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CORNELL

UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY

MUSIC

Cornell University Library
ML 936.B67 1922

The flute and flute-playing in acoustica

3 1924 021 743 822

Cornell University
Library

The original of tliis book is in
tine Cornell University Library.

There are no known copyright restrictions in
the United States on the use of the text.

http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924021743822

THE FLUTE

AND

FLUTE-PLAYING

■ •*->-«/.

THE FLUTE

AND FLUTE-PLAYING

IN ACOUSTICAL, TECHNICAL, AND
ARTISTIC ASPECTS

THEOBALD BOEHM

Royal Bavarian Court-Musician

Originally Published in German in 1871

Second English Edition, Revised and Enlarged
translated and annotated by

DAYTON C. MILLER, D. Sc.

Professor of Physics in Case School of Applied Science

CLEVELAND, OHIO:

DAYTON C. MILLER
Case School of Applied Science

1922

PRESS OF

THE JUDSON COMPANY

CLEVELAND

Munich, August 6th, 1908

Dear Mr. Miller: —

/ wish to express my, and my sister s,
great pleasure and satisfaction for your labor of
love, which you have undertaken in the good
intention to honor my grandfather. For this we
can be only very thankful to you; and I believe
I express the sentiment of the whole family of
my grandfather in giving you our approval of
the publishing of your translation of his book:
"Die Flote und das Flotenspiel."

Yours very truly

Theobald Bohm

[The above is an extract from a personal letter; the
original is written in English.'}

PREFACE TO THE SECOND
ENGLISH EDITION

SHORTLY after the publication of the first Eng-
lish edition of "The Flute and Flute-Playing,"
the translator received a letter dated at Preston,
Cuba, April 7, 1909, a portion of which is as fol-
lows:

"Dear Sir : — I saw the notice of your work on the Flute,
and it interested me for I lived in Munich for three years
(beginning May, 1871) and studied flute under Mr. Boehm.
I also worked one winter (1872-73) in the shop with
Mendler. At that time I translated Mr. Boehm's work
on the flute, "Die Flote und das Flotenspiel," and for
doing this he gave me the original manuscript in his own
hand writing. Sincerely,

James S. Wilkins, II."

An interesting correspondence developed, and
extracts from later letters are as follows :

"I appreciate your efforts in d'oing reverence to Boehm,
to the extent that, at the first safe opportunity I shall
send you the original manuscript of "Die Flote und das
Flotenspiel," as a token, in Boehm's name, of my appre-
ciation of the labor you have devoted to his work, and for
your excellent translation. I know it would have pleased
Mr. Boehm for you to receive it. * * *. I also send you
as a part of your collection, a box-wood "Alt-flote" tube,
without keys, made in Mendler's shop; this was given to
me by Boehm; it is a sample of a thinned-woor ti be with
raised finger holes. * * * i am sending a it ; ^oehm
wrote me during a visit to Paris, as well as some leaves
from my diary that may interest you — one has Mr.
Boehm's autograph with an inscription. * * * i am also
sending a biographical article wluch I wrote in Phila-
delphia in 1900.

With highest esteem, I am sincerely,

James S. Wilkins, II."

Thus the translator came into possession of these
most interesting mementos of Boehm, in May,

REFACE

1909, shortly before the death of Mr. Wilk
The necessity for a second edition of "The Fluti
and Flute-Playing, " makes it possible to take ad-
vantage of this new material.

Boehm's manuscript in German is complete, and
nas been compared, paragraph by paragraph, with
the printed edition; the differences are very few
and are of no importance. Boehm's hand writing
and his manus'*-" muf are exceedingly neat and
legible, as is y 'reproductions of sev-

eral pages in this nook. ' ^

The text here giver is k fjii >fb\ and usually a
very literal, translation of the Jc -man. For the
second edition the translatioii has been thoroughly
revised so that it reads more sritiJothly, several hun-
dred minor alterations having been made. Since
Boehm's writings possess both a historical and a
scientific interest, and his inventions have been
the subject of much controversy, it has seemed de-
sirable, in giving his descriptions and explanations,
to retain as far as possible, the forms of expres-
sion and even the wording of the original. Some
traces of the Gf constructions, no doubt re-

main. While a ii ^. cranslation might be pre-
ferred by some, it is ^' '"-'ed the one given is
always intelligible and icit. There has been

a slight rearrangement of subject matter and of
paragraphing. The use of emphasis — indicated by
italics in English — which is very frequent in the
original, has been omitted.

Eight errors in the original lithographed Tables
of Fingerings, and a few typographical errors in

PREFACt XI

., a tables of acoustical numbers have been cor-
ected; no other corrections have been found nec-
i ssary. <•

All of the original illustrations, twelve line draw-
ings and several note diagrams, are reproduced
with only such alterations as are noted in the de-'
scriptive matter; the niusical illustrations in Part
II have been copied photographically from the
German edition. The fi ; Er"^sji, edition con-
tained, in addition, o j; several note-
diagrams, pictures of si., utes, lii-j^a tnree portraits.
This edition contain i fift/-six illustrations, includ-
ing the twelve o,.i^^ial diawings, pictures of twen-
ty-two flutes, views of Boehm's home, six por-
traits and facsimiJ'^s of manuscripts. There are
also several additional drawings and note-dia-
grams in the text. Two of the three portraits
which appeared in the previous edition have been
reengraved from newly found originals. The
sources of the portraits are given in the List of
Illustrations. All of the pictures of flutes (ex-
cepting the two drawings from Boehm's pamphlet
of 1847) are photographic rp*^ reactions from in-
struments in the translator .^atorical collection.

For this edition ihf^^^ "troduction has been re-
written, and four ap , ices have been added;
the latter contain biographical notes, a revised
list of Boehm's musical compositions, a price-list
of flutes as made by Boehm, and a short list of cur-
rent books relating to the flute.

In order that the full effect of Boehm's contribu-
tions during his life-time, and also that the rela-

XII PREFACE

tions of these to the flute as it is today, may be
made evident, many annotations and illustrations
have been added to the original text, all such added
matter is enclosed in square brackets, [ J.
Twenty-five or more important annotations and
additions, besides numerous smaller ones, appear
for the first time in this edition. The annotations
have been confined, for the most part, to matters
of fact; while exception has been taken to some
of the opinions expressed by Boehm, this is not
the place for discussion which might lead to con-
troversy. The additions relate largely to details
of dimensions and constructions of the flutes as
made by Boehm & Mendler when these instru-
ments had attained their greatest perfection, in
the years from 1870 to 1880. Nothwithstanding it
is forty years since the death of Boehm, yet there
is published now for the first time, all the essential
dimensions of the flute as Boehm himself made it.
The dimensions are given both for the flute in C
and the flute in G.

While the preparation of this book has involved
much labor, it has been a genuine labor of love;
the volume has become almost a memorial to the
Flute of Boehm. It is hoped that the book will
make still better known Boehm's very careful and
complete investigations, and that it will lead to a
deeper appreciation of the debt of gratitude which
all flutists owe him for the remarkable mechanical
and artistic developments which have resulted
from his efforts.

The writer wishes to express his thanks to Theo-
bald Boehm and his sisters, of Munich, grandchil-

PREFACE XIII

dreh of the inventor of the flute; when the writer
first visited them, some years ago, they gave ap-
proval of this English edition, and they have very
kindly expressed this sentiment in a letter, a por-
tion of which precedes this preface. These friends
have also given other assistance which is highly
appreciated. He also wishes to thank his many
friends who have very enthusiastically assisted in
the collection of historical material, instruments,
and illustrations, and whose interest in the flute
has been a source of great inspiration and encour-
agement.

DAYTON C. MILLER.

Case School of Applied Science,
Cleveland, Ohio, June, 1922.

CONTENTS

Translator's Introduction xxi

PART I — The Flute

SECTION PAGE

I. Introduction 3

II. The Acoustical Proportions of the Flute 14

III. Explanation of the Schema 38

IV. The Material 53

V. The System of Fingering :

(a) General Description 59

(b) The G# Key 62

VI. Taeles of Fingering 72

VII. Description of the Key Mechanism 79

VIII. Care of the Mechanism :

(a) Repairs - 100

(b) The Keys - -100

(rf) The Springs 106

(e) The Gork in the Head Joint 108

IX. Treatment of the Flute in General — 111

X. On the Blowing of New Flutes 114

XI. The Embouchure 117

XII. The Bass Flute in G:

(a) Its Musical Characteristics 119

(6) Dimensions of the Bass Flute 124

(d) Special Fingerings for the Bass Flute.. 128

XVI CONTENTS

Part II— Flute-Playing

SECTION PAGE

XIII. The Development OF Tone 135

XIV. Finger Exercises 138

XV. The Method OF Practicing 140

XVI. MusiCAi. Interpretation 145

XVII. Conclusion — 161

Appendix

Appendix :

(a) Biographical Notes 165

(b) Price List of Flutes 178

(d) Short List of Books on the Flute 189

Index 191

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

PORTRAITS

PLATE PAGE

I. Portrait of Boehm at the age of 83. This has
been copiedl from the print given in Welch's
"History of the Boehm Flute," and was prob-
ably taken in the year 1877. The autograph
signature, of the date 1872, is from the orig-
inal in the translator's collection. Boehm
published "Die Plote und das Flotenspiel" in
1871 Frontispiece

II. Portrait of Boehm at the age of 31. From an
original lithograph signed Fr. Rehberg ad
viv: del. With autographs. The translator's
copy was presented by Mr. John Finn, facing 59

III. Portrait of .Boehm at the age of 33. From a

miniature on ivory. The original was
painted by Brandmiiller, of Munich, in 1827,
and is in the possession of Boehm's grandchil-
dren. An exact copy of the original, painted
on ivory, was made for the translator in
1906 by Mr. Emil Boehm, a grandson. The
reproduction is from the latter, and is of the
exact size of the original, facing 111

IV. Portrait of Boehm at the age of 35 (about).

From an original lithograph. Ad viv: del. M.
Brandmiiller, facing 117

V. Portrait of Boehm at the age of 60. From an
original large-size photographic portrait,
made in 1854, by Hanfstaengl of Munich.

XVIII LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Presented to the translator by Miss Anna
Boehm, a granddaughter of Boehm. This was
Boehm's favorite portrait, and it has been
•widely distributed in a small-size phoitograph
and by many reproductions, facing 133

VI. Portrait of Boehm at the age of 65 (about).
From a photograph taken with Antoine
Sachetti, an Italian Flutist, facing 145

FIGURES

NO. PAGE

1. Facsimile of parts of the title pages of the orig-

inal German manuscript of this work 2

2. Boehm's first flute 4

3. Boehm's Flute. Old System, 1829 9

4. Boehm's Flute. New System, 1832 9

5. Old-System Flute by Boehm & Greve. Model of

1829 11

6. Boehm-System Flute by Godfroy 11

7. Flute No. 1 9, made by Boehm about 1850 11

8. The Parabolic Head-Joint 18

9. Elliptical Embouchure. Rudall, Carte & Co 22

10. Rectangular Embouchure. Boehm & Mendler.. 22

11. Emibouchure of a Boehm & Mendler flute. Sec-

tions -- - --. 23

12. Schema for determining the positions of the

tone-holes 41

13. A portion of the Schema. Full size 45

14. A set of instruments for measuring flutes 51

15. Dorus Closed Gt Key, details 65

16. Boehm's Open Gt Key 67

17. Dorus Closed GJ Key 67

18. Closed Gt Key 67

19. Boehm's Closed G# Key 67

20. Key Mechanism. Full-sized plan 78

21. Detail of keyncup 79

22. Detail of clutch 79

23. Detail of hinge-tube and axle 79

24. Briccialdi's thumb levers, details 85

25. Boehm's thumb levers, details 85

26. Briccialdi's thumb-keys 87

27. Boehm's thumb-keys and crutch, silver flute 87

28. Boehm's thumb-keys and crutch, wooden flute. . 87

XX FIGURES

NO.

PAGE

29. Foot-joint to Bli. Plan of mechanism 89

30. The Boehra & Mendler labels 92

31. Collection of Boehm & Mendler flutes 94

32. The Shippen Flute, silver body, wood head 97

33. The Wehner Flute, grenadilla wood 97

34. The Macauley Flute, silver trimmed with gold-- 97

35. Fork for setting springs 101

36. Screw Driver 101

37. Tweezers 103

38. Clamp for the pads 106

39. Pincers 107

40. Gage for setting the cork 108

41. Bass Flute, Boehim & Mendler 121

42. Bass Flute, Rudall, Carte & Co. 121

43. Mechanism of the Bass Flute 127

44. Facsimile of Boehm's autograph 137

45. Facsimile of Boehm's manuscript music 160

46. Boehm's Home, Street view 164

47. Boehm's Home, Inner court 164

4S. Facsimile of a letter written by Boehm 172

49. Device for transmitting rotatory motion 175

50. Facsimile of a Boehm & Memdler Price List 177

TRANSLATOR'S INTRODUCTION

THEOBALD BOEHM, of Munich— born on April
9, 1794, died on November 25, 1881— a cele-
brated Royal Bavarian Court-Musician, and in-
ventor of the modern flute, described his inven-
tions in a treatise "Die Flote und das Flotenspiel,"
which vi^as published in pamphlet form, in Munich,
in 1871. In the introduction to this work Boehm
says : "My treatise, 'Ueber deij Flotenbau und die
neuesten Verbesserungen desselben,' (1847), seems
to have had but little influence. There is need,
therefore, of this work in which is given as com-
plete a description as is possible of my flutes and
instructions for handling them, and which also
contains instructions upon the art of playing the
flute with a pure tone and a good style."

In a letter to Mr. Broadwood, dated November
15, 1868, Boehm wrote: "I have at length fin-
ished it (this treatise) and will see about a pub-
lisher. There ought properly to be both a French
and an English translation, but I cannot myself
undertake them * * * . My treatise will contain
chapters as follows: * * * ; and the history of all
my work and all my experience during a period
of sixty years will be contained in one little book."

"Die Flote und das Flotenspiel," was read with
great interest by the writer, and while upon a
holiday some years ago, it was translated; others
having expressed a desire to read the work in Eng-

XXII translator's introduction

lish, its publication was undertaken, the first Eng-
lish edition appearing in November, 1908.

While much has been written about the Boehm
flute, Boehm's own publications seem not to have
received the attention they deserve. Boehm sub-
mitted his new system flute of 1832 to the Paris
Academy of Sciences, where its proper recogni-
tion was effectively prevented by the professional
jealousy of Coche, who at the same time pre-
tended to be giving friendly assistance. In 1847
Boehm published a small book of 59 pages en-
titled "Ueber den Flotenbau und die neuesten Ver-
besserungen desselben." A French translation of
this work was published in 1848. Boehm himself
prepared an English version which was published
in London in 1882, under the title "An Essay on the
Construction of Flutes," edited by W. S. Broad-
wood. Boehm exhibited his new flute with cylin-
drical bore at the London Exhibitions of 1851 and
1862, and at the Paris Expositions of 1855 and
1867. With the exhibits of 1862 and 1867 he sub-
mitted his Schema for locating the tone-holes ac-
cording to a scientific method, the first ever ap-
plied to such an instrument. The judges, not ap-
preciating the significance of the Schema, refused
to recognize it as a meritorious contribution, thus
again depriving Boehm of his just rewards. The
Schema having been discredited by the judges,
Boehm's only publication of it was a quite inef-
fective one in the journal of a local engineering
society of Munich, in 1868. In 1871 Boehm pub-
lished a second work in pamphlet form, "Die Flote

TRANSLATORS INTRODUCTION XXIII

und das Flotenspiel," the work herewith presented
in translation. After Boehm's death, one of the
judges of the 1867 Exposition, re-examined the
Schema and published, in 1882, his belated con-
clusion that its method is entirely correct and that
it was actually the basis of Boehm's own con-
structions.

Several years after Boehm had made known his
flute of 1832 with the new system of fingering, he
was accused, particularly by Coche of Paris, of
having taken important features of his system
from the work of an enthusiastic amateur experi-
menter by the name of Gordon. In answer to this
accusation Boehm wrote in his work of 1847 as
follows : "The surest proof of the authenticity of
my invention, I believe will be given by describ-
ing the motives which led me to its development,
and by explaining the acoustical and mechanical
principles of which I made application; for he
alone is capable of carrying out a rational work,
who is able to give a complete account of the why
and wherefore of every detail from its conception
to its completion." Judged by this criterion, Boehm
deserves the highest credit, for he has given an
account almost beyond criticism, and perhaps the
best ever given for any musical instrument, of
the why and wherefore of the flute.

After Boehm's de^th, the charge of misappro-
priating Gordon's invention was renewed in a bit-
ter attack by Rockstro in his "Treatise on the
Flute." A very complete account of this contro-
versy and of the historical events mentioned

XXIV translator's introduction

above, together with a critical analysis of all the
evidence, is given in Welch's "History of the
Boehm Flute." Welch's investigations comple.tely
exonerate Boehm of any improper use of Gor-
don's work, and fully establish his title to the
system which bears his name.

In the pamphlet of 1847 stress was put upon the
so-called scientific construction of the flute; in the
present treatise the treatment is more complete
and practical and the scientific portions appear
in truer relations to the subject. To one who reads
understandingly it is evident that, while the gen-
eral treatment of the principles of the flute is a
scientific one, the actual dimensions for construc-
tion are based upon experiment. Having deter-
mined by experiment, the fundamental length of
the octave with a flute tube of given dimensions,
the locations of all the holes for a flute of any de-
sired pitch are found by the application of sim-
ple laws of acoustics. Although no complete set
of laws has yet been formulated which enable one
to calculate all the dimensions of a flute, this fact
in no way lessens the value of Boehm's work.
While his greatest desire was to elevate the art
of music, he was possessed of the true scien-
tific spirit; his purposes were conceived and
carried out according to scientific methods;
his finished work was the best practical re-
alization of his ideals and he has described his
designs and practical constructions very ex-
plicitly. The flute which he revolutionized and
developed within a period of fifty years, has not

TRANSLATOR S INTRODUCTION XXV

been essentially improved during the subsequent
fifty years.

The full consideration of Boehm's contributions
must be left for a later work; but to him we cer-
tainly owe the present system of fingering — ^an
astonishingly perfect one — the cylinder bore, the
silver tube and much of the beautiful mechanism
which have completely revolutionized the instru-
ment and have made the Boehm flute one of the
most perfect of musical instruments. When one
remembers that the flute has been known since
prehistoric time, and that its form in the year 1800
is fairly represented by the picture of Boehm's first
flute, then a mere glance at the illustration of
Boehm's perfected silver flute of 1878, makes it
seem almost impossible that such a development
could have taken place within the life-time of one
man, much less that it could have resulted largely
from the investigations and efforts of one man.
The musical effects of the flute as perceived by the
ear have been improved quite as much as have the
mechanical features as seen by the eye. The flute
has thus become not only more useful to the pro-
fessional nausician, but it has become an exceed-
ingly attractive and delightful instniment for the
amateur. The Boehm flute is, par excellence, the
instrument for the enthusiastic lover of chamber
music.

The flute has always been a favorite instrument
with gentlemen performers; it is today, more than
ever before, the gentleman's instrument. But the
flute of Boehm, made of silver, has an artistic

XXVI translator's introduction

symmetry and beauty, combined with lightness,
which renders it as attractive in appearance as it
is rich in tone. The sound is produced with the
slightest effort; one has only to breathe into the
embouchure. The natural position in holding the
instrument is characterized by an easy graceful-
ness; its manipulation in general requires delicacy
of manner. Boehm's improvements have greatly
enhanced these qualities, and now the flute is pre-
eminently suited for use as a lady's instrument.

One of Boehm's real contributions which the
musical world has been slow to appreciate, is the
flute in G, the Bass Flute. Boehm made this instru-
ment entirely practicable for musical purposes,
and it has tonal qualities that should have given
it prominence long ago. It is hoped that not only
flutists, but composers, directors, and auditors,
will very soon realize the beauties of this instru-
ment, and that its use will be greatly stimulated.

While this work is devoted to the flute, yet flut-
ists will the better realize the value of Boehm's
contributions, by keeping in "^ mind the fact that
they were of wide application. His researches in
connection with the flute and its theory played an
important part in the development of other instru-
ments, such as the clarinet, oboe, and bassoon. No
history of these instruments can be complete with-
out including references to Boehm's work. He
contributed to a very important phase of the de-
velopment of the modern piano, the method of
"overstringing." Boehm spent several years in
investigations quite foreign to the world of mu-

TRANSLATOR S INTRODUCTION XXVII

sic, in the development of improved methods for
the puritication of iron and for the manufacture
of steel directly from iron; his contributions were
certainly of fundamental importance. He also
invented a new device for transmitting rotatory
motion, which, if not important, is interesting and
was deemed worthy of a silver medal. Several
of these diverse interests are referred to in the Ap-
pendix.

Boehm was an extraordinary artist, and he was
possessed of the true scientific spirit of research;
he was a man of great versatility and of profound
mental ability: he is more than worthy of all the
honor that he has received.

PART I

THE FLUTE

y^ tf/ec^iy ^ae-^fi^.

.^^

Fjg. 1.

f.-fio "^^'^ P^^*f ^^ \ photographic reproduction, slightly reduced in size, of the
title page and part of page 1 of the original manuscript in Boehm's hand-
writing, of the work here presented. How this came into the translator's
possession is told m the preface. «-idnsiatora

THE FLUTE
AND FLUTE-PLAYING

PART I— THE FLUTE

UPON THE SYSTEM OF

THEOBALD BOEHM

OF MUNICH

I. INTRODUCTION

IT is now more than sixty years since I began
to play upon the first flute of my own construc-
tion. I was at that time a proficient goldsmith
and was also skilled in the mechanic arts. I soon
endeavored to make essential improvements in the
keys, springs, and -pads of my flute; but, notwith-
standing all my efforts, equality of tone and per-
fection of tuning were impossible, because the
proper spacing of the tone-holes required too great
a spreading of the fingers. In order that the tone-
holes might be made of proper size and be placed
at the acoustically correct points, it was necessary
to devise an entirely new system of fingering. The
application of this system required a remodeling
of the flute which I was unable to accomplish
without sacrificing my facility in playing which
had been acquired by twenty years of practice.
["As a child Boehm was charmed by music, and
he learned by himself to play the flageolet; when

Fig. 2.

Boehni's first flute, played by him when

he was about fifteen years ojd

BOEHM S FIRST FLUTE 5

this no longer satisfied him, he took up the flute."
Fig. 2 is a picture of what was probably Boehm's
first flute, here referred to. This instrument has
recently been obtained from Mr. Franz Rath of
San Diego, California, and is now in the trans-
lator's historical collection of flutes. Mr. Rath
supplies the following information. Boehm owned
this flute in his boyhood; as his proficiency de-
veloped he needed a flute with more keys, and
about 1810, when he was sixteen years old, he
sold this one to his chum, Ferinand Marker. Herr
Marker removed to Vienna about 1820, and later
taught his grandson, Franz Rath, to play the flute
and gave him the old flute of Boehm's about 1874.
Mr. Rath came to America in 1887 bringing the
flute with him, and it has remained in his pos-
session till the present time, 1920. The flute is of
boxwood, stained and cracked, as might be ex-
pected after having served several young flute
players. The maker's name, proser, is stamped on
each joint. "At the age of sixteen years (in 1810)
he made for himself an instrument patterned after
one with four keys, (from the workshop of the
celebrated Karl August Grenser of Dresden),
which had been loaned him by a friend. Then
he began to blow the flute with gleeful enthusiasm
in all his spare time, not especially to the delight
of his friends and neighbors. Among them was
Johann Nepomuk Capeller, at that time flutist in
the Court Orchestra, who, one day, happened to
meet the budding virtuoso on the stairway and
he laughingly said : 'You, young flute-player, I can-
not endure your noisy blowing any longer; come

THE FLUTE

to me and I will show you how it ought to be done.'
Naturally it was not necessary to say this twice to
young Boehm. He became Capeller's most zealous
pupil and, notwithstanding he had but little time
to devote to the flute, his passionate fondness for
the instrument caused such rapid progress that,
after scarcely two years of practice, he created
astonishment by public performances." — The
quoted sentences have been translated from the
privately-printed booklet, Zur Erinnerung an
Theobald Boehm, presented by Boehm's grand-
children. Much the same account is given in
Schafhautl's "Life of Boehm," which is a part
of Welch's "History of the Boehm Flute."]

["With my progress in flute-playing there devel-
oped, naturally, a desire for better instruments.
In 1812 I was already the first flutist in the Royal
Isarthor Theater in Munich. In the years between
this and 1817, by using the facilities of my gold-
smith's shop which had the usual equipment and
which was further supplied with the necessary
machinery, I made many flutes, for myself and
others, according to the best models of the time
and also with many original improvements * *
such as new types of springs, linings and corks
for the joints, a moveable gold embouchure, and
others. After I obtained my appointment to the
Royal Court Chapel in 1818 the business of gold-
smith was given up and I devoted myself entirely
to music. For some years, because of the lack of
my own shop, I had flutes made according to my
designs by other makers; however, the instruments
thus obtained were not satisfactory, and, finallv

BOEHM S EARLY FLUTES /

in order to carry out my own ideas without hin-
drance, I decided to establish my own flute factory.
In October, 1828, I was again at work in my well-
equipped shop, and began to construct various ma-
chines and appliances for making with more facil-
ity and accuracy a better key mechanism than had
previously been in use. Among these devices was
one for screwing the metal posts into the wood
accurately in the line of radius of the bore; an-
other was for boring the holes in the spherical
heads of the pillars. These and numerous other
devices secured the easy and certain operation of
all parts of the mechanism. By the end of the year
the first flute was finished, having a new key
mechanism which was both solid and elegant in
construction, and the flute met with general
approbation as to quality of tone and intonation,
and was widely adopted. In the year 1831 I played
in Paris and London upon such a flute of the ordi-
nary system which had been made in my work-
shop in Munich." — ^From Boehm's pamphlet of
1847, Ueber den Flotenhau and die neuesten Ver-
besserungen desselben. Fig. 3 is the drawing of
this flute which accompanies the above description,
and to which Boehm has attached the date 1829.
In February, 1922, the translator received from Mr.
Arthur Gemeinhardt of Markneukirchen, a rare
specimen of this identical type, made in Boehm's
shop, which is shown in Fig. 5. This flute is of
cocus-wood, with silver keys and flat gold springs,
with workmanship and finish which are perfect;
it is certainly superior to any other contemporary
flute which has been examined, and comparable

8 THE FLUTE

with the later instruments of Boehm & Mendler.
The tone is very beautiful, sweet and mellow, and,
of course, not powerful; the tuning is astonishingly
good considering that it is a flute of the old sys-
tem. The flute bears the inscription boehm &
GREVE A MUNICH. Greve was Boehm's chief work-
man and partner, and is known to have been with
him at least from 1830 to 1843.]

Notwithstanding all my success as an artist, the
defects of my instrument remained perceptible,
and finally I decided, in 1832, to construct my ring-
keyed flute, upon which I played in London and
Paris in the following year, where its advantages
were at once recognized by the greatest artists and
by I'Academie des sciences.

[In a letter to Mr. Broadwood, dated August,
1871, Boehm writes: "I did as well as any conti-
nental flutist could have done, in London, in 1831,
but I could not match Nicholson in power of tone,
wherefore I set to work to remodel my flute. Had
I not heard him, probably the Boehm flute would
never have been made."]

As compared with the old flute, this one was
unquestionably much nearer perfection. The tone-
holes were placed in their acoustically correct po-
sition and, through my new system of fingering,
one could play all possible tone combinations
clearly and surely. As regards the sounding and
the quality of the lower and the higher tones, there
was yet much to be desired, but further improve-
ments could be secured only by a complete change
in the bore of the flute tube.

BOEHM S EARLY FLUTES

Fig. 3. Boehm's Flute
Old System. 1829.

Fig. 4. Boehm's Flute
New System. 1832.

10 THE FLUTE

[The drawing, Fig. 4, is reproduced from
Boehm's pamphlet of 1847, and shows the first
Boehm-System Flute, originated in 1832, with ring-
keys and conical bore. Boehm made arrangements
to have his new-system flute manufactured in Lon-
don by Rudall and Rose and in Paris by Godfroy.
Fig. 6 shows an excellent specimen of this type
made by Godfroy about 1840. It differs from
Boehm's own model only in that it has the Dorus
G# key (see page 64) instead of the open Gt key.]

The method of boring, with a cylindrical head
and a conical contraction in the lower part, which
was first applied by Christopher Denner of Nur-
emberg (born in 1655, died in 1707), and later was
improved by Quantz [1697-1773], Tromhtz [1726-
1805] , and others, was nevertheless far from being
in accordance with acoustical principles, as the
positions of the finger-holes had been borrowed
from the primitive Schwegel or Querpfeife. This
conical bore was in use for more than a century
and a half, during which time no one was able to
devise a better form.

