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THE
AMERICAN HISTORY
AND
ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF
MUSIC
W. L. HUBBARD
EDITOR IN CHIEF
EMIL LIEBLING GEO. W. ANDREWS
ARTHUR FOOTE EDWARD DICKINSON
ASSOCIATE EDITORS
EDITORIAL CONTRIBUTORS
, W. CHADWICK FRANK DAMROSCH FREDERICK STOCK CARL FAELTEN
W. }. HENDERSON H. E. KREHBIEL FREDERICK STARR
CLARENCE DICKINSON THEODORE SFIERING FRANZ KNEISEL
EDWARD M. BOWMAN OSCAR SAENGER GEORGE C. GOW
FREDERIC W. ROOT W. S..B. MATHEWS
BERNHARD LISTEMANN HARRISON M. WILD
ARNOLD DOLMETSCH
IRVING SQUIRE
NEW YORK
THE AMERICAN HISTORY AND ENCYCLOPEDIA
OF MUSIC
ESSENTIALS
OF
MUSIC
E. M. BOWMAN HARRISON M. WILD CLARENCE DICKINSON
FRANZ KNEISEL OSCAR SAENGER CARL FAELTEN
THEODORE SPIER1NG W. S. B. MATHEWS
FREDERIC ROOT ARNOLD DOLMETSCH
B. LISTEMANN GEORGE C. GOW
EMIL LIEBLING
EDITOR
VOLUME II
IRVING SQUIRE
New York
B
Copyright 1910 by
IRVING SQUIRE
Entered Stationers' Hall
LONDON
CONTENTS
Page
A Study on Violin Playing ----- 3
Advanced Violin Instruction - - - - 25
The String Quartet ------ 63
Art of Music Before 1750 ----- 7\
Elementary Theory ______ io9
Elementary Harmony _____ 195
Advanced Harmony ______ 295
ESSENTIALS OF MUSIC, VOL. II
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Page
Philadelphia Opera House - Frontispiece
Bernhard Listemann ____-- l
Theodore Spiering ------- 23
Franz Kneisel ------- 61
Arnold Dolmetsch ------- 69
George Coleman Gow ------ 107
BERNHARD LISTEMANN
ASTUDV ON ^vioBnistxruvUN*
Bom at Schlotheim, Thuringia, in 1841. His
teachers were Ulrich and David, at Leipsic, and
Vieuxtemps and Joachim, at Hanover; was leader of
the Thomas Orchestra from 1870 to 1874; founder
of the Boston Philharmonic Club and the Boston
Philharmonic Orchestra; has been the head of the
violin department of the Chicago College of Music
since 1893.
A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING
IN EIGHT GRADES.
Bernhard LlSTEM'ANN.
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS.
Introduction.
First Grade — Proper Elements of Violin-playing.
Second Grade — Study of the Higher Positions.
Third Grade — Easy Double-stop Exercises.
Fourth Grade — List of Study Works.
Fifth Grade — List of Technical Exercises.
Sixth Grade — Elegant and Elastic Bowing.
Seventh Grade — List of Concert Selections.
Eighth Grade — List of Difficult Exercises.
A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING
Bernhard Listemann.
INTRODUCTION.
The complete mastery of any task which confronts man
deserves appreciation and apt admiration, but nowhere in
higher degree than in the masterly rendition of noble music,
because here intellect and sentiment work together and, when
harmoniously supporting each other, produce a magnetic
effect which is quite irresistible.
This art has, like everything else, a crude beginning.
But its peculiar nature contains certain elements which are
inspiring to the student, and after a fair advance in his
chosen profession he will gradually forget the prosaic side
of that primitive start. It is true, few reach the highest pin-
nacle of virtuosity, but with perseverance, a clear aim, will-
power and intelligence even moderate talent may be so devel-
oped as to make the study of music a real pleasure. Violin-
playing, of which the present article treats, requires at the
beginning an understanding for certain matters of a mechan-
ical nature, embracing the position of the body, arms,
fingers of both hands and the holding of the violin. Some
authorities of former years, among others J. P. J. Rode,
pupil of Viotti, composer of numerous violin works and
one of the really great violinists of his time, recommended a
4 A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING
slight leaning forwards of head, shoulders, and chest when
playing. The advantages of this artificial position are not
quite apparent while it is evident that freedom of the lungs
is restricted. And this is probably the reason that Rode's
method found only little response among his contemporaries.
Great violinists, pioneers and founders of celebrated
schools, like Spohr, Paganini, Joachim, Wieniawski and
others, had in the act of playing a striking resemblance to a
well-grown tree, and not even in most passionate musical
climates were they carried away in sufficient degree to lose
physical self-control and present the appearance of a class
of violinists who show their emotions by gazing fixedly at
the floor below and by swaying the body rapidly to and fro.
The beginner has from the start to adopt an upright,
natural position of his body. Later on, when he has
advanced so far as really to understand and enjoy the music
he is playing, and after his own individuality is more devel-
oped, the original, rigid position will surely lose some of its
severity, perhaps so much so, that in case his nerves, or
sentiment, or sentimentality, or all combined, get the upper
hand, the danger may arise that the original correct posi-
tion may gradually change into an unesthetic one. This
possibly ought to be kept in mind always, and tendency to
an incorrect posture religiously avoided.
Regarding the position of the feet, it is generally
accepted as a rule to balance the weight of the body more
or less on the left side, for the reason, that the right arm
may be more at liberty to execute with the necessary free-
dom all physical motions.
It is necessary to hold the left elbow close to the body,
the right some little distance away, particularly so when
playing on the G string. The old German school taught
the quite rigid adherence of right elbow to the hip, the
French-Belgian school inclines more to the other extreme.
The middle way may prove the better here as in many other
things.
A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING 5
The violin must be held straight ahead, almost parallel
with the floor, with right side inclining downwards a trifle.
The left hand, while playing, ought to be turned out a little
to the right, and the palm must not touch neck or side of
the violin in the two lowest positions. Only from the third
position upwards has it to rest on the violin. The eyes
ought to be trained to look as much as possible only at the
notes to be played, and as little as possible at the fingers.
The more independent of the eyes the fingers are the easier
will come the reading-at-sight. The fingers of the right
hand must be curled over the nut of the bow and not held
too close to each other, and the thumb must be slightly bent.
The fingers of the left hand must rest on the strings in such
a way that the knuckles nearest the fingertips are not
straight but curved. Each finger must work by itself inde-
pendently of the other, and the little finger must be kept
directly over the strings throughout. The fingers ought to
be trained to come down on the strings with considerable
force, almost like miniature hammers.
These points, which touch only theoretical matters, are
nevertheless of greatest importance, as they form funda-
mental laws, which, when followed out, will materially
strengthen the structure of attainment.
FIRST GRADE.
Let us now observe the elements of violin-playing
proper. The pupil will quickly enough understand the
motion of the right arm in up bow and down bow, and it
will be a great satisfaction to him to use gradually all his
fingers and finally play a two-octave scale. Here now, in a
certain sense, the study begins to take on more and more of
the musical element, particularly if the teacher understands
how to make the exercises more interesting through a
variety of bowings and by persistently insisting at all times
on a pure intonation.
6 A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING
The pupil must learn the difference between a soft-
legato and a firm, steel-like staccato-bowing as soon as pos-
sible; he should learn by his exercises the different parts of
the bow (nut, point, middle) and should play whole exer-
cises, if their character allows it, with those bowings, also
with upper — or lower half, or with a whole bow, both legato
and staccato.
Beginners show too often a tendency to play nearly
everything, particularly detached notes, in the middle of the
bow, making this part the central point for their operations,
with an almost entire exclusion of bowings which require
the extreme point or the nut.
The teacher should not fail to encourage his pupil by
having him occasionally study a small concert piece, as in this
way the musical sense will be developed and expression and
character become a reality to him. Pieces, which cover the
requirements of this first grade in violin-playing, are writ-
ten by
Carl Hauser, Op. 2.
Theo. Hermann, Op. 27.
Dancla, Op. 86, Nos. 8 and 9.
Dancla, Op. 123, Suites 1 and 2. (Fischer Edition.)
Ern, Op. 22, Gavotte.
Danbe, Op. 20, First Series : 6 pieces.
Danbe, Op. 30, Second Series : 6 pieces.
T. Miersch, Op. 33, Four little pieces.
Borowski, Danse Rustic.
Borowski, Three Morceaux.
It is utmost value to the pupil to play his piece, after
the finishing touch has been given and before starting on
some new work, quite often with piano accompaniment.
Getting thus acquainted with the complete musk of the
piece (viz., violin and piano) he will gradually gain the
necessary freedom and self-confidence in his playing, quali-
ties without which a fluent execution is impossible.
A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING 7
The pupil, before starting with the higher positions,
should have some knowledge of all major and minor scales,
of the trill, turn and embellishments in this line, of staccato
bowing, easy double-stops, and chromatic scales.
The writer of this article has published a violin-method
which clearly illustrates the above mentioned points, includ-
ing the different keys of the scales that follow each other in
systematic development. The student of this little work can
not very well help getting a pretty clear insight into the
mechanism of violin-playing, which may considerably bene-
fit him when confronting higher positions with their auxil-
iary pieces.
SECOND GRADE.
Let us consider now the higher positions and the pieces
which require a greater efficiency than those before men-
tioned. For a study work I earnestly recommend the Second
Book of David's Violin School, which gives numerous prac-
tical samples of the technical development and always in a
systematic and thoroughly progressive way. This work will
be to the student a true and inspiring adviser.
It happens not infrequently that in the study of the
higher positions (from second to seventh) the pupil starts
with third and only later becomes acquainted with the second
position. This method, as well as the custom of picking out
exercises in study works entirely at random and skipping to
more difficult numbers, is wrong.
True enough, exercises in study works do not always
follow each other according to their degree of difficulty, so
for instance, easy ones may follow right after difficult ones,
and vice versa. In such cases, single exceptions may be
admissible and perhaps even advisable, but the principle,
that a pupil should start with a new work, only when he
is ripe and properly prepared for it, should be upheld.
8 A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING
The study of exercises (etudes) must accompany the
study of higher positions, and necessarily has to keep. within
the range of those positions. For this grade may be recom-
mended :
Fr. Hermann, Op. 29, Book 2 (Litolff Edition)
Kayser, Op. 20, Books 2 and 3 (Hatch Edition).
Dancla, Op. 74 (Finger Exercises), (Peters Edition).
Also concert pieces must be included here, but only
those which reach up to about the fifth position.
The teacher, with an unbiased judgment about the
accomplishments and deficiencies of his pupil, should here
as well as in all the higher grades choose pieces which may
promote either technic or expression and character in the
student's playing. Desirable as technical accomplishments
are, expression and character are just as necessary and may
often be acquired only through industry and will-power.
The teacher need not necessarily choose only good music
(in the best sense) to achieve the desired results. The more
careful choice begins rather with the higher grades, and even
here it cannot be avoided selecting sometimes pieces whose
principal value lies in their brilliancy of technic.
It is self -under stood that for our purposes only a por-
tion of the material need be used (a suggestion which
applies equally to all the following lists of compositions) or
pieces of similar character and difficulties may be substi-
tuted for some of the above mentioned :
Dancla, Op. 89 (6 little fantasies).
Eberhard, Kobold-Taenze.
Leonard, Op. 4.
Leonard, Op. 33 — No. 2.
Becker, Romance in E flat.
Dancla, Op. 155, Op. 149, and Suite No. 3.
Theo. Hermann, Op. 101 (5 small pieces).
H. L. Case, " Sans Souci."
A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING 9
Simon Berceuse.
Fr. Thome, Simple Aveu.
Dancla, Carnival.
A. d'Ambrosio, Op. 6, Canzonetta.
Mascagni, Intermezzo (Franko arrangement).
Saint-Saens, " The Swan."
Borowski, Adoration.
THIRD GRADE.
After mastering the seventh position it is necessary that
the pupil, besides continuing in David's school, should start
with Kreutzer's 40 Exercises (Litolff Edition) but up to the
double-stops only, as by studying easier exercises in double-
stops he will be better prepared for the last eleven numbers
in Kreutzer.
Regarding easier double-stop exercises, there exists
sufficient material, but particularly recommended may be :
Eduard Herrmann, 25 Double-stop Exercises, 1st vol-
ume (Schirmer Edition).
Concert pieces for this grade:
Viotti, 23 Concerto in G (Concert-Studies by David).
Beriot, Airs varie Nos. 5 and 6 (Schirmer Edition).
Wieniawski, Mazurka "Kujawiak" (Schirmer Edition).
Alard, Faust-Fantasie.
Raff, Cavatine.
F. Listemann, Op. 3, Berceuse.
Vieuxtemps, Op. 40, No. 3, Romance.
Svendsen, Romance.
Accolay, Concerto No. 1.
The first movement of the 23rd concerto by Viotti
requires for its technical part extremely well-trained fingers
and a solid, powerful bowing arm. The many detached fig-
ures in sixteenths have almost throughout to be played with
a long bow more or less at the point. The melodies of the
concerto, especially those of the adagio, require a noble
10 A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING
simplicity in execution and the student must here, as well
as in all melodies of the older works, avoid becoming senti-
mental.
FOURTH GRADE.
Although the custom prevails of starting the 36 caprices
by Fiorillo right after Kreutzer, it might be advisable to look
through one or two other study works before Fiorilla. To
be recommended are:
Tartini, 50 Variations (revised by David, Andre Edi-
tion).
Fr. Hermann, Op. 29 — Book 3.
Both these works (particularly Tartitii) contain a multi-
tude of bowings as well as rhythmical figurations, which ele-
ments are only sparingly found in Kreutzer and Fiorillo.
Concert-selections, corresponding with this grade, are in
the following list:
Rode, 7th Concerto, from the concert-studies by David
Hofmann.
Viotti, 29th Concerto, from the concert-studies of David
Hofmann.
Vieuxtemps, Op. 22, Air varie.
David, Op. 5, " Little Drummer Boy."
Alard, L'Argonesa.
Leonard, Souvenir de Bade (Fischer Edition).
Viotti, 22nd Concerto (David Hofmann).
Beethoven, 2 Romances, in F and G.
David, Op. 16. Andante and Scherzo Caprkdoso.
Kreutzer, 2 Concertos, in D major and D minor (David
Hofmann).
Wieniawski, Legende.
Wieniawski, Mazurkas — "Obertass," etc.
Beriot, Concerto No. 9 (Schirmer).
d'Ambrosio, Op. 255, Introduction and Humoresque,
(Schirmer).
A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING 11
Hauser, Op; 43, Hungarian Rhapsodic in D minor.
Corelli, Folies d'Espagne (Variations) (David Revi-
sion).
Spohr, Barcarole.
Beriot, Concerto No. 7.
Topper, Op. 23, Gavotte (Violin arrangement).
L. Schmidt, L'Espagnol.
David, Op. 3, Concertino.
Saint-Saens, Romance in C.
FIFTH GRADE.
The pupils of this grade might start with
Dancla, Op. 73 fetudea
Alard, Op. 19 fitudes
Rovelli 12 Caprices
Rode 24 Caprices
and end up with a work by Cramer, 33 etudes, arranged
for violin by Abel.
The technical character of Alard's and Dancla's etudes
is that of more or less modern virtuosity and will certainly
enlarge the musical horizon of the student and be a stimulus
in this line.
Rode's work stands in its peculiarity unrivaled. Each
number of the work is good music. The requirements of
the student for the mastery of this work are manifold; an
extremely powerful and clever bowing-arm, steel-like fingers,
and a fluent technic. Joachim once mentioned to the writer,
then his pupil, that for years he had played three to four
Rode exercises daily and that the invigorating effect on his
fingers was such that he knew of no other study work that
excelled it in this respect. The metronome marks in these
Rode caprices are valueless, hence should be ignored.
The Cramer exercises, an original piano-work, which
has been arranged for the violin, should follow the study
of Rode. The technic, upon the whole, is not as difficult as
12 A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING
Rode's, but as it contains elements of an entirely new tech-
nical nature, its mastery will be decidedly beneficial to the
student.
Along with the study of these works the pupil may
start with selections contained in the following list :
Spohr, 2nd Concerto.
David, Op. 6. Variations on a Russian Theme.
David, Concerto, No. 1.
Vieuxtemps, Ballade et Polonaise.
Vieuxtemps, Reverie.
Rubinstein- Wieniawski, Romanze in E flat.
Bazzini, Concerto Militaire.
Papini, 3 Hungarian Dances — No. 3 in et.
Godard, Concerto Romantique.
Paganini, Moto Perpetuo.
Vieuxtemps, Op. 40, No. 3, Bohemienne.
Ries, Suite No. 3, (principally Adagio and Perpetua
mobile).
Hubay, Zephir.
Hubay, Hejrekati.
Wieniawski, Op. 12, No. 1, Mazurka " Sielanka."
F. Listemann, Idyll.
F. Listemann, Valse-Mazurka, Op. 10.
Schubert, L'abeille.
Schubert — Wilhemj "Am Meer."
Nardini, Sonata in D (David arrangement).
Vitali, Ciacconne in G minor (David arrangement).
Rust, Sonata in D minor (David arrangement).
Bollinger, Op. 6, Romance in C.
Sarasate, Romanza Andaluza.
Bach, Concerto in E.
Mozart, Concerto in E flat.
Gade, Op. 56, Concerto in D minor.
Sarasate, Mignon — Gavotte.
Wagner- Wilhelmj "Album-Blatt."
Vieuxtemps, Fantasie Caprice.
A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING 13
It may be of interest to the young student, who studies
Vieuxtemps' Fantasie Caprice, to know that the composer
wrote this work just previous to his sixteenth birthday,
while convalescing from a dangerous brain fever in Riga,
Russia.
SIXTH GRADE.
The following study works may be put in this grade :
Campagnoli: 7 Divertimentos (7 Positions) (Breitkopf
and Haertel Edition).
Alard, Op. 18. Etudes. (German Edition.)
Vieuxtemps. 6 Concert fitudes.
Dont. Gradus et Parnassum.
Paganini. Etudes in 60 Variations. (Brietkopf and
Haertel Edition.)
Wieniawski, Op. 18. fitudes-Caprices (with 2nd
Violin).
Schradieck, Op. 1 — 25 Studies.
The 7 Divertimentos by Campagnoli is a great work.
The originality in giving a broad structure within so
narrow a boundary as one single position, is striking and
surpasses any attempts made by other composers in similar
directions. The work requires broad bowing, plenty of tone
and naturally very strong fingers.
The 60 variations of Paganini need for the proper inter-
pretation elegant and elastic bowing, rather than great technic.
They acquaint the pupil fully with every style of bowing.
CONCERT SELECTIONS.
David. 5th Concerto.
Sarasate. Faust — Fantasie.
Bazzini. 4th Concerto.
Spohr. Concertos. Nos. 8 and 9.
Vieuxtemps. Fantasie Appassionata.
Vieuxtemps. 4th Concerto.
14 A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING
Mendelssohn. Concerto.
Brahms-Joachim. Hungarian Dances, Nos. 1, 3, 5,
6, 7, 8.
Moliqiue. Concerto No. 5.
Hubay. Carmen-Fantasie.
Bruch. Concerto No. 1.
Wieniawski. 2nd Polonaise.
Wieniawski. Souvenir de Moscou.
Sinding. Concerto No. 1.
Leonard. Souvenir de Haydn.
Sarasate. Gypsy-Melodies.
Saint-Saens, Op. 28. Introduction and Rondo-capric-
cioso.
Tartini, Devil's Sonata. (Vieuxtemps' arrangement.)
Sarasate. Jota Argonesa.
Chopin-Sarasate, Op. 9, No. 2. Notturno in E flat. .
Vieuxtemps, Op. 19. Concerto No. 2.
Wieniawski. Concerto No. 2.
Nachez, Op. 14. Dances Tziganes.
R. Krauss, Op. 8. Concerto in D minor.
Raff, Op. 67. La Fee d' Amour (Die Leibesfee).
SEVENTH GRADE.
The following study works are recommended for this
grade:
Wieniawski, Op. 10. L'Ecole Moderne (9 studies).
Bach, 6 Sonatas for Violin alone. (Revised by David-
Sitt.)
Gavinies, 24 fitudes. Matinees. (Peters Edition.)
Paganini, 3 Themes with variations on the G string.
Sauret, Op. 24. 20 Grand fitudes.
The Wieniawski work, Op. 10, as well as the same
composer's work mentioned in the 6th grade; Op.
18, are notable for certain qualities, in which the
composer particularly excelled* to-wit: remarkable
A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING 15
velocity in all technical matters, a manly character
in melodious phrases throughout, an elegance and
elasticity in bowing which made his playing so be-
witching.
The last study of Op. 10 may be omitted, as it is unpro-
portionately difficult. The Gavinies etudes require a well
developed technic. However, they contain very little that is
musical, showing little individuality in technical treatment
and certainly no originality, for which reasons they should
be considered simply as a study work, and no more.
The Paganini variations, written exclusively for the G
string, is a work of great usefulness. Technical figures, as
the experienced violinist knows, are harder to perform on
this string than on any other, as here far stronger fingers and
greater arm exertions are required to make the string vibrate
and sing. The control of the G string will prove of real
benefit to the student from a technical standpoint.
Although the supreme worth of Bach's violin-sonatas
consists of the three great fugues and the charonne, there
are so many valuable smaller pieces in these sonatas with
partly antiquated names, that the student, properly prepared,
should make a thorough study of them all. Not infrequently
renowned violinists play whole sonatas in concerts, and it is
almost a heavenly enjoyment to hear the slow movements of
them played by virtuosos of temperament like Ysaye, and
others. The crown, as a Bach interpreter, per excellence,
belongs to Joachim, for it was he who introduced the com-
plete works to the musical world. It was especially his in
interpretation of the famous charonne, which has won the
colossal composer more friends and admirers, than did any
at his numerous other works.
Concert selections for this seventh grade are:
Bruch, Op. 46. Scotch Fantasie.
Lalo, Op. 21. Symphonie Espagnole.
Vieuxtfemps. Concerto No. 5.
Lipinski. Concerto Militaire (1st movement).
16 A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING
Beethoven. Concerto.
Bruch, Op. 42. Romance in A minor.
Thompson. Passacaglia on a theme by Handel.
Wieniawski. Faust-Fantasie.
Wieniawski. 1st Polonaise.
Wieniawski. Valse Caprice.
Paganini. Prayer of Moses (on the G string).
Bruch. 3rd Concerto.
Laub. Polonaise.
Bazzini. La Ronde des Lutins.
Joachim. Variations.
Sarasate. Muineira.
Sarasate. Zapeteado.
Joachim. 3rd Concerto.
Spohr. 7th Concerto.
Auer. Op. 2, Tarantelle de Concert.
Wieniawski. Tarantelle in G minor.
EIGHTH GRADE.
Of corresponding, difficult exercises for this highest
grade, there are comparatively only a few. But in this
respect the student, who has worked his way up to this
height, has probably acquired sufficient experience to look
around for himself in the realm of violin music, and depend
upon his own judgment. I will mention as a study work only
one which generally is regarded as eclipsing all others :
Paganini. 24 Capriccios. (Breitkopf & Hsertel Edi-
tion. )
Of his work the writer of this article wrote in a treatise
on Paganini, in a magazine some years ago : " Great, and
a master work in every sense, are the 24 capriccios for violin.
They are short and concise in form, but possess such a pro-
nounced character, and document a source of such inexhaus-
ible technical possibilities, that all that has been written since
on the high-grade technic plan simply pales before this work."
A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING 17
It is advisable to have the pupil, when starting this work,
begin with capriccios 13 to 24, and only later undertake
numbers 1 to 12, as the first 12 capriccios are far more diffi-
cult than the later ones.
Concert selections belonging to this grade and requiring
a highly developed technic, will be found in the following list :
Ernst. Othello-Fantasie.
Ernst. Airs Hongrois.
Paganini. Concerto No. 1 (1st movement, Besekirski
revision) .
F. Listemann. Concert-Polonaise in E.
Saint-Lubin. Lucia-Sexteti for Violin alone.
Wieniawski. Carnaval Russe.
Wieniawski. Op. 15, Theme Original Varie.
Chopin- Wilhelmj. Notturno in D, Op. 27, No. 2.
Ernst. Concerto in F sharp minor.
Bazzini. Op. IS, Concert- Allegro.
Bruch. Concerto No. 2.
Vieuxtemps. Op. 10, Concerto No. 1.
Brahms. Concerto in D minor.
Tschaikowsky. Concerto in D.
Joachim. Hungarian Concerto.
The first concerto by Vieuxtemps (E major) which for
a long time was the test for every virtuoso of distinction, was
composed in his 19th year and introduced by him in Paris
with immense success. Shortly afterwards appeared his 2nd
Concerto (in F sharp minor). But in reality this 2nd Con-
certo had been composed four years before and as Concerto
No. 1 turned over to the music-firm, Schuberth & Co., to be
printed. For some reason or other the work was ignored
by the music-house. With the great success of the E major
concerto in Paris, the firm seemed to have gained confidence
in the young composer, and perhaps realizing the financial
result, speedily printed the neglected work as Concerto No. 2.
18 A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING
This is the version of the composer to the writer when study-
ing this concerto with him, and was corroborated by one of
the publishers, by whom the writer was befriended.
Regarding the Concert-Allegro by Bazzini, the most
musical of his many compositions, the writer may be pardoned
for giving here a reminiscence which he treasures very highly.
He, then a 16 years' old pupil of David, played this concerto
at a concert in Leipsic, and had the great honor of having as
his accompanist none other than the great violinist and com-
poser, Bazzini, himself, who, after having the previous day
been the soloist at the Gewandhaus concert, remained a day
longer in Leipsic in order to hear his composition.
The Hungarian Concerto by Joachim is by many con-
sidered the most difficult composition of the entire violin-
literature. A long study, even by the best equipped technician,
is required to master the many unusual difficulties, as also
to bring out the tempestuous spirit of the last movement, the
Finale a la Zingara. As really noble music this concerto
belongs to the very best we have, and only abnormal difficulties
and great length of the composition prevent a popularity with
violinist, which it richly deserves.
With this carefully assorted material, of which the writer
has availed himself more or less during many years of teach-
ing, is indicated a systematic study-course. It is not expected
of the teacher that he be intimately acquainted with all these
works, although the competent teacher knows many of them.
And this conscientious teacher will never be at a loss what to
give to his pupil, and certainly will not commit the grave error
of recommending things which are far beyond the ability of
the student.
It is advisable to bear in mind that the selections for the
pupil should be at all times made with a view of gaining for
him a necessary many sidedness in his playing, and so, for
instance, have him study, after a very difficult piece, some-
thing less difficult, but requiring more expression, tone, ele-
A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING 19
gance, or vice versa. That gives the student a breathing
spell and forces him for the time being, to cultivate an
opposite element and thus broaden his playing.
To be considered yet are the many, more or less valuable
works which treat finger-tectonic as a specialty. The teacher,
naturally, and for very good reasons, will not overburden his
pupil with these studies, if the desired results are to be accom-
plished. And again the pupil will not feel the dryness of
these studies, if he goes ahead with them rather slowly. Also
the physical conditions of the fingers differ so greatly that
strong and supple fingers need less of this kind of study, while
the pupil with weaker fingers will achieve only the very best
results after a careful study.
The following are some of study works of merit and to
be highly recommended:
Sevcik. Development of the left hand.
Schradieck. Scale studies.
Schradieck. School of Violin technic.
Eduard Herrmann, 25 Double stop exercises, second
book.
Lichtenberg. Scale studies.
Keller and Schell. 275 Studies (books 3, 4 and 5).
Only one work need be studied, as they all pursue the
same aim, starting from the easiest and gradually leading to
all imaginable technical difficulties. The teacher, who is
familiar with these works, will easily find the most useful for
his pupil.
Before the pupil ends his regular study courses, he
should acquire some knowledge of ensemble-playing (piano
and violin). In sonata-playing the teacher should start
him with works of our classical composers, particularly of
Mozart, and Beethoven, and only gradually advance toward
compositions of our own time. The technic of those older
works requires well-trained, solid ^fingers, perhaps in a higher
degree than that found in more modern works.
20 A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING
One of the good results arising from the study of the
old masters is that the student comes to understand the
simple construction in phraseology and form-matters in the
classics to the effect that he with such knowledge will have
gained a riper understanding for the freedom and elasticity
in expression and execution so necessary for the more modern
works.
The so-called Kreutzer Sonata by Beethoven, Op. 47,
ought to be studied only when the pupil is equal to the
task. It is the highest test for all ensemble-playing in this
line.
Regarding the possibilities of the student entering the
orchestral field, it is impossible to speak in a very encour-
aging way. The opportunities in America for aspirants are
not very favorable, not even in larger cities, on account of
the lack of orchestras. Our young musicians, if in a larger
place, will be limited in gaining experience to a piano trio,
or a string quartet, or, perchance, join the small band of
musicians employed at theaters and resturants. If other-
wise his abilities are properly developed, he may after some
experience in this field, find opportunity to play with some
regular orchestra of smaller dimensions, and then it will be
a matter of industry, of aim, ambition and some little luck
to find the chance of joining one of the few first-rate
orchestras in America.
However, that is, the teacher, . knowing all these condi-
tions, and teaching a talented pupil who possesses the
necessary requirements and pursues the higher aims in art,
should use every opportunity to acquaint him in prima-vista-
playing. A course, which cultivates this branch of study, is
of incalculable benefit to the student. An observation which
the writer in his long career as teacher often made, is the
pupils lack of preparedness when he starts to teach. It
seems to be absolutely necessary that, after finishing his
studies, he should go through a course of special " Teachers
A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING 21
Studies," and under the guidance of his competent
instructors overhaul the material that is needed, (ex-
ercises and concert-selections) for the lower grades par-
ticularly.
The able student, after having gained in this way a
practical insight into the mechanism of teaching, will have
little difficulty in going ahead unassisted, the more so, as all
the more advanced studies belong to a period which for the
most part, is still fresh in his memory.
In general too little importance is given in America to
the functions of a teacher. Competent and incom-
petent teachers are often valued alike by an unknowing
public.
Business ability in an incompetent teacher may achieve
better financial results than the merits of a teacher who
lacks this valuable asset. This capacity has become
a factor in our music life and the pupil very often has
reason to repent of his time and money misspent in
this way.
It might prove a beneficial law to have every young
musician, who wishes to take up the vocation of teacher,
examined by a commission of violinists, in larger places only,
and settle in this manner at least the point, that unpre-
paredness and incompetence shall not claim the same rights
and privileges as experience and competence, and that the
young teacher might learn to appreciate the fact, that the
profession of teaching is to be considered a credit and honor,
and not the means to beguile innocent victims.
What is there more honorable and satisfying than to
be the educator of a talented musician, to have kept him
always in the right path so as to have him reach the highest
goal, to which talent and effort entitled him. to have fol-
lowed him in his progress with deepest interest and sym-
pathy, to have his errors and shortcomings gradually rooted
out, to have awakened his enthusiasm for new and greater
22 A STUDY ON VIOLIN PLAYING
tasks, and finally to have seen him arrive at the point, where
he occupies an acknowledged, independent position in the
world of art and artists. This gives a similar satisfac-
tion to the musical educator as it does to the father, who
knows he has done his best for the welfare of his chil-
dren.
May these illustrations, which are largely based on
experience of the writer, have the good result of diverting
the efforts of the teacher constantly towards the develop-
ment of the highest ideals of the pupil, so that this pupil,
long after he has left his teacher, may think of him with
deepest gratitude.
THEODORE SPIERING
Violinist
BAJiVAlhMaJSQouiVlpftlN'upil °f
Schradieck aiffoj>£^|»ljimp^|k«l*lis from 1886 to
1890. In 1893 he organized tne-'Sfiering Quartet;
in J^Siljipfe^c^xjQi^jviolki Tat ;Ster,ns Conservatory
of Music, Berlin ; is now concertmeister of the New
York Philharmonic Orchestra. «. Officer of French
Academy.
ADVANCED VIOLIN
INSTRUCTION
A GRADED COURSE IN TWELVE LESSONS.
Theodore Spiering.
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS.
Introduction.
I. Relation of Body to Instrument.
II. First Attempts at Bowing.
III. The First Position.
IV. The Second and Third Positions and Shifting.
V. Staccato Forms and Arm Relaxation.
VI. Legato and the Crossing of the Strings.
VII. The Spiccato and Kindred Forms.
VIII. The Trill and the Vibrato.
IX. Scales and the Limits of the Fingerboard.
X. Chorus and Double-stopping.
XL Exceptional Tonal Effects.
XII. Character and Tempo, Expression and Rhythm.
ADVANCED VIOLIN
INSTRUCTION
Theodore Spiering.
INTRODUCTION.
It is difficult to give, within the limits of a scant dozen
lessons of alarming brevity, an outline of the technic of
the violin. As will be apparent during the perusal of the
following lessons, only the most fundamental and essential
technical points have been touched upon, and these only in
a most cursory manner. The more fundamental ideas, the
positions of the hands and arms, the development of tone,
etc., have been treated more at length because the most im-
portant steps in the acquisition of violin technic are un-
doubtedly the first. The development of even these essential
ideas has been limited to the fewest words and, in some
cases, only a suggestion of the lines to be studied, has been
offered. It will, therefore, be found necessary for the
student to carefully read and digest the entire material be-
fore making a beginning in applying the principles discussed.
It is obviously impossible to discuss in the first lesson all
of the necessary first principles which arise and the reader
will find that material in various suitable places throughout
26 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
the entire twelve lessons. Being a summary, rather than a
discussion of principles and effects, the lessons should be
considered as a whole and not section by section.
The student is not to be offended by the constant reiter-
ation of certain technical points since they may be regarded
as the pivotal principles in the technical development. In
a written work, where the personality of the teacher cannot
be injected as at the private lesson and where words may
mean much or little, depending on the individuality of the
reader, every sentence should be carefully read and examined
and the principles applied only after concentrated study.
Though it is believed that these lessons contain all of
the essential ideas necessary to the development of a satis-
factory violin technic, yet there are certain fundamental
principles existing beyond mere technical development which
have an important bearing upon the subject. The question
of mental preparation, of relaxation, despite the exertion of
muscular force and of equalization of technic rightly belong
in a method of violin study and yet in a technical treatise of
this length the consideration rightly due them is almost an
impossibility.
No technical or musical subject in violin-playing should
be approached without the necessary mental preparation, that
is, a mental conception of what is to be done. Putting aside
the question of knowing what one is to do when trying to
acquire a tone, or a certain position of the left hand, as an
obvious necessity, it should be just as obvious that no pas-
sage should be approached until the brain has first mastered
it and directed its performance in a certain manner. For
example, a rapid staccato passage, a glissando run, or any
similar technical feat, will suffer in clarity, evenness and dis-
tinctness unless a definite mental conception is had of each
note before it is played. The brain must be kept alert and
ever in advance of the fingers and must definitely direct
every physical and emotional portion of the musical expres-
sion.
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 27
The question of relaxation in spite of physical exertion
is also important. Relaxation, to many, erroneously means
limpness. It is an almost undefinable term and is neither
limpness nor rigidity but a condition midway between the
two in which the muscles remain firm but are allowed to
move freely at any speed and with any amount of force.
To trill rapidly and with sufficient force to make the tones
distinct requires the highest standard of relaxation and great
strength. It is absolutely necessary to drop the finger with
sufficient force to clearly stop the string and yet it is as
necessary that the finger move with great rapidity, a product
of perfect relaxation. It can readily be seen, therefore, that
relaxation and force are not incompatible allies in violin-
playing, though the balance between the two is very finely
hung.
Closely akin to this is the independence of technic.
Much bad bowing is due to the fact that upon the arrival
of a difficult left-hand passage the player is unable to differ-
entiate between the left and right arms and therefore shows
in the right arm that which is bothering the left hand. A
similar condition arises when the player finds that he is
forced to play a passage at the point of the bow when he
would rather play it at the nut, or similarly, when he is
compelled to use fingering unsuited to his technical equip-
ment. Practise should be had to remedy these conditions so
that the arms and hands may be independent of each other
and so that any passage plays as easily in any part of the
bow or with any fingering.
The province of interpretation, of musicianship, is such
a big one that in touching upon it the writer is well aware
of the utter impossibility of doing justice to it in a short
paragraph. However, attention must be called to the ever-
growing tendency of the young violinist to give himself up
entirely to the all-engrossing pursuit of technic, th?t of a
digital kind, and forgetting that all of this dexterity on the
28 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
part of the left hand is worse than useless when either the
right arm has not been properly developed, or what is even
worse, the musical foundation has been sadly neglected. The
study of theory, ensemble practise, a few years spent in a
first-class symphony orchestra, membership in a string quar-
tet with high ideals, a teaching experience, these are the real
fountains of technical knowledge and experience and the
broadening effect of such experience upon solo playing is
immeasurable. It is unfortunate that the value of these
experiences is not recognized until they have been neglected
and it is too late.
However, the individuality of the student, together with
the opportunity of hearing great artists and studying with a
teacher, himself an artist and serious musician, is after all
the question of paramount importance. This work is, there-
fore, not intended to replace the teacher either from the
standpoint of technic or musicianship. It is only to supple-
ment his work and act as a reference of authority to those
in doubt.
LESSON I.
Relation of Body to Instrument.
The more natural the positions assumed in the playing
of the violin, the better the results attained. There is no
instrument which responds more quickly to proper handling
nor which demands more case and relaxation in position.
The Spohr position, the weight resting mainly on the
left foot with the right slightly advanced, still remains the
most sensible one, freeing the right arm, though the position
in which the weight is evenly distributed on both feet rightly
has its advocates. As a rule, each player should assume
the position which gives absolute freedom to the right side
of the body, and therefore the right arm, and, at the same
time, gives stability of poise. Swaying from side to side,
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 29
or other unnecessary movements of the body, are to be
avoided, at least, until the player is a full-fledged artist and
a law unto himself.
Left Arm. — The position of the left arm cannot be
absolutely fixed but must remain an open question largely
depending upon individual needs. However, the left elbow
should be neither too far under the violin nor projecting in
the opposite direction lest it assume a strained position, a
condition to be avoided at any cost. The ability to quickly
and systematically get over the fingerboard depends in a
great measure on the freedom of the left hand and arm
(the violin should be held firmly by the chin and shoulder,
for this reason, a pad being used if necessary) ; and
on a free and correct manipulation of the left thumb in
shifting.
Left Hand and Thumb. — The contact of the neck of
the violin and the left hand should be between the second
and third joints of the first finger, the thumb being applied
a little above the first joint. The thumb should be placed
opposite the first, or the first and second fingers, depending
entirely upon the character of the individual hand. The
player must find a natural and relaxed position for this most
important member of the left hand. Pressure is not pro-
hibited, but relaxation must always follow, in order that
hand and fingers do not become strained.
Fingers of the Left Hand. — The left hand should be
held in such a position that the fingers fall easily and natur-
ally on b, c (c sharp), d and e, on the A string, in the
middle of the tip of the finger. There should be no cramp-
ing, no adhesion of thumb and first finger, first and second,
etc. Each finger should work independently of the others,
and of the hand, from the third joint, the hand at absolute
rest. Flexibility and velocity depend on observing the above,
while body of tone, resulting from strength of fingers, is
gained by practise, or repetition, and not by studied effort.
The hand should be held in such a position that each finger
30 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
may retain a slight arch. A straight or stiff finger means
effort and consequent loss of strength, flexibility and
velocity.
Fingers of the Right Hand. — It is advisable to adjust
the fingers of the right hand on the bow in this manner:
open the palm and extend the fingers in the most natural
manner, place the bow (by means of the left hand) on the
out-stretched fingers so that it will rest in the first joint of
the first finger and on the tip of the little finger, and then
gently close the hand bringing the thumb and fingers toward
each other so that the former will be opposite the middle
fingers and, as stated above, not in a flat position with the
knuckle turned in but slightly arched out.
However, before giving the pupil the bow to hold it
is best to demonstrate to him the most natural and relaxed
position of the right arm. Have him drop his right arm so
that it falls in a most natural position, noting that this is
with the palm of the hand next to the body. Of course, the
angle of this position cannot be exactly maintained when
the bow is on the string, but keeping this original position
in mind will prevent the student from going to the other
extreme, i. e., the common error of forcing the elbow out
by too much pressure on the bow by the first finger instead
of evenly distributing this pressure among the middle fingers
and thumb.
Following up this idea of the normal or natural posi-
tion of the arm, attention should be called to the position
of the thumb in the bow. The usual tendency is to apply
it to the bow as if it had its normal position at the foot
of the palm of the hand, instead of at the side. This side
position of the thumb on the bow is of the utmost impor-
tance, as only in this way will the knuckle remain out and
the consequent freedom of hand movement be realized. The
bow is to be held with the middle fingers and thumb, the
first finger guiding, the little finger balancing.
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 31
Right Arm and Slant of Instrument. — The right
arm should not be held too close to the body, as formerly
taught, but should, at all times, be held in such a manner
that each string level is primarily considered, the arm re-
maining absolutely on one level as long as the bow remains
on one string, no change in position (dipping) taking place
in the progress of the stroke from frog to point. Close
observance of the foregoing must lead to a free arm stroke.
The slant of the instrument is more or less determined by
the position of the arm when the bow is on the G string.
When on this string the arm is in an almost horizontal
position, the slant of the instrument just permitting the bow
to pass over the left bout. When the bow is on the E
string, the arm must not be too close to the body.
LESSON II.
First Attempts at Bowing.
The bow being the medium of expression, the means of
differentiation in the moods of compositions, the greater the
freedom of manipulation the greater the command of nuance
and the nearer the approach to the meaning of the com-
poser. The following recommendations are designed to
promote the development of freedom :
As in singing, breathing or phrasing is all-important.
The ability to phrase depends, to a great extent, on the
ability of the bow to leave the string, at any moment. This
should be accomplished, not by lifting the bow from the
string by means of the arm (except in ertain cases to be
cited later on), but through the medium of the right hand
and fingers only. There is a certain fear of letting go of
the bow, also tendency of interrupting its progress on the
string, which the following exercises are designed to over-
come. A common error, much indulged in and due to not
recognizing the true mission of the right arm, is the con-
32 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
stant retention of the bow on the string without regard to
phrasing. This becomes a constant deterrent on the devel-
opment of bowing. One of the most important problems
is to counteract this inertness of the right hand.
Three Divisions of the Right Arm. — Difficulty arises
in trying to use separately, or in conjunction, the three
divisions of the right arm, the upper, lower and hand,
according to needs. The lower arm, from the elbow down,
is not used enough. The playing allotted to this section of
the arm is most often done in the middle of the bow with
the elbow in a locked condition, and the upper arm making
faulty backward movements in place of downward ones by
the lower arm. The upper arm is brought into play only on
approximately the lower third of the bow and, of course,
in the crossing of the strings.
In place of commencing with the legato stroke, it is
better to begin with the martele or, to be more exact, the
detache stroke done the full length of the bow with the
entire arm. In the effort to draw the bow to the end, the
tendency is to draw the arm back, this going so far as to
cause a locking of the elbow, both of which are to be
avoided. Instead, a hand extension is advocated as a means
for connecting strokes.
This lateral hand extension, or wrist stroke, is more
easily obtained in conjunction with the release of the thumb,
i. e., taking the thumb from the bow and permitting the
latter to rest in the palm of the hand. This hand extension,
later on, must be accomplished with the thumb in position.
Taking out the thumb brings relaxation and incidental wrist
movement which is of the utmost importance to all bow-
ings. Hand extension, in martele or in legato, is the safety
valve against stiffness of the arm. The hand extension on
one string must be lateral (in the same plane), and not up
and down. Taken in connection with the crossing of the
strings, an elliptical movement results,- being a combination
of lateral and up and down motion.
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 33
Although this wrist stroke or hand extension is of the
utmost importance, it has been found advisable not to center
the attention of the student exclusively on this feature of the
bowing, but to immediately call into play the entire right-
arm stroke, a series of exercises being devised which will
develop the hand extension along with the free full arm
stroke.
The use of the full arm martele stroke at this point is
advisable because the necessary pause gives the student time
for mental preparation; the character of the stroke forces
the arm to remain in one plane ; and, it forces the whole arm
stroke to be exact and free. The pause before the stroke
also gives time to prepare the left hand. At this point it
is well to call attention to the fact that conscious mental
effort must always precede the movement of the bow or the
fingers and that a constant aural vision of the next tone is
necessary for the prevention of faulty intonation.
In crossing the strings from a higher to a lower level,
the result of bringing the arm to the lower level by retain-
ing the bow on the last string, is to cause the hand to assume
a transitory position which must be released and a normal
position assumed before actual playing is resumed.
Exercise I. — Place the bow on the string at the point
and apply as much pressure as possible with the fingers
without affecting the position of the arm. Take as rapid a
stroke as possible, at the end of the stroke at the frog, tak-
ing out or releasing the thumb.
Exercise II. — Exercise I. to be repeated on the down
stroke, with this difference: after the down stroke, done as
rapidly as possible, the connection of the stroke being done
by wrist extension, return the bow over the string, releasing
the thumb as in Exercise I. This down and up stroke must
be considered as one stroke, being meant to return from frog
to frog as quickly as possible.
Exercise III. — A second down stroke, or up, taking
the bow from the string by means' of the hand, not arm
34 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
(thumb, first and little fingers), at end of stroke, the arm
not to be brought into action during the lifting of the bow,
the bow leaving the string wherever the stroke ends. In
the attempt to take the bow from the string do not farther
extend the arm.
Exercise IV. — Apply the martele principle of pressure,
stroke and relaxation to hand or wrist stroke only, leaving
thumb in place. This martele hand stroke should be done
at the point and frog.
Exercise V. — The same application to the full arm
stroke with hand extension and without removing the bow
or thumb. This may be considered as a martele stroke
though it leads to the legato.
Exercise VI. — As a means of illustrating to the pupil
that the hand must be in the same relation to the bow at
all times, draw the bow up and down over the string as
slowly as possible, causing him to note the unchanging posi-
tion of the hand at all points.
LESSON III.
The First Position.
There must be one position in which the hand of the
beginner adjusts itself to the violin and, of necessity, this
is the first position, not because it is lacking in complications
or is musically limited, but because, as in everything else,
one must begin at the bottom to conquer the ground step
by step. Two octaves and a major third from the open G
string to the b natural above the staff is the range of that
musical territory known as the first position on the violin,
and its conquest represents laborious and crucial efforts to
the beginner and problems of no mean technical difficulty to
the student of classic literature.
The open strings, tuned in the perfect fifths, G, D, A, E,
are at once made the medium of the early bow exercises, as
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 35
in this way the beginner's attention can be centered on some
of the vitally important functions of the right arm and hand.
The pupil is then taught the hand and finger positions, the
application of the fingers to the fingerboard and the ele-
mentary principles of the trill.
Here, it is well to point out the old truths that first
impressions are the strongest and therefore the most difficult
to remove, that habits and faults acquired while learning
these first steps will always crop out again as stumbling-
blocks in the future development of the student, and that,
on the other hand, the fundamental principles of correct
hand and finger disposition, of natural and free finger action,
followed by natural relaxation, will be helpful adjuncts in
the rapid acquisition of what is commonly styled technic,
but which is only the most natural and effective carrying
out of what the mind prompts.
The fingers should be treated as independent units, that
is, the motion should come only from the hand joints. The
finger about to be used should hang reasonably near the
string and should confine its movement to dropping directly
on the desired spot. The palm of the hand should be neither
rigid nor affected by the movements of the fingers. It is
well to call attention to the fact that all great technicians
avoid an extreme raising of the fingers while playing.
The stopping by the fingers should be accurate, in tune,
and should not be done with too much exertion. The finger
strength necessary to create sufficient body of tone must
develop gradually through careful and effective practise and
not through a great exertion of force in dropping the fingers.
It is not objectionable for the thumb to press rather firmly
against the neck of the violin while in one position, provid-
ing the proper relaxation occurs later, through correct shift-
ing. After these preliminary principles are established there
remains but the other left hand problem, that of shifting :
the ability to move the hand from position to position either
by step, one position at a time, or by a leap connecting tones
36 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
and positions at a distance from each other, without in the
least interrupting the fluency of the musical phrase.
As correct intonation is one of the most essential fea-
tures of violin playing, a student cannot too early train his
ear (in reality his mind), to the careful and minute differ-
entiation of pitch. Preparation in finger application is a
method heartily to be recommended, with the accompanying
mental effort of always bridging over the interval from the
note being played to the next one, and consequently having
an aural vision of that next note before actually playing or
reproducing it. This ability to think in intervals, and not
to play the notes as independent units without relation to
each other, is a very important principle to be observed in
the study of the instrument. And not only does correct
intonation depend on this system of thinking consecutively
or polyphonically ; musical development is impossible without
following these lines.
In order to quickly establish what is considered a cor-
rect hand and finger position the stopping of various chords
is often advocated. This usage successfully calls attention
to independent position of fingers, but if carried to extreme,
results in a strained position of hand, whereas just the oppo-
site is desired. For a beginner or for small hands the
stretching over to G string (purely for the establishing of
a fundamentalposition), is forced and should be avoided.
It is advisable to first establish the beginner on the A
string, as both right arm and left hand are in most con-
venient position, stopping the notes b, c (c-sharp), d and e,
these elementary five note exercises being repeated on the
other strings. As soon as the fingers have attained sufficient
routine in playing these exercises, the scales may be used
in the order of G, D, A, etc., through one, or in case the
position is not left, through two octaves.
Chromatic scales are valuable, in simplified form, in
developing finger positions and as exemplifying a phase of
shifting when the thumb remains in one position, as later in
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 37
the glissando. In this form of scale the note itself is to be
given the greatest possible amount of time and the shifting
of the finger to be accomplished as rapidly as possible. The
reverse is almost always to be noticed; namely, a slow grop-
ing or sliding from note to note, the note itself hardly being
articulated. In playing the scales, in fact at all times, im-
mediately after each tone is played, the finger for the next
tone is to be placed in position, the bow never attacking the
tone until the finger is firmly placed. This requires careful
attention to the position of the finger so that the only time
consumed is in the actual playing and not in the finding of
the proper place on the string. It is wise to keep all of
those fingers on the string, without tension, which are not
being used, since in this way they are ready when needed.
Faulty and Unusual Finger Positions. — The first
finger should be so held that the application to the string be
directly downward and not drawn back so that it will have
to seek a higher position on the string before or after fall-
ing. One cause of faulty intonation arises from drawing
down or extending one finger, thereby pulling the others
along instead of keeping them in place irrespective of the
temporary change of position of the one.
The young beginner who has not given sufficient atten-
tion to the mental preparation spoken of above (placing the
fingers before the time of playing the note), will often forget
that only perfect fifths occur opposite each other on the
strings and that, therefore, when this interval is either aug-
mented or diminished, it is no longer possible to simulta-
neously stop both strings with the same finger — but that
an extension or a drawing back of the finger to be used is
necessary before application to string is in order. The play-
ing of these intervals (crossing over from one string to
another with the same finger), is only advisable in rare
cases, as in rapid passage work, for instance, this mode of
fingering is not only awkward but untenable; the nearest
finger being used to play the second note. The intonation
38 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
of augmented and diminished intervals in general (owing to
tendency of the beginner to curtail extension and backward
movement of fingers), is easily faulty. An exaggerated idea
of augmentation and diminution in such intervals will there-
fore do no harm.
The perception of the young student should at once be
trained to realize that even while playing the open strings,
or the very first scales, that tone development is possible,
being merely a peculiar combination of the application of
the fingers of the left hand (with a subsequent reinforce-
ment of the vibrato), and adept bow manipulation, pulling
the tone rather than pressing on the string, and that even
the open strings can be made to respond in such a manner
as to yield warmth of tone. This is merely a proof that
right arm legato playing is really the foundation of tone and
that vibrato fulfills its function when it adds only to the
intensity.
LESSON IV.
The Second and Third Positions and Shifting.
A correct knowledge of shifting, together with the
proper application of the principles that govern good hand
and finger positions, will give the student absolute command
of the fingerboard.
The left thumb is a prime factor in maintaining relaxa-
tion in the left hand, so essential to freedom of movement.
Whereas a certain amount of satisfactory playing can be
done in each position with more or less tenseness in the
hand, such a condition prohibits a free moving from one
position to another. Playing in a higher position is merely
transferring the principles applied in the first position to a
higher place on the fingerboard. The ability to get over the
fingerboard, to go into different positions, depends on a
clear understanding of shifting, or a methodical way of
connecting these different planes or positions.
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 39
Every step of the diatonic scale, beyond the b above
the staff, the limit of the first position, adds one new posi-
tion, a new realm to be covered. The difficulties arising
from this new field of action are not so much of a technical
nature as they are mental and aural; the tones which have,
so far, been produced by one set of fingering are now given
over for reproduction to another.
There is no reason why the positions should not be
learned in consecutive order. Students taught in any other
manner avoid the second, fourth and sixth positions and
always develop technically in a one-sided manner. The habit
of teaching the third position before the second is repre-
hensible and may be regarded as an open acknowledgment
of fear, as far as shifting is concerned. The principle of
correct shifting should immediately be so well established
that the matter of position becomes a question of secondary
consideration.
The natural limits (owing to location) of first and third
positions are so well defined that the hand quickly feels at
home in these positions, and with a rare excursion to the
half position does not seek a lower position on fingerboard
or, because of body of instrument, is not apt to creep above
the third. The other positions do not possess these decided
limitations and so offer more opportunity for inexact playing.
However, the student cannot go far astray if he will use the
same hand position as in the first and third, in all positions,
with only the necessary change in the position of the
thumb.
The fear of letting go of one position to go to another,
on account of the imperfect knowledge of shifting, is so
great on the part of the beginner that the tendency is almost
always in evidence to reach for a note in a higher or lower
position by an extension of the finger instead of shifting the
hand. This should be avoided and the shifting done with
the hand, the finger to be used not being placed on the string
until the hand is absolutely in the new position. There are
40 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
exceptions to every rule and so there are times when a note
in a passage or phrase can best be played (taste requiring
this) by an extension of the finger to another position while
the hand remains stationary, the playing in the original posi-
tion immediately being taken up after this excursion to
another position on the part of the finger.
There are also times when taste demands that a porta-
mento from the open string to a tone in a higher position
be employed. This may be brought about by lightly resting
the first finger on the string below the saddle and proceed-
ing as in ordinary shifting whether the note to be shifted
be on the same or another string.
The Left Thumb and Shifting. — In moving to the
second or third positions from the first, the thumb retains
its position with relation to the hand, the hand and thumb
moving as a unit. In descending, the latter precedes the
hand, going almost beyond the position that is sought and
only clinching the neck of the instrument when the finger
that is to be played falls into place on the string; the clinch-
ing of the thumb and the falling of the finger should occur
simultaneously. The finger last used should remain in posi-
tion during the preparatory movement of the thumb. In
the upward shifting, the tone connection is accomplished by
the finger last used moving up on the string until the hand
is in the new position when the finger to be used is placed
on the string.
In shifting, use at all times the finger that has been
played and not the one to be played, to bring about the
connection. If this rule is adhered to the student will do
the shifting with the hand and always be in position before
the actual playing is done. This correct way of passing
from one position to another will not fail to bring about a
clean technic and a fearlessness which will stand in good
stead when technical problems of great difficulty are en-
countered.
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 41
LESSON V.
Staccato Forms and Arm Relaxation.
The student should review Lesson II., First Attempts
at Bowing. The main object of this review lesson is to
show the true principles of the real martele, with the whole
bow, and then the hand stroke, and only after this has
been thoroughly applied can staccato be studied.
There are two principles which govern the use of the
staccato stroke: the martele idea (pressure, stroke and re-
laxation), and the onward movement of the arm. The pres-
sure and stroke are practically simultaneous and the relaxa-
tion but an instant later, and are accomplished with the hand
and without the assistance of the arm. After this stroke,
done solely by hand, the arm moves up in preparation for
the next stroke. In this onward movement of the arm and,
therefore, in the ability to repeat the whole stroke, lies the
success of the staccato.
Academic and Brilliant Staccato. — The Spohr, or
academic staccato, is nothing more than a correct repetition
of independent martele strokes in one bow. It is a con-
trolled staccato performed in a similar manner on both up
and down bow. The brilliant staccato is more often a gift
than an acquisition and is a nervous form, almost a flying
staccato.
In the brilliant staccato, any position that produces the
results is permissible. The Spohr staccato is not, by any
means, the brilliant staccato in elementary form, but the
persistent practise of the legitimate martele hand stroke
will make the brilliant staccato not only possible but more
distinct, or articulate. The latter, in its most brilliant and
perfect form, is largely the result of technical dash and
will-power, as are all bravura forms of technic.
Staccato and String-crossing. — If the strings are
not crossed properly, a correct staccato cannot be produced.
A. failure to produce staccato in a passage containing string-
42 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
crossings is because two things are being attempted at the
same time and are not being done consecutively. The cross-
ing must precede the staccato.
Continuity. — The left hand also is important in stac-
cato. If the continuity of notes suffers the evenness of the
bowing is interrupted.
Flying Staccato. — The flying staccato is done by a
lifting of the bow after each note, the lifting being done by
the hand and fingers and not by the arm. There are, how-
ever, many forms of this bowing which must be done solely
by the arm to make them effective. The student must use
either form according to the demand made by the passage
being performed.
The secret of a good staccato is the combination of the
correct martele stroke with a free full arm stroke. The
impossibility of doing staccato, which many violin students
as well as mature players complain of, is entirely the fault of
an incorrect understanding of the martele idea. The attack
of the martele by the hand and arm in a stiff or locked
position absolutely prevents the freedom necessary to a re-
liable staccato. The first note of the staccato figure or
passage is begun solely by the hand, which is followed by
the onward movement of the arm while the hand firmly
keeps the bow in its place on the string. This onward
movement of the arm permits the performance of the next
martele (staccato) stroke of the bow. These movements
of the hand and arm must not come together, as otherwise
the faculty of continuing the clear articulation of each note
is disturbed or entirely stopped.
LESSON VL
Legato and the Crossing of the Strings.
Legato is the exact opposite of staccato (martele).
Real legato is a continuous sustaining of the tone by means
of imperceptible bow changes. Each bow stop must be mini-
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 43
mized in order that the room for the break or accent in the
tone may be as slight as possible. With the stopping of the
arm the hand continues the stroke, the connection being made
by a purely lateral movement, (if on the same string), or
an elliptical or crossing movement, if on two or more
strings.
There is, if no pressure be applied to the bow, natu-
rally less tone at the point than at the nut. The weight of
the bow and the arm and the nearness of the hand and
pressure to the point of bow and string contact make it easy
to obtain a big tone at the nut, but the loss of weight and
the remoteness of the point of pressure from the point of
string contact, as the upper end of the bow is approached,
make it evident that if the tone is to be the same it will be
necessary to add considerable pressure as the point is
approached and remove it when the bow moves in the oppo-
site direction. This pressure, both at frog and point, should
be maintained throughout the wrist movement in order that
the tone quality be the same during the entire duration of
the note including the change of bow. The tendency, in
the young student, is to let go of the tone, especially at the
point of the bow. This should be corrected. The arm move-
ment should be evenly distributed at all times, length of
stroke depending on the length of note, its importance in
the phrase and the time alloted to it.
Legato in the Upper Bow. — Rapid passage work in
single detache strokes depends on the ability to do good
legato work with the hand only, especially in the upper third
of the bow, the middle being reserved for spiccato. The
lower arm is usually not well enough developed with the
consequences that the spiccato portion of the bow is invaded
by passages which should be played elsewhere, either at the
point or the frog. Legato should be possible in short strokes
at these points of the bow and exercises should be practised
to thoroughly equalize the bow technic.
44 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
Variations of Legato. — 1. The interrupted legato is
a form of bowing consisting of alternate pressure and re-
laxation on the part of the fingers of the bow hand, the
stroke continuing, the bow not leaving the string.
2. The playing of two or more notes on the same
stroke (either up or down), with intervening pause during
which more or less bow has been used. The taking of the
bow off the string, continuing over the string and resum-
ing after the pause, requires care, especially in the resump-
tion of tone which is accomplished by immediately relaxing
the hand on the bow as soon as the latter touches the
string.
3. Two articulated up-strokes repeated over the same
place in the bow and connected by an inarticulate down-
stroke. The bow should be kept on the string for the con-
necting down-stroke, but there should be no pressure applied
to this stroke while it is being executed as it is simply pre-
paratory to the second up-stroke. This connecting down-
stroke should be rapid, without pressure and not articulate.
Crossing of Strings. — The last note before the cross-
ing to another string, when the legato bow is being used,
is usually made too short because the player has difficulty in
making the connection of the different bow levels. The
mistake is the using of the arm and hand simultaneously.
For example, in crossing from a lower to a higher string,
meaning from a higher to a lower level, the arm seeks the
level of the next string while the hand is still continuing the
playing of the note on the last level. The hand then drops
to the level taken by the arm. In the reverse exactly the
opposite holds good. In crossing the strings, the new stroke
must not be begun until the hand is in its normal position if
the new level is to be adhered to.
The ability to cross, at one leap, three or four strings
downward, i. e., toward the E string, lies in the power to
so perfectly relax the arm that it will drop from its own
weight, and not because of exertion. This dropping of the
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 45
arm must, of course, be combined with a string crossing
movement of the hand. Though perfect relaxation must
exist in the downward crossing of the strings, i. e., toward
the E string, the upward crossing movement of the arm is
really nothing more than the raising of the arm to the desired
level, the wrist somewhat anticipating the arm in this; but
wrist, hand and arm quickly establish normal positions when
the level is reached.
The hand should always be held in such a position (a
normal position), that three strings will be under direct
reach without calling the arm into use. This necessitates
transitory positions of the hand above and below normal
level, which are not recognized enough as such, the one above
generally being neglected altogether. Only when these verti-
cal or elliptical hand-strokes are faithfully and carefully
carried out can the crossing of the strings and the legato
become satisfactory and the general playing thereby simpli-
fied. For, as long as the right arm is constantly brought
into play by the smallest crossing movement, so long will the
control of the arm be imperfect and the movement awkward
and inadequate. There is nothing the player feels more
acutely than this awkwardness brought about by undeveloped
right arm and hand technic, and yet it is the most usual
technical shortcoming.
It is well to point out in conclusion, that although
numerous delicate bowings (hand extension, lateral and
elliptical movements connected with string crossings, all
going on from central and normal hand position), are con-
stantly used to further simplify bow technic, attention can-
not be too much directed to the so-called normal hand posi-
tion, a pivotal one, with its accompanying freedom in manip-
ulation, which not only permits the carrying out of the free
full arm stroke and the above cited important conjunctive
bowings in legato, but which at once places the player in
position to become master of all those dynamic shadings
which distinguish him from the unskilled player.
46 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
LESSON VII.
The Spiccato and Kindred Forms.
In the staccato and martele strokes the bow is held on
the string, biting firmly into it in order that the sudden
sharp accent characteristic of these bowings may be pro-
duced. In the spiccato the bow is not held to the string but
hovers over it, striking or brushing the string during the
progress of the stroke. When a crisp and forceful spiccato
is desired, a shorter stroke should be used, the hand posi-
tion becoming a little more rigid and occasionally permitting
some arm movement to reinforce the tone. In both cases,
the starting and ending of the stroke is above the string.
The arm must be held in a fixed position, the motion being
done by the wrist and hand alone with an almost lateral
motion. The natural resiliency of the bow must be depended
upon to produce, in a partial sense, the rebound.
Development of the Spiccato. — Hold the bow above
the string only as far as it will allow the bow to touch the
string without dipping the hand, using only a lateral move-
ment of the wrist. The dropping of the bow to the string
level is largely produced by a movement of the fingers which
are the supporting force. The arm must remain firmly in
position excepting when the passage being played requires
a crossing of the strings, i. e., more than one string. This
crossing is done in various ways, in some instances forming
exceptions to the rules as laid down for legato. In crossing
from one string to the next, use the hand only and no arm,
but in some of the arpeggio and ricochet forms the arm and
hand cross as a unit, the wrist movement occurring only at
the end of the triplet or quadruplet figure of bowing.
The life of the spiccato is in its continuity, its lack of
effort. The martele and staccato forms of bowing belong to
the interrupted forms, those in which the progress of the
bow on the string is wilfully or systematically interrupted
by certain means, while the spiccato and legato forms of
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 47
bowing belong to the uninterrupted or continuous forms in
which it is the aim to eliminate all obstacles which tend to
mar fluency. While each note or tone in the spiccato is a
unit as far as sound goes, the spiccato as a whole is really
the result of continuous legato wrist or hand movement. In
this way the spiccato becomes an allied form of bowing to
the legato and is not a series of single detached strokes.
The player, for this reason, must think of the entire spiccato
passage and not of the single note.
Where Played. — There is, in each bow, one definite
place where the spiccato is most easily played. The place,
and the accompanying characteristic features, of course vary
with each stick, according to its quality. The player will
know that he has found the right place and method when the
tone produced is effortless, spontaneous and free.
Spiccato often sounds glassy, without body of tone,
for the reason that there is too much tenseness (resistance)
in the hand, this tenseness not permitting the bow to rest on
the string long enough while the stroke is in progress. As
long as this condition of the hand is in evidence, so long
will the spiccato be uncontrolled, spasmodic and unsatis-
factory. Only when the hand is absolutely at rest (as in
the case of the right hand in staccato and the left hand in
the trill), and is not trying to accomplish diametrically oppo-
site ideas, can the continuity of the spiccato, as well as its
tonal effectiveness, be absolutely relied upon.
Double Spiccato. — Passages are frequently met with
in which two or more notes are to be played spiccato in the
same bow on the same string. This is practically the same
form as the spiccato arpeggio but without the crossing of
the strings. These tones should be played in about the same
amount of bow as was previously allotted to one tone, the
first receiving its impulse from the wrist and the others from
the natural rebound of the bow. No effort should be made
to make the tones after the first one has been produced.
48 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
Spiccato Arpeggios. — The arpeggio on three or four
strings is but a duplication of what has been done on one
string, excepting that in crossing the strings the wrist move-
ment is eliminated with the exception of the last and first
tones of each arpeggio. This simply means that the regular
wrist or hand extension movement between the last tone
of one arpeggio and the first tone of the following one is
used for the purpose of giving the bow its start, its impulse,
and for making the initial accent. The extension movement
is really done off the string, as in the single spiccato tone
production. No wrist movement should be used in crossing
the strings, the crossing being done entirely by the lowering
and raising of the arm which maintains its position with
reference to the wrist. The faster the arpeggio the shorter
the amount of bow to be used, and the less the effort on the
part of the arm required in its production.
Spiccato in the lower half of the bow is produced in
the same way as before described with the aid of the arm
to reinforce the tone.
Thrown Spiccato. — Thrown spiccato, ricochet, is pro-
duced, up or down bow, with as many tones as may be
desired, by starting as in simple spiccato and allowing the
rebound of the bow to produce the remaining tones. The
force of the first stroke is governed by the number of notes
to be played. The stroke, in its entirety, is not controlled
by the wrist.
LESSON VIII.
The Trill and the Vibrato.
The trill and the vibrato can be acquired, to a certain
extent, by systematic practise according to rule, but the
finely finished artistic product is more largely a gift, an
instinct, whether mental or muscular it is difficult to say.
Although these two forms have much in common, yet in
the final results they are totally different, the trill depend-
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 49
ing absolutely on relaxation, quietness of hand, and the
vibrato on a combination of relaxation and tenseness.
The average player tries to put intensity into every
tone, that is, to use the vibrato to an excess, and finds, when
a trill is required, that his hand is too stiff because he is
trying to do two things, diametrically opposed, at the same
time. The vibrato is used too much and should be employed
only in sustained emotional climaxes, with some exceptions,
and in certain important places in passage work. The cor-
rect use of vibrato is a matter of taste; it should not be a
constant accompaniment of violin playing but should be in-
telligently employed when demanded by the musical sense.
The Trill. — The trill depends on a correct adjustment
and relaxation of the hand and the even stopping of the
string. This relaxation in the hand, the ability to combine
freedom of motion with power of finger stroke, is similar
to the ability, on the part of the right hand, to apply pres-
sure and yet to make use of hand extension. In the trill,
the freedom of the thumb is of the utmost importance, for,
if it grips the neck too firmly it is apt to produce tenseness
of the hand. Practise the trill slowly, holding down all of
the fingers below the finger in use; that is, if the third is
performing the trill hold down the first and second. Drop
the fingers firmly but not from too great a distance above
the string and hold the note long enough to produce a clear
tone, giving each note of the trill the same value. If the
thumb and hand are free there will be no fatigue, and if
such occurs, it is well to look for stiffness. It is good prac-
tise to keep the thumb moving along the neck of the violin
while the trill is being practised, not in the same rhythm
with the trill, but absolutely independent, in order that there
may be no direct connection in the movement. This will
produce relaxation in the hand.
The principles that facilitate a good trill hold good for
the double trill. In some cases new difficulties present them-
selves, these being unevenly developed strength of fingers
50 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
and the natural varying of finger lengths. The first can be
overcome by bringing the weak fingers (the third and fourth)
up to the efficiency of the other two; the second, by adjust-
ment of the hand.
The Vibrato. — The pupil, in first trying the vibrato,
will endeavor to use the whole arm and this should be
avoided by relegating the vibrato entirely to the hand, at
least until the pupil has acquired control over the arm. To
acquire the vibrato, take each finger in the first position, or
in the second or third as desired, and practise a slow ex-
aggerated form of vibrato, making the amplitude of the
movement as small as possible in order that the pitch of the
note may not be altered too much. Begin this practise slowly
and gradually increase the speed, taking care to see that
the movement be kept even. The foundation of the whole
form is a correct use of the hand independently. After the
hand is freed and made independent the vibrato may make
use of the entire arm, since it is impossible to get the best
vibrato without doing so. This use is, however, reflex, the
vibrato not being a product of the arm vibration but of
hand vibration. The arm merely supplements the hand.
LESSON IX.
Scales and the Limits of the Fingerboard.
So far, scales have been treated of only within the
limits of the first, second and third positions, but according
to an old arrangement, the violin possesses seven positions
to which modern composers have added many notes above,
all of which it is necessary to consider since these greatly
extended .limits are, at the present time, as necessary to us
as the first three positions were to the old writers.
The correct playing of scales extending through the
various positions depends on two things: a correct knowl-
edge of shifting and methodical fingering. In connection
with the shifting, it is necessary to mention that the hand,
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 51
in the higher positions, retains the same form and position
as in the first three, only the thumb requiring different
treatment.
We have shown how the hand and thumb are shifted
to the third, and possibly the fourth positions, as a unit, but
it is necessary now, in order not to be hampered by the body
of the instrument, to make a preparatory movement or
transitory position of the thumb and an accompanying free-
ing of the hand from the neck of the violin, to permit the
hand an unlimited upward movement. Just as in the first
three positions, the hand and thumb retain their relative
positions after fully established. In the downward move-
ment of the hand and thumb the thumb precedes the hand
as in the first three positions.
Glissando. — In the glissando, the downward motion
of the hand should be steady and continuous, the thumb
furnishing the motive power. At the beginning of the
glissando the extension of the thumb is such as to allow the
contracting of thumb and hand to cover the tones of several
positions. When this distance has been fully covered the
thumb again extends downward and the contraction is re-
peated. As few of these extensions as possible should be
made and no break should occur in the continuity of the
glissando as the thumb reaches down.
Fingering. — Scales can be played in many different
varieties of tempo for different uses, and the bowing and
scope of the scale must be determined by the result desired.
The best books for daily practise are Schradieck's Scale and
Chord Studies, including arpeggios, which are usually not
given sufficient attention. The fingering of scales is deter-
mined by individual taste and idiosyncrasies.
Fingering should be largely a matter of the repetition
of motives. In any passage of any length it will be found
that certain forms of fingering can be repeated again and
again. This is to be preferred to constantly changing finger-
ings as it simplifies the passage and makes the player freer
52 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
to think of the content. This system of fingering by motive
is often the only difference between a good reader at sight
and a bad one. Scales should be practised regularly, every
part of the fingerboard should be used, and the fingering
should be systematized.
Scales should be practised in all forms. It should be
the regular study of the violinist to start each scale, not
only on the key-note but each succeeding note of the scale,
in order that, though habit or the position on the finger-
board may prompt another tonality, his intelligence and ear
will enable him to play the required scale. For example, the
D major scale may be played beginning on E or F-sharp,
etc. Each scale should be played beginning in every position
and with every fingering, because scale passages, especially
in modern works, seldom conform to simple scale models.
LESSON X.
Chords and Double-stopping.
Chords. — The playing of chords is very often a bone
of contention between the player and the instrument, partly
due to a misinterpretation of the musical mission of chords,
partly to misapplied bow technic. In the majority of cases
the chord of three and four notes represents the same num-
ber of equally important voices which must be sounded
simultaneously. This can best be accomplished by pressing
down the outer strings to the inner, and only when the bow
bites into or holds down all strings at once can a correctly
played chord be produced.
This cannot be accomplished, at least as well, with the
bow tilted in the usual manner, — away from the bridge, —
but it will be necessary to temporarily adopt a transitory
position of hand which will permit playing with the hair
flat against the strings. It is recommended to tilt the hand
somewhat backward, the wrist a trifle in, i. e., below the
normal level, this position permitting of more direct pres-
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 53
sure on the strings. This position must, of course, be re-
garded as purely transitory and the effect it might have on
the freedom of the arm stroke must be immediately counter-
acted by applying those principles of the return down-stroke
as explained in Exercise 2, Lesson II.
Of course, this mode of playing chords applies only
to those of distinctly harmonic character, when the voices
are of equal importance, and when tonal volume is required.
A different method is necessary when, in a piano or mezzo
forte phrase, one of the voices of the chord is melodically
important and must be especially brought out. Then, a
" breaking " of the chord is not only permissible but essen-
tially correct, and this again can only be accomplished with
the bow in the normal position, the hair on the edge,
not flat.
Double Stopping. — If finger preparation, placing
fingers and gauging interval positions of the finger-
board, plays an important role in general technic, or single
stopping, then assuredly in double-stopping double attention
should be given this mental process of gauging results be-
fore the application of the fingers to the strings.
If the student has been careless in his intonation, it will
quickly manifest itself when he takes up the study of double-
stopping. Not that a different hand position or more diffi-
cult intervals make this so, but simply for the reason that
the sounding of two tones simultaneously makes any devia-
tion in pitch at once more obvious to the ear. The student
will, therefore, do well to carefully re-study his hand posi-
tion and to systematically acquaint himself with those
double-stop positions which are most common, or rather,
which form the basis of those interval combinations most
commonly used.
It has always seemed ill-advised to lay so much stress
on the study of thirds, octaves and tenths, at the expense of
the other intervals. Especially should the importance of
fifths as a basic feature of interval study be fully recognized,
54 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
Further, the relationship (only as far as finger position is
concerned) of the intervals of the fourth and sixth, third
and seventh, and second and octave, will, in a way, simplify
rapid finger adjustment. In addition to the fundamental
requisites in the acquisition of good double-stopping, viz.,
correct hand-position, equalization of strength of fingers,
close attention to intonation through careful and systematic
study of intervals, it will be necessary to pay double atten-
tion to the left thumb and shifting, guarding carefully
against the tendency of the thumb to clinch the neck too
tightly.
Octaves and Tenths. — Though each finger may be re-
garded as a unit in the playing of octaves, it is wise to
think of the first as the responsible factor, or base of the
octave. The fourth is to be kept in touch with the first by
the second and third fingers being utilized to partially fill
in the space between, though they are not necessarily to be
kept on the string.
Fingered octaves are played with the first and third
and the second and fourth fingers alternating and must be
regarded as a highly specialized form of technic. While
useful in passages requiring great facility, or speed, it has
been found that prolonged practise of them is apt to produce
faulty intonation in general playing.
Tenths and unisons must also be considered more or
less of a technical tour de force, and if the player's hand
should not be of a dimension that makes the stretch com-
paratively easy it is advisable to abandon their mastery, as
the hand is in an abnormal position and persistent effort
must bring about muscular disorders which are sometimes
difficult to cure. In the overcoming of all technical feats
requiring unusual strain or effort, commonsense must be
the guide.
Broken Chords. — The broken chord is in all its
essentials the same as the chord as treated above, a group-
ing of certain notes according to harmonic and technical
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 55
rules, with the exception that the chord is only playable on
the instrument in one position at a time, while a broken
chord is a succession of the intervals forming the chord,
through various positions. The principal broken chords
used in violin technic are those founded upon the common
triad, the dominant and the diminished seventh chords.
The latter is a favorite factor in the writings of a certain
school, and when occurring in one particular open position,
a-flat below the staff, f in the first space, d on the fourth
line and b in the second space above the staff, can be re-
peated ad infinitum into the upper positions, retaining the
hand position assumed when the chord is first attacked, the
fingers adjusting themselves only to the shorter intervals of
the upper fingerboard as the hand moves upward.
LESSON XL
Exceptional Tonal Effects.
It was shown in an early lesson, that mere beginners
could be made observant of the range of tonal possibilities
by the way in which they were brought to play the open
strings. The ability to produce a tone of some degree of
warmth to an open string without the aid of the vibrato
must necessarily imply a highly developed use of the bow
arm. The various degrees of expression which are made
possible by a cultivated right arm technic, complement those
which are due to distinct methods of finger application: per-
fect intonation, with resultant sympathetic vibrations of
strings; pressure (vibrato), and other modes of left hand
technic which have distinct bearing on tone, intensity and
expression.
That there are other means of producing tonal effects
of an exceptional nature, the following unusual varieties give
evidence :
The Mute. — Perhaps the most common means of
changing the usual tone of the instrument is that obtained
56 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
by fastening or fitting a small clasp or device called a mute
(sordino) on the bridge of the violin, which results in
deadening, to some extent, the vibrations and changing the
tone. The mute may be made of wood, bone or metal, those
made of ebony being preferred as they do not so completely
muffle the tone so that all vibration is destroyed. The tonal
effectiveness of this device is so well known that there is
hardly need to dwell upon it. Bewitching and soothing at
the same time, it quickly loses its charm when its use is
over-indulged in.
Sulla Tastiera. — This term of expression is used to
indicate that instead of playing with the bow in its usual
place, half way between the fingerboard and the bridge, the
playing is to be done directly over the fingerboard. This
results in the tone becoming less clear and brilliant, partak-
ing of a subdued, dolce and flute-like character.
Ponticello. — This implies playing with the bow as
near the bridge as possible. The effect is uncanny, very
restless and the tone quality is of a hard, glassy unresponsive
nature (as far as the vibration of the string is con-
cerned).
The Tremolo. — This, in a measure, reproduces the
same restless effect as the ponticello, probably owing to the
shortness of the stroke preventing the string from giving full
and free vibration. Very little bow is to be used, the
motion to be produced by the wrist without any use of
the arm.
Col Legno. — This bizarre bowing is met with almost
exclusively in orchestral works. The stick of the bow is
slapped against the strings, producing a grotesque effect.
Pizzicato. — This is picking or plucking the strings with
the fingers of either hand. It is most commonly played by
the first finger of the right hand, the thumb resting against
the end of the fingerboard. The second finger, however, is
also employed, some players using both alternately. In
rapid passages this mode is certainly to be recommended.
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 57
The left hand pizzicato is done by vehemently pulling
back the fingers just used and in that way sounding the next
note below. This applies to the passages as found in
Paganini and other writers of bravura technic for the left
hand. When single notes only are played, either the third
or fourth finger is employed for the pizzicato, the first or
second stopping the note.
The quality of the tone of the right hand pizzicato can
be modified to a certain extent by either plucking directly
upward, causing a hard short, incisive tone, or by a side
or horizontal pulling of the string, permitting of longer
vibration and, in consequence, effecting a somewhat longer
and more agreeable tone. In playing chords the same rules
hold good as with chords played with the bow. When the
musical character is a decided one simultaneous plucking
of all strings is desired when a harp-like effect is wanted,
i. e., a broken chord like result with little tone is aimed at,
then a sweeping over the strings, with the fingers almost
flat against the strings is advised.
Harmonics. — These may be classified as either natural
or artificial. The former can be produced only at those
points of the string where the natural overtones of the
tonic tone of each string occur. Any finger placed lightly
at such a place on the string, so lightly that the string can
vibrate below and above, will produce a natural harmonic.
Artificial harmonics are formed by placing (generally) the
first finger firmly on the string, forming a new base, and
resting the fourth finger (usually at the interval of a fourth
above) lightly as before. The harmonic resulting from this
application sounds the note of the double octave of the bass.
When the interval of the fifth is used the harmonic sounds
the octave above the fifth, the octave of the note lightly
played by the fourth finger.
In harmonics, one great essential is perfect intonation.
Harmonics cannot speak clearly or quickly when the intona-
tion is the least inexact. The natural harmonics are, of
58 ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION
necessity, limited to the overtones of each open string. Arti-
ficial harmonics can be produced ad libitum, even to the
extent of double harmonics and trills in harmonics.
Vibrato applied in the playing of the artificial harmonic
lends added intensity to the tone. A less common use of
the vibrato is its employment in giving warmth or adding
intensity to the tones of the open string (when certain tones
must, of necessity, be played on an open string, say the
G) by vibrating on the octave above or on the unison on the
next string. This brings about a sympathetic vibration of
the open string and in this way brings about the required
result.
LESSON XII.
Character and Tempo, Expression and Rhythm.
Character and tempo are closely bound together, the one
being determined by the other. A phrase that is intended to
be played martele becomes meaningless when it is hurried to
such an extent that the martele bowing cannot be carried out,
detache or legato being substituted. For the same reason, a
passage effective only when played spiccato in animated tempo,
loses this effectiveness entirely when the character of the
subject is misjudged and a wrong tempo applied. The teacher
cannot too early call attention to this differentiation in
character, the ability to determine by melodic phrase, figure
or passage, or rhythmic motive the true character and mean-
ing of a composition. Sometimes a figure or passage, the
broad lines of the melodic phrase, or a rhythmic motive alone
may be sufficient to indicate the proper reading, and the player
immediately reveals his artistic judgment by only apply-
ing such bowings as fully bring out the character unmistak-
ably. This ability, aside from the musical sense, depends en-
tirely on the right arm technic of the player and it is with
this end in view that the bowing exercises in Lesson II. have
been recommended.
