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NEW
LATIN GRAMMAR
BY
CHARLES E. BENNETT
Late Goldwin Smith Professor of Latin in Cornell University
Quicquid praecipies, esto brevis, ut cito dicta *
Percipiant animi dociles teneantque fideles :
Omne supemacuum plena de pectore manat.
— Horace, Ars Poetica.
ALLYN AND BACON
BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAG6
ATLANTA SAN FRANCISCO
First edition printed February, 1895.
Reprinted April and September, 1895 > April, 1896;
Jnly, 1897; April, 1898; May and September, 1899;
April and November, 1900; October, 1901; March,
1902; April and November, 1903; July, 1904; April,
1905; April and November, 1906.
Revised edition printed March, 1908.
Reprinted April and October, igog; May, 19 Oj
March, 191 1 ; March, 1912; March, 1913; April, 1914;
March, 1915; March, 1916; March, 1917.
Third edition printed June, 1918.
Reprinted March and December, 1919; September,
1920; June, 1921; June, 1922; March and July, 1923;
October, 1923; January and July, 1924; April,
August and October, 1925; October, 1926; March,
1927.
::OPYRIGHT, 1895; 1908; 1918.
*BY CHARLKS E. BENNETT.
PREFACE.
The present work is a revision of that published in 1908.
No radical alterations have been introduced, although a
number of minor changes will be noted. I have added an
Introduction on the origin and development of the Latin
language, which it is hoped will prove interesting and in-
structive to the more ambitious pupil. At the end of the
book will be found an Index to the Sources of the Illustra-
tive Examples cited in the Syntax.
C. E. B.
Ithaca, New York,
May 4, 1918.
PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.
The present book is a revision of my Latin Grammar
originally published in 1895. Wherever greater accuracy or
precision of statement seemed possible, I have endeavored
to secure this. The rules for syllable division have been
changed and made to conform to the prevaiUng practice
of the Romans themselves. In the Perfect Subjunctive
Active, the endings -is, -Imus, -itis are now marked long.
The theory of vowel length before the suffixes -gnus, -gna,
-gnum, and also before j, has been discarded. In the
Syntax I have recognized a special category of Ablative
of Association, and have abandoned the original doctrine
as to the force of tenses in the Prohibitive.
Apart from the foregoing, only minor and unessential
modifications have been introduced. In its main lines the
work remains unchanged.
Ithaca, Nkw York,
October i6, 1907.
FROM THE PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
The object of this book is to present the essential facts
of Latin grammar in a direct and simple manner, and
within the smallest compass consistent with scholarly
standards. While intended primarily for the secondary
school, it has not neglected the needs of the college stu-
dent, and aims to furnish such grammatical information as
is ordinarily required in undergraduate courses.
The experience of foreign educators in recent years has
tended to restrict the size of school-grammars of Latin,
and has demanded an incorporation of the main principles
of the language in compact manuals of 250 pages. Within
the past decade, several grammars of this scope have ap-
peared abroad which have amply met the most exacting
demands.
The publication in this country of a grammar of similar
plan and scope seems fully justified at the present time, as
all recent editions of classic texts summarize in introduc-
tions the special idioms of grammar and style peculiar to
individual authors. This makes it feasible to dispense
with the enumeration of many minutiae of usage which
would otherwise demand consideration in a student's
grammar.
In the chapter on Prosody, I have designedly omitted
all special treatment of the lyric metres of Horace and
Catullus, as well as of the measures of the comic poets.
Our standard editions of these authors all give such thor-
ough consideration to versification that repetition in a
separate place seems superfluous.
Ithaca, New York,
December 15, 1894.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Introduction — The Latin Language ix
Part L
sounds, accent, quantity, etc.
The Alphabet i
Oassification of Sounds ... i
Sounds of the Letters .... 3
Syllables 4
Quantity 4
Accent 5
Vowel Changes 6
Consonant Changes 7
Peculiarities of Orthography . . 7
Part II.
INFLECTIONS
CHAPTER \.— Declension.
A. Nouns.
Gender of Nouns 10
Number n
Cases II
The Five Declensions .... 12
First Declension 13
Second Declension 14
Third Declension 18
Fourth Declension 28
Fifth Declension 29
Defective Nouns 30
B. Adjectives.
Adjectives of the First and Second
Declensions 34
Adjectives of the Third Declen-
sion . 36
Comparison of Adjectives ... 40
Formation and Comparison of
Adverbs 43
Numerals 45
C. Pronouns.
Personal Pronouns .
Reflexive Pronouns .
Possessive Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
The Intensive Pronoun
The Relative Pronoun
Interrogative Pronouns
Indefinite Pronouns .
Pronominal Adjectives
CHAPTER II.
Verb Stems . .
■ Conj
The Four Conjugations .
Conjugation of Sum
First Conjugation . .
Second Conjugation . .
Third Conjugation . .
Fourth Conjugation . .
Verbs in -id of the Third Conju
gation
Deponent Verbs . . .
48
49
49
5°
51
51
52
52
S3
ugation.
54
55
56
58
62
66
70
74
76
VI
TABLE OF CONTENTS,.
Semi-Deponents 78
Periphrastic Conjugation ... 78
Peculiarities of Conjugation . . 79
Formation of the Verb Stems . 80
PAGB
List of the Most Important Verbs
with Principal Parts ... 83
Irregular Verbs 9S
Defective Verbs '02
Impersonal Verbs '04
Part III.
PARTICLES.
Adverbs '°6
Prepositions ■°7
Interjections 108
Part IV.
WORD FORMATION.
I. Derivatives.
Nouns ... .... 109
Adjectives iii
Verbs 113
Adverbs IF4
II. Compounds.
Examples of Compounds . . .
Part V.
SYNTAX.
CHAPTER I. — Sentences.
Classification of Sentences . .117
Form of Interrogative Sentences 117
Subject and Predicate . . . .119
Simple and Compound Sentences 119
CHAPTER II. — Syntax of A^ouns.
Subject 120
Predicate Nouns 120
Appositives 121
The Nominative 122
The Accusative 122
The Dative 129
The Genitive 134
The Ablative 14:2
The Locative 152
CHAPTER III. — Syntax of
Adjectives.
Agreement of Adjectives . . . 153
Adjectives used Substantively . 154
Adjectives with the Force of Ad-
verbs 156
Comparatives and Superlatives . 156
Other Peculiarities 156
CHAPTER IV. — Syntax of
Pronouns.
Personal Pronouns .
Possessive Pronouns
Reflexive Pronouns .
Reciprocal Pronouns
Demonstrative Pronouns
«S7
"57
158
159
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
vu
Relative Pronouns i6i
Indefinite Pronouns 163
Pronominal Adjectives .... 164
CHAPTER N.— Syntax of Verbs.
Agreement of Verbs 165
Voices 167
Tenses 167
Of the Indicative 167
Of tlie Subjunctive . . . .171
Of the Infinitive 174
Moods 176
In Independent Sentences . .176
Volitive Subjunctive . . .176
Optative Subjunctive . . .178
Potential Subjunctive . . .179
Imperative 180
In Dependent Qauses . . . 181
Clauses of Purpose . . .181
Qauses of Characteristic . 1 82
Clauses of Result . . . .184
Causal Clauses 185
Temporal Clauses .... 187
Introduced by Posiquam,
Ut, Ubi,etc. .... 187
C«OT-Clauses 188
Introduced by Anteqtiam
and Priusq-uam . . .190
Introduced by Dum, Do-
nee, Quoad .... 191
Substantive Clauses . . . 192
Developed from the Voli-
tive 192
Developed from the Opta-
tive ....... 194
01 Result 19s
After non dubito, etc. . . 195
Introduced by Quod . .196
Indirect Questions . . . 197
Conditional Sentences . .198
Use ot St., Nisi^ Sin • . . 202
FACE
Conditional Clauses of Com-
parison 203
Concessive Clauses . . . 203
Adversative Clauses vfith
Quapivls, Quamquam,
etc. 203
Clauses of Wish and Proviso 205
Relative Clauses .... 205
Indirect Discourse .... 206
Moods in Indirect Dis-
course 206
Tenses in Indirect Dis-
course 208
Conditional Sentences in
Indirect Discourse . . 209
Implied Indirect Discourse . 211
Subjunctive by Attraction . 212
Noun and Adjective Forms of the
Verb 212
Infinitive 213
Participles 217
Gerund 220
Supine 223
CHAPTER \l.— Particles.
Coordinate Conjunctions . . . 223
Adverbs 227
CHAPTER Vn.— Word- Order
and Sentence- Structure.
Word-Order 227
Sentence-Structure 232
CHAPTER Vlll.— Hints on
Latin Style.
Nouns 233
Adjectives 235
Pronouns 236
Verbs 236
The Cases 238
via TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Part VI.
PROSODY.
PAGE
Quantity of Vowels and Sylla-
bles 240
Verse-Structure 243
rAGB
The Dactylic Hexameter . . .245
The Dactylic Pentameter . . .246
Iambic Measures 246
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.
I. Roman Calendar .... 247 I III. Figures of Syntax and Rhet-
II. Roman Names 249 { oric 249
Index to the Illustrative Examples Cited in the Syntax 251
Index to the Principal Parts of Latin Verbs 259
General Index ,,.... 263
INTRODUCTION.
THE LATIN LANGUAGE.
I. The Indo-European Family of Languages. — Latin belongs
to one group of a large family of languages, known as Indo-
European}- This Indo-European family of languages embraces
the following groups :
&SIATIC MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN FAMHiT.
a. The Sanskrit, spoken in ancient India. Of this there were
several stages, the oldest of which is the Vedic, or language of
the Vedic Hymns. These Hymns are the oldest literary produc-
tions known to us among all the branches of the Indo-European
family. A conservative estimate places them as far back as
1500 B.C. Some scholars have even set them more than a thou-
sand years earlier than this, i.e. anterior to 2500 B.C.
The Sanskrit, in modified form, has always continued to be
spoken in India, and is represented to-day by a large number of
dialects descended from the ancient Sanskrit, and spoken by
millions of people.
b. The Iranian, spoken in ancient Persia, and closely related
to the Sanskrit. There were two main branches of the Iranian
group, viz. the Old Persian and the Avestan. The Old Persian
was the official language of the court, and appears in a number
of so-called cuneiform ^ inscriptions, the earliest of which date
from the time of Darius I (sixth century B.C.). The other
branch of the Iranian, the Avestan,^ is the language of the
Avesta or sacred books of the Parsees, the followers of Zoro-
1 Sometimes also called Aryan or Indo- Germanic.
2 Cuneiform means " wedge-shaped." The name applies to the form of the
Btrokes of which the characters consist.
* The name Zend is often given to this.
X INTRODUCTION.
aster, founder of the religion of the fire-worshippers. Portions
of these sacred books may have been composed as early as
lOOO B.C.
Modern Persian is a living representative of the old Iranian
speech. It has naturally been much modified by time, particu-
larly through the introduction of many words from the Arabic.
c. The Armenian, spoken in Armenia, the district near the
Black Sea and Caucasus Mountains. This is closely related to
the liranian, and was formerly classified under that group. It is
now recognized as entitled to independent rank. The earliesi
literary productions of the Armenian language date from the
fourth and fifth centuries of the Christian era. To this period
belong the translation of the Scriptures and the old Armenian
Chronicle. The Armenian is still a living language, though
spoken in widely separated districts, owing to the scattered loca-
tions in which the Armenians are found to-day.
d. The Tokharian. This language, only recently discovered ,
and identified as Indo-European, was spoken in the districts
east of the Caspian Sea (modern Turkestan). While in some
respects closely related to the three Asiatic branches of the
Indo-European family already considered, in others it shows
close relationship to the European members of the family. The
literature of the Tokharian, so far as it has been brought to
light, consists mainly of translations from the Sanskrit sacred
writings, and dates from the seventh century of our era.
EUROPEAN MEMBERS OF THE INDO-EUROPEAN
FAMILY.
e. The Greek. The. Greeks had apparently long been settled
in Greece and Asia Minor as far back as 1500 B.C. Probably
they arrived in these districts much earlier. The earliest literary
productions are the Iliad and the Odyssey of Homer, which very
likely go back to the ninth century b.c. From the sixth century
B.C. on, Greek literature is continuous. Modern Greek, when
we consider its distance in time from antiquity, is remarkably
similar to the classical Greek of the fourth and fifth centuries B.C.*
INTRODUCTION. xi
/. The Italic Group. The Italic Group embraces the
Umbrian, spoken in the northern part of the Italian peninsula
(in ancient Umbria) ; the Latin, spoken in the central part (in
Latium) ; the Oscan, spoken in the southern part (in Samnium,
Campania, Lucania, etc.). Besides these, there were a number
of minor dialects, such as the Marsian, Volscian, etc. Of all
these (barring the Latin), there are no remains except a few
scanty inscriptions. Latin literature begins shortly after
250 B.C. in the works of Livius Andronicus, Naevius, and Plau-
tus, although a few brief inscriptions are found belonging to a
mucii earlier period.
g. The Celtic. In the earliest historical times of which we
have any record, the Celts occupied extensive portions of north-
ern Italy, as well as certain areas in central Europe ; but after
the second century e.g., they are found only in Gaul and the
British Isles. Among the chief languages belonging to the
Celtic group are the Gallic, spoken in ancient Gaul ; the Breton,
still spoken in the modern French province of Brittany; the
Irish, which is still extensively spoken in Ireland among the
common people ; the Welsh ; and the Gaelic of the Scotch
Highlanders.
h. The Teutonic. The Teutonic group is very extensive. Its
earliest representative is the Gothic, preserved for us in the
translation of the scriptures by the Gothic Bishop Ulfilas (about
375 A.D.). Other languages belonging to this group are the Old
Norse, once spoken in Scandinavia, and from which are de-
scended the modern Icelandic, Norwegian, Swedish, Danish;
German ; Dutch ; Anglo-Saxon, from which is descended the
modern English.
i. The Balto-Slavic. The languages of this group belong to
eastern Europe. The Baltic division of the group embraces the
Lithuanian and Lettic, spoken to-day by the people living on
the eastern shores of the Baltic Sea. The earliest literary pro-
ductions of these languages date from the sixteenth century.
The Slavic division comprises a large number of languages, the
most important of which are the Russian, the Bulgarian, the
XU INTRODUCTION.
Serbian, the Bohemian, the Polish. All of these were late in
developing a literature, the earliest to do so being the Old BuK
garian, in which we find a translation of the Bible dating from
the ninth century.
j. The Albanian, spoken in Albania and parts of Greece,
Italy, and Sicily. This is most nearly related to the Balto-Slavic
group, and is characterized by the very large proportion of words
borrowed from Latin, Turkish, Greek, and Slavic. Its literature
does not begin till the seventeenth century.
2. Home of the Indo-European Family. — Despite the many
outward ' differences of the various languages of the foregoing
groups, a careful examination of their structure and vocabulary
demonstrates their intimate relationship and proves overwhelm-
ingly their descent from a common parent. We must believe
therefore, that at one time there existed a homogeneous clan or
tribe of people speaking a language from which all the above
enumerated languages are descended. The precise location of
the home of this ancient tribe cannot be determined. For a
long time it was assumed that it was in central Asia north of the
Himalaya Mountains, but this view has long been rejected as
untenable. It arose from the exaggerated importance attached
for a long while to Sanskrit. The great antiquity of the earliest
literary remains of the Sanskrit (the Vedic Hymns) suggested
that the inhabitants of India were geographically close to the
original seat of the Indo-European Family. Hence the home
was sought in the elevated plateau to the north. To-day it is
thought that central or southeastern Europe is much more likely
to have been the cradle of the Indo-European parent-speech, •
though anything like a logical demonstration of so difficult a
problem can hardly be expected.
As to the size and extent of the original tribe whence the
Indo-European languages have sprung, we can only speculate.
It probably was not large, and very likely formed a compact
racial and linguistic unit for centuries, possibly for thousands
of years.
The time at which Indo-European unity ceased and the vari-
INTRODUCTION. Xiii
ous individual languages began their separate existence, is
likewise shrouded in obscurity. When we consider that the
separate existence of the Sanskrit may antedate 2500 B.C., it
may well be believed that people speaking the Indo-European
parent-speech belonged to a period as far back as 5000 B.C.,
or possibly earlier.
3. Stages in the Development of the Latin Language. — The
earliest remains of the Latin language are found in certain very
archaic inscriptions. The oldest of these belong to the sixth
and seventh centuries B.C. Roman literature does not begin
till several centuries later, viz. shortly after the middle of the
third century B.C. We may recognize the following clearly
marked periods of the language and literature :
a. The Preliterary Period, from the earliest times down to
240 B.C., when Livius Andronicus brought out his first play.
For this period our knowledge of Latin depends almost exclu-
sively upon the scanty inscriptions that have survived from this
remote time. Few of these are of any length.
b. The Archaic Period, from Livius Andronicus (240 B.C.) to
Cicero (81 B.C.). Even in this age the language had already
become highly developed as a medium of expression. In the
hands of certain gifted writers it had even become a vehicle of
power and beauty. In its simplicity, however, it naturally
marks a contrast with the more finished diction of later days.
To this period belong :
Livius Andronicus, about 275-204 B.C. (Translation
of Homer's Odyssey ; Tragedies).
Plautus, about 250-184 B.C. (Comedies).
Naevius, about 270-199 B.C. (" Punic War " ; Come-
dies).
Ennius, 239-169 B.C. (" Annals " ; Tragedies).
Terence, about 190-159 B.C. (Comedies).
Lucilius, 180-103 ^-C- (Satires).
Pacuvius, 220-about 130 B.C. (Tragedies).
Accius, i7o-about85 b.c. (Tragedies).
XIV INTRODUCTION.
c. The Golden Age, from Cicero (8i b.c.) to the death of Au-
gustus (14 A.D.). In this period the language, especially in the
hands of Cicero, reaches a high degree of stylistic perfection,!
Its vocabulary, however, has not yet attained its greatest full-
ness and range. Traces of the diction of the Archaic Period
are often noticed, especially in the poets, who naturally sought
their effects by reverting to the speech of olden times. Litera-
ture reached its culmination in this epoch, especially in the
great poets of the Augustan Age. The following writers belong
here:
Lucretius, about 95-55 B.C. (Poem on Epicurean
Philosophy).
Catullus, 87-about 54 B.C. (Poet).
Cicero, 106-43 ^.c. (Orations ; Rhetorical Works ;
Philosophical Works ; Letters).
Caesar, 102-44 B.C. (Commentaries on Gallic and
Civil Wars).
Sallust, 86-36 B.C. (Historian).
Nepos, about loo-about 30 b.c. (Historian).
Virgil, 70-19 B.C. ("Aeneid"; "Georgics"; "Bu-
colics ").
Horace, 65-8 B.C. (Odes ; Satires ; Epistles),
Tibullus, about 54-19 B.C. (Poet).
Propertius, about 50-about 15 b.c (Poet).
Ovid, 43 B.C.-17 A.D. ("Metamorphoses" and other
poems).
Livy, 59 B.C.-17 a.d. (Historian).
d. The Silver Latinity, from the death of Augustus (14 a.d.)
to the death of Marcus Aurelius (180 a.d.). This period is
marked by a certain reaction against the excessive precision of
the previous age. It had become the practice to pay too much
attention to standardized forms of expression, and to leave too
little play to the individual writer. In the healthy reaction
against this formalism, greater freedom of expression now mani-
fests itself. We note also the introduction of idioms from the
INTRODUCTION. XV
colloquial language, along with many poetical words and usages.
The following authors deserve mention :
Phaedrus, flourished about 40 a.d. (Fables in Verse)
Velleius Paterculus, flourished about 30 a.d. (His-
torian).
Lucan, 39-65 a.d. (Poem on the Civil War).
Seneca, about 1-65 a.d. (Tragedies ; Philosophical
Works).
Pliny the Elder, 23-79 a.d. (" Natural History").
Pliny the Younger, 62-about 115 a.d. ("Letters ").
Martial, about 45-about 104 a.d. (Epigrams).
Quintilian, about 3S-about 100 a.d. (Treatise on
Oratory and Education).
Tacitus, about 5s-abont 118 a.d. (Historian).
Juvenal, about 55-about 135 a.d. (Satirist).
Suetonius, about 75-about 150 a.d. ("Lives of the
Twelve Caesars ").
Minucius Felix, flourished about 160 a.d. (First
Christian Apologist).
Apuleius, i2S-about 200 B.C. (" Metamorphoses," or
" Golden Ass ").
e. TTie Archaizing Period. This period is characterized by a
conscious imitation of the Archaic Period of the second and
first centuries B.C. ; it overlaps the preceding period, and is
of importance from a linguistic rather than from a literary point oi
view. Of writers who manifest the archaizing tendency most
conspicuously may be mentioned Fronto, from whose hand we
have a collection of letters addressed to the Emperors Antoninus
Pius and Marcus Aurelius; also Aulus Gellius, author of the
" Attic Nights." Both of these writers flourished in the second
half of the second century a.d.
/. The Period of the Decline, from 180 to the close of literary
activity in the sixth century a.d. This period is characterized
by rapid and radical alterations in the language. The features
of the conversational idiom of the lower strata of society invade
xvi INTRODUCTION.
the literature, while in the remote provinces, such as Gaul,
Spain, Africa, the language suffers from the incorporation of
local peculiarities. Representative writers of this period are :
TertuUian, about i6o-about 240 a.d. (Christian
Writer).
Cyprian, about 200-258 a.d. (Christian Writer).
Lactantius, flourished about 300 a.d. (Defense of
Christianity).
Ausonius, about 310-about 395 a.d. (Poet). ]
Jerome, 340-420 a.d. (Translator of the Scriptures). ;
Ambrose, about 340-397 (Christian Father).
Augustine, 354-430 (Christian Father — "City of
God ").
Prudentius, flourished 400 a.d. (Christian Poet).
Claudian, flourished 400 a.d. (Poet).
Boethius, about 480-524 a.d. (" Consolation of Phi-
losophy ").
4. Subsequent History of the Latin Language. — After the
sixth century a.d. Latin divides into two entirely different
streams. One of these is the literary language maintained in
courts, in the Chur.ch, and among scholars. This was no longer
the language of people in general, and as time went on, became
more and more artificial. The other stream is the colloquial
idiom of the common people, which developed ultimately in the
provinces into the modern so-called Romance idioms. These
are the Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, French, Provencal (spoken
in Provence, i.e. southeastern France), the Rhaeto-Romance
(spoken in the Canton of the Grisons in Switzerland), and the
Roumanian, spoken in modern Roumania and adjacent districts.
All these Romance languages bear the same relation to the
Latin as the different groups of the Indo-European family of
languages bear to the parent-speech.
ART
I.
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.
— • —
THE ALPHABET.
1. The Latin Alphabet is the same as the English,
except that the Latin has no w.
1. K occurs only in Kalendae and a few other words ; y and z were
introduced from the Greek about 50 B.C., and occur only in foreign
words — chiefly Greek.
2. With the Romans, who regularly employed only capitals, I served
both as vowel and consonant; so also V. For us, however, it is more
convenient to distinguish the vowel and consonant sounds, and to write
i and u for the former, j and v for the latter. Yet some scholars prefer
to employ i and u in the function of consonants as well as vowels.
CLASSIFICATION OF SOUNDS.
2. I. The Vowels are a, e, i, o, u, y. The other letters
are Consonants. The Diphthongs are ae, oe, ei, au, eu, ui.
2. Consonants are further subdivided into Mutes,
Liquids, Nasals, and Spirants.
3. The Mutes are p, t, o, k, q; b, d, g; ph, th, oh. Of
these, —
d) p, t, c, k, q are voiceless,* i.e. sounded without voice or vibra-
tion of the vocal cords.
b) b, d, g are voiced,'' i.e. sounded with vibration of the vocal
cords.
' For ' voiceless,' ' surd,' ' hard," or ' tenuis ' are sometimes used.
2 For ' voiced,' ' sonant,' ' soft,' or ' media ' are sometimes used.
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.
c) ph, th, ch are aspirates. These are confined almost exclu-'
sively to words derived fi-om the Greek, and were equivalent
to p + h, t + h, o + h, i.e. to the corresponding voiceless:
mutes with a following breath, as in Eng. loop-hole, hot-house^
block-house.
4. The Mutes admit of classification also as
Labials, p, b, ph.
Dentals (or Linguals), t, d, th.
Gutturals (or Palatals), c, k, q, g, ch.
5. The Liquids are 1, r. These sounds were voiced.
6. The Nasals are m, n. These were voiced. Besides
its ordinary sound, n, when followed by a guttural mute
also had another sound, — that of ng in sing, — the so-
called n adultennum ; as, —
anceps, double, pronounced angceps.
7. The Spirants (sgmetimes called Fricatives) are f, s, h.
These were voiceless.
8. The Semivowels are j and v. These were voiced.
9. Double Consonants are x and z. Of these, x was
equivalent to cs, while the equivalence of z is uncertain.
See § 3. 3.
10. The following table will indicate the relations of the
consonant sounds : —
Voiceless.
Voiced.
Aspirates.
P,
b,
ph,
(Labials).
Mutes,
t,
a,
th,
(Dentals).
c, k, q.
g>
oh,
(Gutturals)
Liquids,
I,r,
Nasals,
f,
m, n,
(Labial).
Spirants,
8»
(Dental).
(Guttural).
Semivowels,
J,T.
a. The Double Consonants, x and z, being compound sounds,
do not admit of classification in the above table.
SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.
SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS.
3. The following pronunciation (often called Roman) is
substantially that employed by the Romans at the height
of their civilization ; i.e. roughly, from 50 B.C. to 50 a.d.
1. Vowels.
as ia. father ; 5 as in the first syllable of aM ;
as in ihey ; g as in mei ;
as in machine; i as in pin ;
as in note ; 8 as in oiey, melody ;
as in rude; . ti as input;
like French u, German ii.
2. Diphthongs.
ae like ai in aisie ; eu with its two elements, S and fi,
oe like oi in oil; pronounced in rapid succession ;
ei as in rein ; ui occurs almost exclusively in cui
au like ow in how; and huic. These words may be
I pronounced as though written
kwee and wheek.
3. Consonants.
d, f, h, k, 1, m, s, p, qu are pronounced as in English, except that
bs, bt are pronounced ps, pt.
is always pronounced as k.
is always a plain /, never with the sound of sh as in Eng. oration.
always as in get ; when ngu precedes a vowel, gu has the sound of
gzv, as in anguis, languidus.
has the sound of jy as in yei.
was probably slightly trilled with the tip of the tongue,
always voiceless as in sin ; in suadeo, suavis, suesco, and in com-
pounds and derivatives of these words, su has the sound oisw.
like w.
always like ks ; never like Eng. gz or z.
uncertain in sound ; possibly like Eng, zd^ possibly like z. The
latter sound is recommended.
The aspirates ph, oh, th were pronounced very nearly like our stressed
Eng./, c, t — so nearly so, that, for practical purposes, the latter
sounds suffice.
(Doubled letters, like 11, mm, tt, etc., should be so pronounced that
both members of the combination are distinctly articulated.
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.
SYLLABLES.
4. There are as many syllables in a Latin word as there
are separate vowels and diphthongs.
In the division of words into syllables, —
1. A single consonant is joined to the following vowel; as, vo-lat,
ge-iit, pe-rit, a-dest.
2. Doubled consonants, like tt, ss, etc., are always separated; as,
vit-ta, mis-sus.
3. Other combinations of two or more consonants are regularly^
separated, and the first consonant of the combination is joined with the
preceding vowel ; as, ma-gis-tri, dig-nus, mon-strum, sis-te-re.
4. An exception to Rule 3 occurs when the two consonants consisf
of a mute followed by 1 or r (pi, ol, tl ; pr, or, tr, etc.'). In such cases
both consonants are regularly joined to the following vowel ; as, a-gri,
vo-lu-oris, pa-tris, ma-tris. Yet if the 1 or r introduces the second
parf of a compound, the two consonants are separated ; as, ab-rumpo,
ad-latus.
5. The double consonant x is joined to the preceding vowel ; as,
ax-iB, tex-i.
QUANTITY.
5. A. Quantity of Vowels.
A vowel is long ox short according to the length of time required for
its pronunciation No absolute rule can be given for determining the
quantity of Latin vowels. This knowledge must be gained, in large
measure, by experience ; but the following principles are of aid : —
1. A To-wel is long,i —
a) before nf or ns; as, infans, inferior, consumo, censeo,
insum.
h) when the result of contraction ; as, nilum for nihilum.
2. A vowel is short, —
a) before nt, nd ; as, amant, amandus. A few exceptions occui
in compounds whose first member has a long vowel ; as, non
dura (non dum).
b) before another vowel, or h ; as, meus, traho. Some excep
tions occur, chiefly in proper names derived from the Greek
as, Aeneas.
1 In this book, long vowels are indicated by a horizontal line above tliem; as
a, i, 0, etc. Vowels not thus marked are short. Occasionally a curve is set abovi
short vowels ; as, S, ti.
ACCENT.
B. Quantity of Syllables.
Syllables are distinguished as long or short according to the length
of time required for their pronunciation.
1. A syllable is long, i —
a) if it contains a long vowel ; as, mater, r§gnum, dius.
b) if it contains a diphthong; as, causae, foedus.
c) if it contains a short vowel followed by x, z, or any two con-
sonants (except a mute with 1 or r) ; as, axis, gaza, resto.
2. A syllable is short, if it contains a short vowel followed by a
vowel or by a single consonant ; as, mea, amat.
3. Sometimes a syllable varies in quantity, viz. when its vowel is
short and is followed by a mute with 1 or r, i.e. by pi, ol, tl ; pr, or,
tr, etc. ; as, Sgri, voliioria.^ Such syllables are called common. In
prose they were regularly short, but in verse they might be treated as
long at the option of the poet.
Note. — These distinctions of long and short' are not arbitrary and
artificial, but are purely natural. Thus, a syllable containing a short
vowel followed by two consonants, as ng, is long, because such a syl-
lable requires more time for its pronunciation ; while a syllable con-
taining a short vowel followed by one consonant is short, because it
takes less time to pronounce it. In case of the common syllables,
the mute and the liquid blend so easily as to produce a combination
which takes no more time than a single consonant. Yet by sepa-
rating the two elements (as ag-ri) the poets were able to use such
syllables as long.
ACCENT.
6. I . Words of two syllables are accented upon the first ; as, t^git,
morem.
2. Words of more than two syllables are accented upon the penult
(next to the last) if that is a long syllable, otherwise upon the ante-
penult (second from the last) ; as, amSvi, amdntis, miserum.
3. When the enclitics -que, -ne, -ve, -ce, -met, -dum are appended
to words, if the syllable preceding the enclitic is long (either originally
or as a result of adding the enclitic) it is accented ; as, miserdque,
hominlsque. But if the syllable still remains short after the enclitic
has been added, it is not accented unless the word originally took the
accent on the antepenult. Thus, pdrtaque ; but miserdque.
1 To avoid confusioni the quantity of syllables is not indicated by any sign.
2 But if the 1 or r introduces the second part of a compound, the preceding
syllable is always long ; as, abrumpo.
SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.
4. Sometimes the final -e of -ne and -oe disappears, but withoul
affecting the accent ; as, tanton, istfo, illno.
5. In utr^que, each, and pierSque, most, -que is not properly an
enclitic; yet these words accent the penult, owing to the influence
ot their oib=.r cases, — ut^rque, utrdrnque, plerdmque.
VOWEL CHANGES.i ^
7. I . In Compounds, —
a) 6 before a single consonant becomes i ; as, —
coUigo for con-lego.
U) a before a single consonant becomes 1 ; as, —
adigo for ad-ago.
c) S before two consonants becomes B ; as, —
ezpers for ez-pars.
d) ae becomes T ; as, —
conquiro for oon-quaero.
e) au becomes u, sometimes ; as, —
concludo for con-claudo ;
explodo for ez-plaudo.
2. Contraction. Concurrent vowels were frequently contracted into
one long vowel. The first of the two vowels regularly prevailed ; as,—
tres for tre-es ; copia for co-opia ;
malo for nia(v)elo; cogo for co-ago;
amSsti for ania(v)isti; como for co-emo;
debeo for de(h)abe6; junior for ju(v)enior.
ml for nihil;
3. Parasitic Vo-wels. In the environment of liquids and nasals a
parasitic vowel sometimes develops ; as, —
vinculum for earlier vinclum.
So periculum, saeculum.
4. Syncope. Sometimes a vowel drops out by syncope ; as, —
ardor for aridor (compare aridus) ;
valde for valide (compare validus) .
I Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.
PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 7
CONSONANT CHANGES.i
8. I. Rhotaoism. An original s between vowels became r ; as, —
arbos, Gen. arboris (for arbosis) ;
genus, Gen. generis (for genesis) ;
dirimo (for dis-emo) .
2. dt, tt, ts each give e or sg ; as, —
penaum for pend-tum ;
versum for vert-tum ;
, miles for milet-s ;
sessus for sedtus ;
passus for pattus.
3. Final consonants were often omitted ; a.s, —
cor for cord ;
lac for laot.
4. Assimilation of Consonants. Consonants are often assimilated
to a following sound. Thus : aoourro (ado-) ; aggero (adg-) ;
assero (ads-) ; allatus (adl-) ; apporto (adp-) ; attuli (adt-) ;
arrideo (adr-) ; affero (adf-) ; ocourro (obo-) ; suppono (aubp-) ;
offero (obf-) ; oorruo (comr-) ; coUatus (00ml-) ; etc.
5. Partial Assimilation. Sometimes the assimilation is only
partial. Thus : — ,
a) b before s or t becomes p ; as, —
scripsi (scrib-si), scriptum (scrib-tum).
b) g before s or t becomes c ; as, —
actus (ag-tus).
c) m before a dental or guttural becomes n ; as, —
eundem (eum-dem) ; princeps (prim-ceps).
PECULIARITIES OF ORTHOGRAPHY.
9. Many words have variable orthography.
I. Sometimes the different forms belong to different periods of the
language. Thus, quom, voltus, volnus, volt, etc., were the prevail-
i Only the simplest and most obvious of these are here treated.
8 SOUNDS, ACCENT, QUANTITY.
ing forms almost down to the Augustan age ; after that, cum, vultus,;
vulnus, vult, etc. So optumus, maxumus, lubet, lubido, etc.,
down to about the same era ; later, optimus, mazimus, libet, libido,
etc.
2. In some words the orthography varies at one and the same period
of the language. Examples are ezspecto, ezpecto ; ezsisto, existo ;
epistula, epistola; adul§scens, adolescens; paulus, paullus;
oottldie, cotidie; and, particularly, prepositional compounds, which
often made a concession to the etymology in the spelling ; as, —
ad-gero or aggero ; ad-sero or assero ;
ad-licio or allicio ; in-latus or illatua ;
ad-rogans or arrogans ; sub-raoveo or summoveo ;
and many others.
3. Compounds of jaciS were usually written eicio, deicio, adicio,
obicio, etc., but were probably pronounced as though written adjicio,
objicio, etc.
4. Adjectives and nouns in -quus, -quum; -vus, -vum; -uuB,
-unm preserved the earlier forms in -quos, -quom; -vos, -vom-
-uos, -uom, down through the Ciceronian age; as, antiques, anti-
quom ; saevos ; perpetuos ; equos ; servos. Similarly verjjs in
the 3d plural present indicative exhibit the terminations -quont,
-quontur; -vont, -vontur ; -uont, -uontur, for the same period; as,
relinqnont, loquontur ; vTvont, metuont.
The older spelling, while generally followed in editions of Plautus
and Terence, has not yet been adopted in our prose texts.
ART
II.
INFLECTIONS.
10. The Parts of Speech in Latin are the same as
in English, viz. Nouns, Adjectives, Pronouns, Verbs,
Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections;
but the Latin has no article.
11. Of these eight parts of speech the first four are
capable of Inflection, i.e. of undergoing change of form
to express modifications of meaning. In case of Nouns,
Adjectives, and Pronouns, this prbcess is called Declen-
sion; in case of verbs, Conjugation.
Chapter I. — Declension.
A. NOUNS.
12. A Noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or
quality; as, Caesar, Caesar; 'Roma., Rome ; -p&ana., feather ;
virtus, courage.
1 . Nouns are either Proper or Common. Proper nouns are perma-
nent names of persons or places ; as, Caesar, Roma. Other nouns
are Common; as, penna, virtus.
2. Nouns are also distinguished as Concrete or Abstract.
a) Concrete nouns are those which designate individual objects ;
ss, laoas, mountain ; pea, foot; CtiBa, day ; vasna, mind.
9
lO INFLECTIONS.
Under concrete nouns are included, also, collective nouns;
as, legio, legion ; oomitatus, retinue.
V) Abstract nouns designate qualities; as, constantia, stead,
fastness; paupertas, poverty.
GENDER OF NOUNS.
13. There are three Genders, — Masculine, Feminine,
and Neuter. Gender in Latin is either natural or gram-
matical.
Natural Gender.
14. The gender of nouns is natural when it is based
upon sex. Natural gender is confined entirely to names
of persons ; and these are —
1. Masculine, if they denote males ; as, —
aa-riXa., sailor ; asiicola., farmer.
2. Feminine, if they denote females ; as, —
mater, tnother ; regina, queen.
Grammatical Gender.
15.. Grammg.tical gender is determined not by sex, but
by the general signification of the word, or the ending of
its Nominative Singular. By grammatical gender, nouns
denoting things or qualities are often Masculine or Femi-
nine, simply by virtue of their signification or the ending;
of the Nominative Singular. The following are the gen-
eral principles for determining grammatical gender : —
A. Gender determined by Signification.
1. Names of Rivers, Winds, and Months are Mascu-
line; as, —
Sequana, Seine; Eurus, east wind; Aprilis, April.
2. Names of Trees, and such names of Towns and
Islands as end in -us, are Feminine; as, —
quercus, ofl^j Corinttaua, Corinth; Rho&\xB, Rhodes.
NUMBER. — CASES. 1 1
Other names of towns and islands follow the gender of their endings
(see B, below) ; as, —
Delphi, m. ; Leuctra, n. ; Tibur, n. ; Carthago, f.
3. Indeclinable nouns, also infinitives and phrases, are
Neuter; as, —
nihil, nothing; nefas, wrong ; amSre, to love.
Note. — Exceptions to the above principles sometimes occur; as, AlUa (the
river) , f.
B. Gender determined by Ending of Nominative Singular.
The gender of other nouns is determined by the ending
of the Nominative Singular.'
Note i . — Comtnon Gender. Certain nouns are sometimes IMascu-
line, sometimes Feminine. Thus, sacerdos may mean either priest or
priestess, and is Masculine or Feminine accordingly. So also oivis,
citizen ; parens, parent ; etc. The gender of such nouns is said to be
commxm.
Note 2. —Names of animals usually have grammatical gender,
according to the ending of the Nominative Singular, but the one form
may designate either the male or female ; as, anser, m., goose or gan-
der. So vulpes, f.,/ox; aquila, f., eagle.
NUMBER.
16. The Latin has two Numbers, — the Singular and
Plural. The Singular denotes one object; the Plural,
more than one.
CASES.
17. There are six Cases in Latin : —
Nominative, Case of Subject ;
Genitive, Objective with of, or Possessive ;
Dative, Objective with /a or /or;
Accusative, Case of Direct Object ;
Vocative, Case of Address ;
Ablative, Objective with by, from, in, with.
1 The great majority of all Latin nouns come under this category. The prin-
ciples for determining their gender are given under the separate declensions.
12 INFLECTIONS.
1. Locative. Vestiges of another case, the Locative (denoting'
place where), occur in names of towns and in a few other words.
2. Oblique Cases. The Genitive, Dative, Accusative, and Abla-
tive are called Oblique Cases.
3. Stem and Case-Endings. The different cases are formed by
appending certain case-endings to a fundamental part called the
Stem.^ Thus, portam (Accusative Singular) is formed by adding
the case-ending -m to the stem porta-. But in most cases the final
vowel of the stem has coalesced so closely with the actual case-ending
that the latter has become more or less obscured. The apparent case-
ending thus resulting is called a termination.
THE FIVE DECLENSIONS.
18. There are five Declensions in Latin, distinguished
from each other by the final letter of the Stem, and also
by the Termination of the Genitive Singular, as follows : —
Declension.
Final Letter of Stem.
Gen. Termination.
First '
a
-ae
Second
6
-i
Third
\ Some consonant
-Is
Fourth
fi
-Us
Fifth
S
-SI
Cases alike in Form.
19. I. The Vocative is regularly like the Nominative, except in
the singular of nouns in -us of the Second Declension.
2. The Dative and Ablative Plural are always alike.
3. In Neuters the Accusative and Nominative are always alike, and
in the Plural end in -5.
4. In the Third, Fourth, and Fifth Declensions, the Accusative
Plural is regularly like the' Nominative.
1 The Stem is often derived from a more primitive form called the Root.
Thus, the stem porta- goes back to the root per-, per-. Roots are usually mono-
syllabic. The addition made to a root to form a stem is called a Suffls. Thus
in porta- the suffix is -ta,
FIRST DECLENSION. 13
FIRST DECLENSION.
a-Stema.
20. Pure Latin nouns of the First Declension regu-
larly end, in the Nominative Singular, in -a, weakened
from -a, and are of the Feminine Gender. They are
declined as follows : —
Porta, gate ; stem, porta-.
SINGULAR.
Cases.
Meanings.
TEHMraATTOMS.
Nom.
porta
agate (as subject)
-a
Gen.
portae
of a gate
-ae
Dot.
portae
to ox for a gate
-ae
Ace.
portam
a gate (as object)
-am
Voc.
porta
gate'.
-a
AM.
porta
with, by, from, in a
PLURAL.
gate
-a
Nom.
, portae
gates (as subject)
-ae
Gen.
portarum
of gates
-arum
Dai.
porti3
to or for gates
-IS
Ace.
portas
gates (as object)
-as
Voc.
portae
gates'.
-ae
AM.
portia
with, by, from, in gates
-is
1. The Latin has no article, and porta may mean either a gate at
the gate; and in the Plural, gates or the gates.
Peculiarities of Nouns of the First Declension.
21. I. Exceptions IN Gender. Nouns denoting males are Mascu-
line; as, nauta, jaz&>- ; a-sricola, farmer ; also, B.a.diia, Adriatic Sea.
2. Rare Case-Endings, —
a) An old form of the Genitive Singular in -as is preserved in
the combination pater familisiB, father of a family ; also in
mater familits, filius familias, filia familias. But the
regular form, of the Genitive in -ae is also admissible in these
expressions ; as, pater famlliae.
b) In poetry a Genitive in -ai also occurs ; as, aulal.
14 INFLECTIONS.
c) The Locative Singular ends in -ae ; as, Romae, at Rome.
d) A Genitive Plural in -um instead of -arum sometimes occurs;
as, Dardanidum instead of Dardanidarum. This terminal
tion -um is not a contraction of -arum, but represents an
entirely different case-ending.
e) Instead of the regular ending -is, we usually find -abua
in the Dative and Ablative Plural of dea, goddess, and filia,
daughter, especially when it is important to distinguish these
nouns from the corresponding forms of deus, god, and fil us,
son. A few other words sometimes have the same peculiaritv :
as, libertabus (from ITberta, freedwoman), equabus
(mares), to avoid confusion wiih libertis (from libertus,
freedmati) and equis (from equus, horse).
Greek Nouns.
22. These end in -e (Feminine) ; -as and -es (Masculine).
In the Plural they are declined like regular Latin nouns
of the First Declension. In the Singular they are declined
as follows : —
Archias, Archias. Epitome, epitome. Cometes, comet.
Nom. Archias epitome cometes
Gen. Archiae epitomes cometae
Dat. Archiae epitomae cometae
Ace. Archiam (or -an) epitomen cometen
Voc. Archia epitome comete (or -5)
Abl. Archia epitome comete (or -a)
1. But most Greek nouns in -e become regular Latin nouns in -a,
and are declined like porta; as, grammatioa, grammar; musioa,
music ; rhetorica, rhetoric.
2. Some other peculiarities occur, especially in poetry.
SECOND DECLENSION.
Systems.
23. Pure Latin nouns of the Second Declension end
in -us, -er, -ir, Masculine; -um, Neuter. Originally -us in
the Nominative of the Masculine was -os; and -um of the
Neuters -cm. So also in the Accusative.
SECOND DECLENSION.
IS
Nouns in-us and -um are declined as follows : -
Hortus, garden ; Bellum, war ;
stem, hortfi-. stem, bellfi-.
SINGULAR.
Termination.
Tbrmination.
Abm.
hortus
-US
bellum
-um
Gen.
horti
-i
beUi
-I
sU- Dai.
horto
-o
bello
-O
■- Ace.
hortum
-um
bellum
-um
Voc.
horte
-e
bellum
-um
AM.
horto
-5
Plural.
bello
-6
Norn.
horti
-i
bella
-a
Gen.
hortorum
-drum
bellorum
-oruir
Dot.
hortis
-is
bellis
-is
Ace.
hortoB
-OS
bella
-a
Voc.
horti
-i
bella
-a
Ail.
hortis
-is
bellis
-is
Nouns in -er and ■
■ir are declined
[ as follows ;
: —
Puer, day ;
K^e^x, field;
Vir, man ;
stem,
puerS-
stem, agrS-
SINGULAR.
stem, virS-
Termination.
JVofn.
puer
ager
vir
Wanting
Gen.
pueii
agri
viri
-i
Dai.
puer5.
agro
viro
-5
Ace.
puenim
agrum
virum
-um
Voc.
puer
ager
vir
Wanting
Abl.
puero
agro
PLURAL.
virS
-5
Nom.
, pueri
agii
viii
-5
Gen.
puerorum
agrorum
virorum
-orum
Dat.
pueiis
agris
viris
-is
Ace.
pueros
agros --'
viros
-OS
Voc.
pueii
agri
viri
-i
Abl.
pueris
agns
viiis
-is
I. Note that in words of the type of
puer and vir
the final vowei
of the stem has disappeared in the Nominative and Vocative Singular,
i6
INFLECTIONS.
In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of ager, the stem is furthei
modified by the development of e before r.
2. The following nouns in -er are declined like puer : adulter,
adulterer; ^ene^x, son-in-law; lAhei, Bacchus ; socer, father^n-law;
vesper, evening; and compounds in -fer and -ger, as aignifer, armiger.
Nouns in -VHS', -rnm, -quus.
24. Nouns ending in the Nominative Singular in -vus, -vum,
-quus, exhibited two types of inflection in the classical Latin, — an
earlier and a later, — as follows : —
Earlier Inflection (including Caesar and Cicero') .
Servos, m., slave. Aevom, n., age. Equos, m., horse.
SINGULAR.
Nom.
. servos
aevom
equos
Gen.
servi
aevi
equi
Dai.
servo
aevo
equo
Ace.
servom
aevom
equom
Voc.
serve
aevom
eque
AM.
servo
aevo
equo
Later
Inflection {after Cicero).
SINGULAR.
Nom.
servus
aevum
equus
Gen.
servJ
aevi
equi
Dat.
serv5
aevo
equo
Ace. ,
servum
aevum
equum
Voc.
serve
aevum
eque
Abl.
servo
aevo
equ5
1. The Plural of these nouns is regular, and always uniform.
Peculiarities of Inflection in the Second Declension.
25. I. Proper names in -ius regularly form the Genitive lingular
in -i (instead of -ii), and the Vocative Singular in >5 (for -ie) ; as,
Vergill, of Virgil, or O Virgil (instead of Vergilii, Vergilie). In
such words the accent stands upon the penult, even though that be
short. Nouns in -ajus, -ejus form the Gen. in -ai, -ei, as Pompejus,
Pompei.
2. Nouns in -ius and -ium, until after the beginning of the reign
of Augustus (31 B.C.), regularly formed the Genitive Singular in -i
(instead of -ii) ; as, —
SECOND DECLENSION. V]
Nom. ingenium filius
Gen. ing^ni fill
These Genitives accent the penult, even when it is short.
3. FQiua forms tlie Vocative Singular in -i (for -ie) ; viz. fill,
O son I
4. Deus, god, lacks the Vocative Singular. The Plural is inflected
as follows : —
Nom. di ("Isi)
Gen. deoTum (deum)
Dat. dis (deis)
Ace. deos
Voc. di (^ei)
AM. dis (deis)
5. The Locative Singular ends in -i; as, Corinthi, at Corinth.
6. The Genitive Plural has -um, instead of -orutn, —
a) in words denoting money and measure ; as, talentum, of
talents; laodiara, of pecks ; sestertinm, 0/ sesterces.
d) in duumvir, triumvir, decemvir ; as, duumvirum.
c) sometimes in other words ; as, liberum, 0/ the children ;
socium, of the allies.
Exceptions to Gender in the Second Declension.
26. I . The following nouns in -us are Feminine by exception : —
a) Names of to-wns, islands, trees — according to the general
rule laid down in § 15. 2 ; also some names of countries; as
Aegyptus, Egypt.
V) Five special words, —
alvus, belly;
carbasus, y?aa-;
colus, distaff;
humus, ground;
vannus, ivinnowing-fan.
c) A few Greek Feminines ; as, ^
atomus, atom;
diphthongus, diphthong.
2. The following nouns in -us are Neuter : —
pelagus, sea ;
virus, poison ;
vulgus, crowd.
I8 INFLECTIONS.
Greek Nouns of the Second Declension.
27. These end in -os, -oa, Masculine or Feminine; and
-on, Neuter. They are mainly proper names, and are de-
clined as follows : —
Barbitos, m. and f.,
Androgeos, m.,
Ilion, n.,
lyre.
Androgeos.
Troy.
Nbm. barbitos
Androgeos
Ilion
Gen. barbiti
AndrogeS, -I
Tlii
Dat. barbito
Androgeo
Ilio
Ace. barbiton
Androgeo, -on
Ilion
Voc. barbite
Androgeos
Tlion
Abl. barbito
Androgeo
Tlio
1. Nouns in -os sometimes form the Accusative Singular in -um
instead of -on ; as, Delum, Delos.
2. The Plural of Greek nouns, when it occurs, is usually regular.
3. For other rare forms of Greek nouns the lexicon may be con-
sulted.
THIRD DECLENSION.
28. Nouns of the Third Declension end in -a, -e, -i, -6,
-y, -c, -1, -1, -r, -s, -t, -X. The Third Declension includes
several distinct classes of Stems, —
I. Pure Consonant-Stems.
TI. i-Stems.
in. Consonant-Stems which have partially adapted;
themselves to the inflection of i-Stems.
IV. A very few stems ending in a long vowel or a
diphthong.
V. Irregular Nouns.
I. Consonant-Stems.
29. I. In these the stem appears in its unaltered fortn-
in all the oblique cases, so that the actual case-endings
may be clearly recognized.
THIRD DECLENSION.
19
2. Consonant-Stems fall into several natural subdivisions, according
as the stem ends in a Mute, Liquid, Nasal, or Spirant.
A. Mute-Stems.
30. Mute-Stems may end, —
1. In a Labial (p) ; as, princep-s.
2. In a Guttural (g or c) ; as, remez (remeg-s) ; dux (duc-s).
3. In a Dental (d or t) ; as, lapis (lapid-s) ; mileB (milet-s).
I. Stems in a Labial Mute (p).
31. Princeps, m., chief.
SINGULAR.
Nbm. princeps
Gen. principis
principi
principem
princeps
principe
Dot.
Ace.
Voc.
AM.
PLURAL.
JVom. prlncipes
GeM. principum
Dai. prlncipibus
Ace. principes
yoc. principes
Adl. prlncipibus
Tekminatioh.
-s
-is
-1
-em
-s
-e
-es
-um
-ibus
-es
-es
-ibus
2. Stems in a Guttural Mute (g, c).
32. In these the termination -s of the Nominative Singular unites
with the guttural, thus producing -x.
Remex, m., rower. Dux, c, leader.
singular.
plural.
singular.
PLURAL.
Nom. remex
remiges
dux
duces
Gen. remigis
reraigum
duels
ducum
Dat. remigl
remigibus
duci
dudbus
Ace. remigem
remiges
ducem
ducSs
Voc. remex
remiges
dux
ducSs
Abl. remige
remigibus
duce
ducibuB
20
INFLECTIONS.
3. Stems in a Dental Mute (d, t).
33. In these the final d or t of the stem disappears in the Nomina
live Singular before the ending -s.
Lapis, m., stone.
Miles, m., soldier.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nom.
lapis
lapides
miles
militSs
Gen.
lapidis
lapidum
mllitis
militum
Dat.
lapidi
lapidibus
mllitl
militibas
Ace.
lapidem
lapides
miHtem
milites
Voc.
lapis
lapides
miles
milites
Abl.
lapide
lapidibus
milite
militibus
B. Liquid Stems.
34. These end in -1 or -f.
Vigil, m., Victor, m.,
•watchman.
conqueror.
Aequor, n.,
sea.
Nom. vigil
Gen. vigilia
Dat. vigili
Ace. vigilem
Voc. vigil
Abl. vigile
SINGULAR.
victor
victoria
victSti
victoreiu
victor
victore
aequor
aequoiis
aequorl
aequor
aequor
aequore
Nom. vigiles
Gen. vigilum
vigilibus
vigilgs
vigilSs
vigilibus
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
PLURAL.
victores
victorum
victoribus
victores
victores
victoribus
aequora
aequorum
aequoribus
aequora
aequora
aequoribus
1. Masculine and Feminine stems ending in a liquid form the Noral.
native and Vocative Singular without termination.
2. The termination is also lacking in the Nominative, Accusativ^i
and Vocative Singular of all neuters of the Third Declension.
THIRD DECLENSION.
21
C. Nasal Stems.
35. These end in -n,i which often disappears in the Nom. Sing.
Leo, m., lion. Nomeu, n., name
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nom. leo
Ie5nes
nomen
nomina
Gen. Ie5nis
leonum
ndminis
nominum
Dot. leoni
leonibus
nomini
nominibus
Ace. leonem
le5nes
nSmen
nomina
Voc. leo
leones
nomen
nomina
Abl. leone
leonibus
nomine
nominibus
D. s-Siems.
36. Mos, m., custom. Genus, n., race. Honor, m., honor.
Nom.
mos
Gen.
moris
Dat.
moii
Ace.
morem
Voc.
mos
Abl.
more
Nom.
mores
Gen.
morum
Dat.
moribus
Ace.
mores
Voc.
mores
Abl.
moribus
SINGULAR.
genus
generis
generi
genus
genus
genere
PLURAL.
genera
generum
gene.ribus
genera
genera
generibus
honor
honoris
honori
honorem
honor
honore
honores
honorum
honoribuB
honores
honores
honoribus
I. Note that the final s of the stem becomes r (between vowels) in
the oblique cases. In many words (honor, color, and the like) the
r of the oblique cases has, by analogy, crept into the Nominative, dis-
placing the earlier s, though the forms houos, colos, etc., also occur,
particularly in early Latin and in poetry.
1 There is only one stem ending in -m. — hiemEj^MemiS. winter.
22
INFLECTIONS.
II. i-Stems.
A. Masculine and Feminine 1-Stems.
37. These regularly end in -is in the Nominative Singu-
lar, and always have -ium in the Genitive Plural. Originally
the Accusative Singular ended in -im, the Ablative Singular
in -1, and the Accusative Plural in -is ; but these endings
have been largely displaced by -em, -e, and -es, the end-
ings of Consonant-Stems.
38. Tussis, f., cough; Ignis, ra.,fire; Hostis, c, enemy;
stem, tussi-. stem, igni-. stem, hosti-.
SINGULAR.
Termination,
Nom
. tussis
Ignis
hosUs -is
Gen.
tussis
Ignis
hostis -is
Dat.
tussi
Igni
hosti -i
Ace.
tussim
Ignem
hostem -im, -em
Voc.
tussis
Ignis
hostis -is
AM.
tussi
Igni or e
PLURAL.
hoste -i, -e
Nom.
tusses
Ignes
hostSs -es
Gen.
tussium
Igniam
hostium -ium
Dat.
tussibus
Ignibus
hostibus -ibus
Ace.
tussis or -es
Ignis or -es
hostis or -Ss -is, -es
Voc.
tusses
Ignes
hostes -es
AM.
tussibus
Ignibus
hostibus -ibuB
1 . To the same class
belong —
apis, ,
bee.
Gratis, hurdle.
t *securi3, axe.
auris.
ear.
Hebiis, fever.
sementis, sowing.
t *sitis, thirst.
avis, 1
bird.
orbis, circle.
azis, (
axle.
ovis, sheep.
torris, brand.
*buris,
, plough-beam.
pelvis, basin.
f *turris, tower.
clavis, key.
puppis, stern.
trudis, pole.
coUis
, hill.
restis, rope.
veotis, lever.
and many others.
Words marked with a star regularly have Ace. -im ; those marked
with a t regularly have Abl -i. Of the others, many at times shofl
-im and -i. Town and river names in -is regularly have -im, -i.
THIRD DECLENSION.
23
2. Not all nouns in -is are i-Stems. Some are genuine consonant-
stems, and have the regular consonant terminations throughout, nota-
bly, canis, dog; \\3i^6Tx\s, youths
3. Some genuine i-Stems have become disguised in the Nominative
Singular; as, pars, part, for par(ti)s; anas, diick, for ana(ti)s; so
also mors, death; dos, dowry ; nox, night; sors, lot; inSns, mind;
ars, art; gens, tribe; and some others.
B. Neuter \-Stems.
39. These end in the Nominative Singular in -e, -al, and
-ar. They always have -i in the Ablative Singular, -ia in
the Nominative, Accusative, and Vocative Plural, and-ium
in the Genitive Plural, thus holding more steadfastly to the
i-character than do MascuUne and Feminine i-Stems.
Sedile, seat ; Animal, animal; Calcar, spur ;
stem, sedili-. stem, animali-. stem, oalcari-
SINGULAR.
Termination.
Nom.
sedile
animal
calcar
-e or wanting
Gen.
sedilia
animalis
calcaris
-is
Dot.
sedili
animali
calcari
-i
Ace.
sedile
animal
calcar
-e or wanting
Voc.
sedile
animal
calcar
-e or wanting
AM.
sedfli
animali
PLURAL.
calcan
-i
Nom.
sedilia
animalia
calcaria
-ia
Gen.
sedTlium
animalium
calcarium
-ium
Dat.
sedilibus
animalibua
calcaribus
-ibus
Ace.
sedilia
animalia
calcaria
-ia
Voc.
sedilia
animalia
calcaria
-ia
AM.
sedilibus
animalibus
calcaribus
-ibus
1. In most words of this class the final -i of the stem is lost in the
Nominative Singular; in others it appears as -e.
2. Proper names in -e form the Ablative Singular in -e ; as, Soracte,
Mt. Soracte ; so also sometimes mare, sea.
'> 1 Mensls, month, originally a consonant stem (mens-), has in the Genitive
Plural both mensium and mensum. The Accusative Plural is menses.
H
INFLECTIONS.
III. Consonant-Stems that have partially adapted themselves
to the Inflection of J-Stems.
40. Many Consonant-Stems have so far adapted them-t
selves to the inflection of i-stems as to take -ium in the
Genitive Plural, and -Is in the Accusative Plural. Their
true character as Consonant-Stems, however, is, shown by
the fact that they never take -im in the Accusative Singu-
lar, or -1 in the Ablative Singular. The following words
are examples of this class : —
Caedes, f., slaughter ;
Arx, f., citadel;
Linter, f., skiff;
stem, caed-.
stem, arc-.
SINGULAR.
stem, lintr-.
JVbm.
caedes
arx
linter
Gen.
caedis
arcis
lintris
Dat.
caedl
arci
lintri
Ace.
caedem
arcem
lintrem
Voc.
caedes
arx
linter
AM.
caede
arce
PLURAL.
lintre
Nom.
caedes
arces
lintres
Gen.
caedium
arcium
lintrium
Dat.
caedibus
arcibus
lintribus
Ace.
caedes, -is
arces, -is
lintres, -is
Voc.
caedes
arces
lintrSs
Abl.
caedibus
arcibus
lintribus
. The following classes of nouns belong here :
a) Nouns in -es, with Genitive in -is ; as, nnbes, aedes,
clades, etc.
V) Many monosyllables in -s or -a: preceded by one or more
consonants ; as, urbs, mons, stirps, lanx.
c) Most nouns in -ns and -rs ; as, cliens, cohors.
d) Uter, venter ; fur, lis, mas, mus, nix ; and the Plurals
fauces, penates, Optimates, Samnites, Quirites.
e) Sometimes nouns in -tas with Genitive -tatis ; as, civitSfl,
aetas. Civitas usually has civitatium.
THIRD DECLENSION.
25
IV. Stems in -1, -n,
and Diphthongs,
41. Vis, f.,
Sus, c,
B5s, c,
Juppiter, m.,
force ;
swine ;
ox, cow ;
Jupiter ;
stem, vi-.
stem, SU-.
stem, bou-.
stem, Jou-.
SINGULAR
Nom.
VIS
sus
bos
Juppiter
Gen.
—
suis
bovis
Jovis
Dat.
—
sui
bovi
Jovi
Ace.
vim
suem
bovem
Jovem
Voc.
vis
sus
bos
Juppiter
Abl.
vi
sue
bove
Jove
PLURAL.
Nom.
vires
sues
boves
Gen.
virium
suum
( bovum
( bourn
Dat.
vTribus
( suibus
\ subus
< bobus
{ bubus
Ace.
vires
sues
boves
Voc.
vires
sues
boves
Abl.
vlribus
\ suibus
\ subus
bobus
bubus
1. Notice that the oblique cases of sus have ti in the root syllable.
2. Grus is declined like sus, except that the Dative and Ablative
Plural are always gruibus.
3. Juppiter is for Jou-pater, and therefore contains the same stem
as in Jov-is, Jov-i, eic.
Navis was originally a diphthong stem ending in au-, but it has
passed over to the i-stems (§ 37). Its ablative often ends in -i.
. Seaex, m., old man. C?t.xo,i., flesh.
Oa
', n., bone.
SINGULAR.
Nom.
senex
caro
OS
Gen.
senis
carnis
ossis
Dat.
seni
carni
ossi
Ace.
senem
carnem
OS
Voc.
senex
caro
OS
Abl.
sene
came
osse
26 INFLECTIONS.
PLURAL.
Nom.
senes
carnes
ossa
Gen.
senum
carnium
ossium
Dat.
senibus
carnibua
ossibus
Ace.
senes
carnes
ossa
Voc.
senes
carnes
ossa
AM.
senibus
carnibus
ossibus
1. Iter, itlneris, n., way, is inflected regularly throughout from the stem
Itiner-.
2. Supellex, supelleotllis, f., furniture, is confined to the Singular. The
oblique cases are formed from the stem supellectil-. The ablative has both
-i and -e.
3. Jecur, n., liver, forms its oblique cases from two stems, — Jeoor- and
jecinor-. Thus, Gen. jeooris or jecinoris.
4. Pemur, n., thigh, usually forms its oblique cases from the stem femor-,
but sometimes from the stem femiu-. Thus, Gen. femoris or feminis.
General Principles of Gender in the Third Declension.
43. I . Nouns in -5, -or, -os, -er, -Ss are Masculine.
2. Nouns in -as, -es, -is, -ys, -x, -s (preceded by a consonant);
-do, -go (Genitive -inis) ; -io (abstract and collective), -us (Genitive
-utis or -lidis) are Feminine.
3. Nouns ending in -a, -e, -i, -y, -c, -1, -n, -t, -ar, -ur, -iis are
Neuter.
Chief Exceptions to Gender in the Third Declension.
44. Exceptions to the Rule for Masculines.
1. Nouns in -6.
a. Feminine : caro, flesh.
2. Nouns in -or.
a. Feminine : arbor, tree.
b. Neuter: aequor, j^a; cox, heart; maxmor, marile.
3. Nouns in -6s.
a. Feminine : dos, dowry.
b. Neuter : 6s (6ris), mouth.
4. Nouns in -er.
a~ Feminine : linter, skiff.
THIRD DECLENSION. 27
h. Neuter : cadaver, corpse ; iter, way ; tuber, tumor ; Gber,
udder. Also botanical names in -er ; as, aoer, maple.
5. Nouns in -6s.
a. Feminine : seges, crop.
45. Szceptions to the Rule for Feminines.
1. Nouns in -as.
a. Masculine : vas, bondsman.
b. Neuter : vas, vessel.
2. Nouns in -es.
a. Masculine: axiea, ram; paries, wall ; p^a,/aoi.
3. Nouns in -is.
a. Masculine: all nouns in -nis and -guis; as, amnis, river;
Ignis, ^re; panis, bread; sanguis, blood; unguis, nail.
Also —
aads, axle. piscis, fish.
collis, hill. postis, post.
fasois, bundle. pulvis, dust.
lapis, stone. orbis, circle.
mensis, mr>nth. sentis, brier.
4. Nouns in -x.
a. Masculine: apex, peak; codes:, tree-trunk; grex, flock;
imbrex, tile ; poUex, thumb ; vertex, summit ; calix, cup.
J. Nouns in -s preceded by a consonant.
a. Masculine : dens, tooth ; f ons, fountain ; mons, mountain ;
pons, bridge.
6. Nouns in -d5.
a. Masculine : cardo, hinge ; ordo, order,
46. Exceptions to the Rule for Neuters.
1. Nouns in -1.
a. Masculine : sol, sun ; sal, salt.
2. Nouns in -n.
a. Masculine : pecten, comb.
3. Nouns in -ur.
a. Masculine: ■vvW.Vi.r, vulture
4. Nouns in -fis.
a. Masculine : lepus, hare.
28
INFLECTIONS.
Greek Nouns of the Third Declension.
47. The following are the chief peculiarities of these : —
1 . The ending -a in the Accusative Singular ; as, aethera, aether-^
Salamma, Salamis.
2. The ending -Ss in the Nominative Plural; as, PhrygSs,
Phrygians.
3 The ending -Ss in the Accusative Plural ; as, PhrygSs,
Phrygians.
4. Proper names in -as (Genitive -antis) have -a in the Vocatives!
Singular; as, Atlas (Atlantis), Vocative Atla, Atlas.
J. Neuters in -ma (Genitive -matis) have -is instead of -ibus In
the Dative and Ablative Plural ; as, poematis, poems.
6. Orpheus, and other proper names ending in -eus, form the
Vocative Singular in -eu (Orpheu, etc.). But in prose the other
cases usually follow the second declension ; as, Orphei, Orpheo, etc.
7. Proper names in -es, like Pericles, form the Genitive Singular
sometimes in -is, sometimes in -1, as, Periclis or Pericli.
8. Feminine proper names in -o have -us in the Genitive, but -5
in the other oblique cases; as, —
Nom. Dido
Gen. Dldus
Dat. Dido
Ace. Dido
Voc. Did5
Abl. Dido
9. The regular Latin endings often occur in Greek nouns.
FOURTH DECLENSION.
a-Stems.
48. Nouns of the Fourth Declension end in -us Mascu
line, and -u Neuter. They are declined as follows : — ■
Pructus,
m., fruit.
Cornu, n
., horn.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Nom.
fructus
friictiis
cornii
cornua
Gen.
friictus
friictuum
cornus
cornuum
Dat.
fructui
friictibus
cornii
cornibus
Ace.
fructum
friictus
cornii
cornua
Voc.
friictus
fructus
cornii
cornua
Abl.
fructu
fructibua
cornu
cornibus
FOURTH DECLENSION. — FIFTH DECLENSION. 29
Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fourth Declension.
49. I- Nouns in -us, particularly in early Latin, often form the
Genitive Singular in -1, following the analogy of nouns in -us of the
Second Declension; as, senati, ornati. This is usually the case in
Plautus and Terence.
2. Nouns in -us sometimes have -u in the Dative Singular, instead
of-ul; as, fruotu (for fructui).
3. The ending -ubus, instead of -ibus, occurs in the Dative and
Ablative Plural of artus (Plural), limbs; tribus, tribe; and in dis-
syllables in -cus ; as, artubus, tribubus, arcubus, lacubus. But
with the exception of tribus, all these words admit the forms in -ibus
as well as thoseln -ubus.
4. Domus, ho7ise, is declined according to the Fourth Declension,
but has also the following forms of the Second : —
domum, homewards, to one's home ;
domos, homewards, to their {etc.) homes
domi (locative), at home ;
douLO, /ro7fi home;
;. The only Neuters of this declension in common use are : oornu,
horn ; genu, knee ; and veru, spit.
Exceptions to Gender in the Fourth Declension.
50. The following nouns in -us are Feminine: acus, needle;
domus, house; mauus, hand; porticus, colonnade; tribus, tribe;
Idus (Plural), Ides; also names of trees (§ 15. 2).
FIFTH DECLENSION.
e-Stems.
51. Nouns of the Fifth Declension end in -Ss, and are
declined as follows : —
Dies, m., day.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL,
Nom. dies
dies
Gen. diel
dierum
Dat. diei
diebus
Ace. diem
dies
Voc. dies
dies
Abl. die
diebus
Res, f.,
thing.
^IGULAR.
PLURAL,
res
res
rgi
rerum
rSi
rebus
rem
rgs
r§s
rSs
re
rebus
30 INFLECTIONS.
Peculiarities of Nouns of the Fifth Declension.
52. I. The ending of the Genitive and Dative Singular is -gi,
instead of -ei, when a consonant precedes ; as, sp6i, rgi, fidSi.
2. A Genitive ending -i (for -Si) is found in plebi (from plebes =
plebs) in the expressions tribiinus plebi, tribune of the people, and
plebi scitum, decree of the people ; sometimes also in other words.
3. A Genitive and Dative form in -e sonietimes occurs ; as, acie.
4. With the exception of dies and res, most nouns of the Fifth
Declension are not declined in the Plural. But acies, series, species,
spes, and a few others are used in the Nominative and Accusative
Plural.
«
Gender in the Fifth Declension.
53. Nouns of the Fifth Declension are regularly Feminine, except
dies, day, and meridies, mid-day. But dies is sometimes Feminine
in the Singular, particularly when it means an appointed day.
DEFECTIVE NOUNS.
54. Here belong —
1. Nouns used in the Singular only.
2. Nouns used in the Plural only.
3. Nouns used only in certain cases.
4. Indeclinable Nouns.
Nouns used in the Singular only.
55. Many nouns, from the nature of their signification,
are regularly used in the Singular only. Thus : —
1. Proper names ; as, Cicero, Cicero; Italia, Italy.
2. Nouns denoting material; as, aes, copper; lac, milk.
3. Abstract nouns; as, ignorantia, ignorance; bonitas, goodr
ness.
4. But the above classes of words are sometimes used in the Plural.
Thus : —
a) Proper names, — to denote diiferent members of a family, ot
specimens of a type; as, Cicerones, the Ciceros; CatonSB,
men like Cato.
