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Korea,
3 1924 014 025 138
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KOREA
TABLET IN SEOUL
KOREA
BY
ANGUS HAMILTON
WITH MAP AND ILLUSTRATIONS
NEW YORK
CHARLES SCRIBNER'S SONS
1904
All rights reserved
THOW DIBBCTORY
PNINTiriS AND BOOKBINDINQ COMPANY
NIW YORK
TO
MY MOTHER
CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION
The Position of Russia in Manchuria — Comparative Estimate
of Naval and MiHtary Resources of Russia, Japan, and
Korea Pp. xv-xliii
CHAPTER I
Off the coast — Lack of survey intelHgence — Island -flora —
Forgotten voyagers — Superstitions and beHefs — Outline
of history Pp. 1-12
CHAPTER II
Physical peculiarities — Direction of advancement — Indica-
tions of reform and prosperity — Chemulpo — Population —
Settlement — Trade Pp. 13-22
CHAPTER III
Move to the capital — A city of peace — Results of foreign in-
fluence — In the beginning — Education — Shops — Cos-
tume — Origin — Posts and telegraphs — Methods of clean-
liness Pp. 23-40
CHAPTER IV
The heart of the capital — Domestic economy — Female
slavery — Standards of morality — A dress rehearsal
Pp- 41-53
vii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER V
The Court of Korea — The Emperor and his Chancellor — The
Empress and some Palace factions . . Pp. 54-64
CHAPTER VI
The passing of the Emperor — An Imperial pageant Pp. 65-73
CHAPTER VII
Sketch of Mr. McLeavy Brown — The Question of the Cus-
toms — The suggested Loan .... Pp. 74-87
CHAPTER VIII
Foreign action in Korea — Exhausted Exchequer — Taxes —
Budgets — Debased currency — The Dai Ichi Ginko —
Dishonest officials Pp. 88-102
CHAPTER IX
Education — Arts and graces — Penal code — Marriage and
divorce — The rights of concubines — Position of children —
Government ...... Pp. 103-111
CHAPTER X
Farmers — Farming and farm animals — Domestic industries —
Products — Quality and character of food-stuffs
Pp. 112-121
CHAPTER XI
Japan in Korea — Historical associations — In Old Fusan —
Political and economic interests — Abuse of paramountcy
Pp. 1 22-13 1
CHAPTER XII
The commercial prospects of Korea — Openings to trade —
Requirements of markets — Lack of British enterprise
Pp. 132-142
viii
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XIII
British, American, Japanese, French, German, and Belgian
interests — Railways and mining fictions — Tabled counter-
feited Imports Pp. 143-167
CHAPTER XIV
Some account of the treaty ports; Won-san, Fusan, Mok-po —
Character of export and import trade — Local industries
Pp. 168-180
CHAPTER XV
Treaty ports (continued) — Wi-ju — Syon-chyon-po — Chin-
am-po — Pyong-yang — Kun-san — Syong-chin Pp. 181-191
CHAPTER XVI
Russian interest — Russia and Japan — Ma-san-po — Ching-
kai-wan — Yong-an-po . . . .Pp. 192-207
CHAPTER XVII
By the wayside — A journey inland to Tong-ko-kai — Inland
beauties Pp. 208-215
CHAPTER XVIII
The German mines— Mineralogy and methods of mining—
A bear hunt— With gun and rifle . . Pp. 216-225
CHAPTER XIX
The monks and monasteries of the Diamond Mountains— The
Temple of Eternal Rest— The Temple of the Tree of
Buddha— Buddhism . • • • Pp- 226-239
CHAPTER XX
The abomination of desolation— Across Korea— The east
coast— Fishing and filth . . • • Pp- 24(^250
ix
CONTENTS
CHAPTER XXI
Drought — Starvation — Inland disturbances — Rainfall and dis-
ease Pp. 251-258
CHAPTER XXII
The missionary question — Ethics of Christianity — Cant and
commerce — The necessity for restraint . Pp. 259-267
CHAPTER XXIII
Inland journeying — Ponies, servants, interpreters, food and
accommodation — What to take and how to take it — Up
the Han River, frolic and leisure . . Pp. 268-281
CHAPTER XXIV
Kang-wha, brief history of the island — A monastic retreat, an
ideal rest — Nocturnal visitors — Midnight masses — Return
to the capital — Preparations for a great journey — Riots
and confusion Pp. 282-298
APPENDIX I
Schedule of train service P. 299
APPENDIX II
Return of all shipping entered at the open ports of Korea
during the year 1902 ..... Pp. 300
APPENDIX III
Return of principal articles of export to foreign countries from
the open ports of Korea during the years 1901-1902
P-303
APPENDIX IV
Return of principal articles of imports to foreign countries
during the years 1901-1902 .... P. 304
X
CONTENTS
APPENDIX V
Coast trade between treaty-ports in native produce (net) P. 305
APPENDIX VI
Customs revenue P. 305
APPENDIX VII
Gold export to foreign countries .... P. 306 -,
APPENDIX VIII
Table of minerals P. 307
XI
ILLUSTRATIONS
Ceiling, Imperial Palace, Seoul .... Cover
Tablet in Seoul Frontispiece
FACING PAGE
Native dress 36
She may visit her friends 48
Imperial Tablet-House, Seoul 77
On the Yalu River 196
A Fair Magician 250
Beyond the Amur 280
Russian post on the Korean Frontier .... 296
INTRODUCTION
NOTHING is more natural than the circum-
stance that war should be the outcome of
the existing crisis; yet, equally, nothing is less cer-
tain. If the area of hostilities were not con-
fined to the Far East, and the Power confronting
Japan were any other than Russia, the outbreak of
war might be predicted positively. But with Rus-
sia, consideration of the strategic qualities of her
position in Manchuria must exercise a paramount in-
fluence upon her movements. To those who are not
close students of military history, as well as to those
who do not possess an extensive knowledge of the situa-
tion, the position in which Russia is placed equally
affords the keenest interest. Certainly in the annals of
military history, excluding the march of Napoleon upon
Moscow, there is no war which may be said to have
developed a parallel to the task which besets Russia
in Manchuria and Korea. Her position at sea, more-
over, is no better than that which she holds on land.
Upon land, a single line of railway traversing the heart
of an enemy's country terminates at Port Arthur. At
sea, Vladivostock is cut off by reason of its position,
while it is inaccessible on account of its climate. These
XV
KOREA
points, Port Arthur and Vladivostock, define the ex-
tremities of the strategic position which Russia holds in
Manchuria. Excluding Vladivostock at this moment
from any especial consideration, Port Arthur is left for
the opening moves of this campaign. Therefore, Port
Arthur, with a single line of communications in its rear,
becomes the pivot of the operations.
The aspect of Port Arthur from the sea is uninviting.
Rugged hills, offshoots from the range of mountains
which divides the Liao-tung peninsula, cluster round
the bay, and encroaching upon the foreshore and bear-
ing neither trees nor vegetation, impart to the surround-
ings a desolate and even wild appearance. Within the
headlands of the harbour, conforming with the inden-
tations of the coast, there are several bays shallow and
unprofitable, but which in time may become an im-
portant adjunct to the small area of deep water which
the harbour now possesses. Dredging operations have
been undertaken, but there is so much to be done that
many years must pass before Port Arthur receives any
material addition to its very restricted accommodation.
The mud, brought down by the streams which empty
into the harbour, has already affected the deep-water
area, and since the harbour was constructed these
deposits have encroached very considerably upon the
depth off shore. At low water steamers, which lie up
within sixty feet of the wharf, rest upon mud in little
more than a fathom of water, and at the same time the
space is so small that it is impossible for a dozen ves-
xvi
INTRODUCTION
sels to anchor in the harbour with any comfort. Steam-
ers, if any larger in size than the small coasting-boats
which call at Port Arthur from China and Japan, must
anchor off the entrance, unloading and re-charging from
junks or tenders. In relation to the requirements of the
squadron Port Arthur is not nearly large enough.
When cruisers are taking in stores battleships remain
outside, an arrangement which is manifestly incon-
venient in a period of emergency. It was for this rea-
son that the authorities constructed at Dalny — a few
miles from the fortress and within Pa-tien-wan Bay —
a new town, together with commercial docks and
wharves, in order that Port Arthur might be devoted
more particularly to the needs of the navy.
Port Arthur is happy in the possession of all those
objects which, to a naval base, are component parts of
its success. The dry dock, somewhat weak and unsub-
stantial, is 385 feet in length, 34 feet in depth, and 80
feet broad, while the naval basin is equal in surface
space to the total available steamer anchorage in the
harbour proper. When the dredging works in the har-
bour bays have been completed it is hoped that a mean
depth of four fathoms will have been obtained. This
systematic deepening of the harbour will give to the
fleet a surface anchorage considerably in excess of one
square mile, but until the work has been executed the
value of Port Arthur as a satisfactory naval base is in-
finitely less than the prestige which it enjoys as an im-
pregnable position.
Kvii
KOREA
Port Arthur possesses a small parade-ground, rifle-
range, and artillery practice-ground, torpedo-station
and training reservation, which will be enlarged when
the bays are opened out. There is a flash-light station
and various schools of instruction — torpedo, gunnery,
telegraphy — ^while the arsenals and workshops which
are built around the naval basin and within the navy
yards are very thoroughly equipped. These effects,
however, were mainly taken over by Russia when she
seized Port Arthur; their existence at the present mo-
ment tends to show how impossible it is to under-estl-
mate the advantages which Russia derives from the
possession of this port, and how far-reaching are the
consequences of the monstrous blunder which Lord
Salisbury committed when he acquiesced in its usur-
pation.
Apart from the defences Russia, hitherto, has not
added much to Port Arthur; for the main part the
troops have been quartered in the old Chinese houses
or in the former barracks of the Chinese troops, affairs
having been somewhat neglected in view of the prior
claim which the defences held. Now, however, fine
barracks are in course of construction, and, if there is
no war, it is anticipated that ample accommodation will
be ready soon upon the shores of some of the bays and
on the hills. The defences are indeed magnificent. Very
few of the forts, which were in existence during the
time of the Chinese, remain. Since the Russian Gov-
ernment entered upon possession the work of extending
xviii
INTRODUCTION
the perimeter of the defences, as well as strengthening
the fortifications, has been a continuous labour. It is
quite clear that the authorities are determined upon no
half-measures. They have gained Port Arthur, and
they propose to keep it. Upon the cliffs, rising imme-
diately from the right of the harbour entrance, there
is a most powerful position, formed, I believe, of a
battery of six 21 -inch Krupp guns, which was further
supported by a fort placed a few feet above the harbour,
and sweeping its immediate front, containing eight 10-
inch Krupps. At the corresponding elevations upon the
opposite headland there were two similar forts with
identical batteries, while the mine fields within the har-
bour are controlled from these two lower positions.
Following the hills to the south and north there are
other forts; one in particular, of great size, is placed
upon the extreme crest of the range, and, towering
above all else, sweeps the sea and approaches to the har-
bour for great distances. It is impossible to detect the
character of these guns, but from their position, and
the extent of the fort and the nature of the part which
they are intended to fill, it is improbable that they can
be less than 27-ton guns, discharging shells of about
500 lbs. The interior line of forts is no less formidable,
and it must seem that Port Arthur can never be reduced
by bombardment alone, while any force attacking by
land would be severely handled by the positions from
which the Russians propose to defend their flanks and
the neck. At the present, however, there is a paucity
xix
KOREA
of field-guns among the troops in garrison, in addition
to which many of the more recently constructed forts
lack artillery; while the opinion may be hazarded that
the entire position has been so over-fortified as to be-
come a source of eventual weakness in the ultimate
disposition of the Russian force.
Of course a fight for the command of the sea must
precede any land operations. Japan is within fifteen
hours steam of Fusan, already a Japanese garrison-
town, and of Ma-san-po, the port to which Russia and
Japan make equal claim. The strait separating Japan
from Korea is 200 miles broad, while Russia's nearest
base at Port Arthur is 900 miles away on one hand and
Vladivostock is 1200 miles away on the other. It fol-
lows therefore, that in Korea, and not in Manchuria,
the troops of the Japanese army would be landed. Once
established in Korea, Japan would be able to dispute
the supremacy of the sea on equal terms. In this respect
the possession by the Japanese of numerous torpedo
craft confers a distinct advantage upon them, since it
will be within their power to utilise their services if the
Russian fleet were to attempt to check the movement.
The absence of any facilities for repairing damages
makes it certain that so far as possible the Russian fleet
will evade any serious engagement. It would be diffi-
cult to improve upon the position of Japan in this re-
spect. At Yokosuka, from which place a large number
of cruisers have been launched, there is a very extensive
building-yard, and Japan also possesses suitable docks
XX
INTRODUCTION
for large ships at Kure and Nagasaki. In all she has
at her immediate disposal some half a dozen docks, 400
ft. in length or more, and a very skilful army of work-
ing mechanics and workmen in general. Port Arthur
must be regarded for practical purposes the naval base
of Russia in the Far East in the event of a cold-weather
campaign.
Vladivostock is too far removed from the range of
probable utility. At this port, however, Russia has con-
structed one large dry dock, one floating dock 301 ft.
long, and a second dry dock has been laid down.
Against these two solitary and isolated centres, Japan
possesses naval bases, arsenals and docks at the follow-
ing points on her coast.
Yokosuka . . . Arsenal, slip and dry dock.
Kure Arsenal, slip, dry dock, armor-plate works.
Sassebo Arsenal.
Maitsura .... New dockyard.
Nagasaki. . . . Three docks.
Takeshiki . . . Coaling-station, naval base.
Ominato .... Base or small craft.
Kobe Torpedo repairing yard.
Matsmai Refitting station.
The squadrons which Japan and Russia will be able
to employ in this war are very formidable, and during
the past few months each Power has made strenuous
efforts to increase the strength of its fleet.
In January 1903 the aggregate tonnage of the Rus-
sian Pacific Squadron stood at some 87,000 tons, the
xxi
KOREA
fleet including the battleships Peresviet, Petropavlovsk,
Poltava, Sevastopol, and the cruisers Rossia, Gromoboi,
and Rurik, with other smaller vessels.
In March the tonnage went up to 93,000 tons, thanks
to the arrival of the cruiser Askold from the Baltic.
In May the cruisers Diana, Pallada, Novik, and the
battleship Retvizan joined.
In June the cruisers Bogatyr and Boyarin reached
the scene.
In July the battleship Probleda arrived.
In November the battleship Tzarevitch and the
cruiser Bayan further added to Russia's strength.
In December the battleship Oslyabya, the armoured
cruiser Dimitri Donskoi, the protected cruisers Aurora
and Almaz, and eleven torpedo-boat destroyers.
In January 1904 the battleship Imperator Alexander
III. leaves the Baltic for the Far East.
Russia has laboured under great disadvantages to
secure her position in this region. In consequence of
restricted shipbuilding resources and owing to an un-
fortunate geographical position, Russia has not en-
joyed those opportunities of adding to her Pacific fleet
which have presented themselves to Japan. In effect, if
not in fact, Russia is compelled to maintain four navies.
Unhappily, each is isolated from the other, many hun-
dreds of miles separating them. Naval squadrons are
concentrated in the Baltic, in the Black Sea, in the
Caspian Sea and in the Pacific. The Pacific squadron
is of recent establishment and of most modern con-
xxii
INTRODUCTION
struction. It dates back to 1898, from which time her
policy of naval expansion began. Orders were placed
with France, Germany and America for cruisers and
battleships, coal was bought at Cardiff, and in a short
space the nucleus of a powerful fleet had sprung into
existence. At the present time these new ships are
deficient in the various ratings, and hundreds of me-
chanics, gunners and engineers have been withdrawn
from the Black Sea Squadron to do service with the
Pacific Fleet, moving to the Pacific Ocean from the
Black Sea by means of the Trans-Siberian Railway.
Just now, and until the acute phase of the crisis has dis-
appeared or war has been declared, the disposition of
the Russian Pacific Squadron is as follows.
At Port Arthur, the battleships Petropavlovsk, Pol-
tava, Sevastopol, Peresviet, Retvizan, Probleda, and
Tzarevitch; the first-class cruisers Bayan, Askold, Pal-
lada, Diana, and Varyag; the gunboats Bobr, Grem-
yashtchi, and Koreetz; the transports Amur, Yenissei,
and Angara; the torpedo-cruisers Fsadnik and Gaida-
mak; and the destroyers Bezshumni, Bezposhadni,
Bditelni, Bezstrashni, Boevoi, Vnimatelni, VnusMtelni,
Fiposlivi, Flastni, Burni, and Boiki.
At Vladivostock, the first-class cruisers Rossia,
Gromoboi, Rurik, and Bogatyr, the gunboat Mand-
chur, and the transport Lena.
At Chemulpo, the second-class cruiser Boyarin, and
the destroyer Grossovoi.
At Ma-san-po, the second-class cruiser Rasboinik.
xxiii
KOREA
In Nimrod Bay, the second-class cruiser Djijdjit.
At Newchwang, the gunboats Otvazhni and Sivutch.
At Nagasaki, the gunboat Gilvak.
It will be seen from this list that Russia practically
has the whole of her Pacific Squadron in and about the
Yellow Sea. In addition to this force there is the squad-
ron now en suite for the Far East, which lately passed
through Bizerta. This comprises the battleship Osly-
abya, two second-class cruisers, J urora and Dimitri Don-
skoi, and eleven torpedo-boat destroyers. The added
strength which Russia will receive when these reinforce-
ments, under Admiral Virenius, reach her will give
her a numerical superiority over Japan. The greater
efficiency, and that higher degree of skill, which is so
noticeable aboard the Japanese fleet, reduces this pre-
ponderance to a mean level. However, Russia is by
no means to be caught napping, as the formation in
Port Arthur of a reserve naval brigade tends to show.
Meanwhile, however, the subjoined detailed list pre-
sents the principal vessels in the Russian Pacific Squad-
ron. The officers commanding are:
Vice-Admiral Stark,
Rear-Admiral Prince Ukhtomski,
Rear-Admiral Baron Shtakelberg,
Admiral Virenius (to join).
XXIV
INTRODUCTION
BATTLESHIPS
Tzarevitch (flagship)
Probleda
Poltava
Sevastopol
Petropavlovsk
Peresviet
Retvizan
Built
I90I
1900
1894
1894
1898
1900
Tonnage
13,000
18
12,000
19
11,000
17
11,000
17
11,000
17
12,000
19
12,700
18
Speed,
knots
Chief armament
4
12
4
II
4
12
4
12
4
12
4
: 10
12
12 m.
6 in.
10 in.
6 in.
12 in.
6 in.
12 in.
6 in.
12 in.
6 in.
10 in.
6 in.
12 in.
6 in.
Reinforcements to join: Oslyabya, 12,000 tons, 4 lo-in. guns, 10
6-in. guns; Navarin, 9,000 tons, 4 12-in. guns, 8 6-in guns; Imperator
Alexander m.
CRUISERS
Built
Tonnage
Speed,
knots
Chief armament
Askold . . .
Bayan
Gromoboi
Rossia . . .
Rurik
Bogatyr ..
Varyag . .
Diana . . .
Pallada. . .
Boyarin ..
Novik . . .
Zabiuca ..
Djijdjit...
Rasboinik.
1900
1900
1899
1896
1892
1 901
1899
1899
1899
1900
1900
1878
1878
1879
7,000
8,000
23
20
18
6,000
23
6,000
23
7,000
20
7,000
20
3,000
22
3,000
25
1,300
14
1,300
13
1,300
13
12 6 in.
( 2 8 in.
( 8 6 in.
4 8 in.
( 16 6 in.
I 4 8 in.
I 16 6 in.
( 4 8 in.
( 16 6 in.
12 6 in.
12 6 in.
8 6 in.
8 6 in.
6 4.7 in.
6 4.7 in.
Field guns
3 6 in.
3 6 in.
Reinforcements to join: Gremyashtchi, Admiral Nakhimoff; Au-
rora, Admiral Komiloff; Otrajny, Dmitri Donskoi; Almaz.
XXV
KOREA
The gunboats on this station number nine, the de-
stroyers eighteen, and the transports six. Thirteen
destroyers are to join.
This fleet, with reinforcements, compares numerically
with the eventual strength of Japan as follows :
Battleships Cruisers
Russia lo 21
Japan 7 26
A proportion of Japanese cruisers would be needed
for coast defence, so that Russia is becoming numeri-
cally the stronger for sea work. In addition, Russia
also has a powerful auxiliary fleet, consisting of ten
steamers of the Black Sea Steam Navigation Company,
most of which were built on the Tyne, and average
fourteen knots. The Russian Volunteer Fleet Associa-
tion numbers twelve Tyne and Clyde built ships. They
are also at the disposal of the authorities.
Against this fighting array the Japanese are able to
place vessels of equal size and displacement; in the
actual weight of metal the Japanese are at a disadvan-
tage, but in the thickness of the armoured protection
there is little to choose. Against this comparative
equality of the opposing fleets there must be borne in
mind the great advantage which Japan derives from her
ability to use her own fortified ports as naval bases.
Indeed, this is of such importance that the knowledge
of this fact might induce her to risk her whole strength
in a single engagement. Again, in the mercantile
xxvi
INTRODUCTION
marine, which has increased enormously of recent years,
Japan will find all she may require for the purposes of
transport and auxiliaries to the war fleet. The princi-
pal vessels in the Japanese navy are here indicated :
BATTLESHIPS
Name
Displacement
I.H.P.
Nominal
Speed
Gun Pro-
tection
Weight of
Broadside
Fire
Hatsuse J
Asahi >
Shikishima )
Mikasa
Fashima )
Yuji S
Tons
15,000
15,200
12,300
15,000
16,000
13,000
Knots
18.0
18.0
18.0
In.
14.6
14.6
14.6
Lbs.
4240
4225
4000
ARMOURED CRUISERS
Name
Displacement
I.H.P.
Nominal
Speed
Gun Pro-
tection
Weight of
Broadside
Fire
Tokiwa )
Asama J
Yaqumo
Tons
97SO
9850
9436
9800
18,000
16,000
17,000
15,000
Knots
21.5
20.0
21.0
24.7
In.
6.6
6.6
6.6
6.6
Lbs.
3568
3368
3368
3568
Idzuma )
Iwate )
In addition to these, early in January 1904 the two
cruisers purchased in Italy from the Argentine Govern-
ment will be ready for sea.
xxvu
KOREA
PROTECTED CRUISERS
Name
Displacement
I.H.P.
Nominal
Speed
Gun Pro-
tection
Weight o£
Broadside
Fire
Takasago
Kasagi i
Chitose j
Itsukushima J
Hashidate |- . .
Matsushima )
Yoshino
Naniwa )
Takachiko f
Akitsushima
Nitaka )
Tsushima )
Suma )
Akashi)
Tons
4300
4784
4277
4180
3727
3150
3420
2700
15,500
15,500
5400
15,750
7120
8400
9500
8500
Knots
24.0
22-5
16.7
23.0
17.8
19.0
20.0
20.0
In.
4i-o
II. 4
Lbs.
800
800
1260
780
II96
780
920
335
In connection with the First Division of the Japanese
Fleet an interesting fact has transpired which, from rea-
son of its association with this country, will prove of
more than ordinary interest. In case of war it appears
that with one exception the ships comprising this di-
vision are all British built. Designs, armour-plating
and armament follow the type and standard of our own
Navy, and it is therefore obvious that we cannot fail
to be stirred deeply by the results of any collision which
may occur. Each nation possesses in Far Eastern
waters ships supplied with the latest appliances which
science and ingenuity have devised. To the people of
this Empire, whose security rests primarily upon the
Fleet, our interest in the engagements is naturally the
higher, by reason of the similarity between the ships
xxviii
INTRODUCTION
which will be engaged upon one side and those of our
own Navy. These vessels, all of which have received
their war-paint, and whose place of concentration is
Nagasaki, some 585 nautical miles from Port Arthur,
are as follows:
Name
Hatsuse (B)...
Shikishima (B)
Asahi(B)
Fuji(B)
Yashima (B) ..
Iwate (C)
Asama (C)
Idzuma (C) ...
Tokiwa(C) ...
Takasago (C) .
Kasagi (C) . . .
Where bmlt
Tonnage
Elswick
15,000
Thames
15,000
Clyde
15.000
Blackwall
12,500
Elswick
12,500
Elswick
10,000
Elswick
10,000
Elswick
10,000
Elswick
10,000
Elswick
4300
Cramp
(Philadelphia)
5000
Chief armament
.14
14
14
4
: 10
; 4
; 10
4
10
1 4
!io
4
14
4
10
^ 2
10
10
12 m.
6 in.
12 in.
6 in.
12 in.
6 in.
12 in.
6 in.
12 in.
6 in.
Sin.
6 in.
8 in.
6 in.
8 in.
6 in.
8 in.
6 in.
8 in.
4.7 in.
8 in.
4.7 in.
(B) battleship; (C) cruiser.
A torpedo flotilla, numbering thirty-five vessels,
forms part of this division. The other divisions of the
fleet for war comprise the following:
Third division
Second division (Home)
Battleships 2 —
Cruisers 10 8
Small craft 30 80
In addition to these the auxiliary fleet numbers some
xxix
KOREA
forty steamers, for the most part vessels belonging to
the Nippon Yusen Kaisha.
The present constitution of the Japanese Army dates
from 1873, and the Military Forces consist of — (i)
the permanent or Regular Army, with its Reserves and
Recruiting Reserves; (2) the Territorial Army; (3)
the National Militia; and (4) the Militia of the vari-
ous island centres off the coast, etc. Military service
is obligatory in the case of every able-bodied male from
the age of seventeen to forty years of age. Of this
period, three years are passed in the permanent or Regu-
lar Army, four years and four months in the Regular
Reserves, five years in the Territorial Army, and the
remaining liability in the National Militia. The per-
manent Army, with its Reserves, conducts operations
abroad, and the Territorial Army and the Militia are
for home defence. These latter are equipped with Pea-
body and Remington single-loading rifles. The up-to-
date strength of the permanent Army, on a war foot-
ing, which does not include the Reserves, is as follows :
Officers
Rank and
File
Horses
4160
143,000
52
400
9300
9000
800
12,500
8800
53°
10,300
70
270
7000
2IS
20
55°
IS
220
7740
40,000
Infantry, 52 regiments of 3 battalions
156 battalions
Cavalry, 17 regiments of 3 squadrons,
51 squadrons
Field and Mountain Artillery, 19 regi-
ments of six batteries, total 114 bat-
teries of six guns = 684 guns
Fortress Artillery, 20 battalions
_ . ) I ■? Sapper battalions
Engineers [ ^ ^^.(^^^ ^^j^^u^^
Transport, 13 battalions
Total = 684 guns, 6400 officers, 190,390 rank and file, 58,152 horses.
XXX
INTRODUCTION
The Reserves comprise 52 battalions of Infantry, 17
squadrons, 26 Engineer and Transport companies, and
19 batteries with 114 guns, yielding a total of 1000
officers, 34,600 rank and file, and 9000 horses. There-
fore, on mobilisation, the grand effective strength of
the Army available for service beyond the seas would
amount to 7400 officers, 224,990 rank and file, 798
guns, and 67,152 horses. Behind this, there is the Ter-
ritorial Army, comprising 386 Infantry battalions, 99
squadrons, 26 Engineer and Transport companies, and
about 70 batteries, or 11,735 officers, 348,100 men,
1 1 16 guns, and 86,460 horses.
The Infantry and Engineers of the Regular Army
have been recently re-armed with the Meidji maga-
zine rifle. The following particulars show that the
Japanese small arm is a superior weapon to the Rus-
sian, which dates from 1891 :
Japanese " Meidji," model 1897.
Calibre.
Muzzle
velocity.
Ft. -Sec.
Sighted
up to
Yards.
Weight
with
Bayonet.
No. of
Rounds
in Mag.
.2ssin.
23IS
700
9 lb. 2 oz.
s
Russian "
Three-Line,"
model 1891.
.299111.
1900
2500
9 lb. 12 oz.
s
The Regular Cavalry have the Meidji carbine. The
Reserves are armed with the Murata magazine rifle,
model 1894, calibre .312 in., muzzle velocity 2000
feet-seconds, sighted up to 2187 yds., and weight with
bayonet, 9 lb. i oz. The equipment carried by the In-
fantry soldier in the field weighs 43 J4 lbs.
xxxi
KOREA
The Regular Field and Mountain Artillery is armed
with 2.95 in. quick-firing equipment, with hydraulic
compressor, throwing a 10 lb. projectile. This is known
as the Arlsaka equipment. The Fortress and Siege
Artillery have the latest models of Krupp and
Schneider-Canet in siege guns, guns of position, and
mortars. The Reserve Field Artillery are armed with
a 2.95 rifled cannon of bronze on the old Italian model.
The Japanese have no Horse Artillery, and the only
difference between the field and mountain equipments is
that the latter is the shorter and lighter gun, and has
not as long a range. The Cavalry is the least efficient
army of the service. It carries sword and carbine, but
no lance. The horses are badly trained; the men are
very indifferent riders.
The strength of the Russian forces in Manchuria
embraces 88 battalions, 60 squadrons and 50 batteries,
which, together with the garrison forces and fortress
armament, numbers 200,000 men and 300 guns. These
troops in Manchuria are formed into two army corps
of the first line and two of the second. Two new Rifle
Brigades have just been added to the existing strength.
They are composed as follows:
7TH Brigade
Port Arthur
General Kondratenko
25th Regiment
26th
8th Brigade
Vladivostock
General Artamanoff
29th Regiment
30th
32nd ■' \ ("^^)
xxxu
INTRODUCTION
The Russian is a phenomenal marcher; the actual
weight of his equipment is 58 lbs. 2 oz. One tent is
carried in section between six men. Each soldier carries
in his haversack two and a half days' biscuits. The
ration in daily use for war consists of
Biscuit I lb. 13 oz.
Meat 74 oz.
Groats 4f OZ-
Salt y oz.
Tea :^ir oz-
Sugar ^oz.
Spirits uV of a pint
In the exigencies of active service it happens that the
Russian soldier must forage for himself. Under any
circumstances, however, he sustains himself on very
little nourishment, and relies in a great measure upon
what he can find. The Russian cavalry is armed with
sword, rifle and bayonet. The latter is invariably
carried " fixed," even when the weapon itself is slung.
A few regiments only carry the lance. The field guns
are steel breech-loaders manufactured at the Obukhov
works. They are akin to the Krupp pattern; many,
however, have the interrupted screw breech piece and
the de Bange obturation. At present there are many
varieties of artillery with the Russian troops, particularly
in their fortified positions, to which places the Russian
transported the seizures which they made from the
Chinese during the Boxer crisis. These embraced
French, German and British examples of artillery.
On land, the immense superiority of the reserve num-
bers of the Russians reduces the advantages which
would accrue to the Japanese if the fighting were con-
xxxiii
KOREA
fined to the sea. At the same time, however, it should
be remembered that the Russian troops are slow movers,
and although they may exhibit magnificent endurance,
and although they may be relied upon to fight well, the
lack of individual initiative upon the part of the Russian
officers robs the operations of that dash and address
which is embodied in the spirit of the Japanese army.
Curiously enough, each side favours the Continental
school of infantry and cavalry tactics, the underlying
principles in the training of the Japanese revealing a
close adherence to Teutonic methods. Neither side will
profit, therefore, by any degree of indivisibility to which
they may have attained. The winter great-coat of
either army is very nearly identical in colour, and for
warm weather Japanese and Russians alike favour a
white blouse. There has been talk of the Japanese
adopting a khaki tint ; upon the other hand, the blouse
of the Russian soldier is by courtesy equally white or
khaki. In the more important direction of land trans-
port, it might appear that the Manchurian railway
would be a crowning triumph for the Russian authori-
ties. Unfortunately, this immense length of rail, badly
laid and indifferently equipped, will impose a perpetual
strain upon the military resources. If the country popu-
lation could be relied upon to maintain a benevolent
neutrality towards telegraph poles and lines, railway
sleepers and rails, the stone pillars and balks of the
bridges, the possibility of any serious interruption of
traflic would be materially lessened. Unhappily for the
xxxiv
INTRODUCTION
Russians, the attitude and acts of the native population,
who, in a general way, will lose no opportunity to harass
their enemy, must impede the effective co-operation of
the Russian forces.
Against this instinctive feeling of animosity there
may be set the racial sympathy with the Japanese which
governs every Chinaman. In Manchuria particularly,
the Japanese enjoy a high reputation in the minds of
the populace, while there is remembered, above aught
else, that prompt redemption of all obligations during
the Chino- Japanese War which distinguished the policy
of the invaders towards local interests. This policy of
benevolence was exhibited for the second time during
the Boxer crisis, and, of course, the striking example
offered by the Japanese, in comparison with the Rus-
sians, was not lost upon the Chinese. These things are
recalled to-day in Manchuria, and they may be calcu-
lated to offset any reactionary sentiment which may take
place in Korea. Between the hospital arrangements of
each belligerent there is little to choose. The more ef-
ficient system of the Japanese service is equalised by the
greater facilities which the possession of railway com-
munication by the Russians will present to the trans-
portation of the wounded. It should be pointed out,
however, that the principal medical service — the Rus-
sian Red Cross Society — is wholly patriotic, and that
It Is not, in any degree, a military organisation. It is
liable to be withdrawn from the field at any moment
after the conclusion of the major operations.
XXXV
KOREA
Beyond these few observations it is difficult — if not
Impossible — to trespass with any certainty, although,
as a closing remark, it may perhaps be added that, pro-
vided the investment of Port Arthur be satisfactorily
accomplished by sea and that Vladivostock were en-
closed by ice, the estuaries of the Yalu and Lico Rivers
enable an admirable position to be taken up, from
which the Russian position throughout Manchuria may
be very readily threatened. Speculations as to the de-
velopment of the campaign upon land are, however,
quite absurd until something is known of the results
of the naval engagements with which the war must
open. Meanwhile the painful familiarity with the costs
of war which distinguishes the British taxpayer has di-
rected no little attention to the financial position of
either country. An eminent German financier, inter-
ested in the public debt of Russia, lately explained to
me that a very large proportion of the moneys, which
have been raised for the construction of the Russian
inter-railway communications in addition to the Trans-
Siberian and Manchurian Railways, has been set aside
from time to time to supplement her war chest. These
sums, added to those collected by Count Mouravieff
with the assent of M. de Witte, and including the large
balances which have accrued to the State by depart-
mental economies during the past year, represent ap-
proximately a capital of one hundred millions sterling.
Against this accumulation it is said that the financial
position of Japan is most favourable. There is, I be-
xxxvi
INTRODUCTION
lieve, a specie reserve in the Central Bank which
amounts to 113,000,000 yen, plus some 40,000,000
yen in London. Moreover, the bank's note-issuing
margin is 35,000,000 yen, which will be larger after
the New Year. The Treasury has three capital funds,
amounting together to 50,000,000 yen, besides some
millions in London remaining from the bond sale of
1902. Finally, there are large sums lying idle in all
the banks throughout the country, while an Ordinance
has been issued which provides the Government with
unlimited credit.
The more recent action of the Russians in Manchuria
tends, of course, to support the view that war may be
imminent. Nevertheless, bluff is a component part of
Russian diplomacy, and there is ground for believing
that the intentions of Russia in the Far East are by no
means so warlike as the preparations now proceeding
and the acts of the Russian administrative officials in
Manchuria itself would imply. Russian diplomacy al-
ways covers the development of its plans by preparing
to demonstrate in a contrary direction ; and at the pres-
ent time her occupation of Korean territory is little else
than the screen, behind which she proposes to secure
her hold upon Manchuria. Nothing short of war will
cause her to retire from her position in Manchuria ; but
while Korean territory is of little value to the Russian
protectorate, whatever the compromise which may be
effected between Japan and Russia, she may be expected
to make a determined effort to dominate the lower
xxxvii
KOREA
waters of the Yalu River. In fact, curious as It may
seem, the estuary of the Yalu River is the very locale
of the dispute between the two Powers, since, if Russia
were ever permitted to dominate the Yalu River, she
would gain at once that special position upon the fron-
tiers of Korea which it is the desire of Japan to frus-
trate. In this Japan can rely only upon the shortshifts
of diplomacy; and although the Russian occupation of
Yong-an-po may be circumvented, the development of
An-tung upon the opposite shore of the river cannot
be prevented. It seems, therefore, as inevitable that
some commanding position upon the Yalu River must
ultimately fall to her lot. An-tung lies within Man-
churian territory; the Yalu River is the border stream
between Manchuria and Korea, and at Yong-an-po the
nucleus of an important Russian settlement has been
established. The future contains no promise of the
immediate settlement of the present difficulty. At best
the outlook Is confused; while at the same time there is
presented in a manner singularly clear and comprehen-
sible the fact that Russia neither will evacuate New-
chang, be driven out of Manchuria, nor abandon her
position on the Yalu River. The position of Russia
at New-change has been indicated by past events, her
occupation of Manchuria is an old story, and she Is now
engaged in the rapid development of her interests at
An-tung. The position of this port endows it with un-
usual advantages, and the commercial potentialities of
the place are very great. It lies about fifteen miles
xxxviil
INTRODUCTION
above Yong-an-po, on the opposite bank. At present
the export trade is confined to millet and silk cocoons,
the over-production of the latter commodity requiring
close technical supervision. Eight miles below An-tung,
situated on the right bank of the river, is the likin
station San-tao-lan-tao, where junks and rafts must re-
port and pay the stipulated excise before they proceed
onward. The river then bears away to the north-east,
and after another stretch of seven miles there comes
An-tung, upon the same bank, at a point where the
stream divides, the eastern branch being the Yalu River.
An-tung is of quite recent construction, and a few years
ago millet fields occupied its site. Under the care of
native merchants large, solid-looking houses have been
built, broad streets have been opened out, and an air
of unusual prosperity distinguishes the place. The
anchorage is thronged with junks, while timber is
stacked in vast quantities below the limits of the town.
Sea-going steamers of the coaster type can here dis-
charge and load their cargoes, thus obviating tranship-
ment at Ta-tung-kao.
Trade between Ta-tung-kao, which is situated at the
mouth of the Yalu, and Chi-fu, is at present carried on
by small steamers of the Mosquito flotilla and one
British ship, the Hwang-ho, of the China Navigation
Company (Messrs. Butterfield and Swire), while the
vast volume of the exports and imports finds its way
hither and thither in Chinese junks. The run from
Chi-fu port is one of a hundred and eighty-five miles,
xxxix
KOREA
and the time usually occupied in the trip north-eastward
is twenty-two hours, the steamers anchoring in the fair-
way channel at a distance of four miles from Ta-tung-
kao. Ta-tung-kao is a busy town, inasmuch as it is
the place of transhipment for imports and exports, most
of which go to or come from An-tung. The fact of
steamers being unable to approach Ta-tung-kao makes
An-tung the real business centre of the Yalu River. In
respect of An-tung, two hundred Russian cavalry have
been stationed there for over two and a half years.
The cantonment is situated on a small hill, marking the
northern limit of the town, which has no wall. As
usual, through the Yalu Valley these soldiers bear an
evil reputation among the natives, from whom they
commandeer at pleasure. Striking away from An-tung
is the Pekin " Great Road," which runs to Liao-yang.
Above An-tung the river divides and shoals exist, the
water being so shallow that none but native craft can
ply. Wi-ju is situated about ten miles to the eastward,
and at a point west of Mao-kewi-shan, four miles below
An-tung, there is the terminus of the branch of the
Manchurian railway, which is to strike the river. The
construction of this work will begin In the spring of
1904. The first eighty miles offer little obstruction, and
it is intended that the work shall be pushed forward
until its junction with the main line of the system is ac-
complished. Russia, therefore, cannot well afford to
ignore the consequences of her policy in the Far East,
nor, at the same time, can she be expected to sacrifice,
xl
INTRODUCTION
at the request of Japan, those great interests which she
has been at such pains to foster. The position is, in-
deed, a striking example of the manner in which an im-
perious policy will create the taste, if not the necessity,
for Imperialism.
The position of Korea in regard to the disputed ques-
tions is a hopeless one. Unfortunately, the government
of Korea is powerless to prevent either the advance of
Russia or the steady spread of Japanese influence. She
possesses neither army nor navy which can be put to
any practical use, and she is in that position in which
a country is placed when unable to raise its voice upon
its own behalf. The army numbers a few thousand
men, who, in the last few years, have been trained to
the use of European weapons. They are armed with
the Gras, (obsolete pattern) Murata, Martini, and a
variety of muzzle-loading smooth-bore rifles. Their
shooting powers are most indifferent, and they lack be-
sides the qualities of courage and discipline. There is
no artillery, and the cavalry arm is confined to a few
hundred men with no knowledge of horse-mastership,
and with no idea of their weapons or their duties. At
a moment of emergency the entire force of mounted and
dismounted men would become utterly demoralised.
There are numerous general officers, while, I believe,
the navy is composed of twenty-three admirals and one
iron-built coal lighter, until quite lately the property
of a Japanese steamship company. Korea is the help-
less, hapless sport of Japanese caprice or Russian lust;
xli
KOREA
and it has been my aim to present an impartial study of
the condition of the country in the pages of this volume.
Since so many and so much abler pens have dealt with
the position of Manchuria elsewhere, I have confined
myself solely to a review of Korea. For this I trust
that I may not be taken to task, while in order to satisfy
those who think that some reference to the questions
of Manchuria should have been incorporated in my
book I have ventured to impart to my preface the ap-
pearance of a chapter which deals solely with this prob-
lem. And now, at the end of my work, a last, but none
the less pleasant, duty awaits me. In addition to my
own notes upon Korea I have gathered information
from many people — ^writers, travellers, and students —
all interested in the contemporary history of the Her-
mit Kingdom. These I now hasten to thank, and by
naming them I would mark my grateful appreciation
of the kindness which they have extended to mc. To
Mr. MacLeavy Brown, of the Korean Maritime
Customs; Mr. Gubbins, formerly of the British Lega-
tion, Seoul; to my distinguished and learned friend,
Professor Homer B. Hulbert, whose published notes
upon Korea have been of exceptional value, I make
hearty acknowledgments; to Mrs. Bishop, Colonel
Younghusband, the Rev. Mr. Griffis, Major Gould-
Adams, authors of interesting and important contribu-
tions to any study of Korea, I express the sense of my
obligation; to the Rev. C. Collyer, who was good
enough to make my spelling of Korean names identical
xlii
INTRODUCTION
with the standard of Dr. Gale; to Mr. Bolton, of
Messrs. Stanford, the map makers, of Long Acre, who
laboured so patiently with the many shortcomings of
my geographical data, I am, indeed, indebted. To Sir
Douglas Straight, editor of the Pall Mall Gazette,
whose paper it was my delight to represent throughout
my long residence in the Far East ; to Mr. Nicol Dunn,
editor of the Morning Post; to Mr. S. J. Pryor, of the
Daily Express, I have to record my acknowledgment of
the courteous permission of these distinguished people
to reproduce such portions of my work as have appeared
in the columns of their respective organs from time to
time. And last of all to my readers I ofFer this book
In the hope that an immediate apology for its production
may be permitted to atone for Its numerous shortcom-
ings.
December 25, 1903.'
xlili
CHAPTER I
Off the coast — Lack of survey intelligence — Island flora—
Forgotten voyagers — Superstitions and beliefs — Outline
of history
DESPITE the survey work which has been accom-
plished in the past by the Japanese upon the
coasts of Korea, little knowledge of the numerous
islands and archipelagoes, shoals and reefs which make
its shores the terror of all mariners, exists at present.
Until the voyage of the Alceste and L.'jra in 1816, the
locality of these detached groups of rocky islets was not
marked on any of the Japanese or Chinese maps of the
period. In the map of the Empire prepared by the
Jesuits at Pekin in the seventeenth century, the space
now occupied by the Korean Archipelago was covered
with the drawing of an elephant — the conventional sign
of ignorance with the cartographers of that time. In
the older native maps, the mainland embraced groups
of islands, the most imperfect knowledge of the physical
configuration of their own shores prevailing among the
Koreans. In quite recent days, however, the Korean
Government has recognised this fact, and in the early
months of 1903 the Japanese Government was requested
to draw up a complete survey of the Hermit Kingdom.
I
KOREA
This work is now in process of execution, the plan of
the coastline already having been completed.
The coast of Korea is remarkable for the number of
spacious harbours which distinguish it. Upon the West
and South, indications of the volcanic period, through
which the country has In part passed, are shown by the
frequency with which these island groups occur. From
a single peak upon one of the small islands off the
south-west coast, as many as one hundred and thirty-
five islets may be counted, stretching to the North and
to the South, the resort of the sea- fowl; desolate and
almost uninhabited. Many of the more important
islands have been cultivated, and give refuge and a
lonely home to small communities of fishing-folk.
Navigation is peculiarly dangerous in these waters.
Many of the islands are submerged by the spring-tl<jes,
and the direction of the channels, scoured by the rush of
the tide, becomes quite indefinite. In the absence of
charts and maps, these island-fringed shores have been
the scene of many shipwrecks; Dutch, American,
French, and British shipping meeting in one grim and
silent procession a common end: captivity on shore or
death in the sea. Some of these unfortunate mariners
survived their experiences, leaving, after the fashion of
iHendrik Hamel, the supercargo of the Dutch frigate
'Sparwehr, which went ashore off Quelpart In 1653, rec-
ords and histories of their adventures to an Incredulous
posterity. Most of the Islands lying off the coast are
well wooded. As they are very beautiful to look upon
2
OFF THE COAST
and very dangerous to approach, they are regarded with
mingled sentiments of reverence and superstition, differ-
ing little, in their expression, from the fear in which the
ancients held the terrors of Scylla and Charybdis.
Their isolated position, moreover, makes them the cen-
tre of much contraband trade between the Chinese and
Koreans; their defenceless state renders them an easy
prey to any pirates who care to ravage them.
The islands off the south-west coast are the sanc-
tuaries of many animals. Seals sport and play un-
harmed among the rocks; the woody peaks are rich in
game : teal, crane, curlew, quail, and innumerable small
birds make them their breeding-grounds. The shores
are happy hunting-grounds for naturalists, and a vari-
ety of marine food is found throughout the archipelago.
A number of well-marked species of sponge may be
gathered, and the coral beds display many violent tints
and delicate shades, forming in their beautiful colour-
ings a sea garden of matchless splendour. The flora of
these islands is a no less brilliant feature of the summer
landscape. Tiger-lilies, showy and gigantic, daisies,
asters, many varieties of cactus, grow side by side with
curious ferns, palms and creepers, almost tropical in their
character and profusion, yet surviving the cooler tem-
perature of autumn and winter, to greet each coming
spring with freshened beauty. The air vibrates with the
singing and buzzing of insects, the limpid day is bright
with gaudy butterflies. Snow-white herons stand in the
shallows. Cormorants, diving birds and ducks throng
3
KOREA
the reefs to rise in clouds with many angry splutterlngs
when their haunts are invaded. In the deeper waters,
there are myriads of fish; in passing from group to
group along the coast shoals of whales are to be seen,
blowing columns of spray aloft, or sleeping idly upon
the surface.
The coast of Korea is well sprinkled with the names
of foreign navigators, who, in previous centuries, es-
sayed to visit the Land of the Morning Radiance. With
rare exceptions, these visitors were turned back. Some
were captured and tortured; many were ordered off at
once, few were ever entertained. None were invited to
make any stay in the new land, or permitted to inspect
its wonders and curiosities. Beyond the Japanese, those
who succeeded in sapping the wall of isolation which
was so carefully built around the country and so rigor-
ously maintained, were generally escorted inland as pris-
oners, the unconscious victims of some successful strata-
gem. In a manner, the fashion of their treatment is re-
vealed in the curious names with which these pioneers
of navigation have labelled the capes and promontories,
the islands and shoals, which they were lucky enough to
locate and whose dangers they were fortunate enough to
avoid. Many of these names have ceased to be recog-
nised. The lapse of time has caused them to be oblit-
erated by European hydrographers from the maps and
charts of the country and seas, in which their originators
had risked so much. In many parts of the coast, how-
ever, particularly upon the west, along the shores of the
4
FORGOTTEN VOYAGERS
Chyung-chyong Province, these original names have
been preserved. They form, to-day, a tribute to the
earnestness and intrepidity of these early explorers.
This meed of recognition is only just, and is not to be
denied to their undoubted gallantry and enterprise.
It is not impossible to believe that an unusually fickle
fate followed in their footsteps, prompting them to leave
thus for the guidance of future generations, some hint
of their own miscalculations. If one may judge, from
the brief narratives which these discoverers have left
behind them, the result of their work upon these inhos-
pitable shores surpassed anything that they had foreseen.
The visit of these hardy spirits aroused the curiosity of
the Koreans, giving to them their first knowledge of that
outer world which they had spurned for centuries. De-
spite the golden opportunities now presented to them,
however, they continued to neglect it. The memory of
the black ships and the red beards (Dutchmen) — as
they dubbed the strange craft and stranger devils, that
had to appear only off their shores to be shipwrecked —
dwelt long in their minds. Although they treated these
strangers with comparative generosity, they were care-
ful to preserve inviolate the secrets and sanctity of their
land. They rejected with contumacy the friendly over-
tures of strangers who came In monster ships, and who,
forsooth, left behind nothing but a name. It Is scarcely
astonishing, therefore, that there are many points upon
the coast of Korea which bear somewhat uncomplimen-
tary names. Deception Bay, Insult Island, and False
5
KOREA
River savour of certain physical discomforts, which, too
great to be borne in silence, left an indelible impression
upon the associations of the spot.
If the Dutch sailors of 1627 were among the earliest
to reach the forbidding shores of this kingdom, the ac-
tivities of British voyagers were most prominent in the
succeeding century. The work of Captain W. R.
Broughton, of the British sloop-o'-war, of sixteen guns.
Providence, is described to this day by the bays and har-
bours into which he penetrated, and the capes and straits
which this gallant man christened, to the credit of the
distant island kingdom from which he hailed. Brough-
ton in 1797, Maxwell of the Alceste, with Basil Hall,
commander of the British sloop-o'-war, the Lyra, in
1 8 1 6, deserve the passing fame which is secured to them
by the waters and capes which have been named after
them. Their names figure as landmarks upon the west,
the east, and the south coasts. While Maxwell and
Hall preferred to devote their attention to the discovery
and examination of the Korean Archipelago — of which,
although Broughton does not mention it, it seems impos-
sible that the discoverer of Broughton Strait can have
been ignorant — Broughton roughly charted and sur-
veyed the west coasts, coming to a temporary halt in
Broughton Bay, some six hundred miles to the north.
Hall left his name in Basil's Bay, where Gutzlaff landed
in 1832 to plant potatoes and to leave seeds and books.
A generation later, in 1866, the archipelago to the
north-west was named after the Prince Imperial, who
6
SUPERSTITIONS AND BELIEFS
was to meet his death in Zululand in 1878. In 1867,
Prince Jerome's Gulf, an inlet upon the mainland of the
Chyung-chyong Province, was to be the scene of Op-
pert's famous attempt to remove large deposits of buried
treasure and venerated relics from an Imperial tomb.
These names upon the east and west coasts suggest noth-
ing of the romance which actually surrounds them. At
most they conjure up the shadowy silhouettes of the re-
doubtable personages, to whom they once belonged, and
with whose memory many journeys of discovery in these
seas are inseparably linked.
Englishmen were not the sole navigators who were
attracted by the unknown character of the land, and the
surpassing dangers of the waters, around the Island of
Quelpart, where the Sea of Japan mingles in tempestu-
ous chaos with the Yellow Sea. Russian and French
navigators also worked their way through the danger-
ous shoals and quicksands, along the tortuous and
muddy rivers, into the harbours and through the nar-
row straits which hold back these islands from the main-
land. The shores teem with the distinguished names of
men of science and sons of the high seas. Following the
curl and twist of its configuration a host of buried names
are revealed, the last evidence of men who are dead and
forgotten. It is infinitely pathetic that even this one last
resting-place should be denied to their reputations. La-
zareli, who shares Broughton's Bay; Unkoffsky, who
foundered in the waters of the bay which is described by
his name; the ill-fated La Perouse, who, in June, 1787,
7
KOREA
discovered in the Sea of Japan an island which now
bears the name of the astronomer — Dagelet. Durock,
Pellisier, Schwartz, and the rest — ^what echo do we find
of them, their fates, and subsequent careers? Should
not their names at least bear witness to their pains and
labours, to the difficulties which they faced, to the small
joy of something attempted, something done, which was
their sole consolation for many hours of cheerless and
empty vigil ?
Korea is a land of exceptional beauty. The customs,
the literature, and the geographical nomenclature of the
kingdom prove that the superb and inspiring scenery of
the peninsula is quite appreciated by the people. In
the same manner that the coast-line of Korea bears evi-
dence of the adventurous spirit of many western mari-
ners, the names given to the mountains and rivers of the
country by the inhabitants themselves reflect the sim-
plicity, the crudity, and the superstition of their ideas
and beliefs. All mountains are personified in Korea.
In the popular belief, they are usually associated with
dragons. Every village offers sacrifices to the mountain-
spirits. Shrines are erected by the wayside and in the
mountain passes that travellers may tender their offer-
ings to the spirits and secure their goodwill. The Ko-
reans believe that the mountains in some way exert a
benign and protecting influence. The capital of Korea
possesses Its guardian-mountain. Every town relies
upon some preserving power to maintain its existence.
Graves, too, must have their custodian peaks, or the
8
OUTLINE OF HISTORY
family will not prosper, and the impression prevails that
people are born in accordance with the conformation of
the hills upon which the tombs of their ancestors are
situated. Rough and rugged contours make for war-
riors and militant males. Smooth surfaces and gentle
descents beget scholars; peaks of singular charm and
position are associated with beautiful women. Like the
mountain-ranges, lakes and pools, rivers and streams
exercise geomantic powers, and they are the abodes of
presiding shades, benevolent or pernicious. In lakes,
there are dragons and lesser monsters. In mountain
pools, however, no wraith exists unless some one is
drowned in the waters of the pool. When this fatality
occurs, the figure of the dead haunts the pool until re-
leased by the ghost of the next person who meets with
this misfortune. The serpent is almost synonymous
with the dragon. Certain fish become in time fish-drag-
ons; snakes become elevated to the dignity and imbued
with the ferocity of dragons when they have spent one
thousand years in the captivity of the mountains, and
one thousand years in the water. All these apparitions
may be propitiated with sacrifices and prayers.