I was never able to understand why, of all wind
instruments with tone-holes and conical bore, the
flute alone should be blown at its wider end; it
seems much more natural that, with a rising pitch
and shorter length of air column, the diameter
should become smaller. I experimented with
tubes of various bores but I soon found that, with
only empirical experiments, a satisfactory result
would be difficult of attainment.

[The flute of 1832 with conical bore and ring

Fig. S.

Old-System Flute

by Boehm & Greve

Model of 1829

Fig. 6.

Boelim-System Flute

by Godfroy

Model of 1840

Fig. 7.

Cylinder Flute No. 19

by Th. Boehm

Model of 1850

12 THE FLUTE

keys, therefore, remained unchanged for fifteen
years. Boehm says in his treatise of 1847 : "With
regard to all the other alterations or improvements
which have since been made in the flute (between
the years 1832 and 1846), whose value or worth-
lessness I leave for others to decide, I had no part
in them. From the year 1833 to the year 1846 I
was unable to devote my time to the manufacture
of instruments, being otherwise engaged [in iron
and steel work] and for this reason my flute fac-
tory was -given up eight years ago, in 1839."]

I finally called science to my aid and gave two
years [1846-1847] to the study of the principles of
acoustics under the excellent guidance of Herr
Professor Dr. Carl von Schafhautl [of the Uni-
versity of Munich. An account of Schafhautl's life
and work by Herr Ludwig Boehm appeared in
the Bayer Industrie iind Gewerhehlatt, No. 17,
1890. A translation of this memoir is given in
Welch's "History of the Boehm Flute," pages 348-
372]. After making many experiments, as pre-
cise as possible, I finished a flute in the later part
of 1847, founded upon scientific principles, for
which I received the highest prize at the World's
Expositions, in London in 1851, and in Paris in
1855.

[Fig. 7 is a picture of the metal flute with cylin-
drical bore and covered keys invented in 1847.
This instrument, made by Boehm himself, is No.
19 of the series beginning in 1847. It belonged to
Edward Martin Heindl, one of Boehm's most fa-
mous pupils, who lived with Boehm for four years
from 1847 to 1851. Heindl came to America in

PURPOSE OF THIS TREATISE 13

1864, bringing this flute, which is probably the tirst
cylinder-bore, metal Boehm flute used in this coun-
try. Heindl played this instrument for miany years
while he was a member of the Mendelssohn Quin-
tette Club of Boston, and after he became first
flutist of the Boston Symphony Orchestra, upon its
organization in 1881. See pages 28, 95 and 99.]

Since this time my flutes have come to be played
in all the countries of the world, yet my treatise,
Ueber den Flotenbau und die neuesten Verbesser-
ungen desselben, published before that time [in
1847] by B. Schott's Sohne of Mainz, which con-
tains complete explanations of my system with the
dimensions and numerical proportions, seems to
have had but little influence. Because of the many
questions which are continually being asked of
me concerning the advantages and management
of my flute, it is evident that the acoustical pro-
portions and key mechanism are not sufficiently
well understood to enable one to help himself in
case of accidental troubles and derangementi?.

There is need, therefore, of this work, which will
be welcomed by all flute players, in which is given
as complete a description as is possible of my
flutes, and instructions for handling them, and
which also contains instructions upon the art of
playing the flute with a pure tone and a good
style.

II. THE ACOUSTI,CAL PROPORTIONS OF THE
FLUTE

[The original manuscript of this work contains
a page which has been crossed out by a pencil
mark, and which does not appear in the first
printed edition. While this portion, consisting of
the first three following paragraphs, is not im-
portant, nevertheless it forms an appropriate in-
troduction to this chapter.]

A LL of my flutes consist of three pieces, the
■**■ head- joint, the middle- joint, and the foot.
When these pieces are joined together they form the
tube of the flute, which is closed above the mouth-
hole by a cork plug. The main part of the tube
is cylindrical, with an inside diameter of 19 milli-
meters. The bore of the head- joint is gradually
reduced in diameter by two millimeters, from the
joint upwards to the cork. The free speech of the
tone and the correct tuning of the higher octaves
depend upon the particular form of this curvil-
inear reduction in the diameter.

The air column enclosed by the tube of the flute
is set into vibration by blowing across the mouth-
hole, causing the fundamental tone to sound. The
pitch of this tone depends upon the total length
of the vibrating column of air measured from the
cork to the lower end of the tube. The higher

THE TONE-HOLES 15

tones of the first octave are obtained by shortening
the length of the vibrating column of air, for
which purpose lateral tone-holes are bored in the
tube. The holes should be as large as is possible,
since the effective shortening of the tube is pro-
portional to the ratio of the size of the hole to the
diameter of the bore.

The correct intonation of a tone depends, con-
sequently, not only upon the distance of the hole
from the upper end of the air column, but also
upon its size, and therefore the exact place where
the hole is located must be determined by accurate
computation. All the formulae for these calcula-
tions, as well as other theoretical explanations
have previously been given in my treatise Ueber
den Flotenbau, already mentioned.

[The metric system is used throughout in giving
the dimensions of the flute. For conversion, the
following equivalents may be used : 1 inch=25.40
millimeters; 1 millimeter=0.03937 inch; 1 ounce
avoirdupois=28.35 grams; 1 ounce Troy=31.10
grams] .

All wind instruments with tone- or finger-holes,
whose construction requires very accurate pro-
portions, can be improved only through the inves-
tigation of the principles of both the good and
the bad of existing instruments, and through a
rational application of the results; the greatest
possible perfection will be obtained only when
theory and practice go hand in hand. When the
calculation of the required data is undertaken, the
questions first to be investigated are the dimen-

16 THE FLUTE

sions and numerical proportions of the air columns
and tone-holes of each separate instrument.

For this purpose I had prepared, in 1846, a great
number of conical and cylindrical tubes of various
dimensions, and of many metals and several kinds
of wood, so that the relative fitness of each as
to pitch, ease of sounding and quality of tone,
could be fundamentally investigated.

The most desirable proportions of the air
column, that is, the dimensions of bore best
suited for bringing out the fundamental tones at
various pitches, were soon found. These experi-
ments show :

1. That the strength, as well as the full, clear
quality of the fundamental tone, is proportional
to the volume of the air set in vibration.

2. That a more or less important contraction in
the bore of the upper part of the flute tube, and
a shortening or lengthening of this contraction,
have an important influence upon the production
of the tones and upon the tuning of the octaves.

3. That this contraction must be made in a
certain geometrical proportion, which is closely
approached by the curve of the parabola.

4. That the formation of the nodes and segments
of the sound waves takes place most easily and
perfectly in a cylindrical flute tube, the length of
which is thirty times its diameter, and in which
the contraction begins in the upper fourth part
of the length of the tube, continuing to the cork
where the diameter is reduced one tenth part.

THE PARABOLIC HEAD-JOINT 17

[Perhaps flutists are more puzzled by the
"parabolic head-joint" than by any other feature
of the modern flute. The contraction in the bore
is undoubtedly determined by experiment, and not
by any mathematical calculation based upon the
properties of the parabola. The translator has
measured and plotted the curves of perhaps a
hundred flutes, among which are specimens of
nearly every celebrated make. Most of these
curves do not in any way resemble a parabola;
such resemblance as is possessed by the few may
be described by saying that the curve which at
first departs but little from the straight line, bends
more and more rapidly as it progresses. But
sometimes the portion with the greatest curvature
is next to the cork and sometimes next to the
tuning slide!]

[The "parabolic" contraction in the head-joint
of an excellent specimen of Boehm & Mendler flute
is shown in Fig. 8. At the right is the section of
the tube, drawn in full size. The length of the
tapered portion is 134 millimeters. Starting at the
cork, where the diameter of the bore is 17.1
millimeters, the horizontal dotted lines indicate
the sections increasing in diameter, successively,
by 0.1 millimeter, up to 19.0 millimeters, near the
tuning slide. The figures on the dotted lines are
the diameters of the tube at the various sections.
At the left is an exaggerated diagram of the actual
contraction in this specimen of flute; the horizontal
scale for this part of the figure is 50 times the
vertical scale. If the bore of the tube were

1 1 1 1 [ r r I t:

(

) Tmn 0.5 i
b ~ -Jd"

P^W=^'^

.17:0

L-- 17 J -1

izz:::::::..::i

J I.

■••.. /

u.n

■jt -

/ /

18.0

I'l

el 1

■i

1 I c

18.5

/O rt

lU.U -J)

Fig. S

The Parabolic Head-Joint SLIDE

BORE OF THE TUBE 19

cylindrical, one side of it would be represented by
the line ab; if it contracted by a straight taper, the
line acd would represent the inner surface of the
tube; the "parabolic" curve actually existing is
shown by the curved line aed.]

Since the dimensions most suitable for the
formation of the fundamental tones correspond
closely to those of theory, a flute of these dimen-
sions, the length of the air column being 606
millimeters and the diameter 20 millimeters,
[because of the larger diameter, the length of tube
required is somewhat less than that given on page
35 for a tube 19 millimeters in diameter] would
certainly be perfect as regards a pure, full tone
and ease of sounding through a compass of about
two octaves. But in order to extend the compass
to three full octav as now required [in flute
music] I decide or the sake of freedom in the
upper tones iduce the diameter to 19 milli-

meters, no* ; anding that this injured to some
extent the y of the tones of the first two

octaves.

[In a letter written in 1867 Boehm says : "I have
made several flutes with a bore 20 millimeters in
diameter, therefore one millimeter wider than
usual; the first and second octaves were better,
but of course the third octave was not so good.
I could, indeed still play up to C^, but from F^*
upwards the notes were sounded with difficulty,
and if my lip did not happen to be in good order,
1 could not sound the higher notes piano at all.
The flute, whether in the orchestra or in solo play-

20 THE FLUTE

ing, is treated as the next highest instrument after
the piccolo; modern composers do not hesitate
to write for it up to Ce; therefore the bore of 19
millimeters diameter is certainly the best for
general purposes."]

[The silver flute with a wood head-joint which
is shown in Fig. 32 has a bore of 20 millimeters;
it is the only flute in C of this bore which the trans-
lator has seen. Its tone quality has been directly
compared with that of other Boehm & Mendler
flutes having a bore of 19 millimeters. The result
of the comparison was to corroborate the opinions
of Boehm as expressed above.]

[Before the year 1865 Boehm had developed the
"Alt-Flote," commonly called the "Bass Flute,"
which is described in Chapter XII; the tube of this
instrument has an inside diameter of 26 milli-
meters. Messrs. Rudall, Carte and Company have
long made such bass flutes and also the "Alto
Flute" in Bb, having a bore of 20.5 millimeters.
These instruments are altogether practicable and
have the beautiful tone quality in the lower oc-
taves, referred to above.]

A second obstacle which compelled me to depart
from the theory was the impossibility of making
a movable cork or stopper in the upper end of
the flute, so that its distance from the center of
the embouchure might be decreased or increased
in proportion to the pitch of each tone; a medium
position for it must therefore be chosen which
will best serve for both the highest and the lowest
tones; this position was found to be 17 millimeters
from the center of the embouchure.

SHAPE OF THE EMBOUCHURE 21

Next, the size and form of the mouth-hole
(embouchure) must be determined. The tone-
producing current of air must be blown against
the sharp edge of the mouth-hole, at an angle
which varies with the pitch of the tone. When
the air stream strikes the edge of the hole it is
broken, or rather divided, so that one part of it
goes over or beyond the bole, while the greater
part, especially with a good embouchure, produces
tone and acts upon the column of air enclosed by
the tube, setting it into vibration.

By this means the molecular vibrations [see
page 53] of the tube are excited, producing a tone
as long as the air stream is maintained; it follows
therefore that the tone will be stronger the greater
the number of the air particles acting upon the
tone-producing air column in a given time. The
opening between the lips through which the stream
of air passes is in the form of a slit, and a mouth-
hole in shape like an elongated rectangle with
rounded corners, presenting a long edge to the
wide air stream, will allow more air to be effective
than would a round or oval hole of equal size.

[Figs. 9 and 10 are photographs of the embou-
chures of two excellent flutes, shown somewhat
larger than full size, representing the oval and
rounded-square shapes. The latter is a perfedt
specimen of the Boehm & Mendler type. The
selection of shape and size of embouchure seems
to be largely one of individual choice or habit; an
embouchure which one performer finds to be
excellent another cannot use.]

Fig. 9.

Elliptical Embouchure

Rudall, Carte & Co.

Fig. 10.

Rectangular Embouchure

Boehm & Mendler

THE EMBOUCHURE 23

For the same reason a larger mouth-hole will
produce a louder tone than a smaller one, but this
requires a greater strength in the muscles of the
lip, because there is formed a hollow space under
the lip which is unsupported. More than this, it is
cften difficult to keep the air current directed at
the proper angle, upon which the intonation and
the tone quality for the most part depend.

By a greater depression of the air stream towards
the middle of the hole, the tone becomes deeper
and more pungent, while a greater elevation
makes the tone higher and more hollow. Con-
sequently the angle between the sides of the
mouth-hole and the longitudinal section through
the axis of the air column, as well as the height
of these sides, has an important influence upon
the easy production of the tone. In my opinion
an angle of 7 degrees is best adapted to the entire
compass of tones, the walls being 4.2 millimeters

I. ii.llMI l iMI III III

O 10 20

Scokie : mi lliweters

-12.Z-

Fig. 11. Embouchure of a Boehm & Mendler flute.
Transverse and longitudinal sections.

24 THE FLUTE

thick; and a mouth-hole 10 millimeters wide and
12 millimeters long, is best suited to most flute
players.

[The measurements of many Boehm & Mendler
flutes show sizes slightly larger than that men-
tioned, the average being 10.4 millimeters by 12.2
millimeters (0.409 inch by 0.480 inch).]

[The shape of a blow-hole may be clearly seen
from a wax impression; Fig. 11 shows transverse
and longitudinal sections of a gold embouchure
on a Boehm & Mendler flute. The cut is made
photographically from the actual wax casts, and
is slightly larger than full size. This blow-hole
has sides which are straight and nearly parallel.
The 7° of undercutting mentioned by Boehm,
indicated by the solid line in the figure, is not
present. Some of the earlier flutes by Boehm
show a slight undercutting, but the later ones,
both of wood and silver, have the sides nearly
parallel, as shown in this instance.]

Upon the completion of these experiments
I constructed many thin, hard-drawn tubes of
brass upon which the fundamental tone C3,

and also higher notes, could be produced by a
breath and be brought to any desired strength
without their rising in pitch.

The fact that the hissing noise heard in other
flutes was not perceptible convinced me that the
correct dimensions of the tube, and its smooth

LOCATION OF THE TONE-HOLES 25

inner surface permitted the formation of the sound
waves without noticeable friction. From this as
well as from the fine quality of tone of the
harmonics or acoustical over-tones, can be inferred
the perfect fitness of my tube for the flute; and
with this I began the determination of the amount
of shortening or cutting of the air column, required
for producing the intervals of the first octave.

The simplest and shortest method is, naturally,
successively to cut off from the lower end of the
flute tube so much as will make the length of the
air column correspond to each tone of the
chromatic scale. In order that these proportions
might be accurately verified, I made a tube in
which all the twelve tone sections could be taken
off and again put together, and which was pro-
vided with a sliding joint in the upper part of
the tube to correct for any defects in tuning.

Since a flute cannot be made to consist of many
separate pieces, all the tone lengths must be com-
bined in one tube and these lengths must be
determined by laterally bored holes; the air
column may be considered as disconnected or cut
off by these holes in a degree determined by the
ratio between the diameters of the holes and of
the tube.

The effective air column, however, is not as
much shortened by a tone-hole as it would be by
cutting the tube at the same point. Even if the size
of the hole is equal to the diameter of the tube, yet
the air waves will not pass out of the hole at
a right angle as freely as along the axis.

26 THE FLUTE

The waves meet with a resistance from the air
contained in the lo\Yer part of the tube, which
is so considerable that all the tones are much
too flat when they come from holes placed at
the points determined by actually cutting the tube.
And, moreover, the height of the sides of the holes
adds to the flattening effect. The tone-holes must,
therefore, be placed nearer the mouth-hole the
smaller their diameter and the higher their sides.

Although one octave can be correctly tuned in
this manner using small holes, yet for the follow-
ing reasons it is greatly to be desired that the
tone-holes should be as large as possible.

1. Free and therefore powerful tones can be
obtained only from large holes which are placed
as nearly as possible in their acoustically correct
positions.

2. If the holes are small and are considerably
removed from their proper places, the formation
of the nodes of vibration is disturbed and rendered
uncertain; the tone is produced with difficulty, and
often breaks into other tones corresponding to
the other aliquot parts of the air column
[harmonics].

3. The smaller the holes, the more distorted
become the tone waves, rendering the tone dull
and of poor quality.

4. The pure intonation of the third octave
depends particularly upon the correct position of
the holes.

From accurate investigations it is shown that the
disadvantages just mentioned, become impercep-

SIZE OF THE TONE-HOLES 27

tible only when the size of the holes is, at the least,
three-fourths of the diameter of the tube [141/4
millimeters]. But in the manufacture of wooden
flutes, the making of holes of such a size causes
considerable difficulty. At first it appeared very
desirable to make the holes of gradually increas-
ing size from the upper to the lower ones; later
this proved to be very disadvantageous and again
I concluded that a medium course is the best.
Therefore I finally chose a constant diameter for
all the twelve tone-holes from C3S to (H^, which for
silver flutes is 13.5 millimeters, and for wooden
flutes 13 millimeters.

[Actual measurements of many Boehm & Men-
dler flutes usually show tone-holes for both the
body and foot-joints of wooden flutes which are
uniformly 12.8 millimeters in diameter. A few
flutes only have holes full 13 millimeters in
diameter. The largest size of hole found on the
body-joint of a silver flute is 13.4 millimeters,
while the usual size is 13.2 millimeters for both
body and foot-joint. The Macauley flute, Fig. 31,
No.- 12, and also Fig. 34, has holes on the body
(nine holes) 13.2 millimeters in diameter, while
the four holes on the B^ foot-joint are 14.5 milli-
meters in diameter. This enlargement of the holes
on the foot-joint is seldom found on Boehm's
flutes, but it is common in flutes of modern manu-
facture. The Shippen flute, Fig. 31, No. 13, and
also Fig. 32, with a bore 20 millimeters, has the
five upper holes on the body (G#, A, A*, B, and C
thumb-key) of a diameter of 14.0 millimeters while

28 THE FLUTE

the four lower holes on the body and the four
holes on the B^i foot-joint have a uniform diameter
of 15 millimeters.]

[The Heindl flute, illustrated in Fig. 7 and in
the group picture. Fig. 31, was made about 1850,
and has graduated tone-holes. The thumb-key
hole for C^ is 11.4 millimeters in diameter, and the
low Cft hole is 13.6 millimeters in diameter; the
sizes of the holes increase uniformly, each being
0.2 millimeter larger in diameter than the preced-
ing hole. A letter written by Boehm, in 1862, to
Louis Lot, the celebrated flute-maker of Paris,
says regarding graduated tone-holes: "The flute-
playing world knows that for six years I made all
my silver flutes with graduated holes. During
my stay in London in 1851, 1, myself, used a flute
with graduated holes. The smallest, the thumb-
key hole for C^ was 12 millimeters in diameter, and
the largest, that for CgS, 15 millimeters, a constant
gradation of a quarter of a millimeter. The
graduated holes are in my opinion the best, but
the ditference is scarcely appreciable. I have dis-
continued making them on account of the greater
difficulty in the manufacture." The last sentence
seems to state three facts regarding graduated
holes; they are the best; their superiority is slight;
the cost of manufacture is greater. Today nearly
all makers use at least two sizes of holes, and
some use three or more sizes, for the regular
tone-holes. J

With these dimensions, in order to produce the
correct pitch, the center of the C^^ hole must be

CALCULATION OF DIMENSIONS 29

moved 5 millimeters above the point at which the
tube would have to be cut off in order to produce
the same tone. The amount of removal increases
with each hole in the ascending scale, so that the
C4 hole [thumb-key hole] must be placed 12 milli-
meters above the point of section of the air column.
In this manner the correct positions of the holes
are obtained, and the tuning of all the notes of
the first octave is rendered, to the ear, as perfect
as possible.

The notes of the second octave are produced, as
it were, by overblowing the tones of the first, by
narrowing the opening in the lips, and by changing
the angle and increasing the speed of the stream
of air; this results in the formation of shorter
tone-waves.

In order to secure a greater compass of tones
[in the higher octaves], it is necessary to use a
narrower tube than is best suited to the lower
tones, or, in other words, a tube which has a
diameter too small in proportion to its length.
From this it results that the tones D^ and DJt

[being sounded as harmonics of a long, slender
tube] are of different quality from the next follow-
ing tones, and it is first with the tone E^ that a
suitable relation between the length and width
of the tube is again restored.

The flute properly should have three additional
large holes for the tones CJr, D^, DJf.

THE FLUTE

^m]

Following the theory, the octave holes for
D4 and D^Jf would also serve as vent holes for the
twelfths, G5S and Ag, giving all of these tones a
better quality, a purer intonation, and a freer
sounding. But there is only one finger available,
and this must be used for C^S; and as I was
unwilling to make my key system still more com-
plicated, the C4S hole must be so placed that it
may serve at the same time as a so-called vent
hole for the tones, D^, DJt, Dg, G5S, and A5.

[^ ^

[Thus the theoretical position of the (ZJi hole
was abandoned] and it was necessary to determine
by experiment a size and position for the CJi hole
which would satisfy all of these demands. It was
found that the CJi hole, as well as the two small
holes for the D4 and D^Jf trill-keys, must therefore
be placed considerably above their true positions,
and must be made correspondingly smaller. [The
sizes and positions of these holes are given on
page 35.]

For the exact determination of these positions
and the other tuning proportions, I had a flute
made with movable holes, and was thus enabled
to adjust all the tones higher or lower at pleasure.
In this way I could easily determine the best posi-

THE EQUALLY TEMPERED SCALE 31

tions of the upper three small holes, but it was
not possible to determine the tuning of the other
tones as perfectly as I desired; for, in endeavoring
to produce an entire true scale in one key, the
tones were always thrown out of the proportions
of the equal temperament, without which the best
possible tuning of wind instruments with tone-
holes cannot be obtained.

Therefore, in order to determine with perfect
accuracy the points at which the tone-holes shall
be bored, one must avail himself of the help of
theory. To form a basis for all the calculations
of dimensions, and for the easy understanding of
this, it seems not out of place to give as simply
as possible an explanation of the fundamental
acoustical laws.

As is known, the acuteness or graveness of a tone
depends upon the length and volume of the
sounding body, being proportional to the velocity
of vibration which can be impressed upon the
body. For the entire compass of musical tones,
these fixed relative proportions have long been
known with mathematical precision; the follow-
ing Table I gives these relations for all the tones
of the equally tempered scale in the form of
vibration numbers and string lengths. [The ratio
of the number of vibrations of any tone in the
equally tempered scale to the number of vibrations
of the preceding tone is the twelfth root of 2; the
numerical value of this ratio is 1.059463. As the
numbers in this table are useful for various
acoustical computations, they have been recom-

32 THE FLUTE

puted by the translator, and several typographical
errors in Boehm's figures have been corrected.]

TABLE I

Eelative

Relative

Tones

Vibration Numbers

String Lengrths

Cx+,

2.000000

0.500000

1.887749

0.529732

Bb or A#

1.781797

0.561231

1.681793

0.594604

Ab or G#

1.587401

0.629960

1.498307

0.667420

Gb or F#

1.414214

0.707107

1.334840

0.749154

1.259921

0.793701

Eb or DS

1.189207

0.840896

1.122462

0.890899

Db or CS

1.059463

0.943874

1.000000

i. 000000

Here is shown the geometrical progression in
which the vibration frequency of Cx, which is des-
ignated the fundamental, is constantly increased
throughout the scale, so that the number of vibra-
tions of the octave, Cx+ 1 has become double that of
Cx; at the same time, shortening in equal progres-
sion, the string length is reduced from 1.0 to 0.5.

With these relative numbers it is a simple matter
to calculate the absolute vibration-numbers corre-
sponding to any desired pitch, since any given
vibration number bears to each of the other
intervals exactly the same proportion, as the rela-
tive number corresponding to this tone bears to
the relative numbers of these other intervals.

ACOUSTICAL PROPORTIONS 33

For example, to calculate the number of vibra-
tions of the tone C3, knowing the absolute number
of vibrations of the Normal A3 to be 435 vibrations
per second we have the following proportion: .
relative A, : relative Cg^absolute A3 : absolute C3
1.681793 : 1.000000=435 : x

435X1.000000

= 258.65

1.681793

If now this absolute number 258.65 be multiplied
by each of the relative vibration numbers of the
above table, one obtains the absolute vibration
numbers of all the tones in one octave of the
normal scale from C3 to C^ [see Table II, page 35] .
In this way one avoids the division by numbers
of many places, which is necessary in the direct
method of calculation.

In a similar way one calculates measurements
of length, as soon as the theoretical length of the
air column in any given system, corresponding to
the string length 1.000000, is determined.

While the vibration numbers and theoretical
proportions of lengths for all instruments remain
always the same, yet the actual lengths of the air
columns are very different, because each wind
instrument has its own peculiar length in con-
sequence of its method of tone formation. For
example, an oboe and likewise a clarinet (on
account of the flattening effect upon the tone of
the tube and mouth-piece) are much shorter than
a flute of the same pitch; and even in the flute
the actual length of the air column is less than
the theoretical length corresponding to the given

34 THE FLUTE

tone. The same is true to a less extent of a simple
tube or a mouth-piece alone. Hence it happens
that a wind instrument cut in two in its middle
does not given the octave of its fundamental, but
a considerably flatter tone.

In the case of the flute the flattening influence
of the cork, the mouth-hole, the tone-holes, and
the dimensions of bore is such that, altogether, it
amounts to an air column of 51.5 millimeters in
length, which in the calculation must be con-
sidered theoretically as existing, in order that the
length of the air column shall exactly correspond
to the length of the string of the monochord deter-
mined from the numbers and proportions of the
table.

It will be found that the actual length of the air
column (and therefore also of the flute tube) from
the center of a C3 hole, bored in the side of a long
flute tube [or, from the center of the Ci hole in
a B*! or a Bb foot-joint] to the face of the cork is
618.5 millimeters, and that the length of the first
octave from the center of the hole for C3 to the
center of the hole for C^ is 335 millimeters; thus
the upper portion is 51.5 millimeters shorter than
the lower, and in calculating, this quantity (51.5
millimeters), must be taken into consideration.
[This quantity may be called the "closed-end
correction" for this particular size of tube (see
page 42.]

By doubling the length of the octave one obtains
as the theoretical air column the length of 670
millimeters, which serves as the unit of calcula-
tion, and from which, corresponding to the normal

LENGTH OF AIR COLUMN

pitch [A=435], are obtained the following absolute
vibration-numbers and the relative and the actual
length-measures. [All the dimensions in this table
and throughout this text, which refer to the posi-
tions of tone-holes are measured from the centers
of the holes. The numbers in this table have been
recomputed by the translator. The numbers of
vibrations for the tones for the next lower octave
are obtained by dividing the numbers in the first
column by two, and for the higher octave by
multiplying by two; the theoretical lengths of the
air column for the next lower octave are obtained
from the second column by multiplying by two,
and for the higher octave by dividing by two. The
actual lengths of air column for other octaves can-
not be obtained by this simple process, but must
be determined by experiment.]

TABLE II

Absolute

Theoretical

Actual

Tones

Vibration

Lenjzrths of

Lenf^the of

Numbers

Air Column

517.31

335.00mm

283.50mm

488.27

354.92

303.42

B3b A3«

460.87

376.02

324.52

435.00

398.38

346.88

A3b G3S

410.59

422.07

370.57

387.54

447.17

395.67

Gsb F3«

365.79

473.76

422.26

345.26

501.93

450.43

325.88

531.78

480.28

£3^ D3«

307.59

563.40

511.90

290.33

596.90

545.40

D,\> C,»

274.03

632.40

580.90

258.65

670.00

618.50

36 THE FLUTE

Evidently for the practical application, 51.5
millimeters must be subtracted from each of the
theoretical lengths to obtain the actual lengths,
given in the third column, which determine the
distances between the face of the cork and the
center points for boring the tone-holes. [See the
diagram on page 41. J

[The center of the blow-hole is 17.00 millimeters
from the face of the cork. The center of the C^
hole (the thumb-key hole) is 283.50 millimeters
from the cork. The distance of 618.50 millimeters
for the Cs hole is for a lateral tone-hole in a tube
which extends downwards to B*? or lower. If the
flute is in C, then this tone is given by the open
end. As mentioned on page 29, the dislance
between the center of the CgS hole and the end
of the tube is found by experiment to be
5 millimeters greater than the distance to the
center of a hole for Cg located by the simple theory,
hence it follows that the open end for C3 is
618.50+5.00=623.50 millimeters from the face of
the cork. J

[The center of a tone-hole for Cg is 618.50 milli-
meters from the cork. Extending the Schema, the
distance of the center of a lateral tone-hole for
B^ (foot-joint) is 658.32 millimeters. If this tone
is given by the open end, the correction is -[-5.30
millimeters, and the distance of the open end of
a B1 foot-joint is thus 663.62 millimeters from the
cork. As mentioned on page 48, Boehm usually
made the head-joint about 2 millimeters short
at the tuning slide. This should be taken into
account when measuring actual flutes.]