DEFECTIVE NOUNS. 3 1
b') Names of materials, —> to denote objects made of the mate-
rial, or different kinds of the substance ; as, aera, bronzes
(i.e. bronze figures) ; ligna, woods.
c) Abstract nouns, — to denote instances of the quality ; as,
ignorantiae, cases of ignorance.
Nouns used in the Plural only.
56. Here belong —
1. Many geographical names; as, Thebae, Thebes; Leuctra,
Leuctra ; Pompeji, Pompeii.
2. Many names of festivals ; as, Megalesia, the Megalesian festival.
3. Many special words, of which the following are the most impor-
tant : —
angustiae, narrow pass. manes, spirits of the dead.
arma, weapons. moenia, city walls.
dSliciae, delight. minae, threats.
divitiae, riches. nuptiae, marriage.
Idus, Ides. poster!, descendants.
indutiae, truce. reliquiae, remainder.
msidiae, ambush. tenebrae, darkness.
majores, ancestors. verbera, blows.
Also in classical prose regularly —
cervices, neck. nares, nose.
fides, lyre. viscera, viscera.
Nouns used only in Certain Cases.
57. I. Used in only One Case. Many nouns of the Fourth
Declension are found only in the Ablative Singular ; as, jussu, by the
order; injussu, without the order ; natu, by birth.
2. Used in Two Cases.
a. Pors (chance}, Nom. Sing. ; forte, Abl. Sing.
b. Spontis (free-will), Gen. Sing. ; sponte, Abl. Sing.
3. Used in Three Cases. Nemo, no one (Nom.), has also the
Dat. nemini and the Ace. neminem. The Gen. and Abl. are supplied
by the corresponding cases of nuUus; viz. nuUius and nuUo.
52 INFLECTIONS.
4. Impetus has the Nom., Ace, and Abl. Sing., and tlie Nora
and Ace. Plu. ; viz. impetus, impetum, impetu, impetus.
5. a. Preci, precem, prece, lacks the Nom. and Gen. Sing. ' ,
b. Viois, vicem, vice, lacks the Nom. and Dat. Sing.
6. Opis, dapis, and frugis, — all lack the Nom. Sing. 1
7. Many monosyllables of the Third Declension lack the Gen. Plu. \
as, cor, luz, sol, aes, os (oris), rus, sal, tus.
Indecliiiable Nouns.
58. Here belong —
fas, n., right. nefas, n., impiety.
instar, n., likeness. nihil, n., nothing.
mane, n., morning. secus, n., sex.
I. With the exception of mane (which may serve also as Ablative,
in the morning'), the nouns in this list are simply Neuters confined in
use to the Nominative and Accusative Singular.
Heteroclites.
59. These are nouns whose forms are partly of one
declension, and partly of another. Thus : —
1. Several nouns have the entire Singular of one declension, while
the Plural is of another ; as, —
vas, vasis {vessel) ; Plu., vasa, vasorum, vasis, etc.
jugerum, jugerl {acre) ; Plu., jugera, jugerum, jugeribus, etc.
2. Several nouns, while belonging in the main to one declension,'
have certain special forms belonging to another. Thus : —
a) Many nouns of the First Declension ending in -ia take also
a Nom. and Ace. of the Fifth ; as, materiSs, materiem,
material, as well as materia, materiam.
b) Fames, hunger, 'regularly of the Third Declension, has the
Abl. fame of the Fifth.
c) Requies, requietis, rest, regularly of the Third Declension, •
takes an Ace. of the Fifth, requiem, in addition to requi-
etem.
d) Besides plebs, plebis, common people, of the Third Declen-
sion, we find plebes, plebSi (also plebj, see 5 1:2. 2), of the
Fifth.
HETEROGENEOUS NOUNS. 33
Heterogeneous Nouns.
60. Heterogeneous nouns vary in Gender. Thus : —
1. Several nouns of the Second Declension have two forms, — ont
asc. in -us, and one Neuter in -um; as, clipeus, clipeum, shield \,
irrus, carrum, cart.
2. Other nouns have one gender in the Singular, another in tht
lural; as, —
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
balneum, n., bath ; balneae, f., bath-house.
epulum, n., feast i epulae, f., feast.
frSnum, n., bridle i freni, m. (rarely frena, n.^, bridle,
jocus, m.jjest; joca, n. (also jooi, m.), jests.
locus, m., place ; loca, n., places ; loci, m., passages
or topics in an author.
rastrum, u., rake; ra,stTi, m. ; lastra, n., rakes.
a. Heterogeneous nouns may at the same time be heteroclites, as in case
of the first two examples above.
Plurals 'V7ith Change of Meaning.
61. The following nouns have one meaning in the
lingular, and another in the Plural : —
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
aedis, temple ; aedes, house.
auzilium, help ; auzilia, auxiliary troops.
career, prison ; carceres, stalls for racing-chariots
castrum, fort ; oastra, camp.
copia, abundance ; copiae, troops, resources.
finis, end; fines, borders, territory.
f ortuna, fortune ; fortunae, possessions, wealth,
gratia, favor, gratitude ; gratiae, thanks.
impedimentum, hindrance ; impedimenta, baggage.
littera, letter (of the alphabet) ; litterae, epistle ; literature.
m5s, habit, custom ; mores, character.
opera, help, service; operae, laborers.
(ops) opis, help ; opes, resources.
psiiB, part; paitSa, party ; rdle.
■ai, salt ; sSles, wit.
34
INFLECTIONS.
B. ADJECTIVES.
62. Adjectives denote quality. They are declined like
nouns, and fall into two classes, —
1. Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.
2. Adjectives of the Third Declension.
ADJECTIVES OF THE FIRST AND SECOND
DECLENSIONS.
63. In these the Masculine is declined like hortua, puer, ;
or ager, the Feminine like porta, and the Neuter like bellum,
Thus, Masculine like hortua : —
Bonus, good.
SINGULAR.
Masculisb.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Norn.
bonus
bona
bonum
Gen.
boni
bonae
boni
Dat.
bono
bonae
bono
Ace.
bonum
bonam
bonum
Voc.
bone
bona
bonum
AM.
bono
bona
PLURAL.
bono
JVom.
boni
bonae
bona
Gen.
bonorum
bonarum
bonorum
Dat.
bonis
bonis
bonia
Ace.
bonoa
bonaa
bona
Voc.
boni
bonae
bona
AM.
bonis
bonis
bonia
1. The Gen. Sing. Masc. and Neut. of Adjectives in -ius ends in -ii
(not in -i as in case of Nouns; see § 25. i ; 2). So also the Vot
Sing, of such Adjectives ends in -ie, not in 1. Thus eximius forms
Gen. eximii; Voc. eximie.
2. Distributives (see § 78. i. c) regularly form the Gen. Plu. Masc,
and Neut. in -um instead of -orum (compare § 25. 6) ; as, denuffl,
centenum ; but always singulorum.
ADJECTIVES OF FIRST AND SECOND DECLENSIONS. 35
64. Masculine like
puer : —
Tener, tender.
SINGULAR.
Masculine.
Femininb.
Neuter.
Nom.
tener
tenera
tenerum
Gen.
teneii
tenerae
teneri
Dat.
tenero
tenerae
tenero
Ace.
tenerum
teneram
tenerum
Voc.
tener
tenera
tenerum
AM.
tenero
tenera
PLURAL.
tenero
Nom.
teneri
tenerae
tenera
Gen.
tenerorum
tenerarum
tenerorum
Dat.
teneris
teneris
teneris
Ace.
teneros
teneras
tenera
Voe.
teneri
tenerae
tenera
Abl.
teneris
teneris
teneris
65. Masculine like ager : —
Sacer, sacred.
SINGULAR.
Masculine.
Feminine,
Neuter.
Nom.
sacer
sacra
sacrum
Gen.
sacii
sacrae
sacri
Dat.
sacro
sacrae
sacro
Ace.
sacrum
sacram
sacrum
Voc.
sacer
sacra
sacrum
Abl.
sacro
sacra
PLURAL.
sacro
Nom.
sacri
sacrae
sacra
Gen.
sacrorum
sacrarum
sacrorum
Dat.
sacris
sacris
sacris
Aec.
sacros
sacr3s
sacra
Voe.
sacri
sacrae
sacra
Abl.
sacris
sacJis
sacris
I. Most adjectives in -er are declined like sacer. The following,
however, are declined like tener : asper, rough; laoer, torn; ITbeTj/reej
30
INFLECTIONS.
voBGr, wretched ; ^xoa-^ex, prosperous ; compounds in -fer and -ger
sometimes dexter, right.
2. Satur,/«//, is declined: satur, satura, aaturum.
Nine Irregular Adjectives.
66
i. Here belong -
-
alius, another ;
alter, the other-.
uUus, any ;
niillus,
none ;
uter, which ?
(of two) ;
neuter,
neither;
solus, alotie ;
totus, whole ;
unus, one, alone.
They are (
declined
as follows : —
SINGULAR.
Masculine
. Feminine.
Neuter.
Mascuune
'. Feminine,
Neoter.
Nom.
, alius
alia
aliud
alter
altera
alterum
Gen.
alteilus
alterius
alteiius i
alterius
alterius
altering
Dat.
alii
alii
alii
alter!
alteri 2
alteti
Ace.
Voc.
AM.
alium
aliam
aliud
alterum
alteram
altemm
alio
alia
ali5
alters
altera
alters
Nom.
uter
utra
utrum
totus
tota
totum
Gen.
utrius
utrius
utrius
totius
totius
totius
Dat.
utri
utri
utri
toti
t5ti
toti
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
utrum
utram
utrum
totum
totam
totum
utro
utra
utro
toto
tota
tota
I.
All these words lack the Vocative.
The Plural is regular.
2.
Neuter is declined
[ like uter.
ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION.
67. These fall into three classes, —
1. Adjectives of three terminations in the Nominative
Singular, — one for each gender.
2. Adjectives of two terminations.
3. Adjectives of one termination.
1 This is practically always used instead of alius in the Genitive.
2 A Dative Singular I'eminine alterae also occurs.
ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 37
a. With the exception of Comparatives, and a few other words
mentioned below in § 70. i, all Adjectives of the Third
Declension follow the inflection of i-stems ; i.e. they have
the Ablative Singular in -1, the Genitive Plural in -ium, the
Accusative Plural in is (as well as -es) in the Masculine
and Feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative Plural
in -ia in Neuters.
Adjectives of Three Terminations.
68. These are declined as follows : —
Acer, sharp.
SINGULAR.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Notn.
acer
acris
acre
Gen.
acrjs
acris
acris
Dat.
acri
acri
acri
Ace.
acrem
acrem
acre
Voc.
acer
acris
acre
AM.
acri
acri
PLURAL.
acri
Norn.
acres
acres
,acria
Gen.
acrium
acrium
acrium
Dat.
acribus
acribus
acribus
Ace.
acres, -is
acres, -is
acria
Voc.
acres
acres
acria
Abl.
acribus
acribus
acribus
1. Like acer are declined alacer, lively; campester, /we/; oele.
ber, famous ; equester, equestrian ; paluster, marshy ; pedester,
pedestrian; puter, rotten; saliiber, wholesome; Silvester, woody;
terrester, terrestrial; voluoer, winged; also names of months in
-ber, as Septem.ber.
2. Celer, celeria, celere, swift, retains the e before r, but lacks
the Genitive Plural.
3. In the Nominative Singular of Adjectives of this class the Femi-
nine form is sometimes used for the Masculine. This is regularly true
of salubris, silvestris, and terrestris. In case of the other words
in the list, the use of the Feminine for the Masculine is confined chiefly
to early and late Latin, and to poetry.
38
INFLECTIONS.
Adjectives of Two Terminations.
69. These are declined as follows : —
Fortis, strong. Portior, stronger.
SINGULAR.
M. AND F. Neut.- M. and F. Neut.'
Nom. fortis forte fortior fortius
Gen. fortis fortis fortioris fortioris
Dat. forti forti fortioii fortiori
Ace. fortem forte fortiorem fortius
Voc. fortis forte fortior fortius
Abl. forti forti fortiore fortiore
Nom.
Gen.
Dat.
Ace.
Voc.
Abl.
fortSs
fortium
fortibus
fortes, -Is
fortes
fortibus
PLURAL.
fortia
fortium
fortibus
fortia
fortia
fortibus
fortiores
fortiSrum
fortioilbus
fortiores, -is
fortiores
fortioribua
fortiora
fortiorum
fortiorlbus
fortiora
fortiora
fortioribua
I. rortiol: is the Comparative of fortis. All Comparatives an
regularly declined in the same way. The Ace. Plu. in -Is is rare.
Adjectives of One Termination.
70.
Pglix, happy.
FrudSns, prudent.
SINGULAR.
M. AND F.
Nom. felrx
Gen. felicis
Dat. felici
Ace. fellcem
Voc. felix
Abl. felici
Nom. felices
Gen. fellcium
Dat. felicibus
Ace. felices, -Is
Voc. felices
Abl. felicibus
Neut.
felix
felicis
felici
felix
felix
felici
PLURAL.
felicia
felicium
felicibus
felicia
felicia
felicibus
M. AND F.
Neut.
prudens
prudens
prudentis
prudentis
prudent!
prudent!
prudentem
prudens
prudens
prudens
prudent!
prudenS
prudentes
prudentia
prudentium
prudentium
prudentibus
prudentibui
prudentes, -is
prudentia
prudentes
prudentia
orudentibus
prudentibni
ADJECTIVES OF THE THIRD DECLENSION. 39
Vetus,
old.
Pias, more.
SINGULAR.
M. AND F.
Neut.
M. AND F.
Nbut.
Nbtn.
vetus
vetus
plus
Gen.
veteria
veteria
pluria
Dai.
veteri
veteri
Ace.
veterem
vetus
plus
Voc.
vetus
vetus
AM.
vetere
vetere
PLURAL.
plure
Nom.
veterea
Vetera
plurea
plura
Gen.
veterum
veterum
plurium
plurium
Dot.
veteribua
veteribua
pluribuB
pluribua
Ace.
veterea
Vetera
plurea, -la
plura
Voc.
veteres
Vetera
AM.
veteribua
veteribua
pIuribuB
pluribua
1 . It will be observed that vetua is declined as a pure Consonant-
Stem ; i.e. Ablative Singular in -e, Genitive Plural in -um, Nominative
Plural Neuter in -a, and Accusative Plural Masculine and Feminine ia
-ea only. In the same way are declined compos, controlling; divea,
rich; particeps, sharing; pauper, poor; princepa, chief; aospea,
safe; superatea, surviving. Yet divea always has Neut. Plu. ditia.
2. Inopa, needy, and memor, mindful, have Ablative Singular
inopT, memoii, but Genitive Plural inopum, memorum.
3. Participles in -ana and -ena follow the declension of i-sterns.
But they do not have -1 in the Ablative, except when employed as adjec-
tives ; when used as participles or as substantives, they ha,ve -e ; as, —
a aapienti viro, by a wise man ; but
a sapiente, by a philosopher.
Tarquinio regnante, under the reign of Tarquin.
4. Fiaa, in the Singular, is always a noun.
5. In the Ablative Singular, adjectives, when used as substantives, —
a) usually retain the adjective declension ; as, —
aequalia, contemporary, Abl. aequSli.
conaularia, ex-consul, Abl. oonaulSri.
So names of Months; as, Aprili, April; Deoembri, De-
cember.
b) But adjectives used as proper names have -e in the Ablative
Singular; as, Celere, Celer ; IwrevSXe, Juvenal.
40 INFLECTIONS.
c) Patrials in -as, -Stis and -is, -Ttis, when designating place:
regularly have -i ; as, in ArpinatT, on the estate at Arpinum
yet -e, when used of persons ; as, ab Arpinate, by an Arpi
natian.
6. A very few indeclinable adjectives occur, the chief of which ar
ir^^, frugal; uequam, worthless.
7. In poetry, adjectives and participles in -ns sometimes form thi
Gen. Plu. in -um instead of -ium; as, venieutum, of those coming.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
71. I. There are three degrees of Comparison, — the
Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative.
2. The Comparative is regularly formed by adding -ioi
(Neut. -ius), and the Superlative by adding -issimus (-a, -um),
to the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel ; as, —
altus, high, altior, higher, altissimus, \ ^^S^^^^^
( very high.
fortis, brave, fortior, fortissimus.
ielix, fortunate, felicior, felicissimus.
So also Participles, when used as Adjectives ; as, —
doctus, learned, doctior, doctissimus.
egens, needy, egentior, egentisaimus.
3. Adjectives in -er form the Superlative by appending -rimus to
the Nominative of the Positive. The Comparative is regular. Thus: —
asper, rough, asperior, asperrimus.
pulcher, beautiful, pulchrior, pulcheriimua.
acer, sharp, acrior, acerrimus.
celer, swift, celerior, celerrimus.
a. Notice maturus, maturior, maturissimus or maturrimus.
4- Five Adjectives in -ilis form the Superlative by adding -limus to
the Stem of the Positive deprived of its final vowel. The Comparative
is regular. Thus : —
facilis, easy, facilior, facillimus.
difficilis, difficult, difficilior, difficillimuB.
similis, like, similior, simillimus.
dissimilis, tinlike, dissimilior, dissimillimus.
humilis, low, humilior, humilUmus.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES.
41
5. Adjectives in -dicus, -ficus, and -volus form the Comparative
and Superlative as though from forms in -dicSus, -ficens, -volSns.
Thus : —
raaledicentiasimus .
magnificentissimus.
benevolentissimua.
maledicus, slanderous, maledtcentior,
magnificus, magnificent, magnificentior,
benevolus, kindly, benevolentior,
a. Positives in -dicens and -volena occur in early Latin ; as,
maledicens, benevolens.
6. Dives has the Comparative divitior or ditior ; Superlative
divitissimus or ditissimus.
Irregular Comparison.
72. Several Adjectives vary the Stem in Comparison;
viz. —
bonus, good,
melior.
optimuB.
malus, bad.
pejor.
pessimus.
parvus, small.
minor.
minimus.
magnus, large.
major,
maximus.
multus, mtich,
plus,
plurimus.
frugl, thrifty.
frugalior,
frugalissimus
nequam, worthless.
nequior,
nequissimus.
73.
Defective Comparison.
Positive lacking entirely, —
(Cf. prae, in front of.)
(Cf. oitra, this side of.)
(Cf. ultra, beyond.)
(Cf. intra, within.)
(Cf. prope, near.)
(Cf. de, down.)
(Cf. archaic potis, possible.)
2. Positive occurring only in special cases, —
posters die, anno, etc.,
^rioi, former, pnratiB, first
citerior, on this side, citimus, near.
ulterior, farther, ultimus, farthest.
interior, inner,
propior, nearer,
deterior, inferior,
potior, preferable.
intimus, inmost.
proximus, nearest.
deterrimus, worst.
potissimus, chiefest.
the following day, etc.,
posterl, descendants,
exteri, foreigners,
nationes exterae, for-
eign nations.
posterior, later.
exterior, outer,
postremus,
postumus,
extremuB,
extimuB,
latest,
last.
late-born,
posthumous
outermost.
42
INFLECTIONS.
imus, J
Inferi, gods of the lower world, 1
Mare Inferum, Mediterranean \ Inferior, lower,
Sea, J
six^en, gods above, 1 . ^^--^^ j supremus, /aj^
Mare Superum, ^rfr/a^zi: 5«a!, p"P^"°'' « ' | summus, ^z^te^
3. Comparative lacking.
vetus, old, ^
fldas, /aiiA/ul,
novus, new, ^
sacer, sacred,
iz\s\is, false,
Also in some other words less frequently used.
veterrimus.
fidissimus.
novissimus,^ last
sacerrimus.
falsissimus.
4. Superlative lacking.
alacer, lively,
alacrior,
ingens, great.
ingentlor,
saliitaris, wholesome,
salutarior,
javenis, young.
junior,
i
senex, old,
senior.
6
a. The Superlative
is lacking also in
many
adjectives in -alls,
-ilis, -His, -bills
and in a few others.
Comparison by Magis and Maxime.
74. Many adjectives do not admit terminational compar-
ison, but form the Comparative and Superlative degrees by
prefixing magis (more) and maxime {most). Here belong —
1. Many adjectives ending in -alia, -aris, -idus, -ilis, -ious, imus,
Tnus, -orus.
2. Adjectives in -us, preceded by a vowel; as, idoneus, adapted^:
arduus, steep ; neoessarius, necessary.
a. Adjectives in -quus, of course, do not come under this rule.
The first u in such cases is not a vowel, but a consonant.
1 Supplied by vetustlor, from vetustus.
2 Supplied by recentior.
8 For newest, recentissimus is used.
* Supplied by minimus natu.
6 Supplied by naaximus natu.
COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. 43
Adjectives not admitting Comparison.
75. Here belong —
1 . Many adjectives, which, from the nature of their signification, do
lot admit of comparison ; as, hodiemus, ^ ^0-</iz/ ; anavLxiB, annual {
Qortalis, mortal.
2. Some special words ; as, mirus, gnarus, merus ; and a few
ithers.
FORMATION AND COMPARISON OF ADVERBS.
76. Adverbs are for the most part derived from adjec-
ives, and depend upon them for their comparison.
1. Adverbs derived from adjectives of the First and
second Declensions form the Positive by changing -i of
he Genitive Singular to -e ; those derived from adjectives
)f the Third Declension, by changing -is of the Genitive
singular to -iter ; as, —
carus, care, dearly;
pulcher, pulchre, beautifully;
acer, acriter, ^ercely ;
levis, leviter, lightly.
a. But Adjectives in -ns, and a few others, add -er (instead
of -iter), to form the Adverb ; as, —
sapiens, sapienter, wisely ;
sollers, sollerter, skillfully.
Note audaz, audacter, boldly.
2. The Comparative of all Adverbs regularly consists of the Accu-
ative Singular Neuter of the Comparative of the Adjective ; while the
iuperlative of the Adverb is formed by changing the -1 of the Genitive
Singular of the Superlative of the Adjective to -e. Thus —
(carus)
care, dearly,
carina,
carissimS.
(pulcher)
pulchre, beautifully,
pulchrius,
pulcherrimS.
(acer)
aacitei, fiercely,
acrius.
acerrimS.
(levis)
leviter, lightly.
levins.
levissimg.
(sapiens)
sapienter, wisely,
sapientius,
sapientissimS,
(audax)
audacter, boldly,
audacius,
audacissimS.
44
INFLECTIONS.
Adverbs Peculiar in Comparison and Formation.
77. I.
bene, well, melius,
male, ill, pejus,
magnopere, greatly, magis,
multum, much, plus,
non multum, '
parum,
diu, long, diutius,
nequiter, worthlessly, nequius,
saepius,
little, minus,
saepe, often,
mature, betimes,
prope, near,
nuper, recently.
secus, otherwise,
matutius,
propius,
optime.
pessime.
maxime.
plutimum.
minime.
diutissime.
nequissime.
saepissime.
' maturrime.
maturissime.
proxime.
nuperrime.
potissimum, especially.
potius, rather,
\ previously, 1 _ _ .
P"''^' [before, j V^^^, first.
setius, less.
2. A number of adjectives of the First and Second Declensions
form an Adverb in -o, instead of -e ; as, —
crebro, frequently ; falso, falsely ;
continue, immediately ; subito, suddenly i
raro, rarely; and a few others.
a. cito, quickly, has -8.
3. A few adjectives employ the Accusative Singular Neuter as the
Positive of the Adverb ; as, —
mxAtum, much ; pkalMm, little ; fy.dle, easily.
4. A few adjectives of the First and Second Declensions form the
Positive in -iter ; as, —
firmus, iirndtetjfrmly ; hiimanus, humaniter, humanly;
largus, largiter, copiously ; alius, aliter, otherwise,
u. violentus has violenter.
5. Various other adverbial suffixes occur, the most important of
which are -tus and -tim; as, antiquitus, anciently; paulatim,
f^adually.
NUMERALS.
45
NUMERALS.
78. Numerals may be divided into —
I. Numeral Adjectives, comprising —
a. Cardinals; zs, ^naa, one; Aao, two; etc.
b. Ordinals; as, primus, /&-j/; seGMzA-aa, second ; etc.
c. Distributives ; as, singuli, one by one; bini, two by two; etc.
IL Numeral Adverbs ; as, semel, once ; bis, twice ; etc.
79.
Table of Numeral Adjectives and Adverbs.
Cardinals.
OftDINALS.
DiSTBIBUTIVBS.
Adverbs.
I.
unus, una, unum prlmus.^rrf
singuli, one by one semel, once
2.
duo, duae, duo
secundus, second
bini, two by two
bis
3-
tres, tria
tertius, third
term (trim)
ter
4-
quattuor
q\ia.Ttas,/ourti
quaterni
quater
S-
quinque
qulntus.y^/i
quTni
quinquies
6.
sex
sextus
seni
sexies
7-
septem
Septimus
septeni
septies
8.
octo
octavus
octoni
octies
9-
novem
nonus
noveni
novies
lo.
decern
decimus
dSni
decies
II.
undecim
iindecimus
lindenT
iindecies
12.
duodecim
duodecimus
duodeni
duodecies
13-
tredecim
tertius decimus
term deni
terdecies
14.
quattuordecim
quartus decimus
quaterni deni
quaterdecies
IS-
quindecim
quintus decimus
quini deni
quinquies decies
16.
j sedecim
1 sexdecim
sextus decimus
sen! deni
sexies decies
17-
septendecim
Septimus decimus
septem deni
septies decies
18.
duodevTginfi
duodevicesimus
duodeviceni
octies decies
'■9.
iindevTgintl
undevlcesimus
iindeviceni
novies decies
aD.
vlgintJ
vicesimus
viceni
vicies
21.
■ viginfi unus
unus et viginfi
vTcesimus primus
Snus et vTcesimus
viceui singuli
singuli et viceni
vTcies semel
22.
viginfi duo
duo et viginfi
vicesimus secundus
alter et vicesimus
viceni bini
bini et viceni
[ vicies bis
30-
trigin^
tricesimus
triceni
tricies
40.
quadraginta
quadragesimus
quadrageni
quadragies
so.
quinquaginS
quinquagesimus
quinqi»geni
quinquagies
60.
sejaginta
sexagesimus
sexageni
sexagies
70.
septuaginta
septuagesimus
septuageni
septuagies
80.
octoginta
octogesimus
ootogeni
octogies
go.
nonaginta
nonagesimus
nonageni
nonagies
too.
centum
centesimus
centeni
centies
46
INFLECTIONS.
Cardinals.
{ centum unus
/ centum et unus
200. ducenti, -ae, -a
300. trecenti
400. quadringenli
500. quingenti
600. sescenti
700. septingenfi
800. octingenti
goo. nongenti
1,000. raiUe
2,000. duo milia
100,000. centum milia
1,000,000. decies centena
milia
Note. gnsitnus
instead of -esimua and
Ordinals. Distributives. Adverbs.
centesimus primus centeni singulT ) ^g^^jg^ ^^^^
centesimus et primus centeni et singuli )
ducentesimus
trecentesimus
quadringentesimus
quingentesimus
sescentesimus
septingentesimus
octingentesimus
nongentesimus
millesimus
bis millesimus
centies millesimus
decies centies mille-
simus
duceni
treceni
quadringeni
quingeni
sesceni
septingeni
octingeni
nongeni
singula milia
bina milia
centena milia
decies centena
milia
and -iens are often written in
ducenties
trecenties
quadringentia
quingenties
sescenties
septingenties
octingenties
nongenties
mllies
bis mllies
centies milies
decies centies
milies
the numerals
Declension of the Cardinals.
80. I . The declension of unus has already been given under § 66.
2. Duo is declined ^ follows : —
JVbm. duo duae duo
.Gen. duorum duarum duorum
£>a/. duobus duabus duSbus i'j
Ace. duos, duo duas duo
AM. du5bus duabus duobus
a. So ambo, iotA, except that its final o is long.
3. Tres is declined, —
JVbm. tres tria
Gen. trium trium
Dai. tribus tribus
Ace. tres (tris) tria
Ail. tribus tribus
4. The hundreds (except centum) are declined like the Plural of
bonus.
J. Mille is regularly an adjective in the Singular, and indeclinable.
In the Plural it is a substantive (followed by the Genitive qf the objeda
enumerated; § 201. i), and is declined, —
JVbm. mflia Ace. milia
Gen. milium yoc. milia
Dat. mllibus A61. milibus
NUMERALS. 47
Thus miUe homines, u thousand men; but duo milia hominum,
two thousand men, literally two thousands of men.
a. Occasionally the Singular admits the Genitive construction ;
as, mille hominum.
6. Other Cardinals are indeclinable. Ordinals and Distributives
are declined like Adjectives of the First and Second Declensions.
Peculiarities in the Use of Numerals.
81. I. The compounds from 21 to 99 may be expressed either with
the larger or the smaller numeral first. In the latter case, et is used.
Thus : —
triginta sex or sex et triginta, thirty-six.
2. The numerals under 90, ending in 8 and 9, are often expressed
by subtraction ; as, —
duodeviginti, eighteen (but also octodeoim) ;
iindequadraginta, thirty-nine (but also triginta novem or novem
'et triginta).
3. Compounds over 100 regularly have the largest number first;
the others follow without et ; as, —
centum viginti septem, one hundred and twenty-seven.
anno octingentesimo octogegimo secundo, in the year 882.
Yet et may be inserted where the smaller number is either a digit 01
one of the tens ; as, —
centum et septem, one hundred and seven ;
centum et quadraginta, one hundred and forty.
4. The Distributives are used —
a) To denote so much each, so many apiece ; as, —
bina talenta eis dedit, he gave them two talents each.
b) When those nouns that are ordinarily Plural in form, but
Singular in meaning, are employed in a Plural sense ; as, —
binae litterae, two epistles.
But in such cases, uni (not singuli) is regularly employed
for one, and trini (not term) for three ; as, —
iinae litterae, one epistle ; trinae litterae, three epistles.
c) In multiplication ; as, —
bis bina sunt quattuor, twice two are four.
d) Often in poetry, instead of the cardinals ; as, —
bina bastilia, two spears.
48
INFLECTIONS.
C. PHONOTJNS.
82. A Pronoun is a word that indicates something with-
out naming it.
83. There are the following classes of pronouns : —
I. Personal. V. Intensive.
11. Reflexive. VI. Relative.
III. Possessive. VII. Interrogative.
IV. Demonstrative. VIII. Indefinite.
I. PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
84. These correspond to the English /, you, he, she, it,
etc., and are declined as follows : —
First Person.
Second Person.
SINGULAR.
Third Person. -
Norn, ego, /
tu, thou
is, he ; ea, she ; id, it
Gen. mei
tui
(For declension see § 87.)
Dat. raihi »
tibii
Ace. me
te
Voc.
tu
Abl. me
te
PLURAI,.
Nom. nos, we
y OS, you
„ ( nostrum
Gen. \
( nostn
> vestrum
' vestri
Dat. nobis
vobis
Ace. nos
vos
Voc.
vos
Abl. nobis
vobIs
1. A Dative Singular mi occurs in poetry.
2. Emphatic forms in -met are occasionally found; as, egomet,
I myself ; tibimet, to you yourself ; tu has tute and tutemet (written
also tutimet).
' The final 1 is sometimes long in poetry.
PRONOUNS. 49
3. In early Latin, med and ted occur as Accusative and Ablative
forms.
II. REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
85. These refer to the subject of the sentence or clause
in which they stand ; like myself, yourself, in ' I see myself
etc. They are declined as follows : —
First Person. Second Person. Third Person.
Supplied by oblique Supplied by oblique
cases of ego. cases of tu.
Gen. mel, of myself tui, of thyself sui
Dat. mihi, to myself tibi, to thyself sibi 1
Ace. me, myself te, thyself se or sese
Voc. .
Abl. me, with myself etc. te, with thyself etc. se or sese
1. The Reflexive of the Third Person serves for all genders and for
both numbers. Thus sui may mean, of himself herself itself or of
themselves; and so with the other forms.
2. All of the Reflexive Pronouns have at times a reciprocal force ;
as, —
inter se pugnant, they fight with each other.
3. In early Latin, sed occurs as Accusative and Ablative.
III. POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
86. These are strictly adjectives of the First and Second
Declensions, and are inflected as such. They are — •
First Person. Second Person.
meus, -a, -um, my; tuus, -a, -um, thy ;
noster, nostra, nostrum, our; vester, vestra, vestrum, /o«r ;
Third Person.
suua, -a, -um, his, her, its, their.
I . Suus is exclusively Reflexive ; as, —
pater liberos suos amat, the father loves his children.
Otherwise, his, her, its are regularly expressed by the Genitive Singular
of is, viz. ejus ; and their by the Genitive Plural, eorum, earum.
,- 1 The final i is sometimes long in poetry.
so
INFLECTIONS.
2. The Vocative Singular Masculine of meus is mi.
3. The enclitic -pte may be joined to the Ablative Singular of the
Possessive Pronouns for the purpose of emphasis,
common in case of suo, sua; as, suopte, suapte.
This is particularly
IV. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
87. These point out an object as here or there, or as
previously mentioned. They are —
hio, this (where I am) ;
iste, that (where you are) ;
ille, that (something distinct from the speaker) ;
is, that (weaker than ille) ;
idem, the same.
Hio, iste, and ille are accordingly the Demonstratives of the First,
Second, and Third Persons respectively.
Hie, this.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neutek.
Nont,
. hie
haec
hoc
hi
hae
haec
Gen.
hujus ^
hiijus
hujus
horum
harum
horum
Dat.
huic
huic
huic
his
his
his
Ace.
hunc
hanc
hoc
hos
h^s
haec
Abl.
hoc
hac
hoc
his
his
his
Iste,
that, that of yours.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom
. iste
ista
istuds
istl
istae
ista^
Gen.
istius
istius
istius
istorum
istarum
istorum
Dat.
isti
istl
istl
istis
istIs
istis
Ace.
istum
is tarn
istud
istos
istas
ista"
Abl.
isto
ista
isto
istIs
istIs
istis
Ille
(archaic oUe), that, that one, he,
is declined like iste.'
1 Forms of hie ending in -s sometimes append • ee for emphasis ; as, htljuaoe,
this . , . here ; liSsee, liisee. When -ne is added, -e and -ee become -oi ; a&
huneine, hoseine.
2 For istud, Istuc sometimes occurs ; for ista, Istaec.
' For lllud, lllUc sometimes occurs.
INTENSIVE PRONOUN. — RELATIVE PRONOUN. 5 1
SINGULAR.
la, he, this, that.
PLURAL.
Mascot-ine. Feminine.
Neuter.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nom.
is ea
id
el, il, (I)
eae
ea
Gen.
ej'us ejus
ejus
eorum
earum
eorum
Dai.
ei el
ei
els, ils
els, iis
eis, iis
Ace.
eum earn
id
eos
eas
ea
Abl.
eo ea
eo
els, iis
eis, iis
els, iis
•
SINGULAR.
Idem, the
' same.
PLURAL.
Mascuune. Feminine.
Neuter.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Nbm.
idem eadem
idem
Jeidem"!
liidero 1
eorundem
eaedem
eadem
Gen.
ejusdem ejusdem
ejusdem
earuTidem eSrundem
Dot.
eidera eidem
eldem
eisdem
eisdem •
eisdem
Aec.
eundem eandem
idem
eosdem
easdem
eadem
Abl.
eodem eadem
eodem
eisdem
eisdem
eisdem
The Nom. Plu. Masc. also has idem, and the Dat. Abl. Plu. isdem or iisdem
V. THE INTENSIVE PRONOUN.
88. The Intensive Pronoun in Latin is ipse. It corre-
sponds to the English myself, etc., in ' / myself, ke himself.'
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter,
Nbm.
, ipse
ipsa
ipsum
ipsi
ipsae
ipsa
Gen.
ipsius
ipsius
ipsius
ipsorum
ipsarum
ipsorum
Dat.
ipsi
ipsi
ipsi
ipsis
ipsis
ipsis
Ace.
ipsuih
ipsam
ipsum
ipsos
ipsas
ipsa
Abl.
ipso
ipsa
ipso
ipsis
ipsis
ipsis
VI. THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.
89. The Relative Pronoun is qui, who. It is declined : —
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Masculine.
Feminine.
Neuter.
Masculine.
Feminine,
Neuter.
Nom. qui
quae
quod
qui
quae
quae
Gen. cujus
Dat. cui
CUJUS
cui
CUJUS
cui
quorum
quibus 2
quarum
quibus^
quorum
quibus*
Ace. quern
Abl. qu5 1
quam
quai
quod
quoi
quos
quibus ^
quas
quibus ^
quae
quibus *
1 An ablative Q
[in occurs in
quioum
, with, whom.
2 Sometimes quia
52
INFLECTIONS.
VII. INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
90. The Interrogative Pronouns are quia, who? (sub-
stantive) and qui, whatf what kind off (adjective).
I. Quia, who?
SINGULAR.
Masc. and Fem.
N'om. quis
Gen. cujus
Dat. cui
Ace. quem
Abl. quo
The rare Plural
follows the de- '
clension of the
Relative Pronoun.
Neuter.
quid
cujus
cui
quid
quo
2. Qui, what ? what kind of? is declined precisely like the Relative
Pronoun ; viz. qui, quae, quod, etc.
a. An old Ablative qui occurs, in the sense oi how? why?
b. Qui is sometimes used for quis in Indirect Questions.
c. Quis, when limiting words denoting persons, is sometimes
an adjective. But in such cases quis homo — what man?
whereas qui homo = what sort of man ?
d. Quis and qui may be strengthened by adding -nam. Thus:—
Substantive : quisnam, who, pray ? quidnam, what, pray ?
Adjective : quinam, quaenam, quodnam, of what kind,prayf
VIII. INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
91. These have the general force of some one, any one.
SUBSTANTIVES.
ADJECTIVES.
M. AND F.
Neut.
Masc.
Fem.
Neut.
quis.
' ( anything.
qui,
quae, qua.
quod, any.
aliquis,
.. . . some one,
aliquid, ^,. '
something.
aliqui,
aliqua.
aliquod, any.
quisquam,
., 1 anyone,
quidquam, ' . .
1 anything.
quisquam
•
quidquam, ^^^_
quispiam,
quidpiam, ""y ""'•
anything.
quispiam
quaepiam.
quodpiam, any.
quisque.
quidque, each.
quisque,
quaeque,
quodque, each.
qtavis, quaevis, quidvis, ""y""'
qvuTibet, quaelibet, quidlibet, ('^''^'''"S)
you wish.
quIvIs,
qullibet.
quaevis,
quaelibet,
quodvis,
quodlibet,
you
wish.
quidam, quaedam
a certain
, quiddam, person,
or thing
quidam,
quaedam,
quoddam,
acit>
tain.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.— PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 53
1 . In the Indefinite Pronouns, only the pronominal part is declined.
Thus : Genitive Singular alicujus, cujuslibet, etc.
2. Note that aliqui has aliqua in the Nominative Singular Femi-
nine, also in the Nominative and Accusative Plural Neuter. Qui has
both qua and quae in these same cases.
3. Quidam forms Accusative Singular quendam, quandam ; Geni-
tive Plural quorundam, quarundam ; the m being assimilated to n
before d.
4. Aliquis may be used adjectively, and (occasionally) aliqui sub-
stantively.
5. In combination with ne, si, nisi, num, either quis or qui may
stand as a Substantive. Thus : si quis or si qui.
6. Ecquis, any one, though strictly an Indefinite, generally has
interrogative force. It has both substantive and adjective forms,—
substantive, eoquis, ecquid ; adjective, ecqui, eoquae and ecqua,
ecquod.
7. Quisquam is not used in the Plural.
8. There are two Indefinite Relatives, — quioumque and quisquis,
whoever. Quicumque declines only the first part ; quisquis declines
both but has only quisquis, quidquid, quoquo, in common use.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
92 The following adjectives, also, frequently have pro-
nominal force : —
I. alias, anai/ier ; alter, iAe other ;
uter, which of two ? (interr.) ; neuter, neither ;
whichever of two (rel.) ;
finus, one ; niillus, no one (in oblique cases).
2. The compounds, —
uterque, utraque, utrumque, each of two ;
utercumque, utracumque, utrumcumque, whoever of two i
uterlibet, utralibet, utrumlibet, either one you please i
utervis, utravls, utrumvis, either one you please ;
alteruter, alterutra, alterutrum, the one or the other.
In these, uter alone is declined. The rest of the word remains
unchanged, except in case of alteruter, which may decline both parts ;
as, —
Nom. alteruter altera utra alterum utrum
Gen. alterius utrius, etc.
54 INFLECTIONS.
Chapter II. — Conjugation.
93. A Verb is a word which asserts something ; as, est,
he is; amat, he loves. The Inflection of Verbs is called
Conjugation.
94. Verbs have Voice, Mood, Tense, Number, and
Person : —
1 . Two Voices, — Active and Passive.
2. Three Moods, — Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative.
3. Six Tenses, —
Present, Perfect,
Imperfect, Pluperfect,
Future, Future Perfect.
But the Subjunctive lacks the Future and Future Perfect ; while Jie
Imperative employs only the Present and Future.
4. Two Numbers, — Singular and Plural.
5. Three Persons, — First, Second, and Third.
95. These make up the so-called Finite Verb. Besides
this, we have the following Noun and Adjective Forms: —
1. Noun Forms, — Infinitive, Gerund, and Supine.
2. Adjective Forms, — Participles (including the Gerundive).
96. The Personal Endings of the Verb are, —
Sing.
Plu.
Active.
Passivb.
I.
2.
3-
-0; -m; -i (Perf Ind.) ;
-s; -sti (Perf. Ind.); -to or
wanting (Impv.) ;
-t ; -to (Impv.) ;
-r.
-lis, -re ; -re, -tor (Impv.)
-tur; -tor (Impv.).
I.
-mus;
-mur.
2.
-tis; -stiB (Perf. Ind.); -te.
-mini.
3-
-tote (Impv.) ;
-nt ; -erunt (Perf. Ind.) ; -nto -ntur ; -ntor (Impv.).
(Impv.) ;
VERB STEMS.
97. Conjugation consists in appending certain endings
to the Stem. We distinguish three different stems in a
fully inflected verb, —
VERB-STEMS. — THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS. 55
I. Present Stem, from which are formed —
1. Present, Imperfect, and Future Indicative,
2. Present and Imperfect Subjunctive, Active and Pas-
3. The Imperative, sive.
4. The Present Infinitive,
5. The Present Active Participle, the Gerund, and Gerundive.
II. Perfect Stem, from which are formed —
1. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative, 1
2. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive, > Active.
3. Perfect Infinitive, J
III. Participial Stem, from which are formed —
1. Perfect Participle,
2. Perfect, Pluperfect, and Future Perfect Indicative,
3. Perfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive,
4. Perfect Infinitive,
Passive.
Apparently from the same stem, though really of different ori^
gin, are the Supine, the Future Active Participle, the Future Infinitive
Active and Passive.
THE FOUR CONJUGATIONS.
98. There are in Latin four regular Conjugations, dis-
tinguished from each other by the vowel of the termination
of the Present Infinitive Active, as follows : —
Conjugation.
Infinitive
Termination.
Distinguishing
Vowel.
I.
-are
a
11.
-ere
e
III.
-Sre
e
IV.
-ire
1
99. Principal Parts. The Present Indicative, Present
Infinitive, Perfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle ^
constitute the Principal Parts of a Latin verb, — so called
because they contain the different stems, from which the
full conjugation of the verb may be derived.
1 Where the Perfect Participle is not in iise, the Future Active Participle, if it
occurs, is given as one of the Principal Parts.
56
INFLECTIONS.
CONJUGATION OF SUM.
100. The irregular verb sum is so important for the
conjugation of all other verbs that its inflection is given
at the outset.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pees. Ind. Prks. Inf. Peef. Ind. Fut. Partic.1
esse fui futurus
sum
IN
SINGULAR.
sum, I am,
es, thou art,
est, he is ;
eram, I was,
eras, thou wast,
erat, he was ;
ero, / shall be,
eris, thou wilt be,
erit, he will be ;
fui, / have been, I was,
fuisti, thou hast been, thou
fuit, he has been, he was ;
DICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
PLURAL.
sumus, we are,
estis, yoit are,
sunt, they are.
Imperfect.
eramus, we were,
eratis, you were,
erant, they were.
Future.
erimus, we shall be,
eritis, you will be,
erunt, they will be.
Perfect.
fuimus, we have been, we were,
wast, fuistis, you have been, you were,
fuerunt,
fuere,
they have been, they were.
fueram, / had been,
fiieras, thou hadst been,
fuerat, he had been ;
fuero, T shall have been,
fueris, thou wilt have been.
fueiit, he will have been ;
Pluperfect.
fueramus, we'had been,
fueratis, you had been, .
fuerant, they had been.
Future Perfect.
fuerimus, we shall have been,
fueritis, you will have been,
fuerint, they will have been.
» The Perfect Participle is wanting in sum.
CONJUGATION OF SUM.
57
SINGULAR.
SUBJUNCTIVE.'
Present.
sim, may I be,
SIS, ntayst thou be,
sit, let him be, may he be ; »
simus, let us be,
sitis, be ye, may you be,
sint, let them be.
essem,2 I should be,
esses,^ thou wouldst be,
esaet,2 j^ ivould be ;
Imperfect.
essemus, we should be,
essetis, you would be,
essent,2 they would be.
Perfect.
fiierim, I may -have been,
fiieris, thou ntayst have been,
fuerit, he may have been ;
fuenmus, 7ve may have been,
fueritis, you may have been,
fuerint, they may have been.
Pluperfect.
fuissem, / should have been,
fuisses, thou wouldst have been,
fulsset, he would have been ;
fuissemns, we should have been,
fuissetis, you would have been,
fuissent, they would have been.
Fres. es, be thou ;
Fut. esto, thou shall be,
esto, he shall be;
IMPERATIVE.
este, be ye,
estote, ye shall be,
suuto, they shall be.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. esse, to be.
Per/, fuisse, to have been.
Fut. futurus esse,' to be about to be.
PARTICIPLE.
Fut. futurus,* about to be.
1 The meanings of the different tenses of the Subjunctive are so many and so
varied, particularly in subordinate clauses, that no attempt can be made to give
them here. For fuller information the pupil is referred to the Syntax.
^ For essem, esBes, esset, essent, the forms forem, fores, foret, forent
are sometimes used.
* For futurus esse, the form fore is often used.
* Declined like bonus, -a, -um.
58
INFLECTIONS.
FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION.
101. Active Voice. — Amo, / love.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pbks. Iot. Pkes. Inf. Pkef. Ind. Perf. Pass. Pastic.
amav^ amatus
amo
amare
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
SINGULAR.
amo, I love,
amas, you love,
zmat, Jie loves ;
amabam, I was loving^
a.ma.ha.B, you were loving,
amSbat, he was loving;
amabo, I shall love,
amabiSj/ow will love,
amSbit, he will love ;
PLURAL.
amamus, we love,
amatis, you love,
amant, ihey love.
Imperfect.
amabamus, we were loving,
amabatis, you were loving,
amabant, they were loving.
Future.
amabimus, we shall love,
amabitis, you will love,
amabunt, they will love.
amavi, I have loved, I loved,
amavistijj/oa have loved, you
loved,
amavit, he has loved, he loved;
Perfect.
.amavimus, we have loved, we loved,
amavistis, /o« have loved, you lined,
amaverunt, -ere, they have loved,thij
loved.
amaveram, / had loved,
a.Taa,vera.B, you had loved,
amaverat, he had loved;
Pluperfect.
amaveramus, we had loved,
amaveratis, you had loved,
amaverant, they had loved.
Future Perfect.
amavero, / shall have loved, amaverimus, we shall have loved,
amaveris, you will have loved, amaveritis, you will have loved,
amaverit, he will have loved; amaverint, they will have loved.
1 The Imperfect also means I loved.
FIRST CONJUGATION.
59
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
SINGULAR.
amem, may I love,
ames, may you love^
amet, let him love ;
amarem, / should love,
amtres,^0» would love,
amSret, he would love ;
PLURAL.
amemus, lei us love,
ametis, may you love,
ament, let them love.
Imperfect.
atnaremus, we should love,
amaretis, you would love,
amarent, they would love.
Perfect.
amaverim, / may have loved,
amaveris, you may have laved,
amaveiit, he may have loved i
amaverimus, we may have loved,
amaveritis, j/oa may have loved,
amaverint, they-^ay^have loved.
Pluperfect.
amavissem, I should have loved,
amavisses, you would have loved,
amavisset, he would have loved;
atnavissemus, we should have loved,
amavissetis, ypxrwould have loved,
amavissent, iheyjwould have loved.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. ama, love thou; am ate, love ye.
Fut. amato, thou shall love, ama.t6te,ye shall love,
amato, he shall love; amanto, they shall love.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. amare, to love.
Perf. amavisse, to have loved.
Fut. amatuTus esse, to be about
to love.
GERUND.
Gen. amandi, of loving,
Dat. iimaxido, for loving.
Ace. amandum, loving,
Abl. amando, by loving.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. amans,^ loving.
(Gen. amantis.)
Fut. amaturus, about to love.
SUPINE.
Ace. amatum, to love;
Abl. amatu, to love, be 'oved.
1 For declension of amans, see § 70. 3.
6o
INFLECTIONS.
102.
FIRST (OR A-) CONJUGATION.
Passive Voice. — Amor, / am loved.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
"•
Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
Perf. Ind.
amor
amari
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
amatus sum
SINGULAR.
/ am loved.
PLURAL.
amor
amamur
amaris
amamini
amatur
Imperfect.
I was loved.
amantur
amabar
amabamur
amabaris, or ■
-re
amabamini
amabatur
Future.
I shall be loved.
amabantur
amabor
amabimur
amaberis, or
-re
amabimini
amabitur
Perfect.
amabuntur
/ have been loved, or / was
loved.
amatus (-a, -um) sum '
amati (-ae, -a) sumus
amatus es
amati estis
amatus est
Pluperfect.
/ had been loved.
amati sunt
amatus eram
1
amati eramus
amatus eras
amati eratis
amatus erat
Future Perfect.
amati erant
/ shall have been loved.
amatus ero i
amati erimus
amatus eris
amati eritis
amatus erit
amati erunt
1 Pui, fuisti, etc., are sometimes used for sum, es, etc. So fueram,
fueras, etc., for eram, etc.; fuero, etc., for ero, etc.
FIRST CONJUGATION.
61
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
May I be loved, let him be loved.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
amer amemur
ameris, or -re
ametur
amemini
amentur
Imperfect.
I should be loved., he would be loved.
amarer
amareiis, or -re
aniaretur
Perfect.
/ may have been loved.
amatus sim ^
amatuB sTs
amatuB sit
amaremur
amaremini
amareutur
amati simus
amati Bitis
amati sint
Pluperfect.
I should have been loved, he would have been loved.
amatus essem ' amati essemus
amatus esses amati esaetis
amatus esset amati essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. amare,^ be thou loved ; amamini, be ye loved.
Fut. amator, thou shall be loved,
amator, he shall be loved; amantor, they shall be loved
INFINITIVE.
Pres. amSxi, to be loved.
Perf. amatus esse, to have been
loved.
Fut. amatum iri, to be about to
be loved.
PARTICIPLE.
Perfect.
amatus, loved, havittg
been loved.
Gerundive, amandus, to be loved,
deserving to be
loved.
1 Fuerlm, etc., are sometimes used for sim ; so fulssem, etc., for essezn.
^ In actual usage passive imperatives occur only In deponents (J 112).
6z
INFLECTIONS.
103.
SECOND (OR B-) CONJUGATION.
Active Voice. — Moneo, I advise.
Phes. Ind.
moneo
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Prbs. Inf. Perf. Ind. Perf. Pass. Partic
monere
monui
monituB
SINGULAR.
moneo
monSa
monet
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
/ advise.
PLURAL.
monemuB
monetis
monent
Imperfect.
/ was advising, or / advised.
monebam
monebamus
monebas
monebatis
monebat
Future.
I shall advise.
mongbant
monSbo
monebimus
monebis
monebitis
monebit
monebunt
■'Perfect.
I have advised, or T advised.
monui
monuimus
monuisti
monuistis
monuit
Pluperfect.
I had advised.
monueruut, or -ere
monueram
monueramua
monueras
monueratia
monuerat
Future Perfect.
I shall have advised.
monueraut
monuero
monuerimus
monueris
monueritis
monuerit
monuerint
SECOND CONJUGATION.
63
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present. ,
May /advise, let him advise.
SINGULAR. .PLURAL.
moneam moneamus
moneas moneatia
moneat moneant
Imperfect.
I should advise, he would advise.
monerem
moneres
moneret
monuenm
monueris
monuerit
Perfect.
/ may have advised.
moneremuB
monSretis
monerent
monuerimua
monueritis
monuerint
Pluperfect
I should have advised, he would have advised.
monuiBsem
monuisses
monuisset
moniiaaemit
monulssetls
monuissent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. mone, advise thou ; mon§te, advise ye.
Fut. monSto, thou shall advise, monetote, ye shall advise,
moneto, he shall advise ; monentS, they shall advise.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. monere, to advise. Pres. monehs, advising.
Perf. monuisse, to have advised. (Gen. monentis.)
Fut. monituruB esse, to be about Fut. moniturua, about to advise,
to advise.
GERUND.
Gen. monendi, of advising.
Dot. m<yaB.-a&.o, for advising.
Ace. monendum, advising,
Abl. monendo, by advising.
SUPINE.
Ace. monitjum, to advise,
Abl. monitu, to advise, ie advised
64
INFLECTIONS.
104.
SECOND (OR E-) CONJUGATION.
Passive Voice. — Moneor, I am advised.
Phes. Ind.
moneor
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Inf.
moneri
Perf. Ind.
monitus sum
SINGULAR.
moneor
moneris
monetur
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
I am advised.
PLURAL.
monemur
monemini
monentur
Imperfect.
I was advised.
monebar
monebaris, or -re
monebatur
Future.
I shall be advised.
monebor
moneberis, or -re
monebitur
Perfect.
/ have been advised, I was advised.
monebamur
monebamini
monebautur
monebimur
monebimini
monebuntur
monitus sum
monitus es
monitus est
monitus eram
monitus eras
monitus erat
Pluperfect.
I had been advised.
moniti sumus
moniti estis
moniti sunt
moniti eramus
moniti eratis
moniti erant
Future Perfect.
I shall have been advised.
monitus ero
monitus eris
monitus erit
moniti erimus
moniti eritis
moniti erunt
SECOND CONJUGATION. 6$
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present,
May I be advised, let him be advised.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
monear moneamur
moneaiis, or -re moneaminl
moneatur moneantur
Imperfect.
T should be advised, he would be advised.
monerer monerSmur
monereris, or ^e moneremini
moneretur monerentur
Perfect.
/ tnay have been advised.
monitua sim moniti simus
monitus sis moniti sitis
monitus sit moniti sint
Pluperfect.
I should have been advised, he would have been advised.
monitus essem moniti essemus
monitus esses moniti essetis
monitus esaet moniti essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. icaonete, be thou advised ; moneminS., be ye advised.
Fut. monetor, thou shall be ad-
vised,
monetor, he shall be advised. monentor, they shall be advised.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. moneri, to be advised. Perfect. monitus, advised,
Perf. monitus esse, to have been having been advised.
advised. Gerundive, monendus, to be ad-
Fut. monitum iri, to be about to vised, deserving to
be advised. be advised.
66
INFLECTIONS.
THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION.
105. Active Voice. — Rego, / rule.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
D. Pees. 1
regS
Ind. Pees. In-f. Pekf. Ind.
Perf. Pass. Pastic
5
regere rexx
rectus
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
SINGULAR.
/ rule.
plural.
rego
regimus
regis
regitia
regit
Imperfect.
I was ruling, or / ruled.
regunt
fegSbam
regebamua
regebas
regebatis
rdgebat
Future.
I shall rule.
regSbant
regam
regemuB
regea
regetia
reget
Perfect.
/have ruled, or I ruled.
regent
rexi
reximus
rexisti
rexistis
rexit
Pluperfect.
I had ruled.
rexerunt, or -erj
rexeram
rexeramua
rexeras
rexeratis
rexerat
Future Perfect.
I shall have ruled.
rexerant
rexero
rexerimua
rexeris
rexeritia
rexerlt
rexerint
THIRD CONJUGATION.
67
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Presekt.
May I rule, let him rule.
SINGULAR.
PLWRAL.
regam
regamus
regSa
regatis
regat
Imperfect.
regant
I should rule, hs would rule.
regerem
regerSmus
regeres
regoretis
regeret
Perfect.
/ may have ruled
regerent
r
rexerim
rexerlmus
rexerls
rexeritis .
rexerit
Pluperfect.
rexerint
I should have ruled, he iitould have ruled.
rexissem
rexissSmna
rexisses
rexisaetia
rexisset
IMPERATIVE.
rexiaaent
Pres. rege, rule thou
J
reglte, rule ye.
Fut. regito, thou shall rule,
regltote, ye shall rult.
regito, he shall rule ;
reguntS, they shall rule.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. regere, to rule.
Perf. rexiaae, to have ruled.
Fut. recturus eaae, to be about
to rule.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. regena, ruling.
(Gen. regentia.)
Fut. recturuB, about to rule.
GERUND.
Gen. regendi, of ruling,
Dat. regendo, for ruling,
Ace. regendum, ruling,
libl. regendo, by ruling.
SUPINE.
Ace. rectum, to rule,
Abl. rectu, to rule, be ruled.
68
INFLECTIONS.
THIRD (OR CONSONANT-) CONJUGATION.
106. Passive Voice. — Regor, I am ruled.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
Perf. Ind.
regor
regl
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
rectus sum
SINGULAR.
/ am ruled.
PLURAL.
regor
regimur
regeris
regimini
regitur
Imperfect.
I was ruled.
reguntur
regebar
regebamur
regebaris, or ■
■re
regebamini
regebatur
Future.
T shall be ruled.
regebantur
regar
regemur
regeris, or -re
regemiul
regetur
Perfect.
regentur
I have been ruled, or I was ruled.
rectus sum
recti sumus
rectus es
recti estis
rectus est
Pluperfect.
I had been ruled.
recti sunt
rectus eram
recti eramuB
rectus eras
,
recti eratis
rectus erat
Future Perfect.
I shall have been ruled.
recti erant
rectus era
recti erimuB
rectus eris
recti eritis
rectus erit
recti erunt
THIRD CONJUGATION.
69
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
May I be ruled, let him be ruled.
regar
regaris, or -re
regatur
PLURAL.
regamur
regamini
regantur
Imperfect.
.1 should be ruled, he would be ruled.
regerer
regereris, or -re
regeretur
Perfect.
/ tnay have been ruled.
rectus siia
rectus SIS
rectus sit
' regeremur
regeremini
regerentur
recti simus
recti Bitis
recti sint
Pluperfect.
I should have been ruled, he would have been ruled.
rectus essem
rectus esses
rectus esset
recti essemus
recti essetis
recti essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. vtgeie, be thou ruled ; re^maa., be ye ruled.
Fut. regitor, thou shall be ruled,
regitor, he shall be ruled; reguntor, they shall be ruled.
INFINITIVE. PARTICIPLE.
Pres. regi, to be ruled. Perfect. rectus, ruled, having
Per/, rectus 6sse, to have been been ruled.
ruled. • Gerundive, regendus, to be ruled,
Fut. rectum iri, to be about to deserving to be
be ruled. ruled.
70
INFLECTIONS.
FOURTH (OR X-) CONJUGATION.
107. Active Voice. — Audio, /^^ar.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
PwBS. Imd;
Fbes. Inf. Perf. Ind.
Perf. Pass. Pai
audlS
audire audivi
auditus
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
SINGULAR.
I hsar.
PLURAL.
audiS
audimuB
audis
auditis
audit
Imperfect.
audiunt
I was hearing, or I heard.
audiebam
audiebRmuB
audiebas
audiebatiB
audiebat
Future.
I shall hear.
audiSbant
audiam
audiemus
audies
audietis
audiet
Perfect.
audient
/have heard, or f heard.
audivi
%
audivimuB
audlvisti
audlvistis
audivit
Pluperfect.
I had heard.
audlverunt, or -Sre
audiveram
audiveras
audiverat
Future Perfect.
I^ shall have henrd.
audiveramuB
audiveratis
audiverant
audivero
audiveris
audlverit
'
audlverimuB
audiveritis
audtveriat
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
71
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
May I hear, let him hear.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
audiam
audiamuB ^
audias
audittis
audiat
audlant
Imperfect.
I should hear, he would hear.
audirem
audiremas
audirga
audiretis
audiret
audirent
Perfect.
/ may have heard.
audlverim
audiverimus
audlveris
audiveritia
audiverit
audtverint
Pluperfect.
I should have heard, he would have heard.
audivissem audivisseraus
audTvissSs audivissetis
audJvisset audlvissent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. audi, hear thou; audite, hear ye.
Fut. audits, thou shall hear, audltote, ye shall hear,
audito, he shall hear ; audiunto, they shall hear.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. audire, to hear.
Perf. audlvisse, to have heard.
Fut. audlturus esse, to be about
to hear.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. audlSna, hearing.
(Gen. audientis.)
Fut. audlturus, about to hear.
GERUNU.
Gen. audiendi, of hearing,
Dat. soAXenAo, for hearing.
Ace. audiendum, hearing,
Abl. audiendo, by hearing.
SUPINE.
Ace. auditum, to hear,
Abl. audits, to hear, be heard.
72
INFLECTIONS.
108.
FOURTH (OR I-) CONJUGATION.
Passive Voice. — Audior, I atn heard.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pees. Ind.
Pres. Inf.
Perf. Ind.
audior
audiri
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Present Tense.
auditus sum
SINGULAR.
/ am heard.
plural.
audior
audimur
audiris
audimini
auditur
Imperfect.
I was heard.
audiuntur
audiebar
audiebamur
audiebaris, or
-re
audiebamini
audiebatur
Future.
/ shall be heard.
audiebantur
audiar
audiemur
audieris, or -re
audiemini
audietur
Perfect.
audientur
I have been heard, or I was heard.
auditus sum
audit! sumuB
audltus es
audit! estis
auditus est
Pluperfect.
I had been heard.
audit! sunt
audltus eram
audit! eramuB
auditus eras
audit! eratis
auditus erat
Future Perfect.
I shall have been heard.
audit! erant
auditus er5
audit! erimus
auditus eris
audit! eritis
auditus erit
audit! erunt
FOURTH CONJUGATION.
73
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
May I be heard, let him be heard.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
audiar audiamur
audiaris, or -re audiamini
audiatur
audiantur
Imperfect.
I should be heard, he would be heard.
audirer audiremui''
audireiis, or -re audiremini
audiretur audirentur
Perfect.
/ niay have been heard.
auditus Sim audit! simus
audltuB sis auditi sitia
auditus sit auditi sint
Pluperfect.
r should have been heard, he would have been heard.
auditus essem
auditus esses
auditus esset
auditi essemus
auditi essetis
auditi essent
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. audire, be thou heard; audimini, be ye heard.
Fut. auditor, thou shall be heard,
auditor, he shall be heard; audiuntor, they shall be heard.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. audiri, to be heard.
Per/, auditus esse, to have been
heard.
Fut. audltum iri, to be about to be
heard.
PARTICIPLE.
Perfect. auditus, heard,
having been heard^
Gerundive, audiendus, to be
heard, deserving
to be heard.
74
INFLECTIONS.
VERBS IN -lO OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION.
109. I. Verbs in -i5 of the Third Conjugation take the
endings of the Fourth Conjugation wherever the latter
endings have two successive vowels. This occurs only in
the Present System.
2. Here belong —
a) capio, to take; cupio, to desire; facio, to make; fodio, to
dig; fugio, to flee; jacio, to throw; pario, to bear; quatid,
to shake ; rapio, to seize ; sapio, to taste.
b) Compounds of lacio and speoiS (both ante-classical) ; as,
allicio, entice ; conspicio, behold.
c) The deponents gradior, to go ; morior, to die ; patior, te
suffer.
110.
Active Voice. — Capio, I take.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Prks. Ind.
Pres. Inf. Perf. Ii
capi5,
capere, cepT,
INDICATIVE MOOD,
SINGULAR.
Present Tense.
capio, capis, capit ;
capimus,
Perf. Pass. Partic
captus.
capiebam, -iebas, -iebat ;
capiam, -ies, -iet ;
cepi, -istT, -it ;
ceperam, -eras, -erat ;
Cf pero, -eris, -erit '
Imperfect.
capiebamus, -iebatis, -iebant.
Future.
capiemus, -ietis, -lent.
Perfect.
cepimus, -istis, -erunt or -ere.
Pluperfect.
ceperSmus, -eratis, -erant.
Future Perfect.
ceperimus, -eritis, -erint.
VERBS IN -10 OF THE THIRD CONJUGATION. 7$
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR.
PRESENT. pL„^^i^_
capiam, -ias, -iat ;
capiamus, -iatis, -iant.
Imperfect.
caperem, -eres, -erat;
caperemus, -eretis, -erent.
Perfect.
ceperim, -eris, -erit ;
ceperlraus, -eritis, -erint.
Pluperfect.
cepissem, -isses, -isset ;
cepissemus, -issetis, -issent.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. cape;
capite.
Fttt. capita,
capitate,
capita ;
capiunta.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres. capere
Pres. capiens.
Perf. cepisse.
Fut. capturus esse.
Fut. capturus.
GERUND.
SUPINE.
Cen. capiendl,
Dot. capiendo,
Ace. capiendum,
Ace. captum.
Abl. capiendo.
Abl. captu.
111. Passive Voice. — Capior, I am taken.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
Pres. Ind. Pres. Inf. Perf. Ind.
capior, capi, captus sura.
SINGULAR.
capior, capetis, capitur
INDICATIVE MOOD.
PRESENT TENSE. pLURAL.
capimur, capiminl, capiuntur.
Imperfect.
capiebar, -iebaris, -iebatur ; capiebamur, -iebaminf, -iebantur
FtlTURE.
capiar, -ieris, -ietur ; capiemur, -iemini, -ientur.
76
INFLECTIONS.
SINGULAR.
captus sum, es, est ;
captus eram, eras, erat ;
captus ero, eris, erit ;
capiar, -iaris, -iatur ;
caperer, -ereris, -eretur ;
captus sim, sis, sit ;
captus essem, esses, esset ;
Pres. capere ;
Fut. capitor,
capitor ;
INFINITIVE.
Pres. capi.
Perf. captus esse.
Fut. captum iri.
, Perfect. plural.
capti sumus, estis, sunt.
Pluperfect.
capti eramus, eratis, erant^
Future Perfect.
capti erimus, eritis, erunt.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Present.
capiamur, -iamini, -iantur.
Imperfect.
caperemur, -eremini, -erentur.
Perfect.
capti simus, sitis, siat.
Pluperfect.
capti essemus, essetis, essent.
IMPERATIVE.
capiminl.
capiuntor.
PARTICIPLE.
Perfect. captus.
Gerundive, capiendus.
DEPONENT VERBS.
112. Deponent Verbs have in the main Passive form
with Active or Neuter meaning. But
a. They have the following Active forms : Future Infinitive,
Present and Future Participles, Gerund, and Supine.
b. They have the following Passive meanings: always in the
Gerundive, and sometimes in the Perfect Passive Participle;
as, —
Bequendus, to be followed; adeptus, attained.
DEPONENT VERBS.
n
113. Paradigms of Deponent Verbs are —
I. Conj. miroT, mirari, miratus sum, admire.
II. Conj
vereor,
vereri, veritus sTa.m.,fear
■.
III. Conj,
sequor
, sequi, seoutus «\\m, follow.
IV. Conj
largior, largiri, largitus sum, give.
III. (in-i
lor) patior, pati, passus
sum, suffer.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
I.
II.
III.
IV. Ill (in -ior).
Pre!.
miror
vereor
sequor
largior
patior
miraris
vereris
sequeris
largiris
pateris
miratur
veretur
sequitur
largitur
patitur
miramur
veremur
sequimur
largimur
patimur
miraminl
veremini
sequimini
largimini
patimini
mirantur
verentur
sequuntur
largiuntur
patiuntur
Impf.
mirabar
verebar
sequebar
largiebar
patiebar
Put.
mTrabor
verebor
sequar
largiar
patiar
Ptrf.
miratus sum
veritus sum
secutus sum
largitus sum
passus sum
Plup.
miratus eram
veritus eram
secutus eram
largitus eram
passus eram
P.P.
miratus cro
veritus ero
secutus ero
largitus ero
passus ero
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. mirer verear sequar largiar patiar
Impf. mirarer vererer sequerer largirer paterer
Perf. miratus sim veritus sim secutus sim largitus sim passus sim
Plup. miratus essem verituSi essem secii|us essem largitus essem passus essem
IMPERATIVE.
Pres. mirare, etc. verere, etc. sequere, etc. largire, etc. patere. etc.
Put. mirator, etc. veretor, etc. sequitor, etc. largitor, etc. patitor, etc.
INFINITIVE.
Pres. mirari vereri sequi lar^ri pati
Perf. miratus esse veritus esse secutus esse largitus esse passus esse
Put. mirafurus esse veritiirus esse seciiturus esse largltiirus esse passiirus esse
Pres. mirans
Put. miratiirus
Perf. miratus
Ger. mirandus
mirandi
mirando, etc.
miratum, -tii
PARTICIPLES.
verens sequens largiens
veritiirus seciitiirus largiturus
veritus seciitus largitus
verendus sequendus largiendus
GERUND.
verendi sequendi largiendi
verendo, etc. sequendo, etc. largiendo, etc.
SUPINE.
veritum, -lu seciJtum, -tu largitum, -tH
patiens
passiirus
- passus
patiendus
patiendi
patiendo, etc^
passum, -sii
78 INFLECTIONS.
SEMI-DEPONENTS.
114. I. Semi-Deponents are verbs which have the Pres-
ent System in the Active Voice, but the Perfect System in
the Passive without change of meaning. Here belong —
audeo, aud^re, ausus sum, to dare.
gaudeo, gaudere, gavisua sum, to rejoice.
soleo, aolere, solitus sum, to be wont.
fido, fldere, fisus sum, to trust.
3. The following verbs have a Perfect Passive Participle with
Active meaning : —
adolesco,^(7K/ up; adultus, having grown up.
cenare, dine ; ceuatus, having dined.
placexe, please ; placitus, having pleased, agreeable,
prandere, lunch ; pransus, having lunched.
potSre, drink ; potus, having drunk.
jurare, swear ; juratus, having sworn.
a. Juratus is used in a passive sense also.
3. Revertor and devertor both regularly form their Perfect in
the Active Voice ; viz. —
revertor, reverti (Inf.), .revert! (Perf.), to return.
dSvertor, deverti (Inf.), deverti (Perf.), to turn aside.
PERIPHRASTIC CONJUGATION.