ADVANCED VIOLIN INSTRUCTION 59
Hans von Biilow once said : " In the beginning there
was rhythm." This is undoubtedly true since historical in-
vestigation has proven to us that rhythm existed long before
melody and harmony developed. Perhaps the most elemental
form of rhythm is the pulsation of the heart, or to be more
exact, life itself is pulsation or rhythmic expression. View-
ing it from this standpoint, it is easy to follow the develop-
ment of rhythmic impulse through the various phases of ele-
mental expression such as the beat of the drum, the dance,
etc., until we find its highest expression in the modern sym-
phonic work.
It is a peculiarfact, but nevertheless true, that the young
student is indifferent in his attitude toward rhythm; i. e., his
rhythm is undefined, not sharp nor pulsating, and only grad-
ually, in fact only after years of musical development does
this finer perception of rhythm take hold of him. Until this
stage of his development is reached his playing lacks the
vital and convincing note.
It will be seen from the foregoing, that the observing of
certain rules with regard to technic will greatly facilitate the
reproduction of the character and rhythmic incisiveness of
the musical phrase. What is commonly called expression, the
ability on the part of the player to perform with "feeling" de-
pends in a great measure on the human and musical qualities
of the individual player, but given fine qualities of mind and
heart, the fact remains that only well defined and technically
correct modes of expression can adequately portray or re-
produce these inward promptings of heart and mind.
FRANZ KNEISEL
Violinist
Born at Bucharest, Rumania, in 1865. His
father^ a military band leader, was his first teacher;
graduated from ' Bucharest Conservatory, with first
prize for violin, "when he was fifteen. Won first
prize for violin at Vienna Conservatory in 1882;
became solo violinist of Boston Symphony Orchestra
in 1885, holding this position for eighteen years.
Founded the Kneisel Quartet in 1886; now violin
instructor in the Institute of Musical Art, New York.
SOME REMARKS ON QUARTET
PLAYING
Franz Kneisel.
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS.
The Violin and Its Music.
The Art of Quartet-playing.
Literature of Chamber Music.
Material for Study and Public Performances.
Arrangement of the Program.
SOME REMARKS ON QUARTET
PLAYING
Franz Kneisel.
During the many years that I have been giving chamber
music concerts, I have been asked a multitude of questions,
— by professional and non-professional musicians, relating to
the violin and its music, to the art of quartet playing in gen-
eral, the literature of chamber music, the various editions of
the classics, the material for study and public performances,
programs, etc.
I have frequently answered such questions when they
came to me by word of mouth ; but I have generally hesitated
to reply to written inquiries, fearing that in the absence
of a detailed discussion, my remarks might be misinter-
preted.
One of the most frequent questions is in regard to
the necessary qualifications for a group of players intending
to form a string quartet with the purpose of giving public
performances.
Every musician who aims at becoming a member of a
string quartet should first have acquired a thorough and solid
technic of his instrument, reaching even to a point of virtuos-
64 THE STRING QUARTET
ity (this is especially true of the first violinist), though mere
virtuosity should never be a conspicuous feature of the good
quartet player.
The love for chamber music has usually been awakened
early in the life of a quartet player. As a student he will
probably have sought the instruction of teachers, who while
encouraging fine technical skill will also have guided and de-
veloped his taste for the best in the literature of music.
While a thoroughly developed left hand is indispensable
for a quartet player, the art of bowing is perhaps of even
greater importance, for the flexibility of each member of the
quartet in adapting his playing to the others, so that unity
of expression may result, is actually dependent on his skill in
the use of the bow.
Quartet players should start out with the determination
to prepare each work offered for public performance so that
every bar shall be perfectly clear and transparent. Only by
making it possible for the listeners " to follow the thread of
the story" can the complete attention of an audience be
gained and held. Distinctness in the presentation of the
themes should be the aim at rehearsals, under all circum-
stances, and only when this has been attained can the phras-
ing, the nuances in the polyphonic structure and the concep-
tion of the work as a whole be approached.
It is needless to say that euphony, i. e., beauty of tone, is
a vital factor, and while this can be acquired by careful and
thoughtful treatment of the four parts, the instruments them-
selves must necessarily be of superior quality, in order that
the players may obtain tonal varieties of a high order. It is
natural that the instrument of the first player should possess
more brilliancy than that of the second and that the latter
should be just a shade darker in color. The viola ought to
be one of large size and somber in quality. A special effort
should be made to obtain a viola with good G and C strings.
It must be remembered that the viola is only a fifth lower
than the violin, whereas the 'cello is a full octave lower than
THE STRING QUARTET 65
the viola, thus the lower strings of the viola effect a smooth
connection between the violins and the 'cello, which is of
prime importance in scales and similar passages. A passage
which begins in the high register of the first violin, and is
then taken up by the second, should be led down to the depths
of the 'cello, through the intermediate regions of the viola,
without any noticeable break.
In order that the work at rehearsals may be intelligent
and productive of the best results, it is necessary that each
player acquaint himself with the composition, not only by
looking over his own part but also by studying the score.
A performance cannot become plastic and transparent
unless every player has gained an intelligent insight into
the work as a whole, and this can only be obtained from the
score:
To the first violin, the leader of the quartet, naturally
falls the task of directing the rehearsals. His ideas must
be carried out in order to obtain good results, as differences
of opinion on any point can never give a satisfactory per-
formance. A little tact and diplomacy will obviate many a
difficulty arising in the course of a rehearsal. It is not well
to rehearse a difficult work for too long a time without in-
terruption. It is far better to interpose a simpler or more fa-
miliar work and then return to the difficult composition when
the mind has regained freshness and elasticity.
The leader should, of course, be thoroughly familiar
with the work to be played before the quartet meets for the
first rehearsal; and should have formed his ideas about the
tempos, and all other vital matters of interpretation, before-
hand.
Perhaps the most important question to be determined is .
the tempo. The usual tempo marks, such as allegro, an-
dante, adagio, must not be taken too rigidly, but occasion-
ally modified according to the character of the composition.
Thus the first movement of Beethoven's G-major Quartet, op.
18, No. 2 is marked simply allegro; yet the graceful char-
66 THE STRING QUARTET
acter of the movement at once shows that a slower allegro
is intended than in some other allegro movements, for in-
stance, the allegro in the second movement of the same quar-
tet. Often the qualifying expressions which accompany the
principal tempo designation are of greater importance than
the designation itself. I found a particularly interesting ex-
ample of this when I first produced Brahms' Clarinet Quin-
tet. The second movement contains a middle part marked
" presto ma con sentimento." At first sight this was ex-
tremely puzzling and seemingly contradictory, for when
played as a real presto, it was impossible to obtain the "sen-
timento" in the music. If, on the other hand, the qualifying
term be emphasized the real presto character is lost. I, there-
fore, took the liberty of modifying the presto a little
in order to bring out the expressive character of the
movement.
The next summer vacation I spent in Ischl, Austria,
where I frequently met Brahms. One day while dining to-
gether, in the company of Nikisch, Steinbach and Muhlfeld
(the famous clarinet player who was the first to play the
above quintet, and who helped introduce it in all the prin-
cipal cities of Germany) Brahms suggested that we play the
composition for him. The proposal was readily and gladly
accepted as may be imagined. While going to my home the
presto ma con sentimento movement was uppermost in my
mind. I naturally did not like to ask Brahms about the
tempo, and yet it would have been awkward for the first
violin, which begins with the theme, to take another tempo
than that of the composer, in the presence of the composer
himself. Imagine my relief, when just before entering my
home, Muhlfeld said to me, ' You know, the master
does not wish the presto ma con sentimento played too
fast."
The leader is not only responsible for the quality of the
performance, but he should also exercise great care in the
arrangement of the program.
THE STRING QUARTET 67
As to the selection of material for early study and prep-
aration for a public career, it is not an easy matter to give
advice that will fit every case.
Quartets by Haydn, Mozart and the early Beethoven are
certainly to be recommended, though it must be understood
that the demands made upon the first violin are of the high-
est order in some of these quartets. In most of the above
works the first violin bears almost the entire burden, although
the second violin, the viola and the 'cello occasionally also re-
ceives passages of dominant importance. In Beethoven's later
works in which the polyphonic structure reaches its high-
est development, the demands made upon every player are
naturally greater.
Every reader of these words must occasionally have won-
dered why certain concerts were lacking in effectiveness, even
though the works performed were of the best, and the per-
formance in every respect admirable. I would offer as an ex-
planation that the arrangement of the program itself was
probably at fault. The program question should, therefore,
be most carefully studied by the leader. The keys of each
work should be considered, the different movements care-
fully compared. Compositions in which the various move-
ments contain striking resemblances, rhythmic, harmonic, or
as to their general character, should not be placed on the same
program. Two long adagios or two minuets should not be
heard at the same concert. Variety and contrasts (though
not too harsh ones) arc necessary elements of a good pro-
gram.
One modern compost r should be included on a program,
that contains two classic works. If no modern work is
available an example of the romantic school will prevent pos-
sible monotony. Of course, there are great possibilities in
making a strictly classical program, as many a combination
of Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven, particularly when well se-
lected will testify. The most serious work is better placed
first or second than last on a program that contains three
68 THE STRING QUARTET
quartets. It is a good plan to place one of the last quartets
of Beethoven in the middle, and end the concert with a quar-
tet by Haydn. In this case the opening number can be a mod-
ern work or a composition of the romantic school.
One-composer programs are rarely successful affairs.
To my mind only Beethoven offers that splendid variety
which enables us to select an entire program from his com-
positions.
ARNOLD DOLMETSCH
E ART OlArehKbldgist^f Music QK* 1750
Born inXeMans, France, in 1858. While a boy,
became familiar with piano manufacture in his
father's factcftjjjN^ijLjjl has devoted his life to the repair
and reproduction of old instruments and to the per-
petuating of old music. Well called an apostle of old
music.
THE ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
IN FOUR SECTIONS.
Arnold Dolmetsch.
ANALYSIS OF SECTIONS
Introduction.
Section I. — The Lute.
Section II. — The Viols.
Section III. — The Clavichord.
Section IV. — Virginals, Harpsichords and Spinets.
THE ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
Arnold Dolmetsch.
INTRODUCTION.
Most musicians believe that " Music is the youngest of
the arts " ; they use no earlier music than Bach or Handel's.
Haydn and Mozart, who flourished during the American
Revolution, are considered " ancient." Yet, from the earlier
dynasties of Egyptian kings, through ancient Greece, the
Roman Empire, Mediaeval Europe, the Renaissance, the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, gifted men devoted
their life to music, and their contemporaries esteemed and
enjoyed their works as much as those of the architects,
poets, painters and other artists of the time.
How is it then, that whilst we know and appreciate the
literature, architecture and painting of past ages, we should
be so ignorant of the old music?
Does the music of today contain the accumulated beau-
ties of former ages any more than the other arts? There
is no reason to believe it. Progress in the arts does not
resemble the onward march of science where the discoveries
of one generation serve as the starting point for the follow-
ing. There is no more science in music than in literature.
Even in the construction of musical instruments the science
of acoustics has not been able to help with a single prac-
tical discovery.
72 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
But, it may be said, the history of music is taught in
our colleges and universities; students pass examinations
and graduate in it. So it is; but they learn little about the
earlier forms of the art besides names and dates; they have
practically no chance to get acquainted with the music.
Few of the teachers have ever heard any. They speak
about it, quoting the opinions of " authorities " who have
studied the subject as much as they thought necessary to
write a text-book, but far too superficially to get any real
knowledge. Only a small amount of old music is at all
accessible outside of European museums, and that mostly
in corrupt editions. The instruments for which that music
was made, and without which it cannot be realized, are
only just beginning to be understood and studied practically.
Thus it is that the largest part of the Art of Music still
remains a closed book to musicians.
I have been investigating this subject for twenty years.
I have not gone far, for it is a vast undertaking, but I have
seen enough to convince myself that the study of the old
music is a most pressing need. It will bring to light works
of art of unsurpassed beauty; it will help us to understand
the music of the present, and establish the only safe foun-
dation for future developments of the art.
The following instruments would be required: two
lutes ; a complete " chest of viols," composed of two
trebles, two tenors and two basses; a violone; one or two
viole dAmore; a clavichord; a harpsichord with two key-
boards and a full complement of stops. No doubt, wind
instruments would also be wanted, but the above would be
sufficient to begin with. The study of these instruments is
fascinating. Gifted students could easily be induced to play
upon them, and there is no doubt that the subject, once
started, would quickly develop and give valuable results.
One of the chief difficulties in the way of a Musical
Renaissance is now removed. It was almost impossible
formerly to get an old instrument in really good order.
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 73
Piano-makers knew nothing about harpsichords and clavi-
chords; violin-makers were just as ignorant about lutes
and viols.
Intending players were unable to direct the restoration
of their instruments, not understanding themselves their
possibilities and idiosyncrasies.
Now lutes and viols, harpsichords and clavichords
•as beautiful and good as the old ones can be obtained as
easily as violins and pianofortes.
SECTION I.
THE LUTE.
The name of the lute is very familiar. We find it in
the Bible, although it merely stands there as a convenient
translation for some Hebrew instrument, perhaps very
unlike a lute. It often recurs in Shakespeare and the
early English literature. Even modern poets use the word
on account of its poetical associations, though they hardly
understand what it means.
Though the name be common, the thing itself has
become very rare. There are some lutes in museums: in
Bologna, Brussels, Paris, and other places, and a few in
private collections; but spurious "property" lutes manu-
factured by unscrupulous Italians for latter-day collectors,
are far more numerous than genuine specimens, even in
public museums.
The modern painter who wishes to introduce a lute
into one of his works, a fashionable thing nowadays, has
every chance of reproducing some impossible model, per-
haps a complete forgery, or, worse still, some partly genuine
instrument, which through the successive "restorations"
and "improvements" of ignorant admirers has become
completely transformed. There is such a lute in the South
Kensington Museum in London: its back only is original,
74 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
the rest being an absurd hybrid compound; nevertheless it
has been reproduced many times, and is even given as an
illustration in one dictionary of music.
A careful examination of the lutes so frequently to be
met with in old pictures would be a safer guide to the under-
standing of the various forms of this instrument; for the
older masters well understood its beauties, and, unlike their
descendants, their paintings were technically accurate. Who
has not admired these exquisite artgels playing the lute,
sometimes a very little angel struggling with too large a
lute, which form such a charming incident in early Italian
pictures? The drawing of the hands, especially the left one,
in the difficult positions necessitated by the performance, is
so precise, that in most cases one could tell the very chord
that is being played. Undoubtedly the painters were them-
selves lute players, otherwise they could not have made
their meaning so clear.
During the Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and greater part of the
Seventeenth Century, the lute was considered the best and
most perfect of musical instruments ; all the musicians played
it. It was the foundation of instrumental music as well as
the indispensable companion of vocal music. In some form
or other it is as old as the art of music, that is to say
as old as civilization itself. It was in use in ancient Egypt
and in the East, its name being derived from the Arabic
"Al'ud." It attained its greatest perfection in Western
Europe between 1500 and 1650, then quickly lost its popu-
larity, and only left with us a degenerate offspring — the
mandolin.
The finest lutes were made in North Italy, principally
in Venice, in the Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries. These
instruments were prized in the halcyon days of lute playing,
just as we now prize beautiful violins. In the Seventeenth
Century they fetched very high prices, as the following quo-
tation will show. It is taken from a delightful book of
great interest for our subject:
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 75
"Musick's Monument; or a Remembrancer of the Best
Practical Musick; Both Divine, and Civil, that has ever
been known, to have been in the World.
" * * * The Second Part Treats of the Noble Lute
(the Best of Instruments) now made Easie; and all Its
Occult — Lock'd-up — Secrets Plainly laid Open, never
before Discovered; whereby It is now become so Familiarly
Easie, as Any Instrument of Worth, known in the World;
* * * By Tho. Mace, one of the Clerks of Trinity Col-
ledge, in the University of Cambridge. London . . . 1676.
" First, know that an old Lute is better than a New
one: Then, The Venice Lutes are commonly Good; which
you shall know by the writing within, right against the
knot, with the Author's Name.
" There are diversities of Men's Name in Lutes ; but
the Chief Name, we most esteem, is Laux Maler, ever
written with Text Letters : Two of which Lutes I have seen
(pittiful Old, Batter'd Crack'd Things) valued at 100 1. a
piece.
" Mr. Gootiere, the Famous Lutenist in His Time,
shew'd me One of Them, which the King paid 100 1. for.
"And Mr. Edw. Jones (one of Mr. Gootiere's Scholars)
had the other, which He so valued; And made a Bargain
with a Merchant, who desired to have It with him in His
Travels, (for his Experience;) And if He lik'd It when He
returned, was to give Mr. Jones 100 1. for It; But if he
Refused it at the Price set, he was to return the Lute safe,
and to pay 20 1. for His Experience and Use of It, for that
Journey.
" I have often seen Lutes of three or four pounds
price, far more Illustrious and Taking, to a common
Eye."
These famous lutes had very few useless ornaments
about them — inlays of mother-of-pearl and silver, ivory and
ebony being detrimental to the tone. When loudness began
to be the desideratum to music, and the lute, incapable of
76 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
violence, went out of fashion, the most precious instruments,
not " Illustrious and taking to common Eye," had least
chances of being preserved, hence their extreme rarity.
The decorative lutes one finds in museums were made
for collectors rather than players. There were collections
of musical instruments as far back as the Fifteenth Century.
Hercole Bottrigari, in his dialogue, II Desiderio, printed in
Venice in 1594, gives a tantalizing description of the very
famous one kept by Alfonso II., Duke of Este, in
Ferrara :
" Ha l'Altezza," says Bottrigari, " sua due gran camere
honorate, dette le camere de'musici; percioche in quelle si
riducono ad ogni lor volontade i musici servitori ordinaria-
mente stipendiati di sua Altezza; iquali sono molti, &
Italiani, & Oltramontani, cosi di buona voce, & di belle, &
gratiose maniere nel cantare, come di somma eccellentia nel
sonare, questi Cornetti, quegli Tromboni, dolzaini, piffarotti;
Questi altri Viuole, Ribechini, quegli altri Lauti, Citare,
Arpe, & Clavicembali ; iquali strumenti sono con grandissimo
ordine in quelle distinti, & appresso molti altri diversi tali
useti E non usati."
Note, " usati e non usati," that is : to use and not to
use. The magnificent Duke clearly had instruments to be
played upon and others preserved for their beauty or curi-
osity only. It is remarkable that in old pictures one hardly
ever sees a decorated lute ; they are always " playing " instru-
ments.
The body of the lute is built of very thin strips of
cypress or other light sonorous wood, called the ribs, glued
edge to edge; the joints are strengthened by slips of paper
or parchment stuck over them inside.
A few slips glued across the others consolidate the
frail structure. At each end a block of wood binds together
the pointed ends of the ribs, the upper block, thicker than
the other, giving a firm support to the neck.
The belly is a thin slab of pine wood, barely one-
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 77
twelfth of an inch thick, most carefully chosen for its close
and regular grain, and free from knots or any faults. The
rose or sound-hole, which provides the necessary communi-
cation between the air enclosed in the body and the atmos-
phere, is not merely a round opening, as in modern guitars
and mandolins; it is formed of a number of small cuts in
the sounding-board, so arranged as to form a pattern. These
roses are always beautiful, often masterpieces of design and
workmanship. Lute-makers must have had wonderful
powers of invention, for it is rare to find two roses
alike.
The neck of the lute is about as long as its body. It
is thin for convenience in playing, and comparatively wide
to accommodate the numerous strings. The head, or peg-
box, is of a simple form. It joins the neck at a sharp angle,
thereby reducing the total length and helping to distribute
the weight more equally; for the body is extremely
light in proportion to the neck and the head with all its
tuning pegs.
The bridge is a narrow strip of wood firmly glued to
the belly. The strings are looped to it through little holes.
The tension upon the bridge is relatively enormous; it speaks
well for the quality of the glue in ancient times, and the
skill in using it, that these bridges do not come off more
often than they do.
The strings are of catgut, graduated from an extremely
thin one in the treble to a goodly thickness in the bass.
They are tuned in pairs, that is, two in unison to the same
note, except the treble, which is single. The number of
strings varied from eleven in the Fifteenth Century to twenty-
six in the Seventeenth. A lute of eleven strings would have
six open notes, since the treble is single and the others are
double.
The classical tuning of the lute of eleven strings was by
intervals of a fourth between all the strings except the two
middle ones, which stood a third apart. This gives a
78 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
stretch of two octaves between the treble and bass, the
actual notes being from the bass upwards G, C, F, A, D, G.
One more octave is available in the treble by the use of the
fingers, making three octaves in all, or about the range of the
human voice. Additional bass strings or " diapasons," tuned
in a diatonic sequence, gradually extended the compass to C
below the bass stave, or even lower, giving a range of three
and a half octaves.
For solo playing, the tuning of the lute became altered
in a great variety of ways about the Seventeenth Century;
but, in accompaniments, the classical tuning given above
remained unchanged.
The lute has frets, but instead of being inlaid ridges of
metal or ivory, as in modern guitars or mandolins, they are
pieces of catgut tied round the neck with a special knot,
ensuring their firmness and yet allowing them to be shifted
a little backwards and forwards as may be required. The
old gut frets thus possess a great advantage over the modern
inlaid ones, for they can be adjusted according to the
player's ear and experience. This makes it possible
to play in tune, whilst with metal frets fixed more or less
inaccurately by the maker, there is no possibility of tuning
the notes.
The lute is always played by the fingers, never with a
plectrum. Its double strings are intended to mellow,
strengthen, and add a special ring to the tone, not to produce
the tremolo of the mandolin.
The following directions for playing the lute are taken
from Mace's book : " * * * first, set yourself down against
a Table, in as becoming a Posture, as you would chuse to do
for your Best Reputation.
" Sit Upright and Straight ; then take up your Lute,
and lay the Body of it in your Lap-a-cross; let the lower part
of It lye against your Right Thigh ; the Head erected against
your Left Shoulder and Ear * * *
"The 2nd thing to be gain'd is, setting down your
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 79
Little Finger upon the Belly, close under the Bridge, about
the first, 2nd, 3rd, or 4th strings; for there about is its
constant station.
" The 3rd thing is, Span out your Thumb, among the
Basses, and lay the end of It down, upon which you please,
but rather upon the Last, or Greater Bass; and when you
have thus made your Span or Grasp, view your Posture
in all respects.
"And now, supposing you are perfect in your Posture,
proceed to the striking of the string upon which your Thumb
lyeth.
"And as to the work, it is only keeping your Thumb
straight, and stiff, and gently pressing down that String, so,
as your Thumb may only slip Over it, and rest upon the next
string, your Thumb standing ready, to do the like to That
string, and so from string to string, till you have serv'd all
the Basses after the same manner.
" The 4th thing is, to teach you the Use of your
Fingers, and is thus done :
" First, observing still, all your former Postures care-
fully, with your Thumb ever resting upon some one of the
Basses, put the End of your second Finger, a very little upon
the Treble String, as if you did intend only to feel your
String. * * * then draw up your second Finger from under the
String, forcing the string with a pretty smart Twich, (yet
gently too) to cause it to speak strong and Loud. * * * "
After many more curious and precise explanations,
most earnestly reiterated advice about your " Postures," and
directions for placing the left hand, our author has the
following: "And now in This Lively, And Exact Posture,
I would have your Picture drawn, which is the most becom-
ing Posture, I can Direct unto, for a Lutenist * * *."
He then explains how one may find the notes upon the
instrument, and teaches at once to play seven charming little
preludes in the principal keys. No scales or mechanical
exercises are given. In the happy old days one learned to
80 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
play tunes by trying to play tunes. The training of the
hands proceeded naturally with the development of the
musical faculty. Then he describes all the ornaments which
formed such an important part of lute playing:
" I will now lay down all the other Curiosities, and
Niceties, in reference to the Adorning of your Play: (for
your Foundations being surely Laid, and your Building well
Rear'd, you may proceed to the Beautifying, and Painting of
your Fabrick) And those we call the Graces of our Play.
The Names of such, which we most commonly use upon
the Lute be these. The 1st, and Chief est, is the Shake.
The 2nd, the Beate. The 3rd, the Back-fall. The 4th, the
Half-fall. The 5th, Whole-fall. The 6th, the Elevation.
The 7th, the Single Relish. The 8th, the Double-Relish.
The 9th, the Slur. The 10th, the Slide. The 11th, the
Springer. The 12th, the Sting. The 13th, the Tutt. The
14th, the Pause. The 15th, and last, Soft and Loud Play,
which is as Great and Good a Grace, as any other, what-
ever
" Some there are, (and many I have met with) who
have such a Natural Agility (in there nerves) and Aptitude,
to That Performance, that before they could do anything
else to purpose, they would make a Shake, Rarely well, and
some again, can scarcely ever Gain a Good Shake, by reason
of the unaptness of their Nerves, to that Action; but yet
other wise come to play very well.
" I, for my own part, have had occasion to break, both
my arms; by reason of which, I cannot make the Nerve-
Shake well, nor Strong; yet, by a certain Motion of my
Arm, I have gain'd such a Contentive Shake, that sometimes,
my Scholars will ask me How they shall do to get the like?
I have then no better Answer for Them, than to tell Them,
They must first Break their Arms, as I have done; and so
possibly, after that, (by Practice) they may get my manner
of Shake."
It is difficult and costly to keep a lute in good order.
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 81
Its enemies had no lack of arguments to make use of when
fashion began to turn against it. Mace has a delightful
chapter about the "Common Aspersions upon the Lute." I
wish I could quote it entirely, but space will not allow; he
mentions six " aspersions " :
" First. — That it is the Hardest Instrument in the World.
" Secondly. — That it will take up the time of an Ap-
prenticeship to play well upon It.
" Thirdly. — That it makes Young People grow awry.
" Fourthly. — That it is a very Chargeable Instrument
to keep; so that one had as good keep a Horse as a Lute,
for Cost.
" Fifthly. — That it is a Woman's Instrument.
" Sixthly and Lastly (which is the most childish of all
the rest). — It is out of Fashion."
As Mace found it necessary to fill up a good sized book
to show how easy it is to play the lute, it must be admitted
that there was some foundation in the first and second points.
Here are some of his answers to the others:
" To this (the Third Aspersion) I can only say, That in
my whole Time, I yet never knew one Person, Young or
Old, that grew Awry by that Undertaking.
"Yet, do believe it is possible, if (through their own
Negligence, and their Teachers Disregard and Unskilful-
ness) they be suffer'd to Practice in an 111 and wrong
Posture * * *"
"That one had as good keep a Horse (for cost) as a
Lute, is the Fourth Objection.
«* * * I never took more than five shillings the
Quarter to maintain each Lute with Strings; only for the
first Stringing I ever took ten shillings.
" I do confess those who will be Prodigal and Extra-
ordinary Curious, may spend as much as may maintain two or
three Horses, and Men to Ride upon them too, if they please."
" The Fifth Aspersion is, That it is a Woman's Instru-
ment.
82 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
" If this were True, I cannot understand why It should
suffer any Disparagement for That; but rather that It
should have the more Reputation and Honour.
" I suppose I need not make any Arguments to prove
That.
" But according to Their Sence of Aspersion, I deny it
to be a Woman's Instrument so, as by That means It shall
become less Fit for the Use of a Man.
" For if by That Saying They would insinuate, That
it is a Weak, Feeble, Soft Instrument, as to the sound;
what can that signifie whereby to make it a Woman's Instru-
ment more than a Man's?
" But, whereas first they say, It is the Hardest Instru-
ment in the World; that shews They Contradict Themselves
in This particular; and conclude by That Saying, It cannot
so properly be called a Woman's Instrument, in regard
They are the Weaker Vessels; and therefore not so Fit
to set upon and attempt the Mastery of Things of such
Difficulty.
" Therefore if still They will needs put it upon the
Woman, I say, the more shame for Them; And so much for
That.
" Now Lastly, whereas They most sillily say, It is out
of Fashion.
" I say, the Greater Pity, and still the Greater Shame
for a Man to Refuse the Use of the most Excellent Thing
in Its kind; and especially, Because it is out of Fashion!
which, although it be Thus aspers'd by the Ignorant and
Inconsiderate, yet notwithstanding It has This General Ap-
plause and praize, viz., THAT IT IS THE BEST MUSICK
IN THE WORLD."
One more "Choice Observation about Keeping a Lute,"
and we have done with a book that deserves to be reprinted
in its entirety, on account of the insight it gives in such a
unique manner upon the Art of Music, and Seventeenth
Century things generally.
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 83
"And that you may know how to Shelter your Lute, in
the worst of 111 Weathers (which is moist), you shall do
well, even when you Lay it by in the day-time, to put It
into a Bed, that is constantly used, between the Rug and
Blanket; but never between the Sheets * * * There-
fore, a Bed will secure from all These Inconveniences, and
keep your Glew so Hard as Glass, and all safe and sure;
only to be excepted, That no Person be so inconsiderate, as
to Tumble down upon the Bed whilst the Lute is There;
for I have known several good Lutes spoil'd with such a
Trick."
The compass of early eleven-stringed lutes did not
extend below the G on the lowest line of the bass clef.
Their average sounding length of strings being 28 to 30
inches, the bass strings did not need to be very thick to
tune to their proper pitch under the right tension; so their
tone was satisfactory. But, when lower bass notes came into
request, for accompaniments principally, their length had to
be increased, whilst the trebles remained unchanged. An
additional neck was fitted to carry the bass strings, giving
them a length of 40 inches or thereabouts. This kind of
lute was called " theorbo."
Sometimes the bass neck was made as long as four or
five feet, bringing the total length to six or seven feet. The
instrument was then called " archlute."
But these names are a great source of confusion, for
we find them differently applied according to the time and
country. The "lute" of -Mace, for example, was a kind
of theorbo, with bass strings of various lengths. In the
Seventeenth Century, in England, the lute proper was called
the "old lute," and under the name "theorboe" both the
theorbo proper and the archlute were included.
These very long instruments were awkward to play,
and, besides, the bass strings kept resounding for so long
after being struck, on account of their great length, that
the music was confused. Towards the middle of the Seven-
84 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
teenth Century, when it was discovered that by twisting or
gimping round a gut string a fine silver wire its weight
could be increased at will and consequently its pitch propor-
tionately lowered without increasing its bulk, the theorbo
and archlute fell into disuse, the old form of lute with a
greater number of strings being preferable. Thus trans-
formed, the lute remained in use, at any rate in Germany,
until the middle of the Eighteenth Century. Bach admired it,
and wrote beautiful music for it.
Lute music was written in a special system of notation,
quite different from the ordinary one, and called " tab-
lature." Few people understand the tablature nowadays;
it is sometimes translated with the help of a key, much as
people translate a foreign language with the dictionary, but
with what satisfaction I leave the reader to guess.
The tablature is written on a series of six parallel lines,
which represent the six principal strings, or rather pairs of
strings of the lute, instead of the scale of music. In the
English, French, and German tablature the letter " a " on
the top line indicates that the treble string, whatever its
pitch, is to be played open ; the letter " b " indicates the same
string, but stopped at the first fret; " c," or rather a Gothic
form of " c " resembling a modern quarter rest, refers to
the third fret, and so forth. The same figures on the other
lines apply to the other strings according to their respective
order. The bass strings are noted below the stave, the
number of ledger lines before a letter indicating the par-
ticular string intended. For ease in reading, instead of four
ledger lines, the figure 4 is used and so on for 5, 6, etc.
The duration of the notes is shown by characters placed
above the lines. In the Italian and Spanish tablatures the
principle is the same; but the treble string corresponds with
the lowest line, the order being thus inverted. Figures are
used instead of letters, 0 corresponding to a, 1 to b, 2 to c,
and so forth.
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 85
This system of notation is a direct pictorial represen-
tation of the actual performance of the music. It is concise
and accurate, and possesses the immense advantage of
applying to any tuning of the instrument without disturbing
the player. But, apart from the particular instrument and
tuning for which it was intended, it is meaningless. It does
not convey music directly to the brain like the staff notation.
SECTION II.
THE VIOLS.
A great variety of stringed instruments played with a
bow, in use in Western Europe from the Middle Ages to
about the end of the Eighteenth Century, is comprised under
the name viols.
To study their transformation during six or seven cen-
turies would require a long treatise. We shall mainly con-
sider in these notes the typical perfected viols used from
the latter part of the Sixteenth Century until the time when
violins were left sole masters of the field.
The disappearance of the viol is regrettable, for it has
not been replaced by the violin. The aims and capabilities of
both were differentiated even in the earliest times. The
three-stringed rebec, prototype of the latter, dry and sharp,
was best for popular tunes and dances. To the viol, with
its many strings, low and sweet, refined music and harmony
was rightly appropriated. As a consequence of the devel-
opment of the orchestra, which greatly increased the demand
for violin players, professional musicians gradually relin-
quished the study of the viol, not so serviceable for orches-
tral purposes. The amateur was left without guidance;
and, as in every age he only imitates the master, the viol
soon became wholly disused, although it is better adapted for
chamber music than its rival, and more resourceful and
pleasurable for private use.
86 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
The form of the viol is simpler and smoother than
that of the violin. The shoulders, instead of starting at
right angles from the neck, join it at a tangent. The
corners turn inward instead of outward. The back is flat;
the belly vaulted, but rising insensibly from the edges to the
center without forming a groove first. The ribs or sides
are higher, making the instrument thicker in proportion.
The back and the belly terminate flush with the ribs; they
do not project over them, and so there is no rim round
the instrument. The sound-holes are in the form of
crescents, or C's pointing outwards, sometimes in the con-
ventional figure of a Flaming Sword, very rarely in the
form of the violin " f." The neck, long and thin, is fretted
with tied pieces of gut, as in the lute; it is wider than the
violin's, so as to accommodate a greater number of strings
and allow more room between them for playing. The
strings are longer, thinner and less tense than those of the
violins; their classical number is six, although viols of five
or seven strings are not rare, and the number may reach up
to fourteen. The tuning is by intervals of a fourth, with
a third toward the middle of the compass, like the lutes.
The peg-box, often decorated with carvings, usually
ends in a man's or woman's head, a lion or other animal,
or, when a scroll, a simpler one than the volute of the
violin. The body, the fingerboard and tail piece are orna-
mented with inlays, or patterns of lines. A small carved
rose is often present in the upper half of the sound-board;
and, generally, much care and taste was spent by the makers
in beautifying the viols, an unmistakable proof of the high
esteem in which they were held.
CONSORT VIOLS.
There is a complete family of viols, from a small thing
not more than two feet in length, to the largest, nearly eight
feet high. The five principal sizes are treble, alto, tenor,
bass, and double bass, the latter being generally called
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 87
violone. A " chest of viols " in Elizabethan times con-
sisted of six instruments: two trebles, two tenors, or alto
and tenor, and two basses. The violone was very little
used in England.
The music played upon these " consort viols," as they
were called, consisted of fantazies, in nomine, pavans,
galliards, allmains, and other dance-measures. The chief
among these were the fantazies, also named " fancies."
They were written for two, three, four, five or six viols,
and so contrived that all parts, whatever their number, were
different from one another, and of equal interest. No two
viols ever played the same thing at the same time. It was
an interweaving of patterns of sound.
" In this sort of music," says Christopher Simpson in
his "Compendium of Music," published in London in 1665,
" the Composer employs all his art and invention solely about
the bringing in, and carrying on of Fugues. When he has
tried all the several ways which he thinks fit to be used
therein, he takes some other point, and does the like with it :
or else for variety, introduces some chromatick notes with
bindings and intermixture of Discords; or falls into some
lighter Humour, like a Madrigal, or what else his own fancy
shall lead him to; but still concluding with something that
hath Art and Excellency in it."
The word " fugue " did not mean, as it does now, a
composition cast in a rigid form, but a theme or subject so
contrived as to lend itself to the answers, imitations, inver-
sions, and such like devices which formed the soul and spirit
of this decorative music. A "point" would be some new
theme, perhaps cunningly extracted from the foregoing
fugue, and treated likewise in its turn.
The " in nomine " were more restricted than the fan-
tazies. They were built upon a " plain-song," generally the
old liturgic tune to the words "In nomine Domini," from
which their name is derived. This plain-song being played
in very slow, long sustained notes by one of the viols, most
88 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
commonly one of the middle parts, the other viols em-
broidered upon it a descant so beautiful and ingenious,
though apparently free, as to strike the modern musician
with admiring wonder, in our days of degenerated skill,
when counterpoint has become a drudge in the hands of
teachers.
The pavans and galliards, noble, stately dances in
slow time, still afforded the composer occasions to exhibit
his contrapuntal skill; but, as we come down to the lighter
dances, the music becomes less elaborate, in the end a mere
accompanied tune.
" You need not seek Outlandish Authors," Christopher
Simpson remarks, "especially for Instrumental Musick; no
Nation (in my opinion) being equal to the English in that
way."
One of the very last examples of English music ever
written is an admirable and most effective " fantazie upon
one note," by Henry Purcell, the last composer of the
English school. It is for five viols, and the tenor, instead
of a plain-song, plays one single note, the middle C, and
sustains it right through the piece, whilst the others weave
round it most exquisite music.
Purcell tells us of his endeavors to imitate the Italian
music, which was then getting so much in fashion. But
he had been brought up under the influence of the English
masters; the bend of his genius was strong, and his music
never lost its national character. His successors to this day
have imitated the foreign schools with such success that it
has been the death of English music.
THE VIOLA DA GAMBA.
The most interesting of the famliy of viols, taken
individually, is the small bass, which, under the name of
viola da gamba, held a position in the musical world second
only to the lute, until about 1650, and first in importance
among stringed instruments afterwards. Viola da gamba,
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 89
in Italian means, " the viol of the leg," from its being
supported between the legs of the performer. Corrupted
into " viol de gamboys," the name is frequently to be met
with in the literature of Shakespeare's time. We hear of Sir
Andrew Aguecheek, in "Twelfth Night," that "he plays
upon the Viol de Gamboys, and has all the good gifts of
nature."
According to Jean Rousseau, in his Traite de la Viole,
published in Paris in 1687, the English first brought their
viols to the shape and size best adapted for performance
of elaborate music. " Les premieres violes dont on a
joueen France," he tells us, " etaient a cinq chordes & fort
grandes * * * en sorte que le Pere Mersenne dit que
Ton pouvoit enfermer de jeunes Pages de la Musique dedans
pour chanter le Dessus, pendant que Ton jouoit la Basse &
il dit de plus que cela a este pratique par le nomme Granier
devant la Reyne Marguerite, ou il jouoit la Basse & chantoit
la Taille, pendant qu'un petit Page enferme dans sa Viole
chantait le Dessus." Truly a delightful picture, and far
removed from the present time ! Later on he writes : " II
est vray que les Anglois ont reduit leurs Violes a une
grandeur commode, devant les Francois, comme il est facile
d'en juges par les Anciennes Violes d'Angleterre, dont nous
faisons une estime particuliere en France."
In England the most esteemed kind of viola da gamba
music was the " divisions on a ground." The ground con-
sisted of a few bars of slow notes in the character of a
bass, to be played over and over again upon an organ, harp-
sichord, or other instrument suitable for the accompaniment.
The divisions were effected by " dividing " the long notes of
the ground into shorter ones, making runs and ornaments
upon them like modern variations : or by inventing some tune
or passage in suitable harmony with the ground, or by a
mixture of both things. Innumerable sets of such divisions
are in existence, fine and effective pieces, well calculated to
show the imagination of the composer and the skill of the
90 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
performer. The best of them are by Christopher Simpson,
author of the Compendium from which I have already
quoted, and the greatest among the English viola da gamba
players. He published in 1659 another fine and scholarly
treatise, entitled " The Division Violist," in which he teaches
at length how to write and extemporize divisions, after
having first described the viol, and explained the best method
of playing upon it.
" Being conveniently seated," he tells us, " place your
Viol decently betwixt your knees; so that the lower end of
it may rest upon the calves of your legs. Set the soles of
your feet fiat on the floor, your toes turned a little outward.
Let the top of your viol be directed towards your left
shoulder; so, as it may rest in that posture, though you
touch it not with your hand. Hold the Bow betwixt the end
of your thumb and two fingers, near the nut. The thumb
and first finger fastened on the stalk; and the second finger
turned in shorter, against the hairs thereof; by which you
may poize and keep up the point of the bow. If the second
finger have not strength enough, you may joyn the third
finger in assistance with it; but, in playing swift division,
two fingers and the thumb is best."
These directions apply to all kinds of viols, only
excepting the viola d'amore, for they were all held down-
ward in playing, even the trebles. In Mace's Musick's
Monument, the third part of which " Treats of the Noble
Viol in its Rightest Use," much valuable information is
also to be found. After explaining how to hold the viol
and bow, he gives this piece of advice, which, if applied to
the violin pupils of our time, might save our ears much
excruciating torture : "A good stroke above all things. Now,
being Thus far ready for Exercise, attempt the Striking of
your strings; but before you do That, Arm yourself with
Preparative Resolutions to gain a Handsome — Smooth —
Sweet — Smart — Stroke ; or else Play not at all ; For if
your Viol be never so Good, if you have an Unhandsome —
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 91
Harsh — Rugged — Scratching — Scraping — Stroke (as too
many have) your Viol will seem Bad, and your Plav
Worse."
The ideals of French viola de gamba players were
different from the English. They did not care so much
for division, but preferred the preludes, fugues, and dance-
measures such as chaconnes, allemandes, courantes, sara-
bandes, gigues and menuets, of which they formed these
admirable suites which served as models to John Sebastian
Bach.
So full of beauty and expression are their melodies, and
enhanced by harmonies so rich and daring, that the modern
musician, who still believes harmony to be a latter-day
science, could not help feeling bewildered at first by this
music.
Characteristic pieces, little tone poems with attractive
titles, such as " La Plainte, La Mignonne, La Trompette,
Le Papillon," were also much in vogue in France.
Among the most famous composers of the French school
we find M. de Ste. Colombe, credited by Jean Rousseau
with the addition of a seventh string to the viol, an asser-
tion disproved, however, by Dominichino's picture of St.
Cecilia; Marin Marais, who composed an immense number
of most valuable pieces, between 1695 and 1730, the two
Forquerays, father and son, who carried virtuosity to its
utmost limits; and De Caix d'Hervlois, remarkable for his
grace and charm.
We possess some excellent suites by Augusto Kuhnel,
1690, Johann Schenck, and other German composers in
which the possibilities afforded by the viol for playing
chords are so skilfully used that an accompaniment is hardly
needed. Georg Philip Telemann, Bach's contemporary and
rival, wrote numerous fine sonatas in the melodic style, with
a figured bass for accompaniment on the harpsichord.
Johann Sebastian Bach gave many important parts to
the viola da gamba, principally in his religious music; fore-
92 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
most among these is the glorious obbligato in " Komm
Susses Kreuz," one of the most touching airs in the St.
Mathew Passion. This song is now generally omitted in
performance, on account of the difficulty of procuring a
competent violist. Bach also wrote three beautiful sonatas
for the viola da gamba and harpsichord, which, however,
are not at present appreciated as they deserve, for they
sound ineffective as usually played upon a violoncello and
pianoforte, neither instrument being able to do justice to the
music.
THE LYRA-VIOL.
In size somewhat less than a division viol and strung
with thinner strings, the lyra-viol had various tunings based
upon the intervals of a major or minor common chord, the
chief among them being called " harp-way-sharp and harp-
way-flat." Its music was written in tablature, like that of
the lute, to avoid confusing the player with the changes in
tuning. In fact, although much used by itself, or with one
or two more lyras, it was frequently played in consort with
lutes of various kinds. In the British Museum is preserved
a precious manuscript containing no less than one hundred
suites of pieces for two lyras and theorboe, by John
Jenkins, c. 1630.
The word lyra is often found as " leero," " lero,"
and in other shortened and corrupted forms.
THE VIOLA D'AMORE.
There is in my mind a connection between the lyra-
viol and the viola d'amore, but I cannot clearly trace it.
According to Jean Rousseau, the English did partly string
some of their viols with brass wire, and a " viole d'amour "
strung with wire, instead of gut was known in his time.
Its tone had a pretty silvery ring, but Rousseau is right
when he asserts that metal strings produce a wretched effect
under the bow. Some unknown ingenious person succeeded
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 93
in combining the advantages of both gut and wire strings.
The viol was provided with a set of each kind, so that, the
gut strings being played upon in the usual way, the wire
strings would vibrate in sympathy with them, though un-
touched by either bow or finger. This, of course, can only
happen when the note played is in tune with one of the wire
strings or some of its lower harmonics, according to the
well-known law of sympathetic vibrations.
Attached to pins fixed to the lower part of the ribs or
to the belly under the tail-piece, the sympathetic strings, six
or seven in number, pass through little holes in the bridge,
through a hollow space under the finger-board and over a
little nut placed at their point of exit at the end of the neck.
From there they thread their way to the tuning pins placed
at the further end of a much-elongated peg-box.
The sympathetic strings do not increase the volume of
tone. The old makers did not trouble to give more power
to an instrument that had enough to make itself well heard.
They knew that quantity is antagonistic to quality. In point
of fact the wire strings, by their pressure on the sound-
board, veil the tone somewhat. But they produce a delight-
ful resonance, almost ethereal in quality, which renders the
instrument most effective for the performance of suitable
solo music.
Whether the name viola d'amore is an allusion to the
sympathy between the two sets of strings, or to the amorous
quality of the tone, or simply a corruption of viola da More
(the viol of the Moor), remains an open question. The
makers themselves were not agreed on the point, if we may
judge from the symbolism of the figures with which they
decorated their viols d'amore. Some have a winged angel's
head, some a cupid blindfolded, others a blackamoor.
Whatever its origin, the viola d'amore proved quite a
sensational novelty when Attilio Ariosti came to London
and gave performances upon it in 1716. Delicate and
refined, his genius suited the nature of the instrument to
94 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
perfection, and his six sonatas for the viola d'amore are our
most precious compositions for that instrument. But one
must not forget that Bach used it frequently in his cantatas
and chamber music, and mention must be made of an
exquisite concerto by Antonio Vivaldi for viola d'amore
and lute accompanied by muted violins and a figured bass.
Should this bass happen to be discreetly performed upon a
sweet old organ, the effect of the whole composition is a
dream of loveliness such as is never to be forgotten if once
heard.
SECTION III.
THE CLAVICHORD.
The mechanism of the clavichord is very simple. The
strings, made of brass, and hardly thicker than a hair, rest
upon a bridge at one end as in other stringed instruments,
but the other end instead of going to a nut, loses itself
among folds of damper felt, by which they are so com-
pletely deadened that no musical sound is perceivable upon
their being plucked. When a key is pressed down, the
tangent, a thin blade of brass driven perpendicularly into
the key near its back end, comes in contact with the two
strings allotted to that note at a point between the damper
and the bridge, slightly raising them over the other strings.
Under these conditions this pair of strings can vibrate
between the tangent and the bridge and yield its particular
note. The tangents of the clavichord perform the same
office as the fingers of the left hand of the player upon
the violin or guitar. They are movable nuts or frets.
Furthermore, by their impact, they agitate the strings suffi-
ciently to cause them to sound. The tangent, therefore,
measures off the length of string necessary to produce the
required pitch, at the same time, excites the tone.
When the finger is lifted from the key the sound in-
stantly ceases, for the tangent is thereby removed from the
strings, which relapse into their formal musical inertia.
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 95
The volume of tone of the clavichord compared with
that of the modern piano is very small. But its small tone
is capable of the most subtle shading, the sharpest staccato
as well as the smoothest legato. The finger, through the
key, is in direct communication with the strings and feels
their elasticity all the time. If the pressure of the finger
is increased, a sharpening of pitch which produces the
impression of a swelling of the tone is produced, — if the
key is balanced up and down by the finger, the alternate
sharpening and flattening of pitch produces a beautiful
vibrato.
The importance of these properties of the clavichord
cannot fail to be recognized, if one remembers the great
value of such alterations of pitch as a means of expression
in music. They constitute the chief distinction between the
living tones of the voice or the violin and the mechanical
tones of the piano or organ.
Another advantage of the clavichord is that its tone
production is accompanied by very little mechanical noise.
When the hammers of a piano strike the strings, a distinct
blow is heard, even more powerful at times than the tone of
the strings. This emphasizes the beginning of each note to
such an extent as to make it difficult for the ear to follow
the individual movement of each part of the music, undue
attention being constantly called to every movement of the
other parts.
The older clavier music is for the most part contra-
puntal and for this reason ineffective upon the piano.
To hear an expressive fugue upon the clavichord is a
revelation. There the interweaving of the parts is clearly
followed, and each one stands out characterized by its own
proper expression. Beethoven, during whose youth the
clavichord was still used in Germany, acknowledged it the
most expressive of keyboard instruments. J. S. Bach wrote
for it most of his clavier music.
96 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
In a quaintly worded article of the great French Eight-
eenth Century Encyclopedia we learn that " Un celebre
musicien allemand, nomme Bach presentement directeur de
la musique de la ville da Hambourg, ne juge d'un joueur de
clavecin qu'apres l'avoir entendu toucher du clavicorde."
The touch of the clavichord is extremely light, and yet
the German organists of the Eighteenth Century who were
trained upon it were able to play on the organs of that
time which, with three or four keyboards coupled together,
required a much greater physical strength than the instru-
ments of our days. The old musicians knew that the way
to acquire strength of fingers without impairing delicacy and
sensitiveness is by practising the clavichord first, and fre-
quently returning to it.
The clavichord went out of fashion when volume of
tone became the desideratum in musical instruments. Now
that loudness has been carried to its utmost limits, and
beyond, the clavichord proves the best remedy against the
evil consequences of this state of things.
After many years of study and experiment, I have
become convinced that the practise of the clavichord, quite
apart from its own fascination and the light it sheds upon
the understanding of the old music, is of inestimable benefit
to piano-players. It discloses fresh ideals, opens new ways
of thought and brings new sets of muscles into action.
Under its gentle influence the stiffness of hand and heaviness
of brain, which so frequently prevent the execution of
light, rapid passages, and the expressive performances of
melodies, vanish as by magic.
Music-lovers should practise on the clavichord some of
the simplest two-part inventions and preludes of Bach. For
example: the first invention in C major or the 13th in A
minor; or the 1st Prelude in C major of the first part of
the Well-tempered Clavichord, or the 3rd in C major of the
same book, playing them at first in the softest tone possible,
yet striving to produce each note clear and to give it its
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 97
proper musical value. When a command of the softest tone
has been acquired it is easy to increase its volume; one need
only apply more strength ; but there is much danger of never
acquiring a beautiful tone if one strives after too much
power at the start.
In playing the clavichord, care should be taken to relax
entirely the pressure on the key immediately after the tone
is produced. The tangent should just only remain in con-
tact with the strings so that the tone may continue. If
this is done, the clavichord will not sound out of tune, even
if the keys are struck to the limit of endurance of the
strings.
One should try to play expressive melodies with as
much feeling as could the voice or violin, or rather with
all the expression that one's soul is capable of feeling. The
clavichord will be found adequate for this. One should
remember, however, that as the limit of its tone is very
soon reached in the way of power, but practically infinite
in softness, the softer one can play the greater will the
range of expression be.
A fugue could now be tried, such as the 1st one in C
major or the 21st in B major from the first part of the
Well-tempered Clavichord. It is wonderful how clearly the
several parts come out and how beautiful the composition
will sound if well contrived. After that a sonata by Mozart
or Beethoven, or anything else one may fancy, provided it
is not opposed to the nature of the instrument, as would be,
for instance, a rhapsody of Liszt.
The clavichord being very simple in construction does
not easily get out of order. There are no parts in it to wear
out. Its tone improves by playing. It keeps admirably in
tune. A novice might break a string or two at first, but
they are easy to replace, and one such warning against
undue violence is generally sufficient. The instrument is
not large, it. is pleasing to the eye and its cost is quite
moderate.
98 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
SECTION IV.
VIRGINALS, HARPSICHORDS AND SPINETS.
These instruments all belong to the same family. They
have metallic strings, one or more keyboards, and their
tone is produced by a plectrum which acts like the fingers of
the player upon the harp. The device which plucks the
strings is called a jack. It is found in almost identically
the same form in the earliest known instruments of that
kind, as in the latest, and in all countries.
In England from the Fifteenth Century to about 1650,
all keyboard instruments with plucked strings, were called
virginals. Under that name were included:
First, the harpsichord, wing-shaped, its keys placed in a
line with the strings and its keyboard forming a right angle
with them. It was called double virginal when it had two
keyboards.
Second, the rectangular or oblong instrument with key-
board parallel with the strings, or nearly so.
Third, the pentagonal or hexagonal instrument, similaf
in construction to the former, but with two or three corners
cut off.
Fourth, the clavicytherium or upright spinet, with
perpendicular strings.
About 1660, Thomas Hitchcock of London, made an
instrument in an oblique wing-shape, like a small harpsi-
chord but much inclined to the right, the keyboard making
an acute angle with the strings. It became known as the
spinet. Its tone was good, its form graceful. It soon
achieved a great success. It superseded the oblique and
pentagonal instrument and remained in vogue until the end
of the Eighteenth Century.
The name virginal became restricted to the oblong and
pentagonal instruments about the time when the spinet was
invented, the name harpsichord or harpsicon being then
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 99
applied to the larger instruments. The words spinet and
harpsichord are both derived from the Italian, the first
from Arpicordo, the second from Spinetta, which latter
name was applied in Italy to all instruments with transverse
or oblique strings.
In Italy the harpsichord was also known as cembalo.
In France the spinet and virginal were called espinette,
and the harpsichord, clavecin. The Germans used the word
cembalo for the harpsichord and commonly called the spinet
" instrument." A small spinet tuned an octave higher than
normal pitch, was called octavina or octave spinet. It was
convenient to carry about on account of its smallness. Its
usefulness and attractive shape caused it to become quite
popular.
The characteristic feature of the instruments mentioned
above, is the jack. It is made of a rectangular piece of
wood about half an inch wide and a little over an eighth
of an inch thick, which stands perpendicularly upon the back
end of the key. It is maintained in place by a rack. In a
slot cut in the upper part of the jack, a little tongue of
wood is hinged in such a manner that it can swing a little
way backward and forward. In the tongue the plectrum
is inserted. This plectrum is made of leather, more or less
hard, or a piece of the backbone of a crow quill, according
to the quality of tone required. When a key is lowered, the
jack raises the plectrum, catches the string on its way, and
makes it ring. When the key is released, the jack falls
down and the plectrum returns to the string, but instead of
making it sound, it glides silently upon it, for the tongue
swings back. When the plectrum has passed the string, the
tongue returns to its original position, being pushed by a
piece of bristle adjusted at its back, which acts as a spring.
A damper is provided to stop the vibration of the strings
when the note is played. It consists of a small piece of
cloth fixed in a slot cut on the side of the jack and so
regulated as to just touch the string when the key is at rest.
100 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
In the virginal and spinet there is only one string and
one jack for each note, and, consequently, only one kind of
tone, but in the harpsichord there are at least two sets of
strings and two rows of jacks. Exceptionally harpsichords
were made with four or more sets of strings, many rows of
jacks and three keyboards, but the ordinary standard instru-
ment has three sets of strings, four rows of jacks and
two keyboards. Such a harpsichord is capable of pro-
ducing a great variety of sounds of different color and
degrees of power.
The old harpsichords differed much in their construc-
tion and capabilities. To describe their various forms would
not be possible here. A description of the harpsichords
now being made under my direction by the firm of Chicker-
ing & Sons, Boston, and which embody the best points of
the old ones, here follows:
In the new harpsichords there are two keyboards, three
sets of springs, four rows of jacks and six pedals. Of the
three sets of strings, two are tuned at the usual pitch, or
what in the organ is called eight foot tone. They are the
first and second unison. The strings of the third set are
higher, giving four foot tone. This is called the octave.
The strings of the first and second unison are stretched
over a bridge Y% of an inch high or thereabouts. The two
strings giving the same note, are about half an inch distant
from one another, the left-hand one being the first unison,
the right-hand one the second. The octave strings have a
bridge of their own which is lower, being about J4 °f an
inch high. They are not exactly under the first unison
but a 32d to the right of it, the jacks working between the
first unison and the octave on the left and the second
unison on the right, their plectra being turned toward the
strings on which they play. The distance between the
second unison string of one note and the first unison of
the next, is only about 1-16 of an inch; this being much
nearer than the first unison of the same note, the strings
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 101
appear at first sight to be arranged in groups of two, and to
one familiar with the arrangement of strings in a piano, the
first impression would be that the two strings next to one
another, belonged to the same note, whilst in reality, they
belong to two different notes. If one considers the oblique
line of the bridge, which causes the strings to become longer
and longer from treble to bass, it will be seen that the left
unison strings are longer than the right, in the proportion
of nearly a semi-tone. This is one of the causes of the
differences of timbre between the two unisons.
The strings of the harpsichord are all made of steel
and their diameter is very much smaller than that of the
piano. The thickest of the former is less than half the
diameter of the thinnest in the latter. In the bass the
strings are covered with a copper or brass wire wound
around them. This is an improvement upon the old method
of using brass and copper strings. The covered strings
have a finer tone, keep in tune better and last longer.
The four sets of jacks can be seen by removing the
jack-rail, a piece of wood placed near the front of the
harpsichord and extending right over the strings from left
to right. It is hooked on the instrument on the bass side
and is held by a bolt on the treble side. The jacks stand
in four parallel rows, kept in position by racks or slides.
These slides are provided with slots fitted so as to allow
the jacks to move freely up and down but without wobbling.
The slides can shift to right and left about 1-16 of an inch.
Their movements are controlled by the pedals. By pressing
down a pedal, the jacks of the corresponding row are
brought under the strings so that the point of each plec-
trum catches its string when the key is played. By lifting
the pedal, the jack recedes from the string so that the
plectrum cannot touch it. Each row of jacks can thus be
brought in or out of action at will.
The jacks of the row which is farthest from the front
of the harpsichord, have leather plectra. They are turned
102 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
toward the left and play upon the first unison strings.
Their leather is rather soft. The point of attack of the
strings is farthest removed from the nut, and the first
unison strings are the longest. For these reasons the tone
of the first unison is fuller, sweeter and more diapason-like
than the others. It is the foundation stop of the harpsichord.
Its pedal is second of the six.
The jacks of the row next to the above, which is the
third from the front, are turned to the right and play upon
the second unison strings. These strings are shorter than
those of the first unison. The leather of the plectra is
harder and the striking point is nearer to the nut. The tone
of this stop is lighter and more metallic than the first
unison. Its pedal is the first of the row.
The second row of jacks has hard leather points. They
are turned to the left and play upon the octave strings. The
octave has a brilliant and clear tone. Its pedal is No. 3.
The jacks of the above three rows stand upon the keys
of the lower or first keyboard, and are only played from
that keyboard. The three jacks of each note can be seen
moving up and down when a key is played, but they can only
catch the strings when their row has been brought into play-
ing position by a pedal.
The jacks of the first row have points of crow or
raven quills. They are turned to the right and play upon
the strings of the second unison, standing upon the keys
of the second keyboard. These jacks are shorter than
those of the other three sets, since the second keyboard is
placed over the first and there is less distance from its
keys to the strings. The striking points of this stop are
nearest to the nut. This fact and the quill plectra combine
to give it a reedy tone, which might be compared to that of
the oboe in the treble and the bassoon in the bass.
When all the pedals are up, this stop is ready for
playing.
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 103
When the first pedal is lowered, its jacks are removed
from the strings and at the same time the jacks of the
second unison are brought to the same strings. In this
way the three sets of strings can be played together from
the first keyboard, producing all the tone of the instru-
ment. This double movement of the first pedal is a great
convenience. It does the work of two pedals. The two
rows of jacks could not play on the same strings without
interfering with one another, and one of the slides would
have to be withdrawn before the other is brought into
action.
The fourth and fifth pedals bring in the harp stops,
which very closely imitate the tone of the harp. The effect
is produced by dropping upon the strings of the first and
second unisons, very near to the nut, a small leather button
covered with felt, which partially damps them. It destroys
the metallic quality of tone and makes it resemble that of
gut strings.
Pedal four brings the harp to the first unison; pedal
five to the second. As the second unison can be played
either from the first or second keyboard, according to the
row of jacks used, the second harp is effective on both
keyboards, but on account of the quill points of the jacks
of the second keyboard the sound produced thereon is
not much like a harp. It has its own peculiar charm, how-
ever, and is useful as a contrast with the others.
The sixth and last pedal couples the two keyboards
so that by playing upon the first the keys of the second
are worked simultaneously.
In the old harpsichords this was effected by drawing
the second keyboard a little way toward the front. This
necessitated removing both hands from the keys. The
present arrangement is a new device which proves very con-
venient. . ... .
The pedals can all be fixed in playing position by push-
ing them a little way to the right after pressing them down.
104 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
The effects produced by their various combinations, are very
numerous. Each particular piece of music can be played in
such color of tone as makes it most effective. In the old
harpsichords the changes of tone are usually effected by
hand stops. In the English instruments of the second half of
the Eighteenth Century, there is commonly one combination
pedal to bring contrast of piano and forte. In the French
harpsichords of the same period knee levers are used for
the same purpose. Still the idea of working the stops
entirely by pedals is not new, for an instrument provided
with this arrangement is described in Thomas Mace's
" Musick's Monument," a most interesting book published
in Cambridge, England, in 1676. It is remarkable that
such a useful invention should not have been at once
adopted and retained as a permanent feature of the harp-
sichord.
Some of the pedal combinations most often used are
the following:
If pedal 2 is hooked down, the left foot placed over
pedal 1, and the right foot kept within reach of pedals 3
and 4, the following effects are obtained: without further
touching the pedals, the first unison is ready on keyboard
1, and the quills stop on keyboard 2. Each keyboard can
be played by itself or the right hand can play upon one and
the left hand upon the other. The use of two independent
keyboards is frequently indispensable in playing music of
the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries.
When playing upon keyboard 1, press down pedal 1.
This gives an increase of tone and at the same time the
beautiful effect of the two unisons, which is valuable for
singing sustained passages. Only remember that the second
keyboard is dumb for the time and can only play when
pedal 1 is up.
To the first unison on keyboard 1, for which pedal 2
is already supposed to be hooked down, add pedal 3, the
ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750 105
octave. This will give the four and eight foot strings
together, giving a clear and brilliant tone. Add pedal 1
with the left foot, and the whole power of the instrument
is available.
Lift pedals 1 and 3, which leaves only the second
pedal hooked. Hook pedal 4 down and you will have the
harp on keyboard 1. A melody can be played on key-
board 2 and accompanied on the harp on keyboard 1.
Hook pedals 4 and 5, keeping the left foot over pedal 1
and the right over pedal 2. By pressing down one or the
other or both, you get the first or second harp or the two
together. This gives three different effects of color and
strength in the harp tone.
If pedal 1 is up, the metallic harp on keyboard 2 can
be used as a contrast to the soft harp on keyboard 1.
Unhook pedals 4 and 5 to remove the harp stops.
Pedal 2 being hooked, put down pedal 6. The first and
second keyboards would thus be coupled and a beautiful
reedy tone produced on keyboard 1. If you add pedal 3,
you have again the full tone of the instrument but in a more
brilliant color. If you release pedal 2, leaving only pedals
3 and 6, you will get a very brilliant but somewhat thin
tone.
It is possible on the harpsichord to sustain a bass note
or chord although the fingers are removed from the keys
and free to play something else. Use the second unison
alone or with the octave, put down the first unison an
instant before playing the note or chord to be sustained, and
release the pedal before taking the fingers off the keys.
The tone of these notes will be sustained for a long time.
Another way is to couple the two keyboards with or without
the octave, and to use the first unison for sustaining as
above; the effect will be still more striking. This sustaining
effect is also effective in connection with the harps.
There was a general opinion among musicians, and
many of them believe it now, that the piano being a later
106 ART OF MUSIC BEFORE 1750
instrument that the harpsichord and clavichord, had all
the advantages of both and many others besides. As a con-
sequence they thought it quite legitimate to play upon the
piano the music written before its invention, and they
believed that it sounded better so than upon the instruments
for which it was intended. They pitied the old composers
who had such inadequate instruments to realize their music
on. Their mistake is easily understood. Their opinion of
the old instruments was based upon such specimens as they
had seen exhibited to illustrate lectures upon the history of
music. Poor old cracked, battered things, which were no
doubt all right in their time, but through 150 years of neglect
are now mere ghosts, decayed almost beyond the powers
of restoration of an expert, and still more of the piano-
maker not acquainted with their mechanism to which they
had probably been entrusted. Moreover, the musician who
played upon them, knew how to play the piano or organ
but probably had no knowledge of the old instruments. No
doubt in such cases the piano would be preferable, but
under proper conditions, with a good instrument in the
hands of an experienced player, the result is radically differ-
ent. The beauty and fitness of the music and the instrument,
strikes one as a revelation and one realizes that the perform-
ance on the piano of harpsichord and clavichord music must
be considered as a transcription, an arrangement, no better
artistically than other arrangements or transcriptions.
GEORGE COLEMAN GOW
Teacher and song composer; born at Ayer Junc-
tion, Mass., in 1860. Graduated from Brown Uni-
versity in 1884 and from the NewtQij. Theological
E^^^'i%"'®^R,¥'asTMSJtJ^i* harinony *in
Smith College ;^papit'4892|jand 1893 studying in
Berlin; became professor of music in Vassar College
in 1895. Published n?any ,songs%-g.nd vocal composi-
tions, and received the degree of Doctor of Music
from Brown (ya$Jj$ef sity dn 1895. w ,
ELEMENTARY THEORY AND
NOTATION
TWELVE LESSONS.
George Coleman Gow.
ANALYSIS OF CONTENTS.
I. Introductory Paragraph.
II. Notation of Pitch: The Scales.
III. Notation of Pitch : Keys and Signatures.
IV. Notation of Pitch : Intervals.
V. Notation of Duration : Relative Duration.
VI. Notation of Duration : Special Notation.
VII. Notation of Force and Color.
VIII. Rhythm: Accent Groups.
IX. Special Effects of Rhythm.
X. Cadence Groups and the Effect of Rhythm on No-
tations.
XI. Chords.
XII. Melodic Motion.
ELEMENTARY THEORY AND
NOTATION
George Coleman Gow.
LESSON I.
INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH.
The material of music is musical tones.
A musical tone is a sound produced by the regular,
rapid vibration of a sonorous substance (body) at a given
rate.
[Note. — Further explanation of this statement is to be
found in the Dictionary of the American History and Ency-
clopedia of Music, article acoustics.]
The four characteristics of a musical tone are :
(c) Pitch, i. e., rate of vibration. Tones may be high
or low. The more rapid the rate of vibration the higher is
the pitch.
(6) Duration, i. e., extent of vibration. Tones may
be held for a long or a short period of time.
(c) Volume, i. e., amplitude of vibration. The wider
the path of vibration the louder the tone.
(d) Quality, or timbre, i. e., complexity of vibra-
tion.
[Note. — Further explanation of this statement is to be
found later on in these lessons.]
110
ELEMENTARY THEORY
The mere existence of musical tones is not enough to
create music. They must be organized under the laws of
rhythm, melody, harmony and color.
Musical rhythm is mainly concerned with the duration
and volume of tones.
Melody is mainly concerned with the pitch, duration and
volume (or the pitch and rhythm) of tones.
Harmony is mainly concerned with the pitch and volume
of tones.
Color is mainly concerned with the timbre, pitch and
volume of tones:
Pitch
Duration
Volume
Timbre
Melody
Rhythm
Harmony
Color
Not all possible pitches are in use in music; neither all
possible volumes, durations, or timbres. After a long his-
tory of experimentation the civilized world has settled upon
a comparatively fixed musical system, subject to growth and
modification like to that of a well-developed living language,
but with its elements complete and all utilized in some de-
gree.
As with all language the system of writing music lags
somewhat behind the actual state of the art. After long
experimentation the system universally adopted is that of
the staff notation, in which the characteristics of tone are
indicated with approximate accuracy. In this notation pitch
has been developed most fully, duration next, then volume,
and timbre least of all. So far from adequate to the needs
of modern music, however, is staff notation at present, that
frequent new systems are devised and urged upon the musical
ELEMENTARY THEORY 111
world. But as yet they share the fate of volapuk and
esperanto, failing utterly to displace the notation they op-
pose.
Questions on the Introductory Paragraph.
1. Are the sounds made by birds to be classed as musi-
cal tones? Are there other sounds in nature which are
musical ?
2. Why is it technically inaccurate to speak of the
music of birds?
3. What characteristics of musical tones can be ignored
in rhythm? What in melody? What in harmony? What
in color?
4. Which one of the elements of music has in the past
been deemed least essential, as proven by the present state
of its notation? Which most essential? Which is the most
universal ?
Notations of Pitch : The Staff.
A note is the written symbol of a tone.
The staff is the system of horizontal lines and spaces
upon which the pitch of tones is indicated by the position of
the notes.
The entire staff is never used. Sections of it, of five
lines each, are used regularly, with temporary additions to
accommodate notes which lie too high or too low to have a
position in the section.
A complete staff would require about thirty lines.
A degree is a position (line or space) upon the staff.
To each degree a letter name is given corresponding to the
names of the tones. These are C, D, E, F, G, A and B,
after which a higher C begins its series. To each series also
is given a special name, namely, Sub-, Contra-, Great-, Small-,
One-lined-, Two-lined-, Three-lined-, Four-lined-. Thus
every pitch has its exact name, and one may know just where
in the great staff is its place.
112
ELEMENTARY THEORY
A clef is a sign (modified originally from the letter of
its degree) placed at the beginning of the staff-section to
locate the degree upon which it is placed and thus to deter-
mine the place of the section in the great
staff. The clefs commonly in use are
one-lined g, upon the second line of its section,
small f, upon and one-lined
the fourth line f " ^ ^
of its section
c, upon the
fourth line,
or third
line
■-1
or more rarely, upon
the first line of its ' .
section.
The Great Staff, Theoretical.
Six-lined - c« - -
Five -lined - g5" "
C5- -
Four-lined - f * - -
Three -lined -b3y
-J
e8--
Two-lined - a2 "
One -lined - g' --
C-'
.1
Small - f - ■
V,
Great - B -
E -
Contra -AA -
DD-
Sub-AAA-
ELEMENTARY THEORY 113
The Modern Practical Use of the Great Staff.
Music written upon the staff section having the G clef
is said to be written in the G clef, or in the Violin clef; that
written upon the staff section having the F clef is said to be
written in the Bass clef ; that with the C clef upon the fourth
line, in the Tenor clef; with the C clef upon the third line,
in the Alto clef.
One-lined C is called middle C, and is to be regarded
as the central tone of the musical system.
When the G and the F clefs are used together in
notating music, as in writing for the pianoforte, the two por-
tions of the staff are joined by a brace. This greater staff
lacks only the line middle C to make it continuous; but the
break in continuity is a help to the eye. Middle C when
wanted may be put adjacent to either clef. Indeed other
tones located in or near either of the clefs may often be
notated with advantage by the necessary temporary additions
to the other clef.
These temporary additions to the continuous section of
the staff are called ledger lines. An excessive number of them
is confusing to the eye. To avoid this confusion certain
abbreviations of the staff are customary, as follows:
Notes lying far above the clef are writen as in the next
lower series of the same names, but with a sign 8~~
114
ELEMENTARY THEORY
or 8va~~ above the staff to indicate their position when
sung or played. The wavy line is continued above the staff
till the end of the passage thus notated, when a vertical line
is drawn toward the staff, or the word " loco " is written.
Notes lying far below the staff likewise may be written
in the next higher series of the same names, with the sign
8 , or 8va bassa, below the staff to indicate their real
place.
Thus
may be
written
£Ht
iJiSif-
8va bassa~~»loco
Still another method of notating music for a tenor voice
is to borrow the violin clef, writing as if for a soprano, i. e.,
the notes to be sung in the series below. To indicate this
borrowing sometimes the clef sign is doubled, or a C clef is
falsely put at c2, or combination is made of a C and G in a
new figure for a clef.
Written
ij^'B^ir
m
a
Sung
fffrif-
A half-step is the distance from each other in pitch
of any two adjacent tones. A whole-step is the distance
in pitch of any two tones next but one to each other, — the
sum of two half-steps.
The staff-degrees B-C and E-F are a half-step apart.
The remaining staff-degrees, C-D, D-E, F-G, G-A, and A-B,
are a whole-step apart.
A flat (b) is a sign put before any note to indicate
that the pitch of the tone desired is a half-step below that
ELEMENTARY THEORY 115
of the degree upon which the note is placed. Originally
the flat was a clef, applied to B only, in the way just
indicated.
A sharp (*) is a sign put before any note to indicate
that the pitch of the tone desired is a half-step above that
of the degree upon which the note is placed.
A double-flat (^) indicates that the tone desired is a
whole-step below that of the degree on which the note is
placed. A double-sharp (X) indicates that the tone desired
is a whole-step above that of the degree on which the note
is placed.
All of these signs are called chromatic signs.
[Note. — It is inaccurate to say that these signs raise or
lower the tone. Each tone has its own pitch. The proper
statement is that the chromatic sign serves to notate another
tone in the place of that to which the note would naturally
have referred.]
A natural, or cancel, (") is a sign put before a note
to indicate that the effect of a previous chromatic sign is
annulled, — the tone required is that of the unaltered staff-
degree.
Partial cancels of the double-flat are written ^; of the
double-sharp are written **.
The octave is the relationship in pitch between any
tone and the thirteenth tone above it, or below it. The tones
at the octave have the same letter name. This use of the
same name is in recognition of the fact that each of the
tones seems physically to be repeating the effect of the lower
or higher one.
Within the octave twelve different pitches, a half-step
apart from each other, are utilized. With the help of the
chromatic signs these twelve tones may be notated in thirty-
five different ways. Thus the tone lying between D and E
116 ELEMENTARY THEORY
may be written on three different degrees, as *D, bE, or bbF;
the tone G may also be written as XF or bbA. But the tone
between G and A permits but two writings, *G and bA.
Different notations of the same tone are called enhar-
monic writings.
A half -step when written in notes upon the same de-
gree is called a chromatic half-step. For example, A
and *A.
A half -step when written in notes upon adjacent de-
grees is called a diatonic half-step. For example, A and bB.
Exercises Under the Staff and Its Uses.
1. Write upon separate slips of paper all of the letter-
names of tones from Sub-A to Six-lined C. Then, having
put a brace before two staff-sections of a music blank-book,
and written on them the G and F clefs, draw at random from
the slips and write down upon the degree indicated by each
letter its note, until all are placed. When notating above c3
or below great G use the suitable abbreviations with 8*~
Repeat this exercise until a letter name instantly suggests its
proper writing.
2. Consulting now the notations of Exercise 1, name
each note over until every notation suggests readily its name.
Extend this exercise by naming the notes of printed music
until without hesitation all the pitches between Contra-FF
and f4 are located.
3. Using the letter slips from small c up to c2, repeat
the processes of the two previous exercises, writing the
notes either upon suitable staff-sections with the C clef,
or upon the violin clef as borrowed for a tenor voice-
part.
4. In the violin clef notate the chromatic half-steps
having as lower tones the following pitches : bb, d1, H1, g1, *c2
be2, bf2, *g2. With the same series of lower tones notate the
diatonic half-steps.
ELEMENTARY THEORY 117
In the bass clef notate the whole-steps having as lower
tones the following pitches: E, bG, *A, bB, bd, be, *g, b.
Using the same series of pitches as upper tones notate
the whole-steps.
5. Notate all the enharmonic writings in the octave
between e1 and e2.
LESSON II.
NOTATION OF PITCH: THE SCALES.
Not only does music take account of but few out of the
possible pitches of tones, but even among those chosen a
given piece usually confines itself to a less number within
the octave. This smaller series, set forth in alphabetical
order, is called the scale. A scale is reckoned from its most
important tone, called the keynote or tonic, out of which
it is supposed to rise.
Music written in a given scale is said to be in the key
of its keynote.
Not infrequently extra tones, outside the scale proper,
are found in a piece. These tones, known as accidental
tones, are felt to be but temporary additions to the
scale.
Scales of seven tones, in which each tone has its separate
degree, are called diatonic scales. Scales of twelve tones
for which five of the degrees in the octave carry two notes
each, are called chromatic scales.
The Major Scale.
The most valuable and widely used scale of modern
music is that known as the major scale. It is a diatonic
scale of the following construction : From its keynote, which
may be any of the twelve pitches, the next tone is a whole-
step higher; the third tone a whole-step higher than the. sec-
118 ELEMENTARY THEORY
ond; the fourth a half-step higher than the third; the fifth,
sixth and seventh each a whole-step higher than the previous
one; and the octave a half-step higher than the seventh.
Scale of T):
fc
i,0 .» io i»» ^nm
"^° T ~ , ".,.""." i i__v;
■©-
Vt 1
Scale of A: A „ p ftn ° " *° tt" ^
The scale of C is the only one that can be notated by
the staff degrees, without chromatic signs. Each of the
twelve major scales may be written in at least two enhar-
monic notations, one of which is usually much simpler to the
eye than the other.
£r (■* j io i- ■■■ i° »- >o '" iu i
enharmonic
scales
#, bo "
Exercises on the Major Scale.
Write in both the G and the F clefs the following major
scales: C. *C, >>C; D, *D, I'D; etc., to B, *B, l>B;— 21 nota-
tions. Put the chromatic sign at the left of each note re-
quiring it.
The Minor Scales.
The next form of scale in point of importance is the
minor scale. In modern music it is chiefly used as a con-
trast to the major, and may be studied by comparison with
the latter. It appears in three forms, the first of which is
called the harmonic -minor. This differs from the major
scale with the same tonic in that its third and its sixth tones
are a half-step lower than in the major.
ELEMENTARY THEORY 119
D maJ'or: |u D f ° " ° jl" ^
d minor, 9 L if., o
harmonic: TO ^ Q » o " bo *"
A
Exercises on the Harmonic Minor Scale.
Write in both the G and F clefs the following minor
scales: c, *c, kc; d, *d, bd; to b, *b, bb,— 21 notations; using
the proper chromatic signs before each note.
*
[Note. — A capital letter indicates a major scale ; a small
letter indicates a minor scale.]
The second form of the minor scale is known as the
ascending melodic, although it is used both in ascending
and in descending melodies. It differs from the major
scale with the same tonic only in its third, which is a half-
step lower.
d minor,
I
ascending (fo ^ .« o *■* °
J3P-
melodic : «J c
The third form of the minor scale is known both as the
descending melodic and as the normal minor. It, too, is
used in both ascending and in descending passages. It differs
from the major scale on the same keynote in that its third,
sixth and seventh are each a half-step lower than in the
major. The name normal minor is due to the fact that its
tones are exactly those of the major scale whose tonic is the
third tone of the minor, These two scales are called the
relative major and minor scales.
120
ELEMENTARY THEORY
Descending Melodic,
or Normal Minor.
Scale of d:
Scale of D Major:
Relative Normal
Minor or Descending
Melodic: Scale
il Q
iding H
ofbl «f
^ol**7
t.» o
n \>*
tr
-»
^^
n o
"TT
CDI
»» O
XE
Exercises on the Melodic Minor Scales.
Write out both forms of the melodic minor scales of
c, d, e, f, g, a, b, *c, »d, *f, 8g, *a, bb, ke, and ba.
Structural and Melodic Scales.
Structural scales are scales in which entire composi-
tions may be written. The structural scales of modern music
are the major and the harmonic minor. Outside tones come
to the aid of these mainly as accidental adornments.
Often the employment of outside tones is so systematic
as to practically create new scale- forms. These forms are
to be distinguished from structural scales by the character
of their harmonies. A good illustration of this is the whole-
step scale of six tones, — for example, c-d-e-f-*g-*a-c. Its
harmonies are far too restricted to make it of more than
momentary value as a structural scale; but when used
melodically, with harmonies based upon one or more of the
major scales, it can be toyed with in interesting ways
throughout extended passages.
The ecclesiastical modes were the structural scales of
music for centuries, and were finally abandoned for the
modern and harmonic minor modes. It is interesting to ob-
serve that they are being now revived somewhat, chiefly as
melodic forms.
ELEMENTARY THEORY 121
The Chromatic Scale.
The scale which uses the entire set of tones within the
octave is called the chromatic scale. For a long time it
has been used, not as a structural scale, but rather as a
melodic enlargement of either the major or the minor, —
usually of the former. There are some indications, however,
that it has capacities as a structural scale. The complete
understanding of its significance can come only to one who
is familiar with the subject of tonality. Therefore certain
very important variations in its manner of writing cannot
be treated in elementary theory. But the melodic law of the
chromatic element may be stated here, and is as follows :
A chromatic tone is a shading from the previous tone
of the structural scale toward the following one. Hence it
is unstable and inclines by diatonic half-step progression into
the following scale tone. Thus, if bA and bB are both tones
of a given major scale, the chromatic tone lying between
them is written as ''A when it is to move upward to bB, and
as ^B when it is to move downward to bA.
The following notation of the chromatic scale of D
(i. e., the melodic enlargement of D major) exemplifies the
rule just given. In practise various harmonic considerations
may modify the writing:
t
A A A A - A AAA A A
Notice that by omitting the chromatic tones the scale
of D remains, and that each chromatic tone is entered as a
chromatic half-step and left as a diatonic half-step.
Exercises on the (Melodic) Chromatic Scale.
Write out in full, according to the rule given above, the
chromatic scales of E, bB, G, bA, and C.
122 ELEMENTARY THEORY
LESSON III.
NOTATION OF PITCH: KEYS AND SIGNATURES.
Relationship of Keys.
The first four notes of the major scale are constructed
on the same formula as the last four, namely, two whole-
steps and a half-step. This short, four-note scale-group .is
called a tetrachord. In the arrangement of the scale there
are two like tetrachords separated by a whole-step. Because
of this separation of the tetrachords the scale is called a
disjunct scale form. A rearrangement of the same scale
with the keynote in the middle gives it the form known as
CONJUNCT.
