was 317° C. (88-3° F). ; while the minimum temperature was
never lower than ii-i° C. (52° F.), which was observed for a few hours. On
climbing the mountains one will find a lower temperature, of course, and the
highest mountain tops, even in this tropical climate, are covered with snow
all the year round. The temperature on the windward side is generally lower
than on the lee side, while the humidity of the atmosphere is higher, though
it is stiU comparatively low.
The wind is seldom violent, and hurricanes, though prevaihng in other
tropical parts, do not occur here.
Though the following meteorological data, collected in 1908, only refer
to Honolulu, and cannot be looked upon as characteristic of the Hawaii group
as a whole, we think it worth while to quote them : —
345
Australasia.
£
II
p
>
a
is
li
It
S
II
<
1
S.2
<i5
(J
II
P.
7
i
1
Days with
Month.
0,
as
S
.9
.g
si-
s ,
10
g
CO
s
January
22-0
24-9
ig-i
12-7
6-3
77
4-1
8
4
February
22-2
24-9
ig-S
86-9
42-9
75
5-8
II
10
5
I-
I
March
22-4
25-0
19-8
205-5
130-0
59
6-5
14
II
6
2
April
22-6
25-3
19-9
15-0
4-0
70
6-0 ,
13
5
May
23-9
266
21-3
9-8
5-4
72
5-5
5
2
June
24-1
26-7
21-5
9-9
5-6
68
5-6
II
2
July
24-7
27-2
22-2
4-1 2-2
68
5-6
6
2
August
25-1
27-8
22-4
23-1
13-9
74
4-8
9
5
I
-
September
25-0
27-6
22-6
19-0
I2-I
67
5-1
10
4
I
I
October
24-6
27-2
21-9
5-6
2-2
67
4-5
7
2
November
23- [
26-0
20-3
27-9
12-7
73
3-6
5
4
2
December
22-2
24-7
19-7
68-1
31-2
68
5-5
13
8
4
Average . . .
23-5
25-1
20-6
488-6
70
5-2.
112
59
19
3
2
According to the census returns of January, 1908, tlie population of the
Hawaiian Islands amounted to 218,462, distributed over the several islands
as follows : —
Hawaii . . . . . . . . . . 59,621
Maui and surrounding islands
Oahu
Kauai and adjacent islands
Total . .
39,980
95.398
23,463
218,462
The census returns of ist January, 1910, only gave 191,909 inhabitants
for all the islands ; 45,000 of these inhabit the capital, Honolulu ; while the
second town, Hilo in Hawaii, accounts for 4,500. The aborigines number
only 35,000, which number is steadily decreasing, as the race is dying out.
The other nationalities consist of white people born in the island and half-
breeds, American, Portuguese, Chinese, and especially Japanese, the latter
of whom number some 85,000. The Portuguese hail principally from the
Azores, but as the state of affairs in their own country is improving, their
number decreases, because they return home ; but a great number of them
have done well in the Hawaiian Islands, and prefer to remain there.
With the exception of Honolulu and Hilo, there are hardly any towns,
and the centres of population are seldom any better than villages ; while the
population is densest on the sugar estates. There is regular communication
between the several islands by means of steamers of the Inter-Island Steam
346
The Hawaiian Islands
Navigation Co., plying from coast to coast ; while the islands themselves have
excellent roads, which, of course, follow the coast line where possible.
Over and above the. many railroads on the sugar estates that are used for
cane transportation, there are five railway companies. These are the Oahu
Railway, 70 miles in length, connecting Honolulu with the extreme north point
of Oahu, where it joins the shorter Koolaua Railway ; the Hilo Railway, run-
ning from Hilo to a point nine miles distant from the Kilaue volcano ;
the Kohala Railway, running from the sugar estates neat- Kohala to the sea,
and joining the Kahului Railway connecting this harbour town with several
sugar estates in Maui.
Sugar cane is only grown in the four large islands, Hawaii, Oahu, Maui, and
Kauai, for which cultivation the following areas have been planted with cane : —
Island.
1904
Acres.
1905
Acres.
1906
Acres.
1907
Acres.
1908
Acres.
1909
Acres.
1910
Acres.
Hawaii
Maui
Oahu
Kauai
47.058
13.949
15.832
14.959
45,002
15,116
18.783
15.542
44,984
15,971
18,178
17,096
47.907
16,724
18,995
16,289
46,896
16,778
20,497
17,209
49,67.2
18,501
20,329
17,626
52,447
18,864
20,543
18,392
Total . .
91,798
95.443
96,229
99.915
101,380
106,218
110,246
As, however, the crop from the entire planted area is not reaped every year, the
canes taking a much longer vegetative period than twelve months, it cannot be
far wide of the mark to estimate the entire cane-planted area of the Hawaiian
Islands at 225,000 acres, although higher figures are sometimes quoted.
The sugar production of the last nineteen years has been in the several
islands as follows, expressed in long tons : —
Island.
18<)2/9i
1893/94
1S9-1/95
1S93 9B 1 ISIIC, 97 I 1897/98 1898,99
1899/00 1900/01
Hawaii
Maui
Oahu
Kauai
50,962
29,170
17.736
38,400
64,484
30,080
16,788
37.-^48
55.038
24.764
1^,566
38,228
98,602
25.054
3I.94S
46,123
"3. 157
36,649
25,829
48.584
81,791
40,208
30,518
52.355
104,678
48,562
40,911
58,356
102,878
51,203
47.879
56,561
120,194
52,097
88,869
60,301
Total
136,268 148,600 133,596
201,727
224,219 204,832
252,507
258,520
321,461
Island.
1901 '02
1902/03
1903/04
1904/05
1906/00
1900/07
1907/08
1908,09
1909/10
1010/11
Hawaii . . .
Maui
Oahu . . .
Kauai . . .
108,299
50,648
96,312
62,250
152,379
75.693
108,094
54,896
109,701
69,630
91,088
57.684
112,861
89.693
109,906
68,136
122,991
91,928
101,562
66,744
128,474
93.546
106,493
64.358
160,856
109,490
122,333
72,609
153.875
120,183
123,592
£0,167
142,728
124,513
114,864
80,508
172,729
89,883
118,869
124,514
Total ...
377.509
391,062
328,103
380,576
383.225
392,871
465,288
477.817
462.613
505.995
347
Australasia.
II. — History of the Cane Sugar In*lustry in the Hawaiian
I Islands.
Although we have some reports of a Japanese junk touching at Maui
in the thirteenth century, and of a Spanish ship calling in 1550 on the south
coast of Hawaii on its way from Mexico to the Philippines, our knowledge of the
Hawaiian Islands really only dates from 1778, when Captain Cook discovered
them. He found sugar cane already growing, and the natives using the product
as a dainty ; still, it was not till 1837 that the exportation of sugar from those
islands is mentioned, an exportation amounting to only 4,286 lbs., or less than
two tons. This exportation, however, soon increased considerably, and in
1876, the year the reciprocal treaty with the United States was entered upon,
it realized as much as 11,600 tons
The real beginning of the Hawaiian sugar industry dates from the time of
this reciprocal treaty, which turned the Hawaiian Islands into a vassal state
of the United States. As this treaty and its effects have influenced the entire
sugar industry, it may be as well to touch on this subject somewhat fully here.
In 1855 negotiations were opened with a view to drawing up a reciprocal
treaty between the United States and the Kingdom of Hawaii ; but although
the Foreign Secretary at Washington was much in favour of the proposal, it
was not ratified by the Senate. In 1867 it was again approved of by the Hawaiian
Government and the President of the United States, but again voted down by
the Senate, till in 1875 the treaty was signed to take effect from September,
1876. According to this treaty, the principal products of the Hawaiian Islands,
rice and raw sugar (known in San Francisco as " Sandwich Islands Sugar "),
were altogether exempted from import duty in the United States ; while nearly
all kinds of agricultural produce and goods from the United States enjoyed
a similar privilege when imported into Hawaii. This treaty was to hold good
for seven years, with the option at the end of that time of renewing it indefinitely,
unless one of the parties should wish it to terminate, and gave twelve months'
notice.
The principal reason for entering upon this agreement was not so much
the commercial advantage for the United States as political considerations and
State interests. The measure was recommended by both pohtical parties in
the Congress as a means of obtaining ascendency in the affairs of the Hawaiian
Islands, and to make the Hawaiian Islands virtually part of the United States,
both commercially and industrially, and so prevent foreign powers from getting ,
any footing there — a most dangerous possibility for the west coast of the
United States, in case of war.
Before this treaty was signed the population of the Hawaiian Islands
was rapidly decreasing, and the trade of the islands was deteriorating also in
consequence of the bad times the whale fishery encountered. Although the soil
was very well fitted for cane cultivation, it was no fit place for the sugar industry,
' 348
The Hawaiian Islands.
as labour was scarce and expensive, and the import duties in the United States,
their only market, were too high to make any profit possible.
In 1875 there was a proposal to get Hindoos from British India to come
and live on these islands, in order to supply the lack of labour cheaply and
abundantly, for which Great Britain's acquiescence was sought. Moreover, the
Australian colonies were gaining in importance commercially, so that they were
looked upon as the market for Hawaiian sugar, instead of the United States.
An attempt was actually made to send the entire crop of 1876-77 to Australia,
in the hope that Hawaii might one day become independent of the United
States, both politically and economically, and might be turned into a British
colony. As soon as the United States became aware of this move, they readily
seized the opportunity, and entered into the above reciprocal treaty, which
allowed raw sugar to be imported into the United States free from any duty
whatever. At that time the duty used to amount to 40 per cent, of the value,
so that the value of the sugar all at once increased by 40 per cent., and became
on that account a highly profitable product.
The first sugar factory in the Hawaiian Islands dates from 1835, when
a mill was built in Koloa, driven by oxen, which crushed the cane. In 1861 the
number of factories had expanded to 22, — 9 of which were driven by steam,
12 by water, and i by animal power. Just before the agreement was drawn up,
the factories numbered 33 ; while fifteen months later the number had increased
to 46. The table at the end of this chapter shows clearly how the sugar industry
has developed since 1877.
This reciprocal agreement was not only a boon to the sugar industry,
but also to every trade connected with it, such as manure and machinery manu-
facture, navigation, etc., so that America benefited by it indirectly, although
Hawaii, of course, derived most direct financial profit. This consideration,
and the advantage that the only possible basis of operation for a hostile fleet
belonged to a friendly disposed nation, caused this agreement to be retained
sine die, in spite of the many attacks made on it in Congress. We need not be
surprised at these attacks when we think of the envy with which both the
American sugar producers and the Exchequer looked upon this ever-increasing
Hawaiian sugar importation into America, which threatened the home industry
and the public revenue.
In 1891 King Kalakaua died, and was succeeded by his sister, Lihuokalani,
but the latter was not equal to suppressing the revolutionaries ; in conse-
quence, Hawaii was created a republic in 1893, to be incorporated into the
Union in 1898— after the sovereignty had already once been offered in vain
to the United States.
This incorporation, as might be expected, led to a flourishing increase in
the sugar industry. As long as the exemption from import duties in America was
guaranteed by a treaty between the two powers which was exposed to all sorts of
attacks and might be cancelled at any moment, the sugar industry could not rest
on a firm footing. All this changed when the repubUc was incorporated into the
349
Australasia.
United States, and Hawaiian sugar, as a matter of course, was admitted free from
any duty into San Francisco and New York. A great many new sugar companies
with large capital were founded, while l!ie existing ones extended their capital in
order to increase their sphere of activity. Other companies shared this desire
for extension, and as most of the capital was found by men of limited means —
citizens of the Hawaiian Islands — it ended in bankruptcy or in straightened
circumstances for the people who had procured the money. But these conse-
quences of excessive speculation soon disappeared, after a period of judicious
management, and it was not long before the sugar industry was placed on a
firmer footing, with a bright prospect in store for it. In 1897 to 1898 — that
is, a little time before the annexation — the production only amounted to
229,000 tons, while in 1901-02 it had gone up to 360,000 tons — that is 60 per
cent, increase in four years' time. Besides these political and economical causes,
there was another that greatly contributed to the improvement of the sugar
industry, and will continue doing so in future, namely, the application of irriga-
tion from the rivers and artesian wells. As was stated at the beginning of this
chapter, the rainfall is unevenly distributed over the different parts of the
islands. Whereas the north-east and east coast get plenty of rain, the rainfall
in the west and south-west is so slight that it cannot bring about the ripening
of the cane. In consequence thereof the area fit for sugar cultivation was very
restricted, so that, still, in 1882, competent experts estimated the disposable
cane-growing land for the combined island group at 72,500 acres, of which only
34,000 acres per annum were available for reaping. As a matter of fact, irrigation
works were started in 1887 to collect the water of the mountain streams and dis-
tribute it over the land ; but owing to the uncertainty of the reciprocal contract
and the subsequent vissicitudes of the siigar industry, they shrank from spending
much money on supplying the estates with extensive irrigation works. Previous
to the annexation, the Lihue waterworks were built in the Island of Kauai
in 1882 ; those at Hamakua in 1876 ; the Hawaiian Commercial and the Waihea
works in 1878 ; and the Makaweli works in 1890. When after the annexation
of the Hawaiian Islands by the United States the sugar industry obtained a firmer
footing, capitalists invested larger sums in irrigation works, and numerous
gigantic systems for the distribution of water over the barren land date from
this time. It was not only the diversion of mountain streams through tunnels,
ditches, and syphons, but large reservoirs were constructed to collect the
effluence of rivers which water was led through artificial canals and distributed
all over the estates by aqueducts. A third mode of water supply is the artesian
wells, which, especially in Oahu, supply a large quantity of water. Part of the
rainfall does not reach the sea by the rivers, but penetrates into the porous soil
and flows to the sea through sub"Soil rivers, which can be reached by means of
artesian wells, and brought to the surface again by pumping. At the present
moment there are about 1,500 miles of irrigated canals in the Hawaiian Islands,
70 miles of which are tunnel ; then there are 250 reservoits, containing alto-
gether 8,000 milhon gallons and 428 artesian wells capable of 500 million
350
The Hawaiian Islands.
gallons daily ; and besides these there are some subterranean sources which
carry loo million gallons of water daily. All this water from subterranean
sources is pumped up by steam pumps of a total of 27,000 horse-power to a height
of some 500 ft., and flows through 70 miles of iron pipes 16 to 54 ins. in diameter.
Part of this water is transported across ravines, sometimes 650 ft. deep, by
suspended syphons. All this shows what great energy and what large sums of
money have been expended on the irrigation works in anticipation of great
returns. One of the consequences of this broadly conceived irrigation system
has been a considerable increase in the planted area ; another has been an
increase in the production of these irrigated plantations. The quantity of
acres irrigated and not irrigated, and the quantity of reaped cane during the
j'ears 1895 to 1910 were as follows : —
Acres of
Acres of
Acres of
Year.
Irrigated land.
non-irrigated land
area reaped.
1895 ..
23.454
23.945
47,399
1896 . .
25,950
29,779
55,729
1897 . .
23,101
30,724
53,825
1898 . .
24,507
30,728
55,235
1899 . .
27,380
32,928
60,308
1900
27,090
39,628
66,718
1901 . .
34.740
43,878
78,618
1902 . .
38,987
41,966
80,953
1903
42,097
51,253
93.392
1904
42,810
48,987
91,797
1905
48,668
46,775
95,443
1906
50,112
46,117
96,329
1907
50,624
49,292
99,916
1908
53.104
48,276
101,380
1909
54,896
51,232
106,127
1910
55,973
54,273
110,246
While at first the non-irrigated land was most in evidence, after 1904 it
has been the other way about, and irrigated land forms the greater proportion
of the cultivated soil.
Simultaneously with the introduction of irrigation, the methods of culti-
vation and the factory installations were improved upon, and a rational method
of manuring tried, so that we may say that the Hawaiian sugar industry began
to flourish after 1898, and it will most likely continue to do so for years to come.
The number of sugar estates in the Hawaiian Islands at the present time
amount to 53 26 of which are found in Hawaii, 10 in Kauai, 10 in Oahu, and
7 in Maui. Not all of them, however, possess a sugar factory, as the factories
number 48 ; and 5 estates have to leave the grinding of their cane to neigh-
bouring sugar mills.
351
Australasia.
The figures representing the exportation of sugar from the Hawaiian
Islands were from its first year, 1837, ^P to 1867, as follows, expressed in long
tons : —
1837 •
2 1857 .
311
1838 .
40 1858 .
540
1839 .
45 1859 .
. 815
1840* .
161 i860 .
644
i84it .
27 1861 .
• 1,149
1842! .
— 1862 .
• 1.340
1843 •
511 1863 .
2,360
1844 .
229 1864 .
• 4,780
1845 •
• , 135 1865 .
. 6,840
1846
134 1866 .
• 7.920
1847 .
265 1867 .
• 7.740
1848 .
223 1868 .
8,170
1849 •
282 1869 .
. 8,168
1850 .
334 1870 .
. 8,385
1851 .
10 1871 .
• 9.720
1852 .
312 1872 .
7,690
1853 ■
286 1873 .
. 10,300
1854 •
257 1874 .
. 10,970
1855 •
130 1875 .