115. There are two Periphrastic Conjugations, — the
Active and the Passive. The Active is formed by com.
bining the Future Active Participle with the auxiliary sum,
the Passive by combining the Gerundive with the same
auxiliary.
Active Periphrastic Conjugation.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. amaturus (-a, -um) sum, I am abottito love.
Imp. amaturuB eram, / was about to love.
Ftit. amatarus ero, / shall be about to love.
Perf. amaturus fui, / have been [was) about to love.
Plup. amaturus fueram, / had been about to love.
Put. P. amatarus luero, / shall have been about to love.
PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION.
79
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. amaturus sim, may I be about to love.
Imp. amaturus essem, I should be about to love.
Perf. amaturus fuerim, / may have been about to love.
Plup. amaturus f ulssem, / should have been about to love,
INFINITIVE.
Pres. amattirus esse, to be about to love.
Perf. amaturus f ulsse, to have been about to love.
Passive Periphrastic Conjugation.
INDICATIVE.
Pres. amandus (-a, -um) sum, / am to be loved, must be loved.
Imp. amandus eram, / was to be'loved.
Put. amandus ero, I shall deserve to be loved.
Perf. amandus fui, / was to be loved.
Plup. amandus fueram, / had deserved to be loved.
Put. P. amandus f uero, / shall have deserved to be loved,
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres. amandus sim, may I deserve to be loved.
Imp. amandus essem, / should deserve to be loved.
Perf. amandus fuerim, / may have deserved to be loved.
Plup, amandus fuissem, / should have deserved to be loved.
INFINITIVE.
Pre^. amandus esse, to deserve to be loved.
Perf. amandus f uisse, to have deserved to be loved.
PECULIARITIES OF CONJUGATION.
116. I. Perfects in -avl, -evx, and -ivi, with the forms derived
from them, often drop the ve or vi before endings beginning with r or
s. So also novi (from nosco) and the compounds of movl (from
moveo) . Thus : —
amavisti
amavisse
amaverunt
amaverim
amaveram
amavero
novisti
novisse
audivisti
amasti
amasse
araarunt
amarim
amaram
amaro
HOStl
n5sse
audTsti
delevisti
delevisse
deleverunt
deleverim
deleveram
delevero
noverim
noveram
audivisse
delesti
delesse
delerunt
delerim
deleram
delero
norim
noram
audisse
8o INFLECTIONS.
2. In the Gerund and Gerundive of the Third and Fourth Conju
gations, the endings -undus, -undi, often occur instead of -endus anc
-endi, as faciuudus, faciundi.
3. Dico, duco, facio, form the Imperatives, die, duo, fao. Bui
compounds of facio form the Imperative ,in -fice, as confice. Com-
pounds of dioo, duco, accent the ultima ; as, edno, edic.
4. Archaic and Poetic forms : —
a. The ending -ier in the Present Infinitive Passive; as,
amarier, monerier, dicier, for amarl, moneri, dici.
b. The ending -ibam for -iebam in Imperfects of the Fourtli
Conjugation, and -ibo for -iam in Futures ; as, scibam,
scibo, for soiebam, sciam.
c. Instead of the fuller forms, in such words as dixistT, scrTp-
sistis, surrezisse, we sometimes find dizti, soripstis,
surreze, etc.
d. The endings -im, -is, etc. (for -am, -as, etc.') occur in a few
Subjunctive forms ; as, edim (eat), duint, perduiat.
5. In the Future Active and Perfect Passive Infinitive, the auxiliary
esse is often omitted ; as, acturum for acturum esse ; ejectus for
Sjectus esse.
FORMATION OF THE VERB STEiVIS.
Formation of the Present Stem.
117. Many verbs employ the simple Verb Stem for the
Present Stem ; ^ as, dicere, amare, monere, audire. - Others
modify the Verb Stem to form the Present, as follows: —
1 . By appending the vowels, a, e, i ; as, —
juvare. Present Stem juva- (Verb Stem juv-).
augere, " « auge- ( « « aug-).
vincire, « « vinci- ( " " vino-).
3. By adding i, as capio, Present Stem capi- (Verb Stem cap-)-
3. By the insertion of n (m before labial-mutes) before the final con'
sonant of the Verb Stem ; as, fundo (Stem fud-), rumpo (Stem rup-)
4- By appending -n to the Verb Stem ; as, —
°ern-5 peIl-6 (for pel-no).
1 Strictly speaking, the Present Stem always ends in a Thematic Vowel (S or
6) ; as dic-e., dic-6-; amg.6-, ama^a-. But the multitude of phonetic changes
involved prevents a scientific treatment of the subject here. See the author's Uim
Lamuare.
FORMATION OF THE VERB STEMS. 8 1
5. By appending t to the Verb Stem ; as,^
flect-o.
6. By appending so to the Verb Stem ; as, —
cresc-o. scisc-o.
7. By Reduplication, that is, by prefixing the initial consonant of
the Verb Stem with i ; as, —
gi-gn-o (root gen-), si-st-o (root sta-).
FormatiDn of the Perfect Stem.
118. The Perfect Stem is formed from the Verb Stem —
1. By adding v (in case of Vowel Stems) ; as, — ■
amav-T, dSlev-i, audiv-i.
2. By adding u (in case of some Consonant Stems) ; as, —
strepu-i, geuu-i, alu-i.
3. By adding s (in case of most Consonant Stems) ; as, —
carp-o. Perfect carps-i.
sorib-o, " Bcrips-i (for sorib-si).
lid-eo, " ris-i (for rid-si) .
sent-io, " sens-i (for sent-si) .
dic-o, " dix-i (i.e. dic-ai).
a. Note that before the ending -sT a Dental Mute (t, d) is
lost; a Guttural Mute (o, g) unites with s to form x; while
the Labial b is changed to p.
4. Without addition. Of this formation there are three types : —
a) The Verb Stem is reduplicated by prefixing the initial con-
sonant with the following vowel or e ; as, —
curro. Perfect cu-curri.
posco, " po-posci.
pello, " pe-puli.
Note i.— Compounds, with the exception of do, ato, sisto, disco, posco,
omit the reduplication. Thus : com-puli, but re-poposci.
Note 2. — Verbs beginning with sp or St retain both consonants in the redu-
plication, but drop s from the stem; as, spondeo, spo-pondi; sto, steti.
i) The short vowel of the Verb Stem is lengthened ; as, lego,
legi ; ag5, egi. Note that S. by this process becomes e.
c) The vowel of the Verb Stem is unchanged; as, verto, vertij
minuo, minui.
82 INFLECTIONS.
Formation of the Participial Stem.
119. The Perfect Passive Participle, from which the
Participial Stem is derived by dropping -us, is formed : —
1. By adding -tus (sometimes to the Present Stem, sometimes to
the Verb Stem) ; as, —
ama-re. Participle ama-tus.
asle-re, " dele-tus.
audi-re, " audi-tus.
leg-ere, " leo-tus.
sorlb-ere, " aorip-tuB,
aeuti-re, " sen-sus (for sent'-tns).
caed-ere, " oae-sus (for caed-tus).
a. Note that g, before t, becomes c (see § 8, s) ! t> becomes p ; while
dt or tt becomes ss, which is then often simplified to s (§ 8, z).
2. After the analogy of Participles like sensus and caesus, where
-BUS arises by phonetic change, -sus for -tus is added to other Verb
Stems ; as, —
lab-i, Participle lap-sus.
fig-ere, " fi-xus.
a. The same consonant changes occur in appending this ending -SUB
to the stem as in the case of the Perfect ending -si (see § ii8, 3, a).
3. A few Verbs form the Participle in -itus ; as, —
doma-re, dom-itus.
mone-re, m.on-itus.
4. The Future Active Participle is usually identical in its stem with
the Perfect Passive Participle; as, ama-tus, amaturus ; moni-tus,
moniturus. But —
juva-re,
Perf Partic.
jutUB,
has Fut.
Act.
Partic.
juvaturuB.J
lava-re,
i(
u
lautus.
ii
U
u
<(
lavaturus.
par-ere,
«
ii
partus,
£.
ii
a
it
parituruB.
ru-ere.
a
u
-rutus,
(f
ii
a
((
ruiturua.
seca-re.
u
u
seotus.
it
t(
it
(1
secatflrus.
fru-i.
u
i£
-fructus,
ii
ii
a
it
fruiturufl.
mor-i,
It
ii
mortuus,
ii
it
a
a
morituruB.
ori-ri,
It
it
ortus.
U
"
a
a
oriturus.
1 But the compounds of Juvo sometimes have -juturus; as, adjuturus.
LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS.
83
LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS, WITH
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
I.
First (A-) Conjugation.
Perfect in -Vi.
120.
■amo amare amavi amatus love
All regular verbs of the First Conjugation follow this model.
poto
potare
potavl
potus (§114,2)
drink
II.
Perfect in -
Tji.
crepo
crepare
crepui
crepiturus
rattle
cubo
cubare
cubul
cubiturus
lie down
domo
domare
domul
domitus
tame
-frico
fticare
fricui
frictus and fricatus
rub
mico
micare
micui
glitter
dimico dimicare
dimicavl
dimicatum (est)*
fight
ex-plic6 explicare
explicavl
(-ul)
explicatus (-itus)
unfold
im-plico implicare
: implicavl
(-ul)
implicatus (-itus)
entwine
-seco
secare
secul
sectus
cut
-sono
sonare
sonul
sonaturus
sound
-tono
tonare
tonul
thunder
_vet6
vetare
vetui
vetitus
forbid
III.
Perfect in
-i with Lengthening of the Stem Vowel,
-juv5
juvare
jiivT
. jutus
help
-lavo
lavare
lavl
lautus
wash
IV.
Perfect Reduplicated.
-«t6
stare
stetl
statu rus
V. Deponents.
These are all regular, and follow miror, mirdri, miratus sum.
Second (£'-) Conjugation.
121. I. Perfect in -VI.
-^deleo
delere
delevi
deletus
destroy
-fleo
flere
flevi
flatus
weep, lament
com-pleo2
complere
complevi
completus
fill up
-aboleo
abolere
abolevi
abolitus
destroy
de6»
ciere
cTvI
citus
set in motion
1 Used only impersonally. 2 go imfleo, expleo.
8 Compounds follow the Fourth Conjugation : iiccio, accire, etc.
84
INFLECTIONS.
II. Perfect in -T7I.
a. Type -eo, -ere, -ui, -itua.
arceo
coerceo
ccerceg
— dplep.
habeo
-f^aebeo
— jaceo
mereo
^moneo
-terreo
- valeo
Note i.
-eeeo .
emmeo
flSreo
horreo
lateo
niteo
oleo
palleo
-pateo
rubeo
sileo
splendeo
studeo
stupeo
-timed
torpeo
vigeo
vireo
arcere
coercere
habere
jacere
merere
monere^
npcere
arcui
exencui
m
calui -
CeLfeM.
carui .
abut
jacui
merui
^2F'''
ml
placui
tacui '
terrui
valui
coercitus
exercjtus ,
calitjinis
ffOf' myiCLJ
habitus
debitus
praebitus
jaciturus
meritus
taciturus ,
territus
vali turns
The following l|.ck the Participial Stem : -
egere egul
eminere
florere
horrere
latere
nitere
olere
pallere
patere
rubere
silere
splendere
studere
stupere
timere
torpere
vigere
virere
egui
eminul
florui
horrui
latui
nitui
olui
pallul
patui
rubui
silul
splendui
studul
stupuT
timul
torpul
viguT
virui
and others.
keep off
hold in check
practise
be warm
be without
grieve
have
owe
offer
lie
earn, deserve
advise
injure
obey
please
be silent
frighten
be strong
want
stand forth
bloom
bristle
lurk
gleam
smell
be pale
lie open
be red
be silent
gleam
study
be amazed
fear
be dull
flourish
be green
LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS.
85
Note 2.-
— The following
are used only
in the Present System : —
aveo
avere
•wish
ftigeo
fngere
be cold
immineo
imminere
overhang
maereo
niaerere
tnourn
poUeo
poUere
and others.
be strong
b. Type
-eo, -ere, -ui, -tus (-sus).
censeo
censere
censul
census
estimate
'doceo
docere
docul
doctus
teach
'misceo
miscere
miscui
mixtus
mix
-teneo
tenere
tenui
hold
So contineo and sustineo ;
but —
retineo
retinere
retinul
retentus
retain
obtineo
obtinere
obtinul
obtentus
maintain
torreo
torrere
torrui
tostus
bake
III. Perfect in -SI.
-augeo
augere
auxi
auctus
increase
torqueo
torquere
torsi
tortus
twist
indulges
indulgere
indulsi
indulge
luceo
lucere
luxT
be light
lugeo
lugere
luxi
jnourn
-jubeo
jubere
jussi
jussus
order
per-mulceo
permulcere
permulsi
permulsus
soothe
— rideo
ridere
risl
risum (est)
laugh
- suadeo
suadere
suasi
suasum (est)
advise
abs-tergeo
abstergere
abstersi
abstersus
•wipe off
— ardeo
ardere
arsi
arsurus
burn
haereo
haerere
haesi
haesurus
stick
maneo
manere
mansi
mansurus
stay
algeo
algere
alsT
be cold
fiilgeo
fulgere
fulsi
gleam
—urged
urgere
ursi
press
IV. Perfect in -I with Reduplication.
mordeo
mordere
momordi
morsus
bite
- spondeo
spondere
spopondl
sponsus
promise
tondeo
tondere
totondi
t5nsus
shear
- pendeo
pendere
pependi
hang
86
INFLECTIONS.
V.
Perfect in J
WITH Lengthening of Stem
Vowel.
caveo
—faveo
foveo
cavere
favere
fovere
cavl
favi
fovi
cauturus
fauturus
fotus
take care
favor
cherish
— moveo
movere
movT
motus
move
paveo
—^sedeo
^ video
pavere
sedere
videre
pavJ
sedl
vidi
sessurus
visus
fear
sit
see
voveo
vovere
VOVl
votus
vow
VL Perfect in -I without either Reduplication or Lengts
ENiNG OF Stem Vowel.
boil
lunch ,
creak
bid
promise
earn
pity
fear
confess
confess
think
heal
protect
ferveo
prandeo
strides
fervere
prandere
strldere
(fervT,
prandi
stridi
ferbui)
pransus (§114, 2)
VII. Deponents.
liceor
poUiceor
licerl
polliceri
licitus sum
poUicitus sum
mereor
mererl
meritus sum
misereor
misereii
miseritus sum
vereor
fateor
confiteor
vereri
faterl
confiteri
veritus sum
fassus sum
confessus sum
reor
medeor
rerl
mederi
ratus sum
tuepr
tueri
Third (Consonant) Conjugation.
122. I. Verbs with Present Stem ending in
1. Perfect in -si.
a. Type -6, -gre, -si, -tus.
carpo
sculpo
repo
serpo
r scribo
■ aubo
Lrego
carpere
sculpere
repere
serpere
scribere
nubere
regere
carpsi
sculpsi
repsi
serpsi
scripsi
nupsi
rexl
carp tus
sculptus
scriptus
nupta (woman only)
rectus
A Consonant,
pluck
chisel
creep
crawl
write
marry
sovern
LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS.
87
-tego
tegere
texl
tectus
cover
af-fligo
affllgere
affllxi
affllctus
shatter
-dlc5
dicere
dixl
dictus
fay
-duco
ducere
duxi
ductus
lead
coquo
coquere
coxT
coctus
cook
-traho
trahere
traxi
tractus
draw
"veho
vehere
vexi
vectus
carry
CIB^
cingere
cinxT
cinctus
gird
tlngfl
tingere
tinxi
tinctus
dip
jungo
jiingere
junxi
junctus
join
fingo
fingere
finxl
fictus
mould
pingo
pingere
pinxi
pTctus
paint
strings
stringere
strlnxl
strictus
bind
-stinguo 1
-stinguere
-stinxT
-stinctus
blot out
unguo
unguere
unxl
unctus
anoint
-^v6
vivere
vTxi
victum (est)
live
-gero
gerere
gessi
gestus
carry
uro
urere
USSl
ustus
burn
temno
temnere
con-tempsi
con-temptus
despise
b. Type
-Q, -Sre, -SI, -i
3US.
-figo
figere
fixT
fixus
fasten
mergo
mergere
mersi
mersus
sink
-^spargS
spargere
sparsl
sparsus
scatter
-flecto
flectere
flexl
flexus
bend
n'ecto
nectere
nexul (nexT)
nexus
twine
-mitto
iriittere
misl
missus
send
rado
radere
rasT
rSsus
shave
rods
rodere
rosi
rosus
gnaw
-vado
vadere
-vasl"
-vasum (est)'
2 march, walk
-liido
ludere
lusl
lusum (est)
play
"tfudo
trudere
triisi
trusus
push
laedo
laedere
laesi
laesus
injure, hurt
" claudo
daudere
clausi
clausus
close
[ plaudo
plaudere
plausi
plausum (est) clap
explodo
explodere
explosi
explosus
hoot off
-cedo
cedere
cessT
cessum (est)
withdraw
-dlvido
dividere
divisi
dlvisus
divide
-premo
preinere
press!
pressus
press
1 Fully conjugated only in
the compounds ;
exsHngud, restinguo, distinguo.
2 Only in
1 the compounds
; evado, invado, pervadB.
88
INFLECTIONS.
2, Perfect in -i with Reduplication.
ab-do
abdere
abdidi
abditus
conceal
red-do
red-dere
reddidi
redditus
return
So addo
•, condo, dedo
, perdo, prodo, trado, etc.
con-sisto
consistere
constiti
take one''s stand
resists
resistere
restiti
resist
circumsisto circumsistere circumsteti
i
'urround
— cado
cadere
cecidi
casurus
fall
— caedo
caedere
cecidi
caesus
hill
pendo
pendere
pependl
pensus
•weigh, pay
tendo
tendere
tetendl
tentus
stretch
tundo
tundere
tutudi
tusus, tiinsus
beat
fallo
fallere
fefelll
(falsus, as Adj.^
1 deceive
—pello
pell ere
pepull
pulsus
drive out
»— curro
currere
cucurri
cursum (est)
run
— parco
parcere
pepercl
parsurus
spare
— cano
canere
cecinl
sing
— tango
tangere
tetigl
tactus
touch
pungo
pungere
pupugl
punctus
prick
Note. -
- In the folio
wing verbs
the perfects were
originally redupli'
cated, but have lost the
reduplicating syllable : —
per-cello
percellere
perculi
perculsus
strike down
finds
findere
fidi
fissus
split
scindo
scindere
scidi
scissus
tear apart
- tollo
toUere
sus-tull
sublatus
remove
3. Perfect in -i with
Lengthening of Stem Vowel.
—ago
agere
egl
actus
drive, do
perago
peragere
peregl
peractus
finish
subigo
subigere
subegT
subactus
subdue
cogo
cogere
coegl
coactus
force, gather
— frango
frangere
fregi
fractus
break
perfringc
i perfringere
perfregl
perfractus
break down
—lego
legere
leg!
lectus
gather, read
perlego
perlegere
perlegl
perlectus
read through
colligo
colligere
coUegl
collectus
collect
deligo
deligere
delegl
delectus
choose
dlligo
diligere
dllexl
dilectus
love
intellego
intellegere
intellexi
intellectus
understand
neglego
neglegere
neglexi
neglectus
neglect
LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS.
8g
-emo
emere
eml
emptus
liuy
coemo
coemere
coemi
coemptus
buy up
redimo
redimere
redeml
redemptus
buy back
dirimo
dirimere
diremi
diremptus
destroy
demo
demere
dempsi
demptus
take away
sumo
sumere
sumpsi
sumptus
take
promo
pro mere
prompsi
(promptus, as Adj.)
take out
-rinco
vincere
vici
victus
conquer
-re-linqu6
relinquere
rellqui
relictus
have
-rumpo
rumpere
rupl
ruptus
break
edo
esse (§ 128) edi
esus
eat
funds
fundere
fiidi
fusus
pour
4. Perfect in -1 without either
Reduplication or Lengthening of
Stem Vowel.
excudo
excudere
excudi
excusus
hammer
consTdo
consldere
cSnsedl
take one's
seat
possido
possidere
possedl
possessus
take pos-
, session
accendo
accendere
accendi
accensus
kindle
"^-scendo
ascendere
ascendl
ascensum (est)
climb
-de-fendo
defendere
defend!
defensus
defend
pre-hendo
prehendere prehendi
prehensus
seize
ICO
icere
icl
ictus
strike
veils
vellere
vein
vulsus
pluck
verts
vertere
verti
versus
turn
pandS
pandere
pandt
passus
spread
solvo
solvere
solvi
solutus
loose
visS
visere
visi
visus
•visit
-volvo
volvere
volvl
voliitus
roll
verro
verrere
verri
versus
sweep
5. Perfect in -xa.
in-cumbo
incumbere
incubul
incubiturus
lean on
gigno
gignere
genul
genitus
bringforth
molo
molere
molul
molitus
grind
vomo
vomere
vomul
vomitus
vomit
fremS
fremere
fremui
snort
gemo
gemere
gemui
sigh
metS
metere
messul
messus
reap
90
INFLECTIONS.
tremo
tremere
tremui
tremble
strepo
strepere
strepui
rattle
al5
alere
aim
altus (alitus)
nourish
colo
colere
colui
cultus
cultivate
incolo
incolere
incoluT
inhabit
excolo
excolere
excolul
excultus
perfect
Mnsulo
consulere
consului
consultus
consult
consero
conserere
conserul
consertus
join
desero
deserere
deserui
desertus
desert
dissera
disserere
disserul
discourse
texo
texere
texui
textus
•weave
6. Perfect
in -VI.
sino
sinere
slvl
situs
allow
desino
desinere
desii
desitus
cease
pono
ponere
posul
positus
place
ob-lin6>
oblinere
oblevi
oblitus
smear
sero
serere
sevi
satus
sow
consero
conserere
consevi
consitus
plant
cerno
cernere
separate
—discerns
discernere
discrevT
discretus
distinguish
— decerno
decernere
decrevi
decretus
decide
sperno
spernere
sprevi
spretus
scorn
sterno
sternere
stravi
stratus
spread
pro-sterno
prosternere
prostravi
prostratus
overthrow
peto
petere
petivi (petii)
petltus
seek
appeto
appetere
appetlvi
appetltus
long for
tero
terere
trlvl
tritus .
rub
-quaero
quaerere
quaesivi
quaesitus
seek
acquire
acquTrere
acquisivi
acquisitus
acquire
arcesso
arcessere
arcessivl
a'rcessitus
summon
capesso
capessere
capesslvl
capessltus
seize
Jacesso
lacessere
lacessivl
lacessTtus
provoke
7. Usedo
nly in Present
System.
ango
angere
choke
lambo
lambere
lick
claudo
claudere
be lame
fliro
furere
rave
vergo
vergere
bend
and a few others.
LIST Of THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS. 9 1
11. Verbs with Present Stem :
ending in -U.
induo
induere
indul
indutus
put on
imbuo
imbuere
imbui
imbutus
moisten
luo
luere
lui
wash
poUuo
polluere
pollui
poUutus
defile
minu5
minuere
minui
rainutus
lessen
statuo
statuere
statul
statutus
set up
constituo
constituere
constitui
constitutus
determine
suo
suere
suT
sutus
sew
tribuo
tribuere
tribui
tributus
allot
nio
mere
nil
ruiturus
fall
diruo
diruere
dirui
dirutus
destroy
obrao
obruere
obfui
obrutus
overwhelm
acuo
acuere
acul
sharpen
arguo
arguere
argui
accuse
congruo
congruere
congrul
agree
metuo
metuere
metul
fear
ab-nu6
abnuere
abnui
decline
re-spu6
respuere
respul
reject
struo
struere
struxi
structus
build
Quo
fluere
fluxl
(fluxus, as Adj.) _fiow
III. Verbs with Present Stem
ending in -I.
^cupio
cupere
cupTvi
cupltus
wish
sapio
sapere
sapivl
taste
— rapio
rapere
rapul
raptus
snatch
diripio
diripere
diripul
direptus
plunder
e^eonspicio
conspicere
conspexl
conspectus
gaze at
— aspicio
aspicere
zspexl
aspectus
behold
illicio
illicere
illexi
illectus
allure
pellicip
pellicere
pellexi
pellectus
allure
elicio
elicere
elicui
elicitus
elicit
quatio
quatere
quassus
shake
concutio'
concutere
concuss!
concussus
shake
pario
parere
peperi
partus
bringforth
_-capi6
capere
cepi
captus
take
*«'accipio
accipere
accepl
acceptus
accept
''incipio
incipere
incepi
inceptus
begin
''feao
facere
feci
factus
make
' — afficio
afficere
affecl
affectus
affect
Passive, afficior, affici, affectus sum.
92
INFLECTIONS.
So other prepositional compounds, perficio, perjicior ; interficio. interficior ;
etc. But —
assuefacio assuefacere assuefeci assuefactus accustom
Passive, assuefio, assuefierl, assuefactus sum.
So also fatefacib, pateflo ; calefacio, caleflo ; and all non-prepositional com-
pounds.
'^jacio
jacere
jecT
jactus
hurl
abicio
abicere
abjecl
abjectus
throw away
fodio •
fodere
fodi
fossus
dig
— fugio
fugere
fugl
fugitQrus
flee
effugio
efFugere
effijgl
escape
IV. Verbs in -SCO
I. Verbs in -SCO from Simple Roots.
posco
poscere
poposci
demand
disco
discere
didicl
learn
pasco
pascere
pavi
pastus
feed
pascor
pasci
pastus sum
graze
— cresco
crescere
crevi
cretus
grow
consuesco
consuescere
consuevi
consuetus
accustom one's selj
quiesco
quiescere
quievi
quietQrus
be still
adolesco
adolescere
adolevi
adultus
grow tcp
obsolesco
obsolescere
obsolevi
grow old
nosco
noscere
novi
become acquainted
with
ignosco
ignoscere
ignovi
ignoturus
pardon
agnosco
agnoscere
agnovi
agnitus
recognize
cognosco
cognoscere
cognovi
cognitus
get acquainted
with
2. Verbs in -sco formed from other Verbs.
These usually have Inchoative or Inceptive meaning (see § 155. i).
When they have the Perfect, it is the same as that of the Verbs from
which they are derived.
floresco
florescere
florul
be^n to bloom
(floreo)
scisco
sciscere
scivi
enact
(scio)
aresco
arescere
ami
become dry
(areo)
calesco
calescere
calul
become hot
(caleo)
consenesco
consenescere
consenul
grow old
(seneo)
extimesco
extimescere
extimul
fear greatly
(timeo)
ingemlsco
■ ingemiscere
ingemui
sigh
(gemo)
idhaeresco
adhaerescere
adhaesi
stick
(haereo).
LIST OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS.
93
3. Verbs
in -SCO derived from Adjectives, usually with Inchoative
meaning.
obduresco
obdurescere
obdurul grow hard
(durus)
evanesco
evanescere
evanui disappear
(vanus)
percrebresco percrebrescere
percrebrul grow fresh
(creber)
maturesco
maturescere
tnaturul grow ripe
(maturus)
obmutesco
obmutescere
obmutui groTU dumb
(mutus)
V. Deponents.
-fungor
fiingi
functus sum
perform-^ '^•j'^
queror
querl
questus sum
complain au-i^<^
speak l^ji^if^
-\oquor
loqul
locutus sum
sequor
sequi
secutus sum
foUow Setji^iy^
fruor
frui
fruiturus
enjoy
perfnior
perfrul
perfructus sum
thoroughly enjoy
labor
labl
lapsus sum
glide
amplector
amplecti
araplexus sum
embrace
nitor
nitl
nisus sum, nixus sum
strive
-gradior
gradt
gressus sum
walk
/patior
pati
passus sum
suffer
perpetior
perpeti
perpessus sum
endure
iitor
Utl
usus sum
use
morior
morl
mortuus sum
die
adipiscor
adipisci
adeptus sum
acquire
comminlscoi
comminTsci
commentus sum
invent
-remimscor
reminisci
remember
nanciscor
nanclsci
nanctus (nactus) sum
acquire
-nascor
nascT
natus sura
be born
-obllvTscor
oblTvIscI
oblitus sum
forget
paclscor
pacisci
pactus sum
covenant
proficlscor
proficisci
profectus sum
set out
ulciscor
ulcisci
ultus sUm
avenge
irascor
Irasci
(iratus, as Adj.)
be angry
vescor ,
vescl
eat
Fourth Conjugation.
' 123. I. Perfect ends in -VI.
"audio audire audlvl audltus hear
So all regular Verbs of the Fourth Conjugation,
sepelio sepelire sepelivi sepultus bury
94
INFLECTIONS.
II. Perfect ends in ■
■171.
— aperio
aperire
aperul
apertus
open
operio
operlre
operul
opertus
cover
sali5
salire
salui
leap
III. Perfect ends in
-si.
saepi5
saepire
saepsi
saeptus
hedge in
sancio
sancire
sanxi
sanctus
ratify
vincio
vincTre
vinxi
vinctus
bind
amicio
amicire
amictus
envelop
fulcio
ftilcire
fulsl
fultus
prop up
referci5
refercire
refers!
.refertus
fill
sarcio
sarcire
sarsi
sartus
patch
— haurio
haurire
hausi
haustus
draw
— sentio
sentife
sens!
sensus
feel
IV. Perfect in -I with lengthening op Stem Vowel.
— venio
venire
veni
ventum (est)
come
advenio
advenire
advenl
adventum (est
t) arrive
inveniS
invenire
invenl
inventus
find
V. Perfect with Loss
; OF Reduplication.
reperio
reperire
repperi
repertus
find
comperio
comperire
comperl
compertus
learn
VI. Used
ONLY IN the
Present.
ferio
ferire
strike
esurio
esurire '
be hungry
VII. Deponents.
^argior largiri
So many others,
experior experiri
opperior opperiri
ordior ordlrl
orior orirl
largitus sum
expertus sum
oppertus sum
orsus sum
ortus sum
bestow
try
await
begin
arise
Orior usually follows the Third Conjugation in its inflection ; as,
oreris, oritur, orimur ; orerer (Imp. Subj.) ; orere (Imper.).
metior metirl mgnsussum measure
assentior assentirl assensussum assent
IRREGULAR VERBS. 95
IRREGULAR VERBS.
124. A number of Verbs are called Irregular. The most
important are sum, do, ed5, fero, volo, nolo, malo, eo, fio.
The peculiarity of these Verbs is that they append the
personal endings in many forms directly to the stem,
instead of employing a connecting vowel, as fer-s (2d
Sing, of fer-6), instead of fer-i-s. They are but the relics
of what was once in Latin a large class of Verbs.
125. The Inflection of sum has already been given. Its various
compounds are inflected in the same way. They are —
absum abesse afui am absent
Pres. Partic. absens (absentis), absent.
adsum adesse adful am present
desum deesse defui am lacking
insum inesse Infui am in
intersum interesse interfui am among
praesum praeesse praefiii am in charge of
Pres. Partic. praeSens (praesentis),^^'sje«^.
obsum obesse obfui hinder
prosum prodesse profui am of advantage
subsum subesse subfui am underneath
supersum superesse superful am left
Note. — Prosum is compounded of prod (earlier form of pro) and sum ;
the d disappears before consonants, as prosumus ; but prodestis.
126. Possum. In its Present System possum is a compound of
pot- (for pote, able^ and sum ; potui is from an obsolete potere.
— ;> possum,
PRINCIPAI
posse.
. PARTS.
potui, to be able.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR,
PLURAL.
Pres. possum, potes, potest ;
possumus, potestis, possunt.
Imp. poteram ;
poteramus.
Fut. potero ;
poterimus.
Perf. potui ;
potuimus.
Plup. potueram ;
potueramus.
Fut. P. potuero ;
potuerimus.
96 INFLECTIONS.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Pres.
possim, possis, possit ; posslmus, possitis, possint.
Imp.
possem ;
possemus.
Per/.
potuerim ;
potuerlmus.
Pltip.
potuissem ;
potuissemus.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
posse.
Pres. potens (oj an adjective).
Perf.
potuisse.
>W7.
Do, I give.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
d5,
dSre, dedi, d&tus.
Active Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
Pres.
do, das, dat ;
damus, datis, dant.
Imp.
dabam, etc. ;
dabamus.
Put.
dabo, etc. ;
dabimus.
Perf.
dedl;
dedimus.
Plup.
dederara ;
dederamus.
Put. P. dedero ;
dederimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.
dem ;
demus.
Imp.
darem ;
daremus.
Perf.
dederim ;
dederimus.
Plup.
dedissem ;
dedisse mus.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.
da;
date.
Put.
dato;
datote.
dato.
dan to.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
dare.
dans.
Perf.
dedisse.
Put.
daturus esse.
daturus.
GERUND.
SUPINE.
dandi, etc.
datum, data.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
97
1. The Passive is inflected regularly with the short vowel. Thus:
dSri, d^tur, dSbatur, dSietur, etc.
2. The archaic and poetic Present Subjunctive forms duim, duint,
perdxut, perduint, etc., are not from the root da-, but from du-, a
collateral root of similar meaning.
128. Edo, /«a/f.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
esse, edi, esus.
Active Voice.
edo,
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.
edo,
edimus,
es,
estis,
est;
SUBJUNCTIVE.
edunt.
Imp.
essem,
essemus,
esses,
essetis,
esset ;
IMPERATIVE.
essent.
Pres.
es;
este.
Put.
esto;
estate.
esto;
INFINITIVE.
Pres. esse.
Passive Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres. yi Sing, estur.
edunto.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Imp. 'id Sing, essetur.
1. Observe the long vowel of the forms in es-, which alone distin-
guishes them from the corresponding forms of esse, to be.
2. Note comedo, comesse, comedl, comesus or oomestus,
consume.
3. The Present Subjunctive has edim, -is, -it, etc., less often edam
-as, etc.
98 INFLECTIONS.
129.
Fero, I bear.
PRINCIPAL PARTS
-> fero,
ferre, tuli, latuB.
Active Voice.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Pres.
fero, fers,
fert;
ferimus, fertis, ferunt."
Imp.
ferebam ;
ferebamus.
J^ta.
feram ;
feremus.
Perf.
tuli;
tulimus.
Plup.
tuleram ;
tuleramus.
Fut.P
. tulero ;
SUBJUNCTIVE.
tulerimus.
Pres.
feram;
feramus.
Imp.
ferrem ;
ferreraus.
Perf.
tulerim ;
tulerimus.
Plup.
tulissem ;
IMPERATIVE,
tulissemus.
Pres.
fer;
ferte.
Put.
ferto ;
fertote.
ferto ;
ferunto.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
ferre.
Pres.
ferens.
Perf.'
fulisse.
Put.
laturus esse. Fut.
laturus.
GERUND.
SUPINE.
Gen.
ferendl.
Dat.
ferendo.
Ace.
ferendum,
Ace.
latum.
Abl.
ferendo.
Abl.
lata.
1 It will be observed that not all the forms of fero lack the connecting vowel.
Some of them, as ferimuB, ferunt, follow the regular inflection of verbs of the
Third Conjugation.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
99
Passive Voice.
feror,
ferri,
latus sum, \
'■0 be borne.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Pres.
feror, ferris;
1 fertur ;
ferimur, ferimini, feruntur.
Imp.
ferebar ;
ferebamur.
Put.
ferar ;
feremur.
Perf.
latus sum ;
lati sumus.
Plup.
latus eram ;
lati eramus.
Fut.P
. latus erS ;
lati erimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.
ferar;
feramur.
Imp.
ferrer ;
ferremur.
Perf.
latus sim ;
lati simus.
Plup.
latus essem
J
lati essemus
•
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.
ferre;
ferimini.
Put.
fertor ;
fertor ;
feruntor.
INFINITIVE
.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
ferri.
Perf.
latus esse.
Perf. latus.
Put.
latum iri.
Ger. ferendus.
So also the Compounds —
affero
afferre
attuli
allatus
bringtoward
auferS
auferre
abstuli
ablatus
take away
confers
conferre
contuli
collatus
compare
differs
differre
distuli
dilatus
put off
effero
efFerre
extuli
elatus
carry out
infers
inferre
intuli
illatus
bring against
offers
offerre
obtuli
oblatus
present
refers
referre
rettuli
relatus
bring back
Note. — The forms sustuli and sublatus belong to toUo.
lOO
INFLECTIONS.
130.
Volo,
nolo, malo.
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
~ >-volo,
velle,
volui,
to wish.
-^nolo,
nolle,
noluT,
to be unwilling.
->malo,
malle,
maluT,
to prefer.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Pres.
vol5,
nolo,
malo,
VIS,
n5n vis.
mavis.
vult;
non vult ;
ma vult ;
volumus,
nolumus,
malumus,
vultis,
non vultis,
ma vultis,
volunt.
nolunt.
malunt.
Imp.
volebam.
nolebam.
malebam.
Put.
volam.
nolam.
malam.
Perf.
volul.
nolui.
maluT.
Plup.
volueram.
nolueram.
malueram.
Put. P.
voluero.
noluero.
maluero.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.
velim, -Is, -it,
etc. nolim.
malim.
Imp.
vellem, -es, -et, etc. nollem.
mallem.
Perf.
voluerim.
noluerim.
maluerim.
Plup.
voluissem.
noluissem.
IMPERATIVE.
maluissem,
Pres.
noli ; nolite.
Put.
nolrto ; nolitote.
nolito ; nolunto.
INFINITIVE.
Pres.
velle.
nolle.
malle.
Perf.
voluisse.
noluisse.
PARTICIPLE.
maluisse.
Pres.
volens.
nolens.
IRREGULAR VERBS.
lOI
ICCa-
131.
Flo.
fy^<h
(0 /^^"^ ^'
fio,
PRINCIPAL PARTS.
fieri, factus sum,
to become, be made.
INDICATIVE
MOOD.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Pres.
fio, fis, fit ;
fimus, fitis, fiunt.
Imp.
fiebam ;
fiebamus.
Fut.
fiam;
fiemus.
Perf.
&ctus sum ;
fact! sumus.
Plup.
factus eram ;
facti eramus.
Fut. P.
. factus ero ;
facti erimus.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres.
fiam ;
fiamus.
Imp.
fierem ;
fieremus.
Perf.
factus sim;
facti simus.
Plup.
factus essem ;
facti essemus.
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.
fi;
fite.
INFINITIVE.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
fieri.
Perf.
factus esse.
Perf
factus.
Fut.
factum iri.
Ger.
faciendus.
Note. — A few isolated forms of compounds of fio occur ; as, defit,
^acks; infit, begins.
132.
Eo.
PRINCIPAL
PARTS
—^ eo,
Ire, ivI,
itum
(est)
, to go.
INDICATIVE
MOOD.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Pres.
eo. Is, it ;
iraus, itis, aunt.
Imp.
ibam;
Ibamus.
Fut.
ibo;
Ibimus.
Perf
ivi (il) ;
ivimus (iimus).
Plup.
Iveram (ieram);
Iveramus (ieramus)
Fut. P.
ivero (iero) ;
iverimus (ierimus).
I02
INFLECTIONS.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Pres.
earn;
eamus.
Imp.
irem ;
iremus.
Perf.
iverim (ierim) ;
iverimus (ierimus).
Plup.
Ivissem (iissem,
issem) ;
ivissemus (iissemus, issemus).
IMPERATIVE.
Pres.
I;
ite.
Fut.
Ito;
ito;
INFINITIVE.
itote,
eunto.
PARTICIPLE.
Pres.
ire.
Pres.
iens.
Perf.
ivisse (isse).
(Gen.
euntis.)
Fut.
iturus esse.
Fut.
iturus. Gerundive, eundum.
GERUND. SUPINE.
eundi, etc. itum, itu.
I. Transitive compounds of eo admit the full Passive inflection; as,
adeor, adiris, aditur, etc.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
Defective Verbs lack certain forms. The following are
the most important : —
133. Used Mainly in the Perfect System.
., / have begun.
— Memini, I remember.
— -OSS., I hate.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
Perf. coepi.
memini.
odi.
Plup. coeperam.
memineram.
oderam.
Fut. P. coepero.
meminero.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
odero.
Perf. coeperim.
meminerim.
oderim.
Plup. coepissem.
meminissem.
odissem.
IMPERATIVE.
Sing, memento ; Plur. mementote.
DEFECTIVE VERBS.
103
INFINITIVE.
Perf.
Fut.
coepisse. merainisse.
coepturus esse.
odisse.
osurus esse.
Perf.
Fut.
PARTICIPLE.
coeptus, begun.
coepturus.
osus.
osurus.
1. When ooepi governs a Passive Infinitive it usually takes the form
coeptus est ; as, amari coeptus est, he began to be loved.
2. Note that memini and odi, though Perfect in form, are Present
in sense. Similarly the Pluperfect and Future Perfect have the force of
the Imperfect and Future ; as, memineram, / remembered; odero,
I shall hate. ■
134. Inquam, / say (inserted between words of a direct quotation)
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL.
Pres.
inquam,
inquis,
inquit ;
inquiunt.
Fut.
inquies,
inquiet.
Perf. 'id Sing, inquit.
135.
Ajo, I say.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR.
PLURAL
Pres.
ajo,
ais,
ait ;
ajunt.
Imp.
ajebam.
ajebamus,
ajebas,
ajebatis.
ajebat ;
ajebant.
Perf . id Sing. ait.
SUBJUNCTIVE.
Pres ■^d Sing. ajat.
Note..
— For aisne. do vou mean f ain is common.
I04 INFLECTIONS.
136. Fan, to speak.
This is inflected regularly in the perfect tenses. In the Present
System it has —
Pres.
INDICATIVE MOOD.
SINGULAR. PLURAL.
fatur.
Fut. fabor,
fabitur.
Impv. fare.
Inf. farl.
Pres. Partic. fantis, fanti, etc.
Gerund, G., fandi ; D. and AM., fando.
Gerundive, fandus.
Note. —Forms of fari are rare. More frequent are its compounds; as, —
aff atur, he addresses ; praef amur , we say in advance.
137. Other Defective Forms.
1 . Queo, quire, quivi, to be able, and nequeo, nequire, nequivi,
to be unable, are inflected like eo, but occur chiefly in the Present Tense,
and there only in special forms.
2. Quaeso, / entreat; qvLSLesvimvLB, we entreat.
3. Cedo (2d sing. Impv.), cette (2d plu.) ; £-ive me, tell me.
4. Salve, salvete, hail. Also Infinitive, salvere.
5. Have (av5), havete, hail. Also Infinitive, havere.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
138. Impersonal Verbs correspond to the English, it
snows, it seems, etc. They have no personal subject, but
may take an Infinitive, a Clause, or a Neuter Pronoun;
as, me pudet hoc feoisse, lit. it shames me to have done this;
hoc decet, this is fitting. Here belong —
I. Verbs denoting operations of the weather ; as, —
folget fulsit it lightens
toilet tonuit it thunders
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
105
grandinat
it hails
ningit
ninxit
it snows
pluit
pluit
it rains
II. Special
Verbs.
paenitet
paenitere
paenituit
it repents
piget
pigere
piguit
it grieves
pudet
pudere
puduit
it causes shame
taedet
taedere
taeduit
it disgusts
miseret
miserere
miseruit
it causes pity
libet
libere
libuit
it pleases
licet
licere
licuit
it is lawful
oportet
oportere
oportuit
it is fitting
decet
decere
decuit
it is becoming
dedecet
dedecere
dedecuit
it is unbecoming
refert
referre
retulit
it concerns
III. Verbs Impersonal only in Special Senses.
constat
constare
constitit
it is evident
praestat
praestare
praestitit
it is better
juvat
juvare
jiivit
it delights
apparet
apparere
apparuit
it appears
placet
placere
placuit (placitum est) it pleases
accedit
accedere
accessit
it is added
accidit
accidera
accidit
it happens
contingit
contingere
contigit
it happens
evenit
evenire
evenit
it turns out
interest
interesse
interfuit
it concerns
IV. The Passive of Intransitive Verbs ; as, —
Itur
lit. it is
gone i.e.
some one goes
curritur
lit. it is run i-e.
some one runs
ventum est
lit. it has been come i.e.
some one has come
veniendum est
lit. it must be come i.e.
somebody must coml
pugnarl potest
lit. it can be fought , i.e.
sotnebody can fight
Part III.
PARTICLES.
139. Particles are the four Parts of Speech that do not
admit of inflection ; viz. Adverbs, Prepositions, Conjunc-
tions, Interjections.
ADVERBS.
140. Adverbs denote manner, place, time, or degree.
Most adverbs are in origin case-forms which have become
stereotyped by usage. The common adverbial terminations
have already been given above (§ jS). The following
Table of Correlatives is important : —
Relative and Interrogative.
ubi, where ; where ?
qu5, whither; whither f
unde, whence ; whence f
qua, where; where?
cum, when.
quando, when ?
quotiens, as often as ;
how often ?
quam, as much as j how
much?
Demonstrative.
hic, here.
ibi, illic, istic, there.
hue, hither.
eo, istuc, illuc,
thither.
hinc, hence.
inde, istiuc, illinc,
thence.
hao, by this way.
ea^ istac, iliac, by
that way.
nunc, now.
turn, tunc, then.
totiSns, so often.
tarn, so much.
io6
Indefinite.
alicubi, us quam, ua<
piam, somewhere.
aliquo, to some place.
alicunde, from some-
where.
allqua, by sotne way.
aliquando, umquam,
sometime, ever.
aliquotiens, some
number of times.
aliquantum,
somewhat.
PREPOSITIONS.
107
PREPOSITIONS.
141. Prepositions show relations of words,
lowing Prepositions govern the Accusative : —
The fol-
ad, to. contra, against.
adversus, against, erga, toward.
adversum, toward, extra, outside.
against.
ante, before.
apud, with, near.
circa, around.
circiter, about.
circum, around.
cis, this side of.
cltra, this side of.
infra, below.
inter, between.
intra, within.
juzta, near.
ob, on account of.
penes, in the hands of.
per, through.
pone, behind.
post, after.
praeter, past.
prope, near.
propter, on account of
secundum, after.
subter, beneath.
super, over.
supra, above.
trans, across.
ultra, beyond.
versus, toward.
1. ITsque is often prefixed to ad, in th'e sense oi even; as, —
Usque ad urbem, even to the city.
2. Versus always follows its case ; as, —
Romam versus, toward Rome.
It may be combined with a preceding Preposition ; as, —
ad urbem versus, toward the city.
3. Like prope, the Comparatives propior, propius, and the Super-
latives prozimus, prozimg, sometimes govern the Accusative; as, —
Ubii prosime Rhenum incolunt, the Ubii dwell next to the Rhine ;
propius castra hostium, nearer the camp of the enemy.
142. The following Prepositions govern the Ablative : —
pro, in front of,
for.
sine, without.
tenus, up to.
a, ab, 3Jo3,from, by.
absque, without.
coram, in the presence
of
cum,
dS, from, concerning.
6, ex, from, out of.
prae, before.
1. A, ab, abs. Before vowels or h, ab must be used; before con-
sonants we find sometimes a, sometimes ab (the latter usually not
before the labials b, p, f, v, m ; nor before c, g, q, or t) ; abs occurs
only before te, and a is admissible even there.
2. E, ex. Before vowels or h, ex must be used ; before conso-
nants, we find sometimes e, sometimes ex-
Io8 PARTICLES.
3. Tenus regularly follows its case, as, pectoribus tenus, up to iht
breast. It sometimes governs the Genitive, as, labrorum tenus, as far
as the lips.
4. Cuia is appended to the Pronouns of the First and Second
Persons, and to the Reflexive Pronoun; usually also to the Relatiye
and Interrogative. Thus : —
mecum nobiscum quocum or cum quo
tecum vobiscum quacum or cum qua
secum quibuscum or cum quibus
On quicum, see § 89, Footnote i.
143. Two Prepositions, in, in, into, and sub, under, gov-
ern both the Accusative and the Ablative. With the Ac-
cusative they denote motion ; with the Ablative, rest ; as,—
in urbem, into the city ; in urbe, in the city.
I. Subter and super are also occasionally construed with the
Ablative.
144. Relation of Adverbs and Prepositions.
1. Prepositions were originally Adverbs, and many of them still
retain their adverbial meaning; as, post, afterwards; ante, previ-
ously ; contra, on the other hand, etc.
2. Conversely several words, usually adverbs, are occasionally
employed as prepositions ; as, —
clam, pridie, with the Accusative.
prpcul, simul, palam, with the Ablative.
3. Andstrophe. A Preposition sometimes follows its case. This
is called Andstrophe ; as, —
el, quos inter erat, those among whom he was.
Anastrophe occurs chiefly with dissyllabic prepositions.
CONJUNCTIONS AND INTERJECTIONS.
145. I. Conjunctions are used to connect ideas. For
Coordinate Conjunctions, see §§ 341 ff. Subordinate Con-
junctions are treated in connection with Subordinate Clauses.
2. Interjections express emotion Thus : —
1. Surprise; as, en, eoce, o.
2. Jov ; as, io, euoe.
3. Sorrow and Pain ; as, heu, eheu, vae, pio.
4. Calling ; as, heus, eho.
Part IV.
— ♦ —
WORD-FORMATION.
— • —
I. DERIVATIVES.
146. Derivatives are formed by appending certain ter-
minations called Suffixes to stems of verbs, nouns, or
adjectives.
A. NOUNS.
1. Nouns derived from Verbs.
147. I. The suffix -tor (-sor), Fem. -trix, denotes /^£«^i?m/; as,-^
victor, victrix, victor ; defensor, defender.
Note. — The suffix -tor is occasionally appended to noun stems ; as, —
g'ladiator , gladiator (from gladlus) .
2. The suffix -or (originally -os) denotes an activity or a condi
Hon; as, —
a.moi,love; tivaor, fear ; dolor, pain.
3. The suffixes -tio (-sio), Gen." -onis, and -tus (-sus), Gen. -us,
denote an action as in process ; as, —
Tgnatio, hunting; obsessio, blockade; gemitus, sighing; cursus,
running.
Note. — Rarer endings with the same force are : —
0) -tura, -stira ; as, —
sepultura, burial; mensura, measuring,
i) -ium; as,—
graudium, rejoicing.
c) -ido; as, —
cupido, desire.
109
no WORD-FORMATION.
4. The suffixes -men, -mentum, -orum, -trum, -bulum, -culum,
denote the means or place of an action ; as, —
lumen (luo-s-men), light; vocabulum, word;
ornamentum, ornament; AocxaxLevAvLxa., proof ;
sepulcrum, grave ; aratrum, plough }
vehiculum, carriage.
2. ITouns derived from Nouns.
148. I- Diminutives end in —
-ulus,
(-ula, -ulum)
-olus,
(-ola, -olum),
after a vowel
-cuius,
(-oula, -culum)
-ellus,
(-ella, -ellum)
-illUB,
(-Ula, -ilium)
nidulus
little nest •
(nidus) ;
virgula.
wand
(virga) ;
oppidulnm
, little town
(oppidum) ;
fHiolus,
little son
(filius) ;
opusculum
., little work
(opus) ;
tabella,
tablet
(tabula) ;
lapUlus,
pebble
(lapis).
Note i. — It will be observed that in gender the Diminutives follow the gender
of the words from which they are derived.
Note 2. — The endings -ellus, -illus contain the primitive form of the diminu-
tive suffix, viz., -I0-. Thus ; —
agellus, field, for ager-luaj
lapillus, pebble, for lapld-lus.
2. The suffix -ium appended to nouns denoting persons designates
either a collection of such persons or their function ; as, —
collegium, a corporation, body of colleagues (collega) ;
sacerdotlum, priestly function (sacerdos).
3. The suffixes -arium, -gtum, -He designate a place where objects
are kept or are found in abundance ; as, —
columbarium, dove-cote (columba) ;
cllvetum, olive-orchard (oliva) ;
ovile, sheep-fold (ovis).
NOUNS. — ADJECTIVES. Ill
4. The suffix -atus denotes official position or honor; as, —
consulatus, consulship (consul) .
5. The suffix -ina appended to nouns denoting persons designates
a vocation or the place where it is carried on ; as, —
doctrina, teaching (doctor, teacher') ;
medicina, the art of healing (medicus, physician) ;
sutrina, cobbler'' s shop (sutor, cobbler).
6. Patronymics are Greek proper names denoting son of . . .,
daughter of ... . They have the following suffixes : —
a) Masculines : -ides, -ades, -Tdes ; as, Friamides, son of
Priam ; Aeneades, son of Aeneas ; FelTdSs, son of Peleus.
b) Feminines : -eis, -is, -ias ; as. Nereis, daughter of Nereus ;
Atlantis, daughter of Atlas; Thaumantias, daughter of
Thaumas.
3. Nouns derived from Adjectives.
149. The suffixes -tas (-itas), -tudo (-itudo), -ia, -itia are used
for the formation of abstract nouns denoting qualities ; as, —
bonitas, goodness; celeritas, swiftness; magnitudo, greatness ^
audacia, boldness; arrilcitLa., friendship.
B. ADJECTIVES.
1. Adjectives derived from Verbs.
150. I. The suffixes -bundus and -cundus give nearly the force
of a present participle ; as, —
tieraebMn&as, trembling ; jucundus Quvo), pleasing.
2. The suffixes -ax and -ulus denote an inclination or tendency.,
mostly a faulty one; as, —
loquaz, loquacious ; credulus, credulous.
3. The suffix -idus denotes a state ; as, —
calidus, ^17^ ; VLmidLOB, timid ; cwpiAaa, eager.
4- The suffixes -ilis and -bilis denote capacity or ability, usually in
a passive sense ; as, —
ix2L^\&, fragile (i.e. capable of being broken) ;
docilis, docile.
112 WORD-FORMATION.
2. Adjectives derived from Nouns.
a) From Common Nouns,
151. I. The suffixes -eus and -inus are appended to names of sub-
stances or materials ; as, —
nxiievLs, of gold ; lexieus, of iron ; tsLginvis, of ieec/i.
2. The suffixes -ius, -icus, -His, -alis, -aris, -arius, -nus, -anus,
-tnus, -ivus, -ensis signify belonging to, connected with ; as, —
oratorius, oratorical; legionarius, legionary ;
bellicuB, fiertaining to war ; paternus, paternal ;
civllis, civil; urbanus, of the city ;
regalis, regal; marinus, marine;
consularis, consular ; aestivus, pertaining to summer ;
ciroensis, belonging to the citcus.
3. The suffixes -osus and -lentus Atnoie fullness ; as, —
periculosus, full of danger, gloriosus, glorious ;
dangerous ; opulentus, wealthy.
4. The suffix -tus has the force oi provided with ; as, —
barbatus, bearded; stellatus, set with stars.
S) From Proper Names.
152. I. Names of j!>^rw«j take the suffixes: -anus, -ianus, -inus;
as,—
Catoniauus, belonging to Cato; Plautinus, belonging to PlaiUus.
2. Names oi nations talce the suffixes -icus, -ius ; as, —
Germanicus, German ; Thracius, Thracian.
3. Names of places take the suffixes -anus, -inus, -gnsis, -aeus,
-ius ; as, —
Romanus, Roman ; Athiniensis, Athenian ;
Amerinus, of Ameria ; Smy rnaeus, of Smyrna ;
Corinthius, Corinthian.
Note. — -anus and -ensis, appended to names of countries, desig-
nate something stationed in the country or connected with it, but not
indigenous ; as, —
bellum Afrioanum, a war {of Romans with Romans') in Africa.
bellum Hispaniense, a war carried on in Spain.
legiones GalUcanae, {Roman) legions stationed in Gaul.
ADJECTIVES. — VERBS.
113
3. Adjectives derived from Adjectives.
153. Diminutives in -lus sometimes occur ; as, —
parvolus, little ;
misellus (passer), poor little {sparrow) \
pauperculus, needy.
4. Adjectives derived from Adverbs.
154. These end in -ernus, -ternus, -tinus, -tinus ; as, —
hodiemus,
hesternus,
intestinus,
diutinus,
of to-day
of yesterday
internal
long-lasting
(hodie) ;
(heri) ;
(intus) ;
(diu).
C. VERBS.
1. Verbs derived from Verbs.
155. I. Inceptives OR Inchoatives. These end in -sco, and are
formed from Present Stems. They denote the beginning of an action ;
as, —
labasoo, begin to totter (from labo) ;
horresco, grow rough (from horreo) ;
tremesco, be^n to tremble (from tremo) ;
obdormisco, fall asleep (from dormio).
2. Frequentatives or Intensives. These denote a repeated
or energetic action. They are formed from the Participial Stem, and
end in -to or -so. Those derived from verbs of the First Conjugation
end in -ito (not -ato, as vife should expect). Examples of Frequenta-
tives are —
jacto, toss about, brandish
curso, run hither and thither
volito, flit about
a. Some double Frequentatives occur ; as, —
(from jacio, hurl) ;
(from ourro, ruii) ;
(from vol6,y^).
cantito,
sing over and over
(canto) ;
cursito,
keep running ahout
(curso) ;
ventito,
keep coming.
b. agito, set in motion, is formed from the Present Stem.
114 WORD-FORMATION.
3. Desideratives. These denote a desire to do something. They
are formed from the Participial Stem, and end in -urio ; as, —
esurio, desire to eat, am hungry (edo) ;
parturio, want to bring forth, ajn in labor (pario) .
2. Verbs derived from Kouns and Adjectives
(Denomiiiatives) .
156. Denominatives of the First Conjugation are mostly transitive,
those of the Second exclusively intransitive. Those of the Third and
Fourth Conjugations are partly transitive, partly intransitive. Exam-
ples are —
a) From Nouns : —
fraudo, defraud (fraus) ;
vestio, clothe (vestis) ;
tloreo, bloom (flos).
b') From Adjectives : — .
libero, free (liber) ;
saevio, be fierce (saevus).
D. ADVERBS.
157. I. Adverbs derived from verbs are formed from the Participial
Stem by means of the suffix -im ; as, —
certatim, emulously (oerto) ;
curaim, in haste (ourro) ;
statim, immediately (sto).
2. Adverbs derived from nouns and adjectives are formed : —
a) With the suffixes -tim (-sim), -atim; as,—
gradatim, step by step ;
pa.ulatim, gradually ;
viritim, man by man.
b) With the suffix -tus ; as, —
antlquitus, of old;
radioitus,/roOT the roots.
c) With the suffix -ter ; as, —
breviter, briefly.
COMPOUNDS. 115
II. COMPOUNDS.
158. I. Compounds are formed by the union of simple
words. The second member usually contains the essential
meaning of the compound ; the first member expresses
some modification of this.
2. Vowel changes often occur in the process of composition.
Thus : —
a. In the second member of compounds. (See § 7. i.)
b. The final vowel of the stem of the first member of the com-
pound often appears as i where we should expect 5 or S;
sometimes it is dropped altogether, and in case of consonant
stems I is often inserted ; as, —
signif er, standard-bearer ;
tubiceu, trumpeter ;
magnaniiuus, high-minded^
matricida, matricide.
159. Examples of Compounds.
I. Nouns: —
a) Preposition + Noun ; as, —
de-deous, disgrace ;
' ■pio-a.'Wis, great-grandfather. .
b) Noun + Verb Stem ; as, —
agri-cola, farmer ;
f ratri-cida, fratricide.
1. Adjectives : —
a) Preposition 4- Adjective (or Noun) ; as, —
per-magnus, very great ;
sub-obscurns, rather obscure i
a-mens, frantic.
b) Adjective -I- Noun ; as, —
magn-animus, great-hearted;
celeri-pes, swift-footed.
c) Noun -I- Verb Stem ; as, —
parti-ceps, sharing;
morti-fer, death-dealing.
Il6 WORD-FORMATION.
3. Verbs: —
The second member is always a verb. The first may be —
«) A Noun ; as, —
aedi-fico, build.
b) An Adjective ; as, —
ampli-fico, enlarge.
c) An Adverb ; as, —
male-dico, rail at.
d) Another Verb ; as, —
cale-facio, make warm.
e) A Preposition ; as, —
ab-jungo, detach;
re-f ero, bring back ;
dis-cerno, distinguish ;
ez-specto, await.
Note. — Here belong the so-called Inseparable Prepositions :
ambi- (amb-), around;
dis- (dir-, di-), apart, asunder ;
por-, forward ;
red- (re-), back;
sed- (ae-), apart from;
ve-, without.
4. Adverbs : —
These are of various types ; as, —
antea, before ;
ilioo (in loco), on the spot ;
imprimis, especially ;
obviam, in the way.
Part V.
SYNTAX.
160. Syntax treats of the use of words in sentences.
Chapter I. — Sentences.
CLASSIFICATION OP SENTENCES.
161. Sentences may be classified as follows: —
I. Declarative, which state something ; as, —
puer scribit, the boy is writing.
1. Interrogative, which ask a question ; as, —
quid puer scribit, wJiat is the boy writing?
3. Exclamatory, which are in the form of an exclamation ; as, —
quot libros scribit, how many books he writes !
4. Imperative, which express a command or an admonition ; as,—
scribe, write !
FORM OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
162. Questions may be either Word-Questions or Sen-
tence-Questions.
I. Word-Questions. These are introduced by the various
interrogative pronouns and adverbs ; such as — quis, qui,
qualis, quantus, quot, quotiens, quo, qua, e^C. Thus : —
quia veuit, who comes ?
quam diu manSbit, how long will he stay f
117
Il8 SYNTAX.
2. Sentence-Questions. These are introduced —
a) By nonne implying the answer 'j/^J ' ,• as, —
nonne videtis, do you not see?
b) By num implying the answer 'no'' ; as, —
num exspectas, do you expect f (i.e. you donH expect, doyouf)
c) by the enclitic -ne, appended to the emphatic word (which
usually stands first), and simply asking for information ; as,—
videsne, do you see?
A question introduced by -ne may receive a special impli-
cation from the context ; as, —
sensistine, did you not perceive?
d) Sometimes by no special word, particularly in expressions of
surprise or indignation ; as, —
tu in jQdicum conspectum venire audes, do you dare to
come into the presence of the judges ?
3. Rhetorical Questions. These are questions merely in
form, being employed to express an emphatic assertion;
as, quia clubitat, who doubts f {= no one doubts).
4. Double Questions. Double Questions are introduced
by the following particles : —
utrum ... an;
-ne an ;
.... an.
If the second member is negative, annon (less often necne) is used.
Examples : —
utrum honestum est an turpe,]
bonestumne est an turpe, \ is it honorable or base ?
honeatum est an turpe, J
auntne di annon, are there gods or not ?
a. An was not originally confined to double questions, but in-
troduced single questions, having the force of -ne, nonne,
or num. Traces of this use survive in classical Latin; as,—
A rebus gerendis abstrahit Lenectus. Quibua? An
eis quae juventute geruntur et vJribus ? Old age (it is
alleged) withdraws men from active pursuits. From what
pursuits ? Is it not merely from those which are carried on
by the strength of youth ?
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES. IIQ
5. Answers.
a. The answer Yes is expressed by ita, etiam, vero,
B5ne, or by repetition of the verb ; as, —
'visne locum mutemus?' 'sang.' ^ Shall we change the
place ? ' ' Certainly.''
'eatisne vos legati?' <sumus.' ' Are you envoys f ' Ves.^
b. The answer No is expressed by non, mlnimg,
minime vero; or by repeating the verb with a
negative ; as, —
' jam ea praeteriit ? ' ' non.' < Has it passed? ' ' No:
' estne f rater intus ? ' ' non est. ' ' /j your brother withi» f '
'No:
SUBJECT AND PREDICATE.
163. The two essential parts of a sentence are the Sub-
lECT and Predicate.
The Subject is that concerning which something is said,
asked, etc. The Predicate is that which is said, asked,
etc., concerning the Subject.
SIMPLE AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.
164. Sentences containing but one Subject and one
Predicate are called Simple Sentences, those containing
more are called Compound Sentences. Thus puer Ubros
legit, the boy reads books, is a Simple Sentence ; but puer
libros Jegit et epistulas scribit, the boy reads books and
writes letters, is a Compound Sentence. The different
members of a Compound Sentence are called Clauses.
165. Coordinate and Subordinate Clauses. Clauses which
stand ^upon an equality are called Coordinate ; a Clause dependent
upon another is called Subordinate. Thus in puer libros legit et
epistulas scribit the two clauses are Coordinate ; but in puer libros
legit quos pater scribit, the boy reads the books which his father writn.
the second clause is Subordinate to the first.
I20 SYNTAX.
Chapter II. — Syntax of Nouns.
SUBJECT.
166. The Subject of a Finite Verb {i.e. any form of
the Indicative, Subjunctive, or Imperative) is in the Nomi-
native Case.
1 . The Subject may be —
a) A Noun or Pronoun; as, —
puer scribit, the boy writes ;
hio scribit, this man "writes.
i) An Infinitive ; as, —
decorum est pro patria mori, to die for one's country is a
noble thing.
c) A Clause ; as, —
opportune accidit quod vidisti, it happened opportunely
that you saw.
2. A Personal Pronoun as Subject is usually implied in the Verb,
and is jiot separately expressed ; as, —
scribo, / write ; videt, he sees.
a. But for the purpose of emphasis or contrast the Pronoun is
expressed ; as, —
ego scribo et tu legis, / write, and you read.
3. The verb is sometimes omitted when it can be easily supplied
from the context, especially the auxiliary sum ; as, —
recte ille {sc. facit), he does rightly ; consul prof actus {sc. est), the
consul set out.
PREDICATE NOUNS.
167. A Predicate Noun is one connected with the Sub-
ject by some form of the verb Sum or a similar verb.
168. A Predicate Noun agrees with its Subject in
Case ; -^ as, —
1 For the Predicate Genitive, see \\ 198, 3; 203, 5.
PREDICATE NOUNS. — APPOSITIVES. 121
Cicero orator fuit, Cicero was an orator ;
Numa creatus est rex, Numa was elected king.
1. When possible, the Predicate Noun usually agrees with its Sub-
ject in Gender also ; as, —
philosophia est vitae ra^i^&ti^., philosophy is the guide of life.
2. Besides sum, the verbs most frequently accompanied by a Predi-
cate Noun are —
a) fio, evado, exsisto ; maneo ; videor ; as, —
Croesus non semper mansit rex, Croesus did not always
remain king.
6) Passive verbs of making, calling, regarding, etc. ; as, creor,
appellor, habeor ; as, —
Homulus rex appellatus est, Romulus was called king;
habitus est deus, he was regarded as a god.
APPOSITIVES.
169. I. An Appositive is a Noun explaining or defin-
ing another Noun denoting the same person or thing; as, —
Cicero consul, Cicero, the Consul;
urbs Roma, the city Rome.
2. An Appositive agrees with its Subject in Case; as, —
opera Ciceronis oratoris, the works of Cicero, the orator ;
apud Herodotum, patrem historiae, in the works of Herodotus, the
father of history.
3. When possible, the Appositive agrees with its Subject in Gen-
der also ; as, —
assentatio adjutrix vitiorum,^?^^^^^^, the promoter of evils.
4. A Locative may take in Apposition the Ablative of urbs or
oppidum, with or without a preposition ; as, —
CoiinthT, Achaiae urbe, or in Achaiae urbe, at Cormth, u city of
Greece.
5. Partitive Apposition. A Noun denoting a whole is frequently
followed by an Appositive denoting a part ; as, —
milites, fortissimus quisque, hostibus restiterunt, the soldiers, all
the bravest of them, resisted the enemy.
122 SYNTAX.
THE CASES.
THE NOMINATIVE.
170. The Nominative is confined to its use as Subject,
Appositive, or Predicate Noun, as already explained. See
§§ 166-169.
THE VOCATIVE.
171. The Vocative is the Case of direct address ; as, —
credite mibi, judices, believe me, judges.
1. By a species of attraction, the Nominative is occasionally used
for the Vocative, especially in poetry and formal prose ; as, audi tu,
populus Albanus, hear ye, Alban people!
2. Similarly the Appositive of a Vocative may, in poetry, stand in
the Nominative ; as, nate, mea magna potentia solus, O son, aloni
the source of my great power.
THE ACCUSATIVE.
■
172. The Accusative is the Case of the Direct Object,
173. The Direct Object may express either of the two
following relations : —
A. The Person or Thing Affected by the action ; as,—
consulem interfecit, he slew the consul;
lego librum, / read the book.
B. The Result Produced by the action ; as, —
librum scrips!, I wrote a book (i.e. produced one) ;
templum struit, he. constructs a temple.
174. Verbs that admit a Direct Object of either of these
two types are Transitive Verbs.
a. Verbs that regularly take a Direct Object are sometimes used
without it. They are then oaid to be employed absolutely;
as,—
rumor est meum gnatum amare, it is rumored that my
son is in loi'e.
THE ACCUSATIVE. 123
Accusative of the Person or Thing Affected.
175. I. This is the most frequent use of the Accu-
sative ; as in —
parentes amamus, we love our parents ;
mare aspioit, he gazes at the sea.
2. The following classes of Verbs taking an Accusative of this kind
are worthy of note : —
a) Many Intransitive Verbs, when compounded with a Preposi-
tion, become Transitive. Thus : —
i) Compounds of ciroum, praeter, trans ; as, —
hostes circumstare, to surround the enemy ;
urbem praeterire, to pass by the city ;
muros transceudere, to climb over the walls.
2) Less frequently, compounds of ad, per, in, sub ; as, —
adire urbem, to visit the city ;
peragrare Italiam, to travel through Italy ;
inire magistratum, to take office ;
subire periculum, to undergo danger.
b) Many Verbs expressing emotions, regularly Intransitive, have
also a Transitive use ; as, —
queror fatum, I lament my fate;
doleo ejus mortem, I grieve at his death •
rideo tuam stultitiam, I laugh at your folly.
So also lugeo, maereo, mourn ; gemo, bemoan ; horreo,
shudder, and others.
c) The impersonals deoet, it becomes; dedecet, it is unbecom-
ing; juvat, it pleases, take the Accusative of the Person
Affected; as, —
mS decet haec dicere, it becomes me to say this.
d) In poetry many Passive Verbs, in imitation of Greek usage,
are employed as Middles (§ 256, i ; 2), and take the Accu-
sative as Object ; as, —
galeam induitur, he puis on his helmet ;
cinctus tempora hedera, having bound his temples with
ivy ;
nodo sinus coUecta, having gathered her dress in a knot.
124 SYNTAX.
Accusative of the Result Produced.
176. I. The ordinary type of this Accusative is seen in
such expressions as —
librum scribS, / write a book ;
domum. aedificS, / build a house.
2. Many Verbs usually Intransitive take a Neuter Pronoun, oi'
Adjective, as an Accusative of Result. Thus : —
a) A Neuter Pronoun ; as, —
haec gemebat, he jiiade these moans ;
idem gloriari, to make the same boast ;
eadem peccat, he makes the same mistakes.
b) A Neuter Adjective, — particularly Adjectives of number oi
amount, — multum, multa, pauca, etc. ; also nihil ; as, —
multa egeo, / have many needs ;
pauca studet, he has few interests j
multum valet, he has great strength ;
nihil peccat, he makes no mistake.