Disjunct
Scale of C:
I Conjunct
If now the upper tetrachord of the C major scale be
made the lower one of a pair of disjunct like tetrachords the
new tetrachord starts on D and includes *F; that is, a new
major scale is created whose keynote is G, the fifth note of
the previous scale, and which differs from this in but one
note, the seventh of the new scale.
Scale of C
Disjunct A ^ r-^1 °"""jej1
tetrachords: ^ ^ o o " °^_ «■ -"JT »
i— Scale of G
A similar substitution of tetrachords upon the upper half
of the key of G gives rise to the key of D. So a series of
keys may be established, each starting on the fifth note of the
previous scale. Observe that each scale adds a * to those in
ELEMENTARY THEORY 123
use in the previous scale, and ultimately the scale of *B,
which has twelve sharps, is reached. Since this last scale
is the enharmonic writing of the scale of C major, the series
is called the circle of fifths.
[Note. — The notation of such a circle of keys reveals
the defects of our staff system, for in point of sound the
circle does actually return upon itself, while in notation it
only reaches the adjoining degree.]
In like manner, if the lower tetrachord of the scale of C
be joined conjunctly to a like second tetrachord the latter
ends on bB, and gives rise to the conjunct form of a new
scale whose keynote is F, the fourth from the former scale,
and which differs from it in but one note, — its fourth.
So a series of keys may be established, each starting on
the fourth note of the previous scale. Observe that each
scale adds a b to those in use in the previous scale, and ulti-
mately the scale of bbD, which has twelve flats, is reached.
Since this last scale is the enharmonic writing of the scale of
C, the series is called the circle of fourths.
Notice that the circle of fifths taken in reverse order,
from the key of *B, is enharmonic to the circle of fourths
and is itself a circle of fourths. For example, the key of *B
equals the key of C ; that of *E, the key of F ; that of *A the
key of bB; etc. Notice also that the circle of fourths takes
in reverse order is enharmonic to the circle of fifths and is
itself a circle of fifths. For example, the key of bbD equals
the key of C; that of bbA the key of G; etc. Finally, notice
that the major scales on the twelve different tones can be
notated without the use of more than six sharps or flats;
since each scale with a greater number of signs is enhar-
monic to a scale with a lesser number of the opposite signs.
[Note. — The most obvious criticism of staff notation is
that simple relationships of tone are made by the notation to
124 ELEMENTARY THEORY
appear strange; for example, the keys of bG and B, or of
*F and bD, though lying next each other in the tone circles,
through the enharmonic notation are apparently remote. To
avoid this unpleasant appearance to the eye composers often
prefer to write in keys with seven sharps or flats, and in tem-
porary passages use keys with even more chromatic signs.]
Exercises in the Circles of Keys.
Recite carefully the series of scales in the circle of
fifths, noting the number and order of sharps up to the
twelve. Recite carefully the series of scales in the circle of
fourths, noting the number and order of flats up to the
twelve. Repeat these exercises until the scales and their
order are familiar. Then practise repeating the enharmonic
notations of the scale on each of the twelve different pitches,
noting carefully which are the simpler notations. Finally,
starting once more with the key of C write out the notation
of the scales in the order of the circle of fifths, but after the
scale with seven sharps is reached continue the series with
the enharmonic notation with flats, until the key of C is
reached again. Then write out the notation of the circle of
fourths, but after the scale with seven flats is reached, con-
tinue the series with the notation with sharps until the key
of C is reached again. It is important to understand and
practise the exercises just given until one can think the
major scale on any pitch and in any notation, and can tell
instantly the neighboring scales in either direction in the
circle of fifths or of fourths.
Signatures of Major Keys.
The signature is a grouping of sharps or flats to indi-
cate the tones of the scale in which the music is written.
This group is placed at the beginning of each staff, after the
clef, and saves the necessity of writing out the sharp or flat
before each note that requires a chromatic sign. The order
ELEMENTARY THEORY 125
of sharps or flats in a signature is invariable and is that in
which they appear in the circle .of fifths and the circle of
fourths.
The following diagram of the signatures for the major
keys should be mastered in detail, and verified by reciting
each scale, as in the previous exercises. In this diagram the
chromatic sign above or below a given letter together with all
the signs to its left constitute the signature of the key with
that keynote:
I
* i ^ t „ ft
»» L t L I.
t"'j*tt
i r> h b i l i
G DAE B F# C#
F B\> El; At Dl> 6l> Cl>
I. '' I. b L ''
g * i " t l < j
i> p t. " i>
Notice that each last sharp is the seventh of the scale, —
so that the keynote lies a diatonic half-step above the sharp.
Also, notice that each last flat is fourth of the scale. Thus,
when more than one flat appears the keynote is the next to
the last flat.
Exercises on the Signature of Major Keys.
Write out separately in both the G and the F clefs the
signatures of each of the fourteen keys here displayed in
group. Learn the number and the order of the signs in the
signature of each key.
Accidentals.
The sharps and flats of a signature affect every octave
of the degree on which they are placed, as well as the degree
itself.
Tones that lie out of the scale (accidental tones) require
a chromatic sign called an accidental. This must be placed
before each note, unless the accidental tone is repeated within
the same measure. In this latter case the sign serves as a sort
of temporary signature for the measure, but unlike the real
126
ELEMENTARY THEORY
signature it does not affect the octaves. If the true scale
tone occurs in the same measure after the accidental, a proper
sign is required to indicate the restoration of the scale tone.
A tone affected by an accidental, when continued into the
following measure by tied notes, does not need the accidental
before the second note, — though some writers insert it for
the sake of clearness.
Exercises on Accidentals.
Write out the following exercise with the signature of
the key of D and the proper accidentals. Repeat it with the
signature of the key of bB and the proper accidentals :
■cj rj i car r ^i-M^WiJii
Write the following exercise with the signature of the
key of bD; again, with the signature of the key of E:
=M
r fnrr
m
In a single measure, with the signature of the key of F,
notate the melodic ascending and the melodic descending
forms of the scale of *g.
In like manner, with the signature of the key of bD,
notate the harmonic minor scales of be, of f, and of g.
Minor Key Signatures.
Minor keys borrow the
major keys (see page 118).
signatures of their relative
But by this signature the
seventh of the harmonic minor, and the sixth and seventh of
the melodic ascending minor scale are notated too low. When
these tones are used they have to be restored to place, there-
fore, by accidentals. Such a condition of affairs is unfor-
tunate, since each structural scale, whether major or minor,
should have a signature of its own by which it can instantly
ELEMENTARY THEORY
127
be recognized. With our present notation one is obliged to
recognize a minor key by means of its harmonies and by
the frequency with which the accidental appears which
restores the seventh to place ; that is, by inference instead of
by direct signature.
Exercises on Minor Key Signatures.
Write in the G and F clefs the signatures of the minor
keys of c, *c, d. *d, be, e, f, H, g, 8g, >>a, a, *a, bb, and b. After
each signature write the note for the seventh of the scale and
put before it the proper accidental to restore it to its place in
the harmonic minor scale.
Change of Signatures.
When, in the midst of a piece of music, the signature is
changed, that part of the old signature which is needed no
longer must be cancelled before the new signature is written.
If this change occurs in passing from one staff to the next,
the cancellation and the new signature both appear at the
end of the old staff; the new signature alone on the new staff.
It is usual, though not imperative, to put a double bar before
the change of signature.
Old
.Signature
Changed
to new
Old
Signature Changed to new
jtVi nVftf i'Mi iMi, §=3
Exercise on Change of Signature.
Write in both clefs the change from key of E to
key of bG.
Write in both clefs the change from key of bA to
key of F.
128 ELEMENTARY THEORY
LESSON IV.
NOTATION OF PITCH: INTERVALS.
An interval is the relationship of two tones in pitch
according to their writing.
In naming intervals the tone written on the lower degree
comes first in order. Thus, C — bE means an interval of
which C is written lower on the staff ; bE — C means an in-
terval of which bE is written lower on the staff.
Intervals are given a general name according to the
number of degrees involved, and a special name according to
the number of half-steps involved. Since each tone has enhar-
monic notations it is clear that any two tones may be written
as several different intervals. Thus *F — bB, bG — bB, and
^G — *A, all represent the same tones, but each pair of notes
has a different interval name.
General Names of Intervals.
Two tones upon the same degree are a prime.
Two tones upon adjacent degrees are a second.
Two tones involving three degrees are a third.
Two tones involving four degrees are a fourth, etc.
Two tones involving eight degrees are an octave. (Com-
pare Lesson I., pages 115 and 116.)
Beyond the octave sometimes the general names are con-
tinued— the ninth, tenth, twelfth, fifteenth, etc. —
but more frequently the names of the smaller intervals are
repeated. Thus, C — F is called a fourth whether the actual
notes are great C — great F, or great C — three-lined f '".
Special Names of Intervals.
A prime whose tones have the same pitch is a perfect
prime, or unison.
A prime whose tones are a half-step apart is an aug-
mented prime. (Compare, chromatic half-step.)
ELEMENTARY THEORY 129
A second whose tones have the same pitch is a dimin-
ished SECOND, Or ENHARMONIC UNISON.
A second whose tones are a half-step apart is a minor
second. (Compare, diatonic half-step.)
A second whose tones are a whole-step apart is a majok
second.
A second whose tones are three half-steps apart is an
AUGMENTED SECOND.
A third whose tones are a whole-step apart is a dimin-
ished third.
A third involving three half-steps is a minor third.
A third involving four half-steps is a major third.
A fourth involving four half-steps is a diminished
fourth.
A fourth involving five half-steps is a perfect
FOURTH.
A fourth involving six half -steps is an augmented
FOURTH.
A fifth involving six half-steps is a diminished fifth.
A fifth involving seven half-steps is a perfect fifth.
A fifth involving eight half-steps is an augmented
fifth.
A sixth involving seven half-steps is a diminished
sixth.
A sixth involving eight half-steps is a minor sixth.
A sixth involving nine half-steps is a major sixth.
A sixth involving ten half-steps is an augmented sixth.
A seventh involving nine half-steps is a diminished
seventh.
A seventh involving ten half-steps is a minor seventh.
A seventh involving eleven half-steps is a major
seventh.
130 ELEMENTARY THEORY
A seventh involving twelve half-steps is an augmented
SEVENTH.
An octave involving eleven half-steps is a diminished
octave.
An octave involving twelve half-steps is a perfect
octave.
An octave involving thirteen half-steps is an augmented
octave.
The Major Scale as a Measure of Intervals.
With the keynote as lower tone the interval names ot
the major scale are : perfect prime, major second, major third,
perfect fourth, perfect fifth, major sixth, major seventh, per-
fect octave.
Any interval of a given general name, if a half-step
larger than a perfect or a major interval of the same name,
is an augmented interval of that name; if a half-step smaller
than a major interval is a minor interval; if a half-step
smaller than a perfect or than a minor interval is a dimin-
ished interval. Any interval of a given general name, if a
half-step smaller than a diminished interval is a doubly-
diminished interval; if a half-step larger than an aug-
mented interval is a doubly-augmented interval.
It is often easier to reckon an interval by comparing it
with the major-scale interval upon the lower tone as keynote,
than it is to observe the number of degrees and of half-steps
involved. Thus, the interval bD — B is quickly seen to be a
half-step larger than the major-scale interval bD — bB in the
scale of bD, hence it is an augmented sixth.
The habit of reckoning in terms of a scale is a valuable
one, since freedom in harmony depends upon absolute famil-
iarity with all scales. Hence, even where it is not easy to
reckon the interval in terms of a scale on its lowest note, the
same method may be used. Thus the interval XF — bE,
though difficult to locate from the scale of XF, may be
measured by the scale of *F. The *F — !>E being a dimin-
ELEMENTARY THEORY
131
ished seventh, the interval sought, xp — bE, is seen to be
doubly-diminished by the loss of the chromatic half-step
Consonant and Dissonant Intervals.
Intervals also are classed as consonant, or restful
intervals, and dissonant, or unrestful intervals. The reason
for this classification will appear later in these lessons when
discussing the harmonic chord of nature.
The consonant intervals include all the perfect inter-
vals, sometimes called the perfect consonances, and major
and minor thirds and sixths, sometimes called the imperfect
CONSONANCES.
The dissonant intervals include all the remaining inter-
vals; that is, all seconds and sevenths, all diminished and
all augmented intervals.
Exercises on the Names of Intervals.
Name the intervals between each note and the next in
the following melodies:
Bach ,
^hif ftftwiiMijiiirrPf Jte
m
m
Debusey
rt?ric.N iiM^j-jjpfip
S
Name the intervals between each note and every one
above it in the following chords :
132
ELEMENTARY THEORY
Hhr*
•& &
3=$
\>l i
frbg r*
te-u
MS
Wagner
a 4; It J
^^
y'ftil'b *
p
fe_
illaJfe
E=ta5
;s"«w
zziftgizrs — it., jg
Hi, ■< I'* J
P
S
«— fcs
^
fpr
rr
^^
gp
»
^
fgqg
s«
fi
**
Extend this exercise by practise with printed music until
completely familiar with the looks of every interval com-
monly used.
Construct complete tables of dissonant intervals on the
notes *F, bD, E, and F.
Inversions.
When an interval is less than an octave the remainder
of the octave forms a complementary interval called its
inversion. The inversion has the same letter name as the
original interval, but in reverse order; that is, the inversion
of C — bE, a minor third, is >>E — C, a major sixth.
The complementary intervals are:
Prime and
Octaves :
Thirds and
Sixths :
Seconds and
Sevenths :
Fourths and
Fifths ;
IP
TO-
■ QUO-
To o/
ELEMENTARY THEORY 133
The complements or inversions of all major intervals
are minor; of all minor intervals are major; of all augmented
intervals are diminished; of all diminished intervals are aug-
mented; of all />*r/ecf intervals are still />erf*c*; of all con-
sonant intervals are still consonant; of all dissonant intervals
are still dissonant.
Exercises on Inversions.
Write out a complete table of inversions with musical
illustrations, as follows:
The inversion
a perfect prime
The inversion of
an augmented
prime
LESSON V.
NOTATION OF DURATION.
Relative Duration.
Notes, which by their positions on the staff notate pitch,
by their various shapes also indicate the relative length of
tones. A corresponding and equally exact notation of the
relative length of silences is given by the symbols called
rests.
The following table on the next page shows the notes
now in use, their names and their comparative values. In
this table each symbol is equal in duration to two of the
symbols next below it:
134 ELEMENTARY THEORY
Table of Notes and Rests.
Notes. Names. Rests,
||»»ll Breve, or Double-whole.
Semibreve, or Whole.
Half.
Quarter.
Eighth.
pi
Sixteenth.
Thirty-second.
Sixty-fourth.
m
ELEMENTARY THEORY
Observations on the Writing of Notes.
135
The parts of a note are the head ( © or • ), the stem
( I j and the (^ ^ ) Stems of notes are written upward
hook from the right side of the head or
downward from the left side. Separate hooks are always
written on the right side of the stem slanting toward the
head. (See the table and other illustrations.) Eighth notes
and notes of lesser value are frequently grouped by straight
lines connecting their stems, in lieu of their hooks.
J j J J instead of J> J* J* Js or f '/ £f instead of
vw
When but one melody is written on the staff, up-stems
are used for notes below the middle line and down-stems
for notes above the middle line; except where a number of
notes have their hooks united, in which case the predomi-
nance of the notes above or below the middle line decides the
stem-direction for all.
Schubert : /^ T*
3
mm
fV **
When two melodies are writen simultaneously on the
same staff, the upper melody uses up-stems ; the lower, down-
stems ; and a note common to both melodies takes both stems.
Yet when two or more notes of equal time-value are written
on the same staff a single stem can often suffice for all, the
predominance of notes above or below the middle line deter-
mining the direction of the stem. Thus,
136 ELEMENTARY THEORY
Humperdinck :
If the tone common to the two melodies has a different
length in each, though beginning to sound at the same
instant, either a single note is used with a head correspond-
ing to the longer tone and stems indicating the divergence in
length, or separate notes are used for each melody, but they
are crowded together to indicate that they begin sounding
sinultaneously, as thus,
Humperdinck :
Notes of different pitch that begin to sound simultane-
ously are always, if possible, placed in the same vertical line;
for example,
Goldmark :
^R
I
m
i
m
m
iTtli rfi2
f$l
n fTii
r-
T
The rule just given, that notes which begin sounding
simultaneously stand in vertical line, cannot be applied in
several cases, namely:
ELEMENTARY THEORY
137
1. Notes on adjoining degrees must stand a trifle out
of line.
'2. Notes of different pitch on the same degree must
also be out of line.
3. Notes of different lengths requiring separate heads
or stems must often lie out of line (recall what has just been
said of a tone common to two melodies).
The following interesting excerpts from a Jensen song-
accompaniment illustrates the above exceptions :
Jensen :
These exceptions, and occasionally others which are
readily recognizable when they occur, make it necessary when
reading music to determine in each case the moment of the
entrance of a sound by the place it holds in its own melody,
consulting to this end the value of the preceding note or
notes in the measure.
A dot placed after a note or rest adds
to its length half its value again ( J . = J + J ).
A second or third dot adds again half
the value of the preceding dot (*••=* + * + ¥)•
138
ELEMENTARY THEORY
Exercises in the Value of Notes and Rests.
1. Give the name of every note and rest used in the
musical illustrations of these lessons. Practise farther with
printed music until the sight of any note suggests at once
its name and time-value.
2. Write out the equivalents in eighth notes or rests
of the following signs :
below
3. Write on a single staff the three melodies given
i* J c-ir r
r p r
§> J H
=£
m
¥
^m
wm
J- J i J J
Absolute Duration: Tempo.
Much of the music written in the past and present has
no exact, absolute time-value assigned to any given note,
from which all others may be determined; for, within certain
limits, musicians can easily recognize how fast or how slow
a composition should move. It is, however, customary to
write at the beginning of a piece a descriptive word or two
which gives an approximate time-value to the notes. This
word or phrase is called a mark of tempo, or movement.
It announces either:
1.
etc.
The tempo alone; as lento, adagio, moderate, presto,
ELEMENTARY THEORY 139
2. The tempo and the character of the music ; as largo,
grave, andante, maestoso, animato, vivace, allegro, etc., or
3. The resemblance of the piece to some well-known
form of composition, from which tempo and character are to
be inferred; as tempo di menuetto, alia marcia, alia polacca,
etc.
Derivatives of many of these words are in common
use, as allegretto, andantino, prestissimo, etc. Also, they are
frequently modified by limiting words, as andante con moto,
adagio non troppo, etc.
With the tempo-mark there is often found an additional
sign of absolute duration, namely, a note coupled to a figure,
which states the number of such notes that may be played
in a minute. Thus: f 3.= 104, or J = 69). Such a
sign is called a metronome-mark, from the instrument called
a metronome, the pendulum of which, being set according
to a graduated scale, can be made to move any required
number of swings per minute, and so indicate the absolute
time-value of the given note.
Modification of Tempo.
But the expression of musical thought also demands a
certain amount of flexibility in hastening or retarding the
movement of the music during the course of performance.
Notation of these changes is likewise made by use of words
set at the required places about the music. For example:
piu mosso, meno mosso, accelerando, stretto, stringendo,
ritardando, rallentando, a tempo, tempo primo, doppio movi-
mento, Vistesso tempo, tempo rubato, senza tempo, etc.
[Note I. — All the signs cited above are Italian words.
Modern writers occasionally use for these purposes German,
French or English words,, the tendency being for each
musician to write in his own language. There is, however,
such a complete acceptance of certain Italian words that they
140 ELEMENTARY THEORY
will undoubtedly always continue in use by writers of what-
ever nationality. This is decidedly desirabble; for a nota-
tion to be perfect must be fixed and universal.]
[Note II. — The material given in this lesson does not
purpose to be exhaustive, only sufficient statements to fully
classify the notation-symbols can be presented. For the
meaning of all words or signs used in music, but not given
here, or stated but not explained, the student is referred to
the Dictionary of Musical Terms. It should be insisted upon
that every student have this dictionary always at hand, and
never allow a word or sign in the music he is studying to
pass unexplained.]
Exercises on Tempo Marks.
1. Make a table of all the tempo marks used in this
lesson, and add to each word or phrase its English transla-
tion. /
2. Read over the tempo marks in pieces of printed
music, and add all the new marks found there to the table
previously made.
LESSON VI.
NOTATION OF DURATION.
Special Notations.
Delivery or Touch. — The notation of delivery or
touch avoids the necessity of rests of special lengths, or an
excessive employment of rests. The treatment of touch is
as follows:
When tones succeed each other without gap the effect is
said to be legato. No signs are positively required to indi-
cate legato, yet frequently one is employed, namely the slur.
ELEMENTARY THEORY
141
This is a curved line drawn from the first to the last of the
notes that are to be delivered without break of silence. Thus,
Bach:
are equally to be played legato.
When tones slightly overlap each other the effect is said
to be legatissimo. This is a special pianoforte device, and
is notated by the word itself written at the beginning of the
passage which is to be played in this fashion.
When tones are slightly detached from each other, the
delivery causing an instant of silence between each tone and
the next, the effect is said to be non-legato. Its notation
is the word itself written at the beginning of the passage.
Such non-legato detachment is always required, also, between
the end of a slurred passage and that which follows.
When tones are still more sharply detached the effect is
called staccato. Here, but for the clumsiness in the nota-
tion, which would result, one might instead use shorter
values of notes alternating with rests.
Staccato effects are of different grades, which are
notated respectively (1) by points over and under the notes,
(2) by dots, or (3) by dots and slurs. With due allow-
ance for the rapidity or general character of the music the
effects may be roughly classified as follows:
1. The point takes from the note three-quarters of its
value. Thus
^ l\f k equals^ fay jly y |, ? y ,j j
142
ELEMENTARY THEORY
2. The dot takes from the note half its value. Thus
(yj If in e«ua,s | $> J * j fil
3. The dot and slur takes from the note a quarter of
its value. Thus
$rj J f JH eq»ais ^ ft yj'if ^i y jj
This last effect is called mezzo-staccato and requires
a suggestion of legato, yet plainly a detached delivery of the
tones. How to play a good mezzo-staccato is an important
problem of pianoforte technic.
Irregular Note Values.
Sometimes it is desirable to divide the value of a given
note by three, or to put four or five notes of equal value
in the time regularly taken for three. These and other
special lengths of tone are indicated by the notes nearest in
value to that required, with a slur and a group-figure that
specifies what is required. This in most cases causes the
value of the note used to be shortened, but sometimes it
extends its value.
Thus, the first measure in the following parallel exam-
ples indicates a contraction of the last three notes in the
upper example and an expansion of the first two in the
lower. The two illustrations, in their respective third meas-
ures, both show contractions in the value of the notes:
T
m
mm
m
^M
LCJ IfHclXJ
ELEMENTARY THEORY
143
The names given to such contracted or expanded groups
are, according to the number of notes involved, triplets,
quadruplets, quintuplets, etc. (See articles in the Dic-
tionary for further information.)
The Tie.
The tie is a curved mark similar to a slur used to
connect two notes of the same pitch and to indicate that the
two notes represent but one tone. The following cases occur
where a tone must be written as two notes tied:
1. When the tone is longer than a given note but
as long as the dot- jo"*V ^as onty the o + m
ted note. Thus | V notation ' r
2. Where a tone lies partly in one Q | ^-^ t
measure and partly in the next, thusjg^ J [J : jg P |
Here cJ is but one tone. «J ' '
[Note. — But Brahms sometimes, following the example
of mediseval writers, wrote such a tone fl ,
as a single note across the measure- gjp
bar, in this way : *T
The same rule is sometimes made to include that of
rhythmical divisions within the measure; but such applica-
tion has some very common exceptions which will be con-
sidered later. An illustration of the rule is as follows : Thus
jgJ7>JT] i "«::?*•
is not
3. When a clearer notation is produced in this way:
Thus
is better
than
144
ELEMENTARY THEORY
The Tremolo.
The direct opposite of the tie, where two notes are re-
quired for one tone, is the tremolo, where one note is made
to serve for a series of rapid repetitions of the same tone.
The notation of this is the use of straight hooks drawn
across the stem of the note, the number of hooks indicating
the value of each repetition-note.
Thus:
equals
A simultaneous tremolo of several notes on the piano
for the same hand is played by striking alternately higher
and lower tones.
Thus
equals
or
Where there can be any doubt as to whether such simul-
taneous repetitions upon the piano are to be played as a
tremolo or not, a portion of the effect is often notated in
full, to serve as a model for the whole;
as
jmU=-zB££
Broken Chords, or Arpeggios.
A series of tones struck rapidly in succession from lowest
to highest, but then continuing
to sound sinmultaneously, may —-7-;
be written in vertical lines, -~t- "
with the roll-mark, thus
The broken-chord effect, especially when it is somewhat
deliberate, is occasionally written in small arpeggio notes,
ppjor|pp
ELEMENTARY THEORY
145
which are then connected by ties to a vertical writing in
full-sized notes,
thus
or
On the pianoforte simultaneous
broken chords may be made with the
right and left hand, thus
Hence, of the single continuous roll
is desired, care must be taken to make the"
roll-mark continuous, as
Octave Abbreviation.
A passage to be played in octaves may be written as a
single melody, with the sign coll' 8va » signifying that
both the melody as written and the octave above it are to be
played; or coll' 8va bassa — signi fying that the melody and
the octave below it are to be played.
The Pause or Hold.
The sign /cn calls for a halt in the progress of the
music. Over or under a note it prolongs all the tones sound-
ing at the moment the note would otherwise end. Over or
under a rest it prolongs the silence. Over or under a bar it
detaches the music before the bar, by a silence, from that
which follows.
No definite rule for the duration of a hold can be given
except that it conforms to some rhythmic unit or group of
units.
146
ELEMENTARY THEORY
Repetition.
Any portion of a composition may be repeated by draw-
ing a double bar at its beginning and end, with dots after
the first double bar and
before the second, thus :
When the repeat is from the beginning of the music,
the first double bar and dots are not needed.
If in the repetition the last measure or two is to be
excluded and others substituted, a horizontal line is drawn
over the excluded measures, before the double bar, and the
phrase la prima volta (first time), ima, etc., or simply i, is
written; while over the substituted measures, after the double
bar, a similar line and the phrase la seconda volta (second
time), etc., appears. For example,
Bach:
indicates that for the first time one should play
i''LLUjj
but on the repeat:
ft'OlUjit 1
If at the beginning of a composition it be desired to
repeat some or all of the first part, the words da capo (from
the beginning), abbreviated D. C, are used, with a designa-
tion of how much is to be repeated. For example, D. C. al
/7\ means " repeat from the beginning to a double bar
having over it a hold " ; D. C. al fine means " repeat from the
beginning to the word fine (end)"; D. C. al \£, " repeat
to the sign."
ELEMENTARY THEORY
147
If the repeat is not from the beginning, the expression
dal segno, requiring repeat from the sign j£ , or dal segno
al segno, " from the sign to the sign," may be used.
Repetitions of short groups in printed music are usually
written out in full; but somewhat rarely (more frequently
in manuscript), the following signs are found:
When all the notes of a single measure, or portion of
a measure, are to be repeated, a single slanting line, with a
dot above and below y. or the word bis written above
the group to be repeated, will suffice to indicate the repeat,
thus :
bis
If all the notes repeated have the same time-value, the
dots in this sign may be omitted, the single line being used
if the notes are eighths or longer notes, while for notes of
less time-value the number of lines corresponds to the re-
quired note-value, thus:
^,rrjji - 1 JTn - [--I -rm
m
tf *
Occasionally, when such repetition group has but two or
three tones of little time-value, the figures are written out
in notes each of which would occupy the whole time, but
with hooks joined to the notes in such a way as to indicate
the actual tone-values to be played and repeated.
Thus
5fe
equals
and
equals
148 ELEMENTARY THEORY
Ornaments.
The remainder of the special notations to be referred
• to are usually classed as signs of ornamentation, the effects
for which they call being regarded as " graces " to the
music.
There is a division of opinion among musicians as to
the manner in which many of these signs are to be played;
the issue being whether the grace-notes in question should
take their time of performance from the note with which
they are written, or from the note or rest preceding this.
This division is in reality a conflict as to the purpose and
value of ornamentation in music.
The theory which is historically the earlier, and was
apparently universal in the days of Bach, and even later
than Mozart, assumes that graces are, for the most part, a
rhythmic as well as a melodic variation of the music to
which the graces are added; the alteration of melody being
heightened by the piquant irregularity brought into the
rhythm.
It may be said in behalf of this theory that the music
of the periods which used these signs the most has a free-
dom of rhythm quite in accord with such a conception,
while the musical instruments were then at a stage of
development which would naturally give rise to such
effects.
The contrary theory asserts that graces are but delicate
adornments of music, disturbing neither the onward flow of
rhythm nor of melody.
Inasmuch as classic writers have usually been fully
committed to the one or the other theory, the use of graces
which each composer makes must be studied in the light of
his own history.
One admirable result of the conflict is, that modern
writers, in order to express themselves unmistakably, are
ELEMENTARY THEORY
149
being forced to abandon most of the old signs, and write
everything out in full. Moreover, the conception that grace
notes are the delicate traceries in music has led composers
to put the special ornaments based on this view, into smaller
notes than the rest of the music, such notes to be played
without disturbing the rhythmic onflow, and frequently also
more lightly than the rest.
The principal signs to be found in classic and modern
music are the mordent /n|*vj the pralltriller (inverted
mordent, *v, the turn «s», the trill or shake **v or tr wn
the long and short appoggiatura, and the double appog-
giatura.
For definition of these words, and instructions as to
their performance, consult the Dictionary of the American
History and Encyclopedia of Music, or the judgment of
teachers, since there is no universally recognized authority
in the matter. See, for an exhaustive study of the subject,
" Musical Ornamentation," by Edward Dannreuther.
Exercises in Special Notations of Duration.
1. Simplify and correct the following passage:
g»? hy JwtJt?> 1 n u [J 1 fay pyv h
(for pi JfrrJwtJWl .P^fflfl^pygfe
jl lUffJCflU^
150 ELEMENTARY THEORY
2. Write out in full the following condensed passage:
bis
3. Look up and write out the definitions of all words
in this lesson not already explained.
LESSON VII.
NOTATION OF FORCE AND OF COLOR.
Notation of Force (Dynamics).
Notation of dynamics in music is of two distinct sorts:
First. — General expression of force.
Second. — Indications of accent, connected directly or
indirectly with rhythm.
General Dynamics.
The sounds in music are of varying degrees of force,
the music being or becoming louder, or being or becoming
softer at one time than another; part of the tones which
sound at a given moment having, it may be, greater stress
than the remainder, etc.
The notation of these gradations in force is by the use
of letters, words or signs, placed in and about the music.
From softest to loudest, the letter-abbreviations in com-
mon use are: ppp, pp, p (piano), mp (mezzo piano), mf, f
(forte), ff and ///. The effect called for by any of these
letters is assumed to continue until contradicted by some
riew sign.
ELEMENTARY THEORY 151
A gradual increase of force is indicated by the word
crescendo, cresc, or by the sign <d A gradual
decrease of force is indicated by the word diminuendo, dim.,
or by the sign 3^r==> Both of these words are fre-
quently modified as poco a poco cresc, or molto dim., etc.
Sudden force on a single tone or chord is indicated by
sf, sfz, fz, Aorv (all standing for the word sforsando).
When a single tone thus emphasized decreased instantly
piano, the letters sfp are used.
A series of sforzando notes in a single melody may be
indicated by the words marcato, marcatissimo ; an entire
passage thus emphasized by rfz (rinforzando). An extremely
heavy pasage of sforzando effects may be marked martellato.
Legato passages for the piano, having tones to be made
full and prominent but not to be sharply struck, may have a
short horizon- — — drawn over the notes in question,
tal mark, thus: | | or may use the word tempo.
The word pesante calls for still more weighty effect of the
same sort.
Non-legato notes use for the "Z
same purpose the mark and dot, thus : \
A number of words that primarily refer to tempo are
found so certainly to involve also a dynamic change that the
accompanying sign of force is usually omitted, it being im-
plied in the tempo indication. For example, the following
words are commonly felt to have this double sense: strin-
gendo (equals accelerando e crescendo), rallentando (equals
ritardando e diminuendo) , and attar gando (equals ritardando
e pin forte).
Accent.
In music as in speech there is constant interplay of more
or less prominence given to the tones as they succeed each
other. The more prominent tones are termed accented
tones. Accents are of two sorts, special accents and rhythmic
accents.
152 ELEMENTARY THEORY
Special accents lay stress on the tones by added force,
but are unconnected with the idea of time. They are notated,
whenever they occur, by the sforzando mark, as is indicated
in the previous paragraph.
Rhythmic accents are involved in the problem of the
grouping of time-units (commonly called beats or pulses).
This grouping is accomplished by the regular recurrence of
accented beats. It must be noticed, however, that rhythmic
accents are not necessarily or always brought about by stress
due to loudness of tones. The extra length of tones begin-
ning on the beat, or an important chord, can serve equally
well to give accent. The notation of rhythmic accents is
connected with the treatment of rhythm itself, and can best
be discussed under the latter head.
Exercises in the Notation of Dynamics.
1. Indicate by signs (not words) the fact that the fol-
lowing melody should begin softly, increase gradually to its
most important note, and then suddenly become soft, after
which it is to die away to the softest possible tone:
2. Read the signs of force placed about in printed
music until these signs suggest at once the treatment of the
music required thereby.
3. State what sort of accents depend wholly upon
force. What depend partly upon force. How can accent
be indicated without any special stress?
Color.
Timbre, or color, often called quality, is that charac-
teristic of musical sounds which makes the violin tone differ
from the flute tone, the human voice from the trumpet, etc.,
ELEMENTARY THEORY 153
although in pitch, length and force the sounds utered be
identical. A thorough understanding of this would call for
a complete study of acoustics — the physical basis of sound.
*or the purpose of musical judgment and knowledge of color
effects, the following statements may be sufficient:
Color in a Single Tone.
What is ordinarily recognized as a single tone is, almost
without exception, in reality a group of sounds of different
pitch, making a composite tone. The composite consists of
either the whole or some portion of the following series;
namely, a lowest sound, called a fundamental, which is the
only pitch we usually notice, and after which we name the
tone; and, in addition, a large number of higher sounds,
called overtones, upper partials, or harmonics, which are
related to the lowest, as, in the example below, the higher
tones are to the tone C. The complete composite tone is
called the harmonic chord of nature.
[Note. — The illustration presents the composite tone of
great C, carried up as far as c". The tones represented by
bracketed notes are decidedly out of pitch in our scale sys-
tem, while several of the others are slightly falsified by the
tempered scale.]
m
3H
3E
Under usual circumstances the fundamental of the group
is by far the loudest sound, the others rapidly decreasing in
volume as the series ascends. The difference in color which
the same tone has when produced on different instruments
154 ELEMENTARY THEORY
is due either to the presence or absence of certain of these
upper partials (that is, to the completeness of the composite),
or to variation in the force of some of the partials. Instru-
ments which have few and low upper partials predominating
give a smoother tone, while instruments which have many
and high partials predominating give a more incisive tone.
The Educating Influence of the Harmonic Chord.
A large number of the laws of simple harmony and of
melody are based on the unconscious education of the ear by
the harmonic chord of nature. That is, many of the effects
of harmony, which practical musicians have recognized as
good, already appear in miniature in the harmonic chord.
It must, however, be remembered that the molding power of
the chord has been historically, and must be practically, lim-
ited by the sensitiveness of the unaided ear to harmonic
effects in the chord and in music. Attempts to justify rules
of harmony from the presence in the harmonic chord of
extremely high and feeble partials, must be fallacious. The
judgment of musicians as to color effects is almost invariably
instinctive. The thing they pronounce good will later be
demonstrated to be so, but they cannot tell why at the time.
Color in Combinations of Tone.
When tones are combined in chords, since each tone is
a composite, the chord as a whole produces a new color
which varied greatly according to the actual tones used, the
color of each single tone, etc. This is the more complicated,
because a chord actually creates certain tones (resultant
tones) lower than any of the fundamentals in the chord;
i. e., sounds which were not present in any single composite
tone.
The smoothness or harshness of a chord, however, is
found to depend upon the same general characteristics as in
the case of a single tone.
ELEMENTARY THEORY
155
That is, chords in which the upper partials of the single
tones unite to emphasize in the main the lower partials of the
combined series will be smooth and rich; while chords in
which the upper partials conflict or emphasize the higher
partials of the series will be brilliant or harsh.
The chord
detailed.
3 *8 *g
The
chord
effect.
4^
Detail.
£
4&J*
ITT 7T
Another
chord
Effect. effect.
8 $£ t'tgU
^g=
m
3?E
TT
Notice that of the chords here given, those whose tones
are at greater distance from each other, and whose tones are
higher in pitch, are smoother in effect.
Composers are able to take skilful advantage of this fact,
either to increase a feeling of unrest in their music, or to
create a delightful sense of restfulness.
The harshness or smoothness of any chord can likewise
be intensified by the use of instruments which emphasize
those partials that will produce the desired effect, or which
omit those partials that would hinder the effect. Thus the
varying purposes of the music are heightened by skilful use
of color in instruments. It is this which lends much richness
and diversity to orchestral music.
Notation of Color.
Notation of color is therefore seen to consist of two
things: first, the choice of chord-tones; second, the choice of
instruments.
156 ELEMENTARY THEORY
The first is involved in the make-up of the music as a
whole. The second is what is called scoring of the compo-
sition — for human voices, orchestra, band, organ, piano — •
one or. all of these.
Exercises on the Notation of Color.
[Note. — It is difficult to present exercises based on so
brief a statement of color as that in the preceding para-
graphs. The following questions may prove suggestive :]
1. Why do chords played in the middle register of
the pianoforte (c to cs) sound well in a close arrangement,
while those played below c seem blurred and dull, and those
above c* seem thin?
2. Why does the music of a male quartet sound richer
than that of a female quartet?
■*»- ■**:
3. Why .q. 77 • sound restful -ty {fn, sound
does the chord '-'*' " but the chord EEEz^EE unrest ful?
LESSON VIII.
RHYTHM : ACCENT GROUPS.
Rhythm in music is the orderly marshaling of the units,
and of groups of units. It is the element of unity in time
upon which all proportion depends.
Abstractly stated, it is the grouping of time into regular
successions of time-periods by the recurrence of identical or
of similar phenomena.
Time-units are grouped by the regular return of accent
into accent groups (or musical meters).
Accent Groups.
Accent groups are either simple, compound or mixed
(complex).
ELEMENTARY THEORY
157
Simple accent groups have but one accent to the
group, and are usually made of two, of three, and rarely, in
quick tempo, of four beats.
Simple accent groups have, then, the following group
forms (using the numeral I. to indicate the accented beat) :
Group by twos, either (1, 2) (1, 2) or (2, 1) (2, I) :
Mendelssohn ^
(2 , T ) (2, i ) (2 • * )(2' ' >
Group by threes, (1,2,3) (1,2,3) or (3,1,2) (3,1,2)
or (2, 3, 1) (2, 3, 1).
Beethoven
(l 2 3)(1 2 3)(1 2 3)(l23)(l2 3)U23)(l 2 3) (l 2 3)
.Beethoven
(3 12)(3 12)£ 1 2) (3 12) (3 12)(3.12)(3 1 2) (3 12)
(2 8 l)(2 8 l)(2 3 l)(2 3 l)(2 8 l) (2 3 l)
158
ELEMENTARY THEORY
Group by fours; such groups, through rare, reveal them-
selves in the rapid tick-like beats and single accent :
Beethoven
°resto . . .
4 (1 2 3 4) (l 2 8 4) (t 2 * 4 )(l 8 8 4 )
Compound accent groups have two or more accents
of different degrees of importance to the group. They are
to be thought of as a grouping of the simple groups by
means of added stronger accents.
Thus, two groups of simple twos combine to a com-
pound of four with the following possible variants:
.Beethoven
"* — -44* — * * m0 o
(4, 1, 2, 3)(4, i,2,3)(4 1, 2,3)(4 1,2^3)
HAYDEN
fJ!Nq! f
(3, 4, 1, 2) (3, 4, 1, 2)(3, 4, 1, 2)(3, 4,. i, 2)
RUBINSTEIN
t
m
r i r i^i d j * * * f "^^
(2, 3, 4, i)(2, 3, 4, 0(2,3, 4, i)(2, 3, 4, l)
ELEMENTARY THEORY
159
Compounds of simple threes combine to make nines,
with nine possible variants:
BEETHOVEN
*
(1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8, 9) 0,2,3,4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9)
»tfi U
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9) 0,2,3,4,5
Mixed accent groups, or complex accent groups are
those formed by uniting two simple groups of threes into a
larger group of six, or three simple groups of twos into a
group of six :
MOZART
<?»* LLT L I' LXJ1 i1 f"1 ''f pr PU
ft, 2,3,4,5,6X1, 2,3,4,5,6)01, 2,3,4,5,6)(1, 2, 3, 4,5,6)
BEETHOVEN
=» ^ •». -Ji ^
(5 6,1,2,3,4J(5,6,1,2,3,4)(5,6,1,2, 3,4) (5,6, 1,2,3
In the notation of rhythm a difficulty arises in regard to
mixed accent groups which will be treated in the paragraph
discussing time signatures.
Notation of Accent Groups.
The bar line is a vertical stroke across the staff drawn
before each beat 1 of a group, whether simple or compound;
that is, before each strongest accent of the group form.
160
ELEMENTARY THEORY
These bars mark off the music into regular sections called
measures, which are often confused with the metric or ac-
cent group, since they have the same length and are so obvi-
ous in appearance.
It is important to understand thoroughly the distinction
between a measure and an accent group. The latter has the
same length as the former, but may begin on any beat of the
measure. The latter is the real musical group, the former is
the mechanical indication of group.
The time signature is a fraction placed after the key
signature on the first staff of the music (not repeated with
each staff).
It serves to tell the meter in the following way: the
numerator of the fraction gives the number of beats in the
accent group, while the denominator, with one as numerator,
gives the name of the note-value for each beat.
Music, the measure of which contains two units, or its
square, is said to be in duple time. The signatures of duple
time in common use are:
2 2 2
2, 4, 8.
4 4 4
2, 4, 8.
Single duple time,
Compound duple time,
A common substitute for \ is the sign (p- This
must be distinguished from the equally common sign G
without the vertical line, which is usual as a substitute
for |_ Consult the dictionary, under the head Alla Breve,
for further statement of the meaning of these signs:
HAYDN
Presto
ELEMENTARY THEORY
161
SCHUBERT.Op 90, No 1
^irrrcJirprcjiT'ic/rcJin
Music, the measure of which contains three units or its
square, is said to be in triple time. The signatures of
triple time in common use are:
3 3 3
2, 4, 8.
Simple triple time,
Compound triple time, ^ |; j^
VOLKMANN,
j^ JjjJiJJ] \ijj\QJ
BRAHMS, 3d. Symphony.
Music, the measure of which contains the multiple of
three units by two, has sometimes been classed under the
head of duple, sometimes under the head of triple time. A
more exact name would be mixed time. The signatures of
mixed time in common use have as numerator either 6
(threes combined by twos), or 12 (threes combined by twos
and by twos again). They are:
Compound mixed time, \t |; *<,.
Double-compound mixed time, " *j| JS.
162 ELEMENTARY THEORY
BEETHOVEN
MENDELSSOHN
The opposite kind of six-beat group, in which the simple
group is of two, does not have a true time signature, but
borrows the simple signature of its larger grouping (3).
MENDELSSOHN
dndante
ImM
m
frP
j. sn
^rn
"■Mr r
JHi
W?
r m
~sempre piano legatissimo
(!)(?
2 3456
)
This observation is important to the practical student,
for it furnishes him the following rule: In counting music
of moderate or slow tempo with the signatures % or %
count six beats to the measure, accenting beats i, j and 5.
Double-compound time signatures are rarely found in
music, except that already given with 12 for numerator.
They offer no difficulty to the student.
ELEMENTARY THEORY
163
Music with irregular time signature, such as | or \
is a form of mixed time due to alternation of two or more
differing simple groups; the group of 5 being 2 + 3, or
3 + 2; the group of seven being 3 + 4 or 2 + 3 + 2, or
4 + 3. The simple groups can usually be detected on in-
ternal evidence quite readily.
Interchange of Accent-Group Forms.
Since the chief value of a rhythm depends upon the
regularity of the recurrent accent, and not so much on the
place of the accent in the group, advantage is often taken of
this fact in music, as in poetry, to change the group form
without altering the march of the accents. For example, in
the andante of the Beethoven Sonata, op. 26, the rhythmic
group , suggested by the first three notes, is so often
apparently abandoned for the group — that one might re-
gard the unaccented beginning note as a mere preliminary to
the latter group form, did not the former plainly assert it-
self in the sixteenth measure and following. The following
extract from Mendelssohn's second Song Without Words
illustrates this, where the shift in rhythmic grouping consti-
tutes one of the special charms of the piece:
1
(1
2) (1 2 3) (l 2 3) (1 '2 3)
2 3)
It is this frequent shift of group form that renders the
present mode of marking off measures by bars before the
164 ELEMENTARY THEORY
strongest accents far better than any attempt to indicate the
rhythmic groups themselves to the eye. On the other hand,
it is necessary that a writer or interpreter of music should
perceive in every instance the group form at the moment in
use.
Exercises in Accent-Group Rhythm.
First. — Copy out the musical examples in this lesson
which have time signatures or bars, inserting the signatures
and bars in the proper places.
Second. — Copy the first few measures of pieces in all
the different time signatures, which you can find. Place
below the music the indications of group form used.
LESSON IX.
SPECIAL EFFECTS OF RHYTHM.
Irregular and Complicated Time.
Composers sometimes interrupt the regularity of the
grouping in a piece to insert momentary groupings of an-
other sort. When the notation in this device cannot be
effected by the use of the expanded or contracted note values
(triplets, etc.), spoken of in Lesson VI., the change of time
is indicated by the proper time signature inserted at the
moment and corrected when the old time returns.
Often in music two kinds of rhythmic grouping are
carried along together. In this case it is customary to use
a time signature that fits to the more important rhythm.
The following example gives a melody in mixed time
(2 + 2 + 2), and accompaniment in compound triple
time. The time-signature of this example is that of the.
ELEMENTARY THEORY
165
melody i The true time-signature for the accompaniment
would be I.
MENDELSSOHN
This complication is found somewhat more rarely with
three notes against four, or four notes against five.
The true right-hand signature for the following example
would be |, of the left hand, \
I
CHOPIN, Etude
Wt *
r r >r r j br
m
^=fr«
etc.
Wi?w
tjjJ ^l! fgP L-^T
Instances are also found where the time units coincide,
but the rhythmic accents differ, as in the following examples.
The right-hand signature of this would be g (2 -f- 2 + 2) ;
the left-hand, ^ In seeking for a common signature,
Schumann chose %t thus insisting upon the triplet effect
of the left hand, the regular pulsation of which, against the
prominent, almost overpowering, simplicity of the melody in
| constitutes the greatest charm of the music:
166
ELEMENTARY THEORY
SCHUMANN, Op 12,No.i.
¥ ffto
#
m
•^v etc.
P=£jE
£^
m
ar\
M
m
$
&
j*
3
Grammatical and Rhetorical Accents.
The accents which are essential to regular rhythmic
groupings are called grammatical accents, to distinguish
them from those added, and often irregular, stresses which
are used to produce unusual or characteristic rhythmic effects.
These are called rhetorical accents. The latter are addi-
tions to the regular accent rhythms, and in no sense substi-
tutions for them.
Syncopation.
One of the most frequently used and most interesting
of these added effects of rhetorical stress is called synco-
pation.
This is an apparent displacement of the grammatical
accent by giving greater importance to what would else be
unaccented.
It may be accomplished — -
ROSSINI,Stabat Mater.
First. — By contin-
uing a tone from the
unaccented part of a
measure over the time
of the regular accent:
11 my '1,1
Glo - - ri - a
Second.-
cented :
-By a sforzando on a note not regularly ac-
ELEMENTARY THEORY
167
BEETHOVEN,
Septette,Op.20.
BEETHOVEN,
Op.l4,No.2.
ji'iiiiii'iiiUjiri^iifliinTiiifi ii
Third.— By slurring from the weakest (unaccented) part
of the measure to a strong one:
SCHUMANN
unless the note at the regular accent is the longer, or is given
a sforzando mark; thus the following is not syncopated:
BEETHOVEN, Op 14. No 2
Fourth. — By introducing a rest at the regular accent:
GRIEG
Andante con sentimento
#tii«
IP
''"'»" JlLr"l'ti
iip
168
ELEMENTARY THEORY
SATNT-SAENS. Lyre and Harp
3E
JjMU'J.JIjJ. JIJTJ
Ft/ffc — By
use of longer
tone values on
the weak parts
of the measure:
Although these apparent displacements are exceedingly
common, and often very beautiful in their occasional and
irregular use, the essential nature of syncopation is best
seen in its rhythmic use. This consists in combining two
rhythms with the accents of the syncopation rhythm always
or chiefly where the main rhythm is unaccented.
To be of value, this added rhythm must be continued,
on the one hand, long enough to command recognition as a
rhythm; and, on the other, not so long as to supplant the
old rhythm, and thus cause an actual change of time. The
beauty of the device lies in the allegiance of the mind to the
old rhythm, which persists against the insistence of the new,
and compels its final submission:
BEETHOVEN, Op. 27, No 2.
SynCg0rlupn^ 2> »Mi. 2, 3)
MTouP <*. 2> 3) (I 2,3)
ELEMENTARY THEORY
169
BEETHOVEN, Op. 14, No. 2.
rj__h h h ,
J> J> J> Jl
f*N=l
— a7S«*|~,.»-
"-^_ • • •
Syncopation
group
Main
group
(12 3 £)
(12 3 4)
f'n r r
Edgs
Flf
ViP
F~*~
' j>f j)F j> J j#
^p
STRAUSS, Waltz
ij Fm f?ii frrif?rfrri*rVr
^
Syncopation
group
Mam
group
m
(<J 1H2 l)U 1) (2 1)(2 (1) 2 3
c(l 2 3) (1 a 3) (1 2 3) (1 2* 3)
Rhythmic syncopation is often so made as to tempo-
rarily abandon (in sound) the original, rhythm, leaving no
way except the memory to preserve the feeling of the original
rhythm, as in the following example by Schumann. Most
writers, however, either frequently return for a moment to
the original rhythm, or introduce it with the syncopation,
in order to prevent the listener from losing the syncopation
170
ELEMENTARY THEORY
feeling, and from regarding the music as a simple change
of time :
A
Hi
SCHUMANN,Concerto,Op.54.
i
m
p^
w
I
vhh f ' *r
■< J y h
^^
Syncopation
group
Main
groui
ip
i
(I. 2) (), 2) (1, 2) (1, 2)(1,
(l 2 3) (1 2 3) (l 2 3)
gE
^^
W
w
f
v:¥ ' J ^J
f3Ef
ij
i
m
^
2)
A very beautiful intermittent syncopation is often found
in the accompaniment of a melody, where the strongest ac-
cents of a rhythm are retained, but the syncopation regu-
larly overthrows the weaker accents:
RUBINSTEIN.Op 44,Nol
f.i^^ffl.pUf1^
&fe
f
m
i
k-Z
mm
E
S
A final distinction between rhythm in its general and
universal sense, and a rhythm, needs to be drawn here. It
is common to use the latter phrase " a rhythm " to describe
a musical pattern of tone in rhythm, where the emphasis is
placed not upon the grouping of beats, but upon the actual
ELEMENTARY THEORY 171
lengths of the notes as well. Thus we speak of the rhythm
of the mazurka, and mean not simply % time, but the entire
swing given to the melody > ^ > =-»-->.=-».
%&%£* charac" lorr lorrjorr Irr I
There is an additional use of rhetorical accent in dance
and march rhythms, consisting of extra stress on the gram-
matical accents, such as would be out of place in other music,
but which here gives the characteristic swing to the
rhythm. Many dances have also a syncopation accent, and
fall into special rhythmic patterns in melody or accompani-
ment.
Rhythmic Interpretation.
No notation of duration or force has ever been devised
subtle or complete enough to cover all those shades of expres-
sion which lie potentially in any good composition. The
general intent of the music, grave or gay, passionate or plead-
ing, may be hinted at in a crude way by word or phrase
here and there upon the page ; for example : con espressione,
dolce, dolente, vivace, con fuoco, amabile, grasioso, appas-
sionato, maestoso, and many others.
But beyond this is the something which appeals to the
nature of the musician, who then out of his own soul has to
develop and complete the expression. This is the art of
interpretation, and the great player, like the great actor, is
he who can most completely utter the fulness of the thought
which lay in the original conception. A perfect interpreta-
tion can, indeed, sometimes bring forth more from the music
than the composer imagined, but never less.
The delicate accentuations which are supplemental to
the written page are sometimes called pathetic accents.
It is upon these that the individuality of an interpretation
largely depends. One of the problems of notation which a
composer must decide in every instance is, how completely
he shall write out indications of expression; that is, con-
172
ELEMENTARY THEORY
versely, how far he can safely leave a passage to the sense
of the musician for its interpretation, since, in any case, there
is much that must remain unwritten.
On the side of the player general condemnation is
given to one who insists on an interpretation which disre-
gards the marks of the composer's intention; whereas con-
siderable variation in unwritten effects may be allowed.
Exercises on Special Effects of Rhythm.
These must consist mainly in examination of printed
music to discover
First. — Instances of momentary syncopation;
Second. — Instances of rhythmic syncopation;
Third. — Instances of characteristic rhythms.
The fondness of Schumann, of Brahms, and of the mod-
ern French school for these special effects makes it possible
to send the student to the pages of their pianoforte writings
almost at random in search of these beautiful rhythmic
devices.
It will be noticed that sometimes the signatures and
accent signs furnish an instant clue to the rhythmic purpose
of the composer; but also sometimes nothing but the attempt
to play the page reveals the subtle cross purposes of
rhythm.
1. Analyze the following melody from the Minnelied
of Brahms. Is it a case of accidental or of rhythmic synco-
pation ?
S
^X^iX-fJ^j J I
^-ipF-f^f^i* ^O Q ^pg
ELEMENTARY THEORY 173
2. State the characteristic rhythm of a waltz. How
could the time-signature of regular waltzes be changed to
advantage ?
3. List and define the words in this lesson that have
not been explained.
LESSON X.
CADENCE GROUPS AND THE EFFECT OF
RHYTHM ON NOTATION.
Cadence Groups.
Accent-groups are themselves grouped into cadence-
groups usually by twos or by fours, more rarely by threes
or by fives. In this larger rhythmic-grouping of music the
method is no longer through accent, but rather by a shaping
of the melodies and harmonies in such a way that there is
created the impression of coming more or less to a conclu-
sion. This finish to each of the larger groups is called the
cadence. In the study of harmony the student learns how
to construct the various cadences and how to use them at
the end of the proper accent-groups to conclude the cadence-
group.
Cadence-rhythms present nothing new under the head
of dynamics, and involve notation in but a slight degree.
They need, therefore, only such statement here as shall make
clear their connection with accent-rhythms. This may be
given as follows:
Simple Cadence-Groups are formed by uniting accent-
rhythm, simple or compound, by twos or by fours, or only
rarely by threes or by fives.
174
ELEMENTARY THEORY
Simple accent-rhythms are apt to group by fours, com-
pound accent-rhythms by twos. The grouping is effected by
the cadence which ends the group:
MENDELSSOHN, Elijah
Ccadence)
(cadence)
He that shall en-dure to tneend, shall be sav-ed,
Compound cadence-groups are formed by uniting
simple cadence-groups, usually by twos, into the larger
rhythm. The grouping is effected by having the cadence
which closes the compound group more assertive (stronger)
than the others :
WAGNER, Goetterdaeinmerung.
j'ljifcljjij.
(cadence)
Double-compound cadence-groups are formed by
uniting compound cadence-groups, by twos, sometimes by
threes, to form a group which is felt to be musically com-
plete. Usually a double-compound cadence-group is suffi-
cient to completely express a musical thought. It is then
called a period.
[Note. — A distinction is to be made between the double-
compound cadence-group and the period.
The period is a complete rhythmic utterance of a
musical thought. A double-compound cadence-group is
almost always a period. But some musical thoughts can be
framed within the limits of a compound, or even of a simple
cadence-group. These short periods are somewhat excep-
tional, but not at all abnormal. A careful observance of this
distinction is essential to a correct understanding of the
rhythmic structure of music]
ELEMENTARY THEORY 175
The putting together of periods in order to make a
complete piece of music is the problem of musical form.
Rhythm is thus seen to merge into musical form, and to be
the constructive time element of music at every stage.
Notation of Cadence-Rhythms.
The only notation-symbol that is connected with
cadence-rhythm is the double bar: This is __
drawn at the end of a composition or of some ||
cadence-group thereof. Since it is based " ~~
on the rhythmic group, and not on the measure as such, it
frequently comes in the middle of a measure, and is not to
be counfounded with the measure-bar. Often in hymn-
tunes a single broad bar, which is a modified double-bar, is
drawn at the close of each simple cadence-group (sung to a
line of verse). The laws for its placing, therefore, are the
same as for the double-bar.
The Effect of Measure on the Writing of Notes
and Rests.
The rules for the writing of notes are based, not upon
the rhythmic group, but upon the measure and its divisions.
For this purpose a distinction is made between the strong
and the weak parts of the measure, as follows:
The first beat of the measure is the strongest part of it.
Other accented beats are relatively strong or weak as they
are in the rhythmic group. Unaccented beats are weaker
than accented; and the beginning of any beat is stronger
than its continuation.
The largest divisions of a measure are from strong
accented beat to strong accented beat; the smaller divisions
are from any accented beat to the next accented beat.
Rule I. — A tone or silence filling a measure, a measure-
division, or a complete beat must be written as a single char-
acter.
176
ELEMENTARY THEORY
The exceptions to this rule are
(a.) When it is the length of five, seven, or nine beats.
(&.) When tied notes simplify the notation (see Les-
son VI).
(c.) Three eights usually take the following rests,
j[ 1 , instead of ) .
Rule II. — A tone that begins a measure-division but
extends beyond it is written as a single character only when
the extension is produced by a dot, and it passes no stronger
accent than that on which began. Thus 4 J • J|
is right; but }(J)JJ.J>J| should bej J J^ Jl J|
and g J J should be % J . J) J |
Rule III. — Syncopation-tones that pass an important
measure-division should not be written as single notes,
except in case of very simple syncopation.
Thus § J J^J. is right, not. ff ; but CjJ • is usual.
Rule IV. — Notes of small value stroked together (i. e.,
with hooks joined) should not carry the stroking beyond a
measure-division. When as many as four of the notes
stroked come within a beat, usually the stroking does not
pass the beat; e. g. :
G ADE . Romanza .
&ifl$llw^j&whi
A single stroked note of smaller value than the remain-
der, turns its extra stroke toward the dotted note with
ELEMENTARY THEORY
177
which it combines, or, no dotted note is present, toward
the other notes in the same beat or measure-division.
e.g.:§J3] and JJ], ■ but ftJ3J>
Rule V.— A silence longer than a beat, that continues
beyOnd an accent, or does not fill a measure division should
not be written as a single rest.
Thus £J]jJ should be J]?yJ ;and|-"-J
should be jvl
The exception to this is when a number of rests of
small value would be confusing, and the larger rests does
not obscure the rhythm. For example 6 \ ., „ > „ ft
is better than ^7777 ffk 8-77' 7J1
Exercises on the Notation of the Measure.
1. Correct the notation of the following passage:
2. Change the time-signature of the quotation from
Beethoven |# (Lesson VIII., page 162) to | and make the
necessary corrections in notation.
Treat in the same way the two following quotations
from Mendelssohn, changing *g to %t and | to |
178 ELEMENTARY THEORY
3. Write suitable rests for a half-measure of time
beginning at the first beat; beginning at the second beat;
beginning at the third beat.
Write suitable rests equal to a doubly-dotted half-note
in time beginning with the second beat of a measure.
4. Group the stroked notes of ____________
the following passage suitably to J J J J J J J J J JjJ
indicate 12 time, 6 time, and 3 time :
LESSON XI.
CHORDS.
The study of harmony is the study of chords and their
handling.
A chord consists of three or more tones, expressed or
implied, which so stand related to each other, when sounded
at the same instant, that they create a musical unity or whole.
Not all the tones that may be sounded at once form a chord,
although any two can serve to suggest some chord of which
they are part. Tones that do not belong in a given chord
are always felt as in transit — to or from a note of it, and
are called non-harmonic tones. Most non-harmonic tones
are neighboring tones, that is, are tones a half- or a whole-
step away from a chord-tone, and have a melodic tendency
toward it.
The simplest and most restful chord in music is that
known as the major triad (i. e., a three-tone chord). It
consists of a tone, its major third, and its perfect fifth, and
any or all duplicates of these in different octaves. The
names of the three tones are root, third and fifth:
ELEMENTARY THEORY
179
F Minor triad Various arrangements
of it. i^»
y "root
v **• ■*»- -e-
' / o'"> " I'S-B
[Note. — This chord is derived from the harmonic chord
of nature. An interesting experiment making this plain is
as follows:
Thrust pencils under the fall-board of a piano above
the keys so as to depress small c and g, one-lined c and e,
and so as to raise the dampers without causing the strings to
sound. Now strike great C, but quickly release it, so that
the damper falls and checks its tone. You will find that the
four other strings continue singing the full chord (triad)
of C, since these are the first-four harmonics of the tone C,
and have been set into sympathetic vibration by the striking
of the latter key. If you strike any other key of the great- or
sub-octave the undamped chord will sound but in part or not
at all. Harmonics are actually present in every single tone,
as was explained in Lesson VII, though not apprehended
by us as separate sounds. The unconscious education of the
ear, however, leads us to accept with special satisfaction and
recognize as a real unit any combination of tones taken
from these lower harmonics of the chord of nature. For,
just as simple tones appear and die away in nature, so we
are led to accept the appearance of the chord derived from
the chord of nature equally as restful and independent.]
The next chord in simplicity and rest fulness of feeling
is that known as the minor triad. It consists of a tone, its
minor third and its perfect fifth, and any or all duplicates
of these in different octaves:
180
ELEMENTARY THEORY
D Major triad
Various arrangements
of it.
'fag |g<" '"' » " II
m
-*3-
r°-
[Note. — By a demonstration somewhat more compli-
cated some theorists attempt to show that the minor triad
has, equally with the major triad, a logical physical basis in
what are known as combination tones, or in a downward
series of harmonics from the second octave above the fifth
of the chord. It is, however, sufficient excuse for the feeling
of unity, and of restfulness, to observe that the chord has
the identical intervals of the major chord, and differs solely
from the latter in the order of the intervals.]
These two triads are the only chords which are musically
independent, and inherently restful. They are known as
consonant chords, since the intervals that enter into them,
and their inversions are all consonant intervals. ( See Lesson
IV. under Intervals.)
All other chords than these two are unrestful or incom-
plete; that is, they seem to require to be followed by a suit-
able consonant chord in order to complete the sense. They
are called dissonant chords. Most of the intervals that
enter into them are seen to be consonant; but in every chord
at least one interval that is not consonant is found, and one
or both of the tones of this interval create the unrestful
feeling that characterizes the chord. It is not the harshness
of a chord or interval that makes it dissonant. On the con-
trary, some of the dissonant chords are far more smooth
than most arrangements of the major or minor triad; and
they are frequently chosen by composers for the pure loveli-
ness of their combination of tones. But they refuse to assert
ELEMENTARY THEORY
181
finality; they pass one on to the something which is to
follow.
[Note.— Consonant triads sometimes do this too; but
it is because of the special arrangement of their tones, or of
the place of the chord in rhythm, and not because of the
inherent character of the chord itself. J
The dissonant triads which have attained importance in
harmony are:
The diminished triad. This differs from
the minor triad, in that its fifth is diminished;
e. g.:
And the augmented triad. This differs
from the major triad, in that its fifth is aug-
mented, e. g. :
Four-note chords have root, third, fifth, and seventh,
and are called seventh-chords. Five-note chords have
root, third, fifth, seventh, and ninth, and are called ninth-
chords.
♦
g
m
A Seventh Chord of C .
axn
A ninth Chord of D .
\ii\ l;n byi h
trrr
~ry
:n:
W^
3E
^
if
3S_
.L
m
o. *&xl>S
All chords, but especially seventh and ninth chords,
derive the laws of their usage largely from their respective
values in a key. Some are important because they inherently
help to create and establish the feeling of key, while others
are valuable only if they are rightly used. It is necessary,
therefore, to know of what sort the chords found on the
different degrees of the scale are; i. e., chords constructed
with the use only of scale tones,
182 ELEMENTARY THEORY
[Note. — A shorthand indication of the character of
chords may be made as follows. This system will be used
in the succeeding lessons:
#
m
The major triad, indicated by large Roman
numeral X ; e. g. :
The minor triad, indicated by small Roman :p- ,,-
numeral x ; e. g. : -^ B
The diminished triad, indicated by small J( §
Roman numeral x° ; e. g. : -^r
Vll°
The augmented triad, indicated by large
Roman numeral Xf; e. s.
When located in a key, substitute for X the degree num-
ber of the chord-root ; e. g., I, vii", IIP, etc.
Seventh and ninth chords, indicate the triad as above,
but add Arabic 7 or 9 with the following indications:
Arabic figure with ' for major inter-
val; e. g. :
Arabic figure alone for minor inter-
val; e. g.:
Arabic figure with ° for diminished in-
terval ; e. g. :
•' 17'
pi
" vii°7°
A display of the chords of the scales can be made as
follows :
D Major scale chords:
I7',ii7 iii7,IV7',V',vi7,vii07
ELEMENTARY THEORY 183
d Minor scale chords: fatt}} b§ $\\ I>§ft0 l>l^f
i7', ii°7, IIP7', iv7, V7, VI7',vii"7°
From this it will be seen that the different triads ap-
pear, as follows:
X is found in the major scale as I, IV and V; in the
minor scale as V and VI.
x is found in the major scale as ii, iii and vi; in the
minor scale as i and iv.
x° is found in the major scale as vii°; in the minor
scale as ii* and vii°.
X+ is only found in the minor scale as IIP.
X7' is found in the major scale as I7' and IV7', in the
minor scale as VI7'.
X7 is found in the major and minor scales only as V7.
x7' is found only in the minor scale as i7'.
x7 is found in the major scale as ii7, iii7, vi7, and in the
minor scale as iv7.
x°7 is found in the major scale as vii°7 and in the minor
scale as if7.
x°7° is found only in the minor scale as vii°7°.
X+7' is found only in the minor scale as III"1"7'.
Exercises in the Location of Chords.
1. Write out upon the staff the series of triads in the
scale of D (major), using no signature but supplying the
proper accidentals. After observing the character of each
triad thus constructed, add beneath it the proper numerals.
Write out and treat in like manner the triads of the
scale of d (minor), and add as before the proper numerals.
2. Write out and treat in like manner the seventh
chords of the scale of D.
184 ELEMENTARY THEORY
Write out and treat in like manner the seventh chords
of the scale of d.
Repeat these exercises with other major and minor
scales, until the matter is wholly clear.
3. Construct the major (X) triad upon, a given note
and add beneath it the proper numerals and key indications
for the various keys in which it could stand as a scale-chord.
This, as worked out upon be, gives the / l
#
following result: j*j b o
I in the key of bE (major).
IV in the key of bB.
V in the key of bA.
V in the key of ba (minor).
VI in the key of g.
Test this many times until you can tell readily the pos-
sible keys of any major triad. Then construct in like manner
the minor triad (x) upon a given note and locate it. Make
this test also until you can tell readily the possible keys of
any minor triad.
4. In corresponding manner construct and locate the
remaining triads x° and X+, and all of the seventh chords.
Do not give up the exercise until you have mastered at
least the possible location in keys of all triads and of the
following seventh chords, X7, x7, and x°7, which are the
most important.
[Note. — The ability to recognize the possibilities of
chords lies at the basis of freedom in modulation; i. e., the
art of passing from key to key.]
The Scale Names of Notes and of Chords.
The keynote of a scale is called the tonic. The note
on the second degree of the scale is called the supertonic;
on the third degree, the mediant; on the fourth degree, the
ELEMENTARY THEORY 185
subdominant; on the fifth degree, the dominant; on the
sixth degree, the submediant; and on the seventh degree, the
leading-tone. The chords on the different degrees are
called also the tonic chord, the supertonic chord, etc. :
[Note. — It is worth while to become familiar with these
names, and use them always. This avoids confusion. For
example, in using the worth seventh, one need never say the
seventh-degree seventh-chord, but rather the leading-tone
seventh chord.]
Arrangements of Chords.
On the whole the easiest way of studying the relation-
ship of chords and at the same time of making practical
application of them to the conditions of actual composition
of music is to write as if for what is known as a mixed
quartet; i. e., vocal music for soprano, alto, tenor and bass.
The soprano should rarely go below one lined c', or above
two lined g"; the alto should rarely go below small g or
above two lined d"; the tenor should rarely go below small c
or above one-lined g'; and the bass should rarely go below
great F or above one lined c'. Especially at the very begin-
ning and at the end of the music the parts should keep well
within these limits ; for to sing at the very top or bottom of
186 ELEMENTARY THEORY
one's voice is ill suited to the poise of well calculated start
or finish. It is like the use of a loud, high-pitched voice at
the beginning or ending of a speech.
In writing for four voices (parts) it is plain, also, that
the three-note chords (triads) will have one note doubled
at unison or at octave. Consonant triads in general sound
best with root doubled, and are least likely to sound well
with third doubled, unless the third be doubled at octave
between the soprano and an inner part (alto or tenor). The
dissonant triad most often met (vii°) doubles freely either
note except the root.
Occasionally one meets triads with a note omitted. The
omitted note is usually the fifth; because this produces no
confusion as to the chord: while if the root were omitted
the third might seem to be root of another chord, or if the
third were omitted the chord might prove either major or
minor. In case of such omission in four-part writing either
the two remaining tones are each doubled, or the root of the
chord appears in three of the parts.
It is also a general rule that the distance between bass
and tenor may be an octave or more, while the distance
between adjacent upper parts should rarely equal or exceed
the octave. This law of chord balance is plainly drawn from
the influence upon the sense of hearing of the harmonic
chord of nature.
Inversions of Chords.
Chords, like intervals, are subject to inversions. If the
root of the chord is the bass note the chord is said to be
fundamental position. The indicated X,. need not be
a
used, however, except in special cases to avoid confusion.
If the third of the chord is the bass note the chord is in
first inversion ; indicating X.
If the fifth of the chord is the bass note the chord is in
second inversion; indicating X.
gte \1PH"
ec
ELEMENTARY THEORY 187
If the seventh of the chord is the bass note the chord
is in third inversion; indicating X.
No further inversion is possible,
as the next chord tone, the ninth, passes
beyond the octave; and the disappear-
ance of the actual ninth would remove
the characteristic interval of the chord, ,
so that it would cease to be the ninth V7 V7 V W
chord: bed
Exercises in the Arrangement of Chords
in Scales.
1. Write the subdominant triad of the key of D in
first inversion, so that its notes may be sung easily by a
mixed quartet and the chord otherwise conform to the rules
of a good arrangement.
2. Write the submediant triad of the key of c minor
in four parts in an arrangement that permits the third of
the chord to be doubled.
3. Write the dominant seventh chord in third inversion
in the key of F, with good arrangement for a mixed
quartet.
4. Write the mediant triad of the key of G in four
parts, omitting the fifth of the chord, but asserting properly
the mediant impression of the chord.
5. Write the leading-tone triad of the key of bE, with
the bass and the soprano as high as they can properly sing
and the other parts so disposed as to give a good arrange-
ment of the chord.
6. Write the dominant seventh chord of the key of
e minor in second inversion for mixed quartet with the four
parts as close together as they can be and have each part
within its proper range.
188
ELEMENTARY THEORY
7. Place under each of the following chords the proper
descriptive signs, including those for inversions:
Mendelssohn
H
A
JFjM
tm
finr
w
J
VP
M
i
i J
W£
M
ii
m
W£
^
W
r^
LESSON XII.
MELODIC MOTION.
In moving from one position of a chord to another, or
from chord to chord, the progress of the individual parts
(voices) follows the laws of melody, and these laws, stated
briefly below, interact upon the laws of chord-arrangement
just given in the previous lesson.
Terms of Motion.
A few technical terms of motion need to be defined here.
Conjunct-motion is melodic succession from one
degree to the next:
I BEETHOVEN , Ninth Symphony.
'*mr rnrrrHr rririM' ^ m
n r i f r if r r \ftr-
etc
Disjunct-motion is melodic succession which skips
one or more degrees:
ELEMENTARY THEORY
CHOPIN, Waltz j.
189
Parallel-motion is melodic movement of two parts
which preserve the same interval with each other; e. g., par-
allel fifths, parallel octaves, parallel thirds.
Similar-motion is melodic movement of two parts in
the same direction (up and down). This term includes the
previous one, " parallel " :
Parallel motion.
iJ] ijjij-jiijuJi^irffiMi
Similar and parallel motion.
Oblique - motion is melodic
movement of one part, while the
other repeats or continues the same
tone:
Contrary - mo-
tion is melodic
movement of parts
in opposite directions :
«P
Laws of Melodic-motion.
Good melody in general is understandable melody, which
yet affords variety and has climax and proportion.
The simplest melodic succession is repetition of the
same tone.
190
ELEMENTARY THEORY
The next in simplicity is conjunct-motion in a major or
minor scale:
FRANZ Op 5 No 5
The next in simplicity is a skip of a consonant interval
from one chord tone to another of the same chord, or to a
non-harmonic tone with the same chord:
SCHUMANN. Wanderlied
jjij]¥-p
The next is a skip of a dissonant interval from one to
another tone of the same chord :
SCHUBERT
J rirLcrCtr
CffLc/LtrLrr
tuht
Skips, even of consonant intervals, at the moment when
a change of chord occurs are more difficult to follow, and
thus harder to make satisfactory:
. WAGNER
^
J i*\KLi\*'ii
•j m ez
£
r-r
r^
r
r '
te
*
=«=
£
s
z2d
IZZ
*
Skips of dissonant intervals when a change of chord
occurs are especially hard to understand:
ELEMENTARY THEORY
SCHUMANN
191
,?a rm f^H=M
/an fjri
3E
%
T^J
&
Difficult skips are often made palatable, however, if
the melody, in its continuation, turns back by conjunct-
motion toward the tone from which the skip was made, or
if the skip in one direction be followed by a return skip in
the opposite direction:
WAGNER
192 ELEMENTARY THEORY
A series of skips should be followed by a passage in
conjunct-motion; and the proportion of conjunct-motions
in- a melody should exceed the disjunct. (See illustrations
already given.)
Finally, the less prominent a melody is (e. g., an inner
part) the more simple it should be. Alto and tenor parts,
unless some exceptional prominence be intended, should con-
fine themselves to conjunct-motion and small consonant skips.
This brief statement of some of the laws of melodic-
motion does not include the law of rhythm in melody,
important as that is, nor the laws of proportion and climax
in melody. Some hints bearing upon all these points will be
given from time to time in the following lessons in harmony.
If the student has mastered the previous pages he is
equipped to make a first essay at musical expression; for
from the outset the study of harmony should be recognized
as a study in self-expression, — an accumulation of the
means of composition. The very first task of it might be
that which a Beethoven, a Wagner or a Debussy, could set
himself. That is, composition draws on the resources of har-
mony and harmony conversely is, step by step, solving
momentary problems of composition.
Exercises in melody writing may be deferred until they
occur in connection with the lessons in harmony and in ele-
mentary composition; for the student in these lessons will
be constantly referring back to the rules just given. He is
advised, however, to observe with care the melodies in
printed music, and see how they conform to the statements
of the preceding pages.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
IN TWELVE LESSONS.
George Coleman Gow.
ANALYSIS OF LESSONS.
Introductory Note.
I. The Single Consonant Triad.
II. Principal Triads in Fundamental Position.
III. Principal Triads in Inversion.
IV. Harmonization of Melody.
V. The Dissonant Tendency-Chords to the Tonic.
VI. Subordinate Chords.
VII. The Minor Key and Mixed Modes.
VIII. Other Diatonic Chords and Chromatic Notes.
IX. Imitation.
X. The Chromatic Tendency-Chords.
XI. Cadences.
XII. Modulation.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
George Coleman Gow.
INTRODUCTORY NOTE.
The student who is to make use of these lessons is
assumed to have familiarity with the staff and the names of
pitches (great G, two-lined d, etc.); with the scales, major
and minor, as written both with and without signatures ; with
the intervals; with the correct writing of notes; with rhythm
and period construction; with chord construction and analy-
sis; and with the fundamental laws of melody. All of these
matters have been treated in the Twelve Lessons in Ele-
mentary Theory and Notation which precede the present
lessons.
LESSON I.
THE SINGLE CONSONANT TRIAD.
The first task in musical expression should be to use
effectively the resources of a single consonant triad.
Task I. — Melody and Accompaniment.
Having arranged a given consonant triad in funda-
mental position as if its notes were to be sustained through-
196
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
out a cadence-group by bass, tenor and alto singers, the task
is to add a soprano melody in free motion.
This is not, properly speaking, a harmony exercise; but
it prepares the way for the harmonic study immediately to
follow.
When we hear such a single consonant triad it is nat-
urally assumed to be a keynote chord, — the tonic triad of
a major or a minor key. A signature may therefore be given
to the exercise in accordance with the chord chosen.
The melody can be made either wholly out of chord
tones, or it may have some neighboring tones.
Example 1. — Using chord tones only. Accent-group
form, — 3, 1, 2:
„G-I
[Note. — The capital G indicates the major key; the
capital I, the tonic chord.]
Example 2. — Using chord tones only. Accent-group
form, — 3, 4, 1, 2:
e-I-
[Note. — The small e indicates the minor key; the capi-
tal' I, the tonic chord.]
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
197
In using neighboring tones to soften the melodic out-
line, notice that skip may be made to the neighboring tone
but not from it. Observe the different effect of a neigh-
boring tone that comes with the beat from one that comes
after the beat. Either is possible, but one produces a more
rugged type of melody. Which is it?
Example 3. — Using neighboring tones. Accent-group
form, — 3, 1, 2. The chord tone basis of this exercise is the
same as that of Example 1.
G-I-
Example 4. — Using neighboring tones. Accent-group
form, — 3, 4, 1, 2. The chord tone basis of this exercise is
the same as that of Example 2.
e-I
Exercise I. — Let the student seat himself at the piano
and, while holding with the left hand a consonant triad such
as the task prescribes, let him experiment in composing many
melodies according to the purpose of this task. Such of the
melodies as seem interesting let him write out fully with the
chord, like the examples above.
198
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Task II. — Harmony in the Single Chord.
Without abandoning the fundamental position of a
chord, the upper melody as it recedes or approaches to the
bass note easily suggests a possible rearrangement of the
chord. This rearrangement, if it is adopted, brings into the
music melodic-motion of the two inner parts. Thus the
music becomes properly harmonic, since the writing of it
involves both new positions of chord and the melodic mo-
tions resulting therefrom.
[Note. — Before studying this task further the student
should review carefully the lessons in Elementary Theory
which treated of the positions of chords and of melodic
motion (pages 178 and 188). J
Example 1. — Utilizing the melody of Example 1,
Task I. :
***
$
m
=±
$
u
$
±
T
r
I
^m
M
r
I
M
rrr
Observe a) the momentary use of the chord having
three g's and no d, and the distance between bass and tenor
in the same measure.
Example 2. — Utilizing the melody of Example 2,
Task I. :
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
199
Observe that if the second chord of the third measure
had been arranged as is the second chord of the piece, this
would have avoided the following rather wide skips of inner
parts. Such skips, however, in repetitions of the same chord,
are perfectly justifiable.
Observe also the doubled fifth in the next to the last
measure, first chord, and the doubling of tenor and bass at
the unison on the root of the chord, same measure, last
chord.
Example 3. — Utilizing the melody of Example 3,
Task L:
##
W
M
i
^m
i
f
i
i
u
i
i
u
Compare this example carefully with Example 1, Task
II. Notice that a neighboring tone on the beat is harmo-
nized as if it were the following tone; that is, the tone to
which it tended, while a neighboring tone after the beat
keeps the harmony of the previous tone.
Example 4. — Utilizing the melody of Example 4,
Task I. :
—w
JJJIl^
*rft
fW r f;
flj .J -S4-
Compare this example also with Example 2, Task II.
Notice that the last beat of the third measure affords a case
200
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
of doubling the third in order to make a simpler and pleas-
anter movement of inner parts than would otherwise have
arisen.
Exercise II. — (o) Write alto and tenor parts to the
following examples:
M
gg£g
M
+-P-*
m
psg
i
p
±±2.
9gd=
n=
£
P^
m
m m m
m
f#*=fi
n JH — It
m Jl r
i ^ r» rfli
-^V3-
^
J-3J"fc
r
ift j J J r 1
^^m
1 j ,r3Ji
«•
'^rt f'
=^ — — ' —
^r 1
p
(&) Rearrange the exercises written under Task I, ac-
cording to the suggestions of Task II.
(c) Finally, upon a given fundamental bass in sus-
tained or repeated notes, compose new upper parts, using in
the soprano neighboring tones only when they add to the
interest of the melody.
Such a method of writing music upon a single conso-
nant triad in fundamental position is frequently met in short
passages. Somewhat rarely an extended composition is so
made. The most striking example of this sort is Wagner's
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
201
prelude to Das Rheingold, which the student is advised to
read in the piano score.
Nearly any simple melody can be set after a fashion
in this way, provided it contains no non-harmonic tones that
are left by skip. Yet unless neighboring tones are used in
other parts as well as the soprano, and inversions of the
chord are permitted, the effect speedily becomes wearisome.
The two methods of avoiding monotony mentioned in
this last sentence can better be left for later study, and the
attention of the student now be drawn rather to the advan-
tage of a change of chord. Let the student play over Ex-
amples 3 and 4 of Task II as they are written. Then let
him play them once more, substituting the following meas-
ures at the ends of the examples :
End for Example 3 :
End for Example 4:
iP##
M
i
IV I
He will not fail to feel the relief of the shift of chord
just before the end. This change of chord before the final
accent-chord of a cadence-group is called the cadence.