. 11,200
1856 .
248 1876 .
. 11,640
le total production of sugar, dating from 1876 until now, is exp
following table, also in long tons . : —
1877 .
. 11,410 1894 . .
. 148,000
1878 .
. 17,240 1895 .
• 134.500
1879 .
. 21,870 1896 .
. 202,000
1880 .
. 28,400 1897 .
. 223,000
1881 .
. 41,860 1898 .
. 204,000
1882 .
. 51,000 1899 .
• 253,000
1883 .
. 51,000 1900 .
. 258,000
1884 .
. 64,500 1901 .
. 321,000
1885 .
. 77,500 1902 .
. 317,000
1886 .
. 96,500 1903 .
. 391,000
1887 .
. 95,000 1904 .
. 328,000
1888 .
. 105,000 1905 .
. 381,000
1889 .
. 108,000 1906 .
. 383,000
1890 .
. 116,000 1907 .
• 393.000
1891 .
. 123,000 1908 .
. 465,000
1892 .
. 110,000 1909 .
. 478,000
1893 .
. 136,000 1910 .
1911 .
. 463,000
• 505.995
* These figures indicate the period January till August.
i For 1841 the figures are given for the time August, 1840, to August, 1841.
J There are no separate data for 1842, but they may be included in those of 1841.
The Hawaiian Islands.
III. — Cane Cultivation.
The land necessary for agriculture may be obtained from the Government
either on perpetual lease or freehold. As the soil in these islands is intersected
in many places by large extents of wild and hard rocky tracts, nicely bordered
plots of arable land cannot be expected, barren as well as fertile ground being
intermingled. For this reason the ground is classified under three kinds of
arable land, two kinds of pasture land, and in woodland.
The Government land is exclusively sold by auction at a minimum price
fixed by the officials. Pasture land is sold at $2 to $5 per acre, land for the culti-
vation of vegetables at I5 to $25, while land for cane cultivation may fetch from
$28 to $60 per acre. These are exceedingly easy terms for the smaller farmers to
obtain land, and are made so in order tp create a class of smaller farmers, who
are protected against land speculators. These terms simply amount to the possi-
bihty of buying land at about 25 per cent, of the estimated value ; while the
payments may be made in instalments, and no interest has to be paid during the
first five years. Five per cent, of the sale price has to be paid cash down, 5 per
cent, after two years, and 5 per cent, every following year, which means that the
sum has to be paid over within twenty years. The buyer is obliged to have at
least 20 per cent, of the arable land cultivated within two years' time, and 10 per
cent, more every following year, till a minimum is reached of 50 per cent., while
the land not fit for cultivation has to be planted with trees ; five trees per acre
during the first two years, and five trees more per acre for each following year,
till the obligatory minimum of twenty five trees per acre shall be reached.
All these regulations tend to make it easy for Americans to settle in Hawaii
without being obliged to have recourse to money in advance or other obligations
in order to get a plot of land as their property ; while they, at the same time,
form a colony of Americans in the Pacific as an advance guard and protection
on the west side for the great republic.
The total amount of arable land is 568,000 acres (or 228,000 hectares)
which is distributed as follows : —
12,000 acres used in rice cultivation.
225,000 ,, planted with cane.
15,000 „ fit for cane cultivation.
326,000 „ fit for small agriculture.
The big sugar estates became at once owners of the ground, and were, at
the same time, entitled to use the water from the subsoil, of which, as we saw,
they made excellent use. Their position is indicated on the map by shading ;
they occupy the wide strips and slopes on the sea coast and up the mountain
spurs.
The principal valley for sugar cultivation is that round Pearl Loch near
353 Y
Australasia.
Honolulu, in Oahu, where an area of less than 40 sq. miles, cultivated by three
companies, jaelds about 100,000 tons of sugar.
Before planting is begun the land is thoroughly ploughed up by steam
ploughs wherever the depth of the loose arable soil allows of it ; after which
it is levelled down and furrows 30 ft. long, i J to 2 ft. wide, and i J ft. deep are
cut 5 ft. apart. In these furrows tops are planted, which are cut 12 ins. long
and put in one or two rows close together, lengthways of the furrows ; after
which these are covered with earth and then watered. At first this is done
every two days, and afterwards it is repeated at increasing intervals, till the
cane is ripe. After some time they manure, bank, and weed occasionally ; and
by the time the cane ripens it has been trashed once or oftener. The months
from May till August are best for planting ; by this time the cane may have
attained to a sufficient height to endure the winter cold, which often causes
stagnation of growth ; while, at the same time, it is not then old enough to
begin flowering, which it does in November. Should the planter for want of
labour be obhged to start earlier in order to get all the cane planted, he
would run the risk of seeing the cane when only slightly grown, in flower at the
time when the winter cold commences ; this, of course, would involve the loss
of the still immature cane. In order to prevent this, the cane planted in March
or April is cut off close to the ground in July, and then left to bud out and grow
up together with the cane that was planted at the most favourable planting
season. During the winter it will grow slowly, and during the following summer
will shoot up tremendously, and finally fall down ; but it will keep growing
till it is 20 to 30 ft. in length, and begin flowering in the second November of its
existence, and be full-grown eighteen months after it was first planted. -
Here the crushing is not regulated by the time of lowest rainfall, because
the weather all through the year is subject to great changes, but by the state
of ripeness of the cane and quantity of the expected crop. Only very few
planters begin to crush on the ist of November, some start in December ; but
in January the crushing season ought to be in full swing all over the sugar
belt.
After the crop is reaped, ratoons are generally cultivated. For this
purpose the trash left in the field is removed and burnt, the soil is levelled and
irrigated, then manured and banked. In case the field is reaped early — for
instance, in December or January — ratoons wiU grow up so well that in Novem-
ber they will fiowej again, and will be ready to be cut by the following harvest
time. These ratoons being ripe one year after they are cut are called " short
ratoons." Should, however, the harvest be left till late, preventing the ratoon
cane from reaching the stage of. flowering in November, it is left to grow till
the following crushing season, in which case it will be cut after twenty-two
to twenty-four months' vegetation. This is called " long ratoons," and the
long duration of the growing process easily explains why such fluctuations
occur between the cane-planted areas and crops reaped every year. It goes
without saying that the crops from the " short ratoons " are much smaller
354
The Hawaiian Islands.
than those from long ones and from plant cane. After having kept on ratoons
for several crops, that is about six to ten years after first planting, the soil is
ploughed up and planted anew immediately afterwards.
The cane varieties most prevalent in the Hawaiian Islands are Lahaina,
Yellow Caledonia, and Rose Bamboo cane ; while a few seedling cane varieties
from Demerara are cultivated too, or are on tried at the experiment stations.
In Oahu and Maui, Lahaina cane is exclusively cultivated, and Yellow
Caledonia is in evidence in Hawaii, while the Kauai plantations plant both
these kinds together with Rose Bamboo.
The Lahaina cane got its name from an estate in Maui, where it was first
planted. It is said to have been imported there from Otaheite, where it seems
to have been indigenous, although we cannot state this as a fact.
The Rose Bamboo cane somewhat resembles the Cheribon cane of Java ;
while Yellow Caledonia is said to be identical with the White cane grown in
Cuba.
Much trouble is taken as regards manuring ; sulphate of ammonia, Chili
saltpetre, potash and phosphate are used, and the total sum of money spent
on manures is estimated at 22 million dollars, or an average of $4-65 for each
ton of sugar produced, or $22-20 for each acre harvested. It seems to take a
heavier manure each time to keep the cane production up to the same standard.
The former director of the Hawaiian Experiment Station has shown re-
peatedly that it is quite easy to wash out the soil of the Hawaiian Isles, and
that a heavy rate of irrigation can soon do away with the content of available
potash and lime from the soil, so that an alarming decrease in these con-
stituents in the land is even now noticeable, although the irrigation installa-
tions have only been in use for a very short time. This property indeed proves
to be a great drawback to the otherwise successful application, and it seems
that the remarkably favourable effect it had in the beginning is partly due to
using up what stock of necessary plant food there was to be obtained from
the subsoil. As soon as this food ceases to be found, it will take a still larger
amount of manure to keep the sugar production up to the old standard.
Cane is generally transported from the fields by narrow-gauge railways,
of which 840 miles of fixed and moveable railroad exist in the different islands,
together with 120 engines and 8,500 wagons. Besides this mode of transporta-
tion, there are 370 miles of water-gutters, the so-called " flumes," and 40 miles
of suspended aerial ropeways for the transportation of cane from the more highly
situated fields to the factories. The flume system is often appHed, especially
in Hawaii ; there are even factories that get their whole supply conveyed in
this way — ^whereas in Oahu, where no river water is obtainable, this system
could never be applied.
These flumes are shallow and boarded on each side, slightly sloping down
from the fields to the factory, and ending in a kind of grate close to the mills.
In the fields the cane is cut in pieces of 4 to 5 ft. long, and thrown into the
gutter, so that a constant stream of cut cane keeps flowing to the factory.
355
Australasia.
When the cane has come to the grating it is retained there, while the water
streams through the bars and is used later on for condensing the vapour of the
evaporators and vacuum pans, or is pumped up again for transport purposes.
The cane from the fields not lying along the railway or water-flumes is
taken to the mill by carts drawn by mules. As the temperature of the islands
is not very high and the humidity of the atmosphere never gets excessive, cut cane
keeps much longer without deteriorating, than it does in hotter countries, so
that people are not in such a great hurry to get the reaped cane crushed as they
are in Java and Cuba.
In igio 43,131 hands were working on the sugar estates, 25,808 of whom
were engaged on field work and 7,060 in the factory ; while the rest were acting
as managers, foremen, and clerks. The 7,060 factory labourers are subdivided
into 1,200 Eirtizans, 2,522 skilled labourers, and 4,388 unskilled hands. The
labour problem is still a difficult one to solve in the Hawaiian Islands. The
natives, who are not numerous and are far from industrious, as a rule fiU the
places of carmen, but do no regular field or factory work. In order to supply
the want of labour everything has been tried : Germans, Scandinavians, Portu-
guese from Portugal and the Azores, Spaniards, Chinese, FiUpinos, Japanese,
Russians from Vladivostok, West Indians, and even negroes have been im-
ported ; but the European nationalities, with the exception of the Portuguese,
could not endure the heavy field work in a tropical climate.
The economical conditions in the Azores are steadily improving, and
consequently lessen the inducement for Portuguese labourers to try their
f ortime in Hawaii ; Portuguese immigration is therefore tincertain, and at the
same time expensive. In 1909 as many as 874 Portuguese — men, women, and
children — immigrated from the Azores, costing on an average $90 a head ;
adult males cost $235, and adult females $145 ; but children (of whom there
were many) were much less.
As long as Hawaii was still a kingdom and an independent republic, the
immigration of indentured European labourers was quite an easy matter, and
in this way South Europe provided a good deal of comparatively cheap labour.
Once annexed, Hawaii came under American laws, which consider inden-
tured immigration as a sort of slavery, and consequently forbid it As Euro-
pean labourers do not like to risk leaving home in such circumstances, and
very often have not the means to pay their passage, the American
immigration law has actually put a stop to this easy way of procuring labour,
and has dealt a nasty blow to the Hawaiian planters, which should be considered
over and against the advantages of this annexation. Another clause of this
law forbids further immigration of Chinese into the dominion of the United
States, consequently into Hawaii ; so a second source of immigration is
excluded.
At the present time the Japanese is the only nation that comes to Hawaii
in large numbers to work in the fields and stay on for some time with the inten-
tion of earning a handsome sum of money, and then departing either for Japan
356
The Hawaiian Islands,
or for the' United States when the language has been mastered. Thanks to
the restricting regulations, the Japanese irnmigration has decreased much of
late, as more Japanese leave the country than enter it, and this, of course, has
led to the immigration of other races. Then they tried to get Russians from
Manchuria and Siberia to settle in Hawaii, their numbers having risen to 1,300
the last two years. It is cheaper to send these people to Hawaii than Portu-
guese immigrants, as the fare of a Russian on an average amounts to $70,
namely, $165 for a man, $100 for a woman, and a much smaller sum for a
child. Up to now the results of this type of immigration may be called very
satisfactory, but we cannot be certain yet of their wish to stay on or of their
enduring power to stand the work in tropical fields. They have also tried to
get some thousand labourers from the Phihppines, but though the mode of
working of this people leaves much to be desired, the Hawaiian planters readily
put up with their drawbacks, being glad of the help obtained.
In order to save labour, several field operations have already been aban-
doned : for instance, trashing the cane, which means saving much manual
labour, has been given up. Then the cane plots that are to be cut down are now
burnt over, as this greatly diminishes work, for it is much easier to cut the
burnt down cane than the green cane leaves full of sharp edges and hairs.
Rats are among the greatest enemies to the Hawaiian cane. Attempts
have been made to exterminate them by introducing a sort of weasel, but this
has not had satisfactory results. Then the borers do a great deal of
harm. They are not caterpillars in this case, but black beetles, called Spheno-
phorus obscurus. This beetle deposits its eggs in the higher nodes of the cane,
where the leaf-sheaths stand out from the stalk, and when the eggs are hatched
the larv£e get into the cane, where they tm-n into grubs and destroy the entire
inner tissue of the cane. The harm they do is considerable, and, according to
an article in a magazine the truth of which we cannot altogether vouch for,
is estimated at $2,000,000 a year.
The Entomological Division of the Hawaiian Experiment Station has tried
to find parasites of this beetle and cultivate them in hopes of being able to exter-
minate the pest, as they once were able to exterminate the " leaf-hopper "
(Perkinsiella saccharicida) . This insect, a kind of very small bug, sucks the
middle nerve of the leaves, and causes so much damage that, small as it is though
large in number, the sugar crop of some estates is said to have been diminished
by 10 per cent. The same bug occurs in many other sugar-producing countries,
such as Java, but never does so much harm there as parasitical enemies, espec-
ially ichneumon flies, are also found there, and impede too rapid a multipUcation
of this insect. The Perkinsiella, unfortunately, seems to have come to Hawaii
from Queensland enclosed in a parcel of cane, but the parasite, worst of aU,
was left behind, and here in a new country, without its usual enemies, it multi-
pUed at an incredibly quick rate, and did much harm. The Experiment
Station of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters appointed a number of practical ento-
mologists who set about searching for the accompanying parasites wherever
357
Australasia.
the bug was found. When found they cultivated them, and sent them to
Honolulu to attack their natural enemies. As the ichneumon flies, however,
could not travel the distance from Java to Honolulu, for instance, without a
break, an intermediate station was founded in Hong Kong, where a great
number of them were cultivated on sugar cane under a gauze cover, in order
to enable the parasites to give birth to a new generation before their span of
life should terminate. In this way they succeeded in conveying a number
parasites, the principal of which are the Paranagrus optahilis and Paranagrus
perforator ; there are also the Anagrus frequens and Ootetrastichus heatus. A
few years after the introduction of the parasites, an experiment showed that
87 per cent, of the eggs of the leaf-hopper were infested with larvae of the
ichneumon fly, so that we may consider this danger as past.
Further, red smut and marasmius are of frequent occurrence, as well as
other less important diseases, all of which, however, are combatted by dis-
infecting the cuttings with Bordeaux mixture, which is highly recommended
for this purpose by the Experiment Station.
IV. — Sugar Manufacture, Sugar Production per Acre, Cost
Price, Kind of Sugar and its Destination.
The manufacture of sugar from sugar cane in the Hawaiian Islands is
carried on in the very best possible way ; this may be partly due to the fact
that the owners of the factories live in the islands, and can see for themselves
what their concerns require. Their factories are installed with the best machinery
to be had, and work under fairly good chemical and technical control. Then
the cane here is of excellent quality, and produces far richer and purer juice
than in other cane-growing countries. Peru alone can boast of having an
equally good kind of cane, but, on the whole, the cane of other countries is
much inferior to the Hawaiian cane in sugar content and purity. Some fac-
tories crush from March till May cane of 17 per cent, sugar, and the highest
average figure on a weekly statistical list was for April, 1909 — no less than
17-81 per cent., the crusher juice having a density of 23-23° Brix. The highest
monthly averages for 1909 were 16-81 per cent., 15-89, 15-87, and 15-85 per
cent, on a 100 of cane. All these figures refer to Lahaina cane in rainless regions,
but planted under irrigation. It was planted in June, 1907, flowered in Novem-
ber, igo8, and was crushed from March to May, 1909 ; so that it stood in the
field for almost twenty-two months.