Note. — In poetry other Adjectives are freely used in this construction ; as, —
mlnltantem vana, making vain threats ;
acerba tuens,^^z»^ a fierce look;
duloe loquentem, sweetly talking.
3. The adverbial use of several Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives
grows out of this Accusative ; as, —
multum sunt in venatione, they are much engaged in hunting.
a. So also plurimum, very greatly ; plerumque, generally;
aliquid, somewhat; quid, why? nihil, not at all; etc.
4. Sometimes an Intransitive Verb takes an Accusative of Result
vrhich is of kindred etymology with the Verb. This is called a Cog-
nate Accusative, and is usually modified by an Adjective ; as, —
sempiternam servitutem serviat, let him serve an everlastinir slavery;
vTtam duram vixi, I have lived a hard life.
a. Sometimes the Cognate Accusative is not of kindred ety-
mology, but merely of kindred meaning ; as, —
stadium currit, he runs a race ;
Olympia vincit, he wins an Olympic victory.
THE ACCUSATIVE. 1 25
5. The Accusative of Result occurs also after Verbs of /aj/iV/g- and
smelling; as, —
piscis mare sapit, the fish tastes of the sea ;
orationes autlquitatem redolent, the speeches smack of the past.
Tv70 Accusatives — Direct Object and Predicate Accusative.
177. I. Many Verbs of Making, Choosing, Calling,
Showing, and the like, take two Accusatives, one of the
Person or Thing Affected, the other a Predicate Accusa-
tive; as, —
me heredem fecit, he made me heir.
Here mS is Direct Object, heredem Predicate Accusative.
So also —
eum judicem cepere, tfiey took him as judge ;
urbem Romam vocavit, he called the city Rome ;
se virum praestitit, he showed himself a man.
2. The Predicate Accusative may be an Adjective as well as a Noun ;
as, —
homines caecos reddit cupiditas, covetousness renders men blind;
Apollo Socratem sapientissimum judicavit, Apollo adjudged Soc-
rates the wisest ?nan.
a. Some Verbs, as reddo, usually admit only an Adjective as the Predicate
Accusative.
3. In the Passive the Direct Object becomes the Subject, and the
Predicate Accusative becomes Predicate Nominative (§ 168. 2. iJ) ; as, —
urbs Roma vocata est, the city was called Rome.
a. Not all Verbs admit the Passive construction ; reddo and efflcio, for
example, never take it.
Two Accusatives — Person and Thing.
178. I. Some Verbs take two Accusatives, one of
the Person Affected, the other of the Result Produced.
Thus : —
a) Verbs of requesting and demanding; as, —
otium divos rogat, he asks the gods for rest;
me duas orationes postulSs, you demand two speeches of
me.
126 SYNTAX.
So also oro, posed, reposco, ezposoo, flagito, though
some of these prefer the Ablative with ab to the Accusative
of the Person ; as, —
opem a te posco, / demand aid of you.
b) Verbs oi teaching (doceo and its compounds) ; as, —
te litteras doceo, I teach you your letters.
c) Verbs oi inquiring ; as, —
te haec rogo, I ask you this;
te sententiam rogo, I ask you your opinion.
a) Several Special Verbs ; viz. moneo, admoneo, commoneo,
cogo, accuso, arguo, and a few others. These admit only
a Neuter Pronoun or Adjective as Accusative of the Thing ;
as, —
hoc te moneo, I give you this advice;
me id accusas, j/o?< bring this accusation against me;
id cogit nos natura, nature compels us {to) this.
e) OaeVtrh of concealing, celo ; as, —
non te celavi sermonem, / have not concealed the conver-
sation from you.
2. In the Passive construction the Accusative of the Person becomes
the Subject, and the Accusative of the Thing is retained ; as, —
omnes artes edoctus est, he was taught all accomplishments;
rogatus sum sententiam, I was asked my opnnion ;
multa admonemur, we are given many admonitions.
». Only a few Verbs admit the Passive construction.
Tviro Accusatives -w^ith Compounds.
179. I. Transitive compounds of trans may take two
Accusatives, one dependent upon the Verb, the other
upon the Preposition ; as, —
milites flumen transportat, he leads his soldiers across the river.
2. With other compounds this construction is rare.
3. In the Passive the Accusative dependent upon the preposition is
retained; as, —
milites flumen traducSbantur, the soldiers were led across the river ■
THE ACCUSATIVE. 1 27
Synecdochical (or G-reek) Accusative.
180. I . The Synecdochical (or Greek) Accusative denotes the part
to which an action or quality refers ; as, —
tremit artus, literally, he trembles as to his limbs, i.e. his limbs tremble ;
n^da gfentl, lit. bare as to the knee, i.e. with knee bare ;
manas revlnctus, lit. tied as to the hands, i.e. with hands tied.
2. Note that this construction —
a) Is borrowed from the Greek.
b) Is chieiiy confined to poetry.
c) Usually refers to a part of the body.
d) Is used with Adjectives as well as Verbs.
Accusative of Time and Space.
181. I. Duration of Time and Extent of Space are
denoted by the Accusative; as, —
quadraginta annos vixit, he lived forty years i
hie locus passus sescentos aberat, this place was six hundred paces
away ;
arbores qnmquaginta pedes altae, trees fifty feet high ;
abhiuc septem annos, seven years ago.
2. Emphasis is sometimes added by using the Preposition per ; as,
per biennium laboravi, I toiled throughout two years. /j
Accusative of Iiimit of Motion. I
182. I. The Accusative of Limit of Motion is used —
a) With names of Towns, Small Islands, and Peninsulas ; as,' —
Romam veni, / carne to Rome ;
Athenas proficiscitur, he sets out for Athens ;
Delum perveni, I arrived at Delos.
B) With domuni, domos, rus; as, —
domum revertitur, he returns home;
rus 5b6, 1 shall go to the country.
Note — When domus means house (i.e. building), it takes a prepe
osition ; as, —
in domum veterem remigrare, to move back to an old house. '
128 SYNTAX.
2. Other designations of place than those above mentioned require
a Preposition to denote Limit of iVIotion ; as, —
ad Italiam venit, he came to Italy.
a. The Preposition is also customary with the Accusatives
urbem or oppidum when they stand in apposition with the
name of a town ; as, —
Thalam, in oppidum magnum, to Thala, a large town ;
Genavam ad oppidum, to the town Geneva.
b. The name of a town denoting limit of motion may be com-
bined with the name of a country or other word dependent
upon a preposition ; as, —
Thurios in Italiam perveotus, carried to Thurii in Italy;
cum Aoen ad ezercitum venisset, when he had come to
the army at Ace.
3. To denote toward, to the vicinity of, in the vicinity of, ad is used ;
as,—
ad Tarentum veni, / came to the vicinity of Tarentum ;
ad Cannas pugna facta est, a battle was fought near Cannae.
4. In poetry the Accusative of any noun denoting a place may be
used without a preposition to express the limit of motion ; as, —
Italiam venit, he came to Italy.
5. The goal notion seems to represent the original function of the
Accusative Case. Traces of this primitive force are recognizable in the
phrase infitias Ire, to deny (lit. to go to a denial)., and a few other
similar expressions.
Accusative in Exclamations.
183. The Accusative, generally modified by an Adjec'
tive, is used in Exclamations ; as, —
me miserum, ah, wretched me !
O fallacem spem, oh, deceptive hope!
Accusative as Subject of the Infinitive.
184. The Subject of the Infinitive is put in the Accusa-
tive ; as, —
video hoiuinem abjte, I see that the man is going away.
THE ACCUSATIVE. —THE DATIVE. I2g
Other Uses of the Accusative.
185. Here belong —
1. Some Accusatives which were originally Appositives ; viz. —
id genus, of that kind; as, homines id genus, men of that kind
(originally homines, id genus hominum, men, that kind
of men) ;
virile secus, muliebre secus, of the male sex,of the female sexi
meam vioem, tuam vioem, etc., for my part, etc. ;
bonam partem, magnam partem, in large part;
maximam partem, for the most part.
2. Some phrases of doubtful origin ; as, —
id temporis, at that time ; quod si, but if;
id aetatis, at that time ; cetera, in other respects.
THE DATIVE.
186. The Dative case, in general, expresses relations
which are designated in English by the prepositions to
and for. '
Dative of Indirect Object.
187. The commonest use of the Dative is to denote the
person to whom something is given, said, or done. Thus : —
I. With transitive verbs in connection with the Accu-
sative ; as, —
hanc peciiuiam mibi dat, he gives me this money ;
haec nobis dixit, he said this to us.
a. Some verbs which take this construction (particularly
douo and circumdo) admit also the Accusative of the per-
son along with the Ablative of the thing. Thus : —
Either Themistocli munera donavit, he presented gifts to
Themisiocles, or
Themistoclem muneribus donavit, he presented Themis-
tocles.witk gifts ;
urbi muros circumdat, he builds walls around the city, ol
urbem muris circumdat, ne surrounds the city with wall:
I'^O SYiMAA.
II. With many intransitive verbs; as, —
nuUi labor! cedit, he yields to no lubor.
a. Here belong many verbs signifying favor^ help, injure,
please, displease, trust, distrust, command, obey, serve, resist,
indulge, spare, pardon, envy, threaten, be angry, believe,
persuade, and the like ; as, —
Caesar popularibus favet, Caesar favors (i.e. is favor-
able to) the popular party ;
amicis c5nf ido, / trust (to) my friends ;
Orgetorix Helvetiis persuasit, Orgetorix persuaded
(made it acceptable to) the Helvetians ;
bonis nocet qui mails parcit, he injures (does harm to)
the good, who spares the bad.
Note. — It is to be borne in mind that these verbs do not take the Dative by
virtue of their apparent English equivalence, but simply because they are intransi-
tive, and adapted to an indirect object. Some verbs of the same apparent English
equivalence are transitive and govern the Accusative; as, juvo, laedo, delecto.
Thus: audentes deus juvat, God helps the bold; neminem laesit, he
injured no one.
b. Verbs of this class are used in the passive only impersonally ;
as, —
tibi parcitur, you are spared;
mihi persuadetur, I am being persuaded ;
ei invidetur, he is envied.
c. Some of the foregoing verbs admit also a Direct Object in connection
with the Dative ; as, —
mihi mortem mlnitatur, he threatens me with death (threatens
death to me) .
III. With many verbs compounded with the preposi-
fions : ad, ante, oircum, com,^ in, inter, ob, post, prae, pro,
tfub, super.
These verbs fall into two main classes, —
I. Many simple verbs which cannot take a Dative of the indirect
object become capable of doing so wheii compounded with a preposi-
tion ; as, —
afflictis succurrit, he helps the afflicted;
ezercitui praef uit, he was in command of the army ;
intersum consiliis, / share in the deliberations.
^ Many such verbs were originally intransitive in English also, and once govs
erned the Dative. " This was the original form of the preposition cum.
THE DATIVE. 131
2. Many transitive verbs which take only a direct object become
capable, when compounded, of taking a dative also as indirect
object; as, —
pecuniae pudorem anteponit, he puts honor before money i
micere spem amicTs, to inspire hope in one''s friends ;
muuitiom Labienum praefScit, he put Labienus in charge of the
fortifications.
Dative of Reference.
188. I. The Dative of Reference denotes the person to
whom a statement refers, of whom it is true, or to whom it
is of interest ; as, —
mihi ante oculos versaris, you hover before my eyes (lit. hover before
the eyes to me") ;
illi severitas amorem non dSminuit, in his case severity did not
diminish love (lit. to him. severity did not diminish) ;
intercludere inimicTs commeatuin, to cut off the supplies of the
enemy.
a. Note the phrase allcui interdicere aqua et ignl, to interdict one
from fire and water.
Note. — The Dative of Reference, unlike the Dative of Indirect Object, does
not modify the verb, but rather the sentence as a whole. It is often used where,
according to the English idiom, we should expect a Genitive; so in the first and
third of the above examples.
2. Special varieties of the Dative of Reference are —
ct) Dative of tlie Local Standpoint. This is regularly a
participle ; as, —
oppidum primum Thessaliae venientibua ab Epiro, the
first town of Thessaly as you come from Epirus (lit.
to those coming from Epirus").
i) Ethical Dative. This name is given to those Dative con-
structions of the personal pronouns in which the connection
of the Dative with the rest of the sentence is of the very
slightest sort ; as, —
tu mihi istius audaciam defendis? tell me, do you defend
that man's audacity f
quid mihi Celsus agit ? what is my Celsus doing ?
132 SYJNTAA.
c) Dative of Person Judging ; as, —
eiit ille mihi semper deus, he will always be a god to me
(i.e. in my opinion) ;
quae ista servitus tarn claro bomiui, how can that he
slavery to so illustrious a man (i.e. to his mind) !
d) Dative of Separation. Some verbs of taking away,
especially compounds of ab, de, ex, ad, govern a Dative of
the person, less often of the thing ; as, —
honorem detraxerunt homim, they took away the honor
from the man ;
Caesar regi tetrarchiam eripuit, Caesar took the tetrarchy
away from the king;
silicT scintillam escudit, }ie struck a spark from the flint.
Dative of Agency.
189. The Dative is used to denote agency —
1 . Regularly with the Gerundive ; as, —
haec nobis agenda aunt, these things must be done by us;
°mihi eundum est, I must go (lit. it must be gone by me).
a. To avoid ambiguity, a with tlie Ablative is sometimes used with the
Gerundive; as, — •
hostlbus a, nobis parcendum est, the enemy must Be spared by us.
2. Much less frequently with the compound tenses of the passive
voice and the perfect passive participle ; as, —
disputatio quae mihi nuper habita est, the discussion which was
recently conducted by me.
3. Rarely with the uncompounded tenses of the passive ; as, —
honesta bonis virls quaerun,tur, noble ends are sought by good nun.
Dative of Possession.
190. The Dative of Possession occurs with the verb ease
in such expressions as : —
mihi est liber, I have a book;
mihi nomen est MSrous, I have the name Marcus.
I. But with nomen est the name is more commonly attracted into
Ihe Dative ; as, mihi Marco nomen est.
THE DATIVE. 133
Dative of Purpose or Tendency.
191. The Dative of Purpose or Tendency designates
the end toward which an action is directed or the direction in
which it tends. It is used —
1. Unaccorapanied by another Dative ; as, —
caatris locum dSligere, to choose a place for a camp ;
legiones praesidio relinquere, to leave the legions as a guard (lit.
for a guard) \
receptuT canere, to sound the sigfialfor a retreat.
2. Much more frequently in connection with another Dative of the
person : —
a) Especially with some form of esse ; as, —
fortuuae tuae mihi curae sunt, your fortunes are a care to
me (lit. for a cere) ;
quibus supt odio, to whom they are an object of hatred;
cui bono ? to whom is it of advantage?
b) With other verbs ; as, —
hos tibi muneri misit, he has sent these to you for a
present ;
■ Pausaoias Atticis venit auzilio, Pausanias came to the
aid of the Athenians (lit. to the Athenians for aid).
3. In connection with the Gerundive ; as, —
decemviii legibus scribundis, decemvirs for codifying the laws;
me gerendo bello ducem oreavere, me they have made leader for
carrying on the war.
Note. — This construction with the gerundive is not common till Livy.
Dative 'with Adjectives.
192. The use of the Dative with Adjectives corresponds
very closely to its use with verbs. Thus : —
I. Corresponding to the Dative of Indirect Object it occurs with
adjectives signifying : friendly, unfriendly, similar, dissimilar, equal^
near, related to, etc. ; as, —
mihi inimicua, hostile to me ;
sunt prozimi GermSnTs,. they are next to the Germans ;
noziae poena par esto, let the penalty be equal to the damage.
134 SYNTAX.
a. For propior and proximus with the Accusative, see
§ 14^, 3-
3. Corresponding to the Dative of Purpose, the Dative occurs with
adjectives signifying : suitable, adapted, fit ^ as, —
oastris idoneus locus, a place fit for a camp ;
apta dies sacrificio, a day suitable for a sacrifice.
Note. — Adjectives of this last class often take the Accusative with ad.
Bative of Direction.
193. In the poets the Dative is occasionally used to denote the
direction of motion ; as, —
it clamor caelo, t^e shout goes heavenward;
cineres rivo fluenti jace, cast the ashes toward a flowing stream.
I . By an extension of tliis construction the poets sometimes use the
Dative to denote the limit of motion ; as, —
dum Latio deos inferret, till he. sAould bring his gods to Latium.
THE GENITIVE.
194. The Genitive is used with Nouns, Adjectives, and
Verbs.
GENITIVE WITH NOUNS.
195. With Nouns the Genitive is ike case which defines
the meaning of the limited noun more closely. This relation is
generally indicated in English by the preposition of. There
are the following varieties of the Genitive with Nouns : —
Genitive of Origin, Objective Genitive,
Genitive of Material, Genitive of the Whole,
Genitive of Possession, Apposltlonal Genitive,
Subjective Genitive, Genitive of Quality.
196. Genitive of Origin ; as, —
Marci filius, the son of Marcus,
197. Genitive of Material ; as, —
talentum auri, a talent of gold;
acervus frumenti, a pile of grain.
THE DATIVE.— THE GENITIVE. 135
198. Genitive of Possession or Ownership ; as, —
domus Ciceronis, Cicero's house.
1. Here belongs the Genitive with causa and gratia. The Geni-
tive always precedes ; as, —
hominum causa, /or the sake of nun ;
meorum amicorum gratia, yor the sake of my friends.
2. The Possessive Genitive is often used predicatively, especially
with esse and fieri ; as, —
domus est regis, the house is the king's ;
stulti est in errore manere, it is (the part) of a fool to remain in
error ;
de bello judicium imperatoris est, uon militum, the decision con-
cerning war belongs to the general, not to the soldiers.
a. For the difference in force between the Possessive Genitive and the Dative of
Possession, see \ 359, a.
199. Subjective Genitive. This denotes the person who makes
or produces something or who has a feeling; as, —
dicta PlatSnis, the utterances of Plato ;
timores liberorum, the fears of the children.
200. Objective Genitive. This denotes the object of an action
or feeling; as, —
metus deorum, the fear of the gods;
amor libertatis, love of liberty ;
consuetudo bonorum hominum, intercourse with good men.
I. This relation is often expressed by means of prepositions ; a.s, —
amor erga parentis, love toward one's parents^
201. Genitive of the Whole. This designates the whole oi
which a part is taken. It is used — -
!.■ With Nouns, Pronouns, Comparatives, Superlatives, and Ordioai
Numerals ; as, —
magna pars hominum, a great part of mankind;
duo milia peditum, two thousand foot-soldiers ;
quis mortalium, who of mortals f
major fratrum, the elder of the brothers;
gens maxima Germanorum, the largest tribe of the Germans;
primus omnium, the first of all.
136 SYNTAX.
a. Yet instead of the Genitive of the Whole we often find ex or dS with
the Ablative, regularly so with Cardinal numbers and quidam ; as, —
fldelissimus de servis, the most trusty of the slaves ;
quidam ex amicis, certain of his friends ;
unus ex milltibus, one of the soldiers.
i. In English we often use of where there is no relation of whole to part
In such cases the Latin is more exact, and does not use the Genitive;
as, —
quot vos estis, how many of you are there f
treoenti conjuravimus, three hundred of us have conspired (j. e.
we, three hundred in number).
2. The Genitive of the Whole is used also with the Nominative or
Accusative Singular Neuter of Pronouns, or of Adjectives used sub-
stantively; also with the Adverbs parum, satis, and partim wlien
used substantively ; as, —
quid consilT, what purpose ?
tantum cibi, so much food;
plus auctoritatis, more authority ;
minus lab oris, tess labor;
satis pecuniae, enough money ;
parum industriae, too little industry.
a. An Adjective of the second declension used substantively may be em-
ployed as a Genitive of the Whole; as, nihil boni, nothing good.
t. But Adjectives of the third declension agree directly with the noun thej
limit ; as, nihil dulclus, nothing sweeter.
3. Occasionally we find the Genitive of the Whole dependent upon
Adverbs of place ; as, —
ubi terrarum ? ubi gentium ? where in the world?
u.. By an extension of this usage the Genitive sometimes occurs in depend-
ence upon pridle and postridle, but only in the phrases pridle
ejus diei, on the day before that ; postridle ejus dlei, on the day
after that.
202. Appositional Genitive. The Genitive sometimes has the
force of an appositive ; as, —
nomen regis, the name of king;
poena mortis, the penalty of death;
ars scribendi, the art of writing.
203. Genitive of Quality. The Genitive modified by an Adjec-
tive is used to denote quality. This construction presents several
varieties. Thus it is used —
THE GENITIVE. 137
1. To denote some internal or permanent characteristic of a person
or thing ; as, —
vir magnae virtutis, a man of great virtue ;
rationes ejus modi, considerations of that sort.
a. Only a limited number of Adjectives occur in this construction, chiefly
magnus, mazlmus, summus, tantus, along with ejus.
2. To denote measure {breadth, length, etc.) ; as, —
fossa quindecim pedum, a trench fifteen feet wide (or deep) ;
ezsilium decem annorum, an exile of ten years.
3. Equivalent to the Genitive of Quality (though probably of different
origin) are the Genitives tanti, quanti, parvi, magni, minoris, plutis,
minimi, plurimi, mazimi. These are used predicatiVely to denote
indefinite value ; as, —
n&lla studia tanti sunt, no studies are of so much value ;
magni opera ejus ezistimata est, his assistance was highly esteemed.
4. By an extension of the notion of value, quanti, tanti, pluris,
and minoris are also used with verbs of buying and selling, to denote
indefinite price ; as, —
quanti aedes emisti, at how high a price did you purchase the house ?
5. Any of the above varieties of the Genitive of Quality may be
used predicatively ; as, — ■
tantae molis erat Romanam condere gentem, of so great difficulty
was it to found the Roman race.
GENITIVE WITH ADJECTIVES.
204. The Genitive is used with many. Adjectives to
limit the extent of their application. Thus : —
I. With adjectives signifying desire, knowledge, familiarity, mem-
^y, participation, power, fullness, and their opposites ; as, —
studiosus discendi, desirous of learnings
peritus belli, skilled in war ;
insuetus laboris, unused to toil ;
immemor mandati tui, unmindful of your commission ;
plena periculorum est vita, life is full of dangers,
a. Some participles used adjectively also take the Genitive ; as, —
diligens verltatis,/)«<i of truth;
amans patriae, devoted to one's country.
138 SYNTAX.
2. Sometimes with proprius and communis ; as, —
vlri propria est fortitude, bravery is characteristic of a man.
memoria est communis omnium axtians., memory is common to all
professions.
a. proprius and communis are also construed with the Dative.
3. With similis the Genitive is the commoner construction in
Cicero, when the reference is to living objects ; as, —
niius patris sim.iUimus est, the son is exactly like his father;
mei similis, like me; vestri similis, like you.
When the reference is to things, both Genitive and Dative occur ; as, —
mors sompo (or somnT) similis est, death is like sleep.
4. In the poets and later prose writers the use of the Genitive with Adjectives
is extended far beyond earlier limits; as, atrox zsc&aa., fierce of temper ; incer-
tus cousili, -undecided in purpose.
GENITIVE WITH VERBS.
205. The Genitive is used with the following classes of
Verbs : —
Memini, Remlniscor, Oblivisoor.
206. I. When referring to Persons —
a. memini always takes the Genitive of personal or reflexive
pronouns ; as, —
mei memineris, remember me !
nostrl meminit, he remembers us.
With other words denoting persons meminT takes tne Accusative,
rarely the Genitive ; as, —
SuUam memini, / recall Sulla ;
vivSrum memini, / remember the living.
b. obliviscor regularly takes the Genitive ; as, —
Epicuri non licet oblivisci, -we mustnH forget Epicurus.
2. When referring to Things, memini, reminiscor, oblivis-
cor take sometimes the Genitive, sometimes the Accusative, without
difference of meaning ; as, —
animus praeteritorum meminit, the mind rem,embers the past; »
meministine nomina, do you remember the names?
reminiscere veteris incommodi, remember the former disaster'.
reminiscens acerbitatem, retnemiering the bitterness.
THE GENITIVE. 139
a. But neuter pronouns, and adjectives used substantively, regularly stand
in the Accusative ; as, —
taaec meminl, / remember this ;
multa rerainiscor, / remember many things,
3. The phrase mihi (tlbi, etc.) in mentem venit, following the analogy of
memini, takes the Genitive ; as, —
mibi patriae veniebat In mentem, / remembered my country,
Admoneo, Commoneo, Commonefacio,
207. These verbs, in addition to an Accusative of the
person, occasionally take a Genitive of the thing ; as, —
te veteris amicitiae commonefacio, / remind you of our old
friendship.
It, But more frequently (in Cicero almost invariably) these verbs take de
with the Ablative ; as, —
me admones de sorore, you remind me of your sister,
i. A neuter pronoun or adjective used substantively regularly stands in
the Accusative (178. i.d); as, —
te hoc admoneo, I give you this warning.
Verbs of Judicial Action.
208. I. Verbs of Accusing, Convicting, Acquitting take
the Genitive of the charge ; as, — •
me furti accusat, he accuses me of theft ;
Verrem avaritiae coarguit, he convicts Verres of avarice ;
impietatis ab^olutus est, he was acquitted of blasphemy.
2. Verbs of Condemning take —
a. The Genitive of the charge ; as, —
peciiniae publicae condemnatus, condemned (on the
charge) of embezzlement (lit. public money) \
capitis damnatus, condemned on a capital charge (lit. on
a charge involving his head),
b. The Ablative of the penalty ; as, —
capite damnatus est, he was condemned to death ;
mille nummis damnatus est, he was condemned {to pay)
a thousand sesterces (lit. by a thousand sest'rces, Abl. of
Means).
I40 SYNTAX.
3. Note the phrases : — ■
voti damnatus, voti reus, having attained one's prayer (lit. condemned on tit
score of one's vow) ;
de vi, {accused, convicted, etc^ of assault ;
inter sicarios, {accused, convicted, etc) of murder.
Genitive with Impersonal Verbs.
209. I. The Impersonals pudet, paenitet, mlseret, taedet,
piget take the Accusative of the person affected, along with
the Genitive of the person or thing toward whom the feeling
is directed ; as, —
pudet me tui, / am ashamed of you (lit. it shames me ofyoii) ;
paenitet me hujus facti, I repent of this act;
eum taedet vitae, he is weary of life;
pauperum te miseret, you pity the poor.
a. Instead of tlie Genitive of the thing life often find an Infinitive or Neuter
Pronoun used as subject of the verb. Thus : —
me paenitet hoc f ecisse, / repent of having done this ;
me hoc pudet, / am ashamed of this.
2. Misereor and miseresco also govern the Genitive; as,—
miseremini sociorum, pity the allies.
Interest, RStert.
210. With interest, it concerns, three points enter into
consideration ; viz. —
a) the person concerned ;
b) the thing about which he is concerned ;
c) the extent of his concern.
211. I. The person concerned is regularly denoted by
the Genitive; as, —
patris interest, it concerns the father.
a. But instead of the Genitive of the personal pronouns, me!,
tui, nostri, vestri, the Latin uses the Ablative Singulai
Feminine of the Possessive, viz. .- mea, tua, etc. ; as, —
mea interest, it concerns me.
THE GENITIVE. I4I
2. The thing about which a person is concerned is
denoted —
a) by a Neuter Pronoun as subject ; as, —
hoc rei publicae interest, this concerns the state.
V) by an Infinitive ; as, —
omniuin interest valere, it concerns all to keep welli
c) by an Indirect Question ; as, —
mea interest quando venias, / am concerned as to when
you are coming.
3. The degree vf concern is denoted — •
a) by the Genitive (cf. § 203, 3) : magni, parvi, etc. ; as, —
mea magnl interest, it concerns me greatly.
6) by the Adverbs, magnopere, magis, maxime, etc. ; as, —
civium minime interest, it concerns the citizens very little.
c) by the Neuters, multum, plus, minus, etc. ; as, —
multum vestra interest,-zif concerns you much.
4. Refert follows interest in its construction, except that it rarely
takes the Genitive of the person. Thus : —
mea refert, it concerns me ;
but rarely illius refert, it concerns him.
Genitive with Other Verbs.
212. I. Verbs of Plenty and Want sometimes govern
the Genitive ; as, —
pecuniae indiges, you need money.
a. These verbs more commonly take the Ablative (§ 214, i) ;
indigeo is the only verb which has a preference for the
Genitive.
2. Potior, though usually followed by the Ablative, sometimes takes
the Genitive, almost always so in Sallust ; and regularly in the phrase :
potlri rerum, to get control of affairs.
3. In poetry some verbs take the Genitive in imitation of the Greek ; as, —
desine querellSrum, cease yow complaints ;
operum eoVJiH, freed from their t^shs.
142 SYNTAX.
THE ABLATIVE.
213. The Latin Ablative unites in itself three cases which
were originally distinct both in form and in meaning ; viz. -9,
The Ablative or from-case.
The Instrumental or with- case.
The Locative or where-case.
The uses of the Latin Ablative accordingly fall into
Genuine Ablative uses, Instrumental' uses, and Locative
uses.
GENUINE ABLATIVE USES.
Ablative of Separation.
214. The Ablative of Separation is construed sometimesi
with, sometimes without, a preposition.
I. The following words regularly take the Ablative without a
preposition : —
a) The Verbs oi freeing: libero, solvo, levo ;
b) The Verbs of depriving: privo, epoliS, ezuo, fraudo,
nudo ;
c) The Verbs of lacking: egeo, careo, vaco ;
d) The corresponding Adjectives, liber, inanis, vacuus, nudus,
and some others of similar meaning.
Thus : —
curls libeiSAMS, freed from cares;
Caesar hostes armis ezuit, Caesar stripped the enetry of
their arms ;
caret sensu commiini, he lacks common sense ;
auzilio eget, he needs help ;
bonorum vita vacua est metu, the life of the good is fret
from fear.
Note i. — Yet Adjectives and libero may take the preposition ab,— regit
larly so with the Ablative of persons ; as, —
urbem §, tyranno liberarunt, they freed the city from the tyrant,
NOTli 2. — Indigeo usually takes the >jenitive. See § 212, i, a.
THE ABLATIVE. I43
2. Of Verbs signifying to keep from, to rejnove, to withdraw, some
take the preposition, otiiers omit it. The same Verb often admits both
constructions. Examples: —
abstl&ere cibo, to abstain from food ;
hostes finibus prohibueruut, they kept the enemy from their borders^
praedones ab insula prohibuit, he kept the pirates from the island.
3. Other Verbs of separation usually take the Ablative with a Prep-
osition, particularly compounds of dis- and sg- ; as, —
dissentio a te, / dissent from you ;
secernantur a nobis, let them be separated from us.
4. The Preposition is freely omitted in poetry.
Ablative of Source,
215. The Ablative of Source is used with the participles
iiatuB and ortus (in poetry also with editus, satus, and some
others), to designate parentage or station ; as, —
Jove natus, son of Jupiter ;
summo looo natus, high-born (lit. born from a very high place') \
nobili genere ortus, born of a noble family.
1. Pronouns regularly (nouns rarely) take ex; as,
ex me natus, sprung from me.
2. To denote remoter descent, ortus ab, or oriiindus (with ot
without ab), is used ; as, —
ab Ulixe oriundus, descended from Ulysses.
Ablative of Agent.
216. The Ablative accompanied by a (ab) is used with
passive verbs to denote the personal agent ; as, —
a Caesare accusatus est, he was arraigned by Caesar.
I. Collective nouns referring to persons, and abstract nouns when
personified, may be construed as the personal agent. Thus : —
hostes a f ortuna deserebantur, the enemy were deserted by Fortune ,-
a multitudine hostium montes tenebantur, the mountains were held
by a multitude of the enemy.
a. Names of animals sometimes admit the same construction. Thus: —
a canibus lauiatus est, he was torn to pieces by dogs.
144 SYNTAX.
Ablative of Comparison.
217. I. The Ablative is often used with Comparativd|
in the sense of than ; as, —
melle dulcior, sweeter than honey;
patria mihi vita carior est, my country is dearer to me than life,
2. This construction, as a rule, occurs only as a substitute for quam
(than) with the Nominative or Accusative. In other cases quam must
be used ; as, —
tui studiosior sum quam illius, I am fonder of you than of him.
Studiosior illo would have meant, / am fonder of you than heis.
Plus, minus, amplius, longius are often employed as the equiv-
alents of pliis quam, minus quam, etc. Thus : — •
amplius viginti urbes inoendun'Lur, 7nore than twenty cities an
fired;
minus quinque milia processit, he advanced less than five miles.
3. Note the use of oplnioue with Comparatives ; as, —
opinione celerius venit, he comes more guickly than expected (lit. than opiniott).
INSTRUMENTAL USES OF THE ABLATIVE.
Ablative of Means.
218. The Ablative is used to denote means or instnir
ment ; as, —
Alexander sagitta vulneratus est, Alexander was wounded by an
arrow.
There are the following special varieties of this Ablative : —
I. Utor, fruor, fungor, potior, vesoor, and their compounds take
the Ablative ; as, —
divitiis utitur, he uses his ■afealth (lit. he benefits himself by Ms
wealth) ;
vita fruitur, he enjoys life (lit. he enjoys himself by life) ;
munere fungor, I perform my duty (lit. I busy myself with duty);
carne vescuntur, they eat flesh (lit. feed themselves by means of) |
castris potitus est, he got possession of the camp (lit. made himself
powerful by the camp) .
u. Potior sometimes governs the Genitive. Sec § 212, ^.
THE ABLATIVE. I45
2. With opus est (rarely usus est), there is need; as, —
duce nobis opus est, we need a leader.
a. A Neuter Pronoun or Adjective often stands as subject with
opus as predicate. Thus : —
hoc miM opus est, (his is necessary for me.
b. An ordinary substantive rarely stands as subject. Thus dux
nobis opus est is a rare form of expression.
L. Note the occasional use of a perfect passive participle with opus est;
as, —
opus est properat5, there is need of haste.
3. With nitor, innizus, and fretus ; as, —
nititur hasta, he rests on a spear (lit. supports himself by a spear'^ \
fretus virtute, relying on virtue (lit. supported by virtue').
4. With contineri, consistere, constare, consist of; as, —
nervis et ossibus continentur, they consist of sinews and bones (lit.
they are held together by sinews and bones) ;
mortali consistit corpore mundus, the world consists of mortal sub-
stance (lit. holds together by means of, etc.) .
6. In expressions of the following type : —
quid hoc homine facias, what can you do with this man ?
quid mea Tulliola fiet, what will become of my dear Tullia ? (lit. what
will be done with my dear Tullia ?)
7. In the following special phrases at variance with the ordinary
English idiom : —
proelio contendere, vincere, to contend, conquer in battle;
proelio lacessere, to provoke to battle ;
curru vehi, to ride in a chariot ;
pedibus ire, logo on foot;
castiis se tenere, to keep in camp.
8. With Verbs oi filling and Adjectives ol plenty ; as, —
fossas virgultis complSrunt, they filled the trenches with brush.
a. But plenus more commonly takes the Genitive. See § 204, i.
9. Under 'Means' belongs also the Ablative of the Way by
Which; as, —
vinum Tiber! devectum, wine brought down (by) the Tiber.
146 SYNTAX.
10. The means may be a person as well as a thing. Thus : —
militibus a lacu Lemanno ad montem Juram murum perducit, with
{i.e, by means of) Ais troops he runs a wall Jrom Lake Geneva to Mt, Jura,
Ablative of Cause.
219. The Ablative is used to denote cause ; as, —
multa gloriae cupiditate fecit, he did many things on account of hit.
love of glory.
1 . So especially with verbs denoting mental states ; as, deleotor,
gaudeo, laetor, glorior, fido, confido. Also with contentus;
as, —
fortuna amicl gaudeo, / rejoice at the fortune of my friend (i.e. on
account of it) ;
victoria sua gloriantur, they exult over their victory ;
natura loci confidebant, (hey trusted in the character of their cowvtry
(lit. were confident on account of the character).
a. fido and confido always take the Dative of the person (§ 187. II. a) ;
sometimes the Dative of tlie thing.
2. As Ablatives of Cause are to be reckoned also such Ablatives as
jussG, by order of, injussu, without the order, rogatu, etc.
Ablative of Manner.
220. The Ablative with cum is used to denote manner',
as, —
cum gravitate loquitur, he speaks with dignity,
I. The preposition may be absent when the Ablative is modified
by an adjective ; as, —
magna gravitate loquitur, he speaks with great dignity.
1. The preposition is regularly absent in the expressions jure,
injuria, joco, vx, fraude, voluntate, furto, silentio.
3. A special variety of the Ablative of Manner denotes that in at-
cor dance with which or in pursuance of which anything is cr is doae.
It is generally used without a preposition. Thus : —
mea sententia, according to my opinion ;
suTs moribus, in accordance with their custom ;
sua sponte, voluntarily, of his (their) ovm accord;
ea condicione, on these terms.
THE ABLATIVE. 147
Ablative of Attendant Circumstance.
221. The Ablative is often used to denote an attendant
circumstance of an action or an event ; as, —
boms auspiciis, under good auspices ;
nulla est altercatio clamoilbus umquam habita majoribus, no
debate -was ever held under circumstances of greater applause ;
ezstinguitur ingenti luctu provinciae, Ae dies under circumstances
of great grief on the part of the province ;
longo intervallo sequitur, he follows at a great distance.
Ablative of Accompaniment.
222. The Ablative with cum is used with verbs of motion
to denote accompaniment ; as, —
cum comitibus prof ectus est, he set out with his attendants ;
cum febri domum rediit, he returned home with a fever.
I. In military expressions the Ablative may stand without cum
when modified by any adjective except a numeral ; as, —
omnibus copiis, ingenti ezercitu, magna manS ; but usually cum
ezercitu, cum duabus legionibus.
Ablative of Association.
222 A. The Ablative is often used with verbs oi joining,
mixing, clinging, exchanging ; also with assuesco, consuesco,
assuefacio, and some others to denote association ; as, —
improbitas scelere juncta, badness joined with crime;
aer calore admiztus, air mixed with heat ;
assuetus labore, accustomed to (lit. familiarized with) toil;
pacem bello permutant, they change peace for (lit. with) war.
Ablative of Degree of Difference.
223. The Ablative is used with comparatives and words
involving comparison (as post, ante, infra, supra) to denote
the degree of difference ; as, —
dimidio minor, smaller by a half;
tribus pedibus altior, three feet higher ;
pauio post, a little afterwards ;
quo plura habemus, e5 cupimus ampUora, the more we have, tht
more we want.
148 SYNTAX.
Ablative of Quality.
224. The Ablative, modified by an adjective, is used to
denote qtiality; as, —
puella ezimia forma, a girl of exceptional beauty ;
vir singular! industria, a man of singular industry.
I. The Ablative of Quality may also be used predicatively ; as, —
est magna prudentia, he is (a man) of great wisdom ;
bono animo sunt, they are of good courage.
■J. In place of the Adjective we sometimes find a limiting Genitive ; as,
sunt specie et colore taurf, they are of the afpearance and color of a bull,
3. In poetry the Ablative of Quality sometimes denotes ZKa/«>va/; as, —
scopulis pendentibus antrum, a cave of arching rocks.
Ablative of Price.
225. With verbs of buying and selling, price is desig-
nated by the Ablative ; as —
servum quinque minis emit, he bought the slave for five minae.
1 . The Ablatives magno, pluiimo, parvo, minimo (by omission
of pretio) are used to denote indefinite price ; as, —
aedes magno vendidit, he sold the house for a high price.
2. For the Genitive of Indefinite Price, see § 203. 4.
Ablative of Specification.
226. The Ablative of Specification is used to denote
that in respect to which something is or is done ; as, —
Helvetii omnibus Gallis virtute praestabant, the Helvetians sur-
passed all the Gauls in valor ;
tjede claudus, lame in his foot.
t. Note the phrases : —
major natu, older (lit. greater as to age) ;
minor natu, younger.
2. Here belongs the use of the Ablative with dignus, worlhi
indignus, unworthy, and dignor, deem worthy of; as, —
digni honore, worthy of honor (i.e. in point of honor) i
fide indigni, unworthy of confidence ;
me dignor honore, I deem myself worthy of honor.
THE ABLATIVE. I49
Ablative Absolute.
227. The Ablative Absolute is grammatically inde-
pendent of the rest of the sentence. In its commonest
form it consists of a noun or pronoun limited by a
participle ; as, —
urbe capta, AenSas fugit, when the city had been captured, Aeneas
fled (lit. the city having been captured).
1. Instead of a participle we often find an adjective or noun ; as, —
VIVO Caesare res publica salva erat, while Caesar was alive the
state was safe (lit. Caesar being alive) ;
Tarquinio rege, Pythagoras in Italiam venit, in the reign of Tar-
quin Pythagoras came into Italy (lit. Targtein being king) ;
Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of Gnaeus
Pompey and Marcus Crassus (lit. P. and C. being consuls) .
2. Tlie Ablative Absolute is generally used in Latin where in
Englisli we employ subordinate clauses. Thus the Ablative Absolute
may correspond to a clause denoting —
a) Time, as in the foregoing examples.
b) Condition ; as, —
omnes virtutes jacent, voluptate dominaute, all virtues
lie prostrate, if pleasure is master.
c) Opposition; as, —
perditis omnibus rebus, virtus se sustentare potest,
though everything else is lost, yet Virtue can maintain
herself.
d) Cause; as, —
nulls adversante regnum obtinuit, since no one opposed
him, he secured the throne.
e) Attendant circumstance ; as, — •
pasBis palmis paoem petiverunt, with hands outstretched,
they sued for peace.
3. An Infinitive or clause sometimes occurs in the Ablative Absolute
construction, especially in Livy and later writers ; as, —
audito eum fugisse, when it was heard that he had fled.
4. A noun or pronoun stands in the Ablative Absolute construction
only when it denotes a different person or thing from any in the clause
in which it stands. Exceptions to this principle are extremely rare.
I50 , aVNTAX.
LOCATIVE USES OF THE ABLATIVE,
Ablative of Place.
A. Place where.
228. The place where is regularly denoted by the Ab-
lative with a preposition ; as, —
iu urbe habitat, he dwells in the city.
I. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a prepo-
sition; viz. — '
a) Names of towns, — except Singulars of the First and
Second Declensions (see § 232. i) ; as, —
Carthagini, at Carthage ;
Athenis, at Athens ;
Vejis, at Veii.
b) The general words loco, locis, parte; also many words
modified by totus or even by other Adjectives ; as, —
hoc loco, ai this place ;
totis castris, in the whole camp.
c) The special words : foris, out of doors; ruri, in the country \
terra marique, on land and sea.
d) The poets freely omit the preposition with any word denot-
ing place ; as, —
stant ITtore puppes, the sterns rest on the beach.
B. Place from which. '^
229. Place from which is regularly denoted by the
Ablative with a preposition ; as, —
ab Italia profectus est, he set out from Italy}
ex urbe rediit, he returned from the city.
I. But certain words stand in the Ablative without a prepo-
sition ; viz. —
a) Names of towns and small islands ; as, —
Roma profectus est, he set out from Rome;
Rhodo revertit, he returned from Rhodes.
1 Place from which, though strictly a Genuine Ablative use, is treated here fol
>a)<e ur convenience.
THE ABLATIVE. 151
b) Aovaa, from home ; ivas, from the country.
c) Freely in poetry ; as, —
Italia decesait, he withdrew from Italy.
2. With names of towns, ab is used to mean from the vicinity of
or to denote the point whence distance is measured; as, —
a G-ergovia discessit, he withdrew from the vicinity of Gergovia ;
a Roma X mllia aberat, he was ten miles distant frotn Rome.
XJrbe and oppido, when standing in apposition with a town name,
are accompanied by a preposition ; as, —
Curibus ex oppido Sabinorum, from Cures, a town of the Sabines.
Ablative of Time.
A. Time at which.
230. The Ablative is used to denote the time at
which; as, —
qu9rta hora mortuus est, he died at the fourth hour ;
anno septuagesimo consul oreatus, elected consul in his seventieth
year.
1. Any word denoting a period of time may stand in this con-
struction, particularly annus, ver, aestas, hiems, dies, nox, hora,
comitia {Election Day), ludi (the Games), etc.
2. Words not denoting time require the preposition in, unless
accompanied b} a modifier. Thus : —
in pace, in peace ; in bello, in war ;
but secundo bello Punico, in the second Punic War.
3. Expressions like in eo tempore, in summa senectute, take the
preposition because they denote situation rather than tiine.
B. Time within which.
231. Time within which is denoted by the Ablative
either with or without a preposition ; as, —
Stella Saturn! triginta annis cursum conficit, the planet Saturn
completes its orbit within thirty years ;
ter in anno, thrice in the course of the year.
I. Occasionally the Ablative denotes duration of time: as, —
biennis prosperas res habult ; /o/- two years he had a prosperous administration.
152 SYNTAX.
THE LOCATIVE.
232. The Locative case occurs chiefly in the following
words : —
1. Regularly in the Singular of names of towns and small island
of the first and second declensions, to denote the place in which ; as, —
Romae, af Rome ; Corinthi, ai Corinth ;
RhodT, at Rhodes.
2. In the following special fonns : —
dovai, ai hotne ; hntnl, on the ground ;
belli, in war ; militiae, in war ;
vesperi, at evening; heii, yesterday.
3. Note the phrase pendSre animi, lit. to be in suspense in one's
mind.
4. For urba and oppidum in apposition with a Locative, see § 169. 4.
Chapter III. — Syntax of Adjectives.
233. I. The word with which an Adjective agrees is
called its Subject.
2. Attributive and Predicate Adjectives. An Attributive
Adjective is one that limits its subject directly ; as, —
vir sapiens, a wise man.
A Predicate Adjective is one that limits its subject through
the medium of a verb (usually esse) ; as, —
vir est sapiens, the man is wise ;
vir videbatur sapiens, the man seemed wise ;
vir judicatus est sapiens, the man was judged wise ;
hunc virum sapientem judicavimus, we adjudged this mun wise.
3. Participles and Adjective Pronouns have the construction o(
Adjectives.
AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. I S3
AQREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES.
234. Agreement with One Noun. When an Adjective
limits one noun it agrees with it in Gender, Number, and
Case.
1. Two Adjectives in the Singular may limit a noun in the Plural;
as, prima et vicesima legiones, the first and twentieth legions.
2. A Predicate Adjective may stand in the Neuter when its Subject
is Masculine or Feminine and denotes a thing ; as, —
omnium rerum mors est eztremum, death is the end of all things.
235. Agreement with Two or More Nouns.
A. AGREEMENT AS TO NUMBER.
1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees
in number with the nearest noun ; as, —
pater tuus et raS.ter, your father and mother ;
eadem alacritas et studium, the same eagerness and zeal.
2. When the Adjective is Predicative, it is regularly
Plural; as, —
pax et coQCordia sunt pulchrae, peace and concord are glorious.
B. AGREEMENT AS TO GENDER.
1. When the Adjective is Attributive, it regularly agrees
in gender with the nearest noun ; as, —
res operae multae ac laboris, a matter of much effort and labor.
2. When the Adjective is Predicative —
a) If the nouns are of the same gender, the Adjective agrees
vfith them in gender ; as, —
pater et filius capti sunt, father and son were captured.
Yet with feminine abstract nouns, the Adjective is more fre-
quently Neuter ; as, —
stultitia et timiditas fugienda sunt, folly and cowardice
must be shunned.
154 SYNTAX.
i) If the nouns are of different gender ; then, —
a) In case they denote persons, the Adjective is Mascu-
line ; as, —
pater et mater mortui sunt, ike father and mot}i,er have
died.
/8) In case they denote things, the Adjective is Neu-
ter; as, —
honores et viotoriae fortuita sunt, honors and victories
are accidental.
■y) In case they include both persons and things, the
Adjective is, —
aa) Sometimes Masculine ; as, —
domus, uxor, liberi inventi sunt, home, wife, and children
are secured.
ySyS) Sometimes Neuter ; as, —
parentes, Iiberos, domos vilia habere, to hold parents,
children, houses cheap.
yy) Sometimes it agrees with the nearest noun ; as,—
populT provinciaeque liberatae sunt, nations and prov-
inces were liberated. .
c) Construction according to Sense. Sometimes an Ad-
jective does not agree with a noun according to strict gram-
matical form, but according to sense ; as, —
pars bestiis object! smA, part {of the men) were thrown
to beasts.
ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY.
236. I. Plural Adjectives used Substantively.
Adjectives are quite freely used as Substantives in the
Plural. The Masculine denotes persons; the Neuter
denotes things ; as, —
docti, scholars ; parva, small things ;
mall, the wicked ; magna, great things ;
Graeci, the Greeks; utilia, useful things ;
nostri, our men.
ADJECTIVES USED SUBSTANTIVELY. 1 55
2. Neuter Plural Adjectives thus used are confined mainly to the
Nominative and Accusative cases. Such forms as magnorum, om-
nium; magnis, omnibus, would ordinarily lead to ambiguity; yet
where there is no ambiguity, they sometimes occur ; as, —
parvis componere magna, to compare great things with small.
Otherwise the Latin says : magnarum r§rum, magnis rebus, etc.
237. Singular Adjectives used Substantively. Ad-
jectives are less freely used as Substantives in the Sin-
gular than in the Plural.
1. Masculine Adjectives occur only occasionally in this use; as,^
probus invidet nemini, the honest tnan envies nobody.
a. Usually vir, homo, or some similar word is employed ; as, —
homo doctus, a scholar ;
vir Romanus, a Roman.
6. But when limited by a pronoun any adjective may be so
used; as, —
hic doctus, this scholar ;
doctus quidam, a certain scholar.
2. Neuters are likewise infrequent ; as, —
verum, truth ;
justum, justice;
honestum, virtue.
a. This substantive use of Neuter Singulars is commonest in the con-
struction of the Genitive of the Whole, and after Prepositions; as,—
allquid veri, something true ;
nihil novi, nothing new ;
in medio, in the midst.
238. From Adjectives which, like the above, occasionally admit the
substantive use, must be carefully distinguished certain others which
have become nouns ; as, —
adversarius, opponent ; hiberna, winter quarters ;
aequalis, contemporary ; propinquus, relativ: ;
amicus, friend ; socius, partner ;
cognatus, kinsman ; sodalis, comrade ;
vicinus, neighbor; etc.
156 SYNTAX.
ADJECTIVES WITH THE FORCE OP ADVERBS.
239. The Latin often uses an Adjective where the Eng,
lish idiom employs an Adverb or an adverbial phrase ; as, —
senatus frequens oonvenit, the senate assembled in great numbers;
fuit assiduus mecum, he was constantly with me.
COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES.
240. I. The Comparative often corresponds to the English Positive
with ' rather^ ' somewhat^ ' too ' ; as, —
seuectus est loquaoior, old age is rather talkative.
2. So the Superlative often corresponds to the Positive with
' very ' ,• as, —
vir fortissimus, a very brave man.
3. Strengthening Words. Vel and quam are often used witli
the Superlative as strengthening particles, vel with the force of ' very^
and quam with the force of ' as possible ' ; as, —
vel masimus, the very greatest ;
quam masimae oopiae, as great forces as possible.
4. Phrases of the type ' more rich than hrave ' regularly take the Comparative
in both members ; as, —
exercitus erat ditior quam fortior, the army was more rich than brave.
OTHER PECULIARITIES.
241. I. Certain Adjectives may be used to denote apart of an object,
chiefly primus, extremus, summus, medius, iniimus, imus; as,—
aummus mons, the top of the mountain ;
extrema hieme, in the last part of the winter.
2. Prior, primus, ultimus, and postremns are frequently equiva-
lent to a relative clause ; as, —
primus eam vidi, / was the first who saw her ;
ultimus dgcessit, he was the last who withdrew.
3. When multus and another adjective both limit the same noun,
et is generally used ; as, —
multae et magnae oogitstiones, many {and) great thoughts.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS. — POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS. 1 57
Chapter IV. — Syntax of Pronouns.
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.
242. I. The Personal Pronouns as subjects of verbs
are, as a rule, not expressed except for the purpose of
emphasis, contrast, or clearness. Thus ordinarily : —
video, / see ; amat, Ae loves.
But ego te video, et tu me vides, I see you, and you see me.
2. The Genitives mei, tui, nostri, vestrT are used only as Objective
Genitives; nostrum and vestrum as Genitives of the Whole. Thus: —
memoT tui, mindful of you ;
desiderium vestri, longing for you ;
nemo vestrum, no one of you.
a. But nostrum and vestrum are regularly used in the place of the Pos-
sessive in the phrases omnium nostrum, omnium vestrum.
3. The First Plural is often used for the First Singular of Pronouns
and Verbs. Compare the Eng. editorial 'we.'
4. When two Verbs govern the same object, the Latin does not
use a pronoun with the second, as is the rule in English. Thus : —
virtiis amicitias oonciliat et conaervat, virtue establishes friend-
ships and maintains them (not e5s conservat) .
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
243. I. The Possessive Pronouns, as a rule, are not
employed except for the purpose of clearness. Thus : —
patrem amo, Hove my father ;
de filii morte flebas, you wept for the death of your son.
But —
de morte filii mel QebaB, you wept for the death of my son.
a. When expressed merely for the sake of clearness, the pos-
sessive usually stands after its noun ; but in order to indi-
cate emphasis or contrast, it precedes ; as, —
sua manii ITberos occidit, with his own hand he slew hii
children ;
mea quidem sententia, in my opinion at least.
158 SYNTAX.
2. Sometimes the Possessive Pronouns are used with the force of
an Objective Genitive ; as, —
metus vester,yiar of you i
desiderium tuum, longing for you.
3. For special emphasis, the Latin employs ipaius or ipsorum, in
apposition with the Genitive idea implied in the Possessive ; as, —
mea ipsius opera, by my own help ;
nostra ipsorum opera, 6y our own help ;
a. So sometimes other Genitives ; as, —
mea uulus opera, dy the assistance of me alone,
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
244. I. The Reflexive Pronoun se and the Possessive
Reflexive suus have a double use : —
1. They may refer to the subject of the clause (either principal or
subordinate) in which they stand,' — 'Direct Reflexives'; as, —
Be amant, they love themselves ;
suos amicos adjuvat, he helps his own friends;
eum oravi, ut se servaret, / besought him to save himself.
II. They may stand in a subordinate clause and refer to the subject
of the principal clause, — ' Indirect Reflexives ' ; as, —
me oravit ut se dSfenderem, he besought m.e to defend him (lit. thai
I defend hitnself) ;
me oraverunt, ut fortunarum suarum defensionem susciperem,
they besought me to undertake the defense of their fortunes.
a. The Indirect Reflexive is mainly restricted to those clauses
which express the thought, not of the author, but of the sub-
ject of the principal clause.
2. The Genitive sui is regularly employed, like mei and tui, as an
Objective Genitive, e.g. oblltus sui, forgetful of himself; but it occa-
sionally occurs — particularly in post -Augustan writers — in place of the
Possessive suus ; as, fruitur fama sui, he enjoys his oumfame.
3. Se and suus are sometimes used in the sense, one''s self, onii
own, where the reference is not to any particular person ; as, —
se amare, to love one's self;
suum genium propitiare, to propitiate one's own genius.
RECIPROCAL AND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 159
4. Suus sometimes occurs in the meaning his own, their own, etc.,
referring not to the subject but to an oblique case ; as, —
Hannibalem sui cives e oivitate ejecerunt, his own fellow-citizens
drove out Hannibal.
a. This usage is particularly frequent in combination with
quiaque ; as, —
suus quemque error vexat, his own error troubles each.
J. The Reflexives for the first and second persons are supplied by
the obUque cases of ego and tu (§ 85) ; as, —
vos def enditis, _)'02^ defend yourselves.
HECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
245. I . The Latin has no special reciprocal pronoun (' each other '),
but expresses the reciprocal notion by the phrases : inter nos, inter
vos, inter se ; as, —
Belgae obsides inter se dederunt, the Belgae gave each other hos-
tages (lit. atnong themselves);
amamus inter nos, we love each other ;
Gall! inter se cohortati sunt, the Gauls exhorted each other.
a. Note that the Object is not expressed in sentences of tliis type.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
Hic, lUe, Iste.
246. I. Where Mo and ille are used in contrast, hie usually refers
to the latter of two objects, and ille to the former.
2. Hic and ille are often used in the sense of ' the following' ; as, —
Themlstocles his verbis epistulam misit, Themistocles sent a letter
(couched) in the following words ;
illud intellego, omnium ora in me conversa esse, / understand
this, that the faces of all are turned toward me.
3. Ille often means the fa?nous ; as, Solon ille, the famous Solon.
4. Iste frequently involves contempt ; as, iste homo, that fellow I
5. The above pronouns, along with is, are usually attracted to the
gender of a predicate noun ; as, hic est honor, meminisse offioium
suum, this is an honor, to be mindful of one's duty.
l6o SYNTAX.
Is.
247. I. Is often serves as the antecedent of the relative qui.
Thus: —
Maziniuni, eum qui Tarentum recepit, dilezi, I loved Maximus,tht
. man who retook Tarentum.
a. Closely akin to this usage is is in the sense oisuch (= talis) ;
as, —
non sum is qui terrear, f am not such a person as to be
frightened.
b. Note the phrase id quod, where id stands in apposition with
an entire clause ; as, —
non suspicabatur (id quod nunc sentiet) satis multos
testes nobis reliqiios esse, he did not suspect (a
thing -which he will now perceive") that we had wit-
nesses enough left.
Yet quod alone, without preceding id, sometimes occurs in
this use.
2. Is also in all cases serves as the personal pronoun of the third
person, ^he^ ^ she^ 'it,'' 'they,'' 'them.'' i
3. When the English uses 'that of ^ those of to avoid repetition of
the noun, the Latin omits the pronoun ; as, —
in exercitu Sullae et postea in Crassi fuerat, he had been in the
army of Sulla and afterward in that of Crassus ;
nullae me fabulae delectant nisi PlautT, no plays delight me except
those of Plautus.
4. Note the phrases et is, et ea, etc., in the sense : and that too ; as,—
vincula, et ea sempiterna, imprisonment, and that too permanently. -
Idem.
248. I. Idem in apposition with the subject or object often has tlie
force of also, likewise ; as, —
quod idem mihi contigit, which likewise happened to me (lit. which,
the same thing) \
bonus vir, quern eundem sapientem appellamus, a good man,
whom we call also wise.
For idem atque (ac), the same as, see § 341. i.e.
DEMONSTRATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS. l6l
Ipse.
249. I. Ipse, literally self, acquires its special force from the con-
text ; as, —
eo ipso diS, on that very day ;
ad ipsam ripam, close to the bank ;
vpBO teixoie, dy mere /right ;
valvae se ipsae aperueruut, the doors opened of their own accord;
ipse aderat, he was present in person.
2. The reflexive pronouns are often emphasized by the addition of
ipse, but ipse in such cases, instead of standing in apposition with the
reflexive, more commonly agrees with the subject ; as, —
secnm ipsi loquuntur, they talk with themselves ;
se ipse continere non potest, he cannot contain himself.
3. Ipse is also used as an Indirect Reflexive for the purpose oil
marking a contrast or avoiding an ambiguity ; as, —
Persae pertimuerunt ne Alcibiades ab ipsTs descisceret et cum
suis in gratiam rediret, the Persians feared that Alcibiades
would break with them, and become reconciled with his countrymen.
ea molestiBsime ferre debent homines quae ipsorum culpa con-
tracta sunt, men ought to chafe most over those things which have
been brought about by their own fault (as opposed to the fault of
others).
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
250. Agreement. I. The Relative Pronoun agrees with
its antecedent in Gender, Number, and Person, but its case
is determined by its construction in the clause in which it
stands ; as, —
mulier quam videbamus, the woman whom we saw ;
bona quibus fruimur, the blessings which we enjoy.
2. Where the antecedent is compound, the same principles for
number and gender prevail as in case of predicate adjectives under
similar conditions (see § 235. B. 2). Thus : —
pater et filius, qui capti sunt, the father and son who were captured;
stultitia et timiditas quae fugienda saxit, folly and cowardice which
must be shunned;
honores et victoriae quae sunt fortuita, honors and victories, which
are accidental.
l62 SYNTAX.
3. The Relative regularly agrees with a predicate noun (either
Nominative or Accusative) instead of its antecedent ; as, —
career, quae lautumiae vocantur, the prison, which is called Law-
iumiae ;
Belgae, quae est tertia pars, ihe Belgians, who are the third part.
4. Sometimes the Relative takes its gender and number from the
meaning of its antecedent ; as, —
pars qui bestiis object! sunt, a part (of the men) who were thrmvn
to beasts.
5. Occasionally the Relative is attracted into the case of its ante-
cedent; as, —
natus eo patre quo dixi, born of the father that I said.
251. Antecedent. I. The antecedent of the Relative is
sometimes omitted ; as, —
qui naturam sequitur sapiens est, he who follows Naiure is wise.
2. The antecedent may be implied in a possessive pronoun (or
rarely an adjective) ; as, —
nostra qui remansimus caedes, the slaughter of us who remained;
servili tumultu, quos usus ac disciplina sublevarunt, at the up-
rising of the slaves, whom experience and discipline assisted
(servili = servorum).
3. Sometimes the antecedent is repeated with the Relative; 13,—
erant itinera duo, quibus itineribus, there were two routes, by which,
{routes).
4. Incorporation of Antecedent in Relative Clause. The
antecedent is often incorporated in the relative clause. Thus : —
a) When the relative clause stands first ; as, —
quam quisque novit artem, in hac se exerceat, let each
one practice the branch which he knows.
b) When the antecedent is an appositive ; as, — ■
non longe a Tolosatium finibus absunt, quae civitaa
est in provincia, they are not far from the borders oj
the Tolosates, a state which is in our province.
c) When the logical antecedent is a superlative ; as, —
Themistocles de servis suis, queni habuit fidelissimum
miait, Themistocles sent the most trttsty slave he had.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.— INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 1 63
d) In expressions of the following type —
qua es prudentia ; quae tua est prudentia, such is your
prudence (lit. of which prudence you are; which is your
prudence") .
5. The Relative is never omitted in Latin as it is in English. Thiis
the boy I saw must be puer quern vidi.
6. The Relative is used freely in Latin, particularly at the beginning
of a sentence, where in English we employ a demonstrative; as, —
quo factum est, by this it happened ;
quae cum ita sint, since this is so ;
quibus rebus cognitis, when these things became known.
7. The Relative introducing a subordinate clause may belong
grammatically to a clause which is subordinate to the one it introduces ;
as, —
numquam digne satis laudari philosophia poterit, cui qui
pareat, omne tempus aetatis sine molestia possit degere,
philosophy can never be praised enough, since he who obeys her
can pass every period of life without annoyance (lit. he who obeys
which, etc.).
Here cui introduces the subordinate clause possit and connects it with
philosophia ; but cui is governed by pareat, which is subordinate to
possit.
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
252. I . Quis, any one, is the weakest of the Indefinites, and stands
usually in combination with si, nisi, ne, num ; as, —
SI quis putat, if any one thinks.
2. Aliquis (adj. aliqui) is more definite than quis, and corre-
sponds usually to the English some one, somebody, some; as, —
nunc aliquis dicat mihi, now let somebody tell me ;
utinam mode agatur aliquid, oh that something may be done.
3. Quidam, a certain one, is still more definite than aliquis ; as, —
homo quidam, a certain man (ie. one whom I have in mind).
a. Qmdam (with or without quasi, as if) is sometimes used in the
sense : a sort of, kind of: as, —
cognatio quaedam, a sort of relationship ;
mors est quasi quaedam migratiS, death is a kind of transfer,
1 64 SYNTAX.
4. Quisquam, any one, any one whoever (more general than quis),
and its corresponding adjective uUua, any, occur mostly in negative
and conditional sentences, in interrogative sentences implying a negativej
and in clauses of comparison ; as, —
justitia uumquam nocet cm.<¥Oi?cca, justice never harms anybody^
bT quisquam, Cat5 sapiens fuit, if anybody was ever wise, Cato was;
potestne quisquam sine perturbatione animi irasci, can anybody
be angry without excitement ?
SI ullo modo poterit, if it can be done in any way;
taetrior hic tyrannus fuit quam quisquam superiorum, he was a
viler tyrant than any of his predecessors.
5. Quisque, each one, is used especially under the following circum-
stances : —
a') In connection with suus. See § 244. 4. a.
. b) In connection with a Relative or Interrogative Pronoun;
as, —
quod cuique obtigit, id teneat, what falls to each, that let
him hold.
c) In connection with superlatives; as, —
optimuB quisque, all the best (lit. each best one).
d) With ordinal numerals ; as, —
quinto quoque anno, every four years (lit. each fifth year).
6. Nemo, no one, in addition to its other uses, stands regularly with
adjectives used substantively ; as, —
nemo mortalis, no mortal;
nemo Romanus, no Roman.
PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES.
253. !• Alius, another, and alter, the other, are often used correl-
atively; as, —
aliud loquitur, aliud sentit, he says one thing, he thinks another;
alii resistunt, alii fugiunt, some resist, others flee;
alter exercitum perdidit, alter vendidit, one ruined the army, tht
other sold it ;
alterl se in montem recSperunt, alter! ad impedimenta se contu-
lerunt, the one party retreated to the fiiountain, the others betook
themselves to the baggage.
AGREEMENT OF VERB WJTH SUBJECT. 1 65
2. Where the English says one does one thing, another anoffur, the
Latin uses a more condensed form of statement ; as, —
alius aliud amat, one likes one thing, another another ;
aliud aliis placet, one thing pleases some, another others.
a. So sometimes with adverbs ; as, —
alii alio fugriunt, somefiee in one direction^ others in another,
3. The Latin also expresses the notion ' each other ' by means ol
alius repeated ; as, —
Galli alius alium cohortati sunt, the Gauls encouraged each other.
4. Ceten means the rest, all the others ; as, —
cSteris praestare, to be superior to all the others.
J. Seliqui means the others in the sense of the rest, those remain'
ing, — hence is the regular word with numerals ; as, —
reliqui sex, the six others.
6. Nesoio quis forms a compound indefinite pronoun with_ the
force of some one or other; as, —
causidicus nescio quis, some pettifogger or other ;
misit nescio quem, he sent some one or other;
nescio quo pacto, somehow or other.
Chapter V. : — Syntax of Verbs.
AGHEEMENT.
■With One Subject.
254. I. Agreement in Number and Person. A Finite
Verb agrees with its subject in Number and Person ; as, —
vos videtis, you see ;
pater filios instituit, the father trains his sons.
2. Agreement in Gender. In the compound forms of the verb
the participle regularly agrees with its subject in gender ; as, —
seditio repressa est, the mutiny was checked.
l66 . SYNTAX.
3. But when a predicate noun is of diffeijnt gender or number from
its subject, the verb usually agrees with its nearest substantive ; as, —
Tarquiuii materna patria erat, Tarquinii was his native country
on his mother'' s side ;
non omnia error stultitia est dicenda, jiot every error is to be called
folly.
a. Less frequently the verb agrees with an appositive ; as, —
Corioli, oppidum Volscorum, '"iptum eat, Corioli, a town of the
Volsci, was captured.
4. Construction according to Sense. Sometimes the verb
agrees with its subject according to sense instead of strict grammatical
form. Thus : —
d) In Number ; as, —
multitado hominum convenerant, a crowd of nun had
gathered.
6) In Gender ; as, ^-
duo milia crucibus adfizi sunt, two thousand {men) were
crucified.
"With Two or More Subjects.
255. I. Agreement in Number. With two or more sub-
jects the verb is regularly plural ; as, —
pater et filius mortui sunt, the father and son died.
.2. But sometimes the verb agrees with the nearest subject; viz.,—
a) When the verb precedes both subjects or stands between
them ; as, —
mortuus est pater et filiua ;
pater mortuus eat et filius.
b) When the subjects are connected by aut; aut . . . aut;
vel . . . vel ; neque . . . ineque ; as, —
neque pater neque filius mortuus est, neither father nor
son died.
3. When the different subject's are felt together as constituting a
whole, the singular is used ; as, —
temeritas ignoratioque vitioaa est, rashness and ignorance are had.
u. This is regularly the case in senatus popultisque Bomanus,
VOICES. — TENSES. 167
4, Agreement in Person. With compound subjects of different
persons the verb always takes the first person rather than the second,
and the second rather than the third; as, —
si tu et TuUia valetis, ego et Cicero yalemus, if you and Tullia
are well, Cicero and I are well.
5. Agreement in Gender. With subjects of different genders the
participle in the compound tenses follows the same principles as laid
down for predicate adjectives. See § 235, B, 2.
VOICES.
256. I • The Passive Voice sometimes retains traces of its original
middle or reflexive meaning ; as, —
ego non patiar eum defend!, / shall not allow him to defend himself.
2. In imitation of Greek usage many perfect passive participles are
used by the poets as indirect middles, i.e. the subject is viewed as act-
ing not upon itself, but as doing something in his own interest ; as, —
velatus tempora, having veiled his temples.
a. Occasionally finite forms of the verb are thus used ; as, —
tunica inducitur artus, he covers his limbs with a tunic.
3. Intran.sitive Verbs may be used impersonally in the passive ; as, —
curritur, people run (lit. it is run) ;
ventum est, he (they, etc.') came (lit. it was come).
TENSES.
TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.
257. I. The Latin tenses express two distinct no-
tiohs : —
a) The period of time to which the action belongs :
Present, Fast, or Future,
h) The kind of action: Undefined, Going on, or
Completed.
The Latin with its six tenses is able to express each of the three
kinds of action for each of the three periods of time (making practically
i68
SYNTAX.
nine tenses). It does this by employing certain tenses in more than
one way, as may be seen by the following table : —
PERIOD OF TIME.
Pkesent.
Past.
Future.
UNDEFINED.
Present:
Historical Perfect:
Future :
scribo, / write.
scripsi, / wrote.
scribam, / shall
virite.
Going on.
Present :
Imperfect :
Future :
scrib5, I am
soribebam, /
scribam, / shall
writing.
was writing.
be writing.
Completed.
Present Perfect :
Pluperfect:
Future Perfect :
scripsi, I have
scripseram, /
scripserS, /
written.
had written.
shall have writ-
ten.
2. It will be seen that the Present may express Undefined action
or action Going on ; so also the Future. The Perfect likewise has a
double use, according asit denotes action Completed in present time
(Present Perfect) or Undefined action belonging to past time (Historical
Perfect).
Principal and Historical Tenses.
258. Tenses which denote Present or Future time are
called Principal (or Primary) Tenses ; those which denote
Past time are called Historical (or Secondary).
The Principal Tenses of the Indicative are: Present,
Future, Present Perfect, Future Perfect.
The Historical Tenses are : Imperfect, Historical Per-
fect, Pluperfect.
Present Indicative.