Without stopping here to study cadences at length, the
student is advised hereafter to close each exercise with one
of the two cadences just illustrated. That is, before the
final tonic chord in fundamental position upon the accent
of the measure, with which he is expected to end every
exercise, he may have either the subdominant triad, or the
dominant triad, likewise in fundamental position.
202 ELEMENTARY HARMONY
The problem of how to move from one chord to the
other he will learn in the next lesson.
LESSON II.
PRINCIPAL TRIADS IN FUNDAMENTAL
POSITION.
In passing on to a study of the use of different chords
it should be stated emphatically that the law of artistic reti-
cence makes it far more valuable to accomplish much with a
few chords than to utilize many. It will be the object of
these lessons to constantly emphasize how much can be done
with slender resources.
Task I. — Tonic and Dominant Triads.
If the consonant chord, with which one starts out, be
accepted for what the ear naturally assumes it to be; namely,
a tonic triad, the simplest change of chord is to the chord a
perfect fifth higher, which is felt to be the dominant triad.
This answers the need for harmonic unity and acknowledges
the essential independence of consonant triads. That is,
granting that inherently every consonant triad is an inde-
pendent center of tonality, the two such triads which can be
made to unite more easily in a single tonality are those with
the following requisites:
First. — A tone in common.
Second. — Enough different tones to give distinction to
each chord.
Third. — An inclination on the part of the second chord
to return to the first, sufficient to make this latter seem the
chief harmony — the real center.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
203
These requisites are found in perfection in the tonic and
dominant triads. The root of the latter is present in the
tonic chord, while its third lies but a half-step away from
the key-note and has such a strong inclination toward this
that it is called the leading-tone of the scale.
There are two easy methods of passing from one chord
to the other, while obeying the laws of melody and of har-
monic balance. The first emphasizes the elements of har-
monic unity in the chords, the second emphasizes melodic
variety.
The first, and manifestly the simplest method, is to
retain in some upper part the common tone, called the note-
of-union, have the other parts move by conjunct-motion to
the tones necessary to the new chord, and have the bass
skip from one root to the other. The bass has the disad-
vantage of being unpleasantly angular in melody, but the
character of the two chords is clearly emphasized.
Example 1. — Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3, 4:
^5
i-,, J J J
i
¥
r r r
T=T
~rr
§11
I
A A
u
m
f^
f=
i
V I
V —
In the example just given it happens that the note-of-
union is kept in the alto throughout the piece. If the rear-
rangements of the same chord had been more varied this
would not have occurred.
Exercises — (a) Add middle parts to the following
examples on the next page:
204
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
m
- >i
m
mm
^
fl=*
to
s
ggg
r n J
m m m at
I I
V V I v
#
^
ifei
ip
i
^
^
^
■ ' ■ ■
I — 1
V
r-ffrl <> J..
m
pp
^
^
X=M
??¥#
3
a. m.
m
& — p-
I V — I
V I V I
(&) Add upper parts to the following basses:
^
J J J 1 1 1 j | J J 1 | 1
*-0 m d ' '-a — ■
m p
'*««[' J J 1^
J J I" II
(c) Add lower parts to the following sopranos:
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
205
(d) Finally, compose cadence-groups, some upon pre-
viously determined schemes of tonic and dominant chords,
some upon an original method based upon the two chords in
the way just presented.
Another method nearly as good and as simple, but of-
fering a better chance for variety, is to give up the note-of-
union and have all the upper parts move to the nearest notes
of the new chord which lie in the direction opposite to that
in which they would have gone had the note-of -union been
retained. Here it is usually advantageous to have the bass
progress in contrary motion to the upper parts.
Example 2. — Accent-group form, — 6, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5:
^s\:in\iiM{^
u
g»
-i-J*Ul
Mi
iiii
is
i
f
¥W
fW
FF
T
b)
a)
«)
« e)
Observations on Example 2.
[Note. — The observations on this and all other ex-
amples are as important for the student to read and master
as is any other portion of the text. J
a) The neighboring note, *d", could have been a part
of the dominant triad if that chord were preferred.
b) Try the upper *g, and compare the effect of similar
motion of the bass into the following chord.
c) Try the lower *G and compare the effect of thus en-
tering the chord, with that written.
d) Try the tenor on *d', and compare the chord thus
having its fifth doubled, with the chord as written.
206
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
e) Notice the advantage which the bass as written has
over the equally correct form with *c'.
Exercises. — (a) Compose cadence-groups to the fol-
lowing chord-schemes:
Key of F. Accent-group form, — 3, 1, 2:
i|i--|v--|i-vri-ii
Key of c. Accent-group form, — 4, 1, 2, 3:
i|i--v|ivi-|v---|i--||
[Note. — The vertical lines indicate bars. The dashes
indicate beats, throughout which the previous chord may be
held, or in which it may be repeated. Remember that the
final chord comes on the measure accent.]
Remember that X indicates a major triad; x indicates
a minor triad.
(6) Write lower parts, choosing the proper chords, to
the following soprano melodies:
awjU i [jit J J ir rrr^^
fM r u*|» r ir u r J|sl r^r r1 Mr
'(c) Compose cadence-groups, some upon previously de-
termined schemes of tonic and dominant triads, some upon
original melodies based upon the two chords, in the way
just presented.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 207
Task II. — Tonic -and Subdominant Triads.
The other chord nearly, but not quite, as closely re-
lated in feeling to the tonic chord as the dominant, is the
subdominant triad. Its fifth is present in the tonic chord,
while its root lies but a half-step from the third of the tonic
chord. The methods of passing from one to the other are
the same as have been presented in the case of the tonic and
dominant chords.
Example — Accent-group form, — 6, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5:
te
n
±M
UU:
f
-LAM
frrr
Li
gggp
M
i
?m
T
fff
tr
a) b)
c) ' d)
Observations on the Example.
a) The neighboring tones in soprano and tenor here
create an appearance of the subdominant triad. Such cases
are frequent in music, and are called passing or accidental
uses of the chord.
b) The neighboring tones here do not prevent the clear
feeling of tonic chord. They are evidently melodic adorn-
ments of it.
c) One might use in the tenor ba and bb in quarter notes.
d) Passing tones in sixths, such as are found here, or
in thirds, as was suggested above, are frequently more useful
than neighboring tones in one part alone.
e) Notice the device by which the alto retains the note-
of-union and yet the soprano is led downward. The skip of
208
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
the tenor, although but a fourth, has the effect of giving
momentary and pleasing prominence to this part.
Exercises. — (a) Compose cadence-groups to the fol-
lowing chord-schemes :
Key of D. Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3, 4:
1-IV- | I | IV 1 I —
Key of f. Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3 :
i--| iv-i| iv--| i
(b) Write lower parts, choosing the proper chords, to
the following soprano melodies:
fffl'j pc/Jicjir >iJ /niL^
&v«jjJ]j r ir J3Jrir cjr r i°3
(c) Compose cadence-groups, some upon previously de-
termined schemes of tonic and subdominant triads, some
upon original melodies based upon the two chords, in the
way just presented.
Task III. — Tonic, Dominant and Subdominant Triads.
If one desires to write, making use of all three of the
chords already discussed, there arises a new condition when
the dominant triad follows the subdominant triad, or the
subdominant follows the dominant. These triads, since they
lie on adjoining degrees, have no common tone. To make
the parts move to their nearest tones in the new chord
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
209
creates the peculiar motion known as parallel fifths and
octaves. (See Lesson XL, Elementary Theory. For
example :
Parallel progressions:
Method of avoiding them :
<L j J
i
m$4
%
i
uf
IV V
c)
V IV
d)
Observe at o) parallel fifths between bass and tenor,
and parallel octaves between bass and soprano.
b) Parallel octaves between bass and tenor, and parallel
fifths between both bass and soprano and also tenor and
soprano.
Now the impression produced by these parallels is a
double one. It destroys the individuality of one of the two
parts in the case of the octaves, and even to some extent in
the case of the fifths; and it heightens the independence of
each other which all consonant triads have, and those with-
out a common tone especially.
All art effects are a balance of forces, one tending to
act in a given direction, another tending to act in a different
direction, while the resultant is the valuable compromise.
It is not correct, therefore, to say that parallel fifths and
octaves are wrong in themselves. But in four-part vocal
writing the two important ends, namely, that each part should
have its individual melody and that there should be a feeling
of continuity and unity to the chords, are hindered by these
parallels.
To avoid them one needs only to use what is in effect
the second of the two methods already employed in passing
210
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
from one triad to another; namely, contrary motion of the
other parts to that which sounds the roots of the chords.
Observe c) and d) above.
In moving from the dominant triad to the subdominant
there is still a noticeable abruptness of effect, even if no ob-
jectionable parallels arise. In the following illustration,
whatever be the order of the chords, one may see that the
subdominant chord seems more remote from the tonic than
does the dominant:
m
I
iHrt
IV V
'A A A A
r i r r ' r
i
v IV I
Now the effect of approaching the key center always
makes for unity of chord feeling; hence the order IV to V
seems more natural than the reverse.
As the student's knowledge of chords increases he should
always observe the remoteness or nearness of any chord to
the tonal center. Harmonic unity is promoted in general by
a choice of chords in the following order: from the tonic to
any chord desired, however remote; from any other chord in
the direction of the tonic.
Example. — Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6:
#N*
J-JJJ J
m
Ffffr
r rr r
^m
±=k
a) b)
XAA
wm
T^r
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 211
Observations on the Example.
Compare the progressions at a) and c) with that at ft),
where a purposeful break in smoothness is made.
Exercises. — (a) Compose cadence-groups to the fol-
lowing chord-schemes:
Key of A. Accent-group form, — 5, 6, 1, 2, 3, 4 :
IV | I-V I iv-[v--i--|iv-iv--|i---|
Key of g. Accent-group form, — 4, 5, 6, 1, 2, 3:
»--h hv |v h-n
(6) Write lower parts, choosing the proper chords, to
the following soprano melodies:
mm
pp
?
'j '»* "
^
j j ij j
z$m
*-#
-0
(c) Compose cadence-groups, some upon previously de-
termined schemes of tonic, dominant and subdominant triads,
some upon original melodies based on the three chords, in
the way just presented.
LESSON III.
PRINCIPAL TRIADS IN INVERSION.
The student has used so far triads in fundamental posi-
tion. But the constant succession of chords with their roots
in the bass, while it gives the impression of clarity in chord
structure and so of strength to the music, also soon becomes
212
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
monotonous. This is due mainly to the angularity of the
bass part. Especially is it true if one be restricted to the
use of principal triads only.
Yet without enlarging the number of chords there is
still a possibility of enjoyable melody in the bass if some of
the chords be inverted. (See Lessons in Elementary Theory,
pages 187-189.) In making choice of when and how to
use inversions the following observations are of value. They
apply equally well to other triads than those at present under
consideration — the principal triads :
1. A chord in inversion loses in strength, but may
bring variety to the music, or allow the bass a smoother
melodic line, or both.
2. In cadences the loss of strength is apt to prove a
defect; hence fundamental position of both chords, is the rule.
Task I. — First Inversions.
3. When chords on adjoining degrees are both in first
inversion, if the upper parts go in contrary motion to the
bass (in this case the thirds of the chords), both chords may
have the doubled third; but if the upper parts go mainly in
parallel motion to the bass but one of the chords can prof-
itably have the doubled third.
Remember that on the whole a chord in first inversion
sounds best with root doubled at octaves:
fefe
i
I
m
m
s
XE
n
S
5 j
J a
3S
-e-
PP
WE
PP
IV v
I
IV V
I
V IV
I
V IV
b b
a
b b
a
b b
a
b b
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
213
4. When chords whose roots are a fourth apart follow
one another with one of the chords in first inversion, it is
better that the note-of -union should be so held as to allow
contrary motion of the other parts:
I
*=
n
%
±
^
-o-
-«-
m
s
4^
W£
3T
instead ,
:&
TTT
?¥
f
¥^
-e-
I IV I
b
1 TV I
D
T IV V V I
b • b
Example 1. — Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3, 4:
rl JP t i> J J"] j J3-|
, J J] J J ,
1 n
® — r L/r if
J jfjljtj)
5^ii
ii
I - V
b b b b a b b
Example 2. — Accent-group form, — 3, 1, 2:
i V - i V iv 1 - V i V iv i
a) b b) c) b b bb)b
214
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Observations on Example 2.
a) The opening chord has its fifth doubled in order to
bring smooth progression into the best arrangement of the
following chord. Such a treatment is in common usage.
b) The augmented second, which lies between the sixth
and seventh degrees of the harmonic scale, always causes a
difficulty in the progressions V iv, V iv, or iv V, hence the
harmonization of the second measure with g' as a passing-
tone is preferable to that given at the end of the line.
c) Notice, however, that the progression iv V. or V iv,
is perfectly smooth.
Exercises. — Rewrite the examples given in Lesson II.
and those made by the student under the tasks of Lesson
II., introducing first inversions wherever it seems advan-
tageous musically.
Task II. — Second Inversions.
5. Second . inversions of consonant triads have the
least effect of stability which can be in combinations of in-
tervals wholly consonant. In order to render them satisfac-
tory there should be particularly melodious movement of the
parts into and out of them. Except where they occur acci-
dentally through the use of neighboring tones in several parts,
for example:
the student is advised to
use them but seldom, and
then in single instances, be-
tween chords in other po-
sitions. Skips in the parts
in moving out of second
inversions are rarely good,
and skips in the parts in
entering second inversions occur commonly only in the two
following instances:
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
215
(a) When the second inversion comes in a series of
repetitions of the same chord :
(b) When the second inversion of the tonic chord has
its fifth doubled, and is followed immediately by the domi-
nant chord in fundamental position. This case is in fact
usually an illustration of the dominant chord approached
through two neighboring tones:
Example 1. — Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3, 4:
»*=#*
r r'F r r r
i — ■! - v n
IV
b b
a) b)
I.
c
c)
216
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Exercises. — (a) Compose cadence-groups to the fol-
lowing chord-schemes:
Key of D. Accent-group form, — 4, 1, 2, 3:
i ) i -i iv|v-i-| I-V-| 1--
Key of e. Accent-group form, — 3, 4, 1, 2:
V-|i-V iv | iv iVi | iv-V- | i -
(b) Write upper parts to the following basses:
JBsiip
leg:
i
wm
•V IV V I
b b
IV! IV-: V I V I
c b b c
^
3T
¥=ip
-t»-
iv - 1
c
V - iv
b a b
i -
(c) Write lower parts to the following sopranos, using
as seems best, tonic, dominant or subdominant triads, and
in fundamental positions or in suitable inversions :
lui. j^rjir ifl\flppn
**-Ti
SipS
m
s
5
irir ^if cr
*¥
mri'if'ifirri I1 hij i n-1 mu.Ti
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
LESSON IV.
217
HARMONIZATION OF MELODY.
In the Soprano, with the Harmonic Material Already
at Command.
By the use of the three chords already treated, in inver-
sions or in fundamental position, and with the aid of neigh-
boring tones, one may not only construct much music of a
simple nature, but can harmonize any diatonic melody and
even some chromatic melodies. The harmonization, to be
sure, will not always prove to be the one to which the mind
had adjusted itself on first hearing (or creating) the melody;
for melodies, like word phrases, frequently come to our
minds through a half remembered association of meaning,
and the original harmony is a part of the memory. The
change of harmony may alter quite the effect of the melody
itself.
Apart from this difficulty there is no reason for post-
poning the task of harmonizing a melody. As the later
lessons present to the student new chord effects, gradually
and naturally there will come greater freedom in harmoni-
zation.
An illustration of the preceding paragraph may be given,
as follows: We wish to harmonize the following melody:
Let us suppose that it has been associated in thought
with the chromatic harmony here given, but which uses
means not yet at the disposal of the student:
218
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
m
m
^m
m
w
tiff
m
j.
J. tif^
JT]J J>
r
F2^
"^m
v—r
r
It is still possible, by the use of diatonic chords already
familiar, to present the melody harmonized in a way that is
adequate and not unpleasant to one whose mind had not
already been made to hear the first harmonization:
#^
lui
?
ffffp
n
gppp
i.
*
r r
P
t
t5
IV
(a)
I I V
b b
(b)
IV
(c;
i
c
In regard to this latter harmonization, notice at
(a) That the subdominant chord was chosen rather than
the dominant, although V belongs in the latter chord. If
I V had been chosen the advantage of holding a note of
union in passing from one chord to the other would be lost.
(6) That I repeated allows the wide skip in melody to
b
come on the same chord. This would not have been possible
with V I, although the first three chords might well have
been I IV V.
(c) That it would have been an equally good harmoni-
zation of the g to use I and to change to IV at the note /.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
219
Again, the following example of the harmonization of a
diatonic melody in a minor key illustrates the method of
work.
[Note. — Study these examples with great care, and let
no observation pass without getting its meaning.]
*
tet
idM
frfN^
m
±i
m
i
T
f-TT
J J J-JJ
S^
i
J -U
5
ra
p
V - i i 1v - V • V - i
^
r
1 IV IV 1
(a) (b)
Notice at (a) that the smaller skip from c" to e" has the
same chord, instead of the larger skip e" b'. This is because
it is more effective to make the change of chord on the ac-
cented beat.
(&) That the passing tones in two parts through the
octave are good.
(c) That the alto moves down to b to avoid the rough-
ness of having the soprano lose itself in the sustained e, as
would have happened had the alto remained there. Still, by
the change the b of the second chord is made a trifle too
prominent.
(d) The non-harmonic g in tenor, while alto and so-
prano take a new position of the chord, is of interest because
we shall meet later exactly the same combination of notes as
a real chord. Observe also that the wideness of skips in
melody makes the harmonization of this measure by iv —
V — better than i iv i V.
220
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
O) That the new movement of the melody and the fact
that both tenor and bass are pretty low makes it better to
have the final chord omit its fifth and triple the root, than
e'
to stand, for example, ~
While every diatonic melody can be harmonized in the
ways suggested above, only a few chromatic melodies re-
spond to such a treatment; namely, those in which the chro-
matic notes can be regarded as neighboring tones.
An example of a chromatic melody harmonized in this
way, with the material already familiar to the student, here
follows :
#
fee
££
#
J J
1 4
1A
^
PP
i ii v v v y ii
b b
i£@p
m
n r-i i i
«
rr
j J,
. J J
'^r r
V
b
V
b
(a)
I V
b (b) (c)
Notice that the neighboring tones come some of the
time on the beat and some of the time after the beat. No-
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
221
tice also, that if the neighboring tones were left out of the
exercise, it would be a good illustration of Lesson III.:
J J
fe^l
tf
1
f
1
11
ff
n
ff
ii
ii
t
m
w
?
^
f
The last three measures call for special remarks:
At (a) two neighboring tones follow each other in
scale progression before the next chord tone arrives, and cor-
responding neighboring tones in the bass, in parallel thirds,
help to make this movement enjoyable.
At (&) two neighboring tones ("e' and g') follow each
other by skip, each approaching the chord tone f in opposite
directions. This is a double appoggiatura. Notice the pecu-
liar effect of the ^e while be is still sustained in the alto.
At (c) the neighboring tone in the soprano comes on the
beat, while a neighboring tone after the beat is added in the
tenor. These two effects are explainable as real chords also,
as the student will see later. It is often true that good har-
monic effects are justifiable for several reasons.
In connection with the illustrations just given a few
rules of guidance may be added:
1. A note of the melody can be treated either as a
chord tone (root, third, or fifth) ; or as a neighboring tone,
provided that the note which follows is a whole or a half-
step above or below the given note.
2. In general, a simple melody is harmonized better by
the use of some neighboring tones with the chord tones than
by chord tones wholly.
222
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
3. When harmonizing skips it is better to find a chord
that contains both notes and make the skip as a passage from
one arrangement of the chord to another. (Compare rule 6).
4. Sometimes a skip can be harmonized as a movement
from a chord tone to an accented neighboring tone of the
same chord. Thus the first five notes of this example can
have the same harmony:
1M
m
I
j=k
¥
n
m
m
*
J±
B a b
This is especially to be observed when two wide skips
in the same direction follow each other in such a way that
not all three notes could come into the same chord:
^m
£
J
'h f r
jH
i
ir I
m
i
%
33=
:§=
I
V
b a
5. In general also, it is best to get along with as few
changes of chords as possible; except that
6. A chord introduced on an unaccented part of a
measure should change with the new following accent:
hji i.) j.i JU Jj j i j j,i j ii j ii
3ad--I |v IV W I | I V I IV| IV V V I | I -
Better I
Best I
V I
1 -
IVI
IVI
V-IIV
v = inr
v«
v«
i.
i-
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
223
The frequent and obvious exception to the exception
just stated is shown in this very example; namely, that an
unaccented chord at the beginning of a musical phrase is fre-
quently the same as the following accented chord, and that
a final accented cadence-chord is sometimes anticipated by a
short preliminary statement of it. Sometimes this anticipa-
tion does not include the whole chord, as in the last harmon-
ization indicated above, and written out below:
m
mM
^m
#=E#3
m
^^
n r r
#
rrr
f^r
t
m
M
M
m
FFF
ft
I - IV I
I IV V
7. In choosing chords for notes in conjunct-motion,
be sure that the melody follows the natural direction of the
parts in uniting these chords. Thus a harmonization of ad-
joining degrees in such a way that both tones are the fifth
of the chord is poor, because the natural motion of the parts
in uniting such chords would not produce this arrangement:
This is good : This is bad : These two are both good :
IV V
imfa
5E£
V w
224
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Exercises in Harmonizing Melodies in the
Soprano.
1. Harmonize the following melodies in the soprano:
1. -^ n-i . . rt 2.
toi.j.r-iJJJj.ijjW.j,ajh,jj
*
-.. * a.'rr
jijJ.HiJJjJNjiyiVJ^irrr
■'ifpff^UjjJJjjij^JijJJijjtj
rJij3Uiy"JJrii| n.ji.jj|jJu
tt
'^V J'Pirr^f I j. >Lfir-Ji
2. Write similar melodies a cadence-group in length,
and harmonize them in the soprano.
In the Lower Parts, with the Harmonic Material
Already at Command.
It is usually the case that melodies in the lower parts
have less freedom both as to range (extent of melody) and
as to width of skips. If, for example, an alto passes quickly
from a low to a very high note it is more difficult to har-
monize it so that the chords are well balanced and the tenor
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
225
and bass are melodious. (See Elementory Theory, Lesson
XI., on arrangements of chords.)
=J=
jjji^pfl
m
«*
4
W
^f
uh
wnr-r
i
l)_A
j."i-
JrJ.
1=1
P=P
^
(a)
ft)
fc)
(a) The best arrangement
of the chords in the first measure
would be as follows: In order,
however, to save the wide skip to
a very high note in the soprano,
it seemed wiser to have the fifth
of each chord doubled. Also the somewhat monotonous
soprano allows the interest to turn to the melodious alto.
(b) There are quite a number of neighboring tones
in this harmonization. Notice the one in the tenor here,
which enters just as the bass changes.
(c) At the accented beat the chord is complete but
it omits the third at the next beat in order to retain the bass
and so get a stronger cadence.
Melodies that are limited in range and without wide
skips offer no difficulty to harmonization in inner voices ; and
if in addition they finish with the fundamental notes of the
cadence chords, they can be harmonized as basses, e. g. :
226 ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Transposed to key of C, and used as a tenor
lupin
f
^3
r1
US
T
nT r,f (
*-r
^^
i
TT
IV V
In the original key used as a bass:
^
Exercises in Harmonizing Melodies in
Lower Parts.
1. Harmonize the following melodies in the alto:
i. , . flu2.
£
m
j+g
i
m
*
***:
^P|
^
*
"a-
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
227
2. Harmonize the following melodies in the tenor :
i.„ £# ^ ._ 2.
PER l< A » I 5 =5=1
^S
3. Harmonize the following melodies in the bass:
1
jipfr J
,v p» z^^
1
&
o o
'^r lrrrJUr,niLHf I \gj^
v^T'i^j. life
im
F^111
4. Write similar melodies and harmonize them in the
alto, tenor, or bass as seems most suitable.
LESSON V.
THE DISSONANT TENDENCY-CHORDS TO THE
TONIC.
Key Balance Through Triads.
In the use of the three principal chords of a major key
it is a comparatively easy task to retain the tonic chord as
the most important — the central chord. Nevertheless an
easy demonstration can be made of the possibility of upset-
ting that center, since consonant triads have in fact several
228
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
possible meanings. (Review here carefully Elementary-
Theory, Lesson XL, Location of Chords.) For example:
In the two illustrations given, although the chords used
are all in the key of F, it would be easy to believe that the
last two measures of the first illustration were in bb, and
of the second in C. Such a possibility demonstrates the fact
of the essential independence of these consonant chords.
The purpose to treat them, one as tonic, the others as domi-
nant and subdominant, is the sole reason that makes it im-
portant to follow any particular order in choice of them.
Dissonant Chords Showing Tendency to
the Tonic.
In sharp contrast to these chords are the dissonant
chords, most of which are not only unstable, but also show
more or less strong inclination to issue in particular chords,
known as their resolutions. Of the dissonant chords those
which incline toward the tonic chord are the most impor-
tant, since they supplement the lack of definiteness of a series
of consonant chords, by clearly pointing toward the tonal
center. When they appear the tonic chord seems imminent.
Not that it is positively necessary to follow such a dissonant
chord with the tonic chord, but unless one does there is a
distinct sense of disappointment of expectation — the natural
thing is to have the tonic chord follow.
The four chords of the major or minor keys which have
natural resolution (inclination) into the tonic chord are the
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 229
LEADING-TONE TRIAD, the DOMINANT SEVENTH-CHORD, the
LEADING-TONE SEVENTH-CHORD, and the DOMINANT NINTH-
CHORD.
A study of the intervals of these chords will make clear
why they show this inclination to issue in the tonic chord.
In the key of G:
* , „ Their
Tendency Chords Resolutions
In the leading-tone triad, root is dissonant with fifth,
while the possibility of half-step movement of the root to
the most important scale note (the tonic) furnishes both a
melodic inclination and a new root.
The dominant seventh-chord contains in itself poten-
tially the dominant triad (which has already been shown to
be the consonant triad most closely related to the tonic triad),
and the leading-tone triad just discussed. The seventh of
the chord is seen to be doubly dissonant; namely, with the
root and with the third. Its inclination to move the half-
step progression downward is thus sharply accentuated.
The leading-tone seventh-chord has all the inclination
found in the leading-tone triad, while its root is still more
strongly inclined because of its double dissonance.
The dominant ninth-chord has the combined inclinations
of the three other chords, — four of its tones being doubly
dissonant.
Doubling and Omission of Tones in the Dissonant
Tendency-Chords.
In the dominant chords the dominant note is note-of-
union to the tonic chord, while the supertonic note, since it is
the perfect fifth of the chord, may be omitted and the root
be doubled instead. This is often an advantage in the dom-
inant seventh-chord when it is in fundamental position; for
230 ELEMENTARY HARMONY
it allows that statement of the root which is in an upper part
to remain as note-of-union and that which is in the bass to
skip to the new root. In the dominant ninth-chord when it
occurs in four-part writing the fifth is omitted of necessity,
and no doubling arises.
It should be noticed that the only tone which is not dis-
sonant in any of the chords is the second of the scale (super-
tonic). It therefore is without special inclination, and may
move either up to the third of the tonic chord or down to its
root. Also, it may be freely doubled. This cannot happen
so well with the other notes of these chords, except as stated
in the paragraph above; since notes which have strong in-
clination in a particular direction, if doubled, either produce
parallel octaves in the resolution, or cause one of the notes
to move in the wrong direction thus disappointing expecta-
tion— neither of which outcomes is enjoyable.
In the two leading-tone chords the fifth is the less im-
portant dissonant tone, and is sometimes doubled, one part
moving to the third of the tonic chord, the other to the fifth.
This freedom of the supertonic and subdominant notes in the
leading-tone chords makes it always possible to avoid the
parallel fifths which may arise in the resolution of a chord
on one degree to that on the next, as is the case here.
In the dominant seventh-chord its third (the leading-
tone) is the least important dissonance, and although it is
almost never doubled, frequently the movement from it
(when it is an inner part) is down to the fifth of the tonic
chord instead of up to the root (the natural inclination).
Beauty and Availability of the Dissonant
Tendency-Chords to the Tonic.
Although the four chords under discussion are all ten-
dency-chords to the tonic triad, there is marked difference
in the beauty and availability of them.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
231
The leading-tone triad is rarely enjoyable except in first
inversion, and even then cannot always find a satisfactory
arrangement. It has gradually been abandoned by musicians
in favor of the much fuller and more readily handled dom-
inant seventh-chord which admits of every position and inver-
sion and is unmistakable as to key.
The leading-tone seventh-chord is not so beautiful nor
so strong a chord as the dominant seventh-chord, and is
much less frequently chosen.
The dominant ninth-chord, while in some respects the
richest and most definite of the four, is, nevertheless, more
difficult to handle, partly because it does not admit inversion
so readily. (See Elementary Theory, Lesson XL, Inver-
sions. )
The addition of these chords to the vocabulary of the
student gives at once a wider range of choice both in con-
structing chord-schemes and in harmonizing melodies. Still
more importantly it offers a certain voluptuous charm
through the raising and satisfying of expectancy, as well as
through the sensuous color of the chords themselves.
A purely esthetic consideration comes at once to the
foreground. Henceforth if the student wishes to preserve
strength and solidity of style he will avoid the tendency-
chords, while if he wishes to render his music more graceful
or more passionately he will utilise them. Heretofore grace and
lightness have been obtained through the use of the neighbor-
ing tones: now without them much the same effects can be
gained, and with them still more certainty of design is attain-
able.
Example 1. — Accent-group form, — 4, 1, 2, 3:
232
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Notice that the final chord omits its fifth rather than
have the leading-tone in the tenor disappoint its tendency.
The return to g would have been the more unsatisfactory
since the tenor just moved from there.
Example 2. — Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 :
I nI V
{%) (b) «cJ4> b <*
I IVVIV IV
b d b (ejc
Notice at
(a) That the unharmonized note awaits its interpre-
tation which is shown to be the fifth of the major scale by
the second melody note and its chord.
(6) The three non-harmonic tones create in fact the
dominant ninth-chord and they receive the proper resolution
as such, but at
(c) The non-harmonic *g is not the ninth of the dom-
inant ninth-chord either by position or resolution.
(d) This chord is a ninth and not a seventh, for the
soprano V is treated as a non-harmonic tone moving into
the ninth, else it would have moved upward in the outer voice
and also the tenor in such case would not have doubled the
leading-tone.
(e) The momentary omission of the seventh e, before
its resolution to 9d' is quite common.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 233
Interchange of Tendency-Chords to the Tonic.
One interesting result of the common destination of the
group of chords under discussion is that not only can they
each, like all chords, be repeated as often as desired in vari-
ous positions before moving to the resolution, but they may
be exchanged for each other in place of repetition, the last
one having its proper resolution.
Example 3.— Accent-group form,— 5, 6, 1, 2, 3, 4:
§te^
ft
mz
mm?
FrTtZrr ' vr~v
£
3gg^
JUj $
i
m
I vi»oV7V9V7 I V*V*vii°7 V9 - V7 I
Exercises in the Use of Tendency-Chords to
the Tonic.
(a) Compose cadence-groups to the following chord
schemes :
Key of bE. Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3 :
iv7i|v7-i v9'- -7-7
b | c b I
Key of f. Accent-group form, — 4, 1, 2, 3 :
7'i-
i I vti° i iv-lv* 2 1 vU0,c|l --v
J b h I b b I c
Key of A. Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3, 4:
t- - ivlv-7 I - IV* 1 V-7 I -
b I b b c
234
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Key of d. Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 :
i - -V7- 1 V
b c
-vlt°H i— V9- -7 I
(&) Add inner parts to the following sopranos and
basses using wherever possible tendency-chords to the tonic,
and neighboring tones with both the tendency-chords and the
principal triads:
i§5§
n i*
^
m
$
m
^m
^
m
p^
^
(c) Harmonize the following melodies in similar
manner :
For soprano :
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
235
For alto:
For tenor. (See Elementary Theory, Lesson L, for
this notation of the tenor part. In harmonizing, it can be
transcribed to the bass clef.)
j»y>urifn.i|7rirf'iJj
S3ste
mm
■nJrirrifiJ
«
at*
For bass. Write the upper parts of the first bass melody
in quarter notes, four chords to the measure, except the
cadence measure:
(d) Compose melodies, a cadencergroup in length, and
harmonize them each twice; first without tendency chords,
then with them, comparing carefully the results, and noting
the effects of grace, strength, etc., obtained.
LESSON VI.
SUBORDINATE CHORDS.
The group of chords so far considered; namely, the
principal triads, and the tendency-chords to the tonic, are
the chords which can display most firm allegiance to a key.
236 ELEMENTARY HARMONY
By far the larger part of simple diatonic writing is made up
of them.
Other triads and seventh-chords of the scale are
called subordinate. They not only occur less frequently,
but also have their main function to serve as alternates, or sub-
stitutes for the principal-chords. Such a chord used as an
alternate is given all the distinction possible as a chord, in
order to make the contrast to its principal-chord evident.
Such a chord used as a substitute is made to seem as nearly
as possible like the principal-chord, yet retaining its own
notes.
The subordinate-chords of a key are each related to its
principal in the following way: the root lies a third below
the root of the principal-chord, and hence all the other notes
of the subordinate-chord are those of the principal. Thus
the submediant-chord is subordinate to the tonic; the
mediant to the dominant; and the supertonic to the
subdominant.
It is from this fact that the movement from the subordi-
nate-chord into its principal has a singularly weak and in-
effective feeling — all the natural strength of the principal-
chord seeming to be sapped by thus presenting it merely as
an incomplete subordinate-chord. On the contrary, the move-
ment from a principal-chord to its subordinate, when they
are each in fundamental position, emphasizes the contrast in
the two chords.
For the reasons just given a subordinate-chord is used
either in place of its principal (i. e., when the principal
might have been used), or follows it; but rarely precedes it:
Poor : <
jym
-'vir if r 1 1 r i lr if
vi i a iv in v v7
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
237
Good:
I vi IV ii V Hi V I ii' I
c c b
In general, too, the value of subordinate-chords is in
inverse ratio to their frequency.
The use of subordinate-chords as substitutes for the
principal-chord admits a certain special treatment that can
best be explained by illustration. The student is asked to
compare, chord by chord, the following examples:
m
m
£
1
m
w!
ft
^
i
T:
m
FW
FF
f^
r
I IV
i i
j.<>a j j J
m
n
n
bb
!ii
w£
rrr
u
J,
ii
AM
rrr
r
m
FW
^
rFF
=f=
ii.
(a)
vi ii
vi ii
<d> &
In the second setting, which is the familiar first-strain
of " God Save the King," notice at (a) the soprano g' sub-
stituting for f makes the chord ii instead of IV.
(6) The tenor d' and bass d offer the triad iv as
alternate for I with distinct new effect.
238
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
(c) The alto g' substitutes for £', as before at (a).
(d) The bass d again presents vi as alternate for I.
(e) Same as (a).
The substitute-chord is always used in a way to empha-
size the root of the principal-chord. It takes the root of the
principal-chord as the bass and usually doubles it for the sake
of emphasis. The alternate-chord on the other hand is meant
to offer its own effect without disguise, as a means of vari-
ety. It emphasizes its own root and often appears in an
accented part of the measure.
Thus the three uses of ii in the example quoted have
really a strong subdominant character, while the two appear-
ances of vi are contrasted with I, which would naturally
have followed the chords preceding.
If one alters the last chord of the
third measure from first inversion to
fundamental position it is possible
thus to observe the distinction between
substitute and alternate usage :
In this way the ii is made to
lose the subdominant feeling and
becomes a simple alternate for the IV.
#W
iii
t
w
i vi n i
The substitute-chords most common in a key are:
ii and ii7 as sub- iii and I as sub-
6 b be
stitutes for IV, stitutes for V,
and IV as a substi-
e
tute for I,
^fflifc
'> r ir ii'
m
3Z
f
iii I V
b c
IV
c
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
239
The last three substitutes usually are mere preliminaries
to the chord itself, the substitute notes being neighboring
tones that resolve afterward into the proper chord tones.
Certain further observations need to be made later in
regard to subordinate seventh-chords, and as to the use of
the mediant triad. The student is requested, therefore, to
confine his exercises at present to the subordinate triads vi
and ii, and to the substitute-chords listed above.
Example 1. — Accent-group form, — 6, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5:
^N
j-jjj j
j- j j .1 j
rprr r
j. j>j j j
f-irr r
^m
«nM
r'Frf r
IV I
c b
i
,fiV i n J H
T f-ui i. it i.
ii
b
t
ill
h
v»
vi
t
^
J. j. j i-±i
f pr r pt
^
*3
5^
II
x
vii^ V5
S
f
Notice that the
three substitute-
chords (marked 1),
present strongly the
principal-chord feel-
ing, while the alter-
nates (marked 2),
give the subordinate-
chord feeling so manifestly that it is a relief to return
to the principal-chords at the end and so restore key-balance
(tonality).
Notice also, that the submediant-chord (vi) is acting not
alone as a means of variety, but it actually serves as reso-
lution-chord to the dominant seventh-chord. This is possi-
ble because it can happen without disturbing the movement
of the tendency tones. (The student is requested to think
out the objections to using the vi as resolution-chord to vii\
or to V\)
240 ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Example 2. — Accent group-form, — 4, 1, 2, 3:
I
ifept
^rf
i
i
f
i
^
j jij ji
m
rrrt
&k
i
jgg
^r^
F
F
f ' i9- r-j-f
i iv- V7viio7°i iv i ii° V* IH+V7 V7 i
c c b b
(a)
Notice at (a) that the III* as a substitute chord is also
b
interchangeable among the tendency-chords to the tonic.
This would be equally true of III in the major keys.
b
Exercises in the Use of Subordinate-Chords.
1. Re-write the following cadence-group, replacing
principal triads with subordinate-chords, wherever they seem
available, either as alternate or as substitute-chords:
• i'ii
%
m
m
^
£
t:
J J«U
m
i
m
j jjj
*
i.
£
P
rf^r
m=f
2. Compose cadence-groups to the following chord-
schemes :
Key of G. Cadence-group form, — 4, 1, 2, 3:
1 ti I V V'liii V«|l
Key of f. Cadence-group form, — 1, 2, 3:
i vii° i I ii°7 111+ V7| VI - \\°* I j . .
b l>| h b I h I
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 241
Key of bD. Cadence-group form, — 1, 2:
I iv IV iil Hi V7 vi ii7|ii7 vii°7 iii V7| I---J
Key of F. Cadence-group form, — 1, 2, 3, 4 :
llii7-I ii7| I V7iii V7I vi ii I V7|vi IV I
I b h I h c b I he I
3. Harmonize the following melodies, using subordi-
nate-chords wherever they seem available:
0 i.
rrirrrrii'rrJiJJJi^jjiJr
3E
0 ^ n Pi 0%. 3* m km
/L L 1 fH 3c - * — J J J - — r~ A. " Q * ' r —*--* J' J j- -
#
am
i
^s
f^
pMs
p?
p
4. Compose diatonic melodies in cadence-groups, and
harmonize them as above.
LESSON VII.
THE MINOR KEY AND MIXED MODES.
The Minor Key.
The form of scale which affords the simplest harmonic
relationships, and presents at the same time the strongest
chords and the most natural melodies is the major scale.
That is to say, it is a scale both harmonic and melodic
242
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
The minor scale is used in modern music more often as
a color-contrast to the major than in any other way. That
is to say, instead of having our minds fixed upon a type of
melody as minor, contrasted with major, the real emphasis
is upon a type of triad (the tonic and the subdominant) as
minor, contrasted with major.
It is, thus, a minor key rather than a minor scale which
becomes prominent in thought.
The minor key, however, is not both harmonic and melo-
dic as is the major, i. e., in the form that furnishes the best
chord effects there are melodic difficulties, and in the forms
that are most melodic the choice of good harmonies is re-
stricted. These difficulties appear in that part of the scale
which lies between the fifth and the eighth. Thus, if we at-
tempt to harmonize the ascending melodic minor (observe
that this form is usable both in ascending and in descending
passages) it will be seen that tonic and dominant harmonics
are suitable, while subdominant harmonies seem decidedly
out of place.
Good:
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
243
The objection to the subdominant-chord is, of course,
that the melodic treatment takes away the minor key im-
pression.
Again, if we attempt to harmonize the descending melo-
dic minor (also usable either up or down) it will be seen that
tonic and subdominant harmonies are suitable while dom-
inant harmony is out of place.
Good:
^
f
ifefet
A,
=1
^*
rrr
r r r r
j j j j
r
r
asi
j J
^
U
J
¥
7ZZ
¥*
r r r r
IV-
ii°
b
iv
Bad:
<N
J J J J
t f r r
j,
^
$
r
j.
g
J Jj
j
i
^^
^
¥
¥
i
V-
If this latter illustration be played without the use of
any "b's the characteristic harmonic treatment of the modern
keys, namely a dominant triad containing the leading-tone, is
absent. If the "b's are inserted in the tenor but not in the
soprano a singularly unhappy effect of indecision results, the
tenor contradicting the soprano, and vice versa. A some-
what better effect in the tenor can be gained by replacing the
c's in the dominant measures with be's. Yet still the superi-
ority of the harmonization through the subdominant and
tonic chords is manifest.
244
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
When we harmonize this portion of the harmonic minor
scale it is possible to use both subdominant and dominant har-
monies in satisfactory ways provided one enjoys the augment-
ed second that lies in the scale-progression between submedi-
ant and leading-tone. Indeed as part of a prominent melody
there is something attractive in the oddity of this interval:
iv V i
a b
Yet when a few of the usual chord connections of the
major key, such as IV V, V vi, iii vi, are transferred to the
minor key, this interval of the augmented second seems ex-
ceptionally ugly. For example:
«*
'I-vKl hi l^
$
n
±
»
f=?
s
u
J J
gJiigiE
i
m
n
I vi V I i VI V i i I1I+VI V
Composers have learned to meet this difficulty in one
of three ways.
1. If the augmented
second is part of the melody
that must be retained, they
avoid the use of chords
which manifest this ugli-
ness. Thus, compare the
last example with the fol-
lowing phrase:
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
245
2. If the general contour
of melody is required (up or
down), but the augmented sec-
ond is not needed, they utilize
a melodic minor passage:
3. If the chords are determined, but the melody is
free, the part which would have sung the augmented second
is led back in the opposite direction, and the other parts also,
so far as this is helpful.
Thus
can be corrected to
^m
ifest
W' r r r
ir
l
">\\ r r
iv ii° V7 i
b
The rule just given is adequate unless the note in ques-
tion happens to have been doubled. Then the attempt to
avoid the augmented second would produce either parallel
octaves or an awkward skip in melody by one of the parts.
This difficulty has to be prevented by previous care to avoid
doubling the note in question. This case most frequently
happens in the use of the submediant-chord, the third of
which should be doubled instead of the root (which is the
note causing the trouble).
Thus the ugliness of the illustrations given above
(see preceeding page) can be prevented while retaining the
chords chosen then, in the following manner:
246
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
i^HN
±=
±*j=±
i
f=
m
t*
m
j. i
111
v r I r
*
p=p
Exercises in the Use of the Minor Key.
1. Harmonize the following melodies:
#i
pi^P
rr j irrr
S
J r Mr i r r J J IJ J*r*
M 'i r r r
r r 'J r
* r *
2. Compare cadence groups to the following chord-
schemes :
Key of c. Accent-group form, — 3, 1, 2:
i li iioV|VI-lv|V9III*V'|i -
Key of e. Accent-group form, — 3, 4, 1, 2:
i iv 1 1 v i vi I v . i m I iv tio v -?|i -
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
247
Key of >>b. Accent-group form,— 5, 6, 1, 2, 3, 4:
i - I i . . V -» . I V 7 - - i VI - I VI - - V 7 - - I i - - -II
Key of f. Accent-group form, — 1, 2.
i iio I V VI I iv vli -II
3. Compose diatonic melodies in minor keys and har-
monize them as above.
MIXED MODES.
The Major-Minor Key.
The use of the minor key for the color of its chords
has a further application in music written in the major key,
for frequently color-substitutes drawn from the minor key
are inserted temporarily.
It must be remembered that the dominant triad, the
dominant seventh-chord, and the leading-tone triad are iden-
tical in both the major and the minor keys on the same tonic
note: hence the substitutes referred to affect mainly the sub-
mediant, subdominant, and supertonic-chords, and the lead-
ing-tone seventh, and dominant ninth-chords:
ff^F r pr r r pf t^mw
mi
M
p^
P^FF
m
f^F
iv
I l>VI
iio7
b
IV I
Exercises in the Use of the Major-Minor Key.
1. Harmonize the following melodies; using wherever
suitable minor supertonic, subdominant and submediant-
chords :
248
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
^iVJrl'r'TJT-l Ufrrrilij^ff^
yjJrJ3>ftT[HiJiJ.iforirrirrif'i|^a
Key of F
mJpiQ]^iJlij Jirjjmiii
2. Compose cadence-groups to the following chord-
schemes :
Key of bA. Accent-group, — form 4, 1, 2, 3 :
l|ivJ»3 I V7 iii I - - b>VI I H& -V-7 I • - II
Key of D. Accent-group form, — 2, 3, 1 :
I-lii^5 VbVI I iv^ iW»M |v-7-|l|
Key of B. Accent-group form, — 1,2:
■ 15|"»«{,|lf»H
3. Compose melodies in the major-minor key and har-
monize them.
The Minor-Major Key.
Much less frequently, and less effectively, composers
utilize certain features of the major key in a passage that
has a basis a real minor center :
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
I J .,) i
I
i J J i J n ■ ■
249
f
pSp^F
r V ft
j j
f r r r
J j j J
m
J»i Hi
S
P?
«r *r r
^w
f
i vi
ii° IH+ V7 VI V
b b
IV
b
V
b°
So seldom does this occur that it does not seem advis-
able to set the student any tasks of this nature.
LESSON VIII.
OTHER DIATONIC CHORDS AND CHROMATIC
NOTES.
The student has now passed in survey the triads of the
major and minor keys and the tendency-chords to the tonic,
in their usages that make for tonality ; that is, that create the
impression of a unity in the music through allegiance to the
central — the tonic triad.
The chords of the major key which do not yield so
definite an impression of key are the mediant triad and the
remaining seventh-chords (namely, I7', ii7, iii7, IV7' and
vi7).
The failure of the mediant triad to show definite key
allegiance is because, in addition to the natural independence
of all consonant triads, the leading-tone of the scale by its
place as fifth of the mediant-chord is robbed of its special
tendency character; that is, it is made stable instead of sensi-
tive.
The failure of the seventh-chords to show definite key
allegiance is because in none of them there is any dissonance
except that between root and seventh ; hence the tendency of
the chord is not so plainly marked as in the dissonant chords
250
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
already discussed. It is also the fact that these chords are
rather harsh, especially those which contain the major
seventh (I7' and IV7').
Nevertheless, as a means of variety all of the chords
are utilized. In general it is found that the most natural
progressions out of them are to the consonant triad whose
root is at the perfect fourth above (thus retaining a single
note-of -union), or to the consonant triad whose root is on
the adjoining scale-degree above; for example, iii7 to vi. or
iii7 to IV; I7' to IV, or I7 to ii. These progressions corre-
spond to those which we have already met in passing from
V or V7 to I or to vi.
With regard to seventh-chords in general the dissonance
of root and seventh is found to assert tendency as a dispo-
sition to result in a smaller interval (sixth or fifth) reached
smoothly, i. e., without skip from either note. The result
of this tendency in all the cases so far under consideration
has been to make the seventh descend a degree.
Example 1.
I
1
j J -TT3
i
W
¥
1
m
J )J
S
a
m=tm
HI
iv r
d
V
b
V 1
The harshness of the dissonance in these seventh-chords
may be softened if one use the chord only when its seventh
can be introduced as the note-of-union from a previous
chord, or as a passing-tone (neighboring tone entered with-
out skip). It was formerly the rule in all text-books that
secondary sevenths, as they are called, must be brought in
in one of these two ways.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
251
Thus, eompare with each other the various seventh-
chords in the following example:
Example 2. —
t|,JJJJ|J J3J. JiJJJJiJJ.I
"r rrr
-i
tTTT
m
urn
TTTT
*W
IffT
m
i"ff' rjrjr,, rTif,r,rr,jr ,i
I iii vi IVf V l7 IV -7 ii7V7 I -? IV 'V7I
d ebb
Another favorite method of making these dissonances
smoother is to resolve one seventh-chord directly to another;
thus, as it were, pushing on the inclination of the dissonant
tones from chord to chord until a pleasanter chord is found
upon which to make final resolution.
Hxample 3.
IV7
vii° iii7 vi7 ii7
aba a
V7
ii7 V7
Notice in treating the last two seventh-chords the ca-
dence feeling calls for fundamental positions of the chords,
and so incidentally the dominant-chord is brought in without
its fifth, an arrangement already seen to be good.
252 ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Example 4. —
^Mi
^fl
t
m
ij j j
M
t-ui
i
4
"i,1 ,r in ',r'r,' ■ , r 'l ', i
I V7 I I7 IV IVvii0vii°iii iii7vi vi7 ii if V7 I
The example just given shows a series of seventh-chords
and resolutions which is frequently met, in whole or in part.
Notice that by the omission of each resolution triad the pas-
sage would become an illustration of the preceding para-
graph. The rule might then be formulated that in such a
passage each third of a chord remains as seventh of the next
chord.
Notice, too, that every other seventh-chord is left with-
out its fifth. This would not happen except when every chord
is taken in fundamental position.
Notice, also, that in this regular series the leading-tone
seventh-chord is made to resolve to the mediant triad. By
itself alone such a resolution is not enjoyable; but through
the force of the regular series (called a sequence, which
will come up later for discussion), it is felt to be admissible.
E±
^S
^m
Wr?
t n.
^
T
m
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 253
This is seen to be Example 3, rewritten in the minor key.
In it we get a good illustration of the special adaptations
which this key affords. Thus the use of the leading-tone be-
comes here apparent. In chords where the seventh of the
scale should ascend it has its proper writing as a leading-
tone. In chords where is must descend choice has to be made
between an augmented second or the melodic descending form
of the scale.
Except for the modifications thus suggested, the use of
subordinate chords in the minor scale is the same as in the
major scale.
In either, too great dependence on these effects gives a
somber, rough, and, often, unlovely character to the music;
while the occasional use of them, as a means of variety, is
most valuable and desirable.
Exercises in the Use of Subordinate Chords.
1. Compose cadence-groups to the following chord-
schemes :
Key of D. Accent-group form, — 4. 1, 2, 3:
l|l?'^|vUi7IVii7|iiivV.7|l-
Key of e. Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3:
ivii° i |lH+7'-VI liv'V -7|i--J
Key of F. Accent-group form, — 3, 1, 2 :
I ii7 V7!7 I IV7 vii°7 Hi7 | vi7 ii7 V7 I-j
254
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
2. Harmonize the following melodies, using subordi-
nate-chords wherever available:
# » |
IU-
(ro '* *
-A
--t
5__
■frp-jg i
r~ ■*
/ tytt
* 1
=£%*
-0 JB-
5tT — f
[F
p~
£=S
__j — F-— » #
hn hi
* *
a3
— ■-#-
■J L.
J-r-,-
3. Compose melodies in both major and minor keys and
harmonize them, using subordinate-chords wherever available.
Chromatic Notes.
Chromatic notes in a key are of three sorts:
First. — Tones of color-chords in the mixed modes
(major-minor key, for example), already discussed. Here
the note may be wholly consonant, and free to move out
even by skip.
Second. — Non-harmonic neighboring tones, occurring
always as alteration of the degree next to the note that
follows.
Third. — Color substitutes in tendency-chords.
This last use of chromatic tones furnishes a still more
important method of softening the outline of secondary
seventh-chords than any of those previously given.
The most striking illustration of this is found in the
various chromatic treatments afforded to the supertonic
seventh-chords. As it stands unmodified in the major scale,
the only dissonance is between root and seventh, and the
seventh can move by a half-step progression to the leading-
tone of the scale. The two usual resolutions of the chord,
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 255
to the dominant or to the mediant triads, both call for this
downward movement of the seventh.
But the tendency of the chord to these same resolutions
can be heightened by substituting a raised third in the chord,
causing thereby an added disso- ft
nance between the third and ftH rlf — g Ir^n^-g-H
o
seventh, such as one has in a
dominant-seventh chord: jj? \\7
Again, the fifth of the chord may be lowered. This
makes it the same as ii° in a minor key, and capable of being
classified as a major-minor effect. But the substitution of
the lowered fifth, while it does not hinder the inclination of
the chord to find resolution in V or in iii, suggests also a
new possibility. Changed in this way it is the root that is
doubly dissonant (with fifth and seventh), and so the root
is easily moved. If one retains the seventh as note-of-union
and lets both the lowered fifth follow its tendency down and
the root rise nearer the seventh, the chord is thus treated as
a tendency-chord to the
tonic — a resolution that
proves very acceptable :
« 0
The chord can be made still more urgently to incline to
the tonic triad by chromatic raising of the root, or of root
and third, or of root and lowered fifth, or of raised root and
third and lowered fifth:
£%ij] fliftfr- '■' VM '''
It is to be noted that the raising of the root shuts out
of the resolutions of the chord that to the dominant triad, for
the substitute tone has its tendency upward.
256 ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Example 1. —
Notation of Chromatic Tones.
The discussion of chromatic tendency will be continued
in later lessons, but it is already apparent that in most cases
a chromatic tone is written as a raised note if it ascends to
the next higher scale tone, and is written as a lowered note
if it descends to the next lower scale tone. The exception to
this rule occurs when the chromatic tone is consonant and thus
free in its movement. In this case its writing is determined
by its place in the chord, even if it makes a chromatic pro-
gression (half -step movement), upon the same scale degree;
that is, although lowered it may ascend, or although raised
it may descend.
Example 2. —
ill
ff
w?
f=p3
§
J_J.
W
T
m
I
$
r
JzfcJz
r
i^P
^
bVI 1
I
b
IV
VII
'7
V5+
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 257
Exercises in the Use of Chromatic Notes.
1. Compose cadence-groups to the following chord-
schemes :
Key of 1>B. Accent-group form,— 1, 2, 3, 4:
7°
1 I+IV-I u'liA* I-|vii°I ivb3v| iiiV7I-|l
Key of G. Accent-group form,— 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6:
I--Ill8»--lvi ii#3lV»5lvMl-J>7ivb-8iib5|v7--I--||
I c c a b c I b I {I
In the two following schemes add neighboring tones
where available :
Key of e. Accent-group form, — 3, 1, 2:
tlv-iliv.VI I V - - 1
Key of G. Accent-group form, — 4, 1, 2, 3:
ill - ii vii°7 | I V I bVl 1 1 iv"8 I in I V7 - X II
I b b c J b c |c bbl II
2. Harmonize the following melodies, treating the
chromatic notes either as neighboring tones, as major-minor
effects, or as parts of the chromatically altered supertonic
seventh-chord :
258
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
trrrri'i^rWJflni'uji ri'uji^
f.jTU,ju.j.ifttfrirri>HirJJiJllrp
3. Compose melodies in both major and minor keys
with chromatic notes that may be harmonized as above. Har-
monize them.
LESSON IX.
IMITATION.
The Melodic Sequence.
It is a very common device of melody to repeat a pattern
of a few notes over and over again:
ytWuJJJ
^
i
[o« ■
tHfl«"
9#iF
TT~
O-
If the pattern be merely reiterated without change it
speedily becomes tiresome. Thus the interest in the example
just given has just about reached its limit, in spite of the
variety of the chords. The student may see this by repeating
the first measure in the place of the fourth measure and com-
paring the result with the fourth measure as written.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
259
If, instead of repeating the pattern exactly, the same
contour of melody be taken in successive repetitions but each
time starting upon a higher tone, or each time starting upon
a lower tone, the effect is known as a melodic sequence:
fim
M
&&
^
UJi-
j.
f
g$g
m
33:
#
*
m
i
^^
^ ^ j *
w
s
-o-
3E
■e-
-o-
m:
A sequence pattern is always equal to a rhythmic accent-
group of some sort, for the very idea of repetition involves
the recurrence of the same general values of emphasis. Thus
the following melody, although identically the same as that
in the last illustration, has quite lost the sequence feeling:
If, by reason of the striking character of the figure that
is chosen, one is able to recognize the sequence in spite of an
apparent difference in the rhythmic values of the repetitions,
the secquence is felt instantly to be a syncopation— the se-
quence group opposing the regular grouping:
260
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
&£
"3 {I J. J $
sfea
rrr
j j j
rrr
i±
i' r r t r
=F
A strict melodic sequence would require that the exact
intervals of the melodic pattern be retained in the repetition,
and that the first tone of successive repetitions should always
stand in the same relation to the last of the previous repeti-
tion that the first tone of the first repetition stood to the last
tone of the original pattern (called the model) :
ffi^u
iir(nriirrr jffir#M
p ifttpf
&fy J ».
d#5
£3*
*
fc
A comparison of the strict sequences just given with the
sequences on the same model already harmonized, makes clear
the advantage in point of usefulness of that form of imitation
which ignores in the main the exactness of major or minor
second, but retains the scale degrees as the basis of the repe-
tition- This flexible form of sequence adds to the repetition
a certain effect of freedom, and yet permits the series, how-
ever much extended, to lie within the same key.
The Harmonic Sequence.
This freer form of sequence attains still more of im-
portance when, as is sometimes the case, the sequence move-
ment is made to include the melodies of all the parts, and
thus to create from the sequences the chords themselves;
making a harmonic sequence.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
261
Not every melodic sequence is suitable to be worked
out as a harmonic sequence. Thus a melody which is har-
monized in but one arrangement of a single chord cannot
serve for model of a harmonic sequence ; since each repetition
would have to bring the new chord in the same arrangement
as the old and thus create parallel fifths and octaves.
Bad:
,
iJNit ij
UyjjJ,
j
vy r as*
L-flE — ™
4i
t»
-a#*~ *~^=
— Gt
^ ■*
A melody containing at least two positions of a chord,
or two or more chords, can serve for model of a harmonic
sequence, with the following limitations:
1. The harmonization of the model must be good.
2. The movement from the last chord-arrangement of
the model to the first chord-arrangement of the repetition
must also be good :
fi&
m
m
A
m
g
The two attempts with this model just given are neither
of them quite satisfactory, for reasons whidh the student is
invited to analyze. The two following examples, however,
each fulfill the necessary conditions of a harmonic sequence.
They also illustrate another peculiarity of the sequence for-
mation; namely, that, since the device is primarily a melodic
device. —
262
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
£H3=£
i
M
mw
^
at
O
T
*
«L-Jj
I *
I
o
^
f^
V
I
b
V
b
IV
vii°
b
IV
b
vir
HjJ-J
Hi^HI
^P
S
5 r
'rrr r
■Jst
f=^=
331
HI
VI
b
in
b
VI
hU^±\hi,\, 1J.JJJ1 Jj.i
3. After the model has been well harmonized and has
reached its first repetition in equally good harmonic progres-
sion, it is henceforth immaterial whether the order of the
chords conforms to the usual treatment of key-material, or
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
263
even that the resolutions of tendency-chords be the expected
ones; so long as the sequence itself continues. But
4. The end of the final repetition must once more cor-
rectly progress into the chord which follows the sequence.
As has already been suggested in regard to the melodic
sequence, the strict harmonic sequence, containing the exact
imitations in both melodies and chords, rarely occurs within
the limits of a single key; and while harmonic sequences are
not infrequently found as a means of modulation (see Les-
son XII.), they are more important still as an effect within
the key:
Thus the latter of the two sequences just given is more
valuable and in reality more varied than the former.
A combination of the melodic and the harmonic sequence
is not infrequently met with, where the imitations are not as
exact as to melody or chord progressions as in the cases so
far considered, and yet there can be no question that the effect
of imitation, sequence fashion, is intended:
264
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Exercises in Sequences.
1. Harmonize the following melodies in two ways;
first, as in a melodic sequence; second, as a harmonic se-
quence :
#
J c;rr iJ crrri^
m
m^
#B^
^^
PfrirrjJ^ir
p
*
i^S J r
r r if i r
32
«-
2. Harmonize the following sequence models and carry
out the sequence through the cadence-groups:
etc.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 265
3. Compose as harmoic sequences the following chord-
scheme models, completing the cadence-group with a cadence :
Key of F. I IV V — | iv, etc.
Key of D. V7 — vi I iii7, etc.
LESSON X.
THE CHROMATIC TENDENCY-CHORDS.
In Lesson VIII. illustration has been given of the effect
of chromatic modifications on the supertonic seventh-chord.
A similar study could be made of the chromatic modifications
of all scale chords. In general it would be seen that the
heightening of the effect of dissonance adds perceptibly to
the beauty of the chord, and at the same time increases the
satisfaction felt in the resolution triad. This puts, in the
outcome, an added emphasis upon the resultant triads. Hence
the use of chromatic-chords in a key does not endanger nec-
essarily the firmness of the tonality. In fact, if the key
triads, to which each chromatic-chord resolves, are themselves
used in proper order to show allegiance to the tonic triad,
there is even more stability of key.
In estimating the chromatic-chords of a key according
to their value in establishing tonality, it is plain that a vari-
ation in importance can be shown similar to that of the dia-
tonic triads. Thus, the most important chromatic-chords are
those that tend to issue in the tonic triad; next, those that
tend to issue in the dominant triad; next, those that tend to
issue in the subdominant triad; next, those that tend to issue
in their respective subordinate triads.
For the sake of convenience we can classify all these
chords as attendant chords to the triad in which they issue.
An attendant-chord, then, is a dissonant tendency-chord to a
given consonant triad. Since there are but two varieties of
consonant triad, the major and the minor, a display of the
266 ELEMENTARY HARMONY
attendant-chords to each of these will make clear the possi-
bilities of the chromatic attendant-chords.
Any attendant-chord owes immediate allegiance to its
resolution-chord as if that were tonic in a key; but when it
arrives the triad, whatever it be, is accepted at its proper
value without question.
Presenting the attendants to a major tonic-chord we find
the list to consist of the leading-tone triad and chromatic
alterations, the dominant seventh-chord and chromatic altera-
tions of it, the leading-tone seventh-chord and chromatic alter-
ations, the dominant ninth-chord and chromatic alterations,
chromatic alterations of the supertonic seventh-chord, chro-
matic alterations of the subdominant seventh-chord, and chro-
matic alterations of two triads, the supertonic and the
dominant.
When the student comes to apply these attendants it will
be apparent that the more strongly dissonant and strongly
chromatic are the chords, the more satisfactory is the issu-
ance into the major triad. This fact makes the number of
attendant-chords to a minor triad much less; indeed, the only
really acceptable attendants to a minor triad are those which
would be diatonic in the key of the triad (vii°, V7, vii°7° and
V9), and also the Hi triad and the *iv°7°.
The two lists follow, for the sake of comparison, but
there is much yet to be said about the comparative beauty or
usefulness of the chords, and about the methods of handling
them:
Attendant-chords resolving to the major triad of F :
j^S^IHpMH^rtlftj Ijp
vii° vii°7 V s"*"
w?9 i »i ^i a ij n >fjp
•*»•_ ■*»•-«■ •*»■ -^ -**■ -d- ■»• «■
V7 v»
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
267
Attendant-chords resolving to the minor triad off:
*
m
*
1
5^=1
vii° vii°7
Attendant-chords to F:
" bnb5 ii' «ii2° #IV7
^^
ijfcg
*
*
Attendant-
chords to f :
bll ii°7 #iv7°
In the development of harmony, composers came to the
use of some of these chromatic-chords very early, but in only
a restricted way, one by one. Thus a group of chromatic-
attendants to the dominant-chord of a minor key became
known respectively as the Italian sixth, the French sixth, and
the German sixth. Referring to the list as presented above,
they would be described as follows :
1. The Italian sixth is a first inversion of the leading-
*
*£
B
tone triad with lowered third (viib*), as
b
attendant to a dominant-chord. Hence : ^ « 6 V
In using the chord the chromatic character of the bass
and of the root forbids doubling of any note but the fifth,
and some care must be exercised to avoid an unpleasant par-
allel fifth in resolution. The rule in regard to this is, never so
write the chord that both fifths of the chord lie above the root.
That is,<
K
i
ft:
is poor, but
Hff
is good.
lt-6 V
It .6 V
268
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
*
te
gg^ii
2. The French sixth is a second inversion of the domi-
nant seventh-chord with lowered fifth
(Vb°) as attendant to the dominant-chord.
c
Hence: v ^t.6 V
No difficulties arise in the use of the chord, except that
all the notes are required, and thus in four-part writing no
note is doubled.
3. The German sixth is a first inversion of the leading-
tone seventh-chord with lowered third
and seventh (vii7°b2 ) as attendant to a
b
dominant-chord. Hence :
fy ^m
Ger .6 V
The difficulty in the use of this chord consists in the
inevitable parallel fifths in resolution, due to the fact that the
third of the chord is in the bass, and that both it and the
seventh have a downward tendency. The text-books on har-
mony have customarily offered two subterfuges as a way out
of the difficulty. One is by partial resolution to the French
sixth before seeking the real resolution. This interchange of
tendency-chords to the same triad is already familiar to the
student (Lesson V).
The other is by inserting a substitute chord (.0 before
the dominant resolution :
¥
I
T3Z
SEE
■O-
■©-
g=zz
-XT
m
jm=.
-&-
U-J-
ffi
-*»-
-<e»-
Ger.6 V Fr.6
I v
Modern theorists, following, as always, in the wake of
composers, agree that the subterfuge is unnecessary; the
resolution is good in spite of the parallel fifths, unless, per-
chance, they seem too obvious in outer parts.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
269
*
*:
=re=^
In regard to all these chords, composers now exercise
much freedom ; not only using them in other inversions or in
fundamental positions, but regarding them as attendants to
other major-chords than the dominant. Their main function
is to lead strongly into the resolution-chord. Their richness
of dissonance, and smoothness of issuance into the resultant
triad, give them value.
Another attendant that has had
much use in Nineteenth Century writing
is the dominant seventh with raised fifth
7
(V+) as attendant to the major tonic-
chord. This is used mainly in funda-
mental position with the chromatic fifth
in the soprano:
One finds this more often in instrumental music, where
the resolution can have the complete chord in five parts.
To be classed with this in some respects is the dominant
triad with raised fifth (V°+), attendant to the tonic. It is to
be noted that this chord (the augmented triad), is found in
the minor key as a scale-chord, and there is would have ex-
actly the same resodution; namely, from IIT to VI. Ob-
serve, therefore, that this double significance of the pair of
chords will be of use when the subject of modulation comes
up (Lesson XII) :
fc
V5+
I
k
I
m
m
=8=
15
G
V5+ I
b III+
Another interesting chord historically is that known as
the Neapoliton sixth. This is the major triad on the lowered
second of the scale, in first inversion (bII) as attendant to
the tonic-chord. This has been regarded as a chromatic-chord
in the minor key, but in fact permits resolution to the major
almost as readily. The difficulty met with in this chord is
270
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
the same as in the German sixth; namely, the parallel fifths.
In this case, however, it is not at all necessary to have them
in the minor resolution; nor in the major if one avoids
doubling the root of the chord. Theoretically, in fact, one
ought never to double the root, since as a chromatic tone it
is a tendency tone. But the chord in fact is consonant and
only acquires its unstable quality because it is manifestly out
of the key in which it is used :
m
a
i
#
i
t
#
I
r r '
m
r
i
ibi J
JbL
^^
F^
^m
T
r
i
N.6
iiv
b
I
b
N.6
iv
c
This chord, like the preceding, has value in modulation.
Of still more interest is the chord known as the dimin-
ished seventh-chord. It stands in the lists given above as a
leading-tone seventh-chord with lowered seventh to a major
triad (vii°7°), as a raised supertonic seventh-chord with raised
7°
third to a major triad (*ii*"}, as a regular leading-tone sev-
enth to a minor triad (vii°7°), and as a raised subdominant
7°
seventh-chord (*iv*') with a raised third, to a minor triad:
F vii"7" tD »ii#» F vii°7° bb #ivjs
It is readily seen, also, that this chord affords special
opportunity for modulation.
Many of the chords which have been listed above have
only recently come to be used at all frequently. They vary
greatly in beauty; and in fact they all depend for their beauty
upon the skill with which the choice of the individual tones
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
271
is made. They are color-chords par excellence. Further dis-
cussion of them must be deferred until later.
Within the limits of a given key these chromatic at-
tendants can give great variety and richness, without, as has
been said, upsetting the key-balance. The simplest way to
make this clear to the sketch an outline of chord keys, such as :
(Att.) (Alt.) (Att.) (Att.) (Att) (Att.)
Then fill in this outline with attendants, and compare the
stability of the results:
m
m
i jaj
r
4
jj.
=8z
£t
¥
P^*P
FP^
tAlso
=EF
n
n
?Wf
^
EFSF
r
(Att.) (Att.) (Att .) (Att .) (Att .)
mm.
/l|.l'//lklW/
T
^^
VI
r
272
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Sometimes the filling in of such an outline causes no
difficulty of part movement; but sometimes, also, in order to
get a good arrangement of the attendant-chord chosen, a dif-
ferent position of the resolution-chord is required, as in the
example just given, where the I and vi could not both have
been in the same position, were it not for the intervening
attendant.
Finally, notice in regard to attendance (tendency-chords)
that much freedom in approaching a tendency note is permis-
sible. This fact is to be compared with the use of neighbor-
ing tones, which it will be remembered may be reached by
skip, but left only for the tone to which they lead :
i
i
f
W
*p
r
r-
J i
i
A 1
^m
^=#
J
f^l
ii
w
^
Att
Att
Att
Exercises in the Use of Attendant-Chords.
1. Compose cadence-groups to the following chord
schemes, choosing that attendant-chord to each triad which
seems most attractive, musically. Notice that the sign Att.
means a chord attendant to the chord which follows:
Key of F. Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3, 4:
I Att . IV Att. I ii Att.V Att. I vi Att .V Att . I V
Key of C. Accent-group form, — 3, 1, 2:
I |Att.-ii| Att.iii Att.l I Att.V |I -
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
273
2. Harmonize the following melodies in the soprano,
treating each chromatic note as a part of an attendant-chord :
I V IFr.6V Att. vi ii Att. I Att. I V I
I £ Att. I V' vi Att. I Att.V Att.V I
3. Harmonize the following melodies in the bass ac-
cording to the indications given :
ffin J nr
g
*' r it
ZEL
*
5§PPP
I* jBj I f Jp
-^-
Si
#
1P"
LESSON XI.
CADENCES.
The student has been making his exercises up to this
time within the limits of a cadence-group. Most of the ex-
amples given here have produced the sensation of coming
to an actual conclusion, as if all that needed to be said had
been said.
This sense of conclusion was due, first, to the rhythmic
satisfaction due to the completion of the final accent-group
274 ELEMENTARY HARMONY
in the cadence-group; second, to the tonal unity caused by
the final issue in the tonic triad, after keeping it in view as
a center throughout the piece; and, lastly, to the rhythmic
place and arrangement of the two final chords, known as the
CADENCE.
Three things are requisite in a cadence:
1. That the final chord be a strong chord, made em-
phatic by coming upon the grammatical accent of the meas-
ure. Heretofore in these exercises it has always been the
tonic-chord. Some cadences use other final chords; but, with
few exceptions, the final cadence chord is a consonant triad
in fundamental position.
2. That this chord be preceded by a different chord
which moves naturally into the final one. Consonant triads
in fundamental position, or first inversion, and tendency-
chords in available arrangements (that is, such arrangements
as can resolve well to the fundamental position of the final
chord), are good.
3. That the chords stand at the end of a cadence-group.
That is, the same progressions which make the cadence
occur constantly at other places in the music, but without
causing the cadence feeling.
Certain forms of the cadence have become so stereo-
typed that they are given special names. These names and
definitions are displayed below :
The PERFECT AUTHENTIC CADENCE Consists of
V Is or of V7 I8.
a a a a
[Note. — The figure 8 indicates that the top (soprano)
note is the, octave of the root of the chord.]
The perfect plagal cadence consists of IV I8.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 275
The IMPERFECT AUTHENTIC, Or PLAGAL CADENCE, has
the same chords as the perfect, but I does not require the
a
octave of the root in the soprano, and V or IV may be in
first inversion.
The dominant cadence (often called the half ca-
dence), consists of a suitable preliminary chord followed by
V on the measure accent.
a
The subdominant cadence consists of a suitable pre-
liminary chord followed by IV on the measure accent.
a
The submediant cadence (often called the inter-
rupted, false or deceptive cadence"), consists of V fol-
lowed by vi. °
a
This list is by no means complete, but includes the more
important and standard cadence progressions.
The cadence is to music what punctuation is to speech.
The strongest cadences; namely, the authentic and plagal,
correspond to a full stop. The other cadences, of varying
strength, correspond to other less final rhetorical pauses.
Since the purpose of the cadence is to produce a sense of
completion of the cadence-group, it would seem that the final
chord could never be an inversion or at an unaccented part
of the measure. This, in general, is true. Yet modern music
is coming to use dissonant tendency-chords so freely that a
quite notable form of cadence is the dominant seventh
cadence (i. e., cadence ending- on the V), which of course
a
implies a continuation of the music in the following cadence-
group.
The different cadence-groups of a single period (see
Elementary Theory, Lesson X.), are usually balanced by
weak and strong cadences in alternation.
The strength of a cadence is due partly to the chords
and their arrangements, and partly to the rhythmic place of
276
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
the chords. Thus it happens sometimes that a cadence with
strong rhythm but weak chords may outweigh in importance
a cadence of weak rhythm but strong chords.
There is, however, a special treatment of cadence-rhythm
that is known as the feminine cadence, where the impor-
tant accent of the cadence lies with the chord next to the last,
instead of with the final chord. This is a seeming exception
of the group-form. In general, if
chords come in the music after the
last accent of the cadence-group, they
are felt to be mere addenda to the
cadence or as introduction to the
following cadence-group. Thus
is a feminine cadence.
Hi
mm
4
m
Example 1. — Cadence-group form, — 1, 2, 3, 4:
jpl
4^m
,\ * ^ j i^
m
j Ml
»
m
i&
m
s
a
r
a
b
V
a
#^
^
rHp
V VI
xs
r
j.
m
i
x . .
V
a
IT
t8
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
277
The first cadence, though strong in chord structure, is of
weak rhythm; the second is strong in rhythm but not final in
chord; the third is the weakest both in chords and rhythm;
the last is strong every way.
Example 2. — Accent-group form,— 6, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5:
TH7 tf
rvr U
r-r v
r^r
Notice that the last two cadences have the same melody.
Since from this moment the student will be expected to
write exercises in period form (see Elementary Theory, Les-
son X.), he is advised to read again carefully Lesson IV. of
278
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
this series of Harmony Lessons, and observe the following
additional hints on harmonization of melodies :
1. Do not repeat a chord from an unaccented to an
accented beat, unless it is the beginning of a cadence-group,
or had already been repeated from a previous accent, or is
strikingly rearranged.
Thus, for
example
is not as-
good as
^
J
M
r?
i
I
i
m
t
or as
^
£*
fT
m
I
which illustrates the first and
second exceptions, or as
^JiJ M J
^m
fT
Li
V' V'
m
j=j
rr
F
J^
fT
^
sufficiently striking new position of the
end of the example, observe that the
gives the effect of a feminine cadence.
which illustrates the
last exception. No-
tice that in this last
example the same
melody is used as in
the others, but a
new key is taken in
order to permit a
chord. Also, at the
IV substitute chord
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
279
2. Do not assume that a melody note, when repeated,
calls for the same chord or the same arrangement of the
chord; not that repetition . is always bad, but it often is. In
the preceding illustration, for instance, the three high be's
have with good effect a different chord for each.
Compare, for example, the following harmonization of
repeated bb's, with the effect that could be made by actually
repeating the entire first chord seven or even four times :
^r=f
3. Do not follow a subordinate chord with its principal
unless there be a movement into a strikingly fresh arrange-
ment of the principal-chord:
##
fe£
f
■* • d
f
^
1
f
v 'i r f
r
i-j.
a^
m
?
trr
VI
ii IV
4. When wide skips occur, if it is not agreeable to har-
monize both notes with the same chord, or use the second
as neighboring tone to the same chord, endeavor in passing
from one chord to the other to make smooth progressions in
280
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
at least some of the other parts, and thus offset the skip of
melody in the given part.
Compare the two following harmonizations of the same
melody, either of which is good:
I
Jb±
i-H-l
i
J. J>
±±
^
i i J i
r p r r
4mLU
J Ji
r
^^
^
1
i
P?
^^
I
b
I
tet
I I V -'
b a b a
I
b
V7 iii V7 1 I
b b
%
■L±
^W
1
3±
m
s
4^
r r h>i
Ji. i
yfefe
J-^J J
^B
i
4
r Np
V
a
I V'
b a b a
V I ii
a b
vii°'
b
Notice that the highest a" is a non-harmonic tone in the
first harmonization and a chord note in the second.
Notice that the b' of the next to the last measure is a
chord note in the first harmonization, and a non-harmonic
tone in the second.
Exercises in the Use of Cadences.
1. Harmonize the following melodies, choosing suitable
cadences :
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
V
281
'iJirrfirrM^1 Jirrri*rrWTr r
#
jpf ip j r >r r
— — zg= -pr=- zz
2. Compose periods with the following chord schemes.
Use the chords with sevenths or without, in fundamental
position or in inversion, at will, except where indicated :
Key of bA. Accent-group form, — 4, 1, 2, 3:
1 1 1 V vi Att. I vi Att. IVV Att. 1 1 Att.VV7 I I - -VAtt . II
ii Att .Hi Att I vi Att. VV V9 | in V - - 1 1 --J
Key of f. Accent-group form, — 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6:
I.-V-- V--I
V -- VI- - Att.--iv-
AU.--III+- -|VI-ivV-
.Vlv-
i _ . . -
3. Harmonize the following basses, choosing suitab
cadences :
282 ELEMENTARY HARMONY
LESSON XII.
MODULATION.
The entire material of a given key, major, minor and
chromatic, is known as the tonal chromatic. That is, the
tonal chromatic consists of the twelve tones of our European
musical system brought into unity by allegiance to a common
center — the tonic triad, major or minor. How this is
brought about it has been the object of the lessons up to this
point to show. It should also be plain that any one of these
twelve tones may be taken as a tonic note upon which the
major- or minor-chord might serve as a center. A review of
the structure of chords makes it plain that most chords can
be made readily to own allegiance to a number of different
tonic centers. An illustration has already been given
(page 229) of how, with as simple material as that of the
principal triads alone, one may pass from one tonic center
to another with no break whatever in the continuity of the
music. When one has mastered all the wealth of the tonal
chromatic this process is excessively easy, especially between
keys that contain much common diatonic material.
The process is that known as modulation. It consists,
briefly, of utilizing the double significance that can be given
to some chord common to the two keys. This chord which
serves as a chord-of-union to the two keys, sometimes called
the bridge-chord, or hinge-chord, is reached in the order of
chords proper to the old key, and left in the order proper to
the new. There is, thus, actually no new process to master
in writing modulations, save that connected with the choice
of the suitable key to be entered and of the suitable hinge-
chord common to the two keys.
As to the suitable keys for modulation more will be
said later on.
As to the hinge-chord; we find it
(a) Diatonic in both keys:
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
second :
Chromatic in the first key, but diatonic in the
(0
second :
Diatonic in the first key, but chromatic in the
J11 i' / I
ib=*
^^
J J J
d
I
I bB Att. to I /
(d) Chromatic in both keys:
:Sz
n
^
J^J j»J
*
r
i
t — r
-cr
_Q_
y» j
J J J
i
mm
f^
/ F Att . to ii \
Vb Att. to ivy
284
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
In this illustration the attendant-chord is entered as if
it were attendant to the chord of g (ii) in the old key, but
left as attendant to the chord of bE (IV) in the new.
A special character is given to that form of modulation
in which the hinge-chord actually would require a different
notation to express its two meanings. This occurs when the
chord as entered has one tone as its root but in the new sig-
nification changes to another tone as its root. The cases of
this sort could be classified as above, but a more valuable
grouping puts them in a class by itself, that of
(e) Enharmonic modulation :
^
is*
iagi
s
j. i
J JJ
is
m r r r
H
*PF
:f=F
F V
E All to I
v ih5
i
f
m
^=W=i
§1
m
■&X,
4 j j
j
u
zee
fcM
s
'^»r rr
^^
^
F Att.to I
bG V
fliil&V7
It is usually quite unnecessary to write out the two nota-
tions of the enharmonic-chord. More frequently than not
composers choose the notation which makes clear to the eye
the direction of progress (i. e., they choose the second mean-
ing given the chord) ; but sometimes, as in the first of the
two illustrations just given, they take the simpler writing
though it be the first meaning of the chord.
Enharmonic modulations often present the most surpris-
ing and engaging of transformations, and are done in a
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 285
twinkling, whereas modulations to more closely related tonal
centers — to keys having much common material — frequently
demand considerable time and require confirmation through
continued use of the new center in order to bring a complete
adjustment of feeling to it. Thus the illustrations given
under a, b and c could all be accepted as a mere use of at-
tendants to the subdominant-chord, the music continuing in
the old key; and even the illustration under d, although
resolving the attendant hinge-chord to the chord of bE, not in
the original key, still holds the new tonal center but lightly
and would permit return on the slightest indication. On the
contrary the enharmonic modulations, under e, have plunged
us at once into a completely new set of chord groupings and
have broken off completely all allegiance to the old center.
The most important of the enharmonic-chords are the
diminished seventh-chord, the dominant seventh-chord, the
French sixth (a variant of the preceding), and the aug-
mented triad. If the student understands these he will have
no difficulty in mastering any others that may appear.
The diminished seventh-chord, in its construction,
divides the octave into minor thirds; for the inversion of the
interval of the diminished seventh, namely, the augmented
second, is the enharmonic equivalent to a minor third.