In the province of Kang-won, through which the
ranges of the Diamond Mountains pass, there are sev-
eral peaks symbolical of this belief in the existence of
supernatural monsters. One dizzy height is named the
Yellow Dragon, a second the Flying Phoenix, and a
third, the Hidden Dragon, has reference to a demon
who has not yet risen from the earth upon his ascent to
9
KOREA
the clouds. The names which the Koreans give to their
rivers, lakes and villages, as also to their mountains,
bear out their wish to see the natural beauties of their
land associated with its more distinctive features. This
idiosyncrasy, however, would seem to be exceptionally
pronounced in the case of mountains. The Mountain
fronting the Moon, the Mountain facing the Sun, the
Tranquil Sea, the Valley of Cool Shade, and the Hill of
White Clouds emphasise this desire. Again, in Ham-
kyong, the most northern province in the Empire, the
more conspicuous peaks receive such designations as the
Peak of Continuous Virtue, the Peak of the Thousand
Buddhas, the Lasting Peace, the Sword Mountain,
Heaven Reaching Peak, the Cloud Toucher. It is evi-
dent, therefore, that appreciation of nature, no less than
reverence for the supernatural, underlies the system by
which they evolve names for the landmarks of their
country. The peculiarities of their land afford great
scope for such a practice, and It is to be admitted that
they give ample vent to this peculiar trait in their imag-
ination,
Korea is now an independent Empire. From very
early times until 1895 the King of Korea was a vassal
of China, but the complete renunciation of the authority
of the Emperor of China was proclaimed in January,
1895, by an Imperial decree. This was the fruit of the
Chino- Japanese war, and it was ratified by China under
the seal of the treaty of peace signed at Shimonosaki in
May of the same year. The monarchy is hereditary,
10
OUTLINE OF HISTORY
and the present dynasty has occupied the throne of
Korea in continuous entail since 1392. Inhabited by a
people whose traditions and history extend over a period
of five thousand years, and subjected to kaleidoscopic
changes whereby smaller tribes were absorbed by larger,
and weaker governments overthrown by stronger, Korea
has gradually evolved one kingdom, which, embracing
all units under her own protection, has presented to the
world through centuries a more or less composite and
stable authority. There can be no doubt that the
whilom vassal of China, in respect of which China and
Japan made war, has taken much greater strides upon
the path of progress than her ancient neighbour and
liege lord. There is no question of the superiority of
the conditions under which the Koreans in Seoul live
and those prevailing in Pekin, when each city is regarded
as the capital of its country — the representative centre
in which all that is best and brightest congregates.
It was in 1876 that Korea made her first modem
treaty. It was not until three years later that any ex-
change of envoys took place between the contracting
party and herself. Despite the treaty, Korea showed no
disposition to profit by the existence of her new relations,
until the opening of Chemulpo to trade In the latter part
of 1883 revealed to her the commercial advantages
which she was now in a position to enjoy. All this
time China had been in intercourse with foreigners. Le-
gations had been established in her capital ; consuls were
in charge of the open ports; commercial treaties had
II
KOREA
been arranged. She was already old and uncanny in
the wisdom which came to her by this dealing with the
people of Western nations. But, in a spirit of perversity
without parallel in constitutional history, China retired
within herself to such a degree that Japan, within one
generation, has advanced to the position of a Great
Power, and even Korea has become, within twenty
years, the superior of her former liege. In less than a
decade Korea has promoted works of an industrial or
humanitarian character which China, at the present
time, is bitterly and fatally opposing. It is true that the
liberal tendencies of Korea have been stimulated by
association with the Japanese. Without the guiding
hand of that energetic country the position which she
would enjoy to-day is infinitely problematical. The con-
tact has been wholly beneficial. Its continuation forms
the strongest guarantee of the eventual development of
the resources of the kingdom.
12
CHAPTER II
Physical peculiarities — Direction of advancement — Indications
of reform and prosperity — Chemulpo— Population —
Settlement — Trade
KOREA is an extremely mountainous country.
Islands, harbours, and mountains are its most
pronounced natural features, and nearly the whole of
the coast consists of the slopes of the various mountain
ranges which come down to the sea. There are many
patches upon the west, where the approaches are less
precipitous and rugged than upon the east. The coast
seems to follow the contour of the mountains. It pre-
sents, particularly from the east, that lofty and inac-
cessible barrier of forest-clad country, which has won
the admiration of all navigators and struck terror into
the hearts of those who have met with disaster upon its
barren and rocky shores. From Paik-tu-san to Wi-ju
there is one mighty and natural panorama of moun-
tains with snow-clad, cloud-wrapped summits, and beau-
tiful valleys with rich crops and quaintly placed, low-
thatched hovels, through which rivers course like angry
silver. Everywhere in the north the mountains pre-
dominate; monstrous in shape and size. They are rich
in minerals; they have become sepulchres for the dead
and mines for the living — for in their keeping lies the
wealth of the ages, coal and iron and gold; upon their
13
KOREA
summits, resting beneath the sky or within some nook
hewn from their rugged slopes, are the graves of the
dead. Mining and agriculture are almost the sole natu-
ral resources of the kingdom. There are great possibil-
ities, however, in the awakening energies and instincts
of the people, which may lead them to create markets
of their own by growing more than suffices for their
immediate requirements. As yet, notwithstanding the
improvements which have been inaugurated, and the in-
dustrial schemes which the government has introduced,
the reform movement lacks cohesion. Indeed the na-
tion is without ambition. But the prospect is hopeful.
Already something has been accomplished in the right
direction.
At present, however, Korea is in a state of transition.
Everything is undefined and indetermined ; the past is
in ruins, the present and the future are in the rough.
Reforms are scarce a decade old, and, while many
abuses have been redressed, the reform movement suf-
fers for lack of support, comprehension, and toleration.
The aspirations of the few are extending but slowly to
the nation. Progress is gradual and the interval is
tedious. The commercial phase of the movement is full
of vitality, and the factories which have been established
show the evolution of enterprise from aspiration.
Foreigners are introducing education, while the present
commercial activities are attributable to their suggestion
and assistance. The small response, which these efforts
elicit, make the labour of keeping the nation in the right
14
REFORM AND PROSPERITY
direction very difficult. The people can scarcely relapse
into the conservatism of ancient days, but they may col-
lapse altogether, owing to the unfortunate circumstances
which are now making Korea an object of ironical and
interested observation among the Western Powers. She
may be absorbed, annexed, or divided; in endeavouring
to remain independent, she may wreck herself in the gen-
eral anarchy that may overtake her. She has given
much promise. She has constituted a Customs service,
joined in the Postal Union and opened her ports. She
has admitted railways and telegraphs, and shown kind-
ness, consideration and hospitality to every condition of
foreigner within her gates. Her confidence has been
that of a child and her faults are those of the nursery.
She is so old and yet so infinitely young ; and, by a curi-
ous fatality, she is now face to face with a situation
which again and again has occurred in her past history.
The introduction of Western inventions to Korea has
gradually eliminated from contemporary Korean life
many customs which, associated with the people and
their traditions from time immemorial, imparted much
of the repose and picturesqueness which have so far dis-
tinguished the little kingdom. Korea, in the twentieth
century, bears ample evidence of the forward movement
which is stimulating its people. Once the least pro-
gressive of the countries of the Far East, she now af-
fords an exception almost as noticeable as that shown
by the prompt assimilation of Western ideas and meth-
ods by Japan. Chemulpo, however, the centre in which
15
KOREA
an important foreign settlement and open port have
sprung up, does not suggest in itself the completeness
of the transformation which in a few years has taken
place in the capital. It is twenty years since Chemulpo
was opened to foreign trade, and to-day it boasts a mag-
nificent bund, wide streets, imposing shops, and a train
service which connects it with the capital. Its sky is
threaded with a maze of telephone and telegraph wire,
there are several hotels conducted upon Western princi-
ples, and there is, also, an international club.
At the threshold of the new century, the port presents
an interesting study. With the adjoining Ha-do, a ham-
let of military pretensions, it has grown in the twenty
years of its existence from a cluster of fishermen's huts
behind a hill along the river at Man-sak-dong into a
prosperous cosmopolitan centre of twenty thousand peo-
ple. Its growth, since the first treaty was negotiated
with the West upon May 22, 1882, by the American
Admiral Shufeldt, has been extraordinary. Its earlier
years gave no promise of its rapid and significant ad-
vance. Trade has flourished, and a boom in the trade
of the port has sent up the value of local properties.
There is now danger of a decline in this state of affluence
which may, in view of the chaos and uncertainty of the
future of the kingdom, retard the settlement and dis-
astrously affect its present prosperity. From small and
uncertain beginnings four well-built, well-lighted settle-
ments have sprung up, expanding into a general foreign,
a Japanese, a Chinese, and a Korean quarter. The
16
CHEMULPO
Japanese section is the best located and the most promis-
ing. The interests of this particular nation are also the
most prominent in the export and import trade of the
port, a position which is emphasised still further by the
important nature of its vested interests, among which
the railroad between Seoul, the capital, and Chemulpo,
with the trunk extension to Fusan, is paramount. The
Japanese population increased by nearly five hundred
during 1901. It then numbered some four thousand six
hundred, of whom a few hundred were soldiers consti-
tuting a temporary garrison for the settlement. How-
ever, since the modification by the Japanese Govern-
ment of the emigration laws with reference to China
and Korea, under which, in the first weeks of 1902, the
necessity for travelling passports was abolished in the
case of these two countries, there has been a great in-
crease in the number of Japanese residents at the treaty
ports. The settlement at Chemulpo now embraces one
thousand two hundred and eighty-two houses, and pos-
sesses a population of five thousand nine hundred and
seventy-three adults. The census of the Chinese settle-
ment fluctuates with the season; considerable numbers
of farmers cross from Shan-tung to Korea during the
summer, returning to their native land in winter. In
the period of exodus from China, the Chinese popula-
tion exceeds twelve hundred. The complete strength of
the general foreign settlement is eighty-six, of which
some twenty-nine are British. The one British firm in
Korea is established in Chemulpo.
17
KOREA
There are many nationalities in Chemulpo, and the
small community, excluding the Japanese and Chinese, is
made up as follows: British, twenty-nine and one firm,
the remaining twenty-eight being attached to the Vice-
Consulate, the Customs, and a missionary society ; Amer-
ican, eight and two firms ; French, six and one firm ; Ger-
man, sixteen and one firm; Italian, seven and one firm;
Russian, four and two firms; Greek, two and one firm;
Portuguese seven, Hungarian five, and Dutch two, the
last three possessing no firms in the port.
If British interests are not materially represented in
Chemulpo, other nationalities are less backward. By
means of the Trans-Siberian Railway, the journey from
London to Chemulpo can now be accomplished within
twenty-one days. When the Seoul-Fusan Railway is
finished, communication between the East and the West
will be still further facilitated. It is intended that less
than two days shall suffice for the connection between
Chemulpo and Tokio. Meanwhile the service of the
Chinese Eastern Railway Company's steamers between
Port Arthur, Dalny and Chemulpo has been accelerated.
In addition, also, imposing new offices have been erected
at the port. It is much to be regretted that there is no
regular service of British steamers to the ports of
Korea. In singular contrast to the apathy of British
steamship companies is the action of the Hamburg-
America Company, which has now arranged for the
periodic visits of its steamers to Chemulpo. From a
commercial standpoint the port has become an impor-
i8
CHEMULPO
tant distributing centre. Foreign trade with the capital
and its environs passes through it, and the administra-
tive officers of the more important gold-mining conces-
sions, of which there are now four, American, Japanese,
French, and British, have settled there. A cigarette fac-
tory, supported by the Government, is now in operation
in the port. During 1901 ninety-three men-of-war en-
tered Chemulpo, of which thirty-five were Japanese,
twenty-one English, fifteen Russian, eleven French, five
Austrian, four German, one Italian, and one American.
Of steamers and sailing-vessels there were 1036, of
which 567 were Japanese with 304 steamers, 369 Korean
junks and steamers, twenty-one Russian steamers, eight
American sailing-ships and one American steamer, four
English steamers, three German steamers, sixty-two
Chinese junks, and one Norwegian steamer — forty-
seven more men-of-war and seventy more merchant ves-
sels than in 1900. The shipping which entered and
cleared at the port during 1900 was 370,416 tons, real-
ising a small increase upon previous years; of these, 500
steamers with 287,082 tonnage were Japanese, 261
steamers with 45,516 tons were Korean, forty-one
steamers of 27,999 to"s Russian, two steamers of 4416
tons British, four steamers of 2918 tons German. The
complete return of all shipping entered at the open ports
of Korea during the year 1902 — the latest under review
— is added as a separate table at the end of this book.
In Chemulpo, as in all the ports of the kingdom which
are open to foreign trade, there is a branch of the Im-
19
KOREA
perial Korean Maritime Customs, an offshoot of the ex-
cellent service which exists in China under the adminis-
tration of Sir Robert Hart. The working of the
Korean Customs, for which Mr. McLeavy Brown is
primarily responsible, is singularly successful, and re-
dounds greatly to the credit of the comptroUing power.
In an epoch characterised by the extraordinary inepti-
tude, indifference, and weakness of our public men, it
is much to be deplored that the services of this distin-
guished Englishman are not more directly dedicated to
the needs of his country. The careers of these two ad-
mirable officials fill me with mingled regret for the re-
moteness of their sphere of action, and high apprecia-
tion of their unremitting zeal — feelings few public
servants may more fitly inspire than these two isolated,
hardworking chiefs of a sister service, whose work, car-
ried on in an atmosphere of treachery and deceit, too
often meets with the blackest ingratitude.
The advance which the trade of Korea has made is
proof sufficient of its innate possibilities under honest
administration. If the revenues of the Customs are not
diverted in the meantime to less important objects, there
is every hope to believe that facilities will be given to
its development. The Emperor has lately sanctioned
the grant of one million yen from the Customs revenue
for the provision of aids to navigation. Thirty-one
lighthouses are to be built ; the two earliest being placed
upon Roze and Round Islands off the entrance to the
Han river, upon which Chemulpo lies. When this work
20
TRADE
is accomplished, the increase of shipping in the harbour
is sure to create some sympathetic development in the
resources of the country.
The net value for 1901 of the combined export and
import direct foreign trade throughout the kingdom,
exclusive of gold export, was more than twenty-three
million (23,158,419) yen, the value of the gold export
being a little in excess of four million (4,993,351)
yen. The exchange rate of the Japanese yen is roughly
two shillings and a half-penny, which gives the com-
bined values of the total foreign trade as 2,873,827
pounds sterling. The trade of Chemulpo during this
time was 11,131,060 yen, being an increase of nearly
one million yen upon the trade returns of the last three
years. The exports were gold, rice, beans, timber and
hides; the imports comprised American and Japanese
goods for the most part, and a small and decreasing
trade with England. The total foreign imports reached
a value of 5,573,398 yen, and the total exports were
4,311,401 yen. The returns for the year following,
1902, were, in brief : exports, £269,747; imports, £814,-
470. Foreign interests In the total trade passing through
Chemulpo, in comparison with those since 1891, show
a great and steady advance. The total revenue for
1 89 1 was a little less than 300,000 yen, and in the year
1900 this sum had advanced to more than 550,000 yen,
the increase in the general prosperity during these years
correspondingly affecting the total revenue of the king-
dom.
21
KOREA
Compared with 1901 there was a falling-off in the
total trade of the country for the year 1902. In 1902
the entire foreign trade amounted to £2,745,346 ster-
ling, which was composed as follows:
Imports.
Exports.
Exports of Gold,
£
£
£
i>382,35i
846,034
516,961
The balance of trade was against Korea, therefore, to
the extent of only £16,356 sterhng, whereas the average
excess of imports over exports for the past five years was
£107,309. Only in 1900 were the exports greater than
the imports. The average of trade for the past five
years was £2,370,075 sterling, a return which in reality
credits the year 1902 with £378,271 more than the aver-
age. As a matter of fact, the month of December 1902
showed a larger volume of trade and more duty col-
lected at Chemulpo than ever before. Specifically, in
comparison with the previous year, the imports of 1902
were less in the amount of £117,914, while exports had
declined £7567. Large stocks were carried over from
1901, hence some depreciation in the volume of the
trade was inevitable. However, for the better compre-
hension of the economic relations of Korea with the
trade of foreign countries, I have collected the returns
of the years, with which I have dealt here, in one simple
table, to which is added a quinquennial average, cover-
ing a period which begins with the year 1898.
22
CHAPTER III
Move to the capital — A city of peace — Results of foreign
influence — In the beginning — Education — Shops — Cos-
tume — Origin — Posts and telegraphs — Methods of clean-
liness
THE situation in which Seoul lies is enchanting.
High hills and mountains rise close to the city,
their sides rough, rugged and bleak, save where black
patches of bushes and trees struggle for existence. The
hollows within this rampart of hills and beyond the
walls, are fresh and verdant. Small rice-fields, with
clusters of thatched hovels in their midst, stretch be-
tween the capital and the port at Chemulpo. The at-
mosphere is clear; the air is sweet; the city is neat and
orderly. It is possible, moreover, to live with great
comfort in the three-storied brick structure, which, from
a pretty collection of Korean buildings, nestling be-
neath the city wall, has been converted into the Station
Hotel.
There is but one wall round Seoul. It is neither so
high nor so massive as the wall of Peking ; yet the situa-
tion of the city gains so much in beauty from the en-
closing mountains, that it seems to be much the more
picturesque. If the capital of Korea is more charm-
23
KOREA
ingly situated than the capital of China, the wall of
Seoul is reminiscent of the walls of the Nankow Pass
In the superb disdain with which it clings to the edges
of the mountains, climbing the most outlandish places
in the course of its almost purposeless meanderings. It
extends beyond the lofty crests of Peuk-an and across
the splendid and isolated peak of Nam-san, enclosing a
forest in one direction, a vacant and soulless plain in
another, dropping here into a ravine, to emerge again
a few hundred feet higher on the mountain slopes. The
wall is in good preservation. In places it is a rampart
of mud faced with masonry ; more generally it Is a solid
structure of stone, fourteen miles In circumference,
twenty-five to forty feet in height, battlemented along
its entire length and pierced by eight arches of stone.
The arches serve as gateways; they are crowned with
high tiled towers, the gables of which curve In the
fashion of China.
Within the radius of these stone walls, the city
spreads itself across a plain, or high on the mountain
side, within the snug shelter of some hollow, enjoys a
pleasant, cool and comfortable seclusion. Within Its
metropolitan area there are changes of scenery which
would delight the most weary sightseer. Beyond these
limits, the appearance and character of the country is
refreshing, and Is without that monotonous dead-level
stretch of plain, which, reaching to the walls of Pekin,
detracts so greatly from the position of that capital.
Within this broader vista there are hills and wooded
24
MOVE TO THE CAPITAL
valleys. Villages rest beneath the grey, cool shadows
of the bush. Upon the hills lie many stately tombs,
fringes of trees shielding them from the rush of the
winds. There are pretty walks or rides in every quar-
ter, and there is no fear of molestation. Everywhere
it is peaceful ; foreigners pass unnoticed by the peasants,
who, lazily scratching the surface of their fields, or
ploughing in the water of their rice plots with stately
bulls, occupy their time with gentle industry. It is more
by reason of a bountiful nature that has endowed their
land with fertility, than by careful management or ex-
penditure of energy that it serves their purpose.
A few years ago it was thought that the glory of the
ancient city had departed. Indeed, the extreme state
of neglect into which the capital had fallen gave some
justification for this opinion. Now, however, the pros-
pect is suggestive of prosperity. The old order is giv-
ing way to the new. So quickly has the population
learned to appreciate the results of foreign intercourse
that, in a few more years, it will be difficult to find in
Seoul any remaining link with the capital of yore. The
changes have been somewhat radical. The introduction
of telegraphy has made it unnecessary to signal nightly
the safety of the kingdom by beacons from the crests
of the mountains. The gates are no longer closed at
night; no more does the evening bell clang sonorously
throughout the city at sunset, and the runners before
the chairs of the officials have for some time ceased to
announce in strident voices the passing of their masters.
25
KOREA
Improvements, which have been wrought also in the
conditions of the city — in its streets and houses, in its
sanitary measures and in its methods of communication
— have replaced these ancient customs. An excellent
and rapid train runs from Chemulpo; electric trams
afford quick transit within and beyond the capital ; even
electric lights illuminate by night some parts of the
chief city of the Hermit Kingdom. Moreover, an
aqueduct is mentioned; the police force has been reor-
ganised; drains have come and evil odours have fled.
The population of the capital for the year 1903 was
194,000 adults. This is a decrease of 2546 upon the
year 1902.
The period which has passed since the country was
opened to foreign trade has given the inhabitants time
to become accustomed to the peculiar differences which
distinguish foreigners. It has afforded Koreans count-
less opportunities to select for themselves such institu-
tions as may be calculated to promote their own welfare,
and to provide at the same time compensating advan-
tages for their departure from tradition. Not only by
the construction of an electric tramway, the provision
of long-distance telephones and telegraphs, the installa-
tion of electric light, a general renovation of its thor-
oughfares and its buildings, and the improvement of
its system of drainage, does the capital of Korea give
tokens of the spirit which is at work amongst its in-
habitants. Reforms in education have also taken place ;
schools and hospitals have been opened; banks, foreign
26
A CITY OF PEACE
shops and agencies have sprung up; a factory for the
manufacture of porcelain ware is in operation ; and the
number and variety of the religions with which foreign
missionaries are wooing the people are as amazing and
complex as in China. There will be no absence in the
future of those soothing conjectures from which the
consolations of religion may be derived. The conduct
of educational affairs is arranged upon a basis which
now gives every facility for the study of foreign sub-
jects. Special schools for foreign languages, conducted
by the Government under the supervision of foreign
teachers, have been instituted. Indeed, most striking
changes have been made in the curriculum of the com-
mon schools of the city. Mathematics, geography, his-
tory, besides foreign languages, are all subjects in the
courses of these establishments, and, only lately, a
special School of Survey, under foreign direction, has
been opened. The enlightenment, which is thus spread-
ing throughout the lower classes, cannot fail to secure
some eventual modification of the views and sentiments
by which the upper classes regard the progress of the
country. As a sign of the times, it is worthy to note
that several native newspapers have been started; while
the increase of business has created the necessity for im-
proved facilities in financial transactions, a development
which has appealed not only to the Dai Ichi Ginko.
The Russo-Chinese Bank is proposing to contend with
this Japanese financial house. The establishment at
Chemulpo of a branch of the Russian Bank is con-
27
KOREA
templated, from whence will come an issue of rouble
notes to compete with' the various denominations of the
Japanese Bank. Moreover, the Government is prepar-
ing to erect a large building in foreign style in the cen-
tre of the city, to be used as the premises of the Cen-
tral Bank of Korea. It will be a three-storied building,
and it is intended to establish branches in all the thir-
teen provinces of the Empire. Its chief aim is to facili-
tate the transfer of Government moneys, the transport
of which has always been a severe tax upon the Gov-
ernment. It will, however, engage in general banking
business, and for this purpose Yi Yong-ik, the President
of the Central Bank, is preparing at the Government
mint one, five, ten and one hundred dollar bills for issue
by it.
Along with these objects, the postal and telegraph
service has received no little attention. Up to the year
1883 Korea was without telegraphic communication.
At that time the Japanese laid a submarine cable from
Nagasaki to the Korean port of Fusan with an inter-
mediate station upon the island of Tsu-shima. A little
later, in 1885, China, taking advantage of her suzerain
rights, deputed Mr. J. H. Muhlensteth, a telegraph
engineer who had been in her service many years and
who formerly had been an employe of the Danish
Telegraph System, to construct a land telegraph line
from Chemulpo by way of Seoul and Pyong-yang to
Wi-ju on the Yalu River opposite the Chinese frontier
post of An-tung, which had connection with the general
28
A CITY OF PEACE
system of Chinese telegraphs. This line toward the
north-west was for many years the only means of tele-
graphic communication between the capital of Korea
and the outside world. It was worked at the expense
and under the control of the Chinese Government, and
it was not until the time of the Chino- Japanese war, in
the course of which the line was almost entirely de-
stroyed, that it was reconstructed by the Korean Gov-
ernment.
In 1889 the Korean Government built a line from
Seoul to Fusan. After the Chino-Japanese war, tele-
graphic communication was extended from Seoul to
Won-san and Mok-po. During recent years continu-
ous progress has been made until the total development
In the interior has now reached 3500 kilometres, di-
vided into twenty-seven bureaux and employing 113 men
as directors, engineers, secretaries, and operators, with
303 as students. The Morse system is in use. The
electricity is generated by the use of the Leclanche
batteries. Telegrams may be sent either In the native
Korean script, in Chinese, or in the code used by the
Chinese administration, and in the different foreign lan-
guages authorised by the International Telegraph
Agreement. Horse relays are kept at the different tele-
graph centres In the Interior to facilitate communication
with points far distant.
The subjoined table reveals by comparison the de-
velopment in the Korean system of telegraphs which
has taken place during recent years:
29
KOREA
1899
1900
1901
I90Z
Telegrams
Revenue
Length of lines.
in /<■
Offices
$5
112,450
3,686.89
5000
19
$7
125,410
2,443-26
5090
22
152,485
$86,830.86
6510
27
209,418
$112,337.18
7060
27
The establishment of the Imperial Postal System in
Korea is comparatively recent. For many years, in fact
for many centuries, Korea has possessed no postal ser-
vice as we conceive of it. An official courier service was
maintained by the King in order to carry on corre-
spondence with the different provincial governors.
These messengers travelled by horse relays, which were
maintained at various points in the country. Private
correspondence was carried on through the medium of
travellers or pedlars, the sender having to arrange
privately with the carrier in each instance. In 1877,
Japan, who had entered the Postal Union and had con-
cluded a treaty with Korea, established postal bureaux
at Fusan, Won-san and Chemulpo for the needs of her
nationals, who were already quite numerous in Korea.
In 1882 the Customs Administration also established a
sort of postal system between the different open ports
and between Korea and China. But these organisa-
tions were limited to correspondence between open
ports, and whoever wished to send a letter into the in-
terior had to make private arrangements. In 1884 the
Government of Korea made a first attempt to establish
30
A CITY OF PEACE
an official postal system which would be accessible
to all.
It was not until 1895, however, after the close of the
Chino- Japanese war, that the Korean Postal Service
was at last established under the direction of a Japan-
ese. For several years this service was confined to
Korea herself, and did not undertake any foreign busi-
ness. In 1897 the Korean Government determined to
join the Postal Union, and to this end two representa-
tives were sent to the Universal Postal Congress, held
at Washington in May and June of that year. They
signed the international agreement. Finally, in 1898,
the Government secured the services of M. E. Clemen-
cet, a member of the Postal and Telegraph Bureau of
France, as adviser and instructor to the Postal Bureau,
and on January i, 1900, Korea entered the Postal
Union.
The Service comprises, in addition to the central
bureau at Seoul, thirty-seven postal stations, in full
operation, and 326 sub-stations open to the exchange of
ordinary or registered correspondence, whether domes-
tic or foreign. Seven hundred and forty-seven letter
boxes have been distributed throughout postal circuits
in charge of these stations. Only the stations in full
operation are carried on by agents or sub-agents under
the control of the Director-General of Communications
to the number of 756, of which 114 are agents and
secretaries, and 642 are couriers, watchmen, etc. The
management of secondary offices is in the hands of
31
KOREA
local country magistrates under the control of the Min-
istry of the Interior, and has no connection with the De-
partment of Communications except in so far as the
control and management of the postal system is di-
rectly affected. A network of land postal routes, start-
ing out from Seoul along the seven main highways, is ,
run daily in both directions by postal couriers. Each
of the large country offices controls a courier service,
which, in turn, connects with the smaller country offices.
These secondary offices are served three times a week
by unmounted postal couriers, who number in all 472
men. Each man carries on his back a maximum load
of twenty kilogrammes. When the mail matter ex-
ceeds this limit extra men or pack horses are employed.
The courier has to cover daily a minimum distance of
forty kilometres. In central Korea and in the south
and the north-west each route is covered, back and
forth, in five days. In the north and north-east eight
days are required for each round trip.
Besides these land courier services the Postal ad-
ministration has employed, since Korea joined the
Postal Union, various maritime services for forwarding
mail matter to the different Korean ports and for the
despatch of foreign mail. The different steamship
companies which carry Korean mail are: The Nippon
Yusen Kaisha, whose boats touch at Kobe, Nagasaki,
Fusan, Mok-po (occasionally), Chemulpo, Chi-fu,
Taku, Won-san and Vladlvostock. The Osaka Chosen
Kaisha boats, which touch at Fusan, Ma-san-po, Mok-
32
SHOPS
po, Kun-san, Chemulpo and Chin-am-po. The last port
is closed by ice from December to March. The Chi-
nese Eastern Railway Company, whose boats ply be-
tween Vladivostock and Shanghai by way of Nagasaki,
Chemulpo, Port Arthur, and Chi-fu, are also utilised.
The man who did so much to make a success of the
Korean Customs has also effected the wonderful repairs
of the capital. The new Seoul is scarcely seven years
old, but Mr. McLeavy Brown and the Civil Governor,
an energetic Korean official, since transferred, began,
and concluded within four weeks, the labour of cleans-
ing and reconstructing the slimy and narrow quarters in
which so many people lived. To those, who knew the
former state of the city, the task must have appeared
Gargantuan. Nevertheless, an extraordinary meta-
morphosis was achieved. Old Seoul, with its festering
alleys, its winter accumulations of every species of filth,
its plastering mud and penetrating foulness, has almost
totally vanished from within the walls of the capital.
The streets are magnificent, spacious, clean, admirably
made and well drained. The narrow, dirty lanes have
been widened ; gutters have been covered, and roadways
broadened; until, with its trains, its cars, and its lights,
its miles of telegraph lines, its Railway Station Hotel,
brick houses and glass windows, Seoul is within meas-
urable distance of becoming the highest, most interest-
ing, and cleanest city in the East. It is still not one
whit Europeanised, for the picturesqueness of the purely
Korean principles and standards of architecture has
33
KOREA
been religiously maintained, and is to be observed in all
future improvements.
The shops still cling to the sides of the drains; the
jewellers' shops hang above one of the main sewers of
the city ; the cabinet and table-makers occupy both sides
of an important thoroughfare, their precious furniture
half in and half out of filthy gutters. A Korean cabi-
net is a thing of great beauty. It is embossed with brass
plates and studded with brass nails, very massive, well
dovetailed, altogether superior in design and finish.
The work of the jewellers is crude and unattractive, al-
though individual pieces may reveal some artistic con-
ception. In the main the ornaments include silver
bangles, hairpins and earrings, with a variety of objects
suitable for the decoration of the hair. The grain mer-
chants and the vegetable dealers conduct their business
in the road. The native merchant loves to encroach
upon the public thoroughfares whenever possible. Once
off the main streets of the city, the side alleys are com-
pletely blocked to traffic because of the predilection of
the shopkeepers upon either side of the little passages
to push their wares prominently into the roadway. The
business of butchering is in Korea the most degraded
of all trades. It is beyond even the acceptance and
recognition of the most humble orders of the commu-
nity. The meat shops ave unpleasantly near the main
drains.
There are innumerable palaces in the capital, but as
His Majesty very frequently enlarges his properties,
34
COSTUME
there is the prospect of other buildings being adapted
to his Imperial use. The precincts of the Palace always
afford opportunities for foreigners to become familiar
with the features of the many Ministers of State. In
their anxiety to advise their sovereign, they wrangle
among themselves, or plot and counterplot, and fight
for the cards in their own hands, irrespective of the fate
which their jealousies may bring down upon their coun-
try. At all hours processions of chairs are seen making
for the palace, where, having deposited their masters,
the retinue of retainers and followers lounge about until
the audience is over. Then, with the same silent dig-
nity, the Ministers are hurried away through the crowds
of curiously hatted and clothed people who scarcely
deign to notice the passing of the august personages.
The officials are elegantly superior in their manner
and appearance. The distinction in the costumes of the
different classes is evinced perhaps by the difference in
their prices. The dress of a noble costs several hun-
dred dollars. It is made from the finest silk lawn which
can be woven upon the native looms. It is exceedingly
costly, of a very delicate texture, and cream colour. It
is ample in its dimensions and sufficiently enveloping
to suggest a bath gown. It is held in place by two large
amber buttons placed well over upon the right breast.
A silken girdle of mauve cord encircles the body below
the arm-pits. The costume of any one individual may
comprise a succession of these silken coats of cream silk
lawn, or white silk lawn, in spotless condition, with an
35
KOREA
outer garment of blue silk lawn. The movement of a
number of these people dressed in similar style is like
the rustle of a breeze in a forest of leaves. The dress
of the less exalted is no less striking in its unblemished
purity. It costs but a few dollars. It is made from
grass lawn of varying degrees of texture or of plain
stout calico. It is first washed, then pounded with heavy
sticks upon stones, and, after being dried, beaten again
upon a stock until it has taken a brilliant polish. This
is the sole occupation of the women of the lower classes,
and through many hours of the day and night the regu-
lar and rhythmic beating of these laundry sticks may be
heard.
The costume of the women is in some respects pecu-
liar to the capital. The upper garment consists of an
apology for a zouave jacket in white or cream material,
which may be of silk lawn, lawn or calico. A few
inches below this begins a white petticoat, baggy as a
sail, touching the ground upon all sides, and attached
to a broad band. Between the two there is nothing ex-
cept the bare skin, the breasts being fully exposed. It
is not an agreeable spectacle, as the women seen abroad
are usually aged or infirm.. At all times, as If to em-
phasise their fading charms, they wear the chang-ot, a
thin, green silk cloak, almost peculiar to the capital
and used by the women to veil their faces in passing
through the public streets. Upon the sight of man,
they clutch it beneath the eyes. The neck of the gar-
ment is pulled over the head of the wearer, and the
36
NATIVE DRESS
COSTUME
long wide sleeves fall from her ears. The effect of the
contrast between the hidden face and the naked breast
is exceptionally ludicrous. When employed correctly
only one eye, a suggestion of the cheek and a glimpse
of the temple and forehead are revealed. It is, how-
ever, almost unnecessary, since in the case of the great
majority of the women, their sole charm is the possible
beauty that the chang-ot may conceal. They wear no
other head-covering. For ordinary occasions they dress
their hair quite simply at the nape of the neck, in a
fashion not unlike that which Mrs. Langtry intro-
duced.
The head-dress of the men shows great variety, much
as their costume possesses a distinctive character.
When they are in mourning, the first stage demands
a hat as large as a diminutive open clothes-basket. It
is four feet in circumference and completely conceals
the face, which is hidden further by a piece of coarse
lawn stretched upon two sticks, and held just below the
eyes. In this stage nothing whatever of the face may
be seen. The second stage is denoted by the removal
of the screen. The third period is manifested through
the replacement of the inverted basket by the customary
head-gear, made in straw colour. The ordinary head-
covering takes the shape of the high-crowned hat worn
by Welsh women, with a broad brim, made in black
gauze upon a bamboo frame. It is held in place by a
chain beneath the chin or a string of pieces of bamboo,
between each of which small amber beads are inserted.
37
KOREA
There are a variety of indoor and ceremonial caps and
bandeaux which are worn by the upper and middle
classes.
The hair is dressed differently by single and married
men. If unmarried, they adopt the queue; when
married, they put up their hair and twist it into a coni-
cal mass upon their heads, keeping it in place by a
woven horsehair band, which completely encircles the
forehead and base of the skull. A few, influenced by
Western manners, have cropped their hair. This is
specially noticeable among the soldiers on duty in the
city, while, in compliance with the orders of the Em-
peror, all military and civil officials in the capital have
adopted the foreign style. Boys and girls, the queerest
and most dirty little brats, are permitted up to a certain
age to roam about the streets, to play in the gutters, and
about the sewage pits in a state of complete nudity — a
form of economy which is common throughout the Far
East. The boys quickly drift into clothes and occupa-
tions of a kind. The girls of the poorer orders are sold
as domestic slaves and become attached to the house-
holds of the upper classes. From their subsequent ap-
pearance in the street, when they run beside the chairs
of their mistresses, it is quite evident that they are
taught to be clean and even dainty in their appearance.
At this youthful age they are quaint and healthy look-
ing children. The conditions under which they live,
however, soon produce premature exhaustion.
Despite the introduction of certain reforms, there is
38
ORIGIN
still much of the old world about Seoul, many relics of
the Hermit Kingdom. Women are still most carefully
secluded. The custom, which allows those of the upper
classes to take outdoor exercise only at night, is ob-
served. Men are, however, no longer excluded from
the streets at such hours. The spectacle of these white
spectres of the night, flitting from point to point, their
footsteps lighted by the rays of the lantern which their
girl-slaves carry before them, is as remarkable as the
appearance of Seoul by daylight, with its moving masses
all garmented in white. A street full of Koreans aptly
suggests, as Mr. Henry Norman, M.P., once wrote,
the orthodox notion of the Resurrection. It cannot be
denied that the appearance of both men and women
makes the capital peculiarly attractive. The men are
fine, well-built and peaceful fellows, dignified in their
bearing, polite and even considerate towards one
another. The type shows unmistakable evidences of
descent from the half savage and nomadic tribes of
Mongolia and Northern Asia and the Caucasian peo-
ples from Western Asia.
These two races, coming from the North in the one
case and drifting up from the South in the other, at the
time of the Ayraan invasion of India, peopled the north
and south of Korea. Finally merging among them-
selves, they gave to the world a composite nation, dis-
tinct In types, habits, and speech, and amalgamated only
by a rare train of circumstances over which they could
have had no control. It is by the facial resemblances
39
KOREA
that the origin of the Koreans may be traced to a Cau-
casian race. The speech of the country, while closely
akin to Chinese, reproduces sounds and many verbal
denominations which are found in the languages of In-
dia. Korea has submitted to the influence of Chinese
arts and literature for centuries, but there is little actual
agreement between the legends of the two countries.
The folk-lore of China is in radical disagreement with
the vague and shadowy traditions of the people of
Korea. There is a vast blank in the early history of
Korea, at a period when China is represented by many
unimpaired records. Research can make no advance
in face of it; surmise and logical reflections from ex-
traneous comparisons alone can supply the requisite
data. Posterity is thus presented with an unrecorded
chapter of the world's history, which at the best can
be only faintly sketched.
40
CHAPTER IV
The heart of the capital — Domestic Economy — Female slavery
— Standards of morality — A dress rehearsal
THE inhabitants of the Hermit Kingdom are pe-
culiarly proficient in the art of doing nothing
gracefully. There is, therefore, infinite charm and
variety in the daily life of Korea. The natives take
their pleasures passively, and their constitutional in-
capacity makes it appear as if there were little to do but
to indulge in a gentle stroll in the brilliant sunshine, or
to sit cross-legged within the shade of their houses. In-
action becomes them; nothing could be more unsuited
to the character of their peculiar costume than vigorous
movement. The stolid dignity of their appearance and
their stately demeanour adds vastly to the picturesque-
ness of the street scenes. The white-coated, white-
trousered, white-socked, slowly striding population is
irresistibly fascinating to the eye. The women are no
less interesting than the men. The unique fashion of
their dress, and Its general dissimilarity to any other
form of feminine garb the world has ever known, ren-
ders It sufficiently characteristic of the vagaries of the
feminine mind to be attractive.
Women do not appear very much in the streets dur-
41
KOREA
ing daylight. The degree of their seclusion depends
upon the position which they fill in society. In a gen-
eral way the social barriers which divide everywhere
the three classes are well defined here. The yang-ban
or noble is, of course, the ruling class. The upper-class
woman lives rather like a woman in a zenana ; from the
age of twelve she is visible only to the people of her
household and to her immediate relatives. She is
married young, and thenceforth her acquaintances
among men are restricted solely to within the fifth de-
gree of cousinship. She may visit her friends, being
usually carried by four bearers in a screened chair. She
seldom walks, but should she do so her face is invariably
veiled in the folds of a chang-ot. Few restrictions are
imposed upon the women of the middle class as to their
appearance in the streets, nor are they so closely se-
cluded in the house as their aristocratic sisters ; their faces
are, however, veiled. The chang-ot is by no means so
complete a medium of concealment as the veil of Tur-
key. Moreover, it is often cast aside in old age. The
dancing-girls, slaves, nuns, and prostitutes, all included
in the lowest class, are forbidden to wear the chang-ot.
Women doctors, too, dispense with it, though only
women of the highest birth are allowed to practise
medicine.
In a general way, the chief occupation of the Korean
woman is motherhood. Much scandal arises if a girl
attains her twentieth year without having married,
while no better excuse exists for divorce than sterility.
42
DOMESTIC ECONOMY
In respect of marriage, however, the wife is expected
to supplement the fortune of her husband and to con-
tribute to the finances of the household. When women
of the upper classes wish to embark in business, certain
careers, other than that of medicine, are open to them.
They may cultivate the silkworm, start an apiary, weave
straw shoes, conduct a wine-shop, or assume the posi-
tion of a teacher. They may undertake neither the
manufacture of lace and cloth, nor the sale of fruit and
vegetables. A descent in the social scale increases the
number and variety of the callings which are open to
women. Those of the middle class may engage in all
the occupations of the upper classes, with the exception
of medicine and teaching. They may become concu-
bines, act as cooks, go out as wet nurses, or fill posts in
the palace. They may keep any description of shop,
tavern, or hotel; they possess certain fishing privileges,
which allow them to take clams, cuttle-fish, and beches
de mer. They may make every kind of boot and shoe.
They may knit fishing-nets, and fashion tobacco-
pouches.
If some little respect be accorded to women of the
middle classes, those of a lower status are held in con-
tempt. Of the occupations open to women of the mid-
dle classes, there are two in which women of humble
origin cannot engage. They are ineligible for any po-
sition in the palace : they may not manufacture tobacco-
pouches. They may become sorceresses, jugglers,
tumblers, contortionists, dancing-girls and courtesans.
43
KOREA
There is this wide distinction between the members of
the two oldest professions which the world has ever
known: the dancing-girl usually closes her career by
becoming the concubine of some wealthy noble; the
courtesan does not close her career at all.
It is impossible not to admire the activity and energy
of the Korean woman. Despite the contempt with
which she is treated, she is the great economic factor in
the household and in the life of the nation. Force of
circumstance has made her the beast of burden. She
works that her superior lord and master may dwell
in idleness, comparative luxury, and peace. In spite of
the depressing and baneful effects of this absurd dogma
of inferiority, and in contradiction of centuries of
theory and philosophy, her diligent integrity is more
evident in the national life than her husband's industry.
She is exceptionally active, vigorous in character, re-
sourceful in emergency, superstitious, persevering, in-
domitable, courageous, and devoted. Among the mid-
dle and lower classes she is the tailor and the laundress
of the nation. She does the work of a man in the house-
hold and of a beast in the fields; she cooks and sews;
she washes and irons; she organises and carries on a
business, or tills and cultivates a farm. In the face of
every adversity, and in those times of trial and distress,
in which her liege and lazy lord utterly and hopelessly
collapses, it is she who holds the wretched, ramshackle
home together. Under the previous dynasty, the sphere
of the women of Korea was less restricted. There was
44
FEMALE SLAVERY
no law of seclusion; the sex enjoyed greater public free-
dom. In its closing decades, however, the tone of so-
ciety lowered, and women became the special objects
of violence. Buddhist priests were guilty of widespread
debauchery; conjugal infidelity was a pastime; rape be-
came the fashion. The present dynasty endeavoured
to check these evils by ordaining and promoting the iso-
lation and greater subjection of the sex. Vice and im-
morality had been so long and so promiscuously prac-
ticed, however, that already men had begun to keep
their women in seclusion of their own accord. If they
respected them to some extent, they were wholly doubt-
ful of one another. Distrust and suspicion were thus
the pre-eminent causes of this immuring of the women,
the system developing of itself, as the male Koreans
learnt to dread the evil propensities of their own sex.
It is possible that the women find, in that protection
which is now accorded them, some little compensation
for the drudgery and interminable hard work that is
their portion.
The system of slavery among the Koreans is con-
fined, at present, to the possession of female slaves. Up
to the time of the great invasion of Korea by the Japan-
ese armies under Hideyoshi, in 1592, both male and
female slaves were permitted. The loss of men in that
war was so great that, upon its conclusion, a law was
promulgated which forbade the bondage of males.
There is, however, the sang-no (slave boy), who ren-
ders certain services only, and receives his food and
45
KOREA
clothes in compensation. The position of the sang-no
is more humble than that filled by the paid servant and
superior to that of the slave proper. He is bound by
no agreement and is free to leave.
The duties of a slave comprise the rough work of the
house. She attends to the washing — an exacting and
continuous labour in a Korean household ; carries water
from the well, assists with the cooking, undertakes the
marketing and runs errands. She is not allowed to par-
ticipate in any duties of a superior character; her place
is in the kitchen or in the yard, and she cannot become
either a lady's maid or a favoured servant of any de-
gree. In the fulness of time she may figure in the
funeral procession of her master.
There are four ways by which the Korean woman
may become a slave. She may give herself into slavery,
voluntarily, in exchange for food, clothes and shelter
through her abject poverty. The woman who becomes
a slave in this way cannot buy back her freedom. She
has fewer rights than the slave who is bought or who
sells herself. The daughter of any slave who dies in
service continues in slavery. In the event of the mar-
riage of her mistress such a slave ranks as a part of the
matrimonial dot. A woman may be reduced to slavery
by the treasonable misdemeanours of a relative. The
family of a man convicted of treason becomes the prop-
erty of the Government, the women being allotted to
high officials. They are usually liberated. Again, a
woman may submit herself to the approval of a pros-
46
STANDARDS OF MORALTY
pective employer. If she is found satisfactory and is
well recommended, her services may realise between
forty, fifty, or one hundred thousand cash. When pay-
men has been made, she gives a deed of her own person
to her purchaser, imprinting the outline of her hand
upon the document, in place of a seal, and for the pur-
pose of supplying easy means of identification. Al-
though this transaction does not receive the cognisance
of the Government, the contract is binding.
As the law provides that the daughter of a slave must
take the place of her parent, should she die, it is plainly
in the interests of the owner to promote the marriage
of his slaves. Slaves who receive compensation for their
services are entitled to marry whom they please; quar-
ters are provided for the couple. The master of the
house, however, has no claim upon the services of the
husband. The slave who voluntarily assigns herself to
slavery and receives no price for her services may not
marry without consent. In these cases it is not an un-
usual custom for her master, in the course of a few
years, to restore her liberty.
Hitherto, the position of the Korean woman has been
so humble that her education has been unnecessary.
Save among those who belong to the less reputable
classes, the literary and artistic faculties are left uncul-
tivated. Among the courtesans, however, the mental
abilities are trained and developed with a view to mak-
ing them brilliant and entertaining companions. The
one sign of their profession is the culture, the charm,
47
KOREA
and the scope of their attainments. These " leaves of
sunlight," a feature of public life In Korea, stand apart
in a class of their own. They are called gisaing, and
correspond to the geisha of Japan ; the duties, environ-
ment, and mode of existence of the two are almost iden-
tical. Officially, they are attached to a department of
Government, and are controlled by a bureau of their
own, in common with the Court musicians. They are
supported from the national treasury, and they are in
evidence at official dinners and all palace entertain-
ments. They read and recite ; they dance and sing ; they
become accomplished artists and musicians. They
dress with exceptional taste; they move with exceeding
grace; they are delicate in appearance, very frail and
very human, very tender, sympathetic, and imaginative.
By their artistic and intellectual endowment, the danc-
ing girls, ironically enough, are debarred from the po-
sitions for which their talents so peculiarly fit them.
They may move through, and as a fact do live in, the
highest society. They are met at the houses of the most
distinguished; they may be selected as the concubines
of the Emperor, become the femmes d'amour of a
prince, the puppets of the noble. A man of breeding
may not marry them, however, although they typify
everything that Is brightest, liveliest, and most beauti-
ful. Amongst their own sex, their reputation is in ac-
cordance with their standard of morality, a distinction
being made between those whose careers are embellished
with the quasi chastity of a concubine, and those who
48
a
5
W
STANDARDS OF MORALITY
are identified with the more pretentious display of the
mere prostitute.
In the hope that their children may achieve that suc-
cess which will ensure their support in their old age,
parents, when stricken with poverty, dedicate their
daughters to the career of a gisaing, much as they ap-
prentice their sons to that of a eunuch. The girls are
chosen for the perfect regularity of their features.
Their freedom from blemish, when first selected, is es-
sential. They are usually pretty, elegant, and dainty.
It is almost certain that they are the prettiest women in
Korea, and, although the order is extensive and the
class is gathered from all over the kingdom, the most
beautiful and accomplished gisaing come from Pyong-
an. The arts and graces in which they are so carefully
educated, procure their elevation to positions in the
households of their protectors, superior to that which
is held by the legal wife. As a consequence, Korean
folk-lore abounds with stories of the strife and wifely
lamentation arising from the ardent and prolonged de-
votion of husbands to girls, whom fate prevents their
taking to a closer union. The women are slight of
stature, with diminutive, pretty feet, and graceful,
shapely hands. They are quiet and unassuming in their
manner. Their smile is bright; their deportment mod-
est, their appearance winsome. They wear upon state
occasions voluminous, silk-gauze skirts of variegated
hues; a diaphanous silken jacket, with long loose
sleeves, extending beyond the hands, protects the
49
KOREA
shoulders; jewelled girdles, pressing their naked breasts,
sustain their draperies. An elaborate, heavy and arti-
ficial head-dress of black hair, twisted in plaits and
decorated with many silver ornaments, is worn. The
music of the dance is plaintive and the song of the
dancer somewhat melancholy. Many movements are
executed in stockinged feet; the dances are quite free
from indelicacy and suggestiveness. Indeed, several are
curiously pleasing.
Upon one occasion, Yi-cha-sun, the brother of the
Emperor, invited me to watch the dress rehearsal of an
approaching Palace festival. Although this exceptional
consideration was shown me unsolicited, I found it quite
impossible to secure permission to photograph the glid-
ing, graceful figures of the dancers. When my chair
deposited me at the yamen the dance was already in
progress. The chairs of the officials and chatter-
ing groups of the servants of the dancers filled the com-
pound; soldiers of the Imperial Guard kept watch be-
fore the gates. The air was filled with the tremulous
notes of the pipes and viols, whose plaintive screaming
was punctuated with the booming of drums. Within
a building, the walls of which were open to the air, the
rows of dancers were visible as they swayed slowly and
almost imperceptibly with the music.
From the dais where my host was sitting the dance
was radiant with colour. There were eighteen per-
formers, grouped in three equal divisions, and, as the
streaming sunshine played upon the shimmering surface
SO
A DRESS REHEARSAL
of their dresses, the lithe and graceful figures of the
dancers floated in the brilliant reflection of a sea of
sparkling light. The dance was almost without motion,
so slowly were its fantastic figures developed. Never
once were their arms dropped from their horizontal
position, nor did the size and weight of their head-
dresses appear to fatigue the little women. Very
slowly, the seated band gave forth the air. Very
slowly, the dancers moved in the open space before us,
their arms upraised, their gauze and silken draperies
clustering round them, their hair piled high, and held in
its curious shape by many jewelled and enamelled pins,
which sparkled in the sunshine. The air was solemn;
and, as if the movement were ceremonial, their voices
rose and fell in a lingering harmony of passionate ex-
pression. At times, the three sets came together, the
hues of the silken skirts blending in one vivid blaze of
barbaric splendour. Then, as another movement suc-
ceeded, the eighteen figures broke apart and, poised
upon their toes, in stately and measured unison circled
round the floor, their arms rising and falling, their
bodies bending and swaying, in dreamy undulation.
The dance epitomised the poetry and grace of human
motion. The dainty attitudes of the performers had a
gentle delicacy which was delightful. The long silken
robes revealed a singular grace of deportment, and one
looked upon dancers who were clothed from head to
foot, not naked, brazen and unashamed, like those of
our own burlesque, with infinite relief and infinite satis-
51
KOREA
faction. There was power and purpose in their move-
ments; artistic subtlety in their poses. Their flowing
robes emphasised the simplicity of their gestures; the
pallor of their faces was unconcealed; their glances
were timid; their manner modest. The strange eerie
notes of the curious instruments, the fluctuating ca-
dence of the song, the gliding motion of the dancers,
the dazzling sheen of the silks, the vivid colours of the
skirts, the flush of flesh beneath the silken shoulder-
coats, appealed to one silently and signally, stirring the
emotions with an enthusiasm which was irrepressible.
The fascinating figures approached softly, smoothly
sliding; and, as they glided slowly forward, the song
of the music welled into passionate lamentation. The
character of the dance changed. No longer advancing,
the dancers moved in time to the beating of the drums;
rotating circles of colour, their arms swaying, their
bodies swinging backwards and forwards, as their re-
treating footsteps took them from us. The little figures
seemed unconscious of their art; the musicians ignorant
of the qualities of their wailing. Nevertheless, the mas-
terly restraint of the band, the conception, skill and
execution of the dancers, made up a triumph of tech-
nique.
As the dance swept to its climax, nothing so accen-
tuated the admiration of the audience as their perfect
stillness. From the outer courts came for a brief in-
stant the clatter of servants and the screams of angry
stallions. Threatening glances quickly hushed the
52
A DRESS REHEARSAL
slaves, nothing breaking the magnetism of the dance
for long. The dance ended, it became the turn of
others to rehearse their individual contributions, while
those who were now free sat chatting with my host, eat-
ing sweets, smoking cigarettes, cigars, or affecting the
long native pipe. Many, discarding their head-dresses,
lay upon their sitting mats, their eyes closed in momen-
tary rest as their servants fanned them. His Highness
apparently appreciated the familiarity with which they
treated him. In the enjoyment and encouragement of
their little jokes he squeezed their cheeks and pinched
their arms, as he sat among them.