259. Besides the two uses indicated. in the table, the
Present Indicative presents the following peculiarities : —
.- It is used to denote a general truth, i.e. something true not
merely in the present but at all times ('Gnomic Present') ; as,—
virtus conciliat amicitias et conservat, virtue establishes ties of
friendship and maintains them (i.e. always does so).
TENSES. 169
2. It is used of an attempted action (' Conative Present ') ; as, —
aum vTtant vitia, in contrSria ourrunt, tuhile they try to avoid
(vitant) -vices, they rush into opposite ones.
3. In lively narration the Present is often used of a past action
(' Historical Present ') ; as, —
Caesar imperat magnum numerum obsidum, Caesar demanded
a large number of hostages (lit. demands').
4. In combination with jam, jam diu, jam pridem, and similar
words, the Present is frequently used of an action originating in the
past and continuing in the present ; as, —
jam pridem cupio te visere, / have long been desiring to visit you
[i.e. I desire and have long desired).
Imperfect Indicative.
260. I. The Imperfect primarily denotes action going
on in past time ; as, —
librum legebam, / was reading a book.
a. This force makes the Imperfect especially adapted to serve
as the tense of description (as opposed Co mere narration) .
2. From the notion of action going on, there easily develops the
notion of repeated or customary action ; as, —
legates interrogabat, he kept asking the envoys ;
C. DuQium videbam pner, as a boy / ofte7i used to see Gaius Duilius.
3. The Imperfect often denotes an attempted action ('Conative Im-
psrfect') or an action as beginning (' Inceptive Imperfect') ; as, —
hostes nostros intra munitiones progredX prohibebant, the enemy
tried to prevent (prohibebant) our men from advancing within
the fortifications (' Conative ') ;
ad proeUum se ezpediebant, they were beginning to get ready for
battle (' Inceptive ') .
4. The Imperfect, with jam, jam diu, jam dudum, etc., is some-
times used of an action which had been continuing some time ; as, —
domicilium Romae multos jam annos habebat, he had had his
residence at Rome for many years (i.e. he had it at this time
and had long had it).
lyo SYNTAX.
Future Indicative.
261. I. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future than
is the English. We say : '■ If he comes, J shall be glad,'' where we really
mean: <■ If he shall come J etc. In such cases the Latin rarely admits
the Present, but generally employs the Future.
2. Sometimes the Future has Imperative force; as, dices, say I
Perfect Indicative.
262. A. Present Perfect. Several Present Perfects denote the
state resulting from a completed act, and so seem equivalent to the
Present; as, —
novi, cognovi, / know (lit. / have become acquainted with) ;
cSusuevT, / am wont (lit. / have become accustomed) .
B. Historical Perfect. The Historical Perfect is the tense of
narration (as opposed to the Imperfect, the tense oi description) ; as,—
Regulus in senatum venit, mandata exposuit, reddi captivoa
negavit esse utile, Regulus came into the Senate, set forth his
commission, said it was useless for captives to be returned.
I. Occasionally the Historical Perfect is used of a general truth {' Gnomic
Perfect').
Pluperfect Indicative.
263. The Latin Pluperfect, like the English Past Per-
fect, denotes an act completed in the past ; as, —
Caesar RhSnum transTre decreverat, sed naves deerant, Caesar'
had decided to cross the Rhine, but had no boats,
a. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A),
the Pluperfect has the force of an Imperfect; as, —
noveram, / knew.
Future Perfect Indicative.
264. The Future Perfect denotes an action completed in
future time. Thus : —
Ecribam epistulam, cum redieris, / will write the letter when you
have returned (lit. when you shall have returned).
a. The Latin is much more exact in the use of the Future Per-
fect than the English, which commonly employs the Present
Perfect instead of the Future Perfect.
b. In those verbs whose Perfect has Present force (§ 262, A)
the Future Perfect has the force of a Future; as, —
novero, I shall know.
SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 171
Epistolary Tenses.
265. In letters the writer often uses tenses which are not appro-
priate at the time of writing, but which will be so at the time when his
letter is received ; he thus employs the Imperfect and the Perfect for
the Present, and the Pluperfect for the Present Perfect ; as, —
nihil habebam quod scrlberem, neque enim novi quidquam
audieram et ad tuas omnes epistulas jam rescripseram,
I have nothing to write, for I have heard no news and have
already answered all your letters.
TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE.
266. A. In Independent Sentences. See §§ 272— 280.
B. In Dependent Sentences. In dependent sentences the
tenses of the subjunctive usually conform to the so-called
Sequence of Tenses.
267. I. In the Subjunctive the Present and Perfect are
Principal tenses, the Imperfect and Pluperfect, Historical.
2. By the Sequence of Tenses Principal tenses are fol-
lowed by Principal, Historical by Historical. Thus : —
Principal Sequence, —
video quid facias, I see what you are doing.
videbo quid facias, I shall see what you are doing.
vTdero quid facias, I shall have seen what you are doing.
videS quid feceris, t see what you have done.
videbo quid feceris, / shall see what you have done.
videro quid feceris, I shall have seen what you have done.
Historical Sequence, —
videbam quid facerSs, I saw what you were doing.
vidi quid faceres, I saw what you were doing.
vTderam quid faceres, I had seen what. you were doing.
videbam quid fScisses, I saw what you had done.
vidi quid fecisses, I saw what you had done.
videram quid fecissSs, / had seen what you had done.
3. The Present and Imperfect Subjunctive denote incomplete
action, the Perfect and Pluperfect completed action, exactly as in the
Indicative.
172 SYNTAX.
Peculiarities of Sequence.
268. I. The Perfect Indicative is usually an historical tense (even
when translated in English as a Present Perfect), and so is followed by
the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive ; as, —
demonstravi quare ad causam accederem, / have shown why I
took the case (lit. / showed why, etc.).
2. A dependent Perfect Infinitive is treated as an historical tense
wherever, if resolved into an equivalent Indicative, it would be his-
torical ; as, —
videor ostendisse quales dei essent, / seem to have shown of what
nature the gods are (ostendisse here corresponds to an Indica-
tive, ostendi, /j^OTf««^). I
3. The Historical Present is sometimes regarded as a principal
tense, sometimes as historical. Thus : — •
Sulla sues hortatur ut forti animo sint, Sulla exhorts his soldiers
to be stout-hearted;
Gallos hortatur ut arma caperent, he exhorted the Gauls to take
arms.
4. Conditional sentences of the 'contrary-to-fact' type are not
affected by the principles for the Sequence of Tenses ; as, —
honestum tale est ut, vel si ignorarent id homines, sua tamen
pulchritudine laudabile esset, virtue is such a thing that
even if men were ignorant of it, it would still be worthy of
praise for its own loveliness.
5. In conditional sentences of the ' contrary-to-fact ' type the Imper-
fect Subjunctive is usually treated as an Historical tense ; as, —
SI solos eos diceres miseros, quibus moriendum esset, neminem
tu quidem eorum qui viverent ezciperSs, if you called only
those wretched who must die, you would except no orte of those
who live.
6. In clauses of Result and some others, the Perfect Subjunctive is
sometimes used as an historical tense. Thus : —
rex tantum motus est, ut Tissaphernem hostem judicarit, the
king was so tnuch moved that he adjudged Tissaphernes an
enemy.
This construction is rare in Cicero, but frequent in Nepos and sub-
sequent historians. The Perfect Subjunctive in this use represents a
SEQUENCE OF TENSES. 1 73
result simply as a fact without reference to the continuance of the act,
and therefore corresponds to an Historical Perfect Indicative of direct
statement. Thus, judicarit in the above example corresponds to
a judioavit, he adjudged. To denote a result as something continuous,
all writers use the Imperfect Subjunctive after historical tenses.
7. Sometimes perspicuity demands that the ordinary principles of
Sequence be abandoned altogether. Thus : —
a) We may have the Present or Perfect Subjunctive after an
historical tense ; as, —
Verres Siciliam ita perdidit ut ea r.estitui non possit,
Verres so ruined Sicily that it cannot be restored
(Direct statement : non potest restitui) ;
ardebat Hortensius dicendi cupiditate sic, ut in uuUo
flagrantius studium viderim, Hortensius burned so
•with eagerness to speak that I have seen in no one a
greater desire (Direct statement: in uullo vidi, I have
seen in no one) .
Note. — This usage is different from that cited under 6. Here, by neglect of
Sequence, the Perfect is used, though a principal tense ; there the Perfect was used
as an historical tense.
b) We may have a principal tense followed by the Perfect Sub-
junctive used historically ; as, —
nescio quid causae fuerit cur nuUas ad me litteras
dares, / do not know what reason there was why you
did not send me a letter.
Here fuerit is historical, as is shown by the following Im-
perfect Subjunctive.
Method of Expressing Future Time in the Subjunctive.
269. The Future and Future Perfect, which are lacking
to the Latin Subjunctive, are supplied in subordinate
clauses as follows : —
I. a) The Future is supplied by the Present after principal tenses,
by the Imperfect after historical tenses.
3) The Future Perfect is supplied by the Perfect after principal
tenses, by the Pluperfect after historical tenses.
This is especially frequent when the context clearly shows,
by the presence of a future tense in the main clause, that the
reference is to future time. Thus : —
174 SYNTAX.
Galli poUioentur se facturos, quae Caesar imperet, the Gauk
promise they will do -what Caesar shall order ;
Gall! poUicSbantur se facturos, quae Caesar imperaret, the Gauls
promised they would do what Caesar should order ;
Galli poUioentur se facturos quae Caesar imperaverit, the Gauls
promise they will do what Caesar shall have ordered;
Galli poUicebantur se facturos quae Caesar imperavisset, tk
Gauls promised they would do what Caesar should have ordered.
2. Even where the context does not contain a Future tense in the
main clause, Future time is often expressed in the subordinate clauses
by the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive. Thus : —
timeo ne veniat, / am afraid he will come ;
Caesar exspectabat quid consili hostes caperent, Caesar was
waiting to see what plan the enemy would adopt.
3. Where greater definiteness is necessary, the periphrastic forms
in -urus sim and -urus essem are employed, especially in clauses of
Result, Indirect Questions, and after non dubito quin ; as, —
nen dubito quiu pater venturus sit, / do not doubt that my father
will come ;
non dubitabam qum pater venturus esset, T did not doubt that
my father would come.
4. Where the verb has no Future Active Participle, or where it
stands in the passive voice, its Future character may be indicated by
the use of the particles mox, brevi, statim, etc., in connection with
the Present and Imperfect Subjunctive ; as, —
non dubito quin te mox hujus rei paeuiteat, I do not doubt that
you will soon repent of this thing;
non dubitabam qum haec res "itxeriii cbnfic^x%t-ar , I did not doubt
that this thing would soon be finished.
TENSES OF THE INFINHIVE.
270. I. The tenses of the Infinitive denote time not
absolutely, but with reference to the verb on which they
depend. Thus : —
d) The Present Infinitive represents an act as contemporaneous
with the time of the verb on which it depends ; as, —
videtur honores adsequi, he seems to be gaining honors;
videbatur hon5r§s adsequi, ^^ seemed to be gaining honon.
TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE. 175
S) The Perfect Infinitive represents an act as prior to the time
of the verb on which it depends ; as, —
videtur hondres adsecutus esse, he seems to have gdined
honors ;
visus est honores adsecutus esse, he seemed to have
gained honors.
c) The Future Infinitive represents an act as subsequent to that
of the verb on which it depends ; as, —
videtur honores adsecuturus esse, he seems to be about to
gain honors ;
visus est honores adseciiturus esse, he seemed to be about
to gain honors.
2. Where the English says ' ought to have done^ ' tnight have done^
etc., the Latin uses debui, oportuit, potui (debebam, oportebat,
poteram), with the Present Infinitive; as, —
debuit dicere, he ought to have said (lit. owed it to say) ;
oportuit venire, he ought to have come ;
potuit videre, he might have seen.
a. Oportuit, V0I6, nolo (and in poetry some other verbs), may take a
Perfect Infinitive instead of the Present ; as, —
hoc jam pridem factum esse oportuit, this ought long ago to have
been done.
3. Periphrastic Future Infinitive. Verbs that have no Parti-
cipial Stem, express the Future Infinitive Active and Passive by fore
ut or futuruni esse ut, with the Subjunctive ; as, —
spero fore ut te paeniteat levitatis, / hope you will repent of your
fickleness (lit. hope it will happen that you repent) ;
spero futuruni esse ut hostes arceantur, / hope that the enemy will
be kept off.
a. The Periphrastic Future Infinitive is often used, especially in the
Passive, even in ease of verbs which have the Participial Stem ; as, —
spero fore ut hostes vincantur, / hope the enemy will be con-
quered.
4. Passives and Deponents sometimes form a Future Perfect Infini-
tive with fore ; as, —
spero epistulam scriptam fore, / hope the letter will have been
written ;
^c6 me satis adeptnm fore, / say thai I shall have gained
enough.
176 SYNTAX.
THE MOODS.
MOODS IN INDEPENDENT SENTENCES.
The Indicative in Independent Sentences.
271. The Indicative is used for the statement of facts ^
the supposition of facts, or inquiry after facts.
I. Note the following idiomatic uses : —
a) With possum ; as, —
possum multa dioere, / might say tmich ;
poteram multa dioere, / might have said much (§ 270, 2).
b) In such expressions as longum est, aequum est, melius
est, difficile est, iitilius est, and some others ; as, —
longum est raa dicere, it would be tedious to tell that;
difficile est omnia persequi, it would be difficult to enu-
merate everything.
The Subjunctive in Independent Sentences.
272. The Subjunctive is used in Independent Sentences
to express something —
1 . As -TO-illed — Volitive Subjunctive ;
2. As desired — Optative Subjunctive ;
3. Conceived of as possible — Potential Subjunctive.
VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
273. The Volitive Subjunctive represents the action as
willed. It always implies authority on the part of the
speaker, and has the following varieties : —
A. Hortatory Subjunctive.
274. The Hortatory Subjunctive expresses an exhor-
tation. This use is confined to the first person plural,
of the Present. The negative is ns. Thus : —
eamus, let us go ;
amemus patriam, let us love our country \
ne dSsperemua, let us not despair.
THE VOLITIVE SUBJUNCTIVE. 1 77
B. Jussive Subjunctive.
275. The Jussive Subjunctive expresses a command.
The Jussive stands regularly in the Present Tense, and
is used —
1. Most frequently in the third singular and the third plural; as, —
dicat, let him tell;
dicant, let them tell;
quare secedant improbi, wherefore let the wicked depart !
2. Less frequently in the second person, often with indefinite
force; as, -^
isto bond utare, use that advantage ;
modeste vivas, live temperately.
C. Prohibitive Subjunctive.
276. The Subjunctive is used in the second and third
persons singular and plural, with ne, to express a prohibi-
tion. Both Present and Perfect occur, and without appre-
ciable difference of meaning ; as, —
ne repugnetis, do not resist'..
tu vero istam ne reliqueris, doii't leave her !
impii ne placare audeant deos, let not the impious dare to
appease the gods !
a. Neither of these constructions is frequent in classical prose.
b. A commoner method of expressing a prohibition in the second
person-is by the use of noli (nolite) with a following infini-
tive, or by cave or cave ne with the Subjunctive ; as, —
noli hoc faoere, donH do this (lit. be unwilling to do) !
nolite mentiri, do not lie !
cave ignoscas, cave t6 misereat, do not forgive, do not
pity!
cave ne haec facias, do not do this (lit. take care lest
you do) !
D. Deliberative Subjunctive.
277. The Deliberative Subjunctive is used in questions
and exclamations implying doubt, indignation, the impos-
nbility of an act, obligation, or propriety. The Present is
178 SYNTAX.
used referring to present time, the Imperfect referring
to past. The negative is non. Thus : —
quid faciam, -what shall I do ?
ego redeam, I go back !
huic oedamus ! bujus condiciones audiamus ! are we to
bow to Mm! are we to listen to his terms I
quid f acerem, what was I to do f
huuc ego non diligam, should I not cherish this man f
a. These Deliberative Questions are usually purely Rhetorical in char
acter, and do not expect an answer.
E. Concessive Subjunctive.
278. The Subjunctive is used to indicate something as
granted or conceded for the sake of argument. The Present
is used for present time, the Perfect regularly for past.
The negative is ne Thus : —
sit hoc vSrum, I grant that this is true (lit. let this be true) ;
ne sint in senectiite vires, I grant there is not strength in old age \
fuerit malus oivis aliis; tibi quando esse coepit, I grant that he
was a bad citizen to others; when did he begin to be so toward yout
OPTATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE.
279. The Optative Subjunctive occurs in expressions of
wishing. The negative is regularly ne.
1 . The Present Tense, often accompanied by utinam, is used where
the wish is conceived of as possible.
di istaec prohibeant, may the gods prevent that!
falsus utinam vates sim, oh that I may be a false prophet !
ne veniant, may they not conu !
2. The Imperfect expresses, in the form of a wish, the regret that
something is not so now ; the Pluperfect that something was not so in
the past. The Imperfect and Pluperfect are regularly accompanied by
utinam ; as, —
utinam istud ex animo diceres, would that you were saying that in
earnest (i.e. I regret that you are not saying it in earnest) ;
Pelides utinam vitasset Apollinis arctis, would that Achilles hai
escaped the bow of Apollo ;
utinam ne natus essem. would that I had not been born.
THE POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE. 1 79
POTENTIAL SUBJUNCTIVE.
280. The Potential Subjunctive expresses a possibility.
The negative is non. The following uses are to be noted : —
1. The 'May' Potential. — The Potential Subjunctive may desig-
nate u mere possibility (English auxiliary may). Both Present and
Perfect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus : —
dicat aliquis, sojiie one may say ;
dizerit aliqviis, some one may say.
a. This construction is by no means frequent, and is confined
mainly to a few phrases like those given as examples.
2. ' Should '-' Would ' Potential. — The Potential Subjunctive
may represent something as depending upon a condition expressed or
understood (English auxiliary should, would). Both Present and Per-
fect occur, and without appreciable difference of meaning. Thus : —
fortunam citius reperias quam retineas, one would more quickly find
Fortune than keep it (i.e. if one should make the trial) ;
credlderim, /should believe.
a. Here belongs the use of velim, malim, nolim, as softened
, forms of statement for volo, malo, nolo. Thus : —
velim mihi ignoscas, / wish you would forgive me ; .
nolim putes me jooari, / don't want you to think Ptn joking.
b. When the condition is expressed, we get one of the regular
types of Conditional Sentences (see § 303) ; as, —
dies deficiat, si coner enumerare causas, time would
fail if I should attempt to enumerate the reasons.
3. ' Can '-' Could ' Potential. — In the Present and Imperfect the
Potential occurs in the second person singular (with indefinite force ;
§ 3561 3) of a few verbs oi perceiving, seeing, thinking, and the like ; as, —
videas, cernas, one can see, one can perceive 5
crederes, one could believe ;
videres, cerneres, otie could see, perceive ;
putares, one could imagine.
4- The Imperfect and Pluperfect in the Apodosis of conditional
sentences of the contrary-to-fact type (see § 304) are also Potential iu
character. By omission of "the Protasis, such an Apodosis sometimes
stands alone, particularly vellem, nollem, mallem ; as, —
vellem id quidem, / should wish that (i.e. were I bold
enough) .
l8o SYNTAX.
Tbe Imperative.
281. The Imperative is used in commands, admonitions,
and entreaties (negative ne) ; as, —
egredere ex urbe, depart from the city ;
mibi ignosce, pardon me ;
val§, farewell.
1 . The Present is the tense of the Imperative most commonly used,
hut the Future is employed —
a) Where there is a distinct reference to future time, especially
in the apodosis of conditional sentences ; as, —
rem vobTs proponam ; vos earn penditote, I will lay the
matter before you ; do you {then) consider it;
SI bene disputabit, tribuito litteris Graecis, if he shall
speak well, attribute it to Greek literature.
b) In laws, treaties, wills, maxims, etc. ; as, —
consules summum jus habento, the consuls shall have
supreme power ;
hominem mortuom in urbe ne sepelito, no one shall bury
a dead body in the city ;
amicitia regi Antiocho cum populo Romano bis Iggi-
bus et condicionibus esto, let there be friendship be-
tween Antiochus and the Roman people on the following
terms and conditions ;
quartae esto partis Marcus beres, let Marcus be heir to
u fourth (of the property) ;
ignoscito saepe alteri, numquam V^i, forgive your neigh-
bor often, yourself never.
2. Except with the Future Imperative the negative is not used in
dassical prose. Prohibitions are regularly expressed in other ways.
See § 276, b.
3. Questions in the Indicative introduced by quin {why not?") are
often equivalent to an Imperative or to the Hortatory Subjunctive; as,—
quin abis, go away I (lit. why don't you go away ?) ;
quin vocem continetis, keep still'. {\it. why donH you stop your
voices f) ;
quin equos conscendimus, let us mount our horses (lit. why do ivt
iiot mount our horses T).
CLAUSES OF PURPOSE. l8l
MOODS IN DEPENDENT CLAUSES.
Clauses of Purpose.
282. I. Clauses of Purpose are introduced most com-
monly by ut (utr), quo {that, in order that), ne (in order that
not, lest), and stand in the Subjunctive; as, —
edimus ut vivamus, we eat that we may live ;
adjuta me quo hoc fiat facilius, help me, in order that this may be
done more easily ;
portaz clausit, ne quam oppidanf injuriam acciperent, he closed
the gates, lest the townspeople should receive any injury.
a. Quo, as a rule, is employed only when the purpose clause
contains a comparative or a comparative idea. Occasional
exceptions occur; as, —
haec faciunt quo Chremetem absterreaut, they ar.e doing
this in order to frighten Chremes.
b. TJt ne is sometimes found instead of ne. Thus: —
ut ne quid ueglegenter agamus, in order that we may not
do anything carelessly.
c. Vt non (not ne) is used where the negation belongs to some
single word, instead of to the purpose clause as a whole.
Thus : —
ut non ejectus ad alienos, sed invitatus ad tuos vide-
are, that you may seem not driven out among strangers,
but invited to your own friends.
d. To say ' and that not ^ or ' or that not,^ the Latin regularly
uses neve (neu) ; as, —
ut earum rerum vTs minueretur, neu pontT nocerent,
that the violence of these things might be lessened, and
that they might not harm the bridge ;
profugit, ne oaperetur neve interficeretur, he fled, that he
might not be captured or killed.
c. But neque (for neve) is sometimes used in a second Purpose Clause
when ut stands in the first, and, after the Augustan era, even when the
first clause is introduced by ne.
/ Purpose Clauses sometimes stand in apposition with a preceding noun
or pronoun ; as, t—
hac causa, ut pacem baberent, on this account, that they might
have peace.
1 82 SYNTAX.
2. A Relative Pronoun (qui) or Adverb (udi, unde, quo) is fre-
quently used to introduce a Purpose Clause ; as, —
Helvetii legates mittunt, qui dicerent, the Helvetii sent envoys to
say (lit. who should say) \
haec habui, de senectute quae dioerem, / had these things to say
about old age ;
aon babebant quo se reciperent, they had no place to which to flee
(lit. whither they might flee).
a. Qui in such clauses is equivalent to ut is, ut ego, etc. -• ubl to ut
ibi ; unde to ut inde ; quo to ut eo.
3. Relative Clauses of purpose follow diguus, indignus, and ido-
neus ; as, -*■'
idoneus fuit nemo quern imitarere, there was no one suitable for
you to imitate (cf. nemo fuit quern imitarere, there was no
one for you to imitate) ;
dignus est qui aliquando imperet, he is worthy to rule sometime.
4. Purpose Clauses often depend upon something to be supplied
from the context instead of upon the principal verb of their own sen-
tences ; as, —
ut haec omnia omittam, abiimus, to pass over all this, {I ■mill say
that) we departed.
Clauses of Characteristic.
283. I. A relative clause used to express a quality of
characteristic of a general or indefinite antecedent is called
a Clause of Characteristic, and usually stands in the
Subjunctive; as, —
multa sunt, quae mentem aouant, there are many things which
sharpen the wits.
Clauses of Characteristic are opposed to those relative clauses which
are used merely to state some fact about a definite antecedent, and
which therefore take the Indicative ; as, —
Cato, senex jucundus, qui Sapiens appellatuB est, Cato, a delight-
ful old man, who was called ' The Wise.''
The Clause of Characteristic implies ' a person of the sort that doei
something'' ; the Indicative relative clause implies ' a particular person
who does something.''
CLAUSES OF CHARACTERISTIC. 183
2. Clauses of Characteristic are used especially after such expressions
as, est qui ; sunt qui ; nemo est qui ; nullus est qui ; unus est
qui ; solus est qui ; quis est qui ; is qui ; etc. Thus : —
sunt qui dicant, there are (some) who say ;
nemo est qui nesciat, there is nobody who is ignorant ;
sapientia est ana quae maestitiam pellat, philosophy is the only
thing that drives away sorrow ;
quae civitas est quae non everti possit, what state is there that
cannot De overthrown ?
noa is sum qui improbos laudem, / am not the sort of man that
praises the wicked.
u. Someiimes (very rarely in Cicero and Caesar) the clause of characteris-
tic is used after comparatives ; as, —
non longius hostes aberant quam quo telum adigri posset,
iAe enemy were not too far off for a dart to reacfi them {lit further
off than \a p&iaf\ to which a dart could be cast).
3. The Clause of Characteristic often conveys an accessory notion
of cause (since) or opposition (although). Thus: —
a) Cause. The relative is then frequently accompanied by ut,
quippe, utpote ; as, —
o fortunate adulescens, qui tuae virtutis Homerum
praeconem inveneris, O fortunate man, since you
have found a Ho?ner as the herald of your valor;
ut qui Optimo jure earn provinciam obtinuerit, since
he held that province by excellent right.
b) Opposition : —
egomet qui sero Graecas litteras attigissem, tamen
compliires dies Athenis commoratus sum, /, al-
though I had taken up Greek literature late in life,
nevertheless tarried several days at Athens.
4. Clauses of Characteristic may also be introduced by quin = qui
(quae, quod) non ; as, —
nemo est quin saepe audierit, there is no one who has not often
heard ;
nemo f uit militum quin vulneraretur, there was no one of the soldiers
who was not wounded.
5. Related to Clauses of Characteristic are also phrases of the type :
quod Bciam, so far as I know, quem (quam, quod), audierim, so
far as I have heard.
184 SYNTAX.
Clauses of Result.
284. I. Clauses of Result are usually introduced bynt
{that, so thai), negative ut non {so that not), and take the
Subjunctive. The main clause often contains tantns, talis,
tot, is (= talis), tarn, ita, sic, adeo, or some similar word.
Thus : —
quis tain demens est ut sua voluutate maereat, who is so senseless
as to mourn of his own volition f
Sicilian! ita vastavit ut restitui in antiquum statum non posBit,
he so ravaged Sicily that it cannot be restored to its former
condition ;
mons altissimus impendebat, ut facile perpauci prohibere poB-
sent, a very high mountain overhung, so that a very few could
easily stop them ;
non is es ut te pudor umquam a turpitiidine avoo^rit, you are not
so constituted that shame ever called you back from baseness.
2. A Result Clause is oftea introduced by a Relative Pronoun or
Adverb, qui ( = ut is), qu5 ( = ut eo), etc. ; as, —
nemo est tam senex qui se annum non putet posse vivere, nobody
is so old as not to think he can live a year;
habetis eum consulem qui parere vestrTs decretis non dubitet,
you have a consul such as does not hesitate to obey your decrees.
a. These Relative Clauses of Result are closely related to the Clause of
Characteristic, and sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the two con-
structions. It is best to class the relative clause as one of Characteristic,
unless the result idea is clear and unmistakable.
3. Result clauses may also be introduced by quin = ut non ; as,—
nihil tam difBcile est quiu quaerendo investigan possit, nothing
is so difficult that it cannot be discovered by searching;
nemo est tam fortis quiu rei novitate perturbetur, no one is so
steadfast as not to be thrown into confusion by a strange
occurrence.
4. Note the use of quam ut (sometimes quam alone) to denote Result
after comparatives ; as, —
urbe erat manitior quam ut primo impeta capi posset, tlu city was toi
strongly fortified to be taken at the first attack (lit. more strongly firtifiii
than [sol that it could be taken, etc.).
CAUSAL CLAUSES. iSj
Causal Clauses.
285. Causal clauses are introduced chiefly by the fol-
lowing particles : —
1. Quod, quia, quouiam.
2. Cum.
3. Quando.
286. The use of moods is as follows : —
I. Quod, quia, quoniam take the Indicative when the
reason is that of the writer or speaker ; they take the Sub-
junctive when the reason is viewed as that of another.
Thus : —
Farthos timeo quod diffido copiis nostris, I fear the Partkians,
because I distrust our troops.
Themistooles, quia non tutus erat, Corcyram demigravit, The-
mistocles, since he was not safe, moved to Corcyra.
Deque me vixisse paeuitet, quoniam bene vixT, / do not regret
having lived, since I have lived well.
SCorates accusatus est quod corrumperet juventutem, Socrates
was arraigned on the ground that he was corrupting the young.
(Here the reason is not that of the writer but of the, accuser.
Hence the Subjunctive.)
Haedui Caesari gratias egerunt quod se perioulo liberavisset,
the Haedui thanked Caesar because he had delivered them from
danger. (The reason of the Haedui.)
quoniam Miltiades dicere non posset, verba pro eo fecit Ti-
sagoras, since Miltiades could not speak, Tisagoras spoke for
him. (The reason of Tisagoras.)
noctu ambulabat Themistooles, quod somnum oapere non pos.
set, Themistocles used to walk at 'night because (as he said) he
couldn't sleep.
a. Verbs of thinking and saying often stand in the Subjunctive
in causal clauses as though the act of thinking or saying,
and not the contents of the thought or language, constituted
the reason. Thus : —
Bellovaci suum numerum non compleverunt quod sS
suo nomine cum Romanis bellum gestures dice-
rent, the Bellovaci did not furnish their complement.
r86 SYNTAX.
because they said they were going to wage war with tht
Romans on their own account.
b. Won quod, non quo (by attraction for non eo quod), non
quia, not that, not because ; and non quod non, non quo
non, non quin, not that-. . . not; not because . . . .not;
not but that, are usually employed merely to introduce a
hypothetical reason, and hence take the Subjunctive ; as, —
id feci, non quod vos banc defensionem desiderSre
arbitrarer, sed ut omnes intellegerent, this I did
not because I thought you needed this defense, but that all
might perceive ;
Crasso commendationem non sum pollioitus, non quIn
earn valituram apud te arbitrarer, sed egere mihi
commendatione non videbatur, / did not promise a
recommendation to Crassus, not that I did not think it
would have weight with you, but because he did not seem
to me to need recommendation.
c. But clauses introduced by non quod, non quia take the
Indicative if they state a fact, even though that fact is denied
to be the reason for something ; as, —
hoc ita sentio, non quia sum ipse augur, sed quia sic
existimare nos est necease, this I think, not because 1
am myself an augur {which I really am), but because it
is necessary for us to think so.
2. Cum causal regularly takes the Subjunctive; as, —
quae cum ita sint, since this is so ;
cum sis mortalis, quae mortalia sunt, cura, since you are mortal,
care for what is m.ortal.
a. Note the phrase cum praesertim (praesertim cum),
especially since ; as, —
HaeduoB accusat, praesertim cum eorum precibus ad-
ductus bellum susceperit, he blamed the Haedui,
especially since he had undertaken the war at their
entreaties.
3. Quando (less frequent than the other causal particles) governs
the Indicative ; as, —
id omitto, quando vobis ita placet, / pass over that, since you se
wish.
CLAUSES WITH POSTQUAM, UBI, ETC. 1 87
Temporal Clauses introduced by Postquam, Ut, Ubl,
Simul a,c, etc.
287. I. Postquam (posteaquam), after ; ut, ubi, when;
cum primum, simul, simul ao (simul atque), as soon as, when
used to refer to a single past act regularly take the Perfect
Indicative ; as, —
Epaminondas postquam audivit vicisse Boeotios, ' Satis ' inquit
' vixi,' Epaminondas, after he heard that the Boeotians had con-
quered, said, ' / have lived enough ; '
id ut audivit, Corcyram demigravit, when he heard this, he nwvedto
Corcyra ;
Caesar cum primum potuit, ad exercitum contendit, Caesar, as
soon as he could, hurried to the army ;
ubi de Caesaris adventu certiores facti sunt, legates ad eum
mittunt, when they were informed of Caesar''s arrival, they
sent envoys to him.
a. The Historical Present may take the place of the Perfect in this con-
struction.
2. To denote the repeated occurrence of an act, ut, ubi, simul
atque, as often as, when following an historical ten.se, take the Plu-
perfect Indicative (compare §§ 288, 3 ; 302, 3) ; as, —
ut quisque Verrls animum offenderat, in lautumias statim coni-
cieb§tur, whenever anybody had offended Verres''s feelings, he
was forthwith put in the stone-quarry ;
hostes, ubi aliquos egredientes conspe:serant, adoriebantur,
whenever the enemy had seen any meti disembarking, they
attacked them.
a. In Livy and succeeding historians the Imperfect and Pluperfect Sub-
junctive are used to denote this repeated occurrence of an act (' Indefi-
nite Frequency ') ; as, —
id ubl dixlsset hastam mltt§bat, whenever he had said that, he
hurled a spear.
3. Occasionally the above conjunctions are followed by the Pluper-
fect Indicative of a single occurrence. This is regularly the case with
postquam in expressions denoting a definite interval of time (days,
months, years, etc.'), such as post tertium annum quam, triennio
postquam. Thus : —
1 88 SYNTAX.
quinque post diebus quam Iiuca discesserat, ad Sardinian! veuit,
five days after he had departed from Liica he came to Sar-
postquam occupatae Syracusae erant, profectus est Cartha-
ginem, after Syracuse had been seized, he set out for Carthage.
4. The Imperfect Indicative also sometimes occurs, to denote a continued
state ; as, —
postquam Eomam adventabant, senatus consultus est, after they were
on the march toward Rome, the Senate was consulted;
postquam strtlcti utrimque stabant, after they had been drawn up on both
sides and were in position,
5. Rarely postquam, posteaquam, following the analogy of cum, take
the Subjunctive, but only in the historical tenses ; as, - —
posteaquam sumptuosa fieri fflnera coepissent, lege sublata sunt,
after fimerals had begun to be elaborate, they were done away with by law.
Temporal Clauses introduced by Cum.
A. Cum REFERRING TO THE PAST.
288. I. Cum, when referring to the past, takes, —
A, The Indicative (Imperfect, Historical Perfect, or
Pluperfect) to denote the point of time at which something
occurs.
B, The Subjunctive (Imperfect or Pluperfect) to de-
note the situation or circumstances under which something
occurs.
Examples : —
Indicative.
an tum eras consul, cum in Falatio mea domus ardebat, or were
you consul at the time when my house burned up on the Palatine f
credo tum cum Sicilia florgbat opibus et copiis magna artificia
fuisse in ea insula, / believe that at the time when Sicily was
powerful in riches and resources there were great crafts in that
island i
eo tempore paruit cum parere necesse erat, he obeyed at the timt
when it was necessary to obey ;
illo dig, cum est lata lex de me, on that day when the law concern'
ing me was passed.
CUM-CLAUSES. 1 89
Subjunctive.
Lysander cum vellet Lycurgi leggs commutare, prohibituB est,
•when Lysander desired to change the laws of Lycurgus, he was
prevented I
Pythagoras cum in geometria quiddam novi invenisset, Musis
bovem immolasse dioitur, when Pythagoras had discovered
something new in geometry, he is said to have sacrificed an ox to
the Muses.
a. Note that the Indicative is much less frequent in such clauses
than the Subjunctive, and is regularly confined to those cases
where the main clause has turn, eo die, eo anno, eo tem-
pore or some similar correlative of the cum. Sometimes it
depends entirely upon the point of view of the writer whether
he shall employ the Indicative or Subjunctive.
2. Cum Inversum. When the logical order of the clauses is
inverted, we find cum with the Perfect Indicative or Historical Present,
in the sense of when, when suddenly. The main clause in such cases
often has jam, vix, aegre, nondum ; as, —
jam Galli ex. oppido fugere apparabant, cum matres familiae
repente procurrerunt, the Gauls were already preparing to
flee, when suddenly the matrons rushed forth (logically, the ma-
trons rushed forth as the Gauls were preparing to flee) ;
TrevirT Labienum adoriri parabant, cum duas legiones venisse
cognoscunt, the Treviri were preparing to attack, when {sud-
denly') they learned that two legions had arrived.
3. To denote a recurring action in the past, cum is followed by the In-
dicative, particularly of the Pluperfect (compare §§ 287, 2 ; 302, 3) ; as, —
cum ad aliquod oppidum venerat, eSdem lectTca ad cubiculum
deferebatur, whenever he had arrived at some town, he was
{always) carried in the same litter to his room ;
cum equitatus noster se in agros ejecerat, essedarios ex silvis
gmittebat, whenever our cavalry had advanced into the fields,
he would send his charioteers out from the woods.
a. Sometimes the Imperfect or Pluperfect Subjunctive is thus used ; as, —
saepe cum aliquem videret minus bene vestitum, suum
amlculum dedit, often, whenever he saw some one more poorly
clothed, he gave him his own mantle ;
cum procucurrissent, Numldae effuglebant, as often as thtf
■ had advanced, the Numidians ran away.
This construction is frequent in Livy and subsequent historians.
I90 SYNTAX.
B. Oum REFERRING TO THE PRESENT OR FUTURE.
289. When cum refers to the Present or Future it regu-
larly takes the Indicative; as, —
turn tua res agitur, paries cum proximus ardet, your own interests
are at stake when your neighbor's house is burning;
oum videbis, turn scies, when you see, then you will know.
u. The Indicative of the Present or Future may denote also a recurring
action; as, —
Btabilitas amicitiae confirmari potest, cum homines ou-
pidinibus imperabunt, ^rm friendship can be established
whenever men shall control their desires.
C. Other Uses op Cum.
290. I. Cum Explicative. Cum, with the Indicative, is some-
times used to indicate the identity of one act with another ; as, —
cum tacent clamant, their silence is a shout (lit. when they are
silent, they shout) .
2. Cum . . . turn. When cum . . . turn mean both . . . and,
the cum-clause is in the Indicative ; but when cum has the force oi
while, though, it may take the Subjunctive ; as, —
cum te semper dilezerim, turn tuis factis incensus sum, while I
have always loved you, at the same time I am stirred by your
conduct.
Clauses introduced by Antequam and Priusqnam.
A. With the Indicative.
291. Antequam and priusquam (often written ante . . .
qaam, prius . . . quam) take the Indicative to denote an
actual fact.
1 . Sometimes the Present or Future Perfect ; as, —
prius respondes quam rogo, you answer before I ask ;
nihil contra disputabo priusquam dizerit, / will say nothing in
opposition, before he speaks.
2. Sometimes the Perfect, especially after negative clauses; as, —
n5n prius jugulandi finis fult, quam Sulla omnes suos divitiis
explevit, there was no end of murder until Sulla satisfied aU
his henchmen with wealth.
CLAUSES WITH DUM, DONEC, ETC. I9I
B. With the Subjunctive.
292. Antequam and priusquam take the Subjunctive to
denote an act as anticipated.
1. Thus the Subjunctive may denote —
a) An act in preparation for which the main act takes place ; as, —
priusquam dimicarent, foedus ictum est, i.e. in anticipa-
tion of the fight, a treaty -was struck.
By an extension of this usage, the Subjunctive is sometimes used of general
truths, where the anticipatory notion has faded out ; as, —
tempest&s minatur antequam surgat, the tempest threatens before it rises.
6) An act anticipated and forestalled ; as, ^
priusquam telum adici posset, omnis acies terga vertit,
before a spear could be hurled, the whole army fled,
c) An act anticipated and deprecated ; as, —
animum omittunt priusquam loop demigrent, they die
rather than quit their post.
2. After historical tenses the Imperfect Subjunctive is used, espe-
cially by some writers, where the notion of anticipation has practically
vanished; as, —
sol antequam se abderet fugientem vidlt Antonium, the sun before
it set saw Antony fleeing.
Clauses introduced by Bnm^ Donee, Quoad
293. I. Dum, wAiie, regularly takes the Indicative of
the Historical Present ; as, —
Alexander, dum inter primores pugnat, sagittS ictus est, Alex-
ander, while he was fighting in the van, was struck by an arrow ;
dum haec geruntur, in fines Venellorum perveuit, while these
things were being done, he arrived in the territory of the Venelli.
II. Dum, donee, and quoad, as long as, take the Indica-
tive; as, —
dum anima est, spes est, as long as there is life, there is hope ;
Laoedaemoniorum gens fortis fuit, dum Lyciirgi leges vigebant,
the race of the Lacedaemonians was powerful, as long as the
laws of Lycurgus were in force;
Oato, quoad visit, virtiitum laude crevit, Cato, as long as he lived,
increased in the fame of his virtues.
192 SYNTAX.
III. Dum, donee, and quoad, until, take : —
1. .The Indicative, to denote an actual event ; as, —
donee rediit, fuit silentinm, there was silence till he catne ;
ferrum in eorpore retiuuit, quoad renuntiatum est Boeotida
vicisse, he kept the iron in his body until word was brought thai
the Boeotians had conquered.
a. In Livy and subsequent historians dum and donee in this sense often
take the Subjunctive instead of the Indicative ; as, —
trepidatlonls aliquantum edebant donee timer quletem
fecisset, they showed some trepidation, until fear produced quiet.
2. The Subjunctive, to denote anticipation or expec-
tancy; as, —
ezspeetavit Caesar dum naves convenirent, Caesar waited for the
ships to assemble ;
dum litterae veniant, morabor, I shall wait for the letter to come.
Substantive Clauses.
294. A Substantive Clause is one which as a whole
serves as the Subject or Object of a verb, or stands in some
other case relation.
A. Substantive Clauses developed from the Volitive.
295. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Volitive
are used with the following. classes of verbs : —
I . With verbs signifying to admonish, request, command, urge, per-
suade, induce,^ etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or ut ne) ; as, —
postulo ut fiat, / demand that it be done (dependent form of the
Jussive fiat, let it be done .') ;
orat, ne abeas, he begs that you will not go away;
milites oohortatus est ut hostium impetum sustinerent, he ex-
horted his soldiers to withstand the attack of the enemy ;
Helvetiis persuasit ut exirent, he persuaded the Helvetii to march
forth.
a. Jubeo, command, order, regularly takes the Infinitive.
1 Especially: moneo, admoneo; rogo, oro, peto, postulS, precor,
flaglto; mando, impero, pr"eclplo- suade >, hortor, eohortor: per-
auadeo, impello.
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. I93
2. With verbs signifying to grant, concede, permit, allow^ etc. (con-
junction ut) ; as, —
huic conoedo ut ea praetereat, / allow him to pass that by (depend-
ent form of tlie Jussive ea praetereat, let him pass that by .') ;
cousuli permissum est ut duas legioues scriberet, the consul was
permitted to enroll two legions.
3. Witii verbs of hindering, preventing^ etc. (conjunctions ne,
quominus, quiu) ; s«, —
ne lustrum perficeret, mors prohibuit, death prevented him from
finishing the lustrum (dependent form after past tense of ne
lustrum perficiat, let him not finish, etc.") ;
prohibuit quominus in unum coirent, he prevented them from com-
ing together ;
nee quin erumperet, prohiberi poterat, nor could he be prevented
from rushing forth.
a. Quin is used only when the verb of hindering is accompanied by a
negative, or stands in a. question implying a negative ; it is not neces-
sarily used even then.
4. Witli verbs of deciding, resolving^ etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or
ut ne) ; as, —
constitueram' ut pridie Idus AquTni manerem, I had decided to
remain at Aquirium on the 12th;
decrevit senatus ut Opimius videret, the Senate decreed that Opi-
mius should see to it ;
convenit ut unis castris miscerentur, it was agreed that they should
be united in one camp.
; . With verbs of striving,^ etc. (conjunctions ut, ne, or ut ne) ; as, —
fac ut eum exores, see to it that you prevail upon him I
cura ut vir sis, see to it that you are a man !
laborabat ut reliquas oivitates adjungeret, he was striving to join
the remaining states to him.
u,. Conor, try, always takes the Iniinitive.
Note. — Verbs of all the above classes also admit the Infinitive, especially in
poetry.
1 Especially : permitto, concedo, non patior.
2 Especially: prohibeo, impedio, deterreo.
• Especially : constituo, decerns, censeo, placuit, convenit, paciscor.
< Especially: laboro, do operam, id ago, contends, impetro.
194 SYNTAX.
6. With a few other expressions, such as necesse est, reliquum
est, sequitur, licet, oportet ; as, —
sequitur ut doceam, it remains for me to shawi
licet redeas, you may return ;
oportet loquamur, we must speak. i
On the absence of ut with licet and oportet, see paragraph 8.
7. Here also belong phrases of the type: nulla causa est cur,
quin ; non est cur, etc. ; nihil est cur, etc. ; as, —
nulla causa est cur timeam, tkere is no reason why J should fear
(originally Deliberative : why should I fear ? There''s no reason) ;
nihil est quin dicam, there is no reason why I should not say.
8. Many of the above classes of verbs at times talce the simple Sub-
junctive without ut. In such cases we must not recognize any omis-
sion of ut, but simply an earlier form of expression which existed
before the ut-clause arose. This is regularly the case with necesse
est, licet, and oportet ; see 6. Other examples are : —
eos moneo deainant, / warn them to stop ;
huic imperat adeat civitates, he orders him to visit the states.
S, Substantive Clauses developed from the Optative.
396. Substantive Clauses Developed from the Optative
occur : —
1 . With verbs of wishing; desiring, especially cupio, opto, vol5,
malo (conjunctions ut, ne, ut ne) ; as, —
opto ut in hoc judicio nemo improbus reperiatur, / hope that in
this court no bad man may be found (here ut reperiatur repre-
sents a simple optative of direct statement, viz. reperiatur, may
no bad man be found'.) ;
cupio ne veniat, / desire that he may not come.
u. The simple Subjunctive (without ut) sometimes occurs with verbs o)
this class. (See § 295, 8.) Examples are: velim scribas, / wish
you would write ; vellem scripslsset, / wish he had written.
2. With expressions of fearing (timeo, metuo, vereor, etc.).
Here ne means that, lest, and ut means that not ; as, —
timeo ne veniat, I fear that he will come (originally: may he not
come'. Pm afraid \he wiliy) ;
timeo ut veniat, I fear that he will not come (originally: may lu
cornel Pm afraid \he won'i']^.
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 195
a. Ne nou sometimes occurs instead of ut, especially where the verb of
/taring has a negative, or where the writer desires to emphasize some
particular word in the dependent clause ; as, —
non vereor ne hoc non flat, [ am not afraid thai this will not
happen ;
vereor ne exercitum firmum habere non possit, I fear that
he is unable (non possit) to have a strong army.
C. Substantive Clauses of Result.
297. Substantive Clauses of Result (introduced by ut,
ut non) are a development of pure Result clauses, and
occur with the following classes of words : —
1 . As object clauses after verbs of doing, accomplishing (especially
facts, efBcio, conficiS). Thus: —
gravitas morbi facit ut medicina egeamus, the severity of disease
makes us need medicine.
2. As the subject of several impersonal verbs, particularly fit, effici-
tur, accidit, evenit, contingit, accedit, fieri potest, fore, sequi-
ttir, relinquitur. Thus : —
ex quo efficitur, ut voluptas non sit summum bonnm,/n7»2 which
it follows that pleasure is not the greatest good;
ita fit, ut nemo esse possit beatus, thus it happens that no one can
be happy ;
accSdebat ut naves deessent, another thing was the lack of ships
(lit. it was added that ships were lacking') .
3. As predicate or appositive afjer expressions like jus est, mos
est, consuetudo est; ^so after neuter pronouns, hoc, illud, etc.
Thus : —
est mos hominum ut nSlint eundem pluribus rebud ezcellere,
it is the way of men not to wish the same person to excel in
many things.
D. Substantive Clauses introduced by <^VLin.
298. Substantive Clauses introduced by quin (used some-
times as subject, sometimes as object) occur after negative
and interrogative expressions of doubt, omission, and the
like, particularly after non dubits, / do not doubt ; quia
ig6 " SYNTAX.
dubitat, who doubts f ; non (haud) dubium est, there is. no
doubt. The mood is the Subjunctive. Examples : —
quis dubitat quin in virtute divitiae Bint, who doubts that in virtm
there are riches f
aon dubium erat quin venturua esset, there was no doubt that he
was about to come.
a. In Nepos, Livy, and post-Augustan writers an Infinitive sometimes
takes the place of the quin-clause after non dubito ; as, —
non dubitamus Inventos esse, we do not doubt that men were fount.
b. Non dubito, / do not hesitate, is regularly followed by the Infinitive,
though sometimes by a qtun-clause.
JE7. Substantive Clauses Introduced by QvLod.
299. I. Quod, the fact that, that, introduces Substan-
tive Clauses in the Indicative. This construction occurs
especially —
d) In apposition with a preceding demonstrative, as hoc, id,
illud, ilia, ex eo, inde, etc. Thus : —
illud est admiratione dignum, quod captTvos retinen-
dos censuit, this is especially worthy of admiration,
that he thought the prisoners ought to be kept ;
hoc uno praestamus vel mazime feris, quod coUoqui-.
mur inter nos, in this one respect we are especially
superior to the beasts, that we talk with each other.
b) After bene fit, bene accidit, male fit, bene facere, miror,
etc. ; as, — '
bene mibi evenit, quod mittor ad mortem, it is well
for me that I am sent to death ;
bene f ecisti quod mansisti, you did well in remaining.
2. Quod at the beginning of the sentence sometimes has the force
of as regards the fact that. Thus : —
quod multitudinem Germanorum in Galliam trtduco, id mei
muniendi causa faoio, as regards the fact that I am trans-
porting a multitude of Germans into Gaul, I am doing it for
the sake of strengthening myself i
quod me Agamemnona aemulari putSs, falleria, as regards yout
thinking that I emulate Agamemnon, you are mistaken.
SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 197
F. Indirect Questions.
300. I. Indirect Questions are Substantive Clauses used
after verbs of asking, inquirmg, telling, and the like. They
take their verb in the Subjunctive.^ Like Direct Questions
(see § 162) they may be introduced —
a) By Interrogative Pronouns or Adverbs ; as, — ■
die mihi nbi fueris, quid feceris, tell me where you were,
what you did;
oculis judicarT n5n potest in utram partem fluat Arar,
it cannot be determined by the eye in which direction the
Arar flows ;
bis bina quot assent, nesciebat, he did not know how
many two times two were.
Note. ^ — Care should be taken to distinguish Indirect Questions
from Relative Clauses. The difference between the two appears clearly
in the following : —
effugere nemo id potest quod futurum est, no one can escape what
is destined to come to pass ; but
Baepe autem ne utile quidem est scire quid futurum sit, but often
it is not even useful to know what is cojning to pass.
b) By num or -ne, without distinction of meaning ; as, —
Epamlnondas quaesivit uum salvus esset clipeus, or
salvusne esset clipeus, Epaminondas asked whether
his shield was safe ;
disputatur num interire virtiis in homine possit, the
question is raised whether virtue can die in a man ;
ez Socrate quaesitum est nonne Archelaum beatum
putaret, the question was asked of Socrates whether he
did not thi7ik Archelaus happy.
Note. — Nonne in Indirect Questions occurs only after quaero, asinthelasi
example above.
'2. Often the Indirect Question represents a Deliberative Subjunctive
of the direct discourse ; as, — ■ pi
neaoio quid ia-cinta, / do not know what to do. (Direct: quia'faciam,
what shall I do .')
1 Exclamations, also, upon becoming indirect, take the Subjunctive, as con-
sidera. quam variae sint hominum cupidlnes, consider how varied are thk
desires of men. (Direct : quam variae sunt hominum oupidines I)
198 SYNTAX.
3. After verbs of exfectation and endeavor (exspeoto, conor,
ezperior, tempto) we sometimes find an Indirect Question intro-
duced by SI ; as, —
conantur si perrumpere possint, they try whether they can break
through.
a. Sometimes the governing verb is omitted ; as, —
permit ad proximam speluncam si forte eo vestigia fer-
rent, he proceeded to the nearest cave (to see) if the tracks lei
thither.
4. Indirect Double Questions are introduced in tlie main by tlie
same particles as direct double questions (§ 162, 4) ; viz. ; —
utrum . . .an;
-ne an;
.... an ;
.... ne.
Examples : —
quaero utrum verum an falsum sit, '
quaero verumne an falsum sit,
quaero verum an falsum sit,
quaero verum falsumne sit,
a. ' Or not' in tlie second member of the double question is ordinarily
expressed by neone, less frequently by an non ; as, —
di utrum slnt necne, quaeritur, // is asked whether there are gods
or not.
J. Haud scio an, nescio an, by omission of the first membpr of
the double question, occur with the Subjunctive in the sense : / am
inclined to think, probably, perhaps ; as, —
haud scio an ita sit, / am inclined to think this is so.
6. In early Latin and in poetry the Indicative is sometimes used in
Indirect Questions.
I ask whether it is true or false?
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES.
301. Conditional Sentences are compound sentences
(§ 164) consisting of two parts, the Protasis (or con-
dition), usually introduced by si, nisi, or sin, and the
Apodosis (or conclusion). There are the following types
of Conditional Sentences : —
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES. I99
First T3rpe. -r Nothing Implied as to the Reality of the Sup-
posed Case.
302. I. Here we regularly have the Indicative in both
Protasis and Apodosis. Any tense may be used ; as, —
81 hoc credis, erras, if you believe this, you are mistaken ;
uaturam si sequemur, numquam aberrabimus, if we follow Nature,
we shall never go astray ;
81 hoc di^sti, errasti, if you said this, you were in error.
*
2. Sometimes the Protasis talces the Indefinite Second Person Singu^
lar (§ 356, 3) of the Present or Perfect Subjunctive, with the force of
the Indicative ; as, —
memoria minuitur, nisi earn ezerceas, memory is impaired unless
you exercise it.
3. Here belong also those conditional sentences in which the Prot-
asis denotes a repeated action (compare §§ 287, 2 ; 288, 3) ; as, —
81 quis equitum deciderat, pedltes circumsistebant, if any one
of the horsemen'fell, the foot-soldiers gathered about him.
a. Instead of the Indicative, Livy and subsequent writers employ the
Subjunctive of the Historical tenses in the Protasis to denote repeated
action; as, —
si dicendo quis diem eximeret, if {ever) anybody consumed a day
in pleading ; si quando adsideret, if ever he sat by.
4. Where the sense demands it, the Apodosis in conditional sen-
tences of the First Type may be an Imperative or one of the Inde-
pendent Subjunctives (Hortatory, Deliberative, etc.); as, —
sT hoc creditis, tacete, if you believe this, be silent ;
81 hoc credimus, taceamus, if we believe this, let us keep silent.
Second Type. — ' Should '-' Would ' Conditions.
303. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive (of the Pres-
ent or Perfect tense) in both Protasis and Apodosis ; as,— -
81 hoc die as, erres, 1 if you should say this, you would be mis-
si hoc dizeris, erraveris, J taken.
si velim Hannibalis proelia omnia desoribere, dies mS defioiat,
if I should wish to describe all the battles of Hannibal, timi
would fail me ;
200 SYNTAX.
mentiar, si negem, I should lie, if I should deny it;
haec SI tecum patria loquatur, nonne impetrare debeat, if your
country should plead thus -with you, would she not deserve to
obtain her request f
a. The Subjunctive in the Apodosis of conditional sentences of this type
is of the Potential variety.
b. Sometimes we find the Indicative in the Apodosis of sentences of the
Second Type, where the writer wishes to assert the accomplishment of a
result more positively ; as, —
aliter si faciat, nailaiu habet auctorlt^tem, if he should da,
otherwise f he has no authority.
Third Type. — Supposed Case Represented as Contrary to
Fact.
304. I. Here we regularly have the Subjunctive in both
Protasis and Apodosis, the Imperfect referring to present
time, and the Pluperfect referring to past ; as, —
si amicT mei adessent, opis non indigerem, if my friends were here,
I should not lack assistance ;
SI hoc dizisses, errasses, zf you had said this, you would have
erred;
sapientia non expeteretur, si nihil eiSoeret, philosophy would not
be desired, if it accomplished nothing;
consilium, ratio, sententia nisi essent in senibus, non summum
consilium majores nostri appellassent senatum, unless de-
liberation, reason, and wisdom existed in old men, our ances-
tors would not have called their highest deliberative body a
senate.
2. Sometimes the Imperfect Subjunctive is found referring to the
past, especially to denote a coiitintied act, or a state of things still exist-
ing; as,—
Laelius, Furius, Cato sT nihil litteris adjuvarentur, numquam se
ad earum studium oontullssent, Laelius, Furius, and Cato
would never have devoted themselves to the study of letters,
unless they had been {constantly) helped by them ;
num igitur si ad centesimum annum vizisset, senectiitis eum
suae paeniteret, if he had lived to his hundredth year, would M
have regretted (and now be regretting) his old age ?
CONDTTIONAL SENTENCES. 20I
3. The Apodosis in conditional sentences of this type sometimes
stands in the Indicative (Imperfect, Perfect, or Pluperfect), viz. —
a) Frequently in expressions of ability, obligation, or necessity ;
as, —
nisi felicitas in socordiam vertisset, exuere jugum
potuerunt, unless their prosperity had turned to folly,
they could have thrown off the yoke;
Note. — In sentences of this type, however, it is not itie possibility that is repre-
sented as-contTEiry-to-fact, but something to be supplied in thought irom the context.
Thus in the foregoing sentence the logical apodosis is et exuissent tinderstood
(and they would have shaken it off\. When ihe possibility itself is conditioned, the
Subjunctive is used.
eum patris loco colere debebas, si uUa in te pietas
esset, j/o» ought to revere him as a father, if you had
any sense of devotion.
b) With both the Periphrastic Conjugations ; as, —
61 Sestius ocoTsus ' esset, f uistisne ad arma ituri, if
Sestius had been slain, would you have proceeded to
arms f
sT Qnum diem morati essetis, moriendum omnibus
fnit, if you had delayed one day, you would all have
had to die.
Protasis expressed without Si.
305. I. The Protasis is not always expressed by a clause with si,
but may be implied in a word, a phrase, or merely by the context;
as, —
aliSqui haeo non soriberentur, otherwise (i.e. if matters were other-
wise) these things would not be written ;
non potestis, voldptate omnia dirigentes, retinere virtutem, you
cannot retain virtue, if you direct everything with reference to
pleasure.
2. Sometimes an Imperative, or a Jussive Subjunctive, serves as
Protasis. Thus : —
eras petito, dabitur, if you ask to-morrow, it shall be given you (Ht.
ask to-morrow, etc.) ;
haec reputent, videbunt, tf they consider this, they will see (lit. let
them consider, etc.) ;
/oges Zenonem, respondeat, if you should ask Zeno, he would
answer.
202 SYNTAX.
Use of Nisi, SI Non, Sin.
306. I. Nisi, unless, negatives the entire protasis; si non nega-
tives a single word ; as, —
ferreus essem, nisi te amarem, / should be hard-hearted unless 1
loved yote ; but —
ferreus essem, si te non amarem, / should be hard-hearted if I did
NOT love you.
In the first example, it is the notion of loving you that is negatived,
in the second, the notion of loving.
2. ST non (si minus) is regularly employed : —
a) When an apodosis with at, tamen, certe follows ; as, —
dolorem si non potuero frangere, tamen occultabo, if
I cannot crush my sorrow, yet I will hide it.
b) When an affirmative protasis is repeated in negative form ;
as, —
si feceris, magnam babebo gratiam; si non feceris,
ignoscam, if you do it, I shall be deeply grateful; if you
do not do it, I shall pardon you.
a. But if the verb is omitted in the repetition, only si minus or sin
minus is admissible ; as, —
boc si assecQtus sum, gaudeo; si minus, me consolor, z/7
have attained this, I am glad; if not, I console myself.
3. Sin. Where one protasis is followed by another opposed in
meaning, but affirmative in form, the second is introduced by sin ; as, —
hunc mihi timorem eripe ; si virus est, ne opprimar, sin falsus,
ut timgre desinam, relieve me of this fear; if it is well
founded, that [ may not be destroyed; but if it is groundless,
that I may cease to fear.
4. Nisi has a fondness for combining with negatives (non, nemo
nihil) ; as, —
nihil cogitavit nisi caedem, he had no thought but murder,
a. Non and nisi are always separated in the best Latinity.
5. Nisi forte, nisi vero, nisi si, unless perchance, unless indeed
(often with ironical force), take the Indicative; as, —
nisi vero, quia perfeota res non est, non videtur punienda,
unless indeed, because an act is not consummated, U does not
seem to merit punishment.
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES OF COMPARISON. 203
Conditional Clauses of Comparison.
307. I. Conditional Clauses of Comparison are intro-
duced by the particles, ac si, ut si, quasi, quam SI, tamquam
81, velut si, or simply by velut or tamquam. They stand in
the Subjunctive mood and regularly involve an ellipsis (see
§ 374) i)> 3-S indicated in the following examples : —
tantus patres metus cepit, velut si jam ad portas hostis esset, as
great fear seized the senators as {would have seized them) if the
enemy were already at the gates ;
sed quid ego his testibus utor quasi les dubia aut obscura sit,
6ui why do I use these witnesses, as (/ should do) if the matter
were doubtful or obscure ;
serviam tibi tam quasi emeris me argento, I -will serve you as
though you had bought me for money.
2. Note that in sentences of this kind the Latin observes the regu-
lar principles for the Sequence of Tenses. Thus after principal tenses
the Latin uses the Present and Perfect (as in the second and third exam-
ples), where the English uses the Past and Past Perfect.
Concessive Clauses.
308. The term ' Concessive ' is best restricted to those
clauses developed from the Jussive Subjunctive which
have the force of granted that, etc.; (see § 278) as, —
Bit fur, sit sacrilegus, at est bonus imperator, planted that he is a
thief and a robber, yet he is a good commander ;
haec sint falsa, granted that this is false ;
ne sit summum malum dolor, malum certe est, granted that pain
is not the greatest evil, yet it is certainly an evil.
Adversative Clauses with Qnamvis, Qnamguam, etc
309. Clauses intro4uced by quamvis, quamquam, etsl,
tametsi, cum, although, while often classed as 'Conces-
sive,' are yet essentially different from genuine Concessive
clauses. As a rule, they do not grant or concede any-
thing, but rather state that something is true in spite of
204 SYNTAX.
something else. They accordingly emphasize the adver-
sative idea, and are properly Subordinate Adversative
Clauses. The different particles used to introduce these
clauses have different meanings and take different con-
structions, as follows : —
1 . Quamvis, however much, although, does not introduce a state-
ment of fact, but represents an act merely as conceived. It is followed-
by the Subjunctive, usually of the present tense; as, —
homines quamvTs in turbidis rebus sint, tarn en interdum animTs
relazantur, in however stirring events men may engage, yet at
times they relax their energies;
non est potestas opitulandi rei publicae quamvis ea prematur
periculis, there is no opportunity to succor the state, though it
be beset by dangers.
2. Quamquam, etsi, tametsi, although, introduce a statement of
fact, and are followed by the Indicative (of any tense) ; as, —
quamquam omnis virtus nos allicit, tameu justitia id mazime
efficit, although all virtue attracts us, yet justice does so espe-
cially ;
Caesar, etsi nondum consilium hostium cognoverat, tamen Id
quod accidit suspicabatur, Caesar, though he did not yet know
the plans of the enemy, yet was suspecting what actually occurred,
u.. Etsi, although, must be distinguished from etsi, even if. The latter
is a conditional particle and teikes any of the constructions admissible
for si. (See §§ 302-304.) ,
3. Cum, although, is followed by the Subjunctive ; as, —
Atticus honores non petiit, cum ei paterent, Atticus did not seek.
honors, though they were open to him.
4. Licet sometimes loses its verbal force (see § 295, 6) and sinks to
the level of a conjunction with the force of although. It takes the
Subjunctive, Present or Perfect ; as, —
licet omnes terrores impendeant, succurram, though aU terrors
hang over me, {yet) I will lend aid.
5. Quamquam, with the force and yet, is often used to introduce
principal clauses ; as, —
quamquam quid loquor, and yet why do I speak f
CLAUSES OF PROVISO.— RELATIVE CLAUSES. 2oS
6. In post-Augustan writers guamquam is freely construed with the Sub-
junctive, while quamvis is often used to introduce statements of fact, and takes
either the Indicative or the Subjunctive. Thus : —
quamquam moveretur his v5cibus, although he was moved by these words;
quamvis multi opinarentur, though many thought;
quamvis infesto anlmS perveneras, though you had come with hostile intent.
Clauses with Dum, Modo, Dumznodo, denoting a AVish
or a Proviso.
310. These particles are followed by the Subjunctive
(negative ne) and have two distinct uses : —
L They are used to introduce clauses embodying a wish
entertained by the subject of the leading verb; as, —
multi honesta neglegunt dummodo potentiam oonsequantur,
many neglect honor in their desire to obtain power (^if only th^
may attain) ;
omnia postposm, dum praeceptis patris parerem, I made everything
else secondary, in my desire to obey the injunctions of my father ^
nil obstat tibi, dum ne sit ditior alter, nothing hinders you in your
desire that your neighbor may not be richer than you.
n. They are used to express a proviso {'provided
tJmt'); as, —
oderint, dum metuant, let them hate, provided they fear ;
manent ingenia senibus, modo permaneat studium et industria,
old men retain their faculties, provided only they retain their
interest and vigor ;
nubant, dum ne dos fiat comes, let them marry, provided no dowry
goes with it.
Relative Clauses.
311. Relative Clauses are introduced by Relative Pro-
nouns, Adjectives, or Adverbs.
312. I. Relative clauses usually stand in the Indicative Mood,
especially clauses introduced by those General Relatives which aro
doubled or have the suffix -cumque ; as, —
2o6 SYNTAX.
quidquid id est, timeo Danaos et dona ferentes, whatever it is, 1
fear the Greeks even when they offer gifts;
quidquid oritur, qualecumque est, causam a uatura habet, what-
ever cotnes into being, of whatever sort it is, has its primal cause
in Nature.
2. Any simple Relative may introduce a conditional sentence of
any of the thVee types mentioned in §§ 302-304 ; as, —
qui hoc dicit, errat, he who says this is mistaken (First Type) ;
qui hoc dicat, erret, he would be mistaken who should say this
(Second Type) ;
qui hoc dixisset, errasset, the man who had said this would have
been mistaken.
INDIRECT DISCOURSE {OUATIO OBLTQUA).
313. When the language or thought of any person is
reproduced without change, that is called Direct Discourse
(yOratio Recta) ; as, Caesar said, ' The die is cast' When,
on the other hand, one's language or thought is made to
depend upon a verb of saying, thinking, etc., that is called
Indirect Discourse {Oratio Obllquci); as, Caesar said that
the die was cast ; Caesar thought that his troops wen
victorious.
a. For the verbs most frequently employed to introduce Indirect
Discourse, see § 331.
MOODS IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Declarative Sentences.
314. I. Declarative Sentences upon becoming Indirect
change their main clause to the Infinitive with Subject
Accusative, while all subordinate clauses take the Subjunc-
tive ; as, —
Regulus dixit quam diu jure jurando hostium ten§retur non esse
se senatorem, Regulus said that as long ns he was held by his
pledge to the enemy he was not a senator. (Direct : quam diu
teneor non sum senator.)
INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 207
2. The verb of saying, thinking, etc., is sometimes to be inferred
from the context ; as, —
tum Romulus legates circa viclnas gentes misit qui societatem
conubiumque peterent : urbes quoque, ut cetera, ex
luSiao nasci, then Romulus sent envoys around among the
neighboring tribes, to ask for alliance and the right of inter-
marriage, {saying that) cities, like everything else, start from a
modest beginning.
3. Subordinate clauses which contain an explanatory statement of
the writer and so are not properly a part of the Indirect Discourse, or
which emphasize the fact stated, take the Indicative ; as, —
nuutiatum est Ariovistum ad occupaudum Vesoutionem, quod
est oppidum mazdmum Sequanorum contendere, it mas re-
ported that Ariovistus was hastening to seize Vesontio, which is
the largest town of the Sequani.
4. Sometimes a subordinate clause is such only in its external form,
and in sense is principal. , It then takes the Infinitive with Subject
Accusative. This occurs especially in case of relative clauses, where
qui is equivalent to et Mo, nam hie, etc. ; as, —
dixit urbem. Atheniensium propugnaculum oppositum esse bar-
baris, apud quam jam bis classes regias fecisse naufra-
gium, he said the city of the Athenians had been set against the
barbarians like a bulwark, near which ( = and near it) the fleets
of the King had twice met disaster.
5. The Subject Accusative of the Infinitive is sometimes omitted
when it refers to the same person as the subject of the leading
verb, or can easily be supplied from the context ; as, —
cum id nescire Mago diceret, when Mago said he did not know
this (for se nescire).
Interrogative Sentences.
315. I. Real questions of the Direct Discourse, upon
becoming indirect, are regularly put in the Subjunc-
tive; as, —
Ariovistus Caesari respondit : se prius in Galliam venisse quam
populum Romanum. Quid sibi vellet? Cur in suas pos-
sessiones veniret, Ariovistus replied to Caesar that ht
2o8 SYNTAX.
had come into Gatd before the Roman people. What did hi
{Caesar) mean 1 Why did he come into his domain ? (Direct;
quid tibi vis ? cur in meas possessiones venis ?)
2. Rhetorical questions, on the other hand, being asked
merely for effect, and being equivalent in force to emphatic
statements, regularly stand in the Infinitive in Indirect Dis-
course. Thus : —
quid est levius (lit. what is more trivial, = nothing is more trivial)
of the Direct Discourse becomes quid esse levius in the In-
direct.
3. Deliberative Subjunctives of the Direct Discourse remain un-
changed in mood in the Indirect: as, —
qaid fiLceiet, le/hai was he to do ? (Direct: quid faciat?)
Imperative Sentences.
316. All Imperatives or Jussive Subjunctives of the
Direct Discourse appear as Subjunctives in the In-
direct; as, —
milites certiores fecit paulisper intermitterent proelium, he
told the soldiers to stop the battle for a little. (Direct:
iutermittite.)
a. The negative in such sentences is ne ; as, —
ne suae virtuti tribueret, let him not attribute it to his own
valor !
TENSES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
A. Tenses of the Infinitive.
317. These are used in accordance with the regular
principles for the use of the Infinitive as given in § 270.
a. The Perfect Infinitive may represent any past tense of the
Indicative of Direct Discourse. Thus : —
scio te haeo egisse may mean —
/ know you were doing this. (Direct: haec agebas.)