Thus
g7° = »a7°
Since each of the diminished seventh-chords can appear
as leading-tone seventh-chord in major, leading-tone seventh-
chord in minor, raised supertonic seventh-chord in major,
and raised subdominant seventh-chord in minor, it is mani-
fest that the same combination of sounds (tones) is capable
of sixteen different interpretations. To offset this bewilder-
286
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
ing wealth of treatments there are actually but three differ-
ent diminished seventh-chords in music.
The dominant seventh-chord also enters the list of
enharmonic chords; not, as was the case with the diminished
seventh-chord, enharmonic with other dominant seventh-
chords, but enharmonic with other chords, as follows:
If the seventh of a dominant seventh-chord be taken as
the root of another chord having the same tones, this latter
proves to be a diminished seventh with lowered third, which
may be treated as in any of the four key relationships in
which the diminished seventh-chord stands:
♦
51
*ir i \*k j^k
bB V7
7°
= E viiba
- Cffii
7o
u. 7°
#1V
Again, if the fifth of the dominant seventh-chord be
taken as the root of a chord with the same tones, this latter
proves to be a diminished seventh-chord with lowered fifth,
which may stand as leading-tone seventh-chord to a minor-
triad, or as raised supertonic seventh-chord to a major triad,
only:
bBV7
m
^m
*C Vll
7o
b5 ;
A #ii»*
It is, of course, equally true that either of the two
chords just presented are enharmonic to each other, as well
as to the dominant seventh; so that the relationship of the
three chords could have been stated starting from any one
of the three.
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 287
Roots of the Three Enharmonic-Chords.
Ft»FtT
/F V \ /E tii'V BV'VbV\
U tii'v U vimbwAv J
ir- fl i
3*^
The French Sixth is enhar
monic to itself. The lowered fifth
of one chord becomes the root
the other, thus
The augmented triad is
enharmonic in the same way as
the diminished seventh, since it
divides the octave into even in-
tervals of a major third:
S£
!>B Vi>5 : E Vb75
(m i»a "fe
X+= X+ = X-+
The proper note to be doubled is the root, and the en-
harmonic treatment of the chord in fact would consist of
enforcing one or another of the tones, by doubling, so as to
give to it the effect of root:
flj^
t*fJ ^
m
j
i
f
inf
1 r I ' I ' r w
dlll+VI iv'lU+V i
m
£
#F V+
D V+
288 ELEMENTARY HARMONY
Considerable space has been given to the subject of en-
harmonic modulation, but the student should not be led to
infer therefrom that such modulation is the most frequept
or the most important method of transferring the tonic
center. He should make sure of his mastery of all other
means before he plunges into this fascinating method.
More important, even, than the means of modulation is
the method of establishing it.
In general, a modulation is not regarded as complete
until a cadence has been made in the new key. Often, too,
pains must be taken to introduce and emphasize material
that would not seem natural in the old key. This is espe-
cially the case when most of the chords are common to both
keys. For this reason it is usually wise to reach the hinge-
chord as soon as possible after the beginning of the cadence-
group in which the modulation is desired, so that time may
be left to arrive at and establish the new center. Often, in
fact, the very opening chord of the cadence-group is the
hinge-chord.
Most short pieces, a single period in length, consisting of
two or four cadence-groups, will have one change of key at
least. This, of course, means two modulations : one to the
new key, the other from the new key to the old. In such
simple music it is usual to make the modulation to a key
whose tonic-chord is diatonic in the original key. The dom-
inant key, for example, has been found most satisfactory in
such cases. The relative minor, if the piece is major; or the
relative major if the piece is minor; the supertonic minor if
the piece is major; the subdominant, major or minor; and
the mediant major if the piece is major, are modulations not
infrequently found.
When the modulation has been made to the new key, the
return modulation must be thought out as if starting from
the latter. Observe, however, that any chord which was in
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
289
the original key re-establishes its original impression and
restores the original key much more readily than would be
the case in establishing a new key.
[Note. — The student is advised here to analyse a large
number of hymn-tunes, and simple part-songs; in which he
will now find few processes not familiar to him.]
Exercises in Modulation.
1. Finish the following cadence-groups with a modula-
tion, using the last chord here written as a hinge-chord.
Take care that the cadence in the new key shall fully estab-
lish the impression of the key:
^
M
^
u
r
$h J~n + J
3»3 J: J:
290
ELEMENTARY HARMONY
2. Complete the following chord schemes with a modu-
lation, using the last chord indicated as a hinge-chord:
Key of E,— I IV
b
Key of D,— I
I I b7 I
V-(Mt.to vi)- .Key of M,- i - iv Ger.6
V -vl | ill. Key of F,— i i iic
3. Harmonize the following melodies with modulation :
[N. B. — Observe first in what key the cadence is made;
then take the earliest opportunity the melody gives to reach
that key.]
-yu J p fHf if r r r ir
» it *
Vm fit
gM jjnu-ir r Lir i't't n
zn
y'(t? fJ-fjJ l^jtJ [j |[^(?J|Qj>Jp^
ELEMENTARY HARMONY 291
4. Modulate from the key of bA to the key of C major,
in three different ways: first, using as hinge-chord a triad
common to bA and C major-minor; second, using as hinge-
chord a diminished seventh-chord that can be attendant-
chord to the tonic triad of both keys; third, using as hinge-
chord an attendant-chord that will resolve into the new key
by enharmonic treatment.
ADVANCED HARMONY
IN TWELVE LESSONS.
George Coleman Gow.
ANALYSIS OF LESSONS.
I. Pedal-point and the Non-harmonic Tones..
II. Classification and Use of the Non-harmonic Tones.
III. Freedom in Diatonic Harmony.
IV. Freedom in Non-harmonic Tones.
V. Freedom of the Tonal-chromatic.
VI. Elipsis and Free Color Chords.
VII. The Expansion of Tonality and Modulation.
VIII. Figured Basses.
IX. The Smaller One-period Form: The Chant.
X. The Larger One-period Form.
XI. Rhythm in Vocal Music.
XII. Vocal Harmony in Less or More than Four Parts.
Conclusion.
ADVANCED HARMONY
George Coleman Gow.
LESSON I.
PEDAL-POINT AND THE NON-HARMONIC
TONES.
It may be remembered that in the first examples of har-
mony writing, when the student had one or few chords at
his disposal, he was encouraged to bring to his aid certain
uses of non-harmonic tones in order to preserve the grace-
fulness of melodic outline which is characteristic of simple,
lightly harmonized music. As the number and richness of
the chords increased less non-harmonic tones were needful,
although occasionally very effective use was made of them.
Having the complete resources of the tonal-chromatic at his
disposal the student should now add the complete resources
of non-harmonic material.
Pedal-Point.
At the beginning of the study of chords an exercise was
given with a single chord and a free melody based upon it.
We have among the non-harmonic uses of tones a correspond-
ing case of the single tone to which there is added a series
296
ADVANCED HARMONY
of harmonies. This peculiar non-harmonic tone is called the
SUSTAINED TONE (the ORGAN-POINT Or PEDAL-POINT ) . The
difference between this non-harmonic tone and others which
the student has already used, or will use, consists in this, that
all other non-harmonic tones resolve into a chord-tone, here
it is the chord which moves into the sustained tone. In
principle, therefore, the sustained tone is a single sound used
as a harmonic center, supported by a series of chords, in
which those chords which do not contain the sustained tone
might properly be called non-harmonic chords since they are
the unstable part of the music, while the tone which is sus-
tained remains the fixed center. If one has a clear recog-
nition of this significance of the sustained tone it is easy
to see why, as is the case, a sustained tone is often so
powerful an aid to tonality in making climaxes. We fre-
quently find that the tonic or the dominant of the key is made
the sustained tone, and thus is given an especially strong
emphasis :
BRAHMS;Third Symphony
f r r r
JJL
id=d=
r
f f
r r
ff|r ir|f
ADVANCED HARMONY
297
Sustained tones may be momentary or of long duration.
They are found most frequently in the bass, but can be used
in any upper part. In by far the most cases the sustained
tone begins and ends as a note of a chord. Sustained tones
held in upper voices rarely have chords to which they are
non-harmonic succeed one another. Indeed the sustained
tone effect not infrequently occurs with a series of chords all
of which contain the tone itself. As is the case with non-
harmonic tones in general the most enjoyable feature of the
use of the non-harmonic chord is its resolution into the sus-
tained tone:
Delibes: Lakme
Sometimes, especially in instrumental music, there may
be two sustained parts, and even triple organ-points (root,
fifth, and ninth) have, not yet very successfully, been at-
tempted :
Mendelssohn: Song without words.
298
ADVANCED HARMONY
Special attention should be called to the momentary use
of a pedal-point, particularly on the tonic or the dominant at
the cadence. Many combinations of tone that would require
elaborate explanations on any other basis may be readily
understood as cases of momentary use of a stationary tone :
Mendelssohn: part song. Brahms: Requiem.
I
Sullivan: Part Song Grieg: Sarabande.
3±
A
*=
HfP#
i
m
i
I rr
gpP
a
M
f=f=ff
FTT
In the illustrations just given, occur what are some-
times known as chords of the eleventh or thirteenth. They
are, in fact, momentary organ-points on the root of a chord
accompanied by an attendant to that chord.
Retardation and Anticipation.
There is still another mode of dealing with chords
which produces non-harmonic effects that are apparent rather
than real. It is a delaying of some of the chord tones until
after the remainder has begun sounding; or an entering of
the new chord with some of the melodies before the time at
which the chord should rightly appear. Such movements
are called retardations or anticipations. In either case
ADVANCED HARMONY
299
the effect is purely a rhythmic one, hence the laws of chord
progression are in no way affected by this irregularity:
Schumann : Novelette
=±
A 3 i'Hi ^
s
F^pfr-^f ram
p
Bach : St .Matthew Passion
W
WW
■a y J
*i'w r- r
j
^^
s£
^
*F¥
r
§
**
Beethoven: Elegy
SI
^i
;l
2
^
H
^
3E
When retardation or anticipation takes place with the
complete chord, as in the Beethoven example just quoted, the
result is simply that of syncopation. The student is advised
to read carefully what is said in Elementary Theory, Lesson
IX., upon rhythmic syncopation. Syncopation is a great
beauty when skilfully managed, but when it introduces con-
fusion into the rhythm, sometimes it becomes altogether un-
pleasant.
300 ADVANCED HARMONY
Non-harmonic Tones.
Let us turn now to examine in detail the character and
function of the non-harmonic tones proper.
It has been a commonplace of teachers of melody to
classify the tones of the major scale into the stable or in-
active tones on the one hand, and the sensitive or active on
the other. It has been usual in this classification to consider
the tones of the tonic triad as stable, and the other tones of
the scale as sensitive in more or less degree. This statement
would be quite true if all melodies in the major scale were
harmonized by the tonic triad alone, as was done in the first
lesson in Elementary Harmony. But when other chords are
used the function of the chord itself often makes a definite
change in the character of a scale tone. Thus, the leading-
tone as a non-harmonic tone with the tonic triad is sensitive
and inclines to the tonic note; with the subdominant triad
it is sensitive and frequently inclines toward the submediant
note; but as the fifth of the mediant triad it ceases to be
sensitive; while with the dominant triad it is sensitive and
inclines to the tonic note. In other words, the discrimina-
tion which one has to make between consonant and dissonant
chords, and the uses made of them to establish a unity of key
makes it clear that every scale note undergoes modification
as to stability of feeling, according to its place in the various
chords of which it is a part, or according to its usage as a
non-harmonic tone. Looked at in relation to tonality a
table of stability of scale notes may be constructed as follows :
1. The most stable note is a sustained tone, until the
last chord has melted into it, and it becomes merely a part
henceforth of that chord.
2. The next most stable note is the tonic note of key,
when a part of the tonic triad.
3. Other stable notes of lesser degree are the dominant
note as part of the dominant triad, or of the tonic triad.
4. The tonic note as part of the subdominant triad.
ADVANCED HARMONY
301
5. The mediant note as part of the tonic triad.
6. Any note as part of a principal consonant triad,
except the leading-tone in the dominant triad, which is felt
to have decided tendency toward the tonic.
A corresponding table can be made of the unstable
notes, beginning with the least unstable :
1. Consonant notes in a dissonant chord.
2. Dissonant notes in a dissonant chord.
3. Neighboring tones to a note of a consonant chord.
4. Neighboring tones to a note of a dissonant chord.
5. All other non-harmonic tones.
The melodic law of the unstable tone is that it is being
attracted toward a tone on an adjoining degree. Usually
this is to the nearest scale tone — that is, a movement of a
half-step would be given preference to one of a whole-step.
This inclination is sometimes overruled by the scale rela-
tionships of dissonant chords. Another thing to be noticed
about non-harmonic tones is that if they enter after the
chord they are less harsh in feeling than if they appear at
the instant the chord itself begins to sound:
Wagner: Tristan and Isolde.
302
ADVANCED HARMONY
Further illustration of stable and unstable tones will
be given in the following lesson on non-harmonic tones :
Exercises on Pedal-Point.
1. Harmonize the following soprano melodies above a
tonic pedal-point in the bass :
te
g— -#
i
s=
F •
m
1 1 ~t*-
m
2. Harmonize the following soprano melodies except
at the cadence with a dominant pedal-point in the bass:
^in
P*P
£s
m
^
^
«i *
3. Harmonize the second melody of each of the exer-
cises above with a sustained tone in the tenor.
4. Harmonize the following alto melodies with a sus-
tained tone in the soprano:
M
e
£==A=Z3t=±3S
^
w
in
i
^
^
?
5. Write a number of cadences containing attendant-
chords to the tonic, against a tonic pedal-point in the bass.
ADVANCED HARMONY
303
Thus:
*=±
^
r M»
J J
=8=
_Q_
S
s
"P"
in
6. Write a number of cadences containing attendant-
chords to the dominant, against a dominant pedal-point •'
the bass. Thus:
ii,J..i j n
^^
i=i
ffSff
rrw
si
^u
-o-
r
LESSON II.
THE CLASSIFICATION AND USE OF NON-
HARMONIC TONES.
Non-harmonic tones are classified as passing-tones,
AUXILIARY or ALTERNATING-TONES, SUSPENSIONS and AP-
poggiaturas. In most uses these are all neighboring-
tones (see Elementary Theory, Lesson XI). The sus-
tained-tone is also to be classed as a non-harmonic tone.
Passing-Tones.
Passing-tones are those non-harmonic tones which
fill in by conjunct motion what would otherwise have been
304
ADVANCED HARMONY
a skip from one chord tone to another. The passing-tone
usually enters after one chord and resolves with the next
chord; but sometimes it enters with the chord into which
it resolves. To use it correctly one must take care:
1. That it lies in a proper melodic scale progression
from chord note to chord note.
2. That it does not create the impression of a faulty
chord.
3. That it does not introduce faults into the parts:
Brahms: Requiem.
Occasionally two or, more passing-tones follow one
another in order to fill up the skip of chord tones.
Thus:
.Hofman: Meiusina
The faults liable to occur are the introduction of paral-
lel fifths and octaves through the use of passing-tones. If
in the chords without passing-tones two parts would have
reached a fifth or an octave by similar motion the introduc-
tion of the passing-tone will bring about parallel fifths and
octaves. The parallel fifths made by passing-tones are less
ADVANCED HARMONY
305
objectionable than are the parallel octaves; but if the stu-
dent should find an unpleasant result due to the introduc-
tion of the passing-tones this may point out the reason :
#
i
n
4
i
±Md
f
■*&■
J J
s:
^
J
PfJP
m
i
sx
F
Another fault liable to occur is when a third is made
to come into unison on either of the notes of the original
third, as frequently happens when two positions of the same
chord follow each other. Here the introduction of the
passing-tone in the part that moves creates confusion through
the sense of the disappearance of the dissonant second with-
out resolution. In some cases where the tone that is held
over is sufficiently strong and distinct in character from the
moving part it can successfully maintain itself after the
manner of a sustained tone; but usually this effect is an
unpleasant one.
Poot
Possible
- .Graun: Passion
ir*N
r£
it , jr Jri
A
N— -
306
ADVANCED HARMONY
Passing-tones frequently occur in two, three, or even
in four parts at the same time. When several such passing-
tones appear at once a decidedly harsh impression is created
unless the tones harmonize well with one another. For this
reason tones passing in consonant intervals such as parallel
thirds and sixths are usually chosen. Such passing-tones
frequently create an acceptable new chord which is called a
passing chord. The student's attention has already been
drawn to some illustrations of such chords :
Wagner: Die Meistersinger.
J— J> -h K K n I J J
^U
&
fljflj JJR
4
1
P^W
f^FF
r f or rr
*r
si
§i
j J- ))
jjflfl j JBJji
tir cfycfrT
gr^
^^
g
Auxiliary or Alternating-Tones.
Auxiliary or alternating-tones are neighboring-
tones which occur between repetitions of the same note. The
alternating-tone is used exactly as the passing-tone except
that it returns to the same note it left, and for that reason,
like all neighboring-tones, is but a whole or a half-step from
the tone to which it goes. The under alternating-tone is
more apt to be a half-step, chromatic if necessary. The
student may observe that the turn is merely the use of
first, the upper and then the lower alternating-tone, between
repetitions of a note; or, occasionally, first, the lower and
then the upper:
ADVANCED HARMONY
Pinsuti : Part song.
307
Suspensions.
Suspensions are chord-tones, which having been re-
tained after the chord is changed, are made into neighbor-
ing-tones to notes in a following chord.
[Note. — This change of signification in the value of a
tone is to be compared to the change of meaning in the en-
harmonic chord where each tone is shifted to another place
in the chord.]
As in the case of passing-tones, and of alternating-
tones, the essential thing in suspensions is —
1. That they make correct progression;
2. That they do not create faulty chord meanings;
3. That they do not produce faulty movements of the
parts.
It is to be noticed that, since the value of the suspen-
sion consists in the change of significance of the tone, al-
though the melodic motion is the same as that which would
have occurred without the suspension, the stronger the dis-
sonance made at the moment of the new chord the more
satisfactory will be the suspension :
308 ADVANCED HARMONY
Bach: Chorale.
Suspensions which are not dissonant, but which create,
with other notes of the new chord, a real chord of its own
are felt to be weak, and, only rarely, have a rhythmic value.
Two important cases of such rhythmic suspension value are
the substitute chords, I and iii, with which the student is
already familiar. c b
Suspensions may be upward as well as downward, and
in very rare cases the same tone, doubled in the voice parts,
may be made a suspension both up and down :
#
Dvorak: Stabat Mater
jr~r* — J — J
fcfc^b
pp?
m
m
k
±a
TT
As was the case with the harsh subordinate seventh
chords (treated in Lesson IV., Elementary Harmony), his-
torically there has been much caution in the introduction of
the suspension. The rule for the introduction of the sus-
pension, called the " preparation of the suspension," was that
the tone must be heard in the previous chord, as a chord
tone, at least as long as it is held in suspension, and that
the suspension should not be restruck. Modern writers
violate freely this rule, but the student is advised to notice
the value of it in rendering the effect smooth and rich :
ADVANCED HARMONY
309
Graun: Passion
Certain faults may be created by suspension; thus, two
parts which might double at unison in the second chord
cannot admit suspension unless they are both suspended and
both resolved at the same instant :
Correct
|^^».&B -ife
It is also usually unsatisfactory to have a suspension
in one part and the upper octave of its resolution in another
part; since the dissonant interval of seventh or ninth thus
made suggests a different resolution :
Poor
Suggested
Resolutions
310
ADVANCED HARMONY
Suspensions frequently occur in two or three parts both
ascending and descending; and even suspensions in all four
parts may occur. These last are similar in idea to passing
chords, and are only to be distinguished from prolongations
or repetitions of the preceding chord because of their
rhythmic effect of syncopation, and by the decided tendency
of all of the parts into the new chord :
Stanford : The Three Holy Children.
*
±
feM
d=ri
£
5
^
qfc=
fT^F
PF^
Ff^F
&m
w
n
m
3f
*
T
rr
r
r^r
In conclusion it must be emphasized that the important
prerequisite of suspensions is that the original chord connec-
tion be itself a satisfactory one, and that the parts which are
to be used as suspensions would originally have moved a
whole or a half-step into the new chord.
Appoggiaturas.
Appoggiaturas are neighboring-tones Which come to
their places by skip, and are heard at the moment of the
new chord in the place of the chord tones to which they later
resolve. Passing-tones which enter with the chord, and sus-
pensions which are restruck with the chord, are also some-
times called appoggiaturas. The appoggiaturas proper, which
enters by skip with the chord, affords the strongest feeling
of tendency which a tone may have. Perhaps it is for this
reason that many of the Nineteenth Century writers have de-
veloped a special fondness for it in connection with tendency
chords — a sort of piling up of the impression of urgency
forward :
ADVANCED HARMONY
311
Goetz : Noenia
Ifcff
i
5^
Is
p p r f
p p r r
i
m
T
f
1
'J'tfa* f1
I
*£=
.k-p^j j
•±=e*
Up' Itp ■'
T5
i
ppr r
i
^ j r r
j
#
^=t
Grieg: Song accompaniment .
#
Schumann: Novelette.
PrF?
i i.j
WPP
4=5
iJU
T
§
r
312
ADVANCED HARMONY
Delibes: Lakme.
Wagner : Meistersinger.
-r r-^-r
Notice in the last measure of the example from Wagner,
just given, the effect known as double appoggiatura, which
is, in fact, a turn, with the first two utterances of the main
note omitted, so that the upper and lower alternating-tones
are made into appoggiaturas to the final note.
Appoggiaturas also may appear in two or three parts,
but the fact of skips in their introduction renders this more
difficult. It is a general truth that skips in one or more
voice parts need to be offset by smooth writing in some other
parts; although skips in all parts into a tendency chord are
liable to occur. Skips to non-harmonic tones are less easy
to understand, and thus are apt to seem less beautiful:
4
- >, H>
^m
w
m
im
ADVANCED HARMONY
313
Hofmann: Melusina. Mendelssohn: Part Song.
i
#=bM
¥«tt J J
W
a
vk Hi j
T
1
5qi5=g
^11
,UJ>
¥>ti f: r p
ppp
Notice, that the last illustration from Mendelssohn is
explainable equally well as a tonic pedal-point.
Exercises in the Use of Non-harmonic Tones.
1. Write a number of cadence-groups of simple chords.
Rewrite each sketch, adorning it successively with passing-
tones and auxiliary tones, with suspensions, with appoggia-
turas, and finally, in order to establish the relationship of
these ornamentations, endeavor to utilize the same chord-
scheme as the basis of a pedal-point, using freely whatever
other non-harmonic tones seem valuable.
As an example of what is desired, observe the following
illustrations :
Passing and Auxilary Tones
I Vvii°IIVI
b b
314 ADVANCED HARMONY
Suspensions. Appoggiaturas.
2. Harmonize the following melodies, making free use
of non-harmonic tones :
JrriiiJrnrrrirrrirrJirrrir'irii
t
nir cnA irrrrr;i{iJ4i3iJJJ3i
iW
fcurrrrrrirjr^^^irii^r
P !»
»wvf p i~^-i^-ihn^ i j jJhrJ n
^HfTl'fftJJJUJ
ADVANCED HARMONY
315
vy " r j 3^ i ^ i i u i^i L i 1 1 1 1 r j ^
LESSON III.
FREEDOM IN DIATONIC HARMONY.
For the student who has come to understand harmonic
and melodic material, as presented up to this point, and has
also gained facility in thinking and in writing with this
material, the further mastery of those freedoms in treatment
which enter so much into modern writing will offer no seri-
ous difficulty.
All true art tends toward a state in which there is the
greatest flexibility which can exist together with definiteness
of purpose. The problems of the student heretofore have
been wholly directed to a single end, namely, to make
definite the key relationships of the chords. Even the non-
harmonic tones, although they are distinctly used as a means
of variety, have themselves been utilized in accordance with
their natural laws. When we undertake to classify the vari-
ous attempts at a freer treatment of musical material two
things become plain; in the first place, the freer treatment is
the unexpected treatment; in the second place, the possibility
of the unexpected depends upon the certainty of expectation
of the process which is given up. A. complete and continu-
ous abandoning of the natural process would defeat the very
end desired.
In passing in survey the freedoms which are already
in common use by composers some hints may be gained of
the possibility of other and similar freedoms not yet in use.
The survey will follow an order based upon the comparative
simplicity of the modifications of the usual processes.
316
ADVANCED HARMONY
Freedom in the Order of Scale Chords.
It has been constantly in the view of the pupil hereto-
fore that the choice of chords in a scale is dictated by the de-
sire to keep clear the impression of the scale (its tonality).
Manifestly, if at any point the writer of the music either
feels the key impression sufficiently strong to warrant excep-
tional treatment, or purposely desires to create a sense of the
unusual that if carried to excess might cause doubt as to the
key, he will change the ordinary order of the chords. Move-
ments from the dominant chord into the subdominant with
both chords in fundamental position, or from the dominant
chord to the supertonic chord, or a prolonged treatment of
the subordinate chords of a key without reverting to the
principal chords to restore balance, or persistent use of the
weak progression from subordinate chord to principal, are
illustrations of this freedom:
Wolf- Ferrari : La Vita Nuova
e' I' *r r»r f
B IV vi Hi V ii IV I ii 1V7V
b b b b
f
1
f, f f 1
f i v iv i v iv v u7 in yi ai a v' i
b b b b b b
ADVANCED HARMONY
317
Another illustration is found in the upsetting of the
usual chord order when a sequence is being carried out :
This latter is due to the fact that a melodic consid-
eration takes the place of the harmonic for the time being.
Another very common illustration of the same sort is
the use of a scale passage harmonized by a series of first
inversions of triads. The melodic interest here is greater
than the harmonic :
■h J\ , j J>
±=±
fe#£
P^P
J i
T=yj
J J
^m
j^Jl
±
^
P" ? p
i
V
b
IV iii
b b
a
b
I
b
vi7
V
c
Unusual resolutions of seventh chords also come under
this head. It has already been brought to the attention of
the student that the dissonance of the seventh finds its natural
resolution in the smaller intervals of the sixth or fifth, and
that the two important resolutions of seventh chords are
that into the triad whose root is the fourth above the root
of the seventh chord, or that into the triad whose root is the
degree above. In the series of resolutions heretofore given
the only one which would contradict the usual order of
318
ADVANCED HARMONY
scale chords is that from the mediant seventh chord into the
subdominant; but other resolutions of the seventh chord are
frequently made, in which the same general law of dis-
sonance is observed. For example V7 to iii, V7 to IV, V7
to ii, etc. Notice here that we are discussing not unusual
movements of the parts, but an unusual order of chords.
The fact of an unusual resolution of the chord requires more
than ordinary emphasis to be put on the simplicity and
smoothness of the progression of the parts:
\0 j i * J J
5^
ml
i
rrrr
i j J i
TT
is
r
s&
X
m
i
-ny f
r / r ' r r
V7 IV V7 ii
iii V
b
Freedom in the Treatment of the Voice Parts.
The object of the student in all of his work heretofore
has been, not only to make the order of chords seem natural,
but also to have the movement of melodies in the parts seem,
as far as possible, inevitable. In order to do so it frequently
has been necessary, especially in the inner parts, to sacrifice
a striking melodic outline, and cause the result to be monot-
onous, though smooth. Yet the opportunity often arises of
taking a somewhat wide skip, even in the inner parts, which
does not sacrifice the clarity of chord relationship, or the
smoothness of chord connection. In the interest of melodic
freedom this is a well-recognized procedure. To offset it,
usually some one or two parts are made to move in very
smooth progression:
ADVANCED HARMONY
319
MendeIssohn:Part Son
Again, it is not uncommon, as the student may already
have observed, to resolve one seventh chord to another di-
rectly; care being taken that the seventh of the new chord
comes smoothly to its place and that the seventh of the first
chord resolves equally smoothly:
Mac Farren.partsong.
ih
m
m
Handel: Samspn
, J , J
SJ
J=fc
A
p
S
r u if
ill
r
r
sm
I
J. ijj
^
^
g
^
fF?
7.
ivV-v
b a
vr
Occasionally between a seventh chord and its resolution
one or two other chords may be inserted, or the triad without
the seventh may appear, as has already been brought to the
attention of the student:
Wagner;Lohengrin\
*f?
J.
HP
Srf
?#
±
si1^
r
uj.
m
SSI
SHI
^p
ff*F
F^p
S3
VIV-I
c c b
V758
V7?
320
ADVANCED HARMONY
Again at times in a cadence resolution of the seventh
chord (i. e. to the fourth above), the seventh of the chord
moves up contrary to its tendency. This is frequently a case
analogous to that of the passing-chord (see Lesson II.) ; but
it is sometimes resorted to to avoid concealed octaves onto
the resolution tone of the seventh. For example, v7 to I :
. Saint Saens : Lyre-Harp
Q , aair
*=*
r=f=f
i J j
r-rr
ytfra-f— f
m
i
v
c
1
b
♦
35
^B
T
V'il f:
J. *
rn
r
i
b
Somewhat rarely the strong tendency tone, such as the
seventh or ninth of a chord, is left by skip with no apparent
resolution. This can happen only when the ear recognizes
and supplies in mind the true resolution. It can therefore
only happen when in the structure of the following chord
there is no hindrance to such a mental resolution :
ADVANCED HARMONY 321
^Wesley; Anthem Barnby: Hymn-Tune.
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Exercises in the Use of Freedoms in Diatonic
Harmony.
1. Compose the following chord-schemes, noticing with
special care any unusual order of chords, or unusual resolu-
tions of chords demanded:
Key of Dk Accent-group-Form-. 4,1,2,3
I | V7- IVV7 1 1 vi V iv|vii°7 I iii ii I iii V7 1
b b b b b bib
Key of e.
7
Accent-group- form, 3,1,2
-w iviio70 VI III+|ij°7 V71 V7 I i
h b c b
Key of A. Accent- group form,l, 2, 3,4.
I - IV V7 vi7 ii7 vii°7 iii7 1 vi V7 I vii° I I- -
b b b d c b b
Key of F.(Sequence formula.) Accent group form, 1,2,3,4 ,
I vi7 vii° V7 Ivi IV7 V iii7
b b | b b
IV ii7 iii I7 |V7- I -
b 4i
322
ADVANCED HARMONY
2. Harmonize the following melodies, using at the
places indicated the chords named:
t'1'1 1 1 1 luu l„'i ' r, I'jii^
*s vi I ii iii ii' - I
vi I7 ii iii ii7 - I
c b b
Key of d . -iJU>g J J~^5
V7
1 IV
b
*
fe
7- ,7
w* r r
•> I ii'
I7 "IV V
b a c
I iii ii7 vi — -V! - I
b
I ii° iii V7
b a
^
V!7 Vii°7 IV7 I
c c
LESSON IV.
FREEDOM IN NON-HARMONIC TONES,
Freedom in non-harmonic tones is always a case of, re-
tarded or of interrupted resolution, the non-harmonic tone
always being a sensitive tone (one that has been given a
certain inclination). If that inclination is not carried out,
or is temporarily, interrupted, the effect is that of the unex-
pected. The following examples are all illustrations of such
unexpected treatment:
A passing-tone may be followed by a harmonized note
which it reaches by skip, and then may return to the note to
which it should properly have gone in the first place; or be-
fore the insertion of a passing-tone the skip may be made to
another chord-tone, and the return may then be made by
ADVANCED HARMONY
323
skip to the passing-tone in question; or a passing-tone, after
being taken, may be left and returned to once more, and on
second hearing may be left according to its tendency:
i*f
J
^
J~3? J
i
T
f
J
r
^^
I
w^
i
Haydn: Evening Song to God.
x
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it
^
r- p f e
e^
fftft p- p"p P
r tf p r p
g
The skip from one non-harmonic tone to another may
be made, followed by the resolutions of both, in whichever
order seems convenient. Notice that the double appoggia-
tura is such a case, in which each of the non-harmonic tones
is inclined to the same resolution :
Brahms: Requiem Hofmann: Melusina
~ x I I . X X
&
Ui
A
^fr^f^
B
f
e
Ff
I
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i
8=
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i.
i
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■p-^
The resolution of a suspension may be delayed by the
interposition of other chords in which the tone also appears
as a suspension. Occasionally, the chord introduced is one in
324
ADVANCED HARMONY
which the suspension-tone has become once more a chord-
tone; but the suspension-tone should ultimately follow its
tendency :
#
J .1, i.l, JuJ
fee
-o-
x — xf
J
J-lii
ii
y-l, <*- °
mm
^
-0-
The suspension is sometimes left in one part, but picked
up in another part; that is, the chord is repeated with a
change of voices, and the part which takes the suspension in
the repetition carries on the resolution:
Brahms: Requiem.
J i A
J:
i
~"~
J'
-©-
f
J-J.
x
£1
^
A slight but very common form of the unusual comes
when the suspension instead of resolving into its chord comes
to its resolution at the moment of the appearance of a new
chord :
Lahee:
Hymn-tune.
Barnby: Hymn-tunes.
ADVANCED HARMONY
325
Instead of a skip from a suspension, the note to which
the skip might be made can be reached through a series of
passing-tones, and the return from that note be made by
skip; or the skip may be made from the suspension, and the
return to it made by melodic passage :
Mendelssohn: Elijah.
In some cases we find a passing-tone halted in its
progress and changed in character while it is sounding; as,
for example, becoming a suspension with the chord that
follows :
Brahms : Requiem
Perhaps the boldest license in the use of non-harmonic
tones is that of leaving them without resolution at all. This
is to be compared with the freedom of omitting the resolu-
tion of strong tendency notes of a chord ; and like the former
case, can only be permitted when the inclination is so mani-
fest that the ear supplies the resolution unconsciously. As
was said in regard to non-resolution of chord-tones, it can
326
ADVANCED HARMONY
only happen when the structure of the following chord is
such that there is no hindrance to the mental resolution. A
successful use of this device is very delightful.
One very common illustration of this is the use of the
neighboring-tone above the fifth of the dominant seventh
chord without resolution into the chord, passing instead di-
rectly to the proper note in the following chord. Some
theorists call this a real chord-tone, naming the combination
the dominant thirteenth chord:
EJucfe: Light of Asia.
Corder-.Br idal of Triermain .
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Exercises in the Use of Freedoms in Non-harmonic
Tones.
1. Introduce into the following chord-schemes various
freedoms in the use of non-harmonic tones:
Key of D. Accent group form 4.1.2.3.
I 1 I i'lV -?' | V iii7 IV ii7 1 fit V7 V9 -7 | 1
Key of Bb.,
,7°
Accent group form 1.2.3.4.
1 I+ IV - I ii'ttiifc* I - Ivli0 I ivb3 V I iii V7 I
b j c 8» c b J b b
2. Harmonize the following melodies, using the chords
indicated :
ADVANCED HARMONY
327
^ ii - V J- I - V7- rii -■ V9-7I
I --ii7__v9iiiV7vi - -7 IV — 7ii7-y7 V7 — I-
b c b d d c
LESSON V.
FREEDOM IN THE TONAL CHROMATIC.
The chromatic chords which have been presented to the
student up to this point were viewed either as color chords
in the mixed modes, or as attendant chords to given scale
triads. This is the usual method of treating such chords, and
it is upon such treatment that the still freer usage is based,
as will be seen presently. The chromatic chord is always a
chord having a special color. As a color chord one may see
that it very naturally follows the ordinary scale chord upon
the same degree; and that several color-modifications of the
same chord might follow one another, even although the
chord by such modification was given a different inclina-
tion.
328
ADVANCED HARMONY
Thus, for example, the dominant seventh chord may be
made into a diminished seventh chord by the raising of its
root; even although this alteration of the root cuts out of
the possible resolutions the original, most important one into
the tonic chord :
i***
r Trr
JdJ:
I
i- J>J J
r rfif
iU
mz
^
f3
V7 Att7.°IV
In like manner the chromatic diminished seventh chord
by suitable modification may be changed into other forms
of the chord upon the same scale-degree, and thus cause a
different tendency, and a different final resolution to pre-
vail:
Mni J.J, J
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j.
M
J j.j j
ir
TTf
i,J J J J1
Si
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r rr r
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Remembering the structure of the diminished seventh
chord, it is easy to see how by lowering one of its tones a
half-step, it is made into a dominant seventh chord, or to the
enharmonic of the dominant seventh chord:
t) 7° v7 V7 V7 V5
ADVANCED HARMONY
329
This fact becomes important in modulation where the
diminished seventh chord is used. Since the change of the
leading-tone seventh chord, which is capable of so many in-
terpretations (see Elementary Harmony, Lessons X. and
XII.), into the dominant seventh chord, which owes its
allegiance to but one tonic, may tighten the bonds of the new
key, even before its central chord has been reached:
Beethoven: Elegy.
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Notice in this illustration that the two diminished
seventh chords followed by the dominant seventh attendants
have developed quite a strong modulatory feeling, although
they are neither of them completed by a cadence in the new
key; while, on the other hand, the diminished seventh chord
attendant standing alone which resolves immediately to its
triad, offers not the slightest check to the use of that triad as
a supertonic chord on its way to the authentic cadence which
ends the line.
The method of modulation just illustrated is of frequent
assistance in establishing a change of key which would
330
ADVANCED HARMONY
otherwise seem too abrupt. Thus, compare the two follow-
ing modulations from D major to F major:
I
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I
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m
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S
The lack of definiteness in the diminished seventh
chord, since each tone of it by proper interpretation can be
given a tendency either up or down, has always marked
this chord as a sort of a musical nomad. Because of its un-
restfulness there is a sensation of excitement in the use of
it; and prolonged excitement can be gained either by repeti-
tion of the same chord over and over .again in different
positions or by the frequent introduction of it between other
chords. Indeed composers have not hesitated to make use of
it in a chromatic series up or down, one diminished seventh
chord following the other until finally the last one resolves
into some other form of chord:
Gade ..Crusaders
HiU
5Jpg
m
j j j
^m
»■'
i
Another nomadic chord which has in recent years been
given a facticious importance is the augmented triad. Like
the diminished seventh chord it can easily be used
chromatic series. Wagner made very effective use of succes
sions of these chords in Siegfried:
m
ADVANCED HARMONY
331
P Gf
sf
sf sf
5»
1 J rJ l"
5»
kj *j»J IttJt J,
"on
\x__ f p _,
k ^
H
The resolution of one seventh chord into another which
the student has already met in diatonic progressions, finds
frequent exemplifications in chromatic chords. One interest-
ing outcome which bears upon the writing of the chromatic
scale should be noticed. If the tendency of one of the tones
of a chromatic chord is to move upward to the root of the
following resolution triad, the substitution of the seventh
chord in place of this resolution triad will cause that chro-
matic note to move down to the seventh of the chord by
chromatic alteration on the same degree; that is, as if it were
merely a color substitute note instead of also a chromatic
tendency note :
f^FF
The student should be reminded again that chromatic
tones of dissonant chords always show tendency. This feel-
ing of tendency in tones of chromatic chords is the strongest
impression of inclination which is to be found among chord
tones. It is to be compared to the accented appoggiatura
among the non-harmonic tones. A chromatic tone may, to
be sure, give place to some other color substitute, but when
332
ADVANCED HARMONY
the moment arrives for moving from one chord to the next
the tendency of the chromatic tone needs to be gratified:
Cesar Franch: La Procession
iJEji
NJiJ J Jl- Ji,J ,i J
if-
i
u
'r- f
m
p
Schuman : Novelette
Pipit
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P*
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=- IV
HP
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The material of the tonal chromatic, handled in the free
way indicated above, gives to the composer without any
necessary change of key :
1. Diatonic chords and diatonic non-harmonic tones.
2. Chromatic color substitutes.
3. Chromatic tendency chords to any of the consonant
triads of the diatonic or mixed modes.
4. Chromatic modification (before resolution) of any
of the chords already mentioned.
5. Chromatic non-harmonic tones with any of the
chords already mentioned.
To this material and treatment there needs only to be
added the mastery of the relationship of keys and of the
function of modulation (see Elementary Harmony, Lesson
ADVANCED HARMONY
333
XII., as to the means of modulation), and the student has the
essential harmonic equipment of the Nineteenth Century com-
poser. At this point, therefore, he is strongly advised to
spend much time in developing his power to write easily and
effectively within the tonal chromatic of a single key, making
choice of a good variety of treatments both in his chord
schemes and in his harmonizations.
[Note. — From this point onward in these lessons the
Roman numeral indication where used will for the most part
give but general guidance; i. e., a V will be used to indi-
cate that the chord is dominant, whether it be with or with-
out the seventh, whether it be in fundamental position or in
inversion.]
Exercises in the Use of the Tonal Chromatic.
1. Sketch out a number of simple chord-schemes, and
upon these compose cadence-groups in each of the following
ways as illustrated:
(a) Using only diatonic effects.
Using color substitutes and chromatic tendency
(&)
chords.
(c)
Using chromatic modifications of chords and chro-
matic non-harmonic tones.
Example : Chord-Scheme :
r*f ^ 1TF W
I ii V I
m
a
r pr p
j j>j }
r pr t
tiff
S5
m
r r
w
334
ADVANCED HARMONY
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**
rm
r^n
IT
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±=$u-imi
m
u=^m
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rfflr
fn
r i r
ff
2. Harmonize the following melodies:
■t*-ijjj*1i|jiff"crrn[fj mtr
,0,0,0,0,0 J y
£*
^
fe£
>•"-«* I J
r hh s ip
vHx+)(xfl'°v+-'
ADVANCED HARMONY 335
3. Compose cadence-groups in the tonal chromatic
choosing for material whatever devices, presented in the pre-
vious lessons or the Elementary series, the student feels most
in need of reviewing.
LESSON VI.
ELIPSIS AND FREE COLOR CHORDS.
Reliance upon the power of that sensation of tendency
which has been emphasized in Lesson V., brought into mod-
ern music one of its most characteristic features, namely,
that of the musical elipsis. Elipsis in music means the omis-
sion of a harmonic moment which is well understood, for
the sake of conciseness, or of piquancy. The understood mo-
ment must be, naturally, the moment of resolution of a tone
or of a chord. Some of these musical elipses have long been
in use, such as, for example, the resolution of a seventh
chord directly to another seventh chord without the inter-
vening triad. This is the most common case of musical
elipsis. We have already called attention to two of the more
unusual but well established forms of elipsis, namely, first,
elipsis of the resolution of a tendency tone of a diatonic
chord whose use is understood (page 320) ; second, elipsis of
the resolution of a non-harmonic tone whose movement is
equally inevitable (page 326).
The extension of the elipsis to an entire chord demands
striking chords in striking positions, in which the tendency
tones are prominent. It is connected almost inevitably with
chromatic progression, and frequently, but not necessarily,
with modulation :
336
ADVANCED HARMONY
Sketch in full
t^nckv.11 in lull
*fe±
P
J I J J J i
J J J
Alt (V) Att fvi) V (I) Att (a) bin
From the moment that musicians had come to accept
such a short-hand of harmonic progression the path was open
to the admission, ultimately, of certain chords for the sensu-
ous beauty of their combination of tone, apart from the
satisfaction to be gained by the proper resolution of the
chord. A melody can be brushed in, to borrow the painters'
language, with such chord tones as serve best to stimulate
imagination. Naturally, in such cases it is quite as much
the particular arrangement of the chords used which gives
to them their beauty, as it is a question of consonance or of
dissonance in the chord per se. Naturally, too, the chords
chosen for this " brushing-in " process are primarily regarded
simply as the penumbra of the melody note; and they often
seem to lie outside of the key of the melody, being appar-
ently so unrelated to each other that they gain their coher-
ence from the fact that they are threaded on the same
melody :
ADVANCED HARMONY
337
Debussy t.Pelleas and Melisande
Debussy: Pelleasand Melisande.
338
ADVANCED HARMONY
It is but one step further to find manifesting itself of
late in compositions a peculiar sensitiveness to the chord im-
pression as color, dissociated from melody. This appears in
the shape of an inclination to interpolate between important
chords others that seem either to be gathering up some faint
impressions out of the harmonics of the previous chords or
to be used as the contrasting background which serves to
throw these former chords into high relief. (See example
on page 337, Loeffler's Song.)
Again sometimes we meet with passages of delicate tone
combination too complicated for the usual chord progres-
sions; and although they admit possible analysis, as, for in-
stance, as cases of chords sounded together with their neigh-
boring-tones, it seems more true to the logic of events to
reckon them as sensitive responses to the delight of color —
plashes of sound, without the definiteness either of chord or
of tone :
Loeffler.-Sont
j J XX {3
H*
5S
mf
L*& *£■ dim una corda
i=§
<£& <£& <£ax *£&%&$& *X& <£&<£&
sax
In connection with the manifestations of the color sense
that have been discussed in the last two paragraphs there is
nowadays an interesting inclination to seek for variety in
scale effects. Many of the scale forms that were gradually
abandoned in the music of the Seventeenth and Eighteenth
Centuries because the scales were not good harmonic scales
(see Elementary Harmony, Lesson VII), as to the limita-
ADVANCED HARMONY
339
tions of even the modern minor, are being revived with
chords drawn freely out of the tonal chromatic:
Bantock: Sapphofereek diatonic hypo-phrygian.
(See example from Debussy's Pelleas and Melisande
on page 340.)
New scale forms also are being adopted. The melodic
scale which illustrates most vividly the advantage of the
tonal chromatic in free treatment is that scale which com-
pletes its octave in a series of whole-steps: For example,
the six notes C, D, E, *F, *G, *A. C. Out of the tones of
this scale not a single consonant triad can be made; in fact,
the only triad of the scale is the augmented triad. No actual
seventh chord is to be found, and the only simulation, to the
ear, of the seventh chord is that which seems like the domi-
nant seventh with raised fifth, or its enharmonic. Although
340
ADVANCED HARMONY
Debussy :PelIeas&Melisande (Gregorian Modes as basis)
some composers have for the novelty of it attempted to use
this scale as a harmonic scale it is manifest that the result
must be music wholly unrestful, excessively monotonous.
Used, however, as a melodic scale with harmonies drawn
freely from the tonal chromatic many passages in Nineteenth
and Twentieth Century music attest the effectiveness of this
scale :
ADVANCED HARMONY
341
Such a use of melodic scales opens up to the composer
the treasures of folk music, and of primitive music, with-
out their peculiar limitations. It is, of course, a debatable
question as to whether negro or Indian melodies, for exam-
ple, afford sufficiently valuable or stimulating material to the
composer to make their use a proper artistic cult; but there
is no question that if so they must be cultivated in the
warmth of the tonal chromatic. (See example, page 342).
The trend of this lesson would seem to point toward one
still further freedom in harmonic treatment, which may be
regarded as the legitimate conclusion in the manipulation pf
chords,
342
ADVANCED HARMONY
From Indian Melody, Harmonized by Arthur Farwelt.
: . yi jn 'ii i i
m*
f
r=r^
m
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It is the sine qua non of all artistic expression that each
moment shall be in understandable relationship to that which
has gone before. In. the use of chords musicians found the
explanation, at the outset, most readily through the melodic
line; the melodies dictated the chords; only such chords were
permissible as grew within the progress of good melodies in
the parts. Later on chords came to react upon melody, and
various strange or awkward melodic skips found their justi-
fication in the effective progress of the chords with which they
belonged, either as chord tones, or as non-harmonic adjuncts.
When, as we see exemplified in this lesson, musicians have
arrived at a recognition of the chord as a thing of beauty in
itself, needing no explanation or justification, either from
what precedes or what follows it, there seems to be a hint of
a possible chord usage in which the chords may be entirely
free from the bondage of melody.
The student must not mistake this, however, for a dec-
laration that, to the master of harmony, melody is of no fur-
ADVANCED HARMONY 343
ther use. Just as rhythm finds its musical value intensified by
expression through the melodic line, or by extension into
chords, yet, in its turn, is restricted by the demands made by
these very factors; so both melody and harmony inevitably
must owe rhythm and each other deference so long as they
are to be brought into musical unity. Still we know, on the
other hand, that there are occasional examples to be found of
a music in which for a few moments the entire interest is
focused upon a single factor; as, for example, upon rhythm,
in the famous kettledrum passage from the scherzo of the
Beethoven Fifth Symphony; or melody, in the numberless
examples of cadenza for voice or solo treatment. In that
same way it would seem to be possible that the modern view
of harmony shall afford a means of focusing attention with
equal success upon harmony alone, where the interest is de-
rived in no way from either rhythm or melody. Such a rare
treatment needs a justification which only the very great com-
poser is likely to find at his command.
For the student of music the logic of such a treatment is
here presented, but the treatment itself is not commended.
Exercises in the Use of Elipsis and Free
Color Chords.
The student may find it profitable to experiment some-
what in elliptical chord connections, and in free color effects;
but it is hardly possible to set tasks. He is advised to analyze
modern writings in order to understand the effects of which
the newer writers are fond. The object of the analysis is not
so much that they may serve as models for imitation as that
the recognition of just what processes are used at any moment
will add to his general mastery. The knowledge of many
ways in which the material may be handled prevents the stu-
dent from falling into ruts in his own composition* but a
new rut is no better than an old one.
344 ADVANCED HARMONY
LESSON VII.
THE EXPANSION OF TONALITY AND
MODULATION.
The first half of the Nineteenth Century saw a new
emphasis placed upon rhythm. This marked a stage in the
development of music in which the composer could be so
thoroughly at home in the handling of rhythms that it
would occasion no confusion of thought to introduce many
irregular or unusual accentuations. The culmination of this
new emphasis was when at the hands of Schumann and
Brahms there appeared new types of musical beauty revealed
in their masterly treatment of syncopation and especially of
rhythmic syncopation.
Expansion of Tonality.
In a similar way mastery of the material of the tonal
chromatic made it possible for the composer to toy with its
resources. The subtlety of rhythm, which is the charm of
syncopation, was matched by a corresponding subtlety of
chord treatment. Thus, music may be found to gain through
a wandering, hesitating use of chords in a key, or through a
vague suggestive straying away from the tonal center toward
possible other centers without actually reaching them. The
means for accomplishing this is already at the student's com-
mand. He is advised, however, that just as syncopation gets
its value only from reliance upon the persistent underlying
pulse of the grammatical rhythm, so straying from the paths of
tonal directness is an artistic gain, only while one it kept well
aware of the substratum of key-impression. The student is
also advised that such wandering has its esthetic significance,
and may be far from good if it enters the music at the wrong
moment.
ADVANCED HARMONY
345
The following passage from the opening of a Jensen
song accompaniment is effective, first, through the apparent
suggestion of many possible modulations, by means of the
enharmonic attendant chords with several possible resolutions
each, and by means of the sequence figure; second, through
the actual simplicity of the tonal scheme, which leads steadily
toward the key center; and finally through the constant im-
pression of unrest given by the super-abundance of disso-
nant chords, which puts the passage quite into the mood of
the impassioned lover's rhapsody which follows:
Jensen-.Songof Hafis,No.l.
»
I
PI
rtf^:
s
*r ?■
J&3
(Att.s to I)
I(Att.stoV) V
Indeterminate Modulation.
From the point of view of musical construction it is less
important to realize how to lose the path of tonal directness
and strength than it is to learn how and when to regain it
effectively. The former comes under the head of indeter-
minate modulation; that is to say, modulation in which one
strays from a key without seeming to definitely acknowledge
346
ADVANCED HARMONY
allegiance to other keys. The rule for it is like the rule for
a child's getting lost: move along from step to step without
care as to the ultimate direction. The modulations from key
to key are like those previously made by hinge-chord, but
since there is no attempt to confirm the new key the effect is
of wandering through the cumulative impression of several
modulations :
Chausson: Dedicacei
§
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3
^f
Such a use of material is valuable in compositions of
somewhat extended character in the portions known as devel-
ADVANCED HARMONY 347
opment sections, or in sketchy impressionistic pieces, like the
illustration given, where the manifest aim is the production
of a feeling that would answer to such wandering musical
material. It is plain that a passage of this sort should termin-
ate in the assertion of some definite tonality. For a piece to
end in uncertainty of key is evident weakness.
Transient Modulation.
Of similar character but more definite is what is known
as transient modulation, that is, modulation in which the
key allegiance is always manifest but in which it is equally
manifest that the new key chord is not a permanent tonal
center. Two treatments of transient modulations are found :
the first is that in which the modulations are but an expan-
sion of the original key-scheme, and the ultimate goal is,
therefore, the re-establishment of the starting key; the second
is that in which the modulations lead through successive sta-
tions to a goal in a new and contrasting key center.
The former method of key expansion is readily accom-
plished by reliance upon attendant chords. Since most of the
attendant chords stand related to their resolution triads in
the way that the group of dominant tendency-chords do to a
tonic it is easy to produce the impression of actual tonic by
extending or interchanging various attendant chords until
the moment of the cadence, and by then causing the cadence to
consist of the actual resolution of the final attendant chord
into the given triad. The music may then progress, in the
next cadence-group, straight along in the original key; or even
a series of attendant chord modulations into successive ca-
dences may occur without actual loss of the original tonic
center, provided the cadences themselves follow an order of
chords suitable to the original key and that the last cadence-
group is in the original key with a strong cadence upon the
real tonic.
A good illustration of this within a few measures occurs
in the Chopin Prelude in c minor given below. This can be
348
ADVANCED HARMONY
regarded as a case of modulation passing in four measures
successively from c minor to bA major, to C major-minor,
to G major and to c minor, where it remains during the rest
of the piece. The feeling of modulation is well defined, and
yet the piece may be analyzed as if it were in a single key
from beginning to end :
Largo
Key of C. » iv V7 i VI bll Att to VI V?Attto iv i
mta
^
i*
■* *■&
i
4
m
s
V z
1
Att to V Att. to V i VI V — Att.toAU.toV
i
.J13
yum
=S*=
fm
33C
3fc
£3
P
l^t
IDC
*
r~Bl
b3 '. *
VI bll V7 i
I iv V i
The other form of transient modulation is made in like
manner through the use of attendant chords. It differs only
ADVANCED HARMONY
349
from that which was just described through the fact that the
resolution triads of the attendant chords, do not belong all of
them in the same possible key. Attendant chords followed
by their resolutions give so very definite an impression that
we may, upon a series of quite unrelated triads, create a fleet-
ing impression of a series of keys. Indeed, by the resolution
of seventh chord directly to seventh chord in cadence progres-
sion, each successive possible tonic chord being made to ap-
pear as the dominant seventh attendant to the following
chord, a series of modulations results which carries the music
through the Circle of Fourths (see Elementary Theory, Les-
son III.), C, F, ^B, etc.:
Or, by following each tonic chord with the attendant to its
dominant, which is then to be successively regarded as tonic,
the music swings on through the circle of fifths, C, G, D, etc.
(See example on page 350.)
350
ADVANCED HARMONY
It should be pointed out that either series just given is
valuable mainly in a sequence, but that as a means of modu-
lation between remote keys it is far less important than most
of the ways already familiar to the student. A portion of
either series, however, used in an indeterminate modulation,
can effectively help on the sensation of wandering which is
desired, and at the conclusion a return by a suitable hinge-
chord to the original key from such straying is often espe-
cially pleasant. (See example on opposite page.)
With the exception of those indeterminate and transient
modulations which have for their object to weaken the hold
upon a given key in order thereafter to assert and uphold
another key, the purpose of all the modulatory material dis-
cussed in this lesson is to expand the limits of a given tonality,
causing it to take on the aspect of a central key with various
subordinate and dependent keys. As has already been sug-
gested, the dependent keys are related to the central key in
the way other chords of a given key are related to its tonic
chord.
One thing further needs to be pointed out : namely, that
the usefulness of a dependent key in this larger sense hangs
not so much on the ease with which one reaches it as upon
the naturalness with which one returns to the central key.
ADVANCED HARMONY
351
^^
fTPtf
^#
rf per
^^
33=
bGV7
f 8iv'°
#
s
itf
Jn J3 J J
*=m
TT
U±Uk
f
j~nf
xe
r
^^
^,.hj j
cr
#
pi
IE
AV7
F Att.to vi
If the student will play over the transient modulation through
the circle of fourths, and compare it with that through the
circle of fifths, he will see that the former slips from key to
key with very great ease, while the later conveys the impres-
sion of a definite exertion made in order to reach each suc-
cessive new tonic. From this observation the student can
see that while the modulation into a subordinate key may
perfectly well be through either the circle of fourths or the
circle of fifths, the return modulation through the circle of
fourths is decidedly preferable. Hence it comes about that
modulation to the dominant key is more valuable than modu-
lation to the subdominant key; since the return modulation
from the dominant key is by the circle of fourths. Incident-
ally, the student should notice that the pitch of keys in the
circle of fifths seems to be successively higher, while the
pitch of keys in the circle of fourths seems to be successively
lower. This is, of course, a mere matter of impression, and
352 ADVANCED HARMONY
not of fact; the key of F may just as truly be said to be
above the key of C, as may the key of G. Each circle is, in
fact, when taken in reverse order, interchangeable with the
other. But the resolution of a dominant seventh chord to its
tonic does give the plain impression of a movement down-
ward.
Aside from the value given to a dependent key through
the closeness of its connection with the original key (that is,
the ease of the return modulation), the value of the move-
ment into a dependent key is to some extent due to the con-
trasting tone region of the new key. There is a feeling of
definite increase in brightness due to the change of music
to a higher tonal region, and a corresponding sense of quiet-
ness and repose due to the change into a lower region. For
the purpose of exploiting that particular sensation of the
increase in the brightness of the key, or its contrary, a modu-
lation should be made with considerable directness. It is not
the purpose of this lesson to discuss the question of just when
this more definite sense of rise or fall in the music is espe-
cially valuable, but merely to put this thought into the mind
of the student.
Historically it is of interest to observe that the modula-
tions in music have followed very closely upon the order of
keys which corresponds to the simplest relationships of chords
in a key. Thus, the larger proportion of Seventeenth and
Eighteenth Century music was content with modulation out
of the tonic key into that of the dominant and return; or
from a tonic minor key to its mediant (relative) major and
return; or from a tonic major to its submediant (relative)
minor and return. In the former cases this secures for the
new key a sense of heightened interest, and for the return
modulation a sense of repose. In the latter case this affords
in the modulation to the new key a sense of let-down in mood
due both to the lowering of the keynote, and to the change
from major to minor mode, while the return modulation
restores the vigor of the beginning key. Nineteenth Cen-
ADVANCED HARMONY
353
tury music still regards these as the more important modula-
tions, but has added others according to other simple rela-
tionships of the tonic triads, as suggested.
Inasmuch as the material of the tonal chromatic permits
with perfect ease a modulation out of any key into any other,
it is not surprising to find that there is a gradual disposal on
the part of composers to experiment with other keys, in their
■attempt to create contrast of tone region. As has been said
in regard to the unusual manipulation of chords here, also,
in regard to unusual modulation, it should be added that the
logic of such a treatment is presented to the student of
music, but the treatment itself is not commended.
Exercises in the Expansion of Tonality.
1. Compose cadence-groups in which movement shall
be made from the tonic to the subdominant chord, and then
to the dominant chord, with interpolation of various attendant
chords of each. For example:
2. Compose cadence-groups in which indeterminate
modulation is brought about by entering various keys, and
not tarrying long enough to make even cadence-resolutions
therein. For example:
354
ADVANCED HARMONY
I
thj n-UhJ
A
^
3
i
uk
u
gp 7
^m
g*f^
^¥
^^f
PT
G I
VI Att.AttAtt.bBl Att.Att.GV
3. Compose periods of two cadence-groups, each con-
taining transient modulations in expansion of the original
key.
4. Compose periods of two cadence-groups, each con-
taining transient modulations ending in a contrasting key.
It is at this point in his work that the student should
take time to get a thorough grip upon the subject of modu-
lation. He should write many exercises in modulation from
any key to any other, either directly by some form of com-
mon material or by transient modulation through several
keys. This should be done not only out of the key of C into
others but from keys in which difficulties of enharmonic
writing occur; e. g., from B to bE, or from I'D to A, from
8F to bb, or be to B.
LESSON VIII.
FIGURED BASSES.
As a convenience in notating music it was formerly often
the custom of musicians who understood the laws of chord
connection to write out only the lowest note — that is to say,
the bass note — of a series of chords, and to indicate the
remaining notes of the chords by figures which stated the
intervals of the upper notes with this bass. If together
with the important upper melody, such a figured bass also
ADVANCED HARMONY 355
was written, the figuring saved the practical musician con-
siderable work, since he knew how to fill in other parts by
the laws of chord connection. This mode of notation has
very largely gone out of us except as an aid in the study of
harmony.
The meaning of the figures is readily seen. Thus, for
example, the bass note G with the figures 4 above or below it,
2 «
require with the G, an a, a c, and an /; or the figures 5
3
above the G call for a b, a d, and an e; or the figures
J 7
5 call for an ba, c, d, and an */.
>\
The value of the figured bass system depends upon quick
recognition from the figures given of the different chords.
Facility in doing this is easily acquired.
The complete figuring of all chords is not necessary;
indeed, many of the chords are in such common use that an
abbreviation of their figuring can be employed. In the mod-
ern use of figured basses nearly every figuring is abbreviated.
The names which are given to the different chords according
to their figuring have still been retained by modern musi-
cians. A table which shows the most frequently used of
these chords is inserted on page 356 for the convenience of
the student.
It is to be noticed that each inversion of a chord re-
quires a different notation, hence the system of figured basses
does not reveal either the chord as a whole, or its place in
the key. If the student, however, is perfectly familiar with
the place of a chord and the use of it in a key he may find a
figured bass convenient; for the short-hand of figured bass
is written more easily than that of the Roman numerals, and
in the case of modulation, especially transient and indeter-
356
ADVANCED HARMONY
Table
CHORD-NAME.
FIGURING
OF BASS.
©ESCRIPTIOX.
IFULL.
Abbre-
viated.
Triad
Chord of the Seventh .
" " . " Ninth. .
<< 11 <c
Sixth
Chord of the Fourth/ Si \
and Sixth .
four ]
\cliord /
Chord of the Fifth and / f «; \
Sixth ..... Acliord/
Chord of the Third./s^"-
Fourth and Sixth \ chord
Chord of the Second .
Chord of the Augmented
Sixth, or the Italian Sixth
The French Sixth . .
The German Sixth . .
The Neapolitan Sixth .
Chord of the Fourth, and
Fifth . .' . .
Chord of the Second and
Fifth
Chord of the Sixth and
Seventh . . . . .
Chord of the Second,
Fourth, and Seventh .
Etc., etc.
8
5
3
7
5
3
9
7
5
3
8
6
3
8
6
4
6
5
3
6
4
3
6
4
2
8
0
3
0
4
3
f
3
8
(b)6
3
8
5
4
l/U»ually\
I not )
\fisured./
6
4
4
3
6+
6+
4
3
6+
5
N.6
5
4
5
2
7
4
2
Triad in fundamental po-
sition.
Seventh -chord. in funda-
mental position.
Ninth-chord in fundamen-
tal position.
First inversion of a triad.
Second inversion of a triad,
First inversion of a sev-
enth-chord.
Second inversion of a sev-
enth-chord.
Third, inversion of a sev-
enth-chord.
Triad in fundamental po-
sition, . with suspended
third.
Triad with suspended third,
suspension in bass.
Seventh-chord, fundamen-
tal position, fifth sus-
pended.
Seventh - chord, third in-
version, fifth suspended
ADVANCED HARMONY
357
minate modulation, it may be the only indication of chord-
scheme necessary. The compiler of these lessons, while not
especially advocating the use of figured basses, regards it
as on the whole an advantage to the student to understand
the system.
The following rules will be sufficient to make plain the
method of writing a figured bass :
Rule i. — In determining the actual notes to be inserted
above the bass, in accordance with the figures, the order in
which the figures are written is not to be regarded; that is
to say, the upper figure of the group is not necessarily the
upper note in the chord. The exception to this rule is in
the case of the first chord. Here the upper figure, usually
the only figure, does indicate the highest note. After the
first chord the highest as well as all the others is determined
by the rules of good chord connection.
For example:
$£j|
iE=£
m
J
T
gSp
i 1 J
¥
P
fEEFPE
T
-0
5
4 « ?
Rule 2. — If above a single bass note there are two sets
of figures, calling, thus, for two chords, each chord is sup-
posed to occupy half the time of the bass note, unless this
bass note occupies an uneven rhythmic portion of a measure.
In the latter case one chord will fill the even divisions, the
other will occupy the remaining time.
358 ADVANCED HARMONY
For example:
a 2
• 7 •
C I' r ''■■ fiirpp
i?wte j. — When the notes which have been called for
by the figures over a given bass note are to be retained over
a different bass note, instead of figures a series of dashes
may be placed over the second bass note.
For example:
¥
=Mf4
IT
=R=
9-
-ry
TJ-
:&
^d
i
^
4
3
_
5
7
S
ft
5
4
Rule 4. — Instead of writing a sharp or natural to indi-
cate a tone which is chromatically above the scale note, it is
customary to draw a line through the figure which would be
used for the scale note, i. e., £*= *6, or f( = H, if the scale
note was b.
Rule 5. — If the chromatic note is the third above the
bass the chromatic sign for it is usually used alone without
a figure; that is to say, *, b or " alone, or with other figures
above or below the sign, always means *3, b3 or *3.
ADVANCED HARMONY
For example:
359
Rule 6. — If a bass part makes use of non-harmonic
tones, only the chord notes require the figures, unless the
result would cause confusion. In modern figuring non-
harmonic tones usually indicate by dashes the continuation
of the previous chord.
For example:
P$
M ft
t3
'* r f r f
^m
« «
5
In some of the very early figured basses we find the
actual intervals indicated above the bass note even though
the figures were an 11, 12, 15, or 17. That method was
soon abandoned and only the tones that are felt to make up
an actual chord or neighboring-tone to the chord occur; thus
the figure 9 is constantly to be found, but the figure 10
would mean the same as the figure 3, hence it is not used,
unless by a very rare combination it becomes the neighboring
360
ADVANCED HARMONY
tone above the ninth of a chord. Any larger figure than 10
is replaced by its equivalent within the octave:
For example:
^
M
~n~
f*
T
J.
mm
4fc
o
LUL
■=• o .
rs - 9 "> » « 7 7
i S »
Exercises in the Use of Figured Basses.
LULLY : Recitative, from Armide
* >% 5
bs
^
s
6 ° 43
je
%f\f\[ JIlJJ^^E
/ n
35
6
5 4,8
I b 5b I, 1 I
H q 1 4
fpp
s
-©-
_ -**■
RAMEAU \RecitativeJfro/mCasior and Pollux
2 6 6 „ . " « „
6 5 4 7-g 7 6 g ^ .a a 57
^•■■IlP
s
6 4
5 5 2_
6 5 4 -2
P=5
g*-r-
ADVANCED HARMONY
361
CORELLI : Organ-part toa Sonata for Violinand Organ.*
53 o 6 « 9£!8 5 ? a » . 6 f
.VH ■ If
IM"MU
ggi
m
76S4<676
i
98
7 6
)t & S
6 5 it
4 4 9
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P^P
rU'rrif
n r-
IE
«
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2
^
I. 6L5 ^-4. 2
PfSnrs • f . rvp •
f *• f.bplp- fif^r- f
«. 6
P
ft, fr7i 5| 5, 4 3 5 « » I | —
ft, t>7, 51
■V* l J J J
08
£
i 6 5
b»
u w
4 8 ?
A 4 5
a
3DC
*y^
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? 8 • 9
0 4 5 la
X « 5 7 6
3 S. 6 4 4- ft <l a6 8 b 5
Jju„ ir'rr"'^
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35
t> -ft It
y=f=*
•-x
i a
£
B ACH : Basso Continuo to Eyrie ofB Minor Mass
A
6 5 y
."AqJ JM»r fH'r r^pirf urrr i
f »1«ng 3 Hgft* f», t
362 ADVANCED HARMONY
Bach : Basso Continuo toJKyrie of B Minor Mass
^1
7 7 * «
.3 ft A 6 7 ■» 3 S >T4
-»
-*
*
^^
m
^m
4 8 4 a 4 * 4 '
J J J I I KT '
22
i J e<c
Handel: Original figured bass, from No. 24, Messiah.
5 76 43 7*» 7 ffjf , f?65 ».« g »M
.^^rfMJ%^vi^rtriijrilrri^
[Note. — Examples of figured basses could be multiplied
from the works of this period and earlier. Modern figured
basses are scarcely to be found outside of text-books, from
which, therefore, the following, to illustrate more modern
usages, are taken.]
BUSSLER.
« 4
6 3 4 3 3 6
Jadassohn.
3 8 »
4
0
5
••E-
aq& 4 8
v*tflrr r if rhJ m gl jj| i...ki
ADVANCED HARMONY
363
Richter J .
8 4-U
4 5 •
Ti",vlr f I1 I
jj.
S ft
m
-*>-
m
i •
L±X
"- rn° Ji[
6 5
5 4 7
cm w
PROUT
9
s
H? »
t>4 k? -
7 8 H6 85
3Z3E
f-pr r ir'T^P
^s
6 IjJr
m r* pr t
«
4
• 5 -
2 It -
bft _
*% Z > 17
iff 'fpr r
t>7 . bo
. . f 1» 7-ft ,
6 * l>. < 0 5 4 7
LESSON IX.
THE SMALLER ONE-PERIOD FORM:
THE CHANT.
It has been the purpose of these lessons to encourage the
student from the outset in thinking of his exercises as true
musical compositions. Nevertheless, since the immediate
object has always been to obtain a mastery of some specific
effect of harmony, the results have inevitably appeared some-
what one-sided: in one exercise nothing but diatonic chords;
in another a superabundance of chromatic effects; still again
an overlay of superfluous non-harmonic tones. The true
364 ADVANCED HARMONY
composition springs from quite another impulse, that of the
expression of an esthetic purpose, and it chooses its har-
monic material in accordance with its purpose.
Again as an aid in the treatment of chords the exercises
have always been constructed in four-part writing. While
the composition in four independent parts, and within the
range of the voices of a mixed quartet, is the most important
way of treating musical material even for instruments, still
the composer is frequently led by his purpose to write in
fewer or in more parts, to exceed the limits of voices, or to
employ methods that are purely instrumental in the handling
of his material. The study of most of these questions be-
longs properly to elementary composition. It would, how-
ever, be leaving the subject of harmony proper incomplete
not to apply its principles to at least a few of the simpler
tasks of the composer, such as to the writing of chants, of
hymn tunes, and of short part-songs.
The shortest complete composition in music needs con-
sist of but a single cadence-group. Such brief musical ex-
pressions are found in the Gloria Tibi and in the Single
Anglican Chant.
Chants.
The single chant consists of a reciting note followed by
three chords which form an incomplete cadence; then a sec-
ond reciting note followed by five chords which form a
complete cadence. It is . . . . . .
generally notated in the % 0 | J J | 0 |J0| J J |JJ | J
following manner :
O <T*
But it might be written in 4 "l I I I 1 I I I ! I I ll
this way: 4 J J J I o JIJJJJIol
which reveals the rhythmic form more clearly than does the
established form.
Since the reciting notes are frequently many times re-
peated, it is essential in a chant that they are pitched well
ADVANCED HARMONY
365
within the compass of the singer's voice; and again, from the
fact that the following chords serve as a completion to the
phrase, it is desirable that the cadences should come with
the effect of climax. On the other hand, the small number
of chords allowed to each phrase, the demand for two ca-
dences, and the dignity of the chant as a part of the Anglican
service, all point to great simplicity. Historically, too, the
derivation of the Anglican chant from the Gregorian psalm,
dictates certain forms of melody that makes this simplicity
quite inevitable:
Farrant
^
EEE
TTT
^m
^
^
~rr
f=
Still, even within this short composition, modulation is
possible, though not at all necessary:
H.Aldrich.
There has been of late years a tendency to introduce
into the single chant occasional chromatic chords or chro-
matic melody; also to omit the cadence formula from the
first group, and to close the second group with less strong
forms of the cadence:
366 ADVANCED HARMONY
H.Houseley.
I
i
C.VINCENT
i
I
335:
^
FT
-*»-
■a*-
^^
s
^
33Z
f=f=
f=f=
The tendency noted above is found still more freely in
use in the double chant, or in the triple chant or the quad-
ruple chant, which are sometimes found in modern service
books. In these more extended chant-formulas modulation
is to be expected, and the construction of the chant has much
of the freedom of the modern English hymn tune:
BEETHOVEN, Arr.
BSi
&
xx=
Tt°-
«:
=Ol
i
*
m
3E
ADVANCED HARMONY
C. R. Gale: Quadruple Chant.
w
=£
J=±
367
«J -«-
•l!
-e- ■
^
^
4-f-1
LrU
aEE??=
ZEE
=8=
^4
-S^
lU
fe
m
-vr
te
^
»
=BF
aacc
ft
r
fci:, °*»
o
*
s
jd=
^
f=f
The double chant is on the whole the most popular form
of English chant. In chanting a long psalm it is well-nigh
necessary, and even in the shorter canticles it is felt as a
relief, to use the double chant rather than to repeat the
music of a single chant with every verse. When adapting
to a double chant a psalm that has an odd number of verses,
the second half of the chant must be repeated. For this pur-
pose it is important that the last half of the double chant
368
ADVANCED HARMONY
should begin with a chord that, both as to order and arrange-
ment, can follow properly the final cadence chord:
LINGARD
The Gloria Tibi, in its simplest setting, is but a ca-
dence-formula with three .accents ; in its more common treat-
ment it is a complete cadence-group:
TALLIS
i III
ini
/7l
S
-*>-
Glo - ry be to
Thee, a
Lord'.
^f: \ f F
P
c
HODGES
a
j-
I
-rr*-
m
ADVANCED HARMONY
369
King.
SULLIVAN
Lord, in
J L
w i r f 1^
this TJiy
A
i
mer - cys
day,
*
T=T
te
J — J-
#5
pass for
=^fT
Ere,
S
it
aye
a -
j-Hrj-
way.
^
^^
f=
4
fesl
^^
i
s
r^
1
fall
pray.
3fe=
S
On
J-
our
i£
f r
knees we
i' r
r
and
J J
370 ADVANCED HARMONY
The chant, then, is a one, two (or, rarely, three or four)
cadence-group period constructed for a special purpose. It
is somewhat rare to find independent single pieces of any
other kind that are as short; although the period made from
two cadence-groups is not infrequently found as a portion
of a larger form. The example of a hymn-tune from Sul-
livan, on page 369, with but three cadence-groups is alto-
gether exceptional; as is the poetic form of which it is the
setting .
Exercises in the Writing of Chants.
1. Write single and double chants, both without and
with modulation.
2. Write triple and quadruple chants, ending the second
group in the key of the dominant.
3. Make settings of the Gloria Tibi in cadence-group,
both with three-measure and with four-measure rhythm, and
both with cadence to the dominant and with cadence to the
tonic chord.
LESSON X.
THE LARGER ONE-PERIOD FORM.
The constitution of a musical period, as already pre-
sented in the chant, and in the two and three cadence-group
form, is much less important that the period having four
cadence-groups. This might almost be called the normal period
form. It is that which is found in the usual four-line hymn-
tune. In a piece of this character much opportunity arises for
variety of treatment, and corresponding stress needs to be
laid upon the means which may be taken to produce the
effect of unity and completeness in the period; namely, first,
by the treatment of the melody; second, by the treatment of
the rhythm; third, by the treatment of the tonalities; fourth,
by the treatment of the cadence.
ADVANCED HARMONY
Melody in the Four-cadence Period.
371
In this type of period there is admirable opportunity
for producing effects of climaxes, contrast and proportion,
through suitable modifications in the melody.
Climax is usually brought about by increase in intensity
up to the last line, the third line more frequently than not
containing the highest note of the piece, after which in the
last line a sense of repose and finality is made to assert itself.
This effect of intensity is sometimes added to by causing
the melodies of the three successive lines to be in imitation,
thus giving a complete contrast to the last line :
fryrr cj ir|J J.'J rH.
Yet, this method of gaining climax, even if the imita-
tion be quite free, is usually open to the objection of monot-
ony. It is felt, too, to lack proportion, and it leaves all con-
trast, as has been said, to the last line ; hence, more frequently
we meet with imitation in the first and third lines:
Or again, the imitation found in the first half of the
piece is put in contrast with the entire second half. In this
372
ADVANCED HARMONY
case often the third line is given an additional feeling of
climax by containing a shorter imitation figure of its own :
J hJ J J JTt
£
m
&
• —
• —
s>
*
— <S
r • '■-
"
Or the second half is made to balance the first by having
its corresponding two lines of imitation:
fe%3
te
*==£
m m S~J l rJ • i
pmmm
r-HiH
Less often than the other methods the imitation is re-
served until the last line. Here reliance has to be put upon
other means for gaining climax, but the imitation serves to
secure unity:
£eS
Mr'r-f—t
r r r un
^
^
Finally, sometimes climaxes are obtained without any
melodic imitation whatsoever. In this case, although the
element of contrast is uppermost in mind, that of proportion
can readily be secured, also, through pairing off the lines by
giving a general similarity to the first two lines, and a con-
trasting similarity to the last two lines:
ADVANCED HARMONY
373
Rhythm in the Four-cadence Period.
The subject of rhythm in vocal music will be discussed
more fully in the following lesson. As bearing upon the
unity and completeness of a one-period form the following
observation may be made: In so small a form as this it is
extremely rare to find the time changed. The accent-type
which is chosen at the beginning continues throughout the
music. Not infrequently, however, the group-form which
is chosen at the beginning is changed for another. This is
more apt to occur in cases where the first group- form starts
upon an accent:
#
( • , i , etc . )
W,2,etc.)
(,
i
fir mfir J1J- i J JJ jij.ajp
•» fetC.)
(l, a.etc,.)
^m
#E
*&&-**■
i
Q,,2,etc.),(4, i,gtc), (i,,z,) , (4, «,)
^Jjjij"rirrrMirr'J^'rn^##^i
(4,1,) (l,2,)
, (1,2,) i*4'1') . \ i'.L .1,fJi .. .1
374
ADVANCED HARMONY
It is to be noticed from the illustrations just given that
the interchange of group- form assists in gaining proportion
and contrast in the piece, even in the cases where there is no
melodic imitation.
Tonality in the Four-oadence Period.
In so small a form as this modulation need not neces-
sarily occur. Still it is more apt to happen, but is almost
invariably into keys that stand in close relationship; that is,
that afford a ready return to the original key. Indeed, with
the tonal chromatic to choose from, much of the modulation
becomes a mere emphasis, through a cadence with attendant
chords, upon the triads of the original key:
* BARNBY.
d*
^
m
M
i
%m
<S-v-
rrrf
TTT
T
J-
J
^^
7
p^p
w$^
WT
Att.toVI
AtUolIl
#N#^
fefe^
m
rjr
r
r r Tf
J J j j
liii
m r r r
r-pr r
ffn
AtUo IV
In the rarer instances in which a contrasted key is
reached and firmly held, this key is usually that of the domi-
nant,, and the return modulation is frequently made emphatic
by the use of attendant chords to the subdominant triad of
the original key, which helps to restore its balance :
ADVANCED HARMONY
375
.LANGRAN
Cadence in the Four-cadence Period.
For general observations in regard to cadences the stu-
dent is advised to re-read Elementary Theory, Lesson X.,
and Elementary Harmony, Lesson XI.
In the more modern writing of four-line tunes there is
a tendency, similar to that which was observed in the chant,
to minimize the value of the first and the third cadences.
This may be done either by causing cadences to halt upon an
unimportant triad, or by making its final chord dissonant.
In the latter case the dissonant chord is resolved upon the
beginning of the following line, and this dissonant chord is
sometimes even a chromatic attendant:
DEANE
376
ADVANCED HARMONY
Deane.
The One-period Part-song.
The one-period part-song is not often found except as
the setting of a folk-song. Its method of construction is
substantially that of the four-line hymn-tune. In general,
however, the harmonization of a folk-melody relies far more
upon the non-harmonic tones than upon chords. Rich effects
of chromatic chords and free modulations are out of char-
acter. Diatonic melodies and scale chords should always pre-
dominate. With this exception the student should find no
difficulty in creating simple settings of four-line secular
verses.
Exercises in the Writing of One-period Forms.
1. Writing melodies in four cadence-group periods,
utilizing the various means of producing climax, contrast and
proportion discussed in this lesson.
2. Write melodies in four cadence-group periods in
which change of group- form takes place.
3. Harmonize the melodies just written, using cadences
and modulation according to the hints given in this lesson.
Before spending much time upon these exercises the
student is advised to pass to the following lesson ; after which
he can with still more profit get additional practise in making
musical settings of four-line verses and other material for
the one-period form.
ADVANCED HARMONY
377
LESSON XL
RHYTHM IN VOCAL MUSIC.
To anybody who examines with care the rhythm of the
tunes, and of the hymns, of a standard hymnary, it is ap-
parent that the tune lines are far more regular than those
of the hymns. So great a disparity as eight syllables in one
line against three in another receives a musical setting of
two regular accent-groups to the cadence-group; the con-
formity being obtained by greater length of notes or by
groups of notes to the syllables in the shorter phrase line:
SULLIVAN.
Shed for re-bels, shed for sin-ners,shed for me.
Again, a dactylic phrase is set almost as frequently to a
musical meter (accent-group form) of triple time as of
duple time; or a poetical spondee receives often a musical
meter of triple time:
DYKES.
#
^m.
#
Bright-est and best of the sons of the morn- ing,
MOZART
m
a m
Bright-est and best etc.
BAKER.
r r r
Art thou wear - y, art thou Ian - guid,
BULLINGER.
¥
3fc
Art
thou etc.
378
ADVANCED HARMONY
In the setting of anthems in the smaller forms, such as
Calls to Worship, Responses, etc., the music, too, is found to
be constructed with regular cadence-groups, although the
words have the freedom which belongs to a prose sentence.
It is, then, a matter of importance to understand the
principles which guide one in making musical settings to
words.
Accent in Words and in Music.
In English prose or poetry, as well as in music, the
accents occur with every two, three, or four pulses (beats).
It would, therefore, seem to be the simplest of rules that
the accents of speech should coincide always with the accents
of music. This is a well-nigh invariable rule in good music.