ACOUSTICAL PROPORTIONS 37

[In the system of fingering devised by Boehm,
now in general use, the tone Fff is obtained by
pressing down with either the third, or second
finger of the right hand, with the result that there
is one closed hole below the open hole from which
the tone Ft is being emitted. This closed hole
has the effect of slightly lowering the pitch of the
tone. To compensate for this flattening the tone-
hole for FS is usually placed a little above
the position indicated in Table II. This dis-
placement is about 1.2 millimeters, which gives
422.26-1.20=421.06 millimeters from the cork as
the compensated position of the center of the Flf
hole.]

[In order to complete the dimensions of a flute,
it is necessary to add data for the upper C* hole,
and for the trill-key holes for D^i and D*. There
is no formula for calculating these quantities. A
study of ten selected Boehm & Mendler flutes
gives the following dimensions:

Distance of

Diameter

center form cork

DS trill-key hole

7.6mm

216.30mm

D^ trill-key hole

7.6

233.40

C* small tone-hole

6.6

253.50

Occasionally a flute

is found

with these small

holes of a dift'erent diameter, and with correspond-
ing changes in their positions; but the data given
represent Boehm's later instruments.]

[The dimensions given in this section correspond
to the pitch A=435, and for tone-holes 13.2 milli-
meters in diameter, having a maximum rise above
the edge of the hole of about 3 milhmeters; the
data for any other pitch may be determined by
the method described in the next section.]

III. EXPLANATION OF THE SCHEMA

IN Table II there is given only one set of normal
dimensions; since the normal pitch [now
known as International or low pitch: A=435] is
by no means in universal use, it is often necessary
to have measurements corresponding to various
given pitches, but the labor required to make the
necessary calculations of dimensions involves
much time and trouble.

These inconveniences have caused me to design
a Schema in which the basis of all the calculations
for measurements of length is graphically rep-
resented. In this diagram the geometrical propor-
tions of the lengths of a string, corresponding to
the reciprocals of the vibration numbers in the
equally tempered scale, are represented by the
intersections of horizontal and vertical lines ; while
diagonal lines indicate the geometrical progression
in which the measures of length may be varied
without disturbing their reciprocal proportions to
the vibration numbers.

This graphic method was suggested by the plan
of a monochord, on which, by means of a move-
able bridge, the stretched string may be succes-
sively shortened to half of its original length,
thereby producing all the intervals of one octave.

Now these proportions remain constant from the
highest to the lowest musical tones, and the tran-

THE SCHEMA 39

sition from one interval lo the next can therefore
be represented graphically, and my Schema has
been founded upon these considerations. With
its help and without calculation, the centers of
the tone holes of all wind instruments constructed
on my system, as well as the positions of the so-
called frets of guitars, mandolins, zithers, etc.,
may be easily and quickly determined.

[The Schema seems to have developed grad-
ually during Boehm's study of the dimensions of
the flute. The first definite reference to it is in
connection with the London Exhibition of 1862.
Mr. Wm. Pole reports (Welch, pp. 154, 157.) : "He
has sent for exhibition a geometrical diagram, with
explanations, by which makers of tubular instru-
ments can, with the greatest readiness and accu-
racy, construct their instruments according to any
of the recognized pitches." Boehm later sent a
copy of the Schema to the Paris Exposition of 1887,
but the jury said they were not competent to de-
cide upon the merits of a production which was
scientific rather than artistic. In a letter to Mr.
Broadwood, dated November 15, 1868, Boehm
says: "At the Paris Exposition, unfortunately,
the jurors, being unfamiliar with the subject, de-
clined to go into it; wherefore, at the request of the
committee of the Bavarian Polytechnic Society,
I had my diagrams published in their Kunst and
Gewerbeblatt." The account was given in the Kunst
and Gewerbeblatt, a periodical published in Mun-
ich, in October, 1868, and a copy of the original,,
in German, is in the translator's collection. A.

40 THE FLUTE

complete English translation of this description
of the Schema has been given by Mr. Broadwood
("Essay on the Boehm Flute," pages 62-69). The
explanation give by Boehm in "Die Flote und das
Flotenspiel," differs from that in the Kunst und
Gewerbeblatt mainly in the omission of a figure
showing details of the diagram; this figure has
been reproduced in this edition as Fig. 12. A criti-
cal discussion of the Schema, as submitted to the
Paris Exposition, has been given by M. Cavaille-
Coll (Welch, "History of the Boehm Flute," pages
306-313).]

My diagram. Fig. 12, consists of three parallel,
horizontal lines of three different lengths, which
start from a common vertical line, and are des-
ignated hj A, B, and C. [In the original this dia-
gram is given in half-size scale; it is here repro-
duced about one-fifth full size. In either case, for
actual use, it would need to be redrawn accurately
to full size. The dimensions shown on the dia-
gram have been added by the translator, to make
the construction plain; all of the dimensions are
given in Table II. A portion of the Schema, drawn
to full size, is shown in Fig. 13, on page 45.]

The central line represents the air column of a
cylindrical flute tube, open at both ends, corre-
sponding to the stretched string of the monochord,
whose fundamental tone is C3 of the scale founded
on the normal pitch A3=435 vibrations. The en-
tire length of this air column, and therefore of the
line B, for the fundamental tone C3 is 670 milli-
meters. The sectional lengths for the tones of the

THE SCHEMA

2\ ■"

r/l

b/j

•?

t<l

42 THE FLUTE

chromatic scale, calculated from the absolute vi-
bration numbers for this pitch, and expressed in
millimeters [see Table II], are given by the points
of intersection of the line B with the vertical lines.
There is thus represented a standard of meas-
urement, expressed in millimeters, to be taken from
the upper end of the diagram along the line B.
This diagram gives the actual dimensions of my
flute, measured from the cork, if from each rela-
tive measure is subtracted the 51.5 millimeters
(represented by the small cross line) which was
previously added to complete the theoretical air
column [see page 34]. More than this, all the
data for calculation are present, if the absolute
vibration numbers are written beneath the points
of intersection of the length measures.

Since these standard measures correspond only
to the normal pitch, it is necessary to be able to
lengthen or shorten the relative distances of the
tone-holes to correspond to varying pitches, with
ease and without disturbing their reciprocal pro-
portions.

This can be accomplished without computation
by means of diagonal lines on the diagram which
pass through the points of intersection of the ver-
tical lines with the line B, both upwards and down-
wards to the points where the vertical lines end
in the two parallel lines A and C. In this way are
shown two new sets of measures, one correspond-
ing to a pitch a h^lf tone sharper, the other to
one a half tom j^latter.

[The cOTstruction may be carried out graphic-

CONSTRUCTION OF THE SCHEMA 43

ally as follows: After the several vertical lines
have been drawn through the points of intersec-
tion on B, the line A is drawn parallel to B at
any convenient distance; a diagonal line is drawn
through each intersection of a vertical line with
A to the intersection of the next lower vertical
line with B, and is continued until it intersects
the second lower vertical line below B; the line C
is then determined by the last intersections of the
diagonal and vertical lines. If these intersections
do not all fall on a straight line parallel to B,
there has been a mistake in the construction of the
diagram; as Boehm says, "the accuracy of the
drawing is self-controlled." Obviously, the ratio
of the distances between the parallel lines A, B,
and C, must be the same as that of the distances
between any three successive vertical lines, which
is the ratio of the semi-tone intervals of the equally
tempered scale, 1.0595. In Fig. 12, these distances
have been taken equal to those between the
vertical line for G and 'Ft, and F# and F, 26.59
millimeters and 28.17 millimeters, respectively.
Any other pair of distances between tone-holes,
would give a diagram with diagonal lines of a
different slope, but all would lead to the same
dimensions for the flute.]

A flute made to the shortened measurements of
line A, will be exactly half a tone sharper than
the normal pitch, while one made upon the longer
dimensions of line C, will be exactly a half tone
lower than the normal pitch. Now as these di-
agonal lines may be looked u :fl i as continuous
series of tone-hole centers, which, in geometrical

44 THE FLUTE

progression, gradually approach each other above,
and in the same way recede from each other be-
low, it follows that the relative proportions of the
distances of these points remain continually un-
changed, wherever the diagonal lines are inter-
sected by a new line parallel to the line B.

It is possible, therefore, as shown in the dia-
gram, to draw six additional parallel lines be-
tween A and C, which, together with B, will give
dimensions diifering in pitch by one-eighth of a
tone; and at will many other lines may be drawn,
the intersections of each of which with the di-
agonal lines will give correct dimensions. The
only remaining question is how such a line shall
be drawn so that it shall correspond exactly to
any given pitch.

In order to answer this question one must first
express the pitch difference between the given
pitch and the normal, in millimeters, which will
give the difference between the length of the air
column of the given tone, and the length for the
same tone in normal pitch shown on line B. This
will also determine the position of a new vertical
section line crossing the line B, corresponding to
the given tone.

If the desired pitch is higher than the normal,
the vertical section line through the point on line
B, corresponding to the new pitch, is to be ex-
tendedupwardtowardil/whileif the pitch is lower
than the normal, the vertical line is to be extended
downward toward C.

In either case the intersection of the vertical

SCALES FOR VARIOUS PITCHES

line with a diagonal line is the point through
which a new line parallel to B is to be drawn.
The conversion of pitch difference into longitud-
inal measurement may be carried out as fol-
lows. The pitch to which an instrument is to be
constructed may be given by a tuning fork, a tun-
ing pipe, or by the number of vibrations, and in
the Schema either an A or a C may be used.

For example, let there be given by a tuning fork
an A3 of 430 vibrations, which is 5 vibrations flatter
than the normal A3 of 435 vibrations, for which
pitch the positions of all the tone-holes are re-
quired. In this case it is necessary merely to draw

37e.o^>

398.38->

-422.07-3-

iA=410.6=a'^

Fig. 13. A portion of the Schema.
Full size.

out the head joint of a normal flute until it is
exactly in tune with the tuning fork (which nat-

46 THE FLUTE

urallj" the ear determines) in which case the length
drawn out will be found to be 4.63 millimeters.
If, however, the given pitch is higher than the
normal, for example A3=445 vibrations, then,
since the flute cannot be shortened, the head joint
is to be drawn out till the tone Bb is in unison with
the A3 of the fork. The length drawn out will be
found to be 13.40 millimeters; and since the dis-
tance between the centers of the Bgb and A3 holes
of the normal flute is 22.36 millimeters, it follows
that the air column corresponding to the A3 of the
fork is shorter than that of the normal flute by 8.96
millimeters.

If the pitch differences are given by vibration
numbers, then the conversion into millimeter
measures must be calculated. The vibration num-
bers are inversely proportional to the lengths ; and
the vibration numbers A3=430 and A3=445 are
to the normal vibration number A3=435, as the
relative normal length 398.38 milimeters is to
the required lengths. If now the numbers 435 and
398.38 are multiplied together, and the resulting
product is divided by the numbers 430 and 445, the
quotients are 403.01 and 389.42 which then repre-
sent the numbers of millimeters in the relative
lengths, to which the vibration numbers have been
converted. If these measurements correspond to
the given vibration numbers 430 and 445, then
the differences between them and the length of
the normal A3, 4.63 and 8.96 millimeters, must
correspond to the vibration differences of 5 and
10 vibrations, respectively.

THE SCHEMA 47

Therefore a vertical section line drawn through
the line B at a point 4.63 millimeters distant from
the center of the A3 hole in the direction of Ajb,
will correspond to A3=430 vibrations; and a sec-
tion line 8.96 taillimeters distant from the A3
hole in the direction of A3* will correspond to A3
=445 vibrations.

[In Boehm's original description of the Schema
in the Kunst und Gewerbehlatt, a diagram accom-
panies the preceding explanation, which is
omitted in "Die Flote und das Flotenspiel." This
drawing, given in Fig. 13, vdth some elaboration
and with dimensions added, shows a portion of the
Schema drawn accurately to full scale.]

The desired points of intersection will, in the
manner mentioned above, be obtained from the
diagonals leading upward or downward, and the
results of this method of procedure will be found
to be perfectly accurate.

Since the relative proportions of the vibration
numbers and the measurements remain unchanged
throughout the diagram, it is immaterial whether
the given tone is an A, a C, or any other; and if
the diagram is not sufficiently long for lower tones,
it can be extended at will.

For each successive lower octave one has only
to double all the dimensions; the accuracy of the
drawing controls itself, for any error made would
be at once evident by the drawing of the diagonal
lines.

From this explanation it is evident that a flute
can be in perfect tune at one pitch only, and that

48 THE FLUTE

any shortening or lengthening of the tube above
the tone-holes must work disadvantageously upon
the intonation; in the first case the higher tones
as compared with the lower are too sharp, and in
the second case [drawing the tuning side], on the
contrary, the lower tones are too sharp as com-
pared with the higher.

Obviously, these difficulties are no more over-
come by a longer or shorter head-joint, tlian by a
simple drawing of the slide ; this drawing-out must
not be more than two millimeters. Small dif-
ferences of pitch can, indeed, be compensated, so
far as the ear is concerned, by a good embouchure.
Accordingly I make the head-joints of my flutes
about two millimeters shorter than is required
for perfect tuning, so that one may not only draw
out the head to lower the pitch, but that he may
also make it somewhat sharper. However, it is
best in ordering a flute to specify the pitch as ac-
curately as possible, and at the same time to men-
tion whether the player directs his embouchure
inward or outward, as this also produces a con-
siderable eff'ect on the pitch.

[A study of eleven specimens verifies the state-
ment made above. Four of these head-joints
are exactly two millimeters short; two of them are
three millimeters short. The average amount of
shortening is 2.4 millimeters. Unfortunately the
variation in pitch within the last fifty years has
led many owners of Boehm's flutes to have them
purposely altered; and often there are repairs
to the head, or slide-joint, which alter the length.
No instrument has ever been found which differs

UTILITY OF THE SCHEMA 49

from the specified dimensions, which does not
also show evidence of having been altered.]

[There has been a great deal of discussion as to
the validity and utility of the Schema. It has been
stated that Boehm himself did not follow the
Schema; that flute makers in general do not use
it; that a flute made according to the Schema
would be so badly out of tune as to be unusable.
(Rockstro, "The Flute," p. 169; Welch, "History
of the Boehm Flute," p. 297) . Much study has been
given to the design of the scale of the flute, in-
volving the accurate measurement of several hun-
dred specimens, among which have been, perhaps,
fifty made by Boehm. These flutes by Boehm
represent all stages of his work from the year 1850
to 1880, and are of all sizes; there are bass flutes
in G, military flutes in Db, orchestra flutes of vari-
ous pitches, and several with B^i foot-joints. Every
flute from Boehm's shops so far examined has
been constructed accurately upon the dimensions
explained in connection with the Schema. There
is little need for argument regarding the tuning
of these instruments: for fifty years many of the
most eminent artists have used Boehm's flutes in
some of the finest orchestras of the world, where
the requirements of accurate tuning are the most
exacting. At the time of writing (1921) the trans-
lator is using a Boehm & Mendler silver flute, made
according to the Schem.a for the pitch A = 435.
This has been played in direct comparison with
several other instruments of the very highest qual-
ity recently made by the most eminent makers in
America and abroad; and also in comparison with

50 THE FLUTE

a flute constructed upon the translator's own im-
proved (?) scale. Each flute has its individual
characteristics, but in general Boehm's Schema is
fully justified.]

[The Schema is certainly based upon rational
principles, that is, it is "scientific;" it consists of
the application of the laws of the musical scale
to quantitive measurements. The fundamental in-
terval of the octave is found only by experiment,
and Boehm's value is the result of his years of
experience. Any change in the diameter of the
bore, in the size of the blow-hole, in the size of the
tone-holes, in the length of the tube avound the
holes; any change in the rise of the keys, in the
hardness of the pads, in the diameter of the metal
washer holding the pads in place; any change in
the manner of blowing, or even in the physical
condition of the player himself — any of th^ese
changes would alter the fundamental interval and
lead to a set of dimensions ditferent from those
given by Boehm. Nevertheless, the Schema is
quite correct for a flute played as Boehm intended
it to be played. Many performers wish modifica-
tions to favor or correct certain tones, or to suit
their personal idiosyncrasies, and makers have
adopted such changes, thus departing in detail
from Boehm's measures. Such a change may be
acceptable to one player and not to another; in
any case they do not invalidate the Schema.
In examining old flutes account must be taken of
possible alterations. For instance the Heindl
Flute, No. 19, (page 99) has the tone-holes spaced
according to the Schema for the scale of A=445,

52 THE FLUTE

but the slide-joint has been shortened by 8 milli-
meters, raising the pitch to A=452. Evidence of
this change is very plain when looked for.J

[A set of instruments for the accurate and con-
venient measurement of flutes, is shown in Fig.
14. With the exception of three pieces these tools
were especially made for this purpose. There is a
special caliper for measuring the diameters of the
tone-holes without removing the keys; a jointed
measuring rod, 1000 millimeters long, with vernier
and with a special compensation, adjustable to
any flute so that all measurements of length are
referred to the center of the embouchure; a set
of 170 standard disks for diameters of bore and
of holes, differing by tenths of a millimeter (0.004
inch) ; a caliper for inside, outside, and depth
measures; a standard micrometer caliper; and a
delicate spring balance for weighing the parts.]

IV. THE MATERIAL

THAT the tones of a flute may not only be
easily produced, but shall also possess a bril-
liant, and sonorous quality, it is necessary that the
molecules of the flute tube shall be set into vibra-
tion at the same time as the air column, and that
these shall, as it were, mutually assist one another.
The material must possess this requisite vibration
ability, which is either a natural property of the
body, for example as in bell-metal, glass and vari-
ous kinds of wood, or has been artificially pro-
.duced, as in the case of hardened steel springs
and hard-drawn metal wire. [Undoubtedly the
material of which a wind instrument is made
sometimes affects the tone quality, but the man-
ner in which this influence is exerted has not been
explained; it is doubtful whether it is correct to
ascribe it to the molecular vibrations of the mate-
rial.]

Now in both cases the excitation of the vibra-
tions requires the expenditure of energy propor-
tional to the mass of the material. Consequently
the tones of a flute will be more easily produced
and the development of their full strength will
require less effort in blowing, the less the weight
of the flute tube.

Upon a silver flute, therefore, the thin and hard
drawn tube of which weighs only 129 grams, the

54 THE FLUTE

brightest and fullest tone can be brought out and
maintained much longer without fatiguing blow-
ing, than can be done on a wood flute, which even
when made as thin as possible still has double
the weight, namely 2271/2 grams. [The; silver
tubes used by Boehm have a thickness of about
0.28 millimeters and the wooden tubes are 3.7
miUimeters thick. The silver flute complete
weighs about 330 grams and the wooden flute
about 440 grams.]

Any variation in the hardness or brittleness of
the material has a very great effect upon the tim-
bre or quality of tone. Upon this point much ex-
perience is at hand, for flutes have been made of
various kinds of wood, of ivory, crystal-glass, por-
celain, rubber, papier-mache, and even of wax, and
in every conceivable way to secure the various
desired results. Heretofore all of these researches
have led back to the selection of very hard wood,
until I succeeded in making flutes of silver and
German silver, which now for twenty years have
rivaled the wood flute. [Silver flutes were first
introduced by Boehm in 1847.] Notwithstanding
this it is not possible to give a decisive answer to
the question "Which is the best?"

The silver flute is preferable for playin,g in very
large rooms because of its great ability for .tone
modulation, and for the unsurpassed brilliancy
and sonorousness of its tone. But on account of its
unusually easy tone-production, very often it is
overblown, causing the tone to become hard and
shrill; hence its advantages are fully realized only

THE MATERIAL 55

through a very good embouchure and diligent
tone-practice. For this reason wooden flutes on
my system are also made, which are better adapted
to the embouchures of most flute players; and
the wood flutes possess a full and pleasant qual-
ity of tone, which is valued especially in Ger-
many.

The silver flutes are made of a %o fine alloy
[United States coin silver is %o fine; sterling silver
is '•^^iooo fine] ; and for the manufacture of wood
flutes I usually employ either the so-called cocus
wood, or the grenadilla wood of South America.
The first, of dark or red-brown color, is especially
desirable because of its brilliant tone, notwith-
standing that this wood contains a resin, which, in
very rare cases, induces an inflammation of the
skin of the lip. To obviate this difficulty, as well
as to secure a very pleasant ringing quality of tone
in the high notes, many will prefer black grena-
dilla wood. Ebony and boxwood are now used
only for the cheaper grades of instruments.

In the construction of my flutes only selected
wood of the finest quality is used, and if a piece
develops a defect during the working, it is at once
cast aside, that no more time and labor may be
lost.

However, a flute which is entirely free from de-
fects may become cracked by improper handling,
against which no guarantee is possible. Both the
cause and the means of preventing such accidents
should be understood, and I will therefore return
to this subject later, under the heading. Treatment
of the Flute in General.

56 THE FLUTE

[Boehm frequently combined two materials,
making the body of silver and the head of wood.
It was in his later years that he most strongly ad-
vocated this combination, though he had con-
structed such flutes in his earlier years, certainly
as early as 1865. Three such instruments are
shown in Figs. 7, 32, and 41; the latter two have
heads of "thinned" wood. Notwithstanding
Boehm's recommendation, such composite instru-
ments have not grown in favor.]

^.^w*'

■tW-

■i^-tf-i-^ -fi^-trry -V^*-*'^^

W"-^^i>«.

V. THE SYSTEM OF FINGERING

(a) General Description

HAVING determined the dimensions and ma-
terial best suited for the flute tube, it was
then necessary to devise a system of fingering by
which all scales, passages, and trills in the twenty-
four keys could be played, clearly, certainly, and
with the greatest possible ease. [The chronolog-
ical order is not accurately stated, for the sys-
tem of fingering was practically completed in 1832,
while the dimensions and material, as described
above, were altered by the introduction, in 1847,
of the silver flute with cylinder bore.]

This task I endeavored to ac,complish in the fol-
lowing manner. Since the fifteen tone-holes of
my flute tube could not be covered by means of the
fingers, because the holes were too large and in
some instances too far apart, it was necessary to
furnish them all with keys which had then to be
so arranged that they could be opened or closed
at will.

For this purpose but nine fingers are available,
since the thumb of the right hand is indispensable
for holding the flute. The deficiency in fingers
must therefore be made up by mechanism, whose
systematic coupling makes it possible to close
several keys at the same time with one finger.
I have accomplished this by means of moveable

*
60 THE FLUTE

axles, to which some of the keys are rigidly fas-
tened, and on which other keys are merely hinged;
by means of clutches underneath, the latter may
be made to act upon the axles.

These axles may be lengthened as desired, so
that the attached keys are manipulated at points
within easy reach of the fingers; the means for
accomplishing this had to be sought in the design
of the key mechanism. After mature considera-
tion of all the possible tone combinations and fin-
ger movements I made many sketches of mechan-
isms, in my effort to find the best methods of
key connections. In such matters only actual trial
can determine which is best. I constructed flutes
on three entirely ditferent models and after care-
ful trial of all the advantages and disadvantages,
that model of my flute which has since become
well known proved itself in all respects the most
suitable.

I have retained the three foot keys for CJt,
D3, DgJf, for the little finger of the right hand, in
the form already well established. The two trill
keys for D4 and D^* are brought into use only for
the highest tones Bgb and B^. Hence the number
of keys to be arranged for in the regular scheme
of fingering is reduced from fifteen to ten for the
playing of which there are still eight fingers avail-
able.

There then arose the question, "Which method
of construction, that with open keys or that with
closed keys, is the most practicable ?"

I chose the open keys, as giving the greatest

THE SYSTEM OF FINGERING 61

possible ease in playing, since they easily follow
the movement of the fingers, and only weak
springs are required to raise them quickly. On
the contrary, closed keys require strong springs in
order that large holes may be stopped airtight,
and their motions are contrary to those of the
fingers, [that is, when the finger is pressed down-
ward the key over the hole moves upward] .

After the ten holes from E to CS were provided
with separate, easily moving keys, the eight fin-
gers were placed upon them in the most practical
arrangement which permitted the holding of the
flute in a natural manner; then as many keys
were closed as could be done with entire con-
venience; there remained open only the two holes
for G and B [which, when closed, give F# and Bb],
and for the closing of these the lack of fingers must
be made up by mechanical contrivances.

For this two key combinations were necessary,
namely the clutches for connecting the E, F, and
F# keys with the lengthened movable axle of the
G key, and the clutches of the Bb and the F* keys
connecting with the axle of the B key.

As is shown in the following drawing (Fig. 20),
the two keys G and B may be closed by means
of the connected keys, without changing the lay
of the fingers, and when the fingers are hfted the
keys open of themselves by means of their own
springs; thus one can play them at will.

In this way the very troublesome sliding from
keys and tone-holes which is required on the old
flute is entirely done away with, and one can cer-

62 THE FLUTE

tainly and easily play all possible tone combina-
tions from low D3 to high A^. In my system each
scale requires the use of all the fingers, and con-
sequently they are all equally exercised, thus a
player is in a condition to play in all keys with
equal accuracy, certainty and ease.

In the following table of fingerings [page 72],
those designated "irregular" may be used not only
for facilitating certain passages, but they may also
be employed in many cases for enharmonic
differences, such as between F# and Gb.

The practicability of my system of fingering has
long demonstrated itself not only in its use by
artists, but also by beginning students who learn
to play the scales and trills in all keys in much
shorter time than was possible on the old flute.

The changing from the old flute to the new is not
nearly so difficult as most players imagine. Ordi-
narily it requires only about two weeks for one
to become familiar with the mechanism and the
table of fingerings; and one will find compensation
for the trouble involved in the clear, smooth and
easy production of the tones.

(b) The G# Key

In the planning of my system of fingering, I made
the G# key to stand open, like all the rest, only
after mature consideration of all the advantages
and disadvantages in acoustical, mechanical, and
technical respects. The open key is advantageous
because its motion is the same as that of the little
finger of the left hand, and because of the weak

THE OPEN G* KEY 63

spring required, its "play" is very light and
convenient.

Since the unlearning of the former lingering
appears to be a great difficulty to many [who would
change from the ordinary flute to the new], artists
and instrument makers have endeavored to adapt
the fingering of the old flute, either wholly or in
part, to my flute tube. For this reason there has
been made in Paris, for many years, an alteration
of my open GS key, which makes it like the closed
G# key in its action. The use of this has spread
somewhat, since it accommodates players of the
old flute who can thus retain the former fingerings
for G and GS. *

[The earliest type of G# key, first applied to
the old system flute about 1775, is a simple key
which is normally kept closed by a spring; this
key is opened by the little finger of the left hand
to produce the tone G*. Boehm's system of 1832
required open keys and he devised the equally
simple "Open G* Key." The earliest form of this
key is shown in Fig. 4. After the invention of the
cylinder bore and large, covered keys, in 1847, the
key was given the form shown in Fig. 7, the A and
Gt keys being hinged on a short rod on the left
(outer) side of the tube. Later all of the
mechanism was attached to the inner side of the
tube and the G*f key took its present form as shown
in Fig. 16. The A and Gff keys are independently
hinged on a short rod and each is an open-standing
key. The third finger of the left hand plays directly
on the A key and when the key is closed the tone

64 THE FLUTE

G* is produced. When the little finger of the left
hand is pressed on the lever attached to the G*
key this key is closed, making the tone G*!. The
little finger must continue to close this key for
the lower tones, F«, F, E, etc. With the open GS
key the little finger is in action to close the key
for twenty-one notes of the thirty-nine notes which
make the compass of the regular scale. With the
closed Gt key the little finger is required to open
the key for five notes out of the thirty-nine notes
in the scale. This more frequent use of the little
finger, however, is so simple and logical and so
directly in accord with the movements of the other
fingers, that the open G* systeni, when once
acquired, is quite as easy as any other.]

