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CLy±.'C^~Ty<~~
Chau Ju-kua
On the Cliiiiese and. Arab Trade
in the Twelfth and Thirteenth Centuries.
CHAU JU-KUA:
His Work on the Chinese and Arab Trade in the twelfth
and thirteenth Centuries, entitled Chu>^fan>^chi,
Translated from the Chinese and Annotated
by
FRIEDRICH HIRTH
and
W. W^. ROCKHILL.
ST. PETEUSBliRG.
Printing Office of the Imperial Academy of Sciences,
Vass. Ostr., Kinth Liao, 12.
I9II.
rrinted by order of the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
September 1911. Permanent Secretary S. d'Oldenburg,
iOs5"
Prcf eice.
Chau Ju-kua (^ f^ jS), the author of the Chu-fan-cM (^ ^ ;^),
i. e. «A Description of Barbarous Peoples», or «Records of Foreign Nations»,
deserves to be named among the most prominent writers on the ethnography
and trade of his time. As throwing light on the mediaeval trade with the
Far East, then in the hands of Arab or Persian merchants, his notes com-
pete successfully with those of Marco Polo and the early Arab and Christian
travellers. The authors of this volume have, therefore, endeavoured to
furnish a translation, illustrated by notes derived from other sources, which
it is hoped will place readers in the position to fully realize the value of
this new Chinese source on an interesting historical subject,
The Ghu-fan-cM, is a rare and expensive work, obtainable only as part
of certain voluminous collections of reprints. For the benefit of Sinological
readers, therefore, Chinese characters and passages have been frequently
added, and this has increased the difficulty of printing the book, credit for
which is due to the Printing Office of the Imperial Academy of Sciences at
St. Petersburg.
Friearich Hirth. W. W. nockhill.
CONTENTS.
Page
Preface V
Table of Contents VII— X
Introduction 1 — 39
PART 1 41—190
Preface by the Chinese Editor 43
1 . Tongking (Kiau-chi) 45
2. Annam (Chan-ch'5ng) 47
8. Panraug (Pin-t'ung-lung) 51
4. Kamboja (Chon-la) N 52
5. Ligor (?), Malay Peninsula (Tong-liu-mei) 57
6. Pagan, Burma (P'u-kan) 58
7. Palembang, Eastern Sumatra (San-fo-ts'i) 60
8. Kwantan (?), Malay Peninsula (Tan-ma-ling) 67
9. Lengkasuka, Malay Peninsula (Ling-ya-ssi[-kia]) 68
10. Beranang, Malay Peninsula (Fo-lo-an) 69
1 1 . Sunda, Western Java (Sin-t'o) 70
12. Kampar, Eastern Sumatra (Kien-pi) 71
13. Lambri and Island of Ceylon (Lan-wu-li, Si-lan) 72
14. Java (ShO-p'o) 75
15. Central Java (Su-ki-tan) 82
16. Malabar (Nan-p'i) 87
17.. Guzerat (Hu-ch'a-la) 92
18. Malwa (Ma-lo-hua) 93
19. Chola Dominion, Coromandel Coast (Chu-lien) 93
20. Baghdad (Ta-ts'in) 102
21. India (T'i6n-chu) 110
VIII CONTENTS.
Page
22. The Arabs (Ta-shi) 114
23. Mecca (Ma-Ma) 124
24. Zanguebar (Ts'6ng-pa) 126
25. Berbera Coast (Pi-p'a-lo) 128
26. Sohar (?) (Wu-pa) 130
27. Somali Coast (Chung-li) 130
28. Oman (Yung-man) 133
29. Island of Kish (Ki-shii) 133
30. Baghdad (Pai-ta) 135
31. Basra (Pi-ssi-lo) 137
32. Ghazni (Ki-tz'ii-ni) 138
33. Mosul (Wu-ssi-li) 140
34. Rum, Asia Minor (Lu-mei) 141
35. Murabit, Southern Spain (Mu-lan-p'i) 142
36. Misr, Egypt (Wu-ssi-li) 144
37. Alexandria (O-kon-t'o) 146
38. Countries in the Sea . .147—154
Andaman Islands (Yen-t'o-man) 147
Pemba and Madagascar (K'un-lun-ts'ong-k'i) 149
Malay «Men of the Sea» (Sha-hua-kung) 150
The Amazons (The Countries of Women) 151
Besi (?), Sumatra (Po-ssi) 152
Djabulsa, the Land of the Setting Sun (Ch'a-pi-sha) 153
Sicily (Ssi-kia-li-y6) 153
Mogreb-el-aksa (Mo-k'ie-la) 154
39. Borneo (P'o-ni) 155
40. Philippine Islands (Ma-i) 159
41. Islands of Calamidn, Busuanga, Palawan, — Philippine Islands
(San-su) 161
42. Northern Formosa (Liu-k'iu) 162
43. Southern Formosa (P'i-sho-ye) 165
44. Korea (Sin-lo) 166
45. Japan (Wo) 170
46. Island of Hainan (Hai-nan) 175
CONTENTS. IX
Page
PART n 191—239
1 . Camphor (nau-td) 193
2. Frankincense (Ju-Uang) 195
3. Myrrh (mo-yau) 197
4. Dragon's blood Qiue-Ue) 197
5. Sweet Benzoin {kin-yen-Jiiang) 198
6. Dammar (tu-nau-Mang) 199
7. Liquid Storax (su-ho-hiang-yu) 200
8. Benzoin (an-si-Jiiang) 201
9. Gardenia Flowers {cM-td-hua) 202
10. Rose-water {tsHang-wei-shui) 203
11. Grharu-wood (ch'dn-hiang, etc.) 204 — 208
12. Sandal-wood (fan-Mang) 208
13. Cloves (ting-Jiiang) 209
14. Nutmegs (jou-tdu-k^ou) 210
15. Laka-wood (kiang-chon-Mang) 211
16. Musk-wood (sho-hiang-mu) 212
17. Jack-fruit (po-lo-mi) 212
18. Areca-nuts (pin-lang) 213
19. Cocoanut {ye-tzi) 214
20. Oak-galls {mo-sM-td) 215
2 1 . Ebony (wu-mon-td) 216
22. Sapan-wood (su-mu) 217
23. Cotton (ki-pei) 217
24. Mats (ye-sin-tien) 220
25. Putchuck (mu-Mang) 221
26. Cardamoms (pai-tou-k'du) 221
27. Pepper (hu-tsiau) 222
28. Cubebs (pi-tong-kHe) 224
29. Asa-foetida [a-wei) 224
30. Aloes Qu-wei) 225
31. Coral-tree (shan-hu-shu) 226
32. Opaque Glass {liu-U) 227
33. Cat's-eyes (mau-'ir-fsing) 228
34. Pearls (chon-chu) 229
I*
X COXTEKTS.
Page
35. Ch'o-k'u 231
36. Ivory (siang-ya) 232
37. Rhinoceros Horns (si-Mo) 233
38. Castoreum, Civet (wu-na-ts'i) 234
39. Kingfishers' feathers (ts'ui-mau) 235
40. Parrots (ying-wu) 236
41. Ambergris (lung-Men) 237
42. Tortoise-shell (tai-mei) 238
43. Bees-wax (huang-la) 238
General Index 241 — 267
Index of Unusual Foreign Names and Terms occurring in Chinese
Texts 269 — 285
Errata and Addenda 286
Map.
INTRODUCTION.
"When King Solomon, in the early part of the tenth century B. C, had
opened relations with the Saheans of the Southern coast of Arabia, the
land of Punt of the Egyptians, he sent his ships from the head of the Red
Sea to the land of Ophir, — generally believed to have been Guzerat or the
s Malabar coast. Already at that remote time trade by sea was active between
the ports on the south coast of Arabia, the principal of which was where
Aden now stands, and Western India. The ships of the Sabeans carried the
products of Arabia and India to the heads of the Red Sea and the Persian
Gulf. By the former route they reached the cities of the Phoenicians; by the
10 latter they came to Media and Nineveh.
Although some accurate particulars concerning the sea-route between
the Indus and the head of the Red Sea must have reached the Greeks through
the voyages of Skylax of Karyanda, made about 512 B. C, it was not until
Alexander the Great's invasion of India in 327 B. C, that real knowledge
15 of this vast region and of the sea-route leading there was given to the Western
world. Notwithstanding the fact that the writers of the time of Alexander
make no mention of the considerable coasting trade which was carried on in
their time between the West and India through the medium of the Sabeans,
; they were certainly aware of its existence. We learn from Arrian^ that, at
20 the time of his death, Alexander was entertaining the scheme of following
up the explorations of Nearchus by another expedition to proceed fi-om the
mouth of the Euphrates to the head of the Red Sea, presumably for the
purpose of diverting the great profits of the sea trade between India and
Egypt from the Sabeans to the Greeks.
1) Hist. Indica, XLIIL
a INTRODUCTION,
Fifty years later Ptolemy Philadelphus attempted to carry out this
scheme by erecting on the Red Sea the ports of Arsinoe, Myos-hormos and
Berenike; but it appears that the ships of Egypt went no further than the
port of Aden, where the merchants of India came to sell their wares. The
voyage from southern Arabia, Aden and Merbat to India was first made in 5
small vessels which kept close to the shore and followed its windings, but
after sailing with the monsoons became known (sometime between B. C. 10
and A. D. 52), trade was greatly developed; larger ships were used (though
the coasting trade was -not abandoned) and a straight course was steered
between the Somali, or rather Arabian coast, to Diul-Sindh or Bharoch, Manga- lo
lore or Nelisseram'. Though Nelkunda (Nelisseram, at the head of an estuary
the mouth of which is a few miles to the north of Mt. Delli on the Malabar
coast) was the farthest point habitually visited by Greek (and probably Sab-
ean) merchants in the first century A. D., Ceylon and the coast of India as
far as the Ganges were already known to them, presumably through the re- 15
ports of native traders.
By the middle of the second century Greek knowledge of the sea-route
to the Far East, though here again the information appears to have been
derived solely from native traders, extended to Tongking, where mention is
made of the port of Cattigara, — the present Hanoi. Ptolemy had heard of 20
the various stages on the route between Ceylon and the Malay Peninsula, of
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Bazakata), the Islands off the west coast
of Sumatra (?Barusai), Sumatra (Sabadiu) and Kalah(Kozi), but beyond their
geographical position he knew practically nothing ^, nor can I find anything
in the works of succeeding geographers, — Pausanias, SoUnus, Orosius, or 25
even Cosmas Indicopleustes, this last writing in the first half of the sixth
century, — to show that the Greek traders had reached China (although
there is no reason for denying that some adventurous traders may have got
1) Nearchus had already noticed the monsoon (Arrian, Hist. Indie, XXI. See also M°
Crindle, Periplus, 135 n., where he notes that Vincent (in his Commerce and Navigation of the 30
Ancients) remarks that the account of the discovery of the monsoon given in the Periplus, natu-
rally excites a curiosity in the mind to enquire how it should happen that the monsoon should have
been noticed by Nearchus, and that from the time of his voyage for 300 years no one should have
attempted a direct course till Hippalus ventured to commit himself to the ocean. He is of opinion
that there was a direct passage by the monsoons both in going to and coming from India in use 35
among the Arabians before the Greeks adopted it. — The Periplus (§ 32) notes that such ships
as come from the west coast of India (Limurik6) and Bharocbj (Barugaza) too late in the season
put into harbor at Merbat (Moskha) for the winter, where they dispose of their muslins, corn, and
oil to the king's officers.
2) See Gerini, Researches on Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia. 1909. 40
ISTKODUCTION. 3
that far), — or that Chinese traders had visited Ceylon, or India, let alone
the ports of Arabia or the Persian Gulf.
At a very early date Ceylon had become a flourishing country and en-
tertained important commercial relations not only with India but with the
5 countries of the East, the Malay Peninsula, and probably Indo-China. Its
pearls and precious stones, its ebony, muslins and tortoise-shell were carried
to Nelkunda and Barugaza (Bharoch) in the first century of our era, and
probably centuries before. The tortoise-shell from the Malay Peninsula (the
island of Chrys6) reached those ports through it. In all likelihood the traders
10 of southern Arabia founded establishments in Ceylon at a very early date;
however this may be, the commercial importance of Ceylon in the trade
between the East and the West was coeval with the 'opening of this trade,
and it retained its preponderance down to modern times.
The pilgrim Fa-hi6n. the first Chinese who has left a record of a voyage
15 from India to China (A. D. 413), came from Tamlook at the mouth of the
Ganges to Ceylon to sail for Sumatra, and when in Ceylon he noted the signs
of wealth of the «Sa-po traders» on the island, and it does not seem unlikely
that these foreigners were Arabs from the Hadramaut and Oman coasts.
Cosmas in the sixth century says of Ceylon: «The Island being, as it is,
20 in a central position, is much frequented by ships from all parts of India and
from Persia and Ethiopia and it likewise sends out many of its own. And from
the remotest countries, I mean Tzinista (China) and other trading places, it
receives silk, aloes, cloves, sandalwood and other products, and these again are
passed on to marts on this side, such as Male, where pepper grows, and to
25 Calliana, which exports copper and sasame logs and cloth for making dresses,
for it also is a great place for business. And to Sindu (Diul Sindh at the
mouth of the Indus) also where musk and castor is procured, and cmdro-
stachys (possibly spikenard), and to Persia and the Homerite country (Yemen)
and to Adule (Zula on the African coast of the Red Sea). And the island
30 receives imports from all these marts which we have mentioned, and passes
them on to the remoter ports, while, at the same time, exporting its own
produce in both directions^
1) Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography, 365 (Hakluyt Soc. edit.). Among the
products which Cosmas mentions as coming from China, the only real Chinese product is silk.
35 The ships which came to Ceylon from China got the eaglewood, cloves, sandalwood, etc., at the
various ports in Indo-China and the Malay Archipelago at which they stopped. Edrisi (I. 51
Jaub art's transl.) makes a similar loose statement about the products of China brought to Aden.
He says «The town of Aden is small but renowned on account of its port, whence sail the ships
1*
4 KTRODTJCTIOS.
It seems evident tliat, during ancient and mediaeval times, the sea-trade
between Egypt and Persia on the one side, and India and the Far East on
-the other, remained nearly exclusively in the hands of the enterprising Arabs
of the southern Arabian coast, who, in very early days, estabhshed stations
at all the principal ports-of-call along the coast to the south of the Indus 5
and thence ultimately to Canton where, as we shall see, they appear to have
had a settlement or colony as early as A. D. 300. So far as can be gathered
the Greeks took little or no share in this trade beyond the Malabar coast,
and, as the sequel will show, there is absolutely no evidence to substantiate
the assertion that the Chinese did either ^ Greeks may have got to China, lo
and Chinese may have travelled in the sixth century as far as Aden or the
head of the Persian Gulf, to Hormuz, Siraf, Basra or Baghdad, but these
were isolated cases of commercial adventure, and do not affect the conclusion
reached.
It was in about 120 B. C. that China first heard of the countries of 15
western Asia, of Syria (Li-kan) and of Chaldaea (T'iau-chi). This information
came to it through Chang K 'ien, who had been sent by the Emperor Wu-ti
on a political mission to the Yu6-chi (Kushan) to solicit their aid against
the Hiung-nu, who were pressing on the Chinese western frontier. Chang
K'i6n only heard of the countries of the west when in Parthia (An-si)^ and 20
the information he brought home concerning them was of thevagiiest.[ltw^as
not until the end of the first century of our era that a Chinese, Kan Ying .
reached Chaldaea and gained some exact information concerning it and the
sea-route which led from the head of the Persian Gulf to Syria and Egypt.
But Kan Ying went no further than the mouth of the Euphrates, probably 25
to the Apologos of the Greeks, when frightened by the reported dangers of
-the voyage, he retraced his steps ^.
for Sindh, India and China. There is brought there from the last named country such merchandize
as iron, damasked sword blades, shagreen skins,-musj£, aloes wood (gbaru?), horses, saddles, pottery,
pepper, both odoriferous and non-odoriferous (i. e., black pepper and long peppers), cocoanuts, 30
hermut (a perfumed seed), cardamoms, cinnamon, galangal, mace, myrobolans, ebony, tortoise^hell,
camphor, nutmegs, cloves, cubebs, divers grass tissues, and others rich and velvety, elephants tu^s,
tin, rattans, and other reeds, as well as the greater part of the bitter aloes destined for commerce)).
1) As for example K. Beazley, Dawn of modern geography, I, 490, and E. Speck,
Handelsgeschichte des Alterthums, I, 29. 35
2) See F. Hirth, China and the Roman Orient, 35 et seqq., 137 et seqq. and E. Cha-
vannes, Les Pays d'Occident d'apres le Heou Han Chou, in T'oung-pao, 2* ser. VIII. 176, et seqq.
Chavannes (1-76. n. 3) thinks it possible that the name T'iau-chi- may be an attempt to transcribe
the Persian word desht «plainD, which is found used by early Arab writers to designate the Desht
Misan, the Mesene at the mouth of the Tigris. 4q
IXTRODUCTICN.
Although China appears to have first become known to the Greeks
through the expedition of Alexander, (Nearchus and Onesicritus mention the
Seres, of whose longevity they had heard marvellous tales, but which they
evidently supposed to have been an Indian tribe), the first accurate information
5 concerning China was supplied by the author of the Periphs of the Ery-
thraean Sea, writing somewhere about 80 A. D. He refers (§ 64) to the
country of Thina as lying beyond the Malay Peninsula (Chryse) «Where the
sea terminates outwards». For more precise information concerning the geo-
graphical position of China, we have to come down to the first half of the
10 sixth century, when Cosmas Indicopleustes stated that Tzinista «was bounded
to the east by the ocean».
Although the author of the Periplus knew little of China's position, he
supplied other reliable information concerning it. We learn from him that
already in his time there came from a city in the interior of that country
15 much silk «both raw and spun into thread and woven into fine stuff», also
furs and iron, which were brought overland through Baktria to Bharoch.
(Barugaza) and to Diul-Sindh at the mouth of the Indus (Barbarikon), or to
Mangalore (Muziris) and Nelisseram near Mt. Delli, by way of the Ganges.
Nothing, however, is to be found in the Periplus to indicate that the author
20 had the slightest idea of there being any direct communication by sea between
India or Ceylon and China. «Had such existed)), Bunbury justly remarks,^
«even in the hands of native traders, it is hardly possible that our author
could have remained so entirely in the dark as we actually find him with
regard to all the countries beyond the Ganges)). ,,
25 Chinese records confirm the belief that China had no relations by sea
with India and the West at the beginning of our era. The earliest mention
of a mission, or more probably a private expedition, arriving from the West
(Ta-ts'in) in China is referred to in the year 166 A. D., when a party of
foreigners representing themselves as sent by An-tun (the Emperor Marcus
so Aurelius Antoninus) arrived by sea in Tongking, and proceeded thence overland
to the court of the Emperor Huan-ti. Sixty years later, in 226, another
westerner came to China, also a merchant from Ta-ts'in, Ts'in-lun by name;
he also landed in Tongking, and was sent overland to the court of the Emperor
Sun-ch'uan. When Ts'in-lun started on the return journey, the Emperor sent one
35 of his officers with him, but he died on the way, andT'sin-lun returned alone =*.
1) Ancient Geography, ii, 476.
2) Hirth, Op. cit, 42, 47, 48. 173—178.
6 INTRODUCTION.
Althougli direct intercourse between China and Ta-ts'in may be said
to have begun with the arrival of the mission of A. D. 166, we are told
by the Chinese that down to the sixth century no Chinese and but few
(if any) persons from Kamboja, Annam or Tongking had reached the Far
West (Ta-ts'in), though merchants from those parts came frequently to 5
Indo-ChinaK
Eegular trade relations between China and the regions lying immedia-
tely outside its southern and south-western border, Tongking and India, may
be said to have begun in the latter part of the second century before our era,
after the conquest of Tongking by the Chinese ^ The bulk of the trade with lo
the latter country appears to have been conducted over the land routes and
to have been concentrated at a few marts in close proximity to the frontier,
although there can be little doubt that a coasting trade must have existed
from even earlier times between Canton and the people of Tongking (Kiau-
chi). However, official trade between the two countries followed the land 15
route from Hanoi to K'in-ch6u in south-western Kuang-tung, which remained
for many centuries the center of Chinese overland trade with Indo-China.
The mission of exploration of Chu Yin^ to the countries south of China,
which was undertaken in the first half of the third century, by order of the
Emperor Sun-ch'uan, who had tried to open relations with Ta-ts'in by means 20
of the trader Ts'in-lun, travelled, it would seem, overland. The narrative of
this journey has not reached us, but it does not appear to have resulted in
eMablishing relations of any increased importance with the neighbouring coun-
tries of Indo-China ', for it was not until the last quarter of the third century
that we hear of a tribute mission (i. e. a trading venture) from Siam (Fu- 25
nan) coming to the court of China.
Notwithstanding the lack of enterprise on the part of the Chinese in
the first centuries of the Christian era, they were becoming better known
1) Sung-shu, 97. Liang-shu, 54. See also Hirth, Op. cit., 46, 47, 180. The presence of
people from western Asia (Hu-j6n) in Canton prior to the year 300 is confirmed by a reference 30
to them at that city and to the fact that they had introduced the cultivation of the jasmine {i/e-si-
ming, Persian ydsmin. See Nan-fang-ts'au-mu-chnang, 2,a. This work was written A. D. 300.
Hirth, Op. cit., 270—272, and J. Amer. Orient. Soc. XXX. 23.
2) When Ch'ang K'ifin was in the country south of the Oxus, called Ta-hia, he learned
that it had commercial relations with India and received from it products of Ssi-ch'uan. Already 35
in the beginning of the second century A. D. there was a regular trade-route from southwestern
Yunnan to Pegu. Hirth Op. cit., 179.
3) See MaTuanjHn^ remarks on this mission and on the slowness of the development of
Chinese foreignTBlatiens —Commercial and political, in the h^\ 6*1 and 7th centuries. Hervey
St. Denis, Ethnographie des peuples etrangers h. la Chine, II, 410. 40
ISTKODUCTION. I
to the rest of the world. Commerce by sea with south-eastern Asia and the -^
countries lying to the west was steadily increasing through the continued
energy and enterprise of the Arabs and Indians ^.
The troublous times through which China passed in the fourth, fifth and
B sixth centuries may have had much to do with retarding the development of
commercial enterprise on the part of the people of the southern provinces,
but piracy was probably more effective in keeping them off the sea. In the
middle of the fifth century, Chinese living along the southern coast were so
harried by the Tongking pirates, who plundered cities and towns, that the
10 Emperor "W6n-ti of the Sung had to send, in 447, a punitive expedition into
Indo-China, which laid the country waste and sacked the capital ^.
How hazy were the notions of the Chinese of the fifth century of India and
the "West, how slight the intercourse established with them, may be seen in
the Sung-shu, the history of the period extending from A. D. 420 to 478,
15 and written about A. D. 500. In chapter 97 we read: «As regards the Roman
Orient (Ta-ts'in) and India, far out on the Western Ocean (jj^ Jij |g 7^),
though the envoys of the two Han dynasties have experienced the special
difficulties of this route, yet trade has been carried on, and goods have been
sent out to the foreign tribes, the force of the wind driving them far across
20 the waves of the sea. There are lofty (ranges of) hills quite different (from
those we know) and a great variety of populous tribes having different names
and bearing uncommon designations, they being of a class quite different
(from our own). All the precious things of land and water come from
there all this has caused navigation and trade to be extended to those
25 parts» (-j^ M M ^ M ^ ^ MV' ^^^^^ *^^^ ^® ^°^®^ *^^* ^* *^^*
time what trade there was between China, India, and the West was not in
Chinese hands, and that the Chinese had but a vague notion of the lands
whence the products of foreign countries were brought to them, and to which,
none of their people had ever gone. Additional evidence of this is furnished
30 by other dynastic histories covering the period from the end of the fourth
to the beginning of the seventh centuries, in which we find all the products
of Indo-China, Ceylon, India, Arabia, and the east coast of Africa classed as
1) In A. D. 414 the pilgrim Fa-hien embarked in Java on a large merchant ship bound
for Canton. The people on board were «Po-lo-mon», a name used in those days by the Chinese to
35 designate the west coast of India from Kulam to the mouth of the Indus. Legge, A Record of
Buddhist Kingdoms, 111—115. See also infra, p. 12.
2) M" Gowan, History of China, 209, 210.
3) Hirth, Op. cit., 46, 180.
X
8 ; IXTRODl'CTION.
«products of Persia (Po-ssi),» the country of the majority of the traders who
brought these goods to China ^
In the seventh century Chinese maritime enterprise began to manifest
itself, and we hear of Chinese making at least one sea voyage of considerable
length. In the third year of his reign, A. D. 607, Sui Yang-ti sent a mission 5
by sea to Siam (Ch'i-t'u) to open commercial relations with it. The explorers
were back in 610, and, from the fact that they received high official prefer-
ment, there is little doubt that the exploit was held to be a most extraordi-
narily daring one*.
In 629 the famous pilgrim Hfian-tsang started on his travels through lo
Central Asia and India. He reached the south-eastern coast of India near
Ceylon, but the notions he brought back of the latter country were still of the
vaguest. He did not even know that it was an island. He heard of some islands
ftsome thousands of li» to the south and the west of Ceylon, but apparently
never a word reached him of intercourse by sea existing between India and i&
Ceylon and the countries to the east, Sumatra, Java, Indo-China and China.
The pilgrims to India who succeeded him followed at first the overland route
1) See Wei-shu, 102, Sect. Po-ssi. Sui-shu, 83, Sect. Po;Ssi.
2) The explorers Chan p r Tsnn and Wang Kfln embarked at Canton in the month of
November 607 (lO^i^ moon), and, sailing day and night for 20 days with the monsoon, they passed 201
Tsiau-shl island (^^ ^ ijj) and anchored S. E. of it at Ling-kiS-po-pa-to island (1^ Ahg
'^ ^t ^ fM\ )' ^^^'^^ ia.ces Lin-i (Tongking) to the W. and on which there is a temple
(^$ ^\ 'l^i-'"^''y")- Continuing S. they came to the ShMzi rocks (0)^ -^ '^\ where there
are a great many contiguous islands and islets, whence continuing for two or three days they sighted
in the W. the hills of Lang-ya-stt (^g ^ ^). Thence S. by the Ki-lung island (^ W, ^) ^^
they came to the frontier of Ch'i-t'u.
On the return voyage, on which ihey were accompanied by Siamese envoys, they noted
shoals of green flying-fish. After ten days they came to the high coast of Lin-i, when for a whole
day the ship sailed through a strip of yellowish, foul smelling water, which, it was said, was the
dung of a great fish. Following to the N. coast of the sea they came to Kiau-chii (Hanoi?), where SO
it seems that their sea voyage finished. See Sui shu, 82. Sect. Ch'i-t'u.
Tsiau-shi island, is tentatively identified with the island of Tseu, Hon Tseu on the maps,
IV2 miles S. E. of Mui (Cape) Duong, in the Ha-Tinh district on the coast of Annam, near Tourane.
(See Gerini, A^iat. Quart. Eev.,34 ser.XI, 156). Ling-kie-po-pa-to island, is identified by the same
(loc. sup. cit.) with Cape Varella. It is evidently the same as Mount Ling of Ki a Tan (see infra, So-
p. 10) which Pelliot thinks may possibly be Cape Sa-hoi, N. of Quinhon. The Shi-tzi rocks,
Gerini thinks (p. 157) may be Pulo Sapatu of the Catwick group, or else Pulo Cecir de Mer not
far N. of Pulo Sapatu. Lang-ya-stt is identified by Gerini (p. 157) with the Lankachiu islands,
Koh Katu on the charts, intended for Koh Kachin (i. e., Koh Lankachiu) in the gulf of Siam
opposite Swai Bay, a little below C'hump'hon Bay. Although the name Lang-ka-stt was applied 40-
by mediaeval Chinese to several places in the Southern Seas widely apart, G erini cannot, it would
seem, be far wrong. Ki-lung island, is tentativaly identified by Gerini (p. 158) with Koh-rang-kai
oir ((Hen's nest island)), one of a group of 4 islets, S. of Lem (Cape) C'hong P'hrah, some
20 miles above C'hump'hon Bay.
INTRODUCTIOX. 9
by Balkh, Peshawar, Tibet and Nepaul, but in the latter part of the seventh
century the sea-route became nearly exclusively used^ the port of enibar-.
kation being Canton, whence the travellers made western Java (Ho-ling), or
more usually Palembang in Sumatra. Here they changed ships and, taking
5 a course along the northern coast of Sumatra and by the, Nicobar Islands,
came to Ceylon, where they usually took ship for Tamlook at the mouth of
the Ganges and thence reached the holy places of India by land. The voyage
took about three months, one month from Canton to Palembang, one to the
northrwest point of Sumatra and one to Ceylon; it was always made with the
10 north-east monsoon in winter, and the return voyage to China in summer, —
from April to October — with the south-west monsoon.
It seems that by this time the sea-trade of the Hindus and Arabs with
the Malay Archipelago and China had assumed very considerable unportance,
and this accounts partly for the fuller and more accurate accounts of the
15 countries of southern Asia and the Archipelago given in the Chinese Annals
of the sixth and seventh centuries.
The earliest Chinese testimony we have concerning this trade is of the
eighth century 2. From it we learn that the ships engaged in this trade and
wMch visited Canton were very large, so high out of the water that ladders
20 several tens: of feet in length had to be used to get aboard. The foreign
(Fan ^) captains who commanded them were registered in the office of the
Inspector ofMaritime Trade (Shi-po-shi). This office (the existence of which, by
the way, proves the importance of this trade), before allowing the ships to clear
required that the manifests should be submitted to it, and then collected export
25 duty and also the freight charges. The export of «precious and rare articles))
was forbidden, and attempts at smuggling were punished with imprisonment.
With the exception of the chapters devoted to foreign lands in the
Annals, very little has come down to us concerning the extent of Chinese
geographical knowledge in the eighth century. One document of great value
30 has fortunately been preserved in the itineraries compiled bv Kia Tan b etween
785 and 805*. The one dealing with the sea-route from Canton to the Per-
II) I-ts;ng mentions 60 Chinese pilgrims who in the latter part of the seventh century made
the journey to India. Of these 22 travelled overland and 37 took the sea-ronte. See Chavannes,
Mem. sur les Eeligieux emiuents, passim.
35 2) T'ang-Kuo-sM-pu, by Li Chan, a work of the beginning of the ninth century, but
purporting to record historical facts concerning the period from 713 to 825.
3) Given in T'ang-shu, 43^ See also Pelliot, Deux itineraires de Chine en Inde, 131
et seqq. (in B. E. F. E. 0., IV). On Kia Tan, who died in 805, see Mem. cone, les Chinois, XVI.
151—152.
'I
1 INTRODUCTION.
sian Gulf enables us to determine the extent of Chinese knowledge in this
direction, and leads us to believe that it was for a great part, — especially
that bearing on the route from Kulam to the Persian Gulf,— entirely second
hand, and supplied by the foreign traders who frequented Canton and
presumably often visited other cities of China. It is particularly interesting 5
to note that Kia Tan seems to have had no knowledge of the regular direct
route between Kulam-Male and the Persian Gulf followed by Arab ships.
Why Kia Tan's informants should have told him only of the roundabout, little
followed coasting route from Kulam to the Persian Gulf must remain — of
course — a matter of conjecture; it may have been, however, that he was 10
not told of the regular course for the purpose of keeping the Chinese from
attempting to compete in the valuable trade, of which the Arabs and Persians
had a monopoly.
Kia Tan's sailing directions read as follows: «From Kuang-chou towards
the south-east, travelling by sea for 200 li, one reaches Mount T'un-mQn^ 15
(TE PD- Then, with a favourable wind going westward for two days, one
reaches the Kiu-chou rocks" (fi j\\). Then southward, and after two days
one reaches the Siang-shi ' (^ ^), or «Elephant rock». Then southward,
after three days, one comes to Mount Chan-pu-lau* {^ '7(^ ^); this moun
tain is in the sea at 200 li east of the country of Huan-wang^ (1^ T).
«Then southward, after two days journey, one reaches Mount Ling ^ ^
(|^). Then after a day's journey one comes to the country of M6n-tu^ (f^
20
1) T'un-mon is mentioned as one of the several passages leading out to sea from Sin-an-
hi^n, the next one mentioned being Ki-shai-mon, i. e. the passage known to sailors as Capsing-
moon, or Kapsny-moou (see Euang-tung-sin-yii, 2,15). The best known native map of the province, 25
the Knang-tung-t'u, has a village called T'un-m6n-ts"im on the coast of the continent right'
opposite the northern spit of Lantao Isd. I suppose the following passage appearing in an early
account of the China Coast (Chinese Eepository, V, 348) refers to this anchorage: «Just after
passing out of Kapshwuy Moon towards the northeast, there is a bay protected by the island
Chungyne ( -^ Z^ ?) on the south, which affords good anchorage, is perfectly land-locked, and 30
was the principal rendez-vous of the pirates in the early part of this century. It was examined
by a party of English and American gentlemen last year, and pronounced to be one of the safest
harbors in the worldn.
2) Taya islands, N. E. point of Hai-nan. Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0., IV, 216.
3) Tinhosa island, or a point even farther south, Pelliot, ibid., 216. 35
4) Culao Cham. Pelliot, ibid., 200.
5) The kingdom of Huan-wang was practically the same as the Chan-ch"6ng of the
Sung period. It included, in the Sung period, most of the Tongking and Annam coast
country.
6) Possibly Cape Sa-hoi, N. of Quinhon. Pelliot, ibid., 217. See also supra p. 8. Ling- 40
ki6-po-pa-to island some writers think was Cape Varella.
1 7) Probably near Quinhon, but unidentified.
IXTKODUCTION. 1 1
^); then after a day's journey one comes to the country of Ku-tan^
(lir a); t^6n after half a day's journey one reaches the territory of
Pon-t'o-lang2 (^ [Jg »]J^). Then after two days' travel one reaches Mount
Ktin-t'u-nung' (|| ^ ^). Then after five days' travel one comes to a
5 strait which the Barharians call CM* (^). From the south to the north it
is 100 li. On the northern shore is the country of Lo-yue^ (^ ^; on the
•southern coast is the country of Fo-shi' (-^ ^),
«To the east of the country of Fo-shi, travelling by water for four or
five days, one comes to the country of Ho-ling' (§5f f^); it is the largest
10 of the islands of the south. Then east(west?)ward, going out of the strait,
after three days, one comes to the country of Ko-ko-song-chi(orti)8 (^ ^
i^ fVc or ^g;), which is an island separated at the north-east point from
Fo-shi. The people of this country are pirates and cruel; sailors dread
them.
15 «0n the northern coast (of the strait) is the country of Ko-lo^ ("^ ^),
and to the west of Ko-lo is the country of Ko-ku-lo i» (^ ^ ^), Then
from Ko-ko-s6ng-chi, after four or five days' journey, one comes to the island
of Shong-tOng" (^ ^[J). Then westward, and after five days' journey
1) Eanthara, the Sanskrit name of the present Nha-trang. Pelliot, ibid., 217.
20 2) Fap(}nraDga, the present Phanrang, see infra, p. 51.
3) Pulo Condore. See infra, p. 50, n. 10.
4) Pelliot sees in this the Strait of Malacca. I agree with Gerini (J. R. A- S., 1305,
505) in thinking it was the Singapore strait.
5) The southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, or Ligor. Gerini, Kesearches on
25 Ptolemy's Geography of Eastern Asia, 820.
6) Eastern Sumatra. According to our test the voyage from Canton to E. Sumatra occupied
20 days; this is exactly the time taken by the pilgrim I-tsiug to make it, Chavannes, Eelig.
emin., 119.
7) Java, but see infra, p. 78, n. 1.
30 8) Possibly the Brouwers islands, as suggested by Pelliot, op.cit.,839. Gerini, Eesearches,
816, 817 identifies this island with Pulo Medang, the old designation of which was Kukor. It lies
W. of the mouth of the Siak river, E. coast of Sumatra or Pulo Siak.
9) In all likelihood the Kalah of the Arabs of the ninth century, which Groeneveldt,
Notes, 122, has identified with the present Kora on the W. coast of Malacca in about 7° N.
35 lat. — Gerini, Asiat. Quart., 3d series, XIII, 133, and Pelliot, op. cit., 339 accept this identi-
fication. Gerini, Eesearches, 817, thinks Kia Tan's Ko-lo may be Ealapang near the TJmbai
river, just below Malacca. _,
10) Pelliot, Op. cit., 343 thinks this is the Qaqola (XliSlS) of Ibn Batuta, the Angkola river
on the W. coast of Sumatra, and an affluent of the Batang gadis. This identification seems to me
40 impossible since Ko-lo was on the Malay Peninsula, and the two seem to have been conterminous.
Gerini, Eesearches, 444, n. 2 suggests, with great plausibility, either Kelantan or Ligor on the
, E. coast of the Malay Peninsula.
1 1) P e 1 1 i 1, Op. cit., 354, thinks this may have been the Deli or Langkat district of Sumatra.
Gerini, Op. cit., 817, says it is the Serdang district near Deli.
1 2 IXTRODUCTION.
one comes to the country of P'o-lu^ (I^ ^). Then after six days' journey
one reaches the island of K'i^-lan'' ("Ijja ^) of the country of P'o^ (^).
Then northward, and after four days' travel one reaches «the country of the
Lion»* (^1^ ^); its northern coast is 100 li from the southern coast of
southern India. Then westward, after four days' journey one passes through 5
the country of Mo-lai* (^ ^), which is the extreme southern frontier of
southern India.
((Thence (from Mo-lai) northwest and passing by {^) more than ten
small ci>untries, one comes to the western frontier of P'o-lo-mSn " (^ ^
1) Presumably some place in N. W. Sumatra, Perlak or Pedir. It may be the same on the 10
((kingdom of P'o» referred to in the next phrase, and of which the Nicobar islands were a
dependency.
2) There is little room for doubt that the island of K'i6-Ian is one of the Nicobars. t-tsing
states that it took him ten days' sailing in a northerly direction from Kie-ch'a — which was some
place on the N. W. coast of Sumatra near Kia Tan's P'o or Fo-ln (if not identical with it) to reach 15-
the Lo (f^) country, or «the country of naked peoplen. Chavannes, Religieux eminents, 120.
Httan-tsang was the first Chinese writer to mention the Nicobars by name, he calls them Na-lo-
ki-lo islands (fiK ^S ^S ^S l^'I'l): ^ transcription of Sanskrit nSrikera, (tcocoanutn, which he
and I-tsing and the Arab Relations state was the principal food of the islanders. The name used by
I-tsing may be an abbreviated from of that used by Htian-tsang. K'i6-lan is also an abbreviated 20"
form of the Sanskrit name, or rather a transcription of the two last syllables -leera. In the fifteenth
century the Chinese called these islands Ts'ui-lan (^S ^§)- Gerini, Besearches, 396, suggests-
with a high degree of probability that Ts'ui-lan-shan is but the phonetic transcript of Tilong-
chong, the native name of the north-easternmost of the Nicobars. The Sanskrit name Narikera is
found in Necuveram, the name Polo gives to these islands. Yule, MarcoPolo(2d edit.), II, 289 — 25-
292. See also Beal, Records, II. 251, Chavannes, Relig. §min., 100, 120; Geo. Phillips R.
A. S., 1895, 529.
3) Possibly the same as the P'o-lu in the preceding phrase. Gerini, Op. cit., 817, says
ttP'o simply stands for lar, var, and is thus a contraction of Nikobar, if not actually meant for
Bharu, in which case Chia Tan's P'o kingdom would recall the ancient Bharu kingdom)). 30'
According to Buddhist tradition, he says, the Bharu kingdom, as the result of a cataclysm,
became detached from the continent of India, forming a thousand islands which, according to the
scholiast, is identical with the island of Nalikera, mentioned by Htian-tsang. Ibid. 399.
4) Fa-hien first used this name to designate Ceylon, which he was probably the first to
make known to his countrymen. It is a translation of the Sanskrit name Singhala. In the twelfth 35.
century some Chinese writers, who had got their knowledge concerning the island from Arab
traders, wrote the name of the island Si-lan. See infra, Ch. Xllf.
5) The Malabar coast and more particularly the port of Quilon. In the sixth century Cosmas
refers to the city of Mal6, where there was a settlement of Christians — Christian Topography,
119. A century later Httan-tsang calls this country Mo-lo-kO-ts'a (^jt ^ ^g ti-fr), in 40'
Sanskrit Malakuta. The form Mo-la-ye (^ ^J ;^) or Malaya also occurs' at about the same
time. The Arab Relations of the ninth century use the form Kulam-Mal6 (jl<o f^^)- In the Sung
period Quilon was called by the Chinese Ku-lin (ifr S^ or "i- M), and in the Yuan period
Kti-lan(^^),
6) In another passage of these Itineraries, Kia Tan says «From the southern frontier of 45-
Po-lo-m6n by way of Mo-lai to Wu-la, all (this) is the eastern shore of the Green Sea)) {^ yfe
the Arab name of the Ocean). Po-lo-mon meant therefore the whole of the west coast of India.
IKTKODUCTION. 1 3
. P^). Then going north-west for two days, one comes to the country of Pa-yu^
(^ Ji!)- Then going ten days, and passing by (|5) the western frontier of
T'i6n-chu (^ ^ i. e., India) (and) five small countries, one comes to the
country of Ti-yu2(|^ ]^\ in which country is the great river Mi-lan «
^ (M M)' also called (— ^) the Sin-t'ou {^)^ fl|) river. It comes from the
mountains of P'o-lun* ('^^ ^) in the north and flows westward; on arriving
north of the country of Ti-yu it empties into the sea.
"Again going westward from the kingdom of Ti-yii twenty days and
passing more that twenty little countries, one comes to the country of Ti-lo-
10 lu-ho (^ ^ Jl# ^), also called the country of Lo-ho-i {^ ^U ^). The
people of this country have set up ornamented pillars (^ |^) in the sea, on
which at night they place torches (^g) so that people travelling on board
ships at night shall not go astray. ^
1) Presumably some port on the coast of the Guzerat peninsula, the Balahhi or Vala-
15 bhadra kingdom of the sixth and seventh centuries. The name suggests the island of Dlu, an
important port in mediaeval times, but I do not know whether it existed in the eighth century.
2) This seems to be the Taiz (i^") of mediaeval Arab geographers. According to Abulfeda
(II. Pt. 2, 111, Eeinaud's transl.) Taiz was the port on the Indus for the Mekran and adjacent
countries. It was on the banks of the Indus, to the west, near the canal which left the river not
20 far from Mansurah (Brahmanabad). Ti-yfi may, however, represent Daibul, which was on the
Indus at its mouth, and which was the principal port of Sindh in mediaeval times.
3) The Arabs called the Indus Nahr Mihran. Since the time of Fa-hien the Chinese had
known of the Indus under its Indian name of Sindhu.
4) It appears probable that P'o-lun is the same country as Huan-tsang's Po-Iu-lo (^|fc
25 ^^ jjt^) or Bolor, the modern Balti, the Palow of Marco. Polo. It is possible, however, that
we should read K'un-lun ( s '^)! foi' Liang-shu, 54,i6 says that the great river called Sin-t'au
($fj" [^ Sindhu) has its source in the K'un-lun mountains.
5) Ti-lo-lu-ho, or Lo-ho-i does not occur in any other Chinese work I have seen. I am
inclined to look for this country on the Mekran coast, about a day's sailing S. E. of Cape
so Mesandum. Geo. Phillips (J. R. A. S., 1896, 525) thinks the beacons referred to in our text were
near Al-UbuUah on the Tigris estuary, and he mentions passages in Masudi and Abulfeda to the
effect that marks are said to have been erected in the sea near Al-Ubullah (^JjV^), see Masudi,
Prairies d'or, I, 230;Lee's Travels ofJbnBatuta, 36note, andlstakhri (Mordtmann's transl.,
18). If the indication given in the text as to the distance between the mouth of the Indus and the
.35 point on the coast where the beacons were is anyway near correct — 20 days, it is quite impossible
that Al-Ubullah can be referred to, we must look for them not farther than the mouth of the Persian
Gulf. The most natural identification of the place where the beacons were erected seems to be
with Cape Mesandum on the Oman coast. The Arab Eolations of the ninth century (Reinaud,
Relations, 1, 14) state that on the coast of Oman there was a place called Aldordur, a very narrow
40 passage between two mountains which small boats passed through, but in which the China ships
could not enter. There were two rocks called Kossayr and Uayr; only a small portion of the rocks
was seen above water. See also Masudi, Op. cit., 1, 240. These rocks are, I take it, the huge basalt
rocks seen some miles out afsea beyond Cape Mesandum. See W. G. Palgrave, Central and
Eastern Arabia, II, 317.
45 Marco Polo speaking of Kalhat, which stood near Cape Mesandum, says «This city of
Calatu stands at the mouth of the Gulf, so that no ship can enter or go forth without the will
14 IXTRODUCTION.
aAgain going westward one day one comes to the country of Wu-la ^
«Now (7^) the Fu-li-la river — (^ %\] ^j ^Rf) of the realm of the
Ta-shi flows southward into the sea. Small boats ascend it two days and
reach the country of Mo-lo (^ ^), an important market (g ^) of the 5
Ta-shi 2.
((Again going overland (from Mo-lo?) in a north-westerly direction for
one thousand li one comes to the capital of the Prince of the Mau-mon
(M P^ 3E)' (wliich is called) the city of Fu-ta^ (|f ^ ^)».
By the beginning of the seventh century the foreign colony at Canton, 10
mostly composed of Persians and Arabs, must have been a numerous one, for
Islam seems to have been brought there between 618 and 626. There is even
some evidence for believing that the Moslim had also settlements at that time
in Ts'uan-chou and Yang-ch6u; Ts'uan-chou, however, became of importance
in their China trade only in the ninth century*. By the middle of the eighth 15
of the chief)). He also notes that the chief of Kalhat was subject to Hormuz». Yule's Marco
Polo, II, 448.
1) Wu-la is, I think, to he identified with Sohar in Oman, on account of the indications
concerning its position given in the text. It is probably the same as Chau-Ju-kua's Wu-pa
(infra, Chs. XXVI and XXVIII). 20
2) Mo-lo I am disposed to identify with Old Hormuz, which lay at a distance of two post-
stages, or half a day's march, from the coast, at the head of a creek called Al-Jir, according to
Istakhri, aby which after one league ships come up thereto from the seaw. Le Strange, Lands
of the Eastern Caliphate, 318. Ibn Batuta, Voyages, II, 230 calls Old Hormuz Mughostan, which
maybe the original of the Chinese name Mo-lo. On Old Hormuz, see Yule, Marco Polo, 1, 113 and 25
Heyd, Histoire du Commerce, II, 133. Assuming that the identification of Mo-lo with Hormuz is
correct, it is interesting to note that this is the only reference in Chinese works to this great
port of the Persian Gulf. This is another proof that the Chinese cannot have taken any personal
part in the sea trade with Persia in the eighth century, as Geo. Phillips (J. R. A. S. 1895, 525)
thinks they did. The Al-Jir of Istakhri is the present Minab river. 30
3) Mau-mon is Arabic Momenin «the Faithful)). The title Ameer al Momemn, or 'Commander
of the Faithful' was first assumed by Omar (635—644). Caliph (Successor) of the Prophet of
the Lord, was, he said 'too long and cumbersome a name, while the other was easier and more
fit for common use.' Muir, Annals of early Caliphate, 285. This is the earliest occurrence of this
title in Chinese works. 35
Fu-ta might be the city of Fostat, the modern Cairo, which is spoken of by Chau Ju-kua
(infra Ch. XXXVI) as el Kahira (K'ifi-ye). Fostat was founded in or about A. D. 641. It is possible,
though, that the first character of this name is incorrectly written in our text and that it should
be Fo (;p|) and that Baghdad is meant. This city was founded by the Caliph Mansur in 762.
4) W. F. Mayers, quoting the Min-shu, says that sometime between A. D. 618 and 626 40
four disciples of Mohammed are supposed to have brought Islamism to China. One taught at
Canton, one in Yang-chou and the two others at Ts'iian-ch6u. China Review, VI, 276. The Pan-
yfl-hi6n-chi, as quoted by Edkins in Opium, Historical note, etc., 5, says Mohammed sent
his mother's brother to China. See also Dabry de Thiersant, Mahom6tanisme en Chine,
I, 86 — 97, and G. Dev6ria, Origine de I'Islamisme en Chine, 319—325. 45
INTEODUCTION, 1 5
century the Mohammedans at Canton, — which they called Khanfu,— had
become so numerous that in 758 they were able, for some reason which has
not come down to us, to sack and bum the city and make off to sea with
their loot \
5 The earliest Arab narratives concerning the China trade date from the
ninth century. They are those of a trader called Soleyman and of Ibn
Wahab of Basra; the former made the voyage to China in the first half of
the century, the latter in the second. They have been recorded by the Zeyd
Hassan of Siraf in his little work entitled Salsalat-al-tewarykh, or «Chain of
10 Chroniclesa^ From it we learn that at this time the products of China were
very expensive and scarce in the markets of Basra and Baghdad, on account
of the fires in Canton which frequently destroyed them, and also by reason
of the frequent wrecking of the ships engaged in the trade and the acts of
pirates. Some of the trade also went to the ports in the Yemen and to other
15 countries. The ships engaged in the China trade ^ sailed from Siraf on the
coast of Fars, where the goods were brought from Basra, Oman and other
places. They then went to Mascat, whence they sailed for Kulam-Male,
which port was reached in a month. Passing the Nicobar Islands they made
directly for Kalah on the Malay Peninsula, which was reached in a month
20 from Kulam. From Kalah four days were employed to reach Pulo Condore,
from which point a month's sail brought them to Canton.
On arriving at Canton each ship handed over its cargo to the agents of
the Chinese Government, and it was stored until the last ship of the season's
fleet arrived, when three-tenths of the merchandise was retained as import
25 duty and the balance handed back to the owners. The principal imports into
1) T'ang-shu, 10 and 258'". See also Bretschneider, Early Chinese and Arabs, 10—11 and
Chavannes, Documents sur lea Tou-Kioue, 173. Ehanfu is Euang (cli6u) Fu. On the identity of
Khanfu of the Arabs with Canton, see infra p. 20, n. 3 and 22, n. 1.
2) Text and translation published by Beinaud in Kelation des Voyages faits par les
30 Arabes et les Persans dans I'Inde et h. la Chine. See p. 12 et seqq. See also E. Dulaurier,
Journ. Asiat., 1846, J& 10.
3) The text reads aChinese ships.» Masudi (Prairies d'or, 1, 308) also speaks of «the ships
of China which used to go to Oman, to Siraf, to Obollah and Basra, while the ships of those
countries sailed directly for China.)> The so-called aChinese ships» may have been built in China,
35 but it seems highly improbable that they were owned or navigated by Chinese. Down to the end
of the twelfth century the names of Aden and Siraf even were unknown to the Chinese. Ch6u
K'tl-fei, Ling-wai-tai-ta, II, 13 says distinctly that «when the Chinese traders (l^^ @ j^
jSi ) wished to go to the countries of the Arabs they had to embark at Quilon on small
boats {-j^) on which, with a fair wind, they could make the voyage in a month. There is no
40 evidence that it was not the same in the time of Soleyman and Masudi.
1 6 LNTKODDCTIOX.
China were, according to Soley man, ivory, frankincense, copper, tortoise-shell,
camphor, and rhinoceros horns ^
The importance of the Moslim settlement in Canton in the ninth century
may be guaged by Soleyman's statement that one of the Musulmans was
appointed by the Chinese authorities to maintain order among his coreligionists 5
and administer the law of Islam. On feast-days he said prayers, repeated the
lihotba and prayed for the welfare of the Caliph. From Chinese sources we
learn that this organization was extended at a later date to the foreign
settlements at Ts'uan-ch6u, Hang-ch6u and elsewhere, in all of which the
Moslim had their kadi and their sJieikhs, their mosques and their bazaars. A lo
Chinese work of the beginning of the twelfth century ^ notes the following
interesting facts concerning the foreign^ (^) settlement of Canton:
1) Reinaud, Op. cit, I, 13, 33 — 35. Cf. also supra, p. 3 and infra, p. 19, n. 1. The Wei-
shu, 102, the history of the period hetween 385 and 556, and written prior to 572, mentions among
the products of Po-ssi (Persia), — by which it seems probable should be understood products 15
brought or made known to China by Persians — coral, amber, cornelians, pearls, glass, both
transparent and opaque, rock-crystal, diamonds (? kin-k'ang), steel, cinnabar, quicksilver, frank-
incense, turmeric, storax, putchuk, damasks, brocaded muslins, black pepper, long peppers,
dates, aconite, gall nuts and galangal. The Sui-shu, 83, which relates the events of the period
extending from 581 to 617, and which was certainly written before 650, reproduces substantially 20
the above list of Persian products, to which it adds gold, silver, tush, lead, sandalwood, various
tissues, sugar and indigo. Most of these products came, of course, from India or from countries of
south-eastern Asia, only a few being products of Arabia or countries bordering on the Persian
Gulf. See also infra p. 19 for the lists of foreign imports into China at the end of the tenth century.
1) P'ing-ch6u-k'o-t'an {^ f^\ pf g^) by ChuYu( ;^ ^) II, l_4. This work 25
appears from internal evidence to have been written in tlie first quarter of the twelfth century.
The latest date found in it refers to the period between 1111 and 1117. The father of the author •
was an official at Canton in the latter part of the eleventh century. All the quotations from this
work are taken from Ch. II, p. 1—4. Hirth, The Ancient History of China, etc., 133.
2) By ((foreigners {fan) the author understands Moslim of all nationalities. He says they did 30
not eat pork, and only ate domestic animals (fish and turtles excepted) which they had killed them-
selves. Their women answered to the name of P'u-sa-man (^ ^ ^.), the Chinese transcription
of the name Musulman, the Bussurman of mediaeval Russian annalists, the Bisermin of Friar
John of Plan di Carpine.
In Ibn Batuta's time (beginning of the fourteenth century) the Mohammedan quarter of 35
Canton was inside the city; at Ts <ian-ch6u they had a city of their own. Voyages, IV, 273.
269. As relating to the foreign Moslim settlement in Canton in the thirteenth century, the foll-
owing, taken from Tung-nan-ki-w6n (^ ^ gg ^ ), a work written in the beginning of
the Yuan dynasty, but referring to events during the previous Sung dynasty, is of interest. It says
(3,6*): ((Many Sea Lao ('/^ ^) live scattered about in Canton. The most prominent among 40
them was a man surnamed P'u {^ Abu) who was by birth a noble of Chan-ch'ong. Later
on he took up his permanent residence in China, to attend to his import and export trade. He
lived inside the city where his home was furnished in the most luxurious fashion, for in wealth
' he was the first of the time.
((His disposition was very superstitious, and he loved neatness. For his prayers he had a 45
hall in which was a tablet which served as a god (^ ^ ^). Whenever there was a gather-
INTKODUCTION. J 7
«In the foreign quarter (^ j^) in Kuang-ch6u (Canton) reside all the
people from beyond the seas (y^ ^|.). A foreign head-man (^ ^) is ap-
pointed over them and he has charge of all public matters connected with
them. He makes it his special duty to urge upon the foreign traders to send
■5 in tribute (to the Chinese court). The foreign official wears a hat, gown,
shoes, and (carries) a tablet just like a Chinese. When a foreigner commits an
offense anywhere, he is sent to Kuang-ch6u (Canton), and ifthe charge is proved
(before the Chinese authorities?), he is sent to the foreign quarter ^ (There he
is) fastened to a ladder {^^ ^ J^) and is whipped with a rattan from head
lo to foot, three blows of a rattan being reckoned equal to one of the heavy
bamboo. As foreigners do not wear drawers and like to squat on the ground,
beating with the heavy bamboo on the buttocks proves most painful, whereas
they do not fear beating on the back. Offenses entailing banishment or more
severe punishments are carried out by the Department Magistrate of Kuang-
15 ch6u»^.
Somewhere about the ninth century, possibly even earlier, a portion of
the southern sea-trade of China was diverted to Ts'uan-ch6u, near Amoy,
which had had commercial relations with Japan and Korea for centuries past,
and where the Arabs found the products of those countries and of remote
20 parts of China not easily reached from Canton, besides probably receiving
ing (of his people) to feast (at his home), they did not use spoons or chopsticks: they had very
large platters (lit. rtbig tronghs» g ^) of gold and silver in which was fresh water porpoise
(]l^) and millet (or rice ^ ^) cooked together. They sprinkled rose (water) about, and put
their right handa under their skirts, all picking up the food with their left hand».
25 1) Gambling appears to have been prohibited, but the game of chess was allowed. The
P'ing-ch6u k'o-t'an, loc. sup. cit., says «In the foreign quarter of Canton one sees foreigners playing
the ((elephant game» (i. e., the Chinese game of chess). They do not have rooks (^,) or knights
(j^)' ^^^ * number of pieces made of ivory, rhinoceros horn, gharu wood or sandal-wood, which
the two players move in turn according to certain rules. They play as an amusement (not for
30 stakes) and it is not usually inquired into». — The game was probably a kind of backgammon
called nerd.
2) From this it appears that the right to inflict capital punishment on foreign residents was
reserved by the Chinese government. As regards mixed civil cases in which Chinese and foreigners
were parties, we learn from another passage of the P'ing-ch6u-k'o-t'an (2,3*) that there was at
35 Canton an office under the orders of the Superintendent of Merchant Shipping which received
all complaints (of Chinese) for non payment of loans or interest on loans made to foreigners. The
custom of the Cantonese was to ask of traders double the amount lent, irrespective of the period
for which the money was lent. Payment was made in merchandise, which were taken at the
' market price at the time of settlement.
40 The Adjaib says that the -moslim settlements in India had each their honarmen, who
tried all cases against Musulmans according to the laws of Islam. Merveilles de I'Inde, 161.
Apparently the same power was given the honarmen in China, though the carrying out of certain
sentences was done by the Chinese authorities.
' 2
18 INTRODUCTION.
more favourable treatment from the local customs. Two centuries later this port
became of nearly equal importance with Canton; the Arab settlement became
much larger than at the latter place, and the fame of the city extended
throughout the mediaeval world under its Arab name of Zaytun\
The troubles which broke out in China in the latter part of the ninth 5
century, when the revolted troops of the T'ang Emperor Hi-tsung (874 —
889) sacked Soochow, Chang-chou and Ch'o-kiang, and Fu-ki6n generally,
interrupted for a time established trade relations, and caused the foreigners
at Canton and Ts'uan-chou to seek refuge at Kalah on the west coast of the
Malay Peninsula, and presumably Palembang; and at the former place the lo
ships from Siraf and Oman met those which came from China. Trade was
carried on in this way down to at least the beginning of the tenth century,
for Masudi says it was so at the time he visited that placeMt seems possible
that the ships which plied at this time between China and the Malay Pen-
insula were really Chinese-manned ships. In the twelfth century, as is shown 15
further on, Chinese (Cantonese) sea-going junks went as far as Quilon on the
Malabar coast, and this seems to be the farthest point west ever reached
by them before the Ming dynasty.
At the end of the tenth century Canton and Ts'iian-chdu had revived,
1) There has been much discussion concerning Zaytun, whether it was the present Ts'flan- 20
ch6u — east of Amoy, or Chang-chou — west of that port. The conclusion now nearly universally
accepted is that Zaytun of the Sung and Yflan periods (i. e., eleventh to fourteenth century in-
clusive) was Ts'tlan-ch6u or Chinchew as it is now often called, but, that as used by the Portuguese
in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, it may have meant Chang-ch6u. Sir Henry Yul e (Marco
Polo, 2* edit., II, 223) summed up the discussion as follows: nWhether the application by foreigners 25
of the term Zayton, may, by some possible change in trade arrangements in the quarter century ;
after Polo's departure from China, have undergone a transfer, is a question which it would be vain
to answer positively without further evidence. But as regards Polo's Zayton, I continue in the
belief that this was Ts'wanchau and its haven, with the admission that this haven may probably
have embraced that great basin, called Amoy Harbour, or part of it». Cordier in the 3* edit, of 30
Yule's Marco Polo (11, 239 — 241) accepts these conclusions.
As corroborative evidence of the identity of Ts'tian-chdu with Zaytun during the Sung and
Yfian periods, we find in the Yflan-shI, 94,25, that at about the time of Polo's departure from
Zaytun, Inspectors of Maritime Shipping (sM-jpo-shi) were stationed at the following ports:
Ts'flan-ch6u, Shang-hai, Kan-pu (near Hang-chou, Polo's Ganfu), Won-chdu, Kuang-ch6u (Can- 35
ton), Hang-ch6u and K'ing-ytian (Ning-po). The places where the chief officers for collecting the
customs revenues from foreign trade were stationed must have been identical with the places
where that trade was carried on,
Abulfeda (Reinaud's transl. II, Pt. ii. 122—124) says «Khanfu (Canton) and Shiiyu —
the latter known in our time as Zaitun— are the landar or ports of China, and with them the ports 40
are also the places of customs». Shinju (a pretty close transcription of Ts'Qan-ch6u by the way)
was situated, he goes on to say, on a gulf or bay and at the mouth of a river, a half-day from
the sea. Ships could come up to the fresh water river.
2) Masudi, Prairies d'or, I, 308.
INTKODUCTION. 1 9
for we learn that at that time they carried on direct trade with the Arabs,
the Malay Peninsula, Tongking, Siam, Java, Western Sumatra, "Western
Borneo, and certain of the Philippine Islands, though, of course, the products
of many other countries of the south and south-west were brought there too.
5 The annals of the Sung dynasty ^ supply a list of the principal articles of this
trade, imports and exports. In or about 999. They were gold, silver, Chinese
cash, coined money, lead, piece-goods of all colours, porcelain-ware, cotton
fabrics, incense and scented woods, rhinoceros horns, ivory, coral, amber,
strings of pearls, steel (pin-tHe) ^, shells of turtles, tortoise-shell, cornelians,
10 ch^o-M shelP, rock-crystal, foreign cotton stuffs, ebony and sapan wood.
So valuable had this trade become at the end of the tenth century, that
not only was it made a Government monopoly, but, with the object of increas-
ing it, a mission was sent abroad by the Emperor with credentials under the
Imperial seal and provisions of gold and piece-goods to induce «the foreign
15 traders of the South Sea and those who went to foreign lands beyond the sea
to trade» to come to China. Special licences to import goods were promised
them.
The result of the Government's strenuous effort to increase this trade
was only too soon felt; the Imperial storehouses were shortly packed with
20 ivory, rhinoceros horns, pearls, jade, incense and scented woods and all the
precious merchandise of the southern seas. To find a market for these goods,
the local officials of the empire were ordered to induce the people to purchase
them with «gold, piece-goods, rice and straw»*.
The great value to China of this foreign trade may be estimated by the
25 steps the Government took to regulate it. We have seen (p. 9) that a
1) Sung-shI, 186,18*.
2) Literally «hard irona. There is great uncertainty as to the nature of pin-t'ie (■^B
I). Bretschneider, Ancient Chinese, etc., 12, n. 2 — is disposed to think it was damascene
steel, especially sword blades. Perhaps it was the ondanique of which Marco Polo (I. 91)
30 speaks as a product of Kerman, a word which Yule thinks may be Hundwaniy ^\^^^,
nindian steel», which enjoyed great fame all over the East. Edrisi (I, 65) says that the iron
preferred by the Indian smiths came from the Sofala coast of East Africa. There was a large'
amount of it carried yearly to India by ships from Sumatra or Java («the islands of Zabedj»).
3) Probably a large white shell of the cockle kind, plentiful in Sumatran waters. The
35 term is sometimes translated «mother-of-pearl». See infra Pt. II, Ch. XXXV.
4) Sung-shi, 186,19. It is imposible to determine the exact amounts of these imports,
as we do not know the units of count, which varied greatly. The Sung-shi says that from
1049 to 1053 the annual importation of elephants' tusks, rhinoceros horns, strings of pearls,
aromatics, incense, etc., was over 53,000 units of count. In 1175 the annual amount had risen
40 to over 500,000 units.