Thus, the following melody as a setting for the words,
" How wonderful are Thy works, O God, my King ! " or for
the words, " Let us sing Thy praises with lute and with
harp," each of which has exactly the same number of sylla-
bles as there are notes to the melody, cannot be sung with a
note to the syllable. The proper modifications given below
illustrate the rule:
Not
felftft ^*]~r i* rH ffl ' ■ r II
g L 1 ~ ^" I J V
How won -der-ful are Thy works,0 God, my King!
Let us. singThy praises with lute and with harp.
But
^^
-f-f-f-E-
Mf P p
How won-der-iul areThy works.O God, my King.
Let us sing Thy praises with lute and with harp.
ADVANCED HARMONY
379
An exception to the rule which is more apparent than
real, occurs when the less important speech accents are run
over in a somewhat rapid musical phrase that seems to give
no stress upon some of the accented syllables:
The whole cre-a-ted world. The whole created world.
Frequently, but not always, the converse of this rule
applies; namely, that the unaccented syllables of speech
should remain unaccented in music.
The exceptions to this latter rule are usually due to the
expansion or contraction of- the verse line to fit the regu-
larity of the musical cadence-group. Thus the words,
"How manifold Thy mercies!" to the musical phrase
already used for illustration would require an accent on the
second syllable of " mercies " and probably also on the third
syllable of " manifold " :
How man - i - fold Thy mer
cies!
While an attempt to set the words, "We praise Thee,
O God ! " to this same phrase might cause through the
musical accent such a peculiar effect of two syllables to the
words " praise " and " God " that one would prefer to re-
peat some of the words in order fittingly to fill up the
musical phrase:
380
ADVANCED HARMONY
We praise Thee, O God
We praiseThee,0 God, we praise Thee!
EBELING .
ADVANCED HARMONY
381
When the task is one of setting poetic phrases, the poets
themselves frequently are to blame for awkward cases of un-
accented syllables in accented places of the music. Thus,
the familiar hymn, "Father, I know that all my life," in
all of its subsequent stanzas starts with an unaccented syl-
lable. As a result the musical setting of the hymn must be
so made that we sing " Fa-ther " in the first verse.
But still more frequently, in fact, constantly, we meet
the cases where in the adjustment of the verse line to fit the
cadence-group the final strong musical accent is compelled to
utilize an unaccented syllable, as for example, see Ebeling,
page 380.
In some cases where expansion takes on a florid char-
acter musical accent must be given to a whole succession of
unaccented syllables, but even here by skilful treatment some
of the difficulties can be avoided :
HANDEL: Israel in Egypt.
T
in the sanct - u - a
This could be divided .
ry, O .Lord,
ffun iJijJ.J^
in the sanct.
.u-ar-y,0 Lord,
In accordance with the observations made in the fore-
going paragraphs, the musical setting of poetry should be
made in the following way:
1. Examine each line of the verse to determine its two
main accents. Set the syllables as the main measure-
accents.
2. If there still remain syllables or words that plainly
require an accent, treat them as alternating subordinate ac-
cents.
382
ADVANCED HARMONY
3. If syllables are wanting to complete the subordinate
accents necessary, use unaccented syllables or continue the
music over from a main accent.
The two following examples will illustrate these rules :
Ask nothing more of me, sweet:
» > I
All I can give you, I give.
— Swinburne.
frr p f r }JlirHJJ^ p Pi"
Ask nothing more of me, sweet : All I can give you, I give.
> z > >
When the white moon divides the mist —
My longing eyes believe
'Tis the white arm my lips have kissed
> > >
Flashing from thy sleeve.
— C. D. G. Roberts.
When the white moon di-vides the mist My long-ing
m
* 4
eyes be - he"ve
Tis the white arm my lips have
kissed
Flash-ingfromthy sleeve. _
ADVANCED HARMONY 383
In the setting of prose the accents of the music and of
the words must coincide. The problem, therefore, is simply
how to fit the words to the regularity of the musical accent-
groups. Repetition of words or of phrases is customary,
and within limits defensible. Thus, in the following sketch
the rhetorical importance of the word " deliver " justifies its
repetition :
c,J J J IJ J J I
'Bless ed is he that con
J> } ) J> J. } IJ J r -h I
sid- et - eth the poor and heed - - y: the
J J. J1 IJ J J J I
Lord shall de- liv - er him, (de -
J> J> J1 J J— J> J> IJ J . »
liv- et) in the time of trou ble.
Accent-group Form in the Setting of Poetry.
Duple and triple time are for the most part determined
by musical, not by poetical considerations. Verse with ac-
cents which come once in two, once in three, or even once in
four syllables, yields, with equal facility, a setting in the two-
beat or in three-beat accent-group. For example, see top of
page 384.
But the esthetic effects of duple and of triple time are
different; the accent-group by threes is less dignified, more
graceful, in general, lighter.
In setting words to music, therefore, after determining
the accents, principal and subordinate, the student must
384
ADVANCED HARMONY
HI l'|lJ'lJ-l'|'H 1
e
Fair-estof the fajr-y is- lands. Fair-estof the fair-y is- lands.
I
m
Fair - est of
the fair
is - Hinds <
^r^
3E
Fair
est of the fair-y is
lands
choose his type of accent-group in accordance with the under-
lying spirit of the composition. This, of course, is not to
say that no serious composition is done in triple rhythm, or
that no lightly balanced airy effects are possible in duple
rhythm; still the recognition of the difference in group char-
acter will always make for effectiveness of the music. Notice,
for example, two well-known hymn-settings of " It camt
upon the midnight clear " :
Mendelssohn .
It cameiip-ontht mid-night clear,That glo-rious song of old.
Willis.
It came up-onthe mid-nightclear,That glo-rioussoug of old.
In one the steady onward sweep of the duple rhythm
emphasizes the thought of the " Glorious song of old " ; in
the other the lightness of the rhythm gains its appropriate-
ness, if at all, from the merry hearts of the singers at the
Christmastide.
ADVANCED HARMONY 385
Tempo in Speech and in Music.
In determining the character of the composition much
depends upon pace. Words in music, seldom, if ever, go
faster than the usual pace of the words in speech; but very
often the structure of the music requires one to enunciate
the words much more slowly than in speech. It is evident,
therefore, that the question of pace is mainly a question of
the musical beat.
The normal tempo for music is apparently that in which
the beats follow one another about as fast as heart-beats.
When the beats are much more rapid than this the time seems
quick, when they are much slower than this the time seems
slow. As one gets farther from the normal pace the char-
acteristic feeling which belongs to the duple or to the triple
group has less and less of weight. A point is finally reached
at which by increase in the rapidity the entire group is re-
duced to a single beat ; or by decrease in the rapidity the beat
becomes so over-weighted that it disintegrates, and becomes
itself a group.
An interesting illustration of the effect of tempo upon
the characteristic feeling of the triple group is to be found
in the song from Handel's opera " Xerxes," entitled " My
Plane Tree." As it there appears, in order to illustrate the
words of affectionate description of the tree, the melody is
taken at minuet tempo, and the composition is graceful, and,
on the whole, light. But for many years it has been played
as an instrumental composition at a much slower pace, with
a greatly increased effect of dignity, under the name of
Handel's Largo.
Another interesting illustration of the effect of tempo
upon rhythmic feeling may be seen in the Mendelssohn Song
without Words, Op. 19, No. 6, where too slow a pace takes
386 ADVANCED HARMONY
away wholly the graceful sway of the Gondellied in |
time, and reduces the piece to a mournful lament in simple
| rhythm.
Illustrations of the reverse process by which, through
quickening of the tempo, the piece is deprived of its strength,
or of its pathos, would not be hard to find.
Exercises in Rhythms in Vocal Music.
1. Determine the place of the musical accents in many
four-line verses, and in prose (scriptural) sentences.
2. Write melodies suited to the character of the senti-
ment of the verses which have been used in Exercise 1, and
complete the harmonization of them in accordance with the
instructions of the previous lesson.
LESSON XII.
VOCAL HARMONY IN LESS OR MORE THAN
FOUR PARTS.
While it is true that vocal writing, more frequently
than not, is in four parts, yet composers can gain certain
advantages from the use of a less or of a greater number
of voices.
Three-voice Writing.
The advantage to be gained from the use of but three
voices is that the three individual parts can be heard more
clearly, and therefore whatever of beauty there be in the
melodies of these individual parts has more of an opportunity
ADVANCED HARMONY
387
of getting to the ear of the listener. Conversely, it is true
that the melodies must be made more interesting; that is to
say, have more engaging rhythm, have more fluent line, have
more freedom in skip.
It is evident that, since all chords have either three,
four, or five notes, an important question in three-voice
writing is that of the omission of notes in a chord. While
in general the rules in regard to the most important notes in
the chord, or the most easily omitted notes in a chord, are
the same as those for four-part writing, it is also true that
sometimes the note best to be omitted on general principles
is the one that happens at the moment to be the easiest and
best for the melodic line, while the note which theoretically
ought not to be omitted" is specially difficult to reach. Thus :
^#
■'■ii-M. J
±=£
r
§i3
XE
?b» r^rfrtf
■e-
In writing in two or three parts quite constantly the
effect of rhythm comes to aid in the understanding of the
chords. Thus, for example, in a place where the rhythmic
treatment of the music calls for the tonic chord, that chord
may be understood, unless some note contradicts such an
understanding, even although the tonic note itself be absent
from the writing. Again, although the important character-
giving note of a consonant triad is its third, since by it we
"learn whether the triad is major or is minor, if the treatment
of the rhythm in "the music and the use "of other chords has
made clear the key, then the triad,' although it is without its
third, is felt to be distinctly major or distinctly minor,' as
the case may be, as for example:
388
ADVANCED HARMONY
m
^=k
TSTT
r
FT
JE^FE
£
1
I V
In regard to the distance apart of the voices in three-
part writing, it needs only to be added that just because
there are but three notes present the music will be apt to
sound thin if the upper voice is for any length of time too
far away from the voices that are below. And yet the very
freedom of melodic treatment which has already been sug-
gested gives larger opportunity for the voices both to recede
from each other and to approach each other:
*m
m
^Vv-jj
m
=f#££
W£
Notice finally that repetition of a given chord, or the
movement from one note to another of the chord in one
voice, while the other voices remain quiet, frequently affords
the opportunity of presenting ultimately all of the notes of
a four or of a five-tone chord. In such case the final position
of the chord should have the essential notes required for
good resolution, unless there be opportunity for a double
resolutions (see page 323), or an elipsis (see page 335).
ADVANCED HARMONY
389
^
if
^jjjj.j
p
f
epre
?
mr~T
r
^gs
^
gjpg
3g=
gp§
It is in the resolution of tendency chords that three-
part writing is strictest; for if the important tones of a
tendency chord are present and resolve properly, the music
is altogether understandable.
Two-voice Writing.
What has been said about three-voice writing, in regard
to the individuality of the melodies, the reliance to be placed
upon rhythm, tipon consecutive sounding of the notes of a
chord, and upon the importance of proper resolutions, could
be repeated with still more emphasis in speaking of two-
voice writing. Indeed, the emphasis which has to be placed
in two-part writing upon a free and flexible melody with
considerable use of movement from chord note to chord note,
practically takes this out of the vocal into the instrumental
type. Vocal duets are usually planned with an accompani-
ment which completes the harmonic deficiency; hence such
writing does not properly come under the head of two-voice
writing. In this latter the two parts are assumed to have
substantially equal importance; hence each must have such
perfection in itself that the art is more correctly a matter
of counterpoint than it is of harmony. Since, however,
modern counterpoint is based upon harmony, two-voice
writing may be properly presented in these lessons.
A few additional simple rules are all that the student
needs :
390
ADVANCED HARMONY
1. Avoid the use of consecutive perfect intervals; that
is, of a fifth followed by a fifth, octave followed by octave,
octave by fifth, fifth by octave:
Not
*ww~*w#
M
rr
2. Use thirds and sixths freely (but see Rule 3, which
follows) :
3. Make sparing use of similar or parallel motion.
More than three or four parallel thirds or sixths in succes-
sion is of questionable value. The chief reliance is upon
contrary motion.
4. Make free use of non-harmonic tones whenever this
can be done without rendering it difficult to understand the
harmonic basis :
l?inurinn ifr1-
PWP»PP«P§P
Vocal Writing in Five or More Parts.
It is plain that the problem of special importance when
writing in more than four parts is that of determining what
notes to double. This question is a very different one from
that found in instrumental music where four real parts, by
temporary or continuous doubling of melodies at octave,
become five, six, seven, or more apparent parts. In vocal
writing it is to be assumed that each part creates its own
ADVANCED HARMONY
391
independent melody. There are, therefore, two aspects under
which the problem of doubling arises : first, that of the chord;
second, that of the melody.
1. In regard to the best notes to double in a chord the
rules of four-part writing are still, in the main, to be held to.
It should be noticed, however, that while strong tendency
notes ought not to be doubled any more than is the case in
four-part writing, yet tendency chords almost inevitably
contain notes in which there are two possible resolution tones ;
as, for example, the root of the dominant seventh chord in
fundamental position, the fifth of a dominant seventh chord,
or the third or fifth of many subordinate sevenths. These
notes, therefore, admit of doubling without difficulty:
£
j Jl J J J I -I J JlH.l J
Fff
T=ff
j J J
PjEg
3
f^
f^
r
f " f r f r
P*
*m
=8=
m g 1
^
i
Again, it is true that
appear as passing chords,
be in either direction, and
chord would seem to have
are free to be doubled by
to each other:
in the use of chords which may
the passing effect frequently can
in such case tones that in a real
a fixed tendency in one direction
parts that go in contrary motion
392
ADVANCED HARMONY
)/L 'i i
| p • ,,.e_,
— f — p — j — 1
— £""* 6 g C — '
"~ c — Zr~ — S~ J
— ■ 1 J» —
1 ' l» ,f —
i
For the most part, writing with this extra number of
voices is for chorus. Here strength of chord effect and
smoothness of part movement is especially to be desired.
For just as it was pointed out that in writing for three
voices greater freedom in the individual melodies was to be
expected, so here the converse is true. Hence:
2. Much of the doubling which occurs in music in
five or more real parts is brought about through the neces-
sities of the melodic treatment. One is apt to find the melo-
dies in conjunct motion, with the exception of the outer
parts. Such simplicity of writing often justifies a doubling,
particularly in consonant triads, of notes which from the
point of view of chord balance alone would not be justified.
Nevertheless it should be noticed that so far as possible com-
posers avoid unpleasant chord balance ; and, especially as
the number of voices increases, are apt to allow inner parts
to cross each other, even when they are made to do so by
skip. A still more frequent cause for such crossing of the
parts is to avoid parallel fifths or octaves with some other
voice part.
Although vocal writing may be carried out to any num-
ber of real parts, it is, at the present time, seldom used be-
yond eight. Within that number two distinct methods of
treatment are found: one, in which the parts chosen all con-
tinue their independent melodies from beginning to end; the
other, in which the parts are divided into two groups, making
a double chorus. With this latter method there is opportu-
nity for much answering of chorus to chorus, antiphonally ;
ADVANCED HARMONY
393
or reinforcing of one chorus with the other; so that writing
in the full number of parts is carried on only during a por-
tion of the music. This affords variety and avoids the con-
tinuous impression of weightiness which can easily become
tiresome. The double chorus may be constituted with equal
choirs of mixed voices, or with a male and a female choir,
or with two choirs that overlap each other, but one of which
is in the main higher pitched.
It is not the object of this lesson, however, to discuss
the forms of composition used in chorus writing, but simply
to set forth a method of treating harmony. Choruses in
which the application of this method is made are usually
much more extended than the limits of a single period. The
student who desires to write music in five or more real parts
is, therefore, advised to seek further guidance in the works
of composers who have written in this style, and in the pre-
cepts of treatises on composition:
Handel: Israel in Egypt
Chorus 1
i
i.J. -IU -M
LJ
fe
J »j>j>j>,j
w^
^
PPP
r Pt pp
jp^p
=_i
J
i
i
Jri
r p r pp
Who is like un-to
Chorus II
T=
Thee, O
Lord ainongthe-
i
i,j i J
b^M
Gods?
k&=
m
Fg=y
m
lis
r p r pp
+*hH-tt
4
394
ADVANCED HARMONY
Female-
Quartet
Male
Quartet
I
Mendelssohn
Elijah
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ADVANCED HARMONY 395
Exercises in the Use of Two, Three, Five or More
Real Parts.
1. Add a single under part to the melodies of exercise
two, Lesson II., so as to produce good two-part writing.
2. Write three-part settings of some of the verses
treated in the previous lesson.
3. Write five-part settings of some of the verses treated
in the previous lesson.
4. Write short double-choruses in eight real parts.
CONCLUSION.
The student who has carried through faithfully the work
mapped out in the three series of lessons of which this para-
graph is the conclusion should be encouraged to take the
further step which connects technical study with practical
composition. It is at the same moment the simplest and the
hardest step. One who has accumulated harmonic material
and facility in handling it should feel the demand for its
use coming from within. This demand should take the form
not alone of harmonic tasks laid out by the teacher but also
of musical ideas or poetical ideas, which invite the student
to apply this or that material within his power to the em-
bodiment or development of these ideas. Parallel to this
work which springs out of the creative impulse, and as a
further guide to the student, he should take up the study of
Applied Harmony, or Elementary Composition, which step
by step makes the special application of harmony to the
writing of small musical forms, such as songs, pianoforte
pieces, anthems, and part-songs.
This study is the logical complement of the study of
harmony; yet the closer one gets to actual composition the
more certain it is that that particular gift called " fantasie "
396 ADVANCED HARMONY
cannot be taught. One may show how a given chord is made,
and can be handled, how a certain type of melody is con-
structed, how a certain change of tonality can be effected,
but to reveal the moment when that chord would be the key
to the listener's heart, when that melody will seem to have
dropped from Heaven, when that change of key will lift the
soul to serener regions, — this is beyond the teacher. But
all of these things may perhaps reveal themselves to the
patient worker who delves in tones because he cannot help
himself. To such a one the step forward from harmony to
its application is inevitable; and the problems presented, to-
gether with which' should come much study of the works
of great composers, will assist him in self-expression, — the
goal of every artist.
INDEX
KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS USED IN INDEX.
A.— American Music.
E. — Essentials of Music, two volumes, i, ii.
P. — Foreign Music.
I. — Instruments.
O. — Operas, two volumes, i, ii.
O. M. — Oratorios and Masses.
T.— Theory.
See also Dictionary and Musical Biographies.
Abencerages, Les, O., ii, 325.
Abentouer Handels, Ein, O., ii, 325.
Abraham, O., ii, 325.
Abreise, Die, O., ii, 325.
Abroad and at Home, O., ii, 325.
Abu Hassan, O., ii, 325.
Academy of Music.
See Boston Academy of Music.
See New York Academy of Mu-
sic.
Accent, E., i, 29, 30, 268, 275-277;
E., ii, 151, 162, 378.
grammatical and rhetorical, E.;
ii, 166.
Accidentals, E., ii, 125, 126.
Accordion, I., 89.
Accompaniment, organ, E., i, 383.
Achebar, O., ii, 325.
Achille in Sciro, O., ii, 325.
Acis and Galatea, O., ii, 325 ; O. M.,
63.
Acteon, O., ii, 325.
Adagio, E., i, 32.
Adam, Adolph Charles.
The Postilion of Longjumeau, O.,
i, 162.
Adam und Eva, O., ii, 325.
Adgate, Andrew, established a free
singing school, A., 178.
prominent in early concert life of
Philadelphia, A., 211.
Adieu, Hadrian, O., ii, 325.
Adler's Horst, Des, O., ii, 326.
Admeto, O., ii, 326.
Adolph von Nassau, O., ii, 326.
Adolphe et Clara, ou Les Deux
Prisonniers, O., ii, 326.
Adone, O., ii, 326.
Adonis, O., ii, 326.
Adriano in Siria, O., ii, 326.
Adrienne Lecouvreur, O., ii, 305.
^Eneas, O., ii, 326.
JEolian harp, I., 89.
mode, T., 84.
JEolina, I., 90.
JEolodicon, I., 90.
JEolodion, or ceolodicon, I., 90.
Africa, musical instruments of, F.,
8-15.
agwel, I., 90.
akam, I., 90.
antsiva, I., 91.
bandar, I., 93.
colangee, I., 111.
daluka, I., 118.
deff. I., 119.
INDEX
Africa, musical instruments of:
eleke, I., 122.
e'raqyeh, I., 122.
fetich drums, I., 123.
gheteh, I., 128.
goura, I., 132.
gubo, I., 132.
guenbri, I., 132.
halam, or cambreh, I., 134.
herrauou, or lokango uoatavo, I.,
141.
icbacarre, I., 145.
kakoshi, I., 147.
karabib, I., 148.
kasso, I., 148.
kemangeh a'gouz, I., 149.
kemengeh roumy, I., 149.
kinandi, I., 151.
kisanji, I., 151.
kissar, I., 151.
kouitara, or kuitara, I., 154.
koundyeh, or ngiemeh, I., 154.
kundi, I., 155.
lira, I., 156.
madiumba, I., 161.
marimba, or mahambi, I., 162.
mbe, I., 162.
m'kul, I., 164.
muet, I., 166.
n'dungo, I., 168.
n'gom, or be, I., 168.
ngoma, I., 168.
ngonge, I., 168.
nkonjo, I., 169.
obah, I., 170.
ochingufu, I., 172.
olumbendo, I., 172.
ombi, I., 172.
oompoochawa, I., 173.
riata, I., 202.
sagat, I., 204.
samuius, I., 205.
schumgha, I., 219.
tapaka, I., 219.
tar, I., 219.
tar de messamah, I., 219.
t'gutha, I., 222.
tolo tolo, I., 224.
tzetze, zeze, seze, I., 230.
vissandschi, I., 247.
wambee, I., 248.
zanze, I., 252.
zoralga, I., 254.
zourna, or zamr, I., 254.
African Band, An, illus., F., 8.
Africaine, L', O., i, 229.
Agnes, O., ii, 326.
Agnes Sorel, O., ii, 326.
Agnes von Hohenstauffen, O., ii,
326.
Agnese, I/, O., ii, 381.
Agnus Dei, O. M., 291, 292, 304.
Agrippina, O., ii, 326.
Agwel, I., 90.
Alda, O., i, 335.
Ajo Nell Imbarrazzo, L', O., ii,
381.
Akam, I., 90.
Aladdin, O., ii, 326.
Albani, Marie Emma, Canadian
musical artist, F., 240.
Albion and Albanius, O., ii, 326.
Alceste, ou le Triomphe d'Alcide,
O., ii, 326.
Alcestis, O., ii, 326.
Alchymist, Der, O., ii, 326.
Alcibiade Solitaire, O., ii, 327.
Alcidor, O., ii, 327.
Alcina, O., ii, 327.
Aleko, O., ii, 327.
Alesandro, O., ii, 327.
Alessandro nelP Indie, O., ii, 327.
Alessandro Stradella, O., ii, 327.
Alexander Theatre, The, St. Pe-
tersburg, frontispiece, Mu-
sical Biogs., I.
Alexandre aux Indes, O., ii, 327.
Alfonso, O., ii, 327.
Alfonso and Estrella, O., ii, 327.
Alfred, a Masque, O., ii, 327.
Algeria, chebeb or djouwak, I., 106.
Algoja, I., 90.
Ali Baba, O., ii, 327.
Aline, Reine de Golconde, O., ii,
327.
Allemande, T., 182.
Allen, Horace N., Korea, F., 3541.
Almahide, O., ii, 327.
Almira, O., ii, 327.
Alona, O., ii, 327.
Alpenkonig und Menchanfeind, O.,
ii, 327.
Alphons d'Arragone, O., ii, 327.
Alphonse et Leonore, ou l'Heureux
Proces, O., ii, 328.
Alpine horn, I., 90.
Altaque du Moulin, L,' O., ii, 381.
Alte Mare, Die, O., ii, 328.
INDEX
in
Althorn, I., 90.
Amadis, O., ii, 328.
Ainalie, O., ii, 328.
Amant et le Mari, L', O., ii, 381.
Amant Jaloux, L', O., ii, 381.
Amant Statue, L', O., ii, 381.
Amante Astuto, L', O., ii, 381.
Amanti Cornici, Gli, O., ii, 328.
Amants de Verone, Les, O., ii, 328.
Amazones, Les, O., ii, 328.
Ambassadrice, L', O., ii, 381.
Ambrose, Saint, bishop of Milan,
F., 7.
his influence, T., 96.
his work, T., 95.
Ambrosian chants, E., i, 327.
Ambrosian music, F., 76.
Amelia, O., ii, 328.
America, choral societies estab-
lished in, O. M., 7.
Civil War, music of, A., 116-127,
130, 131; T., 343.
foreign musical societies in, A.,
229.
German opera in, A., 239, 242.
music in, O., i, 39, 40.
musical instruments of :
banjo, I., 93.
cabinet organ, I., 102.
calliope, I., 102.
melodeon, I., 163.
oratorio performances in, O. M.,
1-10.
preparation for operatic career
in, E., i, 295-298.
Revolutionary War, music of, A.,
104-112.
telharmonium, I., 220.
War of 1812, music of, A., 114,
115, 129.
"America," hymn, A., 125.
American choir, see Choir.
composers, A., 1-15, 291-303.
"American Hero, The," A., 107.
American music, bibliography, A.,
351-356.
American musical periodicals, A.,
202, 203.
American musicians, A„ 289-312.
American Opera Company, A., 249.
Amflparnasso, O., ii, 328.
Arnica, O., ii, 328.
Amici di Siracusa, Gli, O., ii, 328.
Amico Fritz, L', O., ii, 211.
Amitie au Village, L\ O., ii, 381.
Amma-no-fuye, I., 91.
Amor Contadino, L', O., ii, 381.
Amor Marinnaro, L', O., ii, 381.
Amor et Psyche, L', O., ii, 381.
Amor vuol Sofferenza, O., ii, 328.
Amour Romanesque, L', O., ii, 381.
Amours de Momus, Les, O., ii, 328.
Amphitryon, the Father of Hercu-
les, O., ii, 328.
An Mil, L', O., ii, 382.
Anacreon chez Polycrate, O., ii, 328.
Anacreon, ou PAmour Fugitif, O.,
ii, 328.
Ananda lahari, I., 91.
Andamentos, T., 154.
Andi-6 Chenier, O., ii, 329.
Andrea Crini, O., ii, 328.
Andrea Crini, No. 2, O., ii, 329.
Andreasfest, Das, O., ii, 329.
Andrews, George W., introduction,
1., 1-7.
Andromaque, O., ii, 329.
Andromeda, O., ii, 329.
Angelique et Medor, O., ii, 329.
Angelo, O., ii, 329.
Angelus, The, O., ii, 329.
Angiolina, O., ii, 329.
Angla, O., ii, 329.
Angra ocwena, I., 91.
Anna Bolena, O., ii, 329.
Xnnchen von Tharau, O., ii, 329.
Annette et Lubin, O., ii, 330.
Answer, T., 155-157.
essentials of, T., 156.
principles of, T., 156.
Anthems, books of, E., i, 366, 367.
list of, E., i, 368-371.
standard, E., i, 358-361.
tested, E., i, 371, 372.
Anticipation, T., 81.
Antigone, O., ii, 330.
Antigono, O., ii, 330.
Antiochus and Stratonice, O., ii,
330.
Antsiva, I., 91.
Apajune, O., ii, 330.
Apelle et Campaaspe, O., ii, 330.
Aphrodite, Greek Goddess of Love,
O., ii, 330.
Apollo et Hyacinthus, O., ii, 330.
Apollo lyra, I., 91.
Apollon et Coronis, O., ii, 330.
Apostles, The, O. M., 261.
IV
INDEX
Apothecary, The, O., ii, 330.
Apparition, L', O., ii, 382.
Appoggiaturas, E., ii, 310-313; T.,
80.
Appreciation, T., 229-350.
chamber music, T., 277.
chorus and choral music, T., 308.
the opera, T., 298.
the orchestra, T., 267.
the organ, T., 295.
the piano, T., 280.
the practical value of music, T.,
325.
solo singing, T., 319.
the violin, T., 289.
Apt, Franz, portrait, Musical
Biogs., i, 16.
Apthorp, William Foster, A., 306.
Arabi nelle Gallie, Li, O., ii, 330.
Arabia, names of musical instru-
ments :
daff, I., 118.
junk, I., 146.
kemangeh a'gouz, I., 149.
tabbalat, or tabl-shamee, I., 210.
Arbore di Diana, L', O., ii, 382.
Arbre Enchante, L', O., ii, 382.
Arcadia in Brenta, L', O., ii, 382.
Archer, Henry; A., 104.
Archers, The, or The Mountaineers
of Switzerland, A., 251 ; O..
ii, 330.
Archimandora, I., 91.
Archivole di lira, I., 92.
Archlute, I., 91.
Arghool, I., 92.
Ariana et Barbe - Bleue, O., ii,
319.
Ariane, O., ii, 330.
"Arianna," O., i, 8.
Arianna, or Ariana, O., ii, 330.
Ariodante, O., ii, 330.
Ariovisto, O., ii, 330.
Aristeo, O., ii, 330.
Aristippe, O., ii, 330.
Arkadelt, Jacob, E., i, 328.
Arm Elslein, O., ii, 331.
Arme Heinrich, Der, O., ii, 331.
Arme Jonathan, Der, O., ii, 331.
Armida, O., ii, 331.
Armida, No. 2, O., ii, 331.
Armin, O., ii, 331.
Arminio, O., ii, 331.
Arminius, O. M., 217.
Armorer, The, O., ii, 331.
Armourer of Mantes, The, O., ii.
331.
Army, music in, T., 341-343.
Arpeggio, E., i, 56, 57, 203-209; E.,
ii, 144.
Arpicordo, I., 92.
Arsinoe, O., ii, 331.
Art, appreciation of, T., 229-267.
Artamene, O., ii, 331.
Artaserse, O., ii, 331.
Artemesia, O., ii, 331.
Artisan, L', O., ii, 382.
Artistes par Occasion, Les, O., ii,
331.
Artisti alia Fiera, Gli, O., ii, 332.
Artist's Model, An, O., 332.
Arvire and Evelina, O., ii, 332.
Ascanio, O., ii, 332.
Ascanio in Alba, O., ii, 332.
Ashantee drums, illus., I., 123.
Asiatic Russia, names of musical
instruments :
thari, I., 223.
zourna, or soma, I., 254.
Aspasie, O., ii, 332.
Aspasie et Pericles, O., ii, 332.
Aspirant de Marine, L', O., ii, 382.
Asraele, O., ii, 332.
Assarpai, O., ii, 332.
Assassini, Gli, O., ii, 332.
Assedio di Firenze, L', O., ii, 382.
Assedio di Leyda, L\ O., ii, 382.
Astarte, O., ii, 332.
Astianasse, O., ii, 332.
Astorga, O., ii, 332.
Astuzie Femminili, L', O., ii, 382.
Astyanax, O., ii, 332.
Atala, O., ii, 332.
Atalanta, O., ii, 332.
Athalie, O., ii, 332.
Attack, E., i, 267, 270.
in chorus work, T., 316, 317.
in solo singing, T., 324.
Attendant chord, E., ii, 265.
Attila, O., ii, 332.
Attilio Regolo, O., ii, 332.
Atys, O., ii, 333.
Auber, Daniel F. E. (Jacques).
Fla Diavolo, O., i, 117.
Masaniello, O., i, 109.
Auberge de Bagneres, I/, O., ii, 382.
Aubergistes de Qualite, Les, O., ii,
333.
INDEX
Aucassin and Nicolette, O., ii, 333.
Audran, Edmund.
The Mascot, O., ii, 109.
Olivette, O., ii, 117.
Augenartz, I>er, O., ii, 333.
Augmented triad, E., ii, 181, 330.
Augustine, Saint, F., 183.
Aulos, I., 92.
Aurelia, Prinsessin von Bulgarien,
O., ii, 333.
Aureliano in Palmira, O., ii, 333.
Avaro, L', O., ii, 382.
Avengle de Palmyre, L', O., ii, 382.
Aveux Indiscrets, Les, O., ii, 333.
Avventura di Scaramuccia, Un', O.,
ii, 429.
Avvertimento ai Gelosi, Un', O., ii,
429.
Aztecs, music of, F., 5.
Azuma-koto, I., 92.
Babes in Toyland, O., ii, 333.
Babette, O., ii, 333.
Bacchus, O., ii, 333.
Bach, Johann Sebastian, I., 11 ;
O. M., 19, 20; T., 127, 128,
137, 144, 145, 147-149.
composed masses, O. M., 297.
"father of modern music," F.,
119.
methods of modulation used by,
T., 90.
oratorios and masses :
The Christmas Oratorio, O. M„
57.
Ein' Feste Berg, O. M., 45.
God's Time Is the Best, O. M.,
37.
Mass in B minor, O. M., 311.
My Spirit Was in Heaviness,
O. M., 41.
The Passion According to St.
Matthew, O. M., 49.
originator of piano-playing as
we know it, T., 8.
selected works of, E., i, 68-72.
portrait, O. M., 37.
Bach study, chapter on, E., i, 68-72.
Bach, Philipp Emanuel, I., 12.
Bacio, II, O., ii, 333.
Bag-pipe, influence on Scotch mu-
sic, F., 219.
Bag-pipe, origin of, F., 222.
peculiarities of, F., 223.
Bajazzi, O., ii, 333.
Balafo, I., 92.
Balalaika, I., 92.
Baldur's Tod, O., ii, 333.
Balfe, Michael William, F., 205.
Bohemian Girl, O., i, 207.
Ballad, T., 226, 338.
Ballet, F., 132.
Ballet Comique de la Royne, Le, O.,
ii, 334.
Bamboula, description of, A., 58.
Band, string, I., 82.
Band music, Gilmore's band, A.,
285.
Marine band at Washington, A.,
285.
military bands, A., 284.
popularity of, A., 283.
Bandar, I., 93.
Bandola, I., 93.
Bandora, I., 93.
Bandurria, A., 93.
Banjo, A., 51 ; I., 93.
"Banks of the Dee," A., 75.
Banya, I., 93.
Barbarina, Die, O., ii, 334.
Barber of Seville, The, O., i, 83.
Barbier von Bagdad, Der, O., i, 267.
Barbiere di Sevilla, II, O., ii, 334.
Barbiere di Siviglia, II, O., i, 83.
Barcarole, La, O., ii, 334.
Bardes, ou Ossian, Les, O., ii, 334.
Barenhauter, Der, O., ii, 255.
Barfiissle, O., ii, 334.
Baron Golosh, O., ii, 334.
Baroness, The, O., ii, 334.
Barrel organ, I., 93.
Bars, definition of, T., 47.
first used, T., 48.
Barytone, E., i, 321.
Basilius, O., ii, 334.
Basoche, La, O., ii, 334.
Bass, figured, E., ii, 354-362 ; T., 64.
Bass cither, I., 95.
Bass drum, I., 95.
Bass horn, bassoon Russe, I., 96.
Bass viol, I., 96, 244.
Basset horn, I.. 96.
Basso, E., 321-322.
Basso continuo, T., 64.
Bassoon, I., 96.
Bassoon quinte, I., 97.
VI
INDEX
Bassoon Russe, I., 97.
Bastien and Bastienne, O., ii, 334.
Bat, The, O., ii, 9.
Batellus, I., 97.
Batiste, Antoine Edouard, B., i,
390.
Batsu, or hatsu, I., 97.
" Battle Cry of Freedom," A., 120.
" Battle Hymn of the Republic,"
A., 119.
Battle of Hexam, The, O., ii, 335.
Bay Psalm Book, see New England
version of the psalms.
Ballo in Maschera, II, O., i, 275.
Bayaderes, Les, O., ii, 335.
Bayard a La FertG, O., ii, 335.
Baz, I., 97.
Bazzini, Antonio ; E., ii, 18.
Be, I., 97.
Beach, Mrs. H. H. A., compositions,
A., 302.
portrait, A., 293.
Bearnaise, La, O., ii, 335.
Beat, T., 70.
Beating time, E., i, 330-338.
Beatitudes, The, O. M., 243.
Beatrice and Benedict, O., ii, 335.
Beatrice -=i Tenda, O., ii, 335.
Beautiful Galatea, The, O., ii, 335.
Beauty Spot, The, O., ii, 335.
Beauty Stone, The, O., ii, 335.
Becket, Thomas ft, author and com-
poser, A., 115.
Beethoven, Ludwig van, E., i, 75;
P., 120; I., 12-14, 16-18; T.,
149.
Fidelio, O., i, 79.
Mass in D major, O. M., 327.
Missa Solemnis, O. M., 294.
Sonata Appasionata, op. No. i>7,
T., 214-220.
Sonata Pathetique, op. No. 13, E.,
i, 32; T., 198-202.
Sonata Quasi Una Fantasie, op.
No. 2, or Moonlight Sonata,
T., 202-206, 286.
Waldstein Sonata, op. No. 53, T.,
206-214.
Beggar Student, The, O., ii, 137.
Beggar's lyre, I., 97.
Beggar's Opera, The, A., 245; O.,
i, 41.
Beichte, Die, O., ii, 335.
Beiden Neffen, Die, O., ii, 335.
Beiden Schiitzen, Die, O., ii, 335.
Belisaire, O., ii, 335.
Belisario, O., ii, 335.
Bell, I., 98.
early production of, I., 49, 50.
made of, I., 51.
Bella Donna, or The Little Beauty
and the Great Beast, O., ii,
336.
Belle Arsene, La, O., ii, 336.
Belle HelSne, La, O., i, 295.
Belle of Mayfair, The, O., ii, 336.
Bellerofonte, O., ii, 336.
Bellini, Vincenzo, Norma, O., i,
133.
I Puritani, O., i, 153.
La Sonnambula, O., i, 121.
Bells of Corneville, The, O., ii, 67.
Belmont und Constanze, O., ii, 336.
" Ben Bolt," A., 78.
Bendyae, I., 93, 98.
Benedict, Sir Julius, F., 205.
The Lily of Killarney, O., i, 287.
Benedictus, O. M., 304.
Bennet, Sir William Sterndale, F.,
205.
Benoiuski, O., ii, 336.
Bent, I., 98.
Benvenuto Cellini, O., i, 173.
Berenice, O., ii, 336.
Bergere Chatelaine, La, O., ii, 336.
Bergers, Les, O., ii, 336.
Berggeist, Der, O., ii, 336.
Bergknappen, Die, O., ii, 336.
Berlioz, Hector, F., 133; I., 16, 18,
19 ; O. M., 28.
Benvenuto Cellini, O., i, 173.
The Damnation of Faust, O. M.,
161.
portrait, Musical Biogs.. i., 90.
Requiem mass, O. M., 333.
Les Troyens a Carthage, O., i,
291.
Betby, O., ii, 336.
Bethlehem, Pa., musical center, A.,
229.
Betrug durch Aberglauben, Der,
O., ii, 336.
Bettler von Samarkand, Der, O., ii,
336.
Bettlerin von Pont des Arts, Die,
O., ii, 336.
Betty, O., ii, 336.
Bianca, O., ii, 336.
INDEX
Vll
Bianca e Fernando, O., ii, 336.
Biarritz, O., Ii, 337.
Bible regal, I., 98.
Bijou Perdu, Le, O., ii, 337.
Bijuga cither, I., 99.
Billee Taylor, O., ii, 105.
Billings, William, America's first
composer, A., 291.
original compositions, A., 102,
103.
publications, A., 292.
Binary form, T., 179.
Bion, O., ii, 337.
Bispham, David, E., i, 308.
Biwa, I., 99.
Bizet, Georges, Carmen, O., ii, 17.
portrait, T., 17.
Bizug, I., 99.
Black Crook, The, O., ii, 337.
Black Huzzar, The, O., ii, 183.
Blaise et Babet, O., ii, 337.
Blaise le Savetier, O., ii, 337.
Blanche de Nevers, O., ii, 337.
Bluebeard, O., ii, 337.
Blue-eyed Susan, O., ii, 337.
Boabdil, O., ii, 337.
Boat harp, I., 99.
Boccacio, O., ii, 91.
Boheme, La, O., ii, 239.
Bohemia, composers of, F., 167.
dances of, F., 166.
music of, F., 165, 166.
Bohemian Girl, The, O., i, 207.
Boieldieu, Franeois Adrien.
La Dame Blanche, O., i, 101.
Boito, Arrigo, Mefistofele, O., i, 321.
Bolero, T., 186.
Bombardon, I., 99.
Bondman, The, O., ii, 337.
Bondura, O., ii, 337.
Bon Fils, Le, O., ii, 337.
Bones, I., 100.
Bonhomme Jadis, O., ii, 337.
" Bonnie Blue Flag," A., 122.
Bonsoir, Monsieur Pantalon, O., 'i,
337.
Bonsoir, Voison, O., ii, 337.
Bonya, I., 93, 100.
Boris Godunoff, O., ii, 337.
Boston, as a musical city, A., 1.
Academy of Music, A., 194.
first public concert in, A., 205.
New England Conservatory of
Music, A., 194.
Boston Academy of Music, impor-
tant service rendered by, A.,
21, 26, 193.
organization and plan of, A., 19,
20.
Boston Symphony Orchestra, con-
tains, I., 82.
history of, A., 4, 276.
Bostonians, company of, A., 94.
origin of, A., 93. •
Bouffe et le Taillenr, Le, O., ii, 338.
Bouquet de l'Inf ante, Le, O., ii, 338.
Bouquetiere, La, O., ii, 338.
Bourgeois de Reims, Le, O., ii, 338.
Bourgeois Gentilhomme, Le, O., ii,
338.
Bowed or streich zither, I., 100.
Bowing, violin, E., ii, 31-34.
ponticello, E., ii, 56.
Box fiddle, I., 100.
Boy choir, E., i, 345-351.
Boyarina Vera Sheloga, O., ii, 338.
Brahms, Johannes, O. M., 30.
portrait, T., 49.
The German Requiem, O. M., 199.
The Song of Destiny, O. M., 205.
Brandenburger in Bohmen, Die, O.,
ii, 338.
Brass instruments, A., 334; I., 85,
86 ; T., 271, 272.
Brasseor de Preston, Le, O., ii, 338.
Braut der Gnomen, Die, O., ii, 338.
Brautmarkt zu Hira, Der, O., ii,
338.
Bravo, Le, O., ii, 338.
Breath management, E., i, 252-256.
Bride-elect, The, O., ii, 338.
Bride of Messina, The, O., ii, 338.
Briganti,-I, O., ii, 338.
Briseis. O., ii, 338.
Britannico, O., ii, 339.
Broken chord, E., ii, 54, 55.
Brown, Giles G., Malaysia, F., 43-
51.
Bruch, Max, Arminius, O. M., 217.
Frithjof, O. M., 207.
Odysseus, O. M., 211.
Bruder Lustig, O., ii, 339.
Brull, Ignaz, The Golden Cross,
O., ii, 25.
Bruneau, A., Le Reve, O., ii, 207.
Buccina, I., 100.
Buck, Dudley, A., 168, 295 ; O. M.,
32.
Vlll
INDEX
Budbudiki, I., 101.
Buddha, Der, O., ii, 339.
Bugaku-biwa, I., 101.
Bugle, I., 101.
Bukkehorn, or prillarhorn, I., 101.
Bullard, Frederick F., A., 300.
Buni, I., 101.
Buove d'Antona, II, O., ii, 339.
Burgha, O., ii, 339.
Burmah, musical instruments of:
hnai, I., 141.
khew, I., 151.
khudra katyayana-vina, or sar
mundai, I., 151.
kyee-zee, I., 155.
megyoung, I., 162.
ozee, I., 175.
pat-man, I., 177.
pattala, I., 177.
puloay, I., 199.
sar mundai, I., 206.
soung, I., 214.
than-hwin, I., 223.
thro, or taiau, I., 223.
wahle khoht, I., 248.
ya-gwin, I., 249.
Burmese gong, illus., I., 77.
Byakushi, I., 102.
Cabinet, The, O., ii, 339.
Cabinet organ, I., 102.
Cabrera, La, O., ii, 339.
Caccini, Giulio; O., i, 2.
Cadence, E., ii, 173-175, 273-281,
370-375 ; T., 83, 176, 177.
Cadi Dupe, Le, O., ii, 339.
Caduta de Decemviri, La, O., ii,
339.
Caduta de Giganti, La, O., ii, 339.
Cagliostro, O., ii, 339.
Caid, Le, O., ii, 340.
Cain, O., ii, 340.
Cajo Fabrizio, O., ii, 340.
Cajo Mario, O., ii, 340.
Calascione, I., 102.
Calife de Bagdad, Le, O., ii, 340.
Calliope, I., 102.
Calve, Emma, portrait, O., ii, 17.
Calypoe, O., ii, 340.
Calypso and Telemachus, O., ii, 340.
Camargo, La, O., ii, 340.
Cambreh, I., 103.
Camilla, O., ii, 340.
Campanari, Giuseppe, E., i, 296,
297.
Campanello, II, O., ii, 340.
Canada, folk-songs of, F., 232.
instruments of, F„ 241.
music in Toronto, F., 236-238.
musical development in, F., 233.
musical organizations of, F., 234-
239.
national song of, F., 240.
songs of, F., 231, 232.
Candance, O., ii, 340.
Cane flute, I., 103.
Cane violin, I., 103.
Canon, O. M., 289, 290 ; T., 109, 119-
122, 131, 132, 134, 138.
Cantata, The, E., i, 372, 373 ; O. M.,
34, 35 ; T., 311.
Canterbury Pilgrims, The, O., ii.
340.
Canterina, La, O., ii, 340.
Canto, E., i, 32, 36.
Canzone, T., 141.
Capitaine Fracasse, Le, O., ii, 340.
Capitaine Henriot, Le, O., ii, 340.
Capitan, El, O., ii, 340.
Caprice de Fenime, Un, O., ii, 341.
Captain Therese, O., ii, 341.
Captif, Le, O., ii, 341.
Captive in the Caucasus, The, 0.,
ii, 341.
Capuleti ed i Montecchi, I, O., ii,
341.
Caque du Convent, Le, O., ii, 341.
Caravan du Caire, La, O., ii, 341.
Carey, Henry ; F., 204.
Carillon, I., 103.
Carillonneur de Bruges, Le, O., ii,
341.
Carina, O., ii, 341.
Carissimi, Giacomo, O. M., 15.
Carline, O., ii, 341.
Carlo Broschi, O., ii, 341.
Carmen, O., ii, 17.
Carnaval de Venise, La, O., ii, 341.
Carol, Christmas, E., i, 374.
Carro di Fedelta d'Amore, O., ii,
341.
Cartouche, O., ii, 341.
Caseina, La, O., ii, 341.
Casilda, O., ii, 341.
Casque et les Colonbes, La, O., ii,
341.
INDEX
IX
Castanets, I., 103.
Castle of Andalusia, The, O., ii,
341.
Castle Square Opera Company, A.,
274.
Castles In the Air, O., ii, 341.
Castor and Pollux, O., ii, 341.
Catarina Cornaro, O., ii, 342.
Catherine Gray, O., ii, 342.
Catone in Utica, O., ii, 342.
Cavaco, I., 104.
Cavaliere Errente, II, O., ii, 352.
Cavalieri di Malta, I, O., ii, 342.
Cavalleria Rusticana, O., ii, 203.
Cavalli Pietro Francesco, O., i, 9.
Caverne, La, O., ii, 342.
Cavonto, I., 104.
Cecchina La, sia la Buona Figliu-
ola, O., ii, 342.
Celesta, I., 104.
Celestine, O., ii, 342.
Cembal d'amore, I., 104.
Cendrillon, O., ii, 342.
Cenerentola, La, O., ii, 342.
Cent Vierges, Les, O., ii, 342.
Cephale et Procris, O., ii, 342.
Cervelas, I., 105.
Cesti, Marc Antonio, F., 92.
Ceylonese band, A, illus., F., 43.
Cha-ahio, I., 105.
Chabbabeh, I., 105.
Cha-chiao, I., 105.
Chadwick, G. W., American com-
posers, A., 1-15 (chapter by).
Chadwick, George Whitfield,
achievements of, A., 14, 15.
best works, A., 294.
Rip Van Winkle overture, A.,
14, 15.
Chaises i Porteurs, Les, O., ii, 342.
Chalet, O., ii, 342.
Chalumeau, I., 105.
Chamber music.
appreciation, T., 277-280.
began with T., 278.
graded teachers' guide, E., i, 97.
includes, T., 277.
presented by Mendelssohn quin-
tet club of Boston, A., 282.
Chamber Sonata, T., 197.
Chambre a Coucher, O., ii, 342.
Chambre Gothique, La, O., ii, 342.
Chang-gon, I., 105.
Chanson de Fortunio, La, O., ii, 342.
Chant, E., ii, 363-369.
ambrosian, E., i, 327.
book of chants, A., 164.
development of, T., 15, 93, 97.
double, E., ii, 367-369.
fixed, T., 97.
gregorian, E., i, 327.
single, E., ii, 364-366.
Smedley's collection of, E., i, 327.
Chant de la Cloche, O., ii, 342.
Chanteuse Voilee, La, O., ii, 342.
Chanting, T., 93, 94.
Chapeau au Rio, Le, O., ii, 343.
Chapeau Chinois, I., 105.
Chaperons Blancs, Les, O., ii, 343.
Chapitre Second, Le, O., ii, 343.
Char, Le, O., ii, 343.
Charlatan, The, O., ii, 343.
Charles, II., O., ii, 343.
Charles VI., O., ii, 343.
Charp, I., 106.
Charpentier, Gustave.
Louise, O., ii, 269.
portrait, Musical Biogs., i, 154.
Chassaigne, Francis, Falka, O., ii,
159.
Chat Bott6, La, O., ii, 343.
Chat Perdu, Le, O., ii, 343.
Chateau de La Barbe-Bleue, Le, O.,
ii, 343.
Chatterton, O., ii, 343.
Chebeb or djouwak, I., 106.
Chekara, I., 106.
Chemineau, Le, O., ii, 343.
Cheng, I., 106.
Chercheuse d'Esprit, La, O., ii, 343.
Cherubin, O., ii, 343.
Cherubini, Luigi, T., 150.
Les Deux Journees, O., i, 75.
Mass in A, O. M., 294.
Cheval de Bronze, Le, O., ii, 343.
Chi, I., 106.
Chi Sofre Speri, O., ii, 344.
Chiara di Rosemberg, O., ii, 343.
Chicago, establishment of perma-
nent orchestra, A., 279.
musical festival in, A., 224.
musical institutions, A., 197, 223.
opera in. A., 240.
Chicago Musical College, founded,
A., 197.
Chickering, Jonas, life of, A., 318-
320.
piano, A., 318.
INDEX
Chieftain, The, O., ii, 344.
Chien du Jardinier, Le, O., ii, 344.
Ch'ih, I., 106.
Ch'in, I., 106.
Chiku-no-koto, I., 106.
Child voice, E., i, 266.
Children in the Wood, The, O., ii,
344.
Children of the Plains, The, O., ii,
344.
Chilperic, O., ii, 344.
Ch'in sian, I., 107.
China, Chinese music, F., 17-26 ; I.,
31, 32.
musical instruments of, F., 20-
24, 26.
cheng, I., 106.
ch'ih, I., 106.
ch'in, I., 106.
ch'in sian, I., 107.
chu, I., 107.
dung-ch'en, I., 121.
erh-h'sien, or hu-hu, I., 122.
feng-ling, or wind bells, I., 123.
haio-lo, I., 134.
hao-t'ung, I., 135.
happu, I., 135.
hsiao, I., 142.
hsuan, I., 142.
hu' ch'in, I., 143.
hwangteih, I., 144.
kin, I., 51.
ko-tze, I., 153.
kuan-tzu, I., 155.
lah ch'in, I., 156.
la-pa, cha-chiao, tungeo, I., 156.
lo, su-lo, tang-tze, I., 156.
Io-chu, I., 157.
lo-tseih, I., 157.
minteki, I., 164.
mu-yu, I., 166.
pa-chiao-kou, I., 175.
p-ai-hsiao, I., 175.
pang-ku, I., 176.
phek, I., 177.
piai-pan, I., 178.
pina, I., 189.
po, hsing, seaou-po, I., 198.
po-tu, I., 199.
san-hsien, I., 205.
se, I., 209.
shuang ch'in, I., 212.
shun, I., 212.
so-na, I., 213.
China, musical instruments of :
t'ao-ken, I., 218.
t'e ch'ing, I., 219.
ti-tzu, I., 223.
to, I., 224.
tseng, I., 228.
tsu-ku, I., 228.
ty, I., 230.
wei-shun, I„ 248.
yang-ch'in, I., 250.
ying-ko, I., 251.
yu, I., 251.
yueh, I., 251.
yueh-ch'in, I., 252.
yung-ehung, I., 252.
yung-Io, I., 252.
yu-ti, yu-hsiao, I., 252.
vocal music of, F., 25.
Chinchichi, I., 10.
Chinese Honeymoon, O., ii, 344.
Ching, I., 107.
Chirula, I., 107.
Chitarra bettente, I., 107.
Chitarrone, I., 107.
Chittika, I., 107.
Choir, T., 312, 315.
Bach choir of 'Bethlehem, Pa.,
A., 228.
boy, A., 152, 154, 169 ; E., i, 345-
351.
Episcopal church, E., i, 345-351.
generally adopted, A., 157.
ideal, E., i, 355-356.
Jewish temple, E., i, 354, 355.
leaders of parish choirs, A., 158.
most satisfactory form of, A.,
172.
music sung by early choirs, A.,
161.
quartet, E., i, 351-354.
Roman Catholic church, E., i,
352.
vested, A., 170.
volunteer, E., i, 338-345.
Choir and choral conducting,
books of reference on, E., i,
374.
direction, E., i, 325-327.
director, E., i, 325, 331, 339.
books of reference for, E., i,
374-375.
rehearsal, E., i, 331, 332, 339-344.
boy, E., i, 348-349.
ideal, E., i, 355-357.
INDEX
XI
Choir singer, E., i, 309.
Chopin, Frederic Francois, E., i,
60; T., 287, 288.
portrait, Musical Biogs., i, 218.
Choral music, see chorus and
choral music.
Chords, E., i, 18, 21, 24-26, 37, 56;
E., ii, 52-55, 178-188 195-291 ;
T. 71, 72-88.
attendant, E., ii, 365.
broken, E., ii, 144.
chromatic, E., ii, 327-335.
chromatic-tendency, E., ii, 265-
273.
consonant, E., ii, 180.
diatonic, E., ii, 249-254.
dominant seventh, E., ii, 229, 328,
329, T., 75.
free color E., ii, 335-344.
harmonic, E., ii, 154.
of the seventh, T., 75, 265, 266.
subordinate, E., ii, 238-241.
Chorus, I., 107.
Chorus and Choral Music, E., i,
325-375.
appreciation, T., 308-319.
Canadian, F., 237.
choir, T., 312-315.
choral singing, A., 31, 37.
choral societies, O. M., 5, 7-9.
church cantata, T., 311.
Finnish, F., 182.
hymns, T., 310, 311.
ideal chorus, T., 313, 314.
importance of vocal music, T.,
308, 309.
oratorio, T., 311, 312.
origin of choral music, T., 309,
310.
requirements of good chorus
work, T., 316-319.
requisite elements of a good
chorus, T., 315, 316.
Chotnitchiyerog, I., 107.
Christiania, music in, F., 188, 189.
Christmas, cantatas for, E., i, 373.
carols, E., i, 374.
organ music for, E., i, 400.
Christmas Oratorio, The, O. M., 57.
Christofoli, Signor Bartholemeo,
I., 75.
Christoforo Colombo, O., ii, 344.
Christus, O., ii, 344; O. M., 185.
Christy, Edwin P.; A„ 67.
Christy, George W., A., 67.
Chromatic modulation, T., 87, 88.
notes, E., ii, 254-255.
scale, E., i, 56 ; T., 41, 61.
signs, E., ii, 115.
tendency-chords, E., ii, 265-273.
tones, notation of, E., ii, 256-258.
signs indicating, T., 44.
Chrotta, I., 107.
Chu, I., 107.
Church music, E., i, 326-329.
American, A., 147, 149, 159, 161,
164, 166, 168, 171.
boy choir, E., ii, 345-351.
change in, T., 124, 125.
development of, T., 15, 54, 92, 93,
95, 98.
development of the mass, O. M.,
275-304.
during fourth century, T., 94.
early, F., 76.
edict for forbidding discant in,
T., 111.
Episcopal church choir, E., ii,
345-351.
German, E., i, 363-365.
influence on religious life, T.,
343-345.
Jewish temple choir, E., i, 354-
355.
Latin, E., i, 362.
Roman Catholic church choir,
E., i, 354-355.
Russian, E., i, 362.
Church organist, A., 307, 308; E.,
i, 325.
Church solo, first suggestion of,
A,. 144.
Church sonata, T., 197.
Cid, Le, O., ii, 344.
Cigale, et le Fourmi, La, O., ii,
344.
Cilea, Frangois, Adrienne Lecouv-
reur, O., ii, 305.
Cimarosa, Domenico, II Matri-
monio Segreto, O., i, 71.
Cimarosa, O., ii, 344.
Cincinnati college of music, A., 198.
festival association, A., 191.
Haydn society, A., 221.
symphony orchestra, A., 280.
Cinna, O., ii, 344.
Cinq-Mars, O., ii, 344.
Circassian Bride, The, O., ii, 344.
Xll
INDEX
Circassienne, La, O., ii, 344.
Circe, O., 18.
Circe ed Ulisse, O., ii, 344.
Circus Girl, The, O., ii, 344.
Ciro in Babilonia, O., ii, 345.
Ciro Riconosciuto, O., ii, 345.
Cithara, I., 108.
Cither, I., 108.
Cittern, I., 108.
Civil War (U. S.), influence of
music upon soldiers during,
T., 343.
songs of, A,. 116-127, 130, 131.
Clandestine Marriage, The, O., i,
71.
Clappers, I., 108.
Clari, The Maid of Milan, O., ii,
345.
Clarinet, I., 108.
Classical music, forms of, T., 221.
meaning of term, F., 144 ; T., 221.
Classical overture, T., 225.
Claude Duval, or Love and Lar-
ceny, O., ii, 345.
Claudine, O., ii, 345.
Claudine von Villabella, O., ii, 345.
Claudius Casar, O., ii, 345.
Clavicembalo verticale, I., 111.
Clavichord, E., i, 71; ii, 94-97; I.,
74, 109.
Clavictherium, I., 110.
Clavier, I., 111.
Claviharp, I., 111.
Cle d'Or, La, O., ii, 345.
Clefs, E., ii, 112 ; T., 36, 37.
Clementi, Muzio, founder of our
brilliant modern style of
piano playing, T., 8.
Gradus ad Parnassum, E., i, 65.
Clemenza de Tito, La, O., ii, 345.
Cleofide, O., ii, 345.
Cleopatra, O., ii, 345.
Clochette, La, O., ii, 345.
Coda, T., 164-170.
Cohan, George M., contributions to
popular music, A., 97.
Col legno, E., ii, 56.
Colangee, I., 111.
Coleridge-Taylor, Samuel; A., 59;
O. M., 32.
College, see Music in College.
glee club, T., 337-338.
Colomba, O., ii, 345.
Colombe, La, O., ii, 345.
Colon, El, O., ii, 345.
Colonie, La, O., ii, 345.
Colonello, II, O., ii, 345.
Color, notation of, E., ii, 155, 156.
in a single tone, E., ii, 153.
in combinations of tone, E., ii,
154.
Colporteur. Le ; ou, L'Enfant du
Bucheron, O., ii, 345.
"Columbia," A., 106.
" Columbia, the Gem of the Ocean,"
A., 115.
Comma, Pythagorean, T., 41.
Composers of music, American, A.,
1-15, 291-303.
Bohemian, A., 166, 167.
Danish, F., 177.
English, F., 197-199.
Finnish, F., 181.
French, F., 129-134.
German, F., 117-124.
Hungarian, F., 161.
Irish, F., 215.
Italian, F., 90-98.
Polish, F., 167-168.
Russian, F., 138-150.
Spanish, F., 246, 247.
Comte de Carmagnole, Le, O., ii,
346.
Comte Ory, Le, O., ii, 346.
Concert, concert life of the Ameri-
can colonies, A., 207.
first announcement of a public
concert in America, A., 205.
free, T., 335-37.
growth of concert life in Ameri-
ca, A., 213.
sacred concert, A., 211.
Concert a la Cour, Le, ou La Deb-
utante, O., ii, 346.
Concert Interrompu, Le, O., ii, 346.
Concert singer's career, The, E., i,
305.
viols, E., ii, 86-88.
Concerts and Oratorios, A., 205-230.
Concertina, I., 111.
Concertos, E., i, 384.
Conch-shell trumpet, I., 111.
Condor, O., ii, 346.
Conductor, E., i, 331, 334.
Confidences, Les, O., ii, 346.
Conn, Charles G. ; A., 334.
Connetable de Clisson. Le, O., ii,
346.
INDEX
xm
Conradin v. Schwaben, O., ii, 346.
Conservatories of Music, American,
A., 194-199.
Hungarian conservatory, F., 161.
Paris conservatoire, F., 134.
Consonance of intervals, T., 68.
Constantine, T., 93.
Constahza e Fortezza, O., ii, 346.
" Constitution and Guerriere," A.,
129.
Consueio, O., ii, 346.
Conte d'Avril, O., ii, 346.
Contes d'Hoffmann, Les, O., ii, 121.
Contessa d' Amain, La, O., ii, 346.
Contrabandista, O., ii, 346.
Contrabass, double bass, I., 112.
viol, I., 113.
Contrabassoon, I., 113.
Contralto, E., i. 320.
Contrapuntal, E., i, 327.
Contrast, E., i, 268, 278-280.
Converse, Frederick Shepard, life
and compositions, A., 10-12,
297.
Convito, II, O., ii, 346.
CoppGlia, ou La Fille aux Yeux d'
Email, O., ii, 346.
Cor Anglais, I., 113.
Cor de chassee, huehet, I., 114.
Cor omnitonique, I., 115.
Cora, O., ii, 346.
Cordelia, O., ii, 346.
Coriolano, O., ii, 346.
Corisandre, O., ii, 346.
Cornelius, Peter, Der Barbier von
Bagdad, O., i, 267.
Cornelius Schutt, O., ii, 347.
Cornepype, I., 114.
Cornet; I., 114.
a bouquin, I., 115.
-trompe, I., 115.
Cornetto curvo, I., 115.
diritto, I., 115.
muto, I., 115.
torto, I., 115.
Cornicyll, I., 115.
Corno di bassetto, I., 115.
torto, I., 115.
Cornopean, I., 115.
Cornu, I., 115.
Corona, La, O., ii, 347.
Corrado d'Altamura, O., ii, 347.
Corregidor, Der, O., ii, 347.
Corsaro, II, O., ii, 347.
Cosaque, La, O., ii, 347.
Cosi fan Tutte, O., ii, 347.
Cosimo, O., ii, 347.
Cotton, Rev. John, issued a treat-
ise on the singing of the
psalms, A., 143, 144.
Counterpoint, T., 91-132.
canon, T., 109, 119-122.
definition of, T., 130.
first appearance of, T., 60.
free, E., 327.
imitation, T., 119, 120.
plain, T., 132.
science of, F., 129.
simple and double, T., 130.
triple and quadruple, T., 131.
Counter-subject, T., 157-159.
definition of, T., 157.
second counter-subject, T., 158.
subject and counter-subject, T.,
157.
Coupfi du Eoi de Thul6, La, O., ii,
347.
Cour de CSliinene, La, O., ii, 347.
Courante, T., 183.
Court Theatre, Weimar, frontis-
piece, T.
Courte fichelle, La, O., ii, 347.
Covent Garden Theatre, London,
frontispiece, O. M.
Cox and Box, O., ii, 347.
Creation, The, O. M., 119. ,
Credo, O. M., 303.
Creole, La, O., ii, 347.
Crescendo, E., i, 335.
Cricket on the Hearth, The, O., ii,
348.
Crispino, O., 1, 247.
Critics, musical, A., 303-307.
Crociato in Egitto, II, O., ii, 348.
Croesus, O., ii, 348.
Cromhorn, I., 116.
Cross and the Crescent, The, O., ii,
348.
Crowd, I., 116.
Crown Diamonds, The, O., ii, 348.
Cruehe Cassee, La, O., ii, 348.
Cruit, I., 116.
Crusaders, influence upon music,
T., 105.
Crusaders, The (cantata), O. M.,
189.
(opera), O., ii, 348.
Crwth, crowd, chrotta, I., 116.
XIV
INDEX
Cuckoo, I., 116.
" Cumberland's Crew, The," A., 130.
Cupid's Revenge, O., ii, 348.
Curioso Indiseretto, II, O., ii, 348.
Cymbals, I., 51, 116.
Cymbia, or The Magic Thimble, O.,
ii, 348.
Cymon, O. ii, 348.
Cyrus und Kassandra, O., ii, 348.
Cythere Assiegee, O., ii, 348.
Czar and the Carpenter, The, O., i,
179.
Czar und Zimmermann, O., i, 179.
D
Dabbous, I., 117.
Da-daiko, I., 117.
Daff, I., 118.
Dafne, O., ii, 348.
Daghlian, Arshag T., Turkey, F.,
59-64.
Dahareh, I., 118.
Dairi, I., 118.
Daldyoshi, I., 118.
Dalibor, O., ii, 348.
Daluka, I., 118.
Dalway harp, illus., I., 137.
Damam, I., 118.
Dame Blanche, La, O., i, 101.
Dame de Monsoreau, La, O., ii, 348.
Dame de Pique, La, O., ii, 349.
Dame du Lac, La, 6., ii, 349.
Dame Invisible, Le, O., ii, 349.
Damnation of Faust, The, O., ii,
349; O. M., 161.
Damon and Phillida, O., ii, 349.
Damrosch, Frank, Music in the
Public Schools, A., 17-37.
Leopold; A., 220, 221, 242.
Danaides, Les, O., ii, 349.
Dance, Bohemian, F., 166.
German, F., 111.
Hungarian, F., 159, 160.
Irish, F., 214.
Italian, F., 86-90.
Polish, F., 166, 168.
Scandinavian, F., 174.
social importance in history of
civilization, T., 234, 235.
Swedish, F., 183.
music, T„ 181-191.
Dante Le, O., ii, 349.
Daphne, O., ii, 349.
Daphnis et Alcimadure, O., ii, 349.
Dardanus, O., ii, 349.
Daraboukkeh, I., 118.
Das War Ich, O., ii, 349.
Daughter of St. Mark, The, O., ii,
349.
Daughter of the Regiment, The, O.,
i, 183.
David, Ferdinand, E., ii, 7.
Davidharfe, I., 118.
Dayere, or dahareh, I., 118.
De Koven, Reginald; A., 95.
Robin Hood, O., ii, 199.
Dea, O., ii, 349.
Debussy, Claude.
Pelleas et Melisande, O., ii, 283.
Defender^ The, O., ii, 349.
Deff, I., 119.
Degree, E., ii, 111.
Deidamia, O., ii, 349.
Delibes, Leo, Lakme, O., ii, 155.
Delila, O., ii, 349.
Delire, ou Les Suites d'Une Erreur,
Le, O., ii, 349.
Demente, La, O., ii, 350.
Demetrio, O., ii, 350.
Demofoonte, O., ii, 350.
Demoiselle d'Honneur, La, O., ii,
350.
Demon, The, O., ii, 13.
Demon de la Nuit, Le, O., ii, 350.
Demonio, II, O., ii, 13.
Demophon, O., ii, 350.
Den-den-daiko, I., 119.
Denmark, art-music of, F., 178.
composers of, F., 177.
folk-music of, F., 176.
Denys le Tyran Maitre d'ficole il
Corinthe, O., ii, 350.
Depres, Josquin, Flemish composer,
T., 123, 139, 140.
Der Tod Jesu, O. M., 115.
Dervish drum, I., 119.
Deseret, O., ii, 350.
Deserteur, Le, O., ii, 350.
Dessane, Antoine ; F., 233.
Dessus, I., 119.
Deutsche Liederkranz, New York
city, A., 229.
Deux Averes, Les, O., ii, 350.
Deux Billets, Les, O., ii, 350.
Deux Families, Les, O., ii, 350.
Deux Gentilhommes, Les, O., ii,
350.
INDEX
XV
Deux Journfies, Les, O., i, 75.
Deux Maris, Les, O., ii, 350.
Deux Nuits, Les, O., ii, 350.
Deux Reiues, Les, O., ii, 350.
Deux Salem, Les, O., ii, 350.
Deux Sergents, Les, O., ii, 350.
Deux Soeurs Jumelles, Les, O., ii,
350.
Deux Suisses, Les, O., ii, 350.
Deux Voleurs, Les, O., ii, 351.
Development of mass, O. M., 215-
304.
musical instruments, I., 31-88.
oratorio, O. M., 11-35.
orchestra, I., 9-30.
pianoforte technic, T., 7-13.
the opera, O., i, 15-40.
Devil's Bridge, The, O., ii, 351.
Devil's in It, The, O., ii, 351.
Devin du Village, Le, O., ii, 351.
Dhola, I., 119.
Dholaka, I., 119.
Diable a l'ricole, Le, O., ii, 351.
Diable a Quatre, Le, O., ii, 351.
Diable a Seville, Le, O., ii, 351.
Diadeste, O., ii, 351.
Diana and Endymion, O., ii, 351.
Diana von Solange, O., ii, 351.
Diaphony, T., 58.
Diarmid, O., ii, 351.
Diatonic chord, E., ii, 249-254.
harmony, freedom in, E., ii, 315-
322.
scale, T., 41.
Diavole a Quattro, II, O., ii, 351.
Dibdin, Charles ; A., 101 ; F., 205.
Dichter und Welt, O., ii, 351.
Dick, O., ii, 351.
Dickshadel, Die, O., ii, 352.
Dickinson, Edward, Oratorio Per-
formance in Europe and
America, O. M., 1-10.
Diction, E., i, 282, 283.
Dido and ^Eneas, O., ii, 352.
Didone Abbandonata, O., ii, 352.
Dies Iras, O. M., 300.
Dieu et la Bayadere, Le, O., ii, 352.
Dieux de la Foire, Les, O., ii, 352.
Differo, I., 119.
Dilettante d'Avigon, Le, O., ii, 352.
Diminished seventh chord, E., ii,
328, 239, 330.
triad, E., ii, 181.
Diminuendo, E., i, 335.
Dimplipito, or nagare, I., 119.
Dinorah, O., ii, 352.
Discant, edict forbidding discant in
church music, T., 111.
supra librum, T., 113, 114.
Disgrazie d'Amore, Le, O., ii, 352.
Disperazione di Filene, La, O., ii,
352.
Dissonance of chords, T„ 79, 80.
of intervals, T., 68, 84.
returning, T., 80.
Dissonant chord, E., ii, 180, 228-235.
Distruzzione di Gerusalemme, La,
O., ii, 352.
Dital harp, I, 119.
Ditson, Oliver, music pub., A., 340.
"Dixie," A., 123.
Dixon, George Washington, pioneer
of American minstrelsy, A.,
66.
Djamileh, O., ii, 352.
Djouwak, I., 119.
Dobachi, I., 120.
Do byoshi, I., 120.
Docteur Magnus, Le, O., ii, 352.
Docteur Ox, Le, O., ii, 352.
Docteur Tamtam, Le, O., ii, 352.
Doctor of Alcantara, The, O., ii,
352
Dohol, I.,' 120.
Doktar und Apotheker, Der, O., ii,
352.
Dolly Dollars, Miss, O., ii, 353.
Dolly Varden, O., ii, 353.
Dolmetsch, Arnold ; E., ii, 71-106.
Dolores, La, O., ii, 353.
Dombeg, I., 120.
Double flat, E., ii, 115.
Dominant ninth chord, E., ii, 229.
seventh, E., i, 25, 27; T., 75.
seventh chord, E., ii, 229, 328,
329.
Double sharp, E., ii, 115.
Domino Noir, Le, O., ii, 353.
Don Bucefalo, O., ii, 353.
Don Carlos, O., ii, 353.
Don CSsar de Bazan, O., ii, 353.
Don Chisotte, O., ii, 353.
Don Giovanni, O., i, 63.
Don Juan, O., i, 63.
Don Pasquale, O., i, 203.
Don Quixote, O., ii, 353.
Don Sebastien, Roi de Portugal,
O., ii, 353.
XVI
INDEX
Donalda, Pauline, F., 240.
Donizetti, Gaetano.
Don Pasquale, O., i, 203.
La Favorita, O., i, 187.
La Fille du Regiment, O., i, 183.
L'Elisir d' Amour, O., i, 137.
Linda di Chamouni, O., i, 191.
Lucia di Lammermoor, O., i, 161.
Lucrezia Borgia, 6., i, 149.
Donna del Lago, La, O., ii, 353.
Doralice, O., ii, 353.
Dorf lm Geblrge, Das, O., ii, 353.
Dorfbarbier, Der, O., ii, 353.
Dorflunys, Der, O., ii, 354.
Dorfmusikanten, Die, O., ii, 354.
Dori, La, O., ii, 354.
Doriclea, O., ii, 354.
Dorinda, O., ii, 354.
Doris, O., ii, 354.
Dorje, I., 120.
Dormeur Eveille, Le, O., ii, 354.
Dornroschen, O., ii, 354.
Dorothy, O., ii, 354.
Dbsa, I., 120.
Dosho, I., 120.
Dot de Suzette, La, O., ii, 354.
Doteku, I., 120.
Double bass, I., 120.
Double Escbelle, La, O., ii, 354.
Dov § Amore Pieta, O., ii, 354.
Dowland, John, English composer,
F., 199.
Dragon flute, I., 120.
Dragon of Wantley, The, O., 11,
355.
Dragons de Yillars, Les, O., ii, 354.
Dramatic soprano, E., i, 320.
tenor, E., i, 321.
Drame en 1779, Un, O., ii, 355.
Drapier, Le, O., ii, 355.
Dream of Gerontius, The, O. M.,
253.
Drei Pintos, Die, O., ii, 355.
Drilbu, or'jflorje, I., 120.
Drot og ItfjsLrsk, O., ii, 355.
Drum, among the tribes of Africa,
T., 3$0, 341.
Indian, A,, 44.
negro, A., 50.
of Central Africa, F., 10.
of the Aztecs, F., 6.
origin of, I.,. 43, 53, 54.
side, I., 212. \
tenor, I., 222.
Dubois, Clement Francois Theo-
dore ; E., 1, 390.
Dubrowski, O., ii, 355.
Due d'Albe, Le, O., ii, 355.
Due d'Olonne, Le, O., ii, 355.
Dudelsackpfeifer Svanda, Der, O.,
ii, 355.
Duduk, I., 120.
Duduki, I., 120.
Due Contesse, I, O., 11, 355.
Due Foscari, I, O., ii, 355.
Due Gemelli, I, O., ii, 355.
Due Illustri Rivali, I, O., il, 355.
Duenna, O., ii, 355.
Duet, singing of, A., 165.
Dufay, Guillaume, French compos-
er, T., 119.
Duff, I., 121.
Dukas, Paul, Ariana et Barbe-
Bleue, O., ii, 319.
Dulcimer, I., 73,- 121.
Dung-ch'en, I., 121.
Dunstable, John, English contra-
puntist, T., 117, 118.
Duplex horn, I., 121.
Duration, E., ii, 109.
notation of, E., ii, 133, 134-150.
Diirer in Venedig, O., ii, 355.
Dustan, Saint, F., 195.
Dvorak, Antonin; F., 167; O. M.,
30.
portrait, Musical Biog., 1, 272.
The Spectre's Bride, O. M., 231.
The Stabat Mater, O. M., 355.
Dwe Vdovy, O., ii, 355.
Dwight, John S., American music-
al critic, A., 303.
Dwight, Timothy, writer of patri-
otic songs, A., 106.
Dynamics, exercises in notation of,
E., ii, 152.
general, E., ii, 150.
£
Earl and the Girl, The, O., ii, 356.
Easter, organ compositions for, E„
i, 399.
Eastern Europe, F., 151-169.
Eau Marveilleuse, L\ O., Ii, 382.
Ebreo, L', O., ii, 382.
Echelite, I., 121.
Echo et Narcisse, O., ii, 356.
Eclair, L', O., Ii, 382.
INDEX
xvn
£cole de la Junesse, ou Le Barne-
velt Francois, O., ii, 383.
ficossais de Chatou, L', O., Ii, 383.
Eddy, Hiram Clarence, celebrated
American organist, A., 308.
Eddystone, O., ii, 356.
Edgar, O., ii, 356.
Edison, Thomas A.; A., 337.
Eduardo e Christina, O., ii, 356.
Education, musical, A., 173-203.
in music, definition of, E., i, 19.
outline of, E., i, 54-68.
Education Manquee, O., ii, 383.
Edwin and Angelina, or The Ban-
ditti, O., ii, 356.
Egmont, O., ii, 356.
Egypt, first lyre, I., 44.
knowledge of music in, I., 46.
names of musical instruments:
arghool, I., 92.
bent, I., 98.
buni, I., 101.
dervish drum, I., 119.
gingrai, I., 129.
lute, I., 157.
lyre, I., 159.
magadis, I., 161.
mamm, I., 161.
marouvane, I., 162.
nanga, I., 167.
norfe, I., 170.
sa fa fir, I., 204.
sebi, seba, subi, I., 209.
sistrum, I., 213.
zummarah, I., 254.
Eherne Pferd, Das, O., ii, 356.
Ein Feldlager in Schlesien, O., if,
356.
Ein' Feste Burg, O. M., 45.
Eine Nacht in Venedig, O., Ii, 356.
Eisteddfod, the Welsh, F., 227, 228.
Eka-tara, I., 121.
Ekirei, I., 121.
Ekkehard, the Monk, O., ii, 356.
Elaine, O., ii, 356.
Electra, O., ii, 356.
Eleke, I., 122.
Elements, Les, O., il, 357.
Elena and Malvina, O., ii, 357.
Eleonora, O., ii, 357.
Elgar, 8ir Edward ; O. M., 31, 32.
The Apostles, O. M., 261.
The Dream of Gerontius, O. M.,
352.
Elgar, Sir Edward.
The Kingdom, O. M„ 269.
portrait, O. M., 253.
Elijah, O. M., 153.
El oud, I., 122.
Elipsis, E., ii, 335-344.
Elise and Claudio, O., 11, 357.
Elisa, ou Le Voyage au Mont Ber-
nard, O., ii, 357.
Elisir d' Amour, L', O., 1, 137.
Eliza, O., ii, 357.
Elson, Louis C. ; A., 305.
Elvyn, Myrtle, American pianist,
A., 309.
Emerald Isle, The, or The Caves of
Carrig Cleena, O., ii, 357.
Emma d'Antiochia, O., ii, 357.
Emma, ou La Promesse Impru-
dente, O., ii, 357.
Emmeline, die Schweizerfamllie,
O., ii, 357.
Emerich Fortunat, O., Ii, 357.
Emmett, Daniel D., author of
"Dixie's Land," A., 123.
Enchanted Castle, The, O., Ii, 357.
Enchanteresse, O., ii, 357.
Enchantress, The, O., ii, 357.
Enfant Prodigue, L', O., ii, 383.
Enfant, Roi, L', O., ii, 383.
England, ballads of, F., 207.
composers of, F., 197-199, 202,
204, 207.
early singers and minstrels of,
F., 194.
first music heard in, F., 193.
The glee is essentially English,
F., 204.
instruments of, F., 194.
musical development in, F., 196,
200-204.
names of musical instruments,
concertina, I., 111.
crwth, crowd, chrotta, I., 116.
kit, I., 152.
stone harmonica, I., 215.
national song of, F., 204.
sea songs of, F., 205.
English, Thomas Dunn, author of
words of " Ben Bolt," A., 78.
English Fleet, The, O., ii, 357.
English guitar, I., 122.
Enna, August, Danish composer, F.,
178.
Enrico, O., ii, 357.
xvm
INDEX
Enrico Clifford, O., ii, 357.
Enrico Conte di Borgogna, O., ii,
357.
Enrico Quarto al Passo Delia
Marna, O., ii, 357.
Enunciation, in chorus work, T.,
318.
in solo singing, T., 323, 324.
E'oud, I., 122.
Episcopal church, see Church mu-
sic.
Episode, as a part of exposition, T.,
161.
consists of, T., 136, 137.
fugue-episode, T., 159, 169.
Epreuve Villageoise, V, O., ii, 383.
E'raqyeh, I., 122.
Erbe von Morley, Der, O., ii, 357.
Ercole Amante, O., ii, 357.
Erh-h'sien, or hu-hu, I., 122.
Erismena, O., ii, 358.
Erl King, E., i, 317.
Erminia Sul Giordano, O., ii, 358.
Erminie, O., ii, 179.
Ernani, O., i, 211.
Ernelinde, O., ii, 358.
Ero e Leander, O., ii, 358.
Eroica, Beethoven, I., 17.
Erostrate, O., ii, 358.
Errore Amoroso, L., O., ii, 384.
Ersehaffena, Gefallene, und Aufge-
richtete Mensch, Der, O., ii,
358.
Erwin und Elmire, O., ii, 358.
Es War Einmal, O., ii, 358.
Esclarmonde, O., ii, 358.
Esclave, L', O., ii, .384.
Esclave du Camoens, L', O., ii, 384.
Esmeralda, O., ii, 358.
Esrar, I., 122.
Essenes, E., i, 326.
Esterhazy, Nicholas, patron of mu-
sical art, F., 160.
Estey organ, A., 327.
Esuli di Roma, L', O., ii, 384.
E'suzu, I., 122.
Stienne Marcel, O., ii, 358.
iStoile, L', O., ii, 384.
fitoile de Seville, L', O., ii, 384.
fitoile du Nord, L', O., ii, 384.
stranger, I/, O., ii, 384.
Eugen Onegin, O., ii, 71.
Eulen Spiegel, O., ii, 358.
Eumene, O., ii, 358.
Euphonium, I., 122.
Euphrosine et Coradin, ou Le Ty-
ran Corrige, O., ii, 358.
Europe.
Eastern Europe, F., 151-169.
Bohemia, F., 165-167.
Gypsies, F., 152-157.