Ratoons from one-year-old cane grown in parts dependent on rain never
realize so high a juice content. The juice nowadays is exclusively expressed
by means of mills ; diffusion has been tried in some facto;:ies, but these shared
33«
The Hawaiian Islands.
the common lot of diffusion plants in cane sugar factories, being soon super-
seded by mills. In many cases one crusher and three or four 3-roller mills have
been cortibined into one system with one or two engines, maceration with water
and with last mill juice, and hydraulic pressure on the rollers. The extraction
results thus arrived at are never met with elsewhere, nor have they been sur-
passed. With so high a sugar content as the Hawaiian cane possesses, the sugar
content of the bagasse is reduced to 3 per cent., and the loss of sugar on extrac-
tion to 0-65 on 100 cane ; while the extraction of sugar on 100 of sugai in the cane
reaches 95 per cent. — but not without maceration of sometimes more than 30
per cent. This is not only due to the excellent way of working of the American
mills, but also to the hardness of the cane through having ripened in a dry
climate, and to the fact that in Hawaii they need not hurry to such an extent
as they have to in other countries, and can take their time over the crushing
operations. In Cuba, for instance, where the mills are equally powerful, work
has to be expedited to get the cane crushed before the rainy season sets in,
and harvesting cane would be out of the question ; while in Java work has to
be carried out quickly, too, in order to get the grinding season over before the
cane dies, or loses in sugar content. In Hawaii the cane in the field keeps in
good condition long after it is full-grown, while no early rainy season is to be
feared, so that there is not a single reason for hurrying over the grinding, but
everybody can work carefully, and try to get as much sugar as possible out of
the canes. The manufacture calls for no special mention. The juice is limed ;
clarifying is generally done in Deming's superheat or similar installations,
and the juice is evaporated in triple or quadruple effects. The syrup, without
being further clarified, is evaporated to a well-concentrated massecuite, which,
when centrifugalled, produces a raw sugar of about 97° polarization (so-called
" A " sugar) and first molasses of about 70° purity. This is boiled to grain and
the massecuite is cooled and then yields a sugar of about 95° polarization (the
" B " sugar), and exhausted molasses of about 30 apparent purity. Only one
factory, the Honolulu Plantation Company, makes exclusively crystalhzed
and crushed white sugar to the amount of 20,000 short tons a year, to be exported
to San Francisco as well as for home consumption. The exhausted molasses is
used partly as cattle fodder or as fuel for' the furnaces in conjunction with a
special burner ; while a considerable part is thrown away as waste, as excise
regulations forbid working up the last molasses to alcohol.
Owing to the high sugar content of the cane, as well as to the high purity
of the juice and the high juice extraction by the mills, the sugar yield on 100
cane is extremely high in Hawaii. In 1908 the maximum amount of one factory
during a whole year was 14-36, while the minimum still came up to 1078 ; i2-6i
per cent, could be taken as an average figure, so that one may conclude that in
1908 8 -18 tons of cane were needed for one ton of sugar. For 1909 and 1910 these
figures have respectively been 7-67 and 7-99 tons of cane for one ton of sugar,
being equal to yields of 13-04 and 12-52 per cent. The yield from irrigated cane
is higher than that from non-irrigated. The chemical control of the sugar house
359
Australasia.
work is generally well managed, and analyses and calculations have been
uniformly conducted for the last few years, ' according to methods adopted by
the Hawaiian Sugar Chemists' Association, which are founded on the same system
as those applied in Java and Cuba ; the results obtained in the different islands
can therefore be accurately compared. The fibre content of the cane is generally
very high — on an average i2-8 per cent., with a maximum of 15 and a minimum
of 10 per cent. ; as the bagasse is pressed quite dry, and the manufacture of raw
sugar crystals does not require much steam, it can stand ample maceration and
a lot of extra water to be evaporated without the attendants having to have
recourse to additional fuel. Moreover, the factories are still new, and generally
installed in a practical manner as regards steam production and application, so
that most of them can make their bagasse suffice. Those which are short of fuel
fall back on molasses as additional fuel, or on crude oil, which is imported
in tank steamers and is sprayed into the furnace by means of injectors.
The sugar production per area was during the years 1897 to 1907 for the
different islands as follows, expressed in short tons per acre and kg. per hec-
tare : —
Oahu.
Kauai.
Maui.
Hawaii.
YjBAR.
Short
Tons per
acre.
Kg. per
hectare.
Short
Tons per
acre.
Kg. per
hectare.
Short
Tons per
acre.
Kg. per
hectare.
Short '
Tons per
acre.
Kg. per
hectare.
1897 . .
5-38
12,069
5-60
12,547
472
10,576
4-21
9,429
1898
6 /)
14,249
5-39
I2,0fil
5 45
12,198
2-98
6,677
1899 . .
7jb
i&,466
5-88
13.179
585
13,106
348
7,799
1900
7-38
16,531
5-34
11,963
5-50
12,320
3-36
7,533
I9OI
7-29
16,335
5-21
11,674
5-12
11,465
3-30
7,401
1902
7-09
15799
4-89
10,947
474
10,640
3-03
6,792
1903 . .
7-26
16,254
4-26
10,362
5 -80
12,984
3-50
7,845
1904 . .
6-44
14435
4-32
9.373
5-56
12,514
2-64
5,915
1905 . .
6-55
14,680
4-61
10,234
6-64
14,882
2-83
6,347
1906
6-24
13,670
4-37
9799
6-44
14,440
3-09
7,134
1907 . .
6-28
14,067
4-43
9.928
6-26
14,032
3-02
6,766
1908
6-68
14,970
473
10,618
7-31
16,362
3-83
8,616
1909 . .
6-6i
14.795
5-03
11,280
7-27
16,201
3-46
7,745
I9IO
6-26
14.023
4-90
10,964
7-39
16,538
3-03
6,788
360
The Hawaiian Islands.
The production all over the territory was as follows, on the whole, and
sub-divided into irrigated and non-irrigated land : —
On the whole
Irrigated
Non-irrigated
Year.
land.
land.
land.
Tons
Kg. per
Tons
Kg. per
Tons
Kg. 'per
per
hec-
per
hec-
per
hec-
acre.
tare.
acre.
tare.
acre.
tare.
1895.
3-24
7.249
3-83
8,589
2-65
5.947
1896.
4-07
9,126
4-52
10,116
3-68
8,276
1897.
4-66
10,451
5 -08
11.369
4-35
9.755
1898.
4-15
9.303
5-63
12,622
2-97
6,646
1899.
4-69
10,503
6-o8
13,616
3-53
7,936
1900.
4-54
10,164
6-12
13.724
3-13
7.013
1901.
4-57
10,232
6-19
13.874
3-28
7,348
1902.
4-37
9.793
5-84
13.083
3-00
6.737
1903.
4-69
10,511
6-19
13.862
3-86
7.759
1904.
4-00
8,966
5 -60
12,557
2 -60
5.827
1905.
i 4-48
10,030
6-o8
13.614
2-8l
6,309
1906.
4-47
10,018
576
13,009
3-07
7.077
1907.
4-41
9.885
5-57
12,552
3-02
6,778
1908.
■5-14
11,488
6-33
14,123
3-83
8,588
1909.
5-03
IT 227
648
14.447
3-48
7.746
1910.
4-69
10,503
6-27
14.035
3-06
6,875
This shows that the irrigated plantations yield much better results than,
those depending on rain, and that the Island of Hawaii, where most of the
plantations are not irrigated, produces much less sugar per area than the
weU irrigated Island of Oahu does. It also shows that the soil of the Hawaiian
Islands, on the whole, does not yield that high sugar production such as is often
mentioned in journals or current talk. These favourable reports are due to the
fact that a few sugar estates are found in the neighbourhood of Honolulu,
which are favoured by a deep layer of fertile soil, are well sheltered, and pro-
vided with an excellent irrigation installation, all of which, of course, leads to
extremely high cane and sugar yields. As most travellers do not get any
further than the neighbourhood of Honolulu, the things seen there are apt to be
taken as in the ordinary run — and so reports such as of Hawaii yielding 12 tons
of sugar per acre get afloat. Under favourable circumstances some field or other
may yield such a production, but this figure has never been attained all through
a crushing season. The famous Ewa plantation in Oahu near Honolulu
361
Australasia.
yielded in 1908 275, 145 -175 tons of cane from 3,79574 acres, or 69-88 tons per
acre, and made 34-340 tons of sugar out of these or 8-8 tons per acre. The
planted area was as follows :—
Plant cane
544-04
Long first ratoons
537-24
Long second ratoons
• 1,285-48
Long third ratoons
215-54
Long fourth ratoons
558-91
Long fifth ratoons
38-38
Short ratoons
616-15
Total
• 3.795-74 acres
The cost price of sugar, of course, depends on several circumstances, so
that it is absolutely impossible even to give an approximate figure for it. Van
Hoorn mentions in the ArcMef voor de Java Suiker Industrie, 1909, page 579,
that the cost price of sugar from Oahu delivered in Honolulu in 1908 amounted
to $34 per ton, or 7s. per cwt. Oahu, as a matter of fact, is very well situated,
and this accounts for the much lower cost price here than at any other factory
in the Island of Hawaii, which yields us the following data : 2,810 acres of
cane-field yielded 11,953 tons of sugar, or 4-25 tons per acre.
The cost of production was : — Per ton
Planting . . . . . . . . . . 19-57
Cutting . . . . . . . . . . 2-18
Transport . . . . . . . . . . 2-47
Loading . . . . . . . . . . 1-14
Manufacturing cost . . . . . . 6-30
Carriage to the seaport . . . . 1-50
General expenses.. .. .. .. 7-50
Freightage to the U.S., Commission, etc. 14-40
Total $55-06
This cost included no less than $30. per acre for artificial manure.
With the exception of about 20,000 short tons of white sugar produced
by the Honolulu Plantation Company, all Hawaiian sugar is raw sugar destined
for refining purposes. It is sold by contract to the American Sugar Refining
Company at San Francisco and to the Californian and Hawaiian Sugar Refining
Company, also estabhshed in San Francisco. During the last few years about
362
The Hawaiian Islands.
three-fifths of the exported sugar was shipped to the Atlantic coast, and the
rest to the Pacific ports of the United States.
In 1909 San Francisco received 161,236 out of the 393,000 tons from
Hawaii ; in 1908 200,534 out of the 465,000, in 1909 208,661 out of the 478,000,
in 1910 201,317 out of the 463,000 to;is, and in 1911 227,690 out of the 505,995
tons. The sugar is sold at New York prices, basis 96° Cuban centrifugal sugars
plus import duty. For sugars destined for New York or Philadelphia one-
tenth of a cent is deducted from that price per pound ; while for those destined
for San Francisco the deduction is three-eighths of a cent. Apart from this
the ordinary custom is followed ; for instance, the price appUes to 96° polariza-
tion, with an increase of ^V cents per pound for each degree above and a decrease
of xV cent for each degree below 96.
Consequently, should the price of duty-paid Cuba 96° centrifugals be 4-05
cents, Hawaiian sugar of 97° polarization would realize in San Francisco 4-05
— |-|-i5^ir=37o| cents ; and in New York 3-98^, or respectively 74-125 and
77-625 dollars per short ton
This shows that in being dependent on American buyers the Hawaiian
producers do not, enjoy fully the protection given to foreign sugars of 1-685
cents per pound on 96° polarization by the high import duty. First of all,
the Cuban price, as has been stated before, is always lower than the world's
price owing to the working of the Trusts ; hence free Java sugar, for instance,
fetches a higher price in the American market than Cuban sugar would do.
As the world's price quoted by New York is not taken as beisis, but the price paid
for Cuban sugar, Hawaii first of all shares the same lot, and then makes less foi
its sugar than sugar from free countries does. Again, they most arbitrarily de-
duct respectively o-io and 0-375 cents per pound, and, worst of all, the Hawaiian
producer is compelled as an American citizen to send his goods in American
bottoms, which brings about a monopoly that naturally drives up the prices to
no small extent." So while we should not make fight of the fact that Hawaiian
sugar enjoys a protection of 1-685 cents per pound, or 7s. lod. per cwt., there is
the disadvantage of freight cost being extremely high, and of sugar fetching less
in America than free sugar, and that in addition something is deducted from
the already low price. The first of these drawbacks must be put up with,
but these other disadvantages are already neutralized to some extent by the
fact that Hawaiian planters themselves have founded a refinery of their own
at Crockett, near San Francisco, the Californian and Hawaiian Sugar Refining
Company, which works up 80 per cent, of the Hawaiian crop transported to
the Pacific coast ; hence the lower price received for raw sugar comes to the
good of their own refinery, and, finally, neutralizes the deficit. The only
disadvantage left is the higher freight cost, but as the protection amounts to
$3370 per to"' ^'^^ ^^^ entire cost of freight does not come to more than
$11 to $14, citizenship of the United States must, on the whole, be advanta-
geous for Hawaii, and be looked upon as a matter of fife or death. Where sugar
fetches $80 per ton without including deductions, and costs $55 to dehver it
363
Australasia.
in America, it goes without saying that Hawaii could not possibly keep up her
sugar production if it was not for the $33 protection in the $80, or in . other
words, if it did not continue to enjoy the same protection the United States
grant now to their own producers.
V. — The Future.
From the foregoing we may conclude that the future of the cane sugar
industry in the Hawaiian Islands, first of all, depends on the fiscal policy of the
United States.. Should the Americans decide to abolish or considerably
diminish the import duties on sugar, thus placing the consumption price of
sugar in the United States on a level with the world's price that free sugar
fetches, this would deal a heavy blow to the Hawaiian sugar industry, and
almost destroy it. Although the duties on sugar in the United States have been
almost untouched by the action of the Payne tariff, the discontent prevailing
in American circles as regards the heavy protective tariff has become increasingly
strong of late, and it is an open question whether the first Cabinet change wiU
not lead to a modification in the import duties on sugar, to Hawaii's immediate
detriment.
In the Hawaiian Islands there are still large tracts of land that might be
turned into sugar cane plantations ; while there is also ground that could be
made more productive if irrigation were applied. Where some estates make
six tons per acre and others three, there is still the possibility of increasing this
lower production by improving the cultural methods and selecting suitable
cane. Where irrigation is prone to wash out and eliminate the mineral con-
stituents of the soil which have collected for ages, this shortage can be made
up by appljnng artificial manure, so that it need not lead to any decrease in
returns. If more American small farmers would settle in these islands, the
most necessary articles of food might be supphed by farmers instead of by
China or Japan, which would mean a reduction in the price of nearly all articles
of consumption, and make life out there a little less expensive. Scarcity of
labour, however, is the greatest obstacle to further extension of the sugar
industry, and as long as the laws on immigration are not modified a further
noticeable increase in production will be out of question for the present. Pro-
posals have already been made to issue exceptional regulations on the immigra-
tion laws, either by allowing Portuguese to be accepted by contract and with
money advanced, or by admitting a limited number of Chinese manual labourers
into the islands. In order to prevent their invading the United States, or
competing with American workmen in the Hawaiian Islands, stipulations might
be made that they should only come in for field work, and that they are not to
be allowed into the United States, the latter stipulation also being enacted
against Chinese living in Hawaii.
364
Hawaii.
When the Government of the United States will allow and promote the
immigration of field labourers in one way or other, the sugar industry of Hawaii
will, no doubt, enter upon "a period of greater extension, as this would be the
last factor to ensure complete success.
Books of Reference
Royal D. Mead. A History of the Progress of the Sugar Industry of Hawaii since the Reci-
procity Treaty of 1876.
British Consular Reports.
The Climate of Hawaii.
Hawaii and its Agricultural Possibilities.
Maps, Guides, and Pamphlets issued by the Hawaii Promotion Committee,
III.
THE FIJI ISLANDS.
The Fiji Islands he in the Pacific Ocean, between 15° 47' and
21° 4' S. Lat., and between 176° 51' W. Long., and 175° 38' E. Long. They
consist of six groups, composing in all two big and 253 small islands. Their
total area is 8,054 sq. miles, and their inhabitants amounted to 116,684 in
1901. The two bigger islands have respectively areas of 4,550 and 2,500 sq.
miles ; about eighty of the smaller islands are inhabited, while the rest have
no population at all.
The bigger islands are of volcanic formation and mountainous, while the
smaller ones are coral islands. The climate is warm and moist, and the soil
of the big islands is fertile and suitable for all sorts of tropical vegetation.
Suva, in Viti-Levu, is the capital, possessing a good harbour ; what other
towns there are are of no importance.
The Fiji Islands were discovered by Tasman in 1643 ; in 1773 Cook visited
them, and after him came other travellers. Its king in 1853 offered Great Britain
the sovereignty of his islsind kingdom, in order to escape punishment at the
hands of the United States, but the offer was not accepted. In 1858 it was
renewed and declined once more ; but finally, in 1874, the islands became a
colony of the British Empire.
Sugar is the principal article produced, and is cultivated in the Islands of
Viti-Levu and Vanua-Levu ; while the Island of Taviuni also possesses land
fit for sugar cultivation, which may be turned to account later on. About
1880 the Colonial Sugar Refining Company began to grow cane, and a few years
afterwards the Fiji Sugar Company followed its example, but the first-named
company had the greatest interest by far in the industry. The early factories
were at first most primitive, but soon improved, and as early as 1883 an export-
ation of 5,232 tons of sugar was recorded. The labour difficulty at first retarded
365
Australasia.
developments. The aborigines could not be got to do regular work, and when
the inhabitants of neighbouring islands, like Tonga and the Solomon Islands
were tried for this purpose, they proved better workers ; still the importation
of this type of labour was no success in the end. Finally, the British Colonial
Government came to their succour, arid allowed British Indian coolies to immi-
grate on the same terms as prevailed in the West Indian colonies. The coolies
are recruited by Government officials in the districts round Calcutta, as required
by the planters, and conveyed to Suva by the Government. On arriving
there they are distributed among the plantations for five years' indenture,
and have the option to renew after that time is expired. The coolies are
generally provided in the proportion of two men to one woman. The planters
return the money advanced to the Government, and pay the coolies the following
wages : 25s. per month for an indentured male labourer, and 20s. for an in-
dentured female worker. A man can usually make is. a day, and a woman
gd. a day when engaged on piecework. Lodging, medical treatment, and
medicine are provided by the estate, but the workmen have to find their own
food, which does not come to much, and they are soon able to put by some
money, which they convert into silver ornaments, an investment easy to trans-
port and to keep possession of.