[Coche, of Paris, a teacher of the flute, brought
out in 1838 the "Coche Perfected Model" which he
announced as an improvement upon the Boehm
system. One of the "improvements" was the adop-
tion of a new type of closed GS key, devised about
this time by Dorus, another flutist of Paris. A
conical-bore flute by Godfroy, shown in Fig. 6, is
provided with a Dorus GS key of the early form.
This type of key as applied to the cylinder-bore
flute of later type is shown in Fig. 17, as made
by Louis Lot, and Fig. 15 is a diagram illustrating
its operation. There is but one GS tone-hole which
is opened and closed automatically with the A hole.
When the A hole is closed, and with it the GS
hole, the latter may be independently opened by
pressing upon the GS lever with the little finger
of the left hand. There is a lug, Z, attached to the
hinge tube of the A key which extends under the

THE DORUS G* KEY

stem of the G# key; a strong spring, s„ attached to
the GJf key rests against the under side of the lug
so that the two keys move together, while,
normally, both are held open by the weak spring,
s^. The adjustment of the key is such that when the
A key is pressed to close its hole, the G# key
totiches the flute first; a slight further pressure
of the A key closes the A hole and carries the

Fig. is. The Dorus Closed GS Key-
ing below the stem of the G* key so that the strong
spring, s„ firmly closes the G# hole. While the
A key is held closed by the third finger, and the
G# key is closed by the spring, the little finger
may be pressed upon the GS lever and thus open
the G# hole, producing the tone G* as in the old
system. When the little, finger is raised the G*
key closes, making G^; when the third finger is

66 THE FLUTE

raised both keys rise together through the action
of the lug and the tone A is produced. This type
of key operates satisfactorily on a flute with
conical bore and small tone-holes, but on a flute
of cylinder-bore and large holes the proper clos-
ing of the key is more difficult. The Dorus con-
struction requires the location of the posts and
hinge-tubes on the outer side of the flute.]

[The operation of the Dorus G* key is not
always satisfactory and the necessity of placing
the posts and axles of the keys on the outer side
of the tube is particularly objectionable on flutes
with cylindrical bore and large tone-holes. The
Dorus key has largely been displaced by the
duplicate-hole, closed Gt key, Fig. 18, now in very
general use. The GS tone-hole is placed on the
inner side of the flute tube and is covered with a
closed key, the manipulation of which is like that
of the old system. In order that there may be
no closed holes below the one from which the
tone is being emitted, a duplicate GS tone-hole
is used, located as in Boehm's construction; this
is closed by a key rigidly attached to the A key;
thus the duplicate hole opens and closes with the
A hole, and G# is produced by pressing on the G*
key. For certain tones it is desirable to close the
G* hole while the A hole remains open. This is
not possible with the closed G* key.]

[Boehm is said to have declined to make flutes
with the closed G* key. However, he did in a
few instances provide such instruments for
players of the old flute. The translator has never

Figs. 16, 17, 18, 19.
Open and closed GjF keys

68 THE FLUTE

seen but one closed GJ key made in Boehm's shop;
nearly all the closed keys found on these flutes
have been added by other makers. The one excep-
tion is the Macauley flute shown in Fig. 34. The
closed key proper is exactly like Boehm's open G*
key excepting that the spring is made strong and
is so bent that it keeps the key closed. The lever
is cut in two a little way from the axle as shown
at a, Fig. 19, and the finger piece is then pivoted
on a fulcrum, h, held in a silver guide attached
to the tube. This key is played exactly as is the
ordinary closed G* key; it can be opened and
closed independently of the A key; thus it obviates
the objections which Boehm urges against the
other forms of closed key. Inasmuch as this key
is normally closed, it would tend to flatten the
tone A, just as the tone F# is flattened by the
closing of a lower tone-hole. Boehm has cor-
rected this effect upon the tone A by placing the
A hole 1.2 millimeters above its Schema position,
just as he and other makers correct the FS tone-
hole. This plan of Boehm's is probably the
simplest and perhaps the best form of closed G#
key which has yet been made.]

[Various other schemes for a closed G* key
have been devised but they are more or less com-
plicated and have not found general acceptance.
Boehm's arguments regarding the advantages of
the open-key system are given in the following
paragraphs.]

A combination of a closed GS key with an open
A key would cause not only an entirely unneces-

THE CLOSED gS KEY 69

sary complication in the key mechanism, and be
a disadvantage from an acoustical aspect, but it
would at the same time increase the difficulties
of playing.

In order that a closed GS key may stop the large
tone-hole air tight it must be provided with a
strong spring, and it follows that the opening of
the same requires a correspondingly greater force
in the little finger of the left hand, than the press-
ing down of an open key which is held up only
by a weak spring. But of still greater importance
is the strength required in the third or ring finger
in closing the A key, since this finger must over-
come not only the spring required quickly to raise
both of the combined keys, but at the same time
it must overcome the strong closing-spring of the
GS key. [The last sentence applies only to the
Dorus GS key.]

It is easily seen that there is thus a loss in
facility of playing in general, and, further, that
all trills with these keys, and especially the trill
GS with A, become much more difficult, than with
the easy-moving, open-standing keys. Moreover,
in the frequent combinations of the tones GS or
Ab with the lower tones FS, F, E, Eb, and D, the
little finger of the left hand must move in a direc-
tion contrary to that in which the fingers of the
right hand are moving at the same time. That it
is easier to make similar motions with the fingers
of both hands simultaneously, rather than con-
trary motions, and therefore that playing with a

70 THE FLUTE

closed G# key is the more difficult, no one will
deny.

Yet there is another difficulty from an acoustical
aspect. Because of the connection of the GS key
with the A key, the A hole cannot be opened by
itself, the GS hole being always open at the same
time; this causes the Eg to be too sharp, and its
production is interfered with. The production of
this tone is a little more certain, when the G# hole
remains closed; and in rapid alternations, also in
delicate slurring together of the Eg with other tones
such as GJt, A4, A5, A3, etc., the advantage is very
perceptible.

Finally, this complication of the mechanism [for
any type of closed GJf key] is wholly superfluous,
since each one of these two keys has its own proper
finger, and each can be easily opened or closed
in the most natural and simplest way in my sys-
tem. The above mentioned difficulties appear to
have long been apparent in Paris, since a special
lever has been added so that the difficult trills
may be made with the strong first finger of the
right hand.

And yet again a second G8 hole has sometimes
been bored in the flute tube and provided with
an independent GS key. In both of these cases
the mechanism is rendered still more complicated.
I have no objection to make, if amateurs, with
little time or zeal for practice, and who will be
satisfied with playing in a few keys only, when
changing from the old flute to the new, believe
they will find the closed G# key the easier; yet

OPEN VERSUS CLOSED G* KEY 71

I hold that it is wrong to instruct beginners in
this way, since they will learn to play in all keys
more easily, and consequently more quickly, by
following my system as finally perfected.

[Rockstro, in his "Treatise on the Flute," pages
191, 359, and 389, argues eloquently and at length
in favor of the open Gt key; he says: "Not many
years ago some opposition was raised to the
frequent use of the left thumb on the flute. We
do not now hear much of this * * * but there is
still rife, in some quarters, a strong prejudice
against the use of the little finger of the same
hand * * *. No one has ever objected to the
continued use of the right little finger * * *.
Theobald Boehm deserved much credit for his
courageous and persistant efforts to bring this
finger into activity. * * *"]

[The translator first learned to play a flute of
the old-system and then for ten years he used a
Boehm system flute with closed Gt key; later
several flutes with open Git keys were added to his
collection and for the last twenty years he has
played mostly upon these. After many years of
experience, during which excellent flutes of all
three types of GS keys were constantly in his pos-
session, and after the most careful and long con-
tinued trials, he is firmly convinced that Boehm's
arguments are fully justified. The advantages of
the open Glf key are largely mechanical, and may
not be sufficient to justify an established performer
in changing, but they are such that every beginner
and everyone changing from the old to the Boehm
system, should choose the open GS key.]

VI. TABLES OF FINGERINGS

REGULAR FINGERINGS

OF THE CHROMATIC SCALE

FOR THE NEWLY CONSTRUCTED FLUTE OF

THEOBALD BOEHM

-¥-

— ,—

— 1—

:te

™

fv-

PFl

— L^

tfJW

iM^

gWlfi

n*^

-*1

IstFinger
Thumb

•
•

•

•
•

ZndFinget

•

3rd "

•

4ih "

•

IstFincier

•

2nd "

•

3rd "

•

4th "

•

REGULAR FINGERINGS

K¥S

1u~

Mr-

II. tl-

ffi^

f¥i

Prt

[V]

•
•
o
o
o

•
o
o

o
o
o

•

o
o
o

-U

•
o
o
o
o

o
o
o

•
•
•

o
o
o

•
•
•
•

•
•
•

•
o
o

•
•
•
•

•

o
o
o

•
•
•
•
•

•
•
o

o
o
o

•
•
•
•
•

•
o
o

o
o
o

4=y

•
•
•
•
•

o
o

•

o
o
o

•
•
•
•
•

o
o
o

•
•
•
•
o

o
o
o

•
m
•
o
a

o
o
o

ooo|oo»|ooo •
ooo|ooo|ooo*»

felf

tllJ

^|i

}>p

l^^'

•
o
o
o
o

o
o
o

o
o
o
o
o

o
o
o

•
•
•
•

o
o
o

o
o

•
•
•
•
o

•
•
•

o
o
o

•
•
•
o
•

•
•
o

o
o
o

•
•
o

•
•

•
o
o

o
o
o

•
•
o

•
•

o
o

•

o
o
o

•
o

•

o
o
o

o
o

•
•
o

o
o
o

•
•
o
o

•
o
o

o
o
o

o
•
o
o
o

•
o
o

•

•
o

•
•

•
o
o

• •
o o

• •

• o
o o

• •
o o

• •

SPECIAL FINGERINGS

•

-1 — 1-

•

-•

•

o '

•

For facility in playing, the two Bbs
can be taken with fingering for B'!.

if the B key is closed by the thumb pressing on
the Bb lever.

The irregular fingerings may be used not only
for facilitating certain passages, but also they may
be made valuable in many cases for enharmonic
differences, such as between F# and Gb.

[The use of the octave-key on the ordinary flute
is the same as with the bass flute, which is
explained on pages 128 and 129; see also page 86.]

K 1

•

Jjj

•
•
•
•
•

•

•
•
•
•
•

•

•
•
•
•
•

•

•
•
•
•
•

•

•
•
•
•
•

•

•
•
•
•
•

0tT

•
•
•
•
•

0tr

•
•
•
•
•

0tr

•
•
•
•
•

0It

•
•
•
•
•

•

0ir

0tr

^tr

•

0tr

0ir

•

0tr

•

JZ^fa

0tr

•

0b-

0tr

. tr tr tr tr tr ir tr tr tr tr tr ^tr tr

I K ih 11,^. II..K lir lljrilJHLt'll-f:', JlllJlhJlJlA.^#&

•

1- *

•

■ f-

•

1-
•

0tr

•

0tr

•

0tr

0tT

0tr

•

0tr

?0tr

•

0tr

•

The trills marked with a * are to be made with the B key
closed by the thumb lever. [The ? indicates that the trilling of
the corresponding hole is optional.]

76 FINGERINGS FOR TRILLS

0tr

D
O
O
O

D
O
O

-tr

0<7-

0<1

'gitr

0fr
O

f«^ArfnW^^^fi}f^fifflffffffj

0tT

b
?0<i

0tr
O

0tr
0b-
O

0fr
0fr
O

0fr
O

0b
o

0fc-

o
o

The trills marked with a * are to be made with the B key-
closed by the thumb lever. [The ? indicates that the trilling of
the corresponding hole is optional.]

FINGERINGS FOR TRILLS

M4MUi'-.j'|£-i|i;i->J'g-j'gJ'ii|iAg##>J'|

O
o
o

0tr
O
O
O

0tr

O
O
O

0fr-

O
O
O

0fr

O
O
O

0tr

4^^ 'H^it #^| ^1 ^«|#^|#||||

0<r
O

0ft-
0^
O

0fr
O

06
O

•

o
o
o

0fr
O

0«r
O

0fr-
0fr
O

0<r

O
O
O

0fr-
O

O
O

O
O
O

10 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

Fig. 20. Key Mfchanism.

VII. DESCRIPTION OF THE KEY MECHANISM

T N order to give a clear idea and explanation
■*■ of the key mechanism of my flute, I have
represented it in full size. Fig. 20, projected on
a plane, and below I have shown a side view of
the inner parts which are not visible to the eye.

In the latter view metal strips are shown, which
in the metal flute are soldered to the body, and
in the wooden flute are screwed on, forming the
supporting points for the mechanism. Below
these strips, and exactly corresponding with the
drawing above, are dotted lines and figures which
indicate all the joints of the mechanism, and the
dimensions of the axles of the separate keys and
clutches.

The key mechanism is divided into four groups
which are designated in Fig. 20 by il, B, C, and D.
Fig. 21 is a cross section of one key. Fig. 22 is a

Fig. 21 Fig. 22 Fig. 23

Details of Key Mechanism.

clutch with its pin, and Fig. 23 represents one of
the movable hinge tubes slipped off from its axle.
We will first explain the mechanism of the key-
group A of the drawing.

80 THE FLUTE

In the upper line the foot keys I, II, and III are
represented, and in the side view beneath, the
separate joints of the mechanism are shown, the
lengths of which are indicated by the perpen-
dicular dotted lines below the metal strip, desig-
nated by the figures 1 to 7.

The three pillars with spherical heads, a, b, c,
which form the supporting points of the mech-
anism, are united to the ntietal strip and soldered,
while the strip is soldered or screwed onto the
foot joint.

Pointed screws are threaded in the spheres
a and b, forming the pivots on which turns a steel
axle (from 1 to 5) the ends of which have conical
holes.

The Ct key, I, turns upon this axle; this key is
soldered to the hinge tube 1 to 2, and by means
of a loop it connects with the hinge 3 to 4 which
carries the lever arm (C lever), all being joined
into one continuous piece. The D key II is like-
wise soldered to a hinge (2 to 3) and being placed
inside of the loop, the two keys are slipped over
the axle; the key II is then made fast to the axle
by a small pin passing through both. On the
upper end of the axle (at 4 to 5) a lever arm is
soldered, so that the axle and the D key move
with it. These two keys are provided with springs
which hold them open, and with rollers screwed
onto the lever arms at right angles; by pressing
on the rollers one can at will close one key, or
through their coupling at the loop, both may be
closed together.

KEY MECHANISM 81

The closed D* key III is provided with a strong
spring, and moves on an axle, screwed into the
sphere b; the sharpened end of this axle (at 5)
forms the pivot of the movable axle of the lower
keys.

The springs for the keys I and II are firmly in-
serted in the little posts marked thus, *, and push
against the hinges by means of small blocks which
are soldered fast; the spring for key III is fastened
in the spherical pillar c.

The key-group B contains two movable axles
from 8 to 15 and from 16 to 20. The G key VII is
soldered to the axle, at 14 and 15, which turns on
the pivots of the pillars d and e. Next to this key
is the hinge tube 13-14 to which the FS key "VI
and a half of the loop clutch is soldered.

The other half of the loop is fastened to the
second movable axle, and since the two half-loops
touch one another, the two movable axles may be
coupled together.

This F8 key is played by the first or index finger
of the right hand.

Next to this is the small hinge piece 12-13, which
is fastened to the steel axle by means of a small
pin. On this hinge piece there is soldered a side
wing, against which presses an adjustable screw
attached to the shank of key VI. This screw must
be so adjusted that when pressing down the Ft
key VI the steel axle is turned and through this
the attached key G VII is closed.

If now the two other keys F V and E IV, which
are played by the second and third fingers, are

82 THE FLUTE

mounted in exactly the same fashion and are
each coupled with the steel axle, then by pressing
down either of these keys, separately or together,
the G key VII will be closed each time [producing
the tone F*] ; thus four keys and consequently four
tone-holes can be opened or closed at will by three
fingers. It is by this contrivance that one of the
lacking fingers is replaced. [The arrangement,
however, is not perfect, for the hole next below
that from which the tone is being emitted is closed.
This lowers the pitch perceptibly and muffles the
tone very slightly. A partial compensation is
obtained by placing the tone-hole for F# slightly
above its true position, as explained on page 37.]

We come now to the upper half of this group.

Upon the steel axle which turns between the
two pivots at 16 and 20 there is soldered a hinge,
which extends from 16 to 18 and upon which at
16 there is the half loop for coupling with the
lower steel axle, and at 17 and 18 is attached a
sphere which serves as an ornament.

The A# key X is soldered to the hinge tube 18-19,
and placed next to this sphere. This key is played
by the middle finger of the left hand, and by
means of its adjusting screw presses upon the
wing of the hinge 19-20, through which the B
key XI is closed.

Since the B key XI is connected to the steel axle
by a pin near 19, and is coupled at 19 with the
A# key X by the clutch, and at the same time it is
coupled with the lower steel axle by the loop at
14-15, this key is itself closed by each pressing of

KEY MECHANISM 83

the AC key X and also by pressing the F» key VI.
It is clear that by these couplings still another
finger is replaced, and consequently by means of
this mechanism [together with that described in
the next two paragraphs] six keys can be played
entirely at will by four fingers [and the thumb].

Into the upper side of the spherical pillar / is
screwed an axle, the point of which forms the
pivot at 20. Moving on this axle are the two keys
C XII and C« XIII. The first is soldered to the
hinge tube 21-22 and is played by the thumb of
the left hand. The second key C» XIII, and its
lever are soldered to the hinge tube 22-23; the key
played by the first or index finger of thp left hand
acting on the lever.

The group C consists of two separate keys, which
move on the axle screwed into the spherical pillar
h. The Gif key VIII and its lever, upon which
presses the fourth or little finger of the left hand,
are soldered to the hinge 24-25. The A key IX
which is played by the third finger, is soldered
to the hinge tube 25-26.

The group D likewise contains only two keys,
namely the two trill keys for D and DS. The D*
key XV and its spring hook are soldered to the
hinge tube 29-30, and this tube in turn is soldered
to the upper end of the long steel axle which turns
on the pivots of the two spherical pillars k and I.
On the lower end of this axle is the short piece of
tube 27-28, which is connected with the axle by a
pin; soldered to this tube is the Dt lever which is
played by the third finger of the right hand.

84 THE FLUTE

Between these two pieces is placed a long hinge
tube which reaches from 28 to 29. Upon the upper
end is soldered the D key XIV and at the lower
end the corresponding D lever, which is played
by the second finger. Both keys are provided with
strong closing springs at 29 and 30.

Besides these keys there is still to be provided
a Bb lever next to the C key XII, which can be
pressed with the thumb of the left hand, at the
same time that the C key is closed, thus closing
the B key XI also [and producing the tone Bb].
This lever is provided with its axle and spring,
and serves in many cases to facilitate the playing.

Further, as the drawings show, all the springs,
with the exception of that for closing the lower
D* key III [and for the Bb thumb lever], are
fastened in the little pillars designated with an * ;
these springs press upon little hooks soldered to
the hinge tubes, in such a way as to close the two
trill keys D and DS, and to hold all the other
keys open.

These explanations correspond to all the styles
of flutes made by the firm "Th. Boehm & Mendler
in Miinchen."

[The original Boehm-system flute, including the
models both of 1832 and of 1847, did not have a Bb
thumb lever. This attachment was devised by
Briccialdi, an Italian flutist then resident in
London, and was first applied to his own flute by
Rudall and Rose in 1849. This lever, essentially
in its original form, marked Bb in Figs. 24 and 26,
is in very general use at the present time. Soon

THE THUMB KEYS

Fig. 24. Briccialdi's Bb Thumb Levers.

after Briccialdi's invention, Boehm devised the Bb
thumb lever described in the preceding paragraph
and marked Bb, in Figs. 25, 27 and 28.J

Fig. 25. Boehm's Bb Thumb Levers.

[A lever for making the trill of B and C, B tr
in Figs. 24, 25, 26 and 27, played with the first
finger of the right hand, has been combined with
each of these arrangements. Boehm seems never
to have considered these levers as essential parts of
his system, but rather as extra attachments ; this is
indicated by the fact that they are used only

86 THE FLUTE

incidentally in the Tables of Fingerings. Boehm
considered his own arrangement more rational
than that of Briccialdi, since the thumb is placed
on the key B, Figs. 25, 27 and 28, to produce the
tone B, and to produce the next lower tone Bb, the
thumb is moved downwards to the lever Bh. On
the contrary, in Briccialdi's arrangement, the
thumb is placed on B, Figs. 24 and 26, to produce
the tone B, and to produce the lower tone Bb, the
thumb is moved upwards to the lever Bb.]

[In addition to the mechanism described, Boehm
recommended the "Schleifklappe," referred to in
the original only in connection with the Bass Flute.
The schleif-key, usually called the "octave-key" or
the "whisper-key," is simply a small vent-key,
which assists in the formation of a loop in the
sound wave, or, what is of the same effect, it
prevents the formation of a node at the place
where the hole is located, thus giving freer speech
and greater purity of tone. It is an adaptation of
a similar octave-key which is required on all reed
instruments, in which the formation of the over-
tones is not as certain as on the flute. The octave-
key is a small closed key, the touch of which is
at S, Figs. 27 and 28, just above the thumb key;
it is always played in connection with the thumb
key and is easily opened by a slight rolling motion
of the thumb. The hole for this key on a C flute
is from 4.5 to 5.0 millimeters in diameter and is
placed about 7 millimeters above the Ct hole.
The applications of the fingerings for the flute, in
C are the same as for the bass flute, which are

Figs. 26, 27, and 28.
Briccialdi and Boelim thumb keys

88 THE FLUTE

given in the supplementary tables of fingerings on
page 129. Boehm writes in a letter dated Novem-
ber 8, 1873 (Broadwood, p. 59) : "I find this little
key very useful if the player wishes always to be in
perfect tune in the following notes:

i.' - n'^r^

These tones always have a tendency to get a little
flat if played pianissimo, while if you open the
little octave-key they are not only perfectly correct,
but also sound very easily."]

[In the translator's collection are several Boehm
& Mendler flutes having the octave-key, one of
them being the bass flute in G. After many trials
extending over a period of years the conclusion
is that, for several of the notes mentioned in the
supplementary tables of fingerings, the influence
of the key cannot even be detected, while for the
other notes its effect is very small, so small as to
be entirely negligible. This, no doubt, accounts
for the fact that the octave key has not been gen-
erally adopted.]

[Fig. 29 is a plan, drawn full size, of the keys
for a foot-joint to B^, as often made by Boehm &
Mendler. The action of the low B^i key is carried
around the Cf and C* keys, and is pivoted on an
extension of the axle which passes through the
DJt key. The other details are the same as ex-
plained for the d foot-joint.]

FOOT-JOINT TO B

90 THE FLUTE

[The mechanism is substantially the same for
flutes of both wood and silver. The walls of the
tube of the wooden flute are 3.7 millimeters thick,
and the silver tubes are about 0.3 millimeter thick.
The "straps," or action plates to which the posts
are attached are about 1.2 millimeters thick. The
centers of the spherical heads of the action posts,
that is the points of the pivot-screws, are about
6.1 millimeters above the plate for the main body
and foot-joint keys of a wooden flute, and 6.9
millimeters high for trill keys. For a silver flute
the pivots on the body joint are about 8.2 milli-
meters above the action plate, and on the foot-
joint 6.2 millimeters above the action plate. The
posts for the A and GJf keys and for the thumb
keys are shorter and vary somewhat in different
specimens.]

[From 1812 to 1817 Boehm had a goldsmith's
shop in which he constructed flutes on the old
system. In 1828, he established his first real flute
shop where he made improved old-system flutes
and where he worked out the ideas for the Boehm
System of fingering which were embodied in the
first properly so-called Boehm flute of 1832. Very
few flutes were made after 1832 and the shop was
entirely given up in 1839. During this period the
gentiine Boehm flutes were made by Rudall and
Rose in London and by Godfroy in Paris, under
specific arrangements with Boehm. In 1847 Boehm
announced the new flute with cylinder bore,
metal body and covered keys, and he again es-
tablished his own factory for the manufacture of

BOEHM & MENDLER FLUTES 91

flutes which continued in the same place for over
fifty years. (See the appendix.) Patents were
obtained in England and France covering the
cylinder bore and the parabolic head-joint, and
the above-mentioned firms were given licenses
to make Boehm flutes. The flutes made in
Boehm's own shops from 1847 to 1867 were marked
"Th. Boehm in Munchen," and bore serial num-
bers. In 1854 Carl Mendler, a watchmaker, be-
came a workman in Boehm's shop. In 1862 he
was made foreman and he was made a partner
in 1867, the firm being known as "Th. Boehm &
Mendler." The flutes were marked with the firm
name in two styles, as shown in Fig. 30; silver
flutes have the name engraved on the barrel of
the slide-joint; wooden flutes are marked on a
silver ferrule on the t6non of the slide-joint, which
is usually covered by the socket on the head-
joint. The name is not repeated on other parts
of the flute. There are no serial numbers. After
Boehm's death, in 1881, the business was carried
on by Carl Mendler but the flutes continued to
be marked Boehm & Mendler. Carl Mendler
was succeeded by his son Carl Mendler, about
1895, who later gave up the manufacture of flutes.]
[Under Mendler's direction thejlutes of Boehm
& Mendler were constructed with workmanship
of the most excellent quality, rarely equalled;
they were beautifully designed, exquisitely fin-
ished, and their adjustment was perfect. The
translator's historical collection of flutes contains,
in January, 1922, about two hundred and fifty in-

Figs. 30.
The Boehm & Mendler labels

BOEHM & MENDLER FLUTES 93

struments of all types. Among them are sixteen
specimens of various styles and scales from
Boehm's own work-shop ; these flutes are shown in
the group picture. Fig. 31. Three particularly fine
instruments, Nos. 13, 5 and 12, which were made
for Rev. Rush R. Shippen, Mr. Carl Wehjier, and
General Daniel Macauley, respectively, are shown
in larger size in Figs. 32, 33 and 34. The Heindl
flute. No. 9, and the bass flute. No. 14, are shown
in Figs. 7 and 41, respectively. These flutes, and
also many others of Boehm's make, have been
studied critically and have been measured in mi-
nute detail. These investigations have developed
the greatest admiration for the painstaking care
in the details of the scales, for the superb work-
manship, and for the exquisite finish of these in-
struments. The Macauley flute (No. 12 in the
group) fully exemplifies this praise. With the
exception of the first instrument, which was never
furnished with keys, and number nine, the Heindl
flute, which has had excessive wear, these flutes
are in good order; in fact, most of them are in as
perfect condition as when new. The flutes 10, 12,
14 and 16 in the group, are much used for musical
purposes, with perfect satisfaction. Some details
regarding the several instruments are given in the
following list:

No. 1 — Flute in G. A=440. Boxwood. Tube of thinned
wood with raised finger-holes, to which keys have
never been attached. Given by Boehm to James S.
Wilkins, Jr., in 1873, and presented to the translator
by Mr. Wilkins in 1909.

COLLECTION OF FLUTES BY BOEHM 95

No. 2— Flute in C. A=450. Grenadilla wood. Silver
keys, gold springs. Mechanism of an unusual type,
made by Boehm about 1860. Brought to America by
Gustave Oeschsle, in 1864, who used it in the New York
Academy of Music and in Gilmore's Band. It was later
used by Mr. H. H. Honeyman.

No. 3 — Flute in C. A=440. Grenadilla wood. Silver
keys, gold springs. This flute was obtained from Boehm
by Mr. Edward Martin Heindl. It was used by Mr.
Frank Wadsworth, and later for eleven years by Mr.
Louis Fritze, in Sousa's Band, and played in the
"around^he-world" tour. The Bti foot-joint was used
by Mr. William Schade.

No. 4— Flute in C. A=435. Grenadilla wood. Silver
keys, steel springs. History unknown.

No. 5 — ^Flute in C. A=445. Cocus-wood. Silver keys,
gold springs. With extra foot-joint to Bk. Belonged to
Mr. Carl Wehner. Shown separately in Fig. 33.

No. 6 — Flute in C. A=:450. Cocus-wood. Silver keys,
gold springs. With the octave key. With a dupli-
cate-hole GJ key, added by Wm. R. Meinell. History
unknown.

No. 7 — Flute in Dt>. A=450. Grenadilla wood. Silver
keys, gold springs. Foot to DN.

No. 8 — Piccolo in Db. A=450. Grenadilla wood. Silver
keys, steel springs. Cylinder bore. Used by Edward
Martin Heindl.

No. 9 — ^Flute in C. A:=445. German Silver, silver plated.
With graduated tone-holes. No. 19, made by Boehm
about 1850. Brought to America in 1864 by Edward
Martin Heindl, and used by him in the famous Men-
delssohn Quintette Club, and in the Boston Symphony
Orchestra upon its organization in 1881. This is prob-
ably the first metal Boehm flute to be brought to Amer-
ica. It is provided with both silver and wood heads.
The mechanism on the middle joint has been partly
rebuilt. This flute originally had no Bb thumb key, and
a special attachment for this was added by Mr. George
W. Haynes in 1886, who also used the flute for a time.
Shown separately in Fig. 7.