Hungary, F., 157-161.
Poland, F., 165-169.
Roumania, F., 162-164.
Servia, F., 164, 165.
musical instruments of:
accordion, I., 89.
seolian harp, I., 89.
selodion, I., 90.
Alpine horn, I., 90.
althorn, I., 90.
Apollo lyra, I., 91.
archimandora, I., 91.
archlute, I., 91.
barrel organ, I., 93.
baryton, viola di bordone, I.,
94.
bass drum, I., 95.
bass horn, I., 96.
basset horn, I., 96.
bassoon, I., 96.
bible regal, I., 98.
bijuga cither, I., 99.
bombardon, I., 99.
bones, I., 100.
bowea zither, I., 100.
bugle, I., 101.
bukkehorn, I., 101.
cabinet organ, I., 102.
cane flute, I., 103.
cane violin, I., 103.
cavaco, I., 104.
celesta, I., 104.
cembal d'amore, I., 104.
chalumeau, I., 105.
chirula, I., 107.
chitarrone, I., 107.
cither, I., 108.
clarinet, I., 108.
clavichord, I., 109.
clavictherium, I., 110.
contrabass, double bass, I., 112.
contrabassoon, I., 113.
cor Anglais, I., 114.
cornet a bouquin, I., 115.
cornet trompe, I., 115.
cornetto curvo, I., 115.
cornetto diritto, I., 115.
INDEX
xix
Europe, musical instruments of:
cornetto torto, I., 115.
cornopean, I., 115.
cor omnitonique, I., 115.
cuckoo, I., 116.
cymbals, I., 116.
dessus, I., 119.
differo, I., 119.
dulcimer, I., 121.
duplex horn, I., 121.
euphonium, I., 122.
Fagottino, I., 122.
fife, I., 123.
flageolet, I., 123.
flugelhorn, I., 124.
flute, I., 124.
flute a bee, I., 125.
flute d'amour, I., 125.
flute harmonique, I., 125.
flute polyphonique, I., 126.
folding or traveler's violin, I.,
126.
French horn, I., 126.
geige, I., 128.
glass harmonica, I., 129.
glassichord, I., 130.
glockenspiel, I., 130.
guitar, I., 132.
hand horn, I., 134.
harmonicor, I., 135.
harmoniphon, I., 135.
harmonitrompe, I., 136.
harmonium, I., 136.
harp, I., 137.
harp-lute, I., 138.
' harpsichord, I., 138.
hecklephone, I., 140.
helicon, I., 140.
hooked harp, I., 142.
hurdy gurdy, I., 143.
invention horn, I., 145.
jester's flute, I., 146.
Jew's harp, I., 146.
kettle drum, I., 150.
krumhorn, I., 154.
loffelgeige, I., 157.
mandola, I., 161.
mandolin, I., 161.
melophone, I., 163.
mouth harmonica, I., 165.
musette, I., 166.
nail violin, I., 167.
oboe, I., 170.
oboe da caccia, I., 171.
Europe, musical instruments of:
oboe d'amore, I., 171.
ocarina, I., 171.
octave spinet, I., 178.
oliphant horn, I., 172.
onion flute, or flute eunnuque,
I., 172.
ophicleide, I., 173.
orchestrina di camera, I., 173.
organo-piano, I., 174.
orphica, I., 174.
pan bomba, I., 175.
pandeiro, I., 175.
pandore, bandola, bandore, I.,
176.
pandurina, I., 176.
philomele, I., 177.
pianoforte, I., 178.
pipe, I., 189.
pipe organ, I., 189.
pochette d'amour, I., 198.
pommer, I., 198.
psaltery, I., 199.
quinton, or par dessus, I., 199.
rebec, I., 200.
recorder, I., 200.
regal, I., 202.
rocking melodeon, I., 202.
rufhorn, I., 203.
sackbut, I., 204.
sarrusophone, I., 206.
sax horn, I., 207.
saxophone, I., 207.
schliisselfidel, I., 208.
seraphine, I., 210.
serpent, I., 210.
shawm, I., 211.
side drum, I., 212.
sonorophone, I., 214.
tabor, I., 216.
tambour de Provence, I., 217.
tamburello, I., 218.
tanbour, I., 218.
tanbourica, I., 218.
tenoroon, I., 222.
terzuia, I., 222.
theorbo, I., 223.
torbane, I., 224.
trapezoid, or box fiddle, I., 224.
triangle, I., 225.
tromba marina, I., 225.
trombone, I., 226.
trumpet, I., 227.
tuba, I., 229.
XX
INDEX
Europe, musical instruments of:
viol, I., 231.
viola, I., 232.
viola, bartarda, lyra viol, I.,
233.
viola da braccio, I., 233.
viola da gamba, I., 233.
viola d'amour, I., 234.
viola da spalla, I., 235.
viola pomposa, I., 235.
viola-zither, I., 235.
violin, I., 235.
violin horn, I., 244.
violoncello, or bass viol, I., 245.
violone, I., 246.
violone, contrabass viol, I.,
246.
virginal; I., 246.
waldhorn, I., 248.
wurst fagott, I., 248.
xylophone, strohfidel, echel-
ette, I., 249.
Zinken, or cornet a bouquin, I.,
253.
zither, I., 253.
oratorio performance in, O. M.,
1-10.
Europe Galante, O., ii, 358.
Euryanthe, O., i, 97.
Eurydice, F., 91 ; O., i, 2, 4, 15-17 ;
ii, 358.
Evangelimann, Der, O., ii, 358.
Evelina, O., ii, 358.
Evenements Imprevus, Les, O., ii,
358.
Ewige Feuer, Das, O., ii, 359.
Execution, E., i, 267.
three forms of, E., i, 281.
Exposition, T., 160-163.
as a whole, T., 160.
counter, or second exposition,
T., 162.
order of, T., 161, 162.
Expression, marks of, E., i, 38.
Ezio, O., ii, 359.
Fabler, Die, O., ii, 359.
Faelton, Carl ; E., i, 105-122.
Reinhold; E., i, 113.
system of fundamental training
in pianoforte, E., i, 108-122.
Faggeishah, I., 122.
Fagott, I., 122.
Fagottino, I., 122.
Fagotto, I., 122.
Fahrende Schiiler, Der, O., ii, 359.
Fair Oo-ed, The, O., ii, 359.
Fair Rosamund, O., ii, 359.
Fairy Queen, The, O., ii, 359.
Falka, O., ii, 159.
Falkner's Braut, Des, O., ii, 359.
Falstaff, O., ii, 217.
Falten, Richard, Finnish composer,
F., 181.
Fanal, Le, O., ii, 359.
Fanatico per gli Antichi Roman!,
II, O., ii, 359.
Fanchon, the Zither Girl, O., ii, 359.
Fantasia, T., 226.
Fantasio, O., ii, 359.
Faramondo, O., ii, 359.
Farfadent, Le, O., ii, 360.
Farinelli, O., ii, 360.
Farnese, O., ii, 360.
Fassbinder, Der, O., ii, 360.
Fatinitza, O., ii, 29.
Faublas, O., ii, 360.
Faule Hans, Der, O., ii, 360.
Fausse Adventurifire, La, O., ii, 360.
Fausse Magie, La, O., ii, 360.
Faust, music by Charles Gounod,
O., i, 279.
music by L. Spohr, O., ii, 360.
Fauvette, O., ii, 360.
Faux Lord, Le, O., ii, 360.
Favorita, La, O., i, 187.
Favorito, II, O., ii, 360.
Fedora, O., ii, 247.
Fee Aux Roses, La, O., ii. 360.
Fee Urgele, La, O., ii, 360.
Feen, Die, O., ii, 360.
Felicie, O., ii, 361.
Fglix et Lfionore, O., ii, 361.
Felix, ou PEnfant Trouve, O., ii,
361.
Felsenmiihle zu Etatieres, Die, O.,
ii, 361.
Femmes Vengies, O., ii, 361.
Fencing Master, The, O., ii, 361.
Feng-ling, or wind bells, I., 123.
Feramors, O., ii, 361.
Fernand Cortez, ou La Conquete
du Mexique, O., ii, 361.
Fernando, O., ii, 361.
Fervaal, O., ii, 361.
Festa d'Imenei, La, O., ii, 361.
Feste Galante, La, O., ii, 361.
Festival, see Musical Festival.
INDEX
xxi
Fete du Village Voisin, La, O., il,
361.
Fetes de 1' Amour et de Bacchus,
O., ii, 361.
F6tes de V&.6, Les, O., ii, 361.
F6tes d'HSbg, Les, O., ii, 361.
Fetich drums, I., 123.
Fetonte, O., ii, 361.
Feuersnot, O., ii, 299.
Fianc6e, La, O., ii, 362.
Fiancfie de Corinth, La, O., ii, 362.
Fiancee du Diable, La, O., ii, 362.
Fiddle, trapezoid or box, I., 224.
Fidele Bauer, Der, O., ii, 362.
Fidele Berger, Le, O., ii, 362.
Fidelio, O., i, 79.
Field trumpet, I., 123.
Fiends von Salamanka, Die, O., ii,
362.
Fierabras, O., ii, 362.
Fife, I., 123.
Figlia dell Aria, O., ii, 362.
Figlinol Prodigo, II, O., ii, 362.
Filibustier, Le, O., ii, 362.
Fille de Madame Angot, La, O.,
i, 339.
Fille du Regiment, La, O., i, 183.
Filisofo di Campagna, II, O., ii,
362.
Fils du Mandarin, Le, O., ii, 362.
Fils du Prince, Le, O., ii, 362.
Finck, Henry Theophilus; A., 304.
Fingering, piano, E., i. 54-56.
violin, E., ii, 5, 50-58.
Finger-movements, slow, moderate
and quick, E., i, 148-158.
theory of, E., i, 142-148.
Finkelstein, Henry C, Persia, F.,
53-58.
Finland, choral singing in, F., 182.
composers of, F., 181.
folk-songs of, F., 180.
kantele, I., 148.
national songs of, F., 180.
Finta Giardiniera, La, O., ii, 362.
Finta Parigina, La, O., ii, 362.
Finta Pazza, La, O., ii, 362.
Finta Semplice, La, O., ii, 362.
Finte Gemelle, Le, O., ii, 362.
Fior d'Alpe, O., ii, 362.
Fiorella, O., ii, 362.
First Walpurgis Night, The, O. M.,
147.
Fisk University, A., 60.
Fiske Jubilee Singers, illus., A., 65.
Flageolet, I., 123.
Flaminio, II, O., ii, 363.
Flaminius a Corinthe, O., ii, 363.
Flat, E., ii, 115 ; T., 41-44.
Flauto Solo, O., ii, 363.
Flavio, O., ii, 363.
Flayera, I, 124.
Fledermaus, Die, O., ii, 9.
Fleur de Th6, O., ii, 363.
Fliegende Hollander, Der, O., i, 199.
Flitch of Bacon, The, O., ii, 363.
Flora Mirabilis, O., ii, 363.
Flora, or Hob in the Well, O., ii,
363.
Florence, beginning of opera in, F.
90.
Florestan, ou Le Conseil de Dix,
O., ii, 363.
Floridante, O., ii, 363.
Florinda, O., ii, 363.
Florodora, O., ii, 261.
Flotow, Friedrich von.
Martha, O., i, 229.
Stradella, O., i, 215.
Fliichtling, Der, O., ii, 363.
Fliigelhorn, I., 124.
Flute, I., 124.
cane, I., 103.
fundamental principle of, I., 56.
history of, I., 57, 58.
Flute a bee, I., 125.
Flute d'amour, I., 125.
Flute douce, I., 125.
Flute eunnuque, I., 125.
Flute harmonique, I., 125.
Flute polyphonique, I., 126.
Flying Dutchman, I., 21 ; O., i, 199.
Fohe, Une, O., ii, 363.
Folding or traveler's violin, I., 126.
Folies Amoureuses, Les, O., ii, 363.
Folk-song, Canadian, F., 232.
creation of, A., 17, 18.
Danish, F., 176.
English, T., 338.
Finnish, F., 180.
German, F., 111.
Hungarian, F., 159.
Italian, F., 83, 84.
Korean, F., 39.
Norwegian, F., 189.
Roumanian, F., 163.
Scandinavian, F., 172.
Scottish, F., 218-221.
XX11
INDEX
Folk-song.
Servian, E., 164.
Spanish, F., 244.
Swedish, F., 183, 184.
Welsh, F., 229.
Folkunger, Die, O., ii, 363.
Fomka Douratchok, O., ii, 363.
Foote, Arthur, influence and work,
A., 4, 296.
Force, notation of, E., ii, 150.
Foreign music, biblography, F.,
251-261.
Foreign musical societies, Ameri-
can, A., 229, 230.
Forlana, characteristic dances of
Venetians, F., 89.
Form, T., 171-228.
binary, T., 179.
cadence, T., 176, 177.
classical, T., 221.
dance-music, T., 181-191.
definition of, T., 172.
evidences of, T., 174.
march, T., 191, 192.
motive, T., 175.
nocturne, T., 227.
overture, T., 225, 226.
period, T., 177, 178.
phrase, T., 175-177.
polyphonic and monophonic, T„
172.
primary, or song-form, T., 179-
180.
requirements of, T., 173, 174.
romantic, T., 222.
rondo, T., 192, 193.
serenade, T., 227.
sonata, T., 194-220.
symphonic poem, T., 224, 225.
symphony, T., 220.
ternary, T., 180.
title ballad, T., 226.
Fortunate mit dem Sackel und
Wunsch-Hutlein, O., ii, 363.
Fortune, O., ii, 363.
Fortune Teller, The, O., ii. 364.
Forza del Destino, O., ii, 364.
Forza della Virtu, La, O., ii, 364.
Fosa, O., ii, 364.
Foster, Stephen Collins, names of
songs, A., 80.
portrait, A., 176.
writer of songs, A., 79, 82.
Fra Diavolo, O., i, 117.
Fra i due Litigant! il Terzo Gode,
O., ii, 364.
France, F., 127-136.
contemporaneous composers of
French opera, F., 132.
early history of music in, F., 128,
Eighteenth Century of music in,
F., 131.
famous French musicians, F., 134.
musical instruments of:
cor de chasse huchet, I., 114.
galoubet, I., 127.
harmonifluta, I., 135.
mirliton, I., 164.
orchestral horn, I., 173.
pochette, I., 198.
serinette, I., 210.
tambourin a cordes, I., 217.
Ninteenth Century of music in,
F., 132.
oratorio in, O. M., 28.
sacred music in, F., 133.
songs of, F., 127.
Francesca da Rimini, O., 364.
Franciscus, O. M., 237.
Franck, Cesar, O. M., 29.
The Beatitudes, O. M., 243.
Francois I., ou La Fete Mystfiri-
euse, O., ii, 364.
Francois Villon, O., ii, 364.
Francoise de Foix, O., ii, 364.
Franchise de Rimini, O., ii, 364.
Franz, Robert, portrait, Musical
Biogs., i, 336.
Frascatana, La, O., ii, 364.
Frate Irinam Orato, Lo, O., ii, 364.
Fratelli Nemici I, O., ii, 364.
Frauenlob, O., ii, 364.
FrSdegonde, O., ii, 364.
Free Lance, The, O., ii, 364.
Freischiitz, Der, O., i, 87.
French horn, I., 126.
French Maid, The, O., ii, 364.
French Opera, contemporaneous
composers of, F., 152.
in America, A., 233.
French sixth, E., ii, 268.
French suites, E., i, 70.
Friend Fritz, O., ii, 211.
Frithjof, O. M., 207.
Frivoli, O., ii, 364.
Fronde, La, O., ii, 364 .
Fugue, answer, T., 155-157.
coda, T., 164-170.
INDEX
XXlll
Fugue, counter-subject, T., 157-159.
double, T., 166.
episode, T., 136, 159, 160.
exposition, T., 160-163.
quadruple and quintuple, T., 168.
stretto, T., 163, 164.
subject, T., 152-155.
three part, T., 160.
two part, T., 160.
tonal and real, T., 165.
triple, T., 167.
Funeral music, organ, E., i, 400.
Fuorusciti di Firenze, I, O., ii, 364.
Furin, I., 127.
Furi tsuzumi, I., 127.
Fux, Johann Josef, T., 144.
G
Gabrieli, Andrea, T., 141.
Gabrieli, Giovanni, T., 141.
Gabriella di Vergy, O., ii, 365.
Gabrielle d'Estrees; or, The Love
Affairs of Henry IV., O., ii,
365.
Gade, Niels Wilhelm, O. M., 28.
The Crusaders, O. M., 189.
portrait, Musical Biogs., i, 400.
Galoubet, I., 127.
Geige, I., 128.
Gekkin, I., 128.
Gekko, I., 128.
Gele-masha, I., 128.
Genee, Richard, Nanon, O., ii, 75.
Genkwan, or schiguene, I., 128.
Garcia, Manuel del Popolo Vin-
cente, A., 235.
Garibaldi, O., ii, 365.
Gastibelza, O., ii, 365.
Gavotte, T., 184.
Gay Parisienne, The, O., ii, 365.
Gazza Ladra, La, O., ii, 365.
Geheimnis, Das, O., ii, 365.
Geigenmacher von Cremona, Der,
O., ii, 365.
Geiger aus Tyrol, Der, O., ii, 365.
Geisha, The, O., ii, 365.
Geisterinsel, Die, O., ii, 365.
Gelmina, od Col Fuoco Non si
Scherza, O., ii, 365.
Gelosie Villane, Le, O., ii, 365.
Geloso in Cimento, II, O., ii, 365.
Geliibde, Das, O., ii. 365.
Gemma di Vergy, O., ii, 366.
Gemunder, August and George,
violin makers, A., 332.
Genesius, O., ii, 366.
Genevieve de Brabant, O., ii, 366.
Genoveva, O., ii, 366.
Gentile di Varano, II, O., ii, 366.
Gentleman Joe, the Hansom Cab-
by, O., ii, 366.
German Requiem, The, O. M., 199.
German sixth, E., ii, 268.
Germania, O., ii, 366.
Germania Orchestra, A., 271.
Germany, F., 109-125.
early musical life in, I., 11.
folk-music of, F., 111.
German composers, I., 11-15, 19.
German school, 17th century, F.,
117.
great masters of music, 18th
century, F., 118-121.
meistersingers, F., 114, 115.
minnesingers, F., 113-115.
music and composers of 19th
century, F., 121.
musical greatness of, I., 24.
opera singer in, E. I., 298-300.
rote, I., 202.
songs of, F., 109-118, 124.
sources of German music, F.,
116, 117.
students' songs, F., 118.
Gemot, O., ii, 366.
Gerusalemme Liberata, O., ii, 366.
Gheist von Wojewoden, Der, O., ii,
366.
Gheteh, I., 128.
Ghisele, O., ii, 366.
Ghismonda, O., ii, 366.
Ghutru, I., 128.
Giacinta and Ernesto, O., ii, 366.
Giasone, O,. ii, 367.
Gigue, T., 184.
Gilana, La, O., ii, 367.
Gilbert, William Schenek, A., 94,
95; O., 37.
Gilchrist, William Wallace, A., 296.
Gille et Gillotin, O., ii, 367.
Gillette, O., ii, 367.
Gilmore, Patrick Sarsfield, band-
master and composer, A.,
127.
Gilmore's band. A., 285.
portrait, A., 256.
Gindai, I., 128.
XXIV
INDEX
Gingroi, I., 129.
Gioconda, La, O., ii, 33.
Giordano, Umberto, Fedora, O., ii,
247.
Giosse, R6 di Ginda, O., ii, 367.
Giovanna II., Regina di Napoli,
O., ii, 367.
Giovanna Shore, O., ii, 367.
Giove de Grasso, II, O., ii, 367.
Gipsy, La, O., ii, 367.
Gipsy's Warning, The, O., ii, 367.
Giralda, The New Psyche, O., ii,
367.
Girl from Paris, The, O., ii, 367.
Giroflg-Girofla, O., ii, 5.
Guilietta e Romeo, O., ii, 367.
Giulio Sabino, O., ii, 367.
Giuoco della Cieco, II, O., ii, 367.
Giuramento, II, O., ii, 367.
Giustino, O., ii, 367.
Glass harmonica, I., 129.
Glassichord, I., 130.
Gleason, Frederick Grant, his
works, A., 300.
Glee, form of music in England,
F., 204.
Glinka, Michael Ivanovitch, F.,
138, 147.
portrait, Musical Biogs., i, 464.
Glockenspiel, or carillon, I., 130.
Gloria in Excelsis, O. M., 283, 284,
302.
Gluck, Christoph Wilibald; O., i,
21-26.
founder of French school of
grand opera, F., 131.
Iphigenie en Aulide, O., i, 51.
Iphigenie en Tauride, O., i, 55.
Orpheus, O., i, 47.
Gliicksritter, Der, O., ii, 367.
" God Save the King," F., 204.
Godolphin, O., ii, 367.
God's Time Is the Best, O. M., 37.
Goetz, Hermann, The Taming of
the Shrew, O., ii, 1.
Golden Cross, The, O., ii, 25.
Goldene Kreutz, Das, O., ii, 367.
Goldmark, Karl, The Queen of
Sheba, O., ii, 21.
Gondoliers, The; or, The Ring of
Barataria, O., ii, 368.
Gong, I., 131.
Goongooroo, I., 131.
Gopi-yantra, I., 131.
Gospel Hymns, A., 88, 90.
gospel hymn writers, A., 90.
Gotchnag, or batellus, I., 132.
Goti, I, O., ii, 368.
Gotterdammerung, O., ii, 59.
Gottschalk, Louis Moreau, Ameri-
can pianist and composer,
A., 57, 309.
Gotz von Berlichingen, O., ii, 368.
Gould, Nathaniel D., A., 167.
Gounod, Charles Francois,
portrait, O. M., 221.
Faust, O., i, 279.
Messe Solennelle, O. M., 345.
Mors et Vita, O. M., 28, 227.
The Redemption, O. M., 28, 221.
Romeo and Juliet, O., i, 317.
Goura, I., 132.
Gousli, I., 132.
Gouverneur und Miiller, O., ii, 368.
Gow, George Coleman, Advanced
Harmony, E., ii, 295-396.
Elementary Harmony, B., ii, 195-
291.
Elementary Theory, E., ii, 109-
192.
Graded Teachers' Guide, E., i, 76-
102.
Gradus ad Parnassum, E., i, 65;
T., 144.
Grafln, Die, O., ii, 368.
Grand Duke, The; or, The Statu-
tory Duel, O., ii, 368.
Grand Mogul, The, O., ii, 368.
Grand Opera, how to succeed in,
E., i, 292-301.
Grand Opera House, The, Paris,.
frontispiece, O., i.
Grand Prix, Le, O., ii, 368.
Grand Tante, La, O., ii, 368.
Grande Duchesse de Gerolstein,
La, O., i, 313.
Graphophone, A., 338.
Graun, Karl Heinrich, Der Tod
Jesu, O. M., 115.
Graziella, O., ii, 368.
Greece, early music in, F., 71-74;
T., 91.
names of musical instruments :
aulos, I., 92.
cavonto, I., 104.
flayera, I., 124.
helicon, I., 141.
kithara, cithara, I., 152.
INDEX
XXV
Greece, musical instruments of-
lyra, lyre, I., 159.
pan pipes, pandean pipes, I.,
176.
our music began In, T., 57.
Greek modes, T., 83.
music, E., i, 327.
Gregorian music, E., i, 327 ; F., 76-
80; T., 54.
Gregory, Pope, his work and influ-
ence on music, T., 54, 96-98.
reformer of church music, F., 76-
78.
Grieg, Edward Hagerup, Norwe-
gian composer, F., 189, 190.
works of, E., i, 99.
portrait, F., 170.
Grille, Die, O., ii, 368.
Gringoire, O., ii, 368.
Griselda, La Virtu al Cimessto,
O., ii, 368.
Gris&ides, O., ii, 368.
Guarany, O., ii, 368.
Gubo, I., 132.
Guenbri, I., 132.
Guerillero, Le, O., ii, 368.
Gugeline, O., ii, 368.
Guglielmo Ratcliff, O., ii, 369.
Guido et Ginevra ; ou, La Peste de
Florence, O., ii, 369.
Guido d' Arrezzo, F., 80 ; T„ 100.
Guillaume Tell, O., i, 113.
Guilmant, Felix Alexandra; E., i,
388
Guitar, I.,' 132.
Guitarrero, La, O., ii, 369.
Gulistau, ou Le Uhlan de Samar-
cande, O., ii, 369.
Gundrum, O., ii, 369.
Gunnlod, O., ii, 369.
Giinther von Schwarzburg, O., ii,
369.
Guntram, O., ii, 369.
Gusla, guzla, I., 133.
Gustav Basa, O., ii, 369.
Gustavus III., or The Masked Ball,
O., ii, 369.
Guy Mannering, O., ii, 369.
Guzla, I., 134.
Gwendoline, O., ii, 369.
Gypsies, history and characteris-
tics, F., 152.
in Eastern Europe, F., 162.
in Hungary, F., 156, 158.
Gypsies.
in Spain, F., 155, 245.
music of, F., 154-157.
musical instruments of, F., 156.
Gypsy Baron, The, O., ii, 369.
H
Habanera, La, O., ii, 370.
Haddon Hall, O., ii, 370.
Hagar in der Wtiste, O., ii, 370.
Hagbarth and Signe, O., ii, 370.
Haggum, I., 134.
Hai-lo, I., 134.
Haideschacht, Der, O., ii, 370.
" Hail Columbia," A., 110.
Halam, or cambreh, I., 134.
Hale, Adam de la, F., 130; T., 59.
Hale, Philip, A., 305.
Halevy, Jacques, La Juive, O., i,
157.
Halka, O., ii, 370.
Halle, Adam de la, F., 129.
Hailing, Der, O., ii, 370.
Halte du Roi, La, O., ii, 370.
Hamlet, O., ii, 370.
Hammerstein Opera Company, in-
corporated, A., 243.
Han-koto, I., 134.
Hand horn, I., 134.
Handel, George Frederick, E., i,
330; F., 119, 202-204; I., 11 ;
O. M., 20-24 ; T., 145, 312.
portrait, O. M., 63.
Acis and Galatea, O. M., 63.
Alexander's Feast, O. M., 69.
Allegro, L\ O. M., 87.
Israel in Egypt, O. M., 81.
Judas Maccabeus, O. M., 109.
Messiah, The, O. M., 93.
Samson, O. M., 103.
Saul, O. M., 75.
works of, E., i, 387.
Handel and Haydn Society, forma-
tion of, A., 214; O. M., 8.
efforts of, A., 216.
Hannibal, O., ii, 370.
Hans der Fahnentrager, O., ii, 370.
Hans Heiling, O. I., 141.
Hans Max von der Humpenberg,
O.. ii, 370.
Hans Sachs, O., ii, 370.
Hanschen und Gretchen, music by
Reichardt, O., ii, 370.
XXVI
INDEX
Hansel und Gretel, music by Huui-
perdinck, O., ii, 231.
Hansho, I., 134.
Hanteki, I., 134.
Hao-t'ung, I., 135.
Happu, I., 135.
Happyland, O., ii, 371.
Harlequin Freemason, O., ii, 371.
Harmonic, I., 33, 34; T., 82.
Harmonica, glass, I., 129.
mouth, I., 165.
stone, I., 215.
Harmonicor, I., 135.
Harmonics, E., ii, 57, 58.
Harmoniflute, I., 135.
Harmoniphon, I., 135.
Harmonitrompe, I., 136.
Harmonium, I., 136.
Harmony, advanced, E., ii, 295-396.
chords in, E., i, 24, 255.
definition of, E., i, 17.
degrees of scales, T., 70.
development of, T., 59, 61, 89, 90.
elementary, E., ii, 195-291.
first mention of, T., 58.
freedom in diatonic, E., ii, 315-
322.
introduction of, T., 40.
modulation, T., 86-90.
refinements in, E., i, 38.
rhythmatized, E., i, 34.
rise of, T., 64.
rules governing, T., 81, 86.
triad, T., 71-75.
vocal, E., ii, 386-395.
Harold, O., ii, 371.
Harold der Wiking, O., ii, 371.
Harold und Treano, O., ii, 371.
Harp, I., 69-70, 137.
Dalway harp, illus., I., 137.
in Ireland, F., 212, 213.
Harp-lute, I., 138.
Harpa doppia, I., 138.
Harpanetta, I., 138.
Harpsichord, E., ii, 98-106; I., 73,
75, 138.
earliest mention of, A., 365.
Harris, Charles K., popular song
writer, A., 84, 85.
Harvard University, first Ameri-
can university to add music
as a serious study, A., i 199.
Harvard Musical Assocation, A.,
i, 275.
Hasheesh, O., ii, 371.
Haste to the Wedding, O., ii, 371.
Hastings, Thomas, career of, A.,
166.
Hatsu, I., 140.
Haunted Tower, The, O., ii, 371.
Hausierer, Der, O., ii, 371.
Hautbois, I., 140.
Havana, O., ii, 371.
Haydn, Franz Joseph ; E., 119 ; I., 12.
The Creation, O. M., 119.
Imperial Mass, O. M., 294.
portrait, O. M., 119.
The Seasons, O. M., 127.
Haydn Society, organized in Cin-
cinnati, A., 221.
Hayes, Will S., A., 82.
Heang-teih, I., 140.
Hebrew, shophar, I., 211.
Hecklephone, I., 140.
Heem, I., 140.
Heimkehr aus der Fremde, O., il,
371.
Heinrich der Lowe, O., ii, 371.
Heinrich der Vogler, 0., ii, 371.
Heirath Wider Willen, Die, O., ii,
371.
Heize Liebe, O., ii, 371.
Heksen, O., ii, 372.
HSlene, O., ii, 309, 372.
Helicon, I., 140.
Helle, O., ii, 372.
Helvellyn, O., ii, 372.
Henderson, W. J., history of vocal
music T., 15-23.
Henrico Leone, O., ii, 372.
Henry VIII., O., ii, 372.
Herbert, Victor, A., 95.
portrait, Musical Biogs., ii, 16.
Herbort und Hilde, O., ii, 372.
Herculaneum, O., ii, 372.
Heritier de Paimpol, L\, O., ii, 384.
Herkules, O., ii, 372.
Hermann; or, The Broken Spear,
O., ii, 372.
Hermione, O., ii, 372.
Hero und Leander, O., ii, 372.
Herodiade, O., ii, 131.
Herold, Louis Joseph Ferdinand,
Zampa, O., i, 125.
Hesione, O., ii, 373.
Herrauou, I., 141.
Herzog Magnus und die Seejung-
fer, O., ii, 372.
INDEX
XXVll
Hesione, 0., ii, 373.
Heure de Mariage, Un, O., ii, 373.
Heure Espagnole, L\, O., ii, 384.
Hexe, Die, O., ii, 373.
Hiawatha Overture, A., 3.
Hieronymus Knicker, O., ii, 373.
Hindu, music, F., 43.
musical instruments, F., 46.
vocal music, F., 47-51.
Hippolyte et Aricie, O., ii, 373.
Hippomene et Atalante, O., ii, 373.
His Excellency, O., ii, 373.
His Majesty, O., ii, 373.
History of vocal music, T., 15-23.
See vocal music.
Hiteogiri, I., 141.
Hitschi-riki, I., 141.
Hitsu-no-koto, I., 141.
Hityokiri, I., 141.
Hjarne der Sangerkonig, O., ii,
373.
Hnai, I., 141.
Ho-sho, I., 142.
Hoboe, I., 141.
Hochlander, Die, O., ii, 373.
Hochzeit des Gamacho, Die, O., ii,
373.
Hochzeitsglocken, O., ii, 373.
Hochzeitsmorgen, O., ii, 373.
Hoftheatre, The, or Court Theatre,
Dresden, frontispiece, I.
Hokei, I., 142.
Holger Danske, O., ii, 373.
Holstgildet, O., ii, 373.
Holzdieb, Der, O., ii, 374.
Home, music in, T., 329-332.
" Home, Sweet Home," A., 76, 77.
Homerische Welt, O., ii. 374,
Homme Sans Facons, L', O., ii,
384.
Hooked harp, I., 142.
Hopkinson, Joseph, author of
"Hail Columbia," A., 110.
Hora Novissima, O. M., 249.
Horaces, Les, O., ii, 347.
Horagai, I., 142.
Horanawa, I., 142.
Horanokai, I., 142.
Horn, French, I., 126.
hand, I., 134.
hunting, I., 142.
invention, I., 145.
oliphant, I., 172.
Russian, I., 203.
"Hornet, The," or "Victory No.
5," A., 130.
Hotellerie Portugaise, L', O., ii,
384.
House that Jack Built, The, O., ii,
374.
Howe, Mrs. Julia Ward, writer of
" Battle Hymn of the Repub-
lic," A., 118.
Hoyden, The, O., ii, 374.
Hsiao, I., 142.
Hsing, I., 142.
Hsiian, I., 142.
Hu-hu, I., 143.
Hu-ch'in, I., 143.
Huayra-puhura, I., 143.
Hubbard, W. L., introduction, T.,
1-6.
Hubicka, O., ii, 374.
Huchet, I., 143.
Hughes, Richard, A., 306.
Hughes de Somerghem, O., ii, 374.
Huguenots, The, O., i, 165.
Huitre et les Plaideurs, L'., O., ii,
384.
Hulda, O., ii, 374.
"Hull's Victory," A., 129.
Humperdinck, Engelbert, Hansel
und Gretel, O., ii, 231.
Hunting horn, I., 143.
Huntsman's horn, I., 143.
Hunyadi Laszeo, O., ii, 374.
Hurdy-gurdy, I., 80, 143.
Huron, Le, O., ii, 374.
Huruk, I., 144.
Husar, Der, O., ii, 374.
Hwangteih, I., 144.
Hydaspes, O., ii, 374.
Hymn of Praise, The, O. M., 143.
Hymns, T., 310, 311.
gospel, A., 88-90.
gospel hymn writers, A., 90.
Hyokin, I., 144.
Hyoshigi, I., 144.
Icbacarre, I., 145.
Ichi-gen-kin, I., 145.
Ichi-no-tsuzmi, I., 145.
Idol Cinese, L', O., ii. 385.
Idomeneus, O., ii, 374.
Ifegenia in Aulide, O., ii, 374.
Ikuta-koto, I., 145.
XXV111
INDEX
He Sonnante, L', O., ii, 385.
Ilias, Die, O., ii, 374.
Imeneo, O., ii, 374.
Imitation, T., 119, 120.
Imperial Mass (Haydn), O. M., 294.
Impressario in Augustie, L', O., ii,
385.
Improvisator, Der, O., ii, 374.
Incognita, O., ii, 374.
Inconnue Persecutee, O., ii, 385.
Incoronatione di Poppea, L', O.,
ii, 385.
India, musical instruments of :
algoji, I., 90.
ananda lahari, I., 91.
banyu, I., 93.
budbudiki, I., 101.
damam, I., 118.
dhola, I., 119.
drilbu or dorju, I., 120.
duff, I., 121.
elka-tara, I., 121.
esar, I., 122.
ghutru, I., 128.
goongooroo, I., 131.
gopi-yantra, I., 131.
horanawa, I., 142.
huruk, I., 144.
jhang, I., 146.
kachhapi vina, I., 147.
kan-dung, I., 147.
kanuna, or katyanana-vina, I.,
148.
khudra katyayana-vina, or Sar
mundai, I., 151.
kinnari, I., 151.
kunjerre-vina, I., 155.
kurna, I., 155.
kurtor, or chittika, I., 155.
ladakeh, I., 155.
mochanga, I., 164.
mridang, or mathala, I., 166.
murali, I., 166.
nagara, I., 166.
nag-pheni, or turi, I., 167.
nyastaranga, I., 170.
pakhwaj, I., 175.
panchama ottu, I., 175.
pawa, I., 177.
phunga, I., 178.
pinaka, I., 189.
rana-shringa, I., 200.
sarangi, I., 206.
sarinda, I., 206.
India, musical instruments of:
shunk, or s'ankhu, I., 212.
sitar, I., 213.
soor, I., 214.
soorsringa, I., 214.
tabla, I. 216.
tambura, I., 217.
tam-tam, I., 218.
tayuc, I., 219.
than-khanjani, I., 223.
toomerie nagassaran, I., 224.
tootoore, I., 224.
tumburn, I.. 230.
tumburn-vina, I., 230.
udakea, I., 230.
vina, I., 231.
yektar, I., 251.
Indian plate, illus., A., 43.
Indian Suite, by Edward MacDow-
ell, A., 7, 47, 297.
Indiana, O., ii, 375.
Indians of North America, music
of, A., 39-47.
Aztec instruments, F., 6-8.
music, crude and primitive, A,
39.
peculiarity of songs, A., 43.
poetry and music, F., 1-4.
songs of Indian child and youth,
A, 41.
songs of religion, war and love,
A., 42.
Indra, O., ii, 375.
Inez di Castro, O., ii, 375.
Infante di Zamora, V, O., ii, 386.
Inganno Felice, L\ O., ii, 386.
Ingo, O., ii, 375.
Ingrid, O., ii, 375.
Ingwilde, O., ii, 375.
Inkle and Yarico, or The Benevo-
lent Maid, O., ii, 375.
Inquisitive Women, The, O., ii.
375.
Instrumental music, development
of, A., 310.
first, in America, A., 255-260.
popular American, A., 90, 92.
Instrumental music, bands and or-
chestras, A., 255-287.
Instrumentation, I., 81.
Instruments, musical, see musical
instruments.
Interpretation, laws of, E., i, 48,
49, 50.
INDEX
XXIX
Interpretation, rhythmic, E., ii,
171-172.
song, E., i, 316, 317.
Interval, E., ii, 128-133.
Intervals, T., 32, 40, 68, 71, 110.
Intrigue aux Fenetres, L', O., ii.
386.
Invention horn, I., 145.
Inventions, two-voiced, E., i, 70.
three-voiced, E., i, 70.
Inversion, E., ii, 132, 133.
lone, O., ii, 375.
Introit, O. M., 282.
Iolanthe, O., ii, 151.
Ipermestra, O., ii, 375.
Iphigenie en Aulide, O., i, 51.
Iphigenie en Tauride, O., i, 55.
Ippolito and Aricia, O., ii, 375.
Irato, ou L'Emporte, I/, O., ii, 386.
Ireland, characteristics of music
in, F., 209, 210.
composers of, F., 215.
dances of, F., 214.
instruments of, F., 211-213.
musical development in, F„ 211-
213.
songs of, 211, 214.
Irene, O., ii, 375.
Iris, O., ii, 375.
Iron Chest, The, O., ii, 375.
Irrlicht, O., ii, 375.
Isabelle and Gertrude, or The Sup-
posed Sylphs, O., ii, 375.
Isis, O., ii, 376.
Isle of Champagne, The, O., ii, 376.
Isle of Spice, The, O., ii, 376.
Ismalia, O., ii, 376.
Isola Incantata, O., ii, 376.
Israel in Egypt, O. M., 81.
Isse, O., ii, 376.
It Happened in Nordland, O., ii,
376.
Italian Monk, The, O., ii, 376.
Italian opera in America, A., 235.
Italiana in Algeri, I, O., ii, 376.
Italiana in Londra, I, O., ii, 376.
Italy, Ambrosian music, F., 76.
dances of, F., 86-90.
earliest mention of music in
Rome, F., 74.
foreign singers in, E., i, 298.
Grecian influence on music of,
F., 71-74.
Gregorian music, F., 76-80.
Italy,
home of modern ballet, F., 86.
homeland of music, I., 9.
Italian opera, I., 10.
music in, F., 71-98.
musical schools in, F„ 97.
musical instruments of:
bassoon quinte, I., 97.
calascione, I., 102.
chitarra, battente, I., 107.
fagotto, I., 122.
national songs of, F., 85.
opera and operatic composers, F.,
90-98.
troubadours in, F., 99, 105.
vocal music of, F., 82-86.
Ivanhoe, O., ii, 376.
Ivan Lusannino, O., ii, 376.
Iwein, O., ii, 376.
J
Jaconde, O., ii, 378.
Jacquerie, La, O., ii, 376.
Jadis et Aujourd 'hui, O., ii, 376.
Jagd, Die, O., ii, 376.
Jagiello Wietki, O., ii, 376.
Jaguarita l'lndienne, O., ii, 376.
Jane Annie, or The Good Conduct
Prize, O., ii, 376.
Japan, music in, F., 27-33.
musical instruments of, F., 29.
amma-no-fuye, I., 91.
aznma-koto, I., 92.
batsu, or hatsu, I., 97.
biwa, I., 99.
bugaku-biwa, I., 101.
byakushi, I., 102.
chi, I., 106.
chiku-no-koto, I., 106.
da-daiko, I., 117.
daldyoshi, I., 118.
den-den-daiko, I., 119.
dobachi, I., 120.
do-byoshi, I., 120.
dora, I., 120.
doteku, I., 120.
ekirei, I., 121.
furin, I., 127.
furi-tsuzumi, I., 127.
gekkin, I., 128.
gekko, I., 128.
genkwan, I., 128.
gindai, I., 128.
XXX
INDEX
Japan, musical instruments of :
nan-koto, I., 134.
hansho, I., 134.
hanteki, I., 134.
hitschi-riki, I., 141.
hitsu-no-koto, I., 141.
hityokiri, I., 141.
hokei, I., 142.
ho-sho, I., 142.
hyoshigi, I., 144.
ichi-gen-kin, I., 145.
ichi-no-tsuzumi, I., 145.
ikuta-koto, 5., 145.
jindai suzu, I., 146.
kagura suzu, I., 147.
kajirei, I., 147.
kakko, I., 147.
kazo, I., 149.
keiken, I., 149.
kero, I., 150.
ko-daiko, I., 152.
kokin, I., 153.
kotin, I., 153.
koto, I., 153.
ko-tsuzumi, I., 153.
ku, I., 155.
mamban-tetsu-no-fuye, I., 161.
mokkine, I., 164.
moku-gyo, I., 164,
mokuri, I., 165.
nichin, I., 169.
nicko sho, I., 169.
ni-daiko, I., 169.
ni-gen-kin, I., 169.
nijugo-gen, I., 169.
no-kan, I., 170.
o-daiko, I., 172.
osobuki, I., 174.
oyo, I., 174.
rappakai, I., 200.
ritchuku, I., 202.
samisen, or siamisen, I., 205.
san-gen-dakin, I., 205.
satsumba-biwa, I., 206.
schiguene, I., 208.
schoschi, or seounofuye, I., 208.
sehoschi-bouie, or jinniritsi, I.,
208.
seiteki, I., 210.
shakugio, I., 211.
shakuhachi, or siakuhacki, I.,
211.
shichi-gen-kin, I., 211.
sho, shi-yo, shono-fuye, I., 211.
Japan, musical instruments of:
sona rappa, or dosa, I., 213.
so-no-koto, I., 214.
su-d'zu, I., 216.
takachihokin, I., 216.
teikin, I., 219.
tekkin, I., 219.
tonkari, I., 224.
tsuma-koto, I., 228.
tsuri-daiko, I., 228.
tsuri kane, I., 229.
umpan, I., 230.
uta-daiko, shime-daiko, I., 230.
waniguchi, or e'suzu, I., 248.
ya-kota, I., 249.
yakumo-koto, I., 249.
yamato-fuye, I., 249.
yamato-koto, or wa-gon, I., 249.
yan-kin, or hyoken, I., 250.
yayoi-koto, I., 250.
yo-kin, I., 251.
yoko-fuye, I., 251.
zichirei, I., 253.
vocal music of, F., 30-33.
Japanese koto, illus., F., 26.
Jardinier et Son Seigneur, Le, O.,
ii, 376.
Jason, O., ii, 377.
Jean de Nivelle, O., ii, 377.
Jean de Paris, O., ii, 377.
Jeanie Deans, O., ii, 377.
Jeanne la Foile, O., ii, 377.
Jeannot et Colin, O., ii, 377.
Jenny, O., ii, 377.
Jenny Bell, O., ii, 377.
Jerusalem Delivered, O., ii, 377.
Jery and Bately, O., ii, 377.
Jessonda, O., ii, 377.
Jester's flute, I., 146.
Jeune Femme Colere, La, O., ii, 377.
Jeune Henri, Le, O., ii, 377.
Jew's harp, I., 146.
Jhang, I., 146.
Jindai suzu, I., 146.
Jinniritsi, I., 146.
Joachim, Joseph; E., ii, 4, 11, 15,
18.
portrait, Musical Biog., ii, 80.
Joan of Arc, O., ii, 377.
Joanita, O., ii, 377.
Jocelyn, O., ii, 377.
Jockei, Le, O., ii, 377.
Johann von Lothringen, O., ii, 378.
"John Brown's Body," A., 117.
INDEX
XXXI
John Church Company, A., 341.
Jolanthe, O., ii, 378.
Jolie Fille de Perth, La, O., ii, 378.
Jolie Persane, La, O., ii, 378.
Jongleur de Notre Dame, Le, O., ii,
293.
Jongleurs, French, F., 128.
Italian, F., 106.
Joseph in Egypt, O., ii, 378.
Josephine Sold by Her Sisters, O.,
ii, 378.
Jouet, I., 146.
Jour a Paris, Un, O., ii, 430.
Journee aux Aventures, La, O., ii,
378.
Jovial Crew, The, O., ii, 378.
Jubilee singers, concert given by,
A., 61, 62.
Fisk University, A., 60, 63.
Judas Maccabaeus, O. M., 109.
Judgment of Paris, The, O., ii, 378.
Judith, O., ii, 378.
Jugement de Dieu, Le, O., ii, 378.
Jugement de Midas, Le, O., ii, 378.
Jugend Peter des Grossen, Die, O.,
ii, 378.
Juif Errant, Le, O., ii, 378.
Juive, La, O., i, 157.
Julie, O., ii, 378.
Julius Caesar, O., ii, 378.
Jungfrau von Orleans, Die, O., ii,
378.
Junk, I., 146.
Junker Heinz, O., ii, 378.
Justinus, O., ii, 378.
K
Kachhapi vina, I., 147.
Kachhapi vina, I., 147.
Kain and Abel, O., ii, 379.
Kais, O., ii, 379.
Kajarei, I., 147.
Kakko, I., 147.
Kakoshi, L, 147.
Kalasch ni Koff, O., ii, 379.
Kamennoi Gost, O., ii, 379.
Kan-dung, I., 147.
Kanonikus von Mailand, Der, O.,
ii, 379.
Kanoon, I., 147.
Kansas, state of, music in, A., 225.
Kantele, I., 148.
Kanuna, I., 148.
Kara Mustapha, O., ii, 379.
Karabib, L, 148.
Karnal, I., 148.
Kaschatschei der Onsterbliche, O.,
ii, 379.
Kashooks, I., 148.
Kasso, I., 148.
Kassya, O., ii, 379.
Katakomben, Die, O., ii, 379.
Katharina, Sainte-Catherine d'Al-
exandrie, O., ii, 379.
Katchen von Heilbronn, Das, O., ii.
379.
Katyanana-vina, I., 149.
Kazo, I., 149.
Keeler, Ralph, connected with ear-
ly American minstrelsy, A.,
66.
Keiken, I., 149.
Keiser, Rheinhold, founder German
school of opera, I., 11.
Kemangeh a'gouz, I., 149.
Kemangeh, a'qouz, I., 149.
Kemangeh, I., 149.
Kemangeh roumy, I., 149.
Kent horn, I., 149.
Keolanthe, O., ii, 379.
Kerim, O., ii, 379.
Kero, I., 150.
Kettle drum, I., 150.
Key, Francis Scott, writer of " The
Star-Spangled Banner," A.,
113.
Key, E., ii, 122.
as expressive of moods or emo-
tions, T., 263, 264.
major and minor, T., 264-266.
minor, E., ii, 241-247.
modulation of, T., 87-90.
signature of major, E., ii, 124-
125.
signature of minor, E., ii, 12(5-
127.
Keyboard, relation of hand to, E.,
i, 201-203.
Keynote, T., 43.
Khew, I., 151.
Khovantschina, O., ii, 379.
Khudra katyayana-vina, I., 151.
Kin, I., 151.
Kinandi, I., 151.
Kinnari, I., 151.
King Arthur, O., ii, 380.
King Dodo, O., ii, 380.
XXX11
INDEX
King, Julie Riv6-, American pian-
ist, A., 309.
Kingdom, The, O. M., 269.
Kirke, O., ii, 380.
Kirmess, Die, O., ii, 380.
Kisanji, I., 151.
Kissar, I., 151.
Kit, I., 152.
Kithara, I., 152.
Klong, khek, I., 152.
Klong pong ping, I., 152.
Klong ta roti pote, I., 152.
Klong yai, I., 152.
Klui, I., 152.
Kneisel, Franz, portrait, A., 220.
Kneisel Quartet, A., 282.
Knight of Snowden, The, O., ii, 380.
Ko-daiko, I., 152.
Ko-tsuzumi, I., 153.
Ko-tze, I., 153.
Kobbe, Gustav ; A., 304.
Kobold, Der, O., ii, 380.
Kokiu, I., 153.
Komantehe, I., 149.
Komounko, I., 153.
Konig Drosselbart, O., ii, 380.
Konig Manfred, O., ii, 380.
Konig und der Kohler, Der, O., ?.i,
380.
Konigin Mariette, O., ii, 380.
Konigin von Saba, O., i„ 380.
Korea, folk-songs of, F., 39.
music in, F., 35-41.
musical instruments of, F., 36-38.
names of musical instruments :
chang-gon, I., 105.
haggum, I., 134.
komounko, I., 153.
nallari, I., 167.
pang kiang, I., 176.
saihwang, I., 204.
t'oungsye, I., 224.
yang gum, I., 250.
vocal music of, F., 39.
Korean orchestra, illus., F., 35.
Korrigane, La, O., ii, 380.
Kosiki, O., ii, 380.
Kostchei, the Immortal, O., ii, 380.
Kotin, I., 153.
Koto, I., 153.
Kouitara, or kuitra, I., 154.
Koundyeh, or ngiemeh, I., 154.
Koy, I., 154.
Kra coapee, I., 154.
Krap puang, I., 154.
Krehbiel, Henry Edward; A., 394.
Krehbiel, H. E., Opera and Lyric
Drama (chapter by), O., i,
1-13.
Kreutzer, Konradin, Das Nacht-
lager von Granada, O., i, 145.
Kreuzfahrer, Der, O., ii, 380.
Kriegsgefangene, Die, O., ii, 380.
Kroeger, Ernest Richard, composer,
A., 301.
Krumhorn, cromhorn, I., 154.
K'ai-ti, I., 147.
Ku, I., 155.
Kuan-tzu, I., 155.
Kuitra, I., 155.
Kulepa-ganez, I., 155.
Kundi, I., 155.
Kunihild, O., ii, 380.
Kunjerre-vina, I., 155.
Kurna, I., 155.
Kurtar, or chittika, I., 155.
Kuss, Der, O., ii, 380.
Kyee-zee, I., 155.
Kyffhauserberg, Der, O., ii, 380.
Kyrie Eleison, O. M., 283, 302.
La Frascatana, O., ii, 364.
La-pa, cha-chiago, or tungkeo, I.,
156.
La Scala, Milan, frontispiece, O., ii.
Labyrinth, Das, O., ii, 381.
Lac des Fees, Le, O., ii, 381.
Ladakeh, 1., 155.
Lady of the Manor, The, O., ii, 381.
Lady Teazle, O., ii, 381.
L'Agnese, O., ii, 381.
Lago delle Fate, II, O., ii, 381.
Lab. ch'-in, I., 156.
L'Ajo Nell Imbarrazzo, O., ii, 381.
La kang, I., 156.
Lakme, O., ii, 155.
Lalla Rookh, O., ii, 381.
L' Allegro, O. M., 87.
Lalo, Edouard, Le Roi d'Ts, O., ii,
191.
L'Altaque du Moulin, O., ii, 381.
L'Amant et le Mari, O., ii, 381.
L'Amant Jaloux, O., ii, 381.
L'Amant Statue, 0.,.ii, 381.
L'Amante Astuto, O., ii, 381.
L'Ambassadrice, O., ii, 381.
INDEX
XXXlll
L'Amitie au Village, O., 11, 381.
L'Amor Oontadino, O., li, 381.
L'Amor et Psyche, O., ii, 381.
L'Amor Marinnaro, O., ii, 381.
L' Amour Romanesque, O., ii, 381.
Lampe, E. Mosley, Mexico, F., 65-
70.
L'An Mil, O., ii, 382.
Landfriede, Der, O., ii, 381.
Landgraf Ludwig's Brautfahrt, O.,
ii, 381.
Lang, Margaret Ruthven, composi-
tions, A., 302.
Langue Musicals, La, O., ii, 382.
Lanterne Magique, La, O.. ii, 382.
Laodicea et Berenice, O., ii, 382.
L' Apparition, O., ii, 382.
L'Arbore di Diana, O., ii, 382.
L'Arbre Enchante, O., ii, 382.
L'Arcadia in Brenta, O., ii, 382.
L' Artisan, O., ii, 382.
Larynx, position of, E., i, 259.
L' Aspirant de Marine, O., Ii, 382.
L'Assedio di Firenze, O., ii, 382.
L'Assedio di Leyda, O., ii, 382.
Lassus, Orlando ; E., i, 328 ; T., 125.
Last Judgment, The, O. M., 133.
Lasthenu, O., ii, 382.
L'Astuzie Femminili, O., ii, 382.
L'Auberge de Bagneres, O., ii, 382.
Laud, I., 156.
L'Avaro, O., ii, 382.
L'Avengle de Palmyre, O., ii, 382.
Law of Java, The, O., ii, 382.
Lazarus, O., ii, 382.
Lazzarone, ou LeBienvent en Dor-
mant, Le, O., ii, 382.
L'Eau Merveilleuse, O., il, 382.
L'Ebreo, O., ii, 382.
L'Eclair, O., ii, 382.
Lecocq, Alexandre Charles.
Giroflfi-Gerofla, O., ii, 5.
La Fille de Madame Angot, O., i,
339.
L'ficole de la Junesse, ou Le Bar-
nevelt Francois, O., ii, 383.
L'tfcossais de Chatou, O., ii, 383.
Ledia, O., ii, 383.
L'Education Manqufie, O., ii, 383.
Legatissimo, E., ii, 141.
Legato, E., i, 167-172 ; ii, 42-45, 140.
Legato touch, E., i, 61, 281.
Legend of the Holy Elizabeth, The,
O. M., 179.
Leheman, O., ii, 383.
Lehmann, Lily ; E., i, 294, 316.
Leila, O., ii, 383.
L'Elisir d' Amour, O., i, 137.
Lemare, Edwin Henry ; E., i, 391.
Lenten cantatas, E., i, 372-373.
L Enfant Prodigue, O., ii, 383.
L'Enfant Roi, O., ii, 383.
Leocadie, O., ii, 383.
Leoncavallo, Ruglero.
I Medici, O., ii, 227.
I Pagliacci, O., ii, 213.
portrait, Musical Biogs., ii, 144.
Zaza, O., ii, 275.
Leonce, O., ii, 383.
Leonidas, ou Les Spartiates, O., ii,
383.
Leonora, O., ii, 383.
Leonore, ou L' Amour Conjugal, O.,
ii, 383.
L'fipreuve Villageoise, O., ii, 383.
Lequel, O., ii, 383.
Lerment, ou Les Faux Monneyeurs,
O., ii, 384.
L'Errore Amoroso, O., ii, 384.
L'Esclave, O., ii, 384.
L'Esclave du Camoens, O., ii, 384.
Lestocq, O., ii, 384.
L'Esuli di Roma, O., ii, 384.
L'iStoile, O., ii, 384.
L'^toile de Seville, O., ii, 384.
L'Stoile du Nord, O., ii, 384.
L'^tranger, O., ii, 384.
Lettre de Change, La, O., ii, 384.
L'Heritier de Paimpol, O., ii, 384.
L'Heure Espagnole, O., ii, 384.
L'Homme Sans Facons, O., ii, 384.
L'Hotellerie Portugaise, O., ii, 384.
L'Huitre et les Plaideurs, O., ii,
384.
Lia, O., ii, 384.
Liberty Hall, O., ii, 385.
Libussa, O., ii, 385.
Lichtenstein, O., ii, 385.
Liden Kirsten, O., ii, 385.
L'Idol Cinese, O., ii, 385.
Liebeskampf, Der, O., ii, 385.
Liebestrank, Der, O., ii, 385.
Liebesverbot, Das, O., ii, 385.
Liebling, Emil, Development of
Pianoforte Technic, T., 7-13.
Graded Teachers' Guide, E., i,
53-102.
Prologue, E., i, 3-6.
XXXIV
INDEX
Lied-forrn, T., 179.
Life for the Czar, O., ii, 385.
Light of Asia, The, O., ii, 385.
Light opera, elements of success-
ful, E., i, 301-305.
L'lle Sonnante, O., ii, 385.
Lili-Tsee, O., ii, 385.
Lily of Killarney, The, O., i, 287.
Lily of Leoville, O., ii, 385.
L'Impressario in Augustie, O., ii,
385.
Lina, O., ii, 385.
L'Inconnue Persecuted, O., ii, 385.
L'Incoronatione di Poppea, O., ii,
385.
Lind, Jenny, portrait, O., ii, 101.
Linda di Chamouni, O., i, 191.
L'Infante di Zamora, O., ii, 386.
L'Inganno Felice, O., ii, 386.
L'Intrigue aux Fenetres, O., ii, 386.
Lionel and Clarissa, O., ii, 386.
Lira, I., 156.
L'Irato, ou L'EmportS, O., ii, 386.
Lisbeth, O., ii, 386.
List Gegen List, O., ii, 386.
Listemann, Bernhard; E., ii, 3-22.
" Listen to the Mocking Bird," A.,
83.
Liszt, Franz; E., i, 61; I., 21, 22;
O. M., 30.
characteristics of his composi-
tions, T., 288, 289.
Cristus, O. M., 185.
his influence on piano technic,
T., 9.
The Legend of the Holy Eliza-
beth, O. M., 179.
works for the piano student, E.,
i, 99-100.
Little Corporal, The, O., ii, 386.
Lituani, I, O., ii, 386.
Lituus, I., 156.
Lo, I., 156.
Lo-chu, I., 157.
Lo-tseih, I., 157.
Lobetanz, O., ii, 386.
Locataire, Le, O., ii, 386.
Lock and Key, O., ii, 386.
Lodoiska, O., ii, 386.
Loeffler, Charles Martin, composi-
tions and style, A., 8-10.
L'Oeil Creve, O., ii, 386.
Loffelgeige, I., 157.
L'Officier Enlevfi, O., ii, 386.
L'Officier et le Paysan, O., ii, 386.
L'Offrande a la Liberty O., ii, 386.
Lohengrin, I., 21, 22 ; O., i, 241.
L'Oie du Caire, O., ii, 386.
Lokango voatavo, I., 157.
T'Olimpiade, O., ii, 386.
Lambardi Alia Prima Crociata, I
O., ii, 387.
L'Ombre, O., ii, 387.
L'Oncle Valet, O., ii, 387.
Loomis, Henry W., composer, A.
298.
L'Opera Comique, O., ii, 387.
Lord of the Manor, O., ii, 387.
Lorelei, Die, O., ii, 387.
L'Orfanella di Ginevra, O., ii, 387.
L'Oriflamme, O., ii, 387.
Lorle, O., ii, 387.
Lorraine, O., ii, 387.
Lortzing, Gustav Albert, Czar und
Zimmermann, O., i, 179.
Lotario, O., ii, 387.
Lottchen am Hofe, O., ii, 387.
Louis IX. en Egypt, O., ii, 387.
Louise, O., ii, 269.
Loup Garou, Le, O., ii, 387.
Love in a Village, O., ii, 387.
Love in the East, O., ii, 387.
Love Makes a Man, or The Fop's
Fortune, O., ii, 387.
Love's Lottery, O., ii, 387.
I.ove's Triumph, O., ii, 387.
Lucia di Lammermoor, O., i, 161.
Lucile, O., ii, 387.
Lucinda et Arteraidoro, O., ii, 387.
Lucio Papiro, O., ii, 388.
Lucio Silla, O., ii, 388.
Lucio Vero, O., ii, 388.
Lucky Star, The, O., ii, 388.
Lucrezia Borgia, O., i, 149.
Lucullus, O., ii, 388.
Ludovic, O., ii, 388.
Luisa Miller, O., ii, 388.
Lulli, Giovanni Battiste ; I., 10.
Lully, Jean Baptiste de ; F., 130.
Lully et Quinault, ou Le Dejeuner
Impossible, O., ii, 388.
L'Ultimo Giorno di Pompeia, O., ii;
388
L'Une Pour l'Autre, O., ii, 388.
Lur, I., 157.
Luretti, O., ii, 388.
Lurline, O., i, 283.
Lustige Schuster, Der, O., il, 388.
INDEX
XXXV
Lute, E., ii, 73-85 ; I., 71, 157.
Lutheir de Vienna, Le, O., ii, 388.
Luther, Martin, T., 209, 310.
Lyceum bureau, E., i, 305.
Lyceum work, E., i, 304, 305.
Lyon, James, published Urania, A.,
150.
Lira-viol, E., ii, 92; I., 159.
Lyre, I., 44, 159.
Lyric drama, O., 1-13.
Lyric-dramatic soprano, E., i, 319.
Lyric-dramatic tenor. E., i, 320.
M
Ma Tante Aurore, ou Le Roman
Impromptu, O., ii, 393.
Macbeth, O., ii, 388.
Maccabees, The, O., ii, 388.
McCarthy, Henry ; A., 122.
McCauIl, John A. ; A., 94.
MacDowell, Edward, composer and
teacher, A.. 6, 7, 297.
" Indian Suite," A., 7, 297.
portrait, A., 8.
Machete, I., 161.
Macht des Liedes, Die, O., ii, 388.
Macon, Le, O., ii, 389.
Madam Butterfly, O., ii, 315.
Madame ChrysanthSme, O., ii, 389.
Madame Favart, O., ii, 389.
Madame Gregoire, ou La Nuit du
Mardi Gras, O., ii, 389.
Madcap Princess, A, O., ii, 389.
Madchenherz, Das, O., ii, 389.
M&dchen vom Lande, Das, O., ii,
389.
Mademoiselle de Belle-Isle, O., ii.
389.
Mademoiselle de Guise, O., ii, 389.
Mademoiselle Modiste, O., ii, 389.
Madiumba, I., 161.
Madone, La, O., ii, 389.
Maestro di Musica, II, O., ii, 389.
Magadis, I, 161.
Mage, Le, O., ii, 389.
Magellone, O., ii, 389.
Magic Flute, The, O., i, 67.
Magic Opal, The, O., ii, 389.
Magicienne, La, O., ii, 389.
Magnelone, O., ii, 390.
Mahambi, L, 161.
Mahomet II., O., ii, 390.
Mahmoud, O., ii, 390.
Maid Marian, O., ii, 390.
Maid of Artois, The, O., ii, 390.
Maid of Honor, The, O., ii, 390.
Maid of the Mill, The, O., ii, 390.
Maidens of Schilda, The, O., ii,
390.
Mainacht, Die, O., ii, 390.
Maison a Vendre, O., ii, 390.
Maltre Chanteur, Le, O., ii, 390.
Maitre Claude, O., ii, 390.
Maltre de Chapelle, Le, O., ii, 390.
Maltre de Musique, Le, O., ii, 390.
Maltre en Droit, Le, O., ii, 390.
Maitre Griffard, O., ii, 390.
Maltre Peronilla, O., ii, 390.
Maitre Wolfram, O., ii, 390.
Major key, T., 264-266.
Major mode, E., i, 27 ; T„ 44.
Major Palmer, Le, O., ii, 390.
Major scale, E.. ii, 117-119, 130;
T., 264, 265.
Major triad, E., ii, 178 ; T., 71, 264.
Mala Vita, O., ii, 391.
Malaysia, music in, F., 43-51.
musical instruments of, F., 46.
vocal music of, F., 47-51.
Malek-Adel, O., ii, 391.
Malhem d'etre Joie, Le, O., ii, 391.
Mamban-tetsu-no-fuye, I., 161.
M'Amie Rosette, O., ii, 391.
Mamm, I., 161.
Mamzelle Fifi, O., ii, 391.
Manan Lescaut, O., ii, 391.
Mandanika, O., ii, 391.
Mandarin, The, O., ii, 391.
Mandola, I., 161.
Mandolin, I., 161.
Mandora, I., 162.
Mandura, I., 161.
Manhattan Opera House, New
York, frontispiece, Musical
Biogs., ii.
Maniac, The, O., ii, 391.
Mannequin de Bergame, Le, O., ii,
391.
Manola, O., ii, 391.
Manon, O., ii, 167.
Manon Lescault, O., ii, 223.
Manru, O., ii, 279.
Manteaux Noirs, Les, O., ii, 391.
Manto la Fee, O., ii, 391.
" Maple Leaf, The," F., 240.
Mara, O., ii, 391.
March, T., 191, 192.
XXXVI
INDEX
" Marching Through Georgia, A.,
121.
Marco Spada, O., ii, 391.
Marechal-Ferraut, Le, O., ii, 391.
Marga, O., ii, 391.
Margherita d'Anjou, O., ii, 392.
Mari de Circonstance, Le, O., ii, 392.
Maria di Rohan, O., ii, 392.
Maria Tudor, O., ii, 392.
Maria von Montalban, O., ii, 392.
Mariage Extravagant, Le, O., ii, 392.
Mariages Semnites, Les, O., ii, 392.
Marie, O., ii, 392.
Marie Stuart, O., ii, 392.
Marie TherSse, O., ii, 39.
Marietta, O., ii, 392.
Marietto, Oder Die Madonna mit
dem Kreuze, O., ii, 392.
Marimba, or mahambi, I., 162.
Marine Band, at Washington, A.,
285.
Marino Faliero, O., ii, 392.
Marion Delorme, O., ii, 392.
Maritana, O., i, 225.
Marito e l'Amante, II, O., ii, 392.
Marjolaine, La, O., ii, 392.
Marjorie, O., ii, 392.
Marlborough S'en Va-t-en Guerre,
O., ii, 392.
Marouvane, I., 162.
Marquise, La, O., ii, 392.
Marquise des Rues, La, O., ii, 393.
Marriage of Figaro, The O., i, 59.
Marriage of Jeannette, The, O., i,
259.
Marschner, Heinrich, Hans Heil-
ing, O., i, 141.
Martha, O., i, 229.
Marthesie, Premiere Reine des
Amazones, O., ii, 393.
Martyrs, Les, O., ii, 393.
Masaniello, O., i, 109.
Mascagni, Pietro.
L'Amico Fritz, O., ii, 211.
Cavalleria Rusticana, O., ii, 203.
Italian operatic composer, F., 97.
portrait, Musical Biogs., ii, 208.
Maschere, Le, O., ii, 393.
Mascot, The, O., ii, 109.
Masked Ball, The, O., i, 275.
Masnadieri, I, O., ii, 393.
Mason, Lowell, father of church
music in America, A., 19, 20,
166, 294.
Mason, Lowell, portrait, A., 138.
teaches music in public schools,
A., 25, 26, 194.
Mason, Dr. William, Memories of a
Musical Life, B., i, 160.
piano touch and technic, E., i,
163.
touch and technic, E., i, 199.
Mass, Development of, O. M., 275-
304.
Mass in A, Cherubini, O. M., 294.
Mass in B minor (Bach), O. M,
311.
Mass in D major (Beethoven),
O. M., 327.
Mass of Pope Marcellus (Pales-
trina), O. M., 305.
Masse, Victor, Les Noces de Jean-
nette, O., i, 259.
Massenet, Jules Frederic Emile.
Herodiade, O., ii, 131.
Le Jongleur de Notre Dame, O.,
ii, 293.
Manon, O., ii, 167.
La Navarraise, O., ii, 235.
portrait, Musical Biogs., ii, 272.
Master Thief, The, O., ii, 393.
Mastersingers of Nuremberg, I., 23 ;
O., i, 325.
Matador, Der, O., ii, 393.
Mataswintha, O., ii, 393.
Matchmaker, The, O., ii, 393.
Mathala, I., 162.
Mather, Cotton, his work, "Psal-
terium Americana," A., 146.
Mathews, William Smythe Bab-
cock; A., 306.
How to Study Music, E., i, 9-50.
Mathilde, O., ii, 393.
Matilda di Sabran, O., ii, 393.
Matilda of Hungary, O., ii, 393.
Matrimonio per Sussuro, II, O., ii,
393.
Matrimonio Segreto, II, O., i, 71.
Matrose und Sanger, O., ii, 393.
Mattia Corvino, O., ii, 393.
May festival, see Musical festival.
Mayuri, I., 162.
Mazeppa, O., ii, 393.
Mbe, I., 162.
Measure, E., i, 29, 30, 34; ii, 175-
178.
Mechanical music, T., 330-331.
Medea, O., ii, 394.
INDEX
XXXVll
Mfidecine Sans Mgdicin, La. O. ii
394.
Medici, I, O., ii, 227.
MGdicin MalgrS Lui, Le, O., ii 394
Mgdicin Turck, Le, O., ii, 394.
Medee, O., ii, 394.
Medico per Forza, II, O., ii 394
Medo, II, O., ii, 394.
Medonte, O., ii, 394.
Mefistofele, O., i, 321.
Megyoung, I., 162.
Meijiwiz, I., 163.
Meister Martin und Seine Gesellen,
O., ii, 394.
Meistersinger von Nfirnberg, Die,
I., 23 ; O., i, 325.
Meistersingers, The, F., 114, 115;
T., 223.
Melba, Madame, portrait, O., i, 281.
Mfileagre, O., ii, 394.
MGlidore et Phrosine, O., ii, 394.
Melodeon, A., 264 ; I., 163, 202.
Melodic motion, E., ii, 188-192.
scale, E., ii, 340, 341.
sequence, E., ii, 258-260.
studies, E., i, 282.
Melody E., i, 15, 33-39; ii, 110; T.,
53, 55, 56, 58, 59, 61, 174,
258.
definition of, E., i, 16, 23.
harmonization of, E., ii, 217-227.
Melomanie, La, O., ii, 394.
Melophone, I., 163.
Melusine, O., ii, 394.
Memnon, O., ii, 394.
Memory, ear, E., i, 42.
eye, E., i, 43.
finger, E., i, 43.
mind, E., i, 43.
Mendelssohn, Felix Bartholdy; I.,
15, 18 ; O. M., 25-27 ; T., 150,
151.
Elijah, O. M., 153.
The First Walpurgis Night,
O. M., 147.
his influence on pianoforte tech-
nic, T., 9.
The Hymn of Praise, O. M., 143.
St. Paul, O. M„ 137.
works of E., i, 100-101.
portrait, T., 81.
Merkel, Gustav Adolf ; E., i, 388.
Merlin, O., ii, 395.
Merope, O., ii, 395.
Merrie England, O., ii, 395.
Merry Duchess, The, O., ii, 395.
Merry Monarch, The, O., ii, 395.
Merry Sherwood, O., ii, 395.
Merry War, The, O., ii, 129.
Merry Widow, The, O., ii, 395.
Merry Wives of Windsor, The, O.,
i, 233.
Messager, AndrS, Veronique, O., ii,
251.
Messalina, O., ii, 395.
Messe Solennelle (Gounod), O. M.,
345.
Messenzio, II, O., ii, 395.
Messiah, The, O. M., 93.
Meter, E., i, 162, 163 ; T., 46, 48-50.
Metronome, E., i, 38, 69, 109, 153-
156 334.
Metropolitan, The, New York, il-
lus., frontispiece, A.
Mexico, music in, F., 65-70.
musical instruments of, F., 66.
vocal music of, F., 67.
Meyerbeer, Giacomo; O., 32.
L'Africaine, O., i, 299.
The Huguenots, O., i, 165.
Le Prophfite, O., i, 237.
Robert le Diable, O., i, 129.
Mezzo-soprano, E., i, 320.
Michel Angelo e Rolla, O., ii, 395.
Michele Perrini, O., ii, 395.
Mietje, O., ii, 395.
Mignon, O., i, 309.
Mihambi, I., 163.
Mikado, The, O., ii, 175.
Miller and His Men, The, O., ii, 395.
Millocker, Carl.
The Beggar Student, O., ii, 137.
The Black Huzzar, O., ii, 183.
Miltiade a Marathon, O., ii, 395.
Milton, O., ii, 395.
Mina, O., ii, 395.
Miner, Luella, China, F., 17-26.
Pedley, Hilton, Japan, F., 27-33.
Minjairah, I., 163.
Minjaireh, I., 163.
Minnesingers, minstrels known as,
F., 113-115.
Minor key, E., ii, 241-247; T., 264-
266.
mode, E., i, 27 ; T., 44.
scale, E., ii, 118-120; T., 264,
265.
triad, E., ii, 179 ; T., 71, 264.
XXXV111
INDEX
Minstrels, T., 103, 104.
Miuteki, I., 164.
Minuet, T., 185, 186.
Mirandolina, O., ii, 395.
Mireille, O., ii, 395.
Mirliton, I., 164.
Mise Brun, u., ii, 396.
Miss Decima, O., ii, 396.
Miss Innocence, O., ii, 396.
Missa Solemnis (Beethoven), O. M.,
294.
Missouri, state of, oratorio in, A.,
224, 225.
Mitridate, O., ii, 396.
Mitridate Eupatore, II, O., ii, 396.
M'kul, I., 164.
Mochanga, I., 164.
Mode, E., ii, 120 ; T., 38, 39, 40.
seolian, T., 84.
Greek, T., 84.
major, E., i, 27; T., 44.
minor, E., i, 27; T., 44.
mixed, E., ii, 247-249.
Modulation, E., ii, 282-291.
expansion, E., ii, 344-354.
important department of music,
T., 86.
indeterminate, E., ii, 345.
methods of, T., 87-90.
transient, E., ii, 347-353.
Mohur, I., 164.
Mokkine, I., 164.
Moku-gyo, I., 164.
Mokuri, I., 165.
Molinara, La, O., ii, 396.
Moloch, O., ii, 396.
Monch von Sendomir, Der, O., ii,
396.
Monks of Malabar, The, O., ii, 396.
Monno Vanna, O., ii, 396.
Monochord, I., 35, 74.
Monophonic music, T., 134, 172,
173.
Monsieur de Pourceaugnac, O., ii,
396.
Monsieur Deschalumeaux, O., ii,
396.
Monsieur et Madam Denis, O., ii,
396.
Monaulos, I., 165.
Montano and Stephanie, O., ii, 396.
Monte Carlo, O., ii, 396.
Montenegrins. Les, O.. ii, 397.
Montesuma, O., ii, 397.
Monteverde, Claudio, F., 91 ; O., 7 ;
T., 63.
Mood, T., i, 32, 34, 37, 49.
Moon guitar, I., 165.
Moonlight Sonata, see "Sonata
Quasi Una Fantasie," op.
No. 2.
Morley. Thomas, English com-
poser, F., 199.
Mors et Vita, O. M., 277.
Mort de Cleopatre, La, O., ii, 397.
Mort du Tasse, La, O., ii, 397.
Moses, O., ii, 397.
Moszkowski, Moritz, works, E., i,
101.
Motion, melodic. E., ii, 188-192.
Motive, E., i, 35.
definition of. T„ 175.
Moudo della Luna, II, O., ii, 397.
Mountain Sylph, The, O., ii, 397.
Mountaineers, The, O., ii, 397.
Mountebanks, The, O., ii, 397.
Mousquetaires au Couvent, Les, O.,
ii, 397.
Mousquetaires de la Reine, Les, 0.,
ii, 397.
Mouth harmonica, I., 165.
organ, I., 166.
Movement, cantibile. E., i, 48.
four-voice, E., i, 35, 37.
one-voice, E., i, 35.
three-voice, E., i, 35.
two-voice, E., i, 35.
Mozart, Wolfgang Amadeus.
Don Giovanni, O., i, 63.
his work, F., 120.
Nozze de Figaro, Le, O., i, 59.
portrait, T., 145.
Requiem Mass, O. M., 317.
sonatas, E., i, 59, 75.
style of compositions, T., 150,
287.
Zauberflote, Die, O., i, 67.
Mozart and Salleri, O., ii, 397.
Mozart and Schickaneder, The
Theatrical Manager, O., ii,
397.
Mridanjr, I., 166.
Mu-yu, I.. 166.
Much Ado About Nothing, O., ii,
397.
Muet, I., 166.
Mule de Pedro. La, O., ii, 397.
Muletier, Le, 6., ii, 897.
INDEX
XXXIX
Miiller und Sein Kind, Der, O. ii
397.
Mund harmonica, I., 166.
Murali, I., 166.
Murillo, O., ii, 398.
Muses Galantes, Le, O., ii, 398.
Musette, I., 166.
Music, American music, see book
on.
Canadian, F., 231.
Chinese, F., 17.
church, see church music,
classical, T., 221.
Eastern Europe, F.. 151.
elements of, T., 258.
English, F.. 193.
era of new music, T., 129.
French, F„ 127.
German, F., 109.
Irish, F., 209.
Italian, F., 71.
Japanese, F., 27.
Korean, F., 35.
Malaysian, F., 43.
mechanical, T„ 330, 331.
Mexican, F., 65.
monophonic, T., 134.
origin of, T., 250-252.
Persian, F., 53.
polyphonic, T., 134.
practical value of, T., 325-350.
primitive, F., 1.
Russian, F., 137.
Scandinavian, F., 171.
Scottish, F., 217.
Spanish, F., 243.
Turkish, F., 59.
value of, as an art, T., 253.
vocal, see vocal music.
Welsh, F., 225.
Music in colleges, A., 199. 200.
Music in the public schools, A..
17-37.
co-operation of principal, super-
intendent and school board,
A., 36, 37.
development and methods, A.,
27-30.
early history of, A., 17-26.
equipment of teachers, A., 35.
established, A., 194.
importance of, T., 332-334.
material used for instruction,
A., 31.
Music in the public schools,
teachers of, A., 35.
uniform course adopted, A., 200.
valuable results, A., 32.
ways in which instruction may
be carried on, A., 34.
Music of North American Indians.
See Indians of North America.
Music of Primitive Peoples, F.,
1-15.
Music publishing houses, A., 340-
343.
Music Teachers' National Associa-
tion, A., 201.
Music trades, A., 313-343.
Musical centers, American, A., 297.
conservatories, American, A., 194-
199.
convention, A., 183-189.
critics and authors, American,
A., 303-307.
ear, E., i, 20-22, 28, 42.
education, A., 173-203; E., i, 19,
54-61.
Musical festival, A., 188-192.
Chicago held its first, A., 224.
era of, O. M.. 5, 6.
first May festival in New York,
A., 220.
Musical form, originated with, E.,
i, 325.
Musical instruments :
African, F., 8-15.
Assyrian, I., 45.
Aztecs of Old Mexico. F., 6-8.
bibliography, I., 255-257.
■ Canadian, F., 241.
Chinese, F., 20-24, 26.
classes of, and their origin, F., 4.
construction of, T., 99.
development of, i, 31-88.
earliest mention of organ, A.,
255-257.
Egyptian, I., 44.
English, F., 194.
Grecian, I., 44.
Gypsy, F., 156.
Hebrew, I., 45.
Hungarian, F., 157.
Indian, A., 44, 45.
-making in America, A., 213.
Irish, F., 211, 212.
Japanese. F., 29.
Korean, F., 36-38.
xl
INDEX
Musical instruments:
Malaysian, F., 46.
Mexican, F., 66.
negro, A., 50, 51.
origin of, I., 44.
piano-making in America, A.,
314.
Scandinavian, F., 174.
Scottish, F., 222-224.
Spanish, F., 245.
such as, A., 265.
Turkish, F., 60.
used in American churches, A.,
164.
Welsh, F., 229.
Musical periodicals, A., 202, 203.
Musical phantasie, E., i, 20.
Musicians, American, A., 289-312.
Musketeers, The, O., ii, 398.
Mute, E., ii, 55-56.
Muza Haireddin, O., ii, 398.
Muzio Scevola, O., ii, 398.
"My Maryland," A., 123.
My Spirit Was in Heaviness, O. M.,
41.
Myrtia, O., ii, 398.
MystSres d'Isis, Les, O., ii, 398.
Mysteries of the Castle, The, O.,
ii 398
Mythology, I., 42.
N
Nabucodonoser, O., ii, 398.
Nacht auf Paluzzi, Die, O., ii, 398.
Nachtigall und Rabe, O., ii, 398.
Nachtlager von Granada, Das, O.,
i, 145.
Nadeshda, O., ii, 398.
Nadgy, O., ii, 398.
Nag-pheni, I., 167.
Nagara, I., 166.
Nagare, I., 167.
Nagelgeige, I., 167.
Naggareh, I., 167.
Nail violin, I.. 167.
Nais, O., ii, 398.
Naissance de Venus, La, O., ii, 398.
Nakkarah, I., 167.
Nallari, I., 167.
Nanga, I., 167.
Nanon, O., ii, 75.
Narciss Rameau, O., ii, 399.
Narcisso, O., ii, 399.
Natalie; ou, La Famille Russe 0
ii, 399.
National anthems :
"America," — American, A., 125.
"God Save the King"— Eng-
land, F.. 204.
" Hail Columbia" — American A.
110.
"Kalevala" — Finland, F., 180.
"Maple Leaf, The"— Canada
F., 240.
" O, Mia Patria " — Italy, F., 85.
" Tri-colored Banner "— Neapol-
itans, F., 85.
" Volunteer's Farewell "— Flor-
ence, Italy, F., 85.
"Where Is My Fatherland?"—
Bohemian, F., 166.
" Yankee Doodle," first truly na-
tional song in America, A,
110.
National songs :
American, A., 110, 125.
Bohemian, F., 166.
Canadian, F., 240.
English, F., 204.
Finnish, F., 180.
Italian, F., 85.
Scottish, F., 219.
Natural horn, I., 168.
Naufrage de la Meduse, Le, O., ii,
399.
Nausikaa, O., ii, 399.
Nautch Girl, The, or The Rajah
of Chutneypore. O., ii, 399.
Navarraise, La, O., ii, 235.
Nay, I., 168.
N'dungo, I., 168.