I know you did this. (Direct: haeo egisti.)
I know you had done this. (Direct : haeo egeras.)
INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 2o9
B. Tenses of the Subjunctive.
318. These follow the regular principle for the Sequence
of Tenses, being Principal if the verb of saying' is Princi-
pal; Historical if it is Historical. Yet for the sake of
vividness, we often find the Present Subjunctive used
after an historical tense {Repraesentatio) ; as, — ■
Caesar respondit, si obsides dentur, sese pacem esse facturum,
Caesar replied that, if hostages be given, he would make peace.
a. For the sequence after the Perfect Infinitive, see § 268, 2.
CONDITIONAL SENTENCES IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
Conditional Sentences of the First Type.
319. A. The Apodosis. Any tense of the Indicative
is changed to the corresponding tense of the Infinitive
(§§ 270; 317. «)•
B. The Protasis. The protasis takes those tenses of
the Subjunctive which are required by the Sequence
of Tenses.
Examples : —
Direct. Indirect.
si hoc credis, erras,
dico, SI hoc credas, te errare ;
dixi, SI hoc crederes, te errare.
( dico, si hoc credas, te erraturum esse :
SI hoc credes, errabis, J ,. . ., . _, - .- -^-
' ' 1 dixi, SI hoc crederes, te erraturum esse.
f dico, sl hoc credideris, te erraturum
esse ;
si hoc credideris, errabis, •{ ,. _ -,_ -■,.■,. - .- -^-
' dixi, SI hoc credidisses, te erraturum
esse.
f dico, si hoc crederes, te erravisse :
Sl hoc credebas, erravisti, <,...,_ _, _ ^_ _ .
' [ dixi, Sl hoc crederes, te erravisse.
a. Note that a Future Perfect Indicative of the Direct Discourse
regularly appears in the Indirect as a Perfect Subjunctive
after a principal tense, and as a Pluperfect Subjunctive after
an historical tense.
2IO SYNTAX.
Conditional Sentences of. the Second Type.
320. A. The Apodosis. The Present Subjunctive of
the Direct Discourse regularly becomes the Future Infini-
tive of the Indirect.
B. The Protasis. The Protasis takes those tenses of
the Subjunctive demanded by the sequence of tenses.
Examples : —
dico, SI hoc credas, te erraturum esse ;
dixl, SI hoc crederes, te erraturum esse.
si h5c credas, erres,
Conditional Sentences of the Third Type.
321. A. The Apodosis.
1. The Imperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse
becomes the Future Infinitive.
a. But this construction is rare, being represented in the clas-
sical Latinity by a single example (Caesar, V. 29. 2). Some
scholars question the correctness of this passage.
2. The Pluperfect Subjunctive of the Direct Discourse
becomes : —
a) In the Active Voice the Infinitive in -urus fuisse.
d) In the Passive Voice it takes the form futurum fuisse ut
with the Imperfect Subjunctive.
B. The Protasis.' The protasis in Conditional Sen-
tences of this type ahvays remains unchanged.
Examples : —
SI hoc crederes, errares, dico (dixi), sT hoc orederes, te er-
raturum esse ;
si h5c credidisses, erravisses, dico (dixT), si hoc credidisses, te
erratiirum fuisse ;
SI hoc dizisses, punitus esses, dico (dixI), si hoc dixisses, futui
rum fuisse ut pumrSris.
322. When an apodosis of a conditional sentence of the Third
Type referring to the past is at the same time a Result clause, or »
INDIRECT DISCOURSE. 211
quin-clause (after non dubito, etc.), it stands in the Perfect Sub-
junctive in the form -urua fuerim; as, —
Ita territi sunt, ut arma trSditurl fuerint,i nisi Caesar subito
advenisset, they were so frightened that they would have given
up their arms, had not Caesar suddenly arrived;
non dubito quin, si hoc dixisses, erraturus f ueris,i / do not doubt
that, if you had said this, you would have made a mistake.
a. This peculiarity is confined to the Active Voice. In the
Passive, such sentences, when they become dependent,
remain unchanged ; as, —
non dubito quin, si hoc dirzisses, vituperatus esses, /
do not doubt that, if you had said this, you would have
been blamed.
b. When an Indirect Question becomes an apodosis in a con^
ditional sentence of the Third Type, -urus fuerim (rarely
-urus f uissem) is used ; as, —
quaero, num, si hoc dixisses, erraturus fueris (01
f uisses) .
c. Potui, when it becomes a dependent apodosis in sentences of this
Type, usually changes to the Perfect Subjunctive ; as, —
concursQ. totius civitatis defensi sunt, ut Irigidissimos
quoque oratores populi studia excitare potuerint,
they were defended before a gathering of all the citizens, so that the
interest of the people would have beeyi enough to excite even the
most apathetic orators.
IMPLIED INDIRECT DISCOURSE.
323. The Subjunctive is often used in subordinate clauses whose
Indirect character is merely implied by the context ; as, —
dSmonstrabantur mihi praeterea, quae Socrates d§ imxnortali-
tate anlmSrum disseruisset, there were explained to me be-
sides, the arguments -which Socrates had set forth concerning the
immortality of the soul {i.e. the arguments which, it was said,
Socrates had set forth) ;
Paetus omnes libros quos pater suus reliquisset mihi donavit,
Paetus gave me all the books which (as he said) his father had left.
1 Tradituri fuerint and erraturus fueris are to be regarded as repre-
senting tradlttiri fuerunt and erratiiruB fulsti of Direct Discourse. (Sm
J 304- 3- *0
212 SYNTAX.
SUBJUNCTIVE BY ATTRACTION.
324. I. Subordinate clauses dependent upon the Sub.
junctive are frequently attracted into the same mood,
especially when they do not express a fact, but constitute
an essential part of one complex idea ; as, —
nemo avarus adbuc inventus est, cui, quod haberet, esset satis,
no miser has yet been found who was satisfied with what he
had;
cum diversas causas afferrent, dum formam sui quisque et
animi et ingenii reddereut, as they brought forward different
arguments, while each mirrored his own individual type of
mind and natural bent ;
quod ego f atear, pudeat ? should I be ashamed of a thing which I
adtnit f
2. Similarly a subordinate clause dependent upon an Infinitive
is put in the Subjunctive when the two form one closely united
whole; as, —
mos est Athems quotannis in contione laudari eos qui sint in
proeliis interfecti, it is the custom at Athens every year for
those to be publicly eulogized who have been killed in battle.
(Here the notion of 'praising those who fell in battle' form.s
an inseparable whole.)
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB.
325. These are the Infinitive, participle. Gerund, and
Supine. All of these partake of the nature of the Verb,
on the one hand, and of the Noun or Adjective, on the
other. Thus : —
As Verbs, —
d) They may be limited by adverbs ;
^) They admit an object ;
c) They have the properties of voice and tense.
As Nouns or Adjectives, —
a) They are declined ;
b) They take Noun or Adjective constructions.
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 213
THE INFINITIVE.
Infinitive 'without Subject Accusative.
326. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also as
Predicate or Appositive.
Note. — The Infinitive was originally a Dative, and traces of this are still to be
seen in the poetical use of the Infinitive to express/w^^oj^ ; as, uec dulces occur-
rent oscula nati praeripere, and no sweet children imll run to snatch kisses.
A. As Subject.
327. I. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is
used as the Subject of esse and various impersonal verbs,
particularly opus est, necesse est, oportet, juvat, delectat,
placet, libet, licet, praestat, decet, pudet, interest, etc. ; as, —
dulce et decorum est pro patria mori, it is sweet and noble to die
for one''s country ;
virorum est fortium toleranter dolorem pati, it is the part of brave
men to endure fain with patience ;
senatui placuit legates mittere, /^f Senate decided (lit. it pleased tht
Senate) to send envoys.
2. Even though the Infinitive itself appears without Subject, it may
take a Predicate Noun or Adjective in the Accusative ; as, —
aliud est iracundum esse, aliud iratum, it is one thing to be irasci-
ble., another to be angry;
Impune quaelibet facere, id est regem esse, to do whatever you
please with impunity, that is to be a king.
a. But when licet is followed by a Dative of the person, a Predicate
Noun or Adjective with esse is attracted into the same case; as,
licult esse otioso Themlstocli, lit. it was permitted to Themisto-
cles to be at leisure. So sometimes with other Impersonals.
B. 'As Object.
328. I. The Infinitive without Subject Accusative is
used as the Object of many verbs, to denote another action
of the same subject, particularly after —
V0I6, cupio, malo, nolo ; cogito, meditor, purpose, intend',
debeo, ought; neglego, neglect;
Statuo, constituo, decide ; vereor, timed, fear ;
214 SYNTAX.
audeo, dare ; mature, f estino, propero, oon-
Btudeo, contends, strive ; tendo, hasten ;
paro, prepare (so paratus) ; asauesco, consuescS, accustom
incipio, coepi, instituo, begin ; myself (so assuetus, insuitua,
pergo, continue; assuef actus) ;
desino, desisto, cease ; disco, learn ;
possum, can ; scio, know how ;
Conor, try ; soleo, am wont; as, —
tu hos intueri audes, do you dare to look on these men ?
Demosthenes ad Suctus maris declamare solebat, Demostkene,
used to declaim by the waves of the sea.
2. A Predicate Noun or Adjective with these Infinitives is attracted
into the Nominative ; as, —
beatus esse sine virtute nemo potest, no one can be happy without
virtue ;
Cats esse quam videri bonus malebat, Cato preferred to be good
rather than to seem so.
Infinitive ■writh Subject Accusative.
329. This is used chiefly as Subject or Object but also
as Predicate or Appositive.
A. As Subject.
330. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative (like the
simple Infinitive) is used as Subject with ease and Imper-
sonal verbs, particularly with aequum est, utile est, turpe
est, fama est, spes eat, fas est, uefas est, opus est, necesse
est, oportet, constat, praestat, licet, etc. ; as, —
nihil in bell5 oportet contemn!, nothing ought to be despised in war;
apertum est sibi quemque natura esse carum, it is manifest that
by nature everybody is dear to himself.
B. As Object.
331. The Infinitive with Subject Accusative is used as
Object after the following classes of verbs :
I. Most frequently after verbs of saying, thinking, knowing, per-
ceivtng, and the like {Verba Sentiendi et Declarandi). This is th«
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 21$
regular construction of Principal Clauses of Indirect Discourse. Verbs
that take this construction are, among others, the following : sentlo,
audio, video, cognosco ; puto, jiidico, spero, confido ; soio,
memini ; dioo, affirmo, nego {say that . . . not), trado, narro,
fateoT, respondeo, scribo, promitto, glorior. Also the phrases;
certiorem facio (infortn), memoria teneo (remember), etc.
Examples : —
Epiciirei putant cum corporibu3 simul animos iuterire, the Epi-
cureans think that the soul perishes with the body ;
Thales dixit aquam esse initium rerum, Thales said that water was
the first principle of the tmiverse;
Democritus uegat quicquid esse sempiternum, Democritus says
nothing is everlasting;
spero eum venturum esse, / hope that he will come.
II. With jiibeo, order, and -veto, forbid; as, —
Caesar milites pontem facere jussit, Caesar ordered the soldiers to
make a bridge.
u. When the name of the person who is ordered or forbidden to do
something is omitted, the Infinitive with jube5 and veto is put in
the Passive ; as, Caesar pontem fieri Jussit.
III. With patior and sino,/«-w?z^, fl/^a',- as, —
QuUo se implioari negotio passus est, he did not permit himself to
be involved in any difficulty.
IV. With volo, nolo, malo, cupio, when the Subject of the Infini-
tive is different from that of the governing verb ; as, —
neo mihi hunc errorem extorqueri volo, nor do I wish this error to
be wrested from me ;
eUs res jactari uolebat, he was unwilling that these matters should be
discussed;
te tut frui virtiite cupimus, we desire that you enjoy your worth.
a. When the Subject of both verbs is the same, the simple Infinitive is
regidarly used in accordance with \ 328. x. But exceptions occur, es-
pecially in case of esse and Passive Infinitives ; as, —
cupio me esse clementem, I desire to he lenient;
Timolson maluit se diligi quam metui, Timoleon preferred to
be loved rather than feared.
6. Volo also admits the Subjunctive, with or without ut ; n51o the Sub
junctive alone. (.See § 296. 1. a.)
2l6 SYNTAX.
V. With Verbs of emotion (Joy, sorrow, regret, etc.), especiallj
gaudeo, laetor, doled ; aegre ferS, molests fero, graviter fero, am
annoyed, distressed ; miror, queror, indignor ; as, —
gaudeo tS salvum advenire, I rejoice thai you arrive safely^
non molests ferunt se libidinum vinculis laxatos esse, they art
not troubled at being released from the bonds of passion ;
miror te ad me nihil scribere, I wonder that you write me nothing.
u.. Instead of an Infinitive these verbs also sometimes admit a guod-
clause as Object. (See } 299.) Thus : —
miror quod non loqueris, / wonder that you do not speak.
VI. Some verbs which take two Accusatives, one of the Person and
the other of the Thing (§ 178, i), may substitute an Infinitive for the
second Accusative ; as, —
cogo te hoc facere, I compel you to do this (cf. te hoc cogo) ;
docui te contentum esse, /• taught you to be content (cf. te modes-
tiam docui, I taught you temperance).
Passive Construction of the Foregoing Verbs.
332. Those verbs which ha the Active are followed by
the Infinitive with Subject Accusative, usually admit the
personal construction of the Passive. This is true of the
following and of some others : —
d) jubeor, vetor, sinox ; as, —
milites pontem facere jussi sunt, the soldiers were ordered
to build a bridge ;
pons fieri jussus est, a bridge was ordered built ;
niHites castris exire vetiti sunt, the troops were forbidden
to go out of the camp ;
Sestius Clodium accusare non est situs, Sestius was
not allowed to accuse Clodius.
6) MiAeor, I am seen, I seem; as, —
videtur comperisse, he seems to have discovered,
c) dicor, putor, existimor, judicor (in all persons) ; as, —
dicitur in Italiam venisse, he is said to have come into
Italy ;
Romulus primus rek Romanorum fuisse putatur, Romu-
lus is thought to have been the first king of the Romans.
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 217
d) fertur, feruntur, trSditur, traduntur (only in the third
person) ; as, —
fertur Homerus caecus fuisse, Homer is said to have been
blind;
carmina Archilochi contumSliis referta esse traduntur,
Archilochus''s poems are reported to have been full of abuse.
Note. — In compound tenses and periphrastic forms, the last two classes of
verbs, «), <0i niore commonly take the impersonal construction ; as, —
tradltuin est Homerum caecum fuisse, the story goes that Homer was
blind.
Infinitive 'with Adjectives.
333. The Infinitive with Adjectives (except paratus, assuetus,
etc. ; see § 328, i) occurs only in poetry and post- Augustan prose
writers ; as, —
oontentus demonstrasse, contented to have proved;
audax omnia perpetT, bold for enduring everything.
Infinitive in Exclamations.
334. The Infinitive is used in Exclamations implying scorn, indig-
nation, or regret. An intensive -ne is often attached to some word in
the clause. Examples : —
huncine solem tarn nigrum surreze mihi, to think that to-day's sun
rose with such evil omen for me!
sedere totos dies in villa, to stay whole days at the villa.
Historical Infinitive.
335. The Infinitive is often used in historical narrative instead of the
Imperfect Indicative. The Subject stands in the Nominative ; as, —
interim cottidie Caesar Haeduos frumentum flagitare, meanwhile
Caesar was daily demanding grain of the Haedui.
PARTICIPLES.
Tenses of the Participle.
336. I. The tenses of the Participle, like those of the
Infinitive (see § 270), express time not absolutely, but with
reference to the verb upon which the Participle depends.
2l8 SYNTAX.
2. The Present Participle denotes action contemporary with that ol
the verb. Thus : —
audio te loquentem =you are speaking and / hear you ;
audiebam te loquentem =you were speaking and I heard you;
^udiam te loquentem = you will be speaking and I shall hear you.
a. The Present Participle is sometimes employed with Conative
force ; as, —.
assurgentem regem resupinat, as the king was trying to
rise, he threw him down.
3. The Perfect Passive Participle denotes action prior to that of
the verb. Thus : —
looutus taceo = / have spoken and am silent;
looutus'tacui = / had spoken and then was silent ;
locutus tacebo = / shall speak and then shall be silent.
4. The absolute time of the action of a participle, therefore, is
determined entirely by the finite verb with whicli it is connected.
5. Certain Perfect Passive Participles of Deponent and Semi-
Deponent Verbs are used as Presents ; viz. arbitratus, ausus, ratus,
gavisus, solitus, ubus, confisus, diffisus, secutus, veritus.
Use of ParticipleB.
337. As an Adjective the Participle may be used either
as an attributive or predicate modifier of a Substantive.
1. Attributive Use. This presents no special peculiarities. Ex-
amples are : —
gloria est consentiens laus bonorum, glory is the unanimous praise
of the good;
Coaon- murds a Lysandro dirutos reficit, Conon restored the walls
destroyed by Lysander.
2. Predicate Use. Here the Participle is often equivalent to a
subordinate clause. Thus the Participle may denote : —
a) Time ; as, —
omue malum nasceus facile opprimitur, every evil is
easily crushed at birth.
b) A Condition ; as, —
mente uti non possumus cibo et potione completi, if
gorged with food and drink., we cannot use our intellects-
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 219
c) Manner; as, —
Solon senesoere se dicebat multa in dies addiscentem,
Solon said he grew old learning many new things daily.
d) Means ; as, —
sol oriens diem conficit, the sun, by its rising, makes the
day.
«) Opposition (' though ') ; as, —
mendaci homini ne verum quidem dicentl credimus,
•we do not believe a liar, though he speaks the truth.
/) Cause ; as, —
perfidiam veritus ad suos recessit, since he feared
treachery, he returned to his own troops.
3. Video and audio, besides the Infinitive, take the Present Par-
ticiple in the Predicate use ; as, —
video te fugientem, I see you fleeing,
a. So frequently faclo, flngo, induco, etc.; as, —
eis Catonem respondentem faclmus, we represent Cato reply-
ing to them ;
Homerus Laerteni colentem agrum faoit, Homer represents
Laertes tillmg the field.
4. The Future Active Pajticiple (except futurus) is regularly con-
fined to its use in the Periphrastic Conjugation, but in poets and later
writers it is used independently, especially to denote purpose ; as, —
venerunt castra oppugnaturi, they came to assault the camp.
5. The Perfect Passive Participle is often equivalent to a coordi-
nate clause ; as, —
urbem captam diruit, he captured and destroyed the city (lit. he de-
stroyed the city captured).
6. The Perfect Passive Participle in combination with a noun is
sometimes equivalen* to an abstract noun with a dependent Genitive ;
as,—
post urbem conditam, after the founding of the city ;
Quinctius defensus, the defense of Quinctius ;
quibus animus occupatus, the preoccupation of the mind with which.
7. Habeo sometimes takes a Perfect Passive Participle in the Predi-
cate construction with a force not far removed from that of the Perfect
or Pluperfect Indicative ; as, —
equitatus quem coactum habSbat, the cavalry which he had
collected.
220 SYNTAX.
8. The Gerundive denotes obligation, necessity, etc. Like other Par-
ticiples it may be used either as Attributive or Predicate.
a) Less frequently as Attributive. Thus : —
liber legendus, a book worth readings
leges observandae, laws deserving of observance.
b) More frequently as Predicate.
i) In the Passive Periphrastic Conjugation (amandus
est, etc.'). In this use Intransitive Verbs can be used only
impersonally, but admit their ordinary case-construction
(Gen., Dat., Abl.) ; as, —
veniendum est, it is necessary to come ;
oblivTscendum est off ensarnm, one must forget injuries ;
numquam proditori credendum est, you must never trust
a traitor ;
suo ouique utendum est judicio, every man must use his
own judgment.
2) Mtcr euro, provide for ; do, trado, give over ; zelin-
quo, leave; concedo, hand over; and some other verbs,
instead of an object clause, or to denote purpose ; as, —
Caesar pontem in Arari faciendum curavit, Caesar pro-
vided for the construction of a bridge over the Arar;
Imperator urbem militibus diripiendam concessit, the
general handed over the city to the soldiers to plunder.
9. For the Gerundive as the equivalent of the Gerund, see § 339, i.
THE GERUND.
338. As a verbal noun the Gerund admits noun con-
structions as follows : —
I. Genitive. The Genitive of the Gerund is used —
a) With Nouns, as objective or Appositional Genitive (see
§§ 200, 202) ; as, —
oupiditas dominandi, desire of ruling;
ars scribendi, the art of writing.
b) With Adjectives ; as, —
oupidus audiendi, desirous of hearing.
c) With causa, gratia ; as, —
discendi causa, /or the sake of learning.
NOUN AND ADJECTIVE FORMS OF THE VERB. 221
2. Dative. The Dative of the Gerund is used —
a) With Adjectives ; as, —
aqua utilis est bibendd, water is useful for drinking.
b) With Verbs (rarely) ; as, —
adfuT scribendo, /was present at the luriting.
3. Accusative. The Accusative of the Gerund is used only with
Prepositions, chiefly ad and in to denote purpose ; as, —
homo ad ageudum natus est, man is born for action.
4. Ablative. The Ablative of the Gerund is used —
a) Without a Preposition, as an Ablative of Means, Cause, etc.
(see §§ 218, 219); as,—
mens discendo alitur et cogitando, the mind is nourished
by learning and reflection.
Themistocles maritimos praedones consectando mare
tutum reddidit, Themistocles made the sea safe by fol-
lowing up the pirates.
b") After the prepositions a, de, ex, in ; as, —
summa voluptas ex discendo capitur, the keenest pleas-
ure is derived from learning;
multa de bene beateque vivendo a Platone disputata
sunt, there -was m.tich discussion by Plato on the subject
of living "well and happily.
5. As a rule, only the Genitive of the Gerund and the Ablative
(without a preposition) admit a Direct Object.
Gerundive Construction instead of the Gerund.
339. I. Instead of the Genitive or Ablative of the Gerund with a
Direct Object, another construction -may be, and very often is, used.
This consists in putting the Direct Object in the case of the Gerund
(Gen. or Abl.) and using the Gerundive in agreement with it. This
is called the Gerundive Construction. Thus : —
Gerund Construction. Gerundive Construction.
cupidus urbem videndi, '^«^>-''«n cupidus urbis videndae ;
of seeing the city. )
deleotor oratores legendo, / «»/ ) ^.j^^^^^ .^.^.^^^^^ 1^^^^^^,^
charmedwithreadmgthe orators, i
222 SYNTAX.
2. The Gerundive Construction must be used to avoid a Direct
Object with the Dative of the Gerund, or with a case dependent upon
a Preposition ; as, —
locus castris muniendis aptus, a place adapted to fortifying a camp;
ad pacem petendam venerunt, they came to ask peace ;
multum temporis consumo in legendTs poetis, / spend much time
in reading the poets.
3. In order to avoid ambiguity (see § 336, 2), the Gerundive Con-
struction must not be employed in case of Neuter Adjectives, used
substantively. Thus regularly —
philosophi oupidi sunt verum investigandi, philosophers are eager
for discovering truth (rarely verT investigandi) ;
Btudium plura cognoscendi, a desire of knowing more (not plurium
cognoscendonim) .
4. From the nature of the case only Transitive Verbs can be used
in the Gerundive construction ; but utor, fruor, fungor, potior (orig-
inally transitive) regularly admit it ; as, —
hostes in spem potiundorum castrorum veneraut, the enemy had
conceived the hope of gaining possession of the camp.
5. The Genitives mei, tui, sui, nostri, vestri, when used in the
Gerundive Construction, are regularly employed without reference to
Gender or Number, since they were originally Neuter Singular Adjec-
tives used substantively. Thus : —
mulier sui servandi causa aufugit, the woman fled for the sake of
saving herself;
legati in castra venerunt sui purgandi causa, the envoys came into
camp for the purpose of clearing themselves.
So nostri servandi cauaa, for the sake of saving ourselves.
6. Occasionally the Genitive of the Gerundive Construction is used
to denote purpose ; as, —
quae ille cepit legum ao libertatis subvertundae, -which he under-
took for the purpose of overthrowing the laws and liberty.
7. The Dative of the Gerundive Construction occurs in some ex-
pressions which have the character of formulas ; as, —
decemviri legibus scribundis, decemvirs for codifying the laws ;
quindecimviri sacris faciuudis, quindecimvirs for performing the
sacrifices.
COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 223
THE SUPINE..
340. I • The Supine in -um is used after Verbs of motion to express
purpose ; as, —
legati ad Caesarem grStulatum couvenSrunt, envoys came to Cae^
sar to congratulate him.
a. The Supine in -um may take an Object ; as, —
pacem petitum oratores Romam mittunt, they send en'
voys to Rome to ask for p)eace.
b. Note the phrase : —
do (coUooo) filiam nuptum, / give my daughter in mar-
riage.
2. The Supine in -u is used as an Ablative of Specification with
facilis, difBcilis, incredibilis, jucundus, optimus, etc. ; also with
fas est, nefas est, opus est ; as, —
haec res est facilis cognitu, this thing is easy to learn ;
hoc est optimum factu, this is best to do.
a. Only a few Supines in -u are in common use, chiefly auditu,
cognitu, diets, factu, vTsu.
b. The Supine in -ii never takes an Object.
Chapter VI. — Particles.
COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS.
341. Copulative Conjunctions. These join one word,
phrase, or clause to another.
I. a) et simply connects.
b) -que joins more closely than et, and is used especially where
the two members have an internal connection with each
other; as, —
parentes liberique, parents and children ;
cum homines aestu febrlque jaotantur, wken people art
tossed about with heat and fever.
224 SYNTAX.
c) atque (ac) usually emphasizes the second of the two thingii
connected, — and also, and indeed, and in fact. After words
of likeness and difference, atque (ac) has the force of as,
than. Thus : —
ego idem sentio ac tu, J think the same as you;
haud aliter ac, not otherwise than,
d) neque (nee) means and not, neither, nor.
a. a) -que is an enclitic, and is appended always to the second of
two words connected. Where it connects phrases or clauses,
it is appended to the first word of the second clause ; but
when the first word of the second clause is a Preposition,'
-que is regularly appended to the next following word ; as,—
Ob eamque rem, and on account of that thing.
b) atque is used before vowels and consonants ; ac never before
vowels, and seldom before c, g, qu.
c) et non is used for neque when the emphasis of the negative
rests upon a special word ; as, — ,
vetus et non ignobilis orator, an old and not ignoble orator.
d) For and nowhere, and never, and none, the Latin regularly
said nee iisquam, nee umquam, nee uUus, etc.
3. Correlatives. Copulative Conjunctions are frequently used
•fflrrelatively ; as, —
et . . . et, both . . . and ;
neque (nee) . . . neque (nee), neither . . . nor; "
cum . . . turn, while . . . at the same time ;
turn . . . tum, not only . . . but also.
Less frequently : —
et . . . neque ; neque . . . et.
1*. Note that the Latin, with its tendency to emphasize antithetical relations,
often uses correlatives, especially et . . . et, et . . . neque, neque
. . . et, where the English employs but a single connective.
4. In enumerations —
a) The different members of a series may follow one another
without connectives (Asyndeton; see § 346). Thus: —
ez cupiditatibuB odia, discidia, discordiae, seditiones,
bella nascuntur, from, covetous desires spring up
hatred, dissension, discord, sedition, wars.
COORDINATE CONJUNCTIONS. 225
d) The different members may severally be connected by et
(Polysyndeton). Thus : —
horae cedunt et dies et menses et anm, hours and days
and months and years pass away.
c) The connective may be omitted between the former members,
while the last two are connected by -que (rarely et) ; as, —
Caesar in Carnutes, Andes Turonesque legiones dedu-
cit, Caesar leads his legions into the territory of the
farnutes, Andes, and Turones.
342. Disjunctive Conjunctions indicate an alternative.
1. a) aut must be used when the alternatives are mutually ex-
clusive; as, —
. cita mors venit aut victoria laeta, {either') swift death or
glad victory comes.
i) vel, -ve (enclitic) imply a choice between the alterna-
tives ; as, —
qm aether vel caelum nominatur, which is called aether
or heaven.
2. Correlatives. Disjunctive Conjunctions are often used correla-
tively; as, —
aut . . . aut, either . . . or ;
vel . . . vel, either . . . or ;
sive . . . sive, if . . .orif.
343. Adversative Conjunctions. These denote oppo-
sition.
I . a) Bed, but, merely denotes opposition.
b) verum, but, is stronger than sed, but is less frequently used.
c) autem, but on the other hand, however, marks a transition.
It is always post-positive.
Definition. A post-positive word is one that cannot begin a sen-
tence, but is placed after one or more words.
£) at, but, is used especially in disputation, to introduce an
opposing argument.
e) atqui means but yet.
/) tamen, yet, usually stands after the emphatic word, but not
always.
i) vero, howevar, indeed, in truth, is always post-positive.
226 SYNTAX.
2. Note the correlative expressions : —
Hon solum (non mode) . . . sed etiam, not only . . . but also ;
nou modo non . . . sed ne . . . quidem, not only not, but not
even ; as, —
non modo tibi non irasoor, sed ne reprehendo quidem factum
tuum, / not only am not angry with you, but I do not even blamt
your action.
a. But when the sentence has but one verb, and this stands with the second
member, non modo may be used for non modo non; as, —
adsentatio non modo amico, sed ne libero quidem dlgna
est, fiattery is not only not worthy of a friend^ but not even, of Ct
free man,
344. Illative Conjunctions. These represent the state«
ment which they introduce as following from or as in con-'
formity with what has preceded.
1 . d) itaque = and so, accordingly,
b') ergo = therefore, accordingly.
c') igitur (regularly post-positive ^) = therefore, accordingly.
2. Igitur is never combined with at, atque, -que, or neque.
345. Causal Conjunctions. These denote cause, or give
an explanation. They are nam, namque, enim (post-positive),
etenim, for.
346. Asyndeton. The conjunction is sometimes omitted be-
tween coordinate members, particularly in lively or impassioned
narration. Thus : —
d) A copulative Conjunction is omitted ; as, —
avarltia infinita, insatiabilis est, avarice is boundless
(and') insatiable^
Cn. Pompejo, M. Crasso consulibus, in the consulship of
Gnaeus Pompey (and) Marcus Crassus.
The conjunction is regularly omitted between the names of
consuls when the praenomen (Marcus, Gains, etc.) is expressed.
b) An Adversative Conjunction may be omitted; as, —
rationes defuerunt, ubertas orationis non defuit, argU'
ments were lacking, (but) abundance of words was not,
1 Except in Sallust and Silver Latin.
ADVERBS. — WORD-ORDER. 227
ADVERBS.
347. I. The following particles, sometimes classed as
Conjunctions, are more properly Adverbs : —
etiam, abo, even.
quoque (always post-positive), also.
quidem (always post-positive) lays stress upon the preceding word.
It is sometimes equivalent to the English indeed, in fact, but
more frequently cannot be rendered, except by vocal emphasis.
ne . . . quidem means not even ; the emphatic word or phrase always
stands between ; as, ne ille quidem, not even he.
tamen and ver5, in addition to their use as Conjunctions, are often
employed as Adverbs.
2. Negatives. Two negatives are regularly equivalent to an
affirmative as in English, as non nullT, some ; but when non, nemo,
nihil, numquam, etc., are accompanied by neque . . . neque, non
. . . non, non modo, or ne . . . quidem, the latter particles simply
take up the negation and emphasize it ; as, —
habeo bic neminem neque amicum neque cognatum, / have here
no one, neither friend nor relative.
non enim praetereundum est ne id quidem, /iir not even that must
be passed by.
a. Haud in Cicero and Caesar occurs almost exclusively as a modifier
of Adjectives and Adverbs, and in the phrase haud scio an. Latei
writers use it freely with verbs.
Chapter VII. — Word-order and Sentence-
Structure.
A. WOHD-ORDER.
348. In the normal arrangement of the Latin sentence
the Subject stands at the beginning of the sentence, the
Predicate at the end ; as, —
Darius olassem quingentarum navium comparavit, Darius got
ready a fleet of five hundred ships.
228 SYNTAX.
349. But for the sake of emphasis the normal arrange,
ment is often abandoned, and the emphatic word is put
at the beginning, less frequently at the end of the sen-
tence ; as, —
magnus in h5c bello Themistocles fuit, great was Themistocks in
this war ;
vliud iter habemus nullum, other course we have none.
SPECIAL PRINCIPLES.
350. I. Nouns. A Genitive or other oblique case regularly fol-
lows the word upon which it depends. Thus : —
a) Depending upon a Noun : —
tribunus plebis, tribune of the plebs ;
niius regis, son of the king;
vir magni animi, a man of noble spirit.
Yet always senatus consultum, plebis scTtum.
V) Depending upon an Adjective : —
ignarus rerum, ignorant- of affairs ;
digni amioitia, worthy of friendship ;
plus aequo, more than {what is) fair.
2. Appositives. An Appositive regularly follows its Subject;
IS,-
Philippus, rex Macedonum, Philip, king of the Macedonians;
adsentatio, vitiorum SL&\vXxix., flattery, promoter of evils.
Yet flumen Rhenus, the River Rhine; and always in good prose
urba Roma, the city Rome.
3. The Vocative usually follows one or more words ; as, —
audi, Caesar, hear, Caesar !
4. Adjectives. No general law can be laid down for the posi-
tion of Adjectives. On the whole they precede the noun oftener
than they follow it.
a. Adjectives of quantity (including numerals') regularly pre-
cede their noun ; as, —
omnes homines, all men ;
septingentae n^ves, seven hundred vessels.
WORD-ORDER. 22g
b. Note the force of position in the following : —
media urbs, the middle of the city;
urbs media, the middle city ;
eztremuta bellum, the end of the war ;
bellum eztremum, the last war.
c. Romanus and Latinus regularly follow ; as, —
senatus populusque Romanus, the Roman Senate and
People ;
ludi RomaiiT, the Roman games ;
feriae Latinae, the Latin holidays.
d. When a Noun is modified both by an Adjective and by a Geni-
tive, a favorite order is : Adjective, Genitive, Noun ; as, —
summa omnium rerum abundantia, the greatest abun-
dance of all things.
Pronouns.
a. The Demonstrative, Relative, and Interrogative Pronouns
regularly precede the Noun ; as, —
hic homo, this 7na7t ;
ille homo, that man ;
erant duo itinera, quibus itineribus, etc. , there wire two
routes, by which, etc.
qui homo ? what sort of man ?
b. But ille in the sense of ' that well known^ ' tfiat famous^
usually stands after its Noun ;-as, —
testula ilia, that well-known ciistotn of ostracism ;
Medea ilia, that famous Medea.
c. Possessive and Indefinite Pronouns usually follow their
Noun ; as, —
pater meus, tny father i
homo quidam, a certain man ;
mulier aliqua, some woman.
But for purposes of contrast the Possessive often precedes
its Noun ; as, —
meus pater, my father (i.e. as opposed to yours, Ms, etc.).
d. Where two or more Pronouns occur in the same sentence,
the Latin is fond of putting them in close proximity ; as, —
nisi forte ego vobis cessare videor, unless perchance 1
seem to you to be doing nothing.
230 SYNTAX.
6. Adverbs and Adverbial phrases regularly precede the word they
modify; as, —
valde diligens, extremely diligent i
saepe dixi, I have often said;
te jam diu hortamur, we have long been urging you;
paulo post, a little after.
7. Prepositions regularly precede the words they govern.
a. But limiting words often intervene between the Preposition
and its case ; as, —
de communi hominum memoria, concerning the common
memory of men ;
ad beate vivendum, for living happily.
b. When a noun is modified by an Adjective, the Adjective is
often placed before the preposition ; as, —
magno in dolore, in great grief ;
Eumma cum laude, with the highest credit ;
qua de causa, for which cause ;
banc ob rem, on account of this thing.
c. For Anastrophe, by which a Preposition is put after its case, see § 144, 3,
8. Conjunctions. Autem, enim, and igif-.ur regularly stand in
the second place in the sentence, but when combined with est or sunt
they often stand third ; as, —
ita est enim, for so it is.
9. Words or Phrases referring to the preceding sentence or to some
part of it, regularly stand first ; as, —
id ut audlvit, Corcyram demigravit, w?ien he heard that (referring
to the contents of the preceding sentence), he moved to Corcyra,;
BO cum Caesar venisset, timentea connrmat, when Caesar had
come thither (i.e. to the place just mentioned), he encouraged the
timid.
10. The Latin has a fondness for putting side by side words which
are etymologically related ; as, —
at ad seuem senez de senectute, sic hoc libro ad amicum
amicissimus de amicitia scrips!, as I, an old man, wrote to
an old man, on old age, so in this book, as a fond friend, I havt
written to a friend, concerning friendship.
WORD-ORDER.
231
11, Special rhetorical devices for indicating emphasis are the
following : —
a) Hyp^rbaton, which consists in the separation of words that
regularly stand together ; as, —
Septimus mihi Originum liber est in manibus, thi
. seventh book of my ' Origines ' is under way ;
reoepto Caesar Orioo profiolscitur, having- recovered
Orictts, Caesar set out.
b) Anaphora, which consists in the repetition of the same word
or the same word-order in successive phrases ; as, —
sed pleni omnes sunt librl, plenae sapientium voces,
plena exemplorum vetustas, but all books are full of
it, the voices of sages are full of it, antiquity is full of
examples of it.
c) Chidsmus,! which consists in changing the relative order
of words in two antithetical phrases ; as, —
multos defendi, laesi neminem, many have I defended, I
have injured no one ;
borribilem ilium diem aliis, nobis faustum, that day
dreadful to others, for us fortunate.
d) Synchysis, or the interlocked arrangement. This is mostly
confined to poetry, yet occurs in rhetorical prose, especially
that of the Imperial Period ; as, —
simulatam Pompejanarum gratiam partium, pretended'
interest in the Pompeian party.
12. Metrical Close. At the end of a sentence certain cadences
were avoided ; others were much employed. Thus : —
a) Cadences avoided.
— WW w ; as, esse videtur (close of hexameter).
www; as, esse potest (close of pentameter).
b) Cadences frequently employed.
w ; as, auxerant.
w w ; as, comprobavit.
www w ; as, esse videatur.
w \j ; as, rogatu tuo.
1 So named from a fancied analogy to the strokes of the Greek letter X \chi\
Thus : — multos laesi
X
defendi neminem
232 SYNTAX.
JB. SENTENCE-STRUCTURE.
351. I. Unity of Subject, — In complex sentences the Latiii
regularly holds to unity of Subject in the different members; as,—
Caesar primum su5, deinde omnium ex oonspectu remStis
equis, ut aequato periculo spem fugae toUeret, oohor-
tatus suos proelium commisit, Caesar having first removed
his own horse from sight, then the horses of all, in order, by
making the danger equal, to take away hope of flight, encouraged
his men and joined battle.
2. A word serving as the common Subject or Object of the main
clause and a subordinate one, stands before both ; as, —
Haedui cum se defendere non possent, legates ad Caesarem
mittunt, since the Haedui could not defend themselves, they sent
envoys to Caesar ;
ille etsi flagrabat bellandi cupiditate, tamen paoi serviendum
putavit, although he was burning with a desire to fight, yet he
thought he ought to aim at peace.
a. The same is true also
i) When the Subject of the main clause is Object
(Direct or Indirect) of a subordinate clause ; as, —
Caesar, cum hoc ei nuntiatum esset, maturat ab urbe
proiicTsci, when this had been reported to Caesar he
, hastened to set out fro7n the city.
2) When the Subject of a subordinate clause is at the
same time the Object (Direct or Indirect) of the main
clause ; as, —
L. Manlio, cum dictator fuisset, M. Fomponius tri-
biinus plebis diem dixit, M. Pomponius, tribune of
the people, instituted proceedings against Lucius Man-
lius, though he had been dictator.
3. Of subordinate clauses, temporal, conditional, and adversative
clauses more commonly precede the main clause ; indirect questions
and clauses of purpose or result more commonly follow ; as, —
postquam haec dixit, profectus est, after he said this, he iet out;
81 quis Ita agat, imprudens sit, if any one should act so, he would,
be devoid of foresight ;
accidit ut iina nocte omnes Hermae deicerentur, it happened
that in a single night all the Hermae were thrown down.
SENTENCE-STRUCTURE.— HINTS ON STYLE. 233
4. Sometimes in Latin tlie main verb is placed within tlie sub-
ordinate clause ; as, —
SI quid est in me ingeni, quod sentio quam sit exiguum, if there
is any talent in me, and I know how little it is.
5. The Latin Period. The term Period, when strictly used,
designates a compound sentence in which the subordinate clauses are
inserted within the main clause; as, —
Caesar etsi intellegeba!: qua de causa ea dicerentur, tamen, ne
aestatem in Treveris consumere cogeretur, Indutiomarum
ad se venire jussit, though Caesar perceived why this was
said, yet, lest he should be forced to spend the summer among
the Treveri, he ordered Indutiomarus to come to him.
In the Periodic structure the thought is suspended until the end of
the sentence is reached. Many Roman writers were extremely fond of
this sentence-structure, and it was well adapted to the inflectional
character of their language ; in English we generally avoid it.
6. When there are several subordinate clauses in one Period, the
Latin so arranges them as to avoid a succession of verbs. Thus : —
At hostes cum misissent, qui, quae in castrTs gererentur, cog-
noscerent, ubi se dSceptos intellezerunt, omnibus copiis
snbsecuti ad flumen contendunt, but the enemy when they
had sent men to learn what was going on in camp, after dis-
covering that they had been outwitted, followed with all their
forces and hurried to the river.
Chapter VIII. — Hints on Latin Style.
352. In this chapter brief consideration is given to
a few features of Latin diction which belong rather to
style than to formal grammar.
NOUNS.
353. I. Where a distinct reference to several persons or things is
involved, the Latin is frequently much more exact in the use of tht
Plural ^zr: ie the English; as, —
234 SYNTAX.
domos eunt, they go hoine (i.e. to their homes');
Germani corpora curant, the Germans care for the body;
animos militum recreat, he renews the courage of the soldiers;
dies noctesque timere, to be in a state of fear day and night.
2. In case of Neuter Pronouns and Adjectives used substantively,
the Latin often employs the Plural where the English uses the SingU'
lar; as, —
omnia sunt perdita, everything is lost ;
quae cum ita sint, since this is so ;
haeo omnibus pervulgata sunt, this is very well known to all.
3. The Latin is usually more concrete than the English, and espe-
cially less bold in the personification of abstract qualities. Thus : —
9. puero, a pueris, /rozw boyhood;
Sulla dictatore, in Sulla's dictatorship ;
me duce, under my leadership ;
Roman! cum Cartbaginiensibus pacem fecerunt = Rome made
peace with Carthage;
liber doctrinae plenus = a learned book ;
prudentia Themistoclis Graecia servata est = Themistocles''s fore-
sight saved Greece.
4. The Nouns of Agency in -tor and -sor (see § 147. i) denote a
permanent or characteristic activity ; as, —
accusatores (professional) accusers;
oratores, pleaders ;
cantores, singers ;
Arminius, Germaniae liberator, Arminius, liberator of Germany.
u. To denote single instances of an action, other expressions are
commonly employed ; as, —
Numa, qui Romulo sucoessit, Numa, succsssor of Romulus;
qui mea leguut, my readers ;
qui me audiunt, my auditors.
J. The Latin avoids the use of prepositional phrases as modifiers of
a Noun. In English we say : ' The war against Carthage ' ; ' a journey
through GauV; Cities on the sea'' ; 'the book in my hands''; 'the fight
at Salamis' ; etc. The Latin in such cases usually employs another
mode of expression. Thus : —
a) A Genitive ; as, —
dolor injuriarum, resentment at injuries.
-HINTS ON STYLE. 235
S) An Adjective ; as, —
urbes maritimae, cities on the sea ;
pugna Salaminia, the fight at Salamis.
c) A Participle ; as, —
pugna ad Cannas facta, the battle at Cannae.
d) A Relative clause ; as, —
liber qui in meis manibus est, the book in my hands.
Note. — Yet within certain limits the Latin does employ Prepo-
sitional phrases as Noun modifiers. This is particularly frequent
when the governing noun is derived from a verb. The following are
typical examples : —
transitus in Britanniam, the passage to Britain ;
excessus e vita, departure from life;
odium erga Romanos, hatred of the Romans ;
liber de senectute, the book on old age ;
amor in patriam, love for one's country.
ADJECTIVES.
354. I. Special Latin Equivalents for English Adjec-
tives are —
a) A Genitive ; as, —
virtutes animi = moral virtues ;
dolores corporis = bodily ills.
b) An Abstract Noun ; as, —
no vitas rei = the strange circumstance;
asperitas viarum = rough roads.
c) Hendiadys (see § 374, 4) ; as, —
ratio et ordo = systematic order ;
ardor et impetus = eager onset.
d) Sometimes an Adverb ; as, —
omnes circa populi, all the surrounding tribes ;
su5s semper Taostes,- their perpetual foes.
2. Often a Latin Noun is equivalent to an English Noun modified
by an Adjective ; as, —
dootrlna, theoretical knowledge ; prudentia, practical knowledge;
oppidum, walled town ; libellus, little book.
236 SYNTAX.
3. Adjectives are not used in immediate agreement with propel
names ; but an Adjective may limit vir, homo, ille, or some other
word used as an Appositive of a proper name ; as, —
Socrates, homo sapiens — the -wise Socrates;
Scipio, vir fortissimus = the doughty Scipio ;
Syracusae, urbs praeclarissima = famous Syracuse.
4. An Adjective may be equivalent to a Possessive or Subjective
Genitive ; as, — 1
pastor regius, the shepherd of the king;
tumultus servilis, the uprising of the slaves.
PRONOUNS.
355. I. In Compound Sentences the Relative Pronoun has a fond-
ness for connecting itself with the subordinate clause rather than the
main one ; as, —
a quo cum quaereretur, quid mazime ezpediret, respondit, when
it was asked of him what was best, he replied. (Less commonly,
qui, cum ab eo quaereretur, respondit.)
2. Uterque, ambo. Uterque means each of two ; ambo means
both; as, —
uterque frater abiit, each of the two brothers departed (i.e. sepa-
rately) ;
ambo fratres abierunt, i.e. the two brothers departed together.
a. The Plural of uterque occurs —
i) With Nouns used only in the Plural (see § 56) ; as,—
in utris'que castris, in each camp.
2) Where there is a distinct reference to two groups of
persons or things ; as, —
utrique duces clari fuerunt, the generals on each side (sev-
eral in number) were famous.
VERBS.
356. I. In case of Defective and Deponent Verbs, a Passive is
supplied : —
a) By the corresponding verbal Nouns in combination with
esse, etc ; as, —
in odio sumus, we are hated;
in invidia sum. I atn envied;
HINTS ON STYLE. 237
admirationi est, he is admired \
oblivione bbruitur, he is forgotten (lit. is overwhelmed by
oblivion) ;
♦ in usu esse, to be used.
b) By the Passive of Verbs of related meaning. Thus : —
agitari as Passive of persequi ;
temptari as Passive of adoriri.
2. The lack of the Perfect Active Participle in Latin is supplied —
a) Sometimes by the Perfect Passive Participle of the Depo-
nent; as, —
adhortatus, having exhorted ;
veritus, having feared .
^)'By the Ablative Absolute; as, —
hostium agris vastatis Caesar ezercitum reduzit, hav-
ing ravaged the country of the enemy, Caesar led back
his army.
c) By subordinate clauses ; as, —
eo cum advenisset, castra posuit, having arrived there,
he pitched a camp ;
hostes qui in urbem irruperant, the enemy having burst
into the city.
3. The Latin agrees with English in the stylistic employment of
the Second Person Singular in an indefinite sense (='one^). Cf.
the English ' Vou can drive a horse to water, but you can't make him
drink.'' But in Latin this use is mainly coniined to certain varieties of
the Subjunctive, especially the Potential (§ 280) , Jussive (§ 275), De-
liberative (§ 277), and the Subjunctive in conditional sentences of the
sort included under § 302, 2, and 303. Examples : —
videres, you could see ;
utare vTribus, use your strength,
quid h5c homine facias, what are you to do <wi'h this man?
mens quoque et animus, nisi tamquam lumini oleum TnstillSs,
exstingttuntur seneotute, the intellect and mind too are ex-
tinguished by old age, unless, so to speak, you keep pouring oil
into the laM.p ;
tanto amore possessiones suas amplexi tenebant, ut ab eis
membra divelli oitius posse diceres, they clung to their
possessions -with such an affectionate embrace, that you would have
said their limbs could sooner be torn from their bodies.
238 SYNTAX.
PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE ACCUSATIVE
357. I. To denote 'so many years, etc., afterwards or before'' the
Latin employs not merely the Ablative of Degree of Difference with
post and ante (see § 223), but has other forms of expression. Thus :^
post quinque aiinos, five years afterward;
paucos ante dies, a few days before;
ante qnadxienniuin, four years before;
post diem quartum quam ab urbe discesseramus,/oar days after
we had left the city ;
ante tertium annum quam decesserat, three years before he had
died.
2. The Latin seldom combines both Subject and Object with the
same Infinitive ; as, —
Romanos Hanniba^em vTcisse constat.
Such a sentence would be ambiguous, and might mean either that the
Romans had conquered Hannibal, or that Hannibal had conquered the
Romans. Perspicuity was gained by the use of the Passive Infini-
tive ; as, —
Romanos ab Hannibale victos esse constat, it is well established
that the Romans were defeated by Hannibal.
PECULIARITIES IN CONNECTION -WTITH THE USB OP
THE DATIVE.
358. I . The English for does not always correspond to a Dative
notion in Latin, but is often the equivalent of pro with the Ablative,
viz. in the senses —
a) In defense of; as, —
pro patria mori, to die for one's country.
b) Instead of , in behalf of ; as, —
unus pr5 omnibus dixit, one spoke for all;
haec pro lege dicta sunt, these things were said for the
law.
c) In proportion to ; as, —
pro multitudine hominum eSrum fTn.es erant angusti,
for the population, their territory was small.
HINTS ON STYLE. 239
2. Similarly, English to when it indicates motion is rendered in
Latin by ad.
a. Note, however, that the Latin may say either soribere ad
aliquem, or scribere alicui, according as the idea of motion
is or is not predominant. So in several similar expressions.
3. In the poets, verbs of mingling with, contending with, joining,
clinging to, etc., sometimes take the Dative. This Construction is a
Grecism. Thus : —
se miscet viris, he mingles with the men ;
oontendis Homero, you contend with Homer ;
deztrae deztram jungere, to clasp hand with hand.
PECULIARITIES IN THE USE OF THE GENITIVE.
359. I. The Possessive Genitive gives emphasis to the possessor,
the Dative of Possessor emphasizes the fact of possession ; as, —
hortus patris est, the garden is my father'' s ;
mihi hortus est, /possess a garden.
2. The Latin can say either stulti or stultum est dioere, it is
foolish to say; but Adjectives of one ending permit only the Geni-
tive; as,—
sapientis est haeo secum reputare, it is the part of a wise man te
consider this.
Part VI.
PROSODY.
— « —
360. Prosody treats of metres and versification.
361. Latin Verse. Latin Poetry was essentially different
in character from English. In our own language, poetry is
based upon accent, and poetical form consists essentially in
a certain succession of accented and unaccented syllables.
Latin poetry, on the other hand, was based not upon
accent, but upon quantity, so that with the Romans poeti-
cal form consisted in a certain succession of long andshori
syllables, i.e. of long and short intervals of time.
This fundamental difference in the character of English
and Latin poetry is a natural result of the difference in
character of the two languages. English is a strongly
accented language, in which quantity is relatively subordi-
nate. Latin, on the other hand, was a quantitative lan-
guage, in which accent was relatively subordinate.
QUANTITY or VOWELS AND SYLLABLES.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
362. The general principles for the quantity of vowels
and syllables have been given above in § 5. The following
peculiarities are to be noted here : —
I. A vowel is usually short when followed by another vowel
(§ 5. A. 2), but the following exceptions occur : —
24.0
QUANTITY OF VOWELS AND SYLLABLES. 241
a) In the Genitive termination -ius (except alterius) ; as, illius,
totius. Yet the i may be short in poetry ; as, illius, totius.
b) In the Genitive and Dative Singular of the Fifth Declension ;
as, diei, aoiei. But fidSi, rSi, sp6i (§ 52, i).
c) In £10, excepting fit and forms where i is followed by er.
Thus : flebam, fiat, fiunt ;, but fieri, fierem.
d) In a few other words, especially words derived from the
Greek ; as, dius, Aeneas, Darius, heroes, etc.
2. A diphthong is usually long (§5. B. 2), but the preposition
prae in composition is often shortened before a vowel ; as, praeacutus
3. A syllable containing a short vowel followed by two consonants
(§ 5. B. 2) is long, even when one of the consonants is in the follow-
ing word; as, terret populum. Occasionally the syllable is long
when both consonants are in the following word; as, pro segete
Bpicas.
4. Compounds of jacio, though written inicit, adicit, etc., have the
first syllable long, as though written inj-, adj-.
5. Before j, S and 6 made a long syllablfe, e.g. in major, pejor,
ejus, ejusdem, Pompejus, rejecit, etc. These were pronounced,
mai-jor, pei-jor, ei-jus, Pompei-jus, rei-jeoit, etc. So also some-
times before i, e.g. Pompe-i, pronounced Pompei-i; re-icio, pro-
nounced rei-ioio.
Quantity of Pinal Syllables.
A. Final Syllables ending in a Vowel.
363. I. Final a is mostly short, but is long : —
a) In the Ablative Singular of the First Declension ; as, porta.
b) In the Imperative ; as, lauda.
c) In indeclinable words (except itS, qui5) ; as, triginta, con-
tra, postea, interea, etc.
2. Final e is usually short, but is long : —
a) In the Ablative Singular of the Fifth Declension ; as, die,
re ; hence hodig, quare. Here belongs also fame (§ 59.
2. i).
b) In the Imperative of the Second Conjugation; as, mone,
habS, etc. ; yet occasionally cavS, valS.
c) In Adverbs derived from Adjectives of the Second Declen-
sion, along with fere and ferme. BenS, malg, temerS,
saepS have S.
d) In e, de, me, te, se, ne {not, lest), ne {verily).
242 PROSODY.
3. Final i is usually long, but is short in nisi and quasi. Mihi,
tibi, sibi, ibi, ubi, have regularly i, but sometimes i ; yet always
ibidem, ibique, ubique.
4. Final o is regularly long, but is short : —
a) In eg6, du6, modS {only), citS.
b) Rarely in the First Person Singular of the Verb, and in
Nominatives of the Third Declension ; as, amS, le6.
c) In a few compounds beginning with the Preposition pro,
especially before f ; as prSfundere, prdficiaci, prSfugere.
5. Final u is always long. ,
B. -Final Syllables ending in a Consonant.
364. I. Final syllables ending in any other consonant than Bare
short. The following words, however, have a long vowel : sSl, sol,
Lar, par, ver, fur, die, due, en, non, quia, sin, sic,- cur. Also
the adverbs hie, illic, istic.^
2. Final syllables in -as are long ; asj terras, amas.
3. Final syllables in -es are regularly long, but are short : —
a) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of dental stems
(§ 33) of the Third Declension which have a short penult in
the Genitive ; as, seggs (segetis), obsSs (obsidis), milSs,
divSs. But a few have -es ; viz. pes, aries, abies, paries.
b) In Ss {thou art), penSs.
4. Final -os is usually long, but short in 6s (ossis), compSs, impSs.
5. Final -is is usually short, but is long : —
a) In Plurals ; as, portis, hortis, nobis, vobis, nubis (Ace).
b) In the Second Person Singular Perfect Subjunctive Active;
as, amaveris, monueris, audiveris, etc. Yet occasional
exceptions occur.
c) In the Second Person Singular Present Indicative Active of
the Fourth Conjugation ; as, audis.
d) In vis, force ; is, thou goest ; fis ; sis ; velis ; nolTs ; vis,
thou wilt (mavis, quamvis, quivis, etc.).
6. Final -us is usually short, but is long : —
a) In the Genitive Singular and in the Nominative, Accusative,
and Vocative Plural of the Fourth Declension ; as, fructfls.
1 The pronouns hie, hoe, and the adverb hue, probably had a short vowel
The syllable was made long by pronouncing hicc, hoco, etc.
VERSE-STRUCTURE. 243
S) In the Nominative and Vocative Singular of those nouns of
the Third Declension in which the u belongs to the stem ;
as, palus (-udis), servitus (-utis), tellus (-uria).
365. Greek Nouns retain in Latin their original quantity ; as,
Aenea, epitome, Deles, Pallas, Simois, Salamis, Didus, Faridi,
aer, aether, crater, bero&s. Yet Greek nouns in -top (-or) regularly
shorten the vowel of the final syllable ; as, rhetSr, HectSr.
VERSE-STRUCTURE.
GENERAL PRINCIPLES.
366. I. The metrical unit in versification is a short syllable, tech-
nically called a mora (w)- A long syllable (_^)is regarded as equiva-
lent to two morae.
2. A Foot is a group of syllables. The following are the most
important kinds of fundamental feet : —
Feet of Three Morae. Feet of Four Morae.
_ vj Trochee. _ w w Dactyl.
yj _ Iambus. w w _ Anapaest.
3. A Verse is a succession of feet.
4. The different kinds of verses are named Trochaic, Iambic, Dac-
tylic, Anapaestic, according to the foot which forms the basis of their
structure.
5. Ictus. In every fundamental foot the long syllable naturally re-
ceives the greater prominence. This prominence is called ictus.i It
is denoted thus : Z. w w ; Z. w
6. Thesis and Arsis. The syllable which receives the ictus is
called the thesis ; the rest of the foot is called the arsis.
7. Elision. Final syUables ending in a vowel, a diphthong, or -m
are regularly elided before a word beginning with a vowel or h. In
reading, we omit the elided syllable entirely. This may be indicated
as follows: corpora in un5 ; mult"" ill* et ; m5nstr-'« horrendum ;
causae irarum.
a. Omission of elision is called Hl&tus. It occurs especially before and
after monosyllabic interjections ; as, O at praesidium.
1 Ictus was not accent, — neither stress accent nor musical accent, — but was
Dimply the quantitative prominence inherent in the long syllables di fundammtaX
feet.
244 PROSODY.
8. The ending of a word within a foot is called a Caesiira {cutting).
Every verse usually has one prominent caesura. The ending of a word
and foot together within the verse is called a diaeresis.
9. Verses are distinguished as Catalectic or Acatalectic. A Cata-
lectic verse is one in which the last foot is not complete, but lacks one
or more syllables ; an Acatalectic verse has its last foot complete.
10. At the end of a verse a slight pause occurred. Hence the final
syllable may be either long or short (syllaba auceps), and may
terminate in a vowel or m, even though the next verse begins with a
vowel.
1 1 . Iambic, Trochaic, and Anapaestic verses are further designated
as dimeter, trimeter, tetrameter, according to the number of dipodies
(pairs of feet) which they contain. Dactylic verses are measured by
single feet, and are designated as tetrameter, pentameter, hexameter,
accordingly.
SPECIAL PECULIARITIES.
367. I. Syniz^sis (Syna^resis). Two successive vowels in the
interior of a word are often united into a long syllable ; as, —
aureis, deinde, auteire deesse.
2. Diastole. A syllable usually short is sometimes long ; as, —
videt, audit.
3. Systole. A syllable usually long is sometimes short ; as, —
stetSrunt.
a. Diastole and Systole are not mere arbitrary processes. They
usually represent an earlier pronunciation which had passed
out of vogue in the ordinary speech.
4. After a consonant, i and u sometimes become j and v. The
preceding syllable then becomes long ; as, —
abjete for abiete ; genva for genua.
5. Sometimes V becomes u ; as, —
silua for silva ; dissoluo for dissolvo.
6. Sometimes a verse has an extra syllable. Such a verse is called
an Hyp^rmeter. The extra syllable ends in a vowel or -m, and is
united with the initial vowel or h of the next verse by Synaph^ia,
Thus : —
ignar' hominumciue looorum""*
erramus.
VERSE-STRUCTURE. 245
7. Tmesis (cutting). Compound words are occasionally separated
into their elements ; as, —
quo mS cumque rapit tempestas, for quocumque, etc.
8. Syncope. A short vowel is sometimes dropped between two
consonants ; as, —
repoBtus for repositus.
THE DACTYLIC HEXAMETER.
368. I. The Dactylic Hexameter, or Heroic Verse,
consists theoretically of six dactyls. But in all the feet
except the fifth, a spondee ( ) may take the place of
the dactyl. The sixth foot may be either a spondee or a
trochee, since the final syllable of a verse may be either
long or short (syllaba anceps). The following represents
the scheme of the verse :^ —
—cxu, .j^oo, _^oo, —^yo-j S-^j^t _^'
2. Sometimes we find a spondee in the fifth foot. Such verses are
called Spondaic. A dactyl usually stands in the fourth place, and the
fifth and sixth feet are generally made up of a quadrisyllable ; as, —
armatumo"^ auro circumspicit Oriona.
cara deum suboles, magnum Jovis incrementum.
3. Caesura.
a) The favorite position of the caesura in the Dactylic Hexam-
eter is after the thesis of the third foot ; as, —
arma virumque cano || Trojae qui primus ab oris.
b) Less frequently the caesura occurs after the thesis of the
fourth foot, usually accompanied by another in the second
foot; as, —
inde toro || pater Aeneas {{ sic orsus ab alto est.
c) Sometimes the caesura occurs between the two short syl-
lables of the third foot ; as, —
O passi graviora || dabit deus his quoque finem.
This caesura is called Feminine, as opposed to the caesura
after a long syllable, which is called Masculine (as under
a and b) .
246 PROSODY.
d) A pause sometimes occurs at the end of the fourth foot.
This is called the Bucolic Diaeresis, as it was borrowed by
the Romans from the Bucolic poetry of the Greeks. Thus :
solstitium pecori defendite ; {{ jam venit aestas.
DACTYLIC PENTAMETER.
369. I. The Dactylic Pentameter consists of two parts,
each of which contains two dactyls, followed by a long
syllable. Spondees may take the place of the dactyls
in the first part, but not in the second. The long syllable
at the close of the first half of the verse always ends a
word. The scheme is the following : —
2. The Pentameter is never used alone, but only in connection with
the Hexameter. The two arranged alternately form the so-called Ele-
giac Distich. Thus : —
Vergillum vidi tantum, nee amara TibuUo
Tempus amicitiae fata dedere meae.
IAMBIC MEASURES.
370. I. The most important Iambic verse is the Iambic
Trimeter (§ 366. ii), called also Senarius. This is an acata-
lectic verse. It consists of six Iambi. Its pure form is : —
W W W \J w w
Beatus ille qui procul negotiis.
The Caesura usually occurs in the third foot; less fre-
quently in the fourth.
2. In place of the Iambus, a Tribrach (kj <j w) may stand in any
foot but the last. In the odd feet (first, third, and fifth) may stand a
Spondee, Dactyl, or Anapaest, though the last two are less frequent.
Sometimes a Proceleusmatic (w w w o) occurs.
3. In the Latin comic writers, Plautus and Terence, great free-
dom is permitted, and the various equivalents of the Iambus, w>.
the Dactyl, Anapaest, Spondee, Tribrach, Proceleusmatic, are freely
admitted in any foot except the last.
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.
I. JULIAN CALENDAR.
371. I. The names of the Roman months are : Januarius, Fetfrua-
rius, Martius, Aprilis, Majus, Junius, Julius (Quintilis i prior to
46 B.C.), Augustus (Sextilis 1 before the Empire), September, Octo.
ber, • November, December. These words are properly Adjectives
in agreement with mensis understood.
2. Dates were reckoned from three points in the month : —
a) The Calends, the first of the month.
b) The Nones, usually the fifth of the month, but the seventh
in March, May, July, and October.
c) The Ides, usually the thirteenth of the month, but the fif-
teenth in March, May, July, and October.
3. From these points dates were reckoned backward ; consequently
all days after the Ides of any month were reckoned as so many days
before the Calends of the month next following.
4. The day before the Calends, Nones, or Ides of any month is
designated as pridie Ealendas, Nonas, Idiis. The second day be-
fore was designated as die tertio ante Kalendas Nonas, etc. Simi
larly the third day before was designated as die quarto, and so on
These designations are arithmetically inaccurate, but the Romans
reckoned both ends of the series. The Roman numeral indicating the
date is therefore always larger by one than the actual number of days
before Nones, Ides, or Calends.
5. In indicating dates, the name of the month is added in the form
of an Adjective agreeing with Ealendas, Nonas, Idiis. Various forms
of expression occur, of which that given under d) is most common : —
a) dig quTnto ante Idiis Martias ;
b) quinto ante Idiis Martias ;
c) quTnto (V) Idiis Martias ;
d) ante diem quintum Idiis Martias.
' Originally the Roman year began with March. This explains the names
Quintilis, Sextilis, September, etc., fifth month, sixth month, etc.
247
248
SUPPLEMENTS TO THE GRAMMAR.
6. These designations may be treated as nouns and combined with
the prepositions in, ad, ex ; as, —
ad ante diem IV Kalendas Octobres, up to the 28tA of September.
ex ante diem quintum Idas Oototrcea, from the nth of October.
7. In leap-year the 25th was reckoned as the extra day in February.
The 24th was designated as ante diem VI Kalendas Martias, and
the 25th as ante diem bis VI Kal Mart.
372.
CALENDAR.
Days
of the
month.
March, May, July,
October.
January, August,
December.
April, June, Sep-
tember, November.
February.
I
Kalendis.
Kalendis.
Kalendis.
Kalendis.
2
VI. Nonas.
IV. NonSs.
IV. Nonas.
IV. Nonas.
3
V.
III.
III.
III.
4
IV.
Pridie Nonas.
Pridie Nonas.
Pridie Nonas.
S
III.
NONIS.
NonTs.
NoNIS.
6
Prldie Nonas.
VIII. Idus.
VIII. Idas.
VIII. Idus.
7
NonIs.
VII.
VII.
VII.
8
VIII. Idus.
VI.
VI.
VI.
9
VII.
V.
V.
V.
10
VI.
IV.
IV. " ,
IV.
II
V.
III.
III.
III.
12
IV.
Pridie Idiis.
Pridie Idiis.
Pridie Idus.
13
III.
IDIBUS.
7d;bus.
IDIBUS.
14
Pridie Idus.
XIX. Kalend.
XVIII. Kalend.
XVI. Kalend.
IS
IDIBUS.
XVIII. "
XVII.
XV.
i6
XVII. Kalend.
XVII. "
XVI.
XIV.
17
XVI.
XVI.
XV.
XIII.
18
XV.
XV.
XIV.
XII.
19
XIV.
XIV.
XIII.
XI.
20
XIII.
XIII.
XII.
X.
21
XII.
XII.
XI.
IX.
22
XI.
XI.
X.
VIII.
23
X.
X.
IX.
VII.
24
IX.
IX.
VIII.
VI.
25
VIII.
VIII.
VII.
V. (bis VI.)"
26
VII.
VII.
VI.
IV. (V.) "
27
VI.
VI.
V.
III. (IV.) "
28
V.
V.
IV.
Prid. Kal. (Ill Kal )
29
IV.
IV.
III.
(Prid. Kal.) .
30
31
III.
Pridie Kalend.
III.
Pridie Kalend.
Pridie Kalend.
(Enclosed forms are
for leap-year.)
FIGURES OF SYNTAX. 249
II. PROPER NAMES.
373. I . The name of a Roman citizen regularly consisted of three
parts : the praenomen (or given name), the nomen (name of the gens
or clan), and the cognomen (family name). Such atypical name is
ex'emplied by Marcus TuUius Cicero, in which Marcus is the prae-
Qomen, TuUius the nomen, and Cicero the cognomen. Sometimes
a second cognomen (in later Latin called an agnomen) is added —
expecially in honor of military achievements ; as, —
Gaius Cornelius Scipio Africanus.
2. Abbreviations of Proper Names.
A. = Aulus. Mam. = Mamercus.
App. = Appius. N. = Numerius.
C. = Gaius. P. = Publius.
Cn. = Gnaeus. Q. = Quintus.
D. = Deoimus. Sex. = Sextus.
K. = Kaeso. Ser. = Servius.
L. = Lucius. Sp. = Spurius.
M. = Marcus. T. = Titus.
M'. = Manius. Ti. = Tiberius.
III. FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC.
A. Figures of Syntax.
374. I. Ellipsis is the omission of one or more words ; as, —
quid multa, -why (should I say) much ?
2. Brach^logy is a brief or condensed form of expression ; as, —
at ager sine cultara fructuSsus esse non potest, sic sine doo-
trina animus, as a field cannot be productive without cultiva-
tion, so the mind {cannot be productive') without learning.
Special varieties of Brachylogy are —
a) Zeugma, in which one verb is made to stand for two ; as, —
minis aut blandimentis corrupta = (terrified) by threats
or corrupted by flattery.
b) Compendiary Comparison, by which a modifier of an
object is mentioned instead of the object itself; as,—
dissimilis erat Chares eorum et factis et moribua, lit.
Chares was different from their conduct and character^
i.e. Chares's conduct and character were different, etc.
25o FIGURES OF SYNTAX AND RHETORIC.
3. Pleonasm is an unnecessary fullness of expression ; as, —
prius praedicam, lit. / ivill first say in advance.
4. Hendiadys (Iv Stot Svoiv, one through two') is the use of two
nouns joined by a conjunction, in the sense of a noun modified by a
Genitive or an Adjective ; as, —
f ebris et aestus, the heat of fever ;
celeritate cursuque, by swift running.
5. Prol^psis, or Anticipation, is the introductior^ of an epithet
in advance of the action which makes it appropriate ; as, —
Bubmersas obrue puppes, lit. overwhelm their submerged ships,
i.e. overwhelm and sink their ships.
a. The name Prolepsis is also applied to the introduction of a noun
or pronoun as object of the main clause where we should expect
it to stand as subject of a subordinate clause. Thus : —
nosti Marcellum quam tardus sit, you know how slow
Marcellus is (lit.you know Marcellus, how slow he is).
Both varieties of Prolepsis are chiefly confined to poetry.
6. Anacolilthon is a lack of grammatical consistency in the con-
struction of the sentence ; as, — ■
turn Anci filii . . . ija-peasias eis inda^cataa oresceie, then the sons
of Ancus . . . their indignation increased all the more.
7. Hysteron Prdteron consists in the inversion of the natural
order of two words or phrases ; as, —
moriamur et in media arma ruamua = let us rush into the midst of
arms and die.
S. Figures of Rhetoric.
375. I. Litotes (literally softening) is the expression of an idea
by the denial of its opposite ; as, —
baud parum laboris, no little toil (i.e. much toil) ;
non ignoro, I dm not ignorant (i.e. I am well aware).