96 THE FLUTE

No. 10 — Flute in C. A=438. Silver. Gold embouchure,
steel springs. The trill lever for the right, first finger
operates on the Bt| key on the upper side of the flute,
instead of on the thumb key. This flute was played in
Buffalo Bill's "Wild West Show on its European Tour,
and later was used by Mr. W. H. Guyon.

No. 11 — Flute in C. A=448. Silver. Gold embouchure,
gold springs, octave key, foot-joint to B^l. Made in 1877
for Mr. 0. F. Chaffee of Detroit.

No. 12 — Flute in C. A=445. Silver. Two sizes of tone-
holes. Gold embouchure, gold springs, raised gold
plates in center of each key, gold ferrules and tips;
octave key, and special form of closed GS key (see page
68), ivory crutch. This superb flute is a remarkably
beautiful specimen of flute workmanship, and it is in
a perfect state of preservation. It was made in 1877,
and was on exhibition in Berlin and in Paris for some
time (probably in the Paris Exposition of 1878). It
was made upon order for General Daniel Macauley at
one time Mayor of Indianapolis. The delivery of the
flute was delayed nearly a year, while it was being ex-
hibited. Boehm wrote, in sending the flute, that it was
"the last flute I shall ever make and the best I have
ever made; it is the 'last child of my life' with which
I hate to part." Shown separately in Fig. 34.

No. 13— Flute in C. A=450. Silver. Bore 20 millimeters.
Holes spaced to the scale A=455, but sounding A=450
because of the large bore. Two sizes of holes. Head
of thinned wood, octave key, gold springs; foot-joint to
BH. Made in 1879 for Rev. Rush R. Shippen. Shown
separately in Fig. 32.

No. 14 — Flute in C. A=435. Silver. Gold embouchure,
gold springs, octave key, foot-joint to Bti. This flute
evidently was made about the year 1877. It is in as
perfect condition as wihen new, and is used by the
translator for musical purposes perhaps more than is
any other instrument in his collection. While it may
be equalled as to musical qualities by two or three

«l

Fig. 32. Fig. 33. Fig. 34.

The Shippen Flute The Wehner Flute The Macauley Flute

98 THE FLUTE

modern instruments of the most celebrated makes, yet
it is not surpassed by any, and the same may be said
with respect to the beauty of design and perfection of
worlcmanship of the instrument as a whole.

No. 15 — Flute in G. A=443. Silver. Ebonite embouch-
ure, octave key, steel springs.

No. 16 — Flute in G. A=440. Silver. Thinned-wood head,
octave key, steel springs. Used by Carl Wehner. Shown
separately in Fig. 41. A more complete description
with dimensions, is given in Chapter XII.]

[Statements have frequently been made by both
makers and players of the flute that Boehm's own
instruments were not accurate in scale and were
not in accordance with his published descriptions.
Such opinions are explicitly stated by Rockstro
in his "Treatise on the Flute." This remarkable and
otherwise excellent work is, sadly marred by the
author's intense prejudice against Boehm and by
his efforts to belittle Boehm's contributions. Rock-
stro makes certain specific statements about
Boehm's flutes which must be in error. He illus-
trates and describes a flute made by Boehm, (pages
374, 375, 390, 391) of which he says: "The di-
ameter of the holes of a German silver flute that
he made about the year 1851 vary, very irreg-
ularly from 0.46 inch (11.7 mm.) for the C^ hole
to 0.539 inch (13.7mm.) for DJt hole. The dis-
tances between the holes are also extremely ir-
regular, so much so that I have not thought it
worth while to give an account of them. The tone
of this flute is very poor and thin, not nearly equal
to that of an eight-keyed flute of average excel-
lence." Nothwithstanding Rockstro's measures

THE ACCURACY OF BOEHM's SCALES 99

are given to the thousandth of an inch, yet it is
believed that his general statement must be in
error. In support of this opinion, and in justice
to Boehm, certain even more specific statements
of facts may be made regarding the Heindl flute,
Boehm's No. 19 made about 1850, and illustrated as
No. 9 in the group picture, and also in Fig. 7.
No. 19 is apparently exactly like the flute illus-
trated in Rockstro's Treatise. No. 19 has grad-
uated holes, the thumb-key hole is 11.4 millimeters
in diameter, and the low.CS hole is 13.6 millimeters
in diameter. The holes increase in diameter, with
perfect regularity from the smaller to the larger,
each hole being exactly 0.2 millimeter larger than
the preceeding one. The holes are spaced with
perfect regularity, and exactly to the scale A=445,
no hole deviating from the precise position re-
quired by Boehm's Schema by so much as half of
a hundredth of an inch (there being the usual
correction for the FS hole). The fact that Heindl
used this flute for solo playing with the famous
Mendelssohn Quintette Club and with the Boston
Symphony Orchestra for many years is sufficient
argument as to its quality of tone and correctness
of tuning.]

VIII. CARE OF THE MECHANISM

(a) Repairs

EVEN though kept from . violent injuries, the
flute, like other mechanisms, will occasion-
ally need repairs.

In practical use the keys move up and down a
countless number of times, and all metal being
subject to wear, the appearance of defects from
this cause is unavoidable, even in the most solidly
constructed mechanisms.

A spring may break or lose its elasticity, the
oil, with which the axles and pivots must be cov-
ered, will become thick and sticky with time, and
especially by the entering of dust, thus hindering
the easy movement of the keys ; or it may be neces-
sary to replace an injured pad.

In all these cases it is necessary to remove the
keys from the body and sometimes to take the
mechanism to pieces. A person with some ex-
perience who has made himself familiar with the
construction, and who is provided with the few
tools which are required, will have no difficulty
in doing this. Every flutist should be in a posi-
tion, therefore, himself to undertake small re-
pairs, and he should not trust his instrument to
incapable hands.

(b) The Keys
The unscrewing and taking apart of the key
mechanism may be performed in the manner de-
scribed in the following paragraphs.

REMOVING THE KEY FOR REPAIR 101

First, all of the springs, designated by a *, Fig.
20, in each key group in which one or more keys
are to be taken away, must be unhooked. This
may be accomplished by means of the little fork
represented in Fig. 35, with which the outer ends

3=c

Fig. 35. Fork for setting springs.

of the springs can be pushed far enough back-
wards to disconnect them from the little hooks.

For removing the foot keys of group A, Fig. 20,
turn the pointed screw a backwards so that the steel
axle with the C* I and D II keys attached can be
taken out. A screwdriver of the form shown in
Fig. 33 is convenient for turning the screws.

zr=

Fig. 36. Screw Driver.

If the pin of the D key II, which projects a lit-
tle below, be drawn out, both keys are loosened
and can be pushed off the axle. [The translator
would advise, unless there is urgent need, that
these pins should not be removed. For the pur-
poses of cleaning, it is sufficient to remove the
several groups of keys from the body, and to clean
these groups without separating them into single
pieces.] By unscrewing the small steel axles on
which the rollers turn, these may also be removed
from the lever arms.

To remove the Dff key III, unscrew the steel axle
and draw it out of the hinge.

102 THE FLUTE

By unscrewing the pointed screw d the lower
section 8 to 15 of group B may be taken off, and
likewise the upper section 16 to 20 may be re-
moved by unscrewing the upper steel axle which
forms the pivot at' 20. The keys can be slipped
off the moveable steel axles as soon as the pins
through the clutch joints are pushed out.

To remove the C key XII, partly draw out the
steel axle which goes entirely through the C*
key XIII.

In the group C the two keys Gt VIII and A IX,
in similar fashion, are taken off by withdrawing,
partially or wholly, the steel axle which is screwed
into the sphere h.

For the removal of the two trill keys D XIV
and D* XV of group D, loosen the pointed screw
in the spherical pillar I. The D key XIV as well
as its hinge can be drawn off the steel axle as soon
as the pin through the lever arm at 28 (DS lever)
is pushed out.

When taking off and separating the key mech-
anism, it. is best to lay each separate piece in its
proper order on a sheet of paper; this will much
facilitate the putting together, and it will not be so
easy to interchange or lose anything. Each piece
can then be readily cleaned and polished.

All the surfaces may be cleaned with a cloth or
chamois skin, and the inside of the hinge tubes
with a small feather or a tuft of cotton which may
be pushed through the little tubes with q small
stick of wood, etc. [or be drawn through with a
fine copper wire] .

ASSEMBLING THE PARTS 103

After this cleaning the surfaces may best be
polished with a piece of fine glove leather
[chamois skin] and a fine polishing brush with the
application of a little rouge, such as is used by
jewelers.

When putting the mechanism together again,
all the places at which rubbing occurs must be
properly oiled. For this purpose watch oil is best,
but one may also use neats-foot oil or perfectly
pure olive oil which has stood in the sun for a time
and thereby been purified by sedimentary precipi-
tation.

The steel axles should be wiped with a little
piece of cloth slightly wet with oil, and the pointed
screws (pivots) are best oiled with the point of a
wooden toothpick. One should not use more oil
than is really necessary for the protection of the
rubbing surfaces.

In putting together and screwing on the mechan-
ism, as is self-evident, one must in each particular
follow exactly the reverse order to that which was
used in taking the instrument apart. It is neces-
sary in each key group first to joint the pieces,
after sliding them over the steel axles, by tightly
inserting the pins; the separate groups of keys are
screwed on, and finally the springs are hooked.

Fig. 37. Tweezers.

For holding the little screws, pins and springs,
tweezers such as are shown in Fig. 37, are useful.

104 THE FLUTE

For cementing leather or cloth [or cork] linings
which have fallen off the keys, etc., a proper so-
lution of shellac in alcohol serves best.

The most careful attention must be given to the
proper construction and adjustment of the key
pads. The pads are made from a strong cloth-
like stuff of fine wool [felt]. In order that the
pads made close the holes air tight, these felt disks
are covered with a fine membrane (skin) ; this
memberane is usually doubled, so that any ac-
cidental injury to the pad shall not become trou-
blesome all at once.

The pads are covered over on the back side with
little sheets of card and a hole is punched through
the center, so that they may be screwed fast in
the key cups. It is hardly possible to make the
key cups always come exactly to the edge of the
tone-holes, the pads are therefore made of such
thickness that there is left a little space, then by
underlaying of card or paper disks this may be
filled till the pad fits perfectly all around. The
failure of the pad to close the hole at particular
points can be remedied by using pieces of paper
cut in crescent shape.

The pads are held by screws, the nuts being
soldered to the key cups, and under the heads of
the little screws there are silver washers, which
must be allowed to press the pad neither too tightly
nor too lightly; in the first case little wrinkles are
formed in the skin of the pad which interfere with

ADJUSTING THE MECHANISM 105

the air tight closing, in the second case air may
escape through the cup.

If a washer is too loosely held by its screw, it
may be set in vibration by certain tones, producing
an audible buzz which is inexplicable to many. It
has happened that flutes have been sent from dis-
tances of several hundred miles for repairs on
which there was nothing wrong except that one
single screw was not sufficiently tight.

The main point about the pads is that each sep-
arate key must close the corresponding hole per-
fectly air tight; and when one key is required
to operate upon another this can be accurately
adjusted by means of the regulating screws ap-
plied by me.

When one key acts upon another, as the E key
upon the G key, one can determine by seeing
light between the pad and its seat or by the pres-
sure of the finger whether one key presses too
hard or too lightly; the regulating screw must
be turned backward or forward until the two keys
close together.

In the case of the double connected keys, where
the F» key works the G key and the B key to-
gether, first turn the adjusting screw in the clutch
of the F* key, and regulate the action of the G
key, and then, afterwards adjust the action of the
B key.

To prove that all the keys on the middle joint
or on the foot joint close perfectly, stop one end
with a fine cork, and blow into the other end,
while all the keys are closed with the fingers; one

106 THE FLUTE

can then determine whether or not the air leaks
out. By strongly blowing in tobacco smoke it will
be easily seen which key leaks. But, a more cer-
tain way is to draw out the air, after which the
fingers are removed; if then all the keys remain
closed of themselves, it is a sure indication no air
leaks in.

Fig. 38 is a clamp made of steel wire with which
the keys can be pressed upon the flute until the
pads become perfectly seated.

Fig. 38. Clamp for the pads.

Upon removing a pad which is still useful, one
should designate its correct position in relation to
the key stem by a mark, so that upon replacing
it, it will come exactly into its former position.

I have given these explanations so minutely,
because the certain speaking and pure quality of
tone of a flute depends in a great measure upon a
perfect closing of the key, and this again upon a
good padding. Well made pads, which I have in
stock, can easily be sent in letters as "samples
without value."

(d) The Springs

Of all metals, steel, undoubtedly, is the best for
making springs. The genuine English darning
or sewing needles of fine cast steel, well hard-
ened, perfectly polished, which can be had in all

REPLACING SPRINGS

107

required lengths and thicknesses, the best fulfill
all the requirements of good key springs.

Their preparation is quite simple. When it is
necessary to replace a hroken spring by a new
one, select a needle of the proper length and of
exactly the same thickness as the broken one,
accurately fitting the hole in the spring post, so
that it may be drawn in tight without being drawn
through. When a proper needle is found, lay it
on a thin piece of sheet iron, and hold it over
an alcohol flame long enough for it to become uni-
formly of a beautiful blue or dark violet color.
It thus loses its too great brittleness, and it can be
easily bent as much as is necessary for obtaining
the required tension, without danger of breaking.
The needle may then be notched with a file at the
right length and the superfluous end broken off.
For this a fine sharp edged file is useful. The
bending and inserting of the springs is accom-
plished by means of small pincers, Fig. 39.

Pincers.

If steel springs break, it is almost always be-
cause of rust, which readily forms in damp air

108 THE FLUTE

or from the perspiration of the fingers. A sud-
den breaking of a spring while playing is very
disagreeable. To prevent this, I have sometimes
made springs of hard-drawn gold wire, which
cost only 4 Thalers extra; these are next to steel
springs in elasticity, and for many years have
proved themselves very durable.

(e) The Cork in the Head Joint
Since the perfect tuning of the octaves depends
upon the proper closing of the air column by the
cork, it is necessary to smear it well with tallow
each time it is drawn out for wiping the head
joint.

If the cork fits too tightly, it can be made a little
smaller by rolling between two smooth surfaces
such as a table top and small board. Conversely
the cork may be made shorter and consequently
thicker by means of a cabinet maker's screw
clamp.

Fig. 40. Gage for setting the cork.

That one may always place the cork exactly at
the correct distance of 17 millimeters [about H
inch] from the center of the mouth-hole, it is best
to have a mark on the projecting end of the cork
screw, and for verification to have also an ac-
curate measuring stick such as is shown in Fig.
40.

THEOBALD BOEHM

Aged ;^3 years

From a, miniature painted on ivory by Brandmuller

IX. TREATMENT OF THE FLUTE IN GENERAL

IN order that a flute may remain in good con-
dition as long as possible, it must be handled
with care and cleanliness. Generally one has
only himself to blame for the larger repairs re-
quired, for cracks in the wood or breaks in the
mechanism are usually the result of carelessness
and neglect of cleanliness. Such accidents are
easily prevented. If the cork coverings of both
joints of the middle part of a wood flute are well
rubbed with pure tallow, they will then remain
soft and will tightly close the joints against mois-
ture; and the application of undue force when
putting the parts together will become unnecessary.
For the same reason, the draw tube of the head
joint, and the socket tube on the lower end of the
middle joint of a silver flute must always be cov-
ered with tallow.

To avoid injury to the key mechanism, the mid-
dle joint should always be grasped by the upper
end, and never in the middle; and similarly the
foot-joint should be grasped with the hand on
the lower end.

The three pieces should be so put toegther that
the flute may be held in a natural position. The
mouth-hole, the centers of the upper holes on the
middle joint, and the axles of the foot keys should
coincide in one straight line. The crutch should

112 THE FLUTE

be inserted and so turned that the weight of the
flute rests between the thumb and index finger
of the left hand, then the movements of the fin-
gers will be much freer than when the thumb is
used for holding the flute. [The crutch is shown at
C in Figs. 27 and 28, and also in Fig. 33.]

[The translator agrees with Rockstro, who, in
his "Treatise on the Flute," says: "The crutch
is a cumbersome and unsightly appendage, and
is useless to those who have properly constructed
flutes, and who know how to hold them. It ser-
iously cramps the action of the left hand fingers,
especially the thumb, while it is unproductive of
a single advantage. Happily it is now almost
obsolete."]

Further, one should be certain that the flute
is so held in the hand that no water can flow
into the tone-holes, since pads covered with mois-
ture easily stick to the edges of the holes.

When the flute is laid down out of the hand,
the crutch should be turned at right angles to the
flute tube so that it will form a firm support for
the flute as it rests upon a horizontal plane, the
flute tube itself inclining downwards.

If a pad should become accidentally wet and for
this reason or because of dirt, should stick, push
a strip of printing paper under the pad and again
draw it out-while gently pressing down on the key.
In this way the moisture and dirt will be rubbed
off" the smooth skin of the pad, and will adhere
to the rough surface of the paper.

If one takes the further slight trouble, each

CARE OF THE FLUTE 113

time the flute is laid down, to wipe the perspira-
tion of the fingers from the keys, the oxidation of
the metal will be retarded, and the flute will re-
main clean and bright for a long time.

The most important matter in the care of flutes,
especially of new wooden ones, is the wiping out
of the tube. The warping out of shape of the
wood, which alters the proportions of the bore,
and causes most of the cracks, is the result of
moisture, which collects in the flute tube during
the blowing. This produces an unequal expan-
sion, the consequence of which is often the forma-,
tion of superficial ridges, and frequently the com-
plete bursting of the wood.

Consequently after each blowing the flute tube
must be wiped perfectly clean and dry, for which
purpose one had best use an old silk or fine linen
handkerchief and a thin swab stick of the length
of the middle joint. Fold one end of the corner
of the cloth over the stick and push it through
the flute, till the upper end can be taken hold of.
Then by slowly drawing the cloth through, all the
drops of the liquid will be taken up by the first
part of the cloth while the following part which
is yet dry will completely remove any remaining
moisture.

Upon repeating this operation many times the
bore will become polished, facilitating the full
and easy production of tone; and this also makes
it entirely superfluous to oil the flute tube, which
is both disagreeable and injurious to the pads.

X. ON THE BLOWING OF NEW FLUTES

EXPERIENCE shows that all wood-wind instru-
ments are affected by the manner of blow-
ing so that they become either better or worse
with regard to the tones and their production.
Though the tuning proportions remain unaltered,
yet the player can accustom himself to blow sin-
gle tones higher or lower.

The reasons for this have never yet been satis-
factorily explained. But it is known, that even
after all swellings and deformations of the wood
are removed from the flute tube as much as pos-
sible by the most careful swabbings, the influence
of the manner of blowing still remains perceptible.
The best flute loses an easy speech by overblow-
ing and its bright clear quality of tone by a bad
embouchure, and conversely gains in speech and
tone by a correct handling and a good embouch-
ure.

The formation of a good embouchure is there-
fore not only of the utmost importance for flute
playing in general, but especially for the blow-
ing of new flutes. Consequently a knowledge of
the origin of the tone will be helpful.

THEOBALD BOEHM

Aged 35 years
At the time of the development of the conical bore, ring-key, flute

XL THE EMBOUCHURE

THE column of air enclosed by the tube of the
flute is exactly comparable with a stretched
violin string. As the string is set into transverse
vibrations by the bow and thus is made to sound,
so the longitudinal vibrations of the air column
of the flute are produced by the blowing.

Further, as the clear quality of tone of the vio-
lin depends upon a proper manipulation of the
bow, so also the pure flute tone depends upon the
direction in which the air stream is blown against
the edge of the mouth-hole.

Depending upon whether the air stream is di-
rected more or less below the horizontal as it is
blown across the flute, there develops from the fun-
damental tone of the flute tube, with all the holes,
closed, the so-called aliquot or harmonic over-
tones; e. g., for the fundamental tone C3, the ali-
quot tones are C^, G^, C5, E5, G5, (Bjb), and C^.

Each octave therefore requires a different di-
rection of the air stream, and when the correct
one is found, not merely will a fine quality of tone
be brought out, but by increasing the force of the
air blast, the tone may be brought to the greatest
possible strength without any deterioration in
quality or pitch.

However, by overblowing, that is by violently

118 THE FLUTE

forcing the air, any tone can be made to break
over into the higher tones, even when only a por-
tion of the air goes in the right direction. Not
only through the air thus wasted, but also because
of the poor embouchure, the tone loses in purity,
and there is produced at the same time a buzzing
and rushing noise.

XII. THE BASS FLUTE IN G

(a) Its Musical Characteristics

IN closing [in the original this section appeared
at the end of the "Conclusion"] I feel that I
ought to mention one of the most recently per-
fected, and therefore little known, developments
of the flute, to the construction of which I was led
by tne great facility of vibration and easy speech
of my silver flute in C; I refer to the "Alt-Flote"
in G [Bass Flute] which is pitched a major fourth
below the flute in C.

The long felt need for deeper, stronger, and at
the same time more sonorous flute tones has not
been satisfactorily provided for either by the for-
mer "Flute d'amour" or by the extension to the
foot of a C flute, since the tones thus obtained
are weak and uncertain, and their combination
difficult and entirely unpracticable. There must
be created an entirely new instrument in the fam-
ily of flutes of deeper pitch, similar to the basset-
horn and the English horn.

[The exact date of the origin of the bass flute
is uncertain. The booklet, "Zur Erinnerung an
Theobald Boehm," states: "In his sixtieth year
Boehm made his Alt-Flote which produces a re-
markable effect." This would make the year 1854
or 1855. In several letters dated in 1865, Boehm
refers to the flute in G as being well established.]

120 THE FLUTE

[Fig. 41 shows a bass flute in G made by Boehm
and Mendler, acording to their most approved
design. Fig. 42 is an instrument of the same kind
with slight improvements in the mechanism, made
by Rudall, Carte and Company.]

Because of the great facility for modulation of
the full, sonorous tones of this flute, it is adapted
to music in the song style, and for accompanying
a soprano voice. A player will, after a very little
practice, be in a position to bring out genre effects
which are impossible upon the C flute. «

[Flutists have sometimes misunderstood the
purpose of the flute in G, thinking it ought to be
like the flute in C in quality but lower in pitch.
It was Boehm's purpose to produce "an entirely
new instrument," with a quality distinctly differ-
ent from that of the flute in C even when tones
of the same pitch were sounded on both flutes.
The difference is similar to that between a true
soprano voice and a true contralto. The qual-
ity of the lower register of the flute in G some-
times mildly suggests tones of the same pitch of
the violin, or the French horn, or the saxophone
played softly.]

[Flutes of low pitch have long been made by
many makers, often descending a full octave be-
low middle C, as in the so-called contra-bass flutes.
An account of flutes of lower pitch is given in
Chapter VIII of Fitzgibbon's "Story of the Flute,"
reprinted in the Flutist magazine for November,
1920, page 244. Boehm's distinct contribution
was in so proportioning the tube as to secure the

Fig. 41.

Bass Flute

Boehm & Mendler

^(^

Fig. 42.

Bass Flute

-Rudall, Carte & Co.

122 THE FLUTE

desired characteristic tone-quality, and in so ar-
ranging the key mechanism that the fingering re-
mains the same as for the Flute in C, and so that
the operation is as certain and easy. The flute
in G plays very easily, with an embouchure a lit-
tle more relaxed than for the flute in C, and with
gentler blowing; the mechanism is so Reliable
that the execution is just as clear and certain as
for the flute in C, though on account of the larger
size of the keys, it is not suitable for very rapid
passages. Its effective compass is about two and
a half octaves. A Flute in F becomes so long
that the mechanism is less satisfactory in opera-
tion. On the other hand the Alto Flute in Bb is
as playable as the flute in C, and is intermediate
between this and the flute in G as regards tone
quality.]

[In a letter to Mr. Broadwood dated August,
1871, (Broadwood, "Essay," page 59), Boehm
writes: "My ideal of tone, large, sonorous, and
powerful, admitting of every gradation from
pianissimo to fortissimo, is still the tone of my
silver flute in G. The effect I have repeatedly
produced, when playing it, although now I am an
old man of 78l^ years, is such that I only regret
that I did not make this flute forty years ago.
With a silver head-joint and a gold embouchure,
the tone is very brilliant, and no room is too large
for it; while with a wood embouchure on the sil-
ver head-joint, the tone gains in richness without
losing in power. Once when I played in church
on this flute, accompanying a soprano, it was mis-

MUSIC FOR THE BASS FLUTE 123

taken for a French horn." In another letter dated
February, 1873, he writes: "My eightieth birth-
day will be in a few weeks, nevertheless I play
every morning on my flute in G and people like to
hear it." The translator has used a flute in G for
over twenty years, and very much prefers it to the
flute in C for music in the song style.]

[Notwithstanding its beautiful tone quality the
flute in G has been used but little. However,
modem orchestral composers are now scoring for
it, parts being found in the following composi-
tions: Ravel, Daphnis et Chloe; Weingarten, Die
Gefilde der Seligen; Mahler, Symphonies; Hol-
brooke, Children of Don and Dylan; Stanford, var-
ious compositions; Hahn, A Ballet; Schmid, Joseph
and His Brethren; Stravinsky, Le Coeur de Prin-
temps; Rimsky-Karsakow, Ballet Mlada, and Ivan
the Terrible; Glazunow, various compositions;
Atterberg, Ocean Symphony.]

[The flute in G is particularly suited to cham-
ber music, solos, duets, trios, etc., and yet very
little music has ever been published for it. Rudall,
Carte and Company, of London, have issued the
following pieces for the flute in G and piano:
Beethoven, Adelaide; Mendelssohn, Elijah, If With
All Your Hearts and O, Rest in the Lord; Mozart,
Aria, II mio tesoro, and Andante (arranged by
Boehm) ; Schubert, Serenade. Boehm arranged
a number of pieces but these have remained in
manuscript with the single exception noted above;
a list of these arrangements is given in the ap-
pendix, and probably any flutist can himself re-

124 THE FLUTE

arrange them from other available scores. Violin
music of the song style is especially suitable, as
the flute in G begins on the same tone as the G
string of the violin. The part for the violin may
be easily transposed. The following pieces have
been found very effective: Bach, Air for the G
String (Wilhelmj) ; Godard, Adagio Pathetique;
Schumann, Traumeri and Abendgebet; Godard,
Berceuse from Jocelyn; Terschak, Romance Itali-
enne. Many trios for Flute, Violin, and Piano are
beautifully rendered when the Flute in G takes
the violin part; an effective number of this kind is
the Romanza by Fuchs.J

(b) Dimensions of the Bass Flute
As early as 1847 I had made flute tubes giving
an easy and certain speech for the tone Eg

[^]

but the difficulties connected with the construction
and playing of the keys led me to choose the
tone G,

as the fundamental of my bass flute.

In the calculation of the proportions of the air
column, I gave preference to ihe deeper tones;
the speech is easy and certain, and lends itself to
a surprisingly strong crescendo; hence the bass
flute is suitable for playing in the largest room or
in the salon.

DIMENSIONS OF THE BASS FLUTE 125

[Boehm submitted a flute in G, together with an
explanation of his Schema to the Paris Exposition
of 1867, and as a part of the exhibit there were
tables of the actual dimensions of his flutes in C
and G. The table for the flute in C is given on
page 35 of this work; the table for the Flute in G
was not included by Boehm in "Die Flote und das
Flotenspiel," but for the sake of completeness and
because of increasing interest, it seems desirable to
include it in this edition. Comments on the ex-
hibit at the Paris Exhibition are given on pages 309
to 313 of Welch's "History of the Boehm Flute."]

[As made by Boehm the flute in G has a tube
with an inside diameter of 26 millimeters; the
tone-holes are 19.3 millimeters in diameter and the
rise of the keys is about 6 millimeters; the em-
bouchure is a trifle larger than for the flute in C,
being about 11.0 by 13.0 millimeters; the distance
of the face of the cork from the center of the
embouchure is 20.5 millimeters; Table III gives
the scale for such a flute corresponding to the pitch
A^435. From these dimensions a Schema diagram
for the flute in G at various pitches can be con-
structed in the manner described for the flute in C,
on pages 35 to 47. The "actual length of air col-
umn" for any tone is the distance, measured from
the face of the cork to the center of the correspond-
ing lateral tone-hole having a diameter of 19.3
millimeters. This length is 68 millimeters less
than the corresponding "theoretical length"; the
quantity, 68 millimeters, is the "closed-end correc-
tion" for this size of tube (see pages 34 and 42.]