Ne Touchez pas a la Reine, O., ii,
399.
Neaga, O., ii, 399.
Neapolitan school, founded by, F.,
93.
Nebenbuhler, Die, O., ii, 399.
Nefir, I., 168.
Neger, Die, O., ii, 399.
Negro dance, Bamboula, A., 58.
Negro music and negro minstrelsy,
A., 49-70.
"Christy's Minstrels," A., 67.
decline of negro minstrelsy, A,
69.
famous actors appeared as negro
minstrels, A., 66.
INDEX
xli
Negro songs and negro minstrelsy,
foundation of our folk-song lit-
erature, A., 69.
minstrel organization, A., 68.
negro songs :
boatmen's song, T., 339.
love songs, A., 55.
plantation songs, T., 339, 340.
railroad songs, A., 56.
shout songs, A., 55.
slave songs, A., 53 ; T., 340.
"trick music," A., 64.
Nei, I., 168.
Neige, La ; ou, Le Nouvel Egin-
hard, O., ii, 399.
Nell Gwynne, O., ii, 399.
Nephtali; ou, Les Ammonites, O.,
ii, 399.
Neptune and Amphitrite, O., ii,
399.
Nero, O., ii, 95.
Nerone, O., ii, 399.
Nessler, Victor E., The Trumpeter
of Sakkingen, O., ii, 171.
Neue Don Quixote, Der, O., ii, 399.
Neue Krumme Teufel, Der, O., ii,
399.
Neume, T., 35.
Nevin, Ethelbert, compositions, A.,
299.
New England Conservatory of Mu- •
sic, founded, A., 194.
New England Psalm Book, see
New England version of the
Psalms.
New England version of the
Psalms, originated in, A.,
142, 143, 145, 290.
New Ireland, kulepa-ganez, I., 155.
New Orleans, opera in, A., 233.
New Year's, cantatas for, E., i, 373.
New York Academy of Music, A.,
238.
New York Choral Society, A., 217,
218.
New York city:
Deutsche Liederkranz, A., 229.
French opera in, A., 234.
Italian opera in, A., 235.
musical institutions, A., 198.
New York Harmonic Society, A.,
219.
Oratorio Society, A., 220, 277;
O. M., 8. ^
New York Philharmonic Society,
A., 270, 273.
Sacred Music Society, origin of,
A., 218.
Symphony Orchestra, A., 274.
Ngiemeh, I., 168.
N'gom, I., 168.
Ngoma, I., 168.
Ngonge, I., 168.
Ni-daiko, I., 169.
Ni-gen-kin, I., 169.
Ni-no-tsuzumi, I., 169.
Nichin, I., 169.
Nicholai, Otto, The Merry Wives
of Windsor, O., i, 233.
Nicko sho, I., 169.
Nicolo de Lapi, O., ii, 399.
Night Dancers, The, O., ii, 400.
Niji-Novgorodians, The, O., ii, 400.
Nijugo-gen. I., 169.
Niles, Nathaniel, A., 107.
Nina, O., ii, 400.
Ninette, a la Cour, O., ii, 400.
Ninion, O., ii, 400.
Nino, O., ii, 400.
Ninon Chez Madame de Sevigne,
O., ii, 400.
Niobe, O., ii, 400.
Nitetti, O., ii, 400.
Nitocri, O., ii, 400.
Nixe, Die, O., ii, 400.
Nkonjo, I., 169.
No, I., 170.
No-kan, I., 170.
No Magic Like Love ; or, The Brit-
ish Enchanters, O., ii, 400.
No Song, No Supper, O., ii, 400.
Noces de Jeannette, Les, O., i, 259.
Noces de Pelee et de Thetis, Les,
O., ii, 400.
Nocturne, T., 227.
Node, I., 33, 34, 37.
Noite do Castello, A, O., ii, 400.
Nordica, Madame Lillian, portrait,
O., ii, 247.
Norfe, I., 170.
Norma, O., i, 133.
Normandy Wedding, A, O., ii, 400.
Norris. Homer, A., 300.
Note, chromatic, T., 43.
origin of musical, T., 34, 35.
value of, T., 47, 48.
Norway, characteristics of music
in, F., 186-188, 191.
xlii
INDEX
Norway, composers of, F., 189-191.
folk-songs of, F., 189.
music in Christiania, F., 188,
189.
names of musical instruments :
nyckelharpa, I., 170.
salmodikon, I., 204.
songs of, F., 188.
Notation of duration, E., ii, 133,
134, 140-150.
Notation of pitch, intervals, B., ii,
128-133.
keys and signatures, E., ii, 122-
126, 127.
scales, E., ii, 128-133.
Note, E. ii, 133-138.
chromatic, E., ii, 254-255.
memorizing of, E., 1, 316.
value, E., ii, 142.
writing of, E., ii, 135, 136.
Notre Dame de Paris, O., ii, 401.
Noune Saglante, La, O., ii, 401.
Nourjahad. O., ii, 401.
Nouveau Seigneur du Village, Le,
O., ii, 401.
Nouvelle Scole des Femmes, La,
O., ii, 401.
Nozze di Dorina, Le, O., ii, 401.
Nozze di Figaro, Le, O., i, 59.
Nozze di Teti e Peleo, Le, O., ii,
401.
Nuits d'Espagne, Les, O., ii, 401.
Numitor, O., ii, 401.
Nurmahal, O., ii, 401.
Nyastaranga, I., 170.
Nyckelharpa, I., 170.
Nydia, the Blind Girl of Pompeii,
O., ii, 401.
Obah, I., 170.
Oberon, O., i, 105.
Oberon, Konig der Elfen, O., ii,
401.
Oberto, Count di San Bonifazio,
O., ii, 401.
Oboe, I., 170.
Oboe da caccia, I., 171.
Oboe d'amore, I., 171.
O-daiko, I., 172.
Ocarina, I., 171.
Oehingufu, I., 172.
Ochsenminuett, Das, O., ii, 401.
Octave, E., ii, 54, 115 ; T., 29.
Octave abbreviations, E., ii, 145.
Octave-playing, E., i, 186.
Octave spinet, L, 172.
Octavia, O., ii, 401.
Oddities, The, O., ii, 401.
Odysse, Die, O., ii, 401.
Odysseus, O. M., 211.
Odysseus' Heimkehr, O., ii, 401.
Odysseus' Tod, O., ii, 402.
OMipe a la Calone, O., ii, 401.
Oeil CrSve, L', O., ii, 386.
Offenbach, Jacques.
Belle Hfilene, La, O., i, 295.
Contes d'Hoffman, Les, O., ii, 121.
Grande Duchesse de Gerolstein,
La, O., i, 313.
Orphee aux Enfers, O., i, 271.
Offertory, beginning of mass prop-
er, O. M., 288, 289.
Officier EnlevS, L*, O., ii, 386.
Officier et le Paysan, L', O., ii, 386.
Offrande a la Liberty, L', 0., ii,
386.
Ohotnitchiyerog, I., 172.
Oie du Caire, L', O., ii, 386.
Okeghem, Joannes, E., i, 328; T„
120-122-138.
" Old Black Joe," A., 81.
Old Guard, The, O., ii, 402.
" Old Hundred," A., 140.
Olga, O., ii, 402.
Olimpiade, L\ O., ii, 386.
Oliphant horn, I., 172.
Olivette, O., ii, 117.
Olumbendo, I., 172.
Olympie, O., ii, 402.
Omar und Leila, O., ii, 402.
Ombi, I., 172.
Ombre, L', O., ii, 387.
Omphale, O., ii, 402.
On ne s'Avise Jamais de Tout, 0.,
ii, 402.
Oncle Valet, L', O., ii, 387.
Ondines au Champagne, Les, 0., ii,
402.
One O'clock; or, The Wood De-
mon, O., ii, 402.
Onion flute, I., 172.
Oompoochawa, I., 173.
Opera, E., i, 292-301-319-322.
appreciation, T., 298-308.
development of technique of, T.,
16-22.
INDEX
xliii
Opera, development of the, O., 15-
40.
essential nature of, O. M., 2, 3.
first, T., 64.
first specimen of comic, T., 60.
French, F., 129-133.
German, F., 121.
German opera in America, A.,
239, 242.
history of, T., 301-306.
in America, A., 231-253.
Italian, F., 90-98.
Italian opera in America, A.,
235.
light opera in America, A., 93.
modern school of, O., 38.
opera singer, T., 306, 307.
original home of French opera
in America, A., 233.
popularity of, T., 300.
requirements of, T., 299.
Swedish, F., 185.
Opera, bibliography, O., ii, 325-326.
Opera and lyric drama, O., i, 1-13.
Opera Comique, L', O., ii, 387.
Opera in America, A., 231-253.
Opera of Operas, The; or, Tom
Thumb the Great, O., ii, 402.
Operas and operettas, collection,
published by Schirmer, A.,
341.
Opernprobe, Die, O., ii, 402.
Ophicleide, I., 173.
Opritschniek, Der, O., ii, 402.
Orakel in Delphi, Das, O., ii, 402.
Oratorio, E., i, 308, 361.
characteristics of, O. M., 14.
chorus in, T., 312.
development of, O. M., 11-35.
England, land of, F., 204, 207.
in America, A., 219-230.
origin of, T., 311.
performance in college, O. M.,
8' a
performance in Europe and
America, O. M., 1-10.
permanence of, O. M., 9, 10.
writers of, E. i., 330.
Oratorio singer, T., i, 308-309.
Oratorios and Masses, bibliogra-
phy, O. M., 361-364.
Orazzi e Curiazzi, Gli, O., ii, 402.
Orchestra, appreciation, T., 267-
277.
Orchestra, arrangement of instru-
ments in, T., 268.
T., 268.
concert pieces with, E., i, 96.
concertos with, E., i, 95.
consists of four groups of in-
struments, T., 267.
contains, i, 82.
description of symphony as
played, T., 274, 275.
development of, i, 9-30.
engaged by theatres, A., 269.
French composers of orchestral
music, F., 133.
gives open-air concerts, A., 268.
highest form of pure music, E.,
i, 22.
instruments of percussion, T.,
272.
introduction and promotion in
New York city, A., 269-270.
orchestral concerts, F., 135.
orchestral organizations, A., 270-
282.
proportioning of instruments, T.,
275, 276.
requirements of, T., 267.
requirements of orchestra con-
ductor, T., 276, 277.
Russian composers of orchestral
music, F., 149.
should be balanced, I., 88.
stringed instruments of, T., 268-
270.
wind instruments of brass, T.,
271, 272.
wood-wind instruments of, T.,
270, 271.
Orchestral horn, I., 173.
Orchestration, definition of, I., 81.
Orchestrina di camera, I., 173.
Order of His Holiness, By, O., ii,
402.
Orestes, O., ii, 402.
Orfanelli di Ginevra, L\ O., ii, 387.
Orfeo, O., i, 7 ; O., ii, 403.
Organ, E., I., 380, 381.
appreciation, T., 295-298.
building of first American or-
gan, A., 260.
cabinet, I., 102.
concert organ, A., 262.
construction of first, T., 99.
earliest mention of, A., 255-257.
xliv
INDEX
Organ, first installed in Episcopal
churches, A., 152, 154-156.
graded courses for, E., i, 384-
401.
players, A., 338.
trades, A., 326-331.
pipe, I., 189.
widely known, A., 262.
Organistrum, I., 174.
Organists, American, A., 307, 308.
French, F., 134.
Organo-piano, I., 174.
Oriflamme, L', O., ii, 387.
Orion, O., ii, 403.
Orlando, O., ii, 403.
Ornaments, E., ii, 148-149.
Orontea, Regina d'Egitto, A., ii,
403.
Orpharion, I., 174.
Orphee aux Enfers, O.. i, 271.
Orpheus, O., i, 47.
Orpheus and Eurydice, first opera
ever written, T., 64.
Orphica, I., 174.
Osobuki, I., 174.
Ostralenka, O., ii, 403.
Otello, or Othello, Verdi, O., ii,
187.
Othello, Rossini, O., ii, 403.
Otto, der Schiitz, O., ii, 403.
Ottone, O., ii, 403.
Overtones, I., 34.
Overture, classical, T., 225, 226.
French and Italian operatic, T.,
225.
Oyo, I., 174.
Ozee, I., 175.
P-ai-hsiao, I., 175.
Pa-chiao-kou, I., 175.
Pacius, Frederik, father of Finnish
music, i, 181.
Paderewski, I'gnace Jan, T., 282.
Manru, O., ii, 279.
portrait, Musical Biogs., ii, 336.
Padlock, The, O., ii, 403.
Paganini, Niccolci, E., ii, 4, 16.
Pagliacci, I, O., ii, 213.
Pagode, La, O., ii, 403.
Paine, John Knowles, O. M., 32.
instructor in music at Harvard,
A., 2.
musical career, A., 2, 3, 294.
Paisiello, Giovanni, Italian oper-
atic composer, F., 94.
Pakhwaj, I., 175.
Paladins, Les, O., ii, 403.
Palestrina, Giovanni Pierluigi da,
E., i, 329 ; F., 82 ; T., 62, 126.
Mass of Pope Marcellus, O. M.,
305.
portrait, O. M., 305.
Palma, O., ii, 403.
Palmira, O., ii, 403.
Paludier du Bourg-de-Batz, Le,
O., ii, 403.
Pan, story of, I., 43, 44.
Pan bomba, I., 175.
Pan pipes, I., 176.
Panchama ottu, I., 175.
Pandean pipes, I., 175.
Pandeiro, I., 175.
Pandore. I., 176.
Pandurina, I., 176.
Pang kiang, I., 176.
Pang-ku, I., 176.
Panier Fleuri, Le, O., ii, 403.
Panjandrum, O., ii, 403.
Pantragruel, O., ii, 403.
Panurge, O., ii, 403.
Paolo Emilio, O., ii, 403.
Papa Martin, O., ii, 403.
Paquerette, O., ii, 403.
Par dessus, I., 177.
Paradise and the Peri, O. M., 167.
Paria, Der, O., ii, 403.
Paride, O., ii, 404.
Paride ed Elena, O., ii, 404.
Paris, France, music in, F., 132,
135.
Paris conservatoire, F., 134.
Parisiana, O., ii, 404.
Parker, Horatio, O. M., 32.
Hora Novissima, O. M., 249.
life and compositions, A., 5.
Parker, James C. D., musical ca-
reer, A., 3.
Parsifal, I., 24; O., ii, 141.
Part du Diable, La, O., ii, 404.
Partenope, O., ii, 404.
Partials, I., 36-38.
Passing tone, T., 80.
Passion according to Saint Mat-
thew, The, O. M.. 49.
Passion music, O. M., 17-20.
Pastor Fido, O., ii, 404.
Pastorale en Musique, O., ii, 404.
INDEX
xlv
Pat-mah, I., 177.
Patience, O., ii, 125.
Patrie, O., ii, 404.
Patriotic and national music, A.,
101-135.
Patriotic music, first war song, A.,
102.
contributors to the military
songs, A., 105.
Pattala, I., 177.
Paul and Virginia, O., ii, 404.
Paul Jones, O., ii, 404.
"Paul Jones' Victory," A., 129.
Pauline, the Lady of Lyons, O., ii,
404.
Paur, Mr. Emil, E., i, 32.
Pause, E., ii, 145.
Pavilion du Calife; ou, Almanzor
et Zobeide, O., ii, 404.
Pawa, I., 177.
Payne, Hon. John Howard, poet
and dramatist, A., 76, 77.
Paysan, Le, O., ii, 404.
Pazzia Senile, La, O., ii, 404.
Peace Jubilees, A., 192.
PScheurs, Les, O., ii, 404.
Pgcheurs de Catane, Les, O., ii,
404.
P§cheurs de Perles, Les, O., ii, 404.
Pedal-point, E., ii, 295-298.
Pedal study, E., i, 381.
Pedal tone, T., 81.
Pee, I., 177.
Peechawar, I., 177.
Peggy from Paris, O., ii, 405.
Peines et les Plaisirs d'Amour,
Les, O., ii, 405.
Peintre Amoureux de son Modele,
Le, O., ii, 405.
Pelage ; ou, Le Roi de la Paix, O.,
ii, 405.
Pelleas et MSlisande, O., ii, 283.
Pelope, O., ii, 405.
Penelope, O., ii, 405.
Penelope, La., O., ii, 405.
Penorcon, I., 177.
Pepita, O., ii, 405.
Pepita Jiminez, O., ii, 405.
Pepusch, Johann C, The Beggar's
Opera, O., i, 41.
Per Svinaherde, O., ii, 425.
Percussion group, instruments of,
I., 86.
Pere Gaillard, O., ii, 405.
Peri, Jacopo. I., 10; O. i., 5, 6.
Perichole, La, O., ii, 405.
Period, E., i, 37 ; T., 177, 178.
melody in four-cadence, E., ii,
371-373.
musical, E., ii, 370-376.
rhythm in four-cadence, E., ii,
373-374.
tonality in four-cadence, E., ii,
374-376.
Periodicals, musical, A., 202, 203.
Perle du Bresil, La, O., ii, 405.
Peronne Sauvee, O., ii, 405.
Perosi, Don Lorenzo, O. M., 31.
Perruche, La, O., ii, 405.
Perruquier de la Regence, Le, O.,
ii, 405.
Persee, O., ii, 405.
Persia, music in, P., 53-58.
names of musical instruments :
chabbabeh, I., 105.
dayere, or dahareh, I., 118.
dimplipito, or nagare, I., 119.
dohol, I., 120.
dombeg, I., 120.
kashooks, I., 148.
nefir, I., 168.
sindi, I., 213.
soote, I., 214.
soutak, I., 215.
tanbour, or tamboura, I., 218.
zingue, I., 253.
Peters Bryllup, O., ii, 405.
Peter Schmoll und Seine Nach-
barn, O., ii, 405.
Petit Chaperon Rouge, Le, O., ii,
406.
Petit Due, Le, O., ii, 406.
Petit Faust, Le, O., ii, 406.
Petit Matelot, Le, O., ii, 406.
Petite Mademoiselle, La, O., ii,
406.
Petite Mariee, La, O., ii, 406.
Petruchio, O., ii, 406.
Pfauenfest, Das, O., ii, 406.
Pfeifer von Hardt, Der, O., ii, 406.
Pfeiferstag, Der, O., ii, 406.
Phang, I., 177.
Phaon, O., ii, 406.
Pharamond, O., ii, 406.
Pharao, O., ii, 406.
Phek, I., 177.
Philadelphia, opera in, A., 239.
Philemon and Baucis, O., ii, 406.
xlvi
INDEX
Philharmonic Society of New York,
A., 270, 273.
Philomele, I., 177.
Philtre, Le, O., ii. 406.
Phonogr:iph, A., 337, 339.
Phrase, T., 175, 177.
Phrasing, E. T., 267.
in chorus work, T., 317.
in solo singing, T., 323.
Phryne, O., ii, 406.
Phunga, I., 178.
Paia-pan, I., 178.
Pianists, American, A., 309-310.
Hungarian, F., 160-161.
Polish, F., 169.
Piano, I., 36, 37.
advanced, E., i, 119-122.
and organ-players, A., 338.
appreciation, T., 280-289.
building of, T., 7.
composers for, T., 282-289.
elementary, E., i, 105-122.
Faelton system, E., i, 108-122.
first grand, A., 266.
graded teachers' guide, E., i, 76-
102.
industry in America, A., 314-326.
instruction, E., i, 53-56, 62-72,
106-108, 132-142.
intermediate, T., i, 116-119.
-players, A., 338.
Piano-teaching, methods of, E., i,
210-219.
Piano-violin, I., 189.
Pianoforte, I., 178.
first public notice of, A., 265.
technique, development of, T.,
7-13.
exponents of, T., 10-13.
literature, E., i, 121-122.
present state of, T., 10.
Pibgorn, I., 189.
Picaros et Diego, ou Le Polle
Soirge, O., ii, 406.
Piccini, Nicoli, Italian operatic
composer, F., 93.
Piecolino, O., ii, 406.
Piccolo Haydn, II, O., ii, 406.
Pierre de Medicis, O., ii, 406.
Pierre et Catherine, O., ii, 407.
Pierrette and Jaquot, O., ii, 407.
Pierian Sodality, orchestral society
of Harvard, A., 1.
Pietra del Paragone, La, O., ii, 407.
Pietro il Grande, O., ii, 407.
Pietro von Albano, O., ii, 407.
Pigeon, Vole! O., ii, 407.
Pilger von Mekka, Die, O., ii, 407.
Pin, I., 189.
Pina, I., 189.
Pinafore, A., 93; O., ii, 87.
Pinaka, I., 189.
Pipe, I., 37, 189.
bone, I., 44.
Pipe of Desire, The, O., ii, 407.
Pipe organ, I., 189.
Pique-Dame, O., ii, 407.
Piramo e Tisbe, O., ii, 407.
Pirata, II, O., ii, 407.
Pirates, The, O., ii, 407.
Pirates of Penzance, The, O., ii,
101.
Pirro, II, O., ii, 407.
Pirro e Demetrio, O., ii, 407.
Pitch, E., i, 23, 24; ii, 109; T., 25,
35, 36, 262, 263.
in chorus work, T., 316.
notation of, E., ii, 117-133.
Pitch pipe, introduction of, A., 154.
Pittore e Duca, O., ii, 407.
Pizzaro, O., ii, 407.
Pizzicato, E., ii, 56, 57.
Planquette, Robert, The Bells of
Corneville, O., ii, 67.
Planteur, Le, O., ii, 407.
Po, I., 198.
Po-fu, I., 199.
Pochette, I., 198.
Pochette d'amour, I., 198.
Poete Suppose, Le, O., ii, 407.
Poet's viol, I., 198.
Poia, O., ii, 408.
Poland, composers of, F., 168, 169.
dances of, F., 166, 168.
music of, F., 166.
Polichinelle, O., ii, 408.
Polifemo, O., ii, 408.
Polinsche Jude, Der, O., ii, 408.
Polinto, II, O., ii, 408.
Polka, T., 190.
Polly, O., ii, 408.
Polonaise, Polish, T., 186, 187.
Polyeucte, O., ii, 408.
Polyphonic forms, T., 138.
Polyphonic music, T., 134, 172, 173.
Polyphony, T., 116.
Pommer, I., 198.
Porno d'oro, II, O., ii, 408.
INDEX
xlvii
Pomone, O., ii, 408.
Pompeo in Armenio, O., 408.
Ponce de Leon, O., ii, 408.
Ponchielli, Amilcare, La Gioconda,
O., ii, 33.
Ponticello, E., ii, 56.
Poor Soldier, The, O., ii, 408.
Popular music, A., 71-99.
definition of, A., 71.
first popular sentimental song,
A., 75.
first popular song, A., 73.
" Liberty song," A., 73.
light opera singers, A., 98.
popular instrumental music in
America, A., 90.
reasons for, A., 86.
survival of, A., 76.
variation pieces, A., 91.
writers of, A., 83, 85, 90.
Popular songs, A., 72, 80, 83, 84.
popular song writers, A., 85.
Porcherons, Les, O., ii, 408.
Portefaix, Le, O., ii, 408.
Porto, Basso, A, O., ii, 408.
Portoghesi in Goa, I, O., ii, 408.
Portrait de Manon, Le, O., ii, 408.
Porus, O., ii, 408.
Postilion of Longjumeau, The, O.,
i, 169.
Postilion's horn, I., 199.
Postludes, E., i, 394-399.
Pounce & Co., or Capital vs. Labor,
O., ii, 408.
Poupee de Nurnberg, La, O., ii, 408.
Power of Evil, The, O., ii, 409.
Practical value of music, T., 325-
350.
Pratt, Silas Gamaliel, A., 296.
Praxitele, ou Le Ceinture, O., ii,
409.
Prt aux Clercs, Le, O., ii, 409.
Preciosa, O., ii, 409.
Preludes, E., i, 394-399.
Premier Jour de Bonheur, Le, O.,
ii, 409.
PrSs, Josquin de, E., i, 328.
Prgs Saint Gervais, Les, O., ii, 409.
" President's March," A., 111.
Pretendus, Les, O., ii, 409.
Prigione d'Edinburgo, La, O., ii,
409.
Prigionier, II, O., ii, 409.
Prillarhorn, I., 199.
Prima Donna, La, O., ii, 409.
Primary form, T., 179, 180.
Primitive peoples, music of, F.,1-15.
Prince Igor, O., ii, 409.
Prince Methusalem, O., ii, 409.
Prince of Pilsen, The, O., ii, 409.
Prince Troubadour, Le, O., ii, 409.
Princess Ida, or Castle Adamant,
O., ii, 410.
Princess Osra, O., ii, 410.
Princess Toto, O., ii, 410.
Princesse d'Auberge, O., ii, 409.
Princesse de Babylone, O., ii, 410.
Princesse d'tilide, La, O., ii, 410.
Princesse Jaune, La, O., ii, 410.
Principessa Fedele, La, O., ii, 410.
Prinz Tugen, der Edle Ritter, O.,
ii, 410.
Prinz Harold's Brautfahrt, O., 11,
410.
Prinz Wider Willen, O., ii, 410.
Prison d'Edinbourg, La, O., ii, 410.
Prisoner of War, The, O., ii, 410.
Prisonnier, Le, O., ii, 410.
Prisonnier d'etat, Le, O., ii, 410.
Proeris and Cephalus, O., ii, 410.
Promesse, Les, O., ii, 410.
Promesses de Mariage, Les, O., Ii,
410.
Promessi Sposi, I, O., ii, 411.
Prophgte, Le, O., i, 237.
Proscrit, Le, O., ii, 411.
Proserpina Rapita, O., ii, 411.
Proserpine, O., ii, 411.
Protesilao, O., ii, 411.
Psalmody, A., 138, 139.
and church music, A., 137-172.
prejudice against singing of
psalms, A., 141.
psalm books, A., 139.
schools for the improvement of,
A., 157.
tunes of, A., 139.
Psalms, singing of, A., 143, 145.
Psalms of David, A., 142. 144.
reprint of, A., 145.
"Psalterium Americana," A., 146.
Psaltery, I., 2, 199.
Pskovitaine, La, O., ii, 411.
Psyche, O., ii, 411.
Public schools, music in the; see
Music in the Public Schools.
Public singing, success in, E., i,
287-322.
xlviii
INDEX
Puccini, Giocoma, F., 97.
portrait, T., 209.
La Boheme, O., ii, 239.
La Tosca, O., ii, 265.
Madam Butterfly, O., ii, 315.
Manon Lescaut, O., ii, 223.
Puits d' Amour, O., ii, 411.
Puloay, I., 199.
Pulse, E., i, 29, 30, 32, 33, 34.
Punition, La, 0., ii, 411.
Puntigli delle Donne, I, O., ii, 411.
Puppenfee, Die, O., ii, 411.
Purcell, Henry, greatest British
composer, F., 202.
Puritani, I, O., i, 153.
Puritania, O., ii, 411.
Puritan's Daughter, The, O., ii, 411.
Purse, The, O., ii, 411.
Pygmalion, O., ii, 411.
Pythagoras, discoverer of partial
vibrations of strings, I., 35.
discoverer of tone relations, F.,
73.
father of musical science, T.,
30-33.
Q
Qanon, I., 199.
Quaker, The, O., ii, 412.
Quart d'Heure de Silence, Un, O.,
ii, 412.
Quartet, E., i, 352-354.
first and second, E., i, 355.
string, E., ii, 63-68.
string quartet music, A., 281.
Quartet playing, E., ii, 63-68.
Quatre Fils Hymon, Les, O., ii, 412.
Queen Andigo, O., ii, 412.
Queen of Sheba, The, O., ii, 21.
Queen Topaze, or La Reine Topaze,
O., ii, 412.
Queen's Lace Handkerchief, The,
O., ii, 113.
Quentin Durward, O., ii, 412.
Quinto Fabio, O., ii, 412.
Quinton, or par dessus, I., 199.
Quiproquo, Le, O., ii, 412.
Rabelais, O., ii, 412.
Rache, Die, O., ii, 412.
Rackett, I., ii, 199.
Radamisto, O., ii, 412.
Rajah de Mysore, Le, O., ii, 412.
" Rally Round the Flag, Boys," A.,
83.
Rameau, Jean Philippe, F., 130 ; I.,
11.
founder of modern harmony, T.,
65.
Rana-shringa, I., 200.
Ranat ek, I., 200.
Randall, James Ryder, writer of
words of " My Maryland,"
A., 122.
Rantzan, I, O., ii, 412.
Raoul Barbe-Bleue, O., ii, 412.
Rapimento di Cefalo, II, O., ii, 412.
Rappakai, I., 200.
Rappressaglia, La, O., ii, 413.
Ratbold, O., ii, 413.
Rattenfanger von Hameln, Der,
O., ii, 413.
Rauberbraut, Die, O., ii, 413.
Ravanastron, A., 76.
Ravnen, O., ii, 413.
Raymond, O., ii, 413.
Re Pastore, II, O., ii, 414.
Re Teodoro in Venezia, II, O., il,
414.
Rebab esh sha'er, I., 200.
Rebe, Die, O., ii, 413.
Rebec, I., 200.
Recital singer, the art of the, E.,
i, 312-319.
Recorder, I., 200.
Red Mill, The, O., ii, 413.
Redemption, The, O. M., 221.
Redemption hymn, performed, A., 3.
Reeds, free, I., 62.
ribbon, I., 63.
variety of, I., 48.
Regal, I., 202.
Reger, Max, works of, E., i, 386.
Regina, or The Marauders, O., !i,
413.
Regine, or Two Nights, O., ii, 413.
Register, chest, E., i, 248-249.
female voice, T., i, 261.
male voice, E., i, 262.
uniting the, E., i, 260.
voice, E.. i, 242-249.
Reine de Chypre, La, O., ii, 413.
Reine de Saba, La, O., ii, 413.
Reine Fiametta, La, O., ii, 413.
Rendezvous Burgeois, Le, O., ii,
413.
INDEX
xlix
Reole, La, O., ii, 413.
Repetition, E., ii, 146, 147.
Requiem (Berloz), O. M., 333.
Requiem (Mozart), O. M„ 317.
Requiem (Verdi), O. M., 349.
Resonance, I., 42.
Rest, E., ii, 133-138.
Retardation, E., ii, 298-299.
Reve, Le, O., ii, 207.
Revenant, Le, O., ii, 414.
Revolutionary War (U. S.), songs
of, 104-112.
Reyer, Ernest, Sigurd, O., ii, 163.
Rheingold, Das, O., ii, 41.
Rhythm, E., i, 162, 163 ; ii, 344 ; T.,
46, 235, 236, 258, 283.
accent groups, E., ii, 157-164.
definition of, E., i, 16, 17, 23, 30 ;
E., ii, 110.
in music and how to study it, E.,
i, 29-34, 36.
In vocal music, E., ii, 377-386.
Rhythmic effect, E., i, 268, 277, 278.
interpretation, E., ii, 171-172.
Riata, I., 202.
Riccardo, O., ii, 414.
Ricci, Luigi and Federico.
Crispino, O., i, 247.
Ricciardo e Zoriade, O., ii, 414.
Rice, W. D., father of American
minstrelsy, A., 64.
first negro impersonation, A., 65.
Richard Coeur de Lion, O., ii, 414.
Richard in Palestine, O., ii, 414.
Ricimero, O., ii, 414.
Rien de Trop, ou Les Deux Fara-
vents, O., ii, 414.
Rienzi, I., 20, 21 ; O., i, 195.
Rigoletto, O., i, 251.
Rikk, I., 202.
Rinaldo, O., ii, 414.
Ring des Nibelungen, Der, O., ii, 37.
Ring of the Nibelung, I., 22.
Rip Van Winkle, O., ii, 414.
"Rip Van Winkle Overture," A.,
14, 15.
" Rise, Columbia," A., 105.
Ritchuku, I., 202.
Ritorno d'Astrea, II, O., ii, 414.
Rivali di se Stressi, I, O., ii, 414.
Rob Roy, O., ii, 414.
Robert Bruce, O., ii, 414.
Robert Devereux, O., ii, 414.
Robert le Diable, O., i, 129.
Robin des Bois, O., ii, 414.
Robin Hood (De Koven), O., ii*
199
Robin Hood (Dietrich), O., ii, 414,
Robinson Crusoe, O., ii, 414.
Rocking melodeon, I., 202.
Rode, Jacques Pierre Joseph, E., ii,
3, 4, 11.
Rodrigo, O., ii, 414.
Roger de Flor, O., ii, 415.
Roger de Sicile, ou Le Roi Trou-
badour, O., ii, 415.
Rognedu, O., ii, 415.
Roi de Lahore, Le, O., ii, 415.
Roi des Halles, Le, O., ii, 415.
Roi d'Ys, Le, O., ii, 191.
Roi d'Yvetot, Le, O., ii, 415.
Roi et le Fermier, Le, O., il, 415.
Roi 1' a dit, Le, O., ii, 415.
Roi Malgre Lui, Le, O., ii, 415.
Roland, O., ii, 415.
Roland a Roucevaux, O., ii, 415.
Roland von Berlin, Der, O., ii, 415.
Roman Catholic church, see Church
music.
Roman d'Elvire, Le, O., ii, 415.
Romance, La, O., ii, 415.
Romance de la Rose, La, O., ii,
415.
Romantic composers, T., 222.
music, F., 144; T., 222.
Romanticists, I., 14, 15.
Rome, ancient Roman dances, F.,
86.
earliest mention of music in, F„
74.
musical instruments of:
buccina, I., 100.
cornu, I., 115.
Iituus, I., 156.
monaulos, I., 165.
Romea di Montfort, O., ii,,415.
Romeo and Juliet, O., i, 317.
Rondo, E., i, 32 ; T., 192.
three forms of, T., 193.
Roosje Sonder Doornen, De, O., ii,
415.
Root, Frederic Woodman, Primary
Voice Culture, E., i, 225-284
Root, George F., A., 78, 79.
Rosamonde, O., ii, 415.
Rosaura, La, O., ii, 416.
Rose de Florence, La, O., ii, 416.
Rose de Peronne, La, O., ii, 416.
INDEX
Rose et Colas, O., ii, 416.
Rose of Castile, The, O., ii, 416.
Rose of Persia, or The Story-teller
and the Slave, O., ii, 416.
Rose vom Liebesgarten, Die, O., ii,
416.
Rosenhiitchen, Das, O.,' ii, 416.
Rosenthalerin, Die, O., ii, 416.
Rosiere, La, O., ii, 416.
Rosi6re Republicane, ou La Fete
de la Raison, La, O., ii, 416.
Rosieres, Les, O., ii, 416.
Rosina, O., ii, 416.
Rosine, ou L'Epouse Abandonee,
O., ii, 416.
Roslein im Hag, O., ii, 417.
Rossignol, Le, O., ii, 417.
Rossini, Gioachini Antonio, F., 94;
O., i, 30.
Barbiere di Siviglia, II, O., i, 83.
Guillaume Tell, O., i, 113.
Semiramide, O., i, 93.
Stabat Mater, O. M., 339.
Rota, I., 202.
Rote, I., 202.
Rothkappchen, Das, O., 417.
Roumania, folk-songs of, F., 163.
instruments of, F., 163.
tanbouritza, I., 218.
Round Tower, The, O., ii, 417.
Royal Middy, The, O., ii, 417.
Rubezahl and the Bagpiper of
Meisse, O., ii, 417.
Rubin, Der, O., ii, 417.
Rubinstein, Anton, F., 148; O. M.,
29.
II Demonio, O., ii, 13.
Nero, O., ii, 95.
Tower of Babel, O. M., 193.
Ruddygore, or The Witch's Curse,
O., ii, 417.
Rufhorn, I., 203.
Ruggiero, O., ii, 417.
Rumana, I., 203.
Runenzauber, O., ii, 417.
Russia, F., 137-150.
characteristics of Russian music,
F., 137-138.
folk-songs of, F., 139, 141, 142.
musical instruments of:
balalaika, I., 92.
gousli, I., 132.
Russian horn, I., 203.
composers of, F., 146 ; I., 26, 27.
Russia, school of music in, F.,
142.
Society of Innovators, F., 146.
Asiatic, names of musical in-
struments :
tbari, I., 223.
zourna, or soma, I., 254.
Russian horn, I., 203.
illus., I., 20<>.
Russian Symphony Society, A., 279.
Russian and Ludmilla, O., ii, 417.
Russulka, O., ii, 417.
Ruth, O., ii, 417.
Ruy Bias, O., ii, 417.
Ryno, O., ii, 417.
Ryuteki, I., 203.
Sa fa fir, I., 204.
Sabi, I., 203.
Sabinus, O., ii, 418.
Sabots et le Cereisier, Les, O., ii,
418.
Sacerdotessa d'Irminsul, La, O., ii,
418.
Sackbut, I., 204.
Sacountala, O., ii, 418.
Sacred music, E., i, 309.
Sacrifizio d'Abramo, O., ii, 418.
Sacrifizio d'Epito, II, O., ii, 418.
Sadko, O., ii, 418.
Saenger, Oscar, How to Succeed
as a Public Singer, E., i,
287-322.
Sagat, I., 204.
Saihwang, I., 204.
Sailor, songs of, A., 128-132.
Saint Augustine, F., 183.
Saint Ambrose, E„ i, 327.
Saint Cecilia Society, formed in
America, A., 213.
influence of, A., 266.
Saint Dustan, F., 195.
Saint Paul, O. M., 137.
Saint Philip of Neri, O. M., 12-13.
Saint-Saens, Camille.
Helene, O., ii, 309.
Samson and Delilah, O., ii, 83.
portrait, O. M., 332.
Sakuntala, O., ii, 418.
Salambo, O., ii, 418.
Salaries, choir singer, E., i, 310,
312.
INDEX
li
Salaries, grand opera, E., i, 298,
light opera, E„ 1, 301.
lyceum work, E., i, 305.
vaudeville, E., i, 305.
Sallustia, La, O., ii, 418.
Salmodikon, I., 204.
Salome, I., 29 ;' O., ii, 311.
Saltarello, popular Italian dance,
F., 88; T., 187, 188.
Salvator Rosa, O., ii, 418.
Samisen, I., 205.
Samson, O. M., 103.
Samson and Delilah, O., ii, 83.
Samuius, I., 205.
San Carlo Opera Company, A., 246.
San-gen-dakin, I., 205.
San hsien, I., 205.
San-no-tsuzumi, I., 206.
Sancio Pansa, Governatore dell'
Isola Barataria, O., ii, 418.
Sanctus, O. M., 304.
Sanga, O., ii, 419.
S'ankhu, I., 206.
Santa Chiara, O., ii, 419.
Santa Lucis, A, O., ii, 419.
Santir, I., 206.
Saphir, Le, O., ii, 419.
Sapho, O., ii, 419.
Sapphire Necklace, The, O., ii, 419.
Sappho, O., ii, 419.
Sar mundai, I., 206.
Saraband, T., 183.
Saracen, The, O., ii, 419.
Sarah, O., ii, 419.
Sarangi, I., 206.
Sardanapal, O., ii, 419.
Sarema, O., ii, 419.
Sarinda, I., 206.
Sarrusophone, I., 206.
Satanella, or The Power of Love,
O., ii, 419.
Satiro, II, O., ii, 419.
Satsuma-biwa, I., 206.
Savage, Henry W. ; A., 247, 348.
Saul, O. M., 75.
Saul, Konig von Israel, O., ii, 419.
Sausage bassoon, I., 206.
Savonarola, O., ii, 419.
Saw tai, I., 207.
Sawitri, O., ii, 419.
Sax horn, I., 207.
Saxophone, description of, I., 61,
207.
Scala, La, Milan, frontispiece, O., ii.
Scale, E., i, 56, 203-209 ; ii, 50-52.
chromatic, E., ii, 117, 121; T.,
41, 61.
degrees of, T., 70.
development of, T., 25-30.
diatonic, E., ii, 117; T., 41.
major, E., ii, 117-119, 130; T.,
264, 265.
melodic, E., ii, 120, 340, 341.
minor, E., ii, 118-120; T., 264,
265.
preparatory exercises, E., i, 191-
198.
relations, E., i, 25, 26.
structural, E., ii, 120.
Scaltra Governatrice, La, O., ii,
419.
Scanderbeg, O., ii, 419.
Scandinavia, F., 171-191.
characteristics of music in, F.,
173.
dances of, F., 174.
folk-music of, F., 172.
lur, I., 157.
musical instruments of, F., 174.
songs of, F., 175.
Scarlatti, Alessandro ; O. M., 16 ;
T., 16.
father of modern Italian opera,
F., 93.
Scarlet Letter, The, O., ii, 419.
Scenes from Goethe's Faust., O. M.,
173.
Schach dem Konig, O., ii, 420.
Schalmey, I., 208.
Schatzgraer, Der, O., ii, 420.
Schauspieldirektor, Der, O., ii, 420.
Scheff, Madame Frltzi, portrait,
O., ii, 8Ul.
Scheithold, I., 208.
Schellenbaum, I., 208.
Scherzo, T., 185, 186.
Schiava, La, O., ii, 420.
Schiava Fortunata, La, O., ii, 420.
Schiava per Amore, O., ii, 420.
Schiavo, La, O., ii, 420.
Schiavo di Sua Moglie, II, O., ii,
420.
Schiguene, I., 208.
Schirmer, Gustave & Rudolph, mu-
sic publishers, A., 340.
Schirmer's Library of Musical
Classics, A., 344.
Hi
INDEX
Schlafende Prinzess, Die, O., ii,
420.
Schliisselfidel, I., 208.
Schneewittchen, O., ii, 420.
Schneider Fips, O., ii, 420.
Schoenfeld, Henry, A., 300.
Schon Rohtraut, O., ii, 420.
Schone Galatea, Die, O., ii, 420.
Schonen von Forgaras, Die, O., ii,
420.
Schonste M&dchen in Stadtchen,
Das, O., ii, 420.
School, see Music in the Public
schools.
see Singing schools.
Schoschi, I., 208.
Schroder - Devrient, Wilhelmina,
portrait, O., ii, 151.
Schubert, Franz ; E., i, 317 ; I., 15.
Schumann, Robert ; I., 15 ; T., 287.
Paradise and the Peri, O. M., 167.
Scenes from Goethe's Faust,
O. M., 173.
works of, E., i, 101, 102.
Schumann-Heink, Madame Ernes-
tine, portrait, O., i, 241.
Schumgha, I., 209.
Schtitz, Heinrich; O. M., 18.
Schwarze Kaschka, Die, O., ii, 420.
Schweizerfamilie, Die, O., ii, 420.
Scipio, O., ii, 421.
Scipione nelle Cartagena, O., ii,
421.
Scipione nelle Spagne, O., ii, 421.
Scotland, folk-songs of, F., 218-
221.
musical instruments of, F., 222-
224.
national melodies of, F., 219.
origin of music in, F., 217.
songs of, F., 218-221.
Scuffiara, La, O., ii, 421.
Se, I., 209.
Se Sa Minga, O., ii, 422.
Sea songs, American, A., 128-133.
English, F., 205.
Seaou-po, I., 209.
Sea trumpet, I., 209.
Seasons, The, O. M., 127.
Sebi, I., 209.
Secret, Le, O., ii, 421.
See saw duang, I., 209.
See-saw-oo, I., 209.
Seekadet, Der, O., Ii, 421.
Seelewig, O., ii, 421.
Seher von Khorassan, Der, O., ii
421.
Seigneur Bienfaisant, Le, O., ii,
421.
Seiteki, I., 210.
Sejour Militaire, Le, O., ii, 421.
Selima and Azor, O., ii, 421.
Selvaggia, La, O., ii, 421.
Sembrich, Madame Marcella, por-
trait, O., ii, 239.
Semiramide, O., i, 93.
Semiramis, O., ii, 421.
Semitone, T., 41, 43-45.
Sen Lesa, O., ii, 421.
Seounofuye, I., 210.
Sequence, E., ii, 260-265.
harmonic, E., ii, 260-265.
melodic, E., ii, 258-260.
Sfiraphina, La, O., ii, 421.
Seraphine, I., 210.
Serenade, T., 227.
Sergeant Brue, O., ii, 421.
Serinette, I., 210.
Serpent, I., 210.
Serse, O., ii, 421.
Serva Innamorata, La, O., ii, 421.
Serva Padrona, La, O., ii, 421.
Servia, festivals of, F., 164.
folk-songs of, F., 164.
gusla, I., 133.
popular songs of, F., 165.
Sesostrate, O., ii, 422.
Seventh, chords of, T., 75, 265, 266.
Seze, I., 211.
Shading, T., 318.
Shakugio, I., 211.
Shakuhachi, I., 211.
Shamus O'Brien, O., ii, 243:
Sharp, E., ii, 115 ; T., 41-44.
Shawm, I., 211.
She Stoops to Conquer, O., ii, 422.
Sherif, Le, O., ii, 422.
Shi-yo, I., 211.
Shichi-gen-kin, I., 211.
Shichiriki, I., 211.
Shime-daiko, I., 211.
Sho Gun, The, O., ii; 422.
Sho, or shi-yo, shono-fuye, I., 211.
shono-fuye, I., 211.
Shop Girl, The, O., ii, 422.
Shophar, I., 45, 211.
Shuang-ch'in, I., 212.
Shun, I., 212.
INDEX
liii
Shunk, or s'ankhu, I., 212.
Siakuhachi, I., 212.
Siam, musical instruments of:
charp, I., 106.
ching, I., 107.
heem, I., 140.
klong khek, I., 152.
klong pong pink, I., 152.
klong to roti pote, I., 152.
klong yai, I., 152.
klui, I., 152.
koy, I., 154.
kra chapee, I., 154.
krap puang, I., 154.
la kang, I., 156.
no, I., 170.
peechawar, I., 177.
pee, I., 177.
phang, I., 177.
pin, I., 189.
ranat ek, I., 200.
rumana, I., 203.
saw tai, I., 207.
see saw duang, I., 209.
see-saw-oo, I., 209.
song nah, I., 214.
sung, I., 216.
ta 'khay, I., 217.
thone, I., 223.
yang 'ong, I., 250.
Siamisen, I., 212.
Sibelius, Jean, Finnish composer,
F., 182.
Siberia, truba, I., 227.
Siberia (opera), O., ii, 422.
Sibirskije Ochotnikie, O., ii, 422.
Sicilian Bride, The, O., ii, 422.
Siciliana, Italian dance, F., 88.
Sicilien, Le, O., ii, 422.
Side drum, I., 212.
Sieben Kaben, Die, O., ii, 422.
Si6ge de Corinthe, Le, O., ii. 422.
Siege de Leyde, Le, O., ii, 422.
Si8ge de Lille, Le, O., ii, 422.
Siege of Belgrade, The, O., ii, 422.
Siege of Rochelle, The, O., ii, 422.
Siegfried, O., ii, 53.
Siface, Re di Numidia, O., ii, 423.
Signa, O., ii, 423.
Signature, E., ii, 122, 124, 125.
change of, E., ii, 127.
major key, E., ii, 124, 125.
minor key, E., ii, 126, 127.
Sigurd, O., ii, 163.
Silvana, O., ii, 423.
Silvano, O., ii, 423.
Silvie, O., ii, 423.
Simon Boecanegro, O., ii, 423.
Simple period, T., 177, 178.
Sindi, I., 213.
Singer, how to succeed as a public,
E., i, 237-319.
Singing master, A., 180, 181.
Singing schools, A., 175-182 ; T., 17.
Singspiel auf dem Dache, Das, O.,
ii, 423.
Siroe, O., ii, 423.
Sistrum, I., 51, 213.
Sitar, I., 213.
Sixth chord, French, E., ii, 268.
German, E., ii, 268.
Slave, The, O., ii, 423.
Slave songs, edited by, A., 53.
music of the past, A., 59.
Sleepy Hollow, O., ii, 423.
Slide trombone, I., 213.
Smetana, Friedrich, Bohemian
composer, F., 167.
Smith, Rev. Samuel; A., 125.
Snare drum, I., 213.
Snegorotchka, O., ii., 423.
So-na, I., 213.
So-no-koto, I., 214.
Soeur Officieuse, La, O., ii, 423.
Sofonisba, O., ii, 423.
Soggettos, T., 154.
Soixante-Six, Le, O., ii, 423.
Solange, O., ii, 423.
Soldat Magicien, Le, O, ii, 423.
Soldier, songs of A., 101-127.
Soliman der Zweite, O., ii, 423.
Solimanno, O., ii, 423.
Solitaire, Le, O., ii, 423.
Solo singing, A., 165.
appreciation, T., 319-325.
elements of good singing, T., 321-
325.
Solomon, Edward, Billee Taylor,
O., ii, 105..
Son-in-law, The, O., ii, 424.
Sona rappa, or dosa, I., 213.
Sonata, E., i, 32, 59, 60, 73-76.
chamber, T., 197.
church, T., 197.
definition of, T., 194.-
development of, T., 197.
modern, T., 197, 198.
musical forms of, T., 195, 196.
liv
INDEX
Sonata Appasionata, op. No. 57,
Beethoven, T„ 214-220.
Sonata da camera, T., 197.
Sonata de chiesa, T., 197.
Sonata Pathetique, op. No. 13,
Beethoven, T., 198-202.
Sonata Quasi Una Fantasie, op. No.
2, Beethoven, T., 202-206.
Sonata, Waldstein, op. No. 53, T.,
206-214.
Sonatinas, study of, E., i, 73-76.
Song-form, T., 179, 180.
Song nah, I., 214.
Song of Destiny, O. M., 205.
Song recital, E., i, 312.
Songe d'une Nuit d'fitfi, lie, O., ii,
423.
Songs, bailad, T., 338, 339.
Canadian, F., 231, 232.
Chinese, F., 25.
college glee club, A., 89.
college, A., 88, 89.
coon, A., 70.
English, F., 205, 207.
Finnish, F., 180.
folk-song, T., 338.
French, F., 128.
German, F., 109-118, 124.
gospel hymns, A., 88, 90.
Hindu, F., 47-51.
importance of, T., 308, 309.
Indian, A., 42, 43 ; T., 1-4.
Irish, F.. 211, 214.
Italian, F., 82-86.
Japanese, F., 30-33.
Korean, F., 38-41.
Mexican, F., 67.
minstrel, A., 64, 68.
negro, A., 52; T., 339, 340.
Norwegian, F., 188.
popular, A., 72, 80, 83-85.
popular, classified, A., 85.
Russian, F., 139-142.
sacred, T., 343-345.
sailor, A., 128-132.
Scandinavian, F., 175.
Scottish, F., 218-221.
Servian, F., 165.
slave, A., 53, 59.
soldier, A., 101-127.
Spanish-American War, A., 131,
132.
Swedish, F., 182-185.
Turkish, F., 61.
Songs, War of 1812, A., 114, 115,
129.
Welsh, F., 225.
windlass, A., 133-134.
Sonnambula, La, O., i, 121.
Sonorophone, I., 214.
Soor, I., 214.
Soorsringa, I., 214.
Soote, I., 214.
Sophie et Moncars, O., ii, 424.
Sophocle, O., ii, 424.
Soprano, coloratura, E., i, 319.
dramatic, E., i, 320.
lyric-dramatic, E., i, 319.
Sorcerer The, O., ii, 79.
Sorcier, Le, O., ii, 424.
Sorrentine, La, O., ii, 424.
Sosarme, O., ii, 424.
Souffarah, I., 120, 214.
Sound, development of, T., 33.
reflection of, I., 39.
result of, T., 25.
travels, I., 38.
vibrations, I., 40; T., 27.
waves, T., 69.
Soung, I., 214.
Sourna-koto, I., 215.
Sousa, John Philip, his life, A., 91,
92.
his operas, A., 96.
portrait, Musical Biogs., ii, 400.
Soutak, I., 215.
South America, huayra-puhura, I.,
143.
Souvenirs de Lafleur, Les, O., ii,
424.
Spain, conservatories of, F., 248.
development of music in, F.,
243-249.
folk-songs of, F., 244.
Gypsies in, F., 245.
musical instruments of, F., 245.
bandurria, I., 93.
castanets, I., 103.
jouet, I., 146.
machete, 1., 161.
Spanish-American War, developed
little in American sea songs,
A., 131, 132.
Spanish Barber, or A Futile Pre-
caution, The O., ii, 424.
Spanish composers, F., 246, 247.
zarzuela and tonadilla, F., 247,
248.
INDEX
lv
Spanish Maid, The, O., ii, 424.
Spartaso, O., ii, 424.
Specter's Bride, The, O., ii, 424;
O. M., 231.
Spectre Knight, The, O., ii, 424.
Spia, La, O., ii, 424.
Spiccato, E., ii, 46-48.
Spielgelritter, Der, O., ii, 424.
Spiering, Theodore; E., ii, 25-59.
Spinet, E., ii, 98-106; I., 215.
first American, A., 265.
octave, I., 172.
Spitzharfe, or Davidharfe, I., 215.
Spoon fiddle, I., 215.
Spohr, Louis, The Last Judgment,
O. M., 133.
Spohr, Ludwig; O. M., 25.
Sposa Fedele, La, O., ii, 424.
Sposa di Tre, Marito, di Nessuna,
La, O., ii, 424.
Stabat Mater, O. M., 286.
Stabat Mater (Dvorak), O. M.,
355.
Stabat Mater (Rossini), O. M.,
339.
Staccato, E., i, 55, 184, 185, 281 ;
ii, 41, 42, 141.
Staff, E., ii, 111-113.
exercises, E., ii, 116.
great, E., ii, 112-113.
invention of, T., 34-37.
notation, E., ii, 110.
Stamitz, Johann Carl ; I., 12.
Stanford, Charles V., Shamus
O'Brien, O., ii, 243.
" Star-spangled Banner," A., 113.
Starr, Frederick, Music of Primi-
tive Peoples, F., 1-15.
Statue, La, O., ii, 424.
Steinway, Henry Engelhard; A.,
321, 322.
Steinway piano, A., 321.
Stelle die Tanzerin, O., ii, 424.
Stock, Frederick, Development of
Orchestra, I., 9-30.
Sternenkbnigin, Die, O., ii, 424.
Stiff el io, O., ii, 424.
Stone harmonica, I., 215.
Stoughton Musical Society, A., 213.
Stradella, Alessandro; T., 16.
Stradella (opera), O., i, 215.
Stranger at Home, The, O., ii, 424.
Straniera, La, O., ii, 424.
Stratonjce, 0., ii, 424.
Strauss, Johann.
Die Fledermaus, O., ii, 9.
The Merry War, O., ii, 129.
The Queen's Lace Handkerchief,
O., ii, 113.
Strauss, Richard; I., 12, 28, 29.
Feuersnot, O., ii, 299.
Salome, O., ii, 311.
portrait, T., 241.
Streich-zither, I., 215.
Streichholzmadel, Das, O., ii, 425.
Streik der Schmiede, Der, O., ii,
425.
Stress, E., i, 268, 275-277.
Stretto, T., 163, 164.
String band, I., 82.
Strohfidel, I., 215.
Strollers, The, O., ii, 425.
Stuart, Leslie, Florodoro, O., ii,
261.
Student King, The, O., ii, 425.
Style, E., i, 267, 315.
Su-d'zu, I., 216.
Su-lo, I., 216.
Subject, andamentos, T., 154.
character of theme, T., 153.
compass employed, T., 154.
division of, T., 152.
key of, T., 153.
length of, T., 153.
soggettos, T., 154.
vocal, T., 154.
Subordinate chord, E., ii, 238-241.
Success, essentials of, E., i, 305.
Suite, E., i, 70.
Sullivan, Sir Arthur Seymour; A.,
94, 95 ; F., 205 ; O., 37.
Iolanthe, O., ii, 151.
Patience, O., ii, 125.
Pinafore, O., ii, 87.
The Mikado, O., ii, 175.
The Pirates of Penzance, O., ii,
101.
The Sorcerer, O., ii, 79.
The Yeoman of the Guard, O., ii,
195
Sultan of Mocha, The, O., ii, 425.
Sultan of Sulu, The, O., ii, 287.
Summary and Outlook, A., 345-349.
Sundari, I., 216.
Sung, I., 216.
SuppS, Franz von.
Boccaccio, O., ii, 91.
Fatinitza, O., ii, 29.
lvi
INDEX
Suspension, E., ii, 307-310; T„ 79,
80.
Susse Gift, Das, O., ii, 425.
Suzanne, O., ii, 425.
Sweden, dances of, F., 183.
folk-songs, F., 183, 184.
opera in, F., 185.
songs of, F., 182.
student songs, F., 184.
Sweelinck, Jan Pieters ; T., 142.
Sylphen, Die, O., ii, 425.
Sylvia, O., ii, 425.
Symmetry, E., i, 49.
Symphonic poem, T., 224, 225.
Symphonie, La, O., ii, 425.
Symphony, E., i, 32.
consists of, T., 220.
definition of, T., 220.
description of, as played by or-
chestra, T., 274, 275.
Symphony orchestra ; see Boston
Symphony Orchestra.
see New York Symphony Orches-
tra.
Syncopation, E., ii, 166-171.
Syria, musical instruments of:
bizug, I., 99.
daraboukkeh, I., 118.
e'oud, I., 122.
faggeishah, I., 122.
gotchnag, I., 132.
guenbri, I., 132.
meijiwiz, I., 163.
minjairah, I., 163.
naggareh, I., 167.
nay, I., 168.
rebab esh sha'er, I., 200.
rikk, I., 2u2.
zamr-el-kebyr, I., 252.
syrinx, I., 216.
Szep Hon, O., ii, 425.
Tabarin, O., ii, 425.
Tabbalat arrakeb, I., 216.
Tabbalat, I., 216.
Tab'l bel 'edee, I., 216.
Tabl-shamee, I., 216.
Tabla, I., 216.
Tableau Parlant, Le, O., ii, 425.
Tabor, I., 216.
Taglioni, Italian dancer, F., 89.
Taiau, I., 216.
Tajewstoi, O., ii, 425.
Takachihokin, I., 216.
Ta 'khay, I., 217.
Talismano, II, O., Ii, 425.
Talking machine, A., 336.
Tallls, Thomas, father of English
church music, T., 124.
Tam-tam, I., 218.
Tambour, I., 218.
Tambour de Provence, I., 217.
Tamboura, I., 217.
Tambourin a cordes, I., 217.
Tambourin du Beam, I., 217.
Tambourine, I., 217.
Tambura, I., 217.
Tamburello, I., 218.
Tamerlan, O., ii, 425.
Tamerlano, O., ii, 425.
Taming of the Shrew, The, O.,
ii, 1.
Tammany, or The Indian Chief,
O., ii, 425.
Tanbour bouzourk, I., 218.
Tanbour kebyr, I., 218.
Tanbourica, I., 218.
Tanbouritza, I., 218.
Tancrgde, O., ii, 426.
Tancredi, O., ii, 426.
Tang-tze, I., 218.
Taniousha, O., ii, 426.
Tannhauser, I., 20, 21, 22; O., 1.
217.
Tante Schlaft, Die, O., ii, 426.
Tanzerin, Die, O., ii, 426.
T'ao-ken, I., 218.
Taoosee, I., 219.
Tapaka, I., 219.
Tar, I., 219.
Tar de messamah, I., 219.
Tarantella, F., 87; T., 187, 188.
Tarare, O., ii, 426.
Taste, in art, T., 242-245.
Tatooed Man, The, O., ii, 426.
Taucher, Der, O., ii, 426.
Taus, I., 219.
Tayuc, mayuri, taus, esrar, or mo-
hur, I., 219.
T*e-ch'ing, I., 219.
Technic, elementary, E., i, 55-56.
finger, E., I, 54, 56.
practise, E., i, 63.
wrist and octave, E., i, 67.
Technical training, early develop-
ment, E., i, 112-116.
INDEX
lvii
Technical training, intermediate
grades, E., i, 118-119.
advanced stage, E., i, 119-122.
Technique, aim of piano, T., 282.
development of pianoforte T., 7-
13.
development of vocal, T„ 16-23.
exponents of, T., 10-13.
$ present state of pianoforte, T.,
10.
Teeter melodeon, I., 219.
Teikin, I., 219.
Tekeli, O., ii, 426.
Tekkin, I., 219.
Telharmonium, A., 338 ; I., 220.
Telyn, I., 222.
Temperament, T., 41, 42, 43.
of pianist, T., 283.
Tempesta, La, O., ii, 426.
Templario, II, O., ii, 426.
Templer und die Judin, Der, O., ii,
426.
Templiers, Les, O., ii, 426.
Tempo, B., ii, 65, 138, 139, 140, 385.
direction, E., i, 33.
Tenor, dramatic, E., i 321.
lyric-dramatic, E., i, 320.
Tenor drum, I., 222.
Tenoroon, I., 222.
Teodora, O., ii, 426.
Ternary form, T., 180.
Terpander, father of Greek music,
T., 30.
Terzina, I., 222.
Teseo, O., ii, 426.
Tess, O., ii, 426.
Testament, ou Les Billets Doux,
Le, O., ii, 426.
Tetrachord, E., ii, 122-123; T., 32,
33.
Teufel 1st Los, Der, O., ii, 427.
Teufel's Lust-Schloss, Des, O., ii,
427.
Teufelswand, Die, O., ii, 427.
T'gutha, I., 222.
Thais, O., ii, 427.
Than-hwin, I., 223.
Than-khanjani, I., 223.
Thanksgiving Day, cantatas for,
E., i, 373.
Thari, I., 223.
Tharsis and Z§he, O., n, 427.
Thayer, Alexander Wheelock.
American critic, A., 303.
Theme, T., 135, 146, 153.
Theorbo, I., 223.
Theory, elementary, E., ii, 107-192.
bibliography, T., 351-358.
Thetis et Pelee, O., ii, 427.
Thiele, Edward, E., i, 388.
Thirty Thousand, O., ii, 427.
Thomas, Ambroise, Mignon, O., i,
309.
Thomas, Theodore, conductor of
American Opera Company,
A., 249.
established permanent orchestra
in Chicago, A., 279.
instituted famous Symphony
soirees, A., 277.
musical conductor, A., 311.
portrait, A., 272.
Thomas and Sally, 0., ii, 427.
Thomyris, Queen of Scythia, O.,
ii, 427.
Thone, I., 223.
Thorgrini, O., ii, 427.
Thro, I., 223.
Thurm ze Babel, Der, O., ii, 427.
Thiirner's Tochterlein, O., ii, 427.
T'i-ch'in, I., 223.
Ti-tzu, I., 223.
Tibiae impares, I., 223.
Tietland, Im, O., ii, 427.
" Ties Ira?," O. M., 287.
Tigrane, O., ii, 427.
Tilda, O., ii, 427.
Till Eulenspiegel, O., ii, 427.
Timbali, I., 223.
Timbre, E., ii, 109, 110 ; I., 35, 36.
Timbre d'Argent, Le, O., ii, 427.
Time, perfect and imperfect, T., 48.
pulse, E., i, 30.
relation, E., i, 38.
signature, T., 49; E. i., 32.
Timide, Le, O., ii, 427.
Timocrate, O., ii, 427.
Tinctor, Johannes, E., i, 328.
Tinel, Edgar, Franciscus, O. M.,
237.
To, I., 224.
Toberne; ou, Le Pecheur Suidois,
O., ii, 427.
Toccata, definition of, T., 143.
Tochter des Pachters, Die, O., n,
427.
Tochter Granada's, Die, O., ii, 427.
Toinon et Toinette, O., ii, 427.
Iviii
INDEX
Tolo tolo, O., 224.
Tolommeo, O., ii, 427.
Tom Jones, O., ii, 428.
Tonadilla, F., 247, 248.
Tonal actions, E., i, 14.
chromatic, freedom in, E., ii, 327-
335.
effects, E., ii, 55-58.
idea, E., i, 11, 13.
imagination, E., i, 20.
Tonality, T., 25-51.
expansion of, E., ii, 344-354.
Tone, E., i, 250, 259; I., 35-37, 47.
auxiliary or alternating, E., ii,
306.
chromatic, T., 43; E. ii., 256-
258; T., 44.
color in single, E., ii, 153.
color in combinations of, E., ii,
154.
composition of a, T., 67, 68.
cultivating high, T., i, 252.
exercises in use of non-har-
monic, E., ii, 313-315.
in solo singing, T., 321-323.
interval of, T., 45.
non-harmonic, E., ii, 300-306.
passing, T., 80; E., ii, 303-306.
pedal, T., 81.
range of, E., i, 25.
sustaining, E., i, 267, 271-273.
Tonelli, La, O., ii, 428.
Tonic, T., 70.
Tonkari, I., 224.
Tonnelier, Le, O., ii, 428.
Toomerie nagassaran, I., 224.
Tootoore, I., 224.
Topfer, Der, O., ii, 428.
Torbane, I., 224.
Torquato Tasso, O., ii, 428.
Tosca, La, O., ii, 265.
Toscanini, Artuso, E., i, 336, 338.
Totentanz, Der, O., ii, 428.
Touch, E.. i, 55, 61, 120, 179-180,
201; E., ii, 140.
legato, E. i, 61, 281.
staccato, E., i, 61.
stroke, E., i, 182.
wrist pressure, E., i, 186.
Toulon Soumis, O., ii, 428.
T'oungsye, I., 224.
Tower of Babel, The, O. M., 193.
Tragaldabas, O., ii, 428.
"Tramp, Tramp, Tramp," A., 121.
Trank der Unsterblichkeit, Der,
O., ii, 428.
Trapezoid, or box fiddle, I., 224.
Traum Else, O., ii, 428.
Traveler's violin, I., 225.
Traviata, La, O., i, 263.
Tre Nozze, Le, O., ii, 428.
Tremolo, E., ii, 56, 144.
Tresor Suppose, Le. ou, Le Dan-
ger d'iicounter aux Portes,
O., ii, 428.
Triad, E., ii, 195-216; T., 71-75,
264.
augmented, E., ii, 181, 330.
diminished T., ii, 181.
major, E., ii, 178.
Trial by Jury, O., ii, 428.
Triangle, I., 51, 225.
Tribut de Zamora, Le, O., ii, 428.
Trill, E., ii, 48-50.
Trionfo della Liberta, II, O., M,
428.
Trionfo di Camillo, II, O., ii, 429.
Trionfo di Clelia, II, O., ii, 429.
Tristan and Isolde, I., 23; O., i,
303.
Triumph of Bacchus, The, O., ii,
429.
Tromba marina, I., 25.
Trombone, I., 226.
Trompette de la Prince, Le, O., ii,
429.
Troqueurs, Les, O., ii, 429.
Troubadour, The, O., ii, 429.
Troubadours, The, F., 99-107; T.,
223.
era of, F., 100.
famous, F., 103-106.
French, F., 129.
songs of, F., 100.
Trovatore, II, O., i, 255.
Troyens a Carthage, Les, O., i,
291.
Truba, I., 227.
Trumpet, I., 227.
Trumpeter of Sakkingen, The, O.,
ii, 171.
Trumscheit, I., 228.
Tschaikowsky, Peter Iljitch, F.,
148; I., 26.
Eugen Onfigin, O., ii, 71.
Tseng, I., 228.
Tsu-ku, I., 228.
Tsuma-koto, I., 228.
INDEX
lix
Tsuri-daiko, I., 228.
Tsuri kane, I., 229.
Tuba, I., 229.
Tuckey, William, singing master,
A., 181.
Tumburu, I., 230.
Tunes, first collection of harmon-
ized tunes, issued in Amer-
ica, A., 145.
Tungkeo, I.. 230.
Tuning, equal and theoretical, T.,
42.
Turandot, O., ii, 429.
Turk in Italia, II, O., ii, 429.
Turkey, music in, F., 59-64.
musical instruments of, F., 60.
baz, I., 97.
dabbous, I., 117.
dairi, I., 118.
duduki dudku, souffarah, I.,
120.
gele-masha, I., 128.
kanoon, or qanan, I., 147.
kemangeh, kemantche, I., 149.
santir, I., 206.
schellenbaum, or Chapeau chi-
nois, I., 208.
tab'l bel'edee, I., 216.
tanbour bouzourk, I., 218.
tanbour kebyr, I., 218.
zil, I., 253.
songs of, F., 61.
Turkish music, illus., F., 59.
Tutti in Maschera, O., ii, 429.
Twiddle-Twaddle, O., ii, 429.
Ty, I., 230.
Tye, Christopher, T., 124.
Tzetze, I,. 230.
U
Udakea, I., 230.
Ulrich von Hutton, O., ii, 429.
Ultimo Giorno di Pompeia, V, O.,
ii, 388.
Umpan, I., 230.
Un'Avventura di Scaramuccia, O.,
ii, 429. ..
Un Avvertimento ai Gelosi, O., n,
429.
Un Jour a Paris, O., ii, 430.
Undine, O., ".429.
Une Pour l'Autre, L' O., n, 388.
Uniform, Die, O., ii, 430.
United States. See America and
American.
University of Pennsylvania, chair
of music established in, A.,
199.
Unmoglichste von Allen, Das, O.,
ii, 430.
Unterbrochene Opferfest, Das, O.,
ii, 430.
Untersberg, Der, O., ii, 430.
Urania, musical publication, A.,
150.
Uranian Society, A., 212.
Urvasi, O., ii, 430.
Uta-daiko, I., 230.
Uthal, O., ii, 430.
Utopia Limited, O., ii, 430.
Vagabund, Der, O., ii, 430.
Vakoula le Forgeron, O., ii, 430.
Val d'Andorre, Le, O., ii, 430.
Valentine de Milan, O., ii, 430.
Valeria, O., ii, 430.
Valet de Ohambre, Le, O., ii, 430.
Valet de Deux Maitres, Le, O., ii,
430.
Valet de Ferme, Le, O., ii, 431.
Valga, I., 231.
Valiha, I., 231.
Valkyrie, The, O., ii, 47.
Valved horn, I., 231.
Valved trombone, I., 231.
Valved trumpet, I., 231.
Vampyr, Der, O., ii, 431.
Van Cleve, John Smith, A., 307.
Van Dyck, O., ii, 431.
Van Rooy, Anton, portrait, O., i,
325.
Vassall von Szigeth, Der, O., ii,
431.
Vasco da Gama, O., ii, 431.
Vaterunser, Das, O., ii, 431.
Vaudeville, E., i, 304.
Vibration, E., ii, 109.
Vibrato, E., ii, 48-50.
Vecchio Marito, II, O., ii, 431.
Vedova Scaltra, La, O.. ii, 431.
Veiled Prophet, The, O., ii, 431.
Velleda, Die Zauberin des Brock-
ens, O., ii, 431.
Venceslao, O., ii, 431.
Vendatte, La, O., ii, 431.
Ix
INDEX
"Veni, Sancte Spiritus," O. M.,
286.
Venice, first public opera-house in,
F., 92.
folk-songs of, F., 84.
Vgpres Siciliennes, Les, O., ii, 431.
Vera Costana, La, O., ii, 431.
Verbum Nobile, O., ii, 431.
Verdi, Giuseppe, F., 96 ; I., 25, 26 ;
O., i, 36, 37.
Ai'da, O., i, 335.
Ballo in Maschera, II, O., i, 275.
Ernani, O., i, 211.
Falstaff, O., ii, 217.
Otello, O., ii, 187.
Requiem Mass, O. M., 349.
Rigoletto, O., i, 251.
Traviata, La, O., i, 263.
Trovatore, II, O., i, 255.
Verful Cu Dor, O., ii, 431.
Vergine del Sole, La, O., ii, 432.
Verkaufte Braut, Die, O., ii, 432.
Verlobung zu der Laterne, Die, O.,
ii, 432.
Verlorene Paradies, Das, O., ii,
432.
Vernarrte Prinzess, Die, O., ii, 432.
Veronique, O., ii, 251.
Verschwender, Der, O., ii. 432.
Verschworenen, Die, O., ii, 432.
Versiegelt, O., ii, 432.
Vestale, La, O.. ii, 432.
Versunkene Glocke, Die, O., ii, 432.
Veueve Indecise, La, O., ii, 432.
Viaggiatori Ridicoli, I, O.. ii, 432.
Viaggio a Reims, II, O., ii, 432.
Vibrations, I., 31-37, 40, 47.
Vicar of Bray, The, O., ii, 432.
Vicar of Wakefield, The, O., ii, 433.
"Victimae Paschali," O. M., 286.
Vie Parisienne, La, O., ii, 433.
Vielle, I., 231.
Vieille, La, O., ii, 433.
Vier Grobiane, Die, O., ii, 433.
Vieux Chateau, Le, O., ii, 433.
Vieux Coquet, Le, O., ii, 433.
Vieuxtemps, Henri, E., ii, 17.
Viking's Voyage, The, O., ii, 433.
Village Opera, The, O., ii, 433.
Villi, Le, O., ii, 433.
Vina, I., 231.
Vineta, O., ii, 433.
Viol, I., 78, 231.
Viol family, illus., I., 235.
Viola, I., 232.
Viola bastarda, lyra viol, I., 233.
Viola da braccio, I., 233.
Viola da gamba, I., 233.
Viola d'Amore, E., ii, 92-94 ; I., 233.
Viola da spalla, I., 235.
Viola de gamba, E., ii, 88-92.
Viola di bordone, I., 235.
Viola pomposa, I., 235.
Viola-zither, I., 235.
Violette, La, O., ii, 433.
Violin, I., 235-243.
appreciation, T., 289-295.
cane, I., 103.
evolution of, I., 76.
folding, or traveler's, I., 126.
principle of, I., 42.
violin-making and makers, A.,
332-334.
Violin horn, I., 244.
Violin instruction, graded, E., ii,
5-22.
advanced, E., ii, 25-59.
Violinists, American, A., 310.
Violoncello, or bass viol, I., 245.
Violino del Diavolo, O., ii, 433.
Violone, I., 246.
Viols, E., ii, 85-94.
Virginal, E., ii, 98-106; I., 246.
Virgine, O., ii, 433.
Virtuosi Ambulanti, I, O., ii, 433.
Visitandines, Les, O., ii, 433.
Vissandischi, I., 247.
Vivandiere, La, O., ii, 433.
Vocal music, chants, T., 15, 93, 97.
choral singing, A., 31, 37.
development of church music, T.,
16-23.
effects of, in schools, A., 21, 22.
harmony, E., ii, 386-395.
history of, T., 15-23.
rhythm in, E., i, 377-386.
singing schools, T., 17.
Voice, child, E., i. 266.
female, E., i, 261, 263, 265.
male, E., i, 262, 264, 266.
Voice culture, graded, E., i, 288-
230.
primary, E., i, 225-284.
Voix Humaine, La, O., ii, 433.
"Volunteer Boys, The," A., 104.
Von Weber, Carl Marie, portrait,
T., 273.
Voto, II, O., ii, 433.
INDEX
lxi
Vowels, alteration of, E. 1 256
257, 258.
representative, E., i, 250, 251.
voyage Impromptu, Le, O., ii, 433.
W
Wa-gon, I., 247.
Wagner, Richard; F., 122- I 19-
25; O., 33-36.
portrait, F., 109.
technique of his operas, T 21
22.
Fliegende Hollander, Der. O. i
199.
Gotterdammerung, O., ii, 59.
Lohengrin, O., i, 241.
Meistersinger von Niirnberg,
Die, O., i, 325.
Parsifal, O., ii, 141.
Rheingold, Das, O., ii, 41.
Rienzi, O., i, 195.
Ring des Nibelungen, Der, O., ii,
37.
Siegfried, O., ii, 53.
Tannhauser, O., i, 217.
Tristan and Isolde, O., i, 303.
Walkiire, Die, O., ii, 47.
Wagner, Siegfried, Der Baren-
hauter, O., ii, 255.
Wahle khoht, I., 248.
Waisenhaus, Das, O., ii, 434.
Wakula der Schmied, O., ii, 434.
Wald, Der, O., ii, 434.
Waldemar, O., ii, 434.
Waldhorn, I., 248.
Waldstein Sonata, op. No. 53
(Beethoven), T., 206-214.
Wales, bards and minstrels of, F..
226, 227.
folk-songs of, F., 229.
musical instruments of, F., 229.
songs of, F., 225.
Welsh eisteddfod, F., 227, 228.
Walhalla in Not, O., ii, 434.
Walkiire, Die, O., ii, 47.
Wallace, William Vincent.
Lurline, O., i, 283.
Maritana, O., i, 225.
Wallace, O., ii, 434.
Wally, La, O., ii, 434.
Walpurgisnacht, Die, O., ii, 434.
Walthall, Alfred G., The Sultan
of Sulu, O., ii, 287.
Waltz, composers of, T., 190.
evolution of, T., 189.
musical form of, T., 190.
Waltz Dream, A, O., ii, 434.
Wambee, I., 248.
Wanda, O., ii, 434.
Wang, O., ii, 434.
Waniguchi, I., 248.
War of 1812 (U. S.), songs of, A,
114, 115, 129.
Washington, D. C, marine band
at, A., 285.
Waterman, The, O., ii, 434.
Weber, Carl Maria von, E., i, 60;
I., 15.
Euryanthe, O., i, 97.
Freischiitz, O., i, 87.
' Oberon, O., i, 105.
Weber piano, A., 322.
Weddings, organ music for, E., i,
401.
Wei-shun, I., 248.
Weinlese, Die, O., ii, 434.
Wem die Krone? O., ii, 434.
Werther, O., ii, 434.
" When Johnnie Comes Marching
Home Again," A., 127.
Whiting, Arthur, compositions, A., 6.
Whiting, George Elbridge, A., 307.
Whitney, Samuel Brenton, cele-
brated organist, A., 307.
Whittington and His Cat, O., ii,
434.
Widerspenstigen zahmung, Der,
O., ii, 434.
Wieland der Schmied, O., ii, 435.
Wieniawski, Henri, E., ii, 4, 14.
Wild, Harrison M., Organ Instruc-
tion, E., i, 379-401.
Wilde Jager, Der, O., ii, 435.
Wildschutz, Der, O., ii, 435.
Wilhelm von Oranien, O., ii, 434.
Willaert, Adrian, E., i, 328.
William Ratclifif, O., ii, 435.
William Tell, O., i, 113.
Wind instruments, A., 334.
of Central Africa, F„ 12.
Windlass songs, A., 134.
Witch, The, O., ii, 435.
Wittekind, O., ii, 435.
Wizard of Oz, The, O., ii, 435.
Wizard of the Nile, The, O., ii,
435.
Wolkenkind, Das, O., ii, 435.
lxii
INDEX
Wonder, A; or, The Honest York-
shireman, O., ii, 435.
Wonderland, O., ii, 435.
Wood-wind instruments, descrip-
tion of, I., 84.
Woodman, The, O., ii, 435.
Woi-cester festival, A., 188-190.
Work, Henry Clay, writer of pop-
ular songs, A., 82, 121.
Wreckers, The, O., ii, 435.
Wullner, Dr. Ludwig, E., i, 289,
313.
Wurst fagott, I., 248.
Xacarilla, La, O., ii, 435.
Xaira, O., ii, 435.
Xaira, O., ii, 435.
Xylophone, I., 249.
Ya-gwin, I., 249.
Ya-koto, I., 249.
Yakumo-koto, I., 249.
Yamato-fuye, I., 249.
Yamato-koto, I., 249.
Yan-kin, I., 250.
Yang-ch'in, I., 250.
Yang gum, I., 250.
Yang'ong, I., 250.
"Yankee Doodle," A., 108.
"Yankee Man-of-War, The," A.,
128.
Yayoi-koto, I., 250.
Yektar, I., 251.
Yelva ; or, The Orphan of Russia,
O., ii, 436.
Yeomen of the Guard, The, O., ii,
195.
Yetiva, O., ii, 436.
Ying-ko, I., 251.
Yo-kin, I., 251.
Yo, Yea, O., ii, 436.
Yoko-fuye, I., 251.
Yolande, O., ii, 436.
Young Hussar, The, O., ii, 436.
Youth, Love and Folly, O., ii, 436.
Ysaye, Eugene, portrait, Musical
Biogs., ii, 464.
Yu, I., 251.
Yu-hsiao, I., 252.
Yu-ti, I., 252.
Yueh, I., 251.
Yueh-ch'in, I., 252.
Yun-lo, I., 252.
Yung-chung, I., 252.
Yvonne, O., ii, 436.
Zaide, Queen of Granada, O., ii,
436.
Zaira, O., ii, 436.
Zaire, O., ii, 4cs6.
Zampa, O., i, 125.
Zamr-el-kebyr, I., 252.
Zanetta, O., ii, 436.
Zanetto, O., ii, 436.
Zanze, L, 252.
Zarzuela, F., 247, 248.
Zauberlerher, Der, O., ii, 436.
Zauberflote, Die, O., i, 67.
Zauberschloss, Das, O., ii, 436.
Zaza, O., ii, 275.
Zehn Madchen und Kein Mann, O.,
ii, 436.
Zeisler, Fanny Bloomfield, Ameri-
can pianist, A., 309.
portrait, T., 305.
Zelia, O., ii, 436.
Zelisca, O., ii, 436.
Zelmira, O., ii, 436.
Zeloide; ou, Les Fleurs Enchan-
tees, O., ii, 437.
Zemire and Azor, O., ii, 437.
Zenichove, O., ii, 437.
Zenobia, O., ii, 437.
Zephire et Flore, O., ii, 437.
Zerline ; ou, La Corbeille
d'Oranges, O., ii, 437.
Zerrahn, Carl, A., 216.
Zerstreute, Der, O., ii, 437.
Zerstorung Trojes, Die, O., ii,
437.
Zeze, I., 253.
Zichirei, I., 253.
Zierpuppen, O., ii, 437.
Zil, I., 253.
Zilda, O., ii, 437.
Zingue, L, 253.
Zinken, or cornet a bouquin, I.,
253.
Zirphile et Fleur de Myrthe, O.,
ii, 437.
Zither, I., 100, 253.
Zobo flute, I., 254.
INDEX lxiii
Zobo horn, I., 254. Zummarah, I., 254.
Zoommarah, I., 254. Zwarte Kapitein, De, O., ii, 437.
Zoraija, I., 254. Zweikampf mit der Geilebten, Der,
Zoroastre, O., ii, 437. O., ii, 437.
Zoraine et Zulnare, O., il, 437. >*■ Z'widerwurzen, O., ii, 437.
Zourna, I., 254. Zwillings Brtider, Die, O., ii, 438. ft
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