2. Oxymdron is the combination of contradictory conceptions;
as, — • sapiens Tnsania, wise folly.
3. Alliteration is the employment of a succession of words
presenting frequent repetition of the same letter (mostly initial) ;
as, — sensim sine sensu aetas senescit.
4. Onomatoptieia is the suiting of sound to sense ; as, —
quadrupedante putrem sonitii quatit ungula campum, 'And shake
with horny hoofs the solid ground.''
INDEX OF THE SOURCES OF THE H^LUSTRATIVE
EXAMPLES CITED IN THE SYNTAX.'
p. ii8, nonne videtis, Sesi. 47.
num exspectas, PhU. ii, 86.
videsne, Vatm. 30.
sensistine, Cat. i, 8.
a rebus, de Sen. 15.
p. iig, visne locum, Leg. ii, i,
estisne, Liv. i, 38, 2.
jam ea, Ter. Phor. S2S-
estne frater, Ter. Ad. 569.
p. 120, decorum est, Hor. Od. iii, 2, 13.
opportune acddit, Alt. i, 17, 2.
Nimia, Eut. i, 3.
p. 121, philosophia, Tusc. Disp. ii, i6.
assentatio, Lael. 8g.
Corinthi, Tac. E.ii, 1.
p. 122, audi tu, lAvy, i, 24.
nate, mea, Aen. ij 664.
rumor est, Ter. And. 185.
p. 123, galeam, Aen. ii, 392.
ductus, Ov. Am. iii, g, 61.
nodo sinus, Aen. i, 320.
p. 124, idem gloriari, de Sen. 32.
eadem peccat, N. D. i, 31.
multa egeo, Gell. xiii, 24.
multum valet, 'Hor. Epp. i, 6, 52.
nihil peccat, Stat. 161.
minitaritem vana, SU. i, 306.
acerba tuens, Lucr. v, 33.
dulce loquentem, Hor. Od. i, 22, 24 .
multum sunt, B. G. iv, 1, 8.
servitutem, PI. Pers. 34 a.
vitam, Ter. Ad. 859.
stadium, Qff. iii, 10, 42.
Olympia, de Sen. 14.
p. 125, pisds, Sen. N. Q. iii, 18, 2.
orationes, Brut. 82.
homines, Rose. Am. loi;
otium, Hor. Od. ii, 16, i.
me duas, Att. ii, 7, x.
p. 126, te litteras, Pis. 73.
hoc te, Ter. Hec. 766.
me id, PI. Tr. 96.
non te, Fam. ii, 16, 3.
omnes artes, Ljti. 25, 37.
rogatus, de Dom. 16.
multa, N. D. ii, 166.
milites, B. C. i, 54.
p. 127, tremit, Lucr. iii, 489.
' nuda, Aen. i, 320.
manus, Aen. ii, 57.
hie locus, B. G. i, 49.
indomum, Ac. i, 13.
p. 128, Thalam, SaU. Jug. 75, 1.
Thurios in, Nep. Ale. 4.
cum Acen, Nep. Dat. 5.
Italiam venit, Aen. i, 2.
p. 130, amids, Sail. C. 16, 4.
Orgetorix, B. G.i, 2.
p. 131, munitioni, 5. G. i, 10.
mihi ante, Verr. v, 123.
illi, Tac. Ag. 9.
intercludere. Pi. JW. G. 223.
oppidum, .B. C iii, 80.
tumihi, Verr. 3, 213.
quid mihi, Hor. Epp. i, 3, 15.
p. 132, erit ille. Eel. i, 7.
quae ista. Par. 41.
honorem, Verr. iv, 25.
Caesar, Dii). ii, 79.
sdntillam, Aen. i, 174.
disputatio, Tusc. Disp. ii, 2.
honesta, Off. iii, 38.
p. 133, castris, B. G. vii, 16.
legiones, B. C.ii, 22.
receptui, B. G. vii, 47.
fortunae, Fam. vi, s, i.
quibus, Flac. 19.
hos tibi, iVe^. Paus. 2.
me gerendo, ijii. i, 23.
noxiae, Leg. iii, 11.
p. 134, it clamor, Aen. v, 451.
dum Latio, Aen. i, 6,
p. 137, magni, Nep. Cat. i, 2.
tantae molis, Aen. i, 33.
• For explanation of the abbreviations, see p. 257-
251
252
INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.
p. 138, viri, Tusc. Disp. ii, 43.
memoria, Or. 54.
Epicuri, i''. V, 3.
praeteritorum, Div. i, 63.
nomina, PI. Foen. 1062.
reminiscere, B. G. i, 13.
reminlscens, Nep. Ale. 6.
p. 139, mihi patriae, Stdl. 19.
te veteris, ad Her. iv, 24, 33.
me admones, ad All. v, i, 3.
pecuniae, Flacc. 43.
p. 140, miseremini, Verr. i, 72.
p. 141, desine, Hor. Od. ii, 9, 17.
operum, Hor. Od. iii, 17, 16.
p. 142, curis, Marc. 34.
Caesar, B. G. s, 51.
caret, Hor. Sat. i, 3, 66.
urbem, Nep. Thras. 1.
p. 143, abstinere, Plin. Epp. i, 12, 9.
hostes, B. G. i, 1, 4.
praedones, Verr. iv, 144.
dissentio, Plane, g.
secernaiitur. Cat. i, 32.
ab Ulixe, Liv. i, 49, 9.
a fortuna, B. G.v, 34, 2.
a multitudine, B. G. iii, 2, 1.
p. 144, melle dulcior, de Sen. 31.
patria. Cat. i, 27.
amplius, 3. G. vii, ij, i.
opinione, B. G. ii, 3, i.
munere, Aen. vi, 885.
came, 5aW. Jus. 89.
castris, B. G. ii, ,26, 4.
opus est properato. Mil. 49.
p. 145, nititur, Aen. vi, 760.
uervis, JV. D. ii, 59.
mortali, Lucr. v, 65.
quid hoc, Sest. 29.
quid mea, Fom. xiv, 4, 3.
fossas, B. G. iii, 18.
vinum, /»». vii, 121.
p. 146, militibus, B. G. i, 8, i.
victoria, B. G. i, 14, 4.
natura lod, B. G. iii, 9, 3.
p. 147, nulla est. Brut. 164.
exstinguitur, Tae. A.ii, 72.
longo, Aen. v, 320.
cum febri, de Or. iii, 6.
improbitas, de Or. ii, 237.
aer calore, N. D. ii, 27.
assuetus, de Or. iii, 58.
p. 148, puella, PI. Merc. 13.
vir singulari, PI. Vid. 41.
sunt specie, B. G. vi, 28, 1.
scopuUs, Aen. i, 166.
Helvetii, B. G. i, 2, z.
me dignor, Aen. i, 335.
p. 149, Cn. Pompeio, B. G. iv, 1.
omnes virtutes. Fin. ii, 117.
perditis, Fam. vi, i, 4.
nuUo adversante, Tac. A.i, 2.
passis palmis, B. C. iii, 98.
audito eum, Liv. xxviii, 7.
p. 150, stant litore, Aen. vi, 901.
p. 151, a Gergovia, 5. G. vii, 59, 1.
Stella, N. D. ii, 52.
biennjo, Tac. Agr. 14.
P- IS3, prima et, Tac. A. i, 37.
omnium rerum, Fam. vi, 21, i.
eadem alacritas, B. G. iv, 24, 4.
res operae, B. G. v, 11, 5.
stultitia, F. iii, 39.
p. 154, domus, (^ !or, Ter. j4»i. 891.
pars, Sail. Jug. 14, 15.
p. 156, sencctus, de Sen. 55.
exercitus, lAvy, xxxix, 1.
p. 157, virtus, Lael. 100.
p. 158, me oravit, Phil, ii, 45.
me oraverunt, Div. Caec. 2.
suum genium, Tae. Dial. 9.
p. 159, Hannibalem, Sest. 142.
suus quemque, Rose. Am. 67.
Belgae, B. G. ii, i, 1.
Galli, B. G. vi, 8, i.
Themistodes, Nep. Them. 9.
illud intellego. Sail. Jug. 85, 5.
hie est, PI. Tr. 697.
p. 160, Maximum, de Sen. 10.
non is sum, B. G. v, 30, 2.
non suspicabatur, Verr. i, 36.
vincula, Co/, iv, 7.
quod idem, 4c. ii, 32.
bonus vir, Lael. 63.
p. 161, ipso terrore, B. G. iv, 33, 1.
valvae se, Div. i, 74.
Persae, Nep. Ale. 5.
ea molestissime, Q. Pr. i, i, i.
p. 162, career quae, Verr. v, 143.
Belgae, B. G. ii, 1, i.
nostra qui. Cat. i, 7.
servili, B. G. i, 40.
erant, B. G. i, 6.
quam quisque, Tusc. Disp. i,
41-
non longe, B. G. i, 10, i.
Themistodes, Nep. Them. 4, 3.
INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.
253
p. 163,
p. 164.
p. i6S,
p. 166,
p. 167,
p. 168,
p. 169.
p. 170,
p. 171,
p. 172,
P- 173,
P- 174,
p. I7S,
P- 177.
P- 178,
numquam digne, de Sen, 2.
cognatio. Arch. 2.
mors est, Tusc. Disp. i, 27.
justitia, F. i, so.
si quisquam, Lael. g.
potestne, Tiisc. Disp. iv, 54.
si ullo, Alt. xii, 23, 1,
taetrior, Verr. iv, 123.
quod cuique, Off. i, 21.
quinto quoque, Verr. ii, 139.
nemo Romanus, Liv. viii, 30, 3.
alter exercitum, Plane. 86.
alteri se, B. G. i, 26, 1.
causidicus, de Or. i, 202.
Tarquinii, Liv. i, 34, 7.
non oimiis, Div. ii, 90.
Coiioli, Liv. ii, 33, 8.
duo milia. Curt, iii, 2, s-
temeritas, F. iii, 72.
si tu, Fam. xiv, s, i-
velatus, On. Met. v, no.
tunica, Aen. viii, 457.
virtus, Lael. 100.
dum vitant. Ear. Sat. i, 2, 24.
Caesar, B. G. vii, go, 2.
jam pridem, Att. ii, 5, *■
Duilium, de Sen. 44.
hostes, B. G. v, 9, 6.
domidlium. Arch. 7.
Regulus, Of. iii, 100.
Caesar, B. G. iv, 17, i.
nihil habebam, Alt. ix, 10, 1.
videor, iV. Z). ii, 72.
Gallos, B. G. vii, '4, 4.
honestum, F. ii, 49.
si solos, Tusc. Disp. i, 9.
rex tantum, Nep. Con. 4.
Verres, Verr. Act. Pr. 12.
ardebat. Brut. 302.
Caesar, B. G. iii, 24, i.
hoc jam. Cat. i, 5.
dico me, StM. 27.
quare. Cat. 1, 32.
isto bono, de Sen. 33.
ne repugnetis, Cluent. 6.
tu vero, Tmjc. Disp. i, 112.
impii ne. Leg. ii, 41.
cave ignoscas, Lig. 14.
quid fadam, Pi. Cure. 589.
ego redeam, Tef. Bun. 49.
huic cedamus I PhU. xiii, 16.
quid facerem, Ter. Eun. 831.
hunc ego. Arch. 18.
ne sint, (2e Sen. 34.
fuerit, Fcr*-. i, 37.
di istaec, Ter. H. T. 1038.
falsus utinam, Liv. xxi, 10, 10.
p. 179, dicat aliquis, Ter. And. 640.
fortunam, Pub. Syr. 193.
velira mihi, Fam. xiii, 75, 1.
nolim putes, Fam. ix, is, 4.
dies deficiat, N. D. iii, 81.
p. 180, egredere. Cat. i, 20.
rem vobis, Verr. iv, 1.
si bene, de Sen. 3.
consules, Leg. iii, 8.
hominem. Twelve Tables.
amidtia, Liv. 38, 38, i.
quin equos, Liv. i, S7i 7-
p. 181, adjuta, Ter. Eun. iso.
portas, B. G. ii, 33, i.
haec. And. 472.
ut ne, Of. i, 103.
ut non. Cat. i, 23.^
ut earum, B. G. iv, 17, 10.
p. 182, Helvetii, B. G. i, 7, 3.
haec habui, de Sen. 85.
non habebat, B. G. iv, 38, 2.
idoneus, Fer;'. iii, 41.
dignus. Leg. iii, S-
multa, Tusc. Disp. i, 80.
p. 183, sunt qui, Inv. ii, 144.
nemo, Fam. i, 4, 2.
sapientia, F»«. i, 43.
quae, Lael. 23.
non is sum, B. G. v, 30, 2.
non longius, 5. G. ii, 21, 3.
o fortunate. Arch. 24.
ut qui, Phil, xi, 30.
egomet, lie Or. i, 82.
nemo est, Verr. iv, 115.
nemo fuit, B. C. iii, S3i 3-
quem audierim, NepfAr. 1, a.
p. 184, quis tam, Tusc. Disp. iii, 71.
Sidliam, Verr. Act. Pr. 12.
mons, B. G. i, 6, i.
non is. Cat. i, 22.
nemo est, de Sen. 24.
habetis. Cat. iv, 24. '
nihil, Ter. B. T. 675. ,
nemo est, 5. G. vi, 39, 3.
p. i8s, Themistocles, Nep. Them. 8, 3.
neque, de Sen. 84.
quoniam, iVe^. MUt. 7, s.
noctu, ruse. Disp. iv, 44.
Bellovaci, B. G. vii, 73.
254
INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES
p. i86, id feci, Caec. loi.
Crasso, Fam. xiii, i6, 3.
hocita, Leg' "i, 3i-
Haeduos, B. G. i, 16, 6.
id omitto, Sail. Jug. no, 7.
p. 187, Epaminondas, Nep. Ep. g, 4.
id ut, Nep. Them. 8, 3.
Caesar, B. G. iii, g, 2.
ubi de, B. G. i, 7, 3.
ut qiiisque, Ferr. v, 143.
hostes, B. G. iv, 26, 2.
id ubi, Liv. i, 32, 13.
p. 188, postquam occupatae, Liv. xxiv,
35, 4-
postquam Romam, SoH. Jug. 28,
2.
postquam stnicti, Liv. i, 23, 6.
I)osteaquam, Leg. ii, 64.
an turn, Pis. 26.
credo turn, Fej'r. iv, 46.
eo tempore, ijg. 20.
illo die. Mil. 38.
p. 189, Lysander, Dio. i, 96.
Pythagoras, JV. Z). iii, 88.
jam Galli, B. G. vii, 26, 3.
Treveri, B. G. vi, 7, i.
cum ad, Verr. v, 27.
cum equitatus, B. G. v, 19, 2.
saepe cum, Nep. Cim. 4, 2.
cum procucurrissent, iU. C. ii, 41,
6.
p. 190, tum tua. Ear. Epp. i, 18, 84.
cum videbis, PI. Bacch. 145.
stabilitas, Lael. 82.
cum tacent. Cat. i, 21.
cum te, Alt. xiv, 17 A, 4.
prius, PI. Merc. 456.
nihil contra. Place. 51.
non prius. Sail. C 51.
p. 191, priusquam, Liv. i, 24, 3.
tempestas. Sen. Ep. 103, 2.
priusqu'am telum, B. C. ii, 34, 6.
animum, PI. Amph. 240.
sol antequam, Phil, xiv, 27.
Alexander, Quint. Curt, iv, 6,
17-
dum haec, 5. G. iii, 17, 1.
dimi anima, Att. ix, 10, 3.
Lacedaemoniorum, Tusc. Disp. i,
loi.
Cato, Nep. Cat. 2, 4.
0. 192, donee, ijs. xxiii, 31, 9.
ferrmn, iVe#. £^. 9, 3.
trepidationis, Liv. xxi, 28, 11.
exspectavit, B. G. iv, 23, 4.
dum litterae, Fam. xi, 23, 2.
postulo, Ter. And. 550.
orat, Ter. Ad. 882.
milites, £. C ii, 21, z.
Helvetiis, 5. G. i, 2, i.
p. 193, huic. Rose. Am. 54.
consuli, Liv. xxxv, 20, 4.
ne lustrum, lAv. xxiv, 43, 4.
prohibiut, iiji. xxv, 35, 6.
nee quin, Liv. xxvi, 40, 4.
constitueram, 4«. xvi, 10, i.
decrevit. Cat. i, 4.
couvenit, iiu. x, 27, 2.
fac ut, P;. JJ«(i. 1218.
cura ut. Cat. iii, 12.
laborabat, 5. G. vii, 31, i.
p. 194, sequitur, iV. D. ii, 81.
eos moneo. Cat. ii, 20.
huic imperat, B. G. iv, 21, 8.
opto, Verr. Act. Pr. so.
p. 19s, vereor ne, Att. vii, 12, z.
ex quo, F. ii, 24.
ita fit, Tusc. Disp. ii, 16.
est mos. Brut. '84.
p. 196, quis, Par. 48.
illud, OS. iii, in.
hoc uno, de Or. i, 32.
bene mihi, Tusc. Disp. i, 97.
quod, B. G. i, 44, 6.
quod me, Nep. Ep. 5, 6.
p. 197, oculis, B. G. i, 12, I.
bis bina, N. D. ii, 49.
effugere, N. D. iii, 14.
saepe autem, N. D. iii, 14.
Epaminondas, F. ii, 97.
ex Socrate, Tusc. Disp. v, 34.
nescio, PI. Amph. 1056.
p. 198, conantur, B. G. i, 8, 4.
pergit, Liv. i, 7, 6.
quaeritur, N. D. i, 61.
haud sdo, Tusc. Disp. ii, 41.
p. 199, naturam. Off. i, 100.
memoria, de Sen. 21.
si quis, B. G. i, 48, 6.
si dicendo, Tac. Dial. 19.
p. 200, mentiar, Lael. 10.
haec si. Cat. i, 19.
sapientia, F. i, 42.
consilium, de Sen. 19.
Laelius, Arch. 16.
num igitur, de Sen. 19.
IJNJJiiA lU IJtlJi JiJi.Ajyj.Ji'l^JiS.
255
p. 201,
p. 202,
P- 203,
ft. 204,
t). 20s,
p. 206,
p. 207,
t). 208,
p. 209,
p. 211,
p. 212,
P- 213,
nisi felicitas, Tac. Agr. 31-
eum paths, Phil, ii, 99.
si Sestius, Sest. 81.
si unum, Liv. ii, 38, S-
non potestis, F. ii, 71.
eras, Fl. Merc. 770.
haec reputent, Tusc. Disp. i, Si-
roges, F. iv, 69.
ferreus, Fam. xv, 21, 3.
dolorem, Phil. 12, 21.
si feceris, Fam. v, 19, ^.
hoc si, Fam. vii, i, 6.
hunc mihi, Cat. i, 18.
nihil, Cat. ii, 10.
nisi. Mil. 19-
sed quid, Div. Caec. 14.
serviam, PI. Men. iioi.
sit fur, Verr. v, 4.
haec sint, Ac. ii, 105.
ne sit, Tusc. Disp. ii, 14.
homines, Phil, ii, 39.
non est. Rep. i, 10.
quamquam. Off. i, 56.
Caesar, £. G. iv, 31, 1.
Atticus, Nep. Alt. 6, .1.
licet, Rose. Am. 31.
quamquam quid, Cal. i, 22.
quamquam, i»». xxxvi, 34, 6.
quamvis, multi, Tac. Dial. 2.
quamvis infesto, Liv. ii, 40, 7.
multi. Off. iii, 82.
omnia postposui, Fam. rvi, 2 ; 6-
nil obstat, Hor. Sat. i, i, 40.
oderint, Ace. 204.
manent, de Sen. 22.
nubant, P/. Aid. 491.
quidquid, 4e«. ii, 49.
quidquid oritur, Div. ii, 60.
Regulus, Off. iii, 100.
tum Romulus, Liv. i, 9, 2.
nuntiatum, B. G. i, 38, i.
dixit, Nep. Them. 7, S-
Ariovistus, 5. G. i, 44, 7.
milites, B. G. iii, s, 3-
Caesar, 5. G. i, 14, 6.
concursu, Tac. Dial. 3^.
demonstrabantur, de Sen. 78.
Paetus, Alt. ii, 1, 12
nemo, Par. 52.
cum diversas, Tac. Dial, i, 4.
mos est, Oro/. 151.
quod ego, PI. Capt. 961.
dulce, Hor. Od. iii, 2, 13.
p. 214,
P- 215,
p. 216,
p. 217,
p. 218
p. 219,
p. 220,
p. 221
p. 222,
p. 223,
virorum, Tusc. Disp. ii, 43.
aUud est, Tusc. Disp. iv, 27.
impune. Sail. Jug. 31, 26.
licuit, Tusc. Disp. i, 33.
Demosthenes, F. v, 5.
beatus, N. D. i, 48.
Cato, Sail. Cat. 54, 5.
apertum est, F. v, 34.
Epicurei, Lael. 13.
Thales, N. D. i, 23.
Democritus, N. D. i, 29.
nullo se, Lig. 3.
nee mihi, de Sen. 85.
eas res, B. G. i, 18.
te tua. Brut. 331.
cupio. Cat. i, 4.
Timoleon, JVe^. Tim. 3, 4.
gaudeo, PZ. Bacch. 456.
non moleste, de 5e». 7.
Sestius, Sest. 95.
traditum, Tmsc. Disp. v, 114.
audax, ffor. Od. i, 3, 23.
hundne, Hor. Sat. i, 9, 72.
interim, B. G. i, 16, i.
assurgentem, Liv. iv, 19.
gloria, Tusc. Disp. iii, 3.
Conon, Nep. Con. 4, 5.
omne, Phil, v, sr.
mente, Tmsc. Disp. v, 100.
Solon, ie Sen. 26.
sol, iV. D. ii, 102.
mendaci, Div. ii, 146.
perfidiam, B. G. vii, s, S-
eis Catonem, (Ze Sen. 3.
Homerus, ie 5e». 54-
urbem, Liv. xxii, 2f - ■
equitatiun, 5. G. i, iS, i.
obliviscendum, Tac. ffis*. ii, i.
numquam, Verr. i, 38.
suo cuique, N. D. iii, 1.
Caesar, B. G. i, 13, i-
scribendo, Fam. xv, 6, 2.
mens, 0/. i, 105.
Themistocles, Nep. Them. 2, 3
multa, P. i, S-
ad pacem, Liv. xxi, ij .7
hostes, B. G. iii, u, i,
legati, 5. G. iv, 13, 5-
quae ille, Sail. Fr. i, 77, "•
legati, B. G.i, 30, i-
do (colloco), PI. Tr. 73S-
hoc est, Att. vii, 22, 2.
cum homines. Cat. i, 31.
256
INDEX TO THE EXAMPLES.
p. 224, discidia, F. i, 44.
p. 22s, horae, de Sen. 69.
Caesar, B. G. ii, 35, 3.
cita, Hor. Sat. i, 1, 8.
qui aether, N. D. ii, 41.
p. 226, adsentatio, Lael. 8g.
Cn. Pompeio, B. G. iv, 1, j..
p. 227, Darius, Nep. Milt. 4, i.
p. 228, magnus, Nep. Them. 6, 1.
p. 22g, erant duo, B. G. i, 6, i.
nisi forte, de Sen. 18.
p. 230, id ut, Nep. Them. 8, 3.
eo cum, B. G. vii, 7, 4.
ut ad, Lael. 5.
p. 231, Septimus, de Sen. 38.
recepto, B. C. iii, 12, 1.
sed pleni. Arch. 14.
horribilem, Tusc. Disp. i, 118.
simulatam, Tac. A. i, 10.
p. 232, Caesar, B. G. i, 25, 1.
Haedui, B. G. i, 11, 2.
Caesar cum, B. G. i, 7, 1.
accidit, Nep. Ak. 3, 2.
p. 233, si quid. Arch. 1.
Caesar, 5. G. v, 4, i.
p. 237, hostium, B. G. iii, 29, 3.
mens quoque, de Sen. 36.
tanto, 5mS. S9.
p. 238, pro multitudine, B. G. i, 2, j.
p. 249, ut agar, Tusc. Disp. ii, 13.
minis, Tusc. Disp. v, 87.
dissimilis, Nep. Chab. 3, 4.
p. 250, febris. Cat. i, 31.
submersas, Aen. i, 69.
nosti, Fam. viii, 10, 3.
tum And, Liv. i, 40, 2.
moriamur, Aen. ii, 353.
quadrupedante, vle». viii, sg6.
ABBREVIATIONS USED IN INDEX TO THE
ILLUSTRATIVE EXAMPLES.
Ac, Gcero, Academica.
Ace, Acdus.
ad Hei., ad Herennium.
Aen., Virgil, Aeneid.
Arch., Cicero, pro Archia.
Att., Cicero, Episiulae ad AtUcum.
B. C, Caesar, de Bella Civili.
B. G., Caesar, de Bella Gallia).
Brut., Cicero, Brutus.
Caec, Cicero, fro Caecina.
Cat., Cicero, in CatUinam.
Cluent., Cicero, pro Clitentio.
Curt., Quintus Curtius;
de Dom., Cicero, de Doma Sua.
de Or., Cicero, de Oratore.
de Sen., Cicero, de Senectute.
C, Cicero, de Divinatione.
Div. Caec, Cicero, Divinatia in
CaeciHum.
Eel., Virgil, Eclogues.
Eut., Eutropius.
F., Cicero, de Finibus.
Fam., Cicero, Epistulae ad Familiares.
Fkc, Cicero, pro Placco.
Gell., Aulus Gellius.
Hor., Horace.
Epp., Epistles.
Od., Odes.
Sat., Satires.
Inv., Cicero, de Inventione.
Juv., Juvenal.
Lael., Cicero, LaeUus, de AmicHia.
Leg., Cicero, de Legibus.
Lig., Cicero, pro Ligario.
Liv., Livy.
Lucr., Lucretius.
Marc, Cicero, pra Marcello.
Mil., Cicero, pro Milone.
N. D., Cicero, de Natura Deorum.
Nep., Nepos.
Ale, Alciiiades.
Ar., Aristides.
Att., Atticus.
Cat., Cato.
Cbab. Chabrias.
Cim., Cimon.
Con., Canon.
Dat., Datames.
Ep., Epaminondaj.
Milt., MUtiades.
Paus., Pausamas.
Them., Themistocles.
Thras., Thrasybuhis.
Tim., Timoleon.
0£E., Cicero, de Officios.
Or., Cicero, Orator. ^
Ov., Ovid.
Am., Amores.
Met., Metamorphoses.
Par., Cicero, Paradoxa.
Phil., Cicero, Philippics.
Pis., Cicero, i» Pisonem.
Plane, Cicero, i>ro Plancit.
PL, Plautus.
Amph., Amphitruo.
Aul., Aulularia.
Bacch., Bacchides.
Capt., CapHvi.
Cure, CurcuUo.
Men., Menaechmi.
Mere, Mercalor.
M. G., Af j/e* Gloriosus.
Pers., Persa.
Poen., Poemihis.
Rud., Rudens.
Tr., Trinummus.
Vid., Vidtdaria.
Plin. Epp., Pliny the Younger, irftefi.
Pub. Syr., Publilius Syrus.
Q. F., Cicero, od Quintum Fratrem.
Rose Am., Cicero, ^o Roscio Amerint.
Sail., Sallust.
C, Catiline.
Fr., Fragments,
Jug., Jugurtha.
Sen., Seneca.
Ep., Epistles.
N. Q., Naturaks Quaestiones.
257
2S8
ABBREVIATIONS IN THE EXAMPLES.
Sest., Cicero, pro SesHo.
Sex. Rose, Cicero, pro Sexto Roscio.
Sil., Silius Italicus.
Stat., Caedlius Statius.
Sull., Cicero, pro Sulla.
Tac, Tacitus.
A., Annals.
Agr., Agricola.
Dial., Dialogus de Oratoribus.
Ger., Germarda.
H., Histories.
Ter., Terence.
Ad., Adelphoi.
And., Andria.
Eun., EuniKhus. ■
Hec, Eecyra.
H. T., Bautontimoroumenos.
Phor., Phormio.
Tusc. Disp., Cicero, Tusculan Disputa-
tions.
Twelve Tables, Laws of the Twelve
Tables.
Vatin., Cicero, in Vatitimm.
Yen., Cicero, in Verrem.
Verr., Act. Pr., Cicero, AcUo Prima in C.
Verrem.
INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS OF THE
MOST IMPORTANT VERBS.
Note. — Compounds axe not given unless they present some special irregularity. The
references are to sections.
A.
abdo, 122, 1, 2.
abido, 122, III.
abnuo, 122, II.
aboleo, 121, 1,
abstergeo, 121, in.
absum, 125.
accendo, 122, 1, 4.
accidit, 138, m.
accio, 121, 1, N.
accipio, 122, m.
acqmro, 122, 1, 6.
acuo, 122, II.
adds, 122, 1, 2.
adhaeresco, 122, IV, 2.
adiplscor, 122, V.
adolesco, 122, IV, i.
adsum, 125.
advenio, 123, IV.
aSero, i2g.
afficio, 122, III.
affligo, 122, 1, I, a.
agnSsco, 122, IV, i.
ago, 122, 1, 3.
algeS, 121, III.
alo, 122, 1, 5.
amicio, 123, III.
amo, 120, 1.
unplector, 122, V.
ango, 122, 1, 7.
aperio, 123, II.
appeto, 122, 1, 6,
arceo, 121, II, n.
arcesso, 122, 1, 6.
ardeo, 121, III. ■
aresco, 122, IV, j.
arguo, 122, n.
ascends, 122, 1, 4.
aspicio, 122, III.
assentior, 123, VII.
assuefacio, 122, III.
assueflo, 122, III.
audio, 123, 1,
aufero, 129.
augeo, 121, in.
aved, 121, II, a, N. 2.
cads, 122, 1, 2.
caedo, 122, 1, 2.
calefaciS, 122, III.
calefio, 122, III.
caleo, 121, II, a.
calescS, 122, IV, 2.
cans, 122, 1, 2.
capessS, 122, I, 6.
capio, 122, III.
cares, 121, II, a.
carpo, 122, 1, I, u.
caveS, 121, V.
cedS, 122, 1, I, b.
censeo, 121, II, b,
cams, 122, 1, 6.
cieo, 121, 1.
cingS, 122, 1, I, a.
circumsistS, 122, 1, 2.
claudS, 122, 1, I, b.
Clauds, 122, 1, 7.
coemS, 122, I, 3.
coepl, 133.
coerceo, 121, II, a.
cognosco, 122, IV, I.
cogo, 122, 1, 3.
2S9
coUigS, 122, 1, 3.
cols, 122, 1, s.
comminlscor, 122, V.
comperiS, 123, V.
compleo, 121, I.
concutio, 122, III.
condS, 122, 1, 2.
cSnferS, i2g.
cSnfiteor, 121, VII.
congruS, 122, II.
consenesco, 122, IV, 2.
cSnsero, 122, 1, 5.
consero, 122, 1, 6 {plant)
cSnsido, 122, 1, 4.
consists, 122, 1, 2.
cSnspicio, 122, III.
constat, 138, III.
cSnstltuS, 122, II.
consuesco, 122, IV, 1.
consuls, 122, 1, s.
contineo, 121, II, b.
contingit; 138, III.
coquS, 122, 1, I, a.
crepS, 120, II.
crescS, 122, IV, 1.
cubs, 120, II.
cupiS, 122, III.
cuiro, 122, 1, :i.
D.
debeo, 121, II, a.
decerns, 122, 1, 6.
decet, 138, II.
dedecet, 138, II.
dedo, 122, 1, 2.
defends, 122, 1, 4,
26o
INDEX TO THE PRINCIPAL PARTS
deled, 121, 1,
deligo, 122, I, 3.
demo, 122, 1, 3.
desero, 122, 1, 5.
desino, 122, 1, 6.
desum, 125.
dico, 122, 1, 1, u,
differs, i2g.
dlligo, 122, 1, 3.
dimico, 120, H.
dirimo, 122, I, 3.
diripio, 122, III.
diruo, 122, II.
discerno, 122, I, 6.
disco, 122, IV, I.
dissero, 122, 1, 5.
distinguo, p. 87, footnote,
divido, 122, I, I, 6.
do, 127.
doceo, 121, II, b.
doles, 121, II, a.
domo, 120, II.
dues, 122, I, 1, iz.
E.
edo, 122, I, :i.
edS, 122, I, 3.
efifero, 129.
eflfuglS, 122, III.
egeo, 121, II, a, N. i.
eUciS, 122, III.
emineS, 121, II, </, N. j..
emo, 122, 1, 3.
eS, 132.
esurio, 123, VI.
evadS, p. 87, footnote.
evanescS, 122, IV, 3.
excolo, 122, I, 5.
excudo, 122, 1, 4.
exerceS, 121, II, a.
experior, 123, VII.
expleo, 121, I, N.
explico, 120, II.
exstinguo, p. 87, footnote.
extimescS, 122, IV, i.
F.
facie, 122, III.
falls, 122, 1, 2.
fateor, 121, VII.
faveo, 121, V.
The references are to sections.
feriS, 123, VI.
ferS, 129.
ferveo, 121, VI.
figo, 122, I, 1, b.
finds, 122, 1, 2, N.
fingo, 122, 1, i, it.
fIS, 131.
fleets, 122, I, I, b.
fleo, 121, 1.
flSreo, 121, II, o, N. I.
flSresco, 122, IV, z.
fluS, 122, II.
fodiS, 122, III.
foveS, 121, V.
frangS, 122, 1, 3.
fremS, 122, I, 5.
fries, 120, n.
frigeS, 121, n, ii, N. 2.
fruor, 122, V.
fugiS, 122, III.
fuldS, 123, III.
fnlgeo, 121, III.
fulget, 138, 1,
funds, 122, 1, 3.
fungor, 122, V.
furS, 122, 1, 7.
gemS, 122, 1, s.
gero, 122, I, I, a.
glgno, 122, I, 5.
gradior, 122, V.
H.
habeS, 121, II, a.
haereo, 121, III.
haurio, 123, III.
horreS, 121, II, li, N. 1.
I.
ignosco, 121, IV, i.
illicio, 122, III.
imbuS, 122, II.
immineo, 121, II, ij, n. a.
impleo, 121, 1, N.
implies, 120, n.
incipiS, 122, III.
incolS, 122, I, 5.
incumbS, 122, I, $.
indulges, 121, III.
induS, 122, n.
Infers, 129.
ingemisco, 122, IV, 2.
insum, 123.
intellego, 122, 1, 3.
interficio, 122, III.
intersum, 125.
invado, p. 87, footnote,
inveniS, 123, IV.
irascor, 122, V.
jaceo, 121, II, a.
jacio, 122, III.
jubeo, 121, III.
jungo, 122, 1, 1, 14.
juvo, 120, m.
labor, 122, V.
lacesso, 122, 1, 6.
laedS, 122, 1, I, t,
lambs, 122, 1, 7.
largior, 123, VII.
lateS, 121, n, ii, N. 1.
lavS, 120, III.
lego, 122, 1, 3.
libet, 138, II.
liceor, 121, VII.
licet, 138, n.
loquor, 122, V.
luceo, 121, III.
ludS, 122, 1, I, b.
luges, 121, III.
luS, 122, II.
M.
maereS, 121, II, a, N. 2.
malS, 130.
maneS, 121, III.
matQrescS, 122, IV, 3.
medeor, 121, VII.
memini, 133.
mereo, 121, II, a.
mereor, 121, VII.
mergS, 122, 1, i, b.
metior, 1.23, VII.
metuS, 122, II.
mico, 120, n.
I minus, 122, II.
misceo, 121, n, b.
miseret, 138, II.
misereor, 121, VII.
mitto, 122, 1, I, b.
molo, 122, 1, 5.
moneo, 121, II, a.
mordeo, 121, IV.
morior, 122, V.
moves, 121, V.
N.
nandscor, 122, V.
lulscx)!, 122, V.
necto, 122, 1, I, b.
neglego, 122, 1, 3.
ningit, 138, 1.
niteo, 121, n, a, N. 1.
nitor, 122, V.
noced, 121, II, a.
nolo, 130.
nosco, 122, IV, I.
nubo, 122, 1, I, a.
O.
obduiesco, 122, IV, 3.
oblino, 122, 1, 6.
obfiTascor, 122, V.
obmutesco, 122, IV, 3.
obraS, 122, n.
obsolesco, 122, rv, i.
obsum, 125.
obtineo, 121, II, b.
odi, 133.
ofiero, 129.
oleo, 121, H, a, N. 1.
operio, 123, n.
oportet, 138, n.
opperior, 123, VII.
ordior, 123, VII.
orior, 123, VII.
P.
paenitet, 138, II.
palleo, 121, 11, a, N. 1.
pando, 122, 1, 4.
parco, 122, 1, 2.
pareo, 121, 11, «.
pario, 122, in.
pasco, 122, IV, I.
tascor, 122, IV, i.
OF THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS.
The references are to sections,
patefado, 122, III.
261
pateflo, 122, III.
pateo, 121, II, o, N. I.
patior, 122, V.
paveo, 121, V.
pellido, 122, III.
pello, 122, 1, 2.
pendeo, 121, IV.
pendS, 122, I, :i.
perago, 122, 1, 3.
percello, 122, I, 2, N.
percrebresco, 122, IV, 3.
perdo, 122, I, 2.
perfido, 122, III.
perfringo, 122, 1, 3.
periruor, 122, V.
perlego, 122, 1, 3.
pennulceS, 121, III.
perpetior, 122, V.
pervado, p. 87, footnote,
peto, 122, 1, 6.
piget, 138, II.
pingo, 122, 1, I, a.
places, 121, II, a.
plaudo, 122, 1, i, 6.
pluit, 138, 1,
polleo, 121, II, a, N. a.
polliceor, 121, VII.
poUuo, 122, II.
pono, 122, 1, 6.
posco, 122, IV, I.
pos^do, 122, 1, 4.
possum, 126.
poto, 120, 1,
praebeo, 121, II, a.
praestat, 138, HI.
praesum, 123.
prandeo, 121, VI.
prehendo, 122, 1, 4.
premo, 122, 1, i, b.
prodo, 122, 1, 2.
promo, 122, 1, 3.
piosmn, 125.
prostemo, 122, 1, 6.
pudet, 138, n.
pungS, 122, 1, z.
Q.
quaero, 122, 1, 6.
quatio, 122, III.
queror, 122, V.
quiescS, 123, IV, 1.
rado, 122, 1, I, 6.
rapio, 12 2, III.
redds, 122, I, 2.
redimo, 122, I, 3.
referdo, 123, III.
refers, I2g.
rSfert, 138, II.
regS, 122, 1, i, a.
relinquS, 122, 1, 3.
reminlscor, 122, V.
reor, 121, VII.
reperis, 123, V.
repS, 122, 1, I, a.
resists, 122, 1, 2.
respuS, 122, II.
restinguS, p. 87, footnote.
retineS, 121, II, b.
rides, 121, in.
rSdo, 122, I, 1, b.
rubeo, 121, II, a, N. i.
rumps, 122, 1, 3.
ruS, 122, n.
S.
saepiS, 123, HE.
saliS, 123, II.
sands, 123, III.
saplo, 122, III.
sarciS, 123, III.
sdndo, 122, 1, 2, N.
scisco, 122, IV, 2.
scnbs, 122, 1, I, a.
sculps, 122, 1, I, a.
sees, 120, II.
sedeS, 121, V.
sentio, 123, III.
sepeliS, 123, 1.
sequor, 122, V.
serS, 122, 1, 6.
serpS, 122, 1, I, a.
sileS, 121, II, a, N.
sinS, 122, 1, 6.
solvS, 122, 1, 4.
sonp, 120, II.
spargo, 122, 1, I, b.
sperno, 122, I, 6.
splendeo, 121, II, 0, N. |
spondee, 121, IV.
status, 122, II.
stems, 122, 1, 6.
-stinguo, 122, 1, I, a,
262 INDEX TO THE MOST IMPORTANT VERBS.
sto, 1 20, IV.
strepo, 122, 1, 5.
strtdeo, 121, VI.
strings, 122, 1, I, a.
struo, 122, II.
studeo, 121, II, a, n. 1.
suadeo, 121, III.
subigo, 122, 1, 3.
subsum, 125.
sum, 100.
sums, 122, 1, 3.
suo, 122, II.
supersum, 125.
sustineS, 121, II, b.
taceo, 121, n, u.
taedet, 138, 11.
tango, 122, 1, 2.
tego, 122, 1, I, a.
temno, 122, 1, i, a.
tends, 122, 1, 2.
teneo, 121, II, b.
tero, I22i I, 6.
terreo, 121, II, a.
The references are to sections,
tex5, 122, I, S-
times, 121, II, li, s. I.
tingo, 122, I, 1, a.
tolls, 122, 1, 2, N.
tonat, 138, I.
tondeS, 121, IV.
tons, 120, II.
torpeS, 121, n, 0, N. I.
torques, 121, III.
torreS, 121, II, b.
trado, 122, I, 2.
traho, 122, 1, i, a.
tremo, 122, I, 5.
tribuS, 122, II.
trudS, 122, 1, I, b.
tueor, 121, VII.
tundS, 122, 1, z.
U.
uldscor, 122, V.
unguo, 122, 1, I, a.
urges, 121, III.
urS, 122, I, I, u,.
utor, 122, V.
V.
vado, 122, I, I, b.
vales, 121, II, o.
veho, 122, I, I, li.
veils, 122, I, 4.
veniS, 123, IV.
vereor, 121, VII.
vergo, 122, I, 7.
verrS, 122, I, 4.
verts, 122, 1, 4.
vescor, 122, V.
vets, 120, II.
videS, 121, V.
vigeS, 121, II, a, N. I
vincio, 123, III.
vines, 122, I. 3.
vireo, 121, II, a, N. i.
visS, 122, I, 4.
vivo, 122, 1, I, il.
vols, 130.
volvS, 122, 1, 4.
vomS, 122, 1, 5.
voveS, 121, V.
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
Abbeevutiohs. — Abl., ablative; ace, accusative; adj., adjective; adv., adverb, adver-
bial, or adverbially; c£., compare; comp., comparison or comparative; conj., conjunction or
conjugation; const., constr., construction; dat., dative; decL, declension; gen., genitive;
ind., indicative; indir. disc., indirect discourse; loc, locative; n., note; nom., nominative;
plu., plural; prep., preposition; pron,, pronoun -or pronunciation; sing., singular; subj.,
subject; subjv., subjunctive ; voc, vocative; w., with.
i, vowel, 2, I ; pronundation, 3, i ; de-
velopment of o; before a single conso-
nant, 7, i,a; before two consonants,
7, I, 4; & as ending of nom. sing, of
ist decl., 20; in voc. sing, of Greek
nouns in -es of ist decl., 22 ; in nom.
sing, of Greek nouns in -e of ist decl.,
22, 3; termination of nom. and ace.
plu. of neuters, 23 ; 35 ; 48 ; termina-
tion of nom. sing, of nouns of 3d decl.,
28 ; gender of nouns in -i of 3d decl.,
43, 3; ending of ace. sing, of Greek
nouns of 3d decl., 47, i ; regular quan-
tity of final a, 363, i; exceptions to
quantity of final a, 363, i, a-c.
d, pronunciation, 3, i ; arising by con-
traction, 7, 2 ; as ending of stem in ist
decl., 18; a-stems inflected, 20 ; in voc.
sing, of Greek noims of ist decl., 22 ;
in voc. sing, of Greek noims in -as of
3d decl., 47, 4; distinguishing vowel
of ist conjugation, 98; ending of im-
perative act. of ist conj., loi ; final a
long by exception, 363, i, a-c.
a, ab, ahs, use, 142, i ; with town names,
229, ^.
a to denote agency, 216.
to denote separation, 214.
place from which, 229.
with town names, 229, 2.
' with abl. of gerund, 338, 4, b.
a-stems, 20; g8; loi.
Abbreviations of proper names, 373.
Ablative case, 17 ; 213 f.
m-dbus, 21, 2, e.
• in -d in prons., 84, 3 ; 85, 3.
-formation of sing, of adjs. of 3d
decl., 67, a; 70, 1-5.
■ of i!-stems, 37 ; 38.
— —genuine abl. uses, 214 f.
— — ■ absolute, 227.
— — of agent, 216.
— — ■ of accompaniment, 222.
■ of accordance, 220, 3.
— — -of association, 222, A.
of attendant circumstance, 221 ; 227,
of cause, 219.
of comparison, 217.
of degree of difference, 223.
of fine or penalty, 208, J, 4.
of manner, 220.
of material, 224, 3.
of means, 218.
of penalty, 208, 2, b.
— — of place where, 228.
of place whence, 229.
of price, 225.
of quality, 224.
of separation, 214 ; with compounds
of dis- and se-, 214, 3.
of source, 215-.
of specification, 226.
of time at which, 230.
of time during which, 231, x.
363
264
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
Ablative case of time witJiin which, 231.
Ablative case, of way by which, 213, 9.
with conlmeri, cSnsistere, cSnslare,
218, 4.
with special phrases, 218, 7.
with jungere, miscere, mulire, tk.,
222, A.
with f acid, fid, 218, 6.
with prepositions, 142; 213 f.
with verbs of filling, 218, 8.
with verbs and adjs. of freeing, 214,
j:, a, and N. i.
with adjs. of plenty, 218, 8.
with Utor, fruor, fungor, potior, ves-
cor, 218, I.
with opus and asus, 218, 2.
with nltor, mnixus, and fretus, 2 1 8, 3 .
abs, 142, 1.
ahsens, 125.
Absolute, ablative, 227.
time, of participles, 336, 4.
use of verbs, 174, o. , ^
Abstract nouns, 12, 2, b) ; plural of, 55,
4, c).
-abus, 21, 2, e).
ac, 341, 2, 6); = as, than, 341, i, c).
Acatalectic verses, 366, 9.
accHit ut, 297, 2.
Accent, 6; in gen. of nouns in -ius and
■ium, 25, I and 2.
^cidit ut, 297, ^•
accidit quod, 299, t, i.
Accompaniment, abl. of, 222.
Accordance, abl. of, 220, 3.
Accusative case, 17; in -an and -en, of
Greek nouns, 22; in -om in 2d decl.,
24 ; in -on and -on in Greek nouns, 27 ;
in -S in sing, of Greek noims, 47, i ;
in -Ss in plu., 47, 3; in 4m and -is
in t-stems, 37 ; 38 ; ace. sing. neut. as
adv., 77, 3 ; 176, 3 ; 172 f.
of duration of time, 181.
of result produced, 173, B; 176.
of extent of space, 181.
of limit of motion, 182 f.
of neut. prons. or adjs., 176, 2.
of person or thing affected, 173, A ;
,175-
in exclamations, 183.
as subj. of inf., 184.
with admoneo, commoneo, etc., 207.
with adv. force, 176, 3.
with compounds, 175, 2.
with impersonal verbs, 175, a, c.
with intransitive verbs, 175, 2, a.
with passive used as middle, 175,
2, d).
with verbs of remembering and for-
getting (memni, oHimscor, reminis-
cor), 206, I ; 2.
with verbs expressing emotion, 175,
2, 6.
with verbs of tasting and smelling,
176, S.
with verbs _ of making, choosing,
calling, regarding, etc., 177.
with verbs of asking, requesting,
demanding, teaching, concealing, 178,
i-S-
with adjs. (propior, ^oximus), 141,
3-
with adverbs (propius, proxime),
141, 3 ; clam, prtdie, 144, 2.
Genavam ad oppidum, 182, 2, a.
cognate ace, 176, 4.
Greek ace, 180.
synecdochical ace, 180.
two aces., direct obj. and pred. ace,
177 ; person affected and result pro-
duced, 178 ; with compounds of trans,
179; with other compounds, 179, 2.
with prepositions, 141 ; 179 f.
retained in pass., 178, 2.
Accusing, verbs of, constr., 208 f.
accuso, constr., 178, i, d).
deer, decl., 68; compared, 71, 3.
Acquitting, verbs of, constr., 208 f .
ac si, with subjv., 307, i.
ad, 'toward,' 'in vicinity of,' 182, 3; ad
with ace alternating with dat., 338, 2.
compounds of ad governing dat.,
187, III; 188, 2,d.
with gerund denoting purpose, 338,
3.
-ades, patronymic ending, 148, 6, a.
adg- = agg-, 9, 3.
Adjectives, 62 f.; 354; derivation of,
isof.
— of ist and 2d dec!., 63 ff.
— in -MM, gen. sing., 63, 0.
■ — of 3d decl., 67 ff. ; in abl., 70, 5.
■ — -comparison of adjs., 71 f. ; in -er,
71, 3; in -«7m, 71, 4; comparative
lacking, 73, 3; defective comparison,
73 ; not admitting comparison, 75 ;
comparison by magis and maximl, 74-
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
26s
Adjectives, numerals, 78 f.
syntax, 233 ff. ; attributive and
predicate adjs., 233, 2.
agreement, 234, f .
used substantively, 236 f .
denoting part of an object, 241, i.
with force of adverbs, 239.
force of comp. and superl., 240, i.
not followed by infinitive, 333.
not used with proper names, 354, 3.
equivalent to a poss. gen., 354, 4.
special Latin equivalents of Eng.
adjs., 354, i.
equiv. to rel. clause, 241, 2.
as pred. ace, 177, 2.
position of adj., 350, 4.
pronominal adjs., 92.
governing gen., 204.
governing dat., 192.
governing ace, T4T, 3.
construed with abl., 214, i, d; 217,
i; 218,8; 223; 226,2; 227, i.
with supine in -u, 340, 2.
ail- = all-, g, 2.
admoned, constr., 207.
Admonishing, const, of verbs of, 207.
air- = arr-, 9, 2.
ads- = ass-, 9, 2.
ai sensum, constr., 23s, B, z, c; 254,
4-
aiuliscens, spelling, 9, 2.
aiulter, decl., 23, 2.
aiultus, force, 114, z.
Adverbs, defined, 140; formation and
comparison, 76 f. ; 140, 157.
in -dter from adjs. in -^us, 77, 4-
in -tus and -tim, 77, S-
in and -0, 77, 2.
numeral, 79.
as preps., 144, z.
derivation of, 157.
with gen., 201, 2 ; 3 ; and a.
special meanings, 347.
position, 350, 6.
Adversative clauses, 309.
conjunctions, 343.
adversus, prep, with ace, i4r.
ae, how pronounced, 3, 2; phonetic
changes, 7, i, d.
aedes, plu., 61.
aequSHs, abl. sing, of, 70, s, o; as subst.,
238.
eequor, dec!., 34.
aequum est = aequum sit, 271, i, h).
aes, in plu., SS, 4, * ; lacks gen. plu., 57,
7.
aetds, decl., 40, r, e) ; id aetatis, 185, z.
-aeus, suffix, 152, 3.
aevom, decl., 24.
Affected, ace. of person or thing, 175.
Agency, dat. of, r89; abl., 216.
Agent, abl., 216; with names of animals,
216, 2.
ager, decl., 23.
Agreement, nouns, 166; 168; 169,2; 3;
4-
adjs. 234; in gender, 235, B; in
niunber, 23s, A; prons., 250 ; verbs,
with one subj., 254, i; with two or
more subjs., 255, i.
-ai, case-ending, gen. sing., ist decl.,
poet., 21, 2, b).
am, 13s, N.
<5/o> ^35 ; quantity of first syllable, 362, 3.
-al, declension of nouns in, 39.
alacer, decl., 68, i ; comp., 73, 4.
aliqua, gi, 2.
aliqui, 91 ; 91, 2.
aliquis, gi ; 252, 2 ; aliquis dicdt, dixerU,
280, I.
-SUs, suffix, 151, z.
aUter ac, 341, i,
alius, 66 ; g2,
2S3, '■■
alius ac, 'other than,' 341, i, c).
Allia, gender of, 15, 3, N.
allicio, conj., log, 2, 6).
Alliteration, 37s, 3.
Alphabet, i.
alter, decl., 66; g2, i; used correlatively,
.2S3, I.
Alternative questions, 162, 4; indirect,
300, 4.
alteruter, decl., g2, 2.
alvus, gender of, 26, i, b.
amandus sum, conj., 115.
amatarus sum, conj., 115.
amb- (ambi-), 159, 3, N.
ambo, 80, 2, a; usage, 355, 2.
amo, conj., loi.
ampUus = ampUas quam, 217, 3.
amussis, -4m, 38, i.
fl», 162, 4, and a) ; 300, 4; Aowd JC»S o»i
nescio an, 300, J.
Anacoluthon, 374. 6-
Anapaest, 366, 2.
used correlatively.
266
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
Anaphora, 350, 11, i).
Anastrophe of prep., 141, 2; 142, 3;
144, 3.
anceps (syllaba anceps), defined, 366,
10.
Androgeds, •dec!., 27.
animal, decl., 39.
Animals, as agents, 216, 2.
animi, locative, 232, 3.
annSn, in double questions, 162, 4.
Answers, 162, 5.
ante, prep. w. ace, 141 ; as adv., 144, i ;
dat. w. verbs compounded w. ante,
187, III; in expressions of time, 357,
i; 371,5; ante diem, 371, s; 6.
Antecedent of rel., 251.
attraction of, 251, 4.
-incorporated with rel., 251, 4.
Antecedent omitted, 251, i.
repeated with rel., 251, 3.
Antepenult, 6, 2.
antepSno, with dat., 187, III, 2.
antequam, with ind., 2gi; with subjv.,
2g2.
Anticipation, denoted by subjv., w.
antequam and prmsquam, 292 ; by
subjv. with dum, donee, quoad, 293,
III, 2 ; 374, s.
-anus, suffix, 151, 2 ; 152, i ; 3.
Aorist tense, see Historical perfect.
Apodosis, 301 ff.
in conditional sent, of ist type, 302,
4 ; result clauses as apodoses, 322 ; qum-
clauses as apodoses, 322; ind. ques-
tions as apodoses, 322, b; potuerim in
apodosis, 322, c ; apodosis in indir. disc,
319-321; in expressions of obligation,
ability, etc., 304, 3,0; with periphras-
tic conjugations, 304, 3, b.
Apposition, i6g; agreement, 169, 2;
partitive, 169, 5; with voc. in nom.,
171, 2 ; genitive w. force of appositive,
202; id as appositive of clause, 247,
i, b; inf. as appositive, 326; 329;
subst. clauses as appositives, 282, i,
/; 294; 297, 3.
Appositive of locative, 169, 4 ; with ace.
of limit of motion, 182, 2, a ; with town
names, in abl. of place whence, 229,
2.
position of, 350, n.
aptus, w. dat., 192, 2.
apud, prep. w. ace, 141.
ArckiaSj declension of, 22.
-ar, declension of nouns in, 39.
arguS, constr., 178, i, d).
-dris, suffix, 151, 2.
-drium, suffix, 148, 3.
-drvus, suffix, isi, 2.
armiger, decl., 23, ^.
Arrangement of words, 348-350; of
clauses, 351.
Arsis, defined, 366, 6.
artHs, dat. and abl. plu. of, 49, 3.
arx, decl., 40.
-Ss, ace. plu. in Greek nouns, 47, 3.
-as, old gen. sing., ist decl., case-end-
ing, 21, 2, a).
ending of Greek nouns, nom,
sing, in, 22.
gender of noims in -as, 43, 2 ; 45, i.
voc. of Greek nouns in -as, anUs,
47,4-
aHs, abl. of patrials in, 70, s, c).
Asking, case const, with verbs of, 178,1,
c; subst. clauses w., 29s, I ; ind. ques-
tions, 300, I.
Aspirates, 2, 3, c.
Assimilation of consonants, 8, 4 f . ; 9, ».
Association, abl. of, 222, A.
Asyndeton, 341, 4, a) ; 346.
at, 343. I, <^).
-atim, suffix, 157, 2.
Atlas, decl., 47, 4.
atomus, gender of, 26, i, c),
atqtie, 341, 2, 6) ; = as, 341, I, e).
atqui, 343, 1, e).
Attendant circumstance, abl. of, 221:
227, 2, e).
Attraction of demonstratives, 246, 5 ; of
relatives, 250, s; subjunctive by at-
traction, 324; of adjectives, 327, 2, a;
328, 2.
Attributive adjs., 233, 2.
-atus, its force as suffix, 151, 4.
auddr.ter, formation and comparison,
76, 2.
audeo, conj., 114, i.
audio, conj., 107; with pres. partic,
337, 3-
aulal, archaic gen., ?i, 2, b.
ausus, force as participle, 336, 5.
aut, 342, 1, a).
autem, 343, i, c) ; 350, 8.
Auxiliary omitted in infin., 116, 5; in
finite forms, 166, 3.
GENERAL INDEX.
The rftferences are to sections and paragraphs.
267
auxiHum, auxiUa, 61.
■4x, sufSx, ISO, 2.
B.
balneum, balneae, 60, 2.
barbiios, decl., 27.
Believing, verbs of, with dat., 1S7, 11.
belli, locative, 232, 2.
bellum, decl., 23.
bene, comparison, 77, 1.
Benefiting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
benevolus, comparison, 71, 5, a).
-ber, declension of month names in, 68, i.
-bilis, suffix, 150, 4.
ionu^, decl., 63 ; comparison, 72.
bos, dec!., 41.
Brachylogy, 374, 2.
Bucolic diaeresis, 368, 3, d.
-btdam, suffix, 147, 4.
-bundus, suffix, 150, i.
J«m, decl., 38, i.
C.
C, for G. as abbreviation of Gams, 373.
caedes, decl., 40.
Caesura, 366, 8; in dactylic hexameter,
368, 3.
edcar, decl., 39.
Calendar, 371 ; 372.
Calends, 371, 2, a),
campesler, decl., 68, i.
canis, decL, 38, 2.
capio, conj., no.
carbasus, gender of, 26, 1, 6).
career, carceres, 61.
Cardinals, defined, 78, i ; list ' of, 79 ;
decl., 80; with and without et, 81, i;
3; expressed by subtraction, 81, 2;
replaced by distributives in poetry, 81,
4, d.
care, comparison, 76, j.
card, decl., 42.
carrus, carrum, 60, i.
Cases, 17; alike in form, 19; 170 ff.
Case-endings, 17, 3.
eastrum, castra, 61.
Catalectic verses, 366, 9.
causa, with gen., 198, i ; nulla causa est
cur, with subjv., 29s, 7.
Causal clauses, 285; 286; clause of
characteristic with accessory notion of
cause, 283, 3.
conjunctions, 345.
Cause, abl. of, 219; 227, 2, d).
cavi, 363, 2, b).
cave, cave ne in prohibitions, 376, b.
-ce, 6, 3 f. ; 87, footnote 2.
cedo, cette, 137, 3.
cedo, with dat., 187, II.
celeber, decl., 68, 1.
celer, decl., 68, 2.
celo, constr., 178, i, e).
cenatus, force, 114, 2.
celera, adverbial ace, 185, n.
celeri, use, 233, 4.
Characteristic, clauses of, 283 ; denoting
cause or opposition {'although'), 283,
3 ; gen. of, 203, I ; abl., 224.
Charge, gen. of, 208, i ; 2.
Chiasmus, 350, 11, c).
Choosing, const, w. verbs of, 177, 1-3.
circa, circiter, circum, preps, w. ace,
141.
circum, compounds of, w. dat., 187, III.
circumdd, const., 187, i, a.
Circumstance, abl. of attendant, 221.
CM, prep. w. ace, 141.
citerior, comparison, 73, i.
cito, 77, 2, a.
citrd, prep. w. ace, 141.
civitds, decl., 40, i, c.
clam, with ace, 144, 2.
Clauses, coord, and subord., 164, 165.
Clauses of characteristic, 283 ; purpose,
282; result, 284; causal, 285; tem-
poral with postquam, tit, ubi, simul ac,
etc., 287 ; with cum, 288 ; substantive
clauses, 294 f . ; condition, 301 f . ; con-
ditional comparison, 307; concessive,
308 ; adversative, 309 ; wish or proviso,
310; relative, 311 f.; 283 f.
cldvis, decl., 38, i.
Clinging, construction of verbs of, 258, 3.
clipeus, cHpeum, 60, i.
Close of sentences, cadences used, 350,
12.
coepi, conj., 133; coeptus est, 133, i.
Cognate ace, 176, 4.
cognomeri, 373.
cago, w. ace, 178, i, d); w. infin., 331,
VI.
Collective nouns, 12, 2, a); w. plu,
verb, 254, 4-
colus, gender of, 26, 1, b).
com-, compounds of, w. dat., 187, III.
268
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
comedo, conj., 128, 2.
comiies, decl., 22.
conUHa, as time expression, 230, i.
Commanding, dat. w. verbs of, 187, II;
subst. clause w. verbs of, 295, i ;
commands expressed by jussive subjv.,
27s; by imperative, 281.
Common gender, 15, £, N. i.
nouns, 12, I.
syllables, s, jB, 3.
commonefacio, w. gen. and ace, 207.
commoneo, w. gen. and ace, 207.
communis, w. gen., 204, 2; with dat.
204, 2, a.
commHtS, w. abl., 222, A.
Comparatives, decl., 69; w. abl., 217;
w. qnam, 217, 2; occasional meaning,
240.
, two required in Latin, 240, 4.
Comparison of adjs., 71 f.; of adverbs,
76; 77-
participles as adjs., 71, 2.
adjs. in -dicus, -ficus, -vohts, 71, 5.
defective, 73.
abl. of, 217.
Comparison, conditional, 307.
Compendiary comparison, 374, 2, 6);
w. result clauses, 284, 4 ; w. clauses of
characteristic, 283, 2, a.
Completed action, tenses expressing,
262-4; 267, 3.
Compounds, 158 f.; spelling of, 9, a.
Compound sentences, r64.
verbs governing ace, 175, 2, o ; gov-
erning dat., 187, III; 188, 2, d.
Conative uses of pres., 259, 2 ; of imperf .,
260, 3 ; of pres. partic, 336, 2, u.
Concessive clauses, 308; 'although' as
accessory idea to clause of character-
istic, 283, 3.
subjunctive, 278.
Conclusion, see Apodosis.
Concrete nouns, 12, 2, a).
Condemning, verbs of, constr.,208, f.
Conditional clauses of comparison, 307.
sentences, ist type (nothing im-
plied), 302; in indir. disc, 319; 2d
type ('should'-' would'), 303 ; in indir.
disc, 320; 3d tyjie (contrary to fact),
304; in indir. disc, 321; abl. abs.
equivalent to, 227, 2, 6); introduced
by relative pronouns, 312; general
conditions, 302, 2 ; 3 ; indicative in con-
trary-to-fact apodoses, 304, 3 ; praasia
omitted or implied, 305, i; protasis
contained in imperative, or jussive
subjv., 30s, 2 ; employment of nisi, si
nSn, sm, si mirms, 306; conditional
relative sentences, 3T2, 2.
cSnfido, w. abl., 219, i, a.
Conjugation, 11 ; 93 f.; the four conju-
gations, 98; periphrastic, 115; pecul-
iarities of conj., 116.
Conjunctions, 14s, r ; 341 f.
Conor, with inf., 295, s, a.
Consecutive clauses, see Result clauses.
consistere, with abl., 218, 4.
Consonant stems, nouns, 29 f.; adjs.,
70, 1.
partially adapted to i-stems, 40.
Consonants, 2, 2 f . ; pronunciation, 3, 3.
, double, 2, 9.
combinations of, in division into
syllables, 4, 2 f .
Consonant changes, 8 ; omission of finals,
8, 3 ; assimilation of, 8, 4 f .
stems, 29; following analogy of
{-stems, 40.
conspicio, conj., 109, 2, i).
constdre, w. abl., 2r8, 4.
Construction ace to sense, 254, 4; 235,
B, 2, c).
consuetudd est, with subjv. substantive
clause, 297, 3.
cdnstievl = pres., 262, A.
consularis, abl. sing, of, 70, s, a.
Contending, verbs of, with dat., 338, 3.
contentus, w. abl., 2T9, i.
contmerl, with abl., 218, 4.
canUngit ut, 297, i.
Continued action, tenses for, 257, i, h.
contra, prep. w. ace, 141 ; as adv., 144, 1.
Contraction, 7, 2.
, length of vowel as result of, s. A,
,,b).
Contrary-to-fact conditions, 304.
Convicting, verbs of, constr., 208 f.
Coordinate clauses, 165.
conjunctions, 341 f .
copia, copiae, 61.
Copulative conjunctions, 341.
cor, lacks gen. plu., S7. 7-
cornu, decl., 48.
Correlative conjunctions, 341, 3 ; 342, a
adverbs, 140.
coltidie, spelling, g, 2.
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
269
Countries, gender of, 26, i, a.
Crime, gen. of, 208, i ; 2.
-crum, sufSx, 147, 4.
-culum, suffix, 147, 4.
-cuius (a, um), suffix, 148, i.
cum, appended, 142, 4.
cum (conj.), 'when,' 288-290; 'wlien-
ever,' 288, 3.
adversative, 309, 3.
causal, 286, 2.
explicative, 290.
to denote a recurring action, 288, 3 ;
289, u.
inversum, 288, z.
cum . . . turn, 290, 2.
cum primum, 287, i.
cum, spelling of, 9, 1.
cum (prep.) , with abl. of manner, 220;
with abl. of accompaniment, 222; ap-
pended to prons., 142, 4.
-cundus, suffix, 150, 1.
cupiS, conj., 109, 2, o); with subst.
clause developed from optative, 296;
w. inf., 331, IV, and 0.
cur, nuUa causa est cur, w. subjv., 295, 7.
euro, with gerundive const, as obj., 337,
8, J, 2.
Customary action, 239, i ; 260, 2.
D, changed to j, 8, 2 ; d final omitted, 8,
3 ; assimilated, 8, 4.
Dactyl, 366, 2.
Dactylic hexameter, 368.
pentameter, 369.
iapis, defective, 57, 6.
Daring, verbs of, with obj. inf., 328, i.
Dates, 371, 2-s; as indeclinable nouns,
371, 6; in leap year, 371, 7.
Dative, 17; irregular, ist decl., 21, i, c) ;
3d decl., 47, s ; 4th decl., 49, 3 ; 3 ; Sth
decl., 52, I and 3 ; 186 fE.
in the gerundive const., 339, 7.
of agency, 189. ^
of direction and limit of motion, 193
of indir. obj., 187.
of advantage or disadvantage, so
called, 188, 1.
of local standpoint, 188, a, a).
of person judging, 188, 2, c).
of possession, 190; 339, i-
of purpose or tendency, 191 ; 339, 7-
of reference, 188.
of separation, 188, 2, i).
of the gerund, 338, 2.
with adjs., 192 ; with proprms, com-
munis, 204, 2; similis, 204, 3.
with compound verbs, 187, III.
with intrans. verbs, 187, n.
with nomen est, 190, i.
with impersonal pass, verbs, 187,
II, J.
with trans, verbs, 187, 1.
with verbs of mingling, 338, 3.
ethical dat., 188, 2, b).
de, prep. w. abl., 142 ; with abl. instead
of gen. of whole, 201, i,a; with verbs
of reminding, 207, a; compounds of
de governing dat., 188, 2, d;de m, with
verbs of accusing and convicting, 208,
3; with gerund and gerundive, 338,
4,6.
dea, dedbus, 21, 2, e).
dgbebam, debui in apodosis, 304, 3, a).
debeS, governing obj. inf., 328, i.
debut, with pres. inf., 270, 2.
decemvir, gen. plu. of, 23, 6, b).
dlcernd, w. subst. clause developed from
volitive, 29s, 4.
decet, w. ace, 17s, 2, c).
Declarative sentences, defined, 161, i;
in indir. disc, 314.
Declension, 11; heteroclites, 59.
, stems and gen. terminations, 18.
, ist decl., 20-22; 2d decl., 23-27;
3d decl., 28-47; 4th decl., 48-30; 3th
decl. 31-53; of Greek nouns, 22; 27;
47 ; of adjs., 62-69 ,' of prons., 84-90.
Decreeing, verbs of, w. subjv., 295, 4.
dedecet, 175, 2, c).
Defective verbs, 133 f . ; nouns, 54 f . ; 32,
4; 57; comparison, 73.
Definite perfect, see Present perfect.
Degree of difference, abl. of, 223.
Degrees of comparison, 71 ff.
delectat, w. inf. as subj., 327, i.
dilector, w. abl. of cause, 219.
Deliberative subjv., 277; in indir. ques-
tions, 3i50, 1 ; in indir. disc, 315, 3.
Demanding, verbs of, w. two aces., 178,
I ; w. subst. clause, 295, i.
Demonstrative pronouns, 87; 246; of
ist, 2d, and 3d persons, 87 ; position of
demonstratives, 3S0, 5, •'•
Denominative verbs, 136.
270
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
Dental mutes, ^, 4.
stems, 33.
Dependent clauses, 282 S.
Deponent verbs, 112; forms witl\ passive
meanings, 112, b); semi-deponents,
114.
Depriving, verbs of, w. abl., 214, i, ft.
Derivatives, 147 f .
-des, patronymics in, 148, 6.
Description, imperf. as tense of, 260,
I, a.
Desideratives, 155, 3.
Desire, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, i ; verbs
of, w. subst. clauses, 296, i.
deterior, 73, 1.
deus, decl., 25, 4.
devertor, 114, 3.
dexter, dec!., 65, i.
dl-, 159. 3, N.
Diaeresis, 366, 8; bucolic d., 368, 3, d).
Diastole, 367, 2.
die, 116, 3.
dicitur, dictum est, w. inf., 332, note.
died, accent of compounds of, in impera-
tive, 116, 3.
-dicus, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5.
Dido, decl., 47, 8.
dies, decl., 51 ; gender, S3.
Difference, abl. of degree of, 223.
diffieUe est = Eng. potential, 271, i, ft).
difficilis, comp., 71, 4.
Mgnor, with abl., 226, 2.
dignus, 226, 2 ; in rel. clauses of purpose,
282, 3.
Dimeter, verses, 366, 11.
Diminutives, 148, i.
Diphthongs, 2, i ; 3, 2 ; diphthong stems,
41 ; diphthongs shortened, 362, z.
diphlkongus, gender of, 26, i, e).
Dipodies, 366, 11. '
Direct reflexives, 244, i.
object, 172.
quotation, 313.
discourse, 313.
questions, 162.
dis-, in compounds, 159, 3, N.
Disjunctive conjunctions, 342.
dissimdUs, comp., 71, 4.
Distributives, 63, 2 ; 78, i ; 79 ; 81,
4-
dia, compared, 77, i.
dives, decl., 70, i ; compared, 71, 6.
dixfi, 116, 4, e.
do, conj., 127.
doeed, with ace, 178, i, ft); with inf,
331, VI.
domi, locative, 232, *.
domo, 229, i, ft).
domes, 182, i, ft.
domwm, 182, i, ft) ; 'house,' in ace, 182,
N.
domus, decl., 49; 4 ; gender, 50.
donee, with ind., 293; with subjv., 293,
III, 2.
dono, constr., 187, i, u.
dos, gender, 44, 3.