53
CHAPTER V
The Court of Korea — The Emperor and his Chancellor —
The Empress and some Palace factions
A STUDY of the morals and personalities of the
Court of Korea throws no little light upon the
interesting phases of its contemporary condition, even
affording some explanation of the political differences
and diiEculties which, if now in the past, may be ex-
pected none the less to crop up again. Since the das-
tardly murder by the Japanese of the Queen, who held
the reins of Government with strong hands, the power
of the Emperor has been controlled by one or other of
the Palace factions. His Majesty is now almost a
cypher in the management of his Empire. Nominally,
the Emperor of Korea enjoys the prerogative and inde-
pendence of an autocrat; in reality he is in the hands of
that party whose intrigues for the time being may have
given them the upper hand. He is the slave of the su-
perb immoralities of his women. When he breaks away
from their gentle thraldom, in the endeavour to free
himself from their political associations, his exceedingly
able and unscrupulous Minister, Yi Yong-ik, the chief
of the Household Bureau, rules him with a rod of iron.
It matters not in what direction the will of his Majesty
54
THE EMPEROR AND HIS CHANCELLOR
should lie, It is certain to be thwarted with the conni-
vance of Palace concubines or by the direct bribery of
Ministers. If the King dared, Yi Yong-ik would be
degraded at once. No previous Minister has proved so
successful, however, in supplying the Court with money ;
and, as the Emperor dreads an empty treasury, he main-
tains him in his confidence.
In the position of Minister of Finance and Treasurer
of the Imperial Palace, which he once filled, Yi Yong-ik
opposed foreign supervision of the revenues of the
Maritime Customs. Acting in concert with the Russian
and French Ministers, he was primarily responsible for
the most recent crisis In the affairs of Mr. McLeavy
Brown, the Chief Comptroller and Executive Adminis-
trator of the Korean Maritime Customs. At a time
when the Imperial household was in need of money, Yi
Yong-ik created the desire for a loan by withholding
the revenue of the Privy Purse from his master. It was
explained to his Majesty that his financial embarrass-
ments were due to the action of his Chief Commissioner
of Customs In locking up the proceeds of the Customs.
Supported by the influence of the Russian and French
Ministers, YI Yong-ik suggested that the Customs rev-
enue should become the security for the loan which was
being pressed upon him by a French syndicate. When
Mr. McLeavy Brown heard of the transaction between
the agent of the syndicate and the Minister of Finance,
he at once repudiated any hypothecation of the revenues
of the Customs for such a purpose. In co-operation
55
KOREA
with the French and Russian Ministers, Yi Yong-ik,
upon a variety of pretexts, attempted to bring about
the peremptory dismissal of the Chief Commissioner of
the Customs. He was foiled in this by the unexpected
demonstration of a British Squadron in Chemulpo Har-
bour, and the attendant preparation and embarkation of
a field force at Wei-hai-wei. Upon the withdrawal of
the guarantee of the Customs revenue the Franco-Rus-
sian scheme collapsed, the agent of the interested syndi-
cate returning to Europe to complain of the action of the
British Minister and the Chief Commissioner of Cus-
toms.
Yi Yong-ik is an instance, together with that afforded
by Lady Om, of a Korean of most humble birth rising
to a position of great importance in the administration
of the country. A man of low parentage, he attached
himself to the fortunes of Min Yeung-ik, gradually
forcing himself upon the notice of his patron, as also of
his sovereign. The services which Yi Yong-ik rendered
to the throne during the emeute of 1884, when he was
a chair coolie in the service of the late Queen, found
responsive echo in the memories of their Majesties, who
procured his preferment. He was advanced to a position
in which his admitted sagacity, strength of mind, and
shrewdness were of material assistance, continuing to
rise until he became Minister of Finance. He has thus
made his own position from very insignificant begin-
nings, and, in justice to him, it may be said that he serves
the interests of his Majesty to the best of his ability.
THE EMPEROR
Nevertheless he is in turn feared and detested. Numer-
ous attempts have been made against him, while, within
the last few months, failing to take his life by poisoned
food, some unknown enemies discharged an infernal ma-
chine in the room at the Seoul Hospital where he was
confined during an attack of sickness. Alternately upon
the crest of the wave or in the backwash of the tide,
Yi Yong-ik remains the most enduring personality in the
Court. The Russian influence is behind him, while the
Emperor also is secretly upon the side of his energetic
Minister. At a moment, recently, when the opposition
against him became too strong, Yi Yong-ik took refuge
upon a Russian warship, which at once carried him to
Port Arthur. From this retreat he negotiated for a safe
return with his Majesty, who at once granted him a
strong escort. Yi Yong-ik then returned and, proceed-
ing at once to the Palace, quickly reinstated himself in
the good graces of his master, thus again thwarting the
plans and secret machinations of his opponents.
His Majesty the Emperor of Korea was fifty years
old in September 1900, being called to the throne in
1864, when he was thirteen. He was married at the
age of fifteen to the Princess Min, a lady of birth, of
the same age as her husband. It was she who was wan-
tonly assassinated by the Japanese in 1895. The son of
this union is the Crown Prince. His Majesty is some-
what short of stature, as compared with the average
height of the Korean. He is only five feet four inches.
His face is pleasant; impassive in repose, brightening
57
KOREA
with an engaging smile when in conversation. His
voice is soft and pleasing to the ear; he tallcs with easy
assurance, some vivacity and nervous energy.
During an audience with a foreigner, the manner of
the Emperor has an air of frankness and singular bon-
homie. He talks with every one, pointing his remarks
with graceful gestures, and interrupting his sentences
with melodious and infectious laughter. The mark of
the Emperor's favour is the receipt of a fan. When a
foreigner is presented to him, it is customary to find
upon the conclusion of the audience a small parcel await-
ing his acceptance, containing a few paper fans and
sometimes a roll of silk. The Emperor rarely exceeds
this limit to his Imperial patronage, for, like the
rest of his people, he cannot afford to be unduly gen-
erous.
The dress of his Majesty upon these occasions is re-
markable for Its impressive and Imperial grandeur. A
long golden silk robe of state, embroidered with gold
braid, with a girdle of golden cord, edged with a heavy
gold fringe, covers him. While the magnificence of this
attire excites envy in the heart of any one who sees it,
the ease and dignity of his carriage suggest his complete
unconsciousness of the impression which he Is creating in
the minds of his guests.
The Emperor is ignorant of Western languages, but
he is an earnest student of those educational works
which have been translated for the purposes of the
schools he has established in his capital. In this way
58
THE EMPEROR AND LADY OM
he has become singularly well Informed upon many sub-
jects. He speaks and writes Chinese with fluency, and
he is a most profound student of the history of his own
people. The method and system of his rule is based on
the thesis of his own personal supervision of all public
business. If there be some little difference between the
Utopia of his intentions and the actual achievement of
his government, it is impossible to deny his assiduity
and perseverance. He is a kind, amiable, and merciful
potentate, desirous of the advancement of his country.
He works at night, continuing the sessions and confer-
ences with his Ministers until after dawn. He has
faults, many, according to the Western standards by
which I have no intention of judging him. He has also
many virtues; and, he receives, and deserves, the sym-
pathy of all foreigners in the vast works of reform
which he has encouraged in his dominions.
His Majesty Is progressive. In view of the number
and magnitude of the developments which have taken
place under his rule. It Is Impossible to credit him with
any of those prejudices against Western Innovations
which have distinguished the East from time Imme-
morial. There are special schools In Seoul for teaching
English, French, German, Russian, Chinese and Japan-
ese; there is a School of Law, a School of Engineering
and Science, a School of Medicine, and a Military Acad-
emy. These are but a few minor indications of the
freedom of his rule, the sure sign of a later prosperity.
He Is tolerant of missionaries, and he Is said to favour
59
KOREA
their activities. It is certain that his rule permits great
liberty of action, while it is distingushed by extraordi-
nary immunity from persecution. His reign is in happy
contrast with the inter-regnum of the Regent, Tai Won
Kun, who regarded priests and converts as a pest, and
who eradicated them to the best of his ability.
As the autocratic monarch of a country, whose oldest
associations are opposed to all external interference, the
attitude of his Majesty has been instinct with the most
humane principles, with great integrity of purpose and
much enlightenment. It cannot be said that his reign
has been a failure, or that it has not tended to the bene-
fit of his people and his realms. Certain evil practices
still exist, but his faults as an Emperor are, to a great
extent, due to the worthlessness of his officials. Indeed,
he frequently receives the condemnation which should
be passed upon the minds and morals of his Min-
isters.
Saving Yi Yong-ik, the most important figure in the
Court is the mature and elderly Lady Om, the wife of
his Majesty. In a Court which is abandoned to every
phase of Eastern immorality, it is a little disappointing
to find that the first lady in the land no longer possesses
those charms of face and figure, which should explain
her position. There is no doubt that the Lady Om is a
clever woman. She is most remarkably astute in her
management of the Emperor, whose profound attach-
ment to her is a curious paradox. Lady Om is mature,
fat, and feebly, if freely, frolicsome. Her face is pitted
60
THE EMPEROR AND LADY OM
with small-pox; her teeth are uneven; her skin is of a
saffron tint. There is some suggestion of a squint in her
dark eyes, a possible reminder of the pest which afflicts
all Koreans. She paints very little and she eschews
garlic. Her domination of the Emperor is wonderful.
Except at rare intervals, and then only when the assent
of Lady Om to the visit of a new beauty has been
given, he has no eye for any other woman. Neverthe-
less, the Lady Om has not always been a Palace beauty ;
she was not always the shining light of the Imperial
harem. Her amours have made Korean history; only
two of her five children belong to the Emperor; yet one
of these may become the future occupant of his father's
throne.
In her maiden days, she became the mistress of a
Chinaman; tiring of him she passed into the grace and
favour of a Cabinet Minister. He introduced her to
the service of the late Queen, whose acquaintance she
made at the house of her father, a Palace attendant of
low degree, with quarters within the walls. By the
time that she became a woman in the service of her
Majesty, the Lady Om had presented a child to each of
her respective partners. As the virtue of the women in
attendance upon the Queen had of necessity to be as-
sured, her previous admirers kept their counsel for the
safety of their own heads. The Lady Om boasted
abilities which distinguished her among the other maids
in attendance. She sang to perfection, danced with con-
summate grace ; painted with no little delicacy and origi-
6i
KOREA
nality, and could read, write, and speak Chinese and
Korean with agreeable fluency. The Queen took a
fancy to her apparently innocent, guileless, and very
lovable attendant. Imitating the excellent example of
his illustrious spouse, his Majesty sealed the rape of vir-
tue with a kingly smile. The Queen grew restless.
Suspicion, confirmed by appearances, developed into cer-
tainty, and the Lady Om fled from the Palace to escape
the anger and jealousy of her late mistress. The third
child, of whom Lady Om became the mother, was born
beyond the capital, in the place of refuge where the
errant Griselle had taken up her abode. Meanwhile,
Lady Om avoided the parental establishment within the
purlieus of the Palace. Upon the death of her third
child she sought the protection of another high ofllcial.
With him she dwelt in safety, peace, and happiness, be-
coming, through her strange faculty of presenting each
admirer with evidences of her innocence, the subject of
some ribald songs. Since her return to Imperial favour,
these verses have been suppressed, and may not be
uttered upon pain of emasculation.
It now seemed as if the Lady Om had settled down,
but the events of 1895, culminating in the foul murder
of the late Queen, prompted her to renew her acquaint-
ance with the unhappy Emperor. She became a Palace
at;tendant again, and at once cleverly succeeded in bring-
ing herself before the Imperial notice. She was sweetly
sympathetic towards his Majesty; her commiseration,
her tenderness, her suppliant air of injured innocence,
62
SOME PALACE FACTIONS
almost Immediately captivated him. She was raised to
the rank of an Imperial concubine ; money was showered
upon her, and she proceeded immediately to exercise an
influence over the Emperor which has never relaxed.
She became a power at Court and once again a mother.
Her influence is now directed towards the definite main-
tenance of her own Interests. She wishes her son to be
the future Emperor; she Is now living In a palace, and,
since she Is the apple of his Majesty's eye, she permits
nothing to endanger the stakes for which she Is playing.
Recently Kim Yueng-chun, an ofiicial of importance but
of precarious position, wishing to secure himself in the
consideration of his sovereign, Introduced a new beauty,
whose purity and loveliness were unquestioned. Lady
Om heard of Lady Kang and said nothing. Within
two weeks, however, the Minister was removed upon
some small pretext, and subsequently tortured, mu-
tilated, and strangled. The Lady Kang found that if
the mills of Lady Om grind slowly, they grind exceed-
ingly small.
Lady Om Is a lover of ancient customs; by ancient
customs she made her way ; by ancient customs she pro-
poses to keep it. Her power Increases daily, and a
stately edifice has been erected in the centre of the capi-
tal to commemorate her virtues. A few months before
her marriage to the Emperor, when there was ample
indication of the trend of events, the Emperor published
a decree which declared that Lady Om had become an
Imperial concubine of the First Class. This did not give
63
KOREA
her Imperial status; but it conferred upon her son Im-
perial rank. By reason of this decree, however, he will,
at some future date, ascend the throne, while it opened a
way for Lady Om to secure recognition in Korea as the
lawful spouse of her royal admirer.
64
CHAPTER VI
The passing of the Emperor — ^An Imperial pageant
THE Emperor passed one morning in procession
from the Imperial Palace, which adjoins the
British Legation upon Its south wall, to the newly
erected Temple of Ancestors, the eastern wall of which
marks the limits of the Legation grounds. The festival
was In no way public ; yet, such was the splendour of the
pageant, that this progress of eight hundred yards, leav-
ing the Palace by Its south gate and entering again by
the eastern gate, cost over two thousand pounds. No
warning of the Imperial plans was given to his Maj-
esty's subjects. Just before the hour of his departure,
however, the Emperor expressed the hope that the Brit-
ish Minister and myself would be Interested in the pro-
cession. Inviting us to watch the spectacle from the Le-
gation domain. Information of the movements of the
Court was, of course, bruited abroad. Large crowds
gathered around the precincts of the Palace and the
Temple, attracted by the efforts which the soldiers were
making to form a cordon round the scene. Hundreds
of soldiers were told off to guard the approaches to the
Temple. One battalion of infantry was installed in the
grounds of the Imperial Korean Customs, another occu-
pied the gates and garden of the British Legation,
65
KOREA
Despite the fact that the route of the procession lay
between the high walls of a private passage, some
twenty-five feet wide, leading from the offices of the
Customs to the grounds of the Legation, into which a
postern gate gives access from the Palace, and through
which no Korean is ever permitted to pass, soldiers, one
pace apart, faced one another upon opposite sides of the
road. The public, seeing nothing of the ceremony,
gathered such consolation as was possible from the spec-
tacle of the masses of infantry occupying the Palace
Square. Occasional glimpses of Palace officials were
also secured, and the blatant discord of triumphant
song, with which the private musicians of the Emperor
greeted his arrival and the passing of the Court, fell
faintly upon expectant ears. It is, however, the proud
privilege of the Koreans to pay for these promenades of
the Court. If they did not see the august countenance
of his Majesty upon this occasion, it is to be hoped that
they derived some consolation for the heavy taxation,
with which they are burdened, from the brave show
made by the brand new uniforms of the troops. The
plumes, gold lace and swords of the officers, and the
rifles and bayonets of the men would have fascinated
any crowd. Until the moment of departure, the army
lay around upon the road, sleeping in the dust, or
squatted in the shade upon the steps of buildings, par-
taking of breakfast — a decomposed mass of sun-dried,
raw fish and rice which stunk horribly, but which they
devoured greedily, tearing it into shreds with their
66
THE PASSING OF THE EMPEROR
fingers. Occasionally a loyal citizen brought them water
or passed round a pipe, taking the opportunity to run
his finger along the edge of a bayonet, or over the sur-
face of a coat.
The Emperor was passing in this festive state to pay
homage to the tablets of his ancestors upon their trans-
ference to a fresh abode. The gorgeousness of the
pageant burst upon the colourless monotony of the cap-
ital with all the violent splendour and vivid beauty of
an Arabian sunset. It was right and proper that the
magnificence of the celebration should be unrestricted.
The importance of the occasion was without parallel in
the festivals of the year. The momentary brilliancy of
the picture, which centres round the usually secluded
sovereign at such a moment, implied the glorification of
a dynasty, which has already occupied the throne of
Korea for more than five centuries. Quaint and stately
as the pageant was, the splendour of a barbaric medise-
valism is best seen in processions of a more public char-
acter.
The procession started from the Palace about lo a.m.
It presented elements strangely suggestive of burlesque,
romance, and the humours of a pantomime. Korean
infantry, in blue uniforms, headed the order of the ad-
vance from the Palace, their modern dress and smart
accoutrements forming the one link between the middle
ages and the twentieth century, to which the function
could lay claim. After them, running, stumbling, and
chattering noisily, passed a mob of Palace attendants In
67
KOREA
fantastic hats and costumes of various degrees of brill-
iancy, long silken robes of blue, green, yellow, red and
orange, carrying staves bound with embroidered stream-
ers of coloured ribbons. A line of bannermen followed,
bearing red silken flags with blue characters, also hurry-
ing and stumbling forward; then passed a file of pipes
and drums, the men in yellow robes with the shimmer of
gold about them, streamers fluttering from the pipes,
ribbons decking the drums. Men bearing arrows in
leather frames and flags of green, red and yellow, were
next. Soldiers In ancient costume, wonderful to behold,
men with bells and jingling cymbals, pipes and fans.
Palace eunuchs in Court dress, detachments of dis-
mounted cavalry, their horses not appearing, but their
riders garbed in voluminous shirts, their hats covered
with feathers and wearing high boots, swept along,
amiable and foolish of aspect.
The procession, which preceded the passing of the
Emperor, seemed almost unending. At every moment
the sea of colour broke Into waves of every Imaginable
hue, as one motley crowd of retainers, servants, musi-
cians and officials gave place to another. Important
and Imposing officials in high-crowned hats, adorned
with crimson tassels festooned with bunches of feathers
and fastened by a string of amber beads round the
throat, were pushed along, silent and helpless. Their
dresses were glaring combinations of red and blue and
orange; they were supported by men in green gauze
coats and followed by other signal marks of Korean
68
THE PASSING OF THE EMPEROR
grandeur, more banners and bannermen, flags decorated
with feathers, servants carrying boxes of refreshments,
small tables, pipes and fire. These were succeeded by
others just as imposing, helpless and beautiful to be-
hold; the breasts and backs of their superb robes were
decorated with satin squares, embroidered, after the
style of China, with the symbols of their offices — birds
for civilians, tigers for those of military rank. States-
men in their official robes gave place to others in winged
hats or lofty mitres, gleaming with tinsel. The Com-
mander-in-Chief, with Japanese, Chinese, and Korean
decorations flashing in the sunshine from the breast of
his modern uniform, followed by his staff in red coats
heavily braided with gold lace, and with white aigrettes
waving in their hats, passed, marching proudly at the
head of the Imperial body-guard. The final stream of
colour showed nobles in blue and green silk gauze ; Im-
perial servants with robes of yellow silk, their hats deco-
rated with rosettes; more mediaeval costumes, of origi-
nal colour and quaint conception; a greater multitude
of waving flags ; a group of silken-clad standard-bearers
bearing the Imperial yellow silk flag, the Imperial um-
brella, and other insignia. Then a final frantic beating
of drums, a horrid jangling of bells, a fearful screaming
of pipes, a riot of imperious discord mingled with the
voices of the officials shouting orders and the curses of
the eunuchs, and finally the van of the Imperial cortege
appeared, in a blaze of streaming yellow light, amid a
sudden silence in which one could hear the heart-beats of
69
KOREA
one's neighbour. The voices died away ; the scraping of
hurried footsteps alone was audible as the Imperial
chair of state, canopied with yellow silk richly tasselled,
screened with delicate silken panels of the same colour
and bearing wings to keep off the sun, was rushed swiftly
and smoothly forward. Thirty-two Imperial runners,
clad in yellow, with double mitres upon their heads, bore
aloft upon their shoulders the sacred and august person
of his Imperial Majesty, the Emperor, to his place of
sacrifice and worship in his Temple of Ancestors.
The business of the day had now arrived. Presently
the Emperor's bearers stopped, and he alighted at the
entrance of a tent of yellow silk, which had been erected
at the angle of the Palace and Legation walls, within
the shade of trees in the Legation garden. It was in
this spot that his Majesty had given us permission to
watch the passing of his Court. It was here, within a
moment of his arrival, that the retinue of the Crown
Prince, his chair of red silk borne upon the shoulders of
sixteen bearers, stopped to set down its princely burden.
The Emperor and the Crown Prince passed within the
tent, changing the Imperial yellow and crimson robes of
state in which they had first appeared for the sacrificial
yellow silk, and emerging a little later to make obeisance
before the passing of the tablets of their ancestors. The
character of the procession was now modified. Soldiers
and courtiers, nobles and dignitaries of the Court, gave
place to priests clothed in the yellow robes of sacrifice,
and chanting in solemn tones the words of benediction.
70
AN IMPERIAL PAGEANT
The screaming of pipes took on fresh vigour, rising and
falling in shrill cadence, until the air vibrated with con-
flicting discords. Men, solemn of visage, their yellow
skirts swaying with the frenzy of their movements,
swept past the throne, a surge of song rising to their
lips expressive of the passionate despair and lamentation
which (should have) filled their souls. They disap-
peared, a mocking echo haunting their retreating foot-
steps. Again the music of the priests broke forth in
noisy triumph, heralding the presence of the twelve an-
cestral tablets, each carried by eight men in chairs of
sacrificial yellow, which demanded the homage of the
expectant pair. One came, moving slowly in a burst
of solemn song. The Emperor, his son the Crown
Prince, and the baby Prince, the offspring of Lady Om,
dropped to the earth. For a moment they rested upon
their bended knees, with crossed hands, in a reverent
attitude, as their own proud heads sank to the dust be-
fore the gilded burdens in the sacred chairs. Twelve
times they passed before the Imperial group, twelve
times each Prince humbled himself, the circle of sup-
porting nobles and attendant eunuchs assisting them.
It was the first appearance of the baby Prince.
Scarcely old enough to toddle, he was of necessity aided
in his devotions by the chief eunuch, who pressed him to
his knees, placing a restraining hand upon his head, a
guiding hand upon his shoulder. The babe followed
everything with wide-open, innocent eyes, becoming
tired and fidgety before the ceremony had concluded.
71
KOREA
The demeanour of the Imperial pair showed every sign
of reverence and devotion. The absolute sincerity of
their humiliation impressed those who watched the scene
with feelings of astonishment. The emotion of the Em-
peror was plainly manifest; he had paled visibly, his
whole being centred upon the objects of his veneration.
When the ceremony had ended the twelve chairs
turned towards the Ancestral Temple, and, as the Em-
peror ensconced himself in his yellow chair of state, and
the Crown Prince, following the example of his father,
mounted to his seat of crimson silk, the babe rode upon
the back of the chief eunuch, crowing with boyish and
infantile delight. Once again the flourish of the musi-
cians, the rattle of the drums, the screaming of the fifes
and pipes broke forth. The procession was moving,
priests and nobles, courtiers and Palace servants follow-
ing in the train of the Emperor.
The procession of the Emperor pressed forward to
the temple, the tablets, halting before the Temple of
Ancestors, while the Emperor and the two Princes pro-
ceeded to the Hall of Sacrifice, where offerings of live
sheep were burned, and baskets of fruits and flowers
presented before the altars. The spirits of the illus-
trious dead thus propitiated, the Emperor returned to
the sacred chairs, once again paying his devotion to the
tablets. One by one each was borne from its chair to
the receptacle prepared for its future keeping. Panels
of yellow silk screened them; no eye was permitted to
gaze upon them, nor any hand to touch them, as each,
AN IMPERIAL PAGEANT
wrapped in its inviolate sanctity of yellow silk, passed
from its chair of state to its holy place. Priests attended
them; the throne followed in their wake, the entire
Court, the highest nobles and statesmen in the land,
bowed down to them. An atmosphere at once devo-
tional and filial prevailed, for the cult of Ancestor Wor-
ship epitomises the loftiest aspirations of the Korean.
It governs the actions of a parent towards his child;
controls the conduct of a child towards its parent.
The ceremony over, the scene within the Temple
became more brilliant. Ladies from the Palace ap-
peared. Cakes and wine were produced, and the Em-
peror and Crown Prince resumed their robes of state,
discarding the sacrificial garments. The Lady Om came
to congratulate the Emperor, attended by a retinue of
gaily-dressed Palace women and slaves, their hair piled
high, their shimmering silken skirts trailing in graceful
folds about them. The Court musicians played; the
Court singers sang, and the prettiest women swayed in
a joyous dance. Within the private apartments of the
sovereign there was feasting and merriment. His
Majesty was himself again. The world, which he had
shown us, and in which we had been so interested,
changed quickly. Looking at the disorderly scramble of
the return, the scene that had passed before us seemed
like a dream. Yet, for a few hours, we had been living
in the shadow of the middle ages.
73'
CHAPTER VII
Sketch of Mr. McLeavy Brown — The Question of the Cus-
toms — The suggested Loan
IT is perhaps curious that the man who has held the
Korean State together, during the past few years,
should be British — one of those sons of the Empire,
upon whose work the present generation looks with sat-
isfaction. It is nearly thirty years ago since Mr.
McLeavy Brown made his appearance in China. To-
day, among Englishmen whose reputations are associ-
ated with the problems and politics of the Far East, his
name stands out almost as prominently as that of his
colleague. Sir Robert Hart, the Inspector-General of
the Imperial Maritime Customs of China. Seconded
from the Chinese Customs for special duty, Mr.
McLeavy Brown has devoted many years of his life to
the financial difficulties which beset Korea, holding at
first the dual position of Treasurer-General and Chief
Commisioner of Customs. Within the last few years,
Mr. McLeavy Brown's activity has been confined to the
administration of the Customs Service, where, though
deprived of the unique and influential position filled by
him as financial adviser to the Emperor, he has suc-
74
SKETCH OF MR. McLEAVY BROWN
ceeded in accomplishing invaluable work, for the
country.
A man may be judged by the character of those who
gather round him, and when, weary of the carping and
pettiness that prevail in Seoul, one turns to the service
which Mr. McLeavy Brown represents, it is to find his
colleagues animated by a quiet enthusiasm, and a spirit
of generous devotion, and loyalty to his principles and
policy. Unfortunately, his supporters are not In the
capital, and he can derive no encouragement from their
sympathy. Their sphere of work lies in the treaty
ports, but he is content to remain in Seoul always fight-
ing, in grim and stoical silence, against the absurd ex-
travagances of the Court, and the infamous corruption
of the officials. So long as he perseveres in this duty,
just so long will he be hampered and thwarted in all
quarters. The very opposition which he encounters,
however, is no unemphatic testimony to the exceeding
and exceptional value of the work which he has already
achieved, in the face of every obstacle to systematic
progress and reform, that the craft and cunning of offi-
cialdom can devise.
The animus which prevails against Mr. McLeavy
Brown occasions, to those who are new to Seoul, senti-
ments of profound astonishment and dismay, but after
the first feeling of strangeness has worn off, and It be-
comes possible to grasp the peculiar and complex vari-
ety of people who have gathered in the capital of the
Hermit Kingdom, the causes responsible for the exist-
75.
KOREA
ence of such an opinion are very plainly revealed. Apart
from the Legations, there are few foreigners, not even
excepting the representatives of the very miscellaneous
collection of American missionaries, who have not come
to Seoul from motives of self-interest, which bring them
into collision, directly or indirectly, with the Chief Com-
missioner of the Customs in his official capacity. If no
longer the financial adviser of the Government, his coun-
sel is sought as occasion arises ; although his advice is not
necessarily followed, it frequently happens that the influ-
ence of the Chief Commissioner of the Customs becomes
the controlling factor in the negotiations between a be-
wildered and impecunious Court and an importunate
concession-hunter. Moreover, cases may occur when an
upright regard for the interests of the kingdom makes
it incumbent upon Mr. McLeavy Brown to urge the
rejection of proposals, which have not come through the
channels of his own office. Such a variation of the or-
thodox method of application may happen any day in
Seoul. While this attempted exercise of a power of veto
does not endear him to the seeker after Ministerial
" considerations," the impersonal spirit, in which he dis-
charges the functions of his office, atones for any excep-
tional interference he may deem necessary. Much of
the feeling which actuates foreigners and officials
against Mr. McLeavy Brown, therefore, is based upon
a thoughtless disregard for the elementary facts in his
very delicate position. There is, of course, no sugges-
tion against his honour. In a community, accustomed
76
o
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o
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I
H
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H
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n
B^
W
SKETCH OF MR. McLEAVY BROWN
to the financial backsliding which appears to be an in-
evitable preliminary to any concession, the exponent of a
policy of economy and straight dealing always provokes
the strongest animosity in those about him.
A more emotional man than the Chief Commissioner
would have tired of the thankless part which he is com-
pelled to play. Years of laborious work, and the habit,
which he has acquired in the isolated state in which he
lives, of concentrating his energies upon the subject be-
fore him, enable him to school himself against the trials
of his situation. He treats every one with unfailing
frankness and directness, but the kindly instincts which
illuminate his private life are submerged in the cares and
worry of his official position. During business hours
he becomes the cold, irresponsive machine of State ; his
whole imagination and ingenuity focused upon the ne-
cessity of checking those who would incite their Sover-
eign to acts subversive of the principles of financial rec-
titude, which Mr. McLeavy Brown would fain see
encouraged.
Only those who have had experience of Korea can
thoroughly appreciate the fertility of the Korean official
in inventing new schemes by which public money may
be appropriated to his private uses. If the condition
of the finances had not already made the practice of
economy imperative, this tendency would justify the de-
termination to deny the means of peculation to officials.
Mr. McLeavy Brown has therefore brought into accord
the necessity of economy, which underlies the existence
77
KOREA
of the Customs, with the principles of the system upon
which he administers the service. It is, in the matter
of the foreign staff of the Korean Customs, impossible
for Korean officials to take exception to the standard of
payment by which the services of these foreigners are
compensated. If this all-pervading retrenchment makes
employment in the Korean Customs exceptionally un-
satisfactory to its minor foreign officials, a very clear
reason for the low payment is nevertheless found in
the narrow margin which divides the total revenue from
the total expenditure. Moreover, the Chief Commis-
sioner is himself the chief sufferer.
Mr. McLeavy Brown has long been an enigma in
Seoul. Although the variety of his gifts and the hos-
pitable quality of his nature make him an important
element in the life of the capital, there are few who care
to study the man and his movements intelligently. Mr.
McLeavy Brown possesses many moods; and the isola-
tion in which he is placed, by the absence of any sym-
pathy between himself and the people among whom he
lives, renders the circumstances of his position almost
pathetic. When, in 1896, he refused to accept any sal-
ary for the hopeless and onerous post of Financial
Comptroller of the Imperial Treasury, the foreign com-
munity of Seoul were astounded. This refusal to bur-
den still further the resources of an exhausted country
is, however, an index to the guiding principles of his
life. There is no dissembling in his transactions. Al-
though he may temper an ill wind with promises, the
78
SKETCH OF MR. McLEAVT BROWN
continuity of his decision is maintained, and he attempts
to carry out independently and honestly anything to
which he may have pledged himself. He is indefati-
gable in his work; indomitable in his perservance, cool
and determined. A barrister by profession, he devotes
himself to the minutiae of his service with an attention
which discloses his legal training. In his estimate of a
person, no less than a situation, he seldom errs.
In his official life he represents a type of Englishman
that is rapidly disappearing from our public services.
His private life reflects the culture and the grace of an
attractive personality. They say, in Seoul, that Mr.
McLeavy Brown is more skilful as a diplomatist than as
an administrator; and his brilliant conversational pow-
ers give some colour to the assertion. Upon arrival in
Seoul, newcomers are apt to hear that " Brown is a
walking encyclopaedia." He speaks, reads and writes
with equal facility French, German, Italian and Chinese.
It will be remembered that he is in the service of the
Korean Government, a sphere of utility and activity
which demands fluency in yet another language. His
library attests the breadth of his culture; it numbers
some 7000 volumes, and fills the walls of the rooms and
corridors of his house at Seoul from floor to ceiling.
Boxes of new books arrive by every mail. When he
reads them it is difficult to conjecture. At night, as one
strolls from the British Legation to the Station Hotel,
the lights in his study window may be seen burning
brightly. He is believed to sit up with his books very
79
KOREA
often until dawn. It would be typical of this silent self-
contained man if he found in the pleasures of his library
the antidote to much which takes place in Seoul.
When his Imperial Majesty was pleased to demand
the private residence and official premises of his Chief
Commissioner of Customs, there was much perturbation
in Seoul about the disturbances, which were expected to
take place upon the expiration of the Emperor's ulti-
matum. Preparations were made for such a contin-
gency, and four British men-of-war under Admiral
Bruce appeared at Chemulpo. The eventful day passed
quietly, however, and excitement gave place to no small
amount of disappointment among the European com-
munity. Mr. McLeavy Brown remained in possession
of his usual quarters, the whole question of a change in
the location of the Customs having been reserved by the
officials of the Court. Unfortunately, the demands of
the Court could only be contested in so far as they con-
tinued to be peremptory in their nature. When, later
due warning was given to the Chief Commissioner and
a fresh domicile appointed, as a servant of the Crown
Mr. McLeavy Brown was unable to Ignore the man-
date. Prior to this notice, the Emperor had insisted,
very foolishly, upon the immediate evacuation of the
Customs buildings, a demand compliance with which
was impossible, and in resistance to which Mr. Mc-
Leavy Brown was very properly supported by Mr. J. G.
Gubbins, C.M.G., then acting Consul-General to Korea.
After the murder of the Queen in 1895, the Korean
80
THE QUESTION OF THE CUSTOMS
Court fled from the old Palace, in the least healthy part
of the city, to the vicinity of the British and American
Legations, and built there a new Palace in a safer and
more pleasant locality. But the new Palace is over-
looked by the British Legation and by the residence of
Mr. McLeavy Brown. The Emperor, spurred on by
his eunuchs, had cast envious glances on the dwellings of
these foreigners, and not unnaturally decided that these
properties would make a very pleasing addition to the
Palace which he is now constructing. Unhappily, there
was reason to suspect that, in turning the Chief Com-
missioner out of his house, the Emperor, or rather Lady
Om, who desired the house, and Yi Yong-ik, who cov-
eted the Customs, hoped at the same time to expel him
from the country. That the attempt to oust Mr.
McLeavy Brown from his home really aimed at remov-
ing him from office can hardly be doubted. When the
house question rose, Mr. McLeavy Brown was given
exactly two days notice — from the 19th to the 21st
March — to move out. When he refused to accept such
an intimation, force was threatened, but averted by the
intervention of the British charge d'af aires. In the
end, Mr. McLeavy Brown's compound was entered by
a few hangers-on of the Palace, who were easily ejected
by the orders of the Chief Commissioner of the Cus-
toms. These creatures then tore their clothes and ran
crying to the Palace that they had been beaten and oth-
erwise shamefully ill-used. As a result, the dismissal of
the Chief Commissioner was demanded. Mr. Gubbins
81
KOREA
took the matter up with great promptness, and agreed
that, upon certain conditions, which included a proper
notice to quit and the choice of new sites, the Emperor
might acquire both the British Legation and the Cus-
toms buildings, which were apparently necessary to the
completion of the new Palace. As it happens, the Brit-
ish Legation, which directly overlooks the half-finished
Palace, is far more necessary to the Emperor's peace of
mind than the Customs buildings, which are upon a
lower level. It is obvious, therefore, that the attack
was directed more against Mr. McLeavy Brown, by a
posse of Court officials, than against his house. Never-
theless, it has always been apparent, since the Emperor
came over to the shelter of the Legations, that there
could be no sufficient accommodation for him in the
Foreign quarter without encroaching on the grounds of
Legations. The Legations have a delightful situation
on the only real eminence in the central part of Seoul,
and the Emperor, now that he has come, must either be
content with a malarial situation, at the feet, as it were,
of the foreigners, or absorb the Legation grounds and
send their tenants elsewhere. Already he has displaced
the German Minister. Sooner or later the British, and
perhaps the American, will go too; and the Palace will
then cover the whole hill, save the site of the Russian
Legation, whose flag will still wave a little above the
Imperial standard of Korea.
No sooner had a settlement been attained upon the
question at Issue between the Court and the Chief Com-
82
THE SUGGESTED LOAN
mlssloner of the Customs, than there came the announce-
ment that a loan of five million yen had been arranged
between the Government and the Yunnan Syndicate,
upon the security of the revenue of the Customs. This
at once compromised the authority of the Chief Com-
missioner, who, by virtue of his office, exercises absolute
control over the revenues. It should be understood that
the loan had nothing whatever to do with the question
of Mr. McLeavy Brown's house. The original pro-
posals were first mooted a year before the more recent
trouble. The Yunnan Syndicate, a French company
registered in London, is supported almost wholly by
French capital. It is generally understood that the
main object of the loan was to obtain a weapon by which
unlimited concessions might be extorted. The manoeu-
vre was not altogether successful. The Yunnan Syn-
dicate, by the terms of the agreement, bound itself to
lend the Korean Government five million yen in gold
and silver bullion at 5 >4 per cent., the loan to be sub-
ject to a charge of 10 per cent, for commission, and to
be repaid in instalments stretching over twenty-five
years. In case the Korean Government were unable to
repay the money out of the ordinary sources of revenue,
the Customs revenue had been pledged as security. The
agreement was signed by Pak, the Minister of Foreign
Affairs, and Yi Yong-ik, the Minister of Finance, on the
one hand, and by M. Cazalis, agent of the company,
and M. Colin de Plancy, French Minister at Seoul, on
the other. The document left many points open. It
83
KOREA
was particularly vague in that no date was fixed for the
delivery of the gold and silver bullion at Chemulpo. It
was therefore argued, with obvious reason, that the
Syndicate might turn this oversight to account by sim-
ply refusing to deliver the money until certain conces-
sions had been granted.
M. Cazalis, the agent of the Yunnan Syndicate, Lim-
ited, was indignant that he should find himself opposed
both by Mr. Gubbins and Mr. McLeavy Brown, who,
according to his view, followed the Japanese lead in
suspecting Russian intrigue. There Is no reason, how-
ever, to believe that the British charge d'affaires based
his objections upon any such grounds. The scheme of
the Yunnan Syndicate was quite iniquitous enough to
meet with opposition for prima facie reasons. Here are
the facts of the case as stated by the representative of
the company. The Yunnan Syndicate, without consult-
ing the Chief Commissioner of the Customs, the Japan-
ese Minister, or the British Minister, secretly persuaded
the Korean Government to borrow five million yen in
gold and silver bullion at 5 ^^ per cent., giving the Cus-
toms revenue as security. M. Cazalis argued that it
was necessary to carry the matter through with secresy,
because It would have been Impossible to procure any
signatures to the document. If the affair had been con-
ducted publicly, with the full knowledge of the Chief
Commissioner of the Customs. In other words, he
admitted that the scheme was such as would never have
commended itself to Mr. McLeavy Brown, who was
84
THE SUGGESTED LOAN
absolutely impartial and without interest in the mat-
ter.
In the meantime, it is as well to note that the loan
aimed at creating a position for French interests in
Korea. In view of the attempt of Russia to acquire an
open and ice-free port for her own purposes, and the
distinct understanding existing between the French and
Russian Governments with regard to Russia's Asiatic
policy, Great Britain could not disregard any possible
development. At that moment French activity in Ko-
rea may not have involved any direct menace to our own
interests. Nevertheless, any combination of circum-
stances which gave to French and Russian influence a
predominance in the administration of the country,
could scarcely fail to develop incidents, against which it
is our manifest duty to guard. And it is perhaps curi-
ous, moreover, that the man who was the prime mover
in the intrigue to dispossess Mr. McLeavy Brown of his
house should have been the very one to arrange the loan
from the Yunnan Syndicate with M. Cazalis.
If the wisdom and necessity of a loan of five millions
had been assured, there are many directions in Korea in
which such a sum could be most profitably spent. With
the revenue of the Customs as the guarantee, there
would have been no difficulty in securing more advan-
tageous conditions than those of the contract. The
terms were preposterous. Subsidiary proposals, as to
which no conclusion was then reached, further de-
manded the lease of the Pyong-yang coal-mines, the
85
KOREA
control of forty-four additional mines, the purchase of
French mining plant, the engagement of French mining
experts, and involved minor stipulations, which were in
themselves objectionable to the Court, while giving to
French interests in Korea an unwarranted and undesi-
rable preponderance. The uses to which it was alleged
that the loan would be put were precisely those which
are actually most necessary. Unanimous support for the
loan would have been won if there had been the slight-
est reason to hope for the faithful observance by the
Court of its pledges. Unhappily, there is no prospect
that any very appreciable proportion of the loan will
be expended upon the objects on which such stress was
laid, objects which are potent and vital factors in the
economic development of the kingdom. The loan was
handed over in bullion; in the ratio of one-third silver
and two-thirds gold, ostensibly that a National bank
may be inaugurated and the present nickel coinage re-
placed by gold and silver tokens. This is eminently
laudable. If the small dimensions of the loan rendered
such a thing feasible, the conversion of the national
money would be of incalculable benefit to the financial
credit of the Government and the country in general.
But it must be remembered that one of the reasons for
contracting the last Japanese loan was to provide a
nickel coinage exchangeable at par with the Japanese
and Mexican silver tokens. Unhappily, this same coin-
age is now at a discount of 120 per cent, for one hun-
dred Japanese cents gold. Examination has proved
86
THE SUGGESTED LOAN
that the intrinsic value of one dollar nickel of Korean
five cent pieces — at that time the only unit struck — is
only one-eighteenth of its face value as against the
Japanese gold standards of currency. The balance was
" squeezed." It is likewise impossible to make provi-
sion for the legitimate and honourable expenditure of
this new loan. Quite recently there has been a large
issue of one-cent copper pieces. These coins sustain a
better ratio to the yen than the nickel currency; as a
matter of fact the intrinsic value of the copper coinage is
so much greater than the nickel money that there is a
standard of exchange between them. At present the
nickel, compared with the copper, token is quoted at 1 2
per cent, discount.
87
CHAPTER VIII
Foreign action in Korea — Exhausted Exchequer — ^Taxes —
Budgets — Debased currency — The Dai Ichi ginko —
Dishonest officials
THE events, which have led up to the present com-
plex condition of Korean politics, originated in
the attempt of the Russians to secure control of the Cus-
toms and Finance of the Empire in the autumn of 1897.
As the effort of the Russian Minister of that time, M.
de Speyer, was only in part successful, his immediate
successor, M. Matunine, the present representative, M.
Pavloff, and his confrere of the French Legation,
M. Colin de Plancy, have in the interval consistently
directed their diplomacy to the completion of the task.
Their inability to force compliance with their demands
upon the Korean Government has embittered their ac-
tion towards the British Minister and the Chief Com-
missioner of the Customs. In the prosecution of a
work, at once discreditable and inspired by very petty
prejudices, no single diplomatic device, which could
serve their purpose, has been omitted from their policy.
The check, which the plans of the Franco-Russian-Ko-
rean party received in consequence of British action
has only retarded their development for the moment.
88
FOREIGN ACTION IN KOREA
It does not perceptibly relieve the situation, nor make
the office of the Chief Commissioner more comfortable
or the path of the British Minister more easy to follow.
Indeed, it is quite certain that the opposition of the
Russian and French Ministers to British activity will
become more vigorous in the future.
The assistance accorded by the British Government to
Mr. Gubbins during the recent crisis, has done much to
dispel from the minds of the Korean those illusions
which our past indifference had created. It is improb-
able that quite identical methods will be employed in
any future attempt of the Court to oust Mr. McLeavy
Brown from his position. If the Court gave way in the
face of the British demonstration, the tact and consid-
eration for the interests of both parties, which Mr.
Gubbins subsequently displayed, materially contributed
to the restoration of the status quo. Upon the other
hand, the apathy of the British Government in failing to
protect Mr. McLeavy Brown when he was deprived of
the ComptroUership of the Finances at the instigation of
the Russian Minister, in 1897, was of course conducive
to the late disturbances. The two offices are so closely
related, and the masterful and aggressive spirit of the
Franco-Russian policy is such, that the accession of a
Russian or French nominee to the Chief Commissioner-
ship of the Customs would imply their subsequent fusion
to the complete obliteration of British influence. This,
of course, should be impossible; and it would be, if the
British Government would awaken to the importance
89
KOREA
of maintaining unimpaired its prestige in Korea. We
have little material interest in Korea, but it must not be
forgotten that our position in the kingdom should be
superior to that of France, and equal to that of Russia.
If it were not that France is the partisan and ally of
Russia in Korea, as well as elsewhere, there would be
no occasion to do aught but support benevolently the
policy of Japan, without unnecessarily endorsing the
aggressiveness which distinguishes the attitude of the
Island Empire to its neighbour. But if we wish to pre-
serve our position we must put a little more vigour into
our policy, and, while maintaining our working agree-
ment with Japan, proceed to guarantee the integrity of
our own interests. These would be best served by in-
sisting upon the retention of a British nominee in the
supervision of the Korean Maritime Customs. Our
action in this respect would meet with the unqualified
approval of Japan and the United States of America,
whose trading interests, equally with our own, justify
predominance in this control.
The financial embarrassment of the Korean Govern-
ment, at the present time, is the outcome of the abnor-
mal extravagance of the Court. Anything which would
tend to increase the load of debt with which the Em-
peror encumbers the dwindling resources of the national
wealth, is neither politic nor desirable. The sources of
the Imperial revenue resemble in lesser degree those
which prevail in China. There are the Land Tax, paid
no longer in grain, which returned four and a half of
90
TAXES AND BUDGETS
the seven million yen odd, composing the total domestic
revenue in 1901; a House Tax, assessed capriciously
and evaded by the practice of a little discreet bribery;
the net Customs revenue, which was returned for 1901
at more than one million and a quarter yen (1,325,414
yen; £135,303 sterling at exchange of 2s. o}^i.), and
the proceeds of the various concessions, monopolies,
mines, and mint, and the sums derived from such miscel-
laneous and irregular taxation as may suggest itself to
that keen-witted Minister Yi Yong-ik.
Taxation is heavy and relentless. The list of the
more important objects, upon which an impost is levied,
includes, in addition to the land, customs and house
taxes, salt, tobacco, fish, fur, lumber lands, minerals,
ginseng, minting, cargo-boats, guilds, licences, paper,
cowhides, pawnbroking, etc. In more recent times cer-
tain taxes have become obsolete. But this list, however,
does not by any means exhaust the means by which the
Emperor contrives to make his subjects " pay the piper."
Quite subsidiary to the regular cases, but of great value
in themselves, are the donations which are sent up from
various parts of the country for the gratification of the
Throne. These gifts are very comprehensive, and em-
brace the fruits of the land as well as the products of
the sea. Little escapes the schedule of donations, and
no intervention can bring about the discontinuation of
the custom, while a failure on the part of a prefect to
attend to this matter would result speedily enough In
the loss of his ofiice.
91
KOREA
The Budget for the year 1901 was assessed at nine
million yen odd, of which one million yen odd was dedi-
cated to Imperial expenditure, and a trifle more than
this sum paid to the Imperial Privy Purse. The esti-
mated difference between the revenue and the expendi-
ture of the same year was the small sum of 775 dollars.
The Budget for 1902 provided for seven and a half
million yen ; the estimated revenue was placed approxi-
mately at the same figures, the balance between expendi-
ture and revenue being 653 yen. It will be seen, there-
fore, that there is little reason for the financial difficul-
ties in which the Throne is placed. If it were not that
his Majesty frittered away his income upon the pur-
chase of land, the adornment of his Palaces and his per-
son, his relatives, his women, and the perpetual enter-
tainment of his Court, this chronic impoverishment of
his exchequer would not exist. Moreover, at least one
quarter of his revenue is appropriated by the native offi-
cials through whose hands it passes. Under these cir-
cumstances he has never been averse from accepting the
assistance of interested parties; but this ill-omened relief
does not free the country from its burden of mortgage
and taxation.
The disbursements upon the different departments
engage the revenue to a degree which is out of all rela-
tion to the precise utility or importance of any of these
fantastic bureaux. The War Office claimed in 1901, in
round figures, more than three and one half million yen,
and the Foreign Office a quarter of a million yen, the
92
BUDGETS
Finance Department three-quarters of a million yen, the
Palace a little more than one million yen, and the Home
Department a little less than that amount. One million
yen is roughly £100,000. The amount paid to the War
Office for 1902 was, in round figures, very nearly three
million yen; to the Foreign Office, something in excess
of a quarter of a million yen; to the Finance Depart-
ment, rather more than half a million yen. The De-
partments of Law, Agriculture, Police, Education, and
Communications in this highly expensive and totally in-
efficient administration, all make good their claims upon
the Budget, until there is nothing left and very little to
show for this lavish distribution of the public moneys.
The Budget for 1903 I give in detail: —
The total revenue is estimated at ^10,766,115. The total ex-
penditure is estimated at 5810,765,491. This leaves a balance of
1624.
REVENUE
Land Tax $7,603,020
House Tax 460,295
Miscellaneous 210,000
Balance from 1902
(includmg surplus
from loan) i ,142,800
Customs Duties .
Various Imposts.
Mint
11850,000
150,000
350,000
g 10,766,1 15
EXPENDITURE
The Emperor's private purse $817,361
Sacrifices '86,639
$1,004,000
93
KOREA
The Imperial Household
Railway Bureau.... ^21,980
Palace Police 1 18,645
Police in Open Ports 69,917
North-west Railway . 22,882
Ceremonial Bureau . . 17,608
Mining Bureau 10,000
;^26l,022
The Old Man Bureau. ;J24,026
Bureau of Generals. . $65,853
The Cabinet $3^>73°
The Foreign Department
Office $z6,oz\
Superintendents of
Trade 5i>iS4
Foreign Representa-
tives 201, ozo
$278,198
The Finance Department
Office $53,910
Tax Collectors 141,600
Mint 280,000
Payment on Debt. . . 989,250
Pensions 1>9S6
Transportation 200,000
$1,666,716
War Department
Office $50,651
Soldiers 4,072,93 1
$4,123,582
The Home Department
Office 1134,624
Mayor's Office 6,144
Provincial Govern-
ments 91,862
Prefectural Govern-
ments, 2nd class. . 52,674
Quelpart 4,222
Prefectures 7781325
Imperial Hospital .. . 7,632
Vaccination Bureau. . 3,354
Travelling Expenses. 730
Prefectural Sacrifices. 866
$980,533
Educational Department
Office $24,822
Calendar 6,022
Schools in Seoul ... . 89,969
" " Country. . 22,580
Subsidies for Private
Schools 5,430
Students Abroad. ... i 5,920
$164,943
Agricultural Department
Office 38,060
General Expense ... 8, 240
$46,300
Council
Office $18,580
Imperial Body-Guard
Office 158,099
94
DEBASED CURRENCY
Bureau of Surveys
Office $21,018
Surveys 50,000
;j;7i,oi8
Incidentals
Road and other Re-
pairs ;J!35,ooo
Repairs in Country.. 10,000
Arrest of Robbers. . . 500
Relief Work 5,000
Burial of Destitute . . 300
Miscellaneous 480
Police at Mines, etc. 1,840
Shrinkage 3, i zo
$56,240
Law Department
Office $31 ,603
Supreme Court 15,686
Mayoralty Court ... 8,l6z
Prefectura] Courts. . . 1,251
$56,702
Police Bureau
Office $252,857
Seoul Prison 32,650
Policemen 51,462
Border Police, etc. . 23,762
Travelling Expense,
etc 600
;^36i,33'
Bureau of Decorations
Office $20,993
Telegraph and Post
Office $23,640
General Expense... 438,295
$461,935 Emergency Fund. . .$1,015,000
Steps have been taken from time to time by the
Foreign Representatives to improve the finances of the
country. Upon one occasion seven reforms were rec-
ommended, and the report subsequently presented to
his Majesty. In the course of an inquiry it transpired
that, in addition to nickels which were minted by the
Government, there were more than twenty-five sepa-
rate and distinct brands of nickels then circulating
in Korea. Until recent years the counterfeiting of
Korean currency has not been remunerative. The old
95
KOREA
time cash was of such small value, and the combined
cost of the metal and work together so nearly equalled
the face value of the true token, that the risk was not
commensurate with the profit. A single nickel of the
present currency, however, is equivalent to twenty-five
of the old coinage, and as the net cost of their manu-
facture is less than a cent and a half a-piece, it will
be seen that there is some incentive to the production
of false money. The number of counterfeit nickels is
rapidly increasing, and permits to coin were at one time
freely issued by the Government to private individuals.
Nickel is openly imported through the Customs; spuri-
ous coins in large quantities are brought by almost every
steamer from Japan and smuggled into the country.
The Government care only for the profit which they
derive from their illegitimate transaction, and, ignor-
ing the permanent injury which they are doing to the
solvency of the country, adopt every means to circulate
these depreciated coins. Until quite lately the circu-
lation of nickel pieces was confined to the capital and
the vicinity of two or three Treaty ports, the old cop-
per cash being current elsewhere. With a view to ex-
tending their use, however, the magistrates throughout
the Empire were ordered to accept redemption of taxes
only in this currency. But as wages are generally paid
in the nickel currency, and as the purchasing power of
the nickel Korean dollar is less than half it was with
copper cash, while the standard of payment remains the
same, the bulk of the nation is paid no better than for-
96
DEBASED CURRENCY
merly, while the purchasing power of their earnings is
infinitely less. There appears no prospect of any im-
mediate improvement, since the Government contracted
for the issue of a further forty million nickels. With
this accomplished, the face value of the coinage in cir-
culation, as against the Japanese gold yen, will be four-
teen million yen, or nearly one million and a half
pounds sterling. There is, of course, no gold or silver
reserve with which to redeem this gigantic sum.
To such a pitch has this condition of affairs attained
that in Chemulpo quotations are current for: —
(i) Government nickels;
(2) First-class counterfeits;
(3) Medium counterfeits; and
(4) Those passable only after dark.
There is little wonder, therefore, that the currency
question is engaging the earnest attention of the foreign
representatives. Awakening at last to some sense of
its responsibilities in this matter, the Japanese Govern-
ment issued, on November 7th, 1902, an Imperial ordi-
nance, which came into force on the 15 th, with a view
to deterring Japanese from making spurious coins or
despatching such nickels of Japanese manufacture to
Korea. The punishment to which offenders against the
ordinance are liable is imprisonment for a period not
exceeding one year or a fine of not more than 200 yen
(£20 Ss. 4d.). This enactment gave the Japanese
customs officers power to prevent the counterfeit coins
from being shipped abroad, and enabled the Korean
97
KOREA
customs authorities to institute proceedings against
Japanese found guilty of importing nickels of this
description. From January 22nd, 1902, when the first
seizure of the year took place, until the close of De-
cember, 3,573,138 pieces (coins and blanks), the total
face value being £18,191, were confiscated by the
Chemulpo customs officers. The largest quantity taken
at one time was 739,000 pieces, face value £3772, de-
tected on August 19th aboard a Korean junk, the second
largest haul was made on September 8th in a cargo-
boat, and consisted of 530,090 pieces, with a face value
of £2512.