2*
20 IXTKODUCTION.
maritime customs service existed in Canton in the eighth century, and Soleyman,
the Arab, has informed us concerning it a century later. In 971 the Canton
Inspectorate of Maritime trade was reorganized to meet the requirements of
the rapidly increasing foreign intercourse and to secure to the Government a
larger share of the profits. A few years later, between 976 and 983, this 5
trade was declared a state monopoly, and private trading with foreigners was
made punishable by branding on the face and exile to an island of the sea ^
Still a few years later, but before 998, a General Customs CoUectorate
was established at the capital (King-shi, Marco Polo's Kinsay) and orders
issued that all foreign aromatics and goods of value arriving in China, either lo
at Canton, Ts*uan-ch6u, the Liang-ch'6 (Ch'0-kiang) Province, or even in
Kiau-chi (Tongking) ^ were to be deposited in Government warehouses.
In 999 Inspectorates for Maritime trade were established atHang-ch6u
and at Ming-ch6u, — the present Ning-po, — and we are told that this was
<ione «at the request and for the convenience of the foreign officials)) *. 15
The P'ing-ch6u-k*o-t'an, previously referred to, throws some additional
light on the Chinese Maritime Customs of the beginning of the twelfth century.
«The Superintendency of Merchant Shipping (7^ ^ u}) at Canton», it says,
«is an old institution; (originally) the Comptroller General of the grain
transport was specially appointed for the management of merchant shipping 20
affairs.
«In the reigns of T'ai-tsu and T'ai-tung (of the Sung dynastry, i. e.,
960 — 997) he was called Superintendent of Merchant Shipping (7|j* ^ '^).
aTs'iian-chou in the province (^) of Fu-kien, Ming-ch6u and Hang-
chou in the province of Ch'6-kiang (^ */0J), being all near the sea, had also 25
Superintendencies of Merchant Shipping (Shi-po-ss'i). In the beginning of the
chung-ning period (1102) the three provinces had each its special official for
the management of merchant shipping (:^ ^ -jIj j||^ ^). Of the three,
Kuang-tung was, however, the most prosperous. If, perchance, the officials
and underlings (there) were extortionate, then the merchants went to the one 30
making the lightest charge. So these three places (provinces) had their periods
of prosperity and decline.
1) Sung shi, 186,18''. See also infra p. 21.
2) Kiau-chi was an integral part of China; jaost of its trade with China proper was cen-
tered at K'in-ch6ii in S. W. Kuang-tung. ag
3) Sung-shJ, loc. cit. The fact that a Custom house was opened at Hang-chou only in
999 disposes of the identification of this port with the Khanfu of the Arabs of the middle of
the ninth century. Marco Polo's Ganfu is Kan-fu (or pu ^ ^^1) near Hang-chou.
ISTRODXJCTIOS. 2 1
«At one time the Court abolished (the superintendency) at Ts'uan-chou
and directed that (merchant) shipping should repair to Kuang-chou ; this did
not please the merchants-).
We know, on the authority of the Arab trader Soleyman \ that in the
5 middle of the ninth century thirty per cent, (in goods) was levied as duty on
foreign imports at Canton. This tariff seems to have been maintained for
centuries after, with only occasional lower rates ^. The P'ing-chou-k'o-t'an
supplies us with the following:
«0n the arrival of any ships the Chief Commissioner (^[|] j^) and the
10 Superintendent of Customs examine the cargoes and levy duties, which is
called 'taxing for release' (or 'clearance duties' :J^ ^). On a basis of ten
parts for the whole, pearls, camphor, and all articles of fine quality (j^fj '^)
pay (in kind) 1 part, (i. e., 10%). Tortoi£e-shell, sapan wood and all coarse
grade articles pay (in kind) 3 parts (i. e., 30%). Besides this duty each official
15 market (^ Tff) levies a small tax. After these charges are paid the remainder
belongs to the merchants themselves.
((Ivory tusks of thirty catties weight or over, and gum ohbanum, besides
paying the 'clearance dues' must be disposed of exclusively at the official
market, since they are 'licensed articles' 0^^ ^, — i. e., sold only to those
20 having received licenses to import them) '. Merchants who have rather large
ivory tusks (and who wish to sell them elsewhere) must cut them into pieces
of three catties or less (jj^\ ^ ^ =. )t ii^ ~F) *° escape the official
markets. All prices on the official market are low, and other varieties of goods
are so greatly undervalued on it that the merchants are displeased (or 'injured'
25 ^) thereby.
((Should anyone, before the ship has paid its clearance dues, presume to
remove from it any part of the cargo, even the smallest bit (ht., 'a ^aw worth,'
i. e., a ten- thousandth part of a tael), all the remainder (of the cargo) is
confiscated, and he is in addition punished according to the gravity of the
30 offense. So it is that traders do not dare to violate the regulations**.
From another source ^ we learn that in 1 1 44 an import duty of 40% was
levied on all aromatic drugs and that, though in 1147 it would seem to have
1) Keinaud, Relation, I, 3J.
2) See infra, p. 22.
35 3) Scented woods generally were also ((licensed articles)), and could only be sold to
Government, or, as it is said in the text «in the official markets)). See l-'ing-chbu-k'o-t'an, loc. cit.
4) In the fourteenth century smuggling was punished at Zaytun by confiscation of the
whole cargo. Ibn Batuta, IV, 265. Conf. also supia p. 20.
5) Sung-shi, 186,18*.
22 IXTKODUCTIOX.
been reduced to 10%, it was 507o i^i 1175, the duty being paid in merchan-
dise. Some idea of the magnitude of this trade may be got from the fact that
in 1175, and probably during a number of years preceding that date, the
import duties amounted to 500,000 odd units of count (catties, strings, pie-
ces, etc. according to the various articles). 5
The tariff would seem to have been lowered, in the Yiian dynasty, for
Marco Polo (II, 217) says of the customs of Zayton (Ts'uan-chou) in his
time: «The great Kaan derives a very large revenue from the duties paid in
his city and haven; for you must know that on all the merchandise imported,
including precious stones and pearls, he levies a duty of ten per cent; or in lo
other words takes tithe of everything; then again the ship's charge for freight
on small wares is 30%, on pepper 44°/o, and on lign-aloes, sandal- wood, and
other bulky goods, 40%; so that between freight and the Kaan's duties the
merchant has to pay a good half the value of his investment though on the
other half he makes such a profit that he is always glad to come back with i5
a new supply of merchandise)). It may be, however, that the figures given on
previous pages included freight which, we know, (at all events in the early
part of the ninth century) was collected by the Inspector of Maritime Gus-
toms at the same time as the import duty. If this assumption is correct the
Yiian tariff was practically the same as the earlier ones. 20
In the twelfth century Chinese contemporary writers agree in stating-
that the foreign trade was confined to Canton and Ts'uan-chou', if not by law
at least by custom.
Chou K'u-fei, writing in 1178, makes this point perfectly clear ''.His
statement contains so much other interesting matter on the southern sea trade 25
of China and shows so conclusively that this trade in his time was in the
hands of the Arabs and other foreigners, that it is given here in full:
«The coast departments and the prefectures of the empire now stretch
from the north-east to the south-west as far as K'in-ch6u3 (^ j^), and
1) The Khanfu and Sliinju of mediaeval Arab writers. Additional proof of the identity of 30
Khanfu with Canton is supplied by Edrisi (I, 84. 90 Jaubert's transl.); he says that Lukin (Hanoi,
the Chinese Kiau-chi) was four days sailing from Khancu (Khanfu), or 20 days by land. This'
city, he adds, was the end of the voyage for travellers from the West.
2) Ling-wai-tai-ta (^ ;^[. ^ ^) ^s_ Ch6u K'&-ieL {M .±. ife) 3 m-u
Ch6u K'tt-fei was a native of W6n-ch6u (^_>fi|>|) in Ch"6-kiang, Sk i^n' he wrote 35
•his book he, held the position of Assistant Sub-Prefect in Kui-lin (j^ j^\ the capital of'
Kuang-si. It is highly probable that he collected his notes while in Canton, 'when on his way
to his official residence. ,
3) K'in-chou was the westernmost district of Kuang-tung on the Kiau-chi (Tongking) front-
ier. It is part of the Lien-chou Fu of the present day. aq
IXTKODUCTION, 23
these coast departments and prefectures (are visited) by trading ships (7^
-JlQ). In its watchful kindness to the foreign Barbarians (^[. ||) our Govern-
ment has established at Ts'uan-ch6u and at Kuang-chon Special Inspectorates
of Shipping, and whenever any of the foreign traders (^ ]^) have difticul-
6 ties or wish to lay a c(^mplaint they must go to the Special Inspectorate {^
((Every year in the 10th moon the Special Inspectorate establishes a
large fair for the foreign traders and (when it is over) sends them (home) ^.
When they first arrive (in China) after the summer solstice, (then it is that)
"10 the Inspectorate levies (duties) on their trade and gives them protection.
«0f all the wealthy foreign lands which have great store of precious
and varied goods, none surpass the realm of the Arabs (Ta-shi). Next to them
comes Java (Sho-p'o); the third is Palembang (San-fo-ts'i)^; many others
come in the next rank,
15 ((Palembang (San-fo-ts'i) is an important thoroughfare (f^) on the sea-
routes of the Foreigners on their way to and from (China). Ships (on leaving
it, on their way to China) sail due north, and having passed the Shang-hia-
chu islands" (J^ "]C ^) and (through) the Sea of Kiau-chi (^ y:^), they
1) The text reads -^ =^ ^ "^ fj'p ^ ^. It appears from Sung-shi. 1 86,19*
20 that in 1175 the Inspector of merchant shipping was ordered not to grant leave to unload to any
ships from abroad until ten at least had arrived. He was then to levy duty — in goods, 50 per
cent, on all goods not government monopolies imported under special licenses. All this latter
class of goods had to go to the government saleshouse.
P V) g- Ch6u-k'o-t'an supplies some interesting details — referring presumably to the latter
25 part of the eleventh century, as to the rules observed by ships from foreign ports entering the
port of Canton. «From the SiauHai (>>K ]^) at Kuang-ch6u to Ju-ch6u (island Js fM'j is
700 It. At Ju island there is a lookout for ships; it is called Lookout A: 1 ( — • 3^). A little to the
north are Lookouts JNs 2 and JV» 3. Beyond Ju island is the Warm Current ('^ 7^)- Merchant
ships on reaching Ju island make a brief stop to say farewell, and setting sail after this is called
So ((putting to sea» {"M^ T^)- ^^^i™ (ships) reach Ju island on their return, they exchange con-
gratulations, and the soldiers at the port supply them with samshu and meat as well as provide
them escort to Kuang-ch6u. "When they drop anchor at the Inspector of Foreign Customs' pavilioli
(at Canton) the Wu-chfiu Inspection Office (^ fj\\ ^ j^ W}) sends soldiers to keep watch
on board, and this is called ((putting up the barriers» (j|S j^ ). On the subject of this Pavilion
35 and Wu-ch6u islands, see infra p. 29, n. 1 and 2.
2) In another passage (2,ii) the same writer says of San-fo-ts'i: (dt is the most important
port-of-call on the sea-routes of the foreigners from the countries of Java (Sho-p'o) in the east
and from the countries of the Arabs (Ta-shi) and Quilon (Ku-lin) in the west; they all pass
through it on their way to Chinaa.
40 3) Called T'ien-chu (^ ^) islands in the Sung-shi, 489. They are usually identified
'with Pulo Aor, S. E. of Tyoman, although some writers place them near Singapore.
24 INTBODUCTION.
come witliin the confines of China. Those wishing to make Kuang-chou enter
that port by the T'un-m5n^ (ig f^), while those wishing to enter Ts'uan-
chou make it by the Kia-tzi-m6n^ (^ -f' P^).
aShips coming from Java (Sh6-p'o) go a little north-west (at first), but
when they have passed the Shi-ir-tzi rocks » (-f^ H -^ 5), they take the .5
same route as the Palembang ships from below ("f i. e., south) of theShang-
hia-chu Islands.
(((Traders) coming from the country of the Ta-shi, after travelling south
to Quilon (Ku-lin) on small vessels, transfer to big ships*, and, proceeding
east, they make Palembang (San-fo-ts'i). After this they come to China by lo
the same route as the Palembang ships.
((The (foreign countries) which are dependencies of Annam (Chan-
ch'ong) and Kamboja (Chon-la), are all near the southern part of the Sea of
Tongking (Kiau-chi), not half as far away as San-fo-ts'i and Sho-p'o, and
these latter in turn are not half as far away as the countries of the Arabs 15
(Ta-shi). A year is sufficient for all the foreigners to make the round voyage
to China, with the exception of the Arabs who require two years.
((As a general thing the- foreign ships can make 1,000 U a day with a
good wind, but if they have the misfortune to run into a north wind and they
can neither find an anchorage on our territory or some place in which to run 20
to shelter and anchor in some foreign land, men and cargo will all be lost.
((As to Mo-k'ie (g ^) and Wu-ssi-li (^ ^ H.), it is not known ■
how many myriads of U away they are» ®.
1) On T'nn-mon, see supra, p. 10, n. 1.
2) The present junk passage at the place known to mariners as Cupchi Point (BEf -^ 25
Jfe), now an important station of the Kuang-tung province. «The junks pass between Turtle
Ilock and therock next to the northward». See Williams, Chinese Commercial Guide, 5^'^ edit.,
Appendix-Sailing Directions, p. 55. The Kia-tzi-mon appears to have been the safest anchorage
in the neighbourhood and a refuge shelter for junks sailing between Hongkong and Chinchew
waters. The Emperor Tuan-tsung, in his flight from the Mongol conquerors, made it the head- 30
quarters of his fleet before the final downfall of the Sung dynasty, in A. D. 1277. See Tjt^u-tsi-
ch^^lgj^ect. 6. Ch. 1326, p. 4, a,nd Kiianfr-tiinfr sir^-yti 2,7 where a special paragraph is devoted
to the Eia-tzi-m5n.
3) These rocks are marked on Chinese maps of the sixteenth century as being N. of Cari-
mata Island off the S. W. coast of Borneo. Phillips, J. C. B. K. A. S., XXI. 40, and maps. 35-
4) The Arab sanibuks (^^-v-L..)) of those times were probably of about 100 tons burden,
like those of the present day. They were made of boards lashed together with coir ropes and
the seams pitched. Their weakness is often referred to in mediaeval Arab works. Conf. also infra
"p. 30, n. 4. It seems probable that at Quilon the Arabs transhipped to large junks of the Chinese
type which regularly made the voyage from Canton to Quilon. 40
5) Mo-k'ie is probably the Magreb-alaksSi of the Arabs — «the remotest West, corres-
ponding roughly with the present Morocco. Chau Ju-kua transcribes the name of the
IXTKODUCTIOX. 25
This extract naturally suggests an inquiry into the general geographical
knowledge of the Chinese concerning the world of the Barbarians in the time
of this author. Fortunately he has left us a comprehensive and complete
statement (the like of which is found in no other Chinese writer of the Sung
5 period) of his notions on the physical and political geography of the world in
his time. It reads as follows:
«The Great (World)-encircling-Ocean-Sea bounds the Barbarians' coun-
tries; in every quarter there are kingdoms of them, each has its peculiar
products, each its trading centre (^ ■^) from which it derives its(commer-
10 -cial) prosperity. The (Barbarian) kingdoms due south have San-fo-ts'i as their
commercial centre. Sh5-p*o is the centre ofthose to the south-east. The countries
to the south-west are so vast in extent that they cannot all be described. The
nearest are Chan-ch'ong and Chon-la as the commercial centres of Wa-li^
(m. ^)- "^^ ™o^* distant is Ta-ts'in as the commercial centre of the coun-
15 tries of Western Indian Among the distant ones Ma-li-pa^ (^ "^ :f^) is
the commercial centre of the countries of the Ta-sM, and beyond these there
same country Mo-k'ie-la (^ -^ |^). Wu-ssMi, asusedbyChau J u-ku a, is certainly Egypt;
whether our author applies this name in the present case to the same country or to some other
it is impossible to say. In another passage (SiS*) Ch6u uses three characters with the same sounds
20 {'^ ^ ^) for Mosul (al Mawsil).
1) Chau Ju-kua (infra, p. 54) mentions Wa-li as a dependency of Chon-la (Kamhoja).
Chou K'ii-fei (2, 11") says it was 60 days journey from P'u-kan on the Irrawadi, without men-
tioning any direction. It may have been either the Laos country or that of the Karens.
2) The whole of Western Asia is sometimes covered by this term in Chinese works. For
25 example in the modern work Hai-kuo-t'u-chl (30), Persia, Arabia, Syria and their ancient equi-
valents are discussed under the heading of Si-Yin-t'u, i. e.. Western India.
3) Ma-li-pa, or Ma-lo-pa as Chau also writes it, appears to be Merbat on the Hadramaut
coast of southern Arabia. At the time of which our author writes, Aden was perhaps the most
important port of Arabia for the African and. Arabian- trade with India and the countries beyond.
30 It seems highly probable that the Ma-li-pa of the Chinese must be understood as including
Aden— of which they make no mention whatsoever, but which was one of «the great commercial
centres of the Arabs». In another passage of his work (3,2) Chou says that Ma-li-pa was
reached from Lan-li (N. W. Sumatra) by ships sailing with the N. E. wind in some 60 days.
It was also some 80 days by land from Mekka (Ma-kia). Chau Ju-kua says it was 120
35 stages from Ma-lo-pa to Ki-tz'I-ni (possibly Ghazni) and 300 stages to Lu-mei (Rto,— Syria,
Rome or Constantinople?). There is nothing in these indications which can help us locate this
place. The ancient Merbat or Robat was, according to Theo. Bent (Geogr, Journ. VI,
115—116, 124 — 125), near the modern Takha, about half way between Cape Risut and
the modern Merbat. From Bent's examination of the locality, it had a good spacious
40 and commodious harbor with an island protecting the entrance. It is, he says, the Abyssa-
polis ('ApuffffaTToXii;) of Ptolemy, the Moscha (Mo'uxa) of the Periplus. Ibn Khaldun uses
the name Mirbat. See also Mailer, Geogr. Graeci min. I, 282, § 32 and Mo Crindlo,
Periplus, 95.
26 ISTRODUCTION.
is Mu-lan-p'i^ (tj^ ^ J^) as the commercial centre of the countries of the
extreme west.
«To the south of San-fo-ts'i (here Sumatra) is the Great Southern Ocean-
Sea and in this Ocean-Sea there are islands inhabited by a myriad and more
of peoples. Beyond these to the south one cannot go. 6
«To the east of Java (Sho-p'o) is the Great Eastern Ocean-Sea,— where
(the surface of) the waters begins to go downward (;^ ^ }Df %); there is
the kingdom of women. Still further to the east is the place where the
wei-lu (^ ^) drains (jflH:) into the world from which men do not return «.
In a slightly north-easterly direction there is only Kau-li(N. W. Korea) and lo
Pai-ts'i (N. Korea).
«It is impossible to enumerate the countries in the South-Western Ocean,
but if we take Tongking (Kiau-chi) as a central point, we have to the south
of it Annam (Chan-ch'6ng), Kamboja (Chon-la) and Fo-lo-an» (# /^
^). To the north-west of Kiau-chi is Ta-li (Yun-nan), the Hei-shui, or 15
'Black Water'* (^^ 7JC), and the T'u-fan (the Tibetans), and beyond this to
the west a big sea called the Sea of Ceylon^ (^ ^ '/$). In this sea is a
big island called the country of Si-lan (Ceylon). Crossing westward there are
again countries; in the south there is Ku-lin (^ [^, Quilon); in the north
is Ta-ts*in (the empire of the Caliphs) and the T'ien-chu of Wang-sho-ch'6ng^ 20
(^ -^ M ^ ^ Central India).
«Still beyond (this Sea of Ceylon) there is another sea called the 'Eastern
Sea of the Arabs', and beyond it to the west are the countries of the Arabs. The
lands of the Arabs are very broad and their kingdoms very many, too numer-
ous to enumerate. In the west beyond them is the sea called the ((Western Sea 25
1) Mu-lan-p'i appears to be a transcription of tlie Atahic Mmabit, the Almoravides or
Almorabethum, wlio reigned in northwestern Africa and in Spain between 1073 and 1 147.
2) On this old notion of a hole in the Pacific into which the waters of the Ocean emptied,
see infra, p. 75, and Chs. XXXVIII, 4, and XLVI.
3) Fo-lo-an is identified with Beranang on the Langat Eiver, west coast of the Malay 30
Peninsula. Chau Ju-kua (Ch. VII) says it was a dependency of San-fo-ts'i.
4) According to the earliest geographical notions of the Chinese (Shu-king, Tribute of Yfl,
Pt. I, 71, Pt. II, 6) the Black W^ater formed the western boundary of China, and emptied into
the Southern Sea. See Legge, Shu-king, Pt. III. Bk. I, 123, and Chavannes, M6m. historiq.,
I, 126, n. 2. Here the Irrawadi must be meant. See infra, p. 63, n. 1 another reference to the 35
Black Water by Ch6u K'fl-fei.a nd a repetition of this whole passage in slightly different words.
5) This is the earliest use known in Chinese literature of the Arab name for Ceylon.
See infra, p. 71, n. 2.
6) According to another passage of Ling-wai-tai-ta (8,4) this Tien-chil was the country
,of Magadha, He mentions another Wang-sho-ch'ong as being located by some writers in Pin-t"o- 40
lung. See infra, p. 51, n. 1.
IXTRODUCTIOX. 27
of the Arabs», and still beyond that is Mu-lan-p'i, and a thousand other
kingdoms; and in the extreme West is the place where the sun goes in and
of which we do not know» ^
The earliest narrative of a voyage on the southern seas by a Chinese
5 which has come down to us is that of the pilgrim F a-hi^ in the early part
of the fifth century. He says that, desiring to return from India to China, he
embarked at Tamlook ^ near the mouth of the Hoogly, on a large merchant
vessel (j^ A. 3^ iW) ^"^ which, sailing day and night, he came to Ceylon
' in fourteen days. Here he took passage on another large merchant ship (-^
10 j|§), on board which there were more than 200 men, and to which was
attached a smaller vessel i^)in case of damage to the larger one by the
sea. Fa-hien speaking of the voyage says*:
«The Great Ocean (^ '/^) spreads out over a boundless expanse. There
is no knowing east or west; only by observing the sun, moon and stars was
15 it possible to go forward. If the weather was dark and rainy the ship went
forward as she was carried by the wind, without any definite course. In the
darkness of the night only the great waves were to be seen, breaking on one
another, emitting a brightness like that of fire, with huge turtles and other
monsters of the deep (all about). The merchants were full of terror, not know-
20 ing where they were going. The sea was deep and bottomless, and there
was no place where they could drop anchor ("|^ ^, lit., «let down a stone»)
and stop. But when the sky became clear they could tell east and west, and
the ship again went forward in the right direction. If she had come on any
hidden rock there would have been no way of escape».
25 Arriving in Java C^ ^ ^) he took passage on another large mer-
chantman, on which there were over 200 men. It carried provisions for fifty
days and set sail on the 16*" of the 4*" moon (sometime in May). After
steering a north-easterly course for a month, they encountered a «black wind»,
1) Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,9.
30 2) Tamlook was already in FaJiien 's time the principal emporium of trade with Ceylon
< and south-eastern Asia, and it remained so for centuries after. It was visited by numerous Chi-
nese pilgrims in the seventh century, but no mention is made of it as a great commercial center
either by the writers of the T'ang or the Sung dynasties. Ch6u K'tt-fei and Chau Ju-kua did
not know of its existence.
85 3) L e g g e, Kecord of Buddhist kingdoms, 100, 11 2— 1 1 3. C h a v a n n e s, Religieux Iminents,
' 42, says, on the authority of the I-tsie-king-yin-i, Ch. 1, that the vessels called po {^) were
some 200 feet long and could carry from six to' seven hundred persons. Ships called ch'uan (^)
were, probably, of smaller dimensions.
28 INTRODUCTION.
accompanied by a heavy rain. «The sky continued dark and gloomy and the
sailing masters (y$ $rR) looked at one another and made mistakes)). When
seventy days or more from their start from Java were passed, they came
to the conclusion that they had held a wrong course as they should have made
Canton, at the ordinary rate of sailing, long before; so they altered their 5
course to the north-west and in twelve days made Lau-shan, near Tsingtau on
the south-east of the Shan-tung Peninsula.
Such was the method of sailing ships in the fifth century, such it remained
down to the twelfth; the skippers trusted— when venturing out of sight of
land, to the regularity of the monsoons and steered solely by the sun, moon lo
and stars, taking, presumably, soundings as frequently as possible. From other
sources^ we learn that it was customary on ships which sailed out of sight of
land to keep pigeons on board, by which they used to send messages to land. This
custom appears to have been a very old one with the sailors of India, as it
is found mentioned in Buddhist works dating from the fifth century B. C. ^. 15
By the twelfth century, the next period concerning which we have any
information, navigation had made considerable progress, due principally to
the application made of the compass or «south- pointing needle», as it is
called by the Chinese, who had long known of the polarity of the needle,
but had never applied it to this purpose*. The earliest mention of the compass 20
1) Yu-yang-tsa-tsu (]§ ^ ^ M) by Tuan Ch'ong-shii (^ ^ ^). The author
died in A. D. 863. Mayers, Chin. Readers' Man. 211. Wylie, Notes, 155, says he wrote towards
the end of the 8*1' century. See also Giles, Chinese Biograph. Diet., 788. Tuan says (16,5), on the
authority of Chong Fn-]i (HK ^h ?b), that «on the sea-going ships of the Persians many
feed pigeons. These pigeons can fly several thousand li, and, when let loose, at a single flight 25
they return to their homes, thus serving as a letter of good news (^^ ^r ^s)"-
2) The Kevattha Sutta of the Digha nikaya puts the following in the Buddha's mouth:
«Long ago ocean-going merchants were wont to plunge forth upon the sea, on board a ship,
taking with them a shore-sighting bird free. And it would go to the East and to the South and
to the West and to the North, and to the intermediate points, and rise aloft. If on the horizon it 30
caught sight of land, thither it would go. But if not, then it would come back to the ship again».
AsRhysDavids remarks, this is very probably the earliest reference in Indian books to ocean-
going ships out of sight of land. J. R. A. S., 1699, 432.
The use of carrier-pigeons was probably introduced into China by the Hindu or Arab
traders. The earliest mention of them in Chinese literature is connected with Chang Kiu-ling, 35
born in A. D. 673, and who was a minister of the Emperor Hftan-tsung. Watters, J. C. B. R.
A. S., IV, 226.
3) Beazley, Dawn of modern geography, I, 490 says that the Chinese used the compass
on their long voyages from Canton to Malabar and the Persian Gulf as early as the third century
A. D. So far as I am aware there is absolutely no evidence that they made these long voyages 40
at the time mentioned, or that they had ever thought of using the compass for navigation.
E. Speck, Handelsgeschichte des Alterthums, I, 29, 209 thinks the Chinese used the compass for
J I
IXTKOCUCTIOX. ( ^29
for navigation is probably the account of the P'ing-chou-k'o-t'an, which Chi-
nese critics believe was supplied by the author's father during the latter part
of the eleventh century. Another early mention is found under the year 1122.
The rather disconnected notes on Chinese sea-trade contained iii the
6 P'ing-chou-k'o-t'an embody so much of interest on the general subject with
which we are dealing that they are given in full. They run as follows:
«At the Shi-po's (Inspector of Foreign Trade) pavilion there is close to
the water-side the Hai-shan-lou ^ (y^ (Jj ^^); it faces Wu-chou^ (5£ yj\\
'Five Islands'). Below this (the river) is called the «Little Sea» (/J> '/^).
10 In mid-current for some ten odd feet the ships can take water (from the sea
or river) aboard for use in crossing the sea ; this water does not spoil, but
water taken outside this limit of ten feet or more, and all ordinary well-water
navigation as early as the first century A. D. Reiuaud, GeograpLie d'Aboulfeda, I, CCIII— CCIV,
speaking of the oldest Arab references to the polarity of the magnetic needle, concludes his
15 remarks by saying: wThese various pieces of evidence prove that at the end of the XII ti and
beginning of the XIIIti> centuries the magnetic needle came into use (for navigation) at the same
time in the East and in the "WestB. It may well be, however, that the Arab traders engaged in
the China trade got their knowledge of the polarity of the magnetic needle from the Chinese and
applied it to navigation before the Chinese did. See Hirth, Ancient History of China, 126, 134.
20 Another early mention of the mariner's compass in Chinese works is that made by Sfl-king in the
narrative of his mission to Korea in 1122. He there describes the use of the csouth-pointing
floating needles (dig '^l ^^ '^) on the ships on which he sailed from Ning-po, as if it
were a new invention. Edkins, J. C. B. K. A. S., XI, 128—134. A. Wylie, Magnetic Compass
in China, quoting the M5ng-k'i-pi-t'an of the Sung period, shows that the Chinese, or at least
25 a few of them, had some knowledge of the changes which take place in the magnetic elements,
in the tenth to thirteenth century, but of the application of the magnetic compass to navigation
no mention is made earlier than that of the P'ing-chou-k'o-t'an.
E. H. Parker, China Eeview, XVIII, 197 says that tlie Sung-shu makes mention of a
Ksouth pointing ship» (:j^ ^ -M-) during the Tsin (^) dynasty (A. D. 265— 3 13), but this
30 is not sufficient evidence to show that the compass was used at that date for sea navigation.
J. Chalmers, China Review, XIX, 52—54 arrives at the conclusion that the «south-pointing
chariots)) mentioned in early Chinese records did not lead to the discovery of the compass)).
It is of interest to note that no reference occurs in any Chinese works of the T'ang or
Sung periods to the astrolabe, an instrument which must have been in very general use on the
35 Arab ships of those times.
1) The Hai-shan-lou, according to the Y0-ti-ki-sh6ng, the geography of the Southern Sung
dynasty, 89,11, is enumerated among the wsights worth seeing» of Canton. It was a building com-
manding a fine view of the surrounding country, and situated in a locality called Ki-mu-kan-li
(S @ "F" M.) *"° ^^^ ®*'"*^ "^ *^^ *''*y"" '^^^ ^""^^^ chronicles, quoted in the T'u-shu-tsi-
40 ch'ong, Sect. 6. 1313,2, describe its situation as coutside the south-gate of the prefectural city
defenses)). This seems to involve that the Shi-po's office was in the southern suburbs of Canton
city and on the north shore of the Pearl Eiver.
2) On Wu-ch6u or Five Islands, see also supra, p. 23, n. 1. They cannot be identified at
present. The same remark applies to the Little Sea (Siau-hai), though it may be the Bay of
45 Lintin below the Bogue, since in a temple inscription of this neighbourhood, the Siau-hai is
opposed to the Ta-hai, the latter being east ot the former. P'ei-won yfln-fu, 40,35.
30 ISTKODrCTIOX.
cannot be stored (on board ship), for after a time it breeds insects. Tlie cause
of this is unknown ^
«Ships sail in the eleventh or twelfth moons to avail themselves of the
north wind (the north-east monsoon), and come back in the fifth or sixth
moon to avail themselves of the south wind (the south-west monsoon). 5
((The ships are squarely built like grain measures (((bushels» %^). If
there is no wind (i. e., if the sails are not used) they cannot remove the
masts, for these are firmly planted, and the sails hang down on one side (of
them), — one side close to the mast, around which they move like a door (on
its hinges). They have mat-sails. .These ships are called kia-t'u^ (jjlfl ^), 10
which is a foreign word^ (^ "^ -j;^).
((At sea they can use not only a stern wind, but wind off or toward
shore can also be used. It is only a head-wind which drives them backward.
This is called «using the wind of three directions)) {-^ ^ ^ ^). When
there is a head- wind they can heave the anchor (|J J^) and stop. 15
((The Governor of Kuang-tung in the fifth moon prays to the god Fong-
lung (^ 1^ ^^) for wind.
((On large kia-Ung (Kling?)* sea-going ships (^ ^ "M M ik ^)>
every several hundred men, and on small ones a hundred and more men,
1) Kuang-tung-sin-yfl, 4, 6,a5, contains an account of springs of brackish (or fresh) water 20
in the sea ("^ ptl V^ ^^)' ^^^ "^ which were along the Kuang-tung coasts, two of these
seeming to have been on the coast of Sin-hui-hien near the Bogae. Our author assumes, I take
it, that a submarine spring sends a column of fresh water to the surface where it spreads out,
while the lower strata of the sea remains salt-water, this prevents the formation of certain
organic growths containing the germs that will breed insects in ordinary spring-water. 25
2) Icia-t'u is pronounced Jca-tat in Cantonese, and the second syllable stands for tur or
tur. Final r is quite commonly represented by final t in old inscriptions, as in the name T'u-ku6
which represent Ttlrk of the Old Turkish stone inscriptions preserved in alphabetical script. Katur
is proba.hly the word Catur said to have been in use on the coast of Malabar as the name of a
special kind of sailing ship in the early days of the Portuguese. Yule & Burnell, Anglo-Indian 30
Glossary, s. v. -Catur, say «Jal (Archfiologie Navale, II, 259) quotes Witsen as saying that the
Caturi or Almadias were Calicut vessels, having a length of 12 to 13 paces (60 to 65 feet), sharp
at both ends, and curving back, using both sails and oars. But there was a larger kind 80 feet
long, with only 7 or 8 feet beam». This, it is true, does not tally with the description of our
Chinese author, who compares the ship to a grain measure, hu, the characteristic shape of 35
which is that of the frustum of a pyramid, — an impossible type, even for this remote period, for
distant ocean craft. See, however, the picture of an Arab ship of about this period in Van der
Lith and Devic's Merveilles de I'Inde, 91. Our word «cutter» is derived from Catur (or '-
kattira).
3) Fang-yen lit. «local terms, in the title of a well-known ancient work, means «terms 40
not usual in the standard language of China)), being some kind of provincialism; but it also occurs
in the sense of a regular ((foreign word)). P'ei-w5n-yiin-fu, 13A, 85.
4) The Kling are usually called Ho-ling (g^ |^) in Chinese mediaeval works; my
suggestion is quite gratuitous. It is certain that the Kling were the principal foreign traders
INTRODUCTION. 3 1
choose one of the more important traders as head-man (^ "^) who, with an
assistant head-man— (g|J ^ ■^), manages various matters. The Superinten-
dent of Merchant Shipping (at Canton) gives them a certificate (:^ |E) per-
mitting them to use the light bamboo for the punishing of their followers.
5 When one (of the company) dies, they (i. e., the head-men) make an inventory
of his property.
((Traders say that it is only when the vessel is large and the number
of men considerable that they dare put to sea, for over-seas (y^ ^\>) there are
numerous robbers, and they plunder, moreover, those who are not bound for
10 their (the robbers') country. For instance, if a ship be bound for Chan-ch'ong
and by chance get off her course and enter Chon-la, both ship and cargo are
confiscated and the men are bound and sold, (the robbers and the people of
the place) saying: (dt was not your purpose to visit this place»^.
((In foreign lands, though there may be no tax on commerce, there is
15 an insatiable demand for presents. No matter whether the cargo is large or
small, the same demands are made; consequently small ships are not profit-
able. Sea-going ships are several tens of c/j'awi; in breadth and depth ('^ yf^).
The traders divide the space by lot among themselves and store their
goods therein. (Each) man gets several feet (of space for storing his goods)
20 and at night he sleeps on top of them.
((The greate;r part of the cargo consists of pottery ([^ ^), the small
pieces packed in the larger, till there is not a crevice left.
<«At sea they are not afraid of the wind and the waves, but of getting
shoaled, for they say that if they run aground there is no way of getting ofiF
25 again. If the ship suddenly springs a leak they cannot mend it from the inside,
but they order their foreign slaves'* (lit. 'devil slaves' ^ j^) to take knives
at this time in Java, Sumatra, and possibly China. The ships here described were certainly not
Chinese either in build or crew. Chau Ju-kua calls the ships which traded between Ts'Oan-chou
and the Arab countries of the West «Fan-po» (||: ^). When'te speaks of Chinese junks he,
30 as well as the other writers of his time, call them «Ts'uan (ch6u) ships», or even Chung-kno
(i. e., Chinese) shipsa. — In the ea;r]y part of the Uth century Ibn Batuta (Voyages, IV, 90)
remarks ((Chinese ships only are used in navigating the Sea of China . . . These vessels are built
at Zaytun (Ts'flan-ch6u) and at Sin-kalan» (Canton).
1) Abd Alrazzak in the narrative of his mission to the court of China, to which he was
35 sent by Shahrokh, refers to this practice as being followed on the west coast of India in bis time,
' Calicut only excepted. Keinaud, G6ogr. d'Aboulfeda, I. CDXXXIII.
2) Fing-ch6u-k'o-t'an, 2, 4*, says of these «devil slavesa, that «in Kuang (Canton) rich
people keep (^ j many «devil slavesa, who are very strong, being able to carry several hundred
catties. In their language and tastes they are strange. Their disposition is gentle, and they do
40 not run away. They are also called «wild people» (^ /J. They are black in colour, as black
32 INTRODUCTION.
and oakum {%) and mend it from the outside, for the foreign slaves are expert
swimmers, and do not close their eyes under water.
«Tlie ship masters know the configuration of the coasts (i^ ^); at
night they steer by the stars and in the day-time by the sun. When the sun
is obscured they look at the south-pointing needle ^ (:jf ^ ^) or use a 5
line a hundred feet long with a hook (^), with which they take up mud
from the sea bottom; by its smell they determine their whereabouts. In mid-
ocean it never rains; whenever it rains (they know) they are nearing an island
{or headland (Jj).
((Traders say that when they get in calms the water of the sea is like a lo
mirror. The sailors then catch fish by taking (a line with) a hook (on it) as
large as a man's arm, on which they fasten a chicken or duck as bait. When
this is swallowed by a big fish they follow it (in a small boat?) as it makes
off, but not till half a day (is passed) does it grow tired enough for them to
as ink. Their lips are red, their hair curly and yellow. Both sexes are found among them; they 15
are natives of the islands beyond the sea (of China '/^ ^|»). They live (in their native land) on
raw food; when caught and fed on food cooked with fire, it purges them daily and this is called
((Changing the bowelss {^ J^). Many during this treatment sicken and die, but if they do not
they may be reared and become able to understand human speech (i. e., Chinese), though they
themselves cannot (learn) to speak it. 2Q
((There is a variety of wild men from near the sea ( jg^ *^ ^ ^) which can dive
in water without closing the eyes; these are called «K.'un-lun slaves;) (ja J^ ^Z.)-
The slaves who were anatives of the islands beyond the Sea (of China)», may have been
African negroes, in which the Arabs of those times carried on a large traffic. The effect of the
change of diet on these blacks, making them able to understand Chinese, is based on the Chinese 25
notipn that purging of the bowels is a result of mixing hot with cold food, and that these people
had to become used to the food and water of China and have the old washed out of them, before
they could understand Chinese.
The «K'un-lun slavess were in all likelihood Malays or Negritos of the Malay Peninsula
and the islands to the south. I-tsing calls the Malay language ((language of K'un-luna — Cha- 30
vannes, Kelig. dmin., 63, 159, 183. In A. D. 976 an Arab brought to the Court of China, aa
K'nn-lun slave with deep set eyes and black body)); Sung shi, 490. The practice of keeping black
slaves continued in China down to the latter part of the fourteenth century, perhaps even to much
more modern times. In 1370 among the presents brought to the Court of China by a mission from
Malacca were ((little foreign slavesa (^g: yj> ^K). The following year a mission from Borneo 35
brought ((little black slaves)) (S^ yj-^ ^^)- Kan-yile-pi-ki. 7,16,17. The same work- (whether
referring to the time when it was written, latter part of eighteenth century, or to past ages does
not appear) says that «many families (in China) buy black people to make gate-keepers of; they
are called Am«-wm or ((devil slaves)), ot h^siauss'i ((black slaves or servants)). Duarte Barbosain
the early part of the sixteenth century says that many slaves were shipped from the island of 40
Snnda to China. Descript. of East Africa, etc. (Hakl. Soc. edit.), 196.
F.W.Mayers, China Eeview, IV, 182 in translating the passage of this P'ing-chou-
k'o-t'an was under the impression it referred to the Ming period. He mentions the fact that in
1381 the king of Java sent 300 black slaves as a present to the Chinese Emperor.
1) See supra p. 28, n. 3. 45
INTRODUCTION. 33
get near it, and it is another half a day before they can secure it. Should a
wind come up suddenly, they abandon it. If they catch a large fish which is
not fit to eat, they open its belly and take out the small fish which it has
swallowed and which are eatable. There may be not less than several tens
, 5 in one belly, each one weighing several tens of catties \ All kinds of big sea
fish follow the ships, rising and sinking (around them), and there is nothing
thrown overboard that they do not eat. When a man sickens, he fears dying
on ship-board, for usually before the breath has left his body, he is rolled up
in several layers of matting and thrown into the sea, and, as it is desired to
10 have the body sink, several earthenware jars are filled with water and tied
in the matting before it is thrown overboard. The crowd of fish have devoured
the body and the matting before it can get down very far.
"There are saw-fish (s|g ^) hundreds of feet long, with snouts like
saws, and when they strike a ship they cleave it asunder as though it were
15 a piece of rotten wood.
((When the ship is in mid-ocean, if suddenly there is seen in the distance
(something like) a clump of islands covered with dried trees, and the skipper
has reason to believe that there is no land in that place, they (know) that it
is the sea-serpent (lit., «the dragon-monster» ^ ^). Then they cut o£f
20 their hair, take fish-scales and bones and burn them, upon which it will
gradually disappear in the water.
oAU these are dangers, from the most of which there is no escape.
Traders give heed to the bonzes' saying: 'To cross the sea is dangerous, but
pray, and you will see to the vault of heaven (^ ^ ^)> and in nothing
25 will help fail you'. On their arrival at Kuang-chou they make the bonzes
presents of food, which is called a 'Lo-han feast'».
Chou K'ti-fei, writing a generation later, thus describes the great ships
which sailed the Southern Sea, and the method of navigating them:
«The ships which sail the Southern Sea and south of it are like houses.
30 When their sails are spread they are like great clouds in the sky. Their
rudders are several tens of feet long. A single ship carries several hundred
men. It has stored on board a year's supply of grain. They feed pigs and
ferment liquors. There is no account of dead or living, no going back to the
mainland when once they have entered the dark blue sea. When on board
36 the gong sounds the day, the animals drink gluttonly, guests and hosts by
1) The Arab relations of the ninth century mention fish caught in the Indian Ocean which
were 20 cubits long. On opening it a smaller fish of the same species was found in its belly, and
in the belly of the smaller fish a still smaller one. Reinaud, Relations, I, 2.
3
34 INTRODUCTION.
turn forgetting their perils. To the people on board all is hidden, mountains,
land-marks, the countries of the foreigners, all are lost in space. If (the ship's
master) says 'to make such and such a country with a favourable wind, in so
many days, we should sight such and such a mountain, the ship must (then)
steer in such and such a direction'; but if it happens that suddenly the wind 5
falls and is not strong enough to sight the mountain on the given day, it
must change its bearing. But if the ship has been carried far beyond (the
land-mark), it has lost its bearings, it is blown hither and thither, gets in
shoal water, comes on hidden rocks; then it is broken to pieces (lit., 'the tiles
are broken'). The big ship with its heavy cargo has naught to fear of the lo
great waves, but in shallow water it comes to griefs
«Far beyond the Western Sea of the Arabs' countries lies the land of
Mu-lan-p'i (Southern Spain). Its ships are the biggest of all. One ship car-
ries a thousand men; on board are weaving looms and market places. If it
does not encounter favourable winds it does not get back to port for years. 15
No ship but a very big one could make such voyages. At the present time the
term 'Mu-[lan]-cJidu' is used (in China) to designate the largest kind of ship»^
1) One is inclined to infer from this passage that the compass, if used at all, did not play
much of a role in navigation at the time. The captains of the ships appear to have counted on
the wind carrying them from one land-mark to another in a given time and kept approximately 20
on their course by means of some star.
Ling-wai-tai-ta, 6,9, says that there grew on the coast hills of K'in-chou (^^ >|>|>| ) two
very remarkable kinds of timber. One is called tzi-king-mu (^^ ^J ^ lit., npurple thorns).
The wood is of the colour of red cosmetic and straight grained, and of a girth that two men can
reach round. Used for roof beams it will last for hundreds of years. 2&
The other kind of timber is called wii-lan mu (j& ^fe TK)' ■'■* ^^ ^^^^ for the timbers
of sea-going junks, and is the most wonderful thing in the world. Foreign (^S) ships are as big
and deep as a great room. They sail the Southern Ocean for tens of thousands of U, and the lives
of thousands or hundreds of men depend on one timber. Other varieties of timber are not more
than 30 feet in length and are good enough for junks with a capacity of 10,000 bushels (^ij*), 30
but these foreign ships carry several tens of thousands of bushels, and might break in two if they
encountered storms on the deep sea. But this timber of K'in-ch6u is dense and tough and about
50 feet long, and is not affected by the wicked winds and angry waves It is truly a treasure
in the heaving billows! A couple of these logs (>jm) are worth at K'in-ch6u only a few hundred
strings of cash. At Canton and WSn-ling (i. e., Ts'uan-ch6u) they are worth ten times as much, for 3»
only one or two-tenths of this timber is sent there as its length makes it difficult to transport by sea».
2) Ling-wai-tai-ta, 6,7,8. I fancy that the Mu-lan-p"i ships had no more real existence
than the other enormous products of the same country, such as grains of wheat 3 inches long,
melons 6 feet around, pomegranates weighing 5 catties, citrons or lemons of 20 catties, etc.,
which the same work (3,4) mentions. See also Chau Ja-kua, infra Ch. 35. The largest ships 40
known in China were those called po (see supra, p. 27, n. 3). All mediaeval western writers
refer to the great size of the ships seen in China. Marco Polo (II, 231—235) speaking of «the
ships in which merchants go to and fro amongst the Isles of Indian, says they had crews of at
least 200 mariners, and every great ship had certain large barks or tenders attached to it».
ISTRODUCTION. 35
In tLe preceding pages an attempt has been made to trace briefly the
rise and development of the maritime intercourse between China and southern
and south-western Asia down to the latter part of the twelfth century, when
Chau Ju-kua, w hose oDescription of the Barbarous Peoples* (Chu-fan-chi) is
5 translated in this volume, takes up the subject and tells of what the Chinese
at the beginning of the twelfth century knew of the foreign countries, peoples
and products of Eastern and Southern Asia, Africa and Europe.
Chau Ju-ku a was, as appears from the genealogical Records in the
Annals of the Sung *, a descendant of the Emperor Tai-tsung in the eighth
10 generation through the Prince of Shang, a younger brother of the Emperor
Chon-tsung (A. D. 998—1023).
We know nothing concerning him beyond the briefest kind of notice of
his work in Ch'5n Chon-sun's (^ :^ ^) Descriptive Catalogue of his family
library, written about the middle of the thirteenth century *. It is there said, after
15 giving the title of Chau Ju-kua's book, and by way of explanation: — «The
Inspector of Foreign Trade (Shi-po-shi) in Fu-kien, Chau Ju-kua, records (in
this book) the several foreign countries and the merchandise which comes
from them».
This is little indeed, and yet it enables us to see the reason for Chau
20 Ju-kua's interest in foreign peoples and trade, to determine the probable
source of the information contained in those portions ofhis book, which cannot
be tracedto any previous written source, and it helps also to fix approximately
the date before which the Chu~fan-chi must have been written ^.
This is exactly the style and size of ships Fa-hie n has told us (supra, p. 27) he sailed on from
25 Ceylon in A. D. 412. Ibn Batuta, "Voyages, III, 88—91 says the largest class of Chinese ship
— which he calls Junk — had a crew of 1,000 men, viz., 600 mariners and 400 soldiers, and each
vessel had three tenders. These ships need not have been much larger than the ordinary Chinese
sea-going merchant junk (po) of the time — they were probably literally packed with people.
In 1612 Sir Henry Middleton stopped off Aden a ship of Surate with 1,500 persons aboard.
30 Captain John Saris had this ship measured. It was long «from stem to sterne-post, one hundred
three and fiftie foot. From 'the top of her sides in bredth, two and fortie. Her depth, one and
thirtie». Purchas, His Pilgrimea, III, 193, 396 (Mac Lehose edit).
We have to come down to the beginning of the fifteenth century, to Ch6ng Ho's famous
expedition to the West, to find mention in Chinese works of ships of the Mu-Ian-p'i type.
35 In this expedition there were ships measuring 440 feet in length and 180 feet beam. It is perhaps
unnecessary to add that we may doubt the correctness of these measurements.
1) Sung-shi, 231, 283. See Hirth, J. E. A. S., 1896, 57 et seqq.
2) Wvlie. Kotfis on Chinese literature, 60. The title of this work it Chi-chai-shu-lu-kie-ti
rib* 3) From a remark our author makes in his chapter on Baghdad it is possible to assign
klpjjj^Ujrk to about the middle of the thirteenth century.
36 IXTEODUCTION.
That the Inspector of Maritime Trade at the great port of Ts'uan-chou
in Fu-ki6n should have been interested in foreign trade and peoples, that he
should have had peculiar facilities for obtaining information on the subjects
from the foreign sailors and traders who frequented his port, and that his
statements should be found clear, matter-of-fact, and often agreeing with the 5
narratives of mediaeval Arab writers and giving information concerning
countries of the West never known to the Chinese from personal observation,
is all made clear to us by Ch'6n Chou-sun's few words.
Notwithstanding the use made of Chan's book by Ma Tuan-lin and
others, it has remained very little known in China, solely, it is to be suppos- 10
ed, through the habit of nearly all Chinese writers of incorporating bodily
into their writings the work of others without giving the names either of
the authors or of their books. The numerous Chinese biographical works with
all their fullness, are, with the one exception ofCh'onChon-sun's, absolutely
silent as to our author. His name is mentioned neither in the biographical 15
section of the Sung Annals nor, apparently, in the minor records of those and
of later times, such as the Biographical Treasury of the Ming dynasty (Wan-
sing-t'ung-p'u), the first general biographical record published after the life-
time of Chau Ju-kua.
The Chu-fan-chi, though of great value for a knowledge of the oriental 20
s,ea-trade of the Sung period, is but seldom quoted in Chinese works. Much
of it was incorporated by Ma Tuan-lin in his great Encyclopedia, andT'o-t'o
made frequent use of it in his Annals of the Sung dynasty, in both cases, as
is usual with Chinese authors, and as Chau-Ju-kua did himself with his
chief authority, Ch6u K'u-fei, as well as with the many others he quotes, 25
Without a single word of acknowledgment. A comparison of the complete
text of the Chu-fan-chi with the extracts made from it by Ma and T'o-t'o
shows how much valuable information we would have lost if we knew this
work only through their quotations. The same would be true ofChduK'ii-fei,
if we knew his Ling-wai-tai-ta only through Chau Ju-kua's frequent, but so
not always comprehensive, extracts. The one completes and frequently elu-
cidates the other, besides both having great intrinsic value.
Chau Ju-kua's chief authority is C h6uK'u-fei; in a number of sections
of his work he confines himself to quoting him textually, and in a still larger
number he adds but a phrase or two (and that not always wisely) to Chou's 35
text. He has also used the various dynastic histories, the T'ung-tienandafew
other works. The most interesting part of his work, and, so far as the num-
ber of countries is concerned, the largest, is that in which he has set f ""• ""^
\0 it)). ^^^
ISTRODUCTION. 37
the information supplied him directly by Chinese and foreign traders of the
lands they had visited and concerning the products of their soil. The facts he
there records are not to be found in any other known Chinese work either of
the thirteenth or of subsequent centuries; he was the first, so far as we know,
5 to make known to China the names and some few facts, at least, concerning
many countries and localities of south-western Asia, ofAfrica and of the Medi-
terranean Sea.
The sections of the Chu-fan-chi based exclusively, it would seem, on oral
information famished the author by Chinese and foreign traders, are those
10 dealing with San-fo-tsM, Tah-ma-ling, Ling-ya-ssi-kia, Fo-lo-an, Sin-t'o,
Kien-pi, Lan-wu-li, Si-lan, Su-ki-tan, Nan-p'i, Hu-ch'a-la, Ma-lo-hua, Tsong-
pa, Wu-pa, Chung-li, Wong-man, Ki-shi", Pi-sSi-lo, Wu-ssi-li (Egypt),
0-k6n-to, An-tO'man, Cha-pi-sha, Ssi-kia-li-y6, Mo-ki6-la, Po-ssi, Ma-i,
San-sti and Pi-sho-ye.
15 In some chapters, while most of his information must have been supplied
him by traders, he has added to it paragraphs taken from Chou K'u fei's
work. These are the chapters on Chan-ch'6ng, Pin-tung-lung, Chon-la, P'u-
kan, Sh8-p*o, Chu-li6n, the Ta-shi, Pi-pa-lo and Ki-tzi-ni.
In the chapters on Ta-ts'in, T'i6n-chu, Wu-ssi-li (Mosul), Lu-mei, Mu-
20 lan-p'i, Ma-kia, Pai-ta, K'un-lung-ts6ng-ki, Sha-hua-kung, Ma-lo-nu and
Nii-kuo, he either quotes nearly verbatim the Ling-wai-tai-ta, or takes prac-
tically all his information from the Dynastic histories, the T'ung-tien or some
other minor work, adding occasionally a few words of his owu.
The chapter on the island of Hai-nan is very largely taken from the
25 Dynastic histories and from the Ling-wai-tai-ta, but it contains also much
valuable original matter.
The chapters on Sin-lo and Wo are practically entirely copied from the
Dynastic histories without any regard to the periods to which they refer. These
chapters have consequently less value than any other portion of this work, though
30 they are useful as showing the knowledge possessed by Chinese of these coun-
tries in the days of Chau Ju-kua.
The second part of Chau's work, which is devoted to a description of the
principal foreign products mentioned in the first part, contains a considerable
amount of information, which the author probably got from traders at Ts'uan-
35 chou; he, however, makes frequent use of the'Yu-yang-tsa-tsu and the Ling-
wai-tai-ta, and has based his statements for the most part on the same autho-
rities-mentioned previously in writing many of the articles. In this second part,
chapters XIX and XLI are verbatim quotations, without the addition of a
38 IXTKODUCTIO.V.
word, from the Ling-wai-tai-ta, and in chapters IX, XVIII, XXIII, XXIV,
XL and XLII he has made good use of this same work.
Geographical studies, though extensively applied to every part of China
proper during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, were treated with consider-
able contempt where foreign countries were concerned. The enthusiasm for 5
geographical record^ shown by the men of the Fan Ch5ng-ta, Ch6u K'u-fei
and Chau Ju-kua kind, was certainly rare and unappreciated in their times;
the public taste was not given that way. Chang K'i6n and Pan Ch'ao, the
early explorers of the West, had become national heroes, it is true; Fa-hie n
and Htian-tsang, the Buddhist pilgrims, had in their time occupied public 10
attention in a high degree, but Confucian learning was the order of the day
at the end of the twelfth century, when Chu Hi was writing his great Com-
mentaries on the Confucian classics. The antiquities of China, the history of
its art, the philosophy of the classical and Tauist schools, Buddhist chrono-
logy, the poetry of the past and present, all were studied with an ardour 15
worthy of a period which may justly be called the age of renaissance in
China. But the knowledge of foreign countries was an obscure, unprofitable
hobby, taken up only by a few officials whose special duties disposed them to
make these researches, and which in no way appealed to the public fancy.
Confucian philosophers actually threw discredit on what was then known oi 20
the geography of foreign parts, and one of the well-known essayists of the
period, Ch'ong Ta-ch'ang, tried in his K'ao-ku-pien to prove the untrust-
worthiness of all geographical information on foreign lands.
The first publication of the complete text of the Chu-fan-chi was, it
would seem, in the early part of the fifteenth century, when it was incorpor- 25
ated- in the great collection of Chinese literary works called the Yung-lo-
ta-tien (Jfi ^ -i^ M). In this ponderous and extremely rare manuscript
collection it remained buried until 1783, when it was unearthed by a learned
Han-lin and a great lover of literature, Li TMau-yuan (^ fj| 7ic),andin-
corporated in his collection known as the Han-hai (g 'z^). From this, the 30
first printed copy, it would seem, of this book ever published, another edition
was made in Chang Hai-p'ong's (gg ;^ |J|) collection entitled Hiau-tsin-
t'au-yuan (^ l^ |ij- J^), which was brought out in 1805. These two ver-
IXTUODUCTION. 39
Such as it is, Chau Ju-kua's work must be regarded as a most valuable
source of information on the ethnology of the nations and tribes known through
the sea-trade carried on by the Chinese and Mohammedan traders in the Far
East about the period at which it was written.
5 His notes to a certain extent are second-hand information, but notwith-
standing this,-he has placed on record much original matter, facts and infor-
mation of igreat interest. The large percentage of clear and shnple matter-of-
fact data we find in his work, as compared with the improbable and incredible
admixtures which we are accustomed to encounter in all oriental authors of
10 his time, gives him a prominent place among the mediaeval authors on the
ethnography of his time, a period particularly interesting to us, as it preceeds
by about a century Marco Polo, and fills a gap in our knowledge ofChina's
relations with the outside world extending from the Arab writers of the ninth
and tenth centuries to the days of the great Venetian traveller.
15 in hisPeuples orientaux connus des anciens Chinois, 48— 49 (23 edit., 1886). F. Hirth translated
the entire work; during the years 1885 to 1895, and during his stay at Chungking (1893—95)
revised his translation with Mr. H. E. Fraser, then British Consul at that port. He published
the chapter on Ta-ts'in in his China and the Roman Orient (18851 92 — 96, and other portions of
it in his Die Lander des Islam (T'oung-pao, V, 1894), Das Reich Malabar (Ibid. VI, 1895), Chi-
20 nesiche Studien, 29 — 43, Die Insel Hainan nach Chao Ju-kua (Bastian Festschrift, 1896), Aus
der Ethnographie des Tschau Ju-kua (Sitzungsberichte der philos.-philol. und histor. Classe der
K. Bayer. Akad. d. Wissensch. 1898, III) and in Journal Royal Asiatic Society, 1896, 57—82,
477—57. More recently P. Pelliot has made use of this work in Bull, de I'Ecole Franj.
d'Extreme Orient, IV, as has also G. Schlegelina series of articles in the T'oung-pao, referred
25 to in subsequent notes to our text. So far as I am aware Chou K"ti-fei's Ling-wai-tai-ta was
first made known to Western students in 1899 by Tsuboi Kumazo in his paper entitled Cheu
Ch'ilfe's Aufzeichnungen ilber die Freniden LSnder, published in the Actes du XIP Congres
des Orientalistes a Rome, 1901, I, CXL. Since then Pelliot has made some use of it in
his study mentioned above.
PART I.
Preface by the Chinese Editor,
Li TMau-yiJan, called Yu-ts'un of T'ung-shan.
The two chapters of the Chu-fan-chi, compiled by Chau Ju-kua of the
Sung dynasty while holding the post of Inspector of Foreign Trade in Fu-
5 kien, are a collection of miscellaneous notes on foreign countries and their
products. The fact that these accounts are very minute and agree exactly
with what we hear and see of these countries at the present day leads us to
the conclusion that Chau Ju-kua's sketches are drawn from the observations
of eye-witnesses and more than merely theoretical lucubrations.
10 When the writer of this notice lived in Canton as Literary Chancellor,
he had taken this book with him and, subjecting it to careful revision, could
not but admire the accuracy of its detail, thus illustrating the truth that
even those of later times who survey the same field obtain no small assistance
towards a wider knowledge of their subject (by the use of works of earlier
times).
43
1.
TONGKING.
Kiau-chi'(^ Ht)*
Kiau-chi, the ancient Kiau-chou^ (^ j^), to the east and the south
5 reaches to the sea and borders on Chan-ch'ong (^ ^). To the wiest it
communicates with the Pai-i Man ^ ( f^ ^ ^) ; to the north it comes down
to K'in-ch6u« (^ jj\).
The various dynasties (of China) kept troops continually stationed (ui
Kiau-chi), although the revenues (derived from it) were extremely small, while
10 the military occupation on the contrary was extremely expensive. In view of
these facts the Government of our present dynasty, out of affection for the
army and for the weal of poor humanity, deemed it advisable that our troops
should no longer be kept in this pestilential climate for the purpose of guarding
such an unprofitable territory, and in consequence the territory was held
15 merely for the collection of tribute.
The king (of Kiau-chi) bears a Chinese surname*.
The clothing and food of the people are practically the same as in the
Middle Kingdom, with the exception that both sexes go barefooted.
Every year on the fourth day of the first moon they kill oxen to have
20 a feast with their kinsfolk. The great annual feast-day is the fifteenth of the
seventh moon ^, when all families exchange civilities and give entertainments,
and officials present their superiors with live animals, in consideration of
which those who have received such presents give a feast in return on the
sixteenth. On New Yeai-'s day they pray to the Buddha, but they do not
25 make presents to their ancestors (as we do in China).
When they are ill they do not use medicines. During the night they do
not keep lamps burning. Among their musical instruments the best are
those (covered with) boa-constrictor's skin. They do not know how to manu-
facture paper and writing brushes, so those from our provinces are in demand.
45
46 T0NGKIX6. 1,1
The products of the country are ch'on-Uang (gharu wood), p'ong-lai
(gharu wood), gold, silver, iron, cinnabar, cowries, rhinoceros horns, elephants,
kingfishers, ch'6-M (shells), salt, lacquer, tree-cotton (tJc |^) and M-pt'i
(cotton^ ^y.
Tribute is sent annually to the Court (of China). 5
Although this country does not participate in the foreign trade (of China),
the author has included these notes as an introduction to the (account of the)
neighbouring country (of Chan-ch'ong).
Ships -after ten full days' sailing (from Kiau-chi) reach the country of
Chan-ch'Ong. lo
Notes.
1) Down to the beginning of tlie Han dynasty (B. C. 206) Kiau-chi was a portion of Nan-
yue (raf ;^)- During the reign of Wu-ti (B. C. 140—86) Nan-yue was conquered and divided
into nine prefectures (^|jj)) one of which was Kiau-chi (^ P]t)» ^^^ '"^ '' *^® ^^^^ °^ govern-
ment was placed, which resulted in the name of Kiau-chi being applied to the whole of the 15
country. SeeMaTuan-lin, Won-hien-tung-k'au, 830,i2. During subsequent centuries, down to the
year 670, the name of Kiau-chi or Kiau-chou (tH) was given to at least a portion of the terri-
tory known by that name in the Han period. In 670 Kiau-chi was absorbed by a larger admi-
nistrative district called An-nan (■^' ^S)> ^"d after this the name of Kiau-chi was applied to the
Song-kai delta district, perhaps to the whole of the present Tongking. The name Kiau-chi may 20
be the transcription of a native name Kesho, by which Hanoi was known down to very recent
times. Chavannes, Relig. emin., 53. It may also possibly be the original of Kattigara, used by
Ptolemy and other classical writers to designate Kesho, though the name Kiu-to ("fl :ffi, in
Cantonese Kau-tak), that of one of the Tongking prefectures on the Chinese frontier, lends itself
better to that identification from- a linguistic point of view. In A. D. 264, Kiu-to is mentioned as an 25
official sub-division, and it 'is especially identified with the seat of the ancient Yfl6-shang tribes, the
probable starting-point of nautical enterprise in high antiquity. Tsin-shu, 15, 16—17. Kiau-chi is
certainly the original of M a r c o P o 1 o's Caugigu and of R a s h i d e d d i n's Kafchikue (b^ ^=?^ Kaf-
tchehkoueh, i. e. ojSAar.S' Kancheh-koueh), Hist, des Mongols publ. par. Quatremere. Ip. XCVI
and note on p. XCV), the last syllable in both these names representing kuo ( ^ in Cantonese kwok) 30
«kingdom». It may also be the original of our modern name Cochinchina (Pelliot, B. E. F. E.
0., III. 291 n.), although other writers (as Deveria, Rel.de la Chine avec I'Annam, 1) trace this
name back-to Kiu-chon (^ W), one of the old prefectures of Kiau-chi.
2) The Pai-i Man are, I imagine, the same as the J'al Ts'uan (or Man), the western branch
of the aboriginal tribes called Ts'uan (^) or Man (^), which in the tenth century occupied 35
southern Yun-nan. Hervey St. Denis, Ethnogr., ii. 271—288. The Lolos of the present day are
thought by some to be their descendants.