126

THE

BASS FLUTE

TABT.F, III

Tones

Absolute
Vibration
Numbers

387.54

Theoretical
Lengrths of
Air Column

442.50mm

Actual
Lengths of
Air Column

374.50mm

Gsb F,»

365.79

468.81

400.81

345.26

496.68

428.68

325.88

526.22

458.22

E^b Da*

307.59

557.51

489.51

290.33

590.66

522.66

D.b Calf

274.03

625.78

557.78

258.65

663.00

595.00

244.14

702.42

634.42

Bjb A,lt

230.43

733.19

676.19

217.50

788.44

720.44

A,b G^*

205.29

835.32

767.32

193.77

885.00

817.00

[Other practical details of the dimensions, for
the pitch A=435, are as follows: The "correction
for the open end" is 10.5 millimeters, so that the
distance from the cork, to the end giving the low-
est tone, G2, is 817+10.5=827.5 millimeters. The
correction for the FS hole is — 2.3 millimeters, giv-
ing for the actual location of this hole, 557.8- 2.3=
555.5 millimeters from the cork. The CJf hole is
10 millimeters in diameter and it is at a distance
of 333.0 millimeters from the cork. The D*! trill-
key hole has a diameter of 10.5 millimeters and it
is 315.2 millimeters from the cork. The octave-
key hole is 5.0 millimeters in diameter and is 13.9
millimeters above the Ct hole.]

[The bass flute shown in Fig. 41 is constructed
according to the Schema based upon the dimen-
sions of Table III, and is for the pitch A=440.]

MECHANISM OF THE BASS FLUTE

127

128 THE FLUTE

Being made with G for its fundamental tone,
there is required no alteration in the system of
fingering, since the upper half of the key mechan-
ism can be arranged to be played very conven-
iently by the left hand, through extensions of the
axles, as shown in Fig. 43, and the lower half re-
quires only slight alterations.

A very conveniently arranged "schleifklappe"
[octave-key], marked S and with a * in Fig. 43,
may be opened by the thumb; it serves to give
freer speech and greater purity of tone to the
notes DJf, EJ), D^, Dg*, E^b and Ag. [This key is de-
scribed and illustrated, as applied to the flute in C,
on page 86.J

The trill key, marked D and * * in Fig. 43, is a
substitute for the long D trill key in all cases where
this would be used on the C flute.

[The mechanism of the flute shown in Fig. 41
is arranged exactly as shown in the diagram Fig.
43, and explained in the preceding paragraphs.
The mechanism of the flute shown in Fig. 42 is the
same in general, except that there are trill keys
for D and DS, to be played by the fingers of the
right hand as on the ordinary C flute, and there
is no octave-key. This construction for the trill
keys is the one now usually employed.]

(d) Special Fingerings for the Bass Flute
All the fingerings of the C flute from C3 to A,
are applicable to the bass flute; but since the Cj
sounds as G2, of course the music for the bass flute

SPECIAL FINGERINGS FOR THE BASS FLUTE 129

-4MI

1 ♦ • o

1 o o o

-M\\

--| O C)« • O

o • m -Q.

•

1 O • O

1 o o o

o • • •

•

J:
1 o s- o

1 o o o

o So o o

1 o o o

**■"■ m^ • • •

1 • .i"

1 o o o

1 • • •

1 o o o

1 -^

■■'■■ o qo o o
o

1 o o o

».
^

.'■-- • PHO o o*

1 o o o

^llll

• '^o • •

o • •

1 o o o

iV-* ' '

55*

^11 II

• o •

[ • o o

•till-

r o ^o o •

-tT-

<ll 11

o so*

• o •

1 • O

&5«

• • o •

• • o

o o o

•H-

• • • o

63»

• • •

o o o

o • • •

CO*

o o

o o o

% • • •

• • o

o o o

o • • •

• • •

o o o

f-l >iH

Z o
u

S c

u o

ij •-

tw "3,

I S "

i I

w o

S .2

Oi Hi

p .a

130 THE FLUTE

must be written a fourth higher, that is, be trans-
posed. [The tables of regular fingerings for the C
flute are given on page 72.]

There follow two supplementary tables of fin-
gerings; the first shows the application of the oc-
tave-key *, Fig. 43; the second table indicates the
special uses of the D trill key, * *, Fig. 43. [As
mentioned above, the bass flute is usually con-
structed with trill keys placed as on the C flute, in
which case the fingerings for the latter are directly
applicable.]

k
t

THEOBALD BOEHM

Aged 60 years

At the time of the perfection of the cylinder bore, covered hole, flute

His favorite portrait

PART II
FLUTE-PliAYING

PART II— FLUTE-PLAYING

XIII. THE DEVELOPMENT OF TONE

UPON the supposition that the student has had
elementary musical instruction in regard to
notes, time, keys, etc., such as may be found in
any printed Flute Instructor (especially in that
of Hugot and Wunderlich, Jos. Aibl, Munich) I
will proceed to a consideration of the playing of
the flute itself, and shall begin with what I believe
to be the essential requisite, the tone formation.

A good embouchure depends for the most part
upon a normal formation of the lips and teeth.
However, if one has a defective embouchure, and
also lacks a proper appreciation of beautiful tone
quality, that is if he does not have a proper tone
sense, both of these faults can be considerably im-
proved by exercising in the following manner.

Since a gradual transition is best in all things, by
passing from the easy to the more difficult, so one,
in blowing a new flute, should not begin with the
higher and lower tones which are more difficult
to produce, but he should begin in the middle reg-
ister, in which the tone C4 is best produced by a
beginner. [This tone is produced when the first
finger of the left hand only is placed on its key.]

When one has found the proper embouchure
by which this tone can be clearly sounded in a
delicate piano, one should gradually, without rais-

136

FLUTE-PLAYING

ing the pitch, swell it to a forte, and then bring it
back again to the faintest pianissimo.

When this is fully accomplished one passes in
the following manner to the next lower tone.
"While sounding the ,0^ with a beautiful, clear, and
pure tone, close the C key by a quick motion [of
the left thumb], but without making any alteration
in the embouchure or in the force of the wind.

The tone B thus obtained should continue, un-
altered, the quality and purity of the preceding
tone C. Then sound the B alone, [with crescendo

and diminuendo], and after breathing again, pro-
ceed [in like manner] to the tone Bb.

l^ <=> \ ^° I I

Continuing in this way and with the least pos-
sible alteration of the embouchure, gradually, cer-
tainly and without exertion proceed to the lower
tones successively, and in a similar manner prac-
tice the tones from C4 upwards to the highest.
Since each tone is always developed out of the

THE DEVELOPMENT OF TONE 137

preceding tone, which is already as perfect as
possible, all of the tones will remain equally per-
fect in quality, strength and purity.

As soon as one obtains a certainty in the em-
bouchure, he should next practice all the major
and minor scales ; then intervals of thirds, fourths,
fifths, sixths, sevenths, and octaves; the embouchure
will thus become accustomed to the making of
increasing intervals, and soon one will be in a
position to take the greatest skips with the proper
embouchure, and consequently with certainty.

^^£. ff^-re^ ot^ff fCk'^^ eoC'te^, ir-it/

Fig. 44.
Facsimile of Boehm's autograph.

XIV. FINGER EXERCISES

SINCE the certain production of the tone de-
pends not only upon the embouchure, but al-
so upon a quick and smooth movement of the fin-
gers, in this exercise all the tones should be slurred
together, for in staccato playing one observes less
easily whether all the fingers move up and down
precisely together.

A portion of one's attention is always lost in
reading notes, tberefore, it is very important to
play "by heart" as much as possible, so that the
formation of the embouchure and tone may have
the undivided attention. To do this will, of course,
be difficult for the untrained musician. The best
method for impressing upon the memory the
proper sequence of tones in the scales and
chords of all keys, is first to learn by heart
the tones of one scale or one chord in only
a single octave; then one will soon learn to play
the flute in all keys and through its entire com-
pass. Furthermore I have come to the conclu-
sion from my own practice as well as from my
many years of experience as a teacher,''that pupils
advance most rapidly who take the trouble to
practice patiently the complicated finger changes
of a single difficult phrase until it can be played
smoothly and clearly. One acquires in this way.

FINGER EXERCISES 139

SO to speak, wealth which is laid by, and which
is always increasing by additions.

When a short phrase is found difficult, it is
evidently a waste of time to repeat the entire pas-
sage containing the "stumbling block" in the
greater part of which one has already acquired
facility; one should practice the few troublesome
notes till the difficult tone-combination is mas-
tered.

By such a judicious use of time I have brought
many scholars in a year's practice to a thoroughly
correct interpretation (execution) of a piece of
music which others with far greater talent, but
without patience and perseverance, would never
acquire.

An answer is needed to the question which is so
frequently put to me, "What and how should one
first practice in learning my flute?" Notwith-
standing this work makes no claim to the title of
a Flute-School, yet this is an appropriate place for
the answer and the many interested flute players
will welcome it.

XV. THE METHOD OF PRACTICING

ABOVE all one should endeavor, at the begin-
ning of each practice period, to secure a good
embouchure, in the manner previously described,
for without a clear tone, nothing can be well and
beautifully played. The tone is the voice without
which one cannot even begin to sing.

When the embouchure has become good and
certain, one should study the scales and chords in
all the keys, for these are the foundation of all
passages, and when one has once learned to play
them with precise finger movements (which can
be easily determined by the ear) all the other tone
figures will be quickly and easily mastered.

As has been said, it is only a waste of time to
repeat anything that can already be played with-
out stumbling. Difiicult finger movements, on the
contrary, must be gone over very slowly at first,
so that in the slurred tone-combinations no inter-
polated tones are audible, and no lack of purity
is noticeable. Especially, one must train the fin-
gers to a perfectly smooth movement by the trill
exercises, so that no one tone predominates, and
so that no bleating or so-called "bockstriller" [goat
trill] is produced.

To secure this smoothness, there must be no per-
ceptible cramping tension of the muscles, in either

THE METHOD OF PRACTICING 141

the hand or arm, this cramping results from an
entirely unnecessary expenditure of force.

If one only forms the idea that a thing is not
diflScult, it becomes much easier.

Further, many flute players have the bad habit
of raising the fingers not only much too high, but
also to unequal heights, whereby complicated fin-
ger movements become unnecessarily difficult;
since when several keys are closed at the same
time, if one finger must move much farther than
another, it is perfectly evident that they cannot
reach the end at the same time.

The raising of the fingers too high has another
disadvantage, since in rapidly closing the keys a
very audible and disagreeable clap or rattle is pro-
duced, and at the same time the key receives a
blow and the mechanism a reaction which clearly
work disadvantageously to them. On the con-
trary, if the fingers are held directly over the keys
a forcible closing of them will be nearly or wholly
inaudible, and there will be produced only a pres-
sure without rebound.

The fingers therefore should be held at equal
heights, and no higher than is necessary above
the keys. To secure this, and especially as most
players do not realize how high they have raised
their fingers, I advise all my pupils, when prac-
ticing the scales, to stand before a mirror. They
are then in a position to see not only the finger
movements and the whole manner of holding the
flute, but also to detect many bad habits, such as

142 FLUTE-PLAYING

distortion of the features, and unnecessary move-
ments of the head, arms and body.

If one cannot express his feelings through the
style of tone, he surely is not in a position to do
so by head or body movements. A calm, firm
attitude certainly presents a much more pleasing
appearance to the hearer than visible exertions, or
affected, sentimental movements.

Since bad habits are very difficult to overcome,
they ought to be removed in their beginnings. It
is very short sighted to economize in the begin-
ning, for in the end the best teacher is also the
cheapest. It is impossible for everyone to find a
good teacher, and in all the flute-schools known
to me the methods of style are treated in a very
superficial manner; therefore, I believe that my
views upon this subject, founded upon many years
of experience as an artist and teacher, should
be given.

ANTOINE SACCHETTI and THEOBALD BOEItM

XVI. MUSICAL INTERPRETATION

HE .who, like myself, has been fortunate enough
to have heard, for more than fifty years, all
the greatest singers and songstresses of the time,
will never forget the names of Rrizzi, Sesi, Cata-
lani, Velluti, Lablache, Tamburini, Rubini, Mali-
bran, Pasta, etc. It fills me with joy to remember
their artistic and splendid performances; they
have all come forth from the good old Italian
school of song, which today, as in the past hun-
dred years, gives the foundation for a good voice
formation, and leads to a correct understanding
of style, which is an essential for the instrument-
alist as well as for the singer.

The interpretation of a piece of music should
evidently give to the hearer what the composer
has endeavored to express in notes. The player
himself must therefore, in order to be intelligible,
first clearly comprehend the sense and spirit of
the composition.

But the means which the composer has at hand
are not always sufficient to clearly convey his
ideas. All the customary designations of the
tempo from largo to prestissimo being without
metronomic determinations give rather indefinite
ideas; and the articulations, accents, and nuances
of the tone strength, especially in older or care-
lessly copied music, are designated at the best

146 FLUTE-PLAYING

in a very faulty way and often not at all. Much is
left therefore to the discretion and individual com-
prehension of the performer, in which respects,
as is known, even thorough musicians will differ
considerably.

In the orchestra, naturally the interpretation of
the director is followed and the flutist who plays
each note according to the dictated directions,
clearly, with a good and pure tone, has accom-
plished much, and his playing is at least correct.

In solo playing, on the other hand, where the
player himself appears, the overcoming of tech-
nical difficulties is mainly accomplished by an ex-
traordinary amount of practice, after which the
genuine artist should endeavor to bring out a defi-
nite expression of feeling. It is much easier to
win applause by a brilliant execution, than to
reach the hearts of the hearers through a canta-
bile.

For example, to play well an adagio with all the
possible colorature, the player must not only be
a perfect master of his instrument, but he must
also have the power to transform the tones, as
it were, into words, by which he will be able to
give his feelings a clear expression. The com-
poser of vocal music endeavors to make the tones
express the emotions described by the words, and
the singer is most easily led to a correct musical
interpretation through the words connected with
the tones; likewise, the flute player must learn to
sing upon his instrument.

If the composer under the influence of the words

MUSICAL INTERPRETATION 147

of the poem has been enabled to express his feel-
ings in tone, and to form his melodies upon the
laws of rhythm and declamation, so also the
thoughtful instrumentalist can perceive the cor-
rect interpretation of the music of an aria or a
song in its text.

He will learn by the study of good song music
when and why a note should be played staccato,
or be slurred with the next following; and when
an accent or a crescendo or diminuendo in the tone
strength, is necessary to bestow upon the music
an expression corresponding to the words; and
when a breath can be taken without breaking the
correct declamation.

The text will clearly show him the phrases and
will indicate to him the points for which the full
strength of the tone must be saved, for producing
the greatest effects, as is done by the points of
highest light in a good painting.

The following examples will serve as a clearer
explanation of what has been said, as well as to
explain the portamento di voce which is indis-
pensable to a good style of cantabile.

Since it is only possible to indicate the declama-
tion or correct expression of the words of a text
on an instrument by means of articulation, that
is by striking the notes according to the meaning
or syllable-beginnings of the words, it is import-
ant to learn the necesary art of tonguing and its
proper application. This is indicated in three dif-
ferent ways, namely a short staccato by little lines

148

FLUTE-PLAYING

( f r r j ; less staccato by points ( f f f )

and an entirely smooth staccato by points over
which there is a slur ( f f f ) , indicating that

the tone is to have merely a new impulse, but that
the air stream is not to be interrupted.

This tonguing should sound as softly as the
second syllable "de" [te] for example, in speaking
the word "Beide" [bl-te], which serves very satis-
factorily for the making of separate syllables. In
many cases the expression can be further in-
creased, as is indicated in the following example.

LarghettO. fSia^alimmeJ

Zanberflote.

Dieas BildniBB istbezaubGrDdscb&D,wienoclikeinAu-ge je ge- Behnlich fQhIeB, ich ftkhl eB, wiedj
(fKle)

GOt-ter-bild inein Herz mit neu-er Regnng follt, mein Herz mit nen - cr Rfigung fflllt.

^ft-^£^^^ - ^ ^ l^^ ^-£^^j^:

/■■

[The musical illustrations have been photo-
graphically reproduced from the German edition.
The line above the words is the music as written
for the voice, while the line below indicates the
interpretation for the flute.J

The correct articulation follows here of itself
from the declamation of the words.

TONGUING AND SLURRING

149

By means of the soft tonguing of the four notes
Eb, D, C, and Bb of the first bar, as well as the notes
D, C, Bb and Ab of the third bar, there is given
to the words "ist bezaubernd schon," and "kein
Auge je gesehn," considerably more expression
than if they were entirely slurred together. The
breathing places are indicated thus: v.

Further, it is evident that it is not allowable to
slur any note over to the first note of the next
measure, since it almost always happens that the
note falling in the so-called strong part of the
measure must be tongued, in order that the word
depending upon it may receive its proper accent.
The slurring of a note to the following measure
is always a fault, unless it is justified for some
special reason, as in dance music or comic songs,
where it may be used to produce a piquant or
bizarre effect. For example:

But in song music this tying over from the
weak to the strong beat of a measure is allowable
only when employed as syncopation, as in canon
or fugue, to bring out an increased expression. For
example in the following illustration where the

l^rgo. (SimgUimmt.)

Xus „Joseph",

Nurmei-ne Eio-der lui glQeklicliflt6tssehi,Darmei-De ElD*der laHriftckUcbitetBWUL
Bendsheu-reuxmei eji-(iui8,ezauu map^itol-Rends I6s lieDreax,reiidBliH l»o * moe.
(Ftolt.) — =^

150

FLUTE-PLAYING

word "nur" is repeated in the third measure, the
anticipation of the E by a quarter note constitutes
a syncopation, by means of which the effect is in-
creased.

The following examples will furnish, through a
reading of the text, a clear idea of the rhythmic
and declamatory significance of each note.

The methods of interpretation which I have here
given for playing on the flute, will serve as guides
by which anyone may learn to judge correctly
why and in what manner a note should be tongued
or intoned, so that it shall give the sense and
expression of the word for which it is a substitute,
or whether it should be considered merely as a
syllable without significance, and should therefore
be slurred together with other notes.

Vb4g. CSw.jjrfnw.fi,)

Der LiDdenbaum. ScbuberL

p^f4r-^^-i-^l-9=p=?t^^"^^fe3=d-f- J J-^=?Jbri

Am Brunnen jor den Thore,

da Btebt ein Lio-denbaum, icb tr&umtiii sei-oem Scbatten bo
V 3 V V

MH ,|-f^ 'S^iU^

^-^nhi^T^^.ir 'J ^ j\i^m

man-Gheo aOa-Beo Traam; icb Bcbaittia sei - ae> Riu-de so mfin-ebeft lie -be Wort,' ei

MUSICAL ORNAMENTS

151

Upon the repetition of a strophe, on the con-
trary, where the theme would become somewhat
monotonous in the absence of words, the player
may be allowed to take some license, and add
little ornaments in suitable places; especially in
bright and light melodies. In the last of the fol-
lowing songs, "Das Fischermadchen," for exam-
ple, a heightening of the expression will result, if
the ornaments are performed not heavily, but
lightly and gracefully.

In the preceding song the triplets, and also the
sixteenth notes of the second, fourth and sixth
measures of the following, may be slurred; how-
ever, in my opinion, a soft tonguing gives a more
definite effect.

Ziemlich langsaoi. (Singstimme.)

Trockene Blumfln.

Behtihr al ■ 1e mich an bo weh, aJs ob ihr wasatet, vie mir ge-BcIieh?ihrfilQmIeui alle, wie

152

Massif {Siagilimme.}

FLUTE-PLAYING
Stiindchen.

H A'^'riJi

^H^ efe|3

Lei-ie Bs-ben mef-ne Lie-der durchdieNach'tzu dir, in dea aUI- lea pain her - ail •

ffKft.)

^ ^^S^^ 3 f±^'.^ ^ ^^-ri. r- p i ^;f ^^^

Liebchen.kommznniir. FJilBteindschlaDke Wipfel rtu-BCbeo ia des Hon-des Licht, in desMon-des

Licht; des Ver- ra- thersfeiodlichLauBcheD fflrchte Hoi • de nicht, farjhte Hoi - de nichL

The triplets may also be slurred together, in the
above song.

Etwas geschwind. [Smgalimnu^.)

Das Fischerniadchen.

kLU_Lj g I A-T^ I ^^g— ;^

n mTT

ko aea Euid in Hand, wir ko - sen Hand in Huid.

The great wealth of beautiful German songs of
Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Mendelssohn and

COLORATURES 153

others are almost inexhaustible sources of studies
for the formation of a correct interpretation and
a good style.

From the words of the poems of the popular
songs of other nations, such as Scottish, Irish,
Swedish and Slavish, one may also learn a good
interpretation.

One should begin with songs which are simple
but full of expression in word and melody, then
one will soon learn to comprehend compositions,
which, as Beethoven's "Adelaide," are written in
the highest dramatic style, and form a transition
to the arias for the interpretation of which a
knowledge of all the arts of ornamentation and
colorature is necessary.

All coloratures may be considered a diversifi-
cation of a single note, whose time value is par-
tially or wholly consumed in executing the orna-
ments.

The simplest ornament is the accented appog-
giatura which moves either upwards or downwards,
and is designated by a small note; and for equally
divided notes it takes one-half of the time value
of the principal note, and for unequal division it
takes one-third.

i^t& ^'^^^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^m^m^^

AiuEiUira&g.

[The musical ornaments are first given "as
written," and then "as played;" in some instances
the name or interpretation seems to be incor-
rect.!

154

FLUTE-PLAYING

The double appoggiatura, consisting of two or
three small notes, is to be treated in a similar
manner. This may form a triplet, as in the exam-
ples:

The double appoggiatura is to be distinguished
from the "schneller" or half -mordent in which the
first of the two small notes is always the same as
the principal note; for example:

The true mordent (gruppetto) is a group of
three or four small notes which move within the
compass of a minor third, and consists, both in
ascending and descending, of a note first above
and then below the given note. For example:

A very effective, and at the same time the most
difficult vocal ornament is the trill, a thoroughly
good execution of which is, at the present time,
unfortunately, very rarely heard. The trill con-
sists in the alternation of two adjacent tones, a
major or a minor second part, which are to be
smoothly and rapidly repeated. Following the
best old Italian school of song, the trill should
commence upon the principal note, and not upon
the auxiliary note; the two notes must have equal
tone strength, and exactly equal time value, and

THE TRILL

155

the alternation should be slower in Adagio, and
more rapid in Allegro. For a final cadence, or a
fermata, it should gradually increase in speed, and
there should be a swelling out and a diminishing
of the tone strength. Further, every trill must
end with a resolution which is formed of the prin-
cipal note preceded by the next lower note. The
"Pralltriller" [inverted mordent] is the only ex-
ception to this rule. For a cadence trill the end-
ing may have a variety of forms, according to the
taste of the performer.

Cadence trilL

Prall trill

ir tr ir Ir

According to my idea, all trills not resting upon
the note of the harmony, such as the last preceding

mordent trills, and trills consisting in the multi-
plication of an appoggiatura, should begin with

156

FLUTE-PLAYING

the auxiliary note, and proceed by means of a
final resolution.

All trills must begin slowly, and very gradually
become more rapid, a perfect equality of the tones
being maintained throughout, and the production
of a so-called bleating or bockstriller" must be
avoided.

Equally useful are the ornaments produced by
runs, which are also developed by the diversifica-
tion of a fundamental tone and which must there-
fore be played exactly within the time and in the
manner of expression of this note; either with
equal tone value {tenuto) or with increasing
strength (crescendo) or diminishing strength
(diminuendo) . For example :

Since the time of Mozart, and especially by Ros-
sini, all the vocal ornaments have been accurately
written out by composers, hence one will find in
operas and concert arias a large selection of taste-
ful and effective coloratures, which will serve as
models for practice.

Many arias also contain the most beautiful melo-
dies for the study of cantabile which in aesthetic
respects will remain the best examples, and for
the rendering of which the flute player must have

THE ARTS OF COLORATURE 157

all the qualifications which characterize the gen-
uine artist. These qualifications are an intelligent
comprehension of the composition, a deep feeling
and a cultivated taste, correctly timed breathing,
and a perfectly formed tone, for without these a
good interpretation of a cantabile with portamento
(gliding voice) is impossible.

Although the proper portamento di voce, namely
the gliding over from one tone to another while
speaking two different syllables, is adapted to the
human voice alone, and consequently seldom
seems good and appropriate on string instruments,
yet it is sometimes desired to imitate it upon wind
instruments with tone holes. On account of defec-
tive execution, however, the effect is often repul-
sive and suggests "cat music" on the house tops,
rather than a beautifully sung cantilena.

The significance, often misunderstood, of the
word portamento, seems to me to consist in a
development of the legato derived from the Italian
cantare legato in which all the intermediate tones
are delicately and smoothly connected together,
like a series of pearls by a connecting thread, the
latter being figuratively represented by the air
stream. For example:

The following extract from the aria of Donna
Anna in Mozart's "Don Juan" serves as a com-
bination of the above described song-studies,

158

FLUTE-PLAYING

since the cantibile of the Larghetto ends with
simple runs and mordent ornaments, and the
Allegretto contains mordent trills, roulades, and a
closing trill, and has practically all of the arts of
colorature.

In the lower line, designed to be played upon
the flute, all of the legato places are designated
by slur marks, the moderate articulations by
points and the sharply tongued notes by lines.
The places where breath should be taken are
designated by large breathing signs, and the places
where it may be taken if necessary by small signs.
[In the original edition there are no staccatissimo
lines, and the breathing signs are all alike.] The
explanation of the trills which occur has already
been given above.

iJ^, a r tT^vi—i.. -

=iv=l

Don Jnan.

~ . r 1 ... K-

1. j|-|

MozarL

Hon - mi

-11 fefefaj*

dir, bel -

dol mi - (T

cbe BOD i

n " '^ 1 [^ ^ * 1 J * 1

. era-dot eoo - te

fel=f=^

+-4 »j - •

-^— '

;> 1 f^. }^

-hi^hh'

— p 7 C 1 f'a /3 1 J i 1

1 r bMLf

-J—^

— a-i-tf--

If ? 1 1

^ T ^ |[^ «^ 1 J t 1

■^ neiia voce.

■ ^'kr

(mute.

THE ARTS OF COLORATURE

159

^^^^^g^^^^^ s^^^^^

co-rs BfiO'ti - ra

160

FLUTE-PLAYING

?//7///r(f77^

QUlf. g.jJ.l^/f,,,. i,,U^,iti4^^ —

Fig. 4S.

A photographic reproduction of No. 1 of the 12 Uebungen, in Boehm's
own hand-writing.

XVII. CONCLUSION

1 BELIEVE that I have now pointed out the surest
way in which one may acquire a correct and
elegant style of playing, so that he may be pre-
pared to delight himseff and others not only with
difficult compositions, but also with simple and
beautifully played songs.

Moreover, attention to my instructions will lead
to a correct technical execution, and to facilitate
this there has been printed as a supplement to
this work and published by Jos. Aibl in Munich,
"12 Uebungsstucke in alien Tonarten." These
practice pieces form a transition to the following
studies which were composed earlier and in
which are to be found nearly all the practicable
difficulties for the flute.

1. 12 Etudes pour la Flute, propres a egaliser le

doigte dans toutes les gammes, op. 15;
Falter & Sohn, Munich; [Rudall, Carte &
Co., London; Carl Fischer, New York.]

2. 24 Caprices-Etudes pour la Flute, op. 28; B.

Schott's Sohne, Mainz; Richault, Paris;
Rudall, Carte & Co., London; [Carl
Fischer, New York.]

3. 24 Etudes pour la Flute seule ou avec accom-

pagnement du Piano, op. 37; B. Schott's
Sohne, Mainz; [Rudall, Carte & Co.,
London; Carl Fischer, New York.]

162 FLUTE-PLAYING

[The original manuscript of this work, men-
tioned in the Preface, contains the first six of the
Uebungsstiicke. No. 1 of the series is photo-
graphically reproduced in Fig. 45, and shows the
neatness of Boehm's musical hand-writing. These
studies, are published by the G. Schirmer Com-
pany, New York, in the "Library of Musical
Classics," Vol. 122, under the title : "Twelve Prac-
tice Pieces for Flute for acquiring a smooth and
even finger-movement in all keys."]