With a view to provide a remedy against the deplo-
rable condition of the Korean currency, a Japanese
Bank, Dai Ichi Ginko (No. I. Bank), which is under
direction of Baron Shibusawa, decided, with the sup-
port of the Japanese Government, to undertake the
issue of notes by which a promise was made to pay the
bearer on demand in Japanese currency at any of its
branches in Korea. The Dai Ichi Ginko possesses
branches at all the larger Treaty ports, as well as in
Seoul, and is, perhaps, the most important commercial
agent in the country. The Japanese Consular officers
are authorised to supervise the issue and to receive state-
ments of the circulation and reserves twice a month.
They are also entrusted with certain discretionary
powers as to limiting the number of notes in use. The
denomination of the notes are i yen (2^. oj4d.), 5 yen
(105. 2j^i.), ID yen (£1 os. ^d.), and on May loth,
98
THE DAI ICHI GINKO
1902, there appeared the first issue of notes of i yen
value. Those of 5 yen were put in circulation on Sep-
tember 20th following. The 10 yen notes were not
Issued until a later time.
On February 28 th, 1903, the circulation of Dai Ichi
Ginko notes and the reserves held for their redemption
stood as follows:
Amount.
Branch. In circulation. Reservei.
Chemulpo 1 8,927 18,927
Fusan 24,568 19,701
Seoul 1,894 1.894
Mok-po 14,406 1 2,250
Total 59,795 52,772
This action upon the part of the Dai Ichi Ginko gave
rise to vehement opposition from the Korean Govern-
ment. Although the issue of the notes was duly au-
thorised by the Emperor, the Minister of Foreign
Affairs persistently obstructed the circulation of the
notes. Upon September nth, 1902, an order was
issued from the Foreign Office, upon the authority
of the Acting Ministers of Foreign Affairs, pro-
hibiting the use of the notes by Koreans upon
grounds which Impugned the credit of the entire pro-
ceeding. This order was Inspired, of course, by Yi
Yong-Ik, and when a few months later, on January 8 th,
1903, Cho Pyong-sik — then Foreign Minister — re-
moved the prohibition, YI Yong-Ik at once contrived
the dismissal of his too complaisant colleague. The
Foreign Office was now without its Chancellor, and Yi
99
KOREA
Yong-ik immediately set himself to revoke the charter
of the bank. After declaring that the Japanese paper-
money would be the ruin of the country and alleging
that the compensation claims against the Seoul-Fusan
Railway Company were purposely paid in those notes
with a view to an ultimate declaration of bankruptcy
upon behalf of the bank, Yi Yong-ik summoned on
January 24th a meeting of the Pedlar's Guild, at which
he forbade their acceptance of this paper-money. A
few days later, February ist, the Mayor of Seoul posted
an edict throughout the city giving effect to this prohi-
bition and, at the same time, threatening with most
severe penalties any one who used the notes or in any
way assisted to circulate them. The Finance Depart-
ment then circulated the edict throughout the provinces,
whereupon an immediate run upon the bank ensued.
Three days later, upon February 4th, the Acting
Japanese Minister threatened the Government with the
demand of an indemnity and a number of mining and
railway concessions in compensation for the injury oc-
casioned the bank, unless the obnoxious measure was
withdrawn. After considerable discussion and various
meetings, the Korean authorities agreed to withdraw
all obstruction and to publish throughout the Empire
their recognition of the existence of the bank. From
that day the validity of the position of the Dai Ichi
Ginko has been unquestioned.
The exactions and dishonesty of the officials impose
a perpetual drain upon the national exchequer. In the
100
DISHONEST OFFICIALS
removal of this one great evil, another serious obstacle
to a more flourishing financial condition would be sur-
mounted. Unfortunately, the drought and famine of
1 90 1, added to the decrease in the revenues of 1902,
created a discrepancy of five million yen. If this def-
icit may be considered extraordinary, no extenuating
circumstances can excuse the supplementary losses of
revenue attributable to the personal peculations of the
officials. The stringency of the financial situation
created by the famine drew attention to the very large
deficits, with which many of the more important metro-
politan and chief provincial officials were debited. The
inability of any of these gentry to disgorge their ill-
gotten gains resulted in their immediate prosecution at
the instigation of the Finance Minister, Yi Yong-ik.
Ministers of State, governors of provinces, prefects and
inspectors were brought sharply to account by the exe-
cution, banishment, or imprisonment of many offenders.
In such a moment the peculiar astuteness of Yi Yong-
ik becomes conspicuous. While he visited any official
who was compromised with the full penalties of the
law, he himself executed, in his capacity of Minister
of Finance, a bluff by which he netted almost half a
million yen for the Imperial Treasury at one stroke.
Yi Yong-ik arranged to buy the ginseng crop from the
ginseng farmers. This is a Government monopoly, and
the price was arranged at eight dollars a pound for
sixty-three thousand pounds' weight, dried and undried.
When the time came to pay, and he had secured pos-
lOI
KOREA
session of the ginseng, Yi Yong-ik refused to give more
than one dollar a pound, alleging that the ginseng
growers had misrepresented the condition and weight
of the consignment. In the meantime the ginseng was
sold; the money was appropriated, and the balance in
the Treasury correspondingly increased.
Upon another occasion, at a time when the discount
of nickel against yen gold was very low, Yi Yong-ik
was instrumental in promoting the presentation of a
gift of two million dollars Korean to the Emperor.
By careful adjustment the value of the exchange, nickel
currency as against yen gold, hardened twenty points
the day after the presentation. It is, perhaps, unneces-
sary to point out that Yi Yong-ik occupied the interval
in disposing of the difference to the advantage of his
master.
I02
CHAPTER IX
Education — Arts and graces — Penal code — Marriage and
divorce — The rights of concubines — Position of children
— Government
UNTIL the introduction of foreign methods of
education, and the establishment of schools
upon modern lines, no very promising manifestation
of intellect distinguished the Koreans. Even now, a
vague knowledge of the Chinese classics, which, in rare
instances only can be considered a familiar acquain-
tanceship, sums up the acquirements of the cultured
classes. The upper classes of both sexes make some
pretence of understanding the literature and language
of China; but it is very seldom that the middle classes
are able to read more than the mixed Chinese-Korean
script of the native Press — in which the grammatical
construction is purely Korean.
Despite the prevailing ignorance of Chinese, the
Mandarin dialect of China is considered the language
of polite society. It is the medium of official communi-
cation at the Court: the majority of the foreigners in
the service of the Government have also mastered its
intricacies. It has been estimated by Professor Homer
103
KOREA
B. Hulbert, whose elaborate researches in Korean and
Chinese philology make him a distinguished authority,
that only one per cent, of the women of the upper class,
who study Chinese, have any practical knowledge of
it. Women of the middle and lower classes are ig-
norant of Chinese. Again, the proportion of upper
class women who can read the Chinese classics is very
small. It is probable that, out of an unselected assem-
bly of Koreans, not more than five per cent, would be
found who could take up a Chinese work and read it
as glibly as a similar gathering of English might be
expected to read ordinary Latin prose.
In relation to the on-mun, the common script of
Korea, there is, however, no such ignorance; the upper
and middle classes study their native writing with much
intelligence. The language of Korea is altogether dif-
ferent from that of China and Japan; it possesses an
alphabet of its own, which at present consists of some
twenty-five letters. It has been ascribed by certain
Korean annals to the fifteenth century, A.D. 1447, when
the King of Korea, resolving to assert his independence
by abandoning the use of Chinese writing as the official
medium of correspondence, invented an alphabet to suit
the special requirements of the vernacular. Conserva-
tism proved too strong, however, and the new script
was gradually relegated to the use of the lower classes,
and of women and children. There is an extensive
literature in the vernacular. It includes translations
from the Chinese and Japanese classics ; historical works
104
EDUCATION
on modern and medisval Korea, books of travel and
hunting, of poetry and correspondence, and a range of
fiction, dealing with those phases of human nature that
are common to mankind.
Many of these books are regularly studied by Korean
women, ignorance of their contents being regarded with
disdain by the women of the upper classes, and, in a
less pronounced degree, by those of the middle classes.
The female attendants in the Palace are the readiest
students and scholars of the vernacular, their positions
at Court requiring them to prepare on-mun copies of
Government orders, current news, and general gossip,
for Imperial use. Books in native script are readily
purchased by all conditions of Koreans, and taken out
from circulating libraries. Many of the works are
written in Chinese and in Korean upon alternate pages
for those who can read only one or the other; those
who are quite illiterate learning the more important
chapters by ear. A work, with which every woman is
supposed to be intimate, is entitled The Three Prin-
ciples of Conduct, the great divisions being (i) The
Treatment of Parents; (2) The Rearing of a Family;
(3) Housekeeping. Companion books with this
volume, and of equal importance to Korean women,
are the Five Rules of Conduct and the Five Volumes of
Primary Literature, which, in spirit and contents, are
almost identical. They deal with the relations between
(i) Parent and Child; (2) King and Subject; (3)
Husband and Wife; (4) Old and Young; (5) Friend
105
KOREA
and Friend. They contain also exhortations to virtue
and learning.
Apart from the direction and scope of female edu-
cation in Korea, which I have now suggested, the
theoretical study of the domestic arts is an invariable
accompaniment of the more intricate studies. It is sup-
plemented with much actual experiment. As a conse-
quence, while the education of men of certain rank is
confined to the books to which they are but indifferently
attentive, a wide range of study exists for women apart
from the writings and teachings of the accepted pro-
fessors and classical authorities. Ornamental ele-
gances, the tricks and traits of our drawing-room
minxes, are ignored by the gentler classes, vocal music
and dancing being the accomplishments of dancing-girls
and demi-mondaines. The arts of embroidery, dress-
making, sewing, and weaving absorb their attention un-
til they have gone through the gamut of domestic econ-
omy. Occasionally women of the upper class learn
to play the kumungo, an instrument some five feet long
and one foot wide, bearing a faint resemblance to a
zither and emitting a melancholy and discordant wail.
There is one other stringed weapon, the nageum, but
the awful screech of this unhappy viol overwhelms me,
even in recollection. The usual and most simple amuse-
ment for the middle classes is the gentle, aimless stroll,
for the purpose of " look see." Swinging, rope-games,
dice, dominoes, and dolls find some favour as dis-
tractions.
1 06
PENAL CODE
If some little improvement has become noticeable in
educational matters under the enlightening influence of
the missionaries, great fault must be found with the
condition of the law. It is, of course, not always pos-
sible to graft upon the legal procedure of one country
a system of administration which works well in another.
Specific outbursts of violence, arising from identical
causes, assume different complexions when considered
from the point of view of those who are proceeding to
institute reforms. It may be submitted, further, that
a certain element of barbarism in punishment is rendered
necessary by the conditions of some countries, impos-
ing a restraint upon a population which would scoff at
punishment of a more civilised description. If exception
may be taken to the penal code of Korea, it must be
remembered that in the Far East the quality of justice is
not tempered with mercy. Many punishments are still
openly and frankly barbarous, while others are distin-
guished by their exceptional severity. Death by de-
capitation, mutilation, strangulation, or poison is now
less frequent than formerly.
Until within quite recent years it was the custom of
Korean law to make the family of the arch-criminal
suffer all his penalties with him. They are now ex-
empted, and with the reforms introduced during the
movement in 1895, some attempt was made to abolish
practices opposed to the spirit of progress. The table,
which I append, shows the punishments dispensed for
certain crimes.
107
Treason, Woman
Murder, Man . . .
Murder, Woman.
Arson, Man . . . .
Arson, Woman. .
Theft, Man
KOREA
Treason, Man Decapitated, together with male relafives to the
fifth degree. Mother, wife, and daughter
poisoned or reduced to slavery.
Poisoned.
Decapitated. Wife poisoned.
Strangled or poisoned.
Strangled or poisoned. Wife poisoned.
Poisoned.
Strangled, decapitated, or banished. Wife re-
duced to slavery, confiscation of all property.
Desecration oi graves Decapitated, together with male relatives to the
fifth degree. Mother, wife, and daughter
poisoned.
Counterfeiting Strangulation or decapitation. Wife poisoned.
Under the Korean law, no wife can obtain a legal
dissolution of her marriage. The privilege of divorce
rests with the man; among the upper classes it is un-
common. The wife, however, may leave her husband
and accept the protection of some relative, when, un-
less the husband can disprove her charges, he has no
redress. Should the wife fail to establish her case
against her husband, the cost of the marriage ceremony,
a large sum usually, is refunded by her relatives. The
law does not force a wife to cohabit with her husband;
nor, so far as it affects the woman, does it take any
cognisance of the matter. A man may divorce his wife,
retaining the custody of the children in every case,
upon statutory grounds, and upon the following addi-
tional counts: indolence, neglect of the prescribed sac-
rifices, theft, and shrewishness. There is no appeal
against the charges of the husband for women of the
io8
MARRIAGE AND DIVORCE
upper classes, domestic disturbances being considered
entirely reprehensible. Much greater latitude prevails
among the lower orders, irregular unions of a most be-
nign elasticity being preferred. Concubinage is a recog-
nised institution, and one in which the lower, as well
as the higher, classes indulge.
The rights of the children of concubines vary ac-
cording to the moral laxity of the class in which they
are born. Among the upper classes they possess no
claim against the estate of their progenitors; entail ig-
nores them, and they may not observe the family sac-
rifices. In the absence of legitimate issue, a son must
be adopted for the purpose of inheriting the properties
of the family and of attending to the ancestral and
funeral rites. Great stress is laid by the upper classes
upon purity of descent; among the middle and lower
orders there is more indulgence. Save in the lowest
classes, it is usual to maintain a separate establishment
for each concubine. The fact that among the lower
classes concubine and wife share the same house is re-
sponsible for much of the unhappiness of Korean family
life. In every case the position of the children of con-
cubines corresponds with the status of the mother.
Within recent years, considerable changes have taken
place in the Government and in the administration of
the law. Under the old system the despotic thesis of
divine right was associated with many abuses. Justice
was not tempered by mercy, and, in the suppression of
crime, it was not always the guilty who suffered. The
109
KOREA
old system of government was modelled upon the prin-
ciples of the Ming rule in China. The power of the
sovereign was absolute in theory and in practice. He
was assisted by the three principal officers of State and
six administrative boards, to whom, so soon as the
country was brought Into contact with foreign nations,
additional bureaux were added. Modifications in the
spirit, or in the letter of the law have taken place from
time to time at the instance of reformers. Before the
ascendency of the Japanese came about, the principles
and character of Korean law presented no very marked
deviation from that which had been upheld in China
through so many centuries. For a long time the in-
tense conservatism of China reigned in Korea. The au-
thority of the sovereign Is more restricted to-day; but
in the hands of a less enlightened monarch it would be
just as effective as ever against the interests of the coun-
try. Happily, however, the era of progressive reform,
which illustrated the inauguration of the Empire, con-
tinues.
The Government is now vested in a Council of
State, composed of a Chancellor, six Ministers, five
Councillors, and a Chief Secretary. The will of the
sovereign Is, however, supreme. The Departments of
State are conducted by nine ministers, chief of whom
is the Prime Minister, assisted in his Cabinet by the
President of the Privy Council, the Ministers of the
Household, of Foreign Affairs, Home Affairs, Finance,
War, Law, Education, and Agriculture. With im-
IIO
GOVERNMENT
proved internal administration many of the abuses which
existed under the old system have disappeared. There
are still many grievances, and the working of the new
machine of State cannot be said to give unalloyed satis-
faction. Justice is still hedged about with bribery; of-
ficial corruptness admits of the venal purchase of office.
Much outcry accompanies the sweeping of the Augean
stables ; and, at present, the advantages of the improve-
ments hardly justify the ecstatic jubilation by which
their introduction was greeted. It is early yet to
prophesy; but, if the honourable administration of the
public departments can be obtained, there is no reason
why success should not attend the innovation. The
responsibility for the working of the administrative
machine, however, rests, in the interval, entirely upon
the shoulders of the foreign advisers. It remains to
be seen, therefore, if the united services of these dis-
tinguished people can prolong in any degree the era
of honest government in Korea.
Ill
CHAPTER X
Farmers — Farming and farm animals — Domestic industries-
Products — Quality and character of food-stuffs
THE Koreans are an agricultural people, and most
of the national industries are connected with
agriculture. More than seventy per cent, of the popu-
lation are farmers; the carpenter, the blacksmith, and
the stonemason spring directly from this class, com-
bining a knowledge of the forge or workshop with a
life-long experience of husbandry. The schoolmaster
is usually the son of a yeoman-farmer; the fisherman
owns a small holding which his wife tills while he is
fishing. The farming classes participate in certain in- ~
dustries of the country; the wives of the farmers raise
the cotton, silk, linen, and grass-cloth of the nation, and
they also convert the raw material into the finished
fabrics. The sandals, mats, osier and wooden wares
which figure so prominently in Korean households, are
the work of the farming classes in their leisure mo-
ments. The officials, the yamen runners, the merchants,
inn-keepers, miners, and junk-men are not of this order,
but they are often closely connected with it. The Gov-
ernment exists on the revenue raised from agriculture;
the people live upon the fruits of the soil; Korean
112
FARMERS
officials govern whole communities given over to agri-
cultural labour. The Internal economy of the country
has been affiliated for centuries to the pursuits and prob-
lems of agriculture. Koreans are thus instinctively and
intuitively agriculturists, and it is necessarily along
these lines that the development of the country should
in part progress.
It is Impossible not to be Impressed by a force which
works so laboriously, while it takes no rest save that
variety which comes with the change of season. The
peaceable, plodding farmer of Korea has his counter-
part in his bull. The Korean peasant and his weary
bull are made for one another. Without his ruminat-
ing partner, the work would be impracticable. It drags
the heavy plough through the deep mud of the rice-
fields, and over the rough surface of the grain lands;
it carries loads of brick and wood to the market, and
hauls the unwieldy market cart along the country roads.
The two make a magnificent pair; each is a beast of
burden. The brutishness, lack of intelligence, and
boorishness of the agricultural labourer in England is
not quite reproduced in the Korean. The Korean
farmer has of necessity to force himself to be patient.
He is content to regard his sphere of utility in this
world as one in which man must labour after the fashion
of his animals, with no appreciable satisfaction to him-
self.
Originally, If history speaks truly, the farmers of
Korea were inclined to be masterful and independent.
113
KOREA
Indications of this earlier spirit are found nowadays in
periodical protests against the extortionate demands of
local officials. These disturbances are isolated and in-
frequent, for, when once their spirits were crushed, the
farmers developed into the present mild and inoffen-
sive type. They submit to oppression and to the cruelty
of the Yamen; they endure every form of illegal tax-
ation, and they ruin themselves to pay " squeezes,"
which exist only through their own humility. They
dread the assumption of rank and the semblance of
authority. Their fear of a disturbance is so great that,
although they may murmur against the impositions of
the magistrate, they continue to meet his demands.
At the present day the farmer of Korea is the ideal
child of nature; superstitious, simple, patient and ig-
norant. He is the slave of his work, and he moves no
further from his village than the nearest market. He
has a terrified belief in the existence of demons, spirits
and dragons, whose dirty and grotesque counterfeits
adorn his thatched hut. There are other characteristic
traits in this great section of the national life. Their
capacity for work is unlimited; they are seldom idle,
and, unlike the mass of their countrymen, they have no
sense of repose. As farmers, they have by instinct and
tradition certain ideas and principles which are excel-
lent in themselves. To the wayfarer and stranger the
individual farmer is supremely and surprisingly hos-
pitable. A foreigner discussing the peculiarities of
their scenery, their lands, and the general details of
114
FARMING AND FARM ANIMALS
their life with them, is struck by their profound rever-
ence for everything beyond their own understanding,
and their amazing sense of the beautiful in nature. The
simplicity of their appreciation is delightful. It is easy
to believe that they are more susceptible to the charms
of flowers and scenery than to that of woman.
At rare intervals the farmer indulges in a diversion.
Succumbing to the seductions of market day, after the
fashion of every other farmer the world has ever
known, he returns to the homestead a physical and
moral wreck, the drunk and disorderly residuum of
many months of dreary abstinence and respectability.
At these times he develops a phase of unexpected as-
sertiveness, and forcibly abducts some neighbouring
beauty, or beats in the head of a friend by way of en-
forcing his argument. From every possible point of
view he reveals qualities which proclaim him the sim-
ple, if not ideal, child of nature.
During the many months of my stay In Korea I spent
some days at a wayside farmhouse, the sole accommoda-
tion which could be obtained in a mountain village.
The slight insight into the mode of life of the farming
peasant which was thus gained was replete with inter-
est, charm and novelty. Knowing something of the
vicissitudes of farm life, I found the daily work of this
small community supremely Instructive. Upon many
occasions I watched the farmer's family and his neigh-
bours at their work. The implements of these people
are rude and few, consisting of a plough, with a mov-
115
KOREA
able iron shoe which turns the sods in the reverse di-
rection to our own; a spade, furnished with ropes and
dragged by several men; bamboo flails and rakes, and
a small hoe, sharp and heavy, used as occasion may
require for reaping, chopping and hoeing, for the rough
work of the farm, or the lighter service of the house.
During the harvest all available hands muster in the
fields. The women cut the crop, the men fasten the
sheaves, which the children load into rope panniers, sus-
pended upon wooden frames from the backs of bulls.
The harvest is threshed without delay, the men empty-
ing the laden baskets upon the open road, and setting
to with solemn and uninterrupted vigour. While the
men threshed with their flails, and the wind winnowed
the grain, six, and sometimes eight, women worked,
with their feet, a massive beam, from which an iron
or granite pestle hung over a deep granite mortar.
This rough and ready contrivance pulverises the grain
sufficiently for the coarse cakes which serve in lieu of
bread.
Beyond the bull and the pig, there are few farm ani-
mals in the inland districts. The pony and the donkey
are not employed in agricultural work to the same ex-
tent as the bull. This latter animal is cared for more
humanely than the unfortunate pony, whose good na-
ture is ruined by the execrable harshness with which he
is treated. The gross cruelty of the Korean to his pony
is the most loathsome feature of the national life.
Irrigation is necessary only for the rice, which yields
ii6
DOMESTIC INDUSTRY
fairly abundant crops throughout Central and Southern
Korea. To the north, rice makes way for millet, the
great supplementary food of Korea. Elsewhere paddy-
fields abound, and the people have become adepts in the
principles of irrigation and the art of conserving water.
Rice is sown in May, transplanted from the nurseries
to the paddy-fields in June, and gathered in October.
In times of drought, when it is necessary to tide over
the period of distress, the fields are used for barley, oats
and rye which, ripening in May and cut in June, allow
a supplementary crop to be taken from the fields. The
fields are then prepared for the rice. The land is in-
undated; the peasant and his bull, knee-deep in water,
plough the patches. Beans, peas, and potatoes are
planted between the furrows of the cornfields, the land
being made to produce to its full capacity. The crops
are usually excellent.
The fields differ from the farms in China, where the
farmers, preferring short furrows, grow their crops in
small sections. The long furrows of the Korean fields
recall Western methods, but here the analogy ends.
The spectacle of these well-ordered acres is a revela-
tion of the earnest way in which these down-trodden
people combat adversity. In many ways, however, they
need assistance and advice. If It were prudent to ac-
complish it, I would convert the mission centres of the
Inland districts Into experimental farm-stations, and at-
tach a competent demonstrator to each establishment.
The Koreans hold rice, their chief cereal, in peculiar
117
KOREA
honour. They state that it originated in Ha-ram, in
China, at a period now involved in much fable and
mystery — 2838 B.C. to 2698 B.C. The name, Syang-
nong-si, itself means Marvellous Agriculture. The
name was doubtless given at a later time. The first rice
was brought to Korea by Ki-ja in 1122 B.C. together
with barley and other cereals. Before that time the only
grain raised in Korea was millet. There are three kinds
of rice in Korea, with a variety of sub-species. First,
that which is grown in the ordinary paddy-fields. This
is called specifically tap-kok, or paddy-field rice. It is
used almost exclusively to make pap, the ordinary boiled
rice. Then we have chun-kok or field-rice. This is so-
called upland rice. It is drier than the paddy-field rice,
and is used largely in making rice flour and in brewing
beer. The third kind is grown exclusively on the slopes
of mountains, and is a wild rice. It is smaller and
harder than the other kinds; for this reason it is used
to provision garrisons. It will withstand the weather.
Under favourable circumstances, lowland rice will keep
five years, but the mountain rice will remain perfectly
sound for quite ten years.
Next in importance to rice come the different kinds
of pulse, under which heading is included all the
leguminous plants, the bean and the pea family. That
Korea is well provided with this valuable and nutri-
tious form of food will be seen from the fact that there
are thirteen species of round beans, two kinds of long
bean, and five varieties of mixed bean. Of all these
118
CHARACTER OF FOOD-STUFFS
numerous assortments, the " horse-bean " is by far the
most common. It is the bean which forms such a large
part of the exports of Korea. It is supposed by Ko-
reans to have originated in North- Western China, and
derives its name from the fact that it is used very
largely for fodder. One variety only may be regarded
as indigenous — the black-bean — and it is found no-
where else in Eastern Asia. Of the rest, the origin is
doubtful. The horse-bean grows in greatest abun-
dance in Kyong-syang Province and on the island of
Quelpart, though of course it is common all over the
country. The black-bean flourishes best in Chyol-la
Province. The green-bean, oil-bean, and white-cap
bean flourish in Kyong-keui Province. The yellow bean
is found in Hwang-hai Province ; the South River bean
appears in Chyung-chyong Province; the grandfather-
bean (so called because of its wrinkles) grows any-
where, but not in large quantities. The brown-bean
and chestnut-bean come from Kang-won Province.
It would be difficult to over-estimate the importance
of these different species of pulse to the Korean. They
furnish the oily and nitrogenous elements which are
lacking in rice. As a diet they are strengthening, the
nutritious properties of the soil imparting a tone to the
system. Preparations of beans are as numerous as the
dishes made from flour; it is impossible to enumerate
them. Upon an average, the Koreans eat about one-
sixth as much pulse as rice. The price of beans is one-
half that of rice; the price of cither article Is liable to
119
KOREA
variations. There are varieties which cost nearly as
much as rice.
The common name for barley is po-ri; in poetical
parlance the Koreans call barley The Fifth Moon of
Autumn, because it is then that it is harvested. The
value of barley to the Korean arises from the fact that
it is the first grain to germinate in the spring. It car-
ries the people on until the millet and rice crops are
ready. Barley and wheat are extensively raised
throughout Korea for the purpose of making wine and
beer. In other ways, however, they may be considered
almost as important as the different kinds of pulse. The
uses of barley are very numerous. Besides being used
directly as farinaceous food it becomes malt, medicine,
candy, syrup, and furnishes a number of side-dishes.
Wheat comes mostly from Pyong-an Province, only
small crops of it appearing in the other Provinces.
Barley yields spring and autumn crops, but wheat yields
only the winter crop. The poor accept wheat as a sub-
stitute for rice, and brew a gruel from it. It is used as
a paste; it figures in the native pharmacopoeia, and in
the sacrifices with which the summer solstice is cele-
brated.
Oats, millet, and sorghum are other important cereals
in Korea. There are six varieties of millet; the price
of the finer qualities is the same as that obtained for
rice. One only of these six varieties was found origi-
nally in the country. Sorghum is grown principally In
Kyong-syang Province. It grows freely, ho^wever, in
I20
CHARACTER OF FOOD-STUFFS
the south; but is less used than wheat, millet, or oats
in Korea. A curious distinction exists between the sor-
ghum imported from China and the native grain. In
China, sorghum is used in making sugar; when this
sugar-producing grain arrives in Korea it is found im-
possible to extract the sugar. Two of the three kinds
of sorghum in Korea are native, the third coming from
Central China. Oats become a staple food in the more
mountainous regions, where rice is never seen; it is
dressed like rice. From the stalk the Koreans make
a famous paper, which is used in the Palaces of the
Emperor. It is cultivated in Kang-won, Ham-kyong,
and Pyong-an Provinces.
The Korean is omnivorous. Birds of the air, beasts
of the field, and fish from the sea, nothing comes amiss
to his palate. Dog-meat is in great request at certain
seasons ; pork and beef with the blood undrained from
the carcase, fowls and game — birds cooked with the
lights, giblets, head and claws intact, fish, sun-dried and
highly malodorous, all are acceptable to him. Cook-
ing Is not always necessary ; a species of small fish is pre-
ferred raw, dipped into some piquant sauce. Other
dainties are dried sea-weed, shrimps, vermicelli, made
by the women from buckwheat flour and white of egg,
pine seeds, lily bulbs, honey-water, wheat, barley, mil-
let, rice, maize, wild potatoes, and all vegetables of
Western and Eastern gardens ; even now the list is by no
means exhausted.
Their excesses make them martyrs to indigestion.
121
CHAPTER XI
Japan in Korea — Historical associations — In Old Fusan —
Political and economic interests — Abuse of paramountcy
SOUTHERN KOREA bears many evidences of the
warlike activities and commercial enterprise of
the past generations of Japanese, who, abandoning their
own island home, sought domicile upon the shores of
the neighbouring peninsula. The precarious existence
of these waifs and strays from an alien state, in the
midst of a people whose whole attitude was anti-foreign,
did not deter others from coming to her ports. This
gradual migration from Japan to the Hermit Kingdom
continued during many centuries, promoting an inter-
course between two races which the Government was
powerless to frustrate. Japanese historians argue from
this settlement in Korea that the State was a vassal of
Japan from the second century by right of conquest and
appropriation. The idea, which prevailed through sev-
enteen centuries, was not finally rejected until the Am-
bassador of the Mikado signed a treaty at Seoul on
February 7th, 1897, which recognised Korea as an in-
dependent nation. From about the beginning of the
Christian era until the fifteenth century, the relations
between Japan and Korea were very close. From this
122
JAPAN IN KOREA
period onward Korea, although maintaining her atti-
tude of complacent indifference to events outside her
own Empire, betrayed signs of weakness in her policy
of isolation when menaced with the importunate de-
mands of her rival neighbours, China and Japan.
At the two points in her Empire adjacent to the do-
minions of China and Japan, war and peace alternately
prevailed. If, upon occasion, the Koreans went out un-
supported to fight their invaders, the leaders more usu-
ally united with one of the two rivals against the other.
Thus, there was always turmoil throughout the king-
dom. In the south, as in the north, the tide of war
rolled backwards and forwards, with varying success.
From the west, the armies of China appeared and van-
ished, skirting the Llao-tung Gulf, to plunder and de-
vastate the peninsula. Fleets from Shan-tung, crossing
the Yellow Sea, dropped their anchors in the rivers of
the land. The west was threatened by the hordes of
China, and the south was harried by ships and men
from the east, who pounced upon Fusan and seized the
cities of the south. The aggressions of the Japanese
extinguished any hope the Koreans might still have cher-
ished of preserving the southern frontier of their king-
dom Intact. Although cordons of armed sentinels and
palisades, barriers of mountains and miles of ruined and
deserted wastes protected the northern borders against
the Incursions of the Chinese soldiers to some extent,
the south was vulnerable.
Fusan was the floodgate through which poured the
123
KOREA
hostile masses of Japan, an unbroken stream of men, to
deluge the land. They Invaded Korea as enemies, levy-
ing tribute ; they came as allies against China ; they ap-
peared as the embassies of a friendly State and returned
enriched to the Court of their Sovereign. Actuated by
feelings of mercy, they sent grain-ships to Fusan when
famine overtook their neighbours. Between Japan and
Fusan there was the continuous passing of ships.
Around this outlet, the one gate to the southern half of
the kingdom, the spasmodic beginnings of the present
important commerce between the two countries grew
out of a fretful exchange of commodities.
In the years that followed the earlier visitations,
Japan became so embarrassed by her own internal trou-
bles, that the Kingdom of Korea was left in that peace
and seclusion which, always preferring, it had found so
much difficulty in securing. This happy state of things
prevailed for two centuries. At the end of this inter-
val, the annual embassy to Japan from the Court of
Korea had ceased. The kingdom in general, lulled by
visions of perpetual peace, no longer maintained de-
fences. Military preparations were neglected ; the army
was disorganised; the old fighting spirit of the people
died down, and martial exercises disappeared from the
training of the militia. Dissipation and profligacy were
rife. In the meantime, order having been restored In
Japan, the thoughts of her soldiers again turned towards
fields of conquest and deeds of daring. The vassalship
of Korea was recalled; the King was summoned to
124
JAPAN IN KOREA
renew his allegiance. The answer proving unsatisfac-
tory, preparations for an invasion were at once begun.
The fleet assembled and the ships set sail. The mobil-
ity which was to distinguish the Japanese in after years
characterised their movements in this campaign. With-
in eighteen days after their landing at Fusan, the cap-
ture of the capital was accomplished and a blow was
struck, which enabled the Koreans at last to understand
the gravity of their phght.
The part, which Fusan played in this war, materially
assisted the invading hosts of Japan. A settlement at
Fusan, which had been founded long since by the re-
tainers of the Daimio of the island of Tsu-shima, as-
sisted by itinerant traders and deserters from the numer-
ous expeditions which visited its shores, had grown to
such dimensions that when the force was descried off
the harbour upon the morning of May 25th, 1592,
Fusan was already in their possession. This circum-
stance gave the troops immediate facilities for disem-
barkation, and, in the subsequent vicissitudes of the next
six years' campaign, expedited the progress of the war.
The position of Fusan speedily made the place a base
of supplies to the army of operation and a repairing
yard for the Japanese fleet after their disastrous engage-
ment with the Korean ships, in an attempt to co-operate
with the victorious forces, which Konishi and Kuroda
had assembled before Pyong-yang.. After the conclu-
sion of the first invasion and the Japanese retreat from
the north, before the combined strength of the Chinese
125
KOREA
and Koreans on May 22nd, 1593, Fusan became one of
the fortified camps upon the coast, where the Japanese
armies passed the winter in sight of the shores of their
own land. The negotiations, which were opened in the
following year, and shifted alternately between the
camp of the Commander-in-Chief at Fusan and the
Courts in China and Japan, failed.
Even at this date Japan was anxious to establish her
power in Korea by obtaining possession of the southern
provinces. Foiled in this attempt, she renewed her at-
tack. Fusan again became the seat of the councils of
war, and the base for the second invasion. The opera-
tions began with the siege of the Castle of Nan-on, in
Chyol-la Province, upon the morning of September 21st,
1597. Twelve months later, the Japanese were with-
drawn from Korea, and the war came to its close. Two
hundred years passed before Korea recovered from the
desolation of this conflict, which was one in which the
loss of three hundred thousand men was recorded.
Moreover, the Japanese retained Fusan, a perpetual evi-
dence of their victory.
This early claim to the southern provinces put for-
ward by the Japanese plainly reveals how long standing
is their wish to annex the southern half of Korea.
Even in modern times, they have embarked upon one
campaign in the interests of Korea, while they are now
ready to go to war with Russia on behalf of the same
nation that they themselves consistently bully. Their
plea of Korea for the Koreans, however, is in curious
126
JAPAN IN KOREA
contrast to their own lawless domination of the coveted
territory. Indeed, the interests which the Japanese have
developed for themselves throughout these regions do
not disclose much consideration for the rights of the
natives. The treaty of 1876, which opened Fusan to
Japanese settlers, removed the nominal obstacles to that
over-sea immigration which had been progressing stead-
ily during several centuries. A wave of Japanese colo-
nisation at once lapped the eastern, western, and south-
ern shores of the Hermit Kingdom.
Indications of previous incursions were given by the
affinity which existed between the language, manners,
and local customs of these newcomers and the indige-
nous race. The existence of this affinity became a power-
ful, if impersonal, instrument in abating the opposition
of the population to the settlement. Unable to obtain
the secession of the territory which they so much desired,
communities of Japanese fringed its borders. They
planted themselves wherever there were prospects of
trade, until the resources of the land were tapped in all
directions, and the control of its commerce was virtually
in their hands. As other ports were opened at the per-
sistent instigation of these persevering traders, however,
the settlement of the south proceeded less rapidly. In
view of the changing relations between Korea and the
Powers, therefore, the Japanese passed further afield,
developing some little industry to their own advantage
wherever they went. Trade followed their flag, whether
they were within the radius of the treaty ports, or en-
127
KOREA
gaged in forcing the hand of the local officials by set-
tling beyond the limitations of their Conventions. The
success of these efforts was soon assured. Despite the
stipulations of the treaties, and in face of the objections
of their own, as well as the Korean, Government, the
irrepressible activity of these pioneers of a past genera-
tion unconsciously contributed to that supremacy which
the trade of Japan has since achieved in the land of her
former enemy.
The expansion of Japanese interests in Korea has not
been without pohtical design. The integrity of her
neighbour is bound up with her own existence. The
security of Korea emphasises the safety of her own bor-
ders ; and, as her own Empire has developed into a first-
class Power, this desire to see the kingdom respected has
become more and more the spirit of the policy upon
which she has concentrated her individual action. She
has fostered the trade with Korea because it drew to-
gether the ties which connected the two countries. She
has urged the concession of ports, and still more ports,
to foreign commerce, because the preponderance of her
trade in these open marts substantiates her claim to be
the lawful champion of the race. The progress of Ko-
rea, since the country came under her supervision, has
been more evident than any of the difficulties which
have originated out of the disposition of the Japanese to
bully and coerce the Koreans. If, upon occasion, the
results have suggested that the blind cannot lead the
blind without disaster, the rarity of mistakes reflects
128
JAPAN IN KOREA
credit upon the judgment which has been displayed.
This combination is, of course, directed against foreign-
ers. Just as Japan is discarding those Western teachers,
whose genius and administrative abilities protected her
in her days of ignorance, so does she hanker after the
time when she alone may guard the interests of Korea,
and supply the demands of her markets. At present,
however, it is open to question whether the Koreans will
have overcome their feelings of irritation against the
Japanese by the time that these have become thoroughly
progressive in their treatment of the Koreans. The
Japanese are more repressive in their methods than they
need be.
The extraneous evidence of the power of the Japanese
irritates the Koreans, increasing the unconquerable aver-
sion which has inspired them against the Japanese
through centuries, until, of the various races of foreign-
ers in Korea at the present, none are so deservedly de-
tested as those hailing from the Island Empire of the
Mikado. Nor is this prejudice remarkable, when it is
considered that it is the scum of the Japanese nation that
has settled down upon Korea. It is, perhaps, surprising
that the animus of the Koreans against the Japanese
has not died out with time; but the fault lies entirely
with the Japanese themselves. Within recent years so
much has occurred to alter the position of Japan and to
flatter the vanity of these island people that they have
lost their sense of perspective. Puffed up with conceit,
they now permit themselves to commit social and admin-
129
KOREA
istrative excesses of the most detestable character.
Their extravagant arrogance blinds them to the absurd-
ities and follies of their actions, making manifest the
fact that their gloss of civilisation is the merest veneer.
Their conduct in Korea shows them to be destitute of
moral and intellectual fibre. They are debauched in
business, and the prevalence of dishonourable practices
in public life makes them indifferent to private virtue.
Their interpretation of the laws of their settlements, as
of their own country, is corrupt. Might is right; the
sense of power is tempered neither by reason, justice nor
generosity. Their existence from day to day, their hab-
its and their manners, their commercial and social degra-
dation, complete an abominable travesty of the civilisa-
tion which they profess to have studied. It is intoler-
able that a Government aspiring to the dignity of a
first-class Power should allow its settlements in a
friendly and foreign country to be a blot upon its own
prestige, and a disgrace to the land that harbours them.
There are some twenty-five thousand Japanese in
Korea, and the Japanese settlement is the curse of every
treaty port in Korea. It is at once the centre of business,
and the scene of uproar, riot, and confusion. In the
comparative nakedness of the women, in the noise and
violence of the shopkeepers, in the litter of the streets,
there is nothing to suggest the delicate culture of Japan.
The modesty, cleanliness, and politeness, so character-
istic of the Japanese, are conspicuously absent in their
settlements in this country. Transformation has taken
130
ABUSE OF PARAMOUNTCY
place with transmigration. The merchant has become
a rowdy; the coolie is impudent, violent, and, in gen-
eral, an outcast more prone to steal than to work. Mas-
ter and man alike terrorise the Koreans, who go in fear
of their lives whenever they have transactions with the
Japanese. Before the Chino-Japanese war this spirit
had not displayed itself to any great extent in the capi-
tal of the Hermit Kingdom. With the successful con-
clusion of that campaign, however, the Japanese be-
came so aggressive in their treatment of the people that,
had the choice of two evils been possible in view of
these events, the Koreans would have preferred the Chi-
nese and a state of dependence to the conditions which
were then introduced. The universal admiration
aroused by the conduct of the Japanese troops in the
North-China campaign of 1 900-1 901 has added sensi-
bly to the vanity and egoism of these Korean- Japanese.
Convinced of their innate superiority, their violence
towards the Koreans goes on unchecked. It threatens
now to assume unparalleled dimensions. If the relations
between the Powers are to continue upon a satisfactory
footing in Korea, it will be necessary for the Japanese
Government to redress those abuses which foreigners,
Japanese, and Koreans alike have combined to de-
nounce.
131
CHAPTER XII
The commercial prospects of Korea — Openings to trade —
Requirements of markets — Lack of British enterprise
THE trade returns for 1900 exceeded every previ-
ous year. During the period covered by tiie
Boxer disturbances, however, the Korean exports to
China decreased, and the importation of foreign goods
likewise fell off. The stimulus given to the cereal trade,
by the interruption of the Manchurian export bean trade
from Newchang, and by the demand for food-supplies
for the troops in China, more than counterbalanced this
temporary decline in direct native exports and direct
foreign imports. Cotton goods, however, show an in-
crease of £14,297 over the figures of previous years;
but there is a specific falling off in imports of British
manufacture and origin, and a specific advance in the
more important lines of Japanese goods. I append a
small table revealing the comparative prosperity of Brit-
ish and Japanese trade at this date :
English, decrease in :
Shirtings jCS9>°^9
Indian Yarn ;Ci'°S^
Sheetings and other
pieces Small decrease
Japanese, increase in:
Shirtings j^i.73'
Yarn :£n,3Z9
Sheetings ^4.0,422
Other piece goods .. . ^^25,676
132
COMMERCIAL PROSPECTS OF KOREA
In time, the markets of Japan will produce every-
thing which at present comes from America in the shape
of canned goods, and from Europe, in the form of
textiles or food-stuffs. Japanese woven fabrics, and
canned foods of inferior quality are driving the whole-
sale manufacturing houses of England and America
from the markets. At present, therefore, the trade of
Korea is limited as much by the capacity of the Japanese
markets as by the wants of the Korean. In face of the
opposition of the Japanese, their determination to retain
the Korean markets for themselves, and the absence of
effective attempts by Western houses to beat up such
trade as may exist, it is difficult to believe that the future
will show any material expansion in the capacity of the
foreign trade.
Nevertheless, Korea provides a fair field for capital.
It would be possible to improve the condition of foreign
trade, if merchants could arrange to protect their inter-
ests by establishing their own agencies in the country,
under competent and energetic European management.
When British merchants depart from their apathetic in-
difference and organise an exhaustive expert inquiry into
the capabilities of the Korean trade, their trouble will be
quickly rewarded. New markets require new commodi-
ties, the demand for which any technical inspection of
the requirements of the people will disclose. Until this
examination takes place, however, the stagnation in
British trade must continue. Korea offers to British in-
terests an interesting field in which the development of
133
KOREA
new industries must be conducted upon practical lines.
Briefly, the imports in demand are those which are
necessary to meet the requirements of an agricultural
country whose mining resources are in process of devel-
opment and whose railway system is as yet in its early
stages. The increase in the importation of mining sup-
plies supports this contention. Bags and ropes for pack-
ing, machinery for agricultural and mining purposes,
and sewing machines are in greater demand. Railway
material is, of course, wanted. The new industries may
not be upon a large scale. Primitive methods doubtless
will continue for the most part to govern native manu-
factures, such as grass cloth, straw mats, ropes, etc. Ex-
lent paper has been made since the replacement of the
use of native lye by caustic soda and soda-ash, while the
innovation is one to which the people have taken kindly
enough. Again, while the paper industry is capable of
expansion, a brisk business in leather could be built up in
the country. Hides, which are exported to Japan in
their raw state, are abundant, and might be converted
into leather so easily on the spot. The straw braid in-
dustry contains great possibilities, while the climate of
Korea is naturally suited to the growth and treatment
of silk.
Many things would be necessary to the success of
such enterprises. The work must be based upon a
knowledge of the country and its language. The manu-
facturer or the merchant must take the pains to accom-
modate a direct import trade to the exigencies of the
134
OPENINGS TO TRADE
local market. As an example, smaller bales and shorter
lengths are requisite in the piece goods. The establish-
ment of sample warehouses at the treaty ports, and in
the more important trade-centres of the interior, where
bales of shirting, cotton and woollen goods, cases of
farming implements, etc., could be opened and sold for
cash, would appeal to the natives. This departure
would avoid the increase in the prime cost of the articles
necessitated by the existing system of transhipment. At
present, goods come from Shanghai to Chi-fu and
thence to Chemulpo. They pass then from the importer
to the Chinese merchants, and from them to the Korean
wholesale buyers; these resell them in greatly dimin-
ished quantities to the pedlars and agents, who retail the
goods. It would also be advisable to create consular
agencies in Fusan and Won-san. Official representation
at present is confined to an underpaid and understaffed
Legation in Seoul, and a vice-consulate in Chemulpo.
Additional employes should be interchangeable, under-
taking either the vice-consular duties of the ports or
the secretarial services of the Legation.
The bulk of the imports and exports, which pass
through the Customs, comes from China and Japan.
The means of transport are controlled by Japanese ; the
export trade of the country is entirely in their hands.
This fact alone should appeal to British shipping inter-
ests and to ship-owners. Unfortunately, many years of
prosperity have brought about great changes in the
spirit of our nation, and we no longer show the enter-
135
KOREA
prise and initiative which formerly distinguished us.
This depreciation in the forces of the nation has pro-
moted a corresponding depression in our trade. We are
no longer the pioneers of commerce; nor have we the
capacity and courage of our forefathers who fostered
those interests of which we are now so neglectful in
every quarter of the globe. At the dawn of the twen-
tieth century, it is amazing to find a country, with a total
foreign import and export trade exceeding two millions
and a half sterling for the year 1901 and two millions
and three quarters sterling for the year 1902, whose
shores were visited by over ten thousand steam and sail-
ing trading-vessels in the same period, registering an
aggregate tonnage of more than two million tons,
almost untouched by British merchantmen. Deplorable
as this may be, statistics which Mr. McLeavy Brown
has drawn up show that one steamship, chartered by
Chinese and floating the British flag, entered Korean
waters in 1900; that four steamers came in each of the
years 1901-2, a return which reveals a steady decline
upon the previous years. Since Korea was opened to
trade in 1880, British shipping has visited the country
in the proportion of 1377 tons to every two years. De-
spite appeals from our Consuls in Korea to British
steamship companies improvement has been impossible;
since no response was evoked by their efforts, and no
service has been established. The consequence of this is
that a valuable opportunity has been allowed to escape,
the Japanese profiting by our indifference.
136
OPENINGS TO TRADE
The trade of Korea is increasing gradually. A
steamer, which could make periodical calls between
Shanghai and Won-san, Yokohama and Vladivostock,
taking cargo and passengers to the open ports of Korea,
and touching at Japan upon the journey back, would
return good money upon the venture. British and Chi-
nese merchants would prefer to ship in a British vessel.
The old-fashioned traditions of the British mercantile
service, as to punctuality and despatch, are not carried
out by the steamers of the Nippon Yusen Kaisha and
the Osaka Shosen Kaisha, which call at the ports in
Korea. It is almost impossible to know when the steam-
ers of these companies will arrive or when they will
leave. Little attempt is made to observe their schedule.
The condition of the vessels of the latter company ac-
credited to the Korean run is filthy. Moreover, this
company is careless of cargo, and quite indifferent to the
comforts of its passengers. The Nippon Yusen Kaisha
certainly supplies meals in foreign style, but the Osaka
Shosen Kaisha provides nothing. Plying between
Japan, China and Korea, this company declines to make
any arrangements for foreigners in the matter of food
or accommodation. One experience is enough. Unfor-
tunately, foreigners are compelled to travel in them, as
the steamers of one or other of the two companies are
usually the sole means of communication between those
countries and Korea. There is cargo and passenger
traffic for any company that will organise a regular
steam-service. The profits might be small at first, since
137
KOREA
the Japanese prefer to endure their own steamers and
to ship under their own flag; but there are signs that the
flourishing condition of the trade of the country would
bring ultimate success.
The establishment of a steamer-service, if only of one
or two steamers, is not the sole hazard by which Japanese
competition might be faced. The climate of Korea is
peculiarly suited to fruit-culture. If this work were
taken in hand, the fruit might be tinned or exported
fresh to China, where it would find a ready sale. The
fertility of the soil near Won-san and the abundance
of fish in the sea off that part of the coast, would make
that port a suitable export centre for the creation of a
fish and fruit-canning industry under foreign manage-
ment. Fish and fruit industries of this description in
Japan are profitable and very bad. Nevertheless, their
output is widely distributed over the Far East. The
initiation of these industrial ventures would require some
time, for many difficulties oppress foreigners, who are
anxious to put capital into Korea. In the end, a modest
venture would reap sufficient success to justify the specu-
lation, while the returns would probably permit an im-
mediate expansion of the enterprise. There is no doubt
about the fish; there is no doubt about the fruit; but
whatever investment of an industrial character is made
in Korea, close and high-class technical supervision is
the necessary accompaniment.
The British merchant in the Far East is -the first to
condemn his own Minister and to abuse his own Consul,
138
LACK OF BRITISH ENTERPRISE
and he is the very last to help himself. It may be, how-
ever, that the follies of the Imperial Government, the
unreasoning prejudices and foolish blundering of the
Foreign Office, have created this apathy. The drifting
and vacuous policy of Lord Salisbury made It impossi-
ble to avert the decay of our prestige and trade which
has set in throughout the Far East. Official returns
establish only too completely the unhappy predicament
in which trade and merchants alike are placed. There
is a general decrease in the volume of the one, and there
has been no sympathetic activity among those engaged
in commercial interests elsewhere to set against it. The
deficiency is almost without solution, so long as bounty-
fed manufactures, carried in subsidised bottoms, are set
against the products of an unassisted trade. Competi-
tion is increasing, and foreign manufacturers are them-
selves now meeting the requirements of the markets of
China. There is little prospect In the future of the res-
toration of our former commercial superiority. Much
might be attempted, although it seems almost as If the
British merchant were so bent upon his own damnation,
that little could be done.
The decline of British trade cannot be attributed In
any way to the late disturbances In North China, to the
decline in the purchasing power of the dollar, or to the
temporary rise In the market prices. Japan has become
our most formidable competitor. The decrease in our
trade is due entirely to the commercial development and
rise of Japan, who, together with America, has success-
139
KOREA
fully taken from us markets in which, prior to their ap-
pearance, British goods were supreme. The gravity of
the situation in which British trade is placed cannot be
lightly regarded. We still lay claim to the carrying
trade of the Far East; but the figures, which support
our pre-eminence in this direction are totally unreliable.
If the true conditions were made manifest, it would be
seen that so far from leading the shipping of the world
in the Far East, Great Britain could claim but a small
proportion of the freights carried. Although we may
own the ships, neither our markets nor our manufactures
are associated with their cargoes. It would be well
if the public could grasp this feature of the China trade.
Members of Parliament, ignorant of the deductions
which are necessary before claiming the carrying trade
of the Far East — much less of the Yang-tse and of the
China coast — as an asset in our commercial prosperity,
and a sign of vigour of the first magnitude, do not rec-
ognise how unsubstantial is the travesty of affluence
which they so constantly applaud.
During 1901, owing to the Boxer disturbance, large
numbers of ships owned by natives were transferred to
the British flag. The ostensible decrease in the tonnage
of British vessels, which entered and cleared affected
ports, was therefore less than that of other nationalities.
Similarly, there was a small increase in the duties paid
under the British flag during the same period, owing to
the valuable character of these cargoes. Under ordi-
nary circumstances, the comparatively small decrease in
140
LACK OF BRITISH ENTERPRISE
the British tonnage and the increase of more than fifty
thousand taels in the payments made to the Imperial
Customs at such a moment of unrest, would suggest the
stability of our trading interest, and afford no mean
standard by which to judge the capacity of the markets.
Unfortunately, the two most important counts in the
returns, tonnage and duties, are no criterion. It is neces-
sary to inspect closely the individual values of the differ-
ent articles comprising the total trade. In this way the
general depreciation of our manufactures is at once
apparent.
A comparison of the American, Japanese, and Ger-
man returns shows which are the commercial activities
that are threatening our existence as a factor in the
markets of the Far East. If, in the returns, we were
shown the relations between the duties paid under each
flag, and the tonnage of any particular country, besides
the source and destination of its cargo, the true condi-
tion of British trade would be revealed at a glance. As
it is, until a table is added to the Maritime Report,
which will supply this valuable and interesting demon-
stration, the system of a separate examination is alone
to be relied upon. By this method we find that between
the years 1891 and 1901 there was a consistent falling-
off in British exports to the Far East in almost every
commodity in which the competition of America, Japan,
and Germany was possible. Since 1895, when Japan
began to assert herself In the markets of China, those
articles which, pre-eminently among the commercial
141
KOREA
Powers, she can herself supply, have carried everything
before them. Ten years ago the British trade in cloths,
drills, shirtings, cottons, yarns, and matches had at-
tained magnificent dimensions. In certain particulars,
only, our trade was rivalled by the United States of
America, whose propinquity gave to them some little
advantage in the markets of the Far East. Now, how-
ever, the trade has passed altogether into the hands of
the Japanese, or is so equally divided between Japan and
America, Japan and Germany, that our pristine suprem-
acy has disappeared.