3) K'in-chou in Lien-ch6u-fu in the extreme west of Kuang-tung province. It was the nearest
Chinese port to Kiau-chi territory and the centre of trade with that country. See supra pp.6 and 22.
4) Sung-shi, 488,2 sqq., supplies some of the Chinese surnames of the kings of Kiar lichi. 40
We find among them the well-known family name of Ting ('J'),U (^),Li (^)aad Ch'en([* *).
5) Bowring, Siam, I, 158, mentions the fifteenth of the sixth moon as a holiday, v^en
the king sends presents to the bonzes. The eighth and fifteenth days of the moon are considered
holy by the Siamese, the same writer states. I cannot, however, find that the fifteenth of the
seventh moon was at any time a particularly great festival in Siam or China. 45
6) On these various products, see Part II of this work. I-ing-wai-tai-ta, 7,8 says that
Kiau-chi was a great market for amber.
I"
^'- AXKAM. 4 7
2.
ANNAM.
Chan-ch'6ng (^ ij^).
The sea -route to the east of Chan-ch'ongi leads to Kuang-chou
5 (Canton); to the west it borders on Yun-nan; to the south it reaches to
Chon-la; to the north it confines on Kiau-chi, whence it communicates with
Yung-chou^ (^ ;|>|.|). From Ts'uan-ch6u one can make this country in twenty
days' sailing with a favourable wind.
The country extends from east to west 700 li; from north to south
10 3000 li. The capital is called Sin-chdu" (fp ^|>|). Thev use the designntimi^
(( district city» (Men ^) and «markftt, tnwn» fpJ,n^. ^ \
The (capital) city walls are of brick and are flanked with stone towers.
When the king shows himself in public he is seated on an elephant or
is carried in a kind of cotton hammock (or jmn-pu-tou* |^ ^ 5|) carried
15 by four men. On his head he wears a golden cap and his body is ornamented
with strings of pearls. Whenever the king holds his court, encircling his
throne are thirty women attendants carrying swords and bucklers or his
betel-nut. At audiences the officials present make one prostration and stop.
When the business has been concluded, they again make a prostration and
20 retire. The forms of prostration (^) and salutation (:^) are the same for
women as for men.
In cases of adultery both the man and the woman are put to death.
Theft is punished by cutting off the fingers and the toes.
In battle they bind five men together in one file(|± ^ j^); if one
25 runs, all who belong to the same file are doomed to death. If a Chinese
should be left by a native while lying dangerously wounded, the latter is
treated as a murderer and put to death.
The people of this country are fond of cleanliness, they bathe from three
to five times daily. They rub themselves with a paste made of camphor and
30 musk and perfume their clothes with fumes of various scented woods.
During the whole year the climate is agreeably warm; there is neither
extreme cold nor heat.
Every year on New Year's day they lead a chained elephant through
the city, after which they turn it loose. This ceremony is called «driving out
48 AXNAM. 1,2
evil» (^ ^). In the fourth moon they play at boat-sailing, when they have
a procession of fishing boats and look at them ®.
The full-moon day of the eleventh moon is kept as the winter solstice.
At that time cities and towns all bring the king the products of the soil and
of their industry. 5
The people usually plough their fields with two buffaloes. Among the
various kinds of cereals they have no wheat; but they have millet, hemp and
beans. They do not cultivate tea, neither do they know how to make fer-
mented liquors. They only drink the juice (or «wine») of cocoanuts. As to
fruits, they have the lotus, sugar-cane, bananas and cocoanuts. The country lo
also produces elephants' tusks, the tsien, ch'on and su (varieties of gharu
wood), yellow wax, ebony, white rattans, M-pei cotton, figured cotton stuffs,
silk, damasked cotton gauzes (^ ^), white muslins (or po^He ^ ^|),
fine bamboo matting, peacocks, rhinoceros horns and parrots*.
The cutting of scented wood in the mountains is conducted under iB
government control ; the tax paid the government is known as «the scented
wood poll-tax», just like the Chinese «salt poll-tax)\ Once the full amount
due has been paid, the people may trade in it on their private account'.
Money is not used in trade; they barter with wine, rice and other food
substances; with these they settle their accounts yearly. 20
When it happens that any one of the people has gone into the mountains
and has been killed by a tiger, or has been dragged into the water by a cro-
codile, the relatives submit the case to the king. The king then orders the
high-priest of the realm to invoke the gods, to recite incantations and to
write out charms, which are scattered about at the place where the person 25
was killed. Then the tiger, or the crocodile, comes of itself to the spot; after
which an order must be secured to kill it. If, however, the complaint about
the killing is only an illusion, the result of magic, and the officials can get no
light on the matter, they order the complainants to pass through a crocodile
pool. If they have not spoken truth, the reptiles will come out and eat them; so
but if they have been truthful they may go through it ten times and the cro-
codiles will flee away ®-
They buy people to make slaves of them; a boy is priced at 3 taels of
gold, or the equivalent in scented wood '.
On the arrival of a trading-ship in this country officials are sent on 35
board with a book made of folded slips of black leather. In this they write
out in characters in white a list of the goods. After the ship has been sear-
ched, the cargo may be landed, and, with the exception of two-tenths claimed
1,2 AKNAM. 49
by the government, is set free for barter. If there be goods omitted from the
manifest they are confiscated.
Foreign merchants trade in camphor, musk, sandal-wood, lacquer-ware,
' porcelain, lead, tin, samshu and sugar.
5 The dependencies of this country are ^° :
Kiu-ch6u (^JH) Wu-ma-pa (.^ ^ ;^)
Wu-li t%^^) Lung-yung (^ ^)
Ji-li (a m)__ P'u-lo-kan-wu (^jf M "M^ JD
Yiig-li (^ ^a-) 10 Liang-pau (^ ^)
10 5 Wei-jui Ci^ p^) Pi-ts'i (HJfc ^)
Pin-t'ung-lung (g Bf f|)
This country (of Chan-ch'ong) had only infrequent relations with former
Chinese dynasties. During the hien-to period of the later Ch6u (951 — 960)
it sent its first tribute mission. During the JcHen-lung and kHen-lo periods of
15 the present dynasty (960 — 967) it sent native products as tribute.
In the sixth year of the t'ai-pHng-liing-kuo period (981) ^\ Li Huan
(^ iM) of Kiau-chi informed the Emperor that he wished to return ninety-
three Chinese prisoners of war to the Imperial Capital. The Emperor T'ai-
tsung ordered them to stop at Kuang-chou and provided them with sub-
20 sistence. From that time (Chan-ch'ong) has constantly presented tribute, and
has been enabled through the presents so freely bestowed by the Imperial
bounty to express its admiration for Chinese civilization.
A five to seven days' journey south of this country brings one to the
kingdom of Chon-la (Kamboja).
25 Notes.
1) During the Sung dynasty the kingdom of Chan-ch'ong extended along the greater part
of the Annam and Tongking coasts, to within two days sailing of (the town of) Kiau-chi. Sung-
shi, 489,1. It corresponded roughly with^the old kingdom of Lin-i (;fc|t |^), which, in the
seventh century became also known to the Chinese, through the travels of Huan-tsang, by its
30 Buddhist Indian name of Mo-ho Chan-po (J® gSj" Hp '^) or Maha Champa, from which in
turn have been formed the various Chinese names given this country, Chan-ch'ong, Chan-p'o
-t+f
(A ^^) ^^^ Chan-pa (Jt /\, or fflU /V)) ^^^ ^^^^ mentioned being occasionally used during
the Mongol dynasty. Yttan-shi, 23. In the middle of the eighth century the name Lin-i was changed
to that of Huan-wang H^^ 3E)' '"'■^"^ designation it retained until the beginning of the
35 ninth century, when it was called Chan-ch'ong. In 1177 Chan-ch'ong conquered Chon-la, but in
1199 it was in turn conquered by the latter country, the dynasty overthrown and a native of
Chon-la placed on the throne. Our author mentions these latter events in his chapter on Chon-la,
reproducing some facts from the Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,ii.
2) Yung-ch6u was the name by which was known during the T'ang dynasty the present
40 Nan-ning (j^ ^) in the Tso-kiang circuit in the province of Kuang-si. Play fair. Cities
and Towns of China, 244. A» 5116.
3) Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0., IV, 202—208 calls attention to the fact that the Tung-si-yang-
k'au (a sixteenth century work), 9, and the Ming-shi, 324, apply the name of Sin-ch6u to the port of
4
50 AXXAM. 1,2
Binh-dinh, Thi-nai, which we call Quinhon. This town, he adds, is the same as Sha-ban of the
Annamese, which was their capital in the early part of the fourteenth century. In another passage
(op. cii, 198—202) Pelliot places the capital of Chan-ch'ong near the Quang-nam river in
Annam, at the present village of Dong-duong, anciently called Indrapura. Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,io
says the capital was called Chan-ch'ong like the kingdom. Gerini, Researches, 238, says it is the 5
same as the Senef of the Arabs.
4) Ling-wai-tai-ta, 10,u says that in Tongking, Chan-ch'ong and Chon-la there was a kind
of litter (^ ^) made of cotton cloth. It had one pole, a covering of overlapping pieces of
matting, and was borne by four men. In Annam is was called U-ya (/W^ ^§)- — ^'^'^ ^^ certainly
the juan-pu-tou of our text. Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,13 calls it also juan-tou. Our author elsewhere 10
speaks of a pu-tai-Mau, which must be the same thing. This litter, as used in Chon-la, is described
in Chon-la-fong-t'u-ki, Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0., II, 172. Schlegel, T'oung-pao, VI, 163, suggests
that juan-pu-tou is the transcription of a Singalese word handul, which, according to the Mer-
veilles de I'Inde (118. § LXV), was a kind of hammock. It may be a foreign word, but I do not
think that handul is the one it represents. 15
5) The time of year chosen for this boat festival or boat racing seems to connect it with
the rise of the rivers. In Siam a boat festival was kept when the Meinam had reached its highest
point. Bowring, Siam, I, 9, 101.
6) Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,io says «The native products of the country (of Chan-ch'ong) include
famous aromatics, rhinoceros and elephants. The soil is of white sand with but very little arable 20
land, and there are no sheep, swine nor vegetables. The people gain their livelihood by gathering
scented woods. They do not hold markets)). Su, which is rendered by «millet» in the text, is in
more modern works used for «maize, Indian corn». Po-tie is a foreign word (probably Turki
A^us^ jJaSftto) for «cotton», see infra Pt. II, Ch. XXIII. On «ebony))(j^ i^ ^) and the other
products here mentioned, see also Pt. II. 25
7) Pigafetta, First Voyage round the World, 156 (Hakl. Soc. edit.), describes the mode of
hunting for gharu-wood in Chan-ch'ong, but he confounds this product with rhubarb. In Chiempa,
he says, «there grows the rhubarb, and it is found in this manner: men go together in companies
of twenty or twenty-five to the woods, and at night ascend the trees, both to get out of the way
of the lions, the elephants, and other wild beasts, and also to be able better to smell the odour of 30
the rhubarb borne to them by the wind. In the morning they go to that quarter whence they
have perceived that the odour comes, and seek for the rhubarb till they find it. This is the rotten
wood of a large tree, which acquires its odour by putrefaction. The best part of the tree is the
root, but the trunk is also good, which is called Calama)>. Ccdama is kalanibak, one of the names
in use among the peoples of the Malay Archipelago for gharu-wood. 35
8) Liang-shu, 54,7 speaking of Fu-nan (roughly Siam) says that criminals were thrown to
wild beasts kept for the purpose, or to crocodiles. If they were not devoured by them, their inno-
cence was held to have been proved.
9) Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,io says «The people (of -Chan-ch'ong) buy male and female slaves
{"^ ^^), and the ships carry human beings as cargo» (j|j^ -Jft- ]>{ A -^ ^)- 40
10) None of the authorities available are of any assistance in identifying"the dependencies
of Chan-ch'ong. Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,io says only «The dependencies (or the dependency) of Chan-
ch'6ng are (is) Pin-t'ung-lung and (or) Pin-to-ling». MaTuan-lin says «The southern province of
Chan-ch'ong is called Shi-pei-ch6u (|J^ ^ j^)^ the western Shang-yuan-chou (_^ 7^ ill)
and the northern Wu-li-chdu)) (,^ ^ j^). The last named province is, presumably, the 45
second of the list in our text. Sung-shi, 489,1, repeats what Ma says, adding only that there
were 38 departments (or cities, ^|>|)in all Chan-ch'5ng. By Fu-lo-kan-wu one is inclined to think
our author transcribes the namePulo Condore, though these islands were always called during the
Sung period K'un-lun-shan (^ ^ [Jj), a transcription, according to Crawfurd, of the
native name Pulo Kohnaong. In Kia Tan's sailing directions (supra p. 11) we have another form 50
of this name, Ktin-t'u-nung.
11) This was the year in which the founder of the first Li dynasty ascended the throne
of Annam. See J. C. B. R. A. S. XVII, 51. On Chan-ch'ong, see G. Maspero, Le Rovaume de
Champa, in T'oung-pao, 2\ Ser. XL pp. 165—220.
Ij^ PAXRAKG. 5 1
3.
PANRANG.
(Coast of Cochinclima).
Pin-t'ung-lung (^ Bg f|)
5 The ruler of the country of Pin-t'ung-lung^ wears the same kind of
head-dress and clothing as that of Chan-ch'ong. The people cover their
dwellings with palm-leaves, and protect them with wooden palisades. They
send yearly products of the country as tribute to Chan-ch'ong.
At the present day there is (counted) among the saints (lo-han) the
10 Venerable Pin-t'ou-lu (^ || fg), from whom this country derives its name,
corrupted into Pin-t'ung-lung.
There are some also who say that the foundations of the hut (^ ^)
of Mu-li^n ( g jH) are still extant (in this country) ^
In the fourth year of the period yung-U (987) (this people), in company
15 with Ta-shi (Arabs), brought tribute to the court of China ^
Notes.
1) The identification of this territory with the Panrang coast of Cochinchina, the Sanskrit
Pan^uranga, first pointed out by Hirth, Aus der Ethnographie des Tschau Ju-kna, has been
accepted by all subsequent writers. See H. Finot, B. E. F. E. 0., Ill, 630—648. The name
20 appears in the earliest Cham inscriptions under the form Panrang and Panran. All the Chinese
forms of the name — and we know of nine, point to an original form Pandaran, and this conclu-
sion is supported by local chronicles. The earliest mention of Pandaran in Chinese works is in
T'ang-shu, 222*, where it is given as Pon-t'o-lang (^^ [J^ 5H.)' '^^^ transcription of the name
was apparently never settled, for Ch'ou K'u-fei uses two forms and Sung-shi three in the three
25 brief references it makes to this country. Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0., Ill, 649—654, has translated
and studied with his usual thoroughness all the Chinese references to Pandaran.
Our author takes most of his information from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,io, which reads as follows:
«Pin-t'ung-lung (or) Pin-t'o-ling {^S R^ 1^) is a dependency of Chan-ch'Ong. The foundations
of the hut of Mu-lien are in Pin-t'o-ling. It is even said by some ( ^ ^) that Wang-
30 sho-ch'ong (^ -^ ^) is in this country.
«In the second year A;i'e«-Z«n£f (of -the Sung, 961 A. D.) it brought objects of tribute (to the
Court of China). Again in the 8Ui moon of the third year (962) it came with tribute. In the first
year yuan-yu of Cho-tsung (of the Sung, 1086) in the 12ti» moon it again came with tribute, when
it received 2600 strings of cash from the Imperial bounty».
35 2) The references in the textsof bothChouK'u-fei andChau Ju-kuatotheLohanPin-
t'6n-lu — better known by his Sanskrit name of Arhat Pindola (Bharadvaja), to the great disciple
of Gautama, the Lohan Mu-lien — in Sanskrit Maudgalyayana, and to Wang-sho-ch'ong — in
Sanskrit Kugagarapnra, the old capital of Magadha in Central India, remain unexplained.
None of the inscriptions or texts studied by Finot throw any light on these curious Chi-
40 nese traditions, which are found repeated, with only unimportant changes, in Chinese works
4*
5 2 .KAMBOJA. "I;*
of the fifteenth and seventeenth centuries. See also infra p. 101, line 2 the tradition referred
to in 1015 hy the envoys from Chu-lien (Coromandel) that the tomh of the Si-wang-mu was 100 li
E. of Pin-t'ung-lung.
The derivation of the name of the country from that of the Arhat Pindola seems purely
fanciful. Conf. Hirth, Op. cit., 500 at seqq. 5
3) The tribute mission of Pin-t'ung-lung in 987 is not mentioned in the Sung-shi, but this
work notes (490,18) a tribute mission from that country to China in 997, and this is the only one it
records. Pelliot, Op. cit., 650, shows by the Sung-shi that the tribute missions from Pin-
t'ung-lung mentioned in the passage from Ling-wai-tai-ta translated in Note 1, and there recorded
under the years 961, 962 and 1086 were from Chan-ch'dng generally, not from this dependency 10
alone.
4.
KAMBOJA.
Chon-la (^ Jl).
Clion-la lies to the south of Chan-ch'ong; in the east one comes to the 15
sea; in the west one comes to P'u-kan (^ -^); in the south one comes to
Kia-lo-hi^ (jfjR ^ ^).
From Ts'iian-chou a ship, with a good wind, can reach this country
within a month or more.
The country covers altogether fully 7000 square U. The capital of the 20
kingdom is called Lu-wu^ (^ J[]). There is no cold weather,
r The king's clothing is in all respects similar to that of the king of
€han-ch'ong, but the ceremonial at his court is more elaborate. When he
.goes out in his carriage of state it is drawn by a pair of horses ^ or he
has oxen. 25
The administrative divisions of the country do not differ from those of
Chan-ch'ong.
The officials and the common people dwell in houses with sides of bamboo
matting and thatched with reeds. Only the king resides in a palace of hewn
stone. It has a granite lotus pond of extraordinary beauty with golden bridges, 30
some three hundred odd feet long*. The palace buildings are solidly buLlta,nd
richly ornamented *. The throne on which the king sits is made of gharu-wood
and the seven precious substances; the dais is jewelled, with supports (^) of
veined wood (ebony?); the screen (behind the throne) is of ivory.
When all the ministers of state have audience, they first make three 35
full prostrations at the foot of the throne ; they then kneel and remain thus,
I,*
KAMBOJA.
53
with hands crossed on their breasts, in a circle round the king, and discuss
the affairs of state. When they have finished, they make another prostration
and retire.
In the south-west corner (of the capital) there is a bronze tower (^),
5 on which are twenty-four bronze pagodas guarded by eight bronze elephants,
each weighing four thousand catties ®, vj
There are some two hundred thousand war elephants and many horses,
though of small size.
(The people) are devout Buddhists., Ther^ are, serving (in ihp. templp.s)
10 some three hundred foreign women: they dance and offer food to the Buddha.
They are called a-nan (^pf ^) or slave dancing-girls ' (^ ^ [read ^]).
As to their customs, lewdness is not considered criminal; theft is punished
by cutting off a hand and a foot and by branding on the chest.
«The incantations of the Buddhist and Tauist priests (of this country)
15 have magical powers. Among the former those who wear yellow robes may
marry, while those who dress in red lead ascetic lives in temples. The Tauists
clothe themselves with leaves»^; they have a deity (|^) called P'o-to-li (^
0, T^lj) which they worship with great devotion. _
(The people of this country) hold the right hand to be clean, the left
20 unclean, so when they wish to mix their rice with any kind of meat broth,
they use the right hand to do so and also to eat with.
The soil is rich and loamy; the fields have no bounds. Each one takes
as much as he can cultivate. Rice and cereals are cheap; for every tael of
lead one can buy two bushels of rice.
25 The native products comprise elephants' tusks, the cJian and su (varie-
ties of gharu-wood), fine and coarse sJiou (gharu-wood) (^^ # H ^ ^),
yellow wax, kingfisher's feathers (Note: Of which this country has great
store), dammar resin and gourd dammar, foreign oils, ginger peel (^ ^),
«gold coloured incense» {Mn-yen-himg), sapan-wood, raw silk and cotton
30 fabrics (|f< ^)^ .
The foreign traders offer in exchange for these gold, silver, porcelain-
ware, satinets, kittysols, skin (covered) drums, samshu, sugar, preserves and
vinegar.
The following foreign (^) (countries or localities) are all dependencies
35 of this kingdom :
Tong-liu-meii {^ ^^ M) ^an-lo (H i|^)
Po-ssi-lan (j)^ ff M) ^ Chon-li-fu {& M W
Lo-hu (P ^i|-) Ma-lo-won (ffi ^ f^)
^H-
UiVsVy
54 KAMBOJA. 1,4
Lu-yang (^ 7^) 1° ^a-li (^^ ^)
T'un-ii-fu (^ a W) si-p'^°s m W)
P'u-kan (.^ -y^) Tu-huai-sun^o (;f± '^ ■^)
From of old this country had maintained close neighbourly relations with
■Chan-ch'ong, and sent it yearly a tribute of gold; but on the fifteenth of the 5
fifth moon of the fourth year of the sh^m-M period (of the Sung, i. e., 1 1 77) the
ruler of Chan-ch'ong surprised the capital (of Chon-la) with his fleet, and on
the refusal of their demands for peace (the people) were slaughtered. From
that time the bitterest enmity and a thirst for revenge existed (in Chon-la), In
the fifty-sixth year of the cycle in theJcHng-ymn period (i. e., 1199) (Chon-la) 10
invaded Chan-ch'5ng with a powerful army, made the sovereign prisoner,
put to death his ministers, and nearly exterminated the people, after which it
made a man of Chon-la sovereign of Chan-ch'ong, and down to the present
day it has remained a dependency of Ch6n-la ".
In the wu-to period of the T'ang (618 — 627) this country (of Chon-la) 15
entered for the first time into relations with the Middle Kingdom. In the
second year of the suan-ho period (1120) it (first) sent a tribute mission
(to the reigning dynasty). ^^
This country confines to the south on Kia-lo-hi, ^^ a dependency of
San-fo-ts'i. 20
Notes.
1) Chon-la, or Kamboja, included in the Sung period the present Lower Gochinchina, a
considerable portion of Lower Siam and of the Malay Peninsula. The origin of the name Chon-la
or Chan-la (q H^) as it was also written during the Sung period, (see Sung-shi, 489,6), remains
unexplained. The earliest mention of Chon-la in Chinese works occurs in the seventh century. Its 25
first mission to China was in 616. Sui-shu, 82. T'ang-shu, 222'', says it was called Chon-la or Ki-mie
(ja ^)' The form Chan-la was adopted in 1199 after the conquest of Chan-ch'Ong mentioned
in our text. Ming-shi, 324. During the Yiian period the older form Chon-la was again used.
During the Ming period this country was called Kien-pu-ch'ai (4 jpm ^^) or Kan-pu-chi
(~U* ^p ^^)> """^^ transcriptions of the native name of the country Kamboja. See Tung-si- 30
yang-k'au, 3,6, and Pelliot. B. E. F. E. 0. IL 123— 13). Ki-mie, pronounced Kat-mit in Cantonese,
may be a transcription for Kmir, or Khmer. Cf. Gerini, 776.
On P'u-kan, identified with Pagan on the Irrawadi between the mouth of the Shindwin
and Prome, see infra, Ch. VL Kia-lo-hi was a dependency of San-fo-ts'i and probably in the Malay
Peninsula, see infra, p. 66, n. 10. 35
2) In the seventh century the capital of Chon-la was called I-sh6-na-ch'6ng('jS-^^ BR IfcB)
i. e., Kanapura. Sui-shu, 82. The name Lu-wu would seem to point to Lovek, the ruins of which
city are still visible 10 kil. N. of Udong. Bergaigne, Inscriptions, 122, but Pelliot, Op.
cit. II, 132. n. 3, 141 and IV. 237, says that Lovek only became the capital of Kamboja in the
fifteenth century. «When Chau Ju-kua wrote, he says, the capital was certainly Angkor, and its 40
name was Kambupuri or YaQodharapuras — consequently Angkor is here referred to. In the
eighth century the capital of Southern Chon-la was, according to T'ang-shu, 222'', Po-lo-ti-pa.
3) I b n B a t u t a, IV. 245, speaking of the Sultan of Mul Djauah (Siam) says «no one in this
country, save only the Sultan, owns horses. The people ride elephants».
Ij4 KAMBOJA. 55
4) This wlotus poEd» may be the «Northern Lake» mentioned in the Chon-la-fSng-t'u-ki,
and which Aymonifir has identified with the Preah R6ach Dak near the great monument of
Prakhan at Angkor Thom. Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0. II, 144.
5) The Ohon-la-fbng-t'u-ki (Pelliot, Op. cit. 144) says ((counting from the outer gate
5 the palace was from five to six li around. The tiles of the private apartments are of lead, those
of the outer buildings of earthenware and yellow .... The Council hall has golden window
frames; to the right and left are square columns bearing forty or fifty mirrors along the sides of
the windows. Underneath are represented elephants».
6) The Chon-la-fdng-t'u-ki (Pelliot, Op. cit, 142) describes a golden tower in the
10 center of the capital and one U north of it a higher tower of bronze, which was very imposing.
One li N. of it was the Palace. Aymoniersays that this bronze tower is the monument ofBaPhun
in Angkor.
7) A-nan, as here written, is the usual transcription of the Sanskrit word ananda «joy,
happiness)). — The almeh or dancing-girls are usually called in India deva-dasi («slave of a
15 god))) or ramjani. Conf. Reinaud. Belation. T. 134. w hat bo says of the acourtizans of the Bodda».
Marco Polo. IT. 329. speaking of the province of Maabar says: «They have certain abbeys in
which are gods and goddesses to whom many young girls are consecrated And when the
monks of a convent desire to make a. feast to their god, they send for all these consecrated
damsels and make them sing and dance before the idol with great festivity. They also bring
20 meats to feed their idol withal; that is to say, the damsels prepare dishes of meat and other good
things and put the food before the idol, and leave it there a good while, and then the damsels
all go to their dancing and singing and festivity for about as long as a great Baron might require
it to eat his dinner This is performed by these damsels several times every year until they
are married)). See also infra p. 92. «Buddha» here means «idol)), see infra p. 90 n. 5 and p. 92.
25 8) Quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,ii, which in turn seems to have been partly taken
from Sui-shu, 82,7—8. The name of Tauist was often used by Chinese mediaeval writers to
designate the followers of various forms of worship of Hindu origin.
P'o-to-li, the divinity they specially revered, may represent the Sanskrit Bhadra, used
in the Cham inscriptions to designate Siva. The Chon-la-fong-t'u-ki mentions among these religions
80 of Chon-la «the Tauists, who are called Pa-ssi-wei ( /^ ffl^ ^f^)'"- Finot has suggested that
this is the name Pagsepatas, that of a Sivaite sect, and mentioned in an inscription of Angkor.
Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0. II, 149—151. The Sui-shu, 82,8 says in connexion with the worship of
P'o-to-li in Ch8n-la, «Near the capital is a mountain called Ling-kie-po-p'o ((^ yff ^fe ^^)!
on the summit of the mountain there is a temple (^jjl *b} Sanskrit, devalaya) which is con-
35 tinually guarded by 5000 soldiers. To the east of the city there is a spirit (^.^ deva) called
P'o-to-li, to whom human flesh is offered in sacrifice. The king of this country (of Chon-la) goes
every year thither and sacrifices a human being in the night. There are also 1000 men guarding
(this spot))). Our author, in all likelihood, derived his information concerning P'o-to-li from this
passage, as no mention is made of P'o-to-li in Ling-wai-tai-ta, which concludes its reference to
40 the religious systems of Chon-la by saying: «In this country, when looking at the sky, they
constantly see in one corner (of the heavens) a few marks (or stains), and the people say: 'it is a.
place to which Nu-kua (-ir i^) did not get')). This is an otherwise unknown extension of the
Nii-kua legends, the origin of which has to be looked for in all probability in the north of China.
If not observable by the naked eye, the knowledge of those starless holes in our firmament known
45 as the wcoal-sacks)) near the Southern Cross, may have become familiar to the Kambojians
through their Indian relations or the reports of Indian or Arab I.e. travellers, whose attention might
have been attracted by the phenomena in the southern seas. Of. Hirth, The Ancient History
of China, etc., 10. On Nu-kua, see F. W. Mayers, Manual, 162.
9) The Ch5n-la-f6ng-t'u-ki gives the name of some other Kambojian products not mentioned
50 by our author; they are hua-huang (^ ^ lit, «painter's yellow)), gamboge), a kind of lacquer
called Ui-Tc6ng (^' :^^), oil of lucrabau seeds {-f^ ^ ^ yft), hiang-cMn ((^ ^
myrcitica iners) and some pepper. See Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0. II, 166. Eiang pi or «ginger
peel)) is the skin of the ginger root which is peeled off in order to improve its appearance and
56 KiMBOJA. I>4
make it better adapted as a table luxury; it contains more effective medical properties than the
inner parts and, therefore, constitutes a specialty in Chinese drug-shops, quite distinct from both
the fresh and dried varieties of ginger. The Pon-ts'au-kang-mu, 26,53, treats of it in a separate
paragraph. Kiu-yen-hiang, probably benzoin, see infra, Pt. 11. Ch. V. All that the Ling-wai-tai-ta,
2,11, has to say of the products of Chon-la is: «It is extremely rich in famous aromatics; those of S
Tong-liu-mei being the best. The aromatics of no other foreign country can compare with thema.
Most of the products mentioned here are described in detail in Part II.
10) Assuming that the lists of dependencies of Chon-la, as given in the works of Ch6u
K'a-fei and Chau Ju-kua, refer to the times at which they wrote (which, however, is not always
true, in the case of Chau at least), it is not surprising that the list (11 names) of Chau should 10
include names not found in the earlier one (7 names), for during that time Chbn-la had
extended its dominion at the expense of Chan-ch'ong and, it would seem, of the small states in
the northern and north-eastern parts of the Malay Peninsula. Chau included also Fu-kan in his
list of dependencies of Chon-la. In this he seems to have erred, for in the twelfth century Pagan
was a powerful and independant state. See Phayre, Hist, of Burma, 49 et seqq. 15
(1) Tong-liu-mei appears in both lists. See infra, Ch.V. — (10) Wa-Ii is in both lists;
concerning it Chou K'u-feii says (2,ii) that it was 60 days journey from P'u-kan on the
Irrawadi, but he does not say in what direction. In another passage (see supra p. 25 n. 1) he says
that Chon-la was the commercial centre of the Wa-li countries. It may have been the Laos or
Karen country. So far as known this name does not occur in any other Chinese work. — (11) Si- 20
p'ong, which occurs in both lists, remains unidentified. — (4) San-lo (which may also be read San-
yau) is Ch6u's San-po (^ ')A). The first syllable may be an attempt to transcribe the name
of the country called in the Khmer inscriptions Syam (kut) and which not long after Chau Ju-
kua's time became Sien (jM)- Syam kut was situated to the N. of Lopburi on the lower
Menam. San-lu and San-po may, however, stand for a name like Sambuh. — (6) Ma-lo-won, 25
Ch6u's Ma-lan(^fi M^' ""^ ^° the same as Mo-liang (^£ ^^) mentioned by Chou Ta-
kuan (1296) and which Pelliot (B. E. F. E. 0., If, 173) says is the Malyan of Cham inscriptions.
The country has not been located. Gerini, Researches, 495, mentions, on the authority of a Siamese
Chronicle of the middle of the fourteenth century, a locality (or district) called Worawari orVaravari
as a tributary state of Siam in the south (Malay Peninsula). There is at least some similarity 30
•of sound, between this name and the Chinese Ma-lo-w6n. — (2) Po-ssi-lan does not occur in
Chou's list; it seeriis to be the Pa-ssi-li {/\, ^^ J§_) of Chou Ta-kuan's list. Ma Tuan-lin
and the Sung-shi (489,ii) say it was S. E. of Chbn-la proper; it stood, however, S. E. of Chbn-li-fu,
•which is conclusively identified by Gerini (Researches 524) with Chanthabun, so we know its
approximate location. — (3) Lo-hu has been conclusively identified with the country of Lvo, Lavo 35
or Lahot, the modern Lopburi on the lower Menam. Gerini, Asiat. Quart,, 34 series, XIII, 119;
Pelliot, Op. cit. II, 235, 264.— (5) Chbn-li-fu is Chan-li-p o (,J^ ||_ ^) in the earlier
list. According to Ma Tuan-lin (Hervey S* D enis,. Ethnographic, II, 488) and Sung-shi, 489,ii, it
was situated N. W. of Po-ssi-Ian, S. W. of Chbn-la proper and N. E. of Tbng-liu-mel. Ch6u
Ta-ku an's list has in it a Chon-p'u (iM. '5tf[)j which may be the same. He says it was on the 40
border of Ch6n-la and could be reached from Chan-ch'bng in 15 days sailing with a good wind.
Sailing from it S. W. V* "W- one reached the mouth of a river. Gerini, Researches, 524, iden-
tifies Chbn-li-fu with Chanthabun on the E. coast of the Gulf of Siam. The Ling-wai-tai-ta 10,17
says «A holy Buddha was born in the city of Chan-li-po in the kingdom of Chbn-la».— (8) T'un-
li-fu, (7) Lu-yang, and (10) Tu-huai-sttn are unidentified; it seems likely that they were in the 45
north-eastern part of the Malay Peninsula. Chou K'fl-fei's list contains one name not found in
Chau's, it is Ti-la-ta (^ ^^ '^)) ^* ^^^° remains imidentified.
11) From Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,io, we gather some additional details concerning this war
and its causes. In 1171 an official of the military district of Ki-yang (^ 1^ ^) in Hai-nan,
a Fukienese by birth, was blown by a typhoon to Chan-ch'ong. That country was then at war 50
with Chbn-la, and, using only elephants to attack with, it was unable to gain a complete victory.
The Chinaman advised the king to organize cavalry, and offered his service to instruct his soldiers
in the use of the bow on horseback. The king, pleased with the advice, sent a junk to Ki-yang to
1,5
LIGOR. 57
buy horses. It purchased «some tens),, and with them he was able to gain a victory over ChQn-Ia.
The following year the king sent a number of men to Ki-yang to buy more horses, but, as that
district had none for sale, they went to K'iung-chou on the northern coast of the island The
authorities of K'iung-chou refused to allow them to purchase horses, and the Chan-ch'Ong people
5 left in anger and did not come back again. Ma Tuan-lin, who also tells this story, says that the
Chan-ch 6ng people on being refused permission to buy horses, devastated a portion of the island
and carried off a number of the people as prisoners.
12) T'ang-shu, 222^ says that in 707 Chon-la was divided into Northern Chon-la, or Dry
Chon-la, and also W5n-tan (^ ^) and Fo-16u (^ ^), and Southern Ch6n-la, which was
10 on the sea-coast, with much marsh land, whence it was also called Wet Chon-la. After 707 these
two sections of Chbn-la appear to have sent separate "tribute missions to the Court of China.
Gerini, Researches, 832, says Won-tan was Upper Kamboja, and Fo-16u he thinks (824) may
have been Kwala Baloh in North Pahang.
13) On Kia-lo-hi, see infra, p. 66.
15 5.
LIGOR (?).
(Malay Peninsula).
Tong-liu-mei- (^ ^ M).
The country of Tong-liu-mei is to the west of Chon-la ^ Its ruler wears
20 flowers in his hair, which is done up in a knot; on his shoulders (he wears)
a red (garment) covered over with white (^ ^Jl M S)-
On audience days he ascends an open platform, for they have altogether
no palace buildings of any kind.
Palm-leaves are used as dishes in eating and drinking; neither spoons
25 nor chopsticks are used in eating; fingers serve the purpose.
There is a mountain called Wu-nung (^ ^) (where) Shi-kia (i. e.,
Sakya-muni Buddha) (after his) nie-2>an {i. e., nirvana) manifested himself
(^ "iti)') *^® event being commemorated by a bronze elephant (at this
place) 2,
30 The products (of Tong-liu-mei) are cardamoms, the tsien, ch'on and su
(varieties of gharu-wood), yellow wax and red kino gum ^.
Notes.
1) This name does not appear in Chinese works anterior to the Sung dynasty. The earliest
mention of T8ng-liu-mei seems to be in the Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,n, where the same characters as
85 here are used to transcribe the name. Sung-shi, 489,ji, also writes the name in the same way. The
only indication we have as to its location is the brief reference in Sung-shi (loc. cit.) that it
58 PAGAN. 1,6
was fifteen stages (^^) by sea N. of Lo-yile (tlie southern portion of the Malay Peninsula) and
S. W. of Chon-li-fu (mentioned in the preceding chapter). Gerini Researches, 524, identifies Tong-
liu-mei with Taluma, an ancient state on the E. coast of the Malay Peninsula, but whether near
Patani or in the Ligor roadstead, he cannot say. — Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0., IV, 233—234,
places Tan-liu-mei at Ligor or Lakhon, otherwise called Sri Dharmaraja, the Muang Lakawn of 5
our maps on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula.
2) This paragraph is very obscure, and seems to contain a strange jumble of misstate-
ments for a writer who must have been somewhat familiar with Buddhist history. The Buddha
Gautama is said to have entered the womb of his ihother under the shape of an elephant. I do
not understand how he can have shown himself after his death under this shape. The Bodhisattva 10
Samantabhadra manifested himself riding an elephant on 0-mi-shan in SsJ-ch'uan, and a great
bronze elephant commemorates the event. Some such manifestation by a P'u-sa may have taken
place at Tong-liu-mei.
3) The Ling-wai-tai-ta,2,ii, says that the gharu-wood from Tong-liu-mei was the best in
the world. See infra, Pt. II. Chs. XP, XI'', and XI'=. 15
6.
PAGAN.
(Burma).
Pii-kan (^1 -y-).
Both the officials and the people of P'u-kan^ gather their hair in a knot 20
on the forehead, binding it with a piece of coloured silk; the chief of the
country alone is distinguished by a high golden cap (or hat ^).
In this country there is great plenty of horses; the people ride them
without saddles.
Kegarding their customs, they are very devout followers of the Buddhist 25
religion; all the priests wear yellow robes.
«The lord of the country holds his court in the early morning, when the
officials each carry a flower which they present to him, while the priests
repeat Indian (^) words praying for his long life. The flowers are fixed
on the king's head; those which are left over are taken to the temples and so
offered to the Buddha» ^.
There is in this country a temple dedicated to the Marquis Chu-ko Wul
In the first year Tcing-to of the present dynasty (1004) (P'u-kan) sent
a mission (to China) with tribute, together with the kingdom of San-fo-ts'i
and Ta-shi (Arabs), when they had an opportunity of witnessing the Feast of 35
Lanterns. In the fifth year ts'ung-ning (1106) (P'u-kan) again sent tribute*.
1)6 PAGAN. 59
Notes.
1) The Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,ii, from which nearly the whole of this chapter is taken, reads
as follows: «The kingdom of Fu-kan is five day's journey from the kingdom of Ta-li (S. W. Yan-
nan), and from ■Wa-li_(a dependency of Chon-la referred to previously) it is sixty days thither.
5 Its boundary line (f^) is the «Black-water muddy Eiver» (|^ ;A^ W^ Vt M ^^^
Irrawadi?), where begin the kingdoms of the West— which cannot (all) be known (^ pj* ^).
The king of the country of Fu-kan and the officials wear golden caps (or hats), in shape like a
rhinoceros horn. They have horses and they ride them without saddles. The king's palace has
tiles made of tin {^f); in the interior the ornamentation of the rooms is in gold and silver.
10 There are several tens of Buddhist temples, and all the priests wear yellow robes . . .» (Then
follows the passage forming the fourth paragraph of our text. After this the chapter concludes
with the following:) «In the 2d moon of the fifteenth year ts'ung-ning of Hui-tsung (of the Sung,
H03), P'u-kan sent tribute to the Court of China».
The name of P'u-kan does not appear to occur in Chinese works earlier than the Ling-
15 wai-tai-ta, and the tribute mission of 1 103 — which is duly recorded in Sung-sh! (20,4) seems to
be the first appearance of P'u-kan at the Chinese Court, for the Annals for the king-to period
(1004—1007) do not bear out our author's statement of a mission from P'u-kan in that year, nor
his other statement that one from San-fo-ts'i came there also in that year. The Annals (Sung-shi,
7,s) do, however, mention, under the year 1004 the presence at Court of a mission from P'u-tuan
20 (^B ^ss) together with missions from Chan-ch' ong and the Ta-shii (Arabs). Again under the
years 1007, 1020, 1030, 1042, 1050, 1053, 1056 and 1061 P'u-tuan is recorded to have sent
missions to Court. Ma Tuan-lin (Ethnographic, II, 586) begins his very short account of P'u-kan
with the mission of 1106. Can P'u-tuan, about which we know nothing, save that Ma Tuan-lin
(Op. cit , II, 538) tells us that it was reached by sea after some seven days sailing from Chan-
25 ch'ong, be an earlier form of P'u-kan? It seems probable.
The article on P'u-kan in the Sung-shi (489,ii), while supplying absolutely no information
on its geographical position or concerning its people, says that when the P'u-kan mission of 1106
arrived at Court, the President of the Board of Kites (probably after a protest from the P'u-kan
envoys) stated that, when in the hi-ning period (1068—1077) Chu-lien (Coromandel Coast, the
30 country the nearest to P'u-kan of which the Chinese were cognizant) sent a mission to Court, the
king of Chu-lien had been written to by the Board of Rites on plain white paper, as he was a
vassal of San-fo-ts'i. Fu-kan, he went on to say, was an important (and independent) kingdom, and
should not be treated like the princelet (of Chu-lien); it should be addressed with the same
forms as the Ta-shit (the Caliph) or the sovereign of Kiau-chi. See also infra p. 96.
35 The identity of P'u-kan with Pugan or Pagan on the Irrawadi between the mouth of the
Shindwin and Prome is generally accepted. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries P'u-kan ruled
over Burma from Bhamo south — including Pegu and Arakan — the latter state, at all events, was
under its suzerainty. The kingdom of Pagan was overthrovn by the Mongols, who captured the
capital in 1284. Phayre, Hist, of Burma, 18—54.
40 Schlegel, T'oung-pao, IX, 90, tried to show that P'u-kan was Pahang in the Malay
Peninsula— a country known to Chinese mediaeval writers as Fong-hong (^ "^), but his
argument was extremely weak and his identification has not been accepted by any subsequent
writers. If there could be any doubt as to the identity of Fu-kan with Pagan, we might refer to
the account of the Mongol conquest of Mien or Burma, contained in the Yiian-shi, 210,5, where
45 a victory over P'u-kan (written as in our text) in 1287 is said to signify the complete pacification
of Mien resulting in the payment of an annual tribute of local produce. Again in the Yuan-
ch'au-ch5ng-Mien-lu (j^ S^ ^j^ ^ ^) or ((Account of the war of the YUan dynasty
against Burma», and which dates from the Mongol period, there are a number of passages in
which P'u-kan is mentioned as a dependency of Mien.
50 2) Quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta, see supra, n. 1.
3) Better known as Chu-ko Liang. He is credited with having led an expedition into the
heart of Burma somewhere about A. D. 225. Giles, Chin. Biograph. Diet. 180.
4) See supra, n. 1, § 2.
60 PALEMBAXG. 1,7
7.
PALEMBANG.
(Eastern Sumatra).
San-fo-ts'j (H # W-
San-fo-ts'i ^ lies between Cbon-la and Sh5-p'o. Its rule extends over 5
fifteen chou ( j>|'[, provinces, or towns). It lies due south of Ts'iian-chou.
In the winter, with the monsoon (j||| ^), you sail a little more than '
a month and then come to Ling-ya-mon (^ ^ f^ ), where one-third of the
passing merchants (put in) before entering this country (of San-fo-ts'i) ®.
A large proportion of the people of this country are surnamed 10
c<P'u.>3(^). .
The wall of the (capital) city is built of bricks, and measures several
tens of li round.
When the king goes out he sits in a boat; his body has a man-pu^
(f§ 'ffj) wrapped around it. He is sheltered by a silk umbrella and guarded 15
by men bearing golden lances.
The people either live scattered about outside the city, or on the water
on rafts of boards covered over with reeds, and these are exempt from '
taxation ^.
They are skilled at fighting on land or water. When they are about to 20
make war on another state they assemble and send forth such a force as the ,
occasion demands. They (then) appoint chiefs and leaders, and all provide
their own military equipment and the necessary provisions. In facing the
enemy and braving death they have not their equal among other nations.
They have no stringed copper cash, but use chopped off lumps of silver 25
( ^ ^ ^) in their business transactions.
During most of the year the climate is hot, and there is but little cold
weather. Their domestic animals are very much like those of China.
They have wine of flowers, wine of cocoanuts, and wine of areca nuts
and honey, all fermented, though without yeast of any kind, but they are 30
intoxicating to drink ^.
In writing documents on official affairs they use foreign (^) char-
acters^, and the king's signet is used as a seal. They also know Chinese
characters, which they use in sending memorials to (our) court.
1,7
PALEMBAKG. ^ J
The laws of the country are very severe; adultery exposes man and
woman to the severest form of punishment (i. e., death) «.
When the king dies the common people go into mourning by shaving their
heads; his personal followers (or courtiers) choose, however, voluntary death
5 by leaping into the blazing pyre; this is called diving and dying together))'.
There is (in San-fo-ts'i) a (kind of) Buddha (^. e., image) called «Hill
of Gold and Silvm, (^ ^ |1|) and it is cast in gold. Each succeeding
king before ascending the throne has cast a golden image to represent Ms
person lo, and they are most particular to make offerings, of golden vessels
ao to these images, and the golden images and golden vessels all bear inscrip-
tions to caution future generations not to melt them down.
When any one in this country is dangerously ill he distributes his
weight in silver among the poor of the land, and this is held to be a means
of delaying death ^^
15 They style their king Lung-ts'ing^^ (f| ^). He may not eat grain,
but is fed on sha-Jiu^^ (fj? ^); should he do otherwise, the year would be a
dry one and grain dear. He also bathes in rose-water; should he use ordi-
nary water, there would be a great flood.
(The king) has a high cap (or hat) of gold, set with hundreds of jewels
20 and very heavy. At great court ceremonies no one but the king is able to
wear it; all other people are unable. When the throne becomes vacant all
the king's sons are assembled, the cap is handed them and he who is able
(to bear its weight) succeeds to the throne.
There is an old tradition that the ground in this country once suddenly
25 gaped open and out of the cavern came many myriads of cattle, which rushed
off in herds into the mountains, though the people all tried to get them for
food. Afterwards the crevice got stopped up with bamboo and trees and
disappeared ".
Exclusive of the native products, which include tortoise-shell, camphor,
so the chon, su and chan (varieties of gharu-wood), a coarse sMu (§^) (variety
of gharu-wood), laka-wood, cloves, sandal-wood and cardamoms, there are also
pearls, frankincense, rose-water, gardenia flowers, wu-na-tsH{'>), myrrh, aloes,
asa-foetida, putchuk, liquid storax, elephants' tusks, coral-trees, cat's-eyes,
amber, foreign cotton stuffs and sword blades. All these (latter) are products
35 of the Arab (Ta-shi) foreigners (^ ^ ^ ^) ".
The foreign traders {^ ^) who gather together in this country give
in exchange gold, silver, porcelain-ware, silk brocades, skeins of silk, silk
gauzes, sugar, iron, samshu, rice, dried galangal, rhubarb and camphor.
62 PALEMBAKG. 1,7
This country, lying in the ocean and controlling the straits (lit., gullet
00 P^) through which the foreigners' sea and land (lit., ship and cart) traffic
in either direction must pass, in olden times used an iron chain as a barrier
to keep the pirates of other countries in check. It could be kept up or lowered
by a cunning device. If a merchant ship arrived it was lowered. After a 5
number of years of peace, during which there has been no use for it, it has
been removed and (now) lies coiled up on the shore. The natives reverence it
like a Buddha, and vessels coming there sacrifice to it. When rubbed with oil
it shines like new. Crocodiles do not dare pass over it to do mischief.
" If a merchant ship passes by without entering, their boats go forth to 10
make a combined attack, and all are ready to die (in the attempt). This is
the reason why this country is a great shipping centre^/
The following are all dependencies (of this counu-y) ^®:
P6ng-f6ng (^ m.) Tan-ma-ling (|| ,% ^)
Tong-ya-nong (^ ^ {|) 10 Kia-lo-hi (jjw ^ ||) 15
Ling-ya-ssi-kia Q^ ^ |^ Jfjp) Pa-lin-fong (Q ;^ ^)
Ki-lan-tan (± ^ ^) Sin-t'o (|^ -}^%)
5 Fo-lo-an (^ J ^) Kien-pi (^ %)
Ji-lo-t'ing (0 jl ^) Lan-wu-li (g fiE H)
Ts'ien-mai (*j^ j§) 15 Si-lan (^g ^) 20
Pa-t'a {^ y^)
This country began to have relations with China during the t'ien-yu
period of the T'ang (A. D. 904-907). During the k'ien-lung period of the
present dynasty (960— 963) it sent tribute three times. In the third year
shun-Jiua (992) it reported that it had been invaded by Sho-p'o, and be- 25
sought that an Imperial manifesto be issued authorizing it to render obe-
dience".
In the sixth jesiV Men-ping (1003) it reported to the Throne that a Bud-
dhist temple had been erected in the country, there to pray for the Emperor's
life, and a wish was expressed that a name and a bell be bestowed upon it. 30
The Emperor, approving the wish, ordered that Chong-fien-wan-shou ( ^ ^
H ^) should be the title of the temple, and also presented it with a bell.
Down to the king-to, siang-fu and tHen-hi periods (1004 — 1022) and
in the yuan-yu and 2/Maw-/oM^ periods (1078 — 1094) this country sent a
number of tribute missions, when Imperial messages with cordial assurances 35
were conveyed to it^^-
This country to the east is conterminous with Jung-ya-lu (^ ^ ^),
[Note: Also called Chung-kia-lu » (g ^ ^)].
I>7 PALEMBAXG. 63
Notes.
1) All Chinese writers have identified San-fo-ts'i with Palembang, the north-eastern coast
of Sumatra. The form San-fo-ts'i appears to have been first used in the Sung period. The earliest
Chinese form of the name was Shii-li-fo-shi (^ 5^lj -f^ tt or ^), which occurs in
5 I-tsin g's writings, in the latter part of the seventh century. In the eighth century Kia Tan uses
the abbreviated form Fo-shi (^ ^). Shi-li-fo-shi and San-fo-ts'i point to an original Indian
form grI-Bhoja, and Fo-shi and Fo-ts'i (for that form also occurs) to an original Bhoja. The form
Qrl-Bhoja is the original of Serboza, the name used by the Arabs in the ninth century to
designate the island of Sumatra. See Schlegel, T'oiing-pao, 2* series, II, 122—138, 167—182,
10 329—377 and Gerini, Researches, 429, 481—483.
San-fo-ts'i was the kingdom of Menang-kabau, the parent country of the Malays in
Sumatra, (dts original limits to the eastern side of the island were the great rivers of Palembang
and Siak, and to the west those of Manjuta and Singkeb). Crawfurd, Hist. Indian Archipel. II,
371. Marsden (Hist. Sumatra, 268 n.) says that before the name Menang-kabau came into use
15 the country (or the capital?) was called Syndo-Cauda. The empire of Menang-kabau extended
at one time over the whole island, and, even in the latter part of the eighteenth century, all the
Sultans of Sumatra derived their authority from its chief. Marsden, op. cit., 267.
In or about 1377 San-fo-ts'i was conquered by the Javanese, and the name disappears
from Chinese works. We find instead Pa-lin-fOng (gj ^ >1^), P'o-lin-pang (^ ^ ^)
20 and Kiu-kiang (^ J^). Explanations of the last mentioned name, have been offered by
Groeneveldt, Notes on the Malay Archipel., 76, and by Schlegel, T'oung-pao, 2d Ser. II,
172; but neither of them is more than a guess, the latter a particularly poor one. See also on the
subject of San-fo-ts'i, Chavannes, Relig. emin., 36, n. 3 and 64, n. 1, and Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0.
IV, 331 — 348. Gerini, Researches, 628, is of opinion, however, that Pa-lin-fong was probably
25 Berembang in Deli, 3°42' N. lat., and not Palembang. I doubt it.
Chon K'u-fei, from whose work our author has largely drawn, uses the name San-fo-ts'i
in a more restricted sense than Chau Ju-kua, applying it only to a port of that name. Here is
what he has to say of it: «San-fo-ts'i is in the Southern Sea. It is the most important port-of-call
on the sea-routes of the foreigners, from the countries of Sho-p'o (Java) on the east and from the
30 countries of the Ta-shii (Arabs) and Ku-lin (Quilon) on the west; they all pass through it on their
way to China.
«The country has no natural products, but the people are skilled in fighting. When they
are about to fight, they cover their bodies with a medicine which prevents swords wounding
them. In fighting on land or on water none surpass'' them in impetuosity of attack; even the
35 Ku-lin people come after them. If some foreign ship, passing this place, should not enter here, an
armed party would certainly come out and kill them to the last.
«This country has great store of rhinoceros, elephants, seed-pearls (?^^ i^) and
medicinal aromatics. It is a custom of this people to make rafts to float on the water and to live
on them».
40 For other passages in the Ling-wai-tai-ta bearing on San-fo-ts'i, see supra p. 23.
2) The text reads :^ JI If M JI ^ ^ ^ >^ ^ PI ll it H #
^ . -h^ 71 2MI ^ . Some Chinese scholars, consulted on the meaning of this ambiguous
phrase, think the passage may be mutilated and that it implies that a levy of one third ad
valorem was made on merchandize at Ling-ya-mon (Linga Strait and Island) before merchants
45 were allowed to proceed to San-fo-ts'i. This interpretation seems forced; it appears much more
likely that Ling-ya-mon was a convenient harbour for ships coming from the west and from
Chan-ch'ong when sailing for San-fo-ts'i, and that many of them stopped there. However, there is
nothing inconsistent with the facts in the explanation, for Chau Ju-kua tells us that the people
of San-fo-ts'i and of other parts of the Malay Archipelago were great pirates, and it may well be
50 that merchant-junks found it to their advantage to put into Ling-ya-mon and pay a toll to escape
worse. In the fifteenth century the people of the island of Linga still lived by piracy, according to
Chinese accounts. Groeneveldt, Notes, SO.
64 PALE3IBANG. 1.7
The name Ling-ya-mon has not been found in any other Chinese -vrork of this period, but
in the fifteenth century we meet with the name Lung-ya-mon(^ ^ P^) as that of the Linga
Strait and Island. Groeneveldt, Notes, 97; Geo. Phillips. J. C. B. E. A. S. XXI, 39; Pelliot,
B. E. F. E. 0., IV, 218. The sixteenth century Tung-si-yang-k'au, 9,7 says that junks sailing from
Ch'ang-yau-sti {-M B® |Ifi Pulp Senang, better known as Bam Island. (Gerini, Researches, 5
815, not Singapore Island, as suggested by Phillips, loc. cit.), on their way to Chan-peii
(Djambi, in Sumatra) passed the Lung-ya Peak (^| ^"^ LU)- This seems to point without
a doubt to some point on Linga. Ling-ya-mon appears to have been a trading depot of the Arabs
in the twelfth century. See infra, Pt. II, Ch. XXIV.
3) Fu stands for Bu, an abbreviation of Abu fffathers, which precedes so many Arabic 10
names. The phrase ^ j^ W «many are surnamed P'ub, occurring here and there in Chinese
ethnographical literature may safely be taken to indicate Arab settlements. Hirth, Die Inscl
Hainan, 487, note. ^
4) The words man (^), lean-man. (^ |§i), tu-man (^ j^^), ho-man (-^ ^)
or man-jju (^§r ^ ) are used in Chinese works of the mediaeval period to designate the 15
garment known to us by the Malay name of sarung or sarong. These Chinese names are derived
from Sanskrit fo»i6ai!(i — probably through some intermediate form. Takakusu, Eecord of
Buddh. Keligio^n, 12, n. 1; Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0., Ill, 268, n. 5 and IV, 283 n. 2. See also
Crawfurd, Hist. Malay Archipel. I, 208.
5) The greater part of this and the following paragraph are taken from the Ling-wai- 20
tai-ta, see supra p. 63 n. 1. The Tanka or boat population of Canton are similarly exempted from the
ground-tax. The description here given of the town of San-fo-ts'i might apply to Palembang of
the present day. «The city is a large one, extending for four or five miles along a fine curve of
the river, which is as wide as the Thames at Greenwich. The stream, is, however, much narrowed
by the houses which project into it upon piles, and within these again, there is a row of 'houses 25
built upon great bamboo rafts • which are moored by rattan cables to the shore or to piles, and
rise and fall with the tide». A. Wallace, Malay Archipelago, 94 (10* edit.).
6) Conf. what is said in Ch. XIV on Sh6-p'o concerning the drinks of the Javanese. It
is possible that the «wine of flowers» is nipa arrak — which is made with the liquor drawn from
the stems of the flowers of the nipa palm. aWine of cocoanuts» is, of course, toddy, which in 30
Sumatra, however, is made usually from the gomuti palm. Crawfurd, Op. cit., I, 398.
7) The Sung-shi, 489,12'' quotes this paragraph, but substitutes Sanskrit (^5) for «foreign»
(^g:) characters. Either of these two readings may be justified. The Kavi character was used in
the kingdom of Menang-kabau for writing Sanskrit in the seventh century of our era. Lassen,
Indische Altherthumsk. IV, 463. The same authority says (ibid. IV, 472, n. 1) that other Sanskrit 35
inscriptions found in the same country were writteft in various other scripts not traceable to any
system in use in Western India. The P'ing-ch6u-k'o-t'an, 2,8-4, says that San-fo-ts'i had books,
and that the people were able mathematicians. Traders reported that these people could calcu-
late future eclipses of the sun and moon; the Chinese, they added, were unable to read their
books. The San-fo-ts i people did not make use of Chinese characters, it seems hardly necessary 40
to remark. Chinese versions of letters from their rulers addressed to the Court of China were
rendered into Chinese — on arrival of the envoys at Canton or Ts'aan-ch6u, and presented by
them — with the original missives — at Court.
8) Crawfurd, Op. cit. Ill, 130 remarks that among all the tribes of the Archipelago
adultery is still considered among the most heinous offences. 45
9) The Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,12* states that the same custom obtained in Java (Sho-p'o), see
infra, p. 80, n. 10. Conf. also the story told in the Adjaib of the king of India who became the
lalandjar of his parrot and who had to kill himself when the parrot was killed by the cat. Van
Lith and Devic, Merveilles de I'Inde, 115.
10) Conf. Lassen, Indische Alterthumsk. IV, 938. 50
11) A similar custom has existed in various parts of India from ancient times. It was called
tulSdana or «weight gift». It is still observed in Travancore — perhaps elsewhere. Thomas
Coryat, in a letter from the MogoPs Court at Asmere in 1615, referring to the Great Mogol
I'^ PALE5IBANG. 65
(SeUm'3) birthday, which was celebrated while he was there, says that «for that day he weighed
himselfe m a paire of golden Scales, which by great chance I saw the same day (a custome that
be observes most inviolably every yeare) laying so much gold in the other Scale as countervaileth
the weight of his bodie, and the same he afterward distributed to the pooro.. Purchas, His
5 Pilgrimes, IV, 473. See also.Sir Thomas Roe's Embassy, II, 411 (Hakluyt Soc. edit.) and Lassen,
Op. cit. Ill, 810. IV, 273. ' \ J )
12) Lung-ts'ing transcribes probably some Malay word. The first syllable may stand for
Amng «king», by which some of the princes in the Malay states were called. Crawfurd, Op. cit.
I, 12. In Sumatra, or more properly in the Rejang country, the princes were called Pangeran—
10 but this may not always have been the case. Marsden, History of Sumatra, I, 387.
Sung-shi, 4M,i2says that the style or mode of address to (^) the king of San-fo-ts'i
was «Chan-pei» ( ig ^) or «Djambi». Djambi was a town which, after the Javanese conquest
in 1377, became the capital of eastern Sumatra. It was, however, an important place already in
the eleventh century, for in 1079 and in 1088 it sent a tribute mission to the Court of China. See
J5 infra, p. 66, n. 18. It may be that the name Chan-pei came to be used as equivalent to San-fo-ts"i,
and that the Sultan was usually spoken of as «the Djambi Rajan.
13) Sha-hu, in Malay sagu, the term used among all the western tribes of the Archipelago
for the sago palm and the farina extracted from it. Crawfurd, History, I, 387, and infra, p. 84.
14) This tradition may be in some way connected with what we are told of the native
^0 etymology of the name Menang-kabau. Marsden (Hist! Sumatra, 266) says it is derived from
menang «to win» and carhow «a bufFalo»; «from the story, which carries a very fabulous air, of
a famous engagement on that spot, between the buffalos and tigers; in which the former are
reported to have acquired a complete victory». See also Marre, Histoire des Rois de Pasey, 103.
125—12, and Gerini, Researches, 641.
25 15) On these various products, see infra, Pt. II.
16) The earliest date assigned for the first invasion or migration of the Sumatrans to the
Malay Peninsula is the middle of the twelfth century — 1160, and Crawfurd (History, II, 373
et seqq.) is inclined to think it was even later.
(1) P'6ng-f6ng is generally identified with Pahang on the E. coast of the Malay Peninsula.
30 Bretschneider, Chin. Rev. IV, 387; Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0. IV, 344, n. 4. Gerini, J. R. A. S.
1905, 499 and Researches, 599, without attempting to identify it, thinks it must be looked for on
the N. coast of Sumatra, where he locates most of the dependencies of San-fo-ts'i. The localities
which he mentions as the probable equivalents of the Chinese names, have, at all events, names
which resemble them in sound. Some of his identifications appear correct, some possible, two
?5 quite impossible — Sin-t'o and Si-lan.
(2) X6ng-ya-n6ng, identified with Trengganu or Tringgano on the Malay Peninsula. It is
mentioned at the end of the fourteenth century as a dependency of the Majapahit empire. Phillips,
J. C. B. R. A. S.<XXI, 40. Pelliot, Op. sup. cit. IV, 344, n. 6. Gerini, J. R. A. S. 1905, 498
and Researches, 626, is sceptical as to this identification; he thinks Tong-ya-nong looks more like
40 Trieng-gading on the N. Coast of Sumatra, a little to the N. of Samalangan, See also Schlegel,
T'oung-pao, 23 Ser. II, 132.
(3) Ling-ya-ssi-kia, is identified with Lengka-suka of the Majapahit empire, the original
capital of Kedah, near Eedah Peak (Giinong Jerai), on the W. coast of the Malay Peninsula..
Pelliot, Op. sup. cit. IV, 345, 405—408. Gerini, J. R. A. S. 1905, 495. 498 and Researches,,
45 825. See infra, p. 68.
(4) Ki-lan-tan is the Kalenten of the Majapahit empire, Kalantan on the Malay Peninsula.
The Tung-si-yang-k"au, 9,6 says Ki-lan-tan was the name of the (country at the) mouth of the
Ta-ni (-^ 9)3 i. e., Patani) river. Gerini, Researches, 626, reading the Chinese name incor-
rectly Kia-ki-lan-tan, suggests a place called Gigieng in North Sumatra.
50 (5) Fo-lo-an, Beranang on the Langat river, W. coast of Malay Peninsula. See infra p. 69.
(6) Ji-lo-t'ing has not yet been satisfactorily identified. Gerini, Researches, 627, says it was
yery likely Jelatang on a small stream, a little to the south-west of the present Jambi town in
I°42'5 lat. See also Schlegel, T'oung-pao, 24 ser. II, 134.
5
66 PALEMBAXG. I,?
(7) Ts'i6n-inai remains doubtful. Schlegel, op. sup. cit., 135 thought it was Djambi, but
that name we know was transcribed Chan-pei. Gerini, Researches, 627 takes this name to
represent Semawi or Semawei, vulgo Semoy on the bight of that name, into which debouches the
Pasei river, North Sumatra.
(8) Pa-t'a may possibly he the country of the Batta in N. Sumatra, as suggested by 5
Schlegel (loc. cit). Gerini, op. cit., 627, thinks it, Pedada or Pidada — the Pirada of de
Barros between Samalangan and Pasangan, North Sumatra.