In order to be able eventually to do away with the necessity of having to
import and keep indentured coolies at great expense and under legal diffi-
culties, the sugar manufacturers have tried to keep on the British Indians as
free labourers after they have served their indenture, and to give a group of
labourers the usage of plots of land — some sixty acres in extent — for culti-
vation. The land is first prepared for the cane, and the latter planted before
the British Indians assume possession under the superintendence of the factory
staff. During the time it takes the cane to grow, each indentured labourer
gets IS. for each 9-hour working day by way of payment in advance, which
money, together with tillage expenses, is deducted later on when they settle
the money the cane crop has fetched.
We give an example of the mode of settling this payment for a plot 60
acres in size, yielding 1,843 tons of cane, which cane was sold at 4s. per ton
(standing) in the field ; —
1,843 tons at 4s.
Wages in advance at is. per day
Cutting wages advanced by the factory
Cleaning and loading expenses paid in advance
i
s. d.
i
s. d.
368
12
141
ig II
66
8
18 II
216
18 10
£151
13 2
36b
The Fiji Islands.
So the planters get a sum of £151 13s. 2d. at the end of the harvest, and
as it had taken 2,595 days of work, it means an extra daily premium of is. 2d.,
which, together with the is. advanced as wages, comes to 2s. 2d. ; consequently,
quite a little sum accrues for the planter. And then this is not a specially good
piece of land, as there are instances of 3s. for a day's work. We should remem-
ber that this 2s. 2d. a day only refers to the work done in planting the cane,
and does not refer to the daily wages during the time the cane is ripening.
It will happen, of course, that cane does not want any attention when grow-
ing, thus leaving the farmers time to occupy themselves with other work,
such as the la3dng out of new fields, the cutting and transporting of cane, etc.
This is sometimes classed as day work, but more generally as contract work ;
this latter arrangement being a better one in that it leaves the planter free to
shelve his work for the time, and give his whole attention to his own cane
when it needs his special care.
It is clear that it takes a good deal of management and tact to see to the
several interests — those of the factory, of the planters, the Indians' interests,
and the planting on ground under lease ; for all these various conditions make
it necessary for the land to be planted and tilled at different times, so that the
labourers should have work all through the year. As all these difficulties seem
to have been overcome, this system of cane planting in instalments is much in
vogue — the Indians being rather partial to the system, and it leads to an
increasing amount of production, which at the present moment is estimated
at about 80,000 tons. In spite of the large profits the planters make, the cane
when delivered at the mill does not cost too much for the manufacturers.
According to the following specification, the net cost of cane comes to 7s.
per ton. The expenses of working the same plot of ground of 60 acres, yielding
1,843 tons of cane were as foUows : —
Ploughing
Harrowing . .
Making of furrows . .
Making ready for planting
Actual planting
Supplying
Ploughing between the rows
Banking . .'
Portable railway and transport
Implements . .
866 coolies at 5d. per task
289 hours at is. yjd.
466 mules at is. ofd.
898 oxen at 2|d.
Survey, administration
60 acres at 30s
367
£ s.
d.
5 2
9
I 4
9 8
3
I 14
18 8
9
5 I
2 12
6
I 7
9
5 2
6 12
18
10
23 18
24 15
I
9 7
I
90
Australasia.
2 595 coolies for planting at 5d. per task
Paid for 1,843 tons of cane at 4s.
£ s. d.
• 54 I 2
■ 363 7 3
£645 7 3
which for 1,843 tons of cane is 7s. per ton.
One disadvantage of this system of having the planting done by contract
is that the planters are no longer in close touch with the farmers, but lose their
hold over them, and cannot compel them to work intensively, nor can they let
them share irrigation expenses. Much ratoon is grown, little money is spent
on inanuring or irrigation ; hence the sugar production seldom exceeds three
tons to the acre.
The factories, on the other hand, are excellently installed, and supplied
with triple crushing and maceration and gieen bagasse furnaces ; in short, with
all modem machinery. The Colonial Sugar Refining Company possesses four
big sugar factories, three of which are in Viti-Levu, and one at Labasa, in the
Island of Vanua-Levu.
In addition, there are a few smaller factories, which either belong to the
Colonial Sugar Refining Company, or sell their production to them. Nearly all
Fiji sugar is sent to Auckland, New Zealand, where it is treated in the refinery
of the Colonial Company.
The sugar exportation from the Fiji Islands has amounted to the following
quantities in tons : —
1883
1886
1889
1892
1895
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
5,232
1902
11,887
1903
I3.4II
1904
19,202
1905
23.571
1906
27,788
1907
27.432
1908
34,540
1909
31,210
I9IO
32,098
I9II
31,751
I9I2
35.901
46,438
52,138
65.517
38.487
66,596
66.149
68,942
68,900
75,000
80,000
(estimate).
36?
Tahiti.
IV.
TAHITI.
Tahiti, a French possession, belongs to the Society Islands in the Pacific
Ocean, in i8o° W. Long, and 17° S. Lat. It is mountainous and scantily
populated. Attempts have been repeatedly made to introduce the sugar
industry, but so far in vain.
The native population are disinchned for steady work, and as Tahiti is a
French colony, working with indentured British Indian coolies is out of the
question here. Sugar when Imported is very heavily taxed, and so cannot be
introduced from other countries with any profit. The population is not con-
siderable enough to carry on a flourishing sugar industry.
Up to 1892 not more than 40 tons of sugar was its yearly production ;
in 1894 a big plantation close to the capital, Papeete, which had been abandoned,
was started again, and about 25 acres were planted, and yielded 67 tons of sugar.
The next year 40 acres yielded 94 tons ; while in 1897 124 tons were produced.
In 1898 the crop attained to 83 tons, and in 1899 it was 207 tons ; the
industry has since developed to such an extent that two factories together
produce 400 to 450 tons of sugar yearly, which amount just supplies the home
consumption. Hence, only a very little refined sugar has to be imported
from France and the United States ; and raw sugar is no longer imported
from New Zealand at all.
Sf'-Q
Appendix.
I.
International Convention relative to Bounties on Sugar.
Signed at Brussels, March ^th, 1902.
His Majesty the German Emperor, King of Prussia, in the name of the
German Empire ; His Majesty the Emperor of Austria, King of Bohemia, &c.,
&c., and Apostolic King of Hungary ; His Majesty the King of the Belgians ;
His Majesty the King of Spain, and, in his name. Her Majesty the Queen-
Regent of the Kingdom ; the President of the French Republic ; His Majesty
the King of the United Kingdom of Great Britian and Ireland, and of the
British Dominions beyond the Seas, Emperor of India ; His Majesty the King
of Italy ; Her Majesty the Queen of the Netherlands ; His Majesty the King of
Sweden and Norway ;
Desiring, on the one hand, to equalize the conditions of the competition
between beet and cane sugar from various countries, and, on the other hand,
to promote the consumption of sugar ;
And considering that this twofold result cannot be attained otherwise
than by the abolition of bounties and by the limitation of the surtax ;
Have resolved to conclude a Convention to this effect, and have appointed
their Plenipotentiaries ;
Who, having exchanged their full powers, found to be in good and due
form, have agreed on the following Articles : —
ARTICLE I.
The High Contracting Parties engage to suppress, from the date of the
coming into force of the present Convention, the direct and indirect bounties
by which the production or exportation of sugar may profit, and not to establish
bounties of such a kind during the whole continuance of the said Convention.
For the application of this provision, sugar-sweetened products, such as pre
serves, chocolates, biscuits, condensed milk, and all other analogous products
containing, in a notable proportion, artificially incorporated sugar, are assimi-
lated to sugar.
371
Appendix.
The preceding paragraph applies to all advantages derived directly or
indirectly, by tjae several categories of producers, from State fiscal legislation,
and in particular to —
(a) Direct bonuses granted on exportation ;
(b) Direct bonuses granted to production ;
(c) Total or partial exemptions from taxation which profit a part of the
products of msmufacture ;
(d) Profits derived from excess of yield ;
(e) Profits derived from too high a drawback ;
(/) Advantages derived from any surtax in excess of the rate fixed by
Article IIL
ARTICLE II,
The High Contracting Parties engage to place in bond, under the contin-
uous supervision, both by day and by night, of Revenue officers, sugar factories
and sugar refineries, as well as factories for the extraction of 'sugar from molasses.
For this purpose, the factories shall be so arranged as to afford every guar-
antee against the surreptitious removal of sugar, and the officers shall have
the right of entry into all parts of the factories.
Check registers shall be kept respecting one or more of the processes of
manufacture, and finished sugar shall be placed in special warehouses affording
every requisite guarantee of security.
ARTICLE III.
The High Contracting Parties engage to limit the surtax — that is to say,
the difference between the rate of duty or taxation to which foreign sugar is
liable and the rate of duty or taxation to which home-produced sugar is subject
— to a maximum of 6 fr. per loo kg. on refined sugar and on sugar which may
be classed as refined, and to 5 fr. 50 c. on other sugar.
This provision is not intended to apply to the rate of import duty in
countries which produce no- sugar ; neither is it applicable to the by-products
of sugar manufacture and of sugar refining.
ARTICLE IV.
The High Contracting Parties engage to impose a special duty on the
importation into their territories of sugar from those countries which may
grant bounties either on production or on exportation.
This duty shall not be less than the amount of the bounties, direct or in-
direct, granted in the country of origin. The High Contracting Parties reserve
to themselves, each so far as concerns itself, the right to prohibit the importation
of bounty-fed sugar.
In order to calculate the amount of the advantages eventually derived
from the surtax specified under letter (/) of Article I, the figure fixed by
372
Appendix.
Article III is deducted from the amount of this surtax'; half of this difference
is considered to represent the bounty, the Permanent Commission instituted
by Article VII having the right, at the request of a Contracting State, to revise
the figure thus obtained.
ARTICLE V.
The High Contracting Parties engage reciprocally to admit at the lowest
rates of their tariffs of import duties sugar the produce either of the Contracting
States or of those Colonies or possessions of the said States which do not grant
bounties, and to which the obligations of Article VIII are applicable.
Cane sagar and beet sugar may not be subjected to different duties.
ARTICLE VI.
Spain, Italy, and Sweden shall be exempted from the engagement which
forms the subject of Articles I, II, and III, so long as they do not export sugar.
Those States engage to adapt their sugar legislation to the provisions of
the Convention within one year — or earlier if possible — from the time at which
the Permanent Commission shall have found that the above-mentioned
condition has ceased to exist.
ARTICLE VII.
The High Contracting Parties agree to establish a Permanent Commission
charged with supervising the execution of the provisions of the present Con-
vention.
This Commission shall be composed of Delegates of the several Contracting.
States, and a Permanent Bureau shall be attached to it. The Commission elects
its President ; it will sit at Brussels and will assemble at the summons of the
President.
The duties of the Delegates will be : —
(a) To pronounce whether in the Contracting States no direct or indirect
bounty is granted on the production or on the exportation of sugar.
(6) To pronounce whether the States referred to in Article VI continue to
fulfil the special condition foreseen by that Article.
(c) To pronounce whether bounties exist in the non-signatory States,
and to estimate the amount .thereof for the purposes of Article IV.
(d) To deliver an opinion on contested questions.
(e) To-prepare for consideration requests for admission to the Union made
by States which have not taken part in the present Convention.
It will be the duty of the Permanent Bureau to collect, translate, arrange,
and publish information of aU kinds respecting legislation on, and statistics
of, sugar, not only in the Contracting States, but in other States as- weU.
In order to insure the execution of the preceding provisions, the High Con-
[373]
Appendix.
tracting Parties shall communicate, through the diplomatic channel, to the Bel-
gian Government, which shall forward them to the Commission, the Laws,
Orders, and Regulations on the taxation of sugar which are or may in the
future be in force in their respective countries, as well as statistical information
relative to the object of the present Convention.
Each of the High Contracting Parties may be represented on the Com-
mission by a Delegate, or by a Delegate and Assistant Delegates.
Austria and Hungary shall be considered as separate Contracting Parties.
The first meeting of the Commission shall be held in Brussels, under
arrangements to be made by the Belgian Government, at least three months
before the coming into force of the present Convention.
The duty of the Commission shall be limited to findings and investigations.
It shall draw up a report on all questions submitted to it, and forward the same
to the Belgian Government, which shall communicate it to the States interested,
and, at the request of one of the High Contracting Parties, shall convoke a
Conference, which shall take such decisions or measures as circumstances
demand.
The findmgs and calculations referred to under letters {b) and (c) must,
however, be acted on by the Contracting States ; they will be passed by a vote
of the majority — each Contracting State having one vote — and they will take
effect in two months' time at the latest. Should one of the Contracting States
consider it necessary to appeal against a decision of the Commission, the said
State must, within eight days of notification to it of the said decision, require
a fresh meeting of the Commission ; the Commission will immediately hold
a meeting, and will pronounce its final decision within one month of the date
of the appeal. The new decision shall take effect, at latest, within two months
of its delivery. The same procedure will be followed with regard to the prepara-
tion for consideration of demands for admission provided for imder letter (e).
The expenses incurred on account of the organization and working of the
Permanent Bureau and of the Commission — excepting the salaries or allowances
of the Delegates, who shall be paid by their respective countries — shall be borne
by aU the Contracting States, and shall be divided among them in a manner
to be determined by the Commission.
ARTICLE VIII.
The High Con tracting Parties engage, for themselves and for their Colonies
or possessions, exception being made in the case of the self-governing Colonies
of Great -Britain and the British East Indies, to take the necessary measures
to prevent bounty-fed sugar which has passed in transit through the territory
of a Contracting State from enjoying the benefits of the Convention in the
market to which it is being sent. The Permanent Commission shall make the
necessary proposals with regard to this matter.
374
Appendix.
ARTICLE rx.
States which have not taken part in the present Convention shall be
admitted to adhere to it at their request, and after concurrence has been
expressed by the Permanent Commission.
The request shall be addressed through the diplomatic channel to the
Belgian Government, which shall undertake, when occasion arises, to notify
the adhesion to all the other Governments. The adhesion shall entail, as of
right, acceptance of all the obligations and admission to all the advantages
stipulated by the present Convention, and will take effect as from the ist
September following the dispatch of the notification by the Belgian Govern-
ment to the other Contracting States.
ARTICLE X.
The present Convention shall come into force from the ist September,
1903.
It shall remain in force for five years from that date, and in the case of
none of the High Contracting Parties having notified to the Belgian Government,
twelve months before the expiration of the said period of five years, its intention
of terminating the effects thereof, it shall continue to remain in force for one
year, and so on from year to year.
In the event of one of the Contracting States denouncing the Convention,
such denunciation shall have effect only in respect to such State ; the other
States shall retain, until the 31st October, of the year in which the denunciation
takes place, the right of notifying their intention of withdrawing as from the
1st September of the following year. If one of these latter States desires to
exercise this right, the Belgian Government shaU summon a Conference at
Brussels within three months to consider the measures to be taken
ARTICLE XL
The provisions of the present Convention shall apply to the oversea Pro-
vinces, Colonies, and foreign possessions of the High Contracting Parties.
The British and Netherland Colonies and possessions are excepted, save as
regards the provisions forming the object of Articles V. and VIII.
The position of the British and Netherland Colonies and possessions is
furthermore regulated by the Declarations inserted in the Final ProtocoL
ARTICLE XII.
The fulfilment of the mutual engagements contained in the present Con-
vention is subject, as fa'' as necessary, to the completion of the formahties
and requirements established by the Constitutional laws of each of the Con-
tracting States
375
Appendix.
The present Convention shall be ratified, and the ratifications shall be
deposited at the Ministry for Foreign Affairs at Brussels, on the ist February,
1903, or earlier if possible.
It is understood that the present Convention shall become binding, as of
right, only if it is ratified by those at least of the Contracting States who are
not the subject of the exceptional provision of Article VI. Should one or more
of the said States not have deposited their ratifications within the period
stipulated, the Belgian Government shall immediately take steps to obtain a
decision by the other Signatory Powers as to whether the present Convention
shall come into force among them alone.
In faith whereof the respective Plenipotentiaries have signed the present
Convention.
Done at Brussels, in single copy, March 5, 1902.
Final Protocol.
On proceeding to the signature of the Sugar Convention concluded this day
between the Governments of Germany, of Austria and of Hungary, of Belgium,
of Spain, of France, of Great Britain, of Italy, of the Netherlands, and of Sweden,
the undersigned Plenipotentiaries have agreed as follows : —
As regards Article III.