142
CHAPTER XIII
British, American, Japanese, French, German, and Belgian
interests — Railways and mining fictions — Tabled coun-
terfeited Imports
WITH the exception of Great Britain, the ex-
ample of the Japanese in Korea has stirred
the Western Powers to corresponding activity. Every
strange face in Seoul creates a crop of rumours. Until
the new-comer proves himself nothing more dangerous
than a correspondent, there is quite a flutter in the Min-
isterial dove-cots. Speculation is rife as to his chance
of securing the particular concession after which, of
course, it is well known he has come from Europe, Asia,
Africa, or America. The first place among the holders
of concessions is very evenly divided between Japan
and America. If the interests of Japan be placed apart,
those of America are certainly the most prominent.
Germany and Russia are busily creating opportunities
for the development of their relations with the indus-
tries of the country; Italy and Belgium have secured a
footing; Great Britain is alone in the indifference with
which she regards the markets of Korea.
In this chapter I propose to state briefly the exact
position occupied in Korea by the manufacturing and
industrial interests of foreign countries; adding a spe-
cific table, which, I hope, may attract the attention of
143
KOREA
British manufacturers to the means by which the Japan-
ese houses contrive to meet the demands of the Korean
market. The competition of the Japanese has an ad-
vantage in the propinquity of their own manufacturing
centres ; a co-operative movement throughout the Japan-
ese settlements against foreign goods is another factor
in their supremacy.
It may, perhaps, afford British manufacturers some
small consolation to know that there are still many arti-
cles which defy the imitative faculties of the Japanese.
These are, mainly, the products of the Manchester
market, which have proved themselves superior to any-
thing which can be placed in competition against them.
It has been found, for instance, impossible to imitate
Manchester dyed goods, nor can Japanese competition
affect the popularity of this particular line. Chinese
grass cloths have, however, cut out Victoria lawns fairly
on their merits. The Chinese manufacturer, unham-
pered by any rise In the cost of production and transpor-
tation, produces a superior fabric, of more enduring
quality, at a lower price. Moreover, in spite of the as-
sumed superiority of American over English locomo-
tives, on the Japanese railways in Korea the rolling
stock produced by British manufacturers has maintained
its position. It is pleasing to learn that some propor-
tion of the equipment of the old line from Chemulpo
to Seoul, and of the new extension to Fusan, have been
procured from England. Mr. Bennett, the manager
of Messrs, Holme Ringer and Company, the one Brit-
144
BRITISH INTERESTS
ish house In Korea, with whom the order from the
Japanese company was placed, informed me that the
steel rails and fish-plates imported would be from Cam-
mel and Company, the wheels and axles from Vickers,
and that orders for a number of corrugated iron goods
sheds had been placed in Wolverhampton. The loco-
motives were coming from Shefiield. The Japanese
company expressly stipulated that the materials should
be of British make; it was only through the extreme
dilatoriness of certain British firms in forwarding cata-
logues and estimates, that an order, covering a large
consignment of iron wire, nails, and galvanised steel
telegraph wire, was placed in America, This dilatori-
ness operates with the most fatal effect upon the success
of British industries. The Emperor of Korea instructed
Mr. Bennett to order forty complete telephones, switch-
boards, key-boards, and instruments, all intact. Eric-
son's, of Stockholm, despatched triplicate cable quota-
tions, forwarding by express shipment triplicate cata-
logues and photographs, as well as cases containing
models of their different styles, with samples of wet and
dry cables. One of the two British firms, to whom the
order had been submitted, made no reply. The other,
after an interval of two months, dictated a letter of in-
quiry as to the chemical qualities of the soil, and the
character of the climatic Influences to which the wires,
switch-boards, and instruments would be subjected!
A few years ago a demand arose for cheap needles
and fish-hooks. The attention of British manufacturers
145
KOREA
was drawn to the necessity of supplying a needle which
could be bent to the shape of a fish-hook. A German
manufacturer got wind of the confidential circular
which Mr. Bennett had prepared, and forwarded a
large assortment of needles and fish-hooks, the needles
meeting the specified requirements. The result of this
enterprise was that the German firm skimmed the cream
of the market. The English needles were so stiff that
they snapped at once; and it is perhaps unnecessary to
add that, beyond the few packets opened for the pre-
liminary examination, not one single order for these
needles has been taken.
The position which Great Britain fills in Korea is
destitute of any great commercial or political signifi-
cance. Unintelligible inaction characterises British
policy there — as elsewhere. Our sole concession is one
of very doubtful value, relating to a gold mine at Eun-
san. In the latter part of 1900 a company was formed
in London, under the style of the British and Korean
Corporation, to acquire the Pritchard Morgan Mining
Concession from the original syndicate. In the spring
of 1 90 1 Mr. E. T. McCarthy took possession of the
property on behalf of the new owners. Mr. McCarthy
had had considerable experience as a mine manager.
The most careful management was necessary to the suc-
cess of this concern. The expenses of working were ex-
traordinarily heavy, as, owing to the absence of fuel,
coal had to be imported from Japan. A coal seam had
been located upon the concession, but nothing was then
146
BRITISH INTERESTS
known as to its suitability for steam purposes. It is
impossible to consider the undertaking very seriously.
All surface work was stopped during my residence in
Korea, the operations for the past few months having
been confined to underground development and pros-
pecting. There was talk of the instalment of a mill.
A vein of pyrrhotine, carrying copper for a width of
13 ft., was regarded with some interest, but in the ab-
sence of machinery nothing of much consequence could
be done.
Another concern, Anglo-Chinese in its formation, is
the Oriental Cigarette and Tobacco Company, Limited.
The capital of this venture is registered from Hong-
Kong. Since May 1902, the company has been en-
gaged at Chemulpo in the manufacture, from Rich-
mond and Korean tobacco, of cigarettes of three kinds.
At the present time it possesses machinery capable of
a daily output of one million cigarettes. In the days of
its infancy, the company was reduced to a somewhat
precarious existence — the early weeks of its career pro-
ducing no returns whatsoever. Now, however, a
brighter period has dawned, and an ultimate prosperity
Is not uncertain. Cash transactions, in the sales of the
cigarettes manufactured by the company, began in July
1902, realising by the end of February 1903, £1515
sterling; to this must be added credit sales of £896 ster-
ling — making a grand total for the first few months of
its existence of £2411 sterling. A large staff of native
workers is permanently employed.
147
KOREA
Aside from this company and the mining corpora-
tion, British industrial activity is confined almost ex-
clusively to the agency which Mr. Bennett so ably con-
trols in Chemulpo, of which a branch is now established
in the capital, and the Station Hotel which Mr. Ember-
ley conducts at Seoul. Mr. Jordan, the British Minister
in Korea, did request in June 1903, a concession for a
gold mine five miles square in Hwang-hai Province.
Apart from this, the apathy of the British merchant
cannot be regarded as singular when business houses in
London direct catalogues, intended for delivery at
Chemulpo, to the British Vice-Consul, Korea, Africa.
Nor, by the way, is Korea a part of China. Mr. Em-
berley has established a comfortable and very prosper-
ous hotel in the capital, while at Chemulpo Mr. Ben-
nett has opened out whatever British trade exists in
Korea. British interests are safe enough in his hands,
and if merchants will act in co-operation with him, it
might still be possible to create good business, in spite
of the competition and imitation of the Japanese. In
this respect British traders are not unreasonably ex-
pected to observe the custom, prevailing among all Chi-
nese merchants, of giving Korean firms an extended
credit. Foreign banks in the Far East charge seven or
eight per cent, per annum, and the native banks ten to
fourteen per cent., which represents a very considerable
advance upon home rates. In the opinion of Mr, Ben-
nett, who is, without doubt, one of the most astute busi-
ness men in the Far East, no little improvement would
148
BRITISH INTERESTS
be shown in the Customs return of British imports, if
the manufacturers at home would ship goods to Korea
on consignment to firms, whose standing and bank
guarantees were above suspicion, charging thereon only
home rates of interest. An American company, en-
gaged extensively in business with Korea, never draws
against shipments, by that means deriving considerable
advantage over its competitors. I commend this sug-
gestion to the attention of the British shipper, particu-
larly as trade in Korea is largely dependent upon the
rice crop. In the train of a bad harvest comes a reduc-
tion of prices. Importers, then, who have ordered
stocks beforehand, find themselves placed in a quandary.
Their stocks are left upon their hands — it may be for a
year, or even longer — and they are confronted with the
necessity of meeting the excessive rates of interest cur-
rent in the Far East. If the manufacturer could meet
the merchant by allowing a rate of interest, similar to
that prevailing at home, to be charged, the importer
of British goods would be less disinclined to indent
ahead. Under existing circumstances the merchant
must take the risk of ordering in the spring for autumn
delivery, and vice-versa; on the other hand, China and
Japan, being within a few days' distance of Korea, the
importer prefers to await the fulfilment of the rice crop,
when, as occasion requires, he can cable to Shanghai,
Osaka, or elsewhere for whatever may be desired.
Attached to the English Colony in Korea, which
numbers one hundred and forty-one, there is the usual
149
KOREA
complement of clergy and nursing sisters, under the
supervision of Bishop Corfe, the chief of the English
Mission in Seoul. Miss Cooke, a distinguished lady
doctor and a kind friend to the British Colony, is set-
tled in Seoul. A number of Englishmen are employed
in the Korean Customs; their services contributing so
much to the splendid institution which Mr. McLeavy
Brown has created, that one and all are above criticism.
Mr. McLeavy Brown would be the first to acknowl-
edge how much the willing assistance of his staff has
contributed to his success.
The importance of the American trade in Korea is
undeniable. It is composite in its character, carefully
considered, protected by the influence of the Minister,
supported by the energies of the American missionaries,
and controlled by two firms, whose knowledge of the
wants of Korea is just forty-eight hours ahead of the
realisation of that want by the Korean. This is, I take
it, just as things should be. The signs of American
activity, in the capital alone, are evident upon every
side. The Seoul Electric Car Company, the Seoul
Electric Light Company, and the Seoul (Fresh Spring)
Water Company have been created by American enter-
prise, backed up by the " liveness " and 'cuteness of the
two concessionaires, whom I have just mentioned, and
pushed along by little diplomatic attentions upon the
part of the American Minister. The Seoul-Chemulpo
Railway Concession was also secured by an American,
Mr. Morse, the agent of the American Trading Com-
150
AMERICAN INTERESTS
pany, and subsequently sold to the Japanese company
in whom the rights of the concession are now vested.
The charter of the National Bank of Korea has also
been awarded to these Americans, and it is now in proc-
ess of creation. The only mine in Korea which pays is
owned by an American syndicate ; and, by the way, Dr.
Allen, the American Minister, possesses an intelligible
comprehension of the Korean tongue.
There is a large American colony in Korea, totalling
In all two hundred and forty. One hundred live in
Seoul; sixty-five are employed upon the American Mine
at Un-san ; thirty-four live at Pyong-yang. Five are in
the service of the Korean Government; ten are asso-
ciated with the railway; the famous two are engaged
in business and the remainder comprise the staffs of the
Legation and Consulate, and a medley of missionaries.
American trade with Korea embraces kerosene, flour,
mining machinery, railway and mining supplies, house-
hold goods and agricultural implements, clothing and
provisions, drills, sheetings, cotton goods, and cotton
yarn. The American mine at Un-san employs seven-
teen Japanese and one hundred and thlrty-thf-ee Chi-
nese, one hundred Europeans, of whom thirty-five are
American, and four thousand natives, whose wages
range from Sd. to is. 2d. daily. The private company
that has acquired this concession works five separate
mines with enormous success; four mills, two of forty
stamps and two of twenty stamps, are of long standing.
An additional mill of eighty stamps Is of more recent
151
KOREA
construction. During 1901 gold to the amount of
£150,000 was exported by the company, while in the
year following this sum was very vastly exceeded. The
area of the concession is eight hundred square miles.
The future alone can disclose whether Korea is to
be absorbed by the Japanese. At present, the Japanese
population in Korea exceeds twenty thousand, the
actual estimate falling short of twenty-five thousand.
The Japanese control the railway between Chemulpo
and Seoul, as well as the important trunk line to Fusan,
an undertaking now in course of construction and under
the immediate supervision of the Japanese Government.
The new company has since absorbed the parent line
from Seoul to Chemulpo. The capital of this company
is twenty-five million yen, £2,500,000, which is to be
raised in annual instalments of five million yen, count-
ing from the time when one-tenth of the first instalment
of five million yen was found. As a matter of fact, the
preliminary turning of the first sods took place at Fusan
on September 21st, and at Yong-tong-po on August
20th, in the summer of 1901, From that moment, the
Japanese Government made itself responsible for the
payment of the debenture bonds, and guaranteed six
per cent, upon the company's subscribed capital for a
period of fifteen years.* Each share is of the value of
* The Japanese Government, on December 22nd, 1903, decided
to find the capital necessary for the immediate completion of the rail-
way. An additional million sterling has been allotted for this purpose,
and the line will be finished within the course of 1 904.
152
JAPANESE INTERESTS
£5, the money to be called up as required, each call be-
ing at the rate of ten shillings per share. The whole
of the 400,000 shares, wliich was the original allot-
ment, was at once taken up, Japanese and Koreans alone
being eligible as shareholders. The estimated cost of
the line is £9000 per mile. Work has been completed
as far as Syu-won, a distance of twenty-six miles, over
which section trains are already running. Construction
is, of course, being rapidly pushed forward, and work-
ing parties are engaged at a number of places along the
line of route.
The length of the Seoul-Fusan Railway will be 287
miles. It is confidently expected that the undertaking
will be completed within six years. There will be some
forty stations, including the terminal depots, and it is,
perhaps optimistically, estimated that the scheduled
time for the journey from Fusan to Seoul will be twelve
hours, which is an average of twenty-four miles an hour,
including stops, the actual rate of speed being approxi-
mately some thirty miles an hour. The present work-
ing speed of the Seoul-Chemulpo railway requires a lit-
tle less than two hours to make the journey between
Seoul and Chemulpo, a distance of twenty-five miles,
from which it will be seen that considerable improve-
ment must take place if the distance between Seoul and
Fusan is to be accomplished within twelve hours.
In the first few miles of the journey, the trunk line
to Fusan will run over the metals of the Seoul-Chemulpo
railway. The start will be from the station outside the
153
KOREA
south gate of the capital ; the second stop will be Yong-
san, and the third No-dol. At the next station, Yong-
tong-po, the railway leaves the line of the Seoul-Che-
mulpo branch to run due south to Si-heung, where it
bears slightly eastward until reaching An-yang and Syu-
won, some twenty-six miles distant from Seoul. At this
point the railway resumes its southerly direction and
passes through Tai-hoang-kyo, 0-san-tong, and Chin-
eui, where it crosses the border of the Kyong-keul Pro-
vince into Chyung-chyong Province, and reaches the
town of Pyong-tak. The line then runs near the coast,
proceeding due south to Tun-po, where it will touch
tide water, and, bearing due south, reaches On-yang,
sixty-nine miles from Seoul. It then proceeds in a
south-easterly direction to Chyon-eui, and once again
turning directly south crosses the famous Keum River
and enters the important town of Kong-chyu. From
Kong-chyu, which is ninety-six miles from Seoul, and
by its fortunate possession of facilities for water tran-
sit, is destined to become an important distributing cen-
tre, the line follows its southward course towards Sin-
gyo, where an important branch line will be constructed
towards the south-west to connect Kang-kyong, the chief
commercial centre of the province, with the main sys-
tem. It is also probable that a further extension of the
line from Sin-gyo towards the south-west will be pro-
jected, in order to make communication with Mokpo,
the coast port through which passes the grain trade of
Chyol-la and Kyong-syang Provinces.
154
JAPANESE INTERESTS
The town of Sin-gyo marks one hundred and twenty-
five miles from Seoul; beyond Sin-gyo, the south-west-
erly direction, which the line is now following, changes
by an abrupt sweep to the east, where, after passing
through Ryonsan, a western spur of the great mountain
chain of the peninsula is crossed, and the town of Chin-
san entered. Still running east to Keum-san, the valley
of the southern branch of the Yang River is traversed
in its upper waters, until, after following the river in a
north-easterly direction for some little distance, the
road takes advantage of a gap in the mountains,
through which the Yang River breaks, to cross the
stream and turn due east to touch Yang-san, coming to
a pause one hundred and forty-one miles from Seoul in
Yong-dong. From Yong-dong the railway moves for-
ward north-east to Whan-gan, one hundred and fifty-
three miles from Seoul, the place lying close within the
mountain range but a few miles distant from the Chyu-
pung Pass — to cross which will call for more than ordi-
nary engineering skill. Leaving the pass and running
slightly south of east, the railway proceeds towards
the Nak-tong River, through Keum-san, crossing the
stream at Wai-koan, a few miles north-east of Tai-ku,
a town of historical importance some two hundred miles
from Seoul. The railway then follows the valley of
the Nak-tong, and passes to the east of the river,
through Hyon-pung, Chyang-pyong, Ryong-san, Syok-
kyo-chyon, Ryang-san, Mun-chyon, Tonglai, where the
Nak-tong River is again met. The direction from Tai-
155,
KOREA
ku is south-east all the way to Fusan, whence the line
runs beside the river. At Kwi-po it strikes across to the
native town of Old Fusan, thence running round the
Bay to its terminus in the port.
This railway, which provides for extensive reclama-
tion works in the harbour of Fusan, has become already
an economic factor of very great importance. More
particularly is this manifest when it is remembered that
the country through which the line passes is known as
the granary of Korea. Developments of a substantial
character must follow the completion of this undertak-
ing, the position of Japan in Korea receiving more em-
phatic confirmation from this work than from anything
by which her previous domination of the country has
been demonstrated. It will promote the speedy de-
velopment of the rich agricultural and mining resources
of Southern Korea, and as these new areas become ac-
cessible by means of the railway, it is difficult to see how
the influx of Japanese immigrants and settlers to the
southern half of the kingdom can be avoided. Indeed,
a very serious situation for the Korean Government has
already arisen, since by far the greatest number of the
men, engaged upon the construction of the Seoul-Fusan
Railway, have signified their intention of becoming per-
manent settlers in the country. In the case of these new
settlers, the company has granted from the land, which
it controls on either side of the line, a small plot to each
family for the purposes of settlement. While the man
works upon the line, his family erect a house and open
156
JAPANESE INTERESTS
up the ground. Whether or no the action of the com-
pany can be justified to the extent which has already
taken place, the policy has resulted in the establish-
ment of a continuous series of Japanese settlements ex-
tending through the heart of Southern Korea from
Seoul to Fusan.
From time to time the Japanese Government itself
has attempted to stem the torrent of Japanese migra-
tion to Korea. But the success of the colonies already
settled there has made It a delicate and a difficult task
— one which, in the future, the Japanese Government
may be expected to leave alone. The railway once
open, the still greater stimulus which will be imparted
to agriculture in the southern half of the kingdom, will
appeal to many thousands of other would-be settlers-
Whatever objection the Korean Government may offer
to this invasion, it is quite certain that with the very
heart of the agricultural districts laid bare, Korea must
be prepared to see a rapid increase in her already large
Japanese population. In a great part the increase is
already an accomplished fact. The influence of Japan
is already supreme in Korea. It is paramount in the
Palace ; and it is upheld by settlements in every part of
the country. In the capital itself there is a flourishing
colony of four thousand adults. She has established
her own police force; created her own post-office, tele-
phone, cable and wireless telegraph system. She has
opened mines — her principal mine is at Chik-san — and
has introduced many social and political reforms, be-
157
KOREA
sides being the greatest economic factor in the trade of
the kingdom.
Little development has distinguished the concessions
secured by the French in Korea. A railway concession
was abandoned a few years ago ; and an existing charter,
covering certain mining rights, has almost expired. M.
Colin de Plancy, the amiable and energetic French
Minister in Korea, has, however, succeeded in re-ar-
ranging the terms of the abandoned concession. In
addition to this, in June 1903, he applied for a new
gold-mining concession in Chyung-chyong Province.
The concession, which has been revived, was granted
so far back as 1896; but it was forfeited long since, and
only recently revoked. By the old agreement a French
syndicate. La Compagnie de Fines-Lille, received a
charter to construct a line of railway between Seoul and
Wi-ju, the important frontier port at the mouth of the
Yalu. The construction of this line, which will form,
together with the Seoul-Fusan railway, the main trunk
line of the kingdom, will no longer be the private specu-
lation of a French syndicate, the Imperial Government
Itself having undertaken to make the road. Two years
ago the French Minister succeeded in reviving the inter-
est of the Korean Government in the scheme, and
secured an undertaking that the services of French
engineers only should be employed, and that the ma-
terials for the new work should be supplied by French
houses. In continuation of this most excellent piece of
diplomacy, M. Colin de Plancy was instrumental, at a
158
FRENCH INTERESTS
little later date, In bringing about the creation of the
North-Western Railway Bureau, of which the First
Secretary of the French Legation, M. G. Lefevre, was
made managing director, with Yi Yong-ik as its Presi-
dent. M. de Lapeyriere became the chief consulting
engineer to the railway; M. Bourdaret, and a' small
army of French engineers, master mechanics, over-
seers, and skilled workmen were placed upon the pay-
sheets of the company.
The Korean Government made itself responsible for
the annual disbursement of one hundred thousand yen
(£10,000) on this railway, and construction began in
the spring of 1902. Operations were suspended, how-
ever, owing to the prevalence of the rainy season. Work
was resumed again in the autumn and, again, after a
short spell of activity, stopped. Lack of the necessary
funds is doubtless the reason; yet, nevertheless, the
Korean Government refused an offer for the right to
construct the line from a Russian financier. This pre-
liminary stage of the line traverses districts famous for
their mineral and agricultural resources, and connects
the present capital, Seoul, with two former seats of Cen-
tral Government, Song-do and Pyong-yang, even now
rich and populous towns. It is intended to complete
the line to Song-do at once, pushing forward towards
Wi-ju, in the hope of connecting with the Trans-Si-
berian system, when the Government is able to find the
funds. The distance between Seoul and Song-do by the
line of railway is eighty kilometres. In round figures
159
KOREA
the cost of construction is placed at about £260,000;
the traffic receipts are valued at £12,000, £10,000 of
which will be contributed by passenger traffic. The
annual working expenses are placed at £8000; and it
is " hoped " that the Seoul-Song-do line will be opened
to general traffic within two years. The figures are al-
together French and airy.
A survey of the line between Seoul and Song-do
shows to some extent the nature of the work which
awaits the French engineers. Gradients will be about
21 feet to the mile; embankment-building and excava-
tion give 13,000 cubic metres to the kilometre; twenty-
six per cent, of the line will be curved, the radius of the
most acute bend being some 200 metres; twenty-five
moderately large bridges, one hundred and fifty small
bridges and culverts will figure in construction. The
Im-chin River will be crossed, at first, by ferry; in the
end, however, a bridge, five hundred feet in length,
will span this break in the line. The gauge of the road
would be 1.43 m.; the ties will be 2.50 m. long, 30 m.
in width, 1.25 m. thick. There will be 1.70 kilometres
for the purpose of side-tracking, and an off-line, 1.30
kilometres long, will branch to Han-chu, on the Han
River. Between Seoul and Song-do there will be six
stations and four signal points; the rolling stock will
consist of five locomotives of the Mallet type, five com-
bined first and second class and eight third class coaches,
five luggage cars, and twenty-five freight cars. This
comprises the general requirements of the proposed
160
FRENCH INTERESTS
line, evolved out of an abandoned concession by the
astuteness and activity of the French Minister.
The line will proceed from outside the West Gate
of Seoul, where the terminus will be 48.50 m. above the
sea level, towards Yang-wha-chin, crossing the A-o-ya
Pass at 59.50 m. Descending to the valley of the Han
River, and 17 m. above tide-water, the line traverses
the district of Han-ju, and the western county of Ko-
yang, leaving the Han valley 3 1 kilometres from Seoul.
The line then crosses the Kyo-wha valley, at an eleva-
tion of 1 5 m., and at 42 kilometres from Seoul crosses a
tributary of the Im-chin River at Mun-san-po. Fifty-
one kilometres from Seoul the railway will meet the
Im-chin River ferry, where passengers and freight,
under the existing provisional arrangements, will be
transferred to a second train upon the remote side of
the river. The line then crosses the Chang-dan district,
and moving up the Valley of Song-do enters the Song-
do terminus at an elevation of 40 m. The distance by
rail is somewhat shorter than by road, and unexpectedly
few obstacles have been met with in the course of con-
struction. A rough survey has been made north from
Song-do, from which point the railway will run due
west to Hai-chu, then due north to Pyong-yang through
Sin-chyon and An-ak. Beyond this point to Wi-ju no
survey has been attempted.
It is questionable, however, if the French line prom-
ises such satisfactory returns as those which may be
expected from the southern railway. When the two
161
KOREA
lines have been completed and Fusan is in direct com-
munication with the Siberian Railway, some definite
expansion in the northern areas of the kingdom may
be anticipated, and the railway will be in a position to
compete with the junks of the Yalu. But, apart from
the border trade, there is little settled industry which
may be relied on to contribute traffic to the carrying
capacity of this line; nor is it likely that the mines,
whose concessions may be said to border the line of
railway, will accept it as a medium of transportation
so long as they are able to make use of the existing
facilities for water transit, with which the American
and English mines are served. Of course, it cannot be
predicted what mining and agricultural developments
may take place in the northern regions of Korea. Gold
and coal, copper and iron are known to exist. The de-
velopment of this mineral wealth may open up the
country, and the presence of the mines will create a
demand for the local production of certain varieties of
food-stuffs. These channels of revenue to the railway
are highly problematical. In the absence of any specific
value, which may be attached to the prospects of the
French line, a comparison between the relative impor-
tance of the two undertakings confirms the superiority
of the Japanese concession upon every count. The
strategic, as well as the commercial, significance of the
southern trunk line must impress the Koreans with Its
very positive qualities.
There are some eighty French subjects in Korea, of
162
RAILWAYS AND MINING FICTIONS
whom forty are French priests and one a bishop. Three
are associated with the North-Western Railway Bu-
reau; two are in the Korean Customs; two have been
given employment in the Imperial Mines, and one has
become legal adviser to the Imperial Government. One
is attached to the French School; one manages, most
admirably and successfully, the Imperial Korean Post
Office. Two are working in the Korean Arsenal, and
three assist in the management of the Hotel du Palais.
The members of the French colony have been lately
increased by the addition of a number of French en-
gineers, who have fallen upon the Korean Government
in the hope of finding employment with the Railway
Bureau. These transitory visitors are not included in
my figures.
The German colony is small and insignificant. Ger-
man interests, however, have been given the concession
of a railway line from Seoul to Won-san. A mine, con-
trolled by a German syndicate, and located at Tong-
ko-kai, has been abandoned with the loss of the many
thousand pounds which had been laid out upon ma-
chinery and mining material in general. Germans pos-
sess no other concessions. There is an important firm
in Chemulpo, and this house has established a branch
in Seoul. A distinguishing feature of the business is
that there are Germans in both the Seoul and Chemulpo
offices who are thoroughly familiar with the Korean
language. This, as the country develops, will not be
without effect; and the fact seems to illustrate very ad-
163
KOREA
mirably the methodical system upon which German
commerce in the Far East is built up. The Court band
has been entrusted to the training of a German profes-
sor. The effect is very solemn, and perhaps discloses
the necessity for the introduction of a German physician
to the Imperial Household. This counterblast to the
position, which a singular power of sympathy and great
professional ability has won for Miss Cooke, is of re-
cent accomplishment. This English lady doctor has
been for many years physician-in-ordinary to the Im-
perial Household, and enjoys the complete confidence
of the Court. Miss Cooke is the only foreigner who
has succeeded in overcoming native prejudice and sus-
picion entirely.
The battle of concessions is as keen in Korea as In
China. The latest Power to interest itself in the ex-
ploitation of the mineral deposits of Korea is Belgium,
hitherto without special concern in the development of
the mining interests of the kingdom. Now, however,
Belgium has come forward, and it is understood that a
concession, nine hundred square It* in extent, has been
granted to its nationals. The Belgians have undertaken
to lend the Korean Government 4,000,000 yen, receiv-
ing in exchange the lease of the mines for twenty-five
years. The concession is situated at Ta-bak Mountain,
at the point where the Chyung-chyong, Kyong-syang
and Kang-won Provinces meet. At this moment it is
^ Ten /« equal three English miles.
164
BELGIAN INTERESTS
impossible to state the value of this new concession ; but
the Belgians are shrewd, close-fisted people. It is
doubtful, therefore, if their venture will be as unfortu-
nate as our own, or the German, has been.
Adverting to the foreign trade of Korea again,
foreign merchants possess a very definite grievance
against the Japanese manufacturing houses who cater
for the Korean markets. After the closest investiga-
tion, I venture to assert there are but few of the so-
called foreign-made articles, exposed to sale in the shops
of the Japanese settlements in any of the open ports in
Korea, that are not most shameless imitations. For
the most part they are concocted in Japan, and embel-
lished with the necessary designs and trade marks, with
some imperceptible modification. The illegality of this
practice is incontrovertible. In the absence of any
supervision upon the part of the Korean Customs, or by
representatives of merchants affected by these tricks, it
is difficult to see how they may be avoided. I add a
table, showing the various articles counterfeited by
Japanese manufacturers with which I am personally
familiar, and which are on sale under false descriptions.
In each instance the imitation comes from Japan.
America :
Kerosene, Standard Oil Co, Califomian wines, hock, and claret.
Richmond Gem cigarettes. Eagle Brand Milk.
Armour's canned meats. Drugs.
Califomian canned fruit.
165
KOREA
Great Britain :
Soap, Pears. Alkalies, Brunner, Mond, and
Matches, Bryant and May's. Company.
Sauces, Lea and Perrin. Jams, Crosse and Blackwell.
Needles and cottons. Turkey Reds, John Orr-Evdng
and Company.
France :
Wines, claret and hock. Photographic materials.
Germany :
Quinine, Messrs. C. A. Boeh- Needles.
rmger's. Pianos, Berlin.
Hardware.
Sweden :
Matches.
Holland :
Butter. Liqueurs and spirits.
Denmark :
Butter.
India :
Cotton fabrics and yarns.
Switzerland :
Swiss milk, Nestle's.
Japanese kerosene oil comes over in cans which ex-
actly reproduce the pattern of the Standard Oil Com-
pany.
John Orr-Ewing and Company's Turkey reds, in
breadths of 27 in. and 40 yds. long, and colour fast,
become 27 in. in breadth, 37 J^ yds. in length, the colour
166
UUUJN TliKFKlTED IMi'ORTS
is not fast, the material shrinks and the weight Is 5 lbs.
deficient.
The trade mark of the firm, " Parrot Brand," with a
picture of the bird, is the most perfect imitation imag-
inable.
Imitations of Nestle's milk, Bryant and May's
matches, Boehringer's quinine, and many other articles
have been repeatedly denounced by the firms.
167
CHAPTER XIV
Some account of the treaty ports ; Won-san, Fusan, Mok-po —
Character of export and import trade — Local industries
THE oldest of the settlements in Korea is the port
of Won-san, situated upon the eastern shores of
the kingdom, half-way between Fusan and Vladivos-
tock.
The picturesqueness of its setting makes the spacious
harbour of this bustling treaty port a graceful conclu-
sion to any tour which has had for its object the inspec-
tion of the scenic loveliness of the Diamond Mountains.
There is little indeed to disturb the placid enjoyment of
life amid the pine-clad bluffs and frowning headlands
which surround the broad waters of the bay. The fact
of passing from the seclusion of wild valleys and rugged
heights, sheltering only the monasteries of Buddha, into
the lively atmosphere of a treaty port does not destroy
the illusions which any stay in the lofty regions of these
Twelve Thousand Peaks necessarily fostera.
Within wooded cliffs, which hang above a fringe of
silver sand, looking out over a harbour forty square
miles in extent, where mountains encompass every quar-
ter of the horizon, and rocky islets, verdant with vegeta-
i68
jA
WON-SAN
tion, stud a sapphire sea, there lies a spot where the
fleets of the world might swing at anchor with perfect
safety, in perfect isolation. It is certainly a wonderful
harbour; and worthy of the commotion caused at inter-
vals by the desire of Russia to secure possession of the
prize. The superb advantages with which it is endowed
make it an object of solicitude to the Powers. If pos-
session of this harbour were coupled with the occupa-
tion of Vladivostock and Port Arthur, the control of
those northern seas would rest with the Russian fleet.
Otherwise, it is a peaceful place to be the centre of so
much political turmoil.
Won-san, the treaty port, is situated In the south-west
corner of the harbour. The northern arm of the har-
bour is known as Port Lazareff; the south-eastern por-
tion is Broughton Bay, the name which is usually given
to the entire harbour. Captain W. R. Broughton, the
English navigator, first entered it on October 4, 1797, in
his sloop-of-war of 16 guns. Providence. Port Lazareff
is about sixteen miles from Won-san, in a westerly direc-
tion across the bay, at the mouth of the Dun River. It
is the point which Russia was credited with the inten-
tion of securing for the terminus of her Trans-Siberian
Railway. There are two entrances Into Broughton Bay,
one giving direct admission into Port Lazareff. Russian
men-of-war make the most of this advantage In visiting
the harbour, for It enables them to enter without reveal-
ing their presence to the authorities upon shore. Upon
one occasion, when I was visiting the neighbourhood, I
169
KOREA
surprised parties from two Russian men-of-war engaged
in surveying the hills and taking soundings of the an-
chorages; their presence was quite unsuspected by the
Japanese Consul or by the Commissioner of Customs.
The bay is well protected by chains of mountains, its
physical perfections in this respect rendering it of pecu-
liar value as a naval base. The channel into the harbour
is broad, deep, and free from all encumbrances. Nu-
merous islands are so situated about the mouth that
every approach could be strongly protected. Besides
being easy of access, there is an average depth of about
nine fathoms upon a firm bottom. The water is free
from Ice in winter, notwithstanding the severity of the
cold in this region. Inexhaustible supplies of spring
water can be obtained; and, in the proper season, the
shooting and fishing afford very varied sport. These
are, however, but the accessories to a harbour, which, if
it were fortified and converted into a first-class naval sta-
tion, would be the equal of Vladivostock and superior
to every other station in the Far East. It is far in
advance of anything which the Powers have seized in
China.
Between Hong Kong and Dalny, the commercial har-
bour of Port Arthur, which Russia has endeavoured to
improve since it belonged to China, there is no anchor-
age which could be so readily and inexpensively adapted
to the requirements of a first-class naval station of a
first-class naval Power. At present, Won-san harbour is
visited only by the squadrons which Russia and Japan
170
WON-SAN
maintain in this water. Although there is a flourishing
Japanese settlement upon shore, no Japanese gun-boat is
detached as yet for guardship duties. At Fusan and
Chemulpo, however, the practice of detailing ships for
port duties is carefully observed, Japan losing few
opportunities to impress upon her neighbour in particu-
lar, and the world in general, the significance of her
interests in Korea.
Won-san was opened to Japanese trade in 1880, be-
coming a general foreign settlement on November 3rd,
three years later. Although its subsequent development
is due entirely to the industry of the Japanese, and their
undoubted commercial sagacity, its imports of foreign
trade in recent years have contributed to the position
which it now takes in the commercial progress of the
country. The economic expansion of the port, however,
has been promoted by the business resulting from the
immigration of Japanese settlers and the doubling of
the native population. Materials for clothing, cotton
goods, grass-cloth, and silk are pre-eminent in the local
requirements. A comparison of the annual returns dis-
closes a steady advance in its prosperity, the paramount
influence, which the Japanese exercise over Its welfare,
restricting foreign trade to those articles which cannot
be imported from Japan. Business has just doubled in
six years ; but the increase in the import trade is not in
favour of British goods. The imposition of the tariff,
which prevails in European Russia, at Vladivostock, ac-
counted for the general advance in foreign imports at
171
KOREA
Won-san during 1901. In the following year, 1902, the
imports were again heavier than the exports, the figures
being: Imports, £191,535, and exports, £102,205. The
local government of the port is conducted upon Japanese
lines. The streets are broad, well gravelled, and
fringed with an irregular border of trees. After the
foul and narrow lanes of the Korean town, through
which it is necessary to pick one's way before entering
the settlement, their appearance is cheerful and at-
tractive.
Won-san, the native town which has given its name
to the port, is two miles from the heart of the settle-
ment, and comprises a quaint medley of thatched and
tiled houses, crowded together in narrow and noisome
alleys. The main road from Seoul to the frontier, one
of the six great roads of the country, lies through the
centre of the town. The clusters of hovels, upon both
sides of this excellent highway, suggest that the eligible
sites are only those which abut upon this spacious thor-
oughfare. Glimpses of the bay are visible through gaps
in the houses. The smell of the sea is lost in the fumes
of drying fish and decaying garbage, which hang heav-
ily in the atmosphere, impregnating everything and
penetrating everywhere, save to the wind-swept heights
which encircle the bay. A population of 15,000 hud-
dles in these groups of thatched shops and tumble-down
houses.
The native town ceases abruptly about a mile from
the settlement. Fields of vegetables border the road.
172
WON-SAN
The strip of beach upon which the town is placed,
is black with patches of fish spread to the sun, littered
with fishing nets, and encumbered with crazy fishing-
boats and junks. After a little it disappears around
cliffs, whose crests are fragrant with pine and fir trees.
Tortuous valleys, giving glimpses of prosperous villages
set in their midst against a background of majestic peaks
and ridges of hills, well-timbered headlands and promon-
tories upon which are set the houses of the missionaries,
combine, with the broad waters of the bay and the vista
of the open sea beyond, to form a series of picturesque
and supremely attractive views. There are nearly
three thousand Japanese in residence at Won-san, a few
Chinese merchants, and a small foreign community, in-
cluding the Commissioner of Customs and Mrs. Wake-
field, and the Customs staff. The rest are evangelists of
no great importance.
The climate of Won-san is dry and healthy. The
heat is tempered by sea breezes and the nights are cool.
The mean temperature for the summer is seventy-three
degrees, and for the winter twenty-nine degrees; the
rainfall is forty-four inches, a little greater than that
upon the west coast. Snow falls to a depth of four feet,
covering the mountains from October until May. The
port is, however, rather cooler than Chemulpo in sum-
mer and a little warmer in winter, the dryness of the
atmosphere considerably modifying the cold. The
splendour of an autumn sky continues throughout the
winter, when the principal shooting is to be obtained.
173
KOREA
Much historical interest attaches to many of the more
beautiful spots in the vicinity. From this neighbour-
hood sprang the kings of Ancient Ko-ryo ; and again, it
gave birth to the reigning house of Cho-syon, for, in the
monastery of Sok-wan, twenty-two miles distant, A Tai-
cho, the first king of the present dynasty, was educated
and lived. The monastery itself, with its temples, was
erected by the King to mark the spot where, 509 years
ago, he received that supernatural summons to rule, in
virtue of which his descendants now occupy the throne.
In the seclusion of this beautiful spot, the early years of
A Tai-cho were passed in meditation, study, and prepara-
tion for his future kingship. Many of the magnificent
trees, which embower the temples and rise in stately dig-
nity from the grand mountain clefts, in which the monas-
tery is situated, are reputed to have been planted by his
hands. In a building apart, into which no one is allowed
to enter, save the monk in whose keeping the relics are
placed, his regalia and robes of State are preserved to
this day.
Won-san is situated in the southern corner of the
province of Ham-kyong. A considerable portion of its
trade is carried on with the closely adjoining divisions
of Pyong-an and Kang-won, the three provinces form-
ing the northern half of the kingdom ; their population
is variously estimated at between three and five millions.
Mountains predominate in these districts. A bewilder-
ing tangle of wooded hills and bleak peaks meets the
eye, jumbling and jostling one another in every direc-
174
FUSAN
tion until nothing is seen but broken mountains and
ridges cleft into a thousand little valleys. More espe-
cially is this the case in Ham-kyong and Kang-won; in
Pyong-an the valleys broaden out and the hills become
lower and less frequent, giving place to the Ta-dong
River, and many wide spaces for agricultural purposes.
Among these broken ranges in the neighbourhood of
Won-san, and towards the interior, there is much sport.
Sable, ermine, and otter are trapped in Northern Ham-
kyong ; tigers, leopards, bears, wolves and foxes are rare
in fact, plentiful in fiction. Wild boar, deer and hares
are not uncommon; pheasants are less numerous than
formerly. Snipe appear in August, duck in September,
geese and wild fowl in the winter on the marshes and
lagoons. There is much game upon the land, and there
is much sport in the sea. Whales, shark, seal, salmon,
and innumerable small species wait to be caught, the
products of sea and land combining to make the place a
sportsman's paradise.
The approach to the treaty port of Fusan is through
a bay strewn with green islands and encompassed by
high cliffs. A narrow path, skirting the shore and run-
ning over the cliffs, leads presently to Old Fusan, a
walled city of great antiquity, situated at the end of a
stretch of ten miles of sea, which forms one of the arms
of the bay. New Fusan is like every other Korean
treaty port. The smells of the Japanese settlement were
worse, however, very much worse, as I well remember,
than any which rose from the sewers and slimy alleys
175
KOREA
of the old town. Old Fusan stands alone, at the head
of the bay, looking down from its ruined and crumbling
walls across the waste of water, musing in decrepit isola-
tion upon departed glories. New Fusan, the foreign
quarter, is very noisy, very dirty, and uncomfortable.
The Japanese shopkeepers make little attempt to pro-
vide for other aliens; the wretched hotel demurs at re-
ceiving them. The place is thoroughly Japanese, pros-
perous, active, and enduring. It is the focus of the
tumble-down steamers which run between the ports of
Korea and Japan, venturing even to Taku, Port Arthur
and Vladivostock. Upon all sides there Is the appear-
ance of industry and trade, inseparable from any Japa-
nese community. In conjunction with the Seoul-Fusan
Railway a vast scheme of harbour reclamation is in
progress. This will provide suitable sites for godowns,in
which the port is sadly deficient. The making of roads,
the installation of electric light, and the construction of
large waterworks are the objects which have already re-
ceived the attention of the Japanese authorities. There
is a Japanese Consul-General in Fusan, who administers
Japanese law to some fourteen thousand of his fellow
countrymen. Half of this number is comprised in the
floating population, whose sole business is fishing. The
valuable fisheries lying off the coast and in the adjacent
archipelago return an annual yield of ten million herring
and half a million cod. Altogether, the bustle and con-
fusion of the place supports its claim to be the most im-
portant of the treaty ports of Korea, in spite of the
176
MOK-PO
neglect with which British merchants treat it. The
actual Japanese population of the Fusan settlement in
1 90 1 was seven thousand and fourteen, an increase of
more than one thousand upon the returns of the previous
year — six thousand and four. Since then there has been
a further increase, and the population at the present
time falls little short of nine thousand.
The activity of the Japanese in the open ports of
Korea does not correspond in any way to the size of the
port. Whatever may be the local conditions, there is no
falling-off in their untiring enterprise. If the port has
been established ten or twenty years, or only one, their
commercial vigour is the same. After the settlements of
Won-san, Fusan, and Chemulpo, a visit to the port of
Mok-po, declared open in the autumn of 1897, fails to
elicit much which is new or important. Mok-po is very
small. To those who are interested in the subject, it
gives an excellent example of the cool, resolute manner
in which the Japanese build up a very flourishing settle-
ment upon the foundations of an unprepossessing native
village. The pioneers of the ports in Korea, it is natu-
ral that they should select the best available sites for
their own quarter. At Mok-po, repeating a system
which was adopted in the case of Fusan, Won-san, and
Chemulpo, the Japanese settlement commands the one
situation which is adaptable for commercial purposes.
The approaches to Mok-po lie through a network of
island and rock-strewn channels, the largest of which is
some six hundred yards wide. The harbour is the em-
177
KOREA
bouchure of the River Ru-yong-san, the main water-way
of the province, some ninety miles long. It can accom-
modate forty vessels of large tonnage. The best pas-
sage is through Lyne Sound, but easy access is given,
from the south, by Washington Gulf. The width of the
harbour is a little less than two miles, with a depth at
low water of eleven fathoms, rising to nineteen on a
full tide. At ebb tide the current averages five knots an
hour; during the spring tides this velocity increases,
adding to the disadvantages offered by an indifferent
holding-ground.
Mok-po is situated in the south-western corner of the
Province of Chyol-la, sometimes called the granary of
Korea. The port takes its name from a large island,
which faces it on the north, and forms the entrance to
the river. It is picturesque and stands sufficiently high
to break the monotony of the surrounding country.
Rough and barren to look upon, it possesses the nucleus
of what will become an important settlement as trade
increases. The buildings of the Japanese Consulate and
the Customs House are the most imposing structures at
present in the place. The British Consulate, a mass of
rock, unadorned, bluff, bare and bleak, is the most deso-
late and depressing. A vista of mud flats does not add
to the beauty of this spot. A well-built sea-wall, behind
which some acres of marshy shore have been reclaimed,
indicates the spirit in which the Japanese set to work to
improve their concessions.
A composite trade centres at Mok-po, exceeding one
178
LOCAL INDUSTRIES
hundred thousand pounds In value. Foreign imports
stand for quite eighty thousand of this total. It is, per-
haps, needless to add that no British shipping has en-
tered the harbour within the six years of Its existence.
German and American steamers have nevertheless
brought cargoes to Mok-po; Japanese steamers touch
regularly. The trade is that of a native market, whose
demands can be furnished from Japan ; it Is, of course,
beneath the notice of the British exporter. Piece goods,
Japanese and American cigarettes, matches, yarn, arti-
cles which the humbler classes now use and for which,
owing to the rapidly increasing native population of this
south-western Province, there will be greater demand in
the future, make up the trade.
It may be that this port, despised by the British mer-
chant, as are all the ports of Korea, will some day head
the centres of commerce of the kingdom. Even now it
attracts foreign goods from Japan, America, and Ger-
many. There are many channels through which British
wares, cheap, enduring, practical and suitable to prevail-
ing conditions, could filter to the advantage of the British
merchant. Cereals are raised in large quantities, straw-
matting, grass-cloth, paper and fans are the other native
manufactures. A vein of bituminous coal has been
struck within a short distance of the port. In two indus-
tries — the making of paper and the weaving of grass-
cloth — there are opportunities for expansion, which
any enterprising and intelligent agent could promote by
introducing cheap chemicals and Inexpensive mechanical
179
KOREA
appliances. In the paper-making trade alone there is a
rich harvest to be garnered by the firm who will choose
to devote time, energy and patience to the creation of a
business in alkalies. Already the basis of a remunera-
tive connection exists among the villages devoted to this
labour.
i8o
CHAPTER XV
Treaty Ports (^continued) — Wi-ju — Syon-chyon-po — Chin-am-po —
Pyong-yang — Kun-san — Syong-chin
THE ports which remain to be mentioned, have not
yet attained a commercial importance entitling
them to any great consideration. They afford, how-
ever, a signal illustration of the enterprising spirit in
which the Koreans have met the demands made upon
them, and, as the interests of the country increase, the
natural expansion of the inland trade will enhance their
value.
Hitherto, Southern Korea has been better served in
the matter of open ports than the northern half of the
kingdom. With the addition to the list of treaty ports
of Syong-chin, upon the north-eastern coast, and Chin-
am-po (with Pyong-yang, an old-time capital of Korea,
and ranking to-day as the third city of the Empire, in
close proximity), upon the western coast, greater facil-
ities have been accorded to the commercial development
of the almost unknown markets of Northern Korea.
In view, however, of the trade in the southern provinces
of the kingdom, the port of Kun-san was created on the
west coast simultaneously with the opening of Syong-
chin in 1899 upon the north-east shore. This port lies
181
KOREA
between Chemulpo and Mok-po, at the mouth of the
Keum River, the natural boundary between the two
provinces, Chyol-la and Chyung-Chyong.
It is, nevertheless, to the north and north-east regions
that foreign commerce must look for that impetus to
industrial activity, which comes from the opening of
new markets. A most important trade-centre already
exists in Wi-ju, at the mouth of the Yalu River. This
town requires to be opened; in the meantime, its posi-
tion upon the border of Manchuria attracts a varied
and valuable direct trade. Moreover, if Wi-ju were
brought under the administration and control of the
Maritime Customs of Korea, and included among those
ports which have already been declared, a greater re-
straint could be put upon the smugglers, who have made
it a centre of communication in their illicit trade. At
this moment it is difficult to say whether Wi-ju may be
quite properly included among the treaty ports. If offi-
cial assurances can be safely accepted, the Government
of Korea decided on August 22nd, 1903, to declare
Wi-ju an open port, at the same time placing a Customs
house at Yong-an-po. The difFerence between the two
is hardly greater than that separating Pyong-yang from
Chin-am-po. Unfortunately, this decision is by no
means definite, although a few days later, on September
4th, an announcement to the same effect was made by
the Foreign Office at Seoul to the foreign representa-
tives. This official ratification of Its previous decision
would carry conviction If the policy of the Korean Cabi-
182
WI-JU
net were less vacillating, and the opposition of the Rus-
sian Minister less strenuous. The Russian Minister
objects in an equal degree to the opening of Yong-an-po,
and, since M. Colin de Plancy, the French Minister, is
supporting his Russian colleague, M. Pavloff, in opposi-
tion to the opening of Wi-ju, future developments may
prove M. Pavloff to have withdrawn his objections
against Wi-ju in order that he can concentrate them
upon Yong-an-po. Unfortunately for Russian interests,
British policy in Korea favours the opening of both
ports, an action in which Mr. Jordan, the British Min-
ister in Seoul, is cordially supported by many of his col-
leagues.
The action of the British Government in respect of
these ports on the Yalu is quite encouraging, and it is
equally satisfactory to see that Mr. Jordan has main-
tained his attitude with admirable consistency. The de-
mand of the British Government was presented to his
Majesty at a special audience on July 14th, 1903. It
evoked at once the opposition of the Russians, whose
objections were communicated officially to the Korean
Government when, a few days later, the British Minis-
ter sent a despatch to the Foreign Office to Inquire upon
what date Wi-ju would become an open port. Mean-
while, the Japanese Minister reiterated the request of
the British Government, which, at the same time, was
supported by an Identical demand from the Chinese For-
eign Office, through the Korean Minister In Pekln. For
a few days matters remained stationary, the situation
183
KOREA
becoming a little involved by the resignation of the Min-
ister of Foreign Affairs, Yi To-chai, upon the plea of ill-
health. The Emperor refused the resignation, and on
August 9th the British Minister sent an urgent despatch,
which demanded the opening of Wi-ju within seven
days. A few days later a decision, favourable to the
request of the British Minister, was delivered, and it re-
mains to be seen whether permanent effect will be given
to it. Meanwhile, as the readiest means of giving effect
to the new dignity of the port, a small posse of Japan-
ese police has been sent to Wi-ju to protect the settle-
ment.
Syon-chyon-po, the youngest of the open ports, is in
its very early days. It is situated about forty miles to
the south of Wi-ju. Its future prosperity is uncertain,
but from Its position, midway between Chin-am-po and
WI-ju, it should become an important port of call for
native shipping. At present Syon-chyon-po is adminis-
tered from Chin-am-po, but the lines of Its future settle-
ment have been planned, and It will doubtless develop
Into a thriving Japanese colony. For the moment there
is little trade.
The Ta-dong River, at the estuary of which Chin-am-
po lies, Is one of the most important and picturesque
streams in the country. It drains the southern and
south-eastern divisions of Pyong-an Province; upon Its
banks, sixty-seven miles from the sea, is Pyong-yang, the
early capital and oldest city of the Empire. Around
Pyong-yang still lingers a host of romantic associations,
184
SYON-CHYON-PO
historical and legendary. Towns and villages are found
upon the banks of the Ta-dong; there is much rugged
beauty in the scenery, and the water-shed has landmarks
of great physical and historical importance. The veloc-
ity of the river current during the spring tides averages
three and a quarter knots. During the ebb, over against
the Chin-am-po bank, there is an increase of two knots
caused by a projecting point upon the opposite shore of
the river. The formation of the Ta-dong inlet is irregu-
lar; many indentations, which mark the outline of the
anchorage, become mud flats at low water. Prior to the
selection of Chin-am-po as a treaty port, the native vil-
lage consisted of a few straggling huts and a population
of less than one thousand. Now, however, the old
order has given way to the new. The mud flats have
been reclaimed and so many improvements have taken
place in the general conditions of the port that a bright
future may be confidently predicted for it.
Chin-am-po, the settlement, is situated upon the
northern shore of the Ta-dong inlet, about fifteen miles
from Its entrance In the extreme south-west of Pyong-
an Province. The port was opened to foreign trade in
October, 1897. During the few years of its existence as
an open port, Chin-am-po has made no little progress.
At the present time it gives promise of becoming an
exceedingly Important commercial centre. The Increase
of the foreign trade and the flourishing condition of the
native market have attracted the attention of the Japa-
nese, who have already made a considerable settlement
185
KOREA
in the port. Estimates of the native population vary
from fifteen to forty thousand, the smaller figure being
nearer the mark. The trade compares favourably, in
point of value and bulk, with that of ports of equal
capacity, similarly situated. Its development is some-
what restricted, the two great forces contributing to its
material economy being the impetus which has been
given to local agricultural resources, and the mining in-
dustry. When the concessions of the American and
British Mining Companies at Un-san and Eun-san were
granted, Chin-am-po became the port of shipment for
much of their traffic.
The commercial possibilities of the region, which lies
between the Ta-dong River and the water-shed of the
Yalu, are in the earliest stages of development. Much
might be predicted of the returns which these new fields
would yield to intelligent exploitation. Cut off from the
eastern division of the kingdom by ranges of mountains,
and extending from Po-reup-san, near Chin-am-po, in
the south, to the mountain fastnesses of the northern
frontiers of the Empire, is a stretch of country in part
uninhabited. It Is frequented by bands of Korean rob-
bers and Chinese bandits; the centre of much native min-
ing and the scene of perpetual border warfare. The
haunt of the wild beast, barren and almost impenetrable,
it Is practically untouched by Western civilisation. Its
groves of pines and firs, and acres of woods, recall the
time when Northern Korea was one vast forest. Until
quite lately there were but two open ports for the service
i86
PYONG-YANG
of this region, Chin-am-po and Pyong-yang. The third,
Syon-chyon-po, in its northern extremity, is still closed
to Europeans. Gold and coal, iron and copper, are
among its natural resources. The soil is productive;
and the moment is ripe for the initiation of industrial
enterprises. Moreover, commercial prosperity would in-
troduce a more pacific note into the condition of these
lone lands.