(9) Tan-ma-ling was probably a district about the mouth of the Kwantan river in Pahang,
on the E. coast of the Malay Peninsula. See infra, Ch. VIII n. 1.
(10) Kia-lo-hi. In a previous passage (supra Ch. IV p. 62) our author says that Ch6n-la (Kam- 10
boja) confined to the S. on Kia-lo-hi; it would appear therefore that it should be sought for in the
Malay Peninsula, south of T8ng-liu-mei which was the southernmost dependency of Chon-la, and
which is placed, with some degree of probability, in Ligor on the E. coast of the Malay Peninsula.
See supra Ch. V p. 57. Whether Kia-lo-hi was the same as the Kia-lo-sh5 (^ ^ ■^) of the
Sui-shu (3,12») and the Kia-lo-sh6-fu (^ ^ -^ %)' Ko-lo-sho-fon (^ ^ ^ ^) 15
and Ko-lo-fu-sha-lo (^ ^ 'M ^j^ ^) °^ ^^^ T'ang-shu, 222'', I am not prepared to say.
Pelliot (op. cit. IV, 360 'n.) says that all these forms point to a Sanskrit foi-m Kalasapura,
and that a city of that name seems to have existed in Indo-China or the Malay Peninsula, but
where is not known. Gerini (Asiat. Quai-t. 3^ ser. XIII, 133) identifies Ko-lo-fu-sha-lo with
Koli hadara, the present Kalantan, and (in his Eesearches, 627) he seems inclined to locate Kia- 20
lo-hi on the, E. coast of Sumatra or on some neighbouring island. He admits that the name is a
very puzzling one. Schlegel (T'oung-pao, 2^ ser. II, 136) says Kia-lo-hi was contiguous with the
present Cape Camboja.
(11) Pa-lin-fong is Palembang,. see supra, p. 63, n. 1.
(12) Sin-t'o, or, as our author in another passage, transcribes the name Sun-t'a,'is the western 25
portion of th6 island of Java, or possibly only a small part of it on the Straits of Sunda. See
infra Chs. XI and XV, from which either conclusion seems possible. Gerini, Eesearches, 628, takes
Sin-t'o to be Barbosa's Zunda^kingdom, S. W. Sumatra, corresponding to the present Indrapura
district. It cannot be believed that Sin-t'o was used by Chau Ju-kua to designate any other
country than that lying in Java near the Straits of Sunda. 30
(13) Kien-pi is Kampar on the E. coast of Sumatra. See infra, Ch. XII, from which it appears
that in Chau Ju-kua's time it had become independent of San-fo-ts'i. Gerini, Eesearches, 628,
thinks some district on the west coast of the Malay Peninsula may be meant.
(14) Lan-wu-li, the Eamni of Arab mediaeval travellers, the Lamori of Marco Polo.
It was the N. part of the W. coast of Sumatra. See infra, Ch: XIII. 35
(15) Si-lan, the Singalese form Silam — shortened from Sihalam (Pali Singhala);- the island
of Ceylon. See infra Ch. XIII, p. 73, where it is said, not only that Ceylon sends a yearly tribute to
San-fo-ts'i, but that it is ruled by Nan-p'i (Malabar). In the latter half of the eleventh century the
Coromandel coast (Chu-lien) was also tributary of San-fo-ts'i. See Sung-shi, 489,ii and supra, p. 59.
17) The Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,ia says: «In the 9ti moon of the first year kien-lung (of the 40
Sung, 960) the king of San-fo-ts'i, by name Hi-li-ta-hia-li-tan (Hilita Sultan?) presented tribute
to the Chinese Court. Again in the 5ti» moon of the second year kien-lung (961), and also in the
third year (962) in the 3^ and 12tii moons». The Annals of the Sung (Sung-shi, 1,9-is) state that in
961 people from San-fo-ts'i came to Court and offered presents. The following year two official
missions appear to have come to the Chinese Court, one under a person bearing the Chinese name 45'
of Li Li-lih (^4^ j^ Mj) — perhaps a Chinese resident of the country. In another passage
of the Sung-shi (489,is) we read of a mission from San-fo-ts'i in 983 which presented among other
things a rock-crystal image of the Buddha. See also Groene veldt. Notes, 64. 67.
18) The Ling-wai-tai-ta, loc. cit., says «In the second year yuan-fong of Chon-tsung (1079)
in the 7tii moon a mission from the kingdom of Chan-pei (^ Kj, Djambi) came to Court with 50
tribute; and again this country sent tribute in the year 1088».
19) Jung-ya-lu was to the east of Sin-t'o, the dependency of San-fo-ts'i in Western Java.
In another passage (infra, p. 84) our author tells us that Jung-ya-lu was the same as Ta-pan
I>8 KWANTAN. 67
(Tuban) and that it was to the W. of «Great Sh6-p'o» and of Su-ki-tan, — CentralJava. Crawfurd,
History, ir, 297, says that in the twelfth century mention is made of a state of Janggolo in the
present district of Surabaya in eastern Java.
Gerini, Kesearches, 451, 812, would place Jung-ya-lu in western or southern Sumatra.
8.
KW^ANTAN (?).
(Malay Peninsula).
Tan-ma-ling (H ,% ^).
The kingdom of Tan-ma-ling ^ is under a ruler who is addressed as
10 Siang-Jcung^ (i^ ^).
The city is surrounded by a palisade six or seven feet thick and over
twenty feet high, strong enough to be mounted for fighting purposes.
The people of this country ride buffaloes, wear their hair done in a knot
behind (^ ^) and go barefooted.
15 Officials live in wooden houses, the common people in bamboo cottages,
the walls being filled in with leaves and the poles fastened with rattan.
The native products comprise yellow wax, laka-wood, the su (variety of
gharu-wood) incense, ebony, camphor, elephants' tusks, and rhinoceros horns.
The foreign traders barter for them with silk parasols, kittysols, silks
20 of Ho-ch'i^ ('/^ ^i\^ 2^1 ^|), samshu, rice, salt, sugar, porcelain basins,
bowls and the like common and heavy articles, and bowls of gold and silver.
Ji-lo-t'ing, Ts'ien-mai, Pa-t*a and Kia-lo-hi are of the same kind
(W. itB) ^^ ^^^ country*.
This country (of Tan-ma-ling) collects together such gold and silver vessels
25 as it receives, while Jii-lo-t'ing and the other countries make assorted collec-
tions, and these they off^er to San-fo-ts'i as tribute.
Notes.
1) Takakusu (Record of the Buddhist Eeligion, XLIII— XLV) thought he saw in this
name the TanaMalayu of de Barros' list of Sumatran kingdoms. Schlegel(T'oung-pao,2d sex.
30 II, 130) looked for it also in Sumatra. Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0. IV, 328, while not trying to locate this
district, calls attention to the fact that there is an important affluent of the Pahang river called
the Tembeling. Gerini, J. K. A. S., 1905, 498 identifies our Tan-ma-ling with Temiling or
Tembeling, the name of a cape and a hill near the mouth of the Kwantan river in Pahang, on
the E. coast of the Malay Peninsula. «Probably, he says, it (Tan-ma-ling) is the old designation
35 borne by the present Kwantan district, and should not be confounded with Tembeling or Tembelang,
5*
68 LENGKASUKA. i,9
the name of an island district on one of tlie tributaries of tlie Pahang Rivera. As our author
states (infra Ch. IX § 1) that a land-route existed between Tan-ma-ling and Ling-ya-ssi-iia, which
we have good reason to believe was about Kedah on the "W. coast of the Peninsula, it seems
safe to conclude that Tan-ma-ling cannot have been very far from where Gerini has located it.
2) This may possibly be paraphrased «he is addressed by a title which is the equivalent 5
of Siang-kung or 'Minister of State' with us in Chinaa. The native title generally used appears
to have been that of Mantri, which Crawfurd (op. cit. Ill, 34) says is the denomination of the
first class of the nobility in Malay governments. There is also the title of Pangeran, which is that
of princelets of Sumatra. See Marsden, Hist. Sumatra, 173.
3) A district of Ho-ch'i existed during the Sui dynasty (589—618) in the province of 10
Shen-si; it was identical with the present Huang-hi6n. See Playfair, Cities and Towns of China,
JVs 1776. According to the local Gazetteer (see Tu-shu-tsi-ch'5ng, 6. Ch. 1416,s) silk was
produced in abundance in this district. Perhaps sericulture was continued in it down to the days
of which our author wrote, or perhaps some silk stuff still bore in the trade the name of this
once famous silk. 15
4) All of these dependencies of San-fo-ts'i are mentioned in the preceding chapter and in
Note 16, p. 65—66. By «same' kiudn the author probably means that the people of these various
districts were of the same race and that their habits, natural products, etc., were similar.
9.
LBNGKA8UKA. 20
(Malay Peninsula),
Ling-ya-ssT-[kia] Qg ^ ^ [Jfjp]).
Lmg-ya-ssi-(kia) ^ can be reached from Tan-ma-ling by sailing six days
and nights; there is also an overland road (between the two countries).
The ruler of the country wraps himself in a sarong (^) and goes 25
barefooted. The people of the country cut their hair and also wear sarongs.
The native products are elephants' tusks, rhinoceros homs, the su, cJian
and shong-Jiiang (varieties of gharu-wood) and camphor.
Foreign traders barter there in samshu, rice, Ho-ch'i silks and porcelain-
ware. They calculate first the value of their articles according to their equi- 30
valents in gold or silver, and then engage in barter of these articles at fixed
rates. As for example, one tong^ (±g) of samshu is equal to one tael of silver
or two mace of gold, two tong of rice are equal to one tael of silver, ten
tong being equal to one tael of gold, and so forth.
(Ling-ya-ssi-kia) sends yearly tribute to San-fo-ts'i. 35
Notes.
1) Though written here without the final syllable Jcia, the name is correctly given in the
list of dependencies of San-fo-ts'i (supra, p. 62). It is the Lengkasuka of the Majapahit empire, the
1,10 BEKiNAKG. 69
original capital of Kcdah, near Kedah Peak (Gunong Jerai), on the W. coast of the Malay Penin-
sula. Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0. IV, 345, 405—408. Gerini, J. R. A. S. 1905. 495, 498. Schlegel,
T'oung-pao, 2* Ser., II, 131 read the name Ling-ga-sze and placed it in Sumatra.
2) Tong is explained iu Chinese Buddhist works as a «Buddhist weighta, •which means
i that it is an Indian term, here, tola. In the present case it seems to indicate a dry measure; both
Marsden (op. cit. 155) and Crawfurd (op. cit. I, 271) say that among the Malays everything
is estimated by bulk and not by weight. Marsden adds that the use of weights was apparently
introduced among them by foreigners.
10.
10 BERANANG.
(Malay Peninsula).
Fo-Io-an (# m ^)-
The kingdom of Fo-lo-an can be reached from the kingdom of Ling-ya-
ssi-kia in four days; one may also follow the overland road^.
15 To this country there came flying two Buddhas, one with six arms, the
other with four arms. Should ships try to enter the confines (of Fo-lo-an),
they would be driven back by the wind; this is popularly ascribed to the
magic power of (these) Buddhas.
The Buddhist temple (of Fo-lo-an) is covered with bronze tiles and is
20 ornamented with gold. The fifteenth of the sixth moon is kept as the Buddha's
birthday with crowded processions accompanied with music and the beating
of cymbals. The foreign traders take part in them^
The native products comprise the su and clian (varieties of gharu-wood)^
laka-wood, sandal-wood and elephants' tusks. Foreigners barter for them with
25 gold, silver, porcelain, iron, lacquer-ware, samshu, rice, sugar and wheats
It sends yearly tribute to San-fo-ts'i. Its neighbours P'5ng-f6ng, Tong-ya-
nung and Ki-lan-tan are like it.
Notes.
1) Gerini J E A. S. 1905. 498, places Fo-lo-an at Beranang on the Langat river, W.
30 coast of Malay Peninsula; this satisfies the requirements of this and the last paragraphs of our
text Earlier writers, misled' by a wrong reading of the Chinese text, tried to locate this country
in s'lunatra. Schlegel, T'oung-pao, 2^ Ser., II, 134, said it was Puluan in Palembang residency.
The Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,i2 says of Fo-lo-an: «The chief of Fo-lo-an is appomted from San-
fo-ts'i. The country produces aromatics with which those of the «Lower Coast countries., (i. e.,
35 Java, see Pt. II, Ch. XI) cannot compare in aroma or strength.
70 SUKDA. 1,11
((There is here (in Fo-lo-an) a Holy Buddha which the princes of San-fo-ts'i come every
year to burn incense before».
2) Kuan^yin (Avalokitegvara) is usually represented with six or four arms. The images
referred to may have been of this deity. We learn from another passage in C h a u's work (infra, Ch.
XXXIX) that the celebration of this festival on the IS*!" day of the 6"i moon, was an important 5
one for sailors for securing good weather on their voyage back to China, and that they kept it as
well in Borneo as in Fo-lo-an. According to de Groot, Les fStes annuellement c616br6es a Emoui
(Amoy), I, 199, the principal annual feasts of Kuan-yin kept in Fu-ki6n, are on the 19*'' of the
2^, the 6tii and the 9"» moon. That on the 19tii of the 6ti» moon is believed by some to be the
goddess's birthday. The IS'i of the 6tii moon, the same author states (op. cit. I, 394) is also cele- 10
brated in Fu-kifo as the mid-year festival. It may well be that these two festivals, especially as
the second one, in some of its features at least, is also connected with the worship of Kuan-yin in
one of her manifestations (P'o-tsu, ^^ ^(B)' '^ere celebrated by sailors on the same day.
Schlegel, T'oung-pao IX, 404 says that the 15*^ of the'6tl» moon was the feastday of Ma-tsu-p'o
(^jS jjjB ^^), the patron saint of sailors. De Groot (op. cit. I, 262) says that Ma-tsu-p'o's 15
birthday was the 23* of the Simoon. I do not know when the cult of Ma-tsu-p'o's became general,
at all events the particular ((Buddhas referred to by our author was evidently a patroness of '
sailors, hence the presence at her feast of «the foreign traders» both in Fo-lo-an and in P'o-ni.
3) Fo-lo-an is mentioned in another passage of this work (infra, Ch. XXII) as one of the
two principal ports of South-eastern Asia to which the Arab traders came, the other was, of 20
course, San-fo-ts'i.
11.
SUNDA.
(Western Java).
SIn-ro (ff ijg). 25
In the kingdom of Sin-t'o ^ there is a harbour (or anchorage }§) with a
depth of sixty feet. Whei-ever one travels, by water or by land, one meets
with the people's dwellings all along the two shores (p^ j^ ^ Jg).
The people are also given to agriculture; their houses are made of poles
stuck in the ground, roofed over with the bark of the coir-palm", the par- 3o
titions being made with wooden boards (tied) with bits of rattan.
Both men and women wrap round their loins a piece of cotton, and in
cutting their hair they only leave it half an inch long.
The pepper grown on the hills (of this country) is small-grained, but
heavy and superior to that of Ta-pan (Eastern Java)'. The country produces 35
pumpkins (^ }J^), sugar-cane, bottle-gourds (f|), beans and egg-plants.
As, however, there is no regular government in this country, the people
are given to brigandage, on which account foreign traders rarely go there*.
1,12 KAMPAR. ?1
Notes.
1) In the chapter on Su-ki-tan (infra, Ch. XV) our author says that Sukitan confined to the
W. on Sin-t'o and to the E. it adjoined Ta-pan (Tuhan). In another passage (infra, Pt. II. Ch. XXVII)
our author states that Su-ki-tan, Ta-pan, Pai-hua-yuan, Ma-tung and Sin-t'o (^ |^) are
5 places in Sho-p'o. In a footnote — (infra p. 84, whether by the author or his editor Li T'iau-
yUan does not appear), the name of this country is written Sun-t'a (.^ -jlft^), and there seems
no doubt that the western portion of the island of Java is meant; it would even appear that
Sin-t'o must have extended well to the E. of Java, for our author has told us previously that
San-fo-ts'i extended as far E. as Jung-ya-lu in the present district of Surabaya, although it is
10 difficult to reconcile this with our author's remark that Sukitan — a portion of ShS-p'o — was con-
terminous ou the W. with Jung-ya-lu — or Ta-pan as it was also called. Schlegel, T'oung-
pao, 2" ser. II, 136, 137 tried to locate Sin-t'o in Sumatra, because he found there several places
called Sindar, Sindur, Sintu and Sindu. See also Gerini, Kesearches, 450—456; 628.
2) Nipa palm, not coir palm, leaves are universally used by the Malays for thatching.
15 3) Cra'wfurd, op. cit., I, 482, says that Java produces the worst pepper in the Archipel-
ago. Maffei, Istorie dell' Indie Orientali, I, 275 (as quoted by Gerini, Researches, 453, note)
speaks of the «pepe molto eccellenti» of Sunda.
4) The people of Sunda resisted for a long time the power of the Javanese, and were only
finally reduced by Kaden Panka, who ascended the throne in 1156 and transferred his capital to
20 Pajajaran in the west of the island for the purpose of subduing and keeping under control the
people of Sunda. This prince is reported to have introduced rice culture into Sunda. See Lassen,
Indische Alterthumsk. IV, 476. It seems likely that the absence of any regular government, to
which our author refers, may have been a result of the war going on at the time to which this
notice of Sunda relates, some fifty years earlier than the time at which C h a u wrote. It also explains
25 the absence of any mention of rice among the native products of this part of Java. Crawfurd,
however (op. cit. I, 358). considers rice «an indigenous product in the Archipelago and its culture
a native art, — and that one improved tribe taught and disseminated that art».
12.
KAMPAR.
30 (Eastern Coast of Sumatra).
Ki6n-pi (M W-
The kingdom of Kien-pi^, lying right at the mouth of the road (^ ^
P ), is much resorted to by trading ships as an anchorage. It can be reached
from the San-fo-ts'i country in half a month's sailing.
35 Formerly it was a dependency of San-fo-ts'i, but, after a fight, it set
up a king of its own.
The country produces tin (g ^), elephants' tusks and pearls.
The people are fond of archery, and those who have killed a great
number of men boast with one another over the length of their tally scores ^
Five days' journey by water brings one to the kingdom ot Lan-wu-li, ;
72 LAMBKI. ISLAND OF CEYLON. 1,13
Notes.
1) Kampei or Kampe of the Javanese histories, the modern Kampar on the E. coast of
Sumatra. Kamp6 is mentioned in the fifteenth century as a dependency of the Majapahit empire.
Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0. IV, 344. Takakusu, Record, etc. XLIII, quoting the Sung-shi, 489,
read the name wrongly I.an-pi, and identified it with Djamhi. The identification with Kampar 5
does not admit of doubt. Marsden (op. cit. 288) appears to place Kampar W. of San-fo-t'si and
E. of the Eakan river. Ch6u K'il-fei, 2,13 says «The kingdom of Kien-pi comes every year to
trade in this country (of Ku-lin) elephants and cattle, and the Ta-shi (Arabs) deal in horses.
Formerly they used to come to this kingdom to sell goods». This, and the indications furnished by
our author, would lead us to extend Kien-pi to near the N. W. extremity of Sumatra. On the 10
other hand the existence of tin in Kien-pi points to the E. part of the island; Cr awfurd (History,
etc., Ill, 450) says that in geographical distribution tin is confined to the island of Banca, the
Malay Peninsula, and the islets on the coasts, with Junk Ceylon.
2) Probably the people made notches on the backs of their swords or on the scabbards of
the number of persons they had killed, or the number of heads they- had taken. 15
13.
LAMBRI. ISLAND OF CEYLON.
Lan-wu-li (M M M)- Si-Ian (^ffl ||)-
The products of the kingdom of Lan-wu-li ^ are sapan-wood, elephants'
tusks and white rattan. 20
The people are warlike and often use poisoned arrows.
With a north wind one comes within twenty odd days to the kingdom
of Si-lan^, which is under the rule of Nan-p'i* (^ Hlj;). Sailing from Lan-
wu-li, one knows that one is nearing Si-lan by continual flashing of lightning *.
The king (of Si-lan) is black, his hair unkempt and his head uncovered. 25
He wears no clothes but has a cotton cloth of different colours wrapped around
him; on his feet he wears sandals of red leather, tied with golden strings.
When he goes forth he rides an elephant or is carried in a litter (^ ^).
All day he chews a paste of betel nut and pearl ashes.
His palace is ornamented with cat's-eyes, blue and red precious stones, so
cornelians and other jewels; the very floor he walks upon is so ornamented.
There is an eastern and western palace, and at each there is a golden tree,
the trunk and branches all of gold, the flowers, frdt and leaves of cat's-eyes,
blue and red precious stones and such like jewels. At the foot of these trees
are golden thrones with opaque glass (3^ J^) screens. When the king holds 35
^'^^ LAMBRI. ISLAXD OF CEYLON, 73
Ms court he uses the eastern palace in the forenoon and the western in the
afternoon. When (the king) is seated, the jewels flashing in the sunshine,
the glass (screens) and the jewel-tree shining on each other, make it like the
glory of the rising sun.
5 Two attendants are always present holding a golden dish to receive the
remains of the betel nut (paste) chewed by the king. The king's attendants
pay a monthly. fee of one i' {^) of gold into the government treasury for
the privilege of getting the betel nut (paste) remains, for it contains «plum
flower)), camphor « and all kinds of precious substances.
10 The king holds in his hand a jewel five inches in diameter, which cannot
be burnt by fire, and which shines in (the darkness of) night like a torch ^
The king rubs his face with it daily, and though he were passed ninety he
would retain his youthful looks.
The people of the country are very dark-skinned, they wrap a sarong
15 round their bodies, go bare-headed and barefooted. They use their hands in
taking up their food; their household utensils are of copper.
There is (in this country of Si-lan) a mountain called Si-lun-tie^ (|g
1^ #)> on the top of which there is a huge imprint of a man's foot, over
seven feet long, and a like imprint is visible in the water (of the sea) within
20 a distance of over 300 U from the mountain. The forest trees on the mountain,
little and big, all bend towards it (as if reverencing it).
The products (of Si-lan) include cat's-eyes, red transparent glass (S^
J^), camphor, blue and red precious stones. The products of the soil are
cardamoms, mit-lan bark (:^ ^ J^) and both coarse and fine perfumes \
25 Foreign traders exchange for them sandal-wood, cloves, camphor, gold, silver,
porcelain- ware, horses, elephants and silk stuffs.
This country sends a yearly tribute to San-fo-ts'i ".
Notes.
1) So far as is known, Ch6u K'O-fei was the first Chinese writer to mention this section of
30 Sumatra, which he calls (3,2j Lan-li (^S J^)i ""i* concerning which he only says that it took
a merchant junk from Canton forty days to reach it. Ch6u's transcription reproduces very closely
the name used by the Arab travellers of the ninth and subsequent centuries to designate Sumatra
Al-Ramni. As used, however, by Ch6u K'u-fei, our author and by Marco Polo (who writes the
name Lamori), it designates the northern portion of the W. coast of Sumatra, commencing from
35 the neighbourhood of A chin Head. Yule, Marco Polo, 11,281, 283. See also Cordier, Friar
Odoric, 135, 137.
The Chinese missions of the beginning of the fifteenth century wrote the nameNan-(Lan-)p'o-li
(^ "J^ T^lj) or Nan-(Lan-)wu-li (^ /g J^), and in these forms the name occurs in the
Ming-shi (325), although the same work has lira-(La-)mo-li, yang (j^jj |^ ^7^) "^^^ Sea
40 of Lambri)). The Ming-shi says that Nan-p'o-li (i. e., the principal port of that district) was three
■days' sailing from Su-m6n-ta-la (j^ p^ 3^ Wjj) — the Samara of Polo, the Samuthrah of
74 LAMBRI, ISLAN'D OF CETLON, 1,13
Ibn Batuta, and placed by Yule (op. cit. II, 277) near the head of the estuary-like Gulf of
Pasei, called in the charts Telo (or Talak) Samawe. To the N. W. of Nan-p'o-li, the Ming-
shi adds, a high mountain called Mau-shan (ijjg |JLf) <»■ "Hat mountainn rises out of the sea.
This is Pulo Rondo or Pulo Way off Achin. Gerini, Researches, 385. See, however, Phillips,
J. C. B. R. A. S. XXI, 221, and Groeneveldt, Notes, 100. 5
2) Chou K'u-feii appears to have been the first Chinese writer to speak of Ceylon as Si-lan,
which, it would seem, he must have heard of from a Singhalese who probably shortened the sound ,
Sihalam (the Pali form for Singhala) into Silam. See Yule, Marco Polo, II, 296, n. 1. The Yuan-
shi, 97, uses the form Ki-Ian (^ ^), which represents the same native form, and the Ming-
shif, 326 has Si-lan (^^ 1|[). Marco Polo also used the form Seilom. The mediaeval Arabs 10
called the island Serendib — from the Pali Singhala-dipa, and this name we find our author using
in a subsequent passage, under the form Si-lun-tie to designate (as did also the Arabs) Adam's Peak.
Fa-hien, in the fifth centtiry, was the first Chinese to mention Ceylon, he called it Shi-tzi-kuo,
«the kingdom of the Lions, in Sanskrit Singhala. HUan-tsang, in the seventh century, transcribed
the name by Song-k'ie-lo (f^ ^ ^), while I-tsing used the form Song-ho-lo ({^ g^ ^)' ^^
The name Lang-ya (^& ^f") "^^^ '"''^° used, transcribing the Sanskrit Lanka, one of the old
names of Ceylon. On the Chinese knowledge of Ceylon, see Tennent, Ceylon, I, 583 — 604, and
also for some additional references toitby Ch6u K'(l-fej, supra, p. 26. Schlegel, T'oung-pao,
2^ ser. II, 133 made out that Si-lan was not Ceylon but a Sumatran tribe, the Silan of Deli.
3) Nan-p'i, roughly speaking, comprised as its dependencies the whole of the western coast 20
of India, though it applied more particularly to the Malabar coast. See infra, p. 89, n. 1. The
Malabars invasion of Ceylon began in A. D. 515 and ended in 1153, when Prakrama Bahu, having
driven them out of Ceylon, was crowned «soIe king of Lanka». He carried the war into the Dekkan,
and reduced Pandya and Chola, making their sovereigns his tributaries. He carried his arms into
Kamboja and Arramana in the Malay Peninsula (probably between Arracan and Siam). He died 25
in 1155, after the most glorious reign in the annals of Ceylon. aWithin thirty years itom the
decease of Prakrama Bahu, the kingdom was reduced to such an extremity of weakness by con-
tentions amongst the royal family, and by the excesses of their partisans, that the vigilant Malabars
seized the opportunity to land with an army of 24,000 men, reconquered the whole island, and
Magha, their leader, became king of Ceylon A. D. 1211... From the beginning of the 13"! century 30
to the extinction of the Singhalese dynasty in the IStt, the island cannot be said to have been
ever entirely freed from the presence of the Malabarsn. Tennent, Ceylon, 394 — 418. See, however,
supra, p. 62, where Si-lan is mentioned as a «dependency» of San-fo-ts'i, and supra, p. 73, where it
is said Si-lan sent yearly tribute to San-fo-ts'i. In the early part of the twelfth century and
again in the early part of the thirteenth Ceylon, or a part of it, were under Cholian rule. T e n n e n t, 35
op. cit. I, 402 et seqq.
4) «The lightnings of Ceylon are so remarkable, that in the middle ages they were as
well known to the Arabian seamen, who coasted the island on their way to China, as in later
times the storms that infested the Cape of Good Hope were familiar to early navigators of
Portugal. In the Mohit of Sidi Ali Chelebi, translated by von Hammer, it is stated that to 40
seamen, sailing from Diu to Malacca, «the sign of Ceylon being near is continual lightning, be it
accompanied by rain or without rain; so that 'the lightning of Ceylon' is proverbial for a liar» .
Tennent, Ceylon, I, 60 n.
5) An i weighed 20 taels; it seems only to have been used for weighing gold.
6) See infra Pt. II. Ch. I. 45
7) Hflan-tsang speaks of the great ruby over the vihara of the Buddha's tooth in Ceylon.
Beal, Records, II, 218. Cosmas Indicopleustes teUs of a wonderful luminous gem of the king of
Taprobane which was «as large as a great pine-cone, fiery red, and when seen flashing from a
: distance, especially if the sun's rays are playing round it, is a matchless sight.D Christian Topo-
graphy, 365 (Hakluyt Soc, edit.). 5q
8) Our author js, so far as is known, the only Chinese who has used this name to designate
Adams' Peak. Si-lun-tie, in Cantonese Sai-lun-tip, is the name Serendib, used by the mediaeval
->Arabs to designate the peak, although originally applied by them to the Island of Ceylon itself.
I,U JAVA. 75 '
Keinaud, Relations, etc. I, 5. Ibn Batuta, Voyages, IV, 179—182 says: «The mountain of
Serendib is one of the highest in the world; we saw it from the open sea, although we were
distant from it nine days' journey .... The impress of the noble foot, that of our father Adam,
is seen on a black and high rock, and in an open space. The foot is embedded in the rock,
5 the imprint deeply sunk; its length is eleven spans. The people of China came here in past
times; they cut out of the stone the impress of the big toe and around it, and have placed
this fragment in a temple of the city of Zeitun (Ts'aan-ch6u-fu) to which they come from the
most distant provinces)). From this it appears that the Buddhist legend that the impress of
the foot on Adams' Peak was that of the Buddha, had grown up before the fourteenth century; it
10 was unknown apparently to early Chinese writers. Fa-hi6n lived in Ceylon for two years, but
makes no mention of the Peak. In the seventh century Hflan-tsang speaks of the Ling-k'i6-shan
m^ 1.°^ %^1 "^ U-l)? "^^^ mount of Lanka or Ceylon)) — as the spot where the
Buddha preached the Lankavatara sUtra, but he makes no mention of the footprint (Be a I,
Eecords, II, 251), nor did I-tsing writing a little later, though he refers. in several places to the
15 Buddha's tooth. In the fifteenth century Adams' Peak is called Si-lan-shan (^, ^M \\\)
in Chinese works. See also Tennent, Ceylon, II, 132 — 141, and E. Dulaurier, Etude sur
I'ouvrage intitule Kelation des Voyages, 51, 54.
9) On glass, both opaque and transparent, see infra, Pt. II. Ch. XXXII. It does not appear that
camphor was ever procured in Ceylon; it was probably imported there from Sumatra. The blue and
20 red precious stones are sapphires and carbuncles. On the precious stones of Ceylon, see Tennent
op. cit., I, 32—40, II, 590 — 592. «Mu-lan bark» is evidently the bark of the IcunibuJc of the Singha-
lese — called maratha-maram by the Tamils; mu-lan transcribing the Tamil word maram. It is
the Pentaptera tomentosa, Rox., and «is chiefly prized for its bark, which is sold as medicine,
and, in addition to yielding a black dye, it is so charged with calcareous matter that its ashes,
25 when burnt, afford a substitute for the lime which the natives chew with their betel». Tennent,
op. cit. I, 99.
10) The previous reference to Si-lan as a «dcpendency» (S ^) of San-fo-ts'i, and the
present one are irreconciliable with the statement made in the beginning of this chapter that
Si-lan is «under the rule of» (^^ \\\ Nan-p'i, unless we suppose that these statements refer
30 to two different periods or to different portions of the island.
14.
JAVA,
Sho-p'o im W-
The kingdom of Sh6-p'o, which is also called P'u-kia-lung^ (^ ^ f|),
35, is in a south-easterly direction from Ts'uan-chou, (whence) ships start, as a
rule, during the winter, for, sailing day and night with the north wind, they
can arrive (in Sho-p'o) within about _a month.
(.East (of Sho-p'o) you come to the (Ocean)-Sea and to where the waters
flow downward; there is the kingdom of women». Still farther east is the
40 Wei-lU; the end of the habitable world ^ (M ^ ^ ^ ^)- .
76 JAVA. 1,14
Sailing the sea half a month (to the west from ShO-p'o?)one comes (Jg)
to the K'un-lun (^ ^) country. To the south (from the port or chief city
of Sh6-p'o?) the sea is reached in three days' journey (0 ^).
Sailing (^ y^) five days (from Sh6-p'o), one comes to a country of the
Ta-shi (Arabs). "Westward one comes to the sea in forty-five days' journey. 5
Northward one comes to the sea in four days' journey (from the chief city?).
Sailing north-west (from Sh8-p'o?), in fifteen days one arrives at the
country of P'o-ni (y^ "^); furthermore {%) you come in ten days to the
kingdom of San-fo-ts'i. You arrive in seven days more (^) in the kingdom
of Ku-lo (-^ ^). Again (^) seven days and one comes to Ch'ai-li-t'ing 10
(^ M ^) ^^^ reaches (J^) Kiau-chi, (whence) one makes (^) Kuaug-
chou (Canton) ^.
There are two kinds of monasteries (^ i. e., religious systems) in the
kingdom (of Sho-p'o); the one is called that of the «Blessed Buddha» (^ -^),
the other that of the usho-sMniy * (1^ ^). 15
There is a hill on which live parrots and it is called «Parrot Hill»
The king wears his hair in a tuft (or knot), on his head is a golden :
beU; he wears a silken robe and leather shoes ^. His throne is a square seat,
and his officers at their daily audience bow three times when withdrawing. 20
"When he goes forth he rides an elephant, or is carried in a chair* (^ ^),
followed by a company of from five hundred to seven hundred armed soldiers. '
When any one of the people sees the king, he squats down until he has
passed by.
Three sons of the king are made Fu-wang (g(| 3E Royal Deputies), 25
Of officials they have Ssi-ma-Me (and) Lo-U-lien (^) J^ -^ ^ -(§
5^), who conjointly manage the affairs of Government as the Tsai-siang (^
i^ Ministers of State) do in China ^ They have no monthly salaries, but at
intervals they are given a liberal supply of native produce.
Inferior to them are three hundred and more civil officials, who divide 30
among themselves the government of the cities, the treasury and the govern-
ment granaries. The commanders of the troops receive an annual salary of
twenty taels of gold, and the soldiers of the army, 30,000 in number, also
receive fixed annual pay in gold in various amounts.
As to the customs of the country, in seeking for a woman in marriage, 35
they do not employ go-betweens, but make presents of gold to the woman's
family in order to marry her.
They do not inflict- corporal punishment and imprisonment on criminals
1,14 JATA. 77
(^ Ixf ^j ^ ^11 If ^); they are fined an amount in gold varying
according to the gravity of their crime. As to robbers or thieves, they are
put to death.
In the fifth moon they make pleasure trips in boats; in the tenth moon
5 they visit the hills, either riding hill ponies ([Ij ,^) or carried in a litter
Of musical instruments they have the flute, the kettle-drum and the
Castanet (^); they are, furthermore, skilled in pantomimes (^).
The hills are full of monkeys. They are not afraid of man, but if one
ao calls «siau-siau» (^ ^ or if one whistles?) they come out, and if one throws
fruit before them a big monkey, called «the monkey king» by the natives,
first comes forward to eat, and the crowd of smaller monkeys eat what is left
of his meal ^.
In this country there are bamboo gardens where they have pig-fighting
15 and cock-fighting.
The dwellings are of imposing appearance and painted in greenish tints
(^ ^). Traders (^ \) going there are put up in visitors' lodges, where
food and drink both plentiful and good (are supplied them).
The natives dress their hair and wear clothes which are girt around
20 their chest and reach down to the knees ".
When they are sick, they take no medicines, but simply pray to their
local gods (jji^) or to the Buddha.
The people have personal names but no surnames. They are quick-
tempered and of a pugnacious disposition, and when they have a feud with
25 San-fo-ts'i, both parties seek to joiu in battle '".
In the twelfth year yiian-kia of the Sung dynasty (A. D. 435), this
country entered into communication with China, but after that intercourse was
broken off until the third year shun-hua of the present dynasty (992)", when
it again performed the ceremony of sending tribute to our Court.
30 It is a broad and level country, well suited to agriculture. It produces
rice, hemp, millet, beans, but no wheat. Ploughing is done with buffaloes.
The people pay a tithe-rent. They make salt by boiling sea water. The
country also abounds in fish, turtles, fowl, ducks, goats, and they kill horses
and buffaloes for food^^.
35 The fruits comprise big gourds, cocoanuts, bananas, sugar-cane and taro
(^). They have also elephants' tusks, rhinoceros horns, pearls, camphor,
(^ Jii)' tortoise-shell, sandal-wood, aniseed, cloves, cardamoms, cubebs
(M 'M M)' laka-wood, mats, foreign sword blades (^ ^\), pepper, betel-
78 JAVA. 1)14
nuts, sulphur, saffron {^ 1^^), sapan-wood and parrots. They also pay
attention to the raising of silkworms and the weaving of silk; they have
various coloured brocaded silks (|f ^\ cotton (± ^), and damasked cotton
gauzes (or damasks and cotton cloth ^ ^).
No tea is raised in this country. Their wine is derived from the cocoanut 5
and from the inner part of the Ua-nm-tan (jfeg ^^ fY) tree, which tree has
not been seen by the Chinese, or else it is made by fermenting (the fruits) of
the kmng-lang {-if^ ^, sago palm) and of the areca palm; all of these
(liquors) are clear and well-flavored" (7ff ^ '^ #).
«As to cane sugar, it is brown and white (or brownish white ?) in colour i6
and very sweet to the taste.
«They cast coins in an alloy of copper, silver, white copper {§^), and
tin; sixty of these coins are equal to one tael of gold; thirty two are equal
to half a tael of gold» "-
Foreign merchants use in trading gold and silver of various degrees of is
fineness (^ H :^ ^), vessels made of gold and silver, silk stuffs, black
damasks {% ^), (ssi)-ch'mn-kung^^ ( j|| ^), orris-root, cinnabar, copperas,
alum, borax, arsenic, lacquer-ware, iron tripods and green (or blue ^) and
white porcelain-ware. >
There is a vast store of pepper in this foreign country (j{;(j ^) and the 20
merchant ships, in view of the profit they derive from that trade, are in the
habit of smuggling (out of China) copper cash for bartering purposes. Our
Court has repeatedly forbidden all trade (with this country), but the foreign
tl-aders, for the purpose of deceiving (the government), changed its name and
referred to it as Su-ki-tan" (^ ^ ^). . 25
Notes.
1) Although it is possible that the Chinese may have heard of Java as early a&the middle
of the third century A. D., under the name of Chu-p'u(^ ^; see Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0. IV,
270), it was in the early part of the fifth century that authentic mention was made of it by the
pilgrim Fa-hien, who gave it its Sanskrit name Ye-p'o-t'i(H|J ^^^ '1^^ i. e., Tavadmpa). In 43S, 30
and again in 435 Javanese came to the Chinese Court, at which time their country is referred
to by the Chinese (Sung-shu, 5) as the island of Sho-p'o (BS 1^ fj\\)- From this time
on relations were maintained between the two countries. In the sixth and seventh centuries, the
Chinese wrote the name Sh6-p'u (jlj^ wi)' ^^^ *^® ^'^^ character was not infrequently
erroneously written Tu (>ht)> as in Ma Tuan-lin, 332. In the Mongol period Java was known to 35
the Chinese by the name of Chau-wa (J(^ |^), sometimes wrongly written Kua-wa (JJ^ ^),
and this name has continued in use ever since; though in the Ming period it was also known as
Shun-ta(||^ ^), Hia-kiang ("j^ y^) and Fu-kia-lung. See Tung-si-yang-k'au, 8,1. In the
fifth century the Chinese are believed to have referred to Java under the names of Ho-lo-tan
(Bpr ^S iS) and Ho-ling (g^f |®j), the latter being presumably a transcription of the name 40
Kalinga, from which part of India the Hindu settlers in Java had for the most part come. Gr-oe-
neveldt, Notes, 15; Gerini, however, thinks that Ho-lo-tan was in Siam and Ho-ling in the
l,U JATA. 79
Malay Peninsula. Asiat. Quart., 3*ser.X, 384, and XIII, 137. More recently, Gerini, Researches,
458 et seq., has arrived at the conclusion that Sho-p'o was a part of the Malay Peninsula, below
the Krali Isthmus, and that the name is probably the last glimmering of Tuba, Jaba, or Saba, «the
country of the Java (c|r Jawa) race», i. e., the Malays. He does not think that the name Sho-p'o
5 can have ever been applied by the Chinese to any part of Sumatra. «It is, he says, a most
egregious mistake to localize the term Java or Jaba, with its variant Sava or Saba, to the present
island of Java alone, since it was the common designation for the whole archipelago, or, at any
rate, for those portions of it that had been settled by the Javana or Yavana race, besides being
the name of several regions on the Indo-Chinese mainlands (p. 461 — 463). The above conclusion
10 being accepted, Gerini (541) says Fa-hien's Y6-p'o-t'i «must be identiiied either with the east
and north coasts of Sumatra, or with a portion of the seabord of the Malay Peninsula on or about
Malacca Straita. As to Ho-lo-tan, Gerini (542) says it was «possibly Gurot in the Ghirbi
district, west coast of the Malay Peninsula»; Ho-ling, according to him (544) was probably the
east coast of the Malay Peninsula at Tanjpng Gelang or Puling, 4° N. lat.; and perhaps the
15 eastern portion of the country of Ho-ling referred to previously as on the west coast of the Malay
Peninsula about Gunong Geriang and abreast of the Langkawi islands.
Headers may judge fot themselves whether all these identifications can fit in with the
details of our text. Schlegel, T'oung pao, X, 258 et seqq. and 2* ser. IV, was of opinion there
were two Sho-p'o, one in Sumatra (Java minor), the other in Java (Java major). He looked upon
20 Chau Ju-kua's account of Sho-p'o, as a jumble, referring here to Sumatra, there to Java and still
in other places to the Malay Peninsula. Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0. IV, 269 et seqq., has conclusively
shown, it would seem, that Schle gel's suggestions on this point are quite untenable.
As to the name P'u-kia-lung, the identification first made by Groeneveldt (Notes, 40)
with Pekalongan on the N. coast of Java, is generally accepted. This was presumably the chief
25 center of Chinese and foreign trade in the Sung period.
The apparent error into which our author has fallen in this paragraph of placing Sh5-p'o
S. E. of Ts'uan-ch6u maybe through his having used the general indications supplied by Ch6u
K*u-fei (2,12'') as to the position of this island, while overlooking the fact that Chou gives its
bearing from Canton. But even from Canton it is rather south or south-west. The more likely
30 explanation of the position assigned by both writers to Java may be that junks sailing from
Ts'iian-chou and Canton had to steer S. E. in order to obviate the strong N. E. monsoon pre-
vailing in the winter. Quite a number of errors in the directions of the compass as placed on
record in mediaeval Chinese texts can be thus accounted for, as for example, the placing of
Tsong-po (off the E. coast of Africa) to the south of Guzerat; ships were forced by the winds
35 prevailing at the season of the year when the voyage from Guzerat to the E. Africa coast was
made, to steer in a southerly direction to be driven where they would go. See infra, Ch. XXIV.
The Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,ia^, from which our author takes this paragraph, reads as follows:
oThe kingdom of Sho-p'o, also called P'u-kia-lung, is in the south-east of the sea. Its position
being downward (i. e., in the S. as compared to the countries of Annam in the N., which are held
40 to be «upwards», or aabovea) causes it to be called the «Lower Coast». In the eleventh and
twelfth moons of the year ships can reach there from Kuang-ch'ou with the monsoon and sailing
day and night in one months.
2) The phrase in quotation marks is taken from the Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,9. See also supra,
p. 26 and infra, Ch. XXXVIH. 4. The Chinese believed that the waters which poured continually into
45 the great Wor'ld-Ocean-Sea flowed put again through a great hole called the Wei-lu. The surface
of the Ocean began to incline downwards somewhere E. of Java at the mythical Kingdom of
Women, so the waters flowed continually eastward into the great gulf, which, however, overflowed
every few years. Masudi, Prairies d'or, I, 342, says that in the boundless and unknown sea east
of the Sea of Sanf (i. e., Champa, Annam) are volcanic islands and beyond them is an island on
50 which the sound of music can be heard. «Sailors, he adds, who have been in those parts pretend
that it is there that Dedjdjal (the Antichrist) has set his abode». There seems some connexion
between this Arab story and the Chinese one.
3) This paragraph and the two preceding ones were reproduced with some change in the
80 JAVA. Ijl4
Sung-shi, 489,14—15, the most important one making the time used in sailing from Sho-p'o to
San-fo-ts'i 15 days instead of 10, as stated in our text. Ma Tuan-Iin, 332 agrees on this point
■with our text. Groeneteldt, Notes, 15 has translated this passage from the Sung-shi', as has
also Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0. IV, 296. The only difficulty in it is the vagueness or rather
uncertainty of the meaning of the character yu (^J); apparently it has not in each phrase 5
quite the same meaning.
K'un-lun as here used may mean either K'un-lun-shan, i. e., Pulo Condore, or the country
of the K'un-lun or Malays. See supra p. 32 n. It may also be the same as Ku-lun, a piratical
state referred to in a subsequent passage (infra, p. 84), but this is doubtftil. The Arab settlement
referred to in the second paragraph may have been in western Java, our author's Sin-t'o. In 10
another passage (infra, Ch. XXXIX) our author says it was 45 days sailing from Sho-p'o, to P'o-ni,
i. e., the W. (or S) coast of Borneo; in the present case a straight course is probably meant,
while in the latter the course taken may have been by way of San-fo-ts'i, the Malay Peninsula, and
thence eastward. Ku-lo is, it would seem, the Ki-lo Ta-nung. of a subsequent passage (infra, p. 88)
situated possibly on the Perak coast. As to Ch'ai-li-t'ing, Groeneveldt, Notes, 16, thinks 15
it may have been an island about the entrance to the Gulf of Siam. Gerini, Kesearches,
614, suggests, with much more probability, that the Cherating river on the E. coast of the Malay
Peninsula, 4°10' N. lat., is the locality referred to. On P'o-ni (Borneo) see infra, Ch. XXXIX.
Schlegel, T'oung pao, 2* ser. IV was of opinion that these three paragraphs in our text
referred to the Malay Peninsula. He also corrected our text in the last paragraph and would read 20
asailing north-east (from Sh6-p'o)in fifteen days one arrives in the kingdom of P'o-ni». This correction
is not needed, it would seem, for the reason given in a previous note on the courses junks have to
sail with the monsoons.
4) Sho-shon, «to give up, to renounce the world, to enter the priesthood)). Probably the
Brahmans, or some kind of Hindu ascetics are meant. Brahmanism, at the time of which our 25
author writes, was tolerated in Java where Buddhism was, however, the predominant religion.
Lassen, Indische Alterthumsk. TV, 467.
5) Ling-wai-tai-ta, loc. cit., has «The king of this country wears his hair in a knot behind
his head; the common people shave their heads, leaving only a short top-knot. They like to wrap
round their bodies cotton sarongs with gaudy patterns)). 30
6) Tau-yu, literally «waist-carriage». It was carried by hand, like the so-called aPalace
chairs)) or Eienryu ( J^ ^) in use in the Palace of Peking at the present day.
7) Ma Tuan-lin, op. cit., 332, gives the title of these officials as Lo-ki-lien, as does also the
Sung-shi, 489,15. Schlegel, T'oung-pao, X, 276 suggested that the last four characters in our
text (Kie-lo-ki-lien) represent a Malay form kedekaran, «a council of warriorso. Pelliot, B. E. 35
F. E. 0. IV, 311, says that no such Malay word is known to exist. He suggests that Lo-ki-lien
inay represent the Malay rakyran or rakarayan, which appears in inscriptions in Java in con-
junction with the word rmntri, cminister)), which in our text corresponds to the Chinese title
Tsai-hiang. The Sung-shi, loc. cit., says there were four Lo-ki-lien who jointly managed the
affairs ofthe kingdom. The T'ang-shu, 222'', says there were in Java thirty-two high Ministers of 40
State {jjs^ ■^), the highest of whom was the Ta-tso-kan-hiung {-jf^ ^ J^ jt). The
dependencies of Sho-p'o are enumerated in the chapter on Su-ki-tan, infra, p. 83.
8) Ibn Batuta, op. cit, IV, 175, says that he was told in Ceylon ofthe monkeys of that
country having chiefs whom they obeyed as a sovereign. They supplied him with bananas, when
he, his young, and the four principal monkeys ate them while the others looked on. The 45
Sung-shi, 489, gives the story as told in the text, on the authority of the Javanese envoy to
China in 992.
9) Conf. supra, n. 5.
10) The Ling-wai-tai-ta, loc. cit., says: «The inhabitants (of ShB-p'o) prize courage and
are given to quarrelling and fighting. When the prince or some prominent official dies, all his 50
personal attendants vow to follow him; so when the corpse is burned, they go with dancing intrf
the flames, and when the bones are thrown into the water, they jump in afterwards without the
slightest hesitation and drown themselves)). Our author says (supra, p.' 61) that this custom
prevailed in San-fo-ts'i.
I>1* JAVA. 81
11) Our author errs here, as the T'ang-shu, 222'' mentions a number of missions from
Java to the Court of China from A. D. 627 to 873. The reason for the omission of any mention of
them was presumably because our author did not know that the Ho-ling of the T'ang period was
identical with Shb-p"o. The Sung-shi, 489, gives a detailed account of the mission of 992. It
5 mentions also tribute missions in 1109. In 1292 Java, or a part of it, was invaded and possibly
conquered by the Chinese. Groeneveldt, Notes, 14—34.
12) Ling-wai-tai-ta, loc. sup. cit., says aThe native products (of Sho-p'o) are pepper,
sandal-wood, cloves, white cardamoms, nutmegs and the eJion variety of gharu-wood». Eaffles,
Java, I, 106, refers to the fondness of the Javanese for horse and buffalo meat.
10 13) The Smig-shi, 489,15 reproduces this paragraph, changing only the last four characters to
vJ* "& ^* 5^' '^^^^ justifies the translation given above. JSia-nau-tan, lit., «extract of Ma-
naua; anao is the Malay name of the gomuti palm whose sap supplies the toddy of Java. The liquor
itself is called in Malay tuwalc. Crawfurd, History, etc., I, 40. Schlegel, T'oimg pao, X, 267
suggested that Ma-nau-tan was a Malay word fcetfyMfan. Pelliot, op. sup. cit., IV, 310 while
15 rejecting this identification could suggest nothing better. The Ling-wai-tai-ta, loc. sup. cit., has:
«They make wine from the cocoanut and also from the sap of a trees.
14) These two paragraphs are quoted from the Ling-wai-tai-ta, loc. sup. cit. Tou is
certainly in this passage the awhite copper» of the Chinese and Koreans. The fou-sM (^mt yQ)
mentioned in Chinese historical works as a product of Persia, may represent Uiguric tutsch, Eazanic
20 tudsch, tuus (Ac), possibly Italian tausin, from which German tauschircn «to damascene)) is derived.
See T. Watters, Essays on the Chinese Language, 359. Both Ma Tuan-lin(Hervey S* Denis,
op. cit., II, 496) and the Sung-shi, 489,15, referring to the currency of Sho-p'o say: «They cut up
leaves of silver to make coins for business purposes; one coin of which is exchanged by govern-
ment for 1 7m 2 t'ou (approximately 12 bushels) of rice)). Crawfurd, History, etc., I, 281 says:
25 ((Among the extensive and curious variety of ancient rielics which Java has afforded, and par-
ticularly when a great variety of brass and tin coins has been found, no gold coin has ever been
discovered, and silver coins on only one or two occasions The Mahomedans, shortly after
establishing their religion in the Archipelago, seem to have taught the natives the use of gold as
a coin. All the coins "vehich we discove,r are stamped with Arabic letters, and bear the names of
30 the Mahomedan sovereigns by whom they were coined ... A brass coin, impressed with a number
of fantastic figures and characters, which are at present unintelligible, formed the most ancient
currency of Java . . . This was the currency of the Buddhist sovereigns, whose empire was at
Mojopahit. The Mahomedans who succeeded them coined a smaller money of the same metala.
We gather from what our author says in the text, and particularly from his remarks concerning
35 the currency of Su-ki-tan (infra, p. 82), that there was a great scarcity of money in Java. See also
infra, n. 16, and p. 82.
15) No explanation has been found of the nature of the stuff called tsaii-ling, lit., ((black
damask». The ssi-ch'uan-Jcung is a species of levisticum, II anbury. Science Papers, 260, Bret-
schneider. Materia medica, p. 100—102. In the chapter on Sukitan, our author says (infra, p. 83)
40 that the headaches from which the pepper-gatherers of Java suffered so greatly yielded to doses
of this medicine; hence presumably its importance as an import from China.
16) Chinese copper cash appear to have been in great demand in the Archipelago. Among
the return presents made the San-fo-ts'i mission of 1079 by the Chinese Government were 64,000
strings of cash (Sung-shi, 489). The same work (180) says that «after the appointment of Inspectors
45 of Foreign trade (Shi-p'o-shif) in Ch'6-kiang, Fu-kien. and Kuang-tung, the traffic of merchant
ships between China and foreign countries had the effect of scattering abroad the copper cash
coined for the use of our country. For this reason the exportation of cash to any place beyond
the straits near Hang-ch6u was prohibited. In the 9* year shun-M (1182) an Edict was issued
making the local authorities of Ch'6-kiang responsible for the unlawful exportation of copper cash.
50 In the 9* year Tiia-ting (1216) the High Commissioners for the inspection of government affairs began
their Report as follows: aSince the appointment of Inspectors of Foreign trade, the issue of copper
cash to ships engaged in foreign trade at the open ports has been forbidden. At the end of the
shan-hing period (about 1163) the Ministers drew attention to the irregularities arising from the
6
8;2 CEXTKAL JAVA. 1,14
Inspectors of Foreign trade at Ts'iian-chdu and Canton, as well as the two Mint Inspectors of
the south-western Provinces, allowing vessels to clear with return cargoes containing gold and
copper cash. How could the local authorities be held responsible for such infraction of the law, if
the four officers referred to were habitual law breakers themselves?!)
It appears that similar complaints led to the repeated complete prohibition of the : 5
exportation of cash, although during certain periods it was not strictly enforced. Thus in 1234 an
Edict was issued prohibiting the exportation of cash oby Ocean going shipss; this seems to involve
a partial restriction only, since traffic with Sho-p'o (Java) was specifically prohibited, and since
the restriction could be, easily evaded by clearing ships for another country — as Chau Ju-kua
tells us traders did. 10
See also Schlegel, T'oung pao, 2^ ser. IV, 236—238.
15.
CENTRAL JAVA.
Su-ki-tan {^ ± M
Su-ki-tan is a branch of the Sho-p'o country. To the west it borders i5
on Sin-t'o, to the east it adjoins Ta-pan* (fj /^).
There is a mountain of immense height called Pau-lau-an (^ ^ ^)-
"When approaching the coast foreign ships iirst sight the five lofty peaks of
this mountain, always covered with clouds".
The king of this country wears a turban of cotton cloth of variegated 20
colours and goes barefooted. When walking about he is shaded by a black or
white umbrella, and more than five hundred attendants follow him, bearing
every sort of weapon and wearing hats of various shapes, — some like a
tiger's head, some like a deer's, others like the head of an ox, of a sheep, a
fowl, an elephant, a lion or a monkey; and little flags of coloured silk are stuck 25
in the side (of the hats).
Among the natives, the men cut their hair, but the women wear a
coiffure; they all wrap their bodies in cloth, but go barefooted and wear a
loin-cloth.
The people use as a medium of trade pieces of alloyed silver cut into bits 30
like dice and bearing the seal of the Fan-kuan (^ 1^) stamped upon it. Six
of these counters are worth one tael of «trade golds {"^ ^), and each one may
be exchanged for from thirty or forty up to a hundred shong (pecks) of rice.
For all their other trading they use (this money) which is called «Sho-p'o kin»
1)13 CENTRAL JAVA. 83
(((Java money))); from which it may be seen that this country is (identical with)
Sho-p'o^
Dwellings are built in the same fashion as in Sin-t'o. There is much
rice in this country; very wealthy families keep as much as ten thousand piculs
5 in their granaries.
There is a tree called po-lo-mi (y^ ^ ^ the jack-fruit). The fruit
is like a pumpkin, the skin like that of the chestnut, the pulp like that of
the mandarin orange. It is extremely sweet and well-flavoured*. There are also
lichees, bananas and sugar-cane, in all respects the same as those of China,
10 with this difference, however, that the lichee, when sun-dried, will cure bowel
complaint; that the bananas grow a foot long, and sugar-cane to the height
of ten feet.
The juice of the latter, with the addition of a drug, is brewed into a
liquor superior to (that derived from) the cocoanut ^
15 The products of the soil are, on the whole, not different from those of
Sho-p'o. There is a great abundance of pepper. At the right season and in
good years, twenty-five taels of ((trade money» (^ §^) will buy from ten to
twenty packages (^) of pepper, each package holding fifty pecks (shong). In
years of dearth, or in times of disturbance, the same sum will buy only half
20 that amount.
The pepper-gatherers suffer greatly from the acrid fumes they have to
inhale, and are commonly afflicted with headaclie (malaria) which yields to
doses of (ssl)-ch^uan-kung.
As cinnabar is much used in cosmetics (:J^ ^) by the Barbarian
23 women and also for dyeing the finger nails and silk clothing of women,
foreign traders look upon these two articles as staples of trade ®.
Traders are treated generously; they are not charged expenses for either
harborage or board.
This country is adjacent (j^) to the following countries, all of which
30 are dependencies of Sho-p'o ':
Pai-hua-yuan ("g" :^ g) Ma-li (ffi ^)
Ma-tung (0 ^) 10 Niu-lun {^ |^)
Ta-pan (^ i^) Tan-jung-wu-lo {^ ^ i^ W)
Hi-ning(fri f ) Ti-wu(lg^)
35 5 Jung-ya-lu (5^ ^ ^) Ping-ya (2p ^)
Tung-ki (^ |l^) I-wu {% ^)
Ta-kang (^ |^) i5 Nu-ku {j^X %)
Huang-ma-chu (^ ^ |^)
84 CENTRAL JAVA. 1,15
The country of Ta-pan connects to the east with Great Sho-p'o, it is
(also) called, (^) Jung-ya-lu. (Note: Also written Chung-kia-lu (^ ^ )^).
The houses which the people of this country build are like those of China.
The country being a level plain, intersected by an anchorage (J^), there is
trade both by water and by land. 5
The native products are bay-salt (^ ^), sheep and parrots.
The foreign head-men^ (^ ^) are brave and fierce; they take wives from
the pirate states of the eastern borders. The people of the latter, under pretext
of visiting relatives (married to the Fan-kuan and on board their ships), ships
were frequently plundered (in this way). Matters went so far that captives 10
were considered a most valuable commodity, each one being worth two or three
taels of gold. For this reason trade (with this country) was presently broken off.
(Note®: By «pirate states», Tan-chung-pu-lo (^ ^ ^ ^), Pa-li
M\ Sun-t'a (^ ■/{g,) and Ku-lun (^ |^) are to be understood).
The countries of Ta-kang, Huang-ma-chu, Ma-li, Tan-jung-wu-lo, 15
Ti-(wu), Ping-ya, I-wu and Nu-ku are situated on islands; each of them has
its own chief, and they have vessels plying between them. There is but little
agriculture, but there are many old trees, the inner parts of which produce
sJia-hi (sago), which looks like wheat flour. The natives by mixing water with
it, make it into pellets of the size of peas. After being sun-dried it is packed 20
up and stored like grain. They also mix it with fish or meat and make a
porridge. They are fond of sugar-cane and bananas. The former is crushed
and by adding a certain substance (lit., drug) is caused to ferment and is
made into wine. They have also the wei-pa^° (j^ g,) tree, whose pith
being taken out and the juice extracted yields wine. 25
The natives (of these countries) are strong fellows, but savage and of
a dark bronze colour. They wrap (a cloth round) their limbs and tattoo their
bodies. They cut their hair and go barefooted. They use no vessels in eating
or drinking; in their stead they bind leaves together, which are thrown away
when the meal is finished. • 30
As a standard of exchange the people use only pecks and pints of sago.
They do not know either how to write or how to count.
They erect stages with wooden poles stuck in the ground and reaching
to a height of twenty feet or more; on the top they build houses with walls
and roofs of the same type as those made by the Sin-t'o people. 35
The native products include sandal-wood, cloves, cardamoms, fancy
mats, foreign cotton cloth (^ ^), iron swords and other weapons.
Among these islands those of Tan-jung-wu-lo and Ma-li " are rather
1,15 CESTKAI, JAVA. - 85
more extensive than the others; they raise large numbers of horses for mili-
tary service and they have a slight knowledge of writing and counting. The
native products are laka-wood, yellow wax, fine aromatic substances and tor-
toise-shell.
5 Although Tan-jung-wu-lo has such products, the people instead of
attending to (legitimate) business, prefer going to sea for piracy, and so
foreign traders rarely come there ^^.
Notes.
1) The name Su-ki-tan does not appear in the Ling-wai-tai-ta or the Sung-shif, nor does
10 it occur in Crawfurd's list of mediaeval Javanese states. It seems to be of Indian origin, possibly
fwfca «parrot» and diina «gift». The name Subatana is found as that of a Javanese colony in
southern Borneo. Lassen, Indische Alterthumsk. IV, 533, and A. Marre, Madjapahit et Tchampa,
pp. 95—97, in Recueil de Memoires, Centenaire de I'Ecole des Langues Orientales, 1895. Gerini.
Researches, 451, suggests that Su-ki-tan was Sukadana in S. E. Sumatra.
15 It seems impossible, with only the references of Chinese authors of the Miiig period to
guide us, to locate Sukitan more closely than it is in the text, i. e., between the Sundas on the
W. and Tuban on the E. In the Ming period Sukitan was apparently a much more extensive
region. The Tung-si-yang-k'au, 4,is says of it: «its chief place is Ki-li-shi (^ ^ ^ i. e.,
Gersik) .... The people of this country go to Yau-tung ('gS *)0 i. e., Yortan, S. of Surabaya
20 on the Brantas river) to trade with the Chinese The neighbouring countries are Ssi-Iu-wa
(^B> @ 3£ ^' ^'' Surabaya) and Tu-man (^^^p i- e., Tuban). Groeneveldt, Notes, 54.
Our author in two passages conveys the impression that he uses'the name Su-ki-tan as being
identical with Sho-p'o.
2) The Tung-si-yang-k'au, 4,i3^ quotes the Ming I-tung-chi as follows: «The Pau-lau-an
25 mountain is in the country of Su-ki-tan. All foreign ships sight this mountain before arriving. The.
summit has five peaks and there are clouds on it all the year round. (Chinese) sailors call it
Pa-na ta-shan (g, <^P ;A iU)- The Ki-li-mon shan (± ||_ f^ jjj ) faces the Pau-lau
shan. Its western side extends into a very broad spit (or «promontory» J^)»- There can
be no doubt as to the K'i-li-mon shan being Pulo Krimun, consequently Pau-lau-an (lit. «the
30 mountain (on) the cliffs of Pau-lau» [or Pulo]) must be the Tanjong (Cape) Pautuman of our maps.
3) Fan Jcuan «Foreign official)), probably the resident head-man of the Foreign settlement.
The silver «dice» here referred to were probably made by the Arab traders and bore the «chop»
of their head-men. See also supra, pp. 60 and 69. The text reads ^ '^ ^ .^ ^ ]^
m^ B m m ^ '^ M. ii:t m m m m -iL-
85 4) «0f the Jack fruit (Artocarpus integrifolia) two species occur in the Indian islands, the
common Jack, and the Champadak .... Rumphius suspects that it is not an indigenous product of
the Indian islands, but that it was brought from the continent of India by stranger merchants)).
Crawfurd, op. cit., I, 422. See also infra, Pt. II, Ch. XVII.
5) Crawfurd, op. cit., I, 412 says: «The Indian islands are the countries in which the
40 banana grows to greatest perfection, and is found in greatest variety. There are at least sixteen
distinct species or varieties of the cultivated banana, and five species of wild)). In another passage
(infra, Pt. II. Ch. XXVIII) our author states that cubebs grew in Sukitan. Crawfurd, Hist. Ind.
Archipel., I, says cubebs only grow in Java;
The use to which our text says the juice of the sugar-cane was put agrees with what
45 Crawfurd tells us (I, 476): «The natives of the country, to this day, are unacquainted with the
art of extracting sugar from the cane, which they rear solely with the view of using it in its
raw state, as a common esculent vegetable». The «drug» used in brewing arralc, the liquor here
referred to, is toddy or palm wine which enters into its composition.