[Boehm was not only a famous teacher and a
member of the Bavarian Boyal Court Orchestra,
but he was also widely known for his solo playing
in concerts. He frequently appeared in many of
the principal music centers of Germany, Hungary,
Austria, Italy, Switzerland, France, and England,
and the printed accounts of his performances are
most complimentary. They show that Boehm
himself achieved in a remarkable degree the style
of playing which he advocates in this treatise. A
published account of one of his concerts in Nurem-
berg contains the following appreciation: "His
playing shows a tender, elegiac sentiment, a
beautiful, romantic longing; his singing upon his
instrument is inspired by the deepest feeling. His
mastership in seizing all nuances, the melancholy
pathos of his style, wins him the first place among
the flutists of Europe. One hesitates to breathe for
fear the tenderness and soulfulness of the blended
tones will be disturbed and the magic spell will
be broken." Of a concert given in Leipzig it is
written: "The playing of Herr Boehm is firm.

boehm's last composition 163

especially pure and technically efficient, with a
beautiful, tender, and yet very full tone. The very
difficult task in Drouet's 'Variations' he gave with
so much finish and good taste that we owe the
artist our thanks for an evening full of enjoy-
ment."]

[Boehm wrote over sixty compositions for the
flute, including original pieces in various styles
and arrangements of the classics, with both piano
and orchestral accompaniments. A complete,
revised list of Boehm's published compositions is
given in the Appendix (c). One of his best com-
positions is also his last, the Elegie, opus 47,
published in 1881. Schafhautl, in his "Life of
Boehm," speaks thus of it: "His swan-song bears
the very characteristic title of 'Elegie.' It is
written in the key of Ab major; a sweet melancholy
rises through forty bars to a bitter lamentation,
only to sink back by degrees to a peaceful resigna-
tion. It is the aged man, who, already ailing, once
said in his eighty-seventh year: 'I would that I
might yet live to the ninetieth year; but as God
wills.' The Elegie is composed for full orchestra.
The orchestra raises the composition to a work
of true magnificence, developing here and there, in
a most effective way, what the singing flute-voice
only suggests."]

Fig. 46.
The house at 20 Altheimereck, Munich, where Boehm lived

Fig. 47.
Inner court, looking toward Boehm's home and shop

APPENDIX

(a) Biographical Notes

Theobald Boehm was born in Munich, Bavaria,
on April 9, 1794. He was born, lived, worked, and
died in the same house, at No. 20 Altheimereck.
The Boehm family occupied a flat in a building
which had once formed part of one of the religious
houses in which before the suppression of such
institutions in Bavaria, Munich abounded. It had
been the residence of Boehm's father, and his de-
scendants continued to live there. Fig. 46 shows
this house, as seen from the street, from a photo-
graph taken by the translator in 1905. The en-
trance (in the center, at the left of the lamp post)
leads into the inner court, and from this court
there are various doors and stairways leading to
numerous apartments which constitute the build-
ing as a whole. Fig. 47 is a view taken in this
inner court, looking toward Boehm's apartment.
The family lived on the third floor, and the work-
shops of "Th. Boehm & Mendler" were on the
fourth floor just over the living rooms. He was
married in 1820. In 1870 there was a celebration
of the Golden Wedding, with a family consisting
of seven sons, one daughter, seven daughters-in-
law, and thirty grandchildren. Boehm died on
November 25, 1881, in his eighty-eighth year. In

166 BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

this house on April 9, 1894, there was held a family
celebration to commemorate the centenary of
Boehm's birth.

Professor Dr. Carl von Schafhautl, of the Uni-
versity of Munich, was a life-long friend and com-
panion of Boehm, having lived for years in
Boehm's home. In 1882 Schafhautl wrote a series
of articles entitled, "Theobald Boehm: The Life
of a Remarkable Artist," which appeared in the
AUgemeine Musikalische Zeitung of Leipzig. A
translation of this life of Boehm is given in
Welch's "History of the Boehm Flute," and fills
102 pages. Welch also gives a "Memoir of Dr.
Schafhautl" which fills 24 pages.

In 1909, as stated in the Preface, the translator
received from Mr. James S. Wilkins, Jr., an account
of Boehm's life-work written by Mr. Wilkins in
1900. This gives the impressions of Boehm's per-
sonal characteristics as received by an Anaerican
pupil who was closely associated with Boehm for
more than three years, and it also gives some
opinions expressed by Boehm which have not been
found elsewhere. Extracts from this account are
therefore given here; the parts omitted are mostly
descriptions of Boehm's experiments and conclu-
sions which are given by Boehm himself in this
treatise, and accounts of his work in connection
with the iron and steel industry, which are given
in full by Schafhautl.

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 167

THEOBALD BOEHM— AN APPRECIATION

JAMES S. WILKINS, JR.

1900

It was the good fortune of the writer to become the

pupil of Theobald Boehm in May, 1871, and to enjoy

the inestimable honor of being made a close friend and

companion by him for more than three years.

During the writer's sojourn in Munich, he translated
into English Mr. Boehm's work on the flute, "Die Flote
und das Flotenspiel" (which remained in Boehm's posses-
sion, unpublished). It was suggested at this time that
Mr. Boehm's biography would be of interest as an intro-
duction to the translation, but he was opposed to this. .His
life was devoted to study and investigation, carried out
in the systematic manner so characteristic of the German
student and scholar. He was naturally modest and of a re-
tiring nature; his was a character that could not tolerate
superficiality or ostentation.

It is only with a desire to give to the lovers of the flute
and to admirers of the man who created such a revo-
lution in the instrument, a clearer understanding of the
one who has accomplished this result, and to set forth
the character of this truly great man, that this sketch
of his life is now written.

* * *

Mr. Boehm was about 5 feet, 10 inches in height, of
well knit frame and strong constitution. His eyes were
a striking feature; they were brown in color, of a wonder-
ful brightness and intelligence, and beaming with kind-
ness. He was full of genial, quiet humor, but with the
air of energy and determination which his life bore out.
He was highly cultured and had a fund of interesting
reminiscence rarely met with.

He was ever ready to encourage the ambitious scholar
with advice and assistance, and he did so in a manner
to win him the admiration, love, and respect of all with
whom he came in contact. It was instinctive with him

168 BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

to bring out all the best qualities of his pupils. His was
a great nature — full of charity and human kindness.

As an illustration of Mr. Boehm's method I may give a
personal incident. I learned to play all of Boehpi's com-
positions in concert, from memory; in fact, at the close
of my three years of study with him, I had a repertoire
■of 500 solos, memorized! I went to 20 Altheiinereck every
day, at 9 o'clock, a. m., Mr. Boehm would say to me:
"I have a new piece" — placing it on the music stand
and giving tempo — "play it." When I had finished the
last page, he would turn the music upside down, and
repeat: "Play it." This meant that I should play all that
I could remember. In this way I became able to memor-
ize a piece at first reading, and it also taught me to read
many bars ahead.

Mr. Boehm's school of tone stands supreme, and his
pupils have demonstrated this fact. With him tone was
of the first importance, all else became secondary; and,
while the development of tone meant drudgery, yet the
results compensated for all the labor entailed.

* * *

All this time the natural obstacles to the creation of a
perfect flute confronted Mr. Boehm. The human hands
have but ten fingers and the musical scale has thirteen
tones, and the proper operation of the flute could only be
accomplished by mechanical means. For years Mr.
Boehm labored on this problem and the hundreds of de-
signs he made in experimentation can hardly be re-
alized. He continued the experiments until he reluct-
antly decided that any device that could be created for
an ideal flute would be so complicated and so subject
to disarrangement that it would be impractical. The
present flute is not perfect, and Mr. Boehm fully realized
this fact. The creation of a mechanism of easy and sim-
ple operation, the adoption of dimensions best suited
to the scope of the instrument required that some of the
tone-holes be located out of their correct acoustical posi-
tions. They were established only by experiment. It is
impossible to have an adequate realization of the immense

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 169

amount of labor Mr. Boehm devoted to the determination
of such proportions as have given us the wonderful
flute that we now have. None but a person of his char-
acter would have devoted a life-time to the accomplish-
ment of his ideals.

The writer with the approval of Mr. Boehm worked
nine months in his flute factory and learned the prac-
tical making of the instrument. Consequently he had
many conversations with his preceptor on the reasons
that influenced him to establish the present construction
of the fluie as the most feasible. One of the greatest dif-
ficulties he had to contend with was the opposition that
players of the old flute had to any innovation or change.

* * *

The tone-holes of wooden flutes are smaller than those
made of metal, because of the counter-boring for the pad
seats in the former, while the metal flutes have raised
edges around the holes. The ideal flute is one of
wood with raised tone-holes. The wood of the main
part of the lube being cut away for lightness; this permits
using full-sized tone-holes. Mr. Boehm did make some
few flutes of this kind, and they were splendid instru-
ments, but the greatly increased cost and the danger of
splitting made them too expensive, and few players ap-
preciated the real advantages to be derived from their
use. (The bass flute tube shown in Fig. 31, presented by
Mr. Wilkins, shows such a "thinned wood" tube).

* * *

When he was about sixty years of age Mr. Boehm cre-
ated his Alt-FlSte in G. This was the pride of his life,
and during the last twenty j^ears of his life he played
on this instrument altogether. The principal obstacle
to the popularity of this flute is the fact that no music is
arranged for it. It is to be regretted that so little is
known of this magnificent instrument.

* * *

One of the great drawbacks to the early adoption of the
Boehm System by flute players was the changing of the

170 BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

fingering from the old to the new; this was particularly
true as regards the closed Gt key. The fallacy of the
closed G# key, strange to say, prevails at the present time
to no small extent. Even pupils are taught the false
fingering by their teachers who happen themselves to
use the old style. This was extremely annoying to Mr.
Boehm, who remarked: "If a player goes to the trouble
of changing his instrument and system of fingering he
should not do so in part. The natural action of the
pressing down of the finger on a key is to close the key.
Then why, when no mechanical reason prevents, should
this Gtt key be left to the unreliable force of a spring to
close it, when the direct pressure of the finger will act
so positively?" In later years Mr. Boehm would not
humor this absurd notion and he refused to make the

closed GS key for any one.

* * *

It was always Mr. Boehm's hope that the tone qualities
and possibilities of the flute could be realized as part of
the orchestral forces. He maintained that the first two
octaves contain the true and natural qualities of the
instrument. The third octave is always unsatisfactory; it
is seldom that a player who has a fine quality of tone
in the third octave, has an equally excellent lower tone,
and conversely. Therefore it was Mr. Boehm's wish to
create an orchestral set of flutes, composed of flutes in
G, in C, and in F, each designed to have a compass of
two octaves of the ideal tone quality. But as this would
increase the number of flute players in the orchestra
there is hardly any possibility of its realization; not
that it is impossible but because there is a general indif-
ference to the question.

It is evident from the character of the music at present
available for the flute, that very little of it is composed
with a full icomprehension of the character of the in-
strument. The prevailing music is nearly all of a florid
nature, quite foreign to the acoustical quality of the flute.
There is no question that the third octave is false and
thin as compared with the lower ones, and, in fact, these

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 171

lower octaves are purposely injured in order to develop
the third or artificial octave. (See page 19. These argu-
ments do not apply to the flute in G made on Boehm's
dimensions). The proof of this fact is found in the
irregular fingering that must be used to produce the third
octave. The elimination of the eifort to produce three
full octaves of tones would permit the development of
the full, rich tone of the two lower octaves which give
the qualities that tend to make the flute the beautiful
instrument that it is. Development along these natural
lines is the ideal to be sought.

* * *

Mr. Boehm had seven sons and one daughter, and once
when speaking of his family, said: "I have raised a good
family and have given them all a good education to fit
them to make their way in the world." This was true;
one son became Manager of the Bavarian State Railways,
another Manager of a locomotive factory, a third Manager
of the Stuttgart gas works, one was secretary to Prince
Charles, two held positions of trust in municipal of-
fices in Munich, and one carried on the family business
of goldsmith and jeweler, all being men of prominent
position in their communities. The daughter never mar-
ried and lived at home.

Mr. Boehm's affliction in later years was the failure of
his eye-sight. This was not caused alone by advancing
years, but was the result mainly of the years of hard
work spent in experiments in making steel from iron
directly. The constant watching of the metal and the

heat of the intense fires seriously affected his eyes.

* ♦ *

It was remarkable that a man who had been so active
as Mr. Boehm had been for many years, should retain
his faculties in such a marked degree tp the time of his
death. In 1872, when he was in his seventy-seventh year,
he was as companionable as the average man of sixty
years, and his mind was as bright. This was probably
due to the well regulated life he led. Until his death, in
1881, he always dwelt upon the improvement of the flute
or upon the arrangement of some music for it.

^ jt^a^ '*^*^ >*^'V'^*? "^ ^--t-Tf-^. Tf*-^^ ^'V**- a^f-Jp 9k4 . ({ir£^^^

^;^ -^tf-*-^ ^A-»-«- ■^W*/ ^V>-CA-' -^^m*-- ^if-^lC a''pC'f*>^ »»*«^ /y
yu/^^rk' -7i*^ ^^c-r^ C-if-i^t^ ^ Vi^ «.»«^ -f^ ^pife, '^at^ */'^^^.»^i-^x-^--'

•^0^^ ^ 4taiir^ -*^V»i-»*^, -K^-cnl^Pji^^ ^/M^^U*/.

A^ /!« 4-f < A-^-^^ «%«k4. J^^^ €4 ^C %%^9AJ,g

Flc. 48. Facsimile of a letter in Boehm's handwriting.

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 173

A letter written by Boehm to Mr. Wilkins when
the latter was visiting Paris, is reproduced in fac-
simile on the opposite page. This letter throws an
interesting side-light upon Boehm's personal quali-
ties. While there are traces of his multi-lingual
accomplishments, yet it shows that he was very
competent in English composition, and it shows
him to be the man of courtesy and culture to
which Mr. Wilkins and others have abundantly
attested. Mr. Wilkins was accompanied by his
mother during his stay in Europe, and it is to her
that Boehm refers in the opening and closing sen-
tences.

Boehm's researches in acoustics, while mostly
applicable to the flute, are fundamental, and they
have influenced the development of other wind in-
struments with keys, such as the clarinet, oboe,
bassoon, etc. Some features of Boehm's key mech-
anism are in general use with these instruments,
and are referred to by his name. The location
of the holes, however, cannot be carried out for
these instruments, according* to the Schema, be-
cause of the modifying influence of the reed.

Boehm's attempt, in 1831, to improve the piano-
forte shows that he approached the subject in a
thoroughly rational manner; his method was cor-
rect, and is now universally adopted; he failed
temporarily, because he had no facilities to carry
on the work. The Encyclopaedia Britannica, 11th
edition, article "Pianoforte," says, "The first sug-
gestion for the overstringing in the piano, was
made by the celebrated flute-player and inventor

174 BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

Theobald Boehm, who carried it beyond theory
in London, in 1831, by employing a small firm
located in Cheapside, Gerock & Wolf, to make
some overstrung pianos for him. Boehm expected
to gain in tone. Pape, an ingenious mechanician
in Paris, tried a like experiment to gain economy
in dimensions. Tomkinson in London continued
Pape's model, but neither Boehm's nor Pape's
took permanent root. Later in 1855, Henry Engel-
hard Steinway, who had emigrated from Bruns-
wick to New York in 1849, and had established
the firm of Steinway & Sons in 1853 in that city,
effected a combination of an overstrung scale
with the American iron frame * * * leading ulti-
mately to important results. The Chickering firm
claim to have anticipated the Steinways in this
invention."

Boehm devised a new method of transmitting
rotatory motion. A model of this was presented
before the Society of Arts, Manufactures and Com-
merce, of London, and on June 8, 1835, the presi-
dent of the Society, the Duke of Sussex, presented
Boehm with the Silver Medal of the Society. The
record is found in the Transactions of the Society,
Vol. L, Part II, for the Session 1834-35, pages 82
and 83. It begins as follows: "Method of Com-
municating Rotatory Motion. The Silver Medal
was presented to Mr. Theobald Boehm, member
of the Royal Chapel at Munich, in Bavaria, for his
Method of Communicating Rotatory Motion; a
Model of which has been placed in the Society's
Repository. The usual modes of communicating

BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

175

rotatory motion from the first mover, are by means
either of wheels and pinions, or of two plane cyl-
inders connected by a band. Mr. Boehm has sug-
gested another method, described in the annexed
figures." Then follows a technical description of
the figures; these figures are reproduced in Fig.
49, from which the nature of the device can be
easily inferred, without further description.

Fig. 49. Device for transmitting
rotatory motion.

Boehm received many medals, decorations, and
prizes. Mr. Welch says: "So many prize medals
and similar distinctions did he succeed in obtain-

176 BIOGRAPHICAL NOTES

ing, that he had a drawer specially devoted to
them. The old man seemed quite pleased when,
only a few weeks before his death, he opened
it and showed me his trophies." He received three
Grand First Prize Gold Medals for his flutes, at
the London Exhibition of 1851, at the German
Industrial Exhibition, Munich, in 1854, and at the
Paris Exhibition of 1855. In 1835 he was awarded
the Silver Medal of the Society of Arts of Lon-
don for the method of transmitting rotatory mo-
tion, described in the preceding paragraph. In
1839 the King of Bavaria bestowed the Cross of
the Knights of the Order of Merit of St. Michael,
for Boehm's introduction into the iron-works of
Bavaria of improved puddling processes for the
manufacture of steel.

von

Theobald Bohm & Mendier in Munchen.

No. 1. Kine SilberMOtc (in C) mit Embouchure von flold . ■ '• ^ /A (^

Dito mit H-Fuss \.^J^\^

II. FlSto von Cocus- odor Gienadillo-Holz mit Silber . \-0}^\ -

Dito mit H-Fu.?s ... '^^^ /O' -

„ JII. Holzflute mil Nousilbur ... ... 90ff I -•

„ IV. PlOtc von Ncusilboi- mit Holit-Kmbouchure ...

„ V. Eine AltHntc (in G) von Silber mit Gold-Embouchure '^0\ -

nito von Nen.silbcr mit Holz-Embonchure . . 'fSif' —

„ VI. Piccolo von Silbor mit Holz-Embouchnre . . COO' -

Dito von Holz mit Silber ... ; J^J'O ^

Dito von Holz mit Noiisilber

Zn den Fluton No. 1 und II wird aut' Verlfingen noch ^emacht: ;j

a) Ein Trillerhebel zur c-Klapjic . . ... . . ' \:^1 ■^

•b) Eino Schleifklaiipr \- fS -^

c) Fcdern von Gold ... .... . // -^

Requisiton: Eine Garnitur Klappenpolster ■" . ■.■ . -^ '

Scluiiubenziehrr und Federnhiickclion . . . i) "

Stopselmass . . . . ... 'f "^

^ (irifl'tabcllo • • • • 3 ""

Emballagi- mit Uolzkistclien . (.' . ; . . Z ^

Bemcrkunsoii. * .WittcM dor aohr bequenien Schlcifklappo komicn Jii- Tiino:
: 5 3 J ?. H .1 s

dis-cs. d, dis-es, e, a nnd b. iiuch im Pianissimo voUkomnieii n'in und

■iiohor gespiolt werden.

Vorson.lungen wrden nur gogen erfolgte Baarziihlungen oder Wcchset
.■»ul bckannto iloutsclic UankhSiiscr gemiulit.

Fig. so. A facsimile of Boehm and Mendler's Price List of Flutes, of
the year 1877.

178 APPENDIX

(b) Descriptive Price List of Boehm & Mendler
Flutes
The manuscript copy of "Die Flote und das
Flotenspiel" concludes with a descriptive cata-
logue of the various styles of flutes manufactured
by Boehm & Mendler. This part, however, has
been crossed out, indicating Boehm's decision not
to publish it. In the translator's collection there
are several of the original price-lists of Boehm &
Mendler and of Carl Mendler; a photographic re-
production of one of these is shown in Fig. 50.
This was sent, in 1877, by Boehm himself to Mr.
Chaffee of Detroit, who purchased the flute de-
scribed in the Group, Fig. 31, No. 10. Shafhautl's
"Life of Boehm," in the German edition, gives a
catalogue, which is much the same as Boehm's list,
except that it is more detailed and is expressed in
language almost liaive. Since the English version
of Schafhautl's "Life" does not contain this mat-
ter, it is given below, with the addition of a few
minor items for the sake of completeness, taken
from a Carl Mendler price-list.

Herr Carl Mendler, who took over Boehm's flute-making
estahlishment in 1862, continues the manufacture of the
Boehm flutes in all their newest developments.

A flute in C of cocus or grenadilla wood with silver
keys is provided for 375 marks. If one wishes a B^ foot-
joint, the price is increased to 410 marks; while if the
foot descends only to Dli the price of the flute is but
320 marks.

With this flute there is furnished an elegant case, which
contains not only the flute, but also the necessary tools
with which to take the flute apart when the mechan-
ism needs cleaning, or a key pad needs changing, or,

PRICE LIST OF FLUTES 179

perchance, to remedy some disturbance in the operation
of the mechanism. These requisites consist of: one set
of key pads, 3 marks; a screw driver with a spring hook,
3 marks; a stopper measure by which the cork can be
replaced in the correct position, 1 mark; tables of fin-
gerings, 3 marks; cost of packing the flute in a wooden
box, 2 marks. These items together amount to 12 marks.

An extra foot-joint to Bti costs 95 marks, one to C
costs 65 marks, and one to B^ only costs 30 marks. An
extra head-joint of silver or of wood costs 50 marks.

A flute in C, of silver with gold embouchure, costs 410
marks. The same instrument with a Blf foot-joint is 450
marks, or with a DN foot it is 360 marks.

The same flute of the newest system with a large diam-
eter of bore, 20 millimeters, giving a fuller tone, with a
foot to C, costs 485 marks, or with a foot to Bt| the price
is 525 marks.

There is still Boehm's latest improvement, the above
silver flute of 20 millimeters bore with a head-joint of
grenadilla wood, the price of which is 475 marks with a
C foot, or 515 marks with a Bt| foot. By means of this
head-joint of wood, the flute acquires the character of tone
of the wood flute.

In accordance with the old system of flute, and espe-
cially to conform to the French style, there will be sup-
plied, instead of the Boehm open GS key, a closed G8
key at an extra cost of 20 marks. One may also have a
trill lever for the C key (thumb key) which can be
played by the first finger of the right hand; Mendler fur-
nishes this for 24 marks.

Mendler also provides his flutes with the octave-key
by which certain tones can easily and surely be pro-
duced in pianissimo. The price of this is 18 marks.

If one wishes gold springs instead of steel springs,
the extra cost is 18 marks. And little gold plates may
be put on the keys where the fingers press, for 50 marks.

A flute of cocus or grenadilla wood with keys of Ger-
man silver, with steel springs, open G* key and C foot.

180 PRICE LIST OF FLUTES

costs 300 marks; with Bti foot, 320 marks, and with foot
to D!l, 270 marks.

A bass flute in G (Alt-FIote) of silver with a gold em-
bouchure costs 650 marks. A similar flute of German sil-
ver with an embouchure of wood costs only 450 marks.

A piccolo of silver with embouchure of wood costs
300 marks, while the price of a piccolo made of cocus
or grenadilla wood, with keys of silver, is 250 marks.

Unless it is otherwise desired, all of these flutes are
provided with the thumb rest (the crutch for the left
hand).
, These prices may seem high; however, it is not pos-
sible, because of the complicated and delicate mechan-
ism, to secure its accurate working by means of the
cheaper w^orkmanship. The correct adjustment of this
complicated mechanism requires the skill of an excep-
tional mechanic. Boehm had at one time a mechanic
from the celebrated workshop of Ertel, but his work
was not sufficiently accurate. The same was the case
with a mechanic from the celebrated optical establish-
ment of Merz.

It was not until the year 1854, when the present pro-
prietor of the factory, the exceptionally skilled watch-
maker, Carl Mendler, became foreman, that it was pos-
sible to make the mechanism of the required perfection.

Flutes on Boehm's system are to be found in the market
at cheaper prices; but one must not be misled; the clos-
ing of the keys, for example, will be very imperfect, or
the flute itself will be unmanageable, and the instrument
will be found more often in the hands of the repairer
than in those of the artist.

APPENDIX 181

Schafhautl in his "Life of Boehm" (Welch:
"History of the Boehm Flute"), gives a list of
Boehm's compositions, prepared from his personal
papers. In this list there are numerous errors and
omissions. The translator's collection contains
copies, in the original editions, of all of Boehm's
published compositions and arrangements (ex-
cepting Op. 14). The following list gives the com-
plete titles as they appear on the printed music.
Wherever this list differs from that of Schafhautl
and Welch this one may be taken as correct. In
the absence of other information, Schafhautl has
been followed.

Schafhautl, in the German edition, gives the
following sentences as an introduction to the List
of Compositions : "In order that our picture of the
man whose methods and works we have followed
through various fields of human endeavor, may
be made complete and well filled-out, we must
also keep in view the man as an artist in his crea-
tions. From his first composition, which ap-
peared in the year 1822, to his last which was pub-
lished in 1881, there flows continuously the living
spirit; and even in the most difficult etudes for the
virtuoso there is always a vivifying musical
thought. Throughout all of his many-sided com-
positions for the flute, we find that he holds truly
and steadfastly to an aesthetic unity which gives
them an enduring value."

182 LIST OF boehm's compositions

When a title in the following list is followed
by an asterisk, *, it signifies that there is an ac-
companiment for the pianoforte; two asterisks, **,
signify an accompaniment for the pianoforte and
also for the orchestra ; the obelisk, f, indicates that
the accompaniment is for the orchestra only; the
absence of a mark indicates that the composition
is for the flute alone.

I. Original Compositions with Opus Numbers
Opus Date Title Key

1 1822 Concerto pour la Flute, dedie a

Monsieur A. B. Fiirstenau G maj. * '

2 La Sentinelle Air Favori Varie

dedie a son Eleve Monsieur

Guillaume Zink Gmaj. * *

3 , Andante und Polonaise

A maj. and D maj. * *

4 Nel cor piu non mi sento, theme

varie Gmaj. * *

5 Potpouri sur des Melodies

Suisses, Duo concertant Gmaj. *

6' Divertissement sur un Air de
Caraffa, dedi6 a Monsieur de
Manostetter Gmaj. * *

7 Concertante pour deux Flutes,

(with orchestral accompani-
ment only) Gmaj. t

8 Polonaise de Caraffa D maj. * *

9 Variations sur un theme de

rOpera : Robin-de-Bois (Der
Freyschiitz) de Weber, dediees
a son ami Fr. Hoffmann D maj. * *

10 Divertissement sur un theme

favori de Rovelli dedie a Mon-
sieur Kriiger D maj. * *

11 Divertissement sur deux themes

favoris suisses C maj. and Gmaj. * *

12 RondJo Brilliant, dedie a Son

Ami Charles Keller, (with or-
chestral accompaniment only) D maj. t

LIST OF BOEHM's COMPOSITIONS 183

13 Divertissement sur I'air favori

intitule Almalied, par Baron
de Poissl introduit dans
rOpera Donauweibchen, dedie
a Son Eleve Monsieur David
Marx Gmaj. * *

14 "Boehm et Ogden." Fantaisie

concert sur un theme ecossais D maj. "

15 12 Etudes pour la Flute, propres

a egaliser le doigte dans toutes
les gammes

16 Grande Polonaise, dediee a Mon-

sieur Camus D maj. * *

17 Variations sur la marche de

rOpera Moise, dediees a Mon-
sieur Tulou D maj. ' *

18 I — Erstes W a 1 z e r Poitpourri,

nach Franz Schubert'schen
und anderen beliebten Mo-
tiven (various) *

II — Andante und Polonaise nach
Motiven von Caraifa. Dedi-
cated to Mr. Alfred Croshaw
Johnson (various) *

19 Choix d'Airs de I'Opera "Mac-

beth" par A, H. Chelard

20 1838 Variations sur un Air Tyrolien

(Swiss Boy) dediees a Mon-
sieur Prosper Amtmann C maj. * *

21 1838 Fantaisie sur un air de Beetho-

ven. (Sehnsuchtswalzer) Ab maj. ' '

22 1840 Variations brillantes sur I'air

allemand "Du, du liegst mir

im Herzen" Emaj. * *

23 1845 Fantaisie sur des themes suisses.

dediee a Mr. J. Clinton Fmaj. * *

24 1845 Fantaisie sur ides themes suisses

dediee a Mr. L. Dorus Emaj. * *

25 1852 Fantaisie sur des airs ecossais Cmaj. * *

26 1852 Twenty-four Capricios, dedi-

cated to Edward Jekyll, Esqre.

27 1853 Souvenir des Alpes; I. Andante

cantabile Eb maj.

184 LIST OF boehm's compositions

28 1853 Souvenir des Alpes; II. Rondo-

Allegro C maj.

29 1853 Souvenir des Alpes; III. Andan-

tino, Romance D maj.

30 1853 Souvenir des Alpes; IV. Rondo-

Allegretto D maj.

31 1853 Souvenir des Alpes; V. Andante

pastorale G maj.

32 1853 Souvenir des Alpes; VI. Rondo-

Landler E maj.

Andante B maj.

A la Tarantella, dediee a Mon-
sieur Antoine Sacchetti E min.

Larghetto, dedie a Monsieur
Louis Dorus Ab maj.