Pyong-yang lies upon the borders of an extensive an-
thracite and bituminous coal district. The outcroppings
are plainly traceable, although at present not indicative
of any very serviceable quality of fuel. Coal, however,
is not the least of the minerals, nor are the resources of
the soil confined to the production of beans. Stone
quarrying and the timber industry flourish in the prov-
ince. The authentic records of Pyong-yang go back
some three thousand years, the creation of the city coin-
ciding with that of the Kingdom of Israel. Saul, David,
and Solomon were the contemporaries of Ki-ja and his
successors. In more modem times the most stirring
events recorded are the massacre of the crew of the
General Sherman, in 1866, and the long chapter of
vicissitudes which befell the city during the Chino- Japa-
nese campaign. The ravages of war and the devastation
of pestilence in 1895 left a deserted and ruined city.
Nevertheless, as if to remind the inhabitants of the for-
mer dignity of their town, the tide of its fortunes
turned, and some measure of prosperity returned. In
the interval, trade revived; a small foreign community
187
KOREA
now lives within the walls, and it is hoped that the days
of evil omen are as distant as are the times when this
old-world capital first enclosed herself within protecting
walls. Commercially and industrially it has advanced
enormously; and, as a sign of the times, may be men-
tioned the fact that the native community has founded
a private English Language school. Pyong-yang is as-
sociated so intimately with Chin-am-po that the two
are inseparably united in any survey of the fortunes of
either. Nevertheless, the continuation of Pyong-yang
as an open port is uncertain, the Korean Government
having expressed the intention of closing the port if they
are compelled to throw open Wi-ju. The British,
American and Japanese representatives have resolutely
opposed this suggestion.
The port of Kun-san, which was thrown open in May,
1899, to foreign settlement and general trade, taps chan-
nels in the main identical with those which supply
Mok-po. Depending to a great extent upon the agri-
cultural resources of the provinces of Chyol-la and
Chyung-chyong, its trade is confined to the exportation
of cereals, such as rice, wheat, and beans; of grass-cloth,
paper, and bamboo articles; and of varieties of fish and
seaweed. When the railway between Seoul and Fusan
is completed, the development of the agricultural re-
sources of these areas will re-act upon the fortunes of
this port. It is, however, quietly thriving in the inter-
val, content to play a prominent role in the coast trade
rather than to figure as a port of call, in any exchange
188
KUN-SAN
of commodities with China and Japan. In early days,
the port itself was well known as the export station for
revenue rice, when the Government revenues were paid
in grain. The practice has not been maintained in more
recent years. In Kun-san there is an increasing colony
of Japanese, a large native population, and a small Chi-
nese community. The import trade, however, is con-
fined to Japanese manufactures, including, broadly,
those counterfeits of foreign goods — Manchester shirt-
ings, Chinese lawns, Indian yarns, American kerosene
and English and Swedish matches — in the production of
which our lively imitators have attained an unusual
standard of perfection.
The most isolated of all the open ports is Syong-chin,
upon the north-eastern coast, in the province of Ham-
kyong, about one hundred and twenty miles from Won-
san. It was opened in May 1899; the trade, princi-
pally with Won-san, and carried on by Japanese, is
unimportant. There is a field for expansion, as gold,
copper, and coal exist within a short distance of the town.
There are also white granite quarries in the neighbour-
hood. The off-shore sea-fishing supports a colony of
Japanese; large numbers of cattle are raised for the
market in the province, and the country around is under
cultivation for beans. The export trade is in beans,
hides, and fish; the imports include kerosene, matches,
and cotton goods. There is no direct native trade with
Japan. The present condition of Syong-chin suggests
that it was once a fortified town of importance. There
189
KOREA
are the ruins of a high protecting wall, surmounted with
watch-towers and battlements. Time, poverty and
neglect are responsible for its present impoverished con-
dition. There is a small native population. The an-
chorage is little more than an open roadstead. It is easy
of access, deep, and has an excellent holding. Vessels
drawing ten feet can lie within a short distance of the
shores. Fogs and high winds prevail in spring, but,
upon the whole, the climate is more temperate at all
seasons than Won-san.
The port lies near the 41st parallel, facing nearly
north-east, midway between Won-san and Vladivostock.
The prevailing wind, winter and summer, blows from
the south-west. It is only in times of atmospheric dis-
turbance, an infrequent condition in these latitudes, that
a north-east blow renders the anchorage unsafe, and
compels vessels to shift their moorings to the north-
east end of the bay, where the Sarako headland gives
them shelter. Water to the depth of five fathoms ob-
tains within 200 yards of the shore. The rise and fall
of spring tides is about two feet. No obstacles present
themselves to the building of a landing-stage and boat
harbour. When the port was opened, a few huts repre-
sented the native town. Since then about 250 houses
have been erected, and more are being built. At no dis-
tant date it is probable that Syong-chin will displace the
neighbouring Im-myong as the market place. The for-
eign community is represented by a Japanese Consul and
staff, Japanese police force and postal staff, schoolmas-
190
SYONG-CHIN
ter, shipping agent and workmen. A British doctor
and his family, belonging to the Canadian Mission, re-
side there. The only foreign house erected within
the settlement limits is that occupied by the Japanese
Consul.
191
CHAPTER XVI
Russian interest — Russia and Japan — Ma-san-po — Ching-kai-
wan — Yong-an-po
RUSSIAN industrial activity in Korea may be re-
garded as a cloak for political schemes. Since
the time that the Emperor became the protected guest
of the Russian Legation, the influence of Russia in
Korea has been more definite in quality. Assisted by
French capital, a Russian company has started recently
a cattle ranch and sheep-run at A-ya-chin, on the coast
of Kang-won Province, with a view to the establish-
ment of a canning factory, which is now in process of
construction. In addition to this, she has set up a glass
factory at Seoul, a proceeding which throws no light
upon her motives. She has promoted the Pacific Whale
Fishing Company, which, plying its trade off the coast
of Korea, collects very valuable information of unsur-
veyed bays and unsounded anchorages, water-holes,
coal-deposits, and currents — and occasionally catches a
whale. It possesses twelve vessels. Russia controls no
railway line in Korea, although she is interested in the
line which the French are building; no gold mine, but
a geographical exploration party of naval officers has
192
RUSSIAN INTERESTS
been topographically examining the region of the Yalu
River for some years. She has been accorded certain
rights in Ma-san-po; she is endeavouring to secure the
concession of a site suitable for a naval station, and
through virtue of a lumber felling concession on the
Yalu, she has located herself at Yong-an-po. In May
1903, too, a commercial commission travelled from
Seoul to Wi-ju, overland.
As rapidly as circumstances permit, Russia is con-
necting her Manchurian telegraphic system with the
trunk lines of Korea, and telegraphic communication is
in course of construction between Mukden and Wi-ju,
Vladivostock and Won-san. The action of Russia in
this respect has encountered very great opposition from
Korea. When the Korean Cabinet declined to grant
permission for the erection of the poles, for which the
Russian engineers had not waited, M. Pavloff, the
Russian Minister, delicately hinted that the removal
of the poles would be regarded as an unfriendly act, and
one liable to create unpleasantness between the two
Governments. The Korean Government, however,
were not frightened into drawing back, and for some
months past the local officials have been occupied in
cutting down whatever poles the Russians might erect.
Russia, also, proposes to rebuild the telegraph line from
Pekin to Seoul via Wi-ju, while further, it Is her avowed
intention to construct from Mukden a branch of her
railway to An-tung on the Yalu River.
Russia has been associated, also, with the Korean
193
KOREA
army, the Russian militaTy authorities having lent a
number of drill-instructors to the Korean service. They
have now been withdrawn. The management of the
residence, in which apartments are found for the guests
of the Imperial Court, has been entrusted to a Russian
lady. There are very few Russian residents in Seoul.
Those who live there comprise the immediate personnel
of the Legation, the Legation guards, priests of the
Greek Church, and some sprinkling of the shop-keep-
ing element. The colony Is small, but contrives, with
the aid of a port guardship at Chemulpo and constant
visits from the Pacific Squadron, when performances
are given by the band from the guard-ship for the
delectation of the Imperial Court, to support the maj-
esty and dignity of the Russian Government with much
impressive display. Proposals have been recently made
to establish consulates in the open ports of the Empire
— the Consulate from the capital is now established at
Chemulpo; to increase the services of the steamers of
the Manchurian Railway between the open ports of
Korea and Manchuria, and to found a branch of the
Russo-Chinese Bank at Chemulpo. It is intended, too,
that the Russian Pacific Squadron shall use the Korean
harbours more frequently as ports of call.
For some years Russia has been gradually feeling
her way in Korea. Prior to 1885 there were over
twenty thousand Koreans settled in her Far Eastern
possessions, while in 1888 Russia concluded a Commer-
cial Convention with Korea, which opened the Korean
194
RUSSIA AND JAPAN
land frontier to Russian traders. In 1893 telegraphic
communication between Russia and Korea was ar-
ranged, when, just as the Russian policy towards Korea
perhaps was beginning to shape itself, war between
China and Japan was declared. Whatever conclusions
may have been anticipated as the results of such a war,
there can be no doubt that its effect upon the actual
destinies of Russia and Japan in the Far East was far-
reaching. The policy of Russia towards China under-
went a change, while the ultimate possession of Korea
became equally the objective of Japan as of the greater
Power. Russia, however, could not afford to profit at
the moment by the downfall of China, and Japan was
not strong enough to hold the Liao-tung Peninsula nor
bold enough to seize Korea. Nevertheless, driven out
of the Liao-tung by the action of Russia, France and
Germany, Japan might still have secured for herself
complete material and political ascendency over Korea.
In time, if such had been her policy, she could have
made manifest, too, her occupation of the kingdom
and equipped herself with an argument, the parallel
of that possessed by Great Britain in Egypt, and by
Russia in Manchuria. Unhappily, while Russia with
masterly deliberation was moving steadily forward in
her subjugation of Manchuria, Japan, whole-hearted
but ignorant of the pitfalls of colonial expansion, was
creating endless difficulties for herself in Korea, besides
serious complications with the Powers outside the
scenes of her activities. Before she had realised the
195
KOREA
potentialities of her position, she had committed her-
self to a design by which she hoped to secure the King
and Queen and to direct herself the reins of govern-
ment. But her coup d'etat was to recoil disastrously,
and at once, upon her own head. The Queen fell a
victim to the plot, and although the King was im-
prisoned, he, together with the Crown Prince, contrived
in a little time to find refuge in the Russian Legation.
The escape of the King only emphasised the failure of
Japan, and despite her subsequent treaties with Russia,
in respect of Korea, the balance of power in the Far
East as between Russia and Japan has never quite re-
covered from the blow which Japan administered her-
self to her own prestige upon this occasion.
Japan still wields material influence of a high order
in Korea. But, within the paramount position which
she fills, there is the rift caused by the spread of the
antagonistic and insidious influence of her great oppo-
nent. Curiously enough, the position which Russia holds
to-day is not nearly as assertive as that which she oc-
cupied in 1896, yet there is little doubt that her influ-
ence is more commanding, if less conspicuously aggres-
sive. Japan has turned aside upon occasion from the
political issues to develop her commercial interests.
Russia, again, has pursued unswerving the policy which
revealed with the fall of China the fact that Man-
churia was within her grasp and that Korea was its
entail.
The action of Russia upon the Yalu River at the
196
RUSSIA AND JAPAN
present time, her action in respect of Won-san in the
past, are each animated by this motiv. Russia regards
Korea as the completion of her dominions in the Far
East, while Japan looks upon the little kingdom as the
corollary to that expansion which is essential to the
existence of the Island Empire. Russia in Manchuria
and Korea, with her shadow projected over China,
would mean a sentence of perpetual restriction and
shrinkage for Japan. But, similarly, Russia from her
position at Vladivostock and Port Arthur must regard
the occupation of Korea by Japan as a wedge with its
point projected towards the centre of her Manchurian
communications. Just as, therefore, the fear of a Rus-
sian descent upon Korea has excited Japan, the necessity
for such action has brought the crisis in the relations
between Japan and Russia so perceptibly nearer.
Private agreements and secret overtures have paved the
way for the denouement which long since was disclosed.
When Russia endeavoured to requisition the harbour
of Ma-san-po for the requirements of her Pacific
Squadron, an indication was afforded that Russian
activity in Korea would be concealed no longer. Ma-
san-po has since become an open port, the Government
of Japan at once formulating ingenious objections to
the Russian scheme at the same time that they threat-
ened the Government of Korea with threats of imme-
diate reprisals. But prior to the conditions laid down
by Russia in the Ma-san-po Convention of 1900 with
the Korean Government, this magnificent harbour had
197
KOREA
already attracted the attention of the Japanese and
Chinese settlers. By force of circumstances, therefore,
the place became an open port, the local authorities be-
ing powerless to check the influx of foreigners and the
creation of a foreign zone around the harbour. That
M. Pavloff, the clever Russian diplomatic representa-
tive in Seoul, succeeded in bringing about any agree-
ment at all is remarkable, taking into account the panic-
stricken state to which the Imperial Government was
reduced by Japanese intimidation. The secret conven-
tion between the Russian and Korean Governments, en-
tered into during 1900, preserved the independence of
the harbour, and failing to confirm Russia in the definite
occupation of Ma-san-po, provided that none of the
land about Ma-san-po harbour or its approaches should
be permanently ceded or sold to any foreign Power.
The same conditions applied to the island of Keu-chai,
situated in the mouth of the harbour. This curtailment
of the ambitions of Russian policy, in this particular
direction, due, of course, to the energetic action of
Japan, did not make the position of Russia in Ma-san-
po in any sense secure. Japan, even then upon the eve
of her declaration, would have gone to war with Russia,
if that Power had attempted to maintain an isolated
and complete domination of this harbour and its ap-
proaches against her wishes.
There is nothing in the present condition of Ma-san-
po which suggests that it may become a centre of Rus-
sian influence in Southern Korea. The Japanese de-
198
MA-SAN-PO
manded, even before the incident had quite blown over,
a large tract of land at Ma-san-po for the purposes of
making a settlement there. In addition to this, the
quarter, marked off for foreign settlements, has been
almost wholly appropriated by the Japanese, who have
erected shops and houses of some importance to the
extent of several hundred, upon the more suitable sites.
Japanese postal and telegraphic offices have been opened
in Ma-san-po, and an uncomfortable hostelry disturbs
the rest of the weary. A large permanent staff of
Japanese police has been detached for duty in Ma-san-
po, and the next feature in the development of affairs
will be the detailing of a port guardship and the usual
infantry garrison to protect the Japanese settlement.
These acts imply a permanent lease and constitute the
methods by which the Japanese propose to invalidate
the Russo-Korean Convention. The aim of Japanese
policy in Ma-san-po is to discount as far as possible the
rights of the Russians, and to deprive their existence in
the harbour of any special significance. The Russians
accept the position with extreme philosophy and indif-
ference. If they wished to do so, they might raise pro-
test after protest against the intrusive character of
Japanese action in the areas affected by the clauses of
the Agreement of 1900.
Twelve months ago the foreign population of Ma-
san-po consisted of two hundred and thirty Japanese,
forty-one Chinese, eighteen Russians, and two Ger-
mans. These figures include male and female heads of
199
KOREA
population, but no children. The actual strength of
the Russian colony in this harbour was eight men, ten
women, three children; of the Japanese only seventy-
eight were females. There is little import and export
traffic. The nearness of Fusan, which is only six hours
distant, makes it unnecessary to trade direct with the
settlement. Japanese steamers from Fusan call daily,
local produce being brought round by native junks.
There is a large fishing industry off the harbour; it is,
however, quite controlled by Japanese fishermen from
Fusan. The principal industry on shore is the con-
struction of the settlement, some little agriculture, and
no little gossip.
Since the failure of her efforts to secure Ma-san-po,
Russia has endeavoured to obtain the lease of Ching-
kai-wan, sometimes called Chin-hai or Shin-hai, a bay
situated in the extreme south of the Korean peninsula,
as a naval station. The position of this harbour is ex-
actly midway between Vladivostock and Port Arthur.
Owing to its geographical situation, the presence of
Russia in sole possession of Ching-kai-wan would be
certain to give rise to even greater demonstrations of
hostility from the people and Government of Japan
than did the Ma-san-po incident. Nam-pu, which it
was then Russia's object to secure, is about twenty miles
outside the limits of the treaty port of Ma-san-po.
While the Japanese Government could not prevent
Russia from obtaining a coaling-station for the Russian
Steamship Company within the boundaries of the
200
YONG-AN-PO
foreign settlement of Ma-san-po, she most strenuously
protested against a grant of land for Russian naval pur-
poses twenty miles away. Japan likewise resists the
establishment of a Russian naval depot at Ching-kai-
wan, where there is no treaty port, and to which, were
the " lease " confirmed, only Russia would have a right
of access.
Ching-kai-wan is within a few hours' steam of that
Port Hamilton which Great Britain was induced to re-
linquish, upon the understanding between Russia and
China that Russia would not seek to acquire territory
in Korea. The excuse, since put forward by Russia for
the flagrant violation of this compact, is that it was a
bargain made with China, and not with us. There is
another, and still more extraordinary feature in con-
nection with this affair, which Li Hung Chang confided
to a diplomatic representative of a foreign Power, at Pe-
kin, some years ago. The Chinese statesman admitted
that the contract between China and Russia contained
a private stipulation that it should be good for ten years
only. In other words. Great Britain was led to with-
draw from Port Hamilton on the pretence that Russia
would never trespass on Korean soil, although there
was a secret understanding between China and Russia
at the time, that this arrangement should only be in
force for one decade.
Although the position of affairs in regard to the
action of Russia at Yong-an-po is of recent prominence,
the question goes back in reality to the autumn of 1896,
201
KOREA
when a Russian merchant in Vladivostock, M. Briin-
ner by name, obtained from the Korean Government
the right of felling lumber and planting trees on the
banks of the Yalu and Tumen Rivers, as well as on the
island of Ul-lyang, for twenty years. The concession
was to be forfeited unless work was begun in five years.
As the close of the period drew near, the Russian agent
in Seoul applied for an extension of three years. At
the moment it was reported in Seoul that this request of
M. Pavloff had been refused, but it transpired subse-
quently that an agreement had been drawn up to the
following efFect between the superintendent, appointed
by the Korean Government to oversee the matters, and
the inspector in charge of the interests of the company
in Yong-an-po :
1. The said district in Yong-an-po shall be rented to
the Russian company.
2. The boundaries of the said district shall be de-
fined by the Russian Minister and the Minister in charge
of the Foreign Office of the Korean Government.
3. The Russian company shall pay a land-tax to the
Korean Government.
4. If the owners of tombs within this district wish to
remove them, the expense of removal shall be borne by
the Russian company.
5. If the company wish to utilise wood which
Koreans have cut and are bringing down the river, it
must reimburse the owners with a fair and proper
price.
202
YONG-AN-PO
6. The Russian company shall not raise any stock
within this district except what Is to be used therein.
7. Korean offenders within this district shall be dealt
with by the Korean courts. Russian offenders shall be
dealt with by Russian civil officers.
These contracts were signed on July 20th, 1903, by
the Korean official Cho Sung-hyup and the Russian In-
spector Bojisco.
Meanwhile, however, in May 1903, prior to the de-
cision of the Korean Government in the matter, the pre-
fect of Wi-ju reported the concentration of Russian
troops at An-tung for the purpose of crossing the Yalu.
A few days later, a detached party of forty of these
men crossed the stream, halting on a small island in mid-
river to discard their uniforms, so that they might enter
Yong-an-po in private clothes. From Yong-an-po they
moved to Yong-chyon, near Wi-ju, where, accompanied
by one hundred Chinese and eighty Koreans, they
founded a lumber settlement, buying seventeen houses,
with twelve acres of land attached. In the name of two
of their Korean employes. The presence of the colony
was at once objected to by the Korean Government, who
threatened M- Pavloff with the rupture of relations if
the settlement were not at once withdrawn. M. Pav-
loff, however, defended the existence of the lumber
camp under powers obtained from the Forest Conces-
sion of 1896, which, in actuality, had not been re-
affirmed at the moment. Early in the next month, June,
the magistrate at Yong-chyon reported that another
203
KOREA
party of Russians had arrived at Yong-an-po, including
in all three Russian women, thirty-six men, two hundred
Chinese, and many horses. These were reinforced in
July by three women and sixty men, for the most part
carrying rifles and swords, and who, also, at once
bought houses and land.
The action of these people has assumed a specific
direction. A few, as though anxious to give colour to
their existence as a lumber settlement and in defiance
of orders from the Korean local officials, while quite
exceeding the clauses of the concession proper, persisted
in felling trees on the areas of a prohibited reserve.
Meantime the remainder of the party, by no means idle,
began the construction of a bund on the Yalu extending
over a distance of twenty-one miles, a light railway be-
ing laid down for the purpose. In addition to this work
developments of a more permanent character were taken
in hand; stone buildings appeared, a factory was con-
structed, and extensive defensive measures adopted.
To confirm these indications of Russian occupation of
the Yalu reaches, a body of seventy soldiers crossed the
river at Cho-san, a second party of eighty men coming
over at Pyok-tong. The Russians then proceeded to
bring these various scattered " lumber " settlements into
communication, for this purpose erecting a telegraph
line between Wi-ju and Yong-an-po, This line, how-
ever, the Koreans at once cut down, whereupon the Rus-
sians began to lay a submarine cable from Yong-an-po
round the coast and up the Yalu River to An-tung in
204
YONG-AN-PO
place of the line across country from Yong-an-po to
Manchuria. Since the cable projects were important
and, together with the settlement at Yong-an-po, much
in need of protection, Russia proposed to draft a force
of three hundred soldiers into the place. At this date,
towards the end of August, the settlement at Yong-an-
po had grown into sixty houses with a civil Russian
population of seventy citizens. By this time, however,
the Japanese Minister at Seoul, Mr. Hayashi, had re-
ceived the text of the proposed contract between the
Korean Government and the Russian Lumber Com-
pany. Thereupon, on August 25 th, he delivered an ul-
timatum to the Korean Government. On the same day
the Russian Minister went to the Foreign Office and
urged that the lease of Yong-an-po be granted. In spite
of his urgent appeal, the Minister declared it to be im-
possible. On the 27th the Russian Minister went again
to the Foreign Office at noon, and remained till seven
in the evening, but the Minister was ill and did not put
in an appearance. The Russian Minister then stated
that he would have nothing more to do with the For-
eign Minister, but would appeal directly to the Em-
peror. In his despatch Mr. Hayashi wrote that if the
Korean Government were to sign such a lease with the
Russian Government, Japan would consider such an act
as a direct violation of the treaty between herself and
Korea. In this event Japan would consider that diplo-
matic relations between the two countries were sus-
pended, and she would regard herself free to act for
205
KOREA
herself in her own interests on the assumption that the
whole of the Korean territories had been opened to the
world.
The spirited action of the Japanese Minister was not
lost upon the Korean Government, who at once issued
orders to the prefect of Yong-an-po to restrain the Rus-
sians from further encroachment. The efforts of the
local officials were, however, of little avail, and by the
middle of September, In addition to the colony at Yong-
an-po, the settlement at Yong-chyon had Increased to
one hundred and twenty-eight Chinese huts, with thir-
teen hundred Chinese, seventy Russians, and twenty
tents. Complaints of the high-handed action of the
Russians in appropriating the property of the Koreans
to their own needs began to arrive in Seoul, and on Sep-
tember 13th came the Information that a telegraph line
had again been laid between Yong-an-po and the lum-
ber concession on the Yalu. Coupled with the intelli-
gence of this renewed activity was additional, and much
more disquieting. Information. The Russians had con-
structed on the elevated ground about the Tu-ryu Har-
bour a high watch-tower, and were preparing emplace-
ments for three batteries of field artillery. Meanwhile,
however, as a counter demonstration to the movement
of a company of five hundred Russians under two
oflicers, on October 23rd, who had crossed the Tumen
River into Korean territory by night, a Japanese war-
ship dropped anchor In the estuary of the Yalu, in close
proximity to Yong-an-po.
206
YONG-AN-PO
I make no apology to my readers for giving in this
detailed fashion the history of this little Russian con-
cession. As a chapter of contemporary history I can-
not think that my words are of any value, but there are
doubtless many who, like myself, prefer to begin in the
beginning, and so slowly trace through the develop-
ments of any question. In respect of Russian action on
the Yalu, therefore, I have endeavoured to do this.
Note. — An-tung is known also as Sha-bo; the Yalu River is
known also as the Am-nok River.
207
CHAPTER XVII
By the wayside — A journey inland to Tong-ko-kai — inland
beauties
THE world of politics in Seoul had become of a
sudden so profoundly dull, that, ignoring the
advice of the weather-wise inhabitants of the capital, I
packed my kit, and hiring ponies, interpreters and ser-
vants, moved from the chief walled city of the Empire
into the wild regions of the interior. My journey lay
towards Tong-ko-kai, the German mines, several days'
journey from Seoul. Life, in the capital, is not desti-
tute of that monotony which characterises the Land of
the Morning Radiance. But beyond the precincts
of the Imperial Palaces, out of sight and hearing of
the countless little coteries of Europeans, the contrast
between the moving, soft-robed, gentle masses of peo-
ple who congregate within her gates, and the mountain
reaches and valleys of the open country is refreshing.
For the moment the pleasure of such an experience ranks
high among the joys which life holds.
Save in the first few It from the capital, we aban-
doned the beaten tracks, travelling along quiet byways
and mountain paths, turning aside at fancy to climb a
peak or to take a swim in the cool, deep waters of some
208
INLAND BEAUTIES
secluded pool at night, and morning, and at our noon-
day halt. In the pleasant shades of these cool moun-
tains and sunlit valleys the people live in unrebuked
simplicity. They offered the loan of charcoal stoves or
retailed eggs, chickens and rice to my servants. At the
moment of my bath, youths and youngsters gambolled
with me in the stream. It is said that the Koreans are
far from clean, a statement they belied upon many occa-
sions by the freedom and enjoyment with which they
indulged in these dips. Foreigners had not penetrated
along the route which my friend and I were following to
the German mines, and even the ubiquitous evangelist
had not penetrated to these peasant homes. The moun-
tains and rivers had no names; the settlements were
small; inns did not exist. Everywhere was content-
ment, peace, and infinite repose. Nature stood revealed
to us in primaeval grandeur, and it was impossible not
to enjoy the calm of the valleys, the rugged beauty of
the mountain crests, the picturesque wildness of the
scenery.
As the days passed the general character of the coun-
try remained unaltered. The manifold and complex
tints in the bush, the differing aspects of each succeeding
height, the alternating complexion of the valleys, dissi-
pated the monotony, engendered by the never changing
features of the picture — ^the trees and mountains, hill-
side hamlets and mountain torrents, precipitous passes
and windy plateaux. Moving thus slowly through the
mountain passes, a wonderful panorama silently dis-
209
KOREA
closed itself. Hills were piled one upon another, grad-
ually merging into chains of mountains, the crests of
which, two and three thousand feet in height, stood out
clearly defined against an azure sky, their rock-bound
faces covered with birch, beech, oak and pine. The
valleys below these mountain chains were long and nar-
row, cool and cultivated. A hillside torrent dashed
through them, tumbling noisily over massive boulders,
gradually fretting a new course for itself in the lava
strata. Countless insects buzzed in the still air; frogs
croaked in the marsh meadows; the impudent magpie
and the plebeian crow choked and chattered indignantly
among the branches of the trees. Cock-pheasants
started from the thick cover of the low-lying hills, the
dogs pointed the nests of the sitting hens, and does
called to their calves among the young bushes. A calm
and happy nature revealed itself spontaneously in these
fragrant places, undisturbed, luxurious, and unre-
strained. The road was rough. Here and there, in
keeping with the wild and rugged beauty of the scene,
it became the narrow track of the Australasian
" backs," congested with bushes, broken by holes and
stones, almost impassable until the coolies made a way.
Across the clattering crystal of the gushing torrent a
rustic bridge was flung, the merest makeshift, three feet
in width, with a flooring of earth and bush, which bent
and swayed upon slender poles, beneath the slightest
burden. Some streams were unbridged, and the diminu-
tive ponies splashed through them, gladly cooling their
2IO
INLAND BEAUTIES
sweating flanks as their drivers waded or carried one
another to the distant bank. Wild ferns, butterflies,
and flowers revelled in these unkempt gardens. The
red dog-lily and purple iris glowed against the foliage
of the shrubs and bushes. Gigantic butterflies eclipsed
the glories of the rainbow; their gorgeous tints blend-
ing into harmony with the more subdued plumage of the
cranes and storks that floated lazily across the inundated
spaces of the paddy-fields. Other birds, with dove-grey,
pink, or yellow breasts and black pinions, fished in the
streams with raucous cries. The most amazing tints,
recalling some of Turner's later pictures, gladdened the
eye in these delightful valleys. In the depths of the
valleys the mountain torrents flowed more idly, and the
stream meandered in a thousand directions. Upon
either bank, its volume was diverted to the needs of
some adjacent rice-field. In these paddy-patches green
and tender shoots were just sprouting above a few
inches of clear water. Here and there, fields of wheat
bordered these water-soaked stretches; oats, corn, bar-
ley, tobacco, cotton, beans and millet were scattered
about the sides and plains of the mountain valleys in a
fashion which proclaimed the fertility of the soil.
Everything throve, however, and the industry of the
workers In the fields was manifested at every turn of the
road. Their ingenuity in making the most of available
land recalled the valleys which run down to the fiords
of Norway, where, as in Korea, patches of cultivated
ground are visible at the snow level. Here, in these
211
KOREA
beautiful valleys, perhaps a thousand or fifteen hundred
feet up the mountain side, acres of golden crops will be
growing in the warm and happy seclusion of some shel-
tered hollow.
At the turn of the winding track, bordered by the
paddy-fields or acres of golden barley, oats and tobacco,
lies a village. It is but a cluster of some dozen straw-
thatched hovels, dirty and unprepossessing, but infinitely
quaint and picturesque. The walls of the houses are
crumbling and stayed up with beams and massive tim-
bers; the latticed windows are papered, the doorways
low. A hole in the wall serves the purposes of a chim-
ney; a dog is sleeping in the porch; a pig squeaks,
secured with a cord through the ears to a peg in the
wall. Cocks and hens are anywhere and everywhere,
the family latrine — an open trough, foul and nauseous,
used without disgust by all members of the family save
the older women-folk, stands upon the verandah. Some-
where, near the outer limits of the small settlement,
an erection of poles and straw matting distinguishes the
village cesspool, the contents of which are spread over
the fields In the proper season.
A glimpse into a house, as one rides through the vil-
lage shows a man combing his long hair, a woman beat-
ing her husband's clothes or Ironing with a bowl heated
with charcoal; many naked children, the progeny of
child-wives, scarce out of their teens. For the moment
the village seems devoid of life. As the clatter of the
cavalcade resounds, a child, feeding itself from a basin
212
INLAND BEAUTIES
of rice, emerges from a window; a man tumbles to his
feet yawning noisily. Women, with infants hanging
at their breasts or bearing children strapped to their
backs in dirty clothes, the usual naked band of well-
developed breast and unwashed back showing, crowd
into the streets. All eye the newcomers with indifferent
curiosity, until we wish them a plenteous rain — " May,
the rain come soon, good people." Then they bend
their heads respectfully at the salutation, and instantly
become bright and smiling. Winsome kiddies, muddy
and naked, offer us flowers, and bowls of water from
the streams upon which their elders have settled.
As the road threaded through the mountains, long
valleys, widely and richly cultivated, the yellow lustre
of the golden crops blazing in the sunlight, lay below.
Granite peaks towered upwards, their rugged faces
scored by time and tempest, their ragged outlines
screened with firs and birch. The still air was laden
with the aromatic scent of the pine-woods; the sky was
clear and blue. In the distance, snow-white clouds hung
in diaphanous festoons about a curve in the mountains.
The rough contour broke where the heights were bleak-
est and most barren. A twist in the broad valley which
our road traversed limited the prospect, but the direc-
tion lay beneath the shadows of those distant peaks, and
the perspective already compensated for the precipitous
climb.
Indeed, from a few K beyond Chyok-syong, a magis-
tracy of the fourth class, where the houses are roofed
213
KOREA
with thick slabs of slate supported by heavy beams,
where the streets are clean, and where road and river
alike make a detour, the views by the wayside became
increasingly impressive. For mile upon mile we saw
no wayfarers. The villages were widely distant; fertile
valleys gave place to green-black gorges, without culti-
vation, peaceful, grandly beautiful, and uninhabitable.
The perfect stillness and the wonderful magnificence of
the panorama held one spell-bound. There was no
change in the character of the scenery until, riding
slowly forward, the road dropped from the comfortable
shade of a mountain temple into the blazing sunshine of
the plain. Pushing forward, the rice and cornfields re-
ceded, giving place to the ranges, whose lofty peaks,
dressed with their mantling clouds, had been already
dimly discerned. Throughout the journey of the next
two days the road rose and fell, winding in a steady
gradient across the mountain sides.
The march to Tong-ko-kai was laborious, and one
day, when within easy distance of the concession in a
tiny hamlet, the colour of the slate and granite boulders,
nestling among waving bushes, almost unconscious of the
outer world and hardly alive to its own existence, an
ideal spot in which to pitch the evening camp was found.
It was early in the afternoon, but the road ahead looked
rough and stony. Our horses were fatigued, the ford
had been troublesome and we were wet, cold and hun-
gry. Within the bush the shadows were deepening.
No one knew the site of the next village nor the pre-
214
INLAND BEAUTIES
else direction In which we were moving, so we halted.
That night we snuggled down with our faces to the
cliffs. Our horses were tethered in a patch of corn, and
the kit, the servants, interpreters and grooms lay in one
confused and hungry tangle round us. Within sound of
the deep roar of the river we slept peacefully. Indeed,
I am not certain that this one hour when, invigorated
by a swim in some mountain pool, refreshed by a slight
repast, we rocked in our camp beds, smoking and chat-
ting, looking into the cool black depths of the canopy
above us, was not the best that the day held. There
was something intensely restful in those long, silent
watches. The mighty stillness of the surrounding
heights of itself gave a repose, to which the night winds,
the murmurs of the running water and our own physical
fatigue, insensibly added. It was pleasant to hear the
ponies eating; to watch the stars come out, the moon
rise; to listen to the bull- frog In the water weeds and
the echoes of the song of a peasant, rising and falling
among the peaks of the high mountains, until, at length,
all sounds had passed away and the great world around
us, above us, and below, lay at peace.
215
CHAPTER XVIII
The German mines — Mineralogy and methods of mining —
A bear hunt — With gun and rifle
NATURE has been active in these regions. There
is much limestone and slate formation, some
basaltic upheavals, lava boulders, and chain upon chain
of granite peaks. To the west of Tong-ko-kai there
is the crater of an extinct volcano, but the lava strata in
the vicinity of the concession are almost completely
eroded. The basin of the concession is well watered,
cultivated, and populous in places. It is surrounded by
ranges three, four and five thousand feet in height.
Korea is very mountainous in the north and hilly in the
south. The watershed between the Sea of Japan and
the Yellow Sea extends north and south, nearly parallel
to the east coast. In a sense this line of mountain ranges
is the backbone of the peninsula ; the eastern side of the
main watershed is narrow and abrupt, while the west-
ern is more extended and contains low plains, favour-
able to agriculture. The general altitude of the peaks
varies between five and six thousand feet. A few iso-
lated points in the extreme north are believed to be
higher.
The principal mining districts are situated along the
courses of the main and the minor watersheds. The
216
THE GERMAN MINES
famous mining districts of Kang-kyoi, Kap-san,and Teh-
chang-chin, at present in the occupation of native work-
men, occur upon the plateau formed by the junction of
the range, which constitutes the northern frontier of the
province of Pyong-an, with the main watershed of the
country. The British mines at Eun-san are situated in
country pierced by the. north-western antilles of the
main watershed. The position of the German mines
bears a similar relation to the great natural division of
the country, upon Its eastern side. Many useful min-
erals are distributed over Korea — gold, silver, lead, cop-
per. Iron, coal — but that which yields the richest harvest
is gold. The value of the gold exported from Korea
during 1901 increased from £363,305 in 1900 to £509,-
738. A further increase marks 1902, the value of the
gold exported being £516,961. These figures give only
the value declared at the Customs. Large amounts are
annually smuggled out of the country.
The presence of gold has been known from the earli-
est times. Knochenhauer, a German geologist, has de-
clared it to exist In every river In the kingdom. Hith-
erto, alluvial gold has been the principal yield to native
workers. The miners followed the object of their search
up the mountain side until they struck veins and lodes,
whence much of the alluvial gold was derived. The
chief auriferous districts are In the northern half of the
country; in which sphere lie the American mine at
Un-san, the British mine at Eun-san, and the German
mnle at Tong-ko-kal.
217
KOREA
The original source of Korean gold may be found in
the quartz veins, which, in the case of the American
mines, is alleged to give exceptionally rich returns. The
alluvial deposits, brought down from the veins in the
mountain-ridges, have been freely worked by Koreans;
and when more scientifically treated the yield is satisfac-
tory. The schotter sediments, in the case of the Tong-
ko-kai mines, attained a maximum of seventy-five feet
in depth, a thickness of sedimentary matter some fifty
feet in excess of the usual formation. The concession
was granted in 1898. Under it powers were given to
a German company to select a place twenty miles long
and thirteen miles wide, within two years from the date
of signing the contract, for the purpose of working all
minerals during a space of twenty-five years, with an
annual payment to the Korean Government of twenty-
five per cent, on the net profits. The revenues received
from these contracts belong to the Imperial Household,
passing directly into the private purse of the Sovereign.
In the case of the English syndicate, the percentage was
compounded for a sum of £20,000 and an annual pay-
ment of a further £2000.
The site, which the Germans selected for their con-
cession, was, at the moment when they assumed control
over the areas, the centre of extensive alluvial workings.
The native miners strongly objected to the Innovation,
and prepared to resist the rights of the German com-
pany by force. In the end, however, their hostility
was overcome by granting them twelve months' addi-
218
METHODS OF MINING
tional occupation of their works, and, when Herr Bauer
assumed charge as administrative engineer, opposition
was already at an end. The district is covered with the
remains of old workings in the schotter of the river-
bed; they are also to be found in a few places in the
quartz upon the mountain side. In the absence of the
requisite machinery, work upon the concession was neces-
sarily disorganised. Eventually the concession was
abandoned, close investigation failing to disclose its pos-
session of any very remunerative quantities. At the time
of its withdrawal, the company employed nine Euro-
peans, thirteen Japanese and Chinese, and some three
hundred Koreans.
Korean mining is very elementary. The usual meth-
ods are " placer " and " crushing " and a process of
treatment by fire. A vertical shaft is sunk, with narrow
steps cut into its sides, to the level of the reef; the bot-
tom of the shaft is then packed witK wood, which is
ignited and kept burning for several days. The Heated
rock becomes very friable and yields readily to the crude
implements of the miners. There is great competition
to secure the bottom pitch in these shafts; the more
Intrepid rarely delay their descent until the working has
cooled. The quartz Is sometimes rubbed to powder
and the gold washed out, or It Is crushed between huge
boulders, washed, re-crushed and panned again. The
gold Is then picked out. Until lately there were no
places where the gold was tested by other than the most
antiquated methods.
1219
KOREA
Such sanguine hopes have been raised as to the results
of the mining in Korea, that it would be as well if the
public accepted all statements in regard to these invest-
ments with great caution. The results of the develop-
ment of the various mining concessions, now in progress,
will be awaited with much interest, and will, it is to be
hoped, form a reliable test of the mining possibilities of
the country. The returns from the American mines
encourage the belief that these possibilities have not
been over-estimated; but it has yet to be proved that
mining operations can be profitably carried on with
Western methods and appliances. The deposits in
which gold is found in Korea are irregular, and by no
means continuous. To a Korean miner this is of small
importance. His outfit costs at the most a few shillings,
and his belongings are easily transported to any distance
as circumstances demand. A different order of things
is essential to a successful installation of Western ma-
chinery, and the public require some proof that there is,
within workable distance, a sufficient quantity of ore to
yield a fair profit on their investments. This has yet
to be proved in the case of the British mine ; in respect
of the German concession, the business resulted in a
fiasco. That these mining enterprises should be success-
ful is desirable in the interests of both natives and for-
eigners. They afford steady employment at a fair wage
to thousands of Koreans, at least, part of whose earnings
is expended in the purchase of foreign goods. It is
perhaps, however, not altogether unfortunate that the
220
A BEAR HUNT
Korean Government is averse, at present, to grant fur-
ther concessions.
During our halt at Tong-ko-kai, one day was spent in
climbing the mighty peaks to lofty spots where, at a
height of some thousands of feet, native prospectors
were driving into the granite facing of the mountain in
an effort to strike the main reef. Another day was
passed in a hunt across the crests of the ranges after
bear and deer. At daybreak, a little after 4 A.M. upon
the morning of this excursion, Herr Bauer escorted us
to a prospector's hut in the damp recesses of a distant
valley, where our beaters, gun-carriers, and hunter-
guides had been ordered to rendezvous for a bear hunt.
Alas ! the Korean cannot bestir himself ! His late rising
on this occasion delayed our departure from the hut two
hours. The sun had risen when the expedition moved
off, a motley retinue of professional hunters and beaters
accompanying us to the gorge, wherein lay the bear.
Hunters and beaters attached themselves to each of us,
and we proceeded across the mountain, pursuing a nar-
row and broken rack, which cleft the bare summit of
the highest ridges. We climbed and scrambled up and
down and in and out of many sheltered and well-tim-
bered gorges, until the hunters warned us that we were
approaching our stations.
The beaters disappeared, making a detour of some /t,
to beat up the many crooked twists and turns which the
drive took. Hours passed while we, hot, hungry, and
athirst, lay hidden in the rank bush awaiting a sight of
221
KOREA
the quarry. For the first hour no sound broke the seren-
ity of the valley; presently, however, the cries of the
beaters came to us, wafted from below or floating lazily
from the surrounding heights. At first only a distant
moaning, like the sobbing of a storm among the trees
of a forest, broke upon our ears. The strange sounds
created much restlessness among the wild wood-pigeons,
the cooing doves, and the cheery, chattering magpies.
Red-breasted storks rose with disdainful elegance from
the shallows of the trickling stream and soared towards
other pools. The mists of night rolled away from the
valley; the dew disappeared from the matted under-
growth ; the sun mounted ; the day grew warmer. The
blood coursed through our veins as we peered hither and
thither, scanning the opposite face of the valley with
the keenest vigilance. The beaters were ascending.
The harsh cries of their raucous voices broke upon the
air. The air vibrated with eerie noises; a spasmodic
howling arose from the depths of the valley, where an
isolated beater lashed himself into a fever of vociferous
discord. Hoarse shouts boomed above us, and echoed
against the crags of the gorge. On either side of us, the
valley resounded to the labours of the beaters, who,
gaining the extreme crests, had now descended, driving
everything before them. They approached rapidly,
joined by the native hunters, who had now taken up
positions upon the rocks which overlooked the place
where we were hiding. Our own moment had arrived.
Each man fingered his rifle, peering forward as the con-
222
WITH GUN AND RIFLE
eluding effort of the beaters burst forth in a hurricane of
clamour. We looked and waited, until the conclusion
was forced upon us that the bear had already long since
broken through the lines of his pursuers.
Hunting in general is considered a servile occupation
by the Koreans, and the pursuit of the deer, the bear,
and the tiger is not a favourite sport among the young
bloods of the kingdom. Nobles, except those who be-
long to a few impoverished families in the extreme
northern provinces, and who are reduced to the pastime
to supplement their resources, never indulge in it. It is,
nevertheless, free to all. There are no game laws, no
proscription of arms, and few preserves. There is no
interdicted season in any part of the country. The one
creature which it is forbidden to destroy is the falcon,
whose life is protected by most stringent enactments.
The hunting-grounds are almost solely confined to the
mountainous districts, and the hunters are a class apart
throughout the country. They shift their grounds rap-
idly and constantly in search of game, living at the ex-
pense of any village where they may temporarily lodge
in return for the protection from wild animals which
their prowess assures to the local population. Their
chief weapon is the flint-lock, imported from Japan.
The barrel is inlaid with silver, and bound with thin
silver bands or strips of tin. This weapon is loaded
with iron bullets, similar in size to those contained in a
seven-pound shrapnel shell. The charge is Ignited from
a coil of plaited straw-cord, which is kept alight during
223
KOREA
the progress of the hunt. The stock is short and light.
When the gun is fired, the butt of this curious and
antique weapon rests against the cheek-bone. The faces
of many of the hunters, who accompanied us, were
scarred below the right eye.
Their dress is characteristic, and they are further dis-
tinguished by their boldness, fearlessness, and independ-
ent bearing. They adopt, as a uniform, a blue canvas
shirt, to which is added a blue or green cotton turban,
which is coiled twice through the hair, the torn, frayed
end hanging over the forehead. Coloured beads are
entwined in this head-dress, and a necklace of similar
beads encircles the throat. Chains of seed-beans hang
across the breast, to which are fastened the many in-
genious contrivances of their calling. The hunters imi-
tate the sounds of various birds and animals very clev-
erly, particularly those of a pheasant calling to his hen
and a doe crying to her calves. The pheasant-call is
made from a disc of iron about the size of a sixpenny
piece. It resembles the stone of an apricot and is
pierced. The decoy used for deer is made from a split
bamboo stalk.
Bird-hunters never shoot their quarry upon the wing.
They disguise themselves in skins or feathers, bringing
down their game from some well-concealed coign of
vantage. Deer are hunted during June and July. The
hunters form into small parties, and beat up the moun-
tains for several days until their prey is within gunshot.
The horns are sold to the native physicians, or exported
224
WITH GUN AND RIFLE
to China and Japan. When in pursuit of the bea^r,
hunters are more than usually careful to delay firing
until the effect of their shot is certain. Good prices are
fetched by the various parts of a bear. In addition to
the proceeds from the pelt, the flesh, fat, sinews and gall
of a bear, supposed to possess certain medicinal proper-
ties, sell for their weight in silver. The one royal quad-
ruped associated with Korea, as the white elephant is
with Siam, the dromedary with Egypt, the bison with
the United States, is the tiger. Unlike the Indian
species, that delights in the tropical jungles, this animal
is found in Korea in the snow and forests of the north,
and as far as the fiftieth parallel. In the mind of the
Korean, the tiger is the symbol of fierceness, an emblem
of martial pomp and glory. The tiger hunters affect to
despise their noble game, and upon occasions they even
attack them single-handed with a lance or short sword,
assisted by trained dogs. Tigers are sometimes caught
in pits, covered with earth and bushes, and filled with
stakes. In this condition it is easy to kill them. The
hunters eat the meat, selling the skin and bones.
Tiger hunters are exceptionally courageous. Their
services are requisitioned by their Government upon
occasion in the defence of the Empire. Armed with
matchlock, spear and sword, they defeated the French,
under Admiral Roze, in 1866, and heroically resisted
the advance of the Americans in 187 1. In 190 1 they
were assembled to protect the northern frontier from the
incursions of Manchurian bandits.
225
CHAPTER XIX
The monks and monasteries of the Diamond Mountains —
The Temple of Eternal Rest — The Temple of the Tree
of Buddha — Buddhism
GAME abounds in the region between the German
mines and the Diamond Mountains, and as we
moved slowly forward to the famous Monastery of
Chang-an, many short halts were made in search of birds
and deer. Unfortunately, the deer evaded us and it
became impossible to put up the pheasants out of the
dense growth in the bushes in which they found cover.
We had, however, some sport among the wood-pigeon.
Korean hunters accompanied us some little distance
upon our journey, leaving our caravan when our ways
diverged. Beyond the Hai-yong River their track lay
to the west into the heart of the mountains; our own
continued north-east.
The hardships, experienced in travelling through
Korea, were exemplified by the difficulties of our prog-
ress. They were intensified, however, by our igno-
rance of the precise trail, which it was necessary to
follow across the heights from Tong-ko-kai to the
mountain retreat of the pious monks. The inhabitants
of the village of To-chi-dol warned our grooms of the
226
THE DIAMOND MOUNTAINS
difficulty of taking horses across the Tan-bal-yang Pass,
the one barrier, which remained unsurmounted, between
the outside world and the quiet repose of the first monas-
tery in the Keum-kang-san. Until we enforced our
orders with sticks the mampus were inclined to give up
the enterprise. Their opposition was momentary; the
transition from a somewhat angry mood into their usual
condition of unruffled composure and high spirits was
instantaneous. With untiring energy and patience they
encouraged their diminutive ponies to climb the boul-
ders; to twist and wriggle between the clumps of
tangled bushes and masses of rock which beset the path,
and to scramble across the steeps. We followed a
dried-up water course at the level of the valley, making
the ascent gradually. The climb was severe, and became
so steep that the pack-saddles slipped off the backs of the
ponies. It occupied our eight animals some four hours,
testing the endurance of pony and groom, alike the prod-
uct of the hills, stout of limb and strong of wind.
The descent from the spirit shrine, in a gap on the
crest of the range, was less toilsome. The grooms
plaited ropes of green creepers, plucked from the bush,
and strung them round the packs. Walking behind the
ponies, they held to these cords, thus supporting the ani-
mals and preventing the loads and clumsy saddles from
reversing the process of the previous scramble. Never-
theless, our path was littered with fragments of our
baggage. The contrivance was successful, however, and
in the main the little steeds picked their way with an
227
KOREA
easy accuracy through the cool green woods. The
mountain side was fragrant with innumerable plants, the
bush a tangle of magnificent ferns, trees, and shrubs.
Oaks, hawthorn, chestnut, birch and pines grew in
crowded splendour; the wild rose, the freckled lily, and
a purple orchid embroidered the moss. Beyond the hol-
lows of the hilly woodlands, the crumpled backs of the
jagged mountains reared themselves skyward, their
proud crests lost in the clouds, soaring silently to a
height of five thousand feet. Below in the valley, a
wall of granite mountains set up an impenetrable barrier
before a noisy river, which until the advent of the rainy
season becomes the merest trickle of silver in a lone
expanse of river-bed.
Our way lay across the river-bed and thence into the
centre of the mountains, a journey of one more day, to
The Temple of Eternal Rest. After crossing the Tan-
bal-yang Pass we delayed, resting at Kal-kan-i. Starting
at daybreak, upon the next morning we moved through
the Kak-pi Pass as the sun touched the tops of the
mountains, which shut in the narrow valley, across which
lay the last stage of the journey. We were nearing the
last home of many distressed pilgrims. In a cleft among
the mountains the deep curved roofs of many temples
might be seen. The air was tremulous with the pleasant
jangling of bells, and from a wayside shrine the sweet
fumes of incense mingled with the scent of the pines.
The calm and seclusion of this spiritual retreat was in
itself soothing ; as one passed beneath the red gate, that
228
THE TEMPLE OF ETERNAL REST
indicates royal patronage, the placid gentleness of the
scene was an allurement to the consolation and protec-
tion offered by this Buddhistic asylum.
There are thirty-four monasteries and monastic
shrines in the Keum-kang-san, and they are tended by
three hundred monks and sixty nuns. Chang-an is the
oldest, and has been in existence for some generations.
In 515 A.D., during the reign of Po-pheung, a king of
Silla, it was restored by two monks, Yul-sa and Chin-
kyo. Other monasteries, akin to this in their romantic
setting and picturesque seclusion, are Pyo-un, which,
together with Chang-an is situated upon the western
slopes, Yu-chom and Sin-ga upon the eastern slopes.
These, with thirty others of less importance, excite the
most profound interest and enthusiasm among the Ko-
reans, many of whom repeatedly brave the difficulties
and fatigues of travel in the Diamond Mountains to
visit them.
The four chief monasteries are served by one hun-
dred and seventy monks and thirty nuns. The main
temple of Chang-an is a large building, forty-eight feet
in height, of the type to which travellers in the East
soon become accustomed. The wooden structure is
rectangular, with two roofs, deep, curved and richly
carved eaves, the heavy tiled roofs being supported upon
teak pillars three feet In circumference. The diamond-
cut panels of the doors, which serve as windows, are
ornamented with gold, and the lofty ceiling is carved
and wrought in rich designs, lavishly gilded and highly
229
KOREA
coloured in blue, red, green and gold. Granite steps
give access to the temples ; the main beams and supports
of the whole edifice resting upon huge circular slabs of
this stone.
On the inner walls of this building there are scenes
from the life of Gautama, the apostle of the Buddhistic
creed. A gilded image figures as the centre of a golden
group of seven past and future godheads, incarnations
of the One and sublime Sakya-muni, whose future reap-
pearance is anticipated by the faithful. Brass incense-
burners, candlesticks, and a manuscript book of masses
in Chinese and Korean characters, resting upon a faded
cover of soiled and dusty brocade, furnish the front of
the altar. Before this high altar, wonderfully impres-
sive and inspiring in the dim religious light of the vast
interior, a priest spends certain hours of the day and
night in profound obeisance, intoning, chanting and gab-
bling monotonously and with constant genuflections, the
words Na-mu Ami Tabul. This expression is a phonetic
rendering of certain Thibetan words, the meaning of
which the Abbot himself was unable to explain; when
transcribed in Chinese characters it appears equally
unintelligible.
Other temples in this particular monastery are dedi-
cated to The Abode of Virtue, The Four Sages, and
The Ten Judges. Within these edifices Sakya-muni and
his disciples sit in different attitudes of ineffable abstrac-
tion, contemplating gruesome pictures of demons, ani-
mals, and the torments awarded in after-life to the
230
TEMPLE OF THE TREE OF BUDDHA
wicked. Many of the buildings of Chang-an have been
restored within recent years. The work has been com-
pleted long since, and the spacious courtyards are now
well kept. The temples are clean and spotless, the whole
monastery bearing witness to the care with which it is
maintained.
Besides the more important temples, there are many
smaller shrines, set within some forest nook; a stage for
the more important religious observances, bell and tablet
houses, stables for the ponies of the numerous visitors, a
nunnery and a refectory for the Abbot and monks.