6) On pepper, see infra, Pt. If, Ch. XXVII, and Crawfurd, op. cit., I, 479—486. On the ssi-
86 CEKTKAL JAVA. 1,13
cKiian-hung, see supra, p. 81, n. 15, it appears from this passage to have been, as also cinnabar,
considered as a staple article of Chinese trade.
7) Crawfurd, op. cit, II, 297 et seqq., says: aThe latter portion of the twelfth century is
the earliest period of Javanese history to which I can with confidence refer. From this time, down
to the establishment of Mahomedanism, at the close of the fifteenth century, a number of 5
considerable, but independent states, existed in Java, and the religion of the people was a
modified Hinduism .... The following are the chief (states) which existed in the three centuries
which preceded the conversion to Mahomedanism: Doho, Brambanan, Madang-kamolan, Jangola,
Singhasari, Pajajaran, and Mojopahit . . . The ruins of Doho are in the fertile district of Kadari,
about the centre of the island, counting by its length and towards the southern coast ... The 10
state which existed at Brambanan flourished about 1266 and 1296 of Christ .... Tradition hands
down to us the name of Madang-kamolan, and, in the district of Wirosobo, the ruins of a palace
are still discernible .... Janggolo and Singhasari, the first in the destrict of Surabaya, and the
last in that of Malang, both towards the eastern part of Java, are said to have flourished at the
same time .... Pajajaran about forty miles from the modern city of Batavia, is pointed out by 15
tradition as the only ancient state of considerable extent, which ever flourished in the country of
the Sundas .... The probability is,- that it flourished during the end of the thirteenth, and the
beginning of the fourteenth centuries of the Christian era. The origin of.,.. Mojopahit remains
as undetermined as that of Pajajaran All accounts agree that Mojopahit was destroyed in
the year 1478 of Christ, and, from presumptive evidence, it is inferred that it may have been 20
founded about a century and a half before .... The ruins of the city of Mojopahit are still visible
in the district of Wirosobo».
Chau Ju-kua places the following states on or near the island of Java: (1) Pai-hua-yflan,
(2) Ma-tung, (3) Hi-ning, (4) Jung-ya-lu also called Chung-kia-lu or Ta-pan, (5) Niu-lun,
(G) Tung-ki, (7) Sin-t'o or Sun-t'a. 25
Pai-hua-yttan is probably Pcjajaran of Crawfurd's list, Ma-tung is his Medang-kamolan,
Hi-ning possibly his Singhasari, Jung-ya-lu is his Janggolo (see supra, p. 66, n. 16(i9), aud Sin-t'o the
Sundas (see supra, p. 66, n. 16(i2) and pp. 70—71). Niu-lun and Tung-ki are unidentified. The latter
may be a Chinese name, it meansaEastern Capes. Schlegel, T'oung pao, 2* ser. IV, 238 thinks Ma-
tung is Batang in E. Java, and Hi-ning probably Giling Trawangan near Bali, but he only bases 30
these identifications on the fact of the names of these localities resembliug phonetically the Chinese.
Chau Ju-kua places the following localities of his list on islands not close to Java:
(7) Ta-kang, (8) Huang-ma-chu, (9) Ma-li, (10) Niu-lun, (11) Tari-jung wu-lo, (12) Ti-wu,
(13) Ping-ya, (14) I-wu, (15) Nu-ku. Nos 7 and 8 remain unidentified. Schlegel, loc. sup. cit.,
suggests that Takang is possibly the old name of Sumarang. Infra, Pt. II. Ch. XII we are told 35
that Ta-kang supplied sandalwood. Ma-li (or Pa-li) is the island of Bali. Niu-lun is unidentified;
Schlegel, loc. sup. cit., thinks it the same as the Ku-lun pirate state mentioned in another
passage of this chapter; he would place it in E. Java. Tan-jung wu-lo suggests Malay Tanjong
Pulo or an Indian form Tanjong pura, and it appears that in the fifteenth century this name
was applied by the Javanese to Borneo. Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0., IV, 224. Schlegel, loc. sup. 40
cit., says Tan-jung wu-lo must have been on the E. coast of Java. Ti-wu, in Cantonese dialect
Ti-mat, is the island of Timor. In another passage (infra, Ch. XXXIX) the name is written Ti-mon,
and this is the usual transcription. Ping-ya, in Cantonese dialect Pang-ga suggests Banca.
Schlegel, loc. sup. cit., divides the last six characters in the list into two names only, Ping-ya-i
and Wu-nu-ku, but this does not enable Mm to identify them. In Pt. II, Ch. XIV we are told that 45
Huang-ma-chu and Niu-lun produced nutmegs, we may therefore presume that these islands were
near Ceram, Gilolo, Ternate or Amboyna. See Crawfurd, History etc. I, 505. I-wu and Nu-ku,
supposing the names are to be read in this way, suggest nothing.
8) Probably here as in other passages meaning the head-men of the Arabs and other foreign
traders settled in the various localities on the islands. 50
9) This note, like the others, may be by the Ming editor of the Chu-fan chi, as the name of
the places mentioned are written, not as Chau does in the text, but as they were written at a
later period. Pa-li is Bali, and Ku-lun may be Gurong off W. coast of Borneo.
-I>15 MALABAR. '87
10) Wei-pa, in Cantonese dialect mi-pa, tlie nipa palm. It is cultivated in some of the
islands of the Archipelago solely for the liquor it yields, thoHgh its leaf, or atap, is the usual thatch
of the Malays. See also infra, Ch. XXXIX.
11) The text reads Tan-jung ma-li wu-lo, but there can be no doubt that this is an error
5 of a copyist.
12) Schlegel, T'owig-pao, 2^ ser. IV, 240 says that this paragraph shows that Chau
Ju-kua ahas confounded Java with Djava on the Malay Peninsula, at all times the favourite
haunt of the Malay piratesa.
16.
10 MALABAR.
Nan-pi (^
The Nan-p'i country is in the extreme south-west \ From San-fo-ts'i
one may reach it with the monsoon (^ |^) in a little more than a month.
The capital of the kingdom is styled (^) Mie-a-mo (^ ^ ;^), which
15 has the same meaning as the Chinese expression li-ssV (j^ ^).
The ruler of the country has his body draped, but goes barefooted. He
wears a turban and a loin-cloth, both of white cotton cloth. Sometimes he
wears a white cotton shirt with narrow sleev^es. When going out he rides an
elephant, and wears a golden hat ornamented with pearls and gems. On his
20 arm is fastened a band of gold, and around his leg is a golden chain.
Among his regalia is a standard of peacock feathers on a staff of ver-
milion colour; over twenty men guard it round. He is attended by a guard of
some five hundred picked foreign women (^ j^), chosen for their fine phy-
sique.- Those in front lead the way with dancing, their bodies draped, bare-
25 footed and with a cotton loin-cloth. Those behind ride horses bareback; they
have a loin-cloth, their hair is done up and they wear necklaces of pearls
and anklets of gold, their bodies are perfumed with camphor and musk and
other drugs, and umbrellas of peacock feathers shield them from the sun ^
In front of the dancing- women are carried the officers of the king's
so train, seated in litters (^ bag) of white foreign cotton, and which are
called pu-tai-kiau (=jfj ^ ^), and are borne on poles plated with gold and
silver *.
In this kingdom there is much sandy soil, so, when the king goes forth,
they first send an officer with an hundred soldiers and more to sprinkle the
35 ground so that the gusts of wind may not whirl up the dust.
88 MALABAR. ' 1,16
The people are very dainty in their diet; they have a hundred ways of
cooking their food, vfhich varies every day.
There is an officer called Han-lin (^ J^) who lays the viands and
drinks before the king, and sees how much food he eats, regulating his diet
so that he may not exceed the proper measure. Should the king fall sick 5
through excess of eating, then (this officer) must taste his faeces and treat
him according as he finds them sweet or bitter.
The people of this country are of a dark brown complexion, the lobes
of their ears reach down to their shoulders. They are skilled in archery and
dextrous with the sword and lance. They love fighting and ride elephants in lo
battle, when they also wear turbans of coloured silks.
They are extremely devout Buddhists^.
The climate is warm; there is no cold season. Rice, hemp, beans, wheat,
millet, tubers and green vegetables supply their food; they are abundant and cheap.
They cut an alloyed silver into coins; on these they stamp an official 15
seal. The people use these in trading.
, The native products include pearls, foreign cotton stuff of all colours
(i. e., coloured chintzes) and tou-lo mien (cotton cloth)*.
There is in this country (a. river called the) Tan-shui kiang Q^ jjf. ;^x)
which, at a certain point where its different channels meet, becomes very 20
broad. At this point its banks are bold cliffs in the face of which sparks (lit.,
stars) can constantly be seen, and these by their vital powers fructify and
produce small stones (^ Wij ^^ ^ ^ A^ ■^\) ^^^^ cat's-eyes, clear
and translucid. They lie buried in holes in (these) hills until some day they
are washed out by the rush of a flood, when the officials send men in little 25
boats to pick them up. They are prized by the natives''.
The following states are dependencies of this country (of Nan-p'i)^:
Ku-lin (^ gg) Fong-ya-lo OM 3f W
Hu-ch'a-la {^^ ^ ^) Ma-li-mo (jg {!i #)
Kan-pa-i (-^ g ^) Tu-nu-ho (|5 ^ ^) 30
Pi-li-sha (5B5 m '&) A-li-jo (1^ Pi p^)
5 Ma-lo-hua (^ % ^) 10 Au-lo-lo-li (Pf || ^ {3f )
This country (of Nan-p'i ?) is very far away and foreign vessels rarely .
visit it. Shi-lo-pa-chi-li-kan, father and son, belong to this race of people;
they are now living in the southern suburb of the city of Ts'uan-(ch6u-fu)^ 35
Its products are taken thence to Ki-lo Ta-nupg " (^ ^ ^ ^) and
San-fo-ts'i, and the following goods are exchanged in bartering for them:
Ho-ch'i silks, porcelain-ware, camphor (chang-nau), rhubarb", huang-lien
1,16
MALABAK. §9
(^ W: cloves, lump-camphor (nau-izi), sandal-wood, cardamoms and
gham-wood '^.
Ku-lin may le reached in five days with the monsoon from Nan-p'i.
«It takes a Ts'uan-chou ship over forty days to reach Lan-li (^ ||_ i. e.,
5 Lan-wu-li); there the winter is spent, and, the following ye^ a further
voyage of a month will take it to this country» ^l
The customs of the people are, on the whole, not different from those
of the Nan-p'i people. The native products comprise cocoanuts and sapan-
wood; for wine they use a mixture of honey (^ ||) with -cocoanuts and the
10 juice of a flower, which they let ferment".
«They are fond of archery; in battle they wrap their hair in silken
turbanss ^^.
For the purpose of trade they use coins of gold and silver; twelve silver
coins are worth one gold one. The country is warm and has no cold season.
15 Every year ships come to this country from San-fo-ts'i, Kien-pi and
Ki-t'o^" (± jjjg)^ and the articles they trade with are the same as in Nan-p'i.
«Great numbers of Ta-shi live in this country. Whenever they (i. e.,
the inhabitants) have taken a bath, they anoint their bodies with yu-hin
(^ :^); as they like to have their bodies gilt like that of a Buddha» ".
20 Notes.
1) Or more correctly «tlie country of the ]Sfan-p'i», or Nairs of Malabar. Tlie name Nan-p'i
does not occur, it is believed, prior to Cbau Ju-kua. In the light of the list of dependencies of
Nan-p'i given by our author in a subsequent passage of this chapter, the supremacy of the Malabars
extended from Xellore to Cambay, and, as we have learned from a previous passage (supra, p. 72),
25 comprised also the island of Ceylon.
The Si-yang chau-kung tien-lu, 3,3, which is a record of the famous expedition of the
eunuch Ch'6ng-Ho, about A. D. 1430, speaking of the inhabitants of Calicut, says that there were
five castes, the Nan-p'i, the Hui-hui or Moslims, the Chi-t'i {^)t JHi) or Chittis, the Ko-ling
("hb -^) or Klings, and the Mu-kua {"^^ ;QX) "i' Mukuva, a name applied to the fishermen
30 of the western coast of the Peninsula near Cape Comorin. Phillips, J. K. A. S. 1896, 342, gives
the first name as Nan-k'un (^a .^)' ^^^ *^ °^ opinion that it also transcribes the name Nair.
The characters Tcun and pi differ so slightly that a copyist may have easily confounded th^m.
The time here stated as necessary to make the voyage from San-fo-ts'i to the Nan-p'i
country is the same as that usually given to make the voyage from the former port to Quilon. In
35 a silbsequent passage (infra, p. 89) our author says it takes a ship sailing with the monsoon five days
to reach Quilon from Nan-p'i; it would appear therefore that Nan-p'i, or the principal port of the
Nan-p'i, was really, as our author says, «in the extreme south-westa of the Peninsula.
2) Mie-a-mo, in Cantonese dialect Mit-a-maf, may be the same as the Ma (or Mo)-Ii-mo
of Chan's list of dependencies of Nan-p'i, and both may transcribe the name Malabar, which
40 country in another passage (Pt. II, Ch. XXVII) he calls Wu-li-pa (in Cantonese Ma-li-pat).
Li-ssi means ((controller of sacrifices, priestn. No explanation suggests itself.
3) Edrisi (I, 177 Jaubert's transl.) speaking of the Raja of Malwa — the Balhara, says:
((He has troops and elephants He wears on his head a golden crown .... He rides much on
horseback, particularly once a week accompanied solely by women, numbering a hundred; they
iQO MALiBAK. Ijl6
are rioUy attired, wear on their feet aud wrists rings of gold and silver, their hair is done in
tresses. They play at games and at sham fights while the king precedes them .... He owns many
elephants and in this consists the principal force of his army».
4) Pu-tai Mm, lit. « Cotton-cloth-bag sedan-chair». On the S. W. coast of India this form
of palanquin is called manjil; it is a hammock-litter. Yule & Burnell, Glossary, 456, sub voce 5
Muncheel. Ralph Fitch when in Pegu (1583—1591) travelled in Delingeges « which are a kind of
coches made of cords and cloth quilted, & caried upon a stang betweene 3 or 4men». Hakluyt,
Princ. Navigations, V, 486 (Mac Lehose's edit), see also supra, p. 47.
5) Here, as in speaking of Hu-ch'a-la (Guzerat) and various other countries of India, Chau
uses the word Fo (Buddha) in the sense of can image of a god», not in its literal sense. In 10
speaking of Ta-ts'in (Baghdad) he says the sovereign aworships Buddha, does reverence to
Buddha». In another passage he calls Mohammed a Buddha, and in another Brahma Fo. In
Chapter XL on Ma-i (the Philippines) he calls the stone images of gods «Buddhas». There is
some excuse for his confounding Hindu with Buddhist worship, as he does several times. Ma
Huan in the 15ti> century makes the same blunder, he says the king of Cochin was a devout 15
Buddhist. J. R. A. S. 1896, 342.
6) This cotton-cloth is probably «the buckram which looks like tissue of spider's web» of
which Polo speaks, and which Yule says was the famous muslin ofMasulipatam. Yule, Marco
Polo, II, 348. Conf. infi-a, Pt. II, Ch. XXIII.
7) It may be more correct to translate the first line of this paragraph: «There is in this 20
country a river of brackish waters or what is called a tidal-river. Cat's-eyes were procured in
Ceylon (supra, p. 73. Cf. infra, Pt. II. Ch. XXXII). It may be that the river referred to was in
Ceylon — a dependency of Nan-p'i. Conf Reinaud, Relation, I, 127.
The P'ing-ch6u-k'o-t'an, 2,4, speaking of the customs of the foreigners who frequented
Canton says: «The men wear on a finger of the hand precious stones «set in gold or tin, according 25
as the wearer is rich or poor. These they call «flnger-rings» (:^ ^g "j )• '^^^ people of
Kiau-chi place particular value on this habit, one ring being worth as much as a hundred pieces of
gold. The finest (precious stone) is called «cat's-eye», and it is a jade stone (or «of jade colour»?
yh ^^ ^^ "Wi)- ^^ ^^ ^° brilliant and flashing that it seems alive, and (close) examination
does not disclose the reason of this. There is also the mo-so stone (^S ^K ^ bezoar stone) 30
which is an antidote for the poison of reptiles. Worn in a finger-ring, if one is poisoned and licks
it, one is at once cured; so it may well be considered a life preserver)! ('^^ A^ ).
8) Ku-lin, in Cantonese Ko-lam is Quilon, see supra, p. 12 and infra, p. 91. n. 17. Hu-ch'a-la,
in Cantonese Hu-ch'a-lat is Guzerat, see infra p. 92. Kan-pa-i, in Cantonese Kom-p'a-yat is the city
of Cambay, the Kambayat of the Arabs. Pa-li-sha is probably Bharoch. Edrisi (I, 175. Jaubert's 35
transl.) says that Bharoch (Baruh i. e. ^^yf) was a station for ships coming from China. Ma-lo-hua
in Cantonese Ma-lo-wa is Malwa. Fong-ya-lo, in Amoy dialect Bang-ga-lo is probably Mangalore. Ma-
li-mo, in Amoy dialect Ma-li-bwat is probably Malabar. See supra, p. 89, n. 2. Tu-no-ho may be the
Tana or Tannah of Arab geographers and of Marco Polo, on the islandofSalsette near Bombay.
A-li-jo may be theRasHailiof Abulfeda, the country of Hili of Rashideddin and Ibn Batuta 40
between Mangalore and Fandarsina (i. e., Pandarani, 10 miles N. of Calicut), the kingdom of Eli
of Polo. Ao (or !N'gao)-lo-lo-ni may be Cannanore or Nellore — the Nilawar of Was saf which
divided Malabar from MAbar, and whichMaHuan in the 15ti» century calls Hon-nn-ir (^S "^7
^). Phillips, J. R. A. S. 1896, 345. See also Yule, Marco Polo, II, 315, 374—376.
9) Two paragraphs farther on he tells us that Nan-p'i is five days sailing nearer the 45
N. W. coast of Sumatra (Lan-wu-li) than Quilon. It may well be that it was not frequently visited
by ships engaged in the China trade, for their principal port of call was Quilon. The name of the
two Nairs living in Ts'flan-ch6u in Chau's time may have been Shi-lo-pa and Chi-li-kan, there is 1
nothing in the text to indicate how these six characters should be read. Ma Tuan-lin, op. sup.^
eit., II, 587, after quoting this paragraph adds: «sincB then (the arrival of these two Malabars in 50
China) inany ships (of China?) have visited that country)). On the Malabar coast and its trade in
the middle ages, see Heyd, Hist, du Commerce, II, 146—149.
1,1 Q
MALIBAK. 91
10) Identified by Gerini, Kesearches, 629, with Kwala Terong, or Trong, probably on tbe
Perak coast.
11) The mention of a sea-trade in rhubarb at this period is very interesting. Heyd, Hist,
du Commerce, II, 667 had suspected its existence. Hirth, J. N. C. B. R. A. S. XXII, 108.
5 12) Huang-lien is the rhizoma of the Coptis teeta, Wall. Bretschneider, Materia medica,
68, 70. Pepper is not mentioned in this chapter as a product of Malabar, but in a note in a
subsequent chapter (Pt. II, Ch. XXVII) this omission is repaired, not by the author, I think, but
by the first editor.
13) The phrase in quotation marks is taken from the Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,18 with the change
10 of «Kuang(-ch6u) ships, to «Ts'uan(-ch6u) shipx. Considering the great importance of the port
of Quilon in the sea- trade between China and the West, it is surprising that both Ch6u K'a-fei
and Chau Ju-kua have so very little to say concerning it. On Quilon, see Yule, Marco Polo,
II, 363—365. Cordier, Voyage d'Odoric, 106 et seqq.
14) Polo (II, 364) mentions the wine of Ku-lin (Coilum) which he says was made from
15 (palm) sugar, and acapital drink it is, and very speedily it makes a man drunk». The Kambojians
had a drink which the Chinese called mi-t'ang tsiu (^ ^ yg), to prepare which they used
, half honey and half water, adding a ferment. See Chon-la-fong-tu-ki as quoted by Pel Hot,
B. E. F. E. 0. II, 170, and infra, Pt. II. Ch. XXIII.
15) Quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,is. In another passage of the same work (see supra,
20 p. 63, n. 1) the courage and impetuosity of the Ku-lin people is referred to as second only to those
of the San-fo-ts'i men.
16) On Kien-pi, see supra, pp. 71—72. Ki-t'o may transcribe an original Karta. From its
association in this passage with Palembang and Kampar, it may be looked for in Sumatra. Gerini,
Kesearches, 628 says Ki-t'o «is Kat-to = Telok Kruit, West Suiliatra?» The name does not
25 occur elsewhere, neither does that of Ki-Io. Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0. IV, 852, n. 5 suggested
for Ki-t"o Kedah on the Malay Peninsula, but Gerini, J. K. A. S. 1905, 495—496 says there
is not a vestige of evidence to show that the name of Kedah existed before the end of the
15'ii century. The Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,i3 says: wEvery year Kien-pi takes elephants and cattle,
and the Arabs (Ta-shi) take horses to trade in this country (of Ku-lin)»; This passage appears
30 to be the basis for Chau Ju-kua's remarks, he has only added the names of San-fo-ts'i and
Ea-t'o, presumably because they were adjacent to Kien-pi and in Sumatra. It seems just possible
that Ki-t'o may be the same as the pilgrim I-tsing's Kie-ch'a {^^ ^), which was on the
extreme N. E. coast of Sumatra, and the last port-of-call (at least in the seventh century, but
very probably also in later days) for ships going from San-fo-ts'i to India. Chavannes, Relig.
35 6minents, 105.
17) Quotation from the Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,i3, which adds: «The king of the country
worships Heaven. He who kills an ox forfeits his life. Chinese traders with big ships who wish to
go to the country of the Arabs, must tranship at Ku-lin to smaller boats before proceeding
farther. Although they may get (to their destination) in one month with a southerly wind, it may
40 be two years before they can get back (to China)». The text goes on to state that «the people of
Ku-lin are black, they wrap their bodies in white cotton cloth, wear their beards and all their
hair loose and uncovered. They wear red leather shoes, so they look when walking as if they had
the painted feet of a lo-han The king wraps his body in cotton-cloth, when he goes out he is
carried in a litter (juan-tou) of cotton cloth, or else he rides on an elephant. The inhabitants are
45 devout Buddhista. On this last remark, see supra, p. 90, n. 5. The remark about the people smearing
their bodies with turmeric occurs twice in the Ling-wai-tai-ta, first in connection with Ku-lin, and
secondly as a custom of NS,n-ni-hua-lo.
W-Jcin is produced by a plant which remains indetermined; it is a native of the south of
China, and,is most probably a species of Curcuma. Hanbury, Science Papers, 254. This seems
50 to be borne out by the probable etymology of the word, which is pronounced wat-lcam in Can-
tonese (old sound described by K'ang-hi's authorities as ^ Ml ^ = Jiat and Mm, gold), and
may thus represent Persian »y harham and Hebrew Dsns TcarMm, Arabic ^^Jcurlcnm,
92 OUZERAT. I>16
from -which the hotanical name Curcuma is derived. Hirth, J. C. B. E. A. S. XXI, 221. This
need not necessarily involve that Curcuma is here covered by the word, though it would appear
that India furnished the root in ancient and mediaeval times. Fluckiger, Pharmakognosie des
Pflanzenreiches, 368 (3'^ edit.). The Liang-shu, 54,17, says that yii-kin was procured solely
from Ki-pin (Kapisha, or rather Kashmir).
17.
GUZERAT.
Hii-ch'a-la {-^ ^ ^).
The kingdom of Hu-ch'a-la^ rules over a hundred cities i^\\) and
more; its (principal) city has a four-fold wall. lo
The inhabitants of this country are white and clean looking; both men
and women wear double rings hanging down from holes in their ears; they
wear close fitting clothes with a cotton sarong wrapped around them. On
their heads they wear white hoods (Q >j^), and on their feet shoes of red
leather. They are forbidden to eat flesh. i5
There are four thousand Buddhist temple buildings, in which live over
twenty thousand dancing-girls (]^) who sing twice daily while offering food
to the Buddha (i. e., the idols) and while offering flowers. When offering
flowers they tie them in bunches with cotton thread, of which they use three
hundred catties every day ^. 20
There are over four hundred war-elephants and about one hundred
thousand cavalry horses. When the king goes about he rides au elephant;
on his head he wears a cap. His followers ride horseback and carry swords.
The native products comprise great quantities of indigo, red kino,
myrobolans and foreign cotton stuffs of every colour. Every year these goods 25
are transported to the Ta-shi countries for sale*.
Notes.
1) This is the earliest mention in Chinese works of the name Guzerat. In the preceding
chapter our author states that it was a dependency of the Malabars; I cannot verify this statement.
2) Guzerat was famous for its many temples, Hindu not Buddhist, most of which were 30
situated on the south-western coast, in the territory of Okamandala. Lassen, Indische Alterthumsk.
I, 134. Polo (II, 350) goes so far as to say that all the Abraiaman (Brahmans) in the world come
from that province (of Lar — possibly roughly the same region to which Chau refers). The word
«Buddhist» and «Buddha» are here used for «idolB. See supra, p. 90, n. 5. On the dancing-girls,
conf. supra, p. 55 n. 7. and infra, p. 95. 35
3) Polo (II, 383) says: «In this province of Gozurat there grows much pepper, and ginger,
and indigo. They have also a great deal of cotton. Their cotton trees are of very great size, growing
full six paces high, and attaining to an age of 20 years». He also refers (II, 363) to the fine
1,17-19 MALWA. — CHOLA DOMINION. 93
iudigo of Coilum (Quilon) and describes its , preparation, and he mentions the indigo of Cambaet
as very abundant (If, 388). The «foreign cotton stuffs of every colour» of our author were probably
chintzes. Polo refers repeatedly (II, 879, 385, 388) to the adelicate and beautiful buckrams», nthe
export of good buckram and cotton)), etc., from places in Chau's Hu-ch'a-la. The omission of any
5 mention of pepper among the products of Guzerat by bothCh6uK'ii-fei and Chau Ju-kua has
been remarked on previously, supra, p. 91, n. 12. All mediaeval writers. Eastern and Western,
remark on the great number of horses brought by the Arabs to the Malabar coast. Chou
K'fl-fei refers to it; supra, p. 91, n. 16.
18.
10 ' lAAlSSSTK,
Ma-lo-hua {%% ^ ^.).
The kingdom of Ma-lo-hua borders on that of Hu-ch'a-la ^ This coun-
try rules over sixty odd cities, and it has land routes ^
The manner of dressing and the local customs are the same as those of
15 Hu-ch'a-la.
Of products white cotton cloth is very common. Every year two thou-
sand oxen, or more, laden with cotton stuffs are sent over the roads to other
countries to barter.
Notes.
20 1) No other reference to Malwa has been found in any other Chinese author of the period.
Ch6u K'ii-fel does not mention it, nor does Ma Tuan-lin, the Sung shi, or any subsequent writers.
2) Ibn Batuta, Voyage's, III, 182 says its sovereign was the most powerful of the infidel
rulers of India. He also (IV, 28) speaks of the beauty of the people of this country, especially the
women. By «it has land routesn (^ [J^ ^) must be meant that it had only land routes and
25 no sea-coast, and this is quite true of Malwa.
19.
CHOLA DOMINION.
(Coromandel Coast).
30
Chu-lien (i^^ %).
«The Idngdom of Chu-li6n is the Southern Yin-tu (ffj ^) of the west»i.
To the east (its capital) is five li distant from the sea; to the west one
comes to Western India (® ^ ^) (after) 1500 li; to the south one
94 CHOtiA DOMINION. " 1,19
comes to Lo-lan {^ ||) (after) 2500 U; to the north one comes to Tun-t'ien
iM ffl) (after) 3000 U\
This country had not from olden times carried on trade (with China).
By water one comes to Ts'iian-ch6u after some 411,400 IP.
"If you wish to go to this kingdom, then you must change ships at 5
Ku-hn to go there. Some say that one can go there by way of the kingdom
of P'u-kan» *.
In this kingdom there is a city with a seven-fold wall, seven feet high,
and extending twelve li from north to south and seven U from east to west.
The different walls are one hundred paces distant from each other. Four" of lo
thiese walls are of brick, two of mud, and the one in the centre of wood.
There are flowers, fruit trees, and other trees planted (on them?).
The first and second walls enclose the dwellings of the people, — they
are surrounded by small ditches; the third and fourth walls (surround) the
dwellings of the court officers; within the fifth dwell the king's four sons; 13
within the sixth are the Buddhist (i. e., idol) monasteries ('^ ^) where the
priests dwell; the seventh wall encloses over four hundred buildings form-
ing the royal palace.
There are thirty-one (sic) pu-lo {^ ^); of these twelve are in the
west, namely: 20
Chi-tu-ni (K is JS)
Shi-ya-lu-ni (^ 55 jt ^)
Lo-pa-li-pi-pa-i {^ ® ^j| 11 § #)
Pu-lin-pa-pu-ni (% # ^ ^ Jg)
5 Ku-tan-pu-lin-p'u-t6Dg ("^ ^M ^ # ^M ^) 25
Ku-li (^ M)
Po-lun-ts'6n (^ |^ J^)
Pon-t'i-kie-ti {:^^mi^)
Yen-li-ch'i-li {f^ ^ f^ ^)
10 Na-pu-ni {M oP j/S) 30
Cho-ku-lin (jg -^ ^)
Ya-li-cho-lin (Eg S. i #)
Eight are in the south, namely:
Wu-ya-kia-li-ma-Ian (M ^% j^ ^ J^^^ ^)
Mei-ku-li-k'u-ti {M-^W^ %) 35
15 Sho-li-ni (^ ^ jg)
Mi-to-ld-mo (^ ^ MM)
K'ie-lan-p'u-tong {j^ M '/i :^)
I>i9 cnoLA DOMixiox. gt5
Mong-k'i6-lin-kia-lan (^ # |jc Jf|p ^)
Pa-li-pa-li-yu {^ M, W k M)
^ 20 Ya-lin-ch'i-m6iig-k'i6-laii (Sg # ^/fe, ^ # ^)
and twelve are in the north, namely:
5 Fa-lo-y6 (^ p ^)
Wu-mo-li-kiang (^ |^ ^ J^[2)
Chu-lin(^i #) "^
Kia-li-ra6ng-k'i6-lan (j^ M ^ # M)
25 Ts'i-kie-ma-lan (0 |J ^)
10 "Wu-cho-mong-k'ie-lan (:^ ^ ^ ij$ ^)
P'i-lin-k'ie-lan (^ # # ^)
P'u-l6ng-ho-lan (^ ft ^ ^)
Pau-pa-lai (;^ g ^)
30 Tien-chu-Ii (gg '^ ^)
15 Lii-so-lo (Jg ^ PP)
Mi-mong-k'i§-lan^\^ ^ >f^ ^)
When any one among the people is guilty of an offense, one of the
Court Ministers (-f^ gfj) punishes him; if the offense is light, the culprit is
tied to a wooden frame and given fifty, seventy, or up to an hundred blows
20 with a stick. Heinous crimes are punished with decapitation or by being
trampled to death by an elephant.
At state banquets both the Prince and the four Court Ministers (f^ ^P)
salaam (^ ^) at the foot of the throne (ji^), then the whole, (company
present) break into music, song and dancing. He (the Prince) does not drink
25 wine, but he eats meat, and, as is the native custom, dresses in cotton cloth-
ing and eats flour-cakes. For his table and escort he employs «fully a myriad
dancing-girls (^), three thousand of whom are in attendance daily in rotations".
When contracting marriage, they send, in the first place, a female go-
between with a gold (or) silver finger-ring to the girl's home. Three days
30 afterwards there is a meeting of the man's family to decide upon the amount
of land, cotton, betel nuts, wine and the like to be given as marriage por-
tion. The girl's family sends in return (a ?) gold or silver finger-ring, piie-no
cloth' (^ ^ ^) and brocaded clothing to be worn by the bride to the
(intended) son-in-law. Should the man wish to withdraw from the engage-
35 ment, he would not dare reclaim the marriage gifts; if the girl should wish
to reject the man she must pay back double.
As the taxes and imposts of the kingdom are numerous and heavy,
traders rarely go there.
96 cnoLA Dommox. I,i9
«This country is at war with the kingdoms of the west (of India?). The
government owns sixty thousand war-elephants, every one seven or eight
feet high. When fighting these elephants carry on their backs houses, and
these houses are full of soldiers who shoot arrows at long range, and fight
with spears at close quarters. When victorious, the elephants are granted 5
honorary names to signahze their merits.
«The inhabitants are hot-tempered and reckless of life; nay, in the
presence of the king they will fight man to man with swords and die without
regret)).
((Father and son, elder and younger brother, have their meals cooked 10
in separate kettles and served in separate dishes; yet they are deeply alive
to family duties»*.
The native products comprise pearls, elephants' tusks, coral, transparent
glass, betel nuts, cardamoms, opaque glass, cotton stuffs with coloured silk
threads (-^ ^ ^), and cotton stuffs. 15
Of quadrupeds they have goats and domestic cattle; of birds, pheasants
and parrots; of fruits, the yu-han (^ -y*) the fong-lo (|^ ^), Persian
dates {=f- ^ ^), cocoanuts, the Jcan-lo {-j^ ^), the ¥wn-lun plum (^
^ ;j<^), and the ^o-Zo-mJ (jack-fruit)®.
Of flowers, they have the white jasmine (Q ^ t^iJ), the san-ssi {^ 20
^), the sho-tsH-sang ($|^ ^ ^), the li-isHu (j|| ^), the blue, yellow
and green p^o-lo (^ ^) the yau-lien-ch^an (J§ ^ ^), the red canna
Of grain they have green and black beans, wheat and rice; the bamboo
is indigenous. 25
In former times they did not send tribute to our court, but «in the
eighth year of the ta-chung and siang-fu periods (A. D. 1015), its sovereign
sent a mission with pearls and like articles as tribute. The interpreters, in
translating their speech, said they wished to evince the respect of a distant
nation for (Chinese) civilization)). They were ordered by Imperial Decree to 30
remain in waiting at the side gate of the Palace, and to be entertained at a
banquet by the Associates in the College of Court Annalists. By Imperial
favour they were ranked with the envoys of K'iu-tz'i. It happened to be the
Emperor's birthday, and the envoys had a fine opportunity to witness the
congratulations in the Sacred Enclosure (^ ^)^^- 35
«In the tenth year si-ning (1077) they again sent tribute of native
produce. The Emperor Shiin-tsung sent an officer of the Inner Department
(i. e., a Chamberlain) to bid them welcome»".
1,19 CHOLA DOMIXIOX. 97
The remaining countries (of India), Nan-ni-hua-lo (^ /^ ^ B^) and
others, are more than a hundred in number; they are all included under the
term of «"Western» {lit., Western Heaven ^ ^).
Concerning "Wang-sho-ch'ong (3^ ^ ^), tradition says that north of
5"Kiau-chi (Tongking), «one comes to Ta-li (Yiin-nan), and west of Ta-li one
comes to Wang-sho-ch'6ng in less than forty days' journey».
Kia Tan (g ^) in the Huang-hua-ssi (or si)-ta-ki (^^^ [or ® ]
M IE) J s^ys t^at to go from An-nan(^ ^) to T'i6n-chu (^ ^), there
is an overland route which one can take to get there. Yet as Ta-mo (5^ )^)
10 came sailing across the sea to P'an-yu (^ || , Canton), we may fairly ask
whether the sea journey is not more expeditious than the long overland one^*.
P'6ng-k'i6-lo (in ^ ^) of the West has a capital called Ch'a-na-ki^*
(^ ^15 Po)- The city walls are 120 U in circuit. The common people are
combative and devoted solely to robbery. They use (pieces of) white conch
15 shells (^3f i^) ground into shape as money. The native products include
, fine swords (^ ^J), tou-lo cotton stuffs (^ ^ ,|j|) and common cotton
cloth (^).
Some say that the law of the Buddha originated in this country, for
Hiian-tsang, the master of the Tripitaka in the T'ang period, (when) he got
20 the Buddhist Classics (to bring to China), had already reached the West
m %)■
«Nan-ni-hua-lo (^ ^ ^ E^) city has a triple wall ^^. The inhabitants
morning and evening bathe and besmear ,their bodies with yu-kin (turmeric)
so as to look like golden coloured images (lit., Buddhas)^*. «A large propor-
25 tion of them are called P'o-lo-mon (^ ^ P^ , Brahmans), as they are genuine
descendants of Fo {•i^).
«The walls of their rooms and the mats they sit on are besmeared with
cow-dung, which they look upon as a clean substance. In their houses they set
up altars, three feet high and which are reached by three steps, and on which
30 daily in the morning they burn incense and offer flowers»; this is called
«the offering to Fo»" (-^ ^).
When Arab (Ta-shi) foreigners come to this country, they give them
seats outside the doors and. lodge them in separate houses supplied with
beddmg and household utensils ^^
35 When a woman is guilty of adultery she is put to death, and the offi-
cials make no enquiry about it.
98 CnOLA D031IXIOX. 1,19
The native products include the best quality of putchuck, and fine white
flowered (or dotted) cotton stuffs (^^ Q ^g M ^)- The people eat much
butter" (^ ^), rice, beans and vegetables; they rarely eat fish or meat.
«A road leads to the Western Regions (Si-yii); when there are raids
(on Nan-ni-hua-lo?) by the light horsemen of the Western Regions, the only 5
resistance they offer is to lock their gates. In a few days provisions run
short, and (the raiders) withdraw of their own accord» ^''.
Notes.
1) Quotation from the Liiig-wai-tai-ta, 2,13'': ((Southern Yin-tu of the Wests,; means the
peninsular part of India. Chu-lien is Chola orSoladesam, of which Kanchi (Conjeveram) was the 10
an(;ient capital. From Sola was formed apparently Sola-mandalaor Chola-mandala, which the
Portuguese made into Choromandel and the Dutch into Coromandel. Yule, Marco Polo, II, 354.
Polo speaks of othe kingdom of Ma'abar called Soli, which is the best and noblest Province of
Indian. According to Yule, it was in Polo's time i^i all likelihood Tanjore, biit we are told by
Tennent (Ceylon, I, 394 et seqq.), using Singhalese chronicles, that the Chola dominion at various 15
times before that had included most of southern liidia. As used by Chou K'ii-fei arid Chau Ju-kua,
I think it should be understood to correspond to the Ma'abar of the Arabs, just as Nan-p'i does
to their Malabar, According to Rashideddin «Ma'abar extended from Kulam to the country of
Sildwar, 300 parasangs along the shore. Its length is the same. It possesses many cities and
villages of which little is kiiown Large ships, called in the language of Cl^ina, ((Junks», bring 20
various sorts of choice merchandise and cloths from Chin and Machin, and the countries of Hind ,
and Sindi). Elliot, Hist, of India, I, 09.
In the seventh century Huan-tsang mentions a kingdom of Chu-li-ye (^^ 7RIJ Mljj
between the lower Krishna and the Pennar rivers. (See, however, A. Cunningham, Anc. geog. of
India, 645). The next mention of this country is in the Ling-wai-tai-ta. Ma Tuan-lin (op. cit, II, 25.
371 — 582) reproduces Chau's notes, omitting from them, however, all the passages he has taken
from Ch6u K'ii-fei. The Sung-shi does likewise. In the Yiian period the name Chu-li'en was not
used; it was replaced by the appellation Ma-pa-Sr (j|6 /^ G^, Ma'abar). Yiian-shi, 210. It is there
stated that Ma'abar is the largest of all the kingdoms of India. See Pauthier, Livre de Marc
Pol, 603— G05. 30
Chinese writers of the Ming period speak of the Cholas as So-li (^^ ■'ffl or Cfr JB )•
Groeneveldt, Notes, 40. G. Phillips, J. K. A. S.,.1896, 3J2. The Sung-shi, 489,so also calls
these people So-li.
Additional evidence as to the location of Chu-lien is supplied by Chou K.'fl-fei's statement-
which forms the fourth paragraph of this chapter. It was between Quilon arid Burma (P'u-kan) 35
on the coast. The route followed by the Chola mission to China in 1015 (see infra) which took
them by ((the Cholian (part of) Ceylonn (^S J^ ^^ Ml ) is likewise evidence of some value.
Still another indication is found in the statement made by the Sung-shi, 489,11 (see supra, p. 59), that
the envoys who came in 1106 to the Chinese court from Burma (P'u-kan) insisted that they
should be treated with more ceremony than those from Chu-lien which was a vassal of Sari-fo-ts'i. 40;
From Singhalese sources (Tennent, Ceylon, I, 402) we learn that in the beginning of the twelfth
century (and how long before is not stated), and again in the beginning of the thirteenth, Ceylon
(or a part of it) was under Cholian rule. It was easy for the P'u-kan envoys to make out Chu-
li6n itself, instead of its dependency Ceylon, a feudatory state of San-fo-ts'i.
2) Ma Tuan-lin and the Sung-shi reproduce textually this paragraph (the former writer 45
giving erroneously the distance between the capital and the sea as 5000 H). Yule, Marco Polo,
II, 319 places the principal' sea-port" of the Chola kingdom at Kaveripattanam, the oPattanami) ;
par excellence of the Coromandel Coast, and at one of the mouths of the Kaveri. He says that
there seems to be some evidence that the Tanjore ports were, before 1300, visited by Chinese
1,19 CHOLA DOMISIOX. 99
trade. The only liO-lan known to mediaeval Chinese is mentioned in the T'ang-shu, 221°, and is
identified with the capital of Bamian in Afghanistan. I think our text is corrupt here and that
the character lo should be changed to si ( £§ or ;^), and that we should read Si-lan, our Ceylon.
Both Ma and the Sung-sM say that 2,500 li south-east of Chu-lien was «Si-lan-ch'i-kuo (5^ M
^ ^mi H ) ^^''^ which it was at war. Of course the distance mentioned is absurd, but all figures
connected with Chu-li6n in Chinese accounts are inexplicably exaggerated.
As to Tun-t'ien, which our author says was 3,000 li N. of Chu-lien, I am constrained to
suggest that the text is again corrupt, or that our author's authority — which remains unknown^
knew not of what he wrote. Tun-t'ien (in Cantonese Tun-t'in) is not mentioned in any other
10 Chinese work. It seems just possible that we should correct the text to read «to the east one
comes to Tun-sunn (^ ^)' ^^^'^^ i^ supposed to have been near the southern extremity of the
Malay Peninsula.
3) The envoys, who came to the court of China in 1015 are reported to have said that it
had taken them over three years to make the journey, but, according to their own statement (see
15 infra p. 101. line 7), they were only under sail during that time 247 days. It is within the bounds ot
probability that they said they had sailed 41,000 U, which would be at the rate of about 166 K a
day, or else that the Chinese, to whom they narrated their journey, estimated that they must have
sailed that number of li during the .247 days they were under way. Purchas (His Pilgrimes, I,
110 et seqq.) discussing the extreme slowness of navigation for coasting voyages in early centuries,
20 estimates 32 miles a day as the average run for the whole voyage, counting all the delays, stops
at night, etc.
Ma Tuan-lin and the Sung-shi reproduce this paragraph of our text. Ma sums up his
chapter on Chu-li§n by saying: nlf one considers seriously, all that we have related concerning
this kingdom of Chu-lien, situated at exactly 411,400 li by sea from Kuang-chou-fu, and the
25 journey from which took 1,150 days, one only establishes three facts worthy of credence, that Chu-
lien was a country very remote from China, that it had never had intercourse in olden times with
the Empire, and that it ofi^ered tribute for the first time in the middle of the ta-chung and siang-fu
period (A. D. 1015)». As to the supposed letter of the king of Chu-lien presented to the Emperor
on this occasion, Ma says, there can be no doubt that it was of Chinese composition and did not
30 show any evidence whatever of foreign composition.
The Yflanrshi, 210, says that it was 100,000 li from Ts'uan-chou to Ku-lin (Quilon), and
15 days sailing from there to Ma-pa-ir (Maabar, i. e., Chu-lien).
4) Quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,18''. See supra, p. 91. n. 17.
5) Pu-lo represent probably Sanskrit ^wra, «city, town, fortress)). The thirty-two names given
35 in this list may be those of localities subject to the Cholas, or, more probably, they are the names of
various places, scattered all over peninsular India, which our author probably heard of from some
Hindu, or Arab, trader — for this list seems quite original with Chau Jii-kua. It is reproduced by
Ma Tuan-lin and the Sung-shI without a change, omission, addition or remark. There is nothing
to indicate how this long list of characters should be divided, where one name ends and another
40 begins. The divisions adopted are purely arbitrary, based on general analogy of sound with known
Indian names, and by placing such recurring groups of characters as p'u-tong (Sanskrit, patam),
k'il-lan (Sanskrit, glan, galam), mong-k'ie-lan (Sanskrit, mahgalam), and others which seem to be
final syllables, at the end of the various groups.
It is only possible to suggest the following identifications. Chi-tu-ni may be Chitor; Pu-lin-
45 pa-pu-ni, in Cantonese Po-lam-pa-po-ni, Braihmapura. Ku-t'an-pu-lin-p'u-tong may be Kaveri-
pattanam. Ku-limay be Koil, and P6n-t'i-kie-ti Bundelkhand. Na-pu-nimay be Nagpur. Ya-li-tu-lin,
Elichpur. Mei-ku-li-ku-ti, may be Mutapili, Polo's Mutafili near Masulipatam. Mi-to-lo-mo suggests
Madura, and K'ie-lan-pu-tong, Kalingapatam. Mong-kie-lin-kia-lan recalls Mangalore, Po-lo-ye,
Vallabhi and Sho-li-ni Abulfeda's Schaliyat (Jaliat). Other arrangements of the characters are
50 possible; for example, in the pu-lo in the north, instead of reading Chu-lin and forming out of the
nine characters which follow two names, one might read Chu-lin-k'ie-li-mong, K'ie-lan-ts'i and
Kie-ma-lan;in this case K'ie-lan-ts'i, in Cantonese Ka-lam-ts'at recalls Kalindjar.
Conf. the list of kingdoms in India given by Yule, Marco Polo, II, 419—421.
6) The words in quotation marks are taken from the Ling-wai-tai-ta, loc. cit. Con-
100 CHOIiA DOMINION. 1,19
cerning the kings of Chu-lien, Ma Tuan-lin and the Simg-shi (loc. cit.) supply a few additional
facts of considerable interest. They say: «At the present time it is stated that the ruling sove-
reigns (of Chu-lien) have reigned for three generations)). The first mission from Chu-lien to
China, in 1015, stated that the king of their country was called Lo-ts'a-lo-tsa, which probably
stands for Kaja-raja. In 1033 the Chu-lien envoy said his king was called ShI-lo-lo-cha yin-to- 5
lo-chu-lo, which may well be Sri Raja Indra Chela; and in 1077 the king of Chu-lien, his envoy
stated at that time, was Ti-hua-kia-lo, standing probably for Dewar Kala (or Kara or.Deva-kuIa).
Kashideddin (Elliot, Hist, of India, I, 69) says^the king of Ma'bar was called Dewar, M'hich
means in the Mabar language, the olord of wealth». The words oat the present time» very
probably mean «at the time of the mission of 1077», and this date would appear to be the latest 10
for any of the information given by Sung writers concerning Chu-lien, their earliest information
going back to 1015, when the first mission came to China. Cf. Gerini, Kesearches, 609,624.
The Ling-wai-tai-ta, after the words quoted in our text has «the king's cap has on it
lustrous pearls and other jewels)). Duarte Barbosa speaking of the king of Calicut, says «This
king has a thousand waiting women, to whom he gives regular pay, and they are always at the 15
court, to sweep the palaces and houses of the king: and this he does for state, because fifty would
be enough to sweep . . . And these women do not all serve, but take turns in the service . . . i; . D u a r t e
Barbosa, Descript. coasts of East Africa and Malabar, 111. (Hakl. Soc. edit.).
7) Probably a kind of very fine muslin, made in various localities of western Asia. Our
author mentions «white yue-no cloth» as a product of Baghdad and of Ki-tz'i-ni (Ghazni), and 20
«gold spangled yiXe-no cloth)) as a manufacture of Damascus (Lu-mei). See infra, Pt. II, Ch. XXVII.
8) Quotation from the Ling-wai-tai-ta, loc. cit. After the words quoted in the first para-
graph it continues: aand there are some who bestow upon them (the elephants) embroidered
housings and golden mangers. Every day the elephants are taken into the presence of the king.
The king, his officers and the people all twist their hair into a knot, and wrap (themselves) in white 25
cotton cloth. They make coins of gold and silver. The country produces ( HJ) finger-rings, camphor,
cat's-eyes and such like things; also pearls, elephants' tusks, amber of diiferent colours and cotton
stuffs with coloured silk threads ("m ^^ "llj)"-
9) The yu-Tcan, t'6ng-lo, and kan-lo are, so far as I am aware, unidentified. aK'un-lun
plums may have been a fruit also met with in the Malay (K'un-lun) country. The Tcan-lo is said 30
in the Shi-ki to be the same as the Tcan-mau-sun ("H' /j^ •^)- ^^^ China Review, XIX, 193.
This does not help us, however.
10) Most of these flowers are indetermined, the names seem to be foreign. Instead of sho-
ts i-sang the Simg-shi (489), which reproduces this paragraph, has sM-ts'i-fo ('^). Sang is the
Chinese name of the mulberry tree, but here the character is probably used phonetically. 35
11) The passage in brackets is taken from the Ling-wai-tai-ta, loc. cit. Chou K'u-fei,
Chau Ju-kua, Ma Tuan-lin and the author of the Sung-sh!, all appear to have derived their
information concerning this mission from one and the same written source. Ma and the Sung-shl
(489,20— m) contain information not found in the works of the two earlier writers. The Sung-shi says
the principal envoy from Chu-lien was called So-li San-won (^^ J9 ^^ ■^);So-li, I take it, 40
represents the name Chola. Concerning the voyage of the mission to China, this envoy said:
wAfter leaving Chu-lien they had sailed for 77 days and nights, during which they passed the
island (or headland) of Na-wu-tan (^ ^ ^ |lj ) and the island of So-li Si-lan (^ M
® ^ ill Ceylon of the Cholas?), and came to the country of Chan-pin ( Jb ^ not identified,
but presumably in Pegu). Thence going 61 days and nights they passed the island of I-ma-lo-li 45
^W nH' ^E S. °°* identified), and came to the country of Ku-lo ("dtr ^S possibly on W.
coast Malay Peninsula, but see infra, p. 124, n. 25), in which there is a mountain called Ku-lo,
from which the country takes its name.
«Proceeding again 71 days and nights and passing the island of Kia-pa Chx\ /V \\\
not identified), the island of Chan (or Ku)-pu-lau {^ [or ~^'\ ^ ^ Cham pulo) and the 50
island of Ch6u-pau-lung (-^ ^ ^^ not identified), they came to the country of San-fo-ts'i.
aGoing again for 18 days and nights and having crossed (or passed by B^ ) the mouth of
the Man-shan river (? ^ |Jj -^ P in Kamboja?) and the T'ien-chu islands (^ hk |Jj
1,19 CHOLA DOMISION. 101
Pulo Aor?), they came to (^) the Pin-t'ou-lang headland (^ g^ |]^ jlj Cape Padaran),
from whence, looking eastward, the tomb of the Si-wang mu (^ ^ -jH: ^) was about 100 U
from the ship.
«Proceeding 20 days and nights and having passed by (^) Yang island (:M [U Pulo
5 Gambir) and Kiu-sing island (^ ^ [Jj ), they came to Pi-p'a island (]^ g ^j) of Kuang-
tung (Canton\
«From their home they bad taken in all 1150 days to reach Kuang-ch6u». See supra, p. 83,
n. 1. Conf. China Review, XIX, 193.
As previously noted, great exaggeration is met with in all that has come down to us
10 concerning this mission. It is said by Ma Tuan-lin and the Sung-shi that the king of Chu-lien
sent the Emperor of China, among other presents, 21000 ounces of pearls, GO elephants' tusks,
and 60 catties of frankincense. The envoys' gifts to the Emperor included 6600 ounces of pearls
and 3300 catties of perfumes I
The ranking of the envoys of Chu-lien with those from K.'iu-tzi, K'ucha in Eastern Tur-
15 kestan, a vassal state of China, shows the low estimate in which Chu-lien was held. In 1106
the Chu-lien vassalage to San-fo-ts'i was given by the Burmese envoys as a reason for asking
greater privileges at the Chinese court than they had received. See supra, p. 23.
12) Quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta, loc. cit. For further details concerning this mission,
see Ma Tuan-lin (Hervey St Denis, Ethnographic, etc., II, 571 — 582), and Sung-sJu,
20 489,22. These works mention tribute missions from Chu-lien in 1020 and 1033. In 1077 the
«native producea offered as tribute included pearls like peas (? gSn ^5 ^fe)) ^ large
wash-bowl of opaque glass, white «plum-blossom» camphor (^ ^W '^ti B^ see infra, Pt.
II, Ch. I.), cotton, rhinoceros horns, jugs of frankincense, rose-water, golden lotus flowers (tropsBOlum
majus, Linn.), putchuk, asa-fcetida, borax and cloves. The Emperor gave the envoys as a return
25 present for the king 81,800 strings of cash and 52,000 taels of silver.
13) This and the preceding paragraph are based upon the Ling-wai-tai-ta, 3,4, which reads
about as follows: «Among the hundreds of countries in the West that are famous, the one which
ranks the highest of all is Wang-sho-ch'ong, the Mid-India (Yin-tu) of the T'ien-chu country,
which owes its great fame to being the birthplace of the Buddha.
30 wTradition says that to the east of this country is theHei-shui-yu river or «Black- water-muddy
river« (S -jiC V^ j^R]" Irrawadi? see supra, pp. 26 and 59. n. 1) and a Sea (-^ J?fi)-
Still farther east beyond this are the Western Regions (^ ^^ Turkestan), the T'u-fan (|j4- ^fc
the Tibetans), Ta-li (Yun-nan) and Kiau-chi (Tongking). To the west of this coiintry is the Eastern
' Ocean of the Ta-shJ (Arabs), and still farther west than this are the realms of the Ta-shl. To the
35 south of (Mid-India) is an island called the kingdom of Si-lan (^OT M Ceylon), and its sea is
called the Sea of Si-lan.
«In olden times the envoy Chang K'ien being in Ta-hia (Bactria) learnt that the land of
Shijn-tu (India) was 1000 U south-east of Ta-hia. He also learnt that the kingdom of Ta-li (S. W.
Yfln-nan) was not more than forty stages from Wang-sho ch'ong (Mid-India). Kia Tan's Huang-hua-
40 ssi-ta-ki says: 'From Annam there exists (land) communication with T'ien-chu (India), but as
Ta-mo (Dharma, the first Buddhist patriarch in China) came by sail all the way to P'an-ya
(Canton), we may draw the conclusion that this sea-route is the more practicable one, to follow».
See supra, p. 4 on Chang K'ien's mission, and T. W. Kingsmill, J. E. A. S., n. s. XIV,
74 et seqq.
45 Wang-sho-ch'ong, as used by Ch6u K'a-fei, is synonymous with Magadha. It is generally
used in Chinese works to designate the city of Kucagarapura, the old capital of the kingdom of
Magadha, and occupying, it was supposed, the exact center of that country. New Wang-shO
ch'ong was Rajagrha. Chavannes, Relig. eminents, 65,' n. 8. See also supra, pp. 26 and 51, n. 1.
Kia Tan, a great geographer of the T'ang period, lived from about A. D. 730 to 805. He
50 was the author of a number of geographical and ethnographical books and of maps, one entitled
((Chinese and Foreigners within the Seas» ('/$ ^ ^ ^) on a scale of 100 li to the inch.
T'ang-shu, 58, and Mem. cone, les Chinois, XVI, 151. The work mentioned in the text has appa-
102 BAGHDAD. 1, 19
rently been lost, Lut what may be an extract from it has been preserved in the T'ang shu, 43,
■w'bere wo find a number of'itineraries and sailing directions to various parts of Asia. — A trans-
lation of Kia Tan's sailing directions from Canton to the Persian Gulf is given in the Introduction
(supra, pp. 10—14). Pelliot, B. E. F. E. 0., IV, 131 et seqq., has translated and studied with
great care those relating to S. E. Asia, and Chavannes has translated and annotated, with his 5
usual learning, two itineraries of Kia Tan's referring to Central Asia, in his Documents sur les
Tou-Mou6 occidentaux, 7 — 10.
14) Although P'6ng-k'ie-lo suggests Bangala, Bengal, I am disposed to think it possible that
the ((kingdom of the Balhara ((..liaJo))) of mediaeval Arab writers is meant. Elliot, Hist, of Intlia,
I, 358, says «the Tapti on the south, and the Aravalli mountains on the north, may perhaps 10
represent an approximation to the real extent of the kingdoms. The native products mentioned
do not assist us in locating it; as to the name of the capital city, it remains unidentified. T6u-lo is
Sanskrit tula ((cottons.
15) This paragraph and all the subsequent passages marked with brackets are quotations
from the Ling-wai-tai-ta, 3,5. Nan-ni-hua-lo or Southern Ni-hua-lo is not mentioned in any other .15
Chinese work, before or after Ch6u and Chau. The fact that it was exposed to the raids of the
light horsemen of the West and that it produced the best putchuk, incline me to believe it must
have been in Sindh.
16) Fo in this case and in the next paragraph, is to be taken as meaning Brahma. Conf.
supra p. 89. 20
17) The Ling-wai-tai-ta, after the words aoffer flowers», has «the altars are also smeared
-with cow-dungo.
, 18) Mohammedans were treated thus through caste prejudice, not to show them special honour.
19) Su-lo, literally ohard 2o», aniju-lo —''literally «milk lo», usually mean ((buttern and
«milli». There can be little doubt that, when used in connection with India or southern Asia, these 25
words should be taken in their usual acceptations. When used in reference to Mongol and Turkish
•countries, ju-lo has often a different meaning — adried sour milk». See infra, Ch. XXXII.
20) ((Light horsemen of the Westn may be a reference to the early Moslim invaders of
Sindh in the latter part of the seventh and beginning of the eighth century.
20. 30
BAGHDAD.
Ta-ts'in (^^ ^).
«The country of Ta-ts'in», also called Li-kien (^ ^), «is the general
mart of the natives of the Western Heaven, the place where the foreign
merchants of the Ta-shi assemble» ^ 35
«Their king is styled Ma-lo-fu» (^ R^ _^);» he rules in the city of
An-tu (^ f5) 2. «He wears a turban of silk with gold embroidered cha-
racters, and the throne he sits upon is covered with a silken rug»^
wThey have walled cities» and markets with wards and streets. «In the
king's residence)) they use crystal in making pillars, and aplaster in guise of 4o
1)20 . BAOnDAD. 103
tiles. Wall-hangings abound. The circuit (of the wall) is pierced with seven
gates, each guarded by thirty men^
wTribute bearers from other countries pay homage below the platform
of the (palace) steps, whence they withdraw after having offered their con-
5 gratulations)).
The inhabitants are tall and of a fine bright complexion, somewhat like
the Chinese, which is the reason for their being called Ta-tsHn ^
They have keepers of official records, and in writing they use Ha (^^)
characters. They trim their hair and wear embroidered gowns. They also
10 have small carts with white tops, flags, etc. (Along the roads) there is a
shed (i^) every ten 11, and every thirty li tliere is a beacon-tower (f-^).
Tliere are many lions in, this country that interfere with travellers and
are likely to devour them unless they go in caravans of an hundred well-
armed men ^.
15 wUnderneath the palace they have dug a tunnel through the ground
communicating with the hall of worship (jj^ ^ ^) at a distance of over
a li. The king rarely goes out except to chant the liturgy (fj j^) and
worship (;i^ ■^). On every seventh day he goes by way of the tunnel to the
hall of worship for divine service (^ -^), being attended by a suite of over
20 fifty men. But few amongst the people know the Icing's face. If he goes out
he rides horseback, shaded by an umbrella; the head of his horse is orna-
mented with gold, jade, pearls and other jewels ^
«There is among the kings of the Ta-shi country he who is styled Su-tan
(^ ^); every year he deputes men to send in tribute, and, if trouble is
25 apprehended in the country, he orders the Ta-shi to use their military force
to keep order ^.
«The food consists principally of cooked dishes, bread (f^) and meat.
They do not drink wine; they make use of vessels of gold and silver, helping
themselves to the contents with ladles. After meals they wash their hands in
30 golden bowls full of water.
«The native products comprise opaque glass, coral, native gold (or gold
bullion, ^ ^), brocades (or kincobs, ^ ^), sarsenets (H :flj), red
cornelian and pearls»®; also (the precious stone called) hie-ki-si (,^ ^ ^)
or tung-tHen-si (jg ^ ^)"-
35 In the beginning of the yen-hi period of the Han (A. D. 158 — 167)"
the ruler of this country sent an embassy which, from outside the frontier
of J'i-nan (0 ^), came to offer rhinoceros (horns), elephants' (tusks), and
tortoise-shell;— this being the first direct communication with China. As the
104 BAGHDAD, I>20
presents comprised no other rarities, it may he suspected that the envoys
kept them hack.
During the t'ai-k'ang period of the Tsin (A. D. 280 — 289) trihute
was again hrought from there^^.
There is a saying that in the west of this country is the Jo-shui (^ 5
■j^) and the Liu-sha (^ fp), near the place where the Si-wang-mu {^
3E ■^) resides and almost where the sun goes down^^-
Tu Huan {i^ ^) in the King-hing-U (|f ^ |E) ««2/S- "^^'^ country
of Pu-lin (^ M)«s in the west of the Chan ("g") country; it is also called Ta-
tsHn. The inhabitants have red and white faces. The men wear plain clothes, lo
but the women brocades set with pearls (^ ^^). Tliey like to drink wine and
eat dry cakes (^ f^). They have many skilled artisans and are clever
weavers of silk.
(iThe size of the country is a thousand li. The active army consists of
over ten thousand men. It has to ward off the Ta-shi '*. 15
ttin the Western Sea there is a market where a (silent) agreement exists
between buyer and seller that if one comes the other goes. The seller first
spreads out his goods; afterwards the (would be) purchaser spreads out the
equivalent (he offers), which must lie by the side of the articles for sale till
taken by the seller, when the objects purchased may he carried off. This is 20
called the 'Devil (or Spirit) markef (J^ rfj )»^^-
Notes.
1) The first part of this chapter is taken nearly literally from Ch6u K'ii-fei's account of Ta-
ts'in, 3,1. The work of this author, as stated in the Introduction (supra, p. 22.) appeared in A. D.
1178, and was the result of personal enquiries made by him on the subjects of which it treats, 2»
and nowise a compilation from previous works. It may be looked upon as containing chiefly
contemporaneous matter. AH other portions of this chapter are taken from the older Chinese
historians; they are mentioned in the footnotes to this chapter.
To emphasize the additions made by Chau Ju-kua, all portions of this chapter occurring
in previous records other than Ch6u K'u-fei's, are printed in italics. The first phrase of Chau 30
Ju-kua's chapter on T'ien-chu (infra, p. 110) and another phrase in the same chapter (infra, p. Ill)
are the only passages of Ch6u K'ii-fei's notes on Ta-ts'in omitted from this chapter.