Double consonants, 2, 9.
questions, 162,4; indirect, 300, 4.
Doubting, verbs of, w. quin, 298.
Dubitative subjunctive, see Deliberative.
dubito, dubiitm est, nSn dubito,- non dubiwn
est, with gain, 298 ; non dubito w. inf.,
298, a.
due, 116, 3.
dued, accent of compounds of, in imper.,
116, 3.
duim, duint, 127, 2.
-dmn, 6, 3.
dum, temporal with ind., 293; with
subjv., 293, III, 2; in wishes and
provisos, 310.
dummodo, 310.
duo, decl., 80, z.
Duration of time, 181, 2.
Duty, expressed by gerundive, 189;
337, 8; verbs of duty in conclusion
of cond. sentences contrary-to-fact,
304, 3, a; subst. clauses dependent
on verbs of, 29s, 6 ; inf. w. verbs oi
duty, 327, i; 328, i; 330; 'it is th?
duty of,' 198, 3; 'I perform a duty,'
218, I.
duumvir, gen. plu. of, 25, 6, ft).
dux, decl., 32.
e, as vowel, 2, i ; as second member of
diphthongs, 2, i ; sound of, 3, i ;
change, to i, 7, i, 0; for S, 7, i, c; in
voc. sing, of 2d decl., 23; in abl.
sing, of 3d decl., 31 ; dropped in nom.
of neuters of 3d decl., 39 ; -i for 4 in
abl. of mare, 39; alternating w. »
in abl. sing, of )f-stems, 37,38; for e in
gen. sing, of 5th decl., 52, i ; in abl.
sing, of adjs. of 3d decl., 70, i ; 3 ; in
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
271
beni and mail, 77, i ; distinguishing
vowel of 3d conj., g8; , before j, 362,
S ; for -l in imperatives, 363, 2, b; in
temeri and saepl, 363, a, c.
i, pronundation, 3, i ; by contraction, 7,
2; as ending of Greek nouns, 22;
e-stems, 51 ; ending of dat. of 5th decl.,
S2, 3; distinguishing vowel of 2d
conj., 98; -I in Jame, 363, 2, a; in
adverbs, 363, 2, c.
S, ex, use, 142, 2 ; see ex.
ecqnis, gi, 6.
edic, 116, 3.
Editorial 'we,' 242, 3.
edd, 128.
edec, 116, 3.
efficiB ut, 2g7, i.
efficitur ut, 297, a.
Effort, subjv. w. verbs of, 295, 5.
egeo, w. abl., 214, i, c.
ego, 84.
egomet, 84, 2.
ei, diphthong, 2, i ; 3, 2.
-«, gen. of 5th dec!., 52, i.
-Us, 148, 6, 6).
e/»j, as poss., 86, i ; quantity, 362, S-
Elegiac distich, 369, 2.
Elision, 266, 7.
Ellipsis, 374, I.
-ellus (fi, um), 148, 1.
Emphasis, 349.
Enclitics, accent of preceding syllable,
6,3.
, -met, 84, 2 ; -fte, 86, 3 ; cum as en-
clitic, 142, 4.
End of motion, see Limit.
Endings, case endings, 17, 3; personal,
of verb, 96 ; in formation of words, 147 f.
enim, 345.
-ensimus {-ensumus), 79, N.
-insis, 151, 2; 152, 3.
Envy, verbs of, with dat., 187, 11.
eo, 132; cpds., 132, I. '
Epexegetical genitive, 202.
Epistolary tenses, 265.
epislula, spelling, 9, 2.
epitome, decl., 22.
epuhim, epulae, 60, i.
equdbus, 21, 2, e).
equester, decl., 68, i.
equos, decl., 24.
-er, decl., of nouns in, 23 ; adjs., 63 ; 64 ;
6s; 68; adjs. in -er compared, 71, 3.
erga, prep. w. ace, 141.
ergo, 344, I, 6).
-errms, suffix, 154.
-fa, gender of nouns in, 43, i ; exception,
44, s ; in nom. plu. of Greek nouns of
3d decl., 47, 2.
-es, ending of Greek nouns, nom. sing.
in, 22.
, gen. -is, decl. of nouns in, 40, i, a).
esse, conjugation of, 100 ; compounds of,
12s; 126; e;.se omitted, 116, 5.
est qui, with subj., 283, 2.
et, 341, I, a; in enumerations, 341, 4, c).
et is, 247, 4.
et . . . neque, 341, 3.
Ethical dative, 188, 2, b).
etiam, in answers, 162, 5.
et nSn, 341, 2, c).
etsi, 'although,' 309, 2; etsi, 'even if,'
309, i, a.
-etum, suffix, 148, 3.
-eus, inflection of Greek nouns in, 47, 6 ;
adj. suffix, 151, I.
iienitut, 297, 2.
ex, 142, 2 ; with abl., instead of gen. of
whole, 201, 1, a; compounds of, with
dat., 188, .2, d; with abl. of source,
215, I.
Exchanging, verbs of, with abl. of asso-
ciation, 222, A.
Exclamation, ace. of, 183.
Exclamatory sentences, 161, 3.
Expectancy, clauses denoting, in subjv.,
292, I ; 293, III, 2.
exposed, constr., 178, j., a),
exsisto, spelling, 9, 2.
exspecto, spelling, 9, 2.
exteri, exterior, 73, 2.
extremus, use, 241, 1.
exuo, w. abl., 214, i, b.
f, pronunciation, 3, 3; »/, quantity of
vowel before, s, i, a.
fac, 116, 3 ; with subjv., 295, 5.
facile, 77, 3.
facUis, comp., 71, 4.
Jacio, 109, 2, o) ; pass, of, 131.
, in imper., 116, 3.
falsus, comparison, 73, 3.
fame, 59, 2, J).
Familiarity, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, i.
272
famUias, 21, 2, a).
fori, 136.
fas, indeclinable, 58.
fauces, decl,, 40, i, d).
Favor, verbs signifying, with dat., 187, II.
Fearing, verbs of, constr., 296, a.
febris, decl., 38, i.
felix, 70.
Feminine, see Gender.
Feminine caesura, 368, 3, c-.
femur, decl., 42, 4.
-fer, decl. of nouns in, 23, 2 ; adjs. 6s, i.
fero, and its compounds, 129.
-ficits, comparison of adjs. in, 71, 5.
fidel, s^t I.
fidl, 114, I ; with abl., 219, i, u.
fidus, compared, 73, 3.
fierem, fieri, 362, i, c; fieri potest ut,
298, 2.
Fifth decl., 51 f.
Figures of rhetoric, 375.
of syntax, 374.
flH, 25, 3.
filia, ftiidbus, 21, 2, e).
Filling, verbs of, w. abl., 218, 8.
Final clauses, see Purpose clauses.
Final consonant omitted, 8, 3.
Final syllables, quantity, 363, 364.
finis, fines, 61.
Finite verb, 95.
fiS, conj., 131.
fid, with abl., 218, 6.
First conj., loi ; principal parts of verbs
of, 120; deponents of ist conj., 113.
First decl., 20 f . ; peculiarities, 21 ; Greek
nouns of ist decl., 22.
fit ut, 297, 2.
fldgitS, constr., 178, i, a),
fodio, conj., 109, 2, a).
Foot, in verse, 366, 2.
Tor,' its Latin equivalents, 358, i.
fore, page 57, footnote 3.
fore ut, 270, 3 ; 297, a.
forem, fores, etc., page 57, footnote 2.
foris, 228, I, c.
Formation of words, 146 f .
fors, forte, 57, 2, u.
fortior, decl., 69.
fortis, decl., 69.
fort&na, fortunae, 61.
Fourth conj., 107.
Fourth decl., 48; dat. in -U, 49, 2 ; gen.
in -i, 49, i ; dat. abl. plu. in -nhus, 49, 3.
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paxagrapha.
fratide, abl. of manner, 220, 2.
Free, abl. w. adjs. signifying, 214, i, i.
Freeing, abl. w. verbs of, 214, i, a.
frenum, plu. of, 60, 2.
Frequentatives, iss, 2.
fretus w. abl., 218, 3.
Fricatives, 2, 7.
Friendly, dat. w. adjs. signifying, 192, i,
frOcUis, decl., 48.
frUgi, compared, 72; 70, 6.
frilgis, 57, 6.
fruor, with abl., 218, i; in gerundive
constr., 339, 4.
fugio, conj., 109, 2, a).
fui, fiiisti, etc., for sum, es, etc., in com-
pound tenses, p. 60, footnote; p. 61,
footnote.
Fullness, adjs. of, w. abl., 218, 8; w. gen.,
204, X.
fungor, w. abl., 218, i ; in gerundive
constr., 339, 4.
fur, decl., 40, I, d).
fUrto, abl. of manner, 220, 2.
Future tense, 261 ; w. imperative force,
261, 3.
time in the subjv., 269.
perfect, 264; with future meaning,
133, 2 ; inf., 270, 4.
imperative, 281, 1.
infinitive, 270, i,c; periphrastic fut.
inf., 270, 3, and a.
participle, 337, 4.
futarum esse ut, with subjv., 270, 3.
G.
gaudeS, semi-deponent, 114, i.
gerrio, w. ace, 175, 2, 6.
Gender, 13-15 ; in ist decl., 20, 21 ; in
2d decl., 23; exceptions, 26; in 3d
decl., 43 f. ; in 4th decl., 50; in 5th
decl., 53 ; determined by endings, 14 ;
by signification, 15, A ; heterogeneous
noims, 60.
gener, decl., 23, 2.
General relatives, 312, i; general truths,
259, 1 ; 262, B, I ; 'general' conditions,
302, 2; 3.
Genitive, 17 ; in -4 for -ii, 25, i and 2 ; of
4th decl., in -t, 49, i ; of 5th decl. in -»,
52, 2; of 5th decl. in -M, 52, i ; in -8,
52, 3; of ist decl. in -di, 21, 2, h); of
ist decl. in -is, 21, 2, a) ; gen. plu. -H9I
GENERAL INDEX.
The leferences are to sections and paragraphs.
273
for -arum, 21, 2, d); -um for- drum,
2S. 6 ; 63, 2 ; -«»» for -»««», 70, 7 ; gen.
plu. lacking, 37, 7 ; syntax of, 194 f.
of characteristic, 203, i.
of charge with judicial verbs, 208.
of indefinite price, 203, 4.
of indefmite value, 203, 3.
of material, 197.
of measure, 203, 2.
of origin, 196.
of possession, 198.
of quality, 203.
of the whole, 201.
appositional, 202.
objective, 200.
of separation, 212, 3.
subjective, 199.
with adjs., 204; with participles,
204, I, a.
with causa, gratia, 198, i.
with verbs, 205 f. ; of plenty and
want, 212 ; with impers. verbs, 209.
position of gen., 350, 1.
genus, decl., 36; id genus, 185, i.
-ger, decl. of nouns in, 23, 2 ; adjs., 65, i.
Gerund, 95, I ; ist conj., loi ; 2d conj.,
103; 3d conj., los; 4th conj., 107;
sjTitax, 338; with object, 338, 5.
Gerundive, 95, i ; ist conj., 102 ; 2d
conj., 104; 3d conj., 106; 4th conj.,
108; in periphrastic conj., 115; 337,8.
Gerundive, const., 339, 1-6; in passive
periphrastic conj., 337, 8 f. ; gen. de-
noting purpose, 339, 6; with dat. of
purpose, 191, 3 ; 339, 7.
gnarus, not compared, 75, z.
Gnomic present, 2S9, i; perfect, 262, 1.
gradior, conj., 109, 2, t-.
Grammatical gender, 15.
Srafjo, with gen., ig8, i ; gratia, gratiae,
61.
Greek nouns, ist decl., 22 ; 2d decl., 27 ;
exceptions in gender, 26, i, c) ; 3d
decl., 47 ; Greek ace, 180; Greek nouns
in verse, 365.
gfus, decl., 41, 2.
S« = gv, 3, 3-
Guttural mutes, 2, 4.
stems, 32.
H.
h, pron., 3,3; ph, ch, th, 2, t^; 3,3-
Meo, with perf . pass, partic, 337, 6.
i> 2;
scio an,
Hadria, gender, 21, i.
Happening, verbs of, w. ind., 299,
w. subjv., 297, 2.
Hard consonants, 2, 3, o), footnote i.
Hardening, 367, 4.
hatul, use, 347, 2, a; haud
300, 5.
have, 137, s-
Help, verbs signifying, w. dat., 187,
U.
Hendiadys, 374, 4.
heri, locative, 232, 2.'
Heteroclites, 59.
Heterogeneous nouns, 60.
Hexameter, dactylic, 368.
Hiatus, 366, -7, a.
hie, 87; 246, i; 246, 2; hie, 364, foot-
note.
hiems, 35, footnote.
Hindering, verbs of, with subjv., 295,
3-
Historical tenses, 258; historical present-
2SQ, 3 ; 268, 3 ; historical perfect, 262.
B; historical infinitive, 335.
honor, decl., 36.
Hoping, verbs of, w. inf., 331, 1. .
Hortatory subjv., 274.
hortus, decl., 23.
hoseine, 87, footnote i.
hostis, decl., 38.
hHjusce, 87, footnote i.
humi, locative, 232, 2.
humilis, comp., 71, 4.
humus, gender of, 26, i, J).
himcine, 87, footnote i.
Hyperbaton, 350, 11, a).
Hypermeter, 367, 6.
Hysteron proteron, 374, 7.
?, I, I ; in diphthongs, 2, i ; pron., 3, *
from J, 7, 1, a ; from 5, 7, i, 6 ; dropped
by syncope, 7, 4 ; for » in some words,
9, i; changes to e, 39; dropped, 39;
final i short, 363, 3 ; becomes j, 367,
4- J. . •
J-stems, 37; 39; not always ending m -M,
38, 3-
-i, gen. and voc. of 2d decl. nouns m -tus
and -ium in, 25, i and 2.
gen. of 4th decl. nouns in -us, 49, i.
gen. of sth decl. nouns, 52, 2.
274
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
-im, -is in subjv., ii6, 4, d.
i-stem, vis, 41.
», in abl., 3d decl., 38, i ; 39 ; in adjs., 67,
3. «; 70. S; participles, 70, 3 ; patrials,
7o< S, <:) ; nom. plu., of is, 87 ; as char-
acteristic of 4th conj., 98.
■ia, 149.
Iambus, 366, 2.
Iambic measures, 370.
trimeter, 370.
■HSnus, suffix, 152, I.
-ias, suffix, 148, 6, b).
•ibam, in imperf., 116, 4, ft).
-ibo, in future, 116, 4, b).
Ictus, 366, 5.
-icus, suffix, 151, 2 ; 152, 2.
ti2 aeHUs, 185, 2.
Ai ^enjtf, i8s, 1.
id quod, 247, i, ft.
id temporis, 185, 2.
Ideal 'you'; see Indefinite second per-
son.
idem, 87 ; 248.
idem ac, 248, 2.
Ides, 371, 2, c).
-jdej, suffix, 148, 6, o).
ri!(j&s, suffix, 148, 6, a).
-idd, suffix, 147, 3, c).
idSneiU, not compared, 74, 2; w. dat.,
192, 2; vr. ad and ace, 192, 2, and N. ;
with rel. clause of purpose, 282, 3.
^w, suffix, 150, 3.
IdHs, fem. by exception, so.
-ie, in voc. sing, of adjs. in -ias, 63, 1.
tens, pres. partic. from eo, 132.
-tens, as ending of numeral adverbs, 97
and N.
-ier, inf. ending, 116, 4, u.
-iej, nouns in, 51.
igitur, 344, I, c).
»g»M, decl., 38.
-ti, in gen. sing, of ti-stems, 25, 2.
its, in dat. and abl; plu. of is, 87.
-t2e, suffix, 148, 3.
lUon, decl., 27.
-ilis, suffix, 151, 2.
-ilis, suffix, 150, 4.
Illative conjunctions, 344.
ille, 87; 'the following,' 246, 2; 'the
former' 246, i; 'the well-known,' 246,
3 ; position, 350, s. ft-
t//*;, 87, footnote 3.
-illus (a, um), diminutive suffix, 148, 1.
4m, in ace, 3d decl., 38, i.
impedimentum, impedimenta, 61.
Imperative, 281 ; tenses in, 94, 3 ; 281,
I ; future indie, with force of, 261, 3.
as protasis of a conditional sent.,
305, 2 ; as apodosis, 302, 4.
sent, in indir. disc, 316.
Imperfect tense, 260; conative, 260, 3;
inceptive, 260, 3 ; withiom, etc., 260, 4 ;
epistolary imp., 265.
Imperfect subjv. in conditional sent.
referring to the past, 304, 2.
Impersonal verbs, 138; gen. with, 209;
dat. with, 187, II, 6 ; in passive, 256, 3 ;
with substantive clauses developed
from volitive, 29s, 6 ; of result, 297, 2 ;
with infin., 327, i ; 330.
impetus, defective, S7> 4.
Implied indir. disc, 323.
imus, ' bottom of,' 241, i.
in, prep., 143 ; verbs compounded w. in
governing ace, 17s, 2, o, 2; verbs
compounded w. in governing dat.,
187, III.
in with abl. of place, 228; with abl. of
time, 230, 2 ; 231.
-ina, suffix, 148, 5.
Inceptives, iss. i.
Inchoatives, 155, 1.
Incomplete action, 257, i, ft; 267, 3.
IndecUnable adjs., 70, 6 ; 80, 6.
nouns, 58; gender of, 15, 3.
Indefinite price, 225, i ; 203, 4.
Indefinite pronouns, 91; 252; in con-
ditions, 302, 3.
Indefinite second person, 280, 3 ; 356, 3 ;
302, 2.
Indefinite value, 203, 3.
Indicative, equivalent to Eng. subjv.,
271.
-in apodosis of conditional sent, of
3d type, 304, 3, 0) and ft).
indiged, constr., 214, i, N. 2.
indignus, with abl., 226, 2; with rel.
clause of purpose, 282, 3.
Indirect discourse, defined, 313 f. : mood
in, 313 fit. ; tenses in, 317-18; declara-
tive sentences in, 314; interrog. sen-
tences in, 31S ; imperative sentences in,
316; conditional sentences in, 319-22;
verbs introducing, 331, t; verb of
saying, etc., implied, 314, 2; ind. in
subord. clauses of indir. disc, 314, 3i
inf. for subjv. in indir. disc, 314, 4;
sab}, ace. omitted, 314, $', implied
indir. disc, 323.
questions, 300; partides introduc-
ing, 300, I, a; deliberative subjv. in
indir. quest., 300, 2; indir. quest, w.
si, 300. 3; double indir. questions,
300, 4; in indir. quest., 300, 6;
in conditional sents. of 3d type, 322, b.
reflexives, 244, 2.
object, 187.
vnferum, inferior, 73, 2.
infimus, 241, x.
Infinitive, gender oi, t.%. A, 3; in -ier,
116, 4, a; force of tenses in, 270;
326 £f.
fut. perf. inf., 270, 4; periphrastic
future, 270, 3.
without subj. ace, 326-328; 314,
S-
with subj. ace, 329-331.
asobj., 328; 331.
as subj., 327 ; 330!
with adjs., 333.
denoting purpose, 326, N.
in abl. abs., 227, 3.
in exclamations, 334.
historical inf., 335.
mfilias, constr., 182, 5.
Inflection, 11.
Inflections, 11 £E.
mfra, prep. w. ace, 141.
ingms, comp., 73, 4.
injuria, abl. of manner, 220, 2.
injttssu, defective, 57, i; the abl., 219,
2.
inl- = ill-, 9, 2.
innixus, w. abl., 218, 3. '
inofs, decl., 70, i.
inquam, conj., 134,
Inseparable prepositions, 139, 3, N.
insidiae, plu. only, s6. 3-
ittslar, 58.
Instrumental uses of abl., 213 ; 218 ff.
Intensive pron., 88.
Intensives (verbs), iss> 2.
inter, prep. w. ace, 141 ; compounded
w. verbs, governing dat. 187, III; to
express reciprocal relation, 245.
interdicS, const., 188, i, a.
interest, constr., 210; 211.
interior, comp., 73, i.
Interjections^ 145.
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
Interlocked order, 330, 11, d.
275
Interrogative pronouns, 90.
sentences, 162; particles, 162, 2;
omitted, 162, ^, d); in indir. disc,
31S-
intra, prep. w. ace, 141.
Intransitive verbs, with cognate ace,
176, 4; in passive, 256, 3; 187, II, 6;
impersonal intransitives, 138, IV.
■^nus, suffix, 151, 2 ; 132, i ; 152, 3.
•id, verbs of 3d conj., 109.
-ior, ius, comparative ending, 71.
ipse, 88; 249; as indir. reflexive, 249, 3.
ipsUis and ipsorum, with possessive pro-
nouns, 243, 3.
-»r, decl. of nouns in, 23.
Irregular comparison, 72 ff. ; noims, 42 ;
verbs, 124 f.
is, 87; 247; as personal pron., 247, 2.
■is, as patronymic ending, 148, 6, 6);
nouns in -is of 3d decl., 37 f. ; adjs. in
-is, 69.
-Is, ace plu., 3d decl., 37 ; 40.
— — , -ttis, abl. of partials in, 70, s, c).
istaec, 87, footnote 2.
iste, 87 ; 246, 4.
istic, 6, 4.
istUc, 6, 4 ; 87, footnote 2.
ita, in answers, 162, 5.
itaque, 344, i, a).
iter, 42, I.
-itia, 149.
-ito, frequentatives in, iss. ■', "•
■ium, gen. of nouns in, 25, 2 ; ending of
gen. plu., 3d decl., 37 f.; 39; 40; 147,
3,6); 148, 2.
-MM, gen. and voc. sing, of nouns in, 25,
I and 2; of adjs., 63,0; 151,2; 152,2;
152, 3 ; -ius for ins, 362, i, a),
-ivus, suffix, 151, 2.
J, I, 2.
jacio, conj., 109, 2, o) ; compounds of, 9,
3; 362, 5.
jam, etc., with present tense, 259, 4 ; with
imperfect, 260, 4.
jecur, decl., 42, 3.
joco, abl. of manner, 220, 2.
jocus, plu. of, 60, a.
Joining, verbs of, construction, 358, 3.
\jubeo, constr., 295, i, a; 331, 11.
276
GENERAL INDEX.
The leferences are to sections and paragraphs.
judicor, w. inf., 332, c.
jugerum, S9, i.
JuKan calendar, 371.
jungo, w. abl., 222, A.
Juppiter, decl., 41.
juratus, 114, 2.
jure, abl. of manner, 220, 2.
jus est, with substantive clause, 297, 3.
jussu, 57, I ; the abl., 219, 2.
Jussive subjv., 27s; equiv. to a protasis,
30s. 2.
jmat, w. ace, 17s, 2, c) ; with inf., 327, i.
JuvenSle, abl., 70, s, b.
juvenis, a cons, stem, 38, 2 ; comparison,
73,4-
juvo, with ace, 187, II, N.
juxtd, prep. w. ace, 141.
K.
k, I, I.
Knowing, verbs of, w. inf., 331, 1.
Knowledge, adjs. of, w. gen., 204.
L.
I, pron., 3, 3.
Labial mutes, 2, 4.
stems, 31; gender of, 43, 3; 46, x.
lacer, decl., 65, i.
locus, decl., 49, 3.
laedo, w. ace, 187, II, N.
laetus, w. adverbial force, 239.
ia#M, decl., 33.
largior, 113.
Latin period, 351, 5.
Length of syllables, s, B.
Length of vowels, s, A.
-lenius, suffix, 151, 3.
led, decl., 35.
Liber, decl., 23, 2.
KS«»', adj., decl., 65, i.
libero, constr., 214, i, N. i.
liberta, libertdbus, 21, 2, e).
liberum, gen. plu., 25, 6, c).
licet, with subjv., 295, 6 and 8; 308, a;
with inf., 327, I ; 330.
Meet, adversative, 309, 4.
Likeness, adjs. of„w. dat., 192, i.
Limit of motion, ace of., 182.
Lingual mutes, 2, 4.
Unter, decl., 40.
Liquids, 2, 5.
• stems, 34.
Us, decl., 40, J, d).
Litotes, 375,. I.
litter a, litter ae, 61.
Locative, 17, i; in -ae, 21, 2, c); in -^
25, S; syntax, 232; apposition with,
169, 4; loc. uses of abl., 213 ; 228 f.
loco, locis, the abl., 228, i, b,
locus, plurals of, 60, 2.
Long syllables, 5, B, 1.
vowels, 5, .4, I.
longius = longius quam, 271, 3.
longum est = Eng. potential, 217, i, b.
lubet, hibidS, spelling, 9, i.
lildis, the abl., 230, i.
-Uis, -la, -lum, diminutives in, 148, i.
lux, 57, 7. «
M.
m, pron., 3, 3 ; changed to » before d, c,
8, 5, c; ffj-stem, 35, footnote; m-fimal
in poetry, 366, 10.
maereo, w. ace, 175, 2, 6.
magisj comparison, 77, i; comparison
with, 74.
magni, gen. of value, 203, 3.
magnopere, compared, 77, i.
magnus, compared, 72.
Making, verbs of, w. two accusatives,
177.
male, comparison, 77, i.
maledicens, comparison, 71, 5, a),
malim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a.
mallem, potential subjv., 280, 4.
mold, 130 ; with inf., 331, IV, and a ; with
subjv., 296, I, a.
malus, comparison, 72.
mane, indeclinable, 58.
Manner, abl. of, 220.
mare, decl., 39, 2 ; mari, 228, i, c).
mas, decl., 40, i, d).
MascuKne, see Gender.
Masculine caesura, 368, 3, t.
Material, abl. of, 224, 3.
mdteries, materia, 59, 2. a).
mature, compared, 77, i.
matHrus, compared, 71, 3.
maxime, adjs. compared with, 74.
maxirm, as gen. of value, 203, 3.
maxumus, 9, 1.
Means, abl. of, 218, abl. abs. denoting,
227, 2 ; denoted by partic, 337, 2, d.
med, for me, 84, 3.
Mediae (consonants), 2, 3, b), footnote 2.
medius, 'middle of,' 241, i.
met, as objective gen., 242, 2.
mdior, comparison, 72.
mdius est = Eng. potential, 271, i, b).
memini, 133; constr., 206, 1, o; 2, a.
memor, decl., 70, 2.
-men, -mentum, sufiSxes, 147, 4.
mmsis, 38, 2, footnote i.
mentem {in mentem venire), 206, 3.
■met, enditic, 6, 3 ; 84, 2.
Metrical close of sent., 350, 12.
metuo, w. subjv., 296, 2.
mi, dat., 84, i.
mi, voc. of mens, 86, 2.
Middle voice, verbs in, 175, i, d).
miles, decl., 33.
miliUae, locative, 232, 2.
mille, mUia, decl., 80, 5.
minime, comparison, 77, i ; in answers,
162, s, J).
minimus, comparison, 72.
minor, comparison, 72.
mindris, gen. of value, 203, 3 ; of price,
203, 4.
minus, comparison, 77, i ; = minus quam,
217, 3 J QUO minus, 295, 3; si minus,
306, 2 and a.
Bisfor, conj., 113.
mirus, comparison, 75, 2.
miscere, with abl., 222, yl ; with dat., 358,
3-
misereor, with gen., 209, a.
miseresco, with gen., 209, 2.
miseret, constr., 209.
Mixed stems, 40.
modium, gen. plu., 25, 6, o).
modo, in wishes and provisos, 310.
moneo, 103; constr., 178, i, d).
months, gender of names of, 15, i ; decl.,
68, 1 ; abl., of month names, 70, 5, a) ;
names, 371, i.
Moods, 94, 2.
in independent sentences, 271 f.
in dependent clauses, 282 f .
Mora, 366, I.
morior, conj., 109, 2, c).
mos, ded., 36; mores, 61.
mos est, with subjv. clause, 297, 3.
muUebre secus, constr., 185, i.
Multiplication, distributives used to in-
dicate, 81, 4, c.
mulhm, 77, 3 ; compared, 77, i.
tiKlNERAL INDEX. 277
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
muUus, compared, 72 ; with another adj..
241. 3-
mils decl., 40, i, d).
mUtdre, with abl., 222, A.
Mutes, 2, 3.
Mute stems, 30.
N.
n, pronunciation, 3, 3 ; »-stems, 3s.
n adulterinum, 2, 6.
-nam, appended to quis, go, 2, d.
Names, Roman, 373.
Naming, verbs of, w. two accusatives,
177, I.
Nasals, 2, 6.
Nasal stems, 35.
nMta, S7, I ; maximus natu, minimus
' natu, 73, 4, footnotes 4, s; 226, 1.
Natural gender, 14.
natus, constr., 215.
ndvis, ded., 41, 4.
nd, vowel short before, 5, 2, a,
-ne, 6, 3 f. ; 162, 2, c) ; 300, i,b); -ne . . .
an, 162, 4; in indir. double questions,
300,4.
ne, in prohibitions, 276 ; vith hortatory
subjv., 274 ; with concessive, 278 ; with
optative, 279; in purpose clauses, 282;
in substantive clauses, 295 f ., 296 ; in
provisos, 310.
ne, ' lest,' 282, i ; 296, 2.
ne ndn for fit after verbs of fearing, 296,
2, u.
ne . . . guidem, 347, i ; :a.
Nearness, adjs. of, w. dat., 192, 1.
nee, 341, I, d); nee usquam, 341, 2, d).
necesse est, w. subjv., 29s, 8.
necne, in double questions, 162, 4.
nefas, indeclinable, 58.
Negatives, 347, 2 ; two negatives strength-
ening the negati-n, 347, 2.
nemo, defective, 57, 3 ; use, 252, 6.
nequam, indeclinable, 70, 6; compared,
72.
neque, 341, i, d); neque in purpose
clauses, 282, i, e.
nequeo, conj., 137, 1.
ne quis, use, 91, 5.
nequiter, compared, 77, i.
nesciB an, 300, 5.
nesciS quis, as indef . pron., 253, 6,
Neuter, see Gender.
278
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
neuter, decl., 66; use, 92, 1.
neve {neu), in purpose clauses, 282, i, d.
nf, quantity of vowel before, s, i, a.
nihil, indeclinable, 58.
nihU est cSr, quin, 295, 7.
ningit, 'it snows,' 138, i.
nisi, 306, I and 4.
nisi forte, 306, 5.
nisi St, 306, s.
nisi vera, 306, 5.
ntior, constr., 218, 3.
nix, decl., 40, i, d).
No, in answers, 162, s, b.
-no, class of verbs, 117, 4.
noU, with inf., in prohibitions, 276, b.
nolim, potential subjv., 280, 2, a.
nollem, potential subjv., 280, 4.
nolo, 130; with inf., 331, IV and a; 276,
2, ; with subjv., 296, 1,1*. '
nomen, decl., 35 ; nomen est, constr., 190,
I ; nomen, as part of Roman name, 373.
Nominative, 17; 170; used for voc, 171,
i; nom. sing, lacking, 57, 6; pred.
nom., 168.
Nones, 371, 2, b).
non, in answers, 162, s, b) ; with poten.
subjv., 280 ; with deliberative, 277.
non dubito quin, with subjv., 298; non
dubito, w. inf ., 298, a; b.
non modo for nSn modo nSn, 343, 2, o.
nonne, 162, 2, a) ; 300, i, b), N.
non quia, with ind., 286, i, c ; with subjv.,
286, I, b.
non quin, with subjv., 286, i, b.
non quod, with ind., 286, i, c ; with subjv.,
286, i, b.
nds = ego, 242, 3.
nostri, as objective gen., 242, 2.
nostrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2; as
possessive gen., 242, 2, u.
Nouns, 12 £E. ; 353; derivation of, 147 f.
in -is not always l!-stems, 38, i.
of agency, force, 3S3, 4.
used in plu. only, 56-
used in sing, only, SS-
used only in certain cases, 57.
indeclinable, 58.
with change of meaning in plural, 6 1 .
syntax, 166 f.
predicate, agreement of, etc., 167 f.
appositives, agreement of, etc.,
169 f.
Noun and adj. forms of the verb, 95, a.
nom, as pres., 262, A.
nomis, compared, 73, 3.
ns, quantity of vowel before, s, i, <fc
-ns, decl. of nouns in, 40, i, c).
nt, quantity of vowel before, s, 2, a.
nilbes, decl., 40, i, a.
nulla causa est cUr, quin, 295, 7.
niUlus, decl., 66; S7, 3! use, 92, i.
num, 162, 2, b) ; 300, i, b).
Number, 16; 94, 4.
Numerals, 78 f. ; peculiarities in use
of, 81.
numquis, decl., 91, 5.
nuper, compared, 77, 1.
-nus, suffix, 151, 2.
S, vowel, 2, I ; as element in diphthong
(K, 2, I ; pron., 3, i ; alternating w. it
in certain classes of words, 9, i ; 2 ; 4 ;
3-stems, 23 ; 24 ; in citS, 77, 2, a ; in
dud,.8o, 2; in egS, 84; 363, 4, a; in
mods, 363, 4, a; in compounds of pro-,
363, 4, c ; in amd, leS, etc., 363, 4, b.
0, pron., 3, 1 ; f or o«, 7, i, e ; by contrac-
tion, 7, 2 ; in abl. sing, of 2d decl., 23 ;
in nom. sing, of 3d decl., 35 ; in Greek
nouns, 47, 8 ; in adverbs, 77, 2 ; in am-
bo, 80, 2, a; in personal endings, 96.
ob, prep. w. ace, 141 ; verbs comjraunded
w. governing dat., 187, III.
Obesdng, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
Object, direct, 172 f. ; two objects w. same
verb, 177; 178; indirect, 187 f.; inf. as
obj., 326; 328; 329; 331.
Objective gen., 200.
Obligation, verb in expression of, 304, 3,
a ; see also Duty.
Oblique cases, 71, 2.
obHviscor, constr., 206, i, J; 2.
octodecim (ior iindevigintl), 81, 2.
Sdi, 133.
oe, 2, I ; pron., 3, 2.
Old forms, famiUds, 21, 2, a; aulal, «,
2, b; servos, aevom, equos, etc., 24;
mid, ted, 84, 3 ; sed, 8$, 3.
oUe, archaic for Ule, 87.
-oUis {a, um), 148, i.
-om, later -Mm in 2d decl., 23.
-on, Greek nouns, 2d decl. in, 27.
Onomatopoeia, 375, 4.
opera, operae, 61.
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
279
Operations of nature, impersonal verbs
expressing, 138, 1.
opiniSne with comparatives, 217, 4.
opis, 57, 6; opis, 61.
oportet, 138, II ; w. subjv., 295, 6 ; 8 ; w.
inf., 327 ; 330.
oporiwU, with pres. inf. 'ought to have,'
270, 2 : with perf. inf., 270, 2, a.
oppidum (Genavam ad oppidum), ,182,
2, a.
Optative subjv., 272; 279; substantive
clauses developed from, 296.
tpUmdtes, decl., 40, i, d).
opUmus, comp., 72.
opto, w. subst. cl. developed from opta-
tive, 296, I.
ophtmtis, spelling, 9, i.
opus est, w. abl., 218, 2; w. partic, 218,
2, c.
-or, nouns in, 34; 36; -or for -os, 36;
gender of nouns in, 43, i ; exceptions
in gender, 44, 2; as suffix, 147, 2.
Oratio Obliqua, 313 f.
Order of words, 348 f .
Ordinals, 78, i ; 79.
orior, conjugation, 123, VIX.
oriundus, constr., 215, 2.
dro, with ace, 178, i, a).
Orpheus, decl. 47, 6.
Orthography, peculiarities, 9.
ortus, constr., 215.
Ss, decl., 57, 7.
OS, decl., 42.
-OS, later -tis in 2d decl., 23.
-ds, later -or in 3d decl., 36, i.
OS, Greek nouns, 2d decl. in, 27.
-osus, fomi of suffix, 151, 3.
ovis, decl., 38, 1.
Oxymoron, 375, z.
P.
4; by
p, pron., 3, 3 ; by assimilation, 8,
partial assimilation, 8, 5.
paemtel, 138, II; with gen., 209.
palam, as prep. w. abl., 144, :«.
Palatal mutes, 2, 4.
paluster, decl., 68, i.
Parasitic vowels, 7, 3.
paratus, with infin., 333.
Pardon, verbs signifying, w. dat., 187,
n.
Paris, 109, 2, a).
pars, paries, 61.
parte, abl. of place, 228, i, b.
partem, adverbially used, 185, i.
Participation, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, i.
Participial stem, 97, III; formation, iig.
Participles, in -dns and -ens, 70, 3 ; gen.
plu. of in -um, 70, 7 ; pres. act. partic,
97, 1, s; loi; 103; los; 107; no; 113;
fut. act. partic, 97, III ; as one of the
principal parts of the verb, p. 55, foot-
note; 100; loi; 103; 105; 107; no;
113; perf. pass, partic, 97, III; 102;
104; 106; 108, in; 113; gerundive,
see Gerundive ; fut. act., peculiar for-
mation of, 119, 4 ; perf. pass., w. act. or
neuter meaning, 114, 2 ; of deponents,
112, 6; syntax, 336 ff.
Participles, fut. act., 119, 4; denoting
purpose, 337, 4.
perf. act., how supplied, 356, 2.
perf. pass., 336, 3 ; as pres., 336, 5.
pres. partic, 336, 2 ; with conative
force, 336, 2, a.
perf. pass., with active meaning,
114, 2; pred. use of partic, 337, 2;
participles equivalent to subordinate
clauses, 337, 2 ; to coordinate clauses,
337, S; w. opus est, 218, 2, c; with
noun, equivalent to abstract noun,
337, 6 ; with habed, 337, 7.
with video, audio, facio, etc., 337, 3-
Particles, 139 f . ; 341 f .
Partitive apposition,. 169, 5.
Partitive gen., so called, 201.
Parts of speech, 10.
parum, comparison, 77, i-
parm, gen. of value, 203, 3.
parvus, comparison, 72.
Passive, verbs in, with middle meaning,
175, 2. <'); 256; verbs governing dat.
used in pass, only impersonally, 187,
II, b; constr. of passive verbs of say-
ing, etc., 332, and note; how supplied
when missing, 356, i-
pM>r, conj., 109, 2, c); 113; with inf.,
331, ni.
Patrial adjs., 70, s, c).
Patronymics, 148, 6.
pauhifit, formation, 77, 3-
paidus, speUing, 9, 2.
pauper, decl., 70, i.
pedester, decl., 68, i.
p^or, quantity <rf first syllable, 362, 5,
z8o
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
pelagiis, gender of, 26, :;.
Penalty, abl. of, 208, 2, b.
penates, dec!., 40, i, <J).
penes, prep. w. ace, 141.
Pentameter, dactylic, 369. '
Penult, 6, 2.
per, prep. w. ace, 141 ; with ace. of time
and space, 181, 2.
Perceiving, verbs of, w. inf., 331, I.
Perfect active ptc, how supplied in Latin,
3S6, ■■'.
Perfect pass, partic, force of w. depo-
nent verbs, 112, b; dat. of agency
sometimes used w., 189, 2; opus, 218,
2, 1..
Perfect stem, 97, II; formation, 118.
in -avi, -evi, -iiii contracted, 116,
I.
historical perf., 262.
with force of pres., 262; 133, 2;
pres. perf. and hist. perf. distinguished,
237, I and 2 ; gnomic perf., 262, i ;
perf. subjv. as historical tense, 268, 6
and 7, b ; perf. inf. w. oportuit, 270, 2 ;
perf. prohibitive, 279, a ; perf. potential,
280, I and 2; perf. concessive, 278;
sequence of tenses after perf. inf.,
268, 2.
Periodic structure, 351, s.
Periphrastic conj., 115; 269, 3; in con-
ditional sentences of the 3d type, 304,
3, b) ; in indir. disc, 322 ; in passive,
337, 8, b, I.
fut. inf., 270, 3.
Persons, 95, 4; 2d sing, of indefinite
subject, 356, 3.
Personal pronouns, 84; 242; as subject,
omission of, 166, 2 ; as objective geni-
tives, 242, 2.
endings, 96.
persuades, with dat., 187, II, a; with
subjv., 295, I.
Persuading, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
ph, 2, 3, c; 2, 4; 3, 3.
piget, with gen., 209.
Pity, verbs of, w. gen., 209, i and 2.
Place to which, 182 ; whence, 229; place
where, 228.
placitus, force, 114, ^.
Pleasing, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II, a; w.
ace, 187, n, a, N.
pllbes, heteroclite, 59, 2, d),
filebi, gen., 52, 2.
Plenty and Want, verbs of, constr., 212;
cf. 218, 8.
plenus, w. gen., 218, 8, a.
Pleonasm, 374, 3.
plerdque, 6, 5.
pluit, 138, 1.
Pluperfect tense, formation, 100; syntax,
263 ; 26s ; 287, 2 ; 288, 3 ; with im-
pejrfect meaning, 133, a.
Plural, 16; in sth decl., 52, 4; of proper
names, SS. 4i o) '> of abstract nouns,
S, 4, c); nouns used in, only, 56;
with change of meaning, 61 ; stylistic
use, 3S3, I ; 2.
PluraUatantum, %6; 81, 4, i).
pluris, gen. of value, 203, 3; of price,
203, 4.
plus, decl., 70 ; 70, 4 ; = plus quam,
217, 3-
poema, decl., 47, 5.
Polysyndeton, 341, 4, b).
por-, inseparable prep., 159, 3, e.
porticus, gender, 50.
port/us, decl., 49, 3.
posco, constr., 178, 1, a).
Position of clauses, 351, 3.
— — of words, 348; 350; 351.
Possessive dat., 190; gen., 198; con-
trasted with dat. of poss., 3S9, i.
Possessive pronouns, 86 ; 243 ; = objec-
tive gen., 243, 2; position of, ^43,
I, a.
Possibility, verbs of, put in indie, in cond.
sentences, 304, 3, o.
possum, 126; with present infin., 'I
might,' 271, I, o) ; in cond. sentences,
304, 3. a-
post, prep. w. ace, 144, i ; in expressions
of time, 3S7, i.
Post-positive words, 343, i, c).
postedquam, 287; separated, 287, 3; with
imperf. ind., 287, 4; w. pluperf. ind.,
287, 3 ; with subjv., 287, 5.
posterus, posterior, comp., 73. 2.
poslremus, use, 241, a.
postridie, with gen., 201, 3, a.
posttdo, constr., 178, i, a.
Potential subjv., 272; 280.
potim, with gen., 212, 2; with abl., 218,
I ; in gerundive constr., 339, 4,
, adj., 73, I.
potius, compared, 77, i.
potni, poteram, in apodosis of conditional
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
281
sent, of 3d type, 304, 3, a) ; in indir.
disc, 322, 1,.
potui, with pres. inf. = 'could have,'
270, 2.
poUterim, in dependent apodosis, 322, c.
potus, force, 114, 2.
prae, prep. w. abl., 142; verbs com-
pounded with governing dat., 187, III ;
short in praeacuitts, etc., 362, 2.
Praenomen, 373.
praesenSy 125.
praesum, w. dat., 187, III.
prdnsus, force, 114, 2.
preci, -em, -e, S7, S, «•
Predicate, 163.
gen., 198, 3; 203, s-
Predicate nouns, 167; 168; in ace, 177;
predicate nouns or adjs. attracted to
dat., 327, 2, a; to nom., 328, 2.
■ -adjectives, 232, 2; 177, 2.
Prepositions, assimilation of, in com-
pounds, 8, 4 ; g, 2 ; with ace, 141 ; with
abl., 142; as adverbs, 144; inseparable
prepositions, 159, 3, N. ; position, 350,
7 ; prepositional phrases as attributive
modifiers, 353, s ; anastrophe of, 144,
3 ; 14T, 2 ; 142, 3 ; usage with abl. of
Sep., 214 f. ; with abl. of source,
2IS-
Present tense, 259 ; gnomic, 259, i ; co-
native, 259, 2 ; historical, 259, 3 ; with
jam pridem,jam diu, etc., 259, 4; with
d/um, 'while,' 293, 1; in Repraesentdtio,
318; pres. subjv., in-jm, 127, 2; pres.
partic, see Participle.
stem, 97, 1; formation,' 117.
perf., 257, I and 2.
Preventing, verbs of, w. subjv. clause,
29s, 3-
Price, indefinite, special words in gen.,
203, 4; also 22s, i.
, abl. of, 225.
pridie, with gen., 201, 3, a; with ace.,
144, 2.
Primary tenses, see Principal tenses.
primus, 'first who,' 241, 2.
princeps, decl., 31.
Principal parts, 99; list, p. 251.
tenses, 258 f .
prior, compared, 73, 1.
prius, compared, 77, i.
prmsquam, with ind., 291 ; with subjv.,
292; separated, 291.
Privation, verbs of, w. abl, 214, r, 4
and c.
pro, prep. w. abl., 142.
procid, as prep. w. abl., 144, 2.
prohibed, w. abl., 214, 2; w. subjv.
clause, 29s, 3.
Prohibitions, method of expressing, 276.
Prohibitive subjv., 276.
Prolepsis, 374, 5.
Pronominal adjs., 233.
Pronouns, defined, 82 ; classes, 83 ; per-
sonal, 84; reflexive, 85; possessive,
86 ; demonstrative, 87 ; intensive, 88 ;
relative, 89 ; interrogative, 90 ; indefi-
nite, 91; pronominal adjs., 92; per-
sonal, omission of, as subject, 166, 2;
syntax, 242 f.; personal, 242 f. ;
possess., 243 f . ; reflex., 244 f . ; recip-
rocal, 245 f.; demonstrative, 246 f. ;
relative, 250 f.; indef., 252 f.; position,
3SO, 5 ; 355-
Pronunciation, Roman, 3.
prope, compared, 77, i.
Proper names, abbreviated, 373.
nouns, 12, r.
propior, compared, 73, i ; with ace, 141,
3-
proprius, with dat., 204, 2,0; with gen.,
204, 2.
propter, prep. w. ace, 141.
Prosody, 360 f.
prosper, decl., 63, 1.
prosum, conj., 125, N.
Protasis, 301 ;• denoting repeated action,
302, 3 ; without si, 30s \ of indef. 2d
sing., 302, 2 ; see Conditions.
Provisos, 310.
proxime, -us, comp., 73, i ; 77, i ; with
ace, 141, 3.
prUdens, decl., 70.
-pte, 86, 3.
pudel, with gen., 209; w. inf., 327, 1.
puer, decl., 23.
pulcher, comp., 71, 3-
puppis, decl., 38, I.
Purpose, dat. of purpose, 191 ; with dat.
and gerundive, 191, 3; yr. ad and ace,
192, 2; subjv. of purp., 282, i; w.
quo, 282, I, a ; yr.utne, 281, i,b; with
non in purpose clause, 282, i, c; neve
(neu) in purpose clauses, 282, i, d;
neque, 282, i, e; rel. clauses of pur-
pose, 282, 2 ; w. disnus, mdigtms, idd-
282
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
neas, 283, 3 ; independent of principal
verb, 282, 4; inf., denoting purpose,
326, N. ; fut. partic, denoting purpose,
337. 4; gerund, w. ad, 338, 3; gerun-
dive, 339, 2 ; supine, 340.
Q.
-?»-, pron., 3, 3 ; both letters consonants,
74, ».
guaero, w. indir. questions, 300, i, b), N.
quteso, 137, 2.
Quality, gen., 203; abl., 224.
quam, in comparisons, 217, 2; with su-
perl., 240, 3 ; ante . . . quam, post . . .
quam, prius . . . quam, see antequam,
postquam, priusquam; quam qui, 283,
2, a.
quam si, 307, i.
quam ut, with subjv., 284, 4.
quamquam, with ind., 309, 2 ; with subjv.,
309, 6; = 'and yet,' 309, 5.
quamvis, with subjv., 309, i ; 6 ; denot-
ing a fact, 309, 6.
quandS, 286, 3, h.
quantii as gen. of price, 203, 4; of value,
203, 3.
Quantity, 5.
of syllables, 5, B ; 363 f .
of vowels, 5, A ; 362 ; in Greek
words, 365.
quasi, 307, i.
quota, conj., log, 2, a).
-que, accent of word preceding, 6, 3 ; 6,
s ; 341, 1, *) ; 2. ») ; 4. <;)■
queo, 137, 1.
Questions, word, sentence, 162 f . ; rhetor-
ical, 162, 3 ; double (alternative), 162,
4; indirect, 300; questions in indir.
disc, 3x5.
qui, rel., 89 ; interr., 90 ; indef ., 91 ; for
quis in indir. questions, 90, 2, b ; with
ne, si, nisi, nam, 91, s; ii purpose
clauses, 282, 2 ; abl., 90, 2, a.
quia, in causal clauses, 286, i.
quicum, 89.
Quicumque, decl., 91, 8.
quidam, decl., 91 ; syntax, 252, 3.
quidem, post-positive, 347, 1.
quUibet, decl., 91.
quin, in result clauses, 284, 3; in sub-
stantive clauses, 295, 3 ; 298 ; = qui
mm in clauses of characteristic, 283, 4 ;
with ind., 281, 3; in indir. disc, 323
and a ; nulla causa est quin, 295, 7.
quinam, 90, 2, d.
Quintilis (= Julius), 371.
qulppe qui, in clauses of characteristic^
283, 3-
Quirites, decl., 40, i, d.
quis, indef., 91 ; interr., 90 ; 90, 2, c ; 252,
I ; nescid quis, 253, 6 ; with ne, si, nisi,
num, 91, S-
quis est qui, 283, 2.
quis = quibus, 89.
quisnam, inflection, go, 2, d.
quispiam, inflection, 91.
quisguam, inflection, 91; usage, 252,
4.
quisgue, inflection, 91 ; usage, 252, 5.
quisquis, inflection, 91, 8.
quims, inflection, gi.
quo, in purpose clauses, 282, i, a.
quoad, with ind., 293 ; with subjv., 293,
III, 2.
quod, in causal clauses, 286, i ; in sub-
stantive clauses, 299; 331, V, a; 'as
regards the fact,' 299, 2.'
quod audierim, 283, 5; guod sciam,
283, 5-
quod {si), adverbial ace, 185, 2.
quom, early form of cum, 9, i.
quo minus, after verbs of hindering,
29s, 3.
guoniam, in causal clauses, 286, i.
guoque, post-positive, 347.
-quus, decl. of nouns in, 24.
R.
r, pron., 3, 3 ; for j between voweh
('Rhotacism'), 8, 1.
rapid, conj., 109, 2, a),
rastrum, plurals of, 60, 2.
ratus, 'thinking,' 336, 5.
Reciprocal pronouns, 85, 2; 245; cf.
2S3. 3.
Reduplication in perf ., 118, 4, a) ; in
pres., 117, 7.
Reference, dat. of, 188.
refert, constr., 210; 211, 4.
Reflexive pronouns, 85 ; 244 ; 249, 3.
rego, conj., 105.
Regular verbs, 101-113.
rH, 362, 1, b).
reicid, quantity, 36i2, S-
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
283
Relative adverbs, in rel. clauses of purp.,
282, 2.
clauses, of purp., 382, 2 ; w. dignus,
indignus, idSneus, 282, 3; of charac-
teristic, 283 ; denoting cause or oppo-
sition, 283, 3 ; restrictive, 283, 5 ; in-
troduced by guin, 283, 4; 284, 3;
conditional rel. clauses, 311; 312, i
and 2 ; relative as subj. of inf., 314,
4; rel. clause standing first, 251, 4, a.
pronouns, inflection, 8g; use, 250
ff. ; = Eng. demonstrative, 251, 6 ;
agreement, 250; not omitted as in
Eng., 2SI, s; fondness for subordinate
clauses, sss-
relinguilur ut, 297, 2.
reUqui, use, 253, 5.
reliquum est, with subjv., 295, 6.
remex, decl., 32.
Remembering, verbs of, cases used w.,
206.
Reminding, verbs of, const., 207.
reminiscor, constr., 206, 2.
Removing, verbs of, w. abl., 214, 2.
reposes, constr., 178, i, a).
RepraesetUdlid, 3t8.
reqmes, requiem, requietem, 59, 2, c).
res, decl., 51.
Resisting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
Restrictive clauses, 283, 5.
Result, ace. of, 173, B; 176; clauses of,
284; 297; in dependent apodosis,
322, and a; sequence of tense in,
268, 6.
reverter, semi-deponent, 114, 3.
Rhetorical questions, 162, 3; 277, a; in
indir. disc, 315, 2.
Rhotadsm, 8, i ; 36, j..
Rivers, gender of names of, is, A, 1.
rogata, abl. of cause, 219, 2.
rogd, constr., 178, i, c) ; 178, i, a).
Roman prommdation, 3.
Root, 17, 3, footnote i.
-rs, decl. of nouns in, 40, i, c).
riire, abl., place from which, 229, i, h.
rwri, abl., place in which, 228, i, c.
•"US, 57, 7 ; ace, limit of motion, 182, i, h.
S.
s, pron., 3, 3; changed to r between
Tow<5ls, 8, i; JT, ss, from dt, tt. Is,
8,^.
-J, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded
by one or more consonants, 40, i b).
i-stems, 36.
sacer, ded., 65 ; comparison, 73, 3.
saepe, compared, 77, i.
s^, S7> 7; siUis, 61.
sdlubris, decl., 68, 3.
salHtaris, comp., 73, 4.
salve, sahete, 137, 4.
Samni^, decl., 40, i, d).
sane, in answers, 162, 5.
sapid, conj., 109, 2, a).
satur, decl., 65, 2.
Sajdng, verbs of, w. inf. of ind. disc,
331, 1.
sdo, quod sciam, 283, 5.
-sco-dass of verbs, 117, 6; 155.
scribere ad aUquem, 358, 2.
si, use, 244.
se-, compoxmds of, 159, 3, »■
Second conj., 103 ; ded., 23 ; peculiarities
25; second person indefinite, 280, 3;
356, 3; 302. 2-
Secondary tenses, see Historical tenses.
secundum, prep. w. ace, 141.
securis, decl., 38, i.
secus, compared, 77, i.
secus (virile secus), 185, i ; s8.
secutus, 'following,' 336, 5.
sed, se, 85, 3.
sed-, compoimds of, 159, 3, e.
sed, 343, I, o).
sedile, decl., 39.
sementis, decl., 38, i.
Semi-deponent verbs, 114.
Semivowels, 2, 8.
sertex, decl., 42 ; compared, 73, 4.
Sentences, classification, 160 f.; simple
and compound, 164; sentence-struc-
ture, 3SI ; sentence questions, 162, 2.
senlentia, abl. of accordance, 220, 3.
Separation, dat. of, 188, 2, d) ; gen., 212,
3; abl., 214.
Sequence of tenses, 267 ; 268.
sequester, decl., 68, i.
sequitur ut, 297, -i.
sequor, conj., 113.
Serving, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
servos, decl., 24.
sese, decl., 85.
Sexlilis ( = Augustus), 371.
Sharing, adjs. of, w. gen., 204, i.
Short syllables, 5, JB, 2 ; vowels, Si A, 3.
284
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
Showing, verbs of, w. two aces., 177.
si, with indir. questions, 300, 3 ; in pro-
tasis, 301 ; omitted, 305.
signifer, decl., 23, n.
sUentio, abi. of manner, 220, 2.
Silvester, decl., 68, 3.
similis, with dat., 204, 3 ; with gen., 204,
3; comp., 71, 4.
si mirms, use, 306, 2.
Simple sentences, 164. ^
simul, as prep., w. abl., 144, i.
simul ac, w. ind., 287, i ; 2.
si non, usage, 306, i and 2.
svn, usage, 306, 3.
sin Tmmis, 306, 2, u.
Singular, second person indefitiite, 280,
3 ; 356, 3 ; 302, 2.
sino, with inf., 331, III.
siUs, decl., 38, i.
Smelling, verbs of, constr., 176, 5.
Soft consonants, 2, 3, b), footnote 2.
-so, verbs in, 155, 2.
socer, decl., 23, 2.
socium, gen. plu., 25, 6, c).
sol, decl., 57, 7.
soleo, semi-dep., 114, i.
soKtus, used as present partic, 336, 5.
solus, 66 ; solus est qui with subjv., 283,
•z.
Sonant consonants, 2, 3, ft), footnote 2.
Soracte, decl., 39, 2.
Sounds, classification, 2.
of the letters, 3.
Source, abl., 215.
Space, extent of, 181.
Sparing, verbs of, w. dat, 187, II.
Specification, abl. of, 226.
spli, quantity, 362, i, 6.
Spelling, see Orthography.
Spirants, 2, 7.
Spondaic verses, 368, 2.
Spondee, 368, 1.
sponte sua, abl. accordance, 220, 3.
spontis, -e, defective, 57, 2, ft.
Statutes, fut. imperative used in, 281, 1, ft.
Stem, 17, 3.
, verb, 97; 117.
Structure of sentences, see Sentences.
Style, hints on, 352 f.
su = sv, 3, 3.
sub, pfep. with ace. and abl., 143 ; com-
pounds of, w. dat., 187, III.
Subject, 163; nom., i66; ace, 184; sub-
ject ace. of inf., 184; omitted, 314, 5;
clauses as subject, 294 ; 29s, 6 ; inf. as
subj., 327 ; 330.
Subjective gen., 199.
Subjunctive, tenses in, 94, 3.
in independent sentences, 272; by
attraction, 324; tenses of, 266 f.;
method of expressing future time in,
269; volitive (hortatory, jussive,
prohibitive, deliberative, concessive),
273 f. ; optative (wishes), 279; poten-
tial, 280; in clauses of purpose, 282;
of characteristic, 283; of result, 284;
of cause, 286; temporal clauses with
postquam, postedguam, 287, 5 ; tempo-
ral clauses with cum, 288-290; with
antequam and priusquam, 292; with
dum, donee, quoad, 293, III, 2; sub-
stantive clauses, 294 f. ; indir. ques-
tions, 300; in apodosis of first tyjM
conditions, 302, 4 ; jussive subjunctive
as protasis of condition, 30s, 2 ; with
velut, iamquam, etc., 307 ; with necesse
est, oportet, etc., 295, 6 and 8; with
Ucet, 309, 4 ; with quamvis, quamquam,
etsi, cum, 'although,' 390 f.
sublatus, p. 99, footnote.
subm- = summ-, g, 2.
Subordinate clauses, 165.
Substantive clauses, 294 f. ; developed
from the volitive, 29s, 1-8 ; developed
from the optative, 296 ; with non dabilo,
298 ; indir. questions, 300 ; without ut,
295, 8 ; of result, 297 ; introduced by
quod, 299.
use of adjs., 236-238.
suiter, prep. w. ace, 143, i.
Suffixes, 17, 3, footnote i ; 147 f.
sui, 8s ; as objective gen., 244, 2 ; = pos-
sessive gen., 244, 2.
sum, conj., 100; omitted when auxiliary,
166, 3.
summus, 'top of,' 241, i.
sunt qui, with subjv., 283, 2.
suopte, suSpte, 86, 3.
supellex, decl., 42, 2.
super, prep. w. ace, 143, i.
Sui)erlative degree; of adjs., 71, i; 2;
in -^imus, 91, 3; in -Umus, 71, 4;
irregular superl., 72 ; 73 ; lacking, 73.
4 ; formed w. maxime, 74 ; of adverbs,
76, 2 ; irregular, 77, i ; force of, 240, 2.
superus, compared, 73, 2.
141.
oupine, 340.
supra, prep. w. ace,
-sura, suffix, 147, 3, a.
Surd consonants, 2, 3, a), footnote i.
sus, decl., 41.
suslull, p. gg, footnote.
suus, decl., 86, i ; 244 ; suus quisque, 244,
4,0.
Syllaia anceps, 366, 10.
Syllables, division, 4 ; quantity of, s, B.
Synapheia, 367, 6.
Synaeresis, 367, i.
Synchysis, 350, 11, d).
Syncope, 7, 4 ; 367, 8.
Synecdochical ace, 180.
Synizesis, 367, i.
Syntax, 160 f.
Systole, 367, 3.
3, 3;
changes.
GENERAL INDEX. 285
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
Tetrameter verses, 366, ii.
Thematic verbs, 101-113.
vowels, 117, footnote.
Thesis, 366, 6.
Third conj., 105; log f.; decl., 28 f.;
gender in, 43 f .
Threatening, verbs of, t87, II.
-tim, adverbs in,, IS7, 2.
Time, at which, 230; during which, 181;
231, I ; within which, 231.
timed ne and ut, 2q6, 2.
-tinus, suffix, 154.
-Ho, suffix, 147, 3.
Tmesis, 367, 7.
-to as suffix of verbs, 155, 2.
-tor, use of uoims in, 353, 4.
totus, 66; preposition absent w., in ex-
pression of place relations, 228, i, b).
Towns, gender of names of, is, 2 ; names
of, denoting limit of motion, r82, i, a ;
denoting place where, 228, i, a; place
from which, 22g, ji, a; appositives of
town names, i6g, 4; 22g, 2.
trSditur, traditum est, w. inf., 332, N.
trans, prep. w. ace, 141 ; constr. of verbs
compounded with, i7g.
Transitive verbs, 174.
Trees, gender of names of, is, 2.
ires, decl., 80, 3.
Tribrach, 370, 2.
trihus, decl., 4g, 3 ; gender, 50.
Trimeter verses, 366, 11.
trim, use, 81, 4, b).
triummr, gen. plu. of, 23, 6, J).
-trlx, suffix, 147, I.
Trochee, 366, 2.
-trvm, suffioc, 147, 4.
Trusting, verbs of, w. dat., 187, II.
tii, decl., 84.
-tudo, suffix, i4g.
tul, as objective gen., 242, 2.
-tura, suffix, 147, 3. a).
tus, decl, 57, 7.
-tus, suffix, 147, 3 ; iSi) 4.
tussis, decl, 38.
tute, mtemet, tutimet, 84, 2.
Two accusatives, 177; 178.
Two datives, 191, 2.
t, pron., 3, 3 ; th, 2, 3, c
8, 2 ; dropped, 8, 3.
laedet, 138, II ; w. gen., 209.
Takiiig away, verbs of, w. dat., 188, 2, d.
talenltim, gen. plu., 25, 6, a),
(amen, 343, 1, /.
tametsi, 309, 2.
tamquam, tamguam st, w. subjv.. 307.
lanton, 6, 4.
-tas, 149; gen. -tatis, decl. of nouns in.
40, I, e).
Tasting, verbs of, constr., 176, 5.
Teaching, verbs of, constr., 178, i, b.
ted = te, 84, 3.
Temporal clauses, w. postguam, ut, ubi,
simvl ac, 287; w. cum, 288; 289; w.
antequam and priusquam, 291 ; 292 ;
with dum, donee, quoad, 2g3.
temporis {id temporis), 185, 2.
Tendency, dat. of, igi.
lener, ded., 64.
Tenses, g4, 3; 257 ff. ; of inf., 270;
inf. in indir. disc, 317; of participles,
336; of subjv., 266 ; sequence of, 266-
268; in indir. disc, 317 ; 318.
Tenues (consonants), 2, 3, a), footnote i.
knus, position, 142, 3.
Terminations, 17, 3.
terni, how used, 81, 4, b.
-ternus, 154-
terra marigue, 228, i, c.
krrester, 68, 3.
of
U.
», instead of i in some words, 9, i ; ir-.
stead of a, 9, i ; g, 4-
286
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
«, becomes », 567, 4.
iSf-stems, 48.
a-slems, 41.
-fi, dat. sing., 4th decl., 49, 2.
liber, decl., 70, i.
«W, with ind., 287, i ; 2 ; with gen., 201,
3-
-ubKS, dat., plu., 4th decl., 49, 3.
iUUis, decl., 66.
ulterior, compared, 73, i.
ullimus, use, 241, 2.
»//ro, prep. w. ace, 141.
-ulus, diminutive ending, 150, 2; (a,
«m), 148, I.
-um, I St decl., gen. plu. in, 21, 2, d) ; 2d
decl., 25, 6 ; for -ium, 70, 7.
-«nf2»f , -«n(2i, in gerund and genmdive,
116, 2.
Cmis, decl., 66 ; 92, i ; ilnus est qui, with
subjv., 283, 2.
■«W», ending of desiderative verbs, 15s,
3-
■^rus, ending of fut. act. partic, loi ;
103 ff. ; -Mr»j fuisse in apodosis of
conditional sentences contrary-to-fact,
in indir. disc, 32T, 2; -urus fuerim in
indir. questions serving as apodoses,
322, b.
-»J, neuter nouns of 2d decl. in, 26, 2 ;
nom. in 3d decl., in -«j, 36 ; gender of
nouns in -«m of 3d decl., 43, 3 ; excep-
tions in gender, 46, 4.
-Us, nouns of 3d decl. in, 43, 2.
usque ad, w. ace, 141, i.
ilsus est, with abl, 218, ^.
ut, temporal, 287, i ; 2 ; ut, uli, in pur-
pose clauses, 282; in result clauses,
284; in substantive clauses, 295 f. ;
substantive clauses without, 295, 8;
with verbs of fearing, 296, a.
ut ni = ne, 282, i, h; 29s, r, 4, 5.
ut non instead of ne, 282, i, c ; in clauses
of result, 284, 297.
ut qui, introducing clauses of character-
istic, 283, 3.
ut si, w. subjv., 307, 1.
uter, decl., 66; 92, i.
ater, decl., 40, i, d).
utercumque, decl., 92, 2.
uterHbet, decl., 92, 2.
uterque, decl., 92, 2 ; use, 355, a.
uterms, decl., 92, 2.
iitUiu.t est = Eng. potential, 271, i, J).
utinam, with optative subjv., 279, i and 2.
utor, with abl., 218, i; in gerundive
constr., 339, 4.
utjiote qui, introducing clauses of char-
acteristic, 283, 3.
utrdque, 6, 5.
uirum . . . fl«, 162, 4; 300, 4.
», I, i; pron., 3, 3; developing from «,
367, 4-
V, becomes u, 367, S-
valde, by syncope, for vaUde, 7, 4.
vaia, 363, 2, b).
Value, indefinite, in gen., 203, 3.
vatmus, gender of, 26, x, J).
Variations in spelling, 9.
vds, decl., S9, i.
-ve, 6, 3; 342, I, b).
vel, 342, I, 6) ; with superl., 240, 3.
veUm, potential subjv., 280, d, a.
vellem, potential subjv., 280, 4.
velut, vehit si, w. subjv., 307, i.
venter, decl., 40, i, d).
Verba sentievdi et declarandi, w. inf. of
indir. disc, 331, I; passive use of
these, 332.
Verbal adjs., 150, 1-4.
Verbs, 94 f . ; persoiml endings, 96 ; de-
ponent, 112; archaic and poetic forms,
116, 4; irregular, 124; ddective, 133;
impersonal, 138; with substantive
clauses of result, 297, 2 ; omission of,
166, 3; transitive, 174; used abso-
lutely, 174, o; passives used as mid-
dles, 175, 2, (Q ; of smelling and
tasting, constr., 176, s; not used in
passive, 177, 3, a; intransitives im-
personal in passive, 187, II, b ; 256, 3 ;
compounded with preps., constr., 187,
III; of judicial action, constr., 208;
derivation of, 15s f. ; inceptive or
inchoative, 155, i; frequentative or
intensive, 155, 2; desiderative, ISS, 3;
denominative, 156; agreement of,
2S4f-
Verb stems, 97; formation of, 117 f.
vereor, conj., 113; with subst. clause in
subjv., 296, 2.
Vergilius, gen. of, 25, i.
veritus, with present force, 336, 5.
GENERAL INDEX.
The references are to sections and paragraphs.
287
'*'». 343. ii s) ; in answers, 162, s.
Verse, 366, 3.
Verse-structure, 366 f .
Versification, 361.
versus, prep. w. ace, 141 ; follows its
case, 141, J.
verum, 343, i,b).
vescor, with abl., 218, x.
vesper, decl., 23, j.
vesperi, locative, 232, z.
vestri, as obj./gen., 242, 2.
vestrum, as gen. of whole, 242, 2 ; as
possessive gen., 242, j, u.
veto, with inf., 331, II.
veius, decl., 70; compared, 73, 3.
vi, 220, J.
vicem, used adverbially, 185, i; vicis,
vice, 57, s, 6.
victor, dec]., 34.
video, with pres. partic, 337, 3.
vigil, decl., 34.
vioknler, formation, 77, 4, a.
vir, decl., 23.
, gen. plu. of nouns compounded
with, 2$; 6, b).
virile secus, constr., 185, ±.
virus, gender of, 26, z.
vis, decl., 41.
viscera, used in plu. only, 56, 3.
Vocative case, 17 ; 19, i ; of Greek
proper names in -as, 47, 4; of adjs. in
-ius, 63, I ; 171 ; in -i for -ie, 25, i ;
position of, 350, 3.
Voiced sounds, 2, 3, u.
Voiced consonants, 2, 3, b).
Voiceless consonants, 2, 3, a. •
Voices, 94; 256; middle voice, 256, 1.
Volitive subjunctive, 272 f.
vohms, si)elling, 9, i.
void, 130; with inf., 331, IV and a; 270,
2, a ; with subj v., 296, 1, a.
volt, spelling, 9, i.
aolku, spelling, 8, i.
volucer, decl., 68, i.
voPmUate, 220, j.
comparison of adjs. in, 71,
-volus,
S-
Vowels, 2, I ; sounds of the, 3, i ; quan-
tity of, s, A ; contraction of, 7, 2 ; para-
sitic, 7, 3.
Vowel changes, 7.
vulgus, gender of, 26, 2.
-imm. -vus, decl. of nouns in, 24.
W.
Want, verbs and adjs. of, w. abl., 214, t,
c; d.
Way by which, abl. of, 218, 9.
We, editorial, 242, 3.
Whole, gen. of, 201.
Wills, use of fut. imperative in, 281,
I, i.
Winds, gender of names of, 15, 1.
Wish, clauses with dimi, etc., expressing
a, 310.
Wishes, subjunctive in, 279; see Opta-
tive subjunctive.
Wishing, verbs of, with subst. clause,
296, I ; with obj. inf., 331, IV.
Word-formation, 146 f .
Word-order, 348 f .
Word questions, 162, r.
I, 2, 9; = cj and gs, 32.
-X, decl. of monosyllables in, preceded by
one or more cons., 40, i, b) ; gender oi
nouns in -x of 3d decl., 43, 2 ; excep-
tions, 45, 4.
Y.
y, I. I-
Yes, how expressed, 162, $.
'You,' indefinite, 356, 3 ; 280, 3 ; 303, 2
Z.
z, I, I ; 2, 9.
Zeugma, 374, 2, a).
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