There are, in addition, cells for the priests and quarters
for the servants. Accommodation is found for the
widows, orphans, and the destitute; for the lame, the
halt, and the blind ; for the aged and forlorn, to whom
the monks grant shelter and protection. Besides the
Abbot, there were in the monastery some twenty other
men, monks, priests and neophytes, and ten nuns of vari-
ous ages, ranging from girlhood to wrinkled wisdom.
The establishment derives its revenues from the rent
and proceeds of the Church lands, donations from pil-
grims and guests, occasional benefactions from the
wealthy, and the collections made by the mendicant
monks. These latter chant the litanies of Buddha from
house to house, and travel throughout the Empire, find-
ing food and lodging by the wayside, to collect the
scanty contributions which their solicitations evoke.
The four great monasteries are presided over by a mem-
ber of the community, who is elected annually to the
231
KOREA
office. Unless his conduct gives rise to dissatisfaction,
he is maintained in authority, usually until his death, or
transference to some other centre of Buddhistic activity.
The practices and observances, in these monasteries of
the Diamond Mountains, conform to the principles of
the religion of Buddha, as nearly as do the customs and
manners of our own Church to the varied tenets of
Christianity throughout the world.
I confess myself sorely puzzled to discover any sub-
stratum of truth in the charges of gross profligacy and
irreverence which the agent of an American Missionary
Society brings against the monasteries of the Keum-
kang-san. Personally, after spending many weeks in
the calm seclusion of this monastic region, I prefer to
recall the kindliness of the monks — their real Christian
charity — to the poor and afilicted, to the hungry and
sore distressed, as to all who come to them in times of
misery and evil. If many of them learn the litanies of
their liturgy by heart, if they lack scholarship, if they do
not know the meaning of much upon which they spend
so many weary hours of their lives, are not these slight
things when weighed against their profound humanity,
their gentleness to everything which breathes, their
benevolence to the old and destitute, their exceeding
humility, their wonderful toleration, the quietness and
extreme simplicity of their lives, and the humanitarian
nature of their interests?
The Monastery of Yu-chom is all peace and quietude.
It lies, shut off from all contact with the outer world,
232
TEMPLE OF THE TREE OF BUDDHA
within a deep, tree-clad valley of the eastern ranges. It
is self-contained, and its whole existence is wrapped up
in the mysteries of that faith to whose services it is dedi-
cated. There is no booming torrent, such as that which
vibrates and thunders through the Chang-an-sa gorge;
a subdued babble alone rises from the water, which wells
from some rocks deep in the recesses of the prevailing
bush. Its appearance is strangely solemn, and it exerts
over the daily lives of the coterie of monks, assembled
within its walls, an influence that conduces to their ex-
treme asceticism. The atmosphere of repose and seclu-
sion, in which a soul distressed finds so much comfort,
broods over the whole community.
The most imposing of the thirty-four Buddhist re-
treats within the Diamond Mountains is Yu-chom-sa.
It may be approached from the western side of the
Keurri-kang-san by climbing the rocky path of the
Chang-an-sa gorge, and crossing the watershed through
the An-man-chai Pass, 4215 feet in height. The descent
is made by a rough and picturesque track through deep
woods to the cluster of temples upon the eastern face of
the range. Another way, which, after a short detour
from Chang-an-sa, is an easier route, lies over the Pu-ti-
chong Pass, 3700 feet in height; after winding through
some miles of forest, it drops directly upon a track,
which leads to the gates of the monastery. Each road
starts from Chang-an-sa, and the crossing of the moun-
tains must be undertaken by all who wish to visit the
monasteries upon the eastern slopes. The journey in
233
KOREA
either direction can be accomplished within eight hours;
the difficulties of the bed of the Chang-an-sa torrent
render this route impassable to horses, etc. Lightly-
loaded ponies can be taken across the Pu-ti-chong. The
hire of coolies is recommended and one Korean dollar
for each man is the tariff.
The temples of Yu-chom-sa are very similar to those
at Chang-an-sa. They are, however, more numerous
and more richly endowed. Before the steps of the main
temple there is a small granite pagoda, whose graceful
proportions give an element of dignity to the spacious
courtyard upon which the principal temples of the
monastery abut. The altar of this temple is adorned by
a singular piece of wood-carving. Upon the roots of
an upturned tree sit or stand fifty-three diminutive
figures of Buddha. The monks tell an old-world legend
of this strange structure. Many centuries ago, fifty-
three priests, who had journeyed from India to Korea
to introduce the precepts of Buddha into this ancient
land, sat down by a well beneath a spreading tree.
Three dragons presently emerged from the depths of the
well and attacked the fifty-three, calling to their aid the
wind-dragon, who thereupon uprooted the tree. As the
fight proceeded, the priests managed to place an image
of Buddha upon each root of the tree, converting the
whole into an altar, under whose influence the dragons
were forced back into their cavernous depths, when huge
rocks were piled into the well to shut them up. The
monks then founded the monastery, building the main
234
BUDDHISM
temple above the remains of the vanquished dragons.
Upon each side of the fantastic altar-piece there is a
carved design of lotus leaves several feet in width and
height; at the feet of an immense image of the divine
Buddha, golden and bejewelled, which graces the centre
of the shrine, are several magnificent bronze bowls of
vast size, weight, and antiquity. Blue and red silk-gauze
draperies, serving the purpose of a screen, hang from
the massive beams in the roof.
The figures seen in Korean temples are reproduced in
Budhist temples throughout Asia, the supreme and
central form being that of Sakya-munI or Buddha. In
the sculpture and artistic development of this, the central
figure of their pantheon, there is little, if any, deviation
from the conventional traditions of India, Siam, Thibet,
and Mongolia. The sage Is crouching on his knees with
the soles of his feet turned upward to the face; the
palms and fingers of his hands pressed together; the
eyes are slightly oblique, and the lobes of the ears some-
what bulbous. The throne consists of the open calyx
of a lotus flower, the symbol of eternity. The splendour
of the figures in the Temple of the Tree of Buddha is
noticeable; and the lustre of the heavy gilding gleams
from about the altar into the dimness and uncertain light
of the vast chamber like the rays of some spiritual fire.
Devotional exercises never cease In this House of the
Ever-Supreme Lord, the services and constant offering
of prayer being taken in turn by the officiating priests.
At these moments, when the lonely figure of the priest
235
KOREA
is seen pleading with the Ever-Supreme Lord, In his
most sacred Temple and before his most sacred shrine,
for the grace of forgiveness, the scene is one of the most
extraordinary solemnity. As the chant rises and falls
in the great spaces of the hall and the swaying figure
rocks in the despair of his passionate self-abandonment
the sympathies and emotions are strangely stirred. The
stages of the services are marked by blows upon a bell
which the priest holds before him, the while he casts
himself upon his face and kneels before the resplendent
Buddha.
The chief celebrations of the day and night in Yu-
chom-sa are accompanied by the booming of the great
bronze bell — an elaborate casting of the fourteenth
century — and by the beating of a large circular drum
many feet in circumference. Both instruments stand in
their own towers in the courtyard. During the minor
services, the genuflections of the priests are accompanied
by the jarring notes of the small brass bells, which they
strike repeatedly with deer-horns. A magnificent figure
of Buddha sits in the Temple of the Lotus Blossom, In
an attitude of Impassive benignity behind a screen of
glass, looking solemnly upon the devotions and pious
exercises of his faithful attendants. This altar is re-
cessed, the entire shrine being protected by plates of
glass, and the offerings of rice, which are presented to
the altar for benediction, stand without the screen.
Among other temples and shrines at Yu-chom-sa there
are the House of Everlasting Life, the Temple of the
236
BUDDHISM
Water Month, the Temple of People who come from
the West. There are fifty monks in Yu-chom-sa, twelve
nuns, and eight boys who have not yet been admitted to
the order. Many of the boys in these monasteries are
quite young. Some have been handed over by their
parents in extreme infancy, while others have been re-
ceived out of the wide charity of the Buddhists, and
dedicated to the service of the monasteries. These boys
appear intelligent. They are taught little beyond the
different chants and litanies, with the words of which
they soon become familiar. The boys are clean and well
fed; but the monks, if equally clean, are more sparing
in their diet. Their frugal repast consists of rice and
varieties of minced vegetables, cakes of pine nuts glued
together with honey, and other cakes of popped rice and
honey. The extreme richness of the dishes soon palls
upon the palate. While managing to exist, signs of
emaciation are noticeable in their bodies and faces.
Among the nuns who are attracted to these different
monasteries, there are many who have entered the
cloister from religious motives, and a few who, alone in
the world, find it a convenient spot in which to pass their
lives. Neither class, however, encroaches upon the re-
ligious and devotional functions of the monks, but lives
entirely apart, existing altogether in a world of their
own making.
The forms of religion which prevail in Korea to-day
are Buddhism, Confucianism, and Shamanism. State-
ments of ancient Chinese and Japanese writers, and the
237
KOREA
early Jesuit missionaries, tend to prove that the worship
of spirits and demons has been the basis of national
belief since the earliest times. The god of the hills is
even now the most popular deity. Worship of the
spirits of heaven and earth, of the invisible powers of
the air, of nature, of the morning star, of the guardian
genii of the hills and rivers, and of the soil and grain,
has been so long practised that, in spite of the influences
of Confucianism, and the many centuries in which Bud-
dhism has existed in the land, the actual worship of the
great mass of the people has undergone little material
alteration. However widespread this leaning of the
lower classes towards demonolatry may be, the philoso-
phy of Confucius has been from the fifteenth century the
official and fashionable cult in Korea. In its middle
period, it attained to that point when a religion, which
at first was fostered by the few and has spread gradually
until it became absorbed by the people, feels itself firmly
established, and emphasises its ascendency by the bigotry
of its assertions, its intolerance, and, crowning triumph
of all usurping tenets, by the virulence of its persecution,
Confucianism now overspreads the whole peninsula.
From the fourth to the fourteenth century, when the
religion of the Enlightened One prevailed, it was stud-,
ied and practised only by the learned classes. Buddhism
predominated throughout the southern half of the penin-
sula, and only partially leavened the northern division
of the Empire, where it was unable to combat the teach-
ings of Confucius. Throughout its development, how-
238
BUDDHISM
ever, Buddhism has exercised a potent influence in Ko-
rean affairs, which continued until the close of the last
dynasty. The power of the bonzes at one time con-
trolled the Court and nullified the decrees of the mon-
arch. During its pristine supremacy it became the
strongest and most formidable factor in the education
of the country. It wielded unlimited and unrestricted
power, while it guided the political and social revolu-
tions of the period. Great respect is still shown to the
tenets of Buddhism in Korea. New monasteries and
temples are in process of construction — the Buddhist
priests of Japan and Korea making common cause
against the activities of Western missionaries. The Em-
peror has also shown himself interested in the propaga-
tion of this faith, and, with Lady Om, he has given
large sums to the restoration of certain dilapidated tem-
ples without the city. All things considered. Bud-
dhism has left such a mark upon the history of the little
kingdom that, although the purely ethical character of
the teachings of Confucius be acknowledged, Korea
must be classed among the Buddhist countries of the
earth.
239
CHAPTER XX
The Abomination of desolation — Across Korea — The east
coast — Fishing and filth
THE peace, piety, and sublime earnestness of the
monks of the monasteries of Yu-chom and
Chang-an is in startling contrast to the state of things at
Shin-ki-sa. The magnificence of Yu-chom-sa, and the
charitable benevolence of Chang-an-sa, engender a mood
of sympathetic appreciation and toleration towards
those, whose lives are dedicated to the service of Bud-
dha, in these isolated retreats of the Diamond Moun-
tains. The spectacle presented by the monastery at the
north-eastern base of the Keum-kang-san, however, re-
veals the existence of certain evils which happily do not
disfigure the more important Buddhist centres in this
region. It is not time which alone has brought about
the disorder; nor would the material decay be so
lamentable if the dignity and charm of a picturesque
ruin were not lacking. The tone of the monks here is
totally different. Everything is neglected, and every
one is indifferent to the needs of the temples. A litter
of broken tiles lies about the buildings; dirt and dust,
the natural consequences of carelessness and neglect, dis-
240
DESOLATION
grace them within. The spirit of reverence is wanting.
The scene is changed.
Shin-ki is a small monastery. Perhaps its temples
have never been comparable with the shrines of Yu-
chom-sa in grace and beauty. Nothing, however, can
excuse the disorder and neglect of its court-yards, and
the slovenliness of the temple service. There seems to
be nothing in common between this and those other
monasteries, which rest within the heart of the ranges.
One looks in vain for the courtly dignity of the aged
Abbot of Yu-chom-sa, whose humanitarian spirit was so
impressive. The principles of consideration, politeness,
and devotion that govern his conduct are sadly lacking
in the Abbot, the priests, and monks attached to Shin-
ki-sa. The contrast is indeed great. The most painful
emotions are excited by the decline which has taken
place in the prosperity of the temples. Anger and sor-
row fill the soul. As one gazes beyond the temples into
the peace and beauty of the valley below, it is as if one
were looking across from a place of abomination into
another and a better world. The colourless skeleton of
the past alone remains, and one longs for the power to
restore the fabric to its former self.
In its setting the monastery has caught something
of the spirit of nature. If there is any compensating
element in its decadence, it is found in the wild beauty
of the rugged mountains, which tower above it from
across the valky. Beyond their granite faces lie the
trials and tribulations of the outer world; once enclosed
241
KOREA
within their grey embrace the little ironies of life dis-
appear. The hours are cool and undisturbed. Primeval
forests adorn the deep gullies of the ranges; a flood
of colour comes from the open spaces where wild
flowers are growing and the tints of the woodland
foliage disclose an endless variety of green. In the
centre of a patch, cleared of its undergrowth and
approached by a path winding through deep woods, is
Mum-sa-am. This retreat is given over to the twenty
nuns who are associated with Shin-ki-sa. I know noth-
ing of their lives, but from the state of their temples,
and the roughness and disorder of their surroundings, it
did not appear to me that they, any more than the sixty
priests, monks, and boys of the lower monastery, find the
tenets of Buddha very elevating, or derive much satisfac-
tion from the surrounding scenery.
The history of our days in the more important monas-
teries of the Diamond Mountains was uneventful.
The anxious care and solicitude of the monks for the
welfare of their guests was hourly manifested, and some
kindly attention was shown to us at every possible oppor-
tunity. Cool and lofty quarters were allotted for our
entertainment; the resources of the monastery were
placed at our disposal. The Abbot of Chang-an-sa pre-
pared draughts of honey-water and cakes of pine-seeds
for our refreshment. Every morning supplies of honey,
rice, and flour, and small bundles of fresh vegetables
were brought to the table ; throughout the day nothing
was left undone, which, in the minds of these simple
242
ACROSS KOREA
men, would be conducive to our comfort. A deep pool
in the tumbling mountain-stream was reserved for our
use, and when, in the fresh air of the morning, and
again when the cool winds of the evening had tempered
the heat of the day, we went to bathe, the Abbot, upon
his own initiative, arranged that we should be left in
undisturbed possession of the water-hole.
The Temple, which we occupied during our stay at
Chang-an-sa, contained The Altar of the Three Bud-
dhas. The building was spacious and impressive. A
wide verandah surrounded it, teak pillars supported a
massive roof; scrolls and allegorical pictures, illustrat-
ing incidents in the life of Buddha, decorated the wall.
Layers of oiled paper carpeted the floor; an altar cloth
of silk, richly embroidered, small mats, bronze incense
bowls and brass candelabra, embellished the altar, in the
centre of which was a large gilt image of the Three
Buddhas. Every evening at sunset, the monks who offi-
ciated in this Temple placed bowls of rice, honey, and
pine-seed cakes upon the altar, and lighted the small
lamps and candles which illuminated it. Prayers were
not always said, nor were the services always the same,
the numbers of the monks varying nightly according to
the character of the special office. When the services
concluded, there were many who found something to
attract them in our small encampment. They gathered
round the kitchen ; they assisted the interpreter to cook,
and tasted his dishes. They handled with amazement
the cooking utensils of a camp-kitchen, the cutlery of a
243
KOREA
traveller's table. Occasionally, as their increasing famil-
iarity brought about some small degree of intimacy be-
tween us, the monks would display their beads and alms-
bowls for our inspection, requesting our acceptance of
copies of their books in return for photographs of their
temples. The intricacies of a camera delighted them, the
appearance of a sporting rifle created consternation in
their breasts, and they were never tired of swinging in
my camp-bed.
Before the camp at Chang-an-sa was shifted to Yu-
chom-sa, a fast friendship, engendered by many kindly
acts and the uninterrupted expression of a thoughtful
consideration for our needs, sprung up between the
monks and ourselves. They consulted us about their ail-
ments, which usually took the shape of an acute attack
of indigestion or a form of intermittent dysentery. My
medicines were limited to some quinine pills and a bottle
of fruit salts; they accepted either prescription with
gratitude and much melancholy philosophy. But al-
though they remained always the same well-disposed
visitors to our camp, I noted that they did not frequently
present themselves as candidates for treatment again.
When the moment came for our departure, many small
gifts were pressed upon us. For a long time, too, it
seemed as if it would be impossible to obtain an account
of our indebtedness to the monastery. In the end the
persuasion of the interpreter prevailed. When we added
to the reckoning a few dollars for the funds of the
monastery, the expressions of gratitude and apprecia-
244
ACROSS KOREA
tion, to which our little gift gave rise, made it almost
possible to believe that the kindness and hospitality
shown had been all on our side.
Our quarters at Yu-chom-sa were in no sense inferior,
and none the less delightful in their situation, to those
which we left behind at Chang-an-sa. The guest-house
in Yu-chom-sa affords views of the mountain torrent as
it dashes through the boulder-strewn, tree-clad slopes of
the valley. At Chang-an-sa we camped beneath the
protecting eaves of the spacious verandah which sur-
rounds the Temple of The Three Buddhas, avoiding
whenever possible any general use of the sacred edifice.
In the case of Yu-chom-sa, this diffidence was unneces-
sary; the building placed at our disposal being that usu-
ally set aside for the requirements of those persons of
official position who might be visiting the monastery.
The apartments were clean, comfortable, and bright.
They were hung with tablets, upon which had been In-
scribed the names and dignities of previous visitors.
High walls enclosed the buildings, and massive gates
I preserved the compound from unexpected intrusion.
The life In these encampments Is one of Ideal peace
and happiness. It was possible to work undisturbed
and unprovoked by any harrowing influences. Indeed,
there was no suggestion of any other existence. We
lived In the seclusion of a sanctuary, where mortal mis-
givings had not penetrated, and where the tribulations,
which oppress mankind, were unknown.
Beyond Shin-ki-sa, a journey of fifteen U, a well-made
245
KOREA
road leads east north-east to the coast, which it touches
at Syong-chik. The sight and scent of the sea, after
the exhausting discomforts of Shin-ki-sa, was peculiarly
welcome. Between Yu-chom-sa and Shin-ki-sa the coun-
try is intersected with marshes and rice-fields. The diffi-
culties of marching through these bogs and mud-holes
greatly impeded the horses. The road by the coast, if
rough and stony in places, is at least free from these
obstacles, affording a tortuous, but none the less pleas-
ant, course. Wending across basaltic slopes, ascending
their smooth surfaces by a series of roughly-hewn steps,
it drops to a level of burnished sand. A sweep inland
to the west and south-west avoids the rugged spurs of a
neighbouring range. The sea licks the white sand with
gentle murmurs and the slight breeze scarcely ripples the
blue surface, the constant variations, which the golden
sands and glittering sea, the open valleys and green hills
present, adding to the charm and freshness of the jour-
ney. The feeling of isolation, inseparable from travel
in regions where the sense of freedom is shut out by a
world of enclosing mountains, is at once lost in contact
with the ocean and the ships that go down to it. Far
out, in the great expanse of the peaceful sea, were fish-
ing-boats, grey junks, hull down upon the horizon, their
brown sails bellying spasmodically in the fitful gusts of
the breeze. In the shallows off-shore men, brown and
naked, dragged for herring and sprat while their chil-
dren gathered crabs, diving after their victims In the
deep pools with screams of delight.
246
ACROSS KOREA
Around the hovels, in all these clusters of small vil-
lages by the waves, men slept in the blazing sunshine.
While their lords reposed, the women mended the rents
in the nets, or busied themselves in constructing crude
traps, with the aid of which their husbands contrived to
catch fish. The aspect of these villages upon the beach
was not inviting; and they did not compare favourably
with any of the inland villages through which we had
passed. They were dirty, tumble-down, and untidy ; the
appearance of the people suggested great personal un-
cleanliness. The air was laden with the smell of fish
drying in the sun — of itself a pleasant perfume, smack-
ing of the salt of the sea — ^but here so mingled with the
odours of decaying offal, piles of rubbish, and varieties
of fish and seaweed in different stages of decomposition
that the condensed effluvium was sickening. The peo-
ple, however, were neither curious nor unkindly ; for the
great part they were indifferent, offering baskets of fresh
eggs, fish, and chickens readily for sale. The beach by
these villages was black with rows of fish, drying, upon
the white sand, in the most primitive fashion. The art
of smoking fish is unknown, and the careless manner in
which the curing is done proves that the treatment has
neither principle nor system. Dogs lay upon these rows
of fish, fowls fed undisturbed off them, and, in many
places, men slept peacefully with a number of them
heaped together, to serve as pillows for their weary
heads. Where such neglect prevails, it is perhaps not
unnatural that much of the disease among the Koreans
247
KOREA
should be attributed to the dried fish which they eat so
greedily.
The trade in salted and sun-dried fish is extensive and
finds its way all over the kingdom; an overland traffic
of considerable importance exists with the capital.
Strings or stacks of dried fish are to be seen in every vil-
lage. Pack ponies, and coolies laden with loads of dried
fish, are met upon every road in the kingdom. The
pedestrian who " humps his own swag " almost always
carries a small stock with him. The parallel industry to
the business of curing fish is the operation of making salt
from sea water, a pursuit which is conducted in a man-
ner equally rough and casual. In both of these indus-
tries there is a crying need for simple technical instruc-
tion, as well as for capital, the lack of which hinders the
work from achieving any particular success. There is so
much fish in the sea along the coast, that, if the catches
were properly treated, the beginning of a prosperous ex-
port trade could be readily laid. At the present only a
bare sufficiency is secured, the days of prosperity not yet
having begun to dawn. The industry is completely
paralysed by the exactions of the officials ; the fishermen,
like the peasants, knowing only too well that an immu-
nity from the demands of the Yamen is found only in a
condition of extreme poverty.
Many fishing villages were passed through in the
journey from the Diamond Mountains. Each seemed
to reflect the other, the sole difference between them
lying in their size, the number of fishing-boats drawn up
248
FISHING AND FILTH
on the beach, the strength and density of their smells.
The poverty and squalor of these hamlets was astonish-
ing. The people seemed without spirit, content to live
an idle, slatternly existence in sleeping, yawning, and
eating by turns. Despite offers of payment, it was im-
possible to secure their services in a day's fishing,
although they generally admitted that the boats, nets,
and lines were not otherwise engaged. As the outcome
of this spirit of indifference among the natives, Japa-
nese fishermen are rapidly securing for themselves the
fishing-grounds off the coast. Unless these dreary, medi-
tative, and dirty people arouse themselves soon, the busi-
ness of fishing in their own waters will have passed alto-
gether from their hands. The Japanese catch fish at all
seasons; the Koreans at one only — ^when it suits them.
They have consequently a diminishing influence in a
trade so exceedingly profitable that some ten thousand
Japanese fishing-boats subsist by it.
The filthy condition of the villages renders any stay
in them perilous. It is wiser to camp beyond them in
the open. It was my misfortune to stay in several, but
in the village of Wha-ding, seventy-five H from Won-
san, the virulence and variety of the insects surpassed all
my experience in Australia, America, Africa, or Asia.
Fleas were everywhere ; they floated through the atmos-
phere, much as the north-west winds of New Zealand
and the hot winds of Africa drive particles of fine sand
through the air. In this case, however, nothing re-
mained without its thin penetrating covering of fleas.
249
KOREA
One night in Wha-ding stands out as the most awful o'
these experiences. It was impossible to stand; it w;
impossible to sit ; sleep was out of the question. W
shook our clothes; we bathed and washed and po\
dered. Every effort was a torture, and each precautic
increased the ironies of the situation. To add to the
plagues of this accursed place, we were deafened by the
ear-splitting incantations of a sorcerer, who had been
hired by the proprietor of the village inn to exorcise a
devil that had bewitched him. We wondered, after-
wards, whether this accounted for the damnable activity
among the vermin. After a futile attempt to come to
terms with the magician by bribery and corruption
through the medium of my interpreter, it was arranged
that one of the grooms should represent the evil spirit.
He passed out into the desolation of the night and
howled plaintively, while we, having collected the elders
and the necromancer, solemnly fired our revolvers into
the darkness at the departing spirit. Unfortunately, we
did not convince the wizard that the devil had been
expelled. It was not until, losing my temper and my
reason together, I dropped his gongs and cymbals down
a well, depositing him in it after them, that we were
rid of the agonies of this additional nuisance.
250
1?
<
g
CHAPTER XXI
Drought — Starvation — Inland disturbances — Rainfall and
disease
IT is difficult for us in England to understand how
far-reaching may be the evils, resulting from the
complete failure of the rainfall, in countries where the
population relies upon it for their daily bread. A brief
mention, in the Press, of the lateness of the monsoon
gives no sign of the anxiety with which many millions
of people are regarding the approaching harvest. Wa-
ter means life to the rice-fields, and a drought implies,
not alone the failure of a staple crop, but famine, with
disorder and starvation, disease and death, as its accom-
paniments. A drought in the rice-fields makes a holo-
caust of the people in the winter. The forces of law
and order at the disposal of the Government of India
place some restraint upon the populace. In the Far
East, where the civil administration is incompetent to
deal with the exigencies of the situation, and the sys-
tematic dispensation of relief is unknown, the decima-
tion of the population and the complete upheaval of the
social fabric follows closely upon the break-down in
nature. Indirectly, too, the consequences of famine in
India prove this.
251
KOREA
An even more emphatic evidence of the effects of a
drought, where the population live upon the rice crop,
is afforded by the appalling loss of life and the grave
eruption of disorder, which took place in Korea as the
consequence of the famine in 1901. Widespread ruin
overtook the country ; the inland districts were thronged
with mobs of desperate people. Persons, normally
peace-loving and law-abiding, banded together to harass
the country-side, in the hope of extorting sufficient food
to keep their families and themselves from starvation.
Hunger drove whole communities from the villages to
the towns, where no provision for their welfare existed.
Anarchy prevailed throughout the country, the dire
needs of the population goading them to desperation. A
horde of beggars invaded the capital. Deeds of vio-
lence made the streets of Seoul unsafe after darkness,
and bandits carried on their depredations openly in the
Metropolitan Province. From a peaceful and happy
land of sunshine and repose, Korea was transformed, in
a few months, into a wilderness of misery, poverty, and
unrest.
The measures for relief were quite inadequate, and
although rice was imported, large numbers of the peo-
ple, lacking the money with which to buy it, starved to
death. The absence of an efficient organisation in the
face of this further disaster Increased the confusion.
Before any arrangements could be made for their re-
lief, several thousands had died. More than 20,000
destitute people were discovered in Seoul, out of a popu-
252
DROUGHT
latloti of rather less than 200,000. Reports from the
provincial centres disclosed a relapse into a state of
absolute savagery in many rural districts. Famine,
pestilence, and death stalked abroad in Korea for
months, and many, who escaped starvation, lost their
lives subsequently in the great wave of disease which
swept over the land.
It is impossible to believe that the famine would
have assumed its late proportions had the Government
of Korea maintained its embargo against the exporta-
tion of cereals from the country. There can be no doubt
that the withdrawal of this prohibition contributed to
the scarceness of the food-stuffs which were procurable
by the people, when their straits were most severe.
Mortality returns from the areas devastated by the
famine prove that the welfare of more than one million
persons was affected. The action of Japan, therefore,
in insisting upon the suspension of the prohibition in
order that the interests of some half-dozen Japanese rice
merchants might not suffer, deserves the utmost con-
demnation. The primary responsibility for this great
loss of life rests entirely with the Japanese Government.
In terrorising the Government of Korea into an act, the
consequences of which brought death to one million peo-
ple, the Japanese Government committed themselves to
a policy which traversed alike the dictates of reason and
common sense, and outraged every principle of human-
ity. The impartial observer must hold Korea guiltless
in this matter. It is, indeed, deplorable that the vehe-
253
KOREA
ment opposition of the Korean Government was not re-
spected. Nevertheless, the incident is valuable, as an
illustration of the objectionable attitude which distin-
guishes the Government of Japan in its relations with
Korea.
At the beginning of the drought the inhabitants of
Seoul believed that the Rain God was incensed. The
Emperor and his Court offered expiatory sacrifices upon
three occasions. As the rains were still withheld a
period of penance was proclaimed, in which prayers and
fastings were ordained, the populace ceasing from every
form of labour and relapsing into a condition of supreme
idleness. Unhappily, while the great mass of the people
refrained from work, the Emperor continued to employ
many hundreds of labourers upon the construction of the
new Palace buildings. This proceeding was held by the
superstitious subjects of His Majesty to account for the
singular inclemency of the Rain Demon, and some anx-
iety was felt in the capital lest the usual calm of the
city should be broken by riots. These horrors were
spared to Seoul, however, by the fortuitous visitation
of a passing shower. Men and women resumed their
toil, rejoicing in the belief that the evil influences had
been overcome. It was, however, but a brief respite
only that was granted. In a short time the drought pre-
vailed throughout the land, drying up the rice-fields,
scorching the pastures, and withering the crops. Under
this baneful visitation, the circumstances of the people
became very straitened. Hundreds were reduced to
254
STARVATION
feeding off the wild roots and grass of the wayside, and
isolated cases of cannibalism were reported.
The exceptional character of the drought lends inter-
est to the hydrometrical records for Chemulpo from
1887 to the middle of 1901, which were forwarded to
the bureau bythe correspondent of the Physical Observa-
tory, St. Petersburg. The rain-fall given is for the years
1887 to 1900, inclusive, and the first half of 1901 ; the
snow-fall is reduced to the proportion of water which
the melted snow would make. Professor H. Hulbert
has pointed out, however, that in estimating what is or
what is not a proper amount of rain, it is necessary to
know in what season of the year the rain has fallen.
Thirty inches of rain in November would be of less
value to the rice-fields than half that amount if it fell
in June. In the cultivation of rice, rain must fall at the
proper time. Otherwise it is valueless, and, although
adding to the actual measurement of the fall, a very
considerable deluge, under these conditions, would be of
no material advantage to agricultural interests.
255
KOREA
HYDROMETRICAL RECORD
Years
RainfeU
Snowfall
Total
Fog
Rain
Snow
inches
1887
30.86
2.00
32.86
13d 3h
I9d I7h
4d 2h
1888
20.91
2.15
23.06
I4d 5h
1 2d 6h
3d 3h
1889
28.18
0.91
29.09
25d I3h
25d 5h
5d 9h
1890
47.00
1.06
48.06
I 2d l8h
27d loh
od 64h
189I
41.04
1.66
41.70
13d 5h
3od 2oh
3d 7h
1892
34-04
1.20
35-24
I5d 2oh
i6d loh
4d 6h
1893
50.64
3-55
54.19
3id 5h
36d 6h
8d iih
1894
31.81
0.64
32-45
33d i8h
2 id 9h
id 8h
189s
31.88
2.06
33-94
3 2d 7h
29d I ih
6d i7h
1896
31.08
5-15
36-23
5id 7h
27d oh
2d oh
1897
48.35
3-23
51.58
24d 5h
3id i7h
4d i8h
1898
37.80
4-73
42-53
3 id i4h
29d igh
5d I5h
1899
25.07
2.05
27.12
i8d i9h
id 3h
1900
29. 1 4
0.83
29.97
2 id zh
od 2oh
1901
7.09
0.06
7-15
7d 5h
3d 7h
zd oh
I give also, the rain-fall during the years 1 898-1901,
at the period when a plenteous rain is of supreme im-
portance to the rice industry:
Year
June
July
August
Total
1898
4-5
lO.O
II.
25.5
1899
8.5
7-5
6-7
22.7
1900
2.0
6.2
4-5
12.7
I90I
0-3
2.7
I.I
4.1
In a rice-growing country such as this is, it is essential
that an adequate supply of rain should fall during the
three summer months to allow of the seed-rice being
transplanted and to ensure the maturing of the grain.
In 1 90 1, owing to the lack of water, the bulk of the
256
RAINFALL AND DISEASE
seed-rice was never transplanted at all. It simply with-
ered away.
It is, of course, inevitable that one of the immediate
results of famine should be a general increase of mor-
tality throughout the country. The impoverished con-
dition, to which so many thousands of Koreans were
reduced, weakened their constitutions so seriously that,
in many cases, even those who were fortunate enough to
escape starvation found their powers fatally impaired.
There were many whose inanition and general debility,
resulting from their deprivations, had rendered them
peculiarly susceptible to disease. More particularly was
this the case in the inland districts.
Under normal conditions, malaria is, perhaps, the
most common disease in Korea. It prevails in all parts
of the country, but it is specifically localised in sections
where there are numerous rice-fields. Small-pox is
nearly always present, breaking out in epidemic form
every few years. Nearly all adults, and most children
over ten years, will be found to have had it. Leprosy
is fairly prevalent in the southern provinces, but it
spreads very slowly. While this disease presents all the
characteristics described in the text-books, the almost
imperceptible increase, which distinguishes its existence
in Korea, is strong presumptive evdence that it is non-
infectious.
The great enemy of health is the tubercle bacillus.
The want of ventilation, the absence of sanitation, and
the smallness of the houses, foster this little germ. Tu-
257
KOREA
bercular and joint diseases are common; also fistula,
hare-lip, diseases of the eye, throat and ear. The most
common disease of the eye is cataract; of the ear, sup-
puration of the middle drum, in the great majority of
cases the result of small-pox in childhood. Cases of
nasal polypi are also very numerous. Hysteria is fairly
common, while epilepsy and paralysis are among other
nervous disorders which are encountered. Indigestion
is almost a national curse, the habit of eating rapidly
large quantities of boiled rice and raw fish promoting
this scourge. Toothache is less frequent than in other
countries; diphtheria and typhoid are very rare, and
scarlet fever scarcely exists. Typhus, malarial remit-
tent fever, and relapsing fever are not uncommon.
Venereal disease is about as general as it used to be In
England.
In short, there Is a preponderance of diseases which
result from filthy habits, as also of those produced by
the Indifferent qualities of the food, and the small and
overcrowded houses. Mose of the diseases common to
humanity present themselves for treatment In Korea.
258
CHAPTER XXII
The missionary question — Ethics of Christianity — Cant and
commerce — The necessity for restraint
THE history of missionary enterprise in Korea
abounds In illustrations of the remarkable
manner In which French missionaries may be relied
upon to offer up their lives for their country. It may
be cynical to say so, yet there is much reason to believe
that the Roman Catholic priests in the Far East of to-
day are the agents provocateurs of their Government.
They promote anarchy and outrage, even encompassing
their own deaths, whenever the Interests of their coun-
try demand It. From the beginnings of Christianity
In China they have wooed the glory of martyrdom, and
they have repeated the process In Korea.
Christianity made Its way into Korea about 1777,
by the chance arrival of a packet of translations In Chi-
nese of the works of the Jesuits In Pekln. From this
small beginning the ideas spread, until the King's Pre-
ceptor was compelled to fulminate a public document
against this new belief. Finding this insufficient, ex-
amples were made of prominent enthusiasts. Many
were tortured ; and others condemned to perpetual exile.
259
KOREA
Persecution continued until 1787; but the work of
proselytism proceeded, despite the injurious attentions
which converts received from the public executioners.
The first attempt of a foreign missionary to enter
Korea was made in 179 1. It was not until three years
later, however, that any Western evangelist succeeded
in evading the vigilance of the border sentinels. Where
one came others naturally followed, undeterred by the
violent deaths which so many of these Intrepid Chris-
tians had suffered. While the French missionaries were
prosecuting their perilous labours, in the face of the
undisguised hostility of the great proportion of the peo-
ple, and losing their lives as the price of this work, the
walls of isolation which Korea had built around her-
self were gradually sapped. Ships from France, Russia
and Great Britain touched her shores during their ex-
plorations and trading ventures in the Yellow Sea.
Under the association of ideas which sprang from the
appearance of these strange ships, the Koreans grew
accustomed to the notion that their world was not
limited by the resources of their own country and the
more distant territories of China. However, judging
the sailors who fell into their hands by the standards
of the French priests, who had set every law in the land
at defiance, they at once killed them. This practice
continued until 1866, when word reached the Admiral
of a French squadron at Tientsin of the slaughter of
his compatriots in Korea. Upon receipt of the news,
an expedition was prepared, of itself an early manifesta-
260
THE MISSIONARY QUESTION
tlon of that policy by which the French Government
is inspired in its dealings with missionaries and mission-
ary questions in countries, the development of whose
geographical or industrial peculiarities may be turned
to advantage.
For many centuries the land was without any ac-
cepted religious doctrine. Buddhism, which existed for
one thousand years before the present dynasty came to
the throne, had fallen into disfavour ; the tenets of Con-
fucius did not completely satisfy the minds of the upper
classes, and Shamanism was the worship of the more
primitive masses. The moment was ripe for the in-
troduction of a more practical philosophy, and in time,
as the gospel of Christianity spread, opposition to the
great creed of humanitarianism lessened. Toleration
of the many phases of Western belief is now general,
the Korean finding in the profession of Christianity an
easy means of evading the exactions of the officials.
Nevertheless, the diffusion of Christianity is not unat-
tended with bloodshed and disaster. Apart from this
drawback to the propagation of Christian beliefs in
Korea, It may be doubted whether the methods of the
various missionary bodies bear the impress of that spirit
of charity which should Illustrate their teaching. With-
out impugning the Individual attainments of any of the
many missionary groups who administer to the needs
of the Koreans, I find it difficult to affirm that the prln-
ciples of self-abnegation so manifest In the lives of the
Roman Catholic priests and the workers of the Church
261
KOREA
of England Mission, are equally in evidence in the
comfortable existence which is led by the well-paid
attaches of the American Mission Boards. The French
priests live in abject poverty; striving to identify them-
selves with the conditions of their flock, they accept
neither holiday nor reward as compensation for their
services. In this bare comparison of the principles of
ministration, I do not wish, at the moment, to venture
Into the domain of controversy, but merely to convey
some impression of the competing systems of procedure.
The Church of England Mission, which has become
known as the English Mission, under the direction of
Bishop Corfe has adopted a system of communism. The
expenses of board, lodging, clothing, laundry and fuel
are met from a common fund, quarterly remitted from
the Mission Treasurer to the responsible head of each
Mission House. In proportion to the number of resi-
dents, the expenditure Is returnable upon a pro rata
calculation of about £70 per head per annum. This
estimate includes the cost of the male staff. The pro-
portionate rate of expenditure In respect of the lady
workers of the English Mission Is one-third of this
annual disbursement less. The depots of the Mission
are situated at Seoul, Chemulpo, Mok-po, and Kang-
wha ; In addition to the stations in Korea, a chaplaincy
Is maintained In New-chwang. The chief centre of
activity of this Mission Is upon the Island of Kang-wha.
The task of improving the condition of the very poor,
by means of education, kindness and patience, proceeds
262
ETHICS OF CHRISTIANITY
quietly at Chemulpo and Seoul too, where particular
attention is given to the welfare of the sick. At one
time, there were important dispensary and hospital in-
stitutes in these places, the medical establishment at
Chemulpo, however, is now abandoned.
The members of this Mission endure no little priva-
tion In the primitive simplicity of their surroundings.
Their services, on the other hand, display much un-
necessary pomp ; and the white, full-skirted cassock with
rough hempen girdle, which they wear in public and
private, emphasises their ritualistic tendencies, and is, to
my mind, somewhat of an affectation. Nevertheless,
in their daily practice, those associated with the Church
of England Mission in Korea set before themselves that
standard of Idealism in missionary enterprise which is
represented by the unnecessary sacrifices, the sublime
heroism, and fortitude distinguishing the priests of the
Roman Catholic Church, a standard, I am compelled to
admit, that other missions In the Far East — ^American,
English, Scotch, and Irish — appear Incapable of realis-
ing.
The American missionary in the Far East is a curious
creature. He represents a union of devices which have
made him a factor of considerable commercial Impor-
tance. American missionaries in Korea were formerly
closely associated with the more important export houses
In the leading Industrial centres of America. Owing to
diplomatic representation this practical demonstration
of Western superiority is no longer openly indulged.
263
KOREA
In Seoul, however, an American missionary inconsid-
erately receives paying guests, causing a manifest loss
of business to the Station Hotel; in Won-san, another
exploits his orchard. As a class they are necessarily
newspaper correspondents and professional photogra-
phers; upon rare occasions — and here I refer especially
to a small coterie of American missionaries in Seoul —
they are the scholarly students of the history, manners,
customs and language of the country in which they
happen to be placed.
The American missionary has a salary which fre-
quently exceeds £200 a year, and is invariably pleas-
antly supplemented by additional allowances. Houses
and servants are provided free, or grants are made for
house rent ; there is a provision for the education of the
children, and an annual capitation payment is made for
each child. As a class, American missionaries have
large families, who live in comparative idleness and
luxury. In Korea, they own the most attractive and
commodious houses in the foreign settlements, and
appear to me to extract from their surroundings the
maximum of profit for the minimum of labour. I do
not know whether it is with the permission of the execu-
tive officers of the American Mission Boards that their
representatives combine commerce with their mission
to the heathen. When a missionary devotes no little
portion of his time to literary labours, to the care of an
insurance agency, to the needs of a fruit farm, or to the
manifold exigencies of casual commerce, it seems to me
264
THE NECESSITY FOR RESTRAINT
that the Interests of those who sit in darkness must
suffer.
American mission agents have made Korea their pecu-
liar field. Converts, who prattle of Christianity In a
marked American accent, are among the features of the
capital In the twentieth century. Mission centres, which
have been created in a number of places, now show signs
of prosperity. They enlist no little practical sympathy
and support from the native population. The self-sup-
porting character of much of the missionary work in
Korea bears out the spirit of toleration which distin-
guishes the attitude of the people towards the propa-
ganda. It Is not to be supposed that the work of the
msisionarles is agreeable to all shades of native opinion.
Riots and bloodshed disfigure the path of proselytism,
the credulity of the natives entailing heavy sacrifices of
life. The disturbances which have thus marked the
spread of Christianity in Korea, notably in the anti-
Christian rising In Quelpart, a few months ago, are due
to the jealousy with which the heathen mass of the
population regard the protection from official rapacity,
enjoyed by those who accept The Light. _
In the case of Quelpart, this feeling of animosity,
and the immunity from taxation which the Frehch
priests gave to their following, created an Intolerable
position. Anarchy swept over the Island, and some six
hundred believers were put summarily to death. What-
ever may be the compensating advantages of this mar-
tyrdom, the reckless and profligate sacrifice of life,
265
KOREA
which missionary indiscretion in the Far East has pro-
moted, is an outrage upon modern civilisation. We
have passed through one terrible anti-Christian upheaval
in China, and, if we wish to avoid another such mani-
festation, it is necessary to superintend all forms of mis-
sionary enterprise more closely. This, however, can be
done only by legislative supervision, imposing restraint
in the direction which recent events have indicated. It
is imperative that certain measures should be adopted in
missionary work which will ensure the safety of the
individual zealot, and be agreeable to the general com-
fort of the community. It is unfortunate, but inevitable,
that such reforms must be radical. The violence of mis-
sionary enterprise during recent years has been alto-
gether unbridled. The great activity of the different
societies, resulting from their unrestricted liberty, has
recoiled most fatally upon the more indefatigable, as
well as upon the heads of many wholly innocent of any
unwarrantable religious persecution. The time has
come, therefore, when vigorous restrictions should
chasten this vigorous, polemical proselytlsm. The prac-
tice of scattering missionaries broadcast over the interior
of these Far Eastern countries should not continue ; the
assent of the local Consul and a representative council of
the Foreign Ministers should be required in every case.
Moreover, it would be wiser, if, under no conceivable
circumstances, single women were permitted to prose-
lytise beyond the carefully prescribed treaty limits of the
different settlements. Again, missionaries with families,
266
THE NECESSITY FOR RESTRAINT
as well as single women, should not be allowed to live
beyond the areas of these neutral zones.
These restraints upon missionary labours will, of
course, be resented. If the total number of lives which
have been lost in Korea, China, and Japan, by the inter-
ference of Western missionaries, were published, their
vast aggregate would reveal to the unthinking masses
of the public how urgent is the need for strong action.
Such restraint is morally justifiable by the appalling
massacres with which the world is now familiar. The
blind perseverance of the missionary has frequently
brought about the simultaneous baptism and crucifixion
of the convert. What more does the fanatical enthu-
siast wish than that some one should be thus doubly
glorified by his means? The Increasing death-roll
among masters and pupils supplies the only necessary
argument for Immediate rectification of the entire sys-
tem of missionary enterprise.
267
CHAPTER XXIII
Inland journeying — Ponies, servants, interpreters, food and
accommodation — What to take and how to take it — Up
the Han River, frolic and leisure
TRAVELLING in the inland regions of Korea is
not the most comfortable pastime which can be
devised, although it has many attractions. The lively
bustle of the roads gradually gives place to the passing
panorama of the scenery, which presents in constant
variation a landscape of much natural beauty, with hills
and meadows, bush-clad mountains and rice-fields,
rivers, lakes, and raging torrents as prominent features.
The shifting camp soon leaves the outposts of civilisa-
tion behind. This slow passing into the wilderness
gives a subtle charm to the journey. Each turn of the
track emphasises the desolation of the ever-changing
scene. The wide expanse of plains and valleys makes
way for the depths of wild and gloomy forests, where
the ragged mountain-paths are slippery and dangerous.
The ozone of a new life pervades the air. There is no
doubt that such moments seem, for the time, the most
perfect existence imaginable. Freedom is untrammelled
by a care ; the world for the day is comprised within a
space as great as can be seen. Upon the morrow, its
268
INLAND JOURNEYING
limitation is only a little more remote. The birds of the
air, the beasts of the field, the game in the bushes, sup-
ply the provender of the camp. Villages provide rice,
vegetables and eggs, the hill-side springs give water, the
rivers permit bathing. The air is pure, and the whole
aspect of life is beautiful and joyous.
At the end of a trying day, one, perhaps, marred by
an accident to an animal, trouble with the native ser-
vants, rain, fog, or the difficulties of the track, there is
the evening camp. Those hours of rest and idleness,
when the horses are fed and groomed, the packs un-
swung, the camp-beds slung beneath the mosquito cur-
tains, and the evening meal prepared, are full of a su-
preme sensation of contentment. I have always loved
these moments of peace, accepting what they brought as
the best that life held for me at the time. At such an
hour the refinements of civilisation and the restrictions
of convention seem puerile enough. Moreover, there is
much material benefit to be derived from such an under-
taking. The trials and difficulties develop stability of
character; the risks and dangers promote resource and
self-reliance. There is much to be learnt from this con-
tact with a human nature differing so radically from the
prescribed types and patterns of the Western standard.
There is something new in every phase of the experi-
ence. If it be only an impression, such as I have en-
deavoured to trace in these 'few lines, It is one which
lingers in the mind long after other memories have
faded.
2^69
KOREA
Preparation for an Inland journey of any extent takes
a considerable time; ponies have to be hired, servants
engaged, and interpreters secured. It is as well to per-
sonally examine the pack ponies which are to carry the
loads. Koreans treat their animals shamefully, and the
missionaries make no efforts to lighten the lot of these
unhappy beasts. In consequence of the carelessness with
which the ponies are treated by their Korean masters,
the poor little brutes suffer from back-sores larger an3
more dreadful than anything I have seen in any other
part of the globe. If the Koreans could be taught the
rudiments of horse-mastering and a more humane
principle of loading and packing their rough saddles,
as well as some practical veterinary knowledge, the lot
of the unlucky little pony of the capital might be soft-
ened. But the spectacle of broken knees, raw necks,
bleeding backs, and sore heels which these poor animals
present, as they pass in quick succession along the streets
of Seoul, is revolting. The American missionaries boast
so much of their good deeds that it seems strange that
they should neglect such a crying evil as this. There is,
I presume, no credit to be " gotten " from alleviating
the sufferings of a mere, broken-down, Korean pack
pony.
Large numbers of the pack ponies of Korea come
from Quelpart. They are diminutive in size, little
larger than the Shetland breed, and rather smaller than
the Welsh pony. They are usually stallions, given to
fighting and kicking amongst themselves, and reputed
270
INLAND JOURNEYING
savage. Their wildness is aggravated through a daily
irritation by the rough surfaces of their pack saddles of
the inflamed swellings on their backs. They endure
longer marches and shorter food allowances than almost
any other species of horse ; they are quick in their gait,
very strong, and willing, good feeders, and reveal ex-
traordinary obstinacy, tenacity, and patience. Much of
the pleasure in my travels in Korea, however, was
entirely spoilt by the abominable neglect with which the
native grooms treated their charges. Their dreadful
condition goaded one to fury, and almost daily I remon-
strated with one or other of the grooms for gross
cruelty. My remarks had not the smallest effect, how-
ever, save that they wore me out, and in the end I aban-
doned my expeditions to avoid the horrors of such spec-
tacles. The Korean is quite callous to the sufferings of
his animals. He will feed them well, and he will will-
ingly disturb himself at night to prepare their food; but
he will not allow ulcerated and running wounds to inter-
fere with the daily work of the poor beasts. This is
comprehensible; but he will not, upon his own initia-
tive, even endeavour to bridge the sore by the tricky
placing of a pad. However bad the gathering may be,
on goes the load, the agony of the poor pony manifest-
ing itself in a flourish of kicks, bites, and squeals.
In demonstration of this extreme callousness I may
mention this incident. Once, outside Won-san, I saw a
Korean seat himself upon the side of a stone, and lei-
surely proceed to rain blows upon the head of a dog
271
KOREA
which he was holding, until the poor thing collapsed
insensible. He then beat it about the ribs, and put the
body on the embers of a fire. We were several hundred
yards off when this attracted my notice ; but I chased the
brute across two paddy stretches, until the heavy going
compelled me to abandon it. At a later time I noticed
that the grooms were most careful to dress the backs of
the horses at our different halts, and also to endeavour
to prevent the pack saddles from rubbing the wounds,
prompted, I have no doubt, to this most desirable kind-
liness by the lesson which they had read between the
lines upon the occasion of the dog incident.
The character of the native followers who accompany
these journeys is a matter of great importance to the
future welfare of the traveller. The proprietor of the
Station Hotel, Seoul, secured me an excellent boy.
Shortly after entering my service, an American mission-
ary, who had been hankering after the lad for some
time before he was brought to me, suborned him. He
deserted me upon the eve of my second expedition.
This trick is seldom perpetrated east of Suez between
Europeans with native servants; it is one of the few
unwritten laws of the East and observed everywhere.
I reported the matter to the American Minister, Dr.
Allen, but the missionary kept the boy. Servants,
grooms, and a coolie of a sort, are all necessary upon
these expeditions; one groom to each horse is a wise
allowance. Koreans like to send three horses to two
men; however, my division is the better. Europeans
272
FOOD AND ACCOMMODATION
require a body-servant, who will look after the personal
effects of his master, and wait at table. An interpreter,
who can speak Chinese and some European language,
either German, French, or English, is invaluable. It is
safer in each case to take men who are not converts. A
coolie is useful and gives a little variety to the beasts of
burden; he carries the camera, water-bottles, and small
impedimenta of the hour. A chef is not really neces-
sary — my interpreter voluntarily served as cook. The
interpreter in any journey inland should be mounted; it
saves considerable friction if the personal servants be
allowed to ride on the baggage ponies. Interpreters re-
ceive from thirty to forty dollars a month ; personal ser-
vants from eight to twenty dollars a month; coolies
from eight to ten dollars a month. The hire for the
horses, with whom the grooms are included, is a dollar a
day, half the amount paid down in advance upon the
day of starting. All calculations are made in Korean
currency. The entire staff, except the horses and
grooms, is fed by the traveller. The interpreter takes
charge of the accounts. He will, if ordered, take down
the Chinese and Korean names of the villages, streams,
lakes, valleys, plains, mountains and roads which are
passed. This is useful; the map of Korea is most hope-
lessly out of date, and by forwarding these names to
the Geographical Society some little good is accom-
plished. The interpreter will pay the coolies, grooms,
and other servants in debased currency, and charge the
account in Mexican dollars, making a profit of seventy-
273
KOREA
five per cent. ; he is greedy and tenacious to the interests
of his pocket, and he will suggest that he requires a ser-
vant. For this remark he should be flogged. He will
muddle his accounts whenever he can; he will lose re-
ceipts if he can find no other way of squeezing. He is
apparently an innocent, transparently honest, and de-
voted to the principles of sobriety and virtue — unless
there is an opportunity to go the usual path. Under
every condition he should be watched.
The Korean does not approach the Chinaman as a
body-servant; he has neither initiative nor the capacity
for the work, while he combines intemperance, immoral-
ity, and laziness in varying degrees. The master usually
ends by waiting upon his man. There is, however, an
antidote for this state of things. If sufficient point be
put into the argument, and the demonstration be fur-
ther enforced by an occasional kick, as circumstances
may require, it is possible to convert a first-class, sun-
loving wastrel into a willing, if unintelligent, servant.
Under any conditions, his dishonesty will be incor-
rigible.
It is never necessary to take any large stock of pro-
visions when travelling in Korea. Eggs, fowl, fresh
fish, fruit, matches, tobacco, vegetables, and crushed rice
flour can be procured at any village In large quantities.
The inhabitants will perhaps declare that there are no
such things In the village ; that they are miserably poor.