The Ta-ts'in of the twelfth century, as represented in Chou K'ii-fei's account, has all the
characteristics of an ecclesiastical state. As in ancient times Ta-ts'in and Fii-lin may be looked
upon as the representatives of the Christian world united under a spiritual chief, the Patriarch of 35
Antioch, so the king of Ta-ts'in of the twelfth century must have been a patriarch, and, as is
shown in a subsequent note, this king must have been the Nestorian patriarch of Baghdad, which
city was indeed, at that time, the point of junction where all the great trade routes of Western'
Asia united. The words oalso called Li-kien», added here by Chau, are taken from the Hou Han-
shu, 88 (see Hirth, China and the Roman Orient, 40 and 146), and refer to the Ta-ts'in of 40
ancient times. /
2) Since the Capital of Ta-ts'in is called An-tu (Antioch) in the Wel-shu, 102 (see Hirth,
op. cit.," 48 et seqq.), the so-called king of Ta-ts'in may have to be identified with the Patriarch
1,20 BAGHDAD. ' 1 05
of Antioch, who was indeed considered the spiritnal head of all the Christians in Asia, certainly
before the schism in 498 A. D., when the adherents of Nestorius (f 440) established their own
church in Chaldsea. According to the T'ang-shu, 198 (see Hirth, op. cit., 55 and 60) the king of
Fu-lin called Po-to-li ('^ ^ ^ Canton dialect and probable old sound: Po-to-lik), sent
5 ambassadors to the Chinese court in 643 A. D. This name lends itself admirably as a transcription
of the Syriac form for «patriarch», viz. hatriJc. In Chou K'u-fei's account, as copied by Chau
Ju-kua, the king of Ta-ts'in in the twelfth century is styled (^ i. e., he is addressed by the
title of) Ma-lo-fa (^ ^ ^ Canton dialect: Ma-lo-fat, probable old sound Ma-lo-pat, oir
Ma-lo-ba, since fit [^] may stand for iha in Sanskrit transcriptions, see Julie n, Methode pour
10 dechiffrer, 104, As 309). This again is an excellent transcription for Mar Aba, one of the titles by
which the Nestorian patriarch could be addressed. Mar is a title of honour given to learned devotees
among the Syrian Christians, somewhat like our «Venerable» (Ducange, Glossarium, etc., ed:
L. Favre, s. v. Mar). Aba means afathera. Mar- Aba may thus be translated by «Venerable
Father*). Its Latin and Greek equivalent was Patricius (itarpixto;). (Assemani, Bibl. Orient.,
15 III B, 92: «Quem enim Graeci Latinique Patricium vocant, is dicitur Syriace Aba, et praefixo Mar,
seu Domini titulo, Mar-Aba»). In the Syriac portion of the Nestorian inscription of Si-an-fu the
patriarch Hannanjesus II, who died in 778 A. D. three years before the erection of the monument
in 781, is referred to under the title Abad Abahotha Mar Hanan Isua Qatholiqa Patrirkis («Pfere
des Peres, le Seigneur Hanan-Jesus, etant le Patriarche universel.i) Pauthier, L'inscription de
20 Si-ngan-fou, Paris, 1858, 42). This does not exclude the possibility of all the patriarchs mentioned
jn Chinese records up to the time of Chou K'u-fei as kings of Ta-ts'in or Fu-lin being patriarchs
of Antioch. Still we may entertain doubts as to whom the title should be applied in Ch6u K'u-
fei's Ta-ts'in chapter, at the end of which it is stated that «T'icn-chu (India) is subordinate to
Ta-ts'in» (^^ Afc 1^ H JH ■ffti), and that the sacred water by which the waves of the sea
25 can be stilled is found there (see infra, p. HI). It would seem that Chau Ju-kua has built up his
account of T'ien-chu on little more than this information, which in Chou K'ii-fei's original
merely refers to the Indian Christians, and not to India generally, by adding all possible notes
referring to non-Christian India from older records. Since we are in the possession of ample
evidence showing that the Indian Christians of the St. Thomas church were Nestorians and that
30 their chiefs were appointed by the Chaldsean patriarch in Baghdad (see Assemani, op. cit., 435,
et seqq.: Christiani S. Thomae in India), it must seem strange that, according to Chou K'u-fei at
some time preceding the appearance of his bopk in 1178, it was the eking of Ta-ts'in», if this
means the Patriarch of Antioch, who appointed the chief of T'ien-chu, i. e. the Indian Christians,
and that this statement seems to correspond with that of a Byzantine author, the archimandrite
35 NilosDoxopatres, a notary in the service of the Patriarch of Constantinople, who wrote in 1143,
for kino' Rogers II of Sicily, a short treatise on the patriarchal thrones (Krumbacher, Gesch.
derbyzantin. Litteratur, 2'' ed., Munchen, 1897, 415 et seqq.). Doxopatres says in unmistakable
Greek that «the Patriarch of Antioch was in charge of all Asia and Anatolia, and even India,
whither he had sent a 'katholikos' ordained by himself, styled the one of Komogyris, and also of
40 Persia and Babylon, called Baghdad at his time, and that he had under him altogether thirteen
metropolitans)). (See Varia Sacra Stephani le Moyne, Leiden, 1685, II, 211 et seqq.; cf. Renaudot,
Ancient Accounts of India and China, London, 1733, 119). It seems to follow from this that,
whatever the relations of the Nestorians in India were to their immediate chief on the patriarchal
throne in Baghdad, the one of Antioch was looked upon as a still higher authority. Assemani
45 (III, 289) admits that the Melchite, Maronite and Jacobite Syrians gave their chiefs the title
{(Patriarch of Antioch)), but he emphatically denies it for the Nestorians. For materials regarding
this crux of patriarchal history, see Assemani, passim; W. Germann,Die Kirche der Thomas-
christen, Gtttersloh, 1877; Richter, Indische Missionsgeschichte, Gtttersloh, 1900, where the
Greek passage referred to is quoted on p. 163, note; and Charles Swanston, A memoir of the
50 Primitive Church of Malaya, or the Syrian Christians of the Apostle Thomas, etc., in J. R. A. S.
London, I, 172— 192, and II, 54—62 and 243 — 247; La Croze, Histoire du Christianisme des
Indes La'naye, 1758. Swanston says among other things: ((Whatever credit may be thought
,:106 BAOnDAD. l,20
tine to the current tradition of these Christians, that the Apostle Thomas planted the seeds of
the Gospel among them, so much may be considered established beyond contradiction, that
they existed in Travancor as a flourishing people, connected with the Syrian church, from
the first centuries of the Christian Era» (op. cit., II, 234); atheir liturgy is that which was formerly
road in the churches of the Patriarch of Antioch, and their language is the Syriac» (237); «they 5
hold in the highest respect theii; Patriarch of Antioch, or Mosul, and make mention of him in
their prayer* (239). These relations between Chau Ju-kua's India and his Ta-ts'in were first
pointed out by Hirth, aChao Ju-kua's Ethnography)), in J. E. A. S., 1890,496—499. ThougJi
the Antiochian patriarch is referred to in these records, the main fact to us is the position
■of the one of Baghdad as the immediate chief of the Indian Christians. It seems, therefore, that 10
Ch6u K'il-feii's Ta-ts'in is not the ancient Ta-ts'in as far as its territory is concerned, and that
Antioch or An-tu, though referred to by Chau Ju-kua as its capital on the groijnd of former
statements, cannot be the place «where the foreign merchants of the Ta-shi assemble ». This
remark is much more likely to apply to Baghdad, in 1178 A. D. the seat of the Nestorian
patriarch. Here indeed was athe point of junction where all the great trade-routes of .Western 15
Asia united)) (von Kremer, Culturgesch. des Orients, 11,47), which in those days could not quite
so well be said of Antioch. See also Hirth, The Mystery of Fu-lin, in J. A. 0. S., XXX, 1—31.
, 3) «He wears a turban of silk with gold embroidered characters)). According to Assemani
III B, 389) the Nestorian patriarchs did not wear a mitre like other church dignitaries of this
rank, but an embroidered turban, called birima («Biruna, hoc est, Cidaris, phrygio opere ornata, 20
qua caput tegitur, instar Amictuso). It appears, however, that scholars disagree as to the meaning
of this word Mruna, which according to some must have been a kind of burnoose rather than a
turban, if not even a gown of considerable length. See infra, p. 107.
4) The first four words (in Chinese ^W WJ) may also be rendered athere is a wall
(around the city)i). This reference to the use of plaster is not original with Ch6u K'u-fei, he found 25
it in the Kiu T'ang-shu, 198 (see Hirth, China and the Roman Orient, 53). The reference to the
use of crystal is taken from H6u Han-shu, 118. (See Hirth, op. cit., 40, 44, 51). On the 'Seven
gates', cf. Le Strange, Eastern Caliphate, 30, 31, his description of Baghdad.
5) Quotation from H6u Han-shu, 118. See Hirth, op. cit., 40, 44, 50, 70, 78.
0) This paragraph is substantially a quotation from Wei-lio, 30, and Hou Han-shu, 118. 30
See Hirth, op. cit., 70 and 40, 55, 58. The custom of wearing short hair is referred to in the
oldest Ta-ts'in texts. aDiiferent from the custom both of the Greeks and the Egyptians, that of
the Hebrews was to wear their hair generally short, and to check its growth by the application
of scissors onlyn. Kitto, Cyclopsedia of Biblical Literature, s. v., 'Hair'.
7) Ch6u K'u-fei and our author make frequent use of Buddhist terms when speaking of 35
other religions. See supra, p. 73, note 1, p. 93, et passim.
BenjaminofTudela, who visited Baghdad in the middle of the twelfth century, says of the
Caliph: aBut in that Palace of the mightie king, there are buildings of an admirable greatnesse,
the Pillars whereof are of silver and gold, and the inner parts of the houses are over-laide
with these metals, and beautified with all kind of Precious stones and Pearles: out of the which 40
Palace he goeth forth once only in the yeere, on that festival day or Easter, which they call
llamadan. And on that day, great multitudes of men from divers and remote Countries, flocke
together to see his face. And he is carried upon a Mule, attired in princely garments, intermingled
with gold and silver, having his head adorned with a Myter, shining with stones of incomparable
price: but he weareth a blacke Handkerchiefe upon the Myter, ... But he commeth forth of his 45
Palace to the great house (as they call it) of Prayer, built in the gate Bosra: for that is a,ccounted
their greatest home of Prayer. ... All that whole yeere after he is conteyned within the Palace,
never to goe forth to any other place ». And of the chief of the small Jewish community dwelling
in Baghdad, the aChief of the Captivity», as he was called, he says: «But when he commeth forth
to visit the Great king, he is guarded with a great number of Horse-men, Jewes and gentiles 50
accompanying him, a Cryer going before him. ... 3ut he is carried upon an Horse cloathed with
silken and embroydered garments, he adometh his head with a Miter, upon the Miter he weareth
a white Shash, and upon the Shash a Chainea. Purchas, His Pilgrimes, VIII, 559—562. Conf.
1,20
BAGHDAD. J 07
M. N. Adler, The Itinerary of Benjamin of Tudela, London, 1907, 36 et seq. Such, it appears,
was the style m which the minor rulers residing in Baghdad paid their state visits to the Caliph,
who himself, as an Abbaside, wore a (.black handkerchief upon his mitre». What we know about
the official dress of the Nestorian patriarch seems to be quite compatible with Chou K'fl-fei's
5 account. Each patriarch, as we may conclude from Mar Amr's lives of the Nestorian patriarchs
(quoted below), was at his coronation endowed with a pallium (biruna) of some particular colour
peculiar to his government. This pallium is not clearly referred to in Chau Ju-kua's text, who
contracts into one word san (|^), umbrella, Chou K'fl-fei's words: (.protected by a blue (or
green) umbrella provided with threefold eaves» {fy^M^ ^St). This blue (or green)
10 umbrella may have got into the text from a mistaken description of the sacred gown called
biruna, the exact shape and use of which seems to be a matter in dispute. Assemani calls it a
((pontifical gowns in one place and a «cidaris» in another. A Chaldsean archbishop, consulted on
the meaning of the term, also gives four different explanations, the second of which seems to be the
most hkely to answer, viz. uhiruna vocatur indumentum exterius perlongum et amplum personam
IB totam cooperiens, ad modum fere togsie senatoriae aut purpurae cardinalitiae» (see Abbeloos
and Lamy, Barhebraei Chronic, ecclesiast., I, 355, note 2); and since Assemani, in his last
volume (III B, 683) distinguishes the liruna as a cidaris, i. €. a low turban, from the
opaenula, quae pluvialis formam repraesentat», it may have been a kind of hood, or cape,
used primarily for protection against rain, thus corresponding to the sacred gown called
20 phaina by the Jacobites and maajohra by the Nestorians. Assemani (op. cit., 674) describes the
final act in the coronation of the Nestorian patriarch in such a way as to suggest that the twOj
the maaphra or kaphila, i. e. the rain cloak, and the liruna, i. e. the turban, have to be put on,
before coronation can be pronounced to be complete. It seems that, whatever the two terms may
mean, they practically belong to one another, which may have given rise to the confusion existing
' 25 in their interpretation. It is quite possible that Ch6uK'u-fei, who was a native of Won-ch6u and,
when he wrote his book, held the post of Assistant Sub-Prefect in Kui-lin, the capital of
Kuang-si, collected his notes in Canton, which place he had to pass on his way from his home to
his official residence; and in Canton, as we know (see supra, pp. 14—16), there was then, and had
been for centuries, a large foreign, mostly Mohammedan, settlement. Among these foreigners
30 there may have been natives of Baghdad familiar with Nestorian institutions in that city, if not
some merchants, or business friends, who happened to be Christians themselves. One of these may
have supplied the information regarding the patriarch, and from his description of the ((pluvialen
forming part of his official dress, the Chinese writer may have misunderstood what was originally
a (irain cape, or cloak» to be an umbrella. Two years before the completion of Chou K'u-fei's
35 book, in 1176 A. D., the contemporary patriarch, by the name of Elias III, was elected and
ordained at Madain, npallio amictus pistacini coloris (see Gismondi, Maris Amri et Slibae De
I'atriarchis Nestorianorum Commentaria, II, 64). This vest, whatever it may have been, of
pistachio-green colour, the colour of the patriarch's personal reign,, may have something to do
with Chou K'ii-fei's ts'ing, i. e. «green», or «blue, umbrellas, since that word may cover both
40 shades (see Hirth, Ancient Porcelain, 7 et seqq.).
If Elias III be meant by Ch6u K'fl-fei's nking of Ta-ts'in», the tunnel leading from his
palace {cello) to the hall of worship {ecdesia) might be considered his work. For, we have two
passages testifying to his love of architectural enterprise. Mar Amr says (1. c.) that, after his
ordination at Madain, he proceeded to the patriarchal residence in the Christian quarter of
45 Baghdad, and when he observed its being in a state of ruin began to rebuild it together
with the church; that God favoured his ventures, and that by his exertions many benefices have
been brought about («Inde ad cellam in aedibus Eomaeorum positam profectus, eandemque
dirutam contemplatus, illam reaedificare coepit unS, cum ecclesia: favitque eius conatibus Deus,
operaque ipsius multa praestita sunt beneficias). The other passage occurs in B arhebrae us' Chro-
50 nicon (Abbeloos and Lamy, III, 370), where he is referred to as having built up the ruins of the
patriarchal residence and made it habitable (((Ipse ruinas cellae catholici instauravit et habita-
bilem fecits). The two passages do not distinctly mention the subway, but it seems suggestive that
just at this time both the palace, or cella, and the church of the patriarch were rebuilt. Jacobus.
108 BAGHDAD. 1,20
Golius (1596-1GG7) is quoted in Hettinger's Bibliotheca Orientalis, 62, as having referred to
Elias III as ((Patriarch of Antiochn, but Assemani ridicules the idea, because he says, the title
((Patriarch of Antioch» was never claimed by the Kestorians (see supra, p. 105, line 46).
8) Mahmud of Ghazni is wrongly reputed to have been the first sovereign prince to take
the title of Sultan, in 1002 A. D. It was later on borne by Togrul beg and the succeeding Seldjuk 5
princes. See de Guignes, Hist, des Huns, II, 162. In 1057 Togrul was made General of the Empire
and Governor of all the Moslim by the Caliph. In 1072 the Sultan Malekshah was given by the
Caliph the title of Amir el-Mumenin, which had only been borne by the Caliphs until then. On the
other hand the Caliphs were confirmed in their title by the Sultans. Ibid. II, 197—198, 214.
In the time just preceding the year 1178, when Ch6u K'il-fei's work appeared, the Caliphs 10
of Baghdad were politically powerless, though they continued to be the spiritual rulers of the
Moslim world. The political masters of Baghdad itself were the Seldjuk Sultans, descendants of
the great Malekshah. But even their power had begun to decline, and it seems doubtful which
of the several rulers bearing the title of Sultan in Ch6u K'il-fei's time is referred to by that
author. Possibly Saladin, who had captured Damascus and other Syrian cities, called himself 15
'Sultan' on his coins, and gave orders ' that in the mosque prayers the names of himself and
the Caliph of Baghdad should be mentioned. "When Elias III was elected Patriarch of the Nesto-
rians, Mustadi was Caliph (see Mar Amr, op. cit., 64); the Seldjuk Stittans immediately preceding
this period were Arslan and Togrul. See E. G. Browne, in J. R. A. S., 1902, 873-882.
Under the Seldjuk Sultans, the country was divided among numerous Emirs as feudal 20
lords, who had to deliver an annual tribute to the Sultan and who, in times of war, had to fit out
certain troops for service under the Sultan. Hence the remark that 'he orders the Ta-shi, etc.'.
See von Kremer, Culturgesch. des Orients, I, 254.
9) In Chou K'il-fei's work there follow here the references to T'ien-chu being a dependency
of Ta-ts'in and to the holy-water which quiets the -waTes; which our author has transposed to 35
the beginning of his chapter on T'ien-chu, see infra, p. 110 line 30 and p. 111. lines 7 — 9.
10) Chou K'il-fei probably took this reference to the gem called hie-ki-si from the Hou-
Han-shu, 1 18, where it is found mentioned for the first time. If the hie-ki-si was a gem, it probably
belonged to the same class as the ye-huang-pi or 'jewel that shines at night', which is said to
have been a product of Ta-ts'in. See Hirth, China and the Koman Orient, 79 and 242. See also 30
infTa. Pt. II. Ch. XLI. Kote.
11) The date here given is apparently a misprint, the Hou Han-shu gives the correct date,
ninth year of the yen-hi period', i. e. 166 A. D. See on this famous mission from Marcus Aurelius
Antoninus, Hirth, op. cit., 42 and 173. Cf. supra, p. 5.
12) Quotation from Tsin-shu, 97. See Hirth, op. cit., 45. 35
13) Quotation from H6u Han-shu, 118. See Hirth, op. cit., 42-43, 291—293. The
Weak-Water, as well as the other terms usually mentioned together with it, the Si-wang-mu,
the Bed Water (Ch'i-shui) and the Flying Sands (Liu-sha), appear in very old Chinese legends,
and, although it would be a fruitless task to seek to ascertain their actual whereabout (cf. F. AV.
Mayers, Chinese Readers Manual, Nos. 236, 330, 572), so much is certain, that these imaginary 40
abodes of a fairy queen were, according to the ideas of the original legend writers, neither in
T'iau-chi nor in Ta-ts'in. See also Hirth, Ancient History of China, 144 — 151.
14) Tu Huan, the author of the King-hing-ki, was made a prisoner by the Arabs in the
battle of Taras in 751 A. D., and lived among them for ten years, and, when released, returned
to Canton by sea. The King-hing-ki is an ethnographical work, fragmentsonly of which have been 45
preserved in the commentary of the T'ung-tien (^ M.. Chs. 191—193), the author of which,
TuYu(Jg;2 ■T/b), was his relative.
Tu Huan's account of Fu-lin throws a still better light on our identification of the coimtry
with Syria than the statements of the standard Chinese historians, because it was written by a Chinese
author who had resided in Western Asia during a clearly definable period (751 — 762 A. D.) thus 50
giving us an opportunity of comparing notes with information from contemporaneous western
sources. Chan ("^ Canton dialect, Shim), in the west, (not north or north-west), of which Fu-lin is
to be looked for, is a transcription of Sham, or ash-Sham, ((that which is on the left hand (looking
1,20 BAGHDAD. 109
to the rising sun).), i. e., tlie northern country from Mecca, or Syria. At the time of Tii iluan's
arrival in the West, it had just been the chief province of Merwan II, the last of the Caliphs of
the house of Omaya, with its capital at Damascus. This city itself is also called Sham. Chau
Ju-kua's text differs slightly from the original in the T'ung-tien. The latter says: «In the country
5 of Fu-lin there is the country of Chan (Sham), in the west screened off by (a range of) mountains
several thousand fi (in length)» CJ^^ |S^"S"|S ffi^lij|^i^M.)-
This seems to involve that Sham (Syria, or, in its most restricted sense, Damascus) was held to be
part of the Fu-lin country. The fragment quoted in the T'ung-ti6n contains yet another charac-
teristic addition omitted by Chau Ju-kua; it says that «when (the people of Fu-lin) are kept
10 as captives in the frontier states, they will rather accept death than change their national customsa
(^ ^ ^"^Wi M tJ^^^^JC^IPM,)- '^^''^ ^^ =^° improved translation
suggested by G. M. H. Playfair («The Mystery of Ta-tsm», in J. C. B. R. A. S., New Ser.
XX, 78, referring to the corresponding extract from Ma Tuan-lin, given by Hirth in China and
the Rom. Or., 83 and 116). PI ay fair applied this remark to the Israelites in exile, but there seems
15 to be no reason why Tu Huan should place on records facts of such remote antiquity as the
Babylonian captivity. On the other hand he is sure to have come into contact with, or have heard
of, the Syrian Christians living as captives among the Persians in Madain, or Ktesiphon, where
Khosru I, after the fall of Antioch in 540 A. D., had built for them a second Antioch as an
asylum for his Syrian slaves and a model of Greek civilization close to his Persian court
20 (Rawlinson, The Seventh Great Oriental Monarchy, 1876, 305, and Noldeke, Geschichte der
Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sassaniden, Leiden, 1879, 165 and 329). These Syrian Christians
had furnished the nucleus of a large foreign population on Persian ground, enjoying under their,
patriarchs rights amounting in ordinary times to those of an independent nation (see von Kr e-
mer, Culturgesch. des Orients, II, 174 et seqq.), while at other times they had to suffer the most
25 cruel persecutions, refusal to abandon the faith of their fathers being under Sassanide and
Moslem rule often visited by torture and capital punishment. It is to those martyrs of Christian
faith that Tu Huan refers, when he asserts that othe people of Fu-lin», i. e., the Christians,
originally of Syria, living under their patriarchs as captives in Persia, owill rather accept death
than change their national customsa. A celebrated case of Christian martyrdom is recorded by
30 Mar Amr (op. cit, 37) as having occurred just a year after Tu Huan's arrival in 752 A. D.: «per
id tempiis martyrium fecit Israel medicus, cui Deus requiem concedat». Cf. Assemani, II, 432.
Several of the notes placed on record in Tu Huan's fragment point to. Syria as the country
with which Fu-lin has to be identified. If it is said that the people drink wine, which he knew was
forbidden to the Mahommedans; this may be accounted for by the term Fu-lin covering the
35 Christian population, mixed of native and Roman, or Greek elements. Skilled artisans and clever
weavers of silk were notorious in Syria: so was an industry, not mentioned by Chau Ju-kua, but
referred to in the original quotation of the T'ung-tien, the manufacture of glass, which it is said «has
not its equal in the world (^ J^ ^ -^ 5^ "F ^ i^B)-" ^^^^ Ju-kua speaks of
10 000 men forming the army of Fu-lin, while the T'ung-tien text makes it to consist of a million.
40 The one figure is much too low, the other much too high for Syria under the Omaiads as well
as the Byzantine empire. But both texts have the words: «they have to ward offtheTa-shii). This
might tempt the defenders of the Constantinople theory to look upon it as an argument against
Fu-lin being Syria. But we have to consider that Tu Huan does not view things from an. histo-
rical point of view; he merely places on record what he had heard and seen on the spot. His
45 information is entirely contemporaneous, and refers to events immediately preceding and following
the year 751, when the battle of Taras was fought. This was just the time when the Romans
of Constantinople were much less molested by the Arabs than at any other period preceding, or
following for at least a generation. The great disaster of 718 A. D., when the Arab fleet was
entirely routed after a fruitless siege of thirteen months, owing to a combination of circumstances,
50 added to the murderous effect of Greek-fire, had discouraged the Arabs in their attacks for
generations to come; and since in the sequel, especially during the middle of the century, both
parties were fully occupied with domestic troubles, the Arabs with dynastic feuds* the Byzantines
with iconoclastic controversies, there would have been scarcely any occaison for Tu Huan to say
110 INDIA. 1,20
that (ithe Romans of the Eastern Empire had to ward off the Ta-shi». We have, therefore, to look
for a different explanation of this statement. In 751, the year of Tu Huan's arrival Jn the West,
the term Ta-shJ, from his point of view, applied to that portion of the Arabs who had just gained
that great victory over the Chinese under Kau Sien-chi, i. e. the Abbaside territory (see Chavannes,
Documents sur les Tou-kiou§: Turcs Occidentaux, 297). In his account of the Ta-shi (T'ung-tien, 5
193,23) Tu Huan says: othe country of Chan (Sham, or Syria, of which Damascus was then the
capital) is on the western boundary of the Ta-shlf» {'^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ffi ;^)j — which
seems to show that to him the Ta-shi were the Abbaside Arabs and that their western neighbours,
treated by him as a separate country, were the Syrians, then still iighting for their independence
here and there against the overwhelming numbers of the Abbaside armies, which had already 10
captured Damascus and driven the old Omaiad rulers out of the country. This view is supported
by Tu Huan's mentioning a city called by him A-ku-lo (^ -^ ^) as the residence of the
king of the Ta-shl. This can be none other than the city of Kufa, the residence of Abu'l-'Abbas,
the Syriac name of which, according to Bar Hebraeus (Abbeloos and Lamy, III, 112: Of.
Assemani, op. cit.. Ill B, 715) was Akula. Tu Huan had no knowledge of Baghdad, the 15
foundation of which by the second Abbaside Caliph in 762 A. D. fell in the year of his return to
China by a trading vessel bound for Canton.
15) Sin T'ang-shu, 221, has taken some of its statements concerning Ta-ts'in from T u
Huan's work, among others what he says of the people's fondness for wine and cakes, also the
passage conceriiing the «Devil marketn. See Hirth, China and the Roman Orient, 58, 60, 279, 283. 20
Ancient, mediaeval, and modern travellers mention such dumb trading in Asia and Africa.
Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian topography, 52 (Hakl. Soc. edit.) speaks of it as practised
between the Ethiopians and the Barbarians-^probably Somalis. Ta vernier, Travels in India, II, 68
(Ball's edit.) refers to it as existing in his time in India, and Begbie (The Malayan Peninsula, 8)
says it is used among the aborigines of the Malay Peninsula. Cf also what Chau Ju-kua says 25
(infra, Ch. XL) on the trade between the natives of the Philippines (Ma-i) and the Chinese.
21.
INDIA.
T'ien-chu (^ ^).
'(The country of T'ien-chu is subordinate to the country of Ta-ts'in»; so
its rulers are all selected by Ta-ts'in^.
It is the custom of the people to plait their hair and to let it- hang
down, but the temples and the crown of the head are covered with a silken
(^) turban. In their dwellings they use plaster (;g' ^) instead of tiles.
They have walled cities in which the people dwell. 35
The king dresses in brocaded silk, and his hair is wound into a spiral
knot on the crown of his head; the rest of the hair is cut short. "When
holding his court in the morning he sits on a tSng skin, — tong (^) being
the name of an animal, — ornamented with representations of various objects
painted in red wax; and his courtiers make obeisance to him and pray for 40
1,21 LNDIA. 1 1 1
bis life. "When lie goes forth he rides on horseback, and his saddle and bridle
are thickly set with dark gold (,|^ ^) and silver. His followers, three hun-
dred in number, arc armed with spears and swords.
His consort wears a gold embroidered scarlet dress with large sleeves.
5 Once a year she shows herself in pubhc, when considerable bounty is given
to the poor.
win this country there is holy- water ( ^ y\x.) which can still the wind
and waves. The foreign traders fill opaque glass bottles with it, and when
they suddenly get in a rough sea they still it by sprinkling this water on iU ^.
10 It is said that «during the reign of Siian-wu of the Posterior "Wei dyn-
asty (A. D., 500 — 515), T'i6n-chu sent envoys with a present of swift
horses (^ ,^). It is said that their country produces (|ij) hons, sables,
leopards, camels (^), rhinoceros, elephants, tortoise-shell, gold, copper,
iron, lead and tin, gold embroidered rugs (^ i^ ^ )& ^ ^ Ij )j jpo-tie
15 (Q ^) and fa-tong (^| ^|). There is a stone hke talc (^ -^), but of
a reddish colour; when split it is as thin as a cicada's wing; when put to-
gether the pieces look like silken gauze. There is the diamond (^ ||||J ^),
which looks like fluor-spar (^ ^ ^), but which will not melt, though
exposed to the fire an hundred times». It can cut jade-stono'.
20 There is sandal-wood (^ ^) and other aromatic woods, sugar-cane,-
sugar (:^ ^) and all kinds of fruits. They trade yearly with Ta-ts'in and
Fu-nan (^ ^). They use cowries as a medium of exchange. They are
clever jugglers. They have bows and arrows, armour, spears, flying-ladders
(^ ■^)» ^*P^ (^ M)^ ^^^ ^^^° *^® contrivances called the «wooden-oxen»
25 and the «gliding-horses» (;^ ^ ^ M); yet they are cowards in battle. They
are good astronomers and calculators of the calendar (^ ^ or astrologers).
They all study the Si-tau-chang-shu (^ # # #) [Note: A gap of
seven characters occurs here]. They use the leaves of the pei-to (^ ^) as
paper*.
30 In the periods chong-hian (A. D. 627—650) and fien-shou (690—
692) of the T'ang (this country) sent envoys with tribute (to our Court). In
the yung-Jd period (of the Sung, A. D. 984—988) a priest, by name Lo-
hu-na {M ^ t^p), arrived (in Ts'uan-chou) by sea; he called himself a native
of T'ien-chu. The foreign traders (# |^), considering that he was a foreign
35 priest (^ f^), vied with each other in presenting him gold, silks, jewels
and precious stones, but the priest had no use for them himself. He bought a
piece of ground and built a Buddhist shrine (^ ^ij) in the southern suburb
of Ts'iian-chou; it is the Pau-lin-yuan (gf ;j^ |^) of the present day \
112 INDIA. 1,21
Notes.
1) The words in brackets are substantially a quotation from Chou K'fl-fei's notes on Ta-
ts'in. See supra p. 105. The rest of the paragraph seems original -with our author. As in the account
of Ta-ts'in, Chau Ju-kua has mixed up a good deal of information derived from earlier Chinese
sources and applying to India (T'ien-chu) generally, with the India of the Ta-ts'in people, or 5
Christians, regarding whose dependency on the oking of Ta-ts'in» (i. e., the patriarch of Antioch
or Baghdad) see supra p. 105. The term T'i§n-chu, as here used, is not to be taken in all cases
in the broad acceptation in which other Chinese writers use it, for our author has described the
principal divisions of India in other chapters. It appears that Chau's T'i6n-chu was the coast
of Madras, at least so far as the first three paragraphs of this chapter are concerned; in the 10
rest of the chapter, derived nearly entirely from the T'ung-tifin and other Chinese authorities,
T'ien-chu must, I think, be understood in its broader meaning of India generally.
The manner in which the king, i. e., the head priest of the Christians, appointed by the
king of Ta-ts'in, dressed his hair might be looked upon as a strange anomaly, considering his
being deputed by the Syrian, or the Chaldaean, patriarch. But it appears that in India the 15
Christian clergy followed the native custom in this respect. Assemani (III B, 337) quotes Jose-
phus Indus (15 century?, Assemani, ib,, 439), who says «de Christianis Malabariae: Hi habent
sacerdotes, levitas et hypodiaconos. Sacerdotes vero non ferunt tonsuram, sed nonnihil capillorum
in summa parte capitis habent: quod et faciunt Saraceni, Persae, Indi, Tartari et Sinenses.)}
It might also appear strange that the metropolitan of the Christian church was allowed to 20
have a wife at all; but the history of Nestorian patriarchs shows that opinions on the question of
celibacy have changed a good deal. Certainly bishops could be married (Barhebraeus, op. cit.,
II, 64, 70, 80), and exceptions are even on record in the case of patriarchs, as in that of Babaeus
(498 — 503 A. D.), who was married and had sons and who «sanxit, ut ecclesiae ministJri universi
nuberent, nemine aut presbyterorum aut diaconorum sine uxore manente: haberentque singuli 25
propriam uxorem palam et publics secundum legis praescriptum: nee quisquam in posterum
caelibatum ia saeculari conversation! coleret, ut vitatur nempe peccandi periculum» (Mar Amr,
op. cit., II, 21; cf. Assemani, II, 408). One of the early bishops of India, known as Thomas
Cana, some time about the year 800 A. 1)., is even credited with having had two wives, one of
whom was held to be merely a concubine. Assemani (III B, 441 et seqq ) fills several pages of 30
his erudition with the account of this legend. Of the modern Christians of the church of
St. Thomas, Captain Ch. Swanston says (J. E. A. S., II, '241): «The celibacy of the priests
is with them rather a custom than a dogma: they admit, not only that it is not required by
Scripture, but also .its evil tendency and consequences; and in later years, some of them were
induced to marry by the influence and persuasion of the British authorities in Travanc6r, and a 35
marriage gift of four hundred rupees, presented by the sovereign of the country, to induce them
to return to the ancient usage of their forefathers, and to enter the nuptial state. The feeling of
the church is, however, against it.»
The Sung-shi, 490,s'' says that sometime between A. D. 984 and 988, there came to the
capital of China an Indian priest (^ ^ f^ ^'^) called Yung-sM (^ i^) in company 40
with aPersian heretic called A-li-yen(|S^ M ^)- Yung-shi said that his native land was called
Li-t6 (^Ij ^^: Lata of Masudi, was situated on the gulf of Cambay and was a part of the
kingdom of the Balhara). The sovereign of his country bore the family name of Ya-lo-wu-to
(^ M. 3S. f^), his personal name was A-no-ni (^^ P^ j^). His clothes were yellow,
his cap was of gold and covered with all kinds of jewels. When he went fofth h&rode on an 45
elephant or in a small sedan-chair, preceded by a great throng of people and to the sound of
conch shells and cymbals. When he visited the temples he made largess to the poor. His consort
whose name was Mahani ( J^ g^ ^), only appeared in public once a year, when she bestowed
great bounty on the people.
The name of this Indian priest means «Time ever-lasting, eternitya, and could never have 50
been borne by a Brahman or a Buddhist; it appears to me highly probably that Yung-shi was a
lb
Ij^l INDIA. 113^
MalaLar Christian, as may also have been the Persian «heretic» (^\> ^) who accompanied
him on his journey to China. *^
2) Quotation from Ch6u K'U-fcJ, in his notes on Ta-ts'in (see supra, p. 108, note 9). The
holy water here referred to must he that taken from the well Zemzem at Mecca. Ming-shi, in
its account of Mecca, says: «Behind the tomb of Ma-ha-ma (Mohammed) there is a well, the water
of which is limpid and sweet. People who start on the sea voyage use to take along with them
some water from this well, for it has the property of appeasing the waves in time of storm when
sprinkled over thesea». Bretschneider, Med..Eesearches, II, 303. San-ts'ai-t'u-hui (Pi6n-i-tien,
G8 Sec. T'i6n-fang) attributes the same property to the water from the well of Ishmael (o) fi
jK0)) or Hagar's well, this is the well Zemzem, according to mohammedan tradition.
2) The portion of this paragraph in quotation marks is taken from Tu Yu's T'ung-tien
(see supra, p. IDS, note 14). Hou Han-shu, 118,12», mentions among the products of India elephants,
rhinoceros, tortoise-shell, gold, silver, copper, iron, lead and tin, sugar (^ ^), pepper,
ginger, black salt, fine cloth, handsome rugs called t'a-tong — Liang-shu, 54,16*' says the usual
ll exports from India were rhinoceros (horns), ivory, leopards (skins), marmot (? skins), tortoise-
shell, huo-ts'i (j/^ ^), gold, silver, gold embroidered skin rugs, fine hemps (cloth?), po-iii
(muslin), fine fur garments and t'a-tong (ru-gs). «Huo-ts'i, it adds, is like talc, its colour is like
dark gold, it is brilliant. When cleaved it is as thin as a cicada's wing; when put together the '
j ..pieces look like silver gauzes. Huo-ts'i appears to be a foreign word; the substance referred to
20 may be isinglass. According to Porter Smith, Contrib. mater, med., 129, it is lapis-lazuli.
4) This paragraph was compiled from a number of earlier Chinese writers, largely from
T'ang-shu, 221A,i7 et seqq. According to tbe Nan-fang-ts'au-mu-chuang, I, 4, sM-mi is cane-
sugar. At the time that work was written, third century A. D., China got all her supply of sugar,
^ from Tongking and southern Indo-China, wTiere the sugar-cane appears to have been indigenous.
25 See de Candolle, Origine des plantes cultiv^es, 122 — 127. It was cultivate'd also in India as
early as the first or second century of our era, as we have seen by the reference made to it in
the Hou Han-shu in the previous note. By the sixth century its use must have been general in
Central Asia, for Sui-shu, 83, mentions that sugar came from various countries of Central Asia
and of the Sassanian empire. In the first half of the seventh century the cane was cultivated in
30 Central China, at Yang-ch6u (iter J>U in Kiang-su), but the Chinese did not know the process
of making sugar. Somewhere about A. D. 637 the Eiriperor T'ai-tsung sent a mission to Magadha
(i. e.. Central India) to learn the method of boiling sugar, and called the attention of his people
to the superiority of the Chinese cane. T'ang-shu, 221A,i9''.
At about the same time Htian-tsang mentioned among the articles of food of the people
35 of India sha-t'ang (vl? /|© agranulated sugar») and sJi'i-mi. He also stated that Gandhara had
much sugar-cane (^^ J0) and produced (or exported [jH )sfe?-mi. Si-yfi-ki, 2,lo^ 15*. — On
sugar and sugar-cane in ancient India, see Lassen, Indische Alterthumsk., I, 317 et seqq.
■ Sui-shu, 83, makes mention of another kind of sugar, or product of sugar, called pan-mi
4i ^ )• I can find no explanation of this term which, literally translated, means «half-honey».
40 Concerning the remarks about, the trade relations of T'ien-chu, H6u Han-shu, 118,io''
already referred to its trade with Ta-ts'in, and Liang-shu, 54,17* stated that Central T'ien-chu
had much sea-trade with Ta-ts'in, An-si (Parthia), Fu-nan, Ji-nan and Kialu-chi (i. e., Indo-China
generally). Our author quotes from T'ang-shu, 22lA,i7''.
Cowries were not the only medium of exchange in India even in the first centuries of our
45 era. H6u Han-shu, 118,io'' states that the Indians used coins of gold and silver; the ratio was
10 to 1. Hflan-tsang says «in the commerce of the country gold and silver coins, cowries and
small pearls are the media of exchangea. Watters, On Yuan-chuang's Travels, 1, 178.
The awooden ox» and the ((gliding horse» were, according to San-kuo-chii (Shu, 5,i3,i5),
contrivances for facilitating the transport of provisions of armies, and were invented in the third
50 century by the great Chinese general Chu-ko Liang. Conf. Mayers, Chinese Header's Manual,
s. v. Chu-ko Liang. I can find no explanation oifei-t'i, literally ((flying laddersn, or of ii-taur
literally ((earth roads, saps».
* 8
10
114 THE AEABS. 1,21
Si-tan ehang-shu appears to mean the «Siddbanta Book of Eules», and the work was
probably one on astronomy. Alberuni says in his India (Sachau's translation, I, 153) «The book
known among Muslims as Sindhind is called by them [the Hindus] Siddhanta, i. e., straight, not
crooked nor changing. By this name they call erery standard book on astronomy, even such
books as, according to our opinions, do not come up to the mark of our so-called ZiJ, i. e., hand-
books of mathematical astronomy. They hare five Siddhantas». See also Lassen, Indische Alter-
thumsk., IV, 621. On the usual, or orthodox, Buddhist sense of the word si-tan, i. e., a syllabary,
see Watters, On Yuan-chwang's Travels, I, 155—159 and Eitel, Handbook, 152. The text
is a quotation from T'ang-shu 221^,25*, the characters missing in_our text can be supplied
from it. The passage reads as follows ^^^^ij^S^^^H^^^-
«They. are able astronomers and they study (the work called) Si-tan-ehang, erroneously called
(by the Chinese) Fan t'ien-fa (i. e., Indian Astronomy))).
The H6u Han-shu, 118,12* and Liang-shu, 54,16* remarked on the Indians' cowardice and
weakness.
Pei-to (in Sanskrit patra, «a leafs) are the leaves of the borassus flabelliformis. Yu-yang- li
tsa-tsu, 18,7* says there are three kinds of jiei-lo tree in Magadha (Central India), the largest is
called to-lo-p'o li-ch' a pei-to (^ ^ ]^ "fl ^ M ^) which is in Sanskrit tala vrlcsa
patra «leaf of the tala tree.
5) The name of this priest, probably a transcription of Rahula, has often been used by
Buddhist monks ; it was the name of the son of the Buddha Gautama. The term hu, rendered 2*
aforeigns, is sometimes applied to Indians (see Pei-won yttn-fu, 70A s. v. ^ .^ "j^ ), though
usually used to designate the people of Western Asia.
Sung-shi, 490,s'' has it that in the yung-hi period (A. D. 984—988, the same in which
Lo-hu-na came to Ts'aan-ch6u), Tzi-huan (^fe !^)> *'■ priest of Wei-ch6u (^^ ^|>| ), came
back to China from the Western Regions with a foreign priest ("AH i@') by the name of Mi- 2S
tan-lo (0^ j^ ^^)" They presented to the Emperor letters from the Prince of Northern
India, and also from Na-lan-t'o (^^ ^ [i£)' Prince of the Diamond Throne (^ |^|J ^
-p i. e., Vajrasana, Buddhgaya). Mi-tan-lo is a transcription of Mitra, a common termination
of Indian Buddhist names.
22. 30
THE ARABS.
Ta-shi (;Ac ^).
«The Ta-shi ^ are to the west and north (or north-west) of Ts'uan-chou
at a very great distance from it, so that the foreign ships (^ ^) find it
difficult to make the voyage there direct. After these ships have left Ts'uan- 35
chou they come in some forty days to Lan-li (^ ||.), where they trade.
The following year they go to sea again, when with the aid of the regular
wind dp ^) they take some sixty days to make the journey».
The products of the country are for the most part brought to San-
fo-ts'i, where they are sold to merchants who forward them to China ^. 10
1,22 THE ARABS. 115
wThis country of the Ta-shi is powerful and warlike. Its extent is very
great, and its inhabitants are pre-eminent among all foreigners for their dis-
tinguished bearing)).
«The climate throughout a large part of it is cold)^, snow falling to a
5 depth of two or three feet; consequently rugs are much prized.
The capital of the country, called Mi-sti-U (^ ^ ^) (Note: Some
make it to be Ma-lo-pa |^ P||| :f^), is an important centre for the trade of
foreign peoples ^. «The king wears a turban of silk brocade and foreign cotton
«tuff (buckram). On each new moon and full moon he puts on an eight-sided
10 flat-topped headdress of pure gold, set with the most precious jewels in the
world. His robe is of silk brocade and is bound around him with a jade
girdle. On his feet he wears golden shoes. In his residence the pillars arc of
cornelian stone, the walls of lu-kan stone (^|j -^) (Note: It is as transparent
as crystal), the tiles of rock-crystal, the bricks of green stone (^ ^("jasper?),
15 and the mortar of hvo stone (y^ ^). The curtains and screens are of brocade
with rich designs woven in all kinds of colour in silk and pure gold thread *».^
The king's throne is set with pearls and precious stones, and the steps
of the throne are covered with pure gold. The various vessels and utensils
around the throne are of gold or silver, and precious pearls are knotted in
20 the screen behind it. In great court ceremonies the king sits behind this
screen, and on either side, protecting him, «the ministers of state surround
him)) bearing golden bucklers and helmets and armed with precious swords.
His other «officers are called Tai-wei (^ ^f); each of them has the
command of some twenty thousand horsemen. The horses are seven feet high
25 and are shod with iron. His army is brave and excels in all military
exercises)).
The streets (of the capital) are more than fifty feet broad; in the middle
is a roadway twenty feet broad and four feet high for the use of camels,
horses, and oxen carrying goods about. On either side, for the convenience of
30 pedestrians' business, there are sidewalks paved with green and black (or
blueish black, ^ H) flagstones of surpassing beauty.
«The dwellings of the people are like those of the Chinese, with this
difference that here thin flagstones (slates?) are used instead of tiles ^).
The food consists of rice and other cereals; mutton stewed with fine
85 strips of dough is considered a delicacy. The poor live on fish, vegetables and
fraits only; sweet dishes are preferred to sour (^ -^ # &£ ^). Wine
is made out of the juice of grapes, and there is also the drink (called) ssi
(.S M VM)) a decoction of sugar and spices. By mixing of honey and
116 THE AKABS. 1,22
spices they make a drink (called) mei-ssi'ta-Ma (^ y@» ^ ^ v®), which
is very heating ".
Very rich persons use a measure (^) instead of scales in business
transactions in gold or silver. «The markets» are noisy and bustling, and «are
filled with great store of gold and silver damasks, brocades, and such like 5
wares. The artisans have the true artistic spirit» ( JC |£ ^ l/Rj j^ ^
The king, the officials and the people all serve (or revere ^) Heaven.
They have also a Buddha by the name of Ma-hia-wu {^ ^ ^J)'- Every
seven days they cut their hair and clip their finger nails. At the New Year lo
for a whole month they fast and chant prayers ('^ •^" ;^ |M — ' H)'
Daily they pray to Heaven five times.
The peasants work their fields without fear of inundations or droughts;
a sufficiency of water for irrigation is supplied by a river whose source is not
known. During the season when no cultivation is in progress, the level of the 15
river remains even with the banks; with the beginning of cultivation it rise&
day by day. Then it is that an official is appointed to watch the river and to
await the highest water level, when he sunmions the people, who then plough
and sow their fields. "When they have had enough water, the river returns
to its former level ^. 20-
There is a great harbour (or anchorage -j^ y^) in this country, over two
hundred feet deep, which opens to the south-east on the sea, and has branches
(^) connecting with all quarters of the country (^ ^ '^ ^ ^)', On
either bank of the harbour (J^) the people have their dwellings and here
daily are held fairs (^ f|j ), where crowd (^g ^) boats and wagons, all 25
loaded with hemp, wheat, millet, beans, sugar, meal, oil, firewood, fowls,
sheep, geese, ducks, fish, shrimps, date-cakes (^ ^), grapes and other fruits.
The products of the country (of the Ta-shi) '" consist in pearls, ivory,
rhinoceros horns, frankincense, ambergris, putchuck, cloves, nutmegs, benzoin
{cm-si Mang), aloes, myrrh, dragon's-blood, asa-foetida, wu-na-isH, borax, 30
opaque and transparent glass, ch'o-¥u shell, coral, cat's-eyes, gardenia flowers,
rose-water, nut-galls, yellow wax, soft gold brocades, camel's-hair cloth,
tm-lo cottonades (^ ^ ,|^) and foreign satins (^ |g).
The foreign traders (^ ]^) who deal in these merchandise, bring
them to San-fo-ts'i and to Fo-lo-an to barter. 35
The folio wing, countries are dependencies, of this country (of the Ta-shi):
Ma-lo-mo {^ Rf ;^)" Nu-fa {fX ID
Shi-ho (Ifll ^) Ya-ssi-pau-hien (l^ |Zg ^ P^)
1,22
THE ARABS. 117
10
5 Lo-ssi-mei (P^ M H) i5 P'u-hua-lo (ff :^ ^)
Mu-kii-lan (tK -^ M) Ts'6ng-pa (^ ^g)'^
K'ie-li-ki i^ ;f] ±) Pi-p'a-lo (^^^ g pk)
-P'i-no-ye_(Bii; p^ ||J)>2 ^^_p^ ^^ ^^^ '
I-lu (P 1^) Wong-li (^ g)
10 Pai-ta (^ )i) 20 Ki-shi (Ig ||)
Ssi-lien (^, ^) Ma-kia (^ ^)
Pai-lien (Q ^) Pi-ssi-lo ^g^ ||f ^)
Tsi-ki {% ±) Ki-tz'i-ni (± ^ j/g)
Kan-mei (-^ ^) Wu-ssi-li (^ ff ^)-
This country (or people) was originally a branch of the Persians (y)j^
^). In the ia-ye period of the Sui dynasty (A. D. 605 — 617) there lived
a high-minded and wise man among the Persians who found deep down in a
hole a stone bearing an inscription, and this he took for a good omen. So he
15 called the people together, took by force the things necessary (for arming
men) and enrolled followers, who gradually increased in number till h^
became powerful enough to make himself king, and then he took possession
of the western portjoq of Po-ssl.
Since the ymg-hui period of the T'ang dynasty (A. D. 650—656) the
20 Ta-shii have come repeatedly to our Court to present tribute. Before the time
of their king P'6n-ni-mo-huan (^ X^ tIc ^ Beni MerwAn) they were called
(.White-robed Ta-shi»; after A-p'o-lo-pa (|Jp|' ^ ^ ^^ Abu'l 'Abbds) they
were called «Black-robed Ta-shi[» ".
In the fourth year of the kHen-to period of the reigning dynasty (A. U,
25 966) the bonze Hing-k'in (^ HJj) journeyed toi the Western Regions; on
this occasion an (Imperial) letter to their king was granted to enlist his
sympathy ".
In the' first year of the k'ai-pau period (A. D. 968) they sent envoys with
tribute to our Court, and in the fourth year (A. D. 971) they sent presents
80 with Chan-ch'pag and Sho-p'o to Li Yii (^ j^) in Kiang-nan^®. Yu did
not venture to accept them, so the' envoys submitted the matter to the Court,
anrl an Order in Council was issued forbidding that tribute presents should
henceforth be brought".
In the, fourth year of the shun-hua period (A. D. 993) they sent tribute
35 through the Assistant Envoy Li-a-wu (^ [(Jf ^) who stated, at an audience
granted him in the Ch'ung-chong Audience Hall (of the Palace), that his
country bordered on Ta-ts'in, and thatit produced ivory and rhinoceros
hoiTis. The Emperor T'ai-tsung asked him how rhinoceros and elephants were
118 THE AKABS. 1,22
captured. He replied, «To capture elephants, we use decoy elephants to get
so near them that we can catch them with a big lasso. To capture a rhino-
ceros, a man with a bow and arrow climbs a big tree, where he watches for
the animal until he can shoot and kill it. The young (rhinoceros) are not
shot as they can be caught». 5
The envoy was presented with a court dress, a hat and girdle, and,
besides these, with as much gold as the tribute presents were worth '^
In the third year of the yung-hi period (A. D. 986) envoys of the Ta-shi
came to Court with a mission from the Pin-t'ung-lung country "•
In the sixth year Men-p'ing (A. D. 1003) they sent Ma-ni and others lo
(Hfi Jg ^) with tribute of pearls and a request that return presents should
not be made them. Although the Emperor Chon-tsung did not want to
disregard their wish, when the envoys started on their homeward journey
they were dismissed with extraordinary honours ^''.
In the first year Jcmg-to (A. D. 1004) the (Arab) envoy remained behind is
at the capital, together with the envoys from San-fo-ts'i and P'u-kan, to
celebrate the Feast of Lanterns, on which occasion they were treated to their
heart's content with money and wine (^ ^ |^ -^) *^
In the fourth year (A. D. 1007) they accompanied a tribute mission
from Chan-ch'ong, and were on this occassion entertained with most parti- 20
€ular attention, and also allowed to visit the Buddhist and Tauist temples
9,nd the Imperial gardens and parks (^ g|) *^
During the ta-chung siang-fu period (A. D. 1008 — 1017), while the
Emperor was absent in the eastern part of the Empire for sacrificial pur-
poses, the chief T'o-p'o-li (^ ^^ "^f ) expressed the wish to be'allowed to 25
present his tribute presents in person (to the Emperor) on the T'ai-shan
(where he had gone to sacrifice). He was allowed to do so ^.
In the fourth year (of the same period, i. e., 1011), while the Emperor had
gone to F6n-yin (f^ ^) to make sacrifices, the envoy (T'o-p'o-li) came
again, and was ordered by the Emperor to follow the Court**. 80
According- to an old tradition told in, Kuang-ch6u (Canton), there was
a man from the Ta-shi country by the name of Wu-si-hu-lu-hua (fe ^
M' ^ ^-)' ^^^ ^^^ attained to the age of an hundred and thirty years. He
had double ear-beadings and an extraordinarily imposing aspect. He himself
Stated that long ago, impelled by his high regard for the civilization of the 35
Empire, he had embarked on a ship of the Ku-lo ("^ ^) country and had
made the journey to China. The Emperor presented him with a brocade
gown and a silver girdle, to" which he added a piece of silk^^
1,22 THE ARABS. 1 1 9
In both the yuan-yu period (A. D. 1086 — 1094) and the ^'ai-M period
(A. D. 1205— 1208) the Ta-shi sent missions to Court with tribute ^l
A foreign trader (||: ]^) by the name of Shi-na-wei (^ M W)^ ^
Ta-shi by birth, established himself in the southern suburb of Ts'uan-ch6u.
5 Disdaining wealth, but charitable and filled with the spirit of his western
home, he built a charnel house (^ ^) in the south-western corner of the
suburb (or outside the city in the south-west direction) as a last resting-place
. for the abandoned bodies (jg ^) of foreign traders^'. The Customs Inspector
Lin Chi-k'i {j^ ^ ^) has recorded this fact^s.
10 Notes.
1) Tfie name Ta-shi applied by the Chinese to the Arabs, and, as in the present work, to
(the MohamoMfcan world, is the nameTaziorTay of western Asiatic writers. See Bretschneider,
The knowledge possessed by the ancient Chinese of the Arabs and Arabian Colonies, 0. Among
the earliest mentions of it in Chinese works is that of the pilgrim I-tsing, who, in the middle of
15 the seventh century, speaks of the To-shi (^ .P^) "■^ interfering with travel on the road to
Kapi^a. Chavannes, Eeligieux eminents, 25. Another still earlier reference as far as facts are
concerned, occurs in the Tung-tien (193,22'') and the two T'ang-shu, where the first Arab embassy
to the Chinese court is recorded under the year 651 A. D. In the Kiu Tang-shu (198,28*) the
king's name is given as Ta-shi, \. e. Ta-shi was his «tribal» name (^ ~H^ ^j^ -^ ^^ .^)» '^'^
20 personal name being Han-mi-mo-mo-ni, probably a corruption for P'mir-al-Mumenin, the title of
the caliph, at that time Othman. According to the T'ang-shu (221 B, lo), the ambassadors «said
themselves that their king belonged to the Ta-shi tribe» (EJ '^ ^ -^ ■^l ^C)' ^^
appears from this that, whatever the origin of the Persian tasi may be, the king's tribal name,
or his surname, was stated by some of his own subjects to be Ta-shI, though there may be a
25 misunderstanding about that. The real meaning of the term, which appears as Tazi in Persian
and Uiguric (Vambery, Eudatku bilik, 234), Tadjik or Taeik with the Armenians, Turks and
Mongols, and Tayi, Ta-'i, Tayoye with the Syrians according to d'Ohsson (Histoire des Mon-
gols, I, 217, note), and which Dionysius, Patriarch ofAntioch, in his history of the world (eighth
century A. D.) refers to under the year 637 as Taj (Tajos vocat Dionysius, Assemani II, 103),
30 is apparently quite uncertain, so much so that we could not even say with absolute confidence
that they are all derived from the same root. Among the several forms in which the name
appears Tadjik, or Tazik, is Ihe most likely to be represented by the Chinese Ta-shi, pronounced
Tai-shik in Canton. But Ta-i as the ancient sound of -^ ^ is not quite impossible. The shl
of Ta-shi being ranged with the group of characters anciently read shik, or chik, may be due to
35 a guess made by the compilers of K'ang-hi's Dictionary. The reading i, though not the usual
one, is certainly backed by old sound authorities (R'ang-hi, s. v. ^ ad flnem: J^ ^ -^ -^
S,), so that Ta-shi may possibly stand for Ta-i. Bretschneider (Mediaeval Kesearches, I,
268, note) says «that d'Ohsson is wrong in stating that the Mongols called the Mahommedans
Tadjik; that, in early times [query: how early?] the Persians were called Tadjik, and even now-
40 a-days this name is applied in Turkestan and Transoxiana to the aboriginal Iranian population
there)).
2) This and the preceding paragraph are partly taken from Chou K'«-fei (8,2). Conf.
supra, p. 89, lines 3—6 and p. 120, n. 5; our author has attempted to edit the text of the Ling-wai-
tai-ta, but with no success. Ch6u says: «The name Ta-shi (3/1^ ^ ^ ^ H) i» ^ collective
-45 appellation for several countries. There are fully a thousand and more countries, but of those of
' which we know the name's there are only these few. ^^ __,
«There is the country of Ma-li-pa (|§ft ^f ;^g or R^ ^^); ships leaving Kuang-
120 THE AKABS. 1,22
clou during or after the eleventh mcon (Deceniter) and tailing vith a northerly wind, can make
the country called Lan-li (^ ||_ i. e., N. W. Sumatra) in forty days. Here they trade, buying
sapan-wccd, tin, and long vhite rattans. The following year, in winter, they set to sea again and,
with a uorth-easlcily wind favouring them, they maliC the voyage to this countiy of Ma-li-pa,
(i. c., the Hadramaut coast of Arabia) in some sixty days. 5
«The products (of Ma-li-pa) are frankincense, ambergris, pearls, opaque glass, ihinoceros
horns, ivory, coral, putchuk, myrrh, dragon's-blood, asa-foetida, liquid storax, oak-galls and
rose-water, to trade in all of which the countries of the Ta-shi resort to ibis place». See for the
remainder of Ch6u's description of Ma-li-pa, infia p. 121, note 11. The other countries of the
Ta-shii mentioned by Ch6u K'u-fe'i are Ma-kia, Pai-ta, Ki-tz'i-ni, Mei-lu-ku-tun and '\Yu-SEii-li; 10
his remarks on them are translated in subsequent notes to this work.
3) Mi-sa-li is the Mizraim of the Hebrews, our Egypt. The Aiabic Misr, derived from the
Hebrew, was applied by the Arabs to the capital of Egypt. In another chapter (XXXVI), derived
in all likelihood from different sources, our author writers the name Wu-ssi-li (^wj ^T J^ in '
Cantonese Mat-ssi-li). In the Yiian period the Chinese wrote the name Mi-ssi-ir (j?^ ffl^ -^)' "•
See Bretschneider, J. C. B. B. A.S., X, 29f', and Mediaeval Eesearches, I, 141, II, 135. In
another passage (Ch. XXXVI) our author calls the capital of Egypt Kie-ye, which is al-Kahirah,'
the name given the new city founded in 973 A. D. The popular Arabic name of Cairo is Kisi;
al-kahirah. Chau evidently thought that Mj-sO-li and Ma-lo-pa were the same place. He ^ot his
more or less original information and that derived frcm Chou K'tl-fei badly jumbled. Ch6.u'B 20
notes only referred to Ma-li-pa.
4) This description of the king's dress and of his palace resepibles what he ,tells us
elsewhere of those of the king of Ta-ts'in. Conf. also infra, Ch. XXXVI. Lii-kati, Canton dialect
luk-iow, is apparently a transcription of Arabic and Persian rttkham, nmarblc», or,«alabaEter»,
JJuQrsM, literally olive stone», may stand for Iva-nh'i, y© ^\, soap-stone, of which it js, aij 25
equiTalent, accoiding to Geerts, Les produits- de la nature Japonaise et Chinoise, 434 seq.
Porter Smith, Contributions towards the materia medica, etc., of China, 205, distinguishes it
as osteatitej), which he says ((differs from larditone in containing magnesia, havijng the composition
of a silicate, of magnesia and aluminai), and (ISO) he says of k'uai-huorsM (rat V^ -?l) t^*^*
it entered'into the composition of some of the old Chinese pottery of the best kind». Cf. Julien, 30
Histoire et fabrication de la porcelai.ne Chinoise, 76, 256 et seqq.
5) This paragraph and also the preceding ones of this chapter, when in quotation-marks,
as wejl as lines 4—5 on p. 116, are substantially taken from the statements made to the Chinese
court by Arabs who came there in the chovg-ho period of the Sung (A. D. 1111—1118). They
did not mention the name of the capital of their country, hence our author's •. uncertainty 35
concerning it. See Sung-shi, 490,i4. One is inclined to think that our author is .describing some
other city thaij Cairo, possibly Baghdad pr Damascus; but it is mpre likely that this picture of
tjie capital of the Ta-shi is, like many of those pf Chau Ju-kua, a composite one;
6) Most of this paragraph is taken from Ling-wai-tai-ta; see infra, p. 121, n. 11. The drink :
called sst is probably Persian $herle1, iharah tiadrangl t, drink, wir.e». Mtn, ss'i-ia and /.mo may 40
haye to he distinguished, the two first as transcriptions, the latter as a generic term, meaning
aflowec winei), the term hua-ts'iu, ^ ^ being backed by a number of passages quoted in
the Pi6n-tzi-lei-picp, 203,17. In another passage (infra, pj 127, n. 4) three kinds of drinks afc
mentioned, mi, sha and Ma; it seems probable that we should likewise distinguish three here; '
we?, fsi-ta and hva. Both transcriptions represent the same original forms, whatever they may be. 45
Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, 4,^^ says that «in Po-ssi, Fu-lin and adjacent countries they ferment rice or
seed of some kind in meat juice, When, after. some days, it has become wine, it is an intoxicating
drink)).
7) In Cantonese Ma-ha-mat, the Prophet Mohammed. The fast referred to is, of course
that of Bamadan. The weekly cutting of hair and nails is a quotation from I>ing-wai-tai-ta, 3,8*. 50
See4nfra,-Gh. XXX.
Ij22 TUB ARABS. 121
8) Confer what our author says here of the Nile with his other account of it in Ch XXX.
Ch6u K'tt-fei did not know of the Nile; our author, so far as we are aware, is the earliest
Chinese author to refer to it.
9) This may he a reference to Kolzum on the Ked Sea, the Clysma of late classical writers,
5 and to the canal re-opened by Amru somewhere about A. D. 642 between the Nile and the Eed Sea,
and which appears to have followed very closely the line of the Fresh-water Canal of the present
day. After its re-oponing by Amru it remained navigable for eighty years, when, choked with sand,
it was again abandoned. Muir, Annals of the early Caliphate, 244. Another possible and more
probable explanation is that it refers to OboUah and Basra, a district famous for its canals, which,
10 accordiug'to Ib'n Haukal, exceeded 100,000 in number, and of these 20,000 were navigable for
boats. Le Strange, Land of the Eastern Caliphate, 46.
10) The list of products here given includes the most important ones brought to China by
the Arabs from various countries of the West; more detailed descriptions of them arc given in
Part II this work.
15 , 11) The last character is certainly an error, it should be ^a(ii&). In another passage (Pt. II,
Ch. XXXVI) our author, however, writes the name Ma-Io-mo (^^ R|^ -f^)- ^^ shown in a pre-
vious note (supra, p. 25 note 3-) the country referred to is Mirbat (Lb^) on the Hadramaut
coast of Arabia. Ch6u K'fl-fei says of it (3,2, continuing the passage quoted supra, pp. 119—120):
«The king of the country, the officers and the people all worship Heaven (i. e. are iloslims). The
20 gentry wear turbans of white silk falling down the back; they have designs in gold thread in them;
Their clothes are. made of white yui-no stuff with golden characters in it, or else of brocades (f
sundry kinds. They wear red leather boots. They live in five-storied houses. They eat wheaten
cakes, meat and milk. The poor eat fish and vegetables. The soil does not produce rice. The fruits
they produce are more sweet than sour. They make wine from grapes. There is also the drink
25 (called) ssi (}^^ ^^ V®) ''^hich is a decoction of sugar and spices. Mixing honey and spices
they make drinks (called) me?, ss'i-la, hua ( j^ ^^ :J*J' 3pE), which are heating and stimulating.
Their coins are of toth gold and silver. (It is a place) where big ships and wealthy traders con-
gregate ( g ^ *M ^ "^1^ ^ )• ^"^ *'"'' *^''''^ y^'"' J/"«w-2/'« of Ch&-tsuug (1088 A. D.) in
the eleventh moon, people sent by the Ta-shi of Ma-lo^pa presented tribute to our Court. Now this
30 Ma-lo-pa is the same as Ma-li-pa» {^ ^^ -l'^)' ^'''"^■s''*'i makes sundry mentions' of «the
country of Ma-lo-pa of the Ta-shi». It records (17,s) the coming of the mission of 1088, spoken of
by Ch6u K'u-fei, and also (17,i3) that of missions from the same country in 1089 and in 1094. ■
12) Shi'-ho is Shehr, another port on the Hadramaut coast, of considerable importance in
mediaeval times; it is the Esher (or Soer) of Marco Polo, sec Yule's, Marco Polo (2^ edit.), II,
'35 324, 439 and Heyd, Hist, du Commerce, II, SOO. See also infra, Pt. II, Ch. XXV.