Considering that the object of the surtax is the effectual protection ot the
home markets of the producing countries, the High Contracting Parties reserve
to themselves the right, each as concerns itself, to propose an increase of the
surtax, should considerable quantities of sugar produced by one of the Con-
tracting States enter their territories ; this increase would only apply to sugar
produced by that State.
The proposal must be addressed to the Permanent Commission, which will
decide, at an early date, by a vote of the majority, whether there is good
ground for the proposed measure, as to the period for which it shall be enforced,
and as to the rate of the increase ; the latter shall not exceed i fr. per 100 kg.
The assent of the Commission shall only be'given when the invasion of the
market concerned is the consequence of real economic inferiority, and not the
result of a factitious increase in price brought about by an agreement among
producers.
As regards Article XI.
(A.) I. The Government of Great Britain declares that no bounty,
direct or indirect, shall be granted to the sugar of the Crown Colonies during
the continaance of the Convention.
2 It also declares as an exceptional measure, and reserving in principle
entire liberty of action as regards the fiscal relations between the tJnited
Kingdom and its Colonies and possessions, that, during the continuance of the
376
Appendix.
Convention, no preference will be granted in the United Kingdom to Colonial
sugar as against sugar from the Contracting States.
3. Lastly, it declares that the Convention will be submiljted by it to the
■ self-governing Colonies and to the East Indies, so that they may have an oppor-
tunity of giving their adhesion to it.
It is understood that the Government of His Britannic Majesty has power
to adhere to the Convention on behalf of the Crown Colonies.
(B.) The Government of the Netherlands declares that diiring the con-
tinuance of the Convention no bounty, direct or indirect, shall be granted to
sugar from the Netherland Colonies, and that such sugar shall not be admitted
into the Netherlands at a lower Tariff than that applied to sugar from the
Contracting States.
The present Final Protocol, which shall be ratified at the same time as
the Convention concluded this day, shall be regarded as forming an integral
part of the Convention, and shall have the same force, value, and duration.
In faith whereof the Plenipotentiaries have drawn up the present Protocol.
Done at Brussels, the 5th March, 1902.
377
II.
List of Countervailing Duties to be levied by every Country adhering to the
Brussels Convention (except Great Britain) on importation of bounty-
fed Sugar from the followring sources. As fixed by the Permanent
Commission at Brussels in August, 191 1.
Countervailing
Origin.
Description of Sugar.
Duty in francs per
100 kg.
Refined, or polarizing 96°
and more
19-90
Argentina
■ Unrefined or polarizing
under 96°
15-05
r
Candy
10-50
Commonwealth of Australia \
Raw. .
Refined
0-94
5-62
Brazil |
Raw. .
Refined
36-00
35-00
British South Africa . . \
Raw. .
Refined
2-05
3-89
Refined whole or crushed .
13-51
White, crystaUized or
crushed . .
10-86
Chile ,
CrystaUized, first product or
moscobada (cassonade)
6-45.
Crude (chancaca or con-
creto)
5-98
1
White
20-50
Costa Rica . .
Other kinds of refined
15-00
1
Raw
15-25
Japan
Refined, candy
2-6l
Canada
Refined
3-63
Mexico
Raw and refined . .
3-00
Nicaragua
Raw
Refined '. .
34-75
34-50
Mozambique . .
Raw
Refined
13-50
13-00
Rumania . . . . .A
Raw
Refined
15-15
20-00
Spain . .
Raw and refined . .
19-50
378
Measures.
III.
Table of Measures, Weights and Currency, with their sub-divisions and
their British equivalents.
A. MEASURES.
Foot = 12 inches = 0-304794 metre.
Inch = 0-02539954 metre.
Kilometre = 3,280 feet 10 inches = 0-62137 mile.
Metre = 39-37 inches.
Mile = 1,609-315 metres.
Yard = 3 feet = 0-9144 metre.
Acre = 4,046-71 square metres.
. Aliquiere (Brazil) = 4 quarteis = 5-98 acres = 2-42 hectare?.
Are = 100 metres = 119-6 square yards.
Arpent (Mauritius) = i"043 -'cres = 4,221 square metres.
Bouw (Java) = 500 square Rhineland rods = 1-747 ^^^^ = 7.096-5 square
metres.
Caballeria (Cuba) = 342 cordelas = 33-16 acres = 13- ;2 hectares
Hectare = 10,000 square metres = 2-471 acres.
Ij^dh ^Formosa and Japan) = 2-45 acres = 0-9915 hectare.
Mananza (Nicaragua) = 1-70 rcre = 0-69 hectare.
Square Metre = 1,550 square inches.
Orlong (Straits Settlements) ij acre = 0-535 hectare. \
Square Rhineland Rod (Java) = 17-21 square yards = 14-39 square metres.
Gallon (Imperial) = 4 quarts = 4-545963 litres.
Gallon (American) = 0-832 Imperial gallon = 3-785 litres.
Hectolitre = 100 litres = 22 Imperial gallons = 26-417 American gallons.
Litre = 0-88 quart.
Hogshead {see under ' Weights.').
Sack (see under ' Weights ').
B. WEIGHTS.
Arroba = 25.3175 11^. avoird. = 11-5 kg.
Himdredweight (Great Britain and British Colonies) = 112 lbs. = 50-80235
kg.
Hundredweight (Spain and Spanish countries) = 100 Spanish pounds =
101-27 lbs. avoird. = 46 kg.
Himdredweight (Old German) = 100 German pounds = 114-44 lbs. avoird.
Hogshead (British West Indies) = | ton = 889 kg.
Kilogram (kg.) = 2-2046 lbs. avoird.
Maund Bazar (British India) = 40 seers = 100 pounds Troy = 82-30 lbs.
avoird. = 37-3242 kg.
Picul (China) = 133-27 lbs. = 60-453 kg.
Picul (Japan) = 133-33 lbs. = 60-5 kg
.379
Weights.
Picul (Java) = 125 Amsteidam pounds = 136-16 lbs. = 61761302 kg.
Picul (Philippine Islands) = 139-44 lbs. = 63-25 kg.
Picul (Straits Settlements) = 133-33 lbs. = 60-5 leg.
Pood (Russia) = 36-112 lbs. avoird. = 16-3805 kg.
Pound (Great Britain) = 0-4535925 kg.
Pound (American) = 0-45304 kg.
Pound (Span and former colonies) = 1-0143 lbs. avoird. = 0-46 kg.
Ton (United States and territories) = 2,000 lbs. = 906-08 kg.
Ton (English and statistical) = 2,240 lbs. avoird. = 1,016-047 kg.
Ton (metric) = 1,000 kg. = 2,204-60 lbs. avoird.
Sack (Brazil) = 132-27 lbs. = 60 kg.
Sack (Cuba) = 325 Spanish pounds = 330 lbs. = 149-5 kg. (This is sometimes
reckoned to be one-seventh of an English ton or 320 lbs. avoird.
Sack (France) = 220 lbs. = 100 kg.
Sack (Mauritius) = 170 lbs. = 77 kg.
Ton (Spanish, for cane only) = 100 arrobas = 2,531-75 lbs. = 1,150-24 kg.
C. CURRENCY.
BoUvar (Venezuela) = 100 centimos = lod.
Colon (Costa Rica) = 100 centavos = 2S.
Dollar (Mexico) = 100 centavos = 2S. ojd.
DoUar (Straits Settlements) = 100 cents. = 2s. 4d.
Dollar (United States) = 100 cents = 4s. 2d.
Franc (France and colonies) = 100 centimes = 9Jd.
Gulden (Netherland) = 100 cents = is. 8d.
Krone (Austria) = 100 heUer = lod.
Mark (Germany) = 100 pfennig = is.
Milrei gold (Brazil) = 1,000 reis = 2s. 3d.
Milreis paper (Brazil) = 1,000 reis = is. 3d.
Milreis (Portugal and colonies) = 1,000 reis = 4s.
Peseta (Spain) = 100 centimos = 9Jd.
Peso gold (Argentina) = 100 centavos = 4s. id.
Peso paper (Argentina) = is. 8d.
Peso (Guatemala) = 100 centavos = 4s. id.
Peso (Honduras) = 100 centavos = 4s. id.
Peso (Nicaragua) paper = 100 cent vos = 6d.
Peso (Philippines) = 100 centavos = 2s. id.
Pound (Egypt) = 100 piasters = 19s. lod.
Rouble (Russia) = 100 kopecks = 3s. 2d.
Rupee (British India) = 16 annas = 192 pies = is. 4d.
Rupee (Mauritius) = 100 cents = is. 4d.
Rijksdaalder (Netherland) = 4s. 2d.
Sol (Peru) = 100 centavos = 2s.
Yen (Japan) = 100 sen = 2s. id.
380
Addenda.
IV.
ADDENDA.
At Page 6i : —
Sugar imported into India in 1911-12 :
Beet Sugar.
From Austria-Hungary . . 241,433 cwt.
Germany 9,821 ,,
United Kingdom . . ..
,, Other countries . . . . 2,506
Total 253,760 cwt.
Cane Sugar.
From Mauritius . . . . . . 1,709,773 cwt.
China 12,656
Java . . . . . . 8,190,469 ,,
Straits Settlements . . 767 ,,
United Kin ;^dom. . .. —
Other countries . . . . 4,408 „
Total 9,918,073 cwt.
Grand total . . . . 10,171,833 cwt.
At Page 68 :—
Exportation of sugar from British India in 1911-12 : 175,895 cwt. raw
sugar ; 25,388 cwt. refined sugar.
At page 209 : —
1911/12
General
Tariff.
208,969,811 lbs.
Preferential
Tariff.
375,831,681 lbs.
Total.
584 801,492 lbs.
^Si
At Page 104 : —
Sugar Production and Area Planted with Sugar
Provinces of the Philippines in the year 191 1.
Cane in the different
Provinces.
Sugar Produclion.
Piculs.
Metric
Tons.
Hectares
planted
with
Cane.
Kg. of
b ugar per
Hectare.
Knglish
Tons of
Sugar per
Acre.
Island.
Albay . .
Ambos Camarines
Antique
Bataan . .
Batangas
Bohol . .
Bulacan
Cagayan
Capiz
Cavite . .
Cebu
Ilocos Norte
Ilocos Sur
Iloilo . .
Isabela . .
La Laguna
La Union
Leyte . .
Mindoro . .
Misamis
Moro
Montanosa
Nueva Ecija
Nueva Vizcaya
Occidental Negros
Oriental Negros
Palawan
Pamparga
Pangasinan
Rizal . .
Samar . .
Sarsogon
Surigao . .
Tarloa . .
Tarebas
Zambales
Total
1,146
3,081
53,186
7491
190,955
1,941
54,442
2,154
6,729
24,910
33,007
41,443
101,116
124,564
475
23,880
24,934
10,854
177
726
1,620
2,274
10,055
617
973,231
48,266
60
454,264
35338
30,345
8,622
7,292
425
115,810
15,148
2,692
. 2,413,270 ^152,639
72
195
3,364
474
12,078
123
3,443
136
426
1,576
2,008
2,621
6,396
7,879
30
1,510
1,577
687
II
46
102
144
636
39
61,557
3,053
4
28,732
2,235
1,919
545
461
27
7,325
958
170
141
367
1,580
341
5,183
166
2,935
281
385
1,198
1,866
2,338
3,412
3,308
42
741
1,018
815
19
34
119
175
527
60
26,820
1,410
5
16,551
2,794
1,752
667
398
47
4,427
1,005
141
514
531
2,129
1,389
2,330
739
1,173
484
1,105
1,315
1,118
1,121
1,874
2,311
715
2,038
1,549
843
589
1,350
861
821
1,206
650
2,295
2,165
759
1,735
800
1,095
818
1,159
572
1,654
953
1,207
83,168
1,836
0-205
0-212
0-849
0-554
0-934
0-296
0-4
0-190
0-439
0-523
0-445
0-447
0-748
0-919
0-289
0-812
o-6i6
0-336
0-245
0-537
0-345
0-326
6-481
0-264
0-915
0-863
0-308
0-691
0-317
0-435
0-342
0-462
0-238
0-659
0-380
0-481
Luzon.
Panay.
Luzon.
Bohol.
Luzon.
Mindanao,
Cebu.
Luzon.
Panay.
Basilan.
Luzon.
Leyte.
Mindoro.
Luzon.
Luzon.
,,
Negros.
Palawan.
Luzon.
Samar.
Luzon.
Mindanao.
Luzon.
0-734
382
General Index.
A PAGE
Abolition of Slavery i8, 154, 173, 192
198, 204, 214, 221, 230, 244, 271, 275
258; 263, 307, 309, 324
Additional duty 29
American Wai: of Independence . 10
Amount of rain 70, 82, 92, 93, 112, 151
162, 167, 196, 212, 216, 220, 221, 224
227, 228, 255, 264, 271, 284, 288, 289
310, 331, 345, 346
" Antrag Paasche " 27
" Archief voor de Java Suikerindus-
trie" 362
" Atharva Veda " 3
Australian Sugar Journal . . . 341
Aversion against sugar manufactured
by European methods . . . .32
Areas of some factories .... 195
Banishment of Dutchmen from
Brazil . . .9, 203, 214, 229, 275
Beetroot sugar . . . .13, 16, 17
Berlin Decree 13
Bounties 10, 22, 23, 25, 29, 31, 33, 37
63, 64, 106, 206, 238, 255, 293
Brussels Conference . . . • 33, 63
Brussels Sugar Convention 33, 34, 35
36, 38, 64, 120, 240, 271, 287, 322
Cane cultivation 47, 48, 73, 98,
123, 144, 153, 178, 193. 200,
214, 231, 232, 260, 261, 269,
286, 295, 296, 297, 303, 312,
Cane fires
Cane-planted area 44, 45, 73
107, 113, 114. 144. 153. 163,
177, 195, 200, 214, 221, 244,
250, 261, 284, 289, 296, 309,
336, 347. 350,
115,121
201, 210
271, 276
314. 326
336, 354
. .180
, 76. 94
170, 171
247, 248
314, 325
353- 362
C PAGE
Cane varieties 49, 51, 64, 65, 72, 83, 98
124, 126, 144, 179, 193, 200, 202, 214
232, 255, 261, 277, 286, 303, 313, 326
355
Cartel 26, 28, 64
Cartel profit . . 28, 29, 33, 206
Cassonade 6, 236
Census 113, 168, 196, 197, 198, 217
226, 245, 247, 248, 249, 251, 253, 254
256, 258, 263, 266, 268, 273 283, 288
290, 293, 300, 307, 322, 347, 365
Climatological data 70, 82, 92, 107, 144
162, 167, 190, 216, 220, 221, 226, 228
257, 263, 266, 288, 290, 301, 330, 345
365
Colonos . . . 176, 180, 192, 277
Concrete sugar .... 79, 248
Continental system 12, 15, 16, 17, 18
Countervailing duties . . • 33, 34
Creation of sugar cane (legend) . . 3
Crimean War 96
Cultural system 118
Development of the beetroot sugar
industry 15
Development of the cane sugar
industry 4
Differential duties . . . . 17
Dingley tariff 30, 31, 63
Diseases and pests 11, 49, 72, 120, 125
142, 180, 181, 201, 210, 214, 232, 270
286, 291, 312, 313, 326, 357
Drawback 80, 88
Duties 25, 33, 37, 63
Export duties . . . 139, 255, 318, 329
Export of sugar 11, 22, 24, 68, 74, 75
76 77, 79, 89, 96, 97, 104, 105, 146
383
General Index.
216
283
263
68
209
Export of-sugar (continued) page
184, 186, 195, 202, 204, 223, 224, 225
243, 283, 299, 321, 325, 352, 368
Forraker Act 199
Free negroes . . . .20, 230, 259
Future of the sugar industry in :
Angola 293
Argentina 28S
Australia 343
Barbados
Brazil
British Guiana
British India ....
British West Indian Islands
Cuba 187
300
91
241
105
364
80
142
322
165
302
304
252
273
202
329
196
148
266
- 73
219
161
255
Egypt
Formosa
French Antilles
Philippines .
Hawaiian Islands .
Japan . . .
Java
Mauritius
Mexico .
Mozambique
Natal . .
Panama
Peru
Porto Rico .
Reunion
San Domingo .
Spain
Surinam . .
Straits Settlements
Trinidad
United States of America
Venezuela ....
General Historical Survey . . 3 — 39
H
Help granted to the British West
Indies 206
History of the cane sugar industry :
General survey . . . ■ 3. ^3
History of Argentina . .
Australia .
Brazil .
British Guiana
284
331
275
258
H PAGE
History of British West Indies :
General survey . 203
Barbjados
Jamaica .
Leeward Islands
St. Vincent .
Trinidad
History of the Canary Islands
„ China ....
Cuba ....
Egypt . . .
British India .
Philippines
Formosa .
French Antilles .
Hawaiian Islands
Japan . . .
Java .
Madeira .
Mauritius
,, Mexico
Natal .
Peru .
Porto Rico
R6union .
St. Croix .
,, San Domingo
Spain ....
Straits Settlements
Surinam .