Rondo a la Mazurka C maj.

24 Etudes, avec accomp. de
Piano. En 4 Suites

1858

1859

1863

1876

Fantasie iiber Motive einer
Sonate von F. H. Himmel, a
Hernn Camille Thierry C maj.

(This work appears as No. 12 in
the list, II, of "Compositionen
beriihmter Meister," and bears
the opus number on the first
page of musiic and not on the
title page.)

46 1880 Andante aus der Serenade, Op.

25, von L. van Beethoven. To
Herrn Eugen Weiner in New
York Gmaj.

47 1881 Elegie, dediee a Monsieur le Dr.

F. Jsenscihmid Ab maj.

LIST OF BOEHM's COMPOSITIONS 185

1-13 VoUstandige Sammlung der Con-

cert Compo'sitionen fiir die
Flote mit Hinweglassung der
Begleitung. (Contains solo
parts only of Op. 1 to 13 in-
clusive, with the exception of
Op. 5.)

II. Transcriptions Without Opus Numhers

This group of transcriptions for the flute and piano
appears under the general title: Compositionen beriihm-
ter Meister.

No. Date Title Key

1 1872 Adagio, (Largo, Pianoforte Con-

certo, Op. 15), von L. V.
Beethoven C maj. *

2 1872 Adagio, von Mozart. Aus der

Clavier-Sonate Op. 16 Bb maj. *

3 1872 Rondo-Andante von Mozart Amin. *

4 1872 Standcihen. Lied von Franz

Schubert D min. *

5 1872 Das Fischermadchen. Lied von

Franz Schubert D maj. *

6 1872 Tre giorni. Aria von Pergolese Cmin. *

7 1872 Cantabile von Vogler D maj. *

8 1872 Aria cantabile von J. S. Bach--- Dmaj. *

9 1876 Marcia, Adagio, Menuetto, Alle-

gretto alia Polacca und Tema
con Variazioni aus L. v.
Beethoven's Serenade Op. 8.
(Original for Violin, Viola and
Violincello.) Gerwidmit Herrn _ ^

M. Schweninger D ma].

10 1876 Romanze von L. v. Beethoven, _ ^

Op. 50 Fmaj.

11 1876 Variationen von Haydn iiber das

Thema: Gott erhalte Franz . ^

den Kaiser G maj.

(The List printed on the cover of the music of this
series contains twelve numbers, b-t No. 12 is clearly
marked "Opus 45," and is now entered in group I only.)

186 LIST OF boehm's compositions

III. Miscellaneous Works Without Numbers

There is no available record of the titles to which
Boehm intended to attach the seven opus numbers from
38 to 44, inclusive. There remain just seven published
works which bear no opus or serial numbers, and whose
dates of publication correspond with those appropriate
to the (missing opera. It is suggested that these works
are the ones which should bear the opus numbers from
38 to 44, inclusive:

No. Opus Date Title Key

1 (38) 1863 Andante de Mozart, Op. 86.

(Arranged from the orig-
inal MS. score, for the
flute and piano, and for
the flute in G and piano) C maj. *

2 (39) 1868 Arie aus Orpheus: "Che

faro senza Euridice,"
von Gluck. Au Colonel
Comte A. Vargas de
Bedemar Eb maj. *

3 (40) 1868 Cujus Animam. Celebre

Air du Stabat Mater de
Rossini. Deidie a Mr.
Hermann Kohlke Ab maj. *

4 (41) 1871 12 Uebungstii'cke fiir die

Flote zur Erlangung
e i n e r gleichmassigen
Fingerbewegung in alien
Tonarten. Zugleicli als
Anhang zu dessen theor.
Werke: Die Flote und
das Flotenspiel in akus-
tischer, technischer und
artistischer Bezieihung. _

5 (42) 1876' Adagio aus dem Qulntetto

fiir Clarinette von

Mozart Gmaj. *

6 (43) 3 Duos pour deux Flutes

tires des oeuvres de F.
Mendelssohn Bartholdy
et de Fr. Lachner.
No. 1. Sur Melodies de

Mendelssohn -^ Bb maj. *

LIST OF BOEHM S COMPOSITIONS 187

No. 2. Sur Melodies de

Mendelssohn Ebmaj. *

No. 3. Sur Melodies de

Lachner F maj. *

(This series of three duets,
published in Paris, is
clearly marked "Opus
33." Possibly this is a
misprint for "Opus 43.")
7 (44) "My Native Home." (Sehn-

sucht nach dem Rigi.)
Song with flute obbligato.

IV. Unpublished Arrangements for the Flute in G
There is no evidence that there are any unpublished
original compositions by Boehm. The group of pieces
listed below consists of arrangements with parts for the
flute in G. In nearly all of the numbers, the "arrange-
ment" seemingly required is merely the transposition
of a part into a suitable key for the flute in G. The list
is very interesting as indicating the selections which
Boehm had found especially adapted to this instrument.
The publication of these works at the present time, in
"album" form, might stimulate the interest in this beauti-
ful instrument.

The kej'S in this list are those given by Schafhautl.
These would indicate that in some instances the solo part
has been transposed, while in other cases it is the ac-
companiment that has been rewritten. Twelve of the
numbers seem to be the same compositions as are repre-
sented by twelve of the published works; the numbers in
parenthesis refer to the corresponding groups and num-
bers.

For Flute in G and Pianoforte
No. Title Key

1 Beethoven. Adagio. Largo from the Piano-

forte Concerto, Op. 15. (II-l) Ab maj.

2 Beethoven. Sonata, Op. 17. The original

for Horn and Pianoforte F maj.

3 Beethoven. Serenade, Op. 25. The original

for Flute, Violin and Viola. (I-Op. 46)..-

4 Haydn. Variations on "God Preserve the

Emperor." The original for String Quar-
tette. (11-11)

188 LIST OF boehm's compositions

5 Himmel. Rondo. From a Sonata originally

for Flute and Pianoforte. (I-Op. 45, and

11-12) Gmaj.

6 Mozart. Adagio. From the Pianoforte Son-

ata, Op. 16. (II-2) Bbmaj.

7 Mozart. Rondo Andante, Op. 71. The orig-

inal for the Pianoforte alone. (II-3)

8 Mozart. Sonata. The original for Violin

and Pianoforte Gmaj.

9 Mozart. Adagio from the Clarinet Quintette.

(III-5) Dmaj.

10 Schubert. Song: "Das Standchen." (Ser-

enade.) (II-5) Dmin.

11 Schubert. Song: "Das Fischermadchen."

(II-5) Amaj.

12 Schubert. Song: "Am Meer." Gmaj.

13 Vogler. Cantabile. Adagio from an Organ

Prelude. (II-7) Dmin.

Duets for Flute in G and Flute in C, with Pianoforte

14 Rossini. Duo: Soirees Musicales Amaj.

15 Rossini. Duo: Soirees Musicales Dmaj.

16. Weber. Romance F maj.

17 Weber. Andantino Gmaj.

18 Weber. Allegretto Gmaj.

Trios for Flute in G and Two Flutes in C

19 Beethoven. Trio, Op. 87. The original for

two Oboes and Cor Anglais F maj.

20 Vogler. Cantabile. Adagio from an Organ

Prelude. (II-7, and IV-6) Dmaj.

For Flute in G and Soprano Voice, with

Accompaniment

21 Scheidemayer. Graduale. With Latin text

for church use, and also with German text.

With Pianoforte accompaniment C maj.

22 Walter. Graduale. For Solo Piute in G,

Vocal Quartette, and aocompaniment for

two Violins, Viola, Cello and Bass E maj.

APPENDIX 189

(d) Bibliography

There follows a very brief and incomplete list

of current books relating to the flute. Older

treatises of historical value, instructors, books of

music, and books treating of musical instruments

in general have not been included. More extended

bibliographies are given by Rockstro, Welch, and

Fitzgibbon, in the works mentioned below.

BoEHM, Theobald. — An Essay on the Construction of
Flutes. Edited by W. S. Broadwood. This book is
Boehm's own English version of his treatise of 1847,
Ueber den Flotenbau und die neuesten Verbesserungen
desselben, to which the editor has added an account
of the Schema, andi numerous letters of interest. Lon-
don: Rudall, Carte & Co., 1882. Octavo, X+ 78 pages.

RocKSTRo, R. S. — ^A Treatise on the Construction, the
History, and the Practice of the Flute. London: Ru-
dall, Carte & Co., 1890. Octavo, XLII + 664 pages.

Welch, Christopher. — History of the Boehm Flute, with
Schafhautl's Life of Boehm. London : Rudall, Carte
& Co.; New York, G. Schirmer; 3rd ediUon, 1896. Oc-
tavo, XXni + 504 pages.

Fitzgibbon, H. Macaulay. — The Story of the Flute. Lon-
don, Walter Scott PubUshdng Co.; New York, Charles
Scribner's Sons. 1914. Duodecimo, XVI + 292 pages.

Welch, Christopher. — Six Lectures on the Recorder and
Other Flutes in Relation to Literature. London: Ox-
ford University Press, 1911. Octavo, XVI + 457 pages.

Ehrlich, D.— The History of the Flute. New York: D.

Ehrlich, 1921. Duodecimo, XI + 107 pages.
ScHWEDLER, Maximilian. — Katechismus der Flote und des

Flotenspiels. Leipzig: J. J. Weber, 3rd edition, 1914.

Sexto-decimo, 112 pages and tables.
Squarzoni, Francesco. — II Flauto, Cenno Storico. Fer-

rara, Itaha, G. Bresciani. 1917. Octavo, 48 pages.
The Flutist. — A monthly magazine devoted exclusively

to the flujte and flute playing. It is of interest and

value alike to the professional and the amateur flutist.

Edited and published by Emil Medicus, Asheville,

North Carolina.

INDEX

Academie des sciences, xxii,

8.
Accents, 145, 149, 150; see

Tonguing.
Acoustical numbers, 32, 35,

126.
Acoustical proportions of

flute, 14; see Air-column,

Tone-holes.
Acoustics, science of. xxiv,

12, 31, 35, 173.
"Adelaide," 123, 153.
Adjusting the keys, 82, 105;

joints of the flute, 111.
Aibl, publisher, 135, 161.
Air column, diameter of, 14,

16-20, 25, 29, 126; length

of, 19, 25, 30, 31-37, 125,

126'; see Bore, Tone-
holes.
"Allgemeine Musikalische

Zeitung," 166.
Alt-Flote, see Bass flute.
Alto flute in Bb, 20, 122.
Appoggiatura, 153, 154, 155.
Articulation, 145; 147-150,

158.
Atterberg, composer, 123.
Autograph, Boeh m's.

Frontispiece, 2, 58, 137,

160, 172, 177.

Bb lever, 74, 84, 85.

Bl! foot-joint, 34, 36, 88, 89.

Bach, composer, 124.

Bass Flute in G, ix, xii,
XXVI, 20, 93, 98, 119, 169,
180; fingerings for, 128,
129; mechanism of, 86,
127, 128; music for, 123,
187, 188.

Basset-horn, tone quality
of, 119.

Bassoon, xxvi, 173.

Bavarian Polytechnic So-
ciety, 39.

Beethoven, 123, 152, 153.

Bibliography on the flute,
189.

Blowing New Flutes, 114,
135.

"Bockstriller," 140, 156.

Boehm, Emit (grandson),
artist, xvii.

Boehm, Ludwig (son), 12.

Boehm, Miss Anna, (grand-
daughter), VII, XII, XVIII, 6.

Boehm, Theobald (grand-
son), VII, XII, 6.

Boehm, Theobald, bio-
graphical notes, XXI, 165;
portraits, see List of Por-
traits, xvii; family, 12,
171; grandchildren, vii,
xii, xvii, 6; his home and
shop, 164, 165; goldsmith,
3, 6, 90; autograph, see
Facsimile; method of
teaching, 168; style of
playing, 6, 122, 162, 168;
compositions, 123, 160-
163, 171, 181; medals and
prizes, xxvii, 12, 174-176;
iron and steel work,
XXVII, 12, 166; advances
made by, xxii-xxvi, 3,
Appendix (a); experi-
ments made by, 16, 24,
30, 59, 60, 61, 168; his
first flute, 3, 4, 5; early
flutes by, 3-11; his "last"
flute, 96, 90-98.

192

INDEX

Boehm & Greve, makers, 8.

Boehm & Mendler, partner-
ship and shop, ix, 8, 84,
91, 165, 177, 178; flutes
by, 17, 20-24, 27, 37, 40,
88, 91-98, 120, 124.

Bore, conical, 10, 16; cyl-
indrical, XXV, 12, 14, l6,
59; diameter of, 8, 10, 14,
16, 19, 20, 29, 125; 179;
see Air column.

Boxwood ilute, 5, 55.

Brandmiiller, artist, xvii.

Breathing, 149, 157, 158.

Briccialdi, his Bb lever, 84,
85.

Brizzi, singer, 145.

Broadwood, Essay, xxii, 40,
189; Letters, xxi, 8, 39, 88,
122.

Broadwood, W. S., xxi, xxii,
8, 39, 40. 88, 122, 189.

Buffalo Bill's Band, 96.

Cf hole, 29, 30, 37; of bass

flute, 126.
Capeller, teacher, 5.
Care of flute, 100, 111.
Catalani, a singer, 145.
Cavaille-Coll, organ builder,

40.
Cement for cork, 104.
Chaffee, 0. F., 96, 178.
Chickering. piano forte

maker, 174.
Clarinet, xxvi, 33, 173.
Cleaning flute, 100-103, 112,

113.
Closed-end correction, 33,

34, 36, 42, 125.
Closed vs. open keys, 60, 62,

69, 70, 71.
Clutches, 60, 61, 81, 82.
Cocus-wood flute, .55.
Coloratures, 151, 156, 158.
Compositions, Boehm's, 123,

160-163. 171, 181.
Conclusion, 119, 161.

Contra-bass flute, 120.

Cork (stopper), eff'ect of,
34; fitting, 108; moveable,
20; position of, 20, 108.

Cork gage, 108.

Cork joints, to keep in or-
der, 111.

Corrections, see : end cor-
rections. Ft hole, GS
hole.

Cracking of flute, 55, 111.

Crutch for flute, 87, 96, 97,
111, 112,180.

Cvlinider bore, xxv, 12, 14,
' 16, 59.

D and DS trill keys and

holes, 29, 30, 37, 60, 83;

for bass flute, 126, 128,

129.
Denner, early flutist, 10.
Development of tone, 135.
Diagram {schema), 41, 45.
Diary, Wilkins, ix.
"Don Juan" (music), 157,

158.
Dorus, his GS key, 10, 64-66,

69.
Double tonguing, 148.
Drouet, his "Variations,"

163.

Ebonite (rubber) flute, 54.
Ebony flute, 55.
Ehrlich, D., flutist, 189.
filegie, Boehm's "Swan-
Song." 163.
Embouchure (lips), 19, 29,

48, 55, 114, 117, 135, 138,

140.
Embouchure (mouth-hole),

20-24, 34, 111, 125.
"EncyclopiEdia B r i t a n-

nica"' 173.
End corrections, closed

end, 33, 34, 36, 42, 125;

open end, 29, 36.
English horn, tone quality

of, 119.

INDEX

193

Equally tempered scale, 31,

35, 38.
Ertel, 180.
Essay on Construction of

Flutes, see Broad'wood.
Exercises, Finger, 138, 140,

161.
Expositions, London and

Paris, XXII, xxiii, 12, 39,

40, 96, 125, 176.

FS hole, compensation, 37,
82, 126.

Facsimile of Boehm's manu-
script. Frontispiece, 2, 58,
137, 160, 172, 177.

Falter & Sohn, publishers,
161.

Finger Exercises, 138, 140,
161.

Fingers, raised too high,
141.

Finger-holes, see Tone-
holes.

Fingering, System of, xxv,
59; Tables of, 72, 74, 75,
129; regular, 72; irregu-
lar, 62, 74; for bass flute,
128-130; for octave key,
129; for trills, 74-76, 129,
130.

Finn, John, flutist and au-
thor, XVII.

First flute, Boehm's, 3, 4.

Fischer, Carl, publisher,
161.

"Fischermadchen" (music) ,
152.

Fiizgibbon, H. Macaulay,
author, 120, 189.

Flageolet, 3.

"Flote und das Flotenspiel,
Die," IX, XXI, XXII, 40, 125,
167, 178.

"Floten-bau," pamphlet of
1847, XI, XXI, XXII, 7, 10,
13, 15, 189.

Flute, alto in Bb, 20, 122;
in Db, 95; in F, 122; in
G, see Bass Flute; contra
bass, 120; Boehm's early,
3, 5, 7, 8; Boehm's later,
90-98; old system, 7.

Flute d'amour, 119.

Flute-Playing, Part II, 135.

Flutist Magazine, The, 120,
189.

Foot-joint to Bt|, 34, 36, 88,
89, 178, 179.

Foot-keys, 60, 80, 88, 89,
95, 101, 105, 111, 119, 179.

French horn, 120, 123.

Fritze, Louis, flutist, 95.

Fuchs, composer, 124.

GJ key, 62; open vs. closed,
62-71, 170; open, 63;
Dorus closed, 10, 64-66,
69; duplicate closed, 63,
66; Boehm's closed, 68.

Gemeinhardt, Arthur, mak-
er, 7.

German silver flute, 54, 95,
98.

Gilmore's Band, 95.

Glass flute, 54.

Glazunow, composer, 123.

Godard, composer, 124.

Godfroy, maker, 10, 64, 90.

Gold embouchure, flute
with, 24, 122.

Gold springs, 108.

Gordon, inventor, xxiii.

Graduated holes, 27, 28, 99.

Graphic location of holes,
38.

Grease for joints. 111.

Grenadilla wood flute, 55.

Grenser, maker, 5.

Greve, maker, 8.

Gruppetto, 154.

Guitar, location of frets of,
39.

Guyon, W. H., flutist, 96.

194

INDEX

Habits, bad, 141, 142.
Hahn, composer, 123.
Hanfstaengl, photographer,

XVII.

Harmonics, 25, 117.

Haynes, George W., maker,
95.

Head joint, cylindrical, 10;
parabolic, 16-18; wood on
silver body, 20, 56, 95, 96,
98; lor changing pitch,
48; see Tuning slide.

Heindl, E. M., flutist, 12, 28,
50, 93, 95, 99.

Holbrooke, composer, 123.

Holes, see Mouth-hole, Tone-
holes, Vent-holes.

Honeyman, H. H., flutist,
95.

Hugot, "Flute Instructor,"
135.

Illustrations, List of, xvii.
"Industrie und Gerverbe-

blatt," 12.
International or low pitch,

33, 35, 37, 38, 40, 45, 126.
Interpretation of music,

145, 152.
Intonation, 15, 26, 48; see

Quality.
Introdliction, author's, 3 ;

Translator's, xxi.
Iron and steel work by

Boehm, xxvii, 12, 166,

171, 176.
Irregular fingerings, 62, 74.
Italian school of song, 145,

154.
Ivory flute, 54.

"Joseph" (music) , 149.

Kapellar, see Capeller.

Key Mechanism, 79.

Keys, general description,

59, 79; open vs. closed,

60, 62; adjusting, 82, 105;
cleaning, 100; covered
12; repairs to, 100; re-

moving, 100; ring, 10;
rise of, 37, 125; testing,
105; trill, 85, 177; see C#
key, D and D( keys, Gl
key, Dorus Git key. Oc-
tave key, Bb lever.
"Kunst und Gewerbeblatt,"
39, 40, 47.

Lablache, singer, 145.
"Life of Boehm," see Welch.
"Lindenbaum" (m u s ic ),

150.
Lips, made sore by wood,

55; see Embouchure.
London, Exhibitions, xxii,

12, 39, 176; visits to, 7,
8, 28, 162, 174.

Loop, part of action, 60, 61,

81, 82.
Lot, Louis, flute maker, 28,

64, 172.

Macauley, Gen. Daniel, his
flute, 27, 68, 93, 96.

"Magic Flute" (music), 148.

Mahler, composer, 123.

Malibran, singer, 145.

Mandolin, location of frets
of, 39.

Manuscript, Boehm's, ix, x.

Marker, Ferdinand, flutist,
5.

Materials, best, 54; com-
bined, 56; various, 53, 54.

Measuring tools for flutes,
51, 52.

Mechanism, description of,
59, 79, 90; care of, 100,
111; of bass flute, 127,
128.

Medals to Boehm, xxvii, 12,
174, 175. 176.

Medicus, Emil, author and
editor, 120, 189.

Mehul, 149.

Meinell. Wm. R., maker, 95.

Mendelssohn, 123, 152.

Mendelssohn Quintette Clab,

13, 95, 99.

INDEX

195

Mendler, Carl, B o e h m's
partner, ix, 91, 178, 179,
180; see Boehm & Men-
dler.

Merz, optician, 180.

Method of Practicing, 140.

Metric System, 15.

Molecules, vibration of, 21,
53.

Monochord, 34, 38, 40.

Mordent, 154, 155.

Mouth-hole, see Embou-
chure.

Mozart, 123, 148, 152, 156,
157, 158.

Music bv Boehm, 123, 160-
163, 171, 181.

Musical Interpretation, 145.

Nicholson. Charles, flutist,
8.

Oboe, XXVI, 33, 173.
Octave key, 74, 86, 126, 128,

129, 130.
Oeschsle, Giistau, flutist, 95.
Oiling flute, 102, 111, 113.
Old-System flute by Boehm,

7.
Old System flute, 3-9, 11,

61-63, 70, 71.
Open-end correction, 29, 36.
Open vs. closed keys, 60-62.
Open Gtt key, arguments in

favor of, 62, 69, 70, 71,

170.
Ornaments, musical, 151,

153, 156; see Coloratures,

Trill, etc.
Overblowing flute, 29, 54,

114, 118.
Overstrung piano, xxvi, 173.

Pads, adjusting, 104, 105;
how made, 104; replac-
ing, 104, 106; sticking, to
prevent, 112; testing ad-
justment of, 106.

Pape, inventor, 174.

Papier-mache flute, 54.

Parabolic head joint, 14, 15,

16, 17, 18.
Paris, Expositions, xxii,

xxm, 12, 39, 40, 96, 125,

176; visits, 7, 8, 162.
Pasta, a singer, 145.
Patents, Boehm's, 91.
Phrasing, 147.
Pianoforte, xxvi, 173.
Piccolo, 95, 180.
Pitch, International or low,

33, 35, 37, 38, 40, 45, 126.
Pitch of flute, 32, 33, 35, 37,

38-52, 126.
Pole, Wm., author, 39.
Porcelain flute, 54.
Portamento di voce, 147,

157.
Portraits of Boehm, see List

of, XVII.

Practice pieces, by Boehm,

160, 161, 181.
Practicing, Method of, 140.
"Pralltriller," 155.
Price List, Boehm's, 177,

178.
Prizes, see Medals.
Proportions, Acoustical, of

flute, see Air-column,

Bore, Tone-holes.
Proser, maker, 5.

Quality of tone; upon what
it depends, 14, 21, 23, 29,
114; of particular flutes,
8, 20, 96', 98, 99, 170; of
bass flute, xxvi, 20, 119-
123; as aflfected by mate-
rial, 53-56.

Quantz, 10.

Querpfeife, 10.

Rath, Franz, flutist, 5.
Ravel, composer, 123.
Regulating screws, 81, 82,

105.
Rehberg, Fr., artist, xvii.
Repairs, 100.

Respiration, 149, 157, 158.
Richaulf, publisher, 161.

196

INDEX

Rimsky-Karsakoiv, c o m-
poser, 123.

Ring-keys, 10.

Rise of keys, 37, 125.

Rockstro, R. S., flutist and
author, xxiii, 49, 71, 98,
112, 189.

Rossini, 156.

Rotatory motion, xxvi, 174,
175.

Rubber (ebonite) flute, 54.

Rubini, singer, 145.

Rudall and Rose, makers,
10, 90.

Rudall. Carte & Co., mak-
ers, 20, 22, 120, 123, 161.

Rhythm, 150.

Sachetti, Antoine, flutist,
XVIII, 145.

Saxophone, 120.

Scale, of A=435, vibrations
of, 35; locating holes by
calculation, 31-36, 46; lo-
cating holes by diagram,
38; locating holes by
trial, 25, 30; locating
holes for various pitohes,
32, 38, 42; lengths of air
columns, 35; relative fre-
quency of tones, 32; rela-
tive lengths of strings,
32; practicing, musical,
136, 137, 138, 140; Tables
of Fingerings for chro-
matic, 72.

Schade, Wm., flutist, 95.

Schafhautl, 12, 163, 166,
178, 181, 189.

Schema, xxii, 36, 38, 40,
173; validity of, 49, 99;
for bass flute, 125.

Schirmer, publisher, 162.

Schleif-key, see Octave key.

Schmid, composer, 123.

tSchott's Sohne, piiblishers,
13, 161.

Schubert, 123, 150, 151, 152.

Schumann, composer, 124.
Schwedler, Maxmilian, au-
thor, 189.
Schwegel, 10.
Screws, adjusting, 81, 82,

105.
"Serenade," Schubert,

(music), 152.
Sessi, a singer, 145.
Shake, see Trill.
Shellac, for cementing, 104.
Shippen, Rev,. Rush R., his

flute, 20, 27, 93, 96, 97.
Silver flute, xxv, 20, 27, 28,

53-56, 90, 111, 179.
"Singing" on the flute, 140,

146, 153, 156.
Slide-joint, shortening at,

36, 48, 52, 111.
Slurs, 140, 149, 150, 151.
Societij of Arts, London,

174, 176.
Solo playing, 146.
Sousa's Band, 95.
Springs, action of, 81, 84;

gold, 108; gold vs. steel,

106, 108; making, 107;

unhooking, 101.
Squarzoni, F., author, 189.
"Standchen," Schubert,

(music), 152.
Stanford, composer, 123.
Steel and iron work,

Boehm's, xxvii, 12, 166,

171, 176.
Steinway, pianoforte mak-
er, 174.
Stopper, see Cork.
Straps, action, 90.
Stravinsky, composer, 123.
String lengths, tempered

scale, 32.
Sussex, Duke of, 174.
Swab, how used, 113.
Syncopation, 149.
System of Fingering, xxv,

59.

INDEX

197

Tamburini, singer, 145.

Tempered scale, see Scale.

Terschak, A., composer,
124.

Theory applied to flute, see
Acoustics.

Thickness of tube, 54, 90.

Thinned wood for head-
joint, 56, 93, 98, 169.

Thumb key, see Bb lever.

Timbre, see Quality.

Tomkinson, pianoforte
maker, 174.

Tone, how produced, 14, 21,
23, 53, 117.

Tone Development, 135.

Tone-holes, 15; location of,
25-37; schema for graphic
location of, 38-52; for
various pitches, 42-46;
large vs. small, 25-27;
size of, 26, 27; graduated
sizes, 27, 28, 99; effect of
sizes of, 26, 34; vent
holes, 30; see C# hole, D
and DS holes.

Tone-quality, see Quality.

Tonguing, 145, 147-149, 158.

Tools for measuring flutes,
51, 52.

Tools for repairing flute,
100, 178.

Transposing, of scale, 32,
42; by bass flute, 130.

Treatment of Flute in Gen-
eral 111.

Trills,' 154-156; fingerings
for, 74-76, 129, 130; keys,
85, 177; see D and Dit
keys.

Tromlitz, early flutist, 10.

"Trockene B 1 u m e n"
(music), 151.

Tube, 14; weight of, 53, 54;
thickness, 54, 90; see Air-
column, Bore, Materials.

Tuning slide, 36, 48, 52, 111.

"U e b e r den Flotenbau,"
pamphlet of 1847, xi, xxi,
XXII, 7, 10, 13, 15, 189.

"Uebungstiicke," by Boehm,
160-162.

Undercutting of blow-hole,
23, 24.

Velluti, singer, 145.

Vent holes, 30; see Octave

key.
Violin, 117, 120, 124.

Wadsworth, Frank, flutist,

95.
Wax" flute. 54.
Wehner, Carl, flutist, 93, 95,

98.
Weight of flute and tube,

53, 54.
Weingarten, composer, 123.
Welch, "History of the

Boehm Flute," xvii, xxiv,

6, 12, 39, 40, 49, 125, 166,

175, 181, 189.
Whisper key, see octave

key.
Wilkins, James S., flutist, ix,

93, 166, 167, 172, 173.
Wind instruments, 10, 15.

33, 39, 114.
Wood flute, 27, 54, 55, 111,

113, 114, 169, 178.
Wood head joint, 20, 56, 95,

96, 98. 179.
Work shop, see Boehm &

Mendler.
Wunderlich, flutist, 135.

"Zauberflote" (music), 148.
Zither, location of frets of,

39.
"Zur Erinnerung an Theo-

bold Boehm," 6, 119.

'^^m

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