Nu-fa is Zufar, the modern Dhofar f^UJi), the Dufar of Polo, about 400 miles E^of Shehr.
Yule, op. oH., II. 441-442, Hey d, op. cit., II, 015. Ming-shi, 326, calls it Tsu-fa-ir (|g^ ^ ^).
• " Ya-ssi-piin-hito, in Amoy dialect A-su-pau-han, is Ispahan or Isfahan. In the Yuan
period we find the name written I-ssi-fa-hang (:^ ,g, ^ i^). Cretschneider, J. C. B'.
40 A. S., X, See also infra, Pt. II, Ch. IX.
Lo shJ-mei in Cantonese Lo-shi-mi, appears to be a tiimcated transcription of Khwaiizm,
the country south of the sea of Aral; Lo-shi-mei probably representing the sound rizm. See alsd
infra, Pt. II, Ch. IX. It is called Ho-li-si-mi-kia ( ^ ^|] ^ ^ jjp ) by H U a n-t s a ng (J u 1 i e n,
HI, 283), andis probably first referred to (Ts'ien Han-shu, 96A, 176) as one of the dependencies of
45 K'ang-k'u (Sogdiana) under the name of Au-kien (^ ^), the old sound of which characters,
according -to Yen Shi-ku, was Dk-ken, which may be connected with the name of the present city
of Kuhne, (Old) Urgendj, the GorgSniya of the Middle Ages. In the commentary on this passage (see
Han-shu Si-yQ-chuan-pu-chu, l,si) Au-kien is identified with Huan-tsa^'s Ho-li-si-mi-kia,andthe
abbreviated names (appearing in T'ang-shu, 22 1 B,5)of Huo-siin (^ ^) andKuo-li()j^ ^|J),
50 which the T'ang-shu says correspond with the site of the ancient city of Au-kien The description
of the T'ang-shu leaves but little doubt about the identification of all these names with
Khwarizm.
122 THE AKABS. 1)22
Mu-ku-lan, in Cantonese Muk-ku-lan, is the Makran province; there is another reference
to it in Pt. II, Ch. XXIX.
K'ie-li-ki, in Cantonese K'e-li-kat, is presumably Kalhat, the Calatu of Marco Tolo
II, 448). It carried on a lively trade with India in mediaeval times. It was subject to the prince
of Hormuz. _ ^
P'i-no-ye, in Amoy dialect Fi-lok-ya, is a transcription of Arabic Ifrikya, Africa, but
applied by the Arabs to that part of it which included the present Tunis and Tripoli. See Hirth,
Die Lander des Islam, 27, note 6 and infra, Pt. II, Ch. XXXI.
13) I-lu, appears to be the province of Irak. There is no other reference to it.
Pai-ta is Baghdad, see infra, Ch. XXX. '"
Ssi-lien, may very likely be Siraf (■-i\j-y>^) on the Persian Gulf, which in the ninth and
tenth centuries was the starting-point of the Arab ships engaged in the Indian and Chinese trade.
It may, however, be Shiraz. Our author makes no' other reference to it.
Pai-lien, the island of Bahrein in the Persian Gulf. This is the only reference to it.
Tsi-ki, jn CantoneserTsik-kat, possibly the port of Tiz on the Makran coast and in 15
mediaeval times its chief commercial centre. See Holdich, The Gates of India, 298—301. The
name does not occur elsewhere in this or other Chinese works of the time.
Kan-mei, in Cantonese Kom-mui, in Amoy dialect Kam-bi. The name suggests the Comoro
islands. It does not occur in any other passage of this work. It is hardly likely to be Cambay,
which our author refers to under the name of Kan-pa-i (supra, p. 88). 20
P'u-hua-lo, is Bokhara. See Bretschneider, J. C. B. E. A. S., X, 240.
Ts'6ng-pa, probably the Zanzibar coast; see infra, Ch. XXIV.
Pi-p'a-lo, is the Berbera coast, see infra, Chs. XXV and XXVII.
Wu-pa, possibly Sohar L\s^) on the Persian Gulf; see infra, Ch. XXVI.
"WSng-li, is an error for VV6ng-(or Yung-)man, Oman; see infra, Ch. XXVIIl. 25
Ki-shi, is the island of Kish (Keis), in the Persian Gulf; see infra, Ch. XXIX.
Ma-kia, is Mecca; see infra, Ch. XXIII.
Pi-ssi-lo, is Basra, at the head of the Persian Gulf; see infra, Ch. XXXI.
Ki-tz'i-ni possibly Ghazni; see infra, Ch. XXXII.
Wu-ssi-li, in Cantonese Mat-ssi-li, is Mosul or Misr; see infra, Chs. XXXIII and XXXVI. 30
14) This and the preceding paragraph are based on T'ang-shu, 221*. See Bretschneider,
Ancient Chinese and Arabs, 7,9. The Sung-shi, 490,ia quotes these two paragraphs textually. It
seems extraordinary that the Chinese should have had such a very vague notion of the Prophet's
history and of the rise of Arab power. The Omayyad Merwin II, the l9,st Caliph of the house of
Omayya, was killed in A. D, 7gO. Abu'l-Abbis, the first of the Abbaside Caliphs («Black-robed 35
Ta-shi»), was proclaimed Caliph th^ same year at Kufa. Mohammed's Call was in A. D. 609 or
610; this may be the event referred to in our text.
15) Sung-shi, 2,s, says that on this occasion 157 persons were sent fdrth by the Emperor
to visit the Western regions, to each of whom was given 30,000 cash. In book 490,16, this para-
graph of our text is reproduced with only slight changes. 40
16) Li Yu, Prince of the Southern T'ang, after making his submission to the first Emperor
of the Sung in A. D. 972, rebelled three years later and held Nanking against the imperial forces
under Ts'au Pin. The city was taken by storm and the principality incorporated in the Empire.
Macgowan, History of China, 365—366. Mayers, Chinese Reader's Manual, 231.
17) Ta-shii continued, however, to come to the Court of the Sung. Sung-shi', 2, 3, and 4, 45
make mention of their presence there in 973, 974, 975, 976, etc. In 976, the Ta-shii seem to have
formed an official mission, the only one recorded down to that of 1019. In connexion with the
•mission of 976, Snng-shi, 3,io'' says the Prince of the Ta-shI was called K'o-li-fu (IpT ^^ iffl
Caliph) and the envoy's name was P'u-hi-mi (^ ^ ^S or Pu-lo-hai ^ li^ yS in an-
other passage (490,16*'), both forms transcribing probably Abu-Hamid). Sung-shi, 490,18*' mentions 50
a Li-a-wu, who in 1008 sent presents to Court; he is called «ship-mastcr» (-JM i). See
infra, note 23. A mission under an Arab came from P'o-ni (Borneo) in 977. See, infra," p. 157.
1,22 THE ARABS. 123
18) The oCourt Chronicles of the Sung-shi does not mention any visit of the Ta-shi in
993, though there is one recorded in 994. A mission which came to the court in 993, is referred
to in some detail in Sung-shi, ^gOjie* et seqq. The head of the mission was again the one
mentioned before as P'u-hi-mi (Abu-Hamid), ali&s- Piv4o-hai. He is described as the master of
5 an Arab vessel, but being too old and sick to proceed to court himself, he sent his assistant
captain Li-a-wu with his credentials, in which he addresses the Emperor on his own behalf,
thanking him for past favours bestowed on him and the foreign trade at Canton, while
explaining the reasons for his not submitting his tribute in person. Then again in 995 a tribute
mission arrived under the o8hip-master» P'n-ya-t'o-li (^ iffl K^ ^^)' ^^° deputed P'u-
10 hi-mi (Abu-Hamid) again to offer his tribute at court. During the audience the emperor enquired
about his country, when he stated, among other details, that «it was conterminous with Ta-ts'in,
which, being a dependency, was now governed by his native country)) ( e3. ~7C ^^ ^ >|iH
||lJ-^^j^J@-^;7|S0jS/f^;^). Then follows the account of the elephant
and rhinoceros hunting. It will be seen that Chau Ju-kua differs by two years as to the date
15 of the audience. In 988 P'u-ya-t'o-lr came again- as envoy from San-fo-ts'i.
19) Sung-shi, 5,a4 records a visit to the Court of China of Ta-shi and people from Pin-
t'ung-lung in the third year elii-tau (A. D. 997), but none in the third year yUng-hi; the nien-
hau only differing. See also Sung-shi, 490,18^' and supra, p. 52, note 3.
20) Between the visit of 997 and that of 1003, Sung-shi, 6,8, records the coming in 999 of
•20 « South-western barbarians, people of Chan-ch'ong and Ta-shi». The following year it notes (6,ii)
the coming of people from Ta-shi, Korea, and Kau-chou ( "^ J>|4 ) aborigines. Concerning the
mission of 1003, two references are made to it, in the first (7,2) it is simply stated that in the sixth
year hien-p'ing San-fo-ts'i and the Ta-shi came with presents. In the second reference (490,18'') it
is said that in the sixth year hien-p'ing the Ta-shi sent as envoys dP'o-lo-k'in, San-ma-ni and
25 othersB (j^ ^S ^|^ ^_ ^ J8 ^^) with tribute. oMa-ni and the others were received
in audience in the tJhung-ch'Sng tien (hall), etc.)). Bretschneider, Ancient Chinese and Arabs,
15, referring to this mission (he puts it in 1004, and gives the name of the envoy as Po-kin-lo-san-
mo-ni), is of opinion that the last three sounds of this name indicate an allusion to the Arabian
dynasty of the Samanides, who reigned till the beginning of the eleventh century in the East and
30 had their capital in Bokhara. Chavannes, Le Nestorianisme, 38, 40—41, says of the word
Ma-(or Mo-)ni ( ^ IE also written "^P y|j^) that it was used solely to designate Mohamme-
dans. He refers to this mission of 1003 as a proof that the Mani were Moslim. According to
Broomhall, Islam in China, 05, n. 2, Mo-ni has been sometimes used, erroneously, by tho
Chinese to transcribe the word Mullah. He gives an example of this in the K'ien-lung inscription
35 of 1764 in the Peking mosque on the Ch'ang-an-ta-chieh. Devgria, Musulmans et Manicheens
chinois (Journ. Asiat., 1897, X, 477) looks upon the words P'o-lo-k'in-san-ma-ni as an Arabic
name, such as Balkin- Samftni, or Balkin-^s-Samani. But this seems improbable. Samani is
wrong, and Dev§ria confounded Samani (JiLoLw) and Sam' ani (^U^-w); furthermore Balkin
cannot be an Arabic word.
40 21) Sung-shi, 490,18'" referring to this mission, uses the same language as our author, but,
instead of the last four characters used by Chau, it has ^ |^ j^ ^ ^ -pj,
22) Conf. Sung-shi, 7,14'' and 490,18".
23) According to Sung-shi, 7,i9, T'o-p'o-li came to Court in 1008, with people from San-
fo-ts'i and csouth-western barbarians». In another passage (490,13'') it is said that in the third
45 year hien-p'ing (A. D. 1000) «the ship-master (^ ^) T'o-p'o-li sent as his messenger Mu-
ki-pi {^ ^^ ^) with presents to the Emperor; when Mu-ki-pi went back the Emperor
sent to T'o-pVli a letter and also vessels (of porcelain), clothes, a saddle and a horse... :» In
the tenth moon of the first year ta-chung siang-fu (A. D. 1008), while the Emperor was absent
in the eastern part of the Empire for sacrificial purposes, T'o-p'o-li asked to be allowed to go
50 to the T'ai-shan to there offer his presents to the Emperor. He was allowed to do so. (The_same
year) the ship-master Li-a-wu (see supra, p. 117, line 35) sent a messenger Ma-(hia-)wu (^j^ /^
Mohammed) by name, who presented to the Emperor a jade -stone badge (^ ^). of great
124: MECCA. 1,22
beauty ...» These references are of great interest as showing the closeness of the commercial
relations existing between the Arab traders and the Court of China. The Sung-shi contains
frequent references to these Arab ship-owners and their visits to the court of the Sung emperors.
To-p'o-li was apparently given a Chinese title on the occasion of his visit of 1008, for in 1011
he is called ((General who has returned to virtueu (^ 4^ ij|^ W). He was again at 5
Court in 1019. Similar titles were conferred on other Arabs on subsequent occasions.
24) Fen-yin, is the present "VVan-ch'uau (Mi -^) in P'u-ch6u-fu in southern Shan-si.
Playfair, Cities and Towns, A?! 7001. Conf. Sung-shi, 8,i and 480,19", where the list of presents
is given; T'o-p'o-li is there spoken of as «K'ui-to tsiang-kiin T'o-p'o-li».
25) Sung-shI, 490,19* reproduces this story with a slight variant; it begins by saying: 10
«In 1012 it was said in Kuang-chou that the Ta-shi Wu-si-hu-lu-hua had lived to the age of
130i), etc. Jt is iilan^ven in the Tung-si-yang-k'au, i,&^; the hero of the story is there said to
have come from Acheen in Sumatra (p3§ 7^ ), nwhich was formerly a Ta-shi country»; from
which we may infer that, in the Min^ period, Ku-lo was supposed to have been on the Sumatra
coast. Conf. supra, p. 76. .15
26) Sung-shi, 17,is, says that in 1094 people from Maii-li (^& ^^ a country otherwise
unknown, but which may be the same as the Mo-lai of the T'ang period, i. e., Kulam-Male), Ma-
lo-pa (Itofi, PS ^j^ or ^^ Mirbat) and Arabs (Ta-shi) brjpught presents to Court. No visit is
recorded during the k'ai-hi period (Sung-shI, 38,8-18).
27) Ts'u4n-ch6u-fu-chi, as quoted in T'u-shu-tsi-ch'orig (Sect. VI, Cb. 1045), says that on 20
the Ling-shan, or aHill of soulso, in the south-eastern part of Ts'uan-ch6u were the Mohammedan
tombs or the atombs of the Medina-men» as they were called. We have shown in a preceding
note (supra, p. 14, n. 4) that there is some evidence that Islam was brought to Ts'uari-chdii
in the early part of the seventh century. T'u-shu-tsi-ch'ong (Sec. VI, Ch. 1500), quoting local
chronicles, says that a mosque called the Ch'ing-ching-ssi, was built by Moslims (Hu-jon) during 25
the period 1131 to 1163. '
28) Sung-shi, 334,10 gives a biography of Lin Chi-k'i; he is there called Customs Inspeictof
of Min (Fu-kien). He died in 1170. He wrote a. number of works, one called Tau-shan-ki-w6u
(^ W bS ^) is possibly that referred to. See Hirth, Lander dcs Islam, 33.
23.
MECCA.
30
••" ■ ■ Ma-kia mM)- ,. .
The country of Ma-kia is reached if qne travels from the country of
Ma-lo-pa for eighty days westward liy land.
This is the place where the Buddha Ma-hia-wu (^ g^ ^) was born. 35
In the House of the Buddha the walls are made of jade stone (or precious
stones) of every colour. Every year, when the anniversary of the death of the
Buddha comes round, the people from all the countries of the Ta-shi assemble
Jiere, jslieu -ihey vie with each other in bringing presents of gold, silver,
1,23 MECCA. ] 25
jewels and precious stoues. Then also is the House adorned anew with silk
brocade.
Farther oif there is the tomb of the Buddha. Continually by day and
night there is at this place such a brilliant refulgence (p; ^) that no one
5 can approach it; he who does loses his sight.
Whosoever in the hour of his death rubs his breast with dirt taken
from this tomb, will, they say, be restored to life again by the power of the
Buddha.
Note.
10 The journey from Mirbat on the H^dramaut coast, through the Tehama (south-west coast
of Arabia) to Mecca was the old trade-route of the Sabeans, it is presumably the one referred to
in our text.
The whole of this chapter is taken from Ch6u K'tt-fei (3,2*'). He says: aThere is the country
■ of Ma-kia, which is reached if one journeys for eighty days and more westward by land from the
15 country of Ma-li-pa. It is the place, where the Buddha Ma-hia-wu (Mohammed) was born. In the
House (^ ~)j ^) of the Buddha, the facings of the walls of the rooms are of precious stones
(^)-of every colour. Every year, when the anniversary of the Buddha's death comes roiind, all
the princes of the Ta-shi send people bearing presents of jewels, gold and silver, and they cover
the House (yjf ^^ i. e., the Kaaba) with silk brocades. Yearly the (various) countries (of the
20 Ta-shi) come here to visit the House and to offer prayers. Furthermore the high officials of these
countries are not deterred by a journey of a myriad U; they all assemble to worship the House.
ccFarther off (literally, Bbehind» .:i^) there is the tomb of the Buddha, where day and
night there is such a brilliant refulgence that no one can approach it, those who do shut their
eyes ('^ BM' ^^^ ^^^ ^y- ■'* ^* ^^'"^ ^^^^ '^ ^ ^^'^ ^^ dying and takes some dirt from oif this
25 tomb and smears it on his breast, he is restored to life, so great is the power of this Buddha!»
Chou K'ii-fei is, so far as lam aware, the first Chinese author who wrote of Mecca. The
T'ang-shu (22l'',23) speaks of Mohammed (|$ =|n[ ^) and of Medina (^ Jjjj ^|5), of the
Black Stone of the Kaaba, but not of Mecca. It gives, however, some interesting information about
Islam which our author might with advantage have incorporated in his work^ Among other
30 things, it speaks of the five daily prayers to the nSpirit of Heavenu (^^ )Iiw)i ^°^ of the
mosques, which it calls li-t'ang (mp ^), and which can hold many hundreds of people. aHere
every seven days the king from a high seat speaks to those below saying: 'Those who die fighting
shall be born in Heaven; those who kill an enemy shall receive happiness)).
The oHouse of the Buddha)) of Chou's text is not the Prophet's birthplace (Maulid el Naby)
85 in Mecca, but the oHouse of Allah» (Bayt Ullah), better known as the Kaaba or ocube housei);
the Chinese name {~fj ^) has the same sense. In the Yuan and Ming periods Mecca was
called «The Heavenly square)) (^ ~^)j ^^ abbreviation of the earlier name.
Burton, Pilgrimage to El Medinah and Meccah, II, 278 says that the birthday of the
Prophet (twelfth of the month Eabi' el Auwal) is celebrated in Mecca with great festivities, feasts,
40 prayers and perusals of the Koran.
On the brilliant light which is said to emanate from the tomb of the Prophet, con£ what
Barthema, who was in Medina in 1503, says ofit in his travels (Purchas, His Pilgrimes, IX, 66).
When visiting the tomb of the Prophet, the Elders who accompanied him and the Captain of his
party suddenly cried out; awe asked what was the cause of that exclamation. The Elders
45 answered: Saw you, not the lightning which shone out of the Sepulchre of the Prophet Mahumet,
Our Captaine answered, that he saw nothing; and we also being demanded, answered in like
manner It is therefore to be understood, that none other shining came out of the
Sepulchre, than a (iertaine flame which the Priests caused to come out of the place of the Tower
spoken of here before, whereby they would have deceived us)). . . ,
126 ZANGUEBAK. ' 1)23
Burton, op. cit., I, 309, n. 311, n., says that there is a superstitious story connected with, the
tomb of the Prophet (Masjid El Nabawi or .(Prophet's Mosque») in Medina, that when the
eunuchs who have charge of the tomb enter the baldaquin to place over the tomb a new kiswah,
they guard their eyes with veils against the supernatural splendours which pour from the tomb.
These eunuchs say that anyone who ventures to approach the tomb would be at once blinded by
the supernatural light.
24.
ZANGUEBAR.
Ts'6ng-pa (^ ^f J).
The Ts'oDg-pa country is on an island of the sea south of Hu-ch'a-la. i«
To the west it reaches to a great mountain'.
The inhabitants are of Ta-shi stock and follow the Ta-shi religion. They
wrap themselves in blue foreign cotton stuffs (|S ^ # ^) and wear red
leather shoes. Their daily food consists of meal, baked cakes (^ '^) and
mutton^. 15
There are many villages, and a succession of wooded hills and terraced
rocks^ mn\h^^m^^m§.)-
The climate is warm, and there is no cold season.
The products of the country consist of elephants' tusks, native gold,
ambergris and yellow sandal-wood. 20
Every year Hu-ch'a-la and the Ta-shii localities along the sea-coast send
ships to this country with white cotton cloth, porcelain, copper, and red
cotton* (j^ ^ ^) to trade.
Notes.
1) Ts'5ng-pa, in Cantonese Tsang-pat, is Zange-bar or Zanzibar «the region of the Blackss
which, according to Masudi (Prairies d'or. III, 7), extended along the east coast of Africa «from
the channel issuing from the upper Nile* (presumably the Eiver Jubb) to the land of Sofala and
of the Wakwak. Marco Polo regarded the coast of Zanzibar as belonging to a great island like
Madagascar. Yule & Burnell, Glossary, 746.Ma3udi(op. cit.. Ill, 31)included in the land of the
Zanj the islands along their coast, including that of Kanbalu (presumably Pemba) in which he tells 80
us (op. cit., I, 232) there lived a population of Mohammedans and Zanj idolaters. See infra, Ch.
XXXVIII. 2.
The mention of a great mountain on the western border of the Ts'6ng-pa country is very
interesting; can it be Kilimanjaro? The placing of Ts*6ng-pa to the south of Guzerat is readily
explained by the iact that junks going from Guzerat to the east coast of Africa would have to 35
sail a general southerly course. See supra, p. 79, line 26 et seqq.
2) These Ta-shi lived probably in some town, Quiloa perhaps, on the coast. Ibn Batuta,
II, 192 says that Culua (Quiloa) was a great city whose inhabitants were for the most part Zanj
of very dark complexion. Masudi (op. cit., Ill, 6, 30—31) says that the Zanj were of the same
1)21 ZAXOUEBAK. 127
stock as the Abyssinians, they had no religion, but each man worshipped whatsoever he pleased,
a plant, an animal, a stone.
3) Masudi, op. cit. III, 7—8, says, that the country of the Zanj was 700 parasaug long
and as many wide. It was «cut by valleys and mountains and sandy deserts*.
5 4) Masudi, op. cit., Ill, 7—8, says the land of the Zanj abounded in elephants; also that
the ivory was shipped to Oman and thence to India and China. See also infra. Pt. II. Chs. XXXVI,
XXXVIIl. Marco Polo (II, 404) says that on the island of Madagascar «they had many trees
of red Sanders of excellent quality; in fact, all their forests consist of it». See also infra, Pt. II,
Ch. XII. Marco Polo, II, 416 says of Zenghibar: «the staple trade of the Island is in elephant's
10 teeth, which are very abundant; and they have also much ambergris, as whales are plentiful)).
The reference to sandal-wood as a product of Ts'6ng-pa is interesting, it was probably brought
there from Madagascar, which seems vaguely referred to in Ch. XXXVIIl, 2.
Chinese porcelain of the Sung dynasty has beOn found in Zanzibar. Dr. S. W. Bushell
says (North China Daily News, May 9, 1888): aSir John Kirk during his residence as Consul-
15 General at Zanzibar, made a collection of ancient Chinese c61adon porcelain... Some of it was
dug up, I believe from ruins, mixed with Chinese cash of the Sung dynasty ...» See also
Hirth, J. A. 0. S., XXX, 55—57 and S. W. Bushell. Description of Chinese pottery and
porcelain, XVI.
Theo. Bent found among the ruins in the fort of Gibliah on the island of Bahrein, numerous
20 fragments of afine Nankin and Celadon china, attesting to the ubiquity and commerce of the
former owners ...» Southern Arabia, 18.
_^ Sung-shJ, 490,20''— 21", contains a short description of a country called Ts'Sng-t'an (^^^
^|g) which we are disposed to think is practically the same as the Ts'ong-pa of our author, or
some place in it, though the second character of the name is puzzling. It reads as follows:
25 «Ts'Ong-t'an is on the Southern Ocean. The town is twenty U from the sea-coast. In the fourth year
hi-ning (A. D. 1071) it brought presents to our Court for the first time. Travelling by sea, and with a
favourable wind (the monsoon), the envoy took a hundred and sixty days. He passed by Wu-siin [^
^j[^ presumably some place near Maskat), Ku-lin ("i" jm Quilon) and San-fo-ts'i (Palembang), and
came to Kuang-ch6u. The ruler of the country was named A-mei-lo A-mei-lan (H5 a& .^S
30 H5 jM BJ [Pers. amir-i-amirdn]). They (the A-mei-lo) had ruled the country for live hundred
years (during which time there had been) ten generations. The language sounds like that of the
Arabs (Ta-shi). The climate (of Ts'ong-t'an) is warm all the year. The wealthy people wear turbans
of yue-{no) stuff and clothes of flowered brocade, or of po-tie cloth. They go forth riding elephants
or on horseback. They have official salaries. According to their laws light offenses are punished
35 with the bamboo, serious crimes with death.
«0f cereals, they have rice, millet and wheat. For food they eat fish. Of animals they
have sheep (j^ ^)> gov'ts, buffalo ('/4? 2fc.), water-buffalo, camels, horses, rhinoceros and
elephants. Of drugs they have putchuck, dragon's-blood, myrrh, borax, asa-foetida, frankincense.
Of products, pearls, glass (p'o-K), and three kinds of drinks called ini[^^ Persian, mei, «wine»)
40 sha (yb Arab-Persian, sTiarah, sherbet) and hua (^ ?). In commercial transactions they use
coins made by the Government only; three parts are of gold and copper in equal proportion, the
fourth of silver. The people are forbidden coining them themselves.
oin the sixth year yuan-fong (A. D. 1088) the envoy Pau-shun-Iang-tsiang Ts'6ng-k'ie-ni
(/p lllg hR (J^ fe' -Hm R the last three characters may mean «tho Zanj))) came again to
45 Court. The Emperor Shon-tsung, considering the very great distance he had come, besides giving
him the same presents which had been formerly bestowed on him, added thereto 2,000 ounces
of silvers.
128 liEEBEKA COAST, 1,25
25.
BERBERA COAST.
Pi-p'a-lo iWi E W-
The country of Pi-p'a-lo contains four cities ( jf|); the other (places) are
all villages which are (constantly) at feud and fighting with each others. 5
The inhabitants pray to Heaven and not to the Buddha ^
The land produces many camels and sheep, and the people feed
themselves with the flesh and milk of camels and with baked cakes (^ f^y.
The (other) products are ambergris, big elephants' tnsks and big rhino-
ceros horns. There are elephants' tusks which' weigh over one hundred catties, 10
and rhinoceros horns of over ten catties weight.
The land is also rich in putchuck, liquid storax gum, myrrh, and tortoise
shell of extraordinary thickness, for which there is a great demand in other
countries *.
«The country brings forth also the (so-called) «camel-crane» {^ ,B|£ ^|), 15
which measures from the ground to its crown from six to seven feet. It has
wings and can fly, but not to any great height» ^.
There is also (in this country) a wild animal called isu-la (^5. ^); it
resembles a camel in shape, an ox in size, and is of a yellow colour. Its fore
legs are five feet long, its hind legs only three feet. Its head is high up and 20
turned upwards. Its skin is an inch thick®.
There is also (in this country) a kind of mule with brown, white and
black stripes around its body. These animals wander about the mountain
wilds; they are a variety of the camel (^ ^"^ ;^ ^|j ^ j^). The inhab-
itants of this country, who are great huntsmen, hunt these animals with 25
poisoned arrows'.
Notes.
1) Pi-p'a-lo, in Cantonese, Pat-pa-lo, which represents Par-pa-ra (see Hirth, CMnesische
Studien, I, 33), is Berbera, the Somali coast generally. The earliest mention of this country in
Chinese works is probably in the Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, 4,8*', which was written in the middle of the 30
ninth century. It runs as follows: «The land of Pa-pa-li (^^ J^ "fl Cantonese, Pat-pat-lik) is
in the south-western Ocean. They do not eat any cereals, but they eat meat; more frequently
even they prick a vein of one of their oxen, mix the blood with milk and eat it uncooked. They
have no clothes, but they wrap round their waists a sheep's skin which hangs down and covers
them. Their women are clear-skinned and well-behaved. The people of this country make their 35
own countrymen prisoners whom they sell to strangers at prices many times more than they would
fetch (at home). The products of the country are elephants' tusks and a-mo perfume (Kffl" '^
^S- Cantonese o-mut, Arabic 'aribar, i. e., ambergris).
1,25 BEKBEKA COAST. 129
((■yVhen Po-ssii (Persian) traders wish to enter this country, they form a caravan of several
thousand men, and after having made (the natives) a present of strips of cloth (? ^^ 'ffi)) *11
of them both young and old draw blo.od by pricking themselves and take an oath (ife] mr jV
^t), after which they trade their goods.
5 «From of old (this country) has never been subject to any foreign power. In fighting they
use elephant's tusks, ribs, and wild cattle's horns as spears, and they have corselets (ffl ^?),
and bows and arrows. They have twenty myriads of foot-soldiers. The Arabs are continually
making raids on thema. In a slightly abridged form, T'ang-shu, 222Bj1b1> snbstantially reproduces
the above..See Hirth, J. C. B. R. A. S., XXI, 219 and J. A. 0. S. XXX, 47—51.
10 The four towns referred to were probably Berbera — the Barbara of western mediaeval
writers, Zeila, which Ibn Batuta says was the capital of the country, Magadoxo, IbnBatuta's
Makdashan, and possibly Brawa. Ibn Batuta, op. cit., II, 180 says the Berbera country
extended from Zeila to Magadoxo.
2) Our author presumably refers only to the inhabitants of the four cities as being Moslims.
15 3) Ibn Batuta, op. cit., II, 180 — 181 says the people of Zeila and Magadoxo killed
several hundred camels daily for food. He also refers to the wealth in sheep of the people of the
latter place. See also what our author says of the people of Chung-li (infra, Ch. XXVII), which
is also Somaliland.
4) The Periplus, in the first century, mentions among the exports from the Berbera coast
20 myrrh, a little frankincense, tin, ivory, tortoise-shell, odoriferous gums and cinnamon. On the
various products here mentioned, see infra, Ch. XXVII, and Pt. II.
5) Quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 3,6". The ostrich was first made known to the Chinese
in the beginning of the second century of our era, when some were brought to the court of China
from Parthia. The Chinese then called them An-si-tsio (^ J^^ ^ aParthian bird»). See
25 H6u-Han-shu, 88, and Hirth, China and Roman Orient, 39. In the Wei-shu, 102,12'', no name
is given them, they are simply «big birds which resemble a camel, which feed on herbs and
flesh and are able to eat fire». In the T'ang-shu, 22lB,7=' it is said that this bird is commonly-
called <(camel-bird» ()E£ ,|^) It is seven feet high, black of colour, its feet like those of the
camel, it can travel three hundred U a day, and is able to eat iron.
30 The ostrich is called by the Persians usMuriimrgh and by the Arabs teir al-djamdl,
both meaning <(camel-bird». See Actes du Congrfes Internat. Oriental., 1889, 21—22, and Bret-
schneider, Mediaeval travel., 87, n. 132.
Ch6u K'u-fei (op. cit., 3,6) says the lo-fo-hau (he uses the same name for the ostrich as
our author) is found in K'un-lun-ts'ong-k'i — which, according to his views, apparently, embraced
35 all the east coast of Afiica, but which he conceived to be a great island. See infra, Ch. XXXVIII,
2, note 1.
6) Tsu-la, in Cantonese, is'o-lap, is, of course, the girafe. The Chinese name is Persian
zurnapa, surnapa (Meninski, but commonly mMurgav,\. e. «camel-ox») «girafe»,in Arabic zarafa.
Masudi, op. cit., Ill, 3, remarks that some people think the girafe is a variety of camel. He
40 adds, that it is very plentiful in the country of the Zanj — the Blacks.
7) The zebra is found in parts of southern Abyssinia. In the Ming period we hear of the
..spotted /«-?«» (:^ Ig ^) as found in the country of Brawa (;f; ^J |^) near Magadoxo;
Bretschneider, Ancient Chinese and Arabs, 27, conjectures that this was a species of zebra,
the Hippotigris Burchelli, or Douw, the «Tiger-horse.> of the ancients.
45 Duarte Barbosa, Coasts of East Africa, etc., 16, noted that the people of Magadoxo «use
herbs with their arrows».
130 SOHAR. — SOMALI COAST. I,2G-27
26.
SOHAR (?).
Wii-pa (^ ^).
The country of Wu-pa is on the sea-coast and a land road leads hence
to the Ta-sM. The king is of a dark brown complexion (^ ^ •^), he 5
wears a turban and a jacket. He follows both the religion and the rules (of
daily life) of the Ta-shi.
Note.
The name Wu-pa does not occur in any other mediaeval Chinese work known to us. It
appears possible that it is the same place referred to by Kia Tan as Wu-la (|& W]\) and 10
which, there is some reason to think, may have been Sohar. See supra, p. 14, n. 1. We are told (infra,
p. 133) that Wong-man, which is certainly Oman, was like Wu-pa in people and general conditions;
this strengthens the belief that the two localities were in pretty close proximity to each other.
Edrisi (Jaubert's trans., J, 152) speaking of Sohar says: ((Formerly there came there traders from
all parts of the world to bring the products of Yemen and export all kinds of things, and this 15
contributed to the prosperity of the country, which was besides rich in dates, figs, pomegranates,
quinces and other fruits of superior quality. Expeditions to China were made from there; but all
this state of things has come to an end» since the rise of the pirate nest on the island of Kish,
which drove the trade of the Persian Gulf back to Aden.
27. 20
SOMALI COAST.
Chung-li(4? 3®).
The inhabitants of the Chung-li country go bareheaded and barefooted,
they wrap themselves in cotton stuffs, but they dare not wear jackets, for
the wearing of jackets and turbans is a privilege reserved to the ministers and 2&
the king's courtiers. The king lives in a brick house covered with glazed
tiles, but the people live in huts made of palm leaves and covered with grassT
thatched roofs. Their daily food consists of baked flour cakes, sheep's and
camel's milk. There are great numbers of cattle, sheep and camels ^
Among the countries of the Ta-shii this is the only one which produces so
frankincense ^.
There are many sorcerers among them who are able to change them-
selves into birds, beasts, or aquatic animals, and by these means keep the
^i^^ SOMALI COAST. 131
ignorant people in a state of terror. If some of them in trading with some
foreign ship have a quarrel, the sorcerers pronounce a charm over the ship,
so that it can neither go forward nor backward, and they only release the ship
when it has settled the dispute. The government has formally forbidden this
5 practice^.
Every year countless numbers of birds of passage (^ -^) alight in
the desert parts of this country. When the sun rises, they suddenly disappear,
so that one cannot find a trace of them. The people catch them with nets,
and eat them; they are remarkably savoury. They are in season till the end
10 of spring, but, as soon as summer comes, they disappear, to come back the
following year.
When one of the inhabitants dies, and they are about to bury him in
his coffin, his kinsfolk from near and far come to condole. Each person,
flourishing a sword in his hand, goes in and asks the mourners the cause of
15 the person's death. «If he was killed by the hand of man, each one says, we
will revenge him on the murderer with these swords». Should the mourners
reply that he was not killed by any one, but that he came to his end by the
will of Heaven, they throw away their swords and break into violent wailing.
Every year there are driven on the coast a great many dead fish
20 measuring two hundred feet in length and twenty feet through the body. The
people do not eat the flesh of these fish, but they cut out their brains, marrow,
and eyes, from which they get oil, often as much as three hundred odd tong (from
a single fish). They mix this oil with lime to caulk their boats, and use it also
in lamps. The poor people use the ribs of these fish to make rafters, the
25 backbones for door leaves, and they cut off vertebrae to make mortars with *.
There is a mountain (or island, |JL() in this country M'hich forms the
boundary of Pi-p'a-lo. It is four thousand U around it — for the most part
uninhabited. Dragon's-blood is procured from this mountain, also aloes (^
-Qr), and from the waters (around it) tortoise-shell and ambergris.
30 It is not known whence ambergris comes; it suddenly appears in lumps
of from three to five or ten catties in weight, driven on the shore by the
wind. The people of the country make liaste to divide it up, or ships run
across it at sea and fish it up ^. '
Notes.
35 1) Chung-H, as a name of a country, does not occur in any other Chinese writer hefore
or after Chau Ju-kua. There is no douht, however, that the region to which it is applied is the
Somali coast, but it included the island of Socotra. The name itself is not identified; it seems to
point to the word Zing, Zang or Zenj, for the mediaeval Arab writers refer to this region as the
wcountry of the Blacksa (Zanj). Ibn Batuta, II, 180 says, the country of the Blacks extended
9*
132 SOMALI COAST. 1,27
from Zeila oa the Beibera ccast to Magadoxo. See also Masudi, op. cit., Ill, 6, aad supra. The
town in which the king of Chung-li lived may well have been Magadoxo.
2) The African frankincense, also called by the Ancients Peratic and Libyan frankincense,
was found according to the Periplus (§ 11), near Cape Aromata (Eas Jardafun), and there only;
the supply, it says, was most abundant, and it was of the very finest quality. See also infra, Pt. II. 5
Ch. II. Socotra produced, and still produces, frankincense. See Bent, Southern Arabia, 380, S8t.
3) Ibn Batuta, IV, 227, says that the natives of the island of Barahnagar, which was
between Bengal and Sumatra, used to raise storms by enchantment. Marco Polo (II, 399)
speaks of the sorcery of the people of Socotra in nearly the same terms as Chau Jn-kua: «And
you must know that in this Island there are the best enchanters in the world. It is true that 10
their Archbishop forbids the practice to the best of his ability; but 'tis all to no purpose, for
they insist that their forefathers followed it, and so must they also. I will give you a sample of
their enchantments. There, if a ship be sailing past with a fair wind and a strong, they will raise
a contrary wind and compel her to turn back. In. fact they make the wind blow as they list, and
produce great tempests and disasters; and other such sorceries they perform, which it will be IB
better to say nothing about in our Book».
Friar Joanno dos Santos (A. D. 1597) says «In the He of Zanzibar dwelt one Chande, a
great Sorcerer, which caused his Pangayo, which the Factor had taken against his will, to stand
still as it were in defiance of the Winde, till the Factor had satisfied him, and then to fly forth
the River after her fellowes at his words. He made that a Portugall which had angered him, 20
could never open his mouth to speake, but a Cocke crowed in his belly, till he had reconciled
himselfe: with other like odious sorceries». See Purchas, His Pilgrimes, IX, 254.
Not twenty years ago Theo. Bent found that the Somalis were afraid of the witchcraft of
the natives of Socotra. Theo. Bent, Southern Arabia, 361.
4) Eastern and Western mediaeval writers all speak of the vast numbers of whales in the 25
Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf. Kazwini says that whales were often caught by the low tide
in the channels near Basra. The people harpooned them and got much oil out of the brain, which
they used for their lamps and smearing ships. Beinaud, Relations, I, 145 — 146. Marco Polo
speaks of the capture of whales by the people of Socotra, and of the great abundance of whales
and of capdols («oil-heads», spermaceti whales) oflf tlie Zanguebar coast (II, 399, 404). 30
Tong (}^) is not known as a measure of capacity. It is usually the Sanskrit tola, a
weight equal to 4 mashas. In our text the character must transcribe some other foreign word,
Persian probably. Conf. supra, p. 69j n. 2. Edrisi, I, 95, 06, says: «A11 Chinese ships, big or little,
which sail the sea of China, are solidly built of wood. The pieces bearing the one on the other
are arranged in geometric figures, secured (against leaking) by palm fibres and caulked with 35
flour and whale oil ... . This oily substance is famous in the Yemen, at Aden, on the coast of
Fars, of Oman, and in the seas of India and China The people of these regions use this substance
to caulk their ships». Conf. also Reinaud, Relations, I, 144 — 146.
All authors from the time of Nearchus (Arrian, Hist. Indica, §§ 29, 30) have spoken of
the huts on the Makran coast built with whale bones; although I find no references to this 40
custom having obtained on the Berbera or Somali coast, there is no reason to suppose that it did
not. See M" Crindle, Commerce and navigation of the Erythrsean Sea, 196, 197.
5) The Periplus (§ 30) already mentions dragon's-blood as a product of the island of -
Dioskorides (Socotra), and it has continued one of the principal exports of the island ever since.
See infra, Pt. II, Ch. IV. Socotra was famous from ancient times for its aloes which, according to 45
Edrisi (I, 47), was exported thence to the East and the West. Heyd, Hist, du Commerce, II, 563.
Marco Polo (II, 399) speaks of the ambergris of the island. See infra, Pt. II, Ch. XXX and
XLI, and Reinaud, Relations, I, 139. Also Duarte Barbosa, op. cit, 30.
The island of Socotra is very mountainous; Mount Haghier arises in many jagged and
stupendous peaks to the height of nearly 5,000 feet... The glory of Mount Haghier is undoubtedly 50
its dragon's-blood tree (Dracaenia cinnahari), found scattered at an elevation of about 1,000 feet
and upwards over the greater part of Sokotra»... Theo. Bent, Southern Arabia, 378—379, 388.
1,28-29 ■ OMAN . — ISLAKD OF KISH. 133
28.
OMAN.
Yung (or W6ng-)man (^ ^).
The country of Yung-man resembles Wu-pa as regards inhabitants and
5 the products of the soil. The chief of the country wears a turban, wrap&
himself in light silk, but wears no garments and goes barefooted. His servants
wear no headdress and go barefooted, but they wrap themselves in sarongs
(|§) so that the body is covered. They live on meal cakes, mutton, sheep's
milk, fish and vegetables. The soil produces dates in large quantities. Along
10 the coast pearls are found, and in the mountains horse raising is carried on
on a large scale. The other countries which trade here purchase horses,
pearls and dates which they get in exchange for cloves, cardamom seeds and
camphor.
Note.
15 In the list of Arab states given in a previous chapter (supra, p. 117) the name of this
country is erroneously written Wong-li. According to the Arab relations of the ninth century
(Keinaud, Relations, I, 13—15) the products of Oman and other countries were brought to
Siraf on the Fars coast and there loaded on ships which sailed to India. These ships touched at
Maskat in Oman for water and provisions, but apparently Maskat carried on no important direct
20 trade with the East at that time. A century later Masudi, op. cit., I, 281, speaks of the ships
of Siraf aud Oman which sailed the seas of China, India, Sind, of the Zendj (ZangueLar), the
Yemen, of Kolzum and of Abyssinia, — but down to the twelfth century the centre of the Indian
and Chinese trade of the Persian Gulf was at Siraf, though it was already suffering at that time
from the pirates of Kish, who in the thirteenth centuiy brought about its complete ruin. Then Ormuz
25 began its great career, and Aden took much of the trade of the Persian Gulf.
In a subsequent chapter (infra, p. 137) our author states that Wong -man and Kish
traded regularly with Basra.
Ibn Batuta, op. cit., II, 374 says that the fleetest horses brought to India came from
the Yemen, Oman and Fars, and that Oman supplied the neighbouring countries with dates.
30 Marco Polo (II, 324) mentions SohAr (Soer) in Omanas one of the principal points from which
horses were brought to India. See also He yd. Hist, du Commerce, II, 135.
Masudi, op. cit., I, 328 says pearls were only found in the sea of Abyssinia, in Kharek,
Kotor, Oman, and Serendib. See infra, Pt. II, Ch. XXXIV.
29.
35 ISLAND OF KISH.
Ki-shi (IE M)-
The country of Ki-shi is on a small island {^) in the sea, in sight of
the Ta-shi (coast), which is distant from it a half day's journey i. There are
134 ISLAND OF KISH. 1,29
very few towns (^ j^) (in this region). When the king shows himself in
public, he rides a horse and has a black umbrella over him; he is accom-
panied by over an hundred retainers.
The people of the country are white and clean and eight feet tall. They
wear their hair loose under a turban eight feet long, one half of which hangs 5
down their back. Their clothing consists of a foreign-shaped jacket and an
outer wrap of light silken or woollen stuff, and red leather shoes. They make
use of gold and silver coins. Their food consists of wheaten cakes, mutton,
fish and dates. They do not eat rice. The country produces pearls and fine
horses. lo
Every year the Ta-shi send camels loaded with rose-water, gardenia
fiowers, quicksilver, spelter, silver bullion, cinnabar (5^ ^), red dye plants
(^ ^), and fine cotton stuffs, which they put on board ships on arriving
in this country (/^ 0) to barter with other countries^.
Notes. 15
1) Le Strange, Lands of the Eastern Caliphate, 257, says that the island of Kays, or, as
the Persians wrote the name, Kish, in the course of the twelfth century became the trade centre
of the Persian Gulf after the ruin of Siraf. «A great walled city was built in Kays island, where
water tanks had been constructed, and on the neighbouring sea-banks was the famous pearl
fishery. Ships from India and Arabia crowded the port, and all the island was full of palm 20
gardens The island lay about four leagues from the coast, where the port of embarcation
was Huzu, to which, in the thirteenth century, a caravan road came down from Shlraz through
Laghirs. A. W. Stiffe, Geog. Journal, VII, 644—649, says nine miles separate at the present time
the island from the Persian coast. The centre of old trade was on the north coast of the island.
See alsoMarcoPolo,I, 64, II, 324 and Ibn Batuta, IV, 168. Chinese writers of the Yuan period 25
transcribed the name of the island K'ie-shi ('[^ '^)- Bretschneider, Med. geography, II, 129.
2) The adjoining province of Fars was celebrated for the so-called attar of roses (atar
or 'itr in Arabic signifies 'a perfume' or 'essence'), which, of divers qualities, was more espe-
cially made from the roses that grew in the plain round Jiir or Firuzabad. — Le Strange, op.
cit., 293. Marco Polo, II, 324, refers to the importance of the horse trade of Kish. Barbosa 80
mentions vermilion and quicksilver among the exports from Jeddah, Aden and Ormuz. Duarte
Barbosa, Coasts of East Africa, etc., 23, 27, 42. (Hakluyt Soc. edit.).
The ored dye plants is madder. John Jourdain (1609) speaking of the trade of Aden says,
that the ships from India and Muscat carried back gum arabic, frankincense and myrrh, «and
an herbe which groweth here called fua or runa, which they carrie to the Indies to dye red 35
withall)). See the Journal of John Jourdain (Hakl. Soc. edit.) 177. A century before Jourdain,
Varthema, speaking also of Aden, said: ayeerely from the Citie of Aden, depart fifteene or twentie
ships laden with Kubricke, which is brought out of Arabia Felix». o^ fuwah is the Arabic
name for madder, runas, the Persian.
Kish carried on an important trade in slaves. Edrisi, I, 58 refers to the expeditions 40
which the Kish pirates sent to the Zanguebar coast on slave raids. Our author (infra, p. 137) says
it carried on trade with Basra.
I>30 BAGHDAD, 135
30.
BAGHDAD.
Pai-ta (f^j ji).
«The country of Pai-ta is the great metropolis (— ^ -^) of all the
5 countries of the Ta-shi». Travelling by land from Ma-lo-pa one comes to it
after about 130 days journey, passing on the way some fifty cities (j^).
This country is extremely powerful and large, and the number of its foot-
soldiers and cavalry armed and equipped is very greats
«The king is a direct successor of the Buddha Ma-hia-wu», and the
10 throne has, down to the present time, been transmitted through twenty-nine
generations (>f\j;), covering a period of from six to seven hundred years 2.
«The other lands of the Ta-shi have waged war against each other, but none
have dared to invade this country».
«When the king appears in public, a black umbrella is carried (over
15 him); its handle is of gold and on the top is a jade lion with a golden moon
on its back, shining like a star and visible from afar off» ^
«The towns and markets are cut by w^ell-made streets, and the people
live lavishly. There is great store of precious things and of satins». There is
little rice, fish and vegetables; the people «eat cakes, meat and su-lo * (^
20 f^ butter).
«The products of the country are gold and silver, engraved glassware
(liu-li) of the finest quality, white yiie-no cloth and liquid storax».
The inhabitants like to wear turbans and clothes of fine snow-white
cotton (gl ^)». Every seven days they cut their hair and nails, and five
25 times daily they pray to (or worship) Heaven (j|ffi ^ ^)^; they profess the
religion of the Ta-shi. As they (i. e., the Caliphs) are the descendants of the
Buddha (i. e., the Prophet), the people of other countries come thither to do
them honour.
Notes.
30 1) The phrases and parts of phrase in quotation marks in this chapter are from Ling-wai-
tai-ta, 3,3*. It is doubtful whether Po-ta (^A ig) of I'ang-shu, 221B, 24", is Baghdad, as in a
subsequent passage in the same chapter it is said that the king of Po-ta, Mo -ho-so-ssi received in A. D .
747 th e title of a Chinese prince, together with five other petty kings, for Baghdad was only founded
six years later, in 753. In the Yiian period the name was written Pau-ta {^U -iS), Pa-ha-ta
35 (/\ 5A. ^J^ and Pa-ki-ta (/\ ^ :^). See Bretschneider, Med. geogr,,287, andMed.
travell., 67. Marco Polo must have taken his name for Baghdad — Baudas, from the Chinese.
Our author in another passage (supra, p. 124) gives the distance from Ma-lo-pa, i. e., Merbat
on the Hadramaut coast of Arabia, to Mecca as eighty days' travel, he consequently allowed fifty
days for the journey from Mecca to Baghdad. In another passage (infra, p. 138) he says that
136
BAGHDAD.
1,30
Ki-tz'i-"ni, which there is some reason for identifying with Ghazni, was only a hundred and twenty
stages from Ma-lo-pa. The probahle explanation appears to be that his informant had travelled
from Merbat to Baghdad, but had only the vaguest notion of Ki-tz'i-ni. Confer this chapter with
our author's chapter on Ta-ts'in (supra p. 102 seqq.).
2) Since the remark about the number of generations during which the throne has been 5
transmitted does not occur in the Ling-wai-tai-ta, we may look upon it as a clue as to the time
when Chau Ju-kua collected his information. In calculating the number of generations we
cannot, of course, go beyond the Abbaside dynasty, because our text distinctly refers to a
descendant of Mohammed as caliph of Baghdad. On the other hand the Arab, or Persian, traveller
who supplied the information cannot have ignored the several caliphs who held the throne before JO
the Abbasides. From a genealogical point of view we have therefore to sta,Tt from the one
ancestor in whom the several dynasties, including the early rival chiefs of the Koreish tribe,
united Mohammed the Prophet's ancestor Kusai, who represents the first generation in the following
table derived from Lane-Poole's The Mohammedan Dynasties, 10—15, and Sir William
Muir's The Life of Mahomet, 3* ed. p. XCV. 15
Generation 1 Kugai (fifth cent. A. D.)
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
U.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
'Abd-Al-Dar
(headed » rival honso
of the Eoroish tribe)
Eashim
I
'Abd-al-Mutfalib
Abd-Manaf
'Abd-Allah; Abu-Talib; "Abbas
Mohammed the Prophet
■ _ I
Fatimah = Ali
'Abd-Shams
I
Omaiya
Omaiyad Dynasty
20
Hasan
Husain
'Abd-Allab
, I
'All
Mohammed
1. Abu-'l-'Abbas; 2. Mansur
3. Mahdi
4. Hadi; 5. Eashid; Mansur;
6. Amin; 7. Ma'mun; 8. Mu'ta§im
25
Ibrahim
Mohammed;
■ I
12. Musta in;
9. Wathik;
14. Muhtadi;
10. Mutawakkil
11. Muntasir; 18. Mu'tazz; 15. Mu'tamid; Muwaffak
Ibn-al-Mu'tazz 16. Mu'tadid
30
17. Muktafi
22. Mustakfi
18. Muktadir
19. Kahir
20. Radi;
21. Muttaki;
25. Kadir;
26. Ka'im
Jahirat-al-din
I
27. Muktadi
28. Mustazhir
23. Muti'
24. Ta'i'
35
29. Mustarshid;
30. Rashid;
31. Muktafi
32. Mustanjid
33. Mustadi
I
34. Na§ir
35. Zahir
36. Mustan^ir
37. Musta'^im (1242—1258 A. D.)
40
1,30 BASKA. 137
It appears that this is the only manner in which we may account for the twenty-nine
generations referred to by Chan Ju-kua, whose informant ought to have spoken of twenty-four
generations, and not twenty-nine, if he had looked upon the Prophet as the genealogical head.
On the other hand the «six, or seven hundred years» of his text can only refer to the Prophet
5 himself, who died in 632 A. D. We may be allowed to look upon this passage as a clue helping
us to fix the time of Chau Ju-kua's collecting his notes as falling between the years 1242 and
1258, the reign of the last Abbaside Caliph Musta'§im.
The only event Chau appears to have known of in the life of the Prophet is that mentioned
previously in the vaguest terms (supra, p. 117) and which corresponds roughly with A. D. 610, the
10 date of Mohammed's Call. Six hundred years counted from that date (or even for that matter from
632, when the Prophet died) brings us down to the first half of the thirteenth century, which
agrees with the previous conclusions.
3) Conf. supra, p. 103 our author's description of the ruler of Ta-ts'in. The «golden moon»
on the top of the king's baldachin must have been a crescent, since, as an emblem, it would
15 otherwise have been taken for «a sun». The origin of the crescent among the Turks is wrapped in
mystery, and this passage, (written before the year 1178), seems to support A. Mailer's con-
jecture, who finds it mentioned by Mirkhond in connection with Sebuktegin, tenth century; see
A. Mttller, Der Islam im Morgeu- und Abendland, Berlin, 1887, II, 72, note.
4) The Ling-wai-tai-ta differs slightly here; it says: bAII the people eat cakes, meat and
20 su-lo, but rarely fish, vegetables or rice "What is called pliable opaque glass is a product
of this country)) (^fr gS J^ 5^ J^ ^- 1^ ^Jr j^ -fft^ ). I suppose annealed glass is
referred to. Our author in the next paragraph refers to polished (ground, or engraved ^ffi ^P,)
opaque glass. The term nien-hua is not clear; I incline for «engrav(d». See infra, p. 138, andPt. II,
Ch. XXXir. On su-lo see p. 139 n. 1,
25 5) He yd. Hist, du Commerce, If, 711 states that in the Middle Ages Damascus was par
ticularly celebrated for its glass, as was also Kadesia near Baghdad, and other places in Irak.
The remark about cutting the finger nails and the daily prayers is a repetition of what
he states in another passage, supra, p. 116 lines 9—10.
31.
80 BASRA.
Pi-ssi-io m M I)-
"When the lord of the Pi-ssi-lo country shows himself in public, he is
accompanied by more than a thousand mounted retainers in full armour of
iron, the officers wearing coats of mail (5I 3^ ^ ^ ^)- He receives the
35 orders of Pai-ta.
The people live on baked meal cakes, and mutton. Their ahnanack is
tolerably correct, as regards the hot and cold seasons of the year, but they
do not know of the new and full moon days (as holidays).
The products of the country are camels, sheep and dates. The Ki-shi
40 and Wong-man countries send every year trading parties to this country.
138 GHAZNI. 1,31
Note.
Al-Ba?rah, the great commercial port of Baghdad and Mesopotamia, lay on the Arabian
side of the estuary of Al-Bajrah, in other words the Blind Tigris, and was about twelve miles, as
the crow flies, from its bank. Mukaddasi (lOa century) says the town measured three miles
across in its greatest width. The modern village of Zubayr now occupies the site of old Basra. B
The city was founded in 638 A. D. in the reign of Omar. The city of Uhullah (the Apologos of
the Greeks) was on the Tigris at the mouth of the canal of UbuUah (Nahr-al-Ubullah) which put
it in communication with Basra. See Le Strange, J. E. A. S., 1895, 304, and Land of the.
Eastern Caliphate, 44.
Marco Polo {I, 64) speaks of the «great city of Bastra, surrounded by woods, in which 10
grow the best dates in the worlda. Ibn Batuta, II, 9 and IV, 376 speaks of the great abundance
of dates at Basra. He says that a honey, called sayalan (^)Lyui), was made at Basra from dates.
Ch6u K'u-fei does not mention Basra, nor does any other Chinese author known to us
either prior to our author or subsequently.
32. 15
GHAZNI {?).
Ki-tz'ihni (± m Ji)-
The Ki>t^'i-ni country is reached from Ma-lo-pa in about an hundred and
twenty stages. The country lies to the north-west, and is exceptionally cold, the
winter's snow not melting until the spring. «This country is surrounded by high 20
mountains, and the city (or wall |^) is cut out in (the rocks of the) mountains.
It is about two hundred U square and is surrounded by water. It has some
two hundred mosques. The officials and the people all go to the mosques to
pray, which they call c¥u-mm (^ |j^), (Note: some write it shu ^).
«The people are, for the most part, well off, and live in houses five or 25
six storeys high. There is a great deal of camel and horse breeding)). «The
people eat cakes, meat, and ju-lo {'^l g§), but little fish and rice»; they also
make use of a mixture of cow's milk and water as an habitual beverage'.
The king's arms reach down to below his knees. He has an hundred
chargers, every one full six feet high, also some dozen head of mules, three 30
(sic) feet high, which, on excursions, he rides alternately with the horses. His
bow pulls several piculs, so that five or seven ordinary men cannot string it.
When he is on horseback, he carries an iron mace weighing full fifty catties.
The Ta-shi and all the people of the West fear him^ «The products of the
soil are gold, silver, ym-no cloth, gold brocade, camel's hair stuffs in all 36
colours (3l "^ ,|i; ^ J^), engraved opaque glass {^ ^ 1^ J^), liquid
storax, wu-ming-i (^ ig ^) and mo-so stones» ()^ ^ ^Y-
1,32 GHAZNI. 139
Notes.
1) Quotation marks indicate passages taken from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 3,s%^- In the first
paragraph the divergences between the two texts are important. The older one has: «As to the
Ki-tz'i-ni country it is entirely surrounded by high mountains. The mountains have been cut out and
5 made into a wall (^ [Jj •^ ^) two hundred li square (^). It is surrounded by a great
river (y\^ yj^) it has over a hundred mosques, one of which is over ten li square, ete.». The
additions to this text made by our author are very difficult to explain. He says Ki-tz'i-ni lay to the
north-west — presumably of Ma-lo-pa, i. e., the port on the Hadramaut coast which he takes in
^ other passages as a starting-point in estimating distances to Mecca and to Baghdad, but in
10 that direction no locality meeting the other requirements of his text is to be found. If the direc-
tion is to be taken from Baghdad, Kazvin, which has been suggested as the original of the Chinese
name Ki-tz'i-ni, is also out of the question, as it is north of Baghdad; furthermore, it is in a plain.
Ghazni may be intended, if we assume that the direction was given as north-west from India.
Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, 18,8^ mentions Ghazni, under the name of K'ie-sh6-na (^ ^ ^P), as
15 producing asa-foetida. It says this country is also called «NorthernIndia».See infra, Pt.II, Ch.XXIX
Ghazni, it is true, was utterly destroyed in 1149, nearly thirty years before Ch6u K'fl-fei composed
his work, but that is a very slight objection. There is great paucity of information concerning
Ghazni; among the best modern accounts of this country are the Reports on parts of the Ghilzi
country and some of the tribes in the neighbourhood of Ghazni, etc. by Lieut'. J. S. Broadfoot
20 (Hoy. Geog. Soc, Supplementary Papers, I), from which the following notes are taken. «The
■winter is most severe; frost continuing in the shade from September to April, and snow from
December to the middle of Marchn. «Elevated from 7,000 to 8,000 feet above the sea, the climate
is severe. It freezes every evening in October, and the ice lasts till midday; in November it
never thaws; in December the country is covered with three feet of snow, which melts in the
io middle of Marcha. «From Ghazni three distinct ranges are perceived, running north-east in one
unbroken chain Within sixteen miles of the city are six passesa. Concerning the inhabitants
of the neighbourhood of Ghazni, he says that though poor «they live in little towers containing
five or six families, and the country all round abounds in forts. The people raise horses,
camels and cattle. With dried milk they prepare Jcurut, to make which, as well as cheese, butter-
30 milk and bread is the duty of the women». Kurut is not cheese, but dried airan, i. e , sour milk. The
latter is condensed into pellets which are dried in the sun or fried in greases. See Vambery,
Das Turkenvolk, 209. This Jciirut is apparently identical^ith the Chinese jm-Zo of our text. It is
interesting to note that among the Mongols of the Koko-nor and the Tibetans, kurut is known as
chura, wrhich may be derived from the Chinese ju-lo — or vice versa
35 The word lo (E|^) has several meanings. According to the K'ang-hi tz'i-tien, two kinds,
the dry and the wet to (or ju-lo, lit., «milk lo»), have to be distinguished. The Bdry» variety is
described in the Yiu-shan-chong-yau (-^ ^ jJ ^), the work of a Court physician
published in 1831, and quoted in the K'ang-hi-tz'i-tien, in very much the same way as the kurut
of the Turks.
40 In other passages of this work, su-Io and Ju-lo are translated with their usual acceptation
of «butter» and «milk». See supra, p. 98 and p. 102, n. 19.
2) Our author's yarn about the king of Ki-tz'i-ni, may be founded on some stories still
current in his time among Arab sailors who visited China, about Mahmud of Ghazni. I can
think of no better explanation, unless it be that Alamut, the famous mountain citadel of the
45 Assassins in the twelfth century, which was near Kazvin, is the place referred to. The mention of
bezoar stones as a product of Ki-tz'i-ni points towards Ghazni, as Badakhshan, an adjacent
country, was famous for these stones (Le Strange, Lands of the East. Caliphate, 486), and the
she-camels of Kabul were held to be the best in Central Asia. Ibid., 849.
The last phrase of this paragraph is slightly different in Ling-wai-tai-ta; it reads: «The
50 people of the country go once in seven days to the halls (^) to pray; this is called sM-mi
(1% l|^)»- This is the Arabic worijumah, «assembly» (for prayer in the mosque on friday).
3) Besides being found in Badakshan, bezoar stones are reported by our author (infra, Ch.
140 MOSUL. 1,32
XXXIV) to have come from Lu-mei (Rum, Asia Minoi). See Taveruier's Travels in India
(Ball's edit.), II, 146-151, and supra, p. 74, note 1. Linscholjen, Voyage, II, 142 (Hakl.
Soc. edit.) states that bezoar stones come from Khorasan. In the Malay Peninsula they are taken
from monkeys or porcupines. Skeat, Malay Magic, 274. The best stone was from the stomach of a
wild goat in the Persian province of Lar. See Y ul e and B u r n e 1 1, Glossary, 68. On the identification 5
of the name mo-so, see Hirth, Die Lander des Islam, 4.5, note 4.
As to wu-ming-i, it has been shovrn by Hanbury, Science Papers, 223, to be the iron
oxide known as limonite. The Pon-ts'au-tsi-kie (;7|j ^ ^ ^)> as quoted in the Tung-si-
yang-k'au; IV, 8* says of it: «It is found in the Ta-shi countdes on stones, and looks like black
limestone. The foreign people heat it with oil (and make it into?) black granular stones (^ ^), 10
which they chew like a sweet (tjj)»- S. W. Bush ell, Chinese Pottery and Porcelain, X and 67,
n. 4, says, however, that wu-ming-i was cobalt blue.
33.
MOSUL.
Wii-ssi-li (^ M ID- 15
The country of Wu-ssi-li has many rocky mountains. In autumn there
falls a heavy dew, which, under the action of the sun's rays, hardens into a
substance like powdered sugar. This is gathered and is a sweet, pleasant
tasting food with purifying and cooling properties; it is real kan-lu {-j^ ^Y-
There is found in the mountains of this country a tree which grows 20
wild, and which the first year* hears chestnuts (^), called p'u-lii (^ ^).
The next year mo-sJd C}^ ^ -^) grow on it. Asbestos cloth (j/^ *^ ^)
and coral are native products.
Note-
1) Taken from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 3,!i^-4*, with only some slight verbal changes and the 25
addition of the words Kcalled p'u-lua — and the change of omany famous mountains)) ( ^ i^ Mj)
to «many rocky mountains)) (^^ J^ I [ [).