Humidity
214
221
223
223
217
293
73
172
296
43
95
81
229
348
77
115
290
313
163
303
271
199
32.5
243
191
146
69
265
United States of America 152
III
I
Immigration Law (America) . 356
Imports of sugar 62, 63, 64, 63, 66, 77
78, 79, 208, 209, 243, 293, 299, 334
Import duty on sugar 19, 23, 29, 38
105, 139, 185, 272, 266, 291, 299, 302
304, 318, 329, 336, 342, 343, 363
Increase in sugar consumption . . 18
Indemnification of the owners of
liberated slaves 19
K
" Kampfpramie " 26
Kinds of sugar 4.. 6, 9, 12, 51, 53, 56
,^8i, 88, 98, loi, 103, 132, 137, 182, 235
245. 279, 316
384
General Index.
L PACK
Legend about the creation of sugar
cane . - o
London Conference 25
Lowering of prices 25
m
McKinley Tariff .... 30^ ijq
Makhzan-ul-Adviyya . . . .50
Manna . 4
Manufacture 50, 98, 130, 146, 155, 163
173. 174. 181, 186, 194, 210, 2^2, 233
234. 235, 236, 237, 263, 265, 266, 276
286, 289, 295, 304, 315, 316, 359, 360
361
" Materialsteuer "... .25
" Medianeras " 255
Meline system 2"^
Modification of Sugar Convention . 36
Milan decree 13
Mills, Kinds of 52, 73, 85, 100, 183, 359
Misfortune in Mauritius .... 33
N
Negro rebellion .... 10, 191
Negro slavery 8, 18, 172, 173, 191, 203
217, 275, 290
Pacific Islands Labourers' Act . .334
Packing of sugar in early ages . . 6
Peace of Madrid .... 38 221
Paris .... 38, 288
Rijswijk 191
Pen-Tsao-kang-moe 4
Permanent Commission .... 35
Pests and Diseases 11, 49, 72, 120, 125
142; 180, 181, 201, 210, 214, 232, 270
286, 291, 312, 313, 326, 357
Production
74, 82, 83
134- 142,
164, 165,
X83, 188,
219, 221,
249, 250,
274, 277,
292, 293,
310, 311,
337. 338,
18, 21,
, 114, 116
148, 153,
171. 172,
191, 193.
231. 244,
251-, 255,
281, 282,
296, 298,
314. 316,
340, 341.
39, 46, 47, 59, 73
, 120, 128, 132, 133
155, 156, 157, 158
173, 174. 175, 176
194, 201, 215, 217
245, 246, 247, 248
261, 262, 270, 272
285, 286, 287, 289
299. 301, 303. 304
317. 325, 328, 335
342, 347. 352, 360
361, 368
PAGE
Prime cost 60, 61, 87, 99, 102, 103, 130
136, 138, 146, 180, 184, 194, 214, 221
230, 277, 287, 317, 318, 329, 342, 362
366, 367
Rain . 70,93,112,151,162,167,212
227, 228, 255, 263, 284, 288, 289, 346
Raismg sugar bounty in Germany 26, 33
Rational Manufacture of Beetroot
Sugar (Instructions for the) . . 17
Reciprocity treaty . . 184, 185, 348
Rebellion in San Domingo . 10, 191
Recovering beetroot sugar duties . 22
Relation of the quantities of assort-
ments
Re-opening of Sugar Conference
Re5nioso System ....
Rising of sugar prices
137
34
210
13
38s
S
Safai-namah 50
Sereh disease 120, 142
Shipments of Java sugar . 140, 141
Society for the suppression of slavery 19
State of affairs in British West
Indies 32, 59
Substitutes for cane sugar ... 13
From sap of maple trees . . 13, 30
nut trees ... 13
,, ,, sorghum stalks . 13, 30
Sugar analysis .... 58, 211
Sugar bounties 19, 22, 23, 25, 29, 31
33. 37. 63. 64, 106, 206, 237, 255, 293
Sugar bureau . . 83, 84, 85, 86, 106
Sugar cane industry . . . . 4, 20
Sugar Convention, Brussels 33, 34, 35
36, 38, 64, 120, 240,^ 271, 287, 322
Sugar cultivation 47, 48, 74, 98, 115
121, 123, 144, 153, 176, 193, 200, 201
210, 214, 231, 232, 260, 261, 269, 271
276, 286, 295, 296, 297, 303, 312, 314
326, 336, 354
Sugar duty in Germany .... 23
Sugar exports 22, 24, 68, 73, 75, 76, 77
79, 89, 96, 97, 104, 105, 146, 184, 186
195, 204, 223, 224, 225, 283, 299, 321
325. 352, 368
Sugar imports 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, yy, 78
79, 208, 209, 243, 293, 299, 334
2A
General Index.
S
PAGE
Sugar manufacture 50, 98, 130, 146
155. 163, 173, 174, 181, 183, 194, 210
2^.2, 233, 234, 235, 236, 237, 263, 265
266, 276, 277, 286, 289, 295, 304, 315
„ ^ . 316,359.360
bugar producing countries in early
ages .6
Sugar production and rendement . 18
21, 22, 39, 46, 47, 53, 59, 73, 82, 83
"4. 115. 120, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133
134. 135, 142, 148, 153, 155. 156, 157
158, 164, 165, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175
176, 183, 188, 194, 201, 215, 217, 218
221, 231, 237, 244, 245, 246, 247, 249
251, 255, 261, 262, 263, 266, 272, 276
281, 282, 286, 287, 289, 292, 293, 296
298, 299, 301, 304, 310, 311, 316, 317
325, 328, 335. 337. 338, 340, 341. 342
347, 352, 360, 361, 368
Sugar schools 16
Sugar Works Guarantee Act 332, 334
Surtax 17, 24, 27, 28, 34, 35, 64, 146
302
T
Tables on :
Additional Duties 29
Amount of Rain 70, 93, 112, 151
162, 167, 212, 227, 228, 255, 263, 284
■ 288, 289, 346
Analyses 57, 211
Areas of some factories . . 195
Cartel profits 28
Exports II, 68, 75, 'j'j , 79, 89, 104
105, 186, 195, 202, 204, 223, 224
225. 243, 283, 321, 325, 352, 368
Factories go, 103
Factories in the French Antilles 239
Humidity iii
Imports 62, 67, 77, 1]%, 79, 146, 209
210, 329
T PAGE
Import duty ... 65, 272
Irrigated land . . . . . .351
Location, dimensions, population
of some West Indian Islands . 224
Number of slaves 8
Production of beetroot sugar . 18
Prime cost- 61, 102, 130, 136, 138
317, 318, 362
Planted area 44, 45, 114, 170, 177
248, 325, 347, 362
Relation of the quantity of assort-
ments 137
Relation between newly planted
cane and ratoons . . . .314
Shipment of Java sugar . 140, 141
Sugar duty in Germany . . .23
Sugar production and rendement 21
22, 39, 46, 47, 53, 59, 115, 120, 128
129, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 148
156, 157, 158, 164, 165, 171, 175
176, 183, 188, 194, 201, 215, 218
221, 237, 244, 245, 246, 247, ^49
251, 261, 263, 266, 286, 272, 276
281, 282, 286, 287, 292, 296, 298
299. 301, 304. 310, 311, 316, 317
325. 328, 335, 337, 338, 340, 341
342, 347. 352, 360, 361
Temperature 109, no, in, 151, 162
167, 227, 228, 265, 267, 284, 346
World's sugar production 21, 39
Temperature 93, 109, no, in, 151
162, 167, 191, 196, 212, 220, 221, 227
228, 254, 265, 268, 273, 284, 288, 296
307. 331. 346
Trianon decree . . ... 13
Twelve years' truce 275
W
Want of sugar
World's production of sugar
Wilson Tariff ....
13, 30
21.39
• 30
Geographical and Proper Names.
Abbeville .
Abdurrahman
Aberdeen Bill
Abou Kourgas
Acarai Mountains
PACK
• 151
• 5
. 276
. 296
256, 264
Acre
Achard
Afghanistan
Africa
Africa
PAGE
. 6
• 14
• 65
. 290
5,8
3S6
Index.
Africans .
Agra .
Aguadilla
Aguascalientes .
Aguirre
Agusan River
Alagoas .
Alajuela .
Alexander the Great
Alexandra Mill .
Alexandria ....
Alfonso V
Almeria
Alonso de Ojeda
Alwar
Amazon River .
American Sugar Refining
Amerigo Vespucci .
America
American Possessions .
Amoy
PAGE
231, 326
44. 45, 50, 52
. 196
• 163
201
92
• 274
• 250
4
• 331
• 151
• • ■ 5
• 144
■ • -257
... 46
256, 266
Company 362
• • ■ 265
Andalusia
Anegada
Angelina
Angola
Angola
Anguilla
Annam
Annamites
Annobon
Ansonsa
Antigua
Antilles
Apa .
Aparri .
Arabia
Arabs .
Aragua
Arecibo
Argentina
Argentina
Arima
Asia Minor
5, 145.
■ 76
147, 271
[203,
,9,11
. 224
• 195
• 293
• 275
203, 224
• 73
230, 231
• 7
■ 195
207, 210, 224
, 172, 205, 275
. . 92
. . 92
■ • 115
4. 5, 169
■ • 255
196
. . 283
II, 283
. 217
6, 7, 300
A PAGE
Assam. . . 44, 45, 65, 68
Assouan . 295
Auckland 368
Austria 17, 18, 23, 25, 29, 32, 33, 63, 64
Australasia 330
Australia .... . . 330
Australia 20, 32, 38, 140, 141, 321, 349
Azores 7,114,346,356
Aska 59
Araa 192
Azuano 195
B
Bay of Amejas .
Ancan
Concepcion
Guyamas
Guayaquil
Kingston
La Paz .
Magdalena
Muleje .
Navachiste
San Bias
San Quintin
Santa Barbara .
Topolobampo
Valle de Banderas .
Babylon
Bagelen . . 114. 116, 128, 132, 134
Bahama Islands 203
Bahia .... 8, 274, 275, 276, 277
Baie Mahault . .... 238
Baldwin (King) 5
Balsas ... .... 162
Banjoemas 112, 114, 115, 128, 132, 134
Bantam 116
Barbados 213
Barbados g, 32.. 141, 203, 204, 206, 207
210, 258, 311
Bardwan 50
Basse Terre 226
Bassin 243
Batavian Republic . . . .117
162
266
161
162
266
219
162
162
162
162
162
162
161
161
162
4
387
Index.
B PAGE
Batan 94
Batangas 94
Batavia . . ■ 116
Baton Rouge 151
Bayou Lafourche 150
Bayou Teche 150
Behar 4
Beirut 6
Belgium .... . . 33, 64
Belianeh 296
Bel], Philip 213
Benares 49
Bengal 44-45, 59, "6
Benguela 8, 293
Beni Kora 296
Benin ... 8
Berar 44, 46
Berbice . . .10, 11, 256, 257, 258
Berg, van den 136
Berlin 14
Besoeki . 112, 114, 116, 128, 132, 134
Bethlehem 243
Bharatpur 46
Bibeh . . .... 296
Bikanir . . 46
Black River district .... 306
Black Sea 7
Bligh ... 204
Blue Mountains ... . . 219
Bocas 216, 217
Bohol 91
Bolivia 273
Bombay 44, 45, 47, 59- 64, 68, 321, 322
Bomy 8
Bosch, van den 118
Boston 141, 175
Bourbon 9, 11, 204
Bouricius . . ... 126
Bovell ... . . 126, 215
Bras Panot 327
Brantas . . ... 108, 114
Brazil 274
Brazil . 8, 9, 10, 11, 20, 229, 256, 259
B PAGE
Bridgetown 213
Brisbane 33i
British Sugar Estates . . . .272
British Guiana 256
British Guiana . . . 204, 265, 312
British Honduras .... 247
British Honduras 207
British Indians ... .20, 326
British India .... -43
British India . 21, 26, 140, 141
British West Indian Islands . 202
British West Indian Islands 8, 10, 12
19
Buccaneers . . . 191, 197, 206, 220
Bunot 331
Bundaberg 330
Burma 44, 4^
Burnside . 151
Bus de Guisignies 118
Bush-negroes 265
Byzantines 4
C
Cabral 8, 274
Cagayan River 92
Caibarien 169
Caicos Islands 203
Cairo . 7, 295
Calabria 6
Calcasieu 150
Calcutta . . .65, 230, 231, 232, 366
Calicut 8
Californian and Hawaiian Sugar
Refining Company . . 362, 363
Callao 268
Camaguey 166, 167, 168, 170, 171, 176
177, 183
Cameroons 8
Cambalache 201
Campeche 164
Campos . . 279
Canada . . 207, 208, 216, 219, 263
Canary Islands 293
Canary Islands 7, n
388
Index,
O PAGE
Canete 268, 271
Canton 76, 230
Capesterre 238
Cap Francais igi
Cape Cruz . 166
Cape Colony ... ... 19
Cape of Good Hope 7
Cape Verde Islands ... 7, n
Capiz .... .... 94
Carabobo . 255
Caracas 254, 255
Cardenas 184
Caribbean Sea 162, 202, 206, 220, 224
230, 247, 254
Carlisle (Lord) 213
Carlisle Bay 212
Caroni 217
Cartavio 271
Carthago . 249
Cartavio 271
Casa Grande 271, 272
Casa Forte .... 275
Caudivilla . ... 272
Caulsdorf 14
Cavalla ... ! . 294
Cavite ... .... 94
Cayalti ... ... 271
Cayenne 10, 204, 265
Cebu 91, 94, 96
Celebes Sea 92
Central America 245
Central Provinces . . 44, 46, 65, 68
Cerro Azul . . . 269, 272
Chaco 283, 287
Chamberlain, Joseph . 31, 32, 33
208, 221
Chang Chow ... • 1^
Chao Chow Fu 74
Chaparra . . ■ ^75
Chaptal .... -17
Chacra Cerro . .... 272
Charles V . 8
Cheefoo ... ■ • 7°
«-» PAGE
Cheick Fadl 296
Cheng-hai 75
Cheribon 108, 112, 114, 115, 128, 132, 134
Cherryville 151
Chiapas . ... 163, 164
Chicama . 268
Chicama Valley . . . . 272
Chihuahua . . . 162
Chile .... .11, 267, 271
Chimbote 271
Chimbue . . ... 301
China > . . 74
China 4, 38, 97, 115, 116, 140, 141, 364
Chinandega 248
Chinese Sea q2
Chinese 5, 20, 230, 231, 271, 308, 326
334, 347. 356
Chinkiang 74
Chiguito . . .... 271
Chocola 245
Christobal Colon ..... 195
C^iristiansted 243
Chunking 76
Cienfuegos 166, 169
Citlatepetl 161
Clarence River 350
Clarkson 19
Cochin China . .... 73
Colbert 229
Coliga(;.ao Assucareira .... 280
Colima .... . 162, 164
Colonial Sugar Refining Company 337
342, 365. 368
Coloso . 201
Colombia 253
Colombia . 267
Columbus, Christopher 6, 172, 191, 197
202, 217, 220, 221, 224, 227, 228, 243
257. 274
Commew5me 265
Commonwealth of Australia . 330
Companhia Assucareira da Africa
Oriental Portugueza .... 300
389
Index.
C PAGE
Companhia d'Assucar de Mo9am-
bique 300
Companhia do Dombe Grande . . 293
Concepcion . 245
Congo 230, 293
Constantinople . . . 7, 13
Conzuelo 195
Cook 348,365
Coppename ... ... 264
Cordilleras .... 162, 269, 273
Corent5me 256
Corinto 249
Cortez 163
Costa Rica 249
Costa Rica 252
Cotabato . . . ... 92
Couva 217
Credit Fonder Colonial . . . 329
Crespel-Dellisse . ... 17
Crockett .... ... 363
Cuba 166
Cuba 8, 10, II, 20, 31, 38, 124, ifti
168, 171, 172, 175, 180, 183, 195, 202
204, 205, 206, 250, 283, 292, 359
Cubans
Cunern
Cunupia
Cura9ao
Cyprus
Daendels
Dagapan
Dakusui
Damascus
Danao
Danish
Danish Antilles .
Danish Colonies .
Darieh Sanieh .
Dastagerd
Davao Bay .
Delaware Breakwater
Delagoa Bay
• 174
• 14
. 217
. 10
5, 6,7
. 118
94
82
■ 7
94
8
■ 243
II, 205
296
• 4
• 92
• 141
• 301
D PAGE
Demerara 10, 11, 20, 69, 154, 207, 208
214, 256, 257, 258, 313, 355
Demeus 296
Denmark 205, 243
Dessalines • 192
Diaz, Bartholomew . . 7
Dioscorides 4
Djember . . 112
Djokdja . 112, 114, 115, 122, 128, 132
134
Dombasle, de . . . 17
Dombe Grande . . . . 293
Dominica .... 203, 207, 224
Dom Pedro I . . . 275
Donaldsonville ... . . 151
Drake, Sir Francis . 203
Durango . .... . 163
Durban 303
Dutch 8, 9, ID, 116, 202, 206, 224, 244
257. 308, 309
Dutch Colonies 11
E
Eastern Asia . ... 11
Eastern Bengal . . 44, 45, 65, 68
East Indian Company :
Dutch . . .11, 12, 82, 116, 117
English . ... .12
French .... . 324
Ecuador 266
Egypt . . . 295
Egypt 5. 6. 7
Egyptians 4
Egyptian Sugar and Land Company 296
Eldorado 257
England 11, 13, 119, 216, 221, 230, 246
293. 325
Engelberts 137
Enghsh 8, 9, 11, 174, 202, 214, 217, 220
224, 228, 244, 265, 309
Ernant . 296
Espariola ... .... 191
Essequibo . . . 10, 11, 256, 258
Estramadura 227
390
Index.