The village usually bears the stamp of Its condition
pretty plainly, and I found that where this occurred the
274
FOOD AND ACCOMMODATION
most effectual remedy was to call up the oldest man
visible, to offer him a cigarette, to calm him down, and
then to give the interpreter some money and to send off
the pair of them. Once this system failed in a flea-
infested hole on the west coast, where the village inn
had no stables, and I really thought there were no fowls ;
of a sudden, as though satirising the expression of regret
of several villagers, two fowls fluttered over a wall into
the road. The meeting broke up in confusion. The
grooms, the servants and the interpreter at once tackled
the mob, laying about them with their whips ; little dam-
age was done, but considerable commotion ensued, and
stables, fowls and eggs were at once forthcoming and as
promptly paid for. In regard to payments made to the
villagers, it is as well to make certain that the grooms
pay for the horses' accommodation; if they can avoid
it they will do so, and a memory of this lingering in the
mind of the inn-keeper, makes him shut his doors when
the next foreigner is passing. But, in a general way, if
everything is paid for, anything is procurable — even
crockery and charcoal stoves, at a pinch, when the difli-
cultles of the precipitous track have played unusual
havoc in the china basket.
In the routine of the march, it is pleasant to camp
beyond the village for the noonday halt ; near the river,
if the weather permits bathing. The food can be pre-
pared in the sunlight under some trees. This picnic halt
gives an agreeable change from the native inn, over
which the missionaries wail perpetually; it Is, Indeed,
275
KOREA
always to be avoided. I was several times in Korean
inns, driven in by some sudden and temporary down-
pour, which cut off my retreat. The evening camp made
me independent of them in general; every evening the
interpreter found the cleanest-looking private house and
bargained with its proprietor to let two rooms for the
time of my visit. The arrangement was never refused,
nor was I ever subjected to rudeness or to any insult
upon these occasions. The family would freely help
my servants, and when the grooms had removed them-
selves and their horses to the inn stables, no one was dis-
turbed. The boy prepared breakfast in the morning.
The space allotted to us was always ample for my camp-
bed, kit, and mosquito curtains. It opened, as a rule,
upon the courtyard, around which the house is built.
There was plenty of air, as one side was open; the floor-
ing was of thick timbers, raised from the ground. If
the weather proved inclement the place afforded warmth
and shelter. Moreover, this system has much to com-
mend it on the score of cleanliness; the price paid by
me, half a dollar, for the rooms was of course usually
double the price which had been arranged. Occasion-
ally while travelling, when these private houses were un-
procurable, other makeshifts had to be adopted, an open
encampment or the official quarters at the Yatnen. This
latter place was inconvenient, and we always accepted
anything of a private nature rather than venture into
the Yamen or the inn. Many nights were passed upon
the verandahs of these houses, with a private room lead-
276
FOOD AND ACCOMMODATION
ing from it at the back, in case it became necessary.
Our beds were pitched as much in the open as possible,
the silent beauty of the night hours quite justifying the
measure. Many nights I undressed upon the edge of
the street, my camp-bed pitched beneath a verandah, a
peaceful and inofEensive crowd of Koreans smoking and
watching me a few feet off. I would get into my sleep-
ing-suit, roll into my camp-bed, and close the mosquito
curtains, upon which the crowd would quietly disperse.
As publicity was unavoidable, and it was useless to ob-
ject, it was easier to accept the situation than to struggle
with the curiosity of the spectators.
It is always well to dispense with everything which
can be discarded. A camp-bed well off the ground and
more strongly made than those of the usual American
pattern, is essential ; a field kit canvas valise, the Wolse-
ley pattern, containing a pocket at either end, with a
cork mattress, is also indispensable. It will carry all
personal effects. Flannel shirts, towels, socks and the
like, including a book or two, writing materials, mack-
intosh sheets, mosquito curtains, and insect-powder are
all which need to be included. Fresh mint is useful
against fleas if thrown about near the sleeping things in
little heaps. It is an invaluable remedy and usually
effective, though, by the way, I found the fleas and bugs
in the houses of New York and Philadelphia Infinitely
less amenable to such treatment than any I came across
in Korea during my stay there. A camera, a colonial
saddle, Zeiss glasses, a shot-gun, a sporting-rifle, a re-
277
KOREA
volver, a hunting-knife, and a large vulcanite water-
bottle are necessary. A supply of sparklets Is to be rec-
ommended; these articles, with a coll of rope, balls of
string, jam, cocoa, tea, sugar, alcohol, potted meats,
tinned fruits, and biscuits, enamelled ware eating and
cooking things, with a few toilet accessories, completed
my materials. It Is good policy to take a small hamper
of wines and luxuries, in case the opportunity occurs of
extending hospitality to an official or some other trav-
elling European. They are very serviceable among
the officials. Native tobacco Is light, mild, and easily
smokable. I carried a pouch of it Invariably. Canvas
valises of the service type are better than any kind of a
box. With this arrangement there are no corners or
sharp edges to hurt the horses, and as a load, too, they
do not make such hard, unyielding objects against the
side of a horse as any leather, tin, or wooden contri-
vance. My bed and field-kit just balanced upon one
pony ; my provisions and servants' baggage fitted an-
other. There was one spare pony. The interpreter
and myself rode; the servants were mounted upon the
baggage animals, the coolie walked.
At one time, when I was travelling with a German
friend, our retinue was exceedingly numerous; we each
had our personal establishment and a combined staff for
the expedition. This, however, Is not quite the way to
rough it. It was, moreover, comparatively expensive
and a bother, inasmuch that so large a cavalcade re-
quired no little managing. Ther^ was, however, some-
278
UP THE HAN RIVER
thing luxurious and enjoyable in that procession across
Korea, although it is not the plan to be adopted in gen-
eral.
There was little further to be accomplished by me in
Korea. My journey overland had taken me from
Fusan to Seoul and again from Seoul to Won-san, my
examination of the inland and coast centres of mining
and industry was concluded: the beauties of the Dia-
mond Mountains, with their Buddhist monasteries, had
been studied. At the end of these labours, I was weary
and ill at ease ; moreover the time was approaching when
my long journey overland from Seoul, the ancient capi-
tal of Korea, to Vladivostock, the seat of Russian au-
thority upon the Pacific coast, would have to be begun.
The heat in Seoul had been most oppressive, when one
day Mr. Gubbins, the British Minister, suggested a short
spell of rest and recuperation upon an island a few miles
up the Han River. Before nightfall, my staff and I
were floating, with the turn of the tide, up the estuary
of the river. Sea breezes blew over the mighty expanse
of the smoothly gliding waters, and the burden of
weariness which had been depressing me, lightened under
the influence of these gusty winds and the freshening
air from the harbour. The change from the hot and
stuffy surroundings of the capital, where the crowds had
ceased to be attractive and domestic bothers, arising
from the preparation for my Vladivostock journey, had
begun to jar upon the nerves, was most entrancing.
When the moon burst out from behind a blackened can-
279
KOREA
opy of cloud, as we sailed easily against the rapid cur-
rent of the river, the rugged outline of the cliffs across
the waters proved the reality of the transformation.
During the small hours of the night I lay awake, play-
ing with the bubbles and froth of the water in sweet
contentment. I resolved to dally for a few days upon
the small islands in the stream, halting in the heat of the
sun and moving forward at night or in the twilight,
when sea-birds could be killed for the pot and fish
dragged from their cool depths for the breakfast dish.
How delightful were the plunges into that swift cur-
rent; and how often they were taken in the cool shade
of some island backwater! Care and anxiety dropped
away in those days of idle frolic, giving the mind, worn
by the strain of many months of travel and the hardship
of two campaigns, opportunity to recover its vigour.
Then came some pleasant weeks in the island monastery,
where, from a Buddhist haunt, perched high upon a
lofty peak on Kang-wha, mile upon mile of smiling
scenery lay open to inspection from my chamber
window.
The salt water estuary of the Han is tempestuous and
deep, given over to much shipping and small craft. The
river itself does not begin for twenty miles above the
tide-water mouth, the intervening stretch of water be-
longing more correctly to the sea. Above Chemulpo,
where the full force of the Han current is hardly felt,
the velocity of the stream is quite five knots an hour.
Where the breadth of the river narrows the rapidity of
280
UP THE HAN RIVER
the flow increases. At a point, where the river makes
a sudden sweep round some overhanging bluffs, which
confront each other from opposite banks, the heavy vol-
ume of water thus tumbling down becomes a swirling,
boisterous mill-race, as it twists and foams through its
tortuous channels into another tide-swollen reach. The
place of meeting between the sea and the river current
shows itself in a line of choppy water, neither rough nor
smooth. The water is always - bubbling and always
breaking at this point, in a manner poetically suggestive
of the spirits of the restless deep. The Han River gives
access to Seoul. In the days before the railway, the
choice of route to the capital lay between spending a
night aground upon one of the many shifting sand-banks
in the river or the risks of a belated journey overland,
with pack ponies and the delights of a sand-bath in the
Little Sahara. There were many who found the " all
land " way preferable to the " land and water system,"
to which many groundings and much wading reduced
the experiment of travelling by junk or steam-launch in
those days. Now, however, the Iron horse rules the
road.
281
CHAPTER XXIV
Kang-wha, brief history of the island — A monastic retreat, an
ideal rest — Nocturnal visitors — Midnight masses — Re-
turn to the capital — Preparations for a great journey —
Riots and confusion
KANG-WHA, the island to which I was sailing in
these easy stages, lies in the north-east quarter
of the gulf, formed by the right angle which the coast
makes before taking that northerly sweep which carries
it, with a curve, to the mouth of the Yalu River. On
the south and south-west, Kang-wha is exposed to the
open sea ; on the north, the island is separated from the
mainland by the Han estuary ; and on the east a narrow
strait, scarce two hundred yards wide, through which
boats, journeying from Chemulpo to Seoul, must travel
severs the island from the mainland.
The geographical features of the island include four
clearly-defined ranges of mountains, with peaks attain-
ing to an altitude of some two thousand feet. Broad
and fertile valleys, running from east to west, separate
these ranges, the agricultural industry of the population
being conducted in their open spaces. The villages and
farmsteads, in which the farming population dwell, are
folded away in little hollows along the sides of the val-
282
KANG-WHA
leys, securing shelter and protection from the severity of
the winter. Many hundred acres of the flats, which
form the approaches to these valleys from the coast, have
been reclaimed from the sea during the last two cen-,
turles, the erection of sea dykes of considerable length
and Immense strength having proceeded apace. But for
these heavy earthworks, what Is now a flourishing agri-
cultural area would be nothing but a sea of mud washed
by every spring tide. The continuous encroachment of
the sea threatened at one time the extinction of all the
low-lying level land.
Kang-wha, with its curious monasteries and high pro-
tecting battlements, now reduced to picturesque decay,
played a prominent part in the early history of Korea.
It has repelled invasion, and afforded sanctuary to the
Royal Family and the Government in days of trouble;
the boldness of Its position has made it the first outpost
to be attacked and the most important to be defended.
Twice In the thirteenth century the capital was removed
to Kang-wha under stress of foreign Invasion. With
the exception of the terrible Japanese invasion under
Hideyoshi In 1592, and the Chino- Japanese War In
1894-95, Kang-wha has felt the full force of nearly
every foreign expedition which has disturbed the peace
of the country during the past eight centuries, notably
those of the Mongols in the thirteenth, of the Manchus
in the seventeenth centuries, of the French in 1866, and
of the Americans in 1871. Furthermore, Kang-wha
was the scene of the affair between Koreans and Japa-
283
KOREA
nese which led to the conclusion of the first treaty be-
tween Korea and Japan in 1876. The actual signing of
that instrument, the first of the series which has thrown
open Korea to the world, took place in Kang-wha city.
The predecessor of the present Emperor of Korea was
born in Kang-wha in 1831, living in retirement in the
capital city until he was called to the throne in 1849.
Upon occasion, Kang-wha has been deemed a suitable
place of exile for dethroned monarchs, inconvenient
scions of Royalty, and disgraced Ministers.
At two points in the narrow strait upon the east are
ferries to carry passengers to the mainland. Kang-song,
where the stream makes an abrupt turn between low
cliffs, is the scene of the American expedition of 1871 ;
near the southern entrance of the strait, and close to the
ferry, are the forts which repelled the American storm-
ing-party. The famous rapids and whirlpool of Son-
dol-mok, whose evil reputation is the terror of the coast,
are close by. There are numerous forts dotted round
the coast of the island, recalling the Martello towers of
Great Britain. They were not all erected at one time;
the majority of them date only from the close of the
seventeenth century, having been raised in the early
years of Suk-chong. The rampart upon the eastern
shore, which frowns down upon the straits and river
below, was erected in 1253. Ko-chong, of the Ko-ryo
dynasty, fled before the Mongol invasion of that date,
removing his Court and capital from Song-do to Kang-
wha. Kak-kot-chi, where there Is a second ferry, is a few
284
KANG-WHA
miles beyond Kang-song. At the point where the ferry
plies, the hill of Mun-su rises twelve hundred feet high
from the water's edge. From a junk a short distance
from the shore it appears to block the straits, so closely
do the cliffs of Kang-wha gather to the mainland. This
little place became the headquarters of the French expe-
ditionary force in 1866.
The capital of the island, Kang-wha city, is a battle-
mented citadel, with walls fifteen li in circumference,
and four pavilioned city gates. It is a garrison town,
beautiful in its combination of green vistas and ancient,
crumbling walls. The Chino-Japanese War, so fatal
to many of the old institutions of Korea, diminished
the ancient glory of Kang-wha. For two hundred and
sixty years prior to this campaign, Kang-wha ranked
with Song-do, Kang-chyu, Syu-won and Chyon-chyon as
one of the O-to, or Five Citadels, upon which the safety
of the Empire depended. It controlled a garrison of
ten thousand troops; the various officials numbered
nearly one thousand. The change in the destiny of the
kingdom brought a turn in the fortunes of the island,
and it is now administered by an official of little impor-
tance. It is still, however, the seat of government for a
widely scattered region, and the centre of trade and
industry for some thirty thousand people. Agriculture
is the staple industry; stone-quarrying and mat-making
are other means by which the population exists. At the
water's-slde there are salt-pans; a certain amount of
fishing, a little pottery-making, smelting, the weaving of
285
KOREA
coarse linen, to which work the wives of the farmers
devote themselves, complete the occupation of the in-
habitants. One pursuit, horse-breeding, for which
Kang-wha was once famous, is now completely aban-
doned.
There are nine monasteries under the government of
the island. Seven are situated upon the island ; the chief
of these is the fortified monastery of Chung-deung, the
Temple of Histories, the sometime pillar of defence of
the Kingdom, thirty It south of Kang-wha, famous as
the scene of the reverse suffered by the French troops in
1866. Mun-su-sa, standing upon the mainland oppo-
site, is included in this little colony of Buddhistic re-
treats, as is another, upon the island of Ma-eum-to,
called Po-mun-sa, famous for the wildness of its scenery
and for a natural rock temple in the side of the hill
upon which it stands. The monks of Chung-deung-sa
enjoyed military rank until quite recently. They were
regarded as soldiers in times of national distress; they
received Government allowances, food, and arms, in
order to maintain them in a state of efficiency. Bud-
dhism has lost much of its hold upon the islanders,
although it existed before 1266. There is a branch of
the English Mission (Seoul) in Kang-wha, under the
administration of the Rev. Mark Napier TroUope,
whose notes upon this island were presented in a paper
which their author read before the local branch of
the Royal Asiatic Society during my stay in Korea.
They materially assisted me to collect the interesting
286
A MONASTIC RETREAT
data from which these few paragraphs have been com-
piled.
I stayed five weeks in Kang-wha monastery, pre-
paring the skeleton of this present volume. Having
gone there for a week at the ouside, I found the quiet
and solitude of the spot such a sanctuary from trouble,
and such a panacea to the nerves, that I was loath to
abandon it. After a few days in the cramped confine-
ment of the native junk which had conveyed me from
Chemulpo, delaying much en route, it was pleasant to
stretch my limbs again upon the shore. Landing one
morning at daybreak, I fell upon the unsuspecting
guardian of the English Mission, Father TroUope, and
moved off at a later hour in the day across country to the
monastery. The monks were not at all disturbed by
my intrusion. Although strangers are not such frequent
visitors to this monastery as to those in the Diamond
Mountains, their presence excites no comment, and they
are allowed to go their way with that kindly indifference
to their existence which is, under the circumstances, the
height of courtesy. The Chief Abbot was informed of
my arrival, and, after a little explanation, ordered a
very airy building to be prepared for my reception. It
was well raised from the ground, and, situated just
below the main courtyard, afforded a magnificent view
of the entire domain. In the distance I could see the
farm-lands of the island and the sparkle of the sunlight
upon the water; more within the picture, and quite near
to my new home, were two wells, a running stream, and
287
KOREA
a stretch of mountain slopes, cool, fragrant, and over-
grown with scrub and bush. Temples revealed them-
selves in a sea of foliage, through which the drifting
breezes played soft music. At one end of this Hall of
Entertainment were placed the cooking and eating para-
phernalia, in the middle my camp-bed, and, overlook-
ing the landscape, an improvised writing table with my
books and papers. There was no element of unrest in
the setting of my little camp. Every morning the Chief
Abbot welcomed me to the glories of another day; in
the evening we, through the medium of my interpreter,
talked together upon an amazing variety of subjects —
Buddha and Christ, this world and the next, Paris, Lon-
don, America. Duties in the monastery would prevent
these new friends from coming on certain nights; but
they always forewarned me of their absence, never dis-
turbing me at my work, never taking me by surprise.
The sense of consideration and courtesy which their
kindly hospitality displayed was manifested in countless
ways. The small return which it was possible to make
quite shamed me before them. Frequently, at midnight,
when my lights were burning, the Abbot would walk
across from his own apartments and force me to bed
with many smiles and much gentle pressure, covering my
manuscript with his hands and nodding towards my
camp-bed. There was no screen to the front of my
building, so it was always possible for them to observe
the stranger within their gates. This inspection was
most quietly carried on; indeed, if I turned to the open
288
A MONASTIC RETREAT
courtyard, those who, perhaps, had been noting the
structure of my camp-bed, or the contents of my valise,
hanging to air upon a stout rope, flitted away hke
ghosts. I was left, as I wished ,in peaceful contempla-
tion of my work and the splendour of the scenery
around me.
Catering arrangements were quite simple during my
stay in this monastery. Rice and eggs and fowls were
procurable from the villages beyond the walls of the
temple, and rice-flour or vegetables could be procured
from the butterman of the monastery. It was my plan
to take breakfast about ten o'clock in the morning, and
to dine about six o'clock in the evening. Between these
hours was my time for writing, and I was always fully
occupied. Before breakfast I walked abroad or pre-
pared my notes of the work for the day; after dinner I
received my callers, arranging anything of interest in my
notes when they were gone. Usually I witnessed the
mdinight gathering of the monks, listening, with pleas-
ure, to the booming of the great bell of the monastery
and the accompanying peals of smaller bells of less
melodious volume and much shriller tone. The vibra-
tion in the air, as these wonderful noises broke upon it,
filled the high woods with melody and the deep valleys
with haunted strains as of spirit-music. After the mid-
night mass, when the echoes had died away, the delight
of the moment was supreme. In utter weariness and
most absolute contentment I stretched myself to slumber
beneath the protecting draperies of the mosquito-cur-
289
KOREA
tains, within the vaulted spaciousness of my Hall of
Entertainment.
Visitors to Chung-deung-sa were frequent during my
stay, some attracted by the reported presence of a for-
eigner, others by their very genuine wish to sacrifice to
the All-Blessed-One. Two Korean ladies of position
arrived in the course of one morning to plead for the
intercession of Buddha in their burden of domestic mis-
ery and unhappiness. Presenting the Korean equivalent
for ten shillings to the funds of the monastery, they
arranged with the Abbot for the celebration of a noc-
turnal mass in the Temple of the Great Heroes. Dur-
ing the afternoon the priests prepared the temple in
which the celebration was to be held; elaborate screens
of Korean pictorial design were carried into the temple
from the cells of the Chief Abbot; large quantities of
the finest rice were boiled. High, conical piles of sweet-
meats and sacrificial cakes were placed in large copper
dishes before the main altar, where the three figures of
Buddha sat in their usual attitude of divine meditation.
In front of each figure stood a carved, gilded tablet,
twelve inches high, exactly opposite to which the food
was placed, with bowls of burning incense at intervals
between the dishes. Lighted candles, in long sticks,
were placed at either end of the altar; above it, in the
centre, serving as a lamp and hanging from a long
gilded chain, was suspended a bowl of white jade, in
which lay the smoking end of a lighted wick. Numer-
ous side altars were similarly decorated. The furniture
290
MIDNIGHT MASSES
of the temple comprised a big drum, a heavy, cracked
bell, cast in the thirteenth century, and a pair of cym-
bals. There were five monks ; the two women sat, mute,
upon the left of the Abbot. The four priests arranged
themselves upon the right — one to the bell, one to the
drum, and two to the pair of cymbals, in the playing of
which they took turns. Upon each side of the temple,
recessed right and left of the main altar, were mural
representations of the Ten Judges. Save for the altar
illuminations, the effect of which was to render the inte-
rior even gloomier and more eerie than usual, the build-
ing was in darkness.
The service began with the customary calling for
Buddha. The Abbot tapped upon a bamboo cane;
every one leant forward, their faces pressed down, and
their foreheads resting upon the floor. The palms of
their hands were extended beyond their heads in an
attitude of reverence and humility. This prostration
was accompanied by the intoning of a Thibetan chant,
to the accompaniment of a brass gong, struck with a
horn handle by the Abbot himself. Further prostrations
followed upon the part of the entire assemblage, the
women joining in this part of the service. For the most
part they squatted silently and reverently in their comer
of the temple. As the different services concluded the
Abbot shifted the offerings before the main altar to
their appointed stations before the smaller shrines, when
the prayers proceeded afresh. Protracted overtures
were made to the picture of the Ten Judges, before
291
KOREA
which the service apparently became fully choral. One
priest danced amazing and grotesque steps, strangely
reminiscent of a Kaffir war-dance, the sole of one foot
striking the floor to the accompaniment of a clash of
cymbals as the other leapt into the air. Another priest
played upon the cracked bell, and a third kept up a dull,
monotonous thumping on the drum. The sole idea of
the priests, as conveyed to my mind by their celebration,
seemed to be the breaking up of the solemn silence of the
night by the most amazing medley of noises. At inter-
vals, in the course of the unmusical colloquy between
the drums, the cymbals, and the big bell, the monks
chanted dieir dirges, which were, in turn, punctuated by
the dislocated tapping of the Abbot's brass bell and
wooden knocker.
It was deafening, the most penetrating discord of
which I have ever been the unfortunate auditor. With
the conclusion of the exercises upon the cymbals, which
were beaten together in a wide, circular sweep of the
arms, then tossed aloft, caught, and clanged together
after the fashion of the South African native with his
spear and shield, the performing priest returned to the
companion who relieved him. His more immediate ac-
tivities over, he stood aside laughing and talking with
his colleagues in a voice which quite drowned the chants
in which his companions were engaged. Then, panting
with his late exertions, he proceeded to fan himse'lf with
the most perfect unconcern, finally examining the hem
of his jacket for lice; his search repaying him, lie re-
292
MIDNIGHT MASSES
turned to his seat upon the floor and lifted up his voice
with the others. After the sacrifices and prayers had
been offered before the main altar and those upon the
right and left, extra tables of fruit, apples, dates, nuts,
cakes and incense, together with the previous dishes of
rice, cakes, incense and bread, were spread before a
small shrine placed in front of the screen. Rice was
piled into a bowl, and, while the other monks were
laughing and chattering among themselves in the temple
itself during the progress of the sacrifice, the two women
approached the shrine and made obeisance three times,
then touching each dish with their fingers, bowed again
and retired to their corner. At the same time three
priests, breaking from the group that were talking by
the doors of the building, sat down in the centre of the
temple upon their praying-mats, seven or eight feet from
the shrine. While one chanted Korean prayers from a
roll of paper, another struck and rang the brass
bell repeatedly, and the third hammered the gong.
Throughout this part of the service the others chatted
volubly, until they, too, joined in a chorus and pasan of
thanksgiving, breaking off from that to chant, in low,
suppressed tones, a not unimpressive litany.
Repetitions of the services I have described continued
all night. Sometimes there was more noise, sometimes
less, occasionally there was none, the tired, quavering
voices of the sleepy priests tremulously chanting the
requisite number of litanies. The women, who sat with
wide-opened eyes, watched with interest and were satis-
293
KOREA
fied. The priests seemed bored. Personally I was tired,
dazed and stunned by the uproar. During the progress
of this strange service, I was struck by the utter absence
of that devotional fervour which was so characteristic
of the priests in the principal monasteries of the Dia-
mond Mountains.
The ceremony presently shifted from the Temple of
the Great Heroes to the spacious courtyard in front of
it. Here, when numerous fires had been lighted, the
Abbot and three priests, together with the two Korean
women, moved in procession. Their march was accom-
panied by the striking of many gongs and bells. The
monks offered prayers round heaps of pine branches,
which had been thrown together and lighted at the dif-
ferent spots. Chants and prayers were repeated, and
the same clashing of instruments went on as before. It
was not until a heavy rain descended that the worship-
pers returned to the seclusion of the temple. I felt,
somehow, quite grateful to that shower of rain. In
the morning, my interpreter told me that this progress
in the courtyard formed a part of services which accom-
panied the offering of special prayers for rain. It would
be a curious coincidence if this were so. Next day, at
the hour of my breakfast, there was some desire to con-
tinue the celebration. My head was still aching with
the jarring discord of the bells, gongs, and cymbals of
the previous entertainment, and at the sight of the
preparations my appetite vanished. Breakfast became
impossible; I relinquished it to pray for peace. Hap-
294
RETURN TO SEOUL
pily this blessing was granted me ; and it was decided to
hold no further service — the rain, I presume, having
appeared — and to devour the sacrifices. All that day
the monks and their two guests ate the offerings. It
was therefore a day of undisturbed quiet, and as my
prayer also had been granted, each was satisfied, and
we were a happy family.
My little holiday passed all too quickly. One day I
found myself preparing very sorrowfully to return to
Seoul. This accomplished, the news of my intended
journey was quickly bruited abroad by my servants.
During these days curio-dealers crowded the compound
of the Station Hotel, where, made very comfortable by
the kindly forethought of Mr. and Mrs. Emberley, I
was still living. There Is little enough to buy in Seoul :
quaint, brass cooking-utensils; iron, inlaid with silver;
tobacco boxes, jade cups, fans, screens, and scrolls. My
purchases were few, the native furniture, massive
presses, and cabinets faced with copper plates, and small
tea-tables, attracting me more than anything else. The
Emperor had already sent a present of silk and fans to
my hotel, and, with these few remaining articles, my
stock of Korean relics was completed. The dealers were"
importunate, and crowded into the private apartments
of the hotel like bleating sheep into a pen. Remon-
strances were in vain, and I found the specific cure for
their pestiferous attentions to be administered best in
the shape of a little vigourous kicking. They took the
cuffing with much good humour, and retired to the
295
KOREA
courtyard, where, at intervals in the day, a plaintive
voice would be heard calling upon His Highness to in-
spect the treasures of his slave. His Highness, how-
ever, had concluded his inspection.
The atmosphere in these hot days in Seoul was very
bad; the air was heavy with malodorous vapour; the
days were muggy and the nights damp. The steaming
heat of the capital emphasised the wisdom of an Imme-
diate departure, and I hastened my exodus, touched up
with a little ague and a troublesome throat. The end-
less business of obtaining servants, guides, and horses
was repeated, until at last the day of my removal was
arranged and the hour of actual departure fixed. The
prospect was alluring — a journey from Seoul to Vlad-
ivostock, through a wild and desolate region, nearly
eight hundred miles in length, lay before me. Much of
it was unexplored. It was the chance of a lifetime, and
in thus embarking upon it, I was very happy. My last
farewells were said; my last calls had been paid — the
kindly hospitality of Seoul is not forgotten. The day
had come at last, the horses were pawing in the court-
yard. My effects, my guns, and camp-bed, my tent and
stores, were packed and roped. The horses had been
loaded; the hotel account had been settled, when my
interpreter quietly told me that my servants had struck
for ten dollars Mexican — one sovereign — monthly in-
crease In the wages of each. Mr. Emberley stood out
against the transaction; I offered to compound with
half; they were obdurate. It seemed to me that a
296
RIOTS AND CONFUSION
crisis was impending. I was too tired and too cross to
remonstrate. I raised my offer to eight dollars ; it was
refused — the servants were dismissed. Uproar broke
out in the courtyard, which Mr. Emberley pacified by
inducing the boys to accept my last offer — a rise of eight
dollars Mexican. My head-servant, the brother of my
interpreter, repudiated the arrangement, but the signifi-
cance of this increase had assumed great importance.
It was necessary to be firm. I think now that it was
unwise to have entertained any change at all in the
standard of payment. Upon the question of the addi-
tional two dollars I stood firm; nothing more would be
given. The interpreter approached me to intimate that
if his brother did not go he also would stay behind. I
looked at him for a moment, at last understanding the
plot, and struck him. He ran into the courtyard and
yelled that he was dead — that he had been murdered.
The grooms in charge of the horses gathered round him
with loud cries of sympathy. Mr. Emberley called
them to him and explained the position of affairs. I
strode into the compound. The head groom came up
to me, demanding an increase of thirty dollars, Korean
currency, upon the terms which he had already ac-
cepted; he wanted, further, three-quarters of the con-
tract price to be paid in advance; one quarter was the
original stipulation. I refused the thirty dollars, and
thrashed him with my whip.
The end of my journey for the moment had come,
with a vengeance. The head groom stormed and cursed
297
KOREA
and ran raving in and out of the crowd. He then came
for me with a huge boulder, and, as I let out upon his
temple, the riot began. My baggage was thrown off the
horses and stones flew through the air. I hit and
slashed at my assailants and for a few minutes became
the centre of a very nasty situation. Servants and
grooms, my interpreter, and a few of the spectators went
at it keenly while the fight continued. In the end, Mr.
Emberley cleared his courtyard and recovered my kit;
but I was cut a little upon the head and my right hand
showed a compound fracture — native heads are bad
things to hammer. Postponement was now more than
ever essential; my fears about my health were realised.
By nightfall upon the day of this outbreak signs of sick-
ness had developed; the pain had increased in my hand
and arm ; my head was aching ; my throat was inflamed.
I was advised to leave at once for Japan ; upon the next
day I sailed, proposing to go to Yokohama and thence
to Vladivostock, starting the expedition from the Rus-
sian fortress. However, by the time my steamer arrived
at Japan, I was in the clutch of enteric fever. Further
travel was out of the question, and when they moved me
from an hotel in Yokohama to a cabin upon a Japanese
steamer, which was to carry me to England, in ray mind
I had bidden farewell to the countries of this world, for
the doctor told me that I was dying.
298
APPENDIX I
SCHEDULE OF TRAIN SERVICE
Leave Day Arrive
Port Arthur) "es ay i Moscow
Dalny ( Thursday ) '^ ^^^^' ^ '*°""' *^ '"''Elites
Through trains from Moscow arrive at Dalny and Port
Arthur on Wednesdays and Saturdays.
The train comprises first- and second-class cars and
dining-car.
The cost of the journey is almost prohibitive if compared
with ocean steamer charges.
The train service is very unreliable and subject to many
interruptions.
The steamers of the Chinese Eastern Railway Company
are scheduled to make the connection with Korea upon
arrival of the train. Time required, from twenty-four to
forty-eight hours.
The estimate of the length of time occupied by the journey
between Korea and Japan upon the completion of the Seoul-
Fusan Railway is forty-four hours.
Chemulpo or Seoul to Fusan lo hours
Fusan to Moji by sea 4
Moji to Kobe 15
Kobe to Tokio 15
299
KOREA
X
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300
APPENDIX
H
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Num-
ber of
Vessels
H . '■o
to H
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NO f
1
H 1 1 1 1 III
M H
1
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V3 00 00
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to
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>n H W3
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O 1 1 1 1 « 1 1 H
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« •* 1 1 1 NO 1 1 CO
lOO
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1898-1902..
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01
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13
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KOREA
w
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302
APPENDIX
APPENDIX III
RETURN OF PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF EXPORT TO FOREIGN
COUNTRIES FROM THE OPEN PORTS OF KOREA DURING
THE YEARS 1901-1902.
1902
1901
Average,
Articles
Quantity
Value
Quantity
Value
Five Years,
1S98-1902
Barley
Lbs.
Head
Lbs.
Lbs.
((
II
Pieces
Lbs.
Lbs.
359.600
107,887,600
312,666
6.552
264,400
4,909,600
85,201
3,333
3,981,600
213,333
67,866
173,066
126,401,066
2,596,666
29,660
421,466
11.751.333
£
395
186,293
6.S17
19.383
8.418
122,304
213
5.409
70,815
i??
3,164
359,804
9.354
2.239
3.015
4.737
18,022
20,727
100,133
114,273,600
447,466
13,611
300,533
7,645,066
24.S7S
16
3,500,400
439,866
99,866
133,200
184,566,266
3,027,600
21.077
306,266
2,787366
£
III
''^;82l
17,288
6,448
14,814
25,670
121
7,205
66,396
1,308
2.575
427,459
9,118
1,392
2,i8s
22358
3,682
26,822
£^
1,165
18S.839
Cattle and live-stock
II,SI4*
Fish, dried, salt and manure. .
11,782
77,386t
white
-t
Hides
Millet
iliee
Paper
3, 16 1
Rice. .
314,081
8,744
Tallow
ijOSS
Whaleflesh and blubber
Wheat
J 1, 410
9.523
44,641
Total
—
846,034
—
836 824
746,705
* Large rise in price owing to increased demand at Vladivostock and elsewhere.
t No returns for 1898.
t To China by Korean Government.
303
KOREA
APPENDIX IV
RETURN OF PRINCIPAL ARTICLES OF IMPORTS TO FOR-
EIGN COUNTRIES DURING THE YEARS 1901-1902.
Articles
Quantity Value Quantity Value
Average,
Five Years,
1898-1902
Cotton goods —
Shirtings, grey and white —
British
Japanese
T-cIoths
Drills-
British and American
Japanese
Turkey-red cloths —
British
Japanese
Lawns and muslins
Lenos
Sheetings —
Briti^ and American
Japanese
Cotton reps
Japanese piece-goods
Piece-goods, non-Japanese. .
Yam-
British and Indian
Japanese
Cmnese
Other cottons
Pieces
Total.
Woollen goods
Miscellaneous piece-goods... —
Metals
Sundries —
Arms, accoutrements, and am'
munition
Bags and ropes for packing. . .
Clothing and haberdashery. .
Cotton-
Raw
Wadding
Dyes
Flour
Grain and pulse
Grass-cloth.
Machinery
Matches
Mining supplies
Kerosene oil —
American
Japanese
Paper
Provisions
Railway plant and materia}. .
Rice
Sak£ and samshu
Salt
Silk piece-goods
Sugar
Tobacco, cigars, and cigarettes
Other simdries ,
Lbs.
Total
Grand total.
Lbs.
Gross
Gallons
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
Lbs.
389,730
18,926
18,771
20,045
2,032
6,8S7
9.763
100,513
33.602
134,282
173.907
21,094
658,462
39,356
I ",333
4.IS4.533
239,066
652,666
259.333
1,937.066
3.998,266
576,629
3.461.980
760
878,666
11.447.466
17.491.733
2,501,600
172.515
3.934
4,169
9.274
1.036
1,873
1.539
10.13s
8.797
57.342
72.098
9.461
65.407
3.0S4
3,923
98.933
23,282
402,156
19.236
29,798
34.970
919
6.815
10,274
95,460
38,897
189.554
171,235
28,412
909,811
39,699
120,933
5,028,800
4
546,772
7846
59,266
9.556
31,408
21,918
3.806
12,340
8,361
7.433
9.337
57,310
14,608
lG,iio
46,659
77,988
17
7.654
19.154
46,112
40,675
15,924
7,998
86,444
15.039
20,273
188,642
176,892
3,933
6,782
16,250
188
1,928
1.904
9.750
10,296
80,177
72,303
14,598
88,069
3,517
4,193
119,781
12
33,235
643,808
766,766 —
1.382,351
447.866
7.883
688,533
14.650
327,466
13,791
1,899.066
7,860
3.110.133
6,348
—
53,979
—
12,546
562,338
17.7 ;7
—
39.267
2,463,631
62,833
19,260
S30
901,733
8.033
—
19.359
—
27.963
10,963,200
40.924
—
14,228
28,845,200
13.879
—
125,381
1.992,933
12,588
—
17.425
—
161,838
16,618
1645
74.156
38,606
28,464
17.916
764,038
1,500,265
* Highest on record. Large direct import in sailing-vessels from America.
T Large quantity imported from 'J"'""" •"■ ri„„.„„„, , 1; „• — , ,
159.763
2.328
4,400
9.546
298
1.934
1,726
12.915
9.062
60,164
52,961
7.707
75,405
8,600
5,641
105,454
42.003
8235
1148
54.218
17,979
25,011
14,260
S.244
14.596
8,814
6,724
14.495
46.823
8,816
15.991
28,859
55.691*
1.873
6.475
15.69s
33.816
24.348?
13.247
13.031
81.911
10,984
14,576
135,910
615,169
1,238,689
APPENDIX
APPENDIX V
COAST TRADE BETWEEN TREATY PORTS IN NATIVE
PRODUCE (NET)
Port
1902
igoi
(
Imports
Exports
Imports
Exports
Chemulpo
Yen
2,517,819
443,235
514,936
83,805
105,577
73,691
10,896
94,997
Yen
91,443
587,513
573,025
803,828
817,359
527,187
191,547
84,892
Yen
1,991,757
455,256
306,909
34,662
104,926
57,122
15,173
78,439
Yen
98,364
445,963
626,965
708,561
456,632
472,850
110,968
74,829
Fusan
Won-san
Chin-am-po
Mok -po
Kun-san
Ma-sam-po
Syong-chin
Total
3,844,956
3,676,794
3,044,244
2,995,132
" coast trade *
7,521,750
6,039,376
* Increasing annually with greater transport facilities.
APPENDIX VI
CUSTOMS REVENUE
Year
Amount
Currency
Sterling
Exchange
1902
I90I
1900 . .
1899
1898
Average, five years
Yen
1,204,776
1,325,414
1,097,09s
902,955
1,000,451
305
£
122,783
135,303
109,710
90,296
101,087
111,836
s. d.
2 0§
2 oj
2 O
2 O
2 o\
KOREA
APPENDIX VII
GOLD EXPORT TO FOREIGN COUNTRIES
Year
Currency
Sterling
Exchange
1902
I90I
1900
1899
1898
Yen
5,064,106
4,993,351
3.633,050
2.933,382
2.375.725
£
516,961
509.738
363.305
293.338
240,047
<i
oi
oj
o
o
oi
Value
...
1902
igoi
xgoo
Chemulpx)
Yen
2.538.101
104,915
1,361.580
1.053.800
5,710
Yen
2,556,095
122,968
1,668,245
646,043
Yen
1,927,665
121,809
1,425.576
158,000
Fusan
Won-san
Chin-am-po
Mok-TX> -
5,064,106
4,993,351
3.633.050
Value
1902
Z90Z
1900
China
Yen
59.805
5,004,300
Yen
136,150
4,857,201
Yen
567,670
3,065,380
TaDan
Total
5,064,106
4.993,351
3,633,050
Exchange sterling, 2S. ojd. — 2S. o|i. — 2S. od.
306
APPENDIX
APPENDIX VIII
TABLE
OF MINERALS
Gold.
Iron Ores, Magnetite
Ham-kyong.
AND LiMONITE.
Pyong-an.
Ham-kyong.
Hwang-hai.
Hwang-hai.
Kyong-keui.
Kyong-keui.
Kang-won.
Chyung-chyong.
Chyung-chyong.
Chyol-la.
Chyol-la.
Kyong-syang.
Kyong-syang.
Silver.
Mercury.
Ham-kyong.
Kyong-syang.
Ham-kyong.
Silver and Lead.
Ham-kyong.
Mangan.
Kang-won.
Kyong-syang.
Kyong-keui.
Chyung-chyong.
Kyong-syang.
Coal.
Chyol-la.
Pyong-an.
Pyong-an.
Kyong-syang,
Ham-kyong,
Tin.
Kyong-keui.
Chyol-la.
Kang-won.
The preceding minerals are yielded by the different provinces.
307
INDEX
A Tai-cho, 174
Agriculture Department, expen-
diture of, 93, 94
Allen, Dr., 151
America :
Interests in Korea, 150-152
Trade with Korea, 133, 139,
141, 142
Am-nok River, see Yalu
An-ak, 161
An-man-chai Pass, 233
An-tung, 28, 193, 207n
An-yang, 154
A-o-ya Pass, 161
Banks :
Dai Ichi Ginko, 27, 98-100
Russo-Chinese, 27, 194
Bauer, Herr, 219
Belgian interests in Korea, 164-
165
Bojisco, 203
Bourdaret, M., 159
Boxer disturbances, 132, 140
Broughton, Captain W. R., 6, 169
Broughton Bay, 6, 169-170
Brown, J. McLeavy :
Sketch of, 74-80; Work of,
20, 33, ISO; Yi Yong-ik,
Relations with, SS-56, 81
Bruce, Admiral, 80
Briinner, M., 202
Buddhism, 231, 235-239, 261, 286,
290-295
Cazalis, M., 84-85
Chang-dan, 161
Chang-ot, the, 36, 42
Chemulpo, 11, 28, 30, 32, 99, 135,
163, 182, 262; Description of,
15-22
Chi-fu, 32, 135
Chik-san, 157
China :
Conservatism of, 11-12, no
Korea : Early Relations
with, 10, 122-123; Settle-
ments in, 16^17, 103-105 ;
Trade with, 121, 135
Chin-am-po, description of, 181,
184-187, 188
Chin-eui, 154
Ching-kai-wan ( Shin-hai, or
Chin-hai), 200
Chino-Japanese War, reference
to, 10, 29, 31, 131
Chin-san, 155
Cho Pyong-sik, 99
Cho Sung-hyup, 203
Cho-san, 204
Christianity, 259-267
Chun-kok, 118
Chyang-pyong, 155
Chyok-syong, description of, 213
Chyol-la, 119, 154, 178, 182
Chyon-eui, 154
Chyung-chyong, 5, 7, 119, 154,
158, 182
Chyu-pung Pass, 155
Clemencet, M. E., 31
Communications Department,
expenditure of, 93
Companies :
American, 18, 150
English, 146-147
French, 83, 158
Russian, 192, 201 seq
Concubinage, laws relating to,
109-110
Confucianism, 237-239, 261
Cooke, Miss, 150, 164
Corfe, Bishop, 150, 262
Corruption, Government, 100^
102
Cotton trade, 132-133
Currency, debased, 8&-87, 95-98
309
KOREA
Customs, Imperial Korean Mari-
time:
Establishment of, 19-20
Hypothecation of, SS-s6, 83-
87
Mr. McLeavy Brown, Chief
Commissioner of, 74-83
Revenue from, 307
Dagbxet, 8
Dalny, 18
de Lapeyriere, M., 159
de Plancy, Colin, 83, 88, 158, 183
de Speyer, M., 88
Dress, Seoul, in, 35-38
Drought, effects of, 251-255
Dun River, 169
Durock, 8
Education Department, expen-
diture of, 93, 94
Education in Korea, 26-27, 59>
103-107
Emberley, Mr., 148, 295, 296,
297, 298
Emperor of Korea, the :
Character of, 57-64
Mr. McLeavy Brown, atti-
tude towards, 81-82
Power of, 54, 1 10-11 1
Religion of, 239
England, see Great Britain
Eun-san, 186, 217
Farming, methods of, 115-117
Finance Department, expendi-
ture of, 93, 94
Food-stuffs in Korea, character
of, 118-121
Foreign Department, expendi-
ture of, 92, 94
Forest Concession, the, 202 seq.
France :
Interests of, in Korea, 158-
163
Policy of, in Korea, 56, 8S-
86, 88-89, 183-184
Fusan, 17, 30, 32, 99, 135; Early
Japanese incursions into, 123-
126; Description of, 175-177
Fusan, Old, 156, 17S-176
Germany :
Interests of, in Korea, 163
Trade with Korea, I4i, 142
Gisaing, 48 seq
Gold, export returns, 308
Mining, 217-221
Government corruption, 100-102
Great Britain :
Interests of, in Korea, 143—
150
Policy of, in Korea, 85, 89-
90, 183
Settlement in Korea, 17
Trade in the Fist, lack of
enterprise, 135-142
Gubbins, J. G., 80, 81, 84, 89
Hai-chu, 161
Hai-yong River, 226
Hall, Basil, 6
Ham-kyong, 10, 121, 174, 175,
189
Han River, 20, 160, 161, 279-281
Han-chu, 160
Han-ju, 161
Ha- ram, 118
Hart, Sir Robert, 20, 74
Hayashi, Mr., 205
Hermit Kingdom, the, 39, 41
Hideyoshi, 45, 283
Home Department, expenditure,
93, 94
Hulbert, Prof. H. B., 103
Hwang-hai, 119
Hyon-pung, 155
Im-chin River, 160, 161
Im-chin River, 160, 161
Im-myong, 190
Industries :
Domestic, 112 seq, 116-117,
179-180
Fishing and fish-drying, 246-
248
Mining, 217-221
Salt making from sea-water, 248
Irrigation, 116
Island, Round, 20
Roze, 20
Japan :
Dai Ichi Ginko instituted,
98-100
Early relations between Ko-
rea and, I, 4, 45, 122-128
Foreign goods counterfeited
by, 165-167
310
INDEX
Japan ^continued) :
Interests of, in Korea, 152-
158, 170-172
Korean currency, action re-
garding, 97, 98
Policy of, in Korea, 128-13 1
Russia, attitude towards,
194-201
Settlements in Korea, 16-
17, 130-131, 157-158
Trade with Korea, 132-133,
135, 139, 141
Jordan, Mr., 148, 183
BIak-kot-chi, 284
Kak-pi Pass, 228
Kal-kan-i, 228
Kang, Lady, 63
Kang-kyoi, 217
Kang-kyong, 154
Kang-song, 284
Kang-wha, 282-295
Kang-won, 9, 119, 121, 174, 175
Kap-san, 217
Keu-chai, 198
Keum River, 154, 182
Keum-kang-san, 227, 229, 233
Keum-san, 155
Ki-ja, 118
Kim Yueng-chun, 63
Knochenhauer, 217
Kobe, 32
Ko-chong, 284
Kong-chyu, 154
Konishi, 125
Korea :
Character of people, 112-
115; Court of, 54 seq, 65-
73; Customs and dress of
the people, 35-39; Danc-
ing, 50^53 ; Development
and progress of, 10-15 >
Disease in, 257-258; Early
explorers of, 2-7; Filth of
people, 249-250 ; Food,
120-121 ; Geography of, 1-
10, 13-14, 138; Govern-
ment, lO-ii, 90, 99, 109-
III ; Hunting in, 223-226;
Language of, 103-106 ;
Origin of people, 39-40;
Postal system, 30-32; Sla-
very in, 45-47; Supersti-
tion, 8-10, 250, 254-255;
Telegraphic communica-
Korea (continued) :
tion, 25, 28-30 ; Trade and
shipping, 19-22, 132-142,
302-306 ; Travelling in,
268-280
American interests in, 150^
152
Bejgian interests in, 164-165
British interests in, 144-150;
Policy in, 85, 89, 183 ; Set-
tlements in, 18
China and, early relations
between, 10, 123-124; In-
fluence of, in, 40; Settle-
ments in, 1&-18; Trade
between, 135
French influence in, 55 ; in-
terests in, 158-163; Policy
in, 85-86, 89, 183-184
German interests in, 163
Japanese, incursions and
early relations with, 45,
122-128 ; Influence, 128-
131 ; Interests in, 152-158,
171-172; Policy in, 128-
129; Settlements in, 16-
17, 130-131, 156-157
Russian influence in, 55 ; In-
terests in, 169, 170, 192-
207 ; Policy in, 85, 89, 183
Ko-ryo, 174
Ko-yang, 161
Kumungo, the, 106
Kun-san, description of, 181,
188-189
Kuroda, 125
Kwi-po, 156
Kyong-keui, 119, 154
Kyong-syang, 119, 120, 154
Kyo-wha, 161
La Perouse, 7
Law Department, expenditure,
93, 95
Law, marriage and divorce, of,
108-109
Penal, 107-108
Lazareli, 7
Lefevre, M. G., 159
Li Hung Chang, 201
Liao-tung Gulf, 123
Peninsula, 195
Lyne Sound, 178
Ma-eum-to Island, 286
311
KOREA
Manchuria, Russian policy tow-
ards, 195, ig6, 205
Man-sak-dong, 16
Ma-san-po, 192, 193, 197-201
Matunine, M., 88
Min Yeung-ik, 56
Minerals, Korean, 13, 162, 187,
189, 217-220
Table of, 309
Mines, British, 217
German, 217 seq
Mining, Korean methods of,
219-220
Missionaries : American, 264-
26s; Church of England, 262-
263, 286; French, 259-262
Mok-po, 32, 99, 154, 262; De-
scription of, 177—180
Monasteries : Chang-an-sa, 226,
229-231, 233, 234, 243, 244-
24s ; Chung-deung, 286 ; Kang-
wha, 286-287, 288-295; Mun-
su-sa, 286 ; Pyo-un, 229 ; Shin-
ki-sa, 240-242; Sin-ga, 229;
Sok-wan, 174 ; Yu-chom-sa,
229, 232-237, 240, 245-246
Mountains : Diamond, 9, 168 seq,
226 seq, 242; Korean, descrip-
tion of, 13-14; Nam-san, 24;
Peuk-an, 24; Superstitions re-
garding, 8-^10
Mukden, 193
Mum-sa-am, 242
Mun-chyon, 155
Mun-san-po, 161
Mun-su, hill of, 285
Nagasaki, 28, 32
Nageum, the, 106
Nak-tong River, 155
Nam-pu, 200
Newchang, 132
No-dol, 154
Om, Lady, 56, 60-64, 81, 239
On-mun, 104, 105
On-yang, 154
Oppert, 7
O-san-tong, 154
Paik-tu-san, 13
Pavloff, M., 88, 183, 193, 198
Pedlar's Guild, 100
Pellisier, 8
Police Department, expenditure
of, 93. 9S
Po-mun-sa, 286
Ponies, Korean, 270—272
Po-pheung, King, 229
Po-ri, 120
Port Arthur, 8, 33, 169, 170, 197
Hamilton, 200-201
Lazareff, 169
Postal Union, 30, 31
Prince Jerome's Gulf, 7
Productions, farm, 116-121, 138
Pu-ti-chong Pass, 233, 234
Pyok-tong, 204
Pyong-an, 120, 121, 174, 175, 217
Pyong-tak, 154
Pyong-yang, 28, 125, 151, 159,
161 ; Description of, 181, 184,
187-188
quelpart, 2, 7, 119, 265
Railways :
Seoul-Chemulpo, 152, 153,
154; Seoul-Fusan, 18, 152-
IS7, 176; Trans-Siberian,
18, 159, 169
Rainfall, 255-258
Revenue, soiirces of, 90-95, 307
Rice crop, importance of, 149
Russia :
Interests in Korea, 169, 170,
192—207 ; Japan, attitude
towards, 194-201 ; Policy
in Korea, 57, 85, 89-90,
183; Policy in Manchuria,
195. 196; Yong-an-po, ap-
propriation of, 201-207
Ru-yong-san River, 178
Ryang-san, 155
Ryong-san, 155
Ryon-san, 155
Sang-no, the, 45-46
Schwartz, 8
Seoul, 17, 98, 99, 135, 262; De-
scription of, 23-40
Shamanism, 237
Shanghai, 33, 135, 137
Shan-tung, 17, 123
Shibusawa, Baron, 98
Shimonosaki, 10
Shipping, Chemulpo, 19-22 ;
Scheduled returns of, 302-304
Sho-ho, see An-tung
312
INDEX
Shufeldt, Admiral, i6
Si-heung, 154
Sin-chyon, 161
Sin-gyo, ISS
Slavery, Korean, 45-48
Son-dol-mok Rapids, 284
Song-do, 159—160
Steamship Companies : Nippon
Yusen Kaisha, 32, 137; Osaka
Shosen Kaisha, 32, 137
Suk-chong, 284
Syok-kyo-chyon, 155
Syon-chyon-po, 184, 187
Syong-chik, 246
Syong-chin, 181
Syu-won, 154
Ta-bak Mountains, 164
Ta-dong River, 184, 185
Tai Won Kun, 60
Tai-hoang-kyo, 154
Tai-ku, 155
Taku, 32
Tan-bal-yang Pass, 227
Tap-kok, 118
Taxation, 90-^2
Teh-chang-chin, 217
Temples, Buddhist, 235, 236, 286,
290-293
Tiger, the Korean, 225
Tokio, 18
Tong-ko-kai, 163, 208, 217 seq
Tong-lai, 155
Trade :
Chemulpo, of, 19-22; Ex-
ports and imports, value
of, 21—22; Scheduled re-
turn of articles, 305-306;
Native produce, scheduled
return of, 307
Train service, schedule of, 301
Trollope, Rev. Mark Napier, 286
Tsu-shima, 28, 125
Tumen River, 202, 206
Tun-po, IS4
Ul-lyang, 202
Unkoffsky, 7
Un-san, 151, 152, 186, 217
Vladivostock, 32-33, 137, 169,
170, 193, 197
Wai-koan, 155
War Department, expenditure
of, 92, 93, 94
Washington Gulf, 178
Wei-hai-wei, British demonstra-
tion at, 56
Wha-ding, 250 ,
Whan-gan, 155
Wi-ju, 13, 28, 158, 159, 193, 203;
Description and opening of,
182-183
Women, Korean:
Character of, 44; Condition
of, 38, 41-53; Education
of, 103-107
Won-san, 30, 32, 135, 137, 138,
193 ; Description of, 168-175
Yalu River, 158, 202, 207«.
Yamen, 112, 114, 248
Yang River, 155
Yang-san, 155
Yang-tse, 140
Yang-wha-chin, 161
Yi-cha-sun, 50
Yi-yong-ik :
Character of, 57; Customs
loan, attitude regarding,
83 ; Dai Ichi Ginko, oppo-
sition to, 99-100; Mr.
McLeavy Brown, relations
with, 55-56, 81 ; Transac-
tions of, loi— 102
Yokohama, 137
Yong-an-po, 182, 183; Russian
appropriation of, 193, 201-207
Yong-chyon, 203, 206
Yong-dong, 155
Yong-san, 154
Yong-tong-po, 152, 154
313
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