E PAGE
Estrella, la . . . ... 272
Eten 268, 271
Europe 144
Europe . 7, 17, 18, 140, 141, 283, 321
Ewa plantation 362
Fahian ....
■ "5
Fajardo .
. 201
Falcon
• • 255
Fiji Islands
• • 365
Fiji Islands .
208, 343
Fiji Sugar Company
■ ■ 365
Filibusters ....
. 206
Filipinos ....
■ 356
Finland ...
. . 36
Firebrace, William .
■ . . 204
Flacq ... . ,
317
Florida .
150
Foochow
. . 76
Formosa .
. 81
Formosa .... 5, 6
, 78, 82, 116
Fortuna, la .
. 200
Fouquet
• 15
Fran9ois .
. . 238
Franklin
■ . 151
France 6, 9, 11, 12, 17, 24, 25, 33, 117
191, 195, 202, 229, 299, 368
French Antilles 226
French Colonies 11
French 8, 9, 10, 11, 13, 169, 202, 206
224, 227, 229, 230, 308
Frederic II 5
Frederiksted 243
Friedrich Wilhelm III . . . 14, 17
Fungkow 76
Gambia .
Ganges
Ganna
Genoa
Genoese Colonies
Genoese .
Georgetown .
Georgia .
3
49
6
7
257
150
G PAGE
Germany 17, 18, 22, 25, 29, 33, 64, 83
85, 195, 281, 293
Germans 169, 356
Gibraltar 144
Gulf of California 162
„ Guinea ... 7, 8, 11, 13
,, Mexico .... 152, 161
Tehuantepec .... 161
Paria .... 216, 217
Gorakhpur 49
Gorkom, van 116
Goubert, Salomon 324
Gold Coast 8
Grand Canary 293
Grand' Anse 238
Grand Bourg .... 227, 238
Grand Coteau 151
Grande Chaloupe ....'. 323
Grande Riviere Sud Est . . . 307
Grande Terre 226
Grand Port 317
Grange, la 243
Greenwich Park 257
Grenada 203, 207, 217
Grenadines . 203
GrenviUe 19
Griffith, Sir Samuel .... 332
Great Britain 12, 13, 19, 25, 33, 85
149, 184, 195, 202, 204, 206, 244, 263
275. 285, 349, 365
Great Ocean 3
Grosse Montagne 226
Grijalva 162
Guadalajara 162
Guadeloupe 226
Guadeloupe 9, 204, 229, 236, 237, 241
Guaira, la 255
Guanajuato 162
Guanica 196, 201
Guantanamo 169
Guatemala 245
Guatire 255
Guayaquil 267
Guerrero 163, 164
391
Index
Guiana
Gwalior
PAGE
• 7
• 46
H
Habana 166, 167, 168, 169, 171,
Hainan .
Hayti ... . iqo, 192
Haleakala
Hamburg ....
Hankow . ... . .
Harrison, J. B.
Hatillo ....
Hawaiian Islands . . . .
Hawaiian Islands ' 30, 83, 166, 183
313. 343. 347. 348, 350,
Hawamdieh .
Hawkins, Sir John
Holy Land
Henry the Navigator
Herbert River
Hindus
Hilo . .
Hispaniola
Holland .
Hondo
Honduras
Hongkong 64, 75, 76, 81, 141, 321,
Honolulu 345, 346, 347, 354, 357,
Honolulu Plantation Company
Hoorn, van
Hope, Louis
Houma
Huacho .
Hualalai .
Huanchaco
HUama
Humaya .
Humboldt, von
344.
Ibrahimieh
He Bonaparte
He Bourbon .
Iloilo . .
Ilicos Sur
268.
92, 103,
174
183
76
197
344
291
74
126
188
343
270
351
297
203
6
8
330
32
347
191
II
n
247
343
362
362
362
331
151
271
344
268
268
271
204
296
324
324
106
94
I page
India 3. 4- 5. 12, 18
Indra 3
Infantes 272
Inter-Island Steam Navigation
Company 347
Italians 169
Italia 195
Isle de France . . . . 11, 308
Ismael Pasha 295
Ixtacihuatl 161
J
Jaipur . . .... 46
Jajeyama . . . . . . JJ
Jakatra 116, 118
Jalisco 163, 164
Jamaica 219
Jamaica 8, 9, 10, 203, 204, 205, 206
220, 295
Japan 77
Japan- . 5,12,89,97,140,141,364
Japanese ..... 334, 347, 356
Japara .... 117, 128, 132, 134
Jatibonico .... . . 188
Java 107
Java II, 87, 83, 113, 116, 120, 124, 126
141, 166, 183, 202, 270, 286, 313, 322
343. 356, 358, 359
Jefferson 150
Jesuits . 152
Jhalawar .46
Joan Maurits van Nassau . . 9, 275
Jobos ... ... 196
Jordan Valley ...... 6
Juana Diaz 202
Juan Ponce de Leon . . . .197
Jujuy 283, 287
Juncos . . 201
K
Kadjoe 265
Kagoshima 77
Kahoolawe . . . . 344, 345
Kanakas 331, 334
Karachi 65, 321
Karikal 230
392
Index.
K PAGE
Kashmir 5^
Katanga 293
Kauai . 344. 345, 346, 347. 35°, 351
Kediri . . 114, 115, 128, 132, 134
Kilauea 344. 347
King Baldwin . - 5
Kingston . 21'g
Kingston Harbour .... 220
Kishangarh .46
Kiungchow -76
Kobus, J. D. . . . 49, 126
Kohala 347
Kowloen 76
Crusaders 5. 6, 7
Kijk over Al 257
Labasa
Labat
Lafayette
Lagos .
• • 367
. 238
151, 201
• • 9
Laguna 94, 98
Lake Charles 151
Lambayeque .... 268, 271
Lamentin 239
Lanai 344
Lappa 7&
Lara 255
Laredo 271
Lareinty . 237
Lawrence 151
Legier, Em 237
Leichow 76
Leon 162, 248
Lerma . . 162
Leyte 91, 94
Liberia .... . . 294
Libertador 255
Liege Hulett & Sons . . 304
Lihue 350
IJKuokalami .... 349
Lille .16
Lima 268, 270
Limpopo 300, 301
Lippmann, von .... .18
39
L PAGE
Lurifico 271
Little Caillou Bayou . . . 153
Liverpool .... . . 272
Loagag . . . . "^^ . 94
Loango 8, 230
Lobita ... . 293
Logan River 331
London 25, 31
Louis XIII
Louisiana
II, 20, 150, 152,
153.
155.
324
154
158
243
224
Lower Love
Loyola . ....
Luxemburg 36
Luzon . 91, 92, 94, 96, 98, 99, 107
IVI
Macao
Macarenhas .
Machete .
Mackay .
Mackay River
Madagascar .
Madeira .
Madeira . 7,
Madioen . 113,
Madras
Magdeburg .
Magellan, Ferdinand
Magnolia ....
Mahebourg .
Mahe de la Bourdonnais
Mahe de la Villebague
Malabar .
Malaga
Maltese knights .
Mamelles, les deux
Manchuria
Manila . . .
Maracaibo
Maranhao
Marco Paulo .
Mare aux Vacoas
Marggraf .
Marie Galante
76, 271
.308
. 201
• • 330. 331
• • -330
5. 306, 307. 324
. 290
8, II, 204, 217, 259
114, 115, 128, 132, 134
44, 59. 63, 71
■ 29
92
95
155
308
309
309
204
144
243
226
357
103
■ 255
• 275
■ 4
• 306
• 13
226, 238
98.
Index.
m
Mariget ....
Marin . .
Morocco .
Maroons .
Marromeu
Martha Brae River .
Martinique .
Martinique . g, 204
Marwar
Masbate ....
Mascareigna .
Mascarenhas, Pedro
Matagalpa
Matanzas 166, 167,
Mattai . .
Maui .
Mauna Kea
Mauna Loa .
Mauritius .
Mauritius 11,
344.
19, 20
Maxwell, Dr.
May ague z
Mayon
Mazatfan .
McKinley
Mediterranean
Mehemet Ali
Meline
Melville .
Mercedita I
Merida
Merut
Mescala
Mesopotamia
Mexicans .
Mexico .
Mexico II, 162,
Michoacan
Minas Geraes
Mindanao
Mindoro .
Miranda .
163
PAGE
238
238
5,6
220
300
219
228
226, 236, 237, 241
46
91
324
324
248
168, 170, 171, 177
'^ll, 183
. 296
346, 347. 351, 355
• • • -344
• • • -344
. . . 306
32, 33, 63, 69, 94
255, 313, 324, 343
333
196
92
162
. 30
5
296
25
151
^01
162, 255
49
162
5
169
161
164, 197, 271, 286
• 163, 164
.... 9
. 91, 92, 94, 106
... 91, 98
• • • -255
Missiones
Mississippi
Miyako
Moka .
Mollendo
Molokai
Monserrat
Montego Bay
Monterico
Monterrey
Mont Pele
Moors
Mopea
Moquettc
Morelos
Morelia
Morne a I'eau
Morne sans toucher
Morris, Sir D.
Montana .
Moule, la . .
Mount Edgecombe
Mozambique .
Murshidabad
Mysore
M PAGE
. . 283
150, 155
• - 77
317
. . 268
344. 345
201, 203, 207, 217, 224, 225
220
271
. 162
228
N
Nag Hamadi
Nantes
Naparima
Napoleon
Narranjal
Natal
Natal . .
Netherlands
Negros
300
126
163, 164, 165
162
238
226
206
296
240
303
300
50
46
296
201
217
12, 13, 15, 17, 22, 172, 192
272
303
38
12, 33, 64, 117, 265
91, 94, 96, 97, 98, 102
Neives 224
Nelson . . 123
Nevis 203, 224, 225
Newchang • 75, 76
New Amsterdam 257
New Calabar 8
New Zealand ... . 368
New South Wales . 330, 335, 336, 343
New Iberia 151
394
Index.
N PAGE
New Orleans 151, 155
New York . 12, 32, 89, 136, 350, 363
Nicaragua . 248
Nicaragua . . ... 249
Nickerie . . 264
Niihau 344, 345
Ningpo . ... -76
Normirovka . . . 26
North Americans . . 169, 194, 183
North Eton . . . 332
North Florida . . 150
Norway . . .... 34
Nueva 248
Nuevitas 169
Nuevo Leon . 164
Nile .... .... 295
O
Oahu 344, 345, 346, 347, 351. 354. 356
362
Oaxaca . . . 162, 163, 164, 165
Ocana . . ... 253
Ocoa 195
Okinama Seito Kabushiku Kaisha 78
Okinawa • 7^
Old Harbour . . 219
Opelousas . . ... 151
Oriente 166, 167, 168, 170, 171, 176
177- 183
Orizaba .... 162
Osaka . . -77
Oshima Islands • 77
Otaheite 9
Oudh . . 44. 45, 5i, 59. 68
P
Paasche 26
Pacasmaya . • • .269,271
Pachuca ... • -162
Palawan .... • 9^
Palermo
Palestine . . • ■ 5
Palfrey, Sir John • ■ 204
Palma .... ■ ^^9
Palmas ^
Pamplemousses 306, 307, 309, 3M> 3^7
P P.AGE
Pamploma 253
Panama 251
Panama . . .... 249
Panama Canal 206
Pangasinan 94
Panay . . . . 91, 92, 94, 106
Pantaleon 245
Papeete . 369
Paraguay 289
Paraguay River 275
Parahyba 274
Paramaribo . . . . . 265
Paramonga 271
Parceria Santa Theresa do Luracho 293
Parmentier 14. 16
Paris 15. 240
Pasig River 92
Paso, El 162
Pasoeroean 112, 114, 116, 128, 132, 134
Patapo 271
Patna 50
Paunda . . 49
Pope Alexander \T 95
Pearl Loch 353
Peere, Abraham van .... 257
Pekalongan . 114, 116, 128, 132, 134
Penang 69
Perak 69, 73
Pere Labat .... 233, 234, 235
Pernambuco 8, 9, 274, 275, 276, 279
280, 282, 283
Peru 267
Peru 11,20,36,163,197,252,271,286,358
Persia 4, 12, 39
Pescadores 81
Petit Bourg 237
Petit Canal 237
Philadelphia 363
Philippines 91
Philippines . . 5, 31, 38, 89, 96, 347
Pinar del Rio . 166, 167, 168, 170, 171
176, 177, 183
Pinzon .... 8, 197, 257, 275
Pisa 6
395
Index.
f PAGE
Piton de la Foumaise .... 323
Piton des Neiges 323
Piton du Petit Bernard . . . 323
Plaines Wilhems . . . 306, 317
Plantain Garden River . . . 220
Plata River 275
Plazuela 201
Plinius 4
Point o Pitre .... 227, 238
Pointe des Galets 323
Pointe Simon 237
Pomalca . 271
Pomerania 15
Ponce ... . 196, 197 202
Pondicherry . 230
Popocatepetl . . . 161
Porter 331
Port Antonia . . . 218, 219
Bourbon 305
de France 228
Douglas .... 330
Eads 151
Louis . . . 237,307,308
of Spain . . 216, 217
Royal . . . . . 220
Said 141
Porto Rico 196
Porto Rico 8, 20, 31, 38, 160, 195, 196
204, 206, 283, 292
Porto Ricans 169
Portugal . . 8, 9, 95, 275, 302, 356
Portuguese Colonies .... 8
Portuguese Seafarers .... 7
Portuguese 7, 8, 214, 217, 290, 347, 356
Porvenir 195
Possession 323
Potpsi . . . . . 163
Preston . . . 175
Princes Town . . 217
Principe 7
Probolingo . . 112, 128, 132, 134
Proust . . . . 14, 15
Pucala 271
Puebla . . . 162, 163, 164, 165
P PAGE
Puerto Padre 169
Punjab .... 44,45,59,65,68
Q
Queensland 312, 330, 33;, 332, 334
335, 336, 341, 343, 358
Queretaro 163
R
Racecourse Mill 332
Raja Trishanku 3
Rajmahal 50
Rajputana 44, 46, 65
Raleigh, Sir Walter . . . .257
Rapides 150
Ravine a Jacques 323
Recif 275
Recoletos
. 96
Redonda
203
Reesse . ....
. II
Rembang . . 107, 114, 115,
128, 132
134
Rempart
. '^14
Reserve .
• ■ 151
Reunion . .
323
Reunion .
II
20, 232
Rhodes
5,6,7
Richmond River
■ 330
Riu Kiu . .
. . 7«
Rio Cauto .
. 167
,, Cobre
. 21Q
,, de Janeiro .
• 274,
279, 280
,, Grande .
. 162,
220, 249
„ Grande de Mindanao .
. . 92
„ Real
. 27S
„ SaH .
. . 286
Riviere du Rempart 306, 309
314, 317
Noire ....
■ • 317
„ Salee
226, 239
Robert .
• ■ 239
Rodah ...
. 296
Rodriguez . ...
■ • 323
Rohilkand ....
• • 49
Rome
271
Romana ....
. 192
Roraima .
• • 256
Index.
R PAGE
Rosignol 257
Royal Commission on the West
Indies 31
Rouen . 236
Russia 27,
Russians
34. 36, 38
356, 357
S
Saccharon
St. Andre
St. Andrews .
St. Anne .
St. Benoit
St. Christopher
St. Christopher
324,
322
4
327
. 212
• • 239
324. 327
225, 229
. 10, 224
St. Clara 272
St. Croix . 243
St. Croix 10, 244
St. Denis .... . 323, 324
St. Dominique .... . 203
St. Eustatius .... .10
St. Fran9ois 238
St. Helena 204
St. John 10
St. Joseph .... 217, 323, 327
St. Kitts 10, 191, 203, 207, 210, 217, 224
St. Louis 327
St. Leu 327
St. Lucia . . 203, 205, 207, 210, 221
,St. Marie 239, 327
St. Ouen 14
St. Paul 295, 323, 327
St. Peter 224
St. Philippe 323
St. Pierre . . 228, 240, 323, 327
St. Rose 239, 322, 327
St. Thomas ... 10, 20, 204, 244
St. Vincent . 203, 207, 212, 227, 275
Saiyid Muhamad Hadi . . 52, 57, 61
Salaverry
Salisbury, Lord
Salta .
Salt Island
Salvador
Salvador .
. 271
• 25
.283,287
. 224
. 246
• • 252
Samar
San Antonio
San Domingo
San Domingo
S PAGE
. 91
188
igo
. 8, 9, 10, 163, 172, 190
191, 192, 198, 230
216, 217
248, 348, 350, 362, 363
195
San Fernando
San Francisco
San Isidor
San Jacinto . 271
San Jago ... . . . 220
San Jago de la Vega . . . 220
San Jose 249, 250, 271
San Jose de Arufia . . .217
San Juan .... 196, 197
San Juan de Hog 94
San Luis . . . 163, 164, 195
San Nicolas 271
San Pedro de Macoris . . 191, 192
San Vincente 201
Sangre Grande 217
Santa 268
Santa Anna 188
Apollina 324
Clara 166, 167, 168, 170, 171
174, 176, 177, 183
.. Fe 195
,, Maria la Antigua . . . 224
Santiago 162
Santiago de Cuba
• 169, 174
Santos ....
■ 274
Sanutus ....
■ 5
Sao Thome
• 7. 275
Sao Paulo
■ 274, 276
Saramacco
. . . 264
Sausal
. 271
Savannah Grande .
. 217
Savanne .
307, 317
Scandinavians
■ 169, 356
Scotland ....
. . . 212
Schriever
■ • 151
Segovia ....
. . . 248
Semarang 107,112,114,116,128,132,134
Sena factory < 300
Serajoe River 108
197
Index.
S
Sergipe
Siam ... .5
Siberia ...
Sicily
Sierra Leone
Silesia
Sinaloa
Sincerin
Singapore . . . 141
Si-Shi-Tjin
Sitobondo
s' Jacob, Mr. H
Sociedad General Azucarera
Espana
Societe Generale des Sucreries
PACK
• 274
, 74. 116
• 357
5, 6, 7
8, 204
• 14
163, 164
■ • 253
,165,358
, . 4
113
. . 138
de
Sudan . ...
Sunda Islands
Soerabaja 107, 112, 114, 116, 128
Soerakarta
Solo . . . 114, 116, 128,
Solomon Islands
Solo River . . . .
Soltwedel
Sommelsdijk, Aersen van .
Soufriere
Souillac
South Africa
South African Union
South America
South America .
South Americans
South Coast Junction .
South. Georgia ....
Spanish Town ....
Spain
Spain . .5,6, 8, 33, 95, 163,
Spaniards 7, 8, 169, 174, 183,
217, 220, 224, 275,
Stewart
Strabo
Straits Settlements .
Straits Settlements
Surinam
• 147
296, 298
299, 300
• 295
5
.132,134
J12, 122
132, 134
. 366
. 108
126
, . 265
212, 226
• 307
• 321
303. 304
• 253
• 33
169
304
. 150
. 220
' • 144
191. 275
206, 202
286, 356
. . 188
• • 4
. . 65
• 69, 74
. 26^
Surinam
Surinam Rivers .
Surroundings of Batavia
Suva .
Syria .
Syrians
Sweden
Switzerland
PAGE
10, II, 20
■ • 265
. . 117
. . 366
5, 7
. 169
34. 227
. . 36
82,
Tabaquite
Tabaschir
Tabasco .
Tabasco River .
Tabocas ...
Tacarigua . . . .
Tachira ....
Tacon, Miquel ...
Tahiti
Tainan 82,
Tainoku ...
Tai-Tsung
Taiwan . . . . .
Takao
Tamaulipas .
Tambo
Tambo Real .
Tamsuikei
Tandjong Priok
Tarchont .
Tasman .
•Taviuni 365
Tebicuary River . . .. . .289
Tweed River . .... 330
Tegal 128, 132, 134
Tehuantepec 161
Tepic 162, 163, 164
Terrebonne 150
Texas 150, 154
Tientsin . 74, 76
Timor . 302
Timor Deli 140
Tjilatjap 108
Tji Manoek 108, 113
Tji Tandoei 108
398
. 217
4
. 164
. 161
■ 275-
. 217
• 255
172
• 369
83.84
. 82
4
. 81
84
164
268
271
82
107
296
365
Index.
Tji Taroem
Tobago
Tonga Islands
Tonkin
Tordesillas
Torolita .
Tortola
Toussaint de
Trafalgar .
Transvaal
Trebizonde
Trinidad
Trinidad 11,20,166,203,205
rOuverture
PAGE
. loS
203, 207
365
73
95
245
224
192
13
301, 302
7
216
206, 210
Trinit6
Trois Bassins
Trois Rivieres
Tripoli
Trujillo
Tsinshing
Tucuman
Tugela River
Tuinicu
Tuman
Tumua Humac
Tungan
Tunis .
Turks .
Turkish Empire
Turks Islands
Turkey
Tyre .
217, 313
238
327
238
6,7
255
76
283, 287
303
188
271
264
• 76
.5,6
7,169
• 7
• 203
■ 300
■ 5.7
U
United States of America . . 150
United States of America^-^07^267-^, 30
31, 33, 38, 85, 80^ 140, 141, 162
172, 184, 195, i^, 205, 208, 216, 218
244, 263, 271, 283, 285, 321, 348, 363
364, 365, 368
Union 188
Vancouver
Vanua Levu
Vauclin
. . 141
365, 367
. ■ 239
V PAGE
Vasco de Gama . . . .8
Venetians ... . . 7, 8
Venice ... . . . 6, 7
Venezuelan Guiana . . . 254
Venezuela 253
Venezuela . . .... 201
Vera Gruz .... 163, 164, 165
Villa Encarnacion . . 289
Villa Rica . . . 289
Virgin Gorda 224
Virgin Islands . . . 203, 224, 243
Viscaya Islands 94
Vishva-Mitra . . .3
Viti Levu . . . 365, 367
Vladivostok 356
Vienna 13
W
Waichow ... .... 76
Waileale . . • • 345
Wakker 126
Walker, Herbert S. . . . . 103
" Walrus," The 331
Washington 35, 348
Watts . 60
WeUesley .... . 69, 73
West Indian Company : Dutch 8, 237
265, 275
West Indian Islands . 8, 10, 12, 19
West Indians . . ... 169
Whydah 8
Wilberforce ... . . 19
Willett and Gray 184
Wilson 30
Y
Yaqui 162
Yanaon 230
Yangtse-Kiang 'j'j
Yucatan 164, 165
Yunque, el 196
Z
Zacatecas 162
Zambesi 300, 301
Zuha 255
Zululand 303
399
STANDARD WORK ON SUGAR.
SUGAR, A HANDBOOK FOR PLANTERS AND REFINERS ; being a
comprehensive treatise on the Culture of Sugar-yielding Plants, and on
the Manufacture, Refining, and Analysis of Cane, Palm, Maple, Melon,
Beet, Sorghum, Milk, and Starch Sugars, with a chapter on the distillation
of Rum. By the late John A. R. Newlands and Benjamin E. R.
Newlands, F.I.C, F.C.S., Past-President of the Institute of Chemistry
and of the Society of Chemical Industry. With 236 illustrations, 876
pages, demy 8vo, cloth. 25s. net
Introduction. — Cane Sugar. Cultivation of the Plant — Composition
of the Juice — Extraction of the Juice — Defecation and Clarification —
Concentration and Granulation of the Juice — Curing the Sugar — Complete
Factories Palm Sugar — Maple Sugar — Melon Slgar — Beet Sugar.
Cultivation of the Plant — Extraction of the Juice — Defecation of the Juice
^Concentration of the Syrup — Curing the Sugar. Molasses — Sorghum
Sugar — Starch Sugar and other Glucoses — Sugar Refining — Sugar
Analvsis — Rum and other Alcoholic Spirits— Production and Commerce
— Index.
E. & F. N.SPON, Ltd, 57 Haymarket, London, S.W.
A well-reviewed Book. 440 pp., 26 Chapters and an Appendix, 1 10 Illustrations.
SUGAR BEET: Some Facts ^ some Illusions.
A Study in Rural Therapeutics.
By "Home Counties," (J. W. ROBERTSON-SCOTT).
" Concise and judicial, authoritative and very comprehensive." — The Times.
" There could be no better handbook than Mr. Robertson-Scott's exhaustive treatise."
— International Sugar Journal.
Post free, 6s. /jd. inland ; 6s. gd. abroad. For copies apply —
NORMAN RODGER, ALTRINCHAM. ENGLAND.
VADE MECUM DE SUCRERIE :
A Handbook of Problems and Practical Tables.
LEON PELLET and PAUL METILLON.
191 pp. Paper Covers, 6 trs., (5s. 2d. net.) Postage 2d, extra.
Copies of this Fiench Laboratory Handbook can be obtained from
NORMAN RODGER, ALTRINCHAM, ENGLAND.
BOOKS ON SUGAR, AND ITS
MANUFACTURE, published by
NORMAN RODGER, . . .
ALTRINCHAM, England.
By H. C. PRINSEN GEERLIGS,
(Late Director of the West Java Sugar Experiment Station) :
CANE SUGAR AND ITS MANUFACTURE : An amplification of this
author's earher Work, " On Cane Sugar and the Process of its
Manufacture in Java," published in 1903, but brought up-to-date
Lnd extending to 352 pages, of which four-fifths is entirely new matter.
352 pp. Super-Royal 8vo. Price 12s. net. Postage, 5d. inland ; Is.
abroad, extra.
METHODS OF CHEMICAL CONTROL IN CANE SUGAR
FACTORIES. An invaluable Handbook for Sugar Chemists and
Manufacturers. Cloth. 86 pp. Royal 8vo. 3s. 6d. net. Postage, 4d.
inland ; 6d. abroj d, extra.
SCIENCE IN SUGAR PRODUCTION : An Introduction to the Methods
of Chemical Control. By T. H. P. Heriot. Royal 8vo., 104 pp.
6s. net. Postage, 4d. inland ; 6d. abroad, extra.
TWO WALL CHARTS FOR SUGAR CHEMISTS.
Mounted on Cloth, and ready for hanging.
I. Table for finding the Sucrose Content of Juices, clarified with.
10 per cent, of Subacetate of Lead from the Specific Gravity
of the Original Juice, and the Readings in a Schmidt and
Haensch Polariscope when observed in a 200 mm. tube.
II. Tables for the Correction of the Brix Hydrometer at
different Temperatures.
(a) When the Hydrometer is tested at 84° F-
(b) When the Hydrometer is tested at 17-5° C.
Price 5s. net for the two, or 3s, net for either. Postage ; 4d. inland,
6d. abroad, extra.
2B
BOOKS on SUGAR AND ITS MANUFACTURE, Published by NORMAN RODGER,
ALTRINCHAM, ENGLAND— Continued-
CANE SUGAR :
A Text-Book on the Agriculture of the Sugar Cane, the Manu-
facture OF Cane Sugar, and the Analysis of Sugar House Pro-
ducts ; together with a Chapter on the Fermentation of
Molasses.
BY
NOEL DEERR,
Sugar Technologist at the Experiment Station of the
Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association ; Author of " Sugar akd
the Sugar Cane " ;
CONTENTS. — Chapter I. The Cane. Chapter II. The Composition of the Cane.
Chapter III. Range and Climate. Chapter IV. Varieties of the Cane. Chapter V.
Sugar Cane Soils. Chapter VI. The Manuring of the Cane. Chapter VII. The Irrigation
of the Cane. Chapter VIII. The Husbandry of the Cane. Chapter IX. The Pests and
Diseases of the Cane. Chapter X. The Harvesting of the Cane. Chapter XI. The Ex-
traction of Juice by Mills. Chapter XII. The Diffusion Process. Chapter XIII. The
Clarification or Defecation of the Juice. Chapter XIV. The Carbonation Process. Chap-
ter XV. The Filtration of the Juice. Chapter XVI. The Evaporation of the Juice to
Syrup. Chapter XVII. The Concentration of the Syrup to Massecuite. Chapter XVIII.
The Separation of the Crystals. Chapter XIX. Molasses. Chapter XX. Megass as Fuel.
Chapter XXI. The Polariscope as applied to Sugar Analysis. Chapter XXII. The
•Optical Assay of Sugars. Chapter XXIII. The Determination of Reducing Sugars.
Chapter XXIV. The Assay of Sugar House Products. Chapter XXV. The Control of
the Factory. Chapter XXVI. Fermentation with Special Reference to the Sugar House.
The volume consists of 592 pages Royal 8vo., with 22 plates (11 coloured)
and 240 other illustrations, and is the finest and most up-to-date work on the
cane sugar industry yet issued to the public.
Price 20s. net.
[Postage ; 6d. inland ; is. 4d. abroad, extra.
BOOKS on SUGAR AND ITS MANUFACTURE, Published by NORM AN RODGER .
ALTRINCHAM, ENGLAND— Continued.
PRESS NOTICES REGARDING
DEERR'S "CANE SUGAR."
JAPAN DAILY HERALD: " While it contains much that is of interest even to a
general reader of a scientific and mechanical turn of mind, this volume will be found in-
valuable to all who are practically engaged in cane-sugar industry. The type, paper,
and illustrations all reflect credit on those who are responsible for its production.
THE BRITISH TRADE JOURNAL : " We Imow of no other book on the subject
which is so complete, and which furnishes the sugar planter and the manufacturer of
cane sugar with so much useful and up-to-date information and guidance."
GLASGOW HERALD : " The book, which is profusely illustrated with pictorial
representations of cane plants, designs of machinery and of appliances of every descrip-
tion, is a most attractive and comprehensive volume of 592 pages, and might profitably
find a place on the desk or in the laboratory of everyone directly engaged or interested in
this world-wide industry. "
THE ENGINEER : " A volume which, while admittedly owing much to the work
of^bther sugar technologists, forms a valuable work of reference in the sugar man's library."
LIVERPOOL POST : " The book is fully indexed, the diagrams are well drawn and
explicit, and the coloured illustrations efEective."
BULLETIN OF PAN-AMERICAN UNION : " There is no dearth of literature deahng
with the subject of sugar cane and its cultivation, but the book before us is of exceptional-
merit. . . . The work is a skilful condensation and classification of the latest theory and
practice in cane culture."
THE JOURNAL OF INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY : '■ This
admirable treatise upon the cultivation of sugar cane and the manufacture of sugar there-
from is a substantial enlargement upon a former edition, published in 1905,. The new
edition contains 592 pages, as against 396 in the first edition, and as the new pages contain
more than the old, on account of their increased size, the contents are more than propor-
tionally greater than the mere nurdbers of pages would indicate. . . . The book is replete
with essential information, is agreeably written, suggests a multitude of attractive themes,
and, in short, is such that no sugar man can afford to be without."
THE AGRICULTURAL NEWS : " This work consists largely of a judicious
compilation of the views and facts put forward by various writers on the many branches
necessarily included in so wide a subject. . The greater, and perhaps more useful, part
consists mainly of a critical survey of the large amount of literature on sugar matters
recently issued, and scattered for the greater part through reports and pamphlets, emanating
from workers throughout the world."
THE
INTERNATIONAL SUGAR JOURNAL
WITH WHICH IS INCORPORATED
THE SUGAR CANE.
(1869-1898.)
Representing Planters, Manufacturers, Refiners, and all interested in the Sugar Inaustry
at Home and Abroad
Published about the 12th of the Month at Allrincham. England.
Subscription - - 12s. ($3-00) per annum, payable in advance.
This Journal circulates in the undermentioned Countries and States, and,
while reaching all leading planters and sugar manufacturers in the tropical
and sub-tropical regions of the World, is also taken by the leading beet sugar
manufacturers of the United States and elsewhere. It further numbers among
its subscribers most of the principal refiners and sugar brokers of the United
Kingdom, France, and the United States, and a large number of retired planters
and merchants in Great Britain and elsewhere, and is to be found in the Reading
Rooms of the chief Exchanges in Europe. , As to its contents, the scientific
control of sugar manufacture receives particular attention in its pages, and
translations from French and German publications are a regular feature, while
one of the most recent additions has been a series of Abstracts from foreign
technical literature, which the publisher has reason to think are much appre-
ciated. Local crop reports and geneiral gossip about purely local plantation
topics find no place in its pages, which are edited with a view to making the
Journal of interest to the majority of its readers in Great Britain, the Colonies,
and the United States. The size of page is sufficiently restricted to allow of
easy binding.
WEST INDIES :
Cuba.
Barbados,
Jamaica,
Trinidad,
Antigua,
Porto Rico,
St. Vincent,
St. Croix,
Martinique,
Guadeloupe,
St. Domingo.
SOUTH AMERICA.
British Guiana,
Surinam,
Brazil,
Argentina,
Peru.
MEXICO.
CENTRAL AMERICA.
UNITED STATES.
CANADA.
HAWAIIAN ISLANDS.
AUSTRALASIA :
Queensland,
New South Wales,
Victoria,
Fiji.
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
JAVA.
JAPAN.
FORMOSA.
CHINA.
STRAITS SETTLEMENTS.
INDIA.
MAURITIUS.
NATAL.
CANARY ISLANDS.
MADEIRA.
EGYPT.
EUROPE :
Germany,
Austria-Hungary,
France,
Holland,
Belgium,
Sweden,
Spain,
Italy.
SCALE OF CHARGES FOR ADVERTISEIVIENTS sent on application.
All Communications to be addressed to " THE. INTERNATIONAL SUGAR
JOURNAL," Altrincham, Manchester.
An Engineering Firm, after trying the advertising columns of the
" International Sugar Journal;" for a year, wrote : —
" We will be pleased to extend our advertisement in the Journal for a year,
and may we at the same time congratulate you on your publication ? As an
advertising medium it is not to be equalled."