Wu-ssi-li, in Cantonese Mat-ssi-H, Al-Mawjil, Mosul. In another chapter characters with
the same sounds transcribe the name Misr, Egypt (supra, pp. 115, 120, n. 3 and infra, Ch. XXXVI).
The reference to oak-galls point unmistakably to northern Syria. 30
Kan-hi is used in Buddhist Chinese to render Sanskrit a?Mrto, nectar. Mukaddasi, in the
tenth century, mentions the exportation of manna from Mosul. Our text does not say that manna
was a product of Wu-ssii-li. Judging from the statement that it was «like powdered sugar)), it must
have been the Gaz or Alhagi manna (Persian and Arabic tar-avguhtn, taranjaiw)th.e product of
the Alhagi camelorum, Fisch., which is found in partsof Persia, Afghanistan and Baluchistan. See 35
P. Molesworth Sykes, Geo. Journal, XXVIII, 433. Oak manna, occurs in Kurdistan, it is
found in the state of agglutinated tears. See Encyclop. Britan., XV, 493, s. v. Manna, and Heyd,
Hist, du Commerce, II, 632.
On the subject of oak-galls (in Arabic lallUt 'oak', our author's p'u-lu), see infra, Pt. II.
Ch. XX. Asbestos was not a product of Mosul, it was brought there probably from Badakshan. 40
I>34 KUM (ASIA minor). HI
See Le Strange, op. cit., 436—437. Likewise as to coral, our author can only mean that it was
plentiful in the Mosul market.
U ^\^'*°^ '' ^'■^* mentioned in the Hou Han-shu, 11G,2;» under the name liuo-mm,,
(X ^)- ^^^ Hirth, China and the Eoman Orient, 249-251. Ashestos, according to Fei-
5 w6n-yfln-fu, 66A, lee, was described in the text known as Lifi-tzi, but it was probably not known
before the Han dynasty.
34.
RUM (ASIA MINOR).
«-ii-meT(M Ji)-
10 If one travels by land in a westerly direction for some three hundred
stages from Ma-lo-pa, one reaches Lu-mei, also called Mei-lu-ku (j| ^
»^). The city wall (^) is crooked, seven-fold, «and built of large smooth
flat black stones, and each wall (^) is distant (from the adjoining one) a
thousand paces». «There are over three hundred foreign towers (^ ^ mina-
15 rets), among which is one eight hundred feet high», which four horses
abreast can be driven up. «It has three hundred and sixty rooms in it«.
c(The people all wear turbans which hang down on the neck, and their
clothing is made of coloured woollen stuffs (^ % |^). Their food consists
of meat and meal (cakes). They use gold and silver coins». Forty thousand
20 families are employed weaving silk brocades (^^). The products of the country
are byssus (? «^ |§), gold spangled yue-no cloth (^ ^ ^ ^ ^), bro-
cades with alternating stripes of gold and silk, bezoar stones, wu-ming-i,
rose-water, gardenia flowers, liquid storax, borax, and a superior quality of
engraved opaque glassware. The people are fond of breeding camels, horses
25 and dogs.
Note.
There is but little doubt that our author's Lu-mei is the Eum Bilad ar-Eum, the 'Land
of the Greeks' of the Arab geographers, Asia Minor; but where we are to look for Mei-lu-ku (or
rather Mei-lu-ku-tun as the name is written by Chou K'ii-fei) is quite another matter, as there
30 is nothing in the Chinese name or in the description of the place to help us to elucidate the
question. One is inclined to look for it in Kuniyah (Iconinm, Konieh) which was the capital of
the Seljuk Sultanate of Eum from 1077 to 1257, when it was captured by the Mongols. See
Le Strange, op. cit., 140, 148. If weconsider only the description ofthe city of Mei-lu-ku, we find
some points of resemblance (the division ofthe city in seven parts, and the separation of these various
35 parts from-each otherywith Damascus. See von Kremer, Kulturgeschichte, etc., 1, 127 et seqq. But
Damascus was not in Rum. The 'foreign tower' (minaret, mosque) eight handred feet high(!)with three
hundred and sixty chambers in it, may refer to the Djami mosque of Damascus; the great impor-
tance of the silk brocade industry of Mei-lu-ku points also to that great centre of Oriental trade.
In Chou K'li-fei's work (3,3*) the passage concerning this place reads as follows: «There
40 is the Mei-lu-ku-tun ( E S^ *a* 'S) country. It is in (J§) a seven-fold wall (or «city»).
142 MUKABIT, SOUTHERS COAST OF SPAIN. X,34
From remote antiquity, they have used tiers of shining big black stones ( 3^ ^/^ y^ yfn §g),
and each wall is distant from the other a thousand paces (^^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^)- There
are foreign pagodas (minarets) over three hundred in number, among which is one eighty chang
high; inside are three hundred and sixty rooms.
«A11 the people wear turbans covering the neck. When it is cold they use coloured 5
woollen stuffs ("^ ^ ^) ^°^ clothing. Their food consists of meat and bread. Gold and
silver are used for coins. The substance called Tciau-siau {^ f^ byssus?), rose-water, gardenia
flowers, bezoar stones, and borax are all products of this countrya.
It seems possible that Mei-lu-ku-tun may after all not be the name of any city, but a
transcription of the Arabic word mulhidun, i. e., «Infidels», and that the Arab informant of Ch 6u 10
applied the name to Constantinople then the principal city of Rome, i. e., Lu-mei. One might see
in the seven-fold wall, and in some other details, some vague reference to Rome and its seven
hills. This would also explain the proximity of the country of Ssi-kia-li-y6 (Sicily) to the frontier
of Lu-meJ, the customs of which are similar to those of Sicily. There seems little room. for doubt
that the description of our Chinese authors did not refer to any one country; it is a composite 15
picture, a jumble of sundry bits of information concerning the remote Mediterranean region. Conf.
supra, pp. 115 and 120, n. 5, also infra, Ch. XXXVII.
The reference to byssus is important. Although this product — the threads of the pima
squamosa, is found throughout the Mediterranean, it is more abundant near Smyrna than else-
where. It was much prized for making fabrics by the Emperors of Byzantium, even after the intro- 20
duction of the silkworm into Europe. Conf also infra, p. 153, lines 23 — 25.
35.
MURABIT, SOUTHERN COAST OF SPAIN.
Mu-lan-p'i {if. M ^)-
«The country of Mu-lan-p'i is to the west of the Ta-shi country. There 25
is a great sea, and to the west of this sea there are countless countries, but
Mu-lan-p'iis the one country which is visited by the big ships (g ^) of
the Ta-shi. Putting to sea from T'o-pan-ti (|J^ ^ i-^) in the country of
the Ta-shi, after sailing due west for full an hundred days, one reaches this
country. A single one of these (big) ships of theirs carries several thousand so
men, and on board they have stores (^) of wine and provisions, as well as
weaving looms (|^ '^^). If one speaks of big ships, there are none so big as
those of Mu-lau-p'i» ^.
«The products of this country are extraordinary; the grains of wheat
are three inches long, the melons six feet round?), enough for a meal for 35
twenty or thirty men. The pomegranates weigh five catties, the peaches two
catties, citrons (^ [J]) over twenty catties, salads (j^ g) weigh over ten
catties and have leaves three or four feet long. «Rice and wheat are kept in
silos (PI ilfa ^ 1^) for tens of years without spoiiling. Among the native
products are foreign sheep (^ ^), which are severalfeet high and have 40
Ij35 ffiURABlT, SOCTHEKN COAST OF SPlIN.
143
tails as big as a fan. In the spring-time they slit open their bellies and take
out some tens of catties of fat, after which they sew them up again, and the
sheep live on; if the fat were not removed, (the animal) would swell up
and die»^.
5 «If one travels by land (from Mu-lan-p'i) two hundred days journey,
the days are only six hours long. In autumn if the west wind arises, men and
beasts must at once drink to keep alive, and if they are not quick enough
about it they die of thirst)) ^.
Notes.-
10 1) The position assigned by Ch6u K'il-fei to the country of Mu-Ian-p'i, as well as the
similarity in sound of the name point to its being the kingdom of the Al-Murabitun or Almora-
vide princes who reigned over Al-Maghreb and southern Spain from the latter part of the eleventh
century to the middle of the twelfth. See Hirth, Die Lander des Islam, 48. T'o-pan-ti must, it
seems, be the Dimiath of the Arabs, or Damietta, on the eastern branch of the Nile near its
15 mouth. It was in the twelfth century an even more important seaport than Alexandria. This para-
graph and the other portions of this article are taken from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 3,4. Our author
omits at the end of this paragraph, the following remark of Ch6u K'u-fei: aAt the present day
when people say 'a Mu-lan ship', is it not simply saying that it is a big one?B — On these
mammoth ships, see supra pp. 33—34.
20 2) Chou K'ti-fei's statement of the mayvellous products of this remote country, outdoes any
of the fairy stories in the Shan-hai-king, but our author had to improve on his story. Chou made
the grains of wheat to be two inches long, Chan says they were three inches, then he adds to
the list of marvels pomegranates, peaches, citrons and salads. The statement, first made by Ch6u
K'a-fei that grain was preserved in silos is very interesting and, of course, correct. As to the big-
25 tailed sheep the only reason why he put them in Mu-lan-p'i is that they appeared to him to
belong to this region of fancy. The Ethiopian broad-tailed sheep are mentioned by classical and
mediaeval writers as found in Arabia, Kerman in Persia, and in parts of eastern Africa. Aelian,
de Animal, nat., IV, 32 says in speaking of the sheep of the Indians: «The tails of the sheep
reach down to their feet The shepherds cut also the tails of the rams, and having extracted
30 the fat, sew them up again so carefully that no trace of the incision is afterward to be seen».
M° Crindle, Ancient India as described byKtesias, 38. Herodotus (III, 113) speaks of the long-
tailed sheep of Arabia and of the trucks put under them. He tells also of the broad-tailed variety,
the tail a cubit across. The Chinese of the T'ang period had heard also of the trucks put under
these sheeps' tails. «The Ta-shJ have a foreign breed of sheep {hu yang) whose tails, covered
35 with fine wool, weigh from ten to twenty catties; the people have to put carts under them to hold
them up». Fang-kuo-chi ("fc" 1^ ^^) as quoted in Tung-si-yang-k'au, 12,14''. Conf. also Marco
Polo, I, 99, and Yule's note to same, I, 101, and Leo Africanus, Historic of Africa, III, 945
(Hakl. Soc. edit.), who says he saw in Egypt a ram with a tail weighing eighty pounds!
3) In the Ling-wai-tai-ta this passage begins with the words: «There is a tradition in this
40 country (of Mu-lan-p'i) to the effect that ....» — The remote northern country where the days
are only six hours long, is the Land of Darkness of which mediaeval Arab geographers and
travellers told, sec Ibn Batuta, II, 398—401. The killing wind must be the simoon (Arabic
samUm) of the Sahara. These wonders found natutally place in the marvellous country of
Mu-lan-p'i. San-ts'ai-t'u-hui (Pien-i-tien, 67,9.) quotes the two first paragraphs of this chapter,
45 but, instead of mentioning silos for grain, it has atheydig wells a thousand feet (deep), then(^)
they find springs of watera.
Hi HISK (EOYPT). 1,36
36.
MISR (EGYPT).
Wii ssi-li {^ 1^ M).
The country of Wu-ssi-li is under the dominion of Pai-ta. The king is
fair; he wears a turban, a jacket and black boots. When he shows himself in 5
public he is on horseback, and before him go three hundred led horses with
saddles and bridles ornamented with gold and jewels. There go also ten
tigers held with iron chains; an hundred men watch them, and fifty men hold
the chains. There are also an hundred club-bearers and thirty hawk-bearers.
Furthermore a thousand horsemen surround and guard him, and three lo
hundred body-slaves (^ ■^) bear bucklers and swords. Two men carry the
king's arms before him, and an hundred kettle-drummers follow him on horse-
back. The whole pageant is very grand ^
The people live on cakes, and flesh; they eat no rice. Dry weather
usually prevails. The government extends over sixteen provinces ("}]]), with 15
a circumference (j^ |eJ) of over sixty stages. "When rain falls the people's
farming (is not helped thereby, but on the contrary) is washed out and des-
troyed. There is a river (in this country) of very clear and sweet water, and
the source whence springs this river is not known. If there is a year of
drought, the rivers of all other countries get low, this river alone remains as 20
usual, with abundance of water for farming purposes, and the people avail
themselves of it in their agriculture. Each succeeding year it is thus, and
men of seventy or eighty years of age cannot recollect that it has rained ^.
An old tradition says that when Shi-su (-|^ ^), a descendant in the
third generation of P'u-lo-hung (^ Rp V^), seized the government of this 25
country, he was afraid that the land would suffer from drought on account
of there being no rain; so he chose a tract of land near the river on which
he established three hundred and sixty villages, and all these villages had to
grow wheat; and, so that the ensuing year the people of the whole country
should be supplied with food for every day, each of these villages supplied it 30
for one day, and thus the three hundred and sixty villages supplied enough
food for a year '-
Furthermore there is a city ( j>|>|) called Ki§-y6 (^ ^) on the bank of
this river*. Every two or three years an old man comes out of the water of
the river; his hair is black and short, his beard is hoary. He seats himself on 35
I") 86 MisR (eqypt). 145
a rock in the water so that only half his body is visible. If he is thus seen
taking up water in his hands, washing his face and cutting his nails, the
strange being is recognized, and they go near him, kneel before him and say:
((Will the present year bring the people happiness or misfortune?». The man
5 says nothing, but if he laughs, then the year will be a plenteous one and sickness
and plagues will not visit the people. If he frowns, then one may be sure
that either in the present year, or in the next, they will suffer from famine or
plague. The .old man remains a long time seated before he dives down again ».
In this river there are water-camels (^^ ^ .^g cranes?), and water-
10 horses {^t ^) which come up on the bank to eat the herbs, but they go
back into the water as soon as they see a man ".
Notes.
1) The contents of this chapter are not found in any other Chinese work that we know
of anterior to our author. Chau in a previous passage (supra, p. 116) speaks of the capital of
15 the Ta-shi by the name of Mi-su-li (Misr). In that he followed the custom of the Arabs, who used
the same name Mi§r for the country and its capital (e. g. Biblioth. geogr. Arab. II, p. 97,i. Yakut
IV, p. 554,6), but, using different modes of transcription, he shows he was ignorant of this fact.
2) Conf. supra, p. 116.
3) Shi-su is Joseph, the son of Jacob, the son of Isaac, the son of Abraham (P'u-lo-hung).
^0 Arab tradition says that the canal of the Fayum was dug by Joseph, and that he brought that
region under cultivation; this latter fact is evidently the explanation of our author's story of the
360 villages founded by Joseph to supply Egypt with food. Edrisi, op. cit., I, 303—310 says
that when the canal had been dug, Joseph said to the king: 'The public good demands that you
should entrust me with one family for each district of Egypt'. The king consenting, Joseph
25 ordered a village to be built for each of these families. There were eighty-five families; there
were built as many villages. When the building was finished, Joseph gave to each village water
sufficient to water its lands, but nothing more; then to each tribe he assigned drinking water suffi-
cient even for the time of low waters. Conf. Masudi, op. cit., II, 363, 384. This latter author
says (II, 365—866) that when Joseph built the pyramids he built also a nilometer at Memphis.
SO San-ts'ai-t'u-hui (Pien-i-tien, 86, Sec. T'ien-fang), mentions P'u-lo-hung «the Patriarch (j|j^
^j]j) of the Ta-shi».
4) Kie-ye is Kahirah. The name of Al-kahirah, «the Victorious)) was given the new city
founded in A. D. 973 by the general of the first Fatimite Caliph, Al-Mo'izz, who had conquered
Egypt in 969. See supra, pp. 16 and 120, n. 3.
35 5) We have no explanation to offer of this story, nor can we find any similar one in any
Arabic or western writers accessible to us.
6) Masudi, II, 394 is of opinion that the hippopotamus resembles somewhat a horse,
except as regards the hoofs and tail and the greater breadth of the former's head. Leo Afri-
canus, Historie of Africa, III, 949 speaks of both sea-horses and sea-oxen, which are found in
40 the rivers of Niger and Nilus. His sea-horse is the hippopotamus, his sea-ox seems to be a
rhinoceros. «The sea-oxe being covered with an exceeding hard skiane is shaped in all respects
like unto the land oxe; save that in bignes it exceedeth not a calfe of sixe moneths oldeD.
10
146 ALEXANDRIA. Ij37
37.
ALEXANDRIA.
O-kon-'to (ii ^il W-
The country of O-kon-t'o belongs to Wu-ssi-li (Egypt). According to
tradition, in olden times a stranger (^ X), Tsu-ko-ni (fa ^ f^)^J 5
name, built on the shore of the sea a great tower under which the earth
was dug out and two rooms were made, well connected {^ U) and
very well secreted. In one vault was grain, in the other were arms. The
tower was two hundred chang high. Four horses abreast could ascend to
two-thirds of its height. In the centre of the building was a great well lo
connecting with the big river'.
To protect it from surprise by troops of other lands, the whole
country guarded this tower that warded off the foes. In the upper and
lower parts of it twenty thousand men could readily be stationed to guard,
or to sally forth to fight. On the summit there was a wondrous great mirror; is
if war-ships of other countries made a sudden attack, the mirror detected
them beforehand, and the troops were ready in time for duty.
In recent years there came (to O-kon-t'o) a foreigner, who asked to be
given work in the guard-house of the tower; he was employed to sprinkle and
sweep. For years no one entertained any suspicion of him, when suddenly 20
one day he found an opportunity to steal the mirror and throw it into the
sea, after which he made off".
Notes.
1) O-kon-t'o, in Cantonese, At-kan-t'o, is clearly intended for a transcription of the name
Iskanderiah, or Alexandria, and Tsu-ko-ni, in Cantonese Ts'o-kot-ni is no less certainly Dhii-l- 25
karnein, our Alexander of Macedon, the founder of Alexandria. See Hirth, Die Lander des
Islam, 52, notes 3 and 5.
If we substitute ch'i 'foot', for chang, 'ten feet', the height of the Pharos of Alexandria
■would he approximately correctly stated. Edrisi (I, 298) says it was 300 cubits (of 27 inches)
high. Abulfeda (II, Pt. 2, 144) gives its height as 180 cubits. Benjamin of Tudela says of 30
Alexandria: 'But the Citie it selfe is excellently built, as we have saide, upon the Pavement of
the ground, and with Vaults and Arches under ground, through the hidden passages whereof,
men may come into the Market places and not be seene: of the which some are a whole mile in
length, as from the Gate Resid, unto the Gate leading unto the Sea, in which Gate a way was
made and paved, unto the very Haven of the Citie of Alexandria, which is extended one mile 35
within the Sea, in which place a very high Tower was built, which the Inhabitants call Magraah,
but the Arabians, Magar Alecsandria, that is, the Pharos of Alexandria: on the top of which
Tower, it is reported that Alexander sometimes set a glittering Looking-glasse, in the which all
the warlike Ships which sayled either out of Graecia, or from all the West into Egypt, to harme
1,37-38,1 COUNTRIES IS THE SEA (iNDAMAN ISLANDS). 147
them, might be seene fiftie days journey by land, that is, aboYO the space of five hundred leagues
off». Purchas, His Pilgrimes, Yin, 589.
2) Masudi, op. cit., II, 434—436 says that under the reign of the Omayyad Caliph
Walid I, which was from A. D. 705 to 715, the king of Byzantium sent one of his favorite eunuchs
5 to Egypt on a secret mission. Led into the presence of el-Walid, he said that he had fled from the
court of the Greek king to save his life, and that he wished to become a mussulman. This he did,
and little by little he gained the confidence of the Caliph by disclosing to him the existence of
hidden treasures in Damascus and other places in Syria. One day he told el-Walid that when
Alexander had got possession of the property and the precious stones of Sheddad, son of Ad, or
10 of other Arab kings in Egypt and in Syria, he had built vaults and subterranean chambers,
covered over with vaults and arches. In these he put all his treasures,iingots, coin and precious
stones. Above these vaults he built the Pharos, which was not less than a thousand cubits high,
and on the top of it he placed a mirror and a guard. As soon as an enemy appeared in the
offing, the watchmen cried out to the neighbouring posts and, by means of signals, warned the
15 remotest ones. So the inhabitants were warned, ran to the defense of the city, and foiled the
enemy's attempt. On hearing this the Caliph sent the eunuch with some soldiers who pulled down
half of the tower and destroyed the mirror. The people of Alexandria and of the other cities
saw the ruse, and that they would be its victims, and the eunuch, fearing lest the Caliph should
soon hear of his perfidy, fled during the night and made oif on a ship which he had got ready in
20 case of need. Edrisi, I, 298 says a fire burnt on the Pharos continually, but he does not
mention the mirror. Cf. Yaliut, 263-4, who docs not believe this tale.
Conf. Abulfeda, II, Pt. 2, 144, who says the mirror was of airon of China». Leo Afri-
canus, Historic of Africa, III, 864 (Hakl. Soc. edit.), says it was a «steele-glasse by the hidden
vertue of which glasse as many ships as passed by while the glasse was uncovered should imme-
25 diately be set on fire; but the said glasse being broken by the Mahumetans, the secret vertue
thereof vanished)).
38.
COUNTRIES IN THE SEA.
1. Andaman islands.
30
Yen-ro-man {^ ^t W-
When sailing from Lan-wu-li to Si-lan, if the wind is not fair, ships
may.'be driven to a place called Yen-t'o-man. This is a group of two islands
in the middle of the sea, one of them being large, the other small; the latter
is quite uninhabited. The large one measures seventy U in circuit. The
85 natives on it are of a colour resembling black lacquer; they eat men alive,
so that sailors dare not anchor on this coasts
This inland does not contain so much as an inch of iron, for which
reason the natives use (bits of) eonch-shell {c¥6-¥u) with ground edges in-
stead of knives. On this island is a sacred relic, (the so-called) «corpse on a bed
40 of rolling gold., (M ^ M ^ ^)- ™s body has been there for genera-
10*
148 AKDAMA AN islands: I,3S,1
tions without decaying, and there is always a huge snake guarding it, on
whose body hair has grown to the length of two feet. Nobody dares come
near it. Near by is a spring (or well ^), the water of which overflows twice
a year and runs into the sea; . the gravel over which it passes, after it has
been covered by this water, all turns into gold. The islanders offer sacrifice 5
to this spring. If copper, lead, iron, or tin is heated red hot and then put in
this water, it is changed into gold ^.
There is an old story told of a trading-ship which got wrecked, and the
sailors drifted on a bamboo raft to this island. Having heard of this sacred
water, they secretly filled some bamboo tubes with it, then got on a raft, lo
and were driven by the current of the sea to the country of Nan-p'i, where
they presented the water to the king of the country. Having tested its power,
the king of Nan-p'i raised an army for the purpose of conquering that island;
but before his fleet could arrive there, it met with a violent storm, the ships
with all on board were thrown on the shore of this island, and all the men 15
were eaten up by the islanders. For on this island is the «Strange man of
the golden bod» (-^ J^ ^ ^), which is silently guarded by the spirit,
and no man may come near the place *.
Notes.
1) Yen-t'o-man, in Cantonese, An-t'o-man. The Arab travellers of the ninth century were 20
the first to call these islands by this name. aBeyond (the Lendjebalus islands, i. e., the Mcobars)
are two islands divided by a sea called Andaman. The natives of these isles devour men alive;
their hue is black, their hair woolly; their countenance and eyes have something terrifying about
them. Their feet are long; the foot of one of them is as much as a cubit long. They go naked,
and have no boats». Keinaud, Relations, I, 8. Conf. Masudi, op. cit, I, 839. Nicolo Conti calls 25
the islands Andramania, and says it means 'the island of gold'. Ramusio, Navigationi, I, 339, D.
See, however, Yule, Marco Polo, II, 292. Chou K'u-f ei does not mention these islands; our author
is apparently the first Chinese writer to do so.
2) I cannot find in any other work any reference to this treasure and to its «a^a guardian.
There may be some connection between the story of the corpse and that noted by the author of 30
the Adjaib (tenth century) concerning Great Andaman. <(At Great Andaman there is a temple of
gold which contains a tomb, an object of veneration for the inhabitants; it is their great respect
for this tomb which has led them to raise a golden temple over it. The inhabitants of both islands
come there in pilgrimage, and they say that it is the tomb of Solomon, the son of David, — may
God bless both of them. They add that that monarch had prayed to God to put his tomb in a 35
place where the men of his time could not go, and that God granting him that favour, bad chosen
their island to put it on. Devic,Merveillesdel'Inde, 134. See also Gerini, Researches, 379 et seqq.
The Arab relations of the ninth century mention silver mines near the Andaman islands.
Reinaud, Relations, I, 9. Yule says Nicolo Conti speaks of 'a lake with peculiar virtues' as
existing on the islands. See Encycl. Britan., IX ti^ edit., II, 13. Ramusio's edition of Conti, the only 40
one I have seen, does not contain this passage. San-ts'ai-t'u-hui (Pien-i-ti6n, 107,so), reproduces
textually this and the preceding paragraph, but adds nothing thereto.
3) Our author has evidently derived his information in this paragraph from an other
source than that used in the second paragraph; the asacred relics being here called by a diffe-
rent name. 45
^'3^)^ ISLANDS OF PEMBAAKD MADAGASCAR. 149
2. Islands of Pemba and Madag-asear (?).
K'lin-lun-ts'dng-k'i {% ^ ^ %
((This country is in the sea to the south-west. It is adjacent to a large
island. There are usually (there, i. e., on the great island) gveat p'dng (||)
5hirds which so mask the sun in their flight that the shade on the sun-dial
is shifted {^ M B ^ #)- If the great fong finds a wild camel it swal-
lows it, and if one should chance to find a p'ong's feather, he can make a
water-butt of it, after cutting off the hollow quilPo.
((The products of the country are big elephants' tusks and rhinoceros horns».
10 In the West «there is an island in the season which there are many
savages, with bodies as black as lacquer and with frizzed hair (i^| ^). They
are enticed by (offers of) food and then caught and carried off» for slaves to the
Ta-shi countries, where they fetcli a high price. They are used for gate-
keepers (lit., to look after the gate-bolts). It is said that they do not long
15 for their kinsfolk^.
Notes.
1) K'un-lun-ts'ong-k'i or 'The Zanj (or Blacks) from K'un-lun'. Considering the position
assigned this island, near the island of the rue (Madagascar), the use of the name Ts'ong for its
inhabitants which we have previously' seen (supra, p. 126, 130) was given to the blacks from the
20 Somali coast to the Mozanbique channel, considering further the similarity of sound between the
name used by the Arabs of the time to designate the big island of Pemba, Kanbalu, we have little
doubt that the Chinese name means the cZanj of Kanbalu». Ch6u K'ii-fei (for all of the first and
second paragraphs, and half of the third are taken from his work, 3,6*) used probably the characters
K'un-lun to transcribe the name Kanbalu, because he saw some connexion between these blacks
25 in the West, with the negritos inhabiting the Malay Peninsula and the islands of the Archipelago,
who were known to the Chinese of his time as 'K'un-lun slaves'. See supra, p. 31, n. 2.
The bird pong is the rukh, or rue of mediaeval writers; the story may have had its origin
in the Indian legend of the garuda. The localization of the rue in Madagascar was probably due
to the presence there of the fossil eggs of the gigantic fossil Aepyornis. The rue's quills are,
30 according to Sir John Kirk and Sir Henry Yule, the fronds of the rofia or raphia palm. See The
Academy, March 22, 1884. According to Gabriel Ferrand (Journal Asiatique, 10* serie, X, 551)
they are the Malgash lavgana. The langana is a big bamboo, about 15 centimetres in diameter and
2 meters long, in which the knots have been perforated with the exception of the one at the
end, so as to turn it into a water-vessel. The langana is used by a large number of tribes, and
35 particularly by the coast tribes (of Madagascar).
Marco Polo (II, 405) also says of the rue that oit is so strong that it will seize an
elephant in its talons and carry him high into the air, and drop him so that he is smashed to
pieces; having so killed him the bird gryphon swoops down on him and eats him at leisuren.
Ch6u K'ii-feii's text has, after the remark about the rue quills: «There are also camel-
40 storks, which measure six to seven feet in height. They have wings and can fly, but not high. They
can eat anything while it is burning hot, they can even eat red hot copper or irons. Chau
Ju-kua, quite properly, put most of this phrase in his chapter on the Berbera-coast, where the
ostriches properly belonged. Supra, p. 128.
1 50 MAIiAT «MEN OF TBE SKA» (oKANG-LAUT). 1,38,8
2) In Ch6u K'fl-fei's work, this island is not located, and after the words 'carried off',
Dccurs the phrase: athousands and'tens of thousands of them are sold as foreign slaves (^ ^JC)"-
Conf. supra, p. 31, n. 2. Edrisi, I, 58 says that the Arabs of Oman kidnapped children on the
Zanguebar coast by offering them sweets. He also tells us (I, 61) that there was the Island of
Monkeys some two days distant from the African coast. The inhabitants of the islands of Khartan 5
and Martan (Kurian - Murian Islands) captured the monkeys by ruse and sold them in the
Yemen, where they were used as slaves. The people of Kish and of Socotra were great slave traders.
T'ang-shu, 2220,8*, says that during the h'ai-yuan period (A. D. 713—742) there came a
mission to China from Shi-li-fo-shi (Sumatra) which, among other things, presented two dwarf
women and two women from S8ng-ti ('j^ ^ ^ |_^ ^ ^ Zl), also singers and dancers. 10
It seems possible, considering the constant relations between the Arabs of Sumatra with those in
the African trade, that these Sbng-ti women were of the same race and country as the K'un-lnn
ts'ong-k'i of our author. There was, however, in the T'ang period, an island near the north-east
point of Sumatra called Ko-ko-song-chii {or ti), and SOng-ti in the present case may be an
abbreviated form of that name. The T'ang-shu (loc. cit., 6») says the Sho-p'o country sent in 15
A. D. 613 as tribute to China «four Song-chi slaves» (j^ f\^ j^ ^). By a slight change of
the second character the name may appear as Song-k'i, j^ without the dot underneath being
homophonous with iffl as used by Chau Ju-kua.
3. Malay „Men of the Sea" (Oraiig--laut).
Sha-hiia-kung {fp ^ >^). 20
«The people of the country of Sha-hua-kung are in the habit of going
out on the high seas for plunder, and sell their prisoners to Sho-p'o».
«Again in a south-easterly direction (from this country?) there are certain
islands inhabited by savage robbers called Ma-lo-nu (^ Rp ■^). When
traders are driven to this country, these savages assemble in large crowds 25
and, having caught the shipwrecked, roast them over a fire with large bamboo
pinchers and eat them».
«The chiefs of these robbers bore their teeth and plate them with yellow
gold. They use human skulls as vessels for drinking and eating. The farther
one penetrates among these islands, the worse the robbers are». 30
Note.
The whole of this chapter is taken from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 3,&^. Our author has omitted
some important remarks of Chou. The latter begins by saying: «Sha-hua-kung is a country in
( \') the south-eastern Sea». In the second paragraph, first line, after the word 'country', Ch6u
adds 'and near the Fo country' (jg; ^ |g), which, in view of the statement made' in the 35
first paragraph that the pirates of Sha-hua-kung sell their prisoners in Sho-p'o (i. e., Java), we
think must stand for Fo-shi {^ ^), the name used during the T'ang period to designate
Eastern Sumatra, the San-fo-ts'i of the Sung period. Probably Ch6u's authority wrote in the
T'ang period, hence the use of the older name, fallen in disuse in his time. Pelliot B. E. F.
E. 0., IV, 301 translated this passage of the Ling-wai-tai-ta differently; he read: eFurther to the 40
south-east is the kingdom of Kin-fo, etc.» V\'e have never met with this name in Chinese works, nor
apparently had Pelliot, for he offers no explanation of it.
1,38,3 THE AMAZONS. 151
The name Ma-lo-nu is very like Malayu, our Malay, but we are not aware that that
name had already become an ethnical one in the twelfth century. The fashion of putting gold or
brass studs in the front teeth and of covering them with gold plates is still adhered to among
certain tribes in Borneo and Sumatra. See W. H. Furness, Home life of Borneo head-hunters,
5 157, and Mars den, History of Sumatra, 47.
4. The Amazons.
The countries of women {-jn; |g).
ftStill farther to the south-east (heyond Sha-hua-kung?) there is a
country of women (jjf |g ). (Here) the water constantly flows east, and once
10 in several years it overflows, or flows out ("^ 'jgg ^ 1^ [f|)-
«In this country there are lotus seed (^ |^) over a foot in length,
and peach stones two feet in length; the people who get them present them
to the queen.
«Iu olden days, whenever a ship was wrecked hy a tempest on these
15 shores, the women would take the men home with them, but they were all
dead within a few days. At last a cunning fellow who stole a boat at night,
managed to get away at the risk of his life and told the story.
«The women of this country conceive by exposing themselves naked
to the full force of the south wind, and so give birth to female children»^.
20 In the Western Sea there is also a country of women where only three
females go to every five males; the country is governed by a queen, and all
the civil offices are in the hands of women, whereas the men perform mili-
tary duties. Noble women have several males to wait upon them; but the
men may not have female attendants. When a woman gives birth to a child,
25 the latter takes its name from the mother. The climate is usually cold. The
chase with bow and arrows is their chief occupation. They carry on barter
with Ta-ts*in and T'ien-chu, in which they make several hundred per cent
profit ^.
Notes.
30 1) Quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 3,5^. The earliest reference in Chinese works to this
fabulous country dates from the sixth century; the bonze Hui-shon is credited with it in the Liang
shu, 54,28. He said the women went into the water in the second and third moons of the year
and thereby conceived. See on the various countries of women, G. Schlegel, T'oungPao, Illand
IV, and Hervey St. Denis, Ethnogi-aphie, I, 402—404. Pigafetta, First Voyage round the
35 Word, 154 (Hakl. Soc. edit.), says: «Our old pilot (taken on board at the island of Mallua) told
us that in an island called Ocoloro, below Java Major, there are only women who become pregnant
with the wind, and when they bring forth, if the child is a male, they kill it, and if a female,
they bring it up; and if any man visit their island, whenever they are able to kill him, they do so».
1 52 BESI (?), SUMATRA. 1,38,4-5
Marsden, Hist, of Sumatra, 262, note, remarks: kTIH witliin a few years the Lampoon
people (island of Samanlia, in the Straits of Sunda) believed the inhabitants of the island Engano
to be all females, who were impregnated by the wind; lilte the mares in Tirgil's Georgics. They
styled them, in the Malay language. Ana Saytcm, or imps of the devil)). Col. Kenneth Mackay,
Across Papua, 70, says that the natives of the Trobriand Isl-ands off the east coast of New Guinea, 5
have a curious creation myth, according to which the first human beings were three maidens
who conceived by the rain falling on them.
The legend of an island of women somewhere in the Malay archipelago was known to the
Arabs in the tenth century, see Devic, Livrcdes merveilles de I'Inde, 20—29.
On the notion of the waters of the Ocean flowing downward, see supra, pp. 26, 75, 9. tO
2) The island in the Western Ocean inhabited by women and its relations with Fu-lin are
mentioned by Htian-tsang in his account of Persia, Beal, Records, II, 279, also in T'ang-shu,
221B,6a. Cf. Hirth, China and Soman Orient, 84,200 — 202. Western mediaeval writers also refer
to it; Marco Polo, places it some 500 miles south of the Mekran coast. See Yule, Marco Polo,
11, 395—398, and Friar Jordanus, Marvels (Hakl. Soc. edit.), 44. 15
There were, according to the Chinese, other countries of women, in Tibet and Central
Asia, see Rockhill, Land of the lamas, 339—341. The P'o-wu-chi (|^ m\ ^), of the middle
of the sixth century, mentions a country, or island, to the east of a place called Wu-tsu (^ Sfl.)>
in the Great Ocean which was inhabited solely by women.
5. Best (?). Sumatra. 20
Po-ssV(^ Ijf).
«The country of Po-ssi is above the countries of the south-west. The
inhabitants are of a very dark complexion and their hair is curly. They
wrap around their bodies cotton cloth with green (or blue) flowers (or spots),
and wear golden circlets on each arm. They have no walled cities. 05
«Their king holds his court in the morning, when he sits cross-legged on
a divan covered with tiger skins. When withdrawing from his presence, his
courtiers make their obeisance by kneeling down. When going out, the king
sits in a hammock (|^ ^), or rides an elephant, followed by a body-guard
of over an hundred men carrying swords and shouting. The people eat cakes 30
of flour, and meat; the food is put in earthenware vessels, from which they
help themselves with their hands.
Note.
This is a quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 3,6''. Our author has slightly changed the
wording of the first phrase, which, in the original, reads nThe country of Po-ssi is above (or «on» 35
t" ) tte south-western Ocean)). Po-ssi in Chinese mediaeval works is usually Persia here it
seems to be some country or tribe of south-eastern Asia, inhabited by Negritos; we might expect
to find it in or near the Malay Peninsula. Gerini, Researches, 429, 679, 681—682, arrives at
the conclusion that the Po-ssi of our text, is doubtless the same as de Barros' Lambrij, which
adjoins Daya, which, in turn, adjoins Acheen. oThe name itself, he says, may be Lambesi, i. e., 40
Besi or Basi — lam being merely the ordinary prefix meaning village — a petty state on the
homonymous river on the west coast of Sumatra immediately belor/Acheh, upon which it borders)).
1,38,8-7 DJABTJLSA, THE LAND OF THE SITTING SUN. — SICILY. 1 a3
e. DJabulsa, the Land of tlie setting sun. ■,
Ch'a-pi-sha (^ ?@5 i^y).
The capital of the country of Ch'a-pi-sha is over a thousand li square.
The king wears a military robe with a golden girdle. On his head he wears
5 a high golden cap (^) and on his feet black boots. His courtiers wear clothes
embroidered with pearls:
The country produces gold and precious stones in very great plenty. The
people live in houses which have a much as seven storeys; on each storey
lives a family.
10 This country is resplendent with light (3^ ^), for it is the place where
the sun goes down. In the evening when the sun sets, the sound of it is
infinitely more terrifying than that of thunder, so every day a thousand men
are placed at the gates who, as the sun goes down, mingle with the sound of
the (sinking) sun that of the blowing of horns and the beating of gongs and
15 drums. If they did not do this, the women with child would hear the sound
of the sun and would die of fright.
Note.
The country referred to seems unquestionably to be the fabulous City of the "West of the
Arabs, called by them Djabulsa, Djabirs'o or Djaborso (^^JLa.). Conf. Tabari, Annales, I, 68,
20 and M. J. de Goeje'snote in Hirth, Die Lander des Islam, 64. The San-ts'ai-t'u-hui (Pien-i-tien,
'87) has an illustration showing how the people of Sha-pi-ch'a (>^ ^g^ ^) ^^^"^^^ *e parting
sun. The text refers to a' legend according to which Tsu-ko-ni (Dhu-l-Karnein, Alexander of
Macedonia) had visited this formerly uninhabited site, where he left an inscription saying that
here was the place where the sun sets in the West.
25 7. Sleily.
SsT-kia-ii-ye (ff M M ^)-
The country of Ssi-kia-li-ye is near the frontier of Lu-mei. It is an
island (iftjfe) of the sea, a thousand li in breadth. The clothing, customs and
language (of the people) are the same as those of Lu-mei. This country has
30 a mountain with a cavern of great depth in it; when seen from afar it is
smoke in the morning and fire in the evening; when seen at a short distance
it is a madly roaring fire.
• When the people of the country carry up on a pole a big stone weigh-
ing five hundred or a thousand catties and throw it down into the cavern,
154: M0GREB-EL-AK8i. 1,38,7-8
after a little while there is an explosion and (the stone) comes out in little
pieces like pumice stone.
Once in every five years fire and stones break out and flow down as far
as the sea-coast, and then go back again. The trees in the woods through
which (this stream) flows are not burned, but the stones it meets in its course 5
are turned to ashes.
Note.
The Arabs called volcanoes A-Jis 'atmah (from the Greek aT[AV]? Dozy); Mt. Etna was
, known to them as the Jehel el-lorMn 'the blazing mountain'. Masudi, pp. cit., Ill, 67. Our author
is the first Chinese writer to mention Sicily and its volcano. Edrisi (II, 71) refers to Mt. Etna as 10
the (.Mountain of fire» er Jebel-el-nar near Lebadj (Aci Keale) in Sicjjy. (Cf. also Yalfut, III,
407,2, 408,10).
The Arabs of Africa completed the conquest of Sicily in the lattpr part of the ninth century,
and, although the island was taken from them by the Normans in the latter part of the eldventh
century, the Moslims continued to form a large and influential part of the population. 15
Lu-mel, as here used, may very likely by the Eastern Empire, or perhaps even Home.
8. Mog-reb-el-aksa.
Mo-k'ie-la (ft # M)'
The king of Mo-k'ie-la reads every day the Scriptures and prays to Heaven.
He wears a turban, clothes of wool (or camel's hair % ^) ornamented in 20
foreign fashion, and red leather boots. The religious observances (^ |^)
are the same as with the Ta-shi. "Whenever the king goes forth, he rides a
horse, and a copy of the Book of the Buddha of the Arabs is carried before
• him on the back of a camel. Over five hundred cities are under the rule (of
Mo-k'ie-la), each with walls and markets. It has an hundred myriad of soldiers 25
who are all regularly mounted.
The people eat bread and meat; they have wheat but no rice, also cattle,
sheep and camels, and fruits in very great variety. The sea (on the coast of
Mo-k'ie-la) is two hundred feet deep, and the coral-tree is found in it.
Note. 30
Mo-k'ie-la, in Cantonese Mak-k'i-lap, must be the Dar el-Mogreb, or the Mogreb-el-
aksa «the Far Wests of the Arabs. Ch6u K'tt-fei (supra, p. 24) is, apparently, the first Chinese
author to mention this remote country by name, he calls it Mo-k'ie (the character la has been
inadvertently omitted in his work), but he knew only its name.
On the term ^ ^, Conf. supra, pp. 138, line 36, and 142, line 6, and on the coral-tree, 35
Pt. 11, Ch. XXXI.
1>39 BOKNEO. 155
39.
BORNEO.
P'o-ni m floT^ «^).
P'o-ni is to the south-east of Ts'iian-chou; from Sho-p'o it is forty-five
5 days' journey; from San-fo-ts'i forty days' journey; from Chan-ch'ong and Ma-i
thirty days' journey in either case; all these distances are to be understood as
taken with a fair wind (i. e., with the north-east monsoon) \
In this country, the city walls are made of wooden boards and the city
contains over ten thousand inhabitants. Under its control there are fourteen
10 districts (or cities ^|>| ).
The king's residence is covered with pe'i-to (^ ^) leaves^; the dwell-
ings of the people with grass.
The king's mode of dressing is more or less like that of the Chinese.
"Wlien he does not wear clothes and goes barefooted, his upper arm is encircled
15 with a golden ring, his wrist with a golden silk band (^ ^), and his body is
wrapped in a piece of cotton cloth. He sits on a string bedstead {^ ^
charpoy). When he goes out, they spread out a large piece of cloth unlined
(H)* on which he sits; a number of men bear it aloft; they call this ajuan-
'^(^''^9 (|^ ^) *- He is followed by over five hundred men, those in front
20 carrying single and double edged swords and other weapons, those behind
golden dishes filled with camphor and betel-nuts. He has for his protection
over an hundred fighting boats, and when they have an engagement, they
carry swords and wear armour. The latter is cast of copper and shaped like
great tubes, into which they insert their bodies so as to protect the stomach
25 and the back.
Their household vessels are often made of gold. The country produces
' no wheat, but hemp and rice, and they use sim-hu {j^ j^) for grain;
furthermore, they have sheep, fowl and fish, but no silkworms. They use
the floss of the U-pei (^ '^) plant to make cloth. They draw the sap from
30 the heart of the wei-pa (J^ Q), the Ua-mong (j|jp ^), and cocoanut trees
to make wine ^
The wives and daughters in rich families wear sarongs of fancy brocades,
and of wmelted gold coloured silk» (^ ^ "^ ^)- As marriage presents they
first give wine, then betel-nuts, then a finger ring, and after this a gift of
35 cotton cloth or a sum of gold or silver, to complete the marriage rite.
1 5:6 BOBXEQ. 1,39
To bury their dead they have coffins und cerements, and they carry them
to the hills on bamboo biers where they are left unheeded. "When they commence
ploughing in the second moon, they-offer sacrifices to their spirits (jjfli), but
"when seven years have elapsed, they discontinue these sacrifices.
The seventh day of the twelfth; moon Js their New Year's day. The 5
country is for the greater part hot. When the inhabitants give a feast, they
make merry by beating drums, blowing flutes^ striking gongs, and by singing
. and dancing. They make use of bamboo or pei-to leaves plaited together in .
lieu of dishes and cups, and throw them away when the meal is finish-ed.
This country is close to the country of Ti-mon (/g f^). There is a lo
medicinal tree, the root of which is boiled into aa ointment; the latter is taken
iaternally and also rubbed all over the body, by this means sword wounds
never prove fatal®.
The country produces the following articles: camphor of four varieties,
mei-hua-nau (^ 1(^ JJ^), su-nau (^ |^), Jdn-kiau-nau (^ j^^|J J^^), 15
and mi-nau (^ ^^), yellow wax, laka-wood-and tortoise-shell; and the
foreign traders barter for these trade-gold and trade-silver, imitation silk
brocades, brocades of Kien-yang (^ |||r), variegated silk lustrings, varie-
gated silk floss (^), glass beads, glass bottles, tin, leaden sinkers for nets,
ivory armlets, rouge, lacquered bowls and plates, and green porcelain '. 20
Three days after a foreign ship has arrived, at these shores, the king
and his family, at the head of the court grandees, (Note: the.king's attendants
are styled Ta-j6n, -^ ^), go on board to enquire concerning the hardships of
the journey. The ship's people cover the gang-plank with silk brocade, receive
them reverently, treat them to all kinds of wine, and distribute among 25
them, according to rank, presents of gold and silver vessels, mats with cloth
borders and umbrellas ^ When the ship's people have moored and gone on
shore, it is customary, before they touch upon the question of bartering, for
the traders to oifer to the king daily gifts of Chinese food and liquors: it is
for this reason that when vessels go to P'o-ni {^ '^), they must take with 30
them one or two good cooks. On the full moon and new moon days they must
also attend at the king's levee®, and all this for about a month or so, after
which they request the king and the grandees of his suite to fix with them
the prices of their goods; this being done, drums are beaten, in order to
announce to all the people near and far that permission to trade with them 35
has been granted. Clandestine trading previous to the prices being fixed is
punishable. It is customary to treat the traders with great regard; for, if any
of them commits a capital ofiense, he is let off with a fine and is not killed. .
Ij39 BOKXEO. 157
On the day when the vessel is about to sail for home, the king also
gives out wine and has a buffalo killed by way of a farewell feast i", and
makes return gifts of camphor and foreign cotton cloth, corresponding to the
value of the presents received from the ship's people. The ship, however, must
5 wait to sail till the festival in honour of the Buddha on the day of the full
moon of the sixth moon" is passed, when it may leave the anchorage; for,
otherwise, its will meet with bad weather on its journey.
Their god (lit., Buddha) has no image in human shape (^ M ftg, -j^);
his dwelling consists of a reed-covered building of several storeys, shaped
10 like a pagoda; below there is a small shrine protecting two pearls; this is
called the oSacred Buddha» (^ ■^yK The natives say that the two pearls
were at the outset quite small, but that they have by degrees grown till they
are of the size of a thumb (nail). On the god's feast the king in person offers
flowers and fruits for three days, when all the inhabitants, both men and
15 women, attend.
In the second year of the period t'ai-pHng hing-kuo (A. D. 977), this
country sent as envoys P'u A-li (^ ^ ^|j Abu Ali), and others, to present
as tribute to our Court camphor, tortoise-shell, ivory, and sandal-wood. The
official document they submitted to the Throne was covered by a number of
20 wrappers, the paper was like tree-bark, but thin, smooth and glossy, and of
a greenish tint, several feet long and over an inch in thickness; when rolled
up, it was just as much as one could hold in the hand. The characters written
upon it were fine and small, and were to be read horizontally. Their meaning
was translated into Chinese as follows: «The King of P*o-ni bows his head
25 to the ground in obeisance, and prays that his Imperial Majesty may live ten
thousand times ten thousand times a million years», and it was further said
in that document that, as in their annual tribute voyages, they were apt to be
driven by the winds to Chan-ch'ong, they therefore requested that Chan-
ch'ong be instructed by His Majesty not to detain them hereafter. Their
30 envoys were lodged at the Li-pin-yiian (|§ ^ |^), and were sent back
with honour ^^.
In the fifth year yuan-fong (A. D. 1082) they sent a further mission
with tribute "-
The inhabitants of the ocean islands of
35 Si-lung m M)
Kung-shi-miau (^ fh
ji-ii-hu (0 m W
Lu-man (^ ^)
158 BOKNEO. 1,39
T'6u-su (U ^)
Wu-li-ma (^ M ii)
Tan-yu (|| ^), and
Ma-jo C^p^) IS
traffic in small boats; their style of dressing and their diet are identical with 5
those of P'o-ni; they produce sJiong-Mang (gharu-wood), laka-wood, yellow
wax, and tortoise-shell; and (the foreign) traders barter for these com-
modities white porcelain, wine, rice, coarse salt, white silk piece goods and
trade-gold.
Notes. 10
1) The earliest mention of Borneo in Chinese literature dates from the latter part of the
ninth century, when it occurs in the Man-shu (/^ ^), 6,5 under the form P'o-ni (y^ j^).
Pel Hot, B. E. F. E. 0., IV, 287, 296. The two forms of the name used by our author are both
pronounced in Cantonese Put-ni, i. e., Brni, Borneo. See also Groeneveldt, Notes, 101 et seqq.
Gerini, Researches, 512 et seqq., is ((perfectly sure» P'o-ni is Pani or Panel on the Barumun 15
or Pani River, east coast of Sumatra, in about 2°20'— 2°30' N. lat. The information given
by Chau Ju-kua strengthens the identification of P'o-ni with Borneo. He says it was near
Ti-mbn (island of Timor, and south of Ma-i — unquestionably Luzon. He speaks of neighbouring
islands, not one of which can possibly have been near Sumatra, and some, at least, of which appear
to have been in the Celebes. Certain other facts — even the story of the two pearls, all point 20
to Borneo, and not one to Sumatra. — It is true that in a previous passage (supra, p. 76}
our author states that P'o-ni was 15 days sailing N.-W. of Sho-p'o, while in this chapter he says
it is 45 days journey from Sho-p'o, but this may partly be accounted for by reference to previous
remarks (supra, p. 58) on Chinese errors in compass directions at sea, and the course sailed,
whether straight or coast-wise, should also be taken into consideration. 25
2) Nipa palm (ivei-pa) leaves probably, not palmyra palm (jpet-to).
3) This character stands for Xh . On the suppression of radicals in Sung books, see Hirth,
J. A. 0. S., XXX, 27.
4) In some editions of this work the first character of this word is written MJ- A juan-
nang is a litter or hammock; the word itself appears to be foreign. See supra, pp. 47, 50, 72. 30
5) Sha-hu Is sago, see supra, p. 84. We'i-pa, in Cantonese mi-pa is the nipa palm. See supra,
p. 84. Kia-mong, in Cantonese Jca-mung, is evidently the gomuti palm, the sap of which is the
ordinary substance from which toddy is made. See Crawfurd, Hist. Indian Archipelago, I,
397 — 399. We do not know what native word is transcribed by Ma-mong.
6) The island of Timor. In a previous passage (supra, p. 83), giving a list of the depen- 35
dences of Java, the name is written Ti-wu, in Cantonese Ti-mat. In the Ming period the name was
written Ch'i-mon (^ ^^ ) and Ki-li-ti-mOn (^ ||_ j^ p^). See Groeneveldt, Notes, 116.
On the medecine for wounds, conf. supra, p, 63, line 32,
7) On these products of Borneo, see infra, Pt. II. Kien-yang is a town in Kien-ning-fu,
Fu-kien. ((Variegated silk flossa. The character jung is probably for -^d also pronounced 40
jung. Confer the terms Tcie-jung (^ :^) and siu-jung (|k 3^), P'ei-wbn-yiin-fu, 2,7i.
((Green porcelains, is our celadon porcelain; it was principally manufactured at Lung-ch'iian in
Chb-kiang province, and was an important article of export in Chinese trade in mediaeval
times. See Hirth, Ancient Chinese porcelain, 29, 38—69. Conf. Pigafetta, First Voyage round
the World. (Hakl. Soc. edit.) 117. __ 45
8) ((Mats with cloth borders», ^^ J^. The first character is identical with J^, according
to K'ang-hi-tzi-tien, and we find mentioned in P'ei-wbn-yun-fu, llQAj 162, as a term used during
the Sung dynasty, ((mats having a brocaded hem», ^a Jh| jS. — On the subject of mats, see
infra, Pt. II. Ch. XXIV.
1,39 PHILIPPINE ISLANDS. 159
9) It is custamary in China for hidg officials to receive the visits of their subordinates
on the first and fifteenth of each moon, and these days are the ordinary holidays of the people,
on which they make visits.
^°) WK f^ ^^^ ^^^^ character stands for ^ oto go to», Bto travels. Pei-wbn-yan-fu,
5 46,98 gives several quotations of analogous terms; e. g., jjjg_ ^^^ «a farewell dinner to a parting
friends also «a viaticumn.
11) The feast of Kuan-yin, the patron of sailors, see supra, p. 69. Buddhism was not unknown
in Borneo in mediaeval times, though the date of its appearance there is uncertain. See Lassen,
Indische Altherthumsk. IV, 582. Crawfurd, J. E. G. S., XXIII, 83.
10 12) Can these pearls be the same Pigafetta speaks of in his Narrative? «They say that the
king of Burne (Brunei, W. Coest of Borneo) has two pearls as large as a hen's eggs, and so
perfectly round that if placed on a smooth table they cannot be made to stand stiH». See First
Voyage round the World by Magellan (Hakl. Soc. edit.), 117, 120. -j^ '^ «humaushape»,
according to the Fang-yea ^ossary in K'ang-hsi tzi-tien. The statue is placed in contrast with
15 the pearls.
13) The full text of this letter of the ruler of Borneo is given in Sung-shi, 489,18. The
king's name is there said to be Hiang-ta (fS] ^) and that of the envoy P'u Lu-sie (»^
fM. ^)0- '^^^ ^^"^S said in his letter to the Emperor of China concerning this envoy: ((Recently
there was a trader, P'u Lu-sie by name, whose ship arrived at the mouth of my river; I sent a
20 man to invite him to my place, and then he told me he came from China. The people of my
country were much pleased at this, and, preparing a ship, asked this stranger to guide them to
the Court ....» See Groeneveldt, Notes, 109. It appears from this that it is to the enterprising
Arab traders of Canton, or Ts'iian-chou, that belongs the credit of opening relations between
China and Borneo.
25 14) Sung-shi, 489,19* gives the name of the king of Borneo as Si-li-ma-jo (^^ j||
ffiR r^-) which may be Sri Maharaja or Maradja. The mission sailed back from Ts'iian-chou.
15) These islands must probably be looked for in the Celebes and Moluccas; there is nothing
to indicate how the nineteen characters which give their names should be grouped. The division
here adopted is purely tentative. The first name may be Serang or Coram, the third Gilolo. Wu-
30 li-ma may be the same as the Wu-li (/^ JB) of Yuan-shi, 162 which Groeneveldt, Notes,
27, thought might be Bali, but this seems doubtful. — Tan-yu suggests Ternate, and Ma-jo
Mahono, but none of these islands produce any kind of gharu-wood.
40.
PHILIPPINE ISLANDS.
35 , IWa-i (ifi ^).
The country of Ma-i is to the north of P'o-ni \ Over a thousand families
are settled together along both banks of a creek (or, gully ^). The natives
cover themselves with a sheet of cotton cloth (^ ^ ^B ^), or hide the
lower part of the body with a sarong (lit., «loin-cloth» ^ ^).
40 There are bronze images of gods ('^), of unknown origin, scattered
about in the grassy wilderness 2. Pirates seldom come to this country.
When trading ships enter the anchorage, they stop in front of the
officials place, for that is the place for bartering of the country. After a ship
160 PniLIPPIKE ISLANDS. h^^
has been boarded, the natives mix freely with the ship's folk. The chiefs are
in the habit of using white umbrellas, for which reason the traders ofiferthem
as gifts.
The custom of the trade is for the savage traders to assemble in crowds
and carry the goods away with them in baskets; and, even if one cannot at 5
first know them, and can but slowly distinguish the men who remove the goods,
there will yet be no loss. The savage traders will after this carry these goods
on to other islands for barter, and, as a rule, it takes them as much as eight or
nine months till they return, when they repay the traders on shipboard with
what they have obtained (for the goods). Some, however, do not return within lo
the proper term, for which reason vessels trading with Ma-i are the latest
in reaching home.
The following places belong to this country: San-sii («Three islands*)),
Pai-p'u-yen (^ >jf ^), P'u-li-lu (0 M ^W Li-kin-tung (H ^ ^),
Liu-sin (^ ff) and Li-han (M MV- 15
The products of the country consist of yellow wax, cotton, pearls,
tortoise-shell, medicinal betel-nuts (^ |^ ^) and yu-ta cloth (^ 3^
^)*; and (the foreign) traders barter for these porcelain, trade-gold, iron ^
censers, lead, coloured glass beads, and iron needles. ■"
Notes. 20
1) According to Blumentritt, Versuch einer Ethnographie der Philippinen, 65. Mait,
meaning othe country of the Blacks», was tte name of the island of Mindoro. See B. Laufcr,
Relations of the Chinese to the Philippine Islands, 251 — 252. Considering that our author says
that the Babuyan islands off the N. coast of Luzon, and Polillo island off the E. coast are a part
of Ma-i, it seems fair to assume that the latter name is used by him as applying to Mindoro and 25
Luzon at all events, if not to the whole Philippine group.
The name of Ma-i was first heard of in China in A. D. 982 when some traders from that
country brought valuable merchandise to Canton. Hervey St. Denis, Ethnographie, II, 502.
2) When Magellan discovered the Philippines, he found the people worshipping idols.
Referring to Qebu, Pigafetta says: «These idols are made of wood, they are concave or hollowed 30
out behind, and the feet turned upwards; they have a large face, with four large teeth like those
of a wild boar, and they are all painted)). Eirst Voyage round the World, (Hakl. Soc. edit.), 96.
The images referred to by our author were probably of a like description. In the seventeenth
century Spanish writers mention the idols of the Negritos of the Philippines and their many gods.
W. A. Reed, Negritos of Zambales, 26. 35
3) On San-sii, see infra, p. 161. Pai-p'u-yen are the Babuyan islands, off the N. coast of
Luzon. P'u-li-lu is Polillo island, off the E. coast of Luzon. The other three names are not
identified, but Li-kin-tung may be Lingayen, an important port on the W. coast of Luzon, Liu-sin
may he Luzon, and Li-han the island of Lubang — but this is pure guessing.
4) Yu-ta cloth is probably the cloth made from the ramie fiber (Boehmeria nivea), or the 40
abaca, the manila-hemp fiber of the Musa textilis, L. On the term «trade-gold)), see supra p. 82.
^'*^ ISLANDS OP CAU3IIAN, BUSUANGA, PALAWAN.
41.
ISLANDS OF CALAMIAN, BUSUANGA,
PALAWAN.
(Philippine Islands).
161
5 San-sU i~ ^).
The San-sii, (or c<Three Islands*), belong to Ma-i; their names are Kia-
ma-yen ijjf\ ^^ ^), Pa-lau-yu (Q ^g 0), and Pa-ki-nung(Q ± f^),
and each has its own tribes (@) scattered over the islands. When ships
arrive there, the natives come out to trade with them; the generic name (of
10 these islands) is San-sii ^
Their local customs are about the same as those of Ma-i. Each tribe
consists of about a thousand families. The country contains many lofty ridges,
and ranges of cliffs rise steep as the walls of a house.
The natives build wattled huts perched in lofty and dangerous spots,
15 and, since the hills contain no springs, the women may be seen carrying on
their heads two or three jars one above the other in which they fetch water
from the streams, and with their burdens mount the hills with the same ease
as if they were walking on level ground.
In the remotest valleys there lives another tribe called Hai-tan (-/^
20 IS)^. They are small in stature and their eyes are round and yellow (brown),
they have curly hair and their teeth show (between their lips). They nest in
tree tops. Sometimes parties of three of five lurk in the jungle, from whence
they shoot arrows on passers-by without being seen, and many have fallen
victims to them. If thrown a porcelain bowl, they will stoop and pick it up
25 and go away leaping and shouting for joy.
"Whenever foreign traders arrive at any of the settlements, they live on
board ship before venturing to go on shore, their ships being moored in mid-
stream, announcing their presence to the natives by beating drums. Upon this
the savage traders race for the ship in small boats, carrying cotton, yellow
30 wax, native cloth, cocoanut-heart mats, which they offer for barter. If the
prices (of goods they may wish to purchase) cannot be agreed upon, the chief
of the (local) traders (^ ^) must go in person, in order to come to an under-
standing, which being reached the natives are offered presents of silk um-
brellas, porcelain, and rattan baskets; but the foreigners still retain on board
35 one or two (natives) as hostages. After that they go on shore to traffic,
* 11
162 NOKTHEKN FOKMOSA. 1,41
wMcli being ended they return the hostages. A ship will not remain at anchor
longer than three or four days, after which it proceeds to another place;
for the savage settlements along the coast of San-sii are not connected by a
common jurisdiction (i. e., are all indepaident ^ :^ j^ J®)-
The coast faces south-west, and during the south-west monsoon the 5
surge dashes against the shore, and the rollers rush in so rapidly that vessels
cannot anchor there. It is for this reason that those who trade to San-sti
generally prepare for the return trip during the fourth or fifth moon (i. e.,
in May or June).
The following articles are exchanged in barter: porcelain, black damask lo
and various other silks, (glass?) beads of all colours, leaden sinkers for nets,
and tin.
P'u-li-lu is connected (^ J^) with San-sii, but its settlements are
more populous; most of the people are of a cruel disposition and given to
robbery. The sea thereabout is full of bare ribs of rock with jagged teeth 15
like blasted trees, their points and edges sharper than swords and lances;
when ships pass by they tack out in time in order to steer clear of them;
from here come coral-trees, the tsHng-lang-kan (^ ^ Jf-) and the shan-hu
(^ ^) varieties; but they are very difficult to get ^.
The local customs and commercial usages are the same as in San-sii. 20
Notes.
1) Kia-ma-yen is probably CalamiAn, the largest pf the Calamianes group of islands, N. E.
of Palawan; Pa-lau-yu may be Palawan, and Pa-ki-nung, it would seem, should be Busuanga Island.
Laufer, op. sup. cit., 252, note 1, identifies Pa-lau-yu with Penon de Cor6n, near the E. end of
Busuanga, and famous as one of the places where edible bird's nests are gathered. 25
2) The Aeta {Aigta or Inagta, appears to be the original form of the word, de Quatre-
fages, Distribution des Negritos, 6), the negrito aboriginals of the Philippines; they still occupy
the most mountainous and inaccessible parts of Luzon.
3) See infra, Pt. II, Ch. XXXI.
42. 30
NORTHERN FORMOSA.
Liu-k'iu (^ ^).
The country of Liu-k'iu is some five or six days' sail east of Ts'iian-
ch6u^ The king's family name is Huan-ssi (||Jj ^), but the natives style
him K^o-lau (pf -p^). The king's residence is called P'o-lo-t'an-tung ('^ ^ 35
1,42 NOKTHEKN rORMOSA. 163
:|^ '^1^); it has a threefold mound and a palisade surrounded by running
water and protected by thorn hedges, and the eaves of the palace building
have many figures of birds and beasts carved upon them ^
Both sexes bind their hair with white hempen cord and coil it up in a
6 knot at the back of the head; and they make clothes of different patterns
from hempen cloth and (ornamented with) feathers ^
They plait hats of rattan and decorate them with feathers. Their sol-
diers are armed with weapons of every kind, such as knives, pikes, bows
and arrows, and swords; they use drums, and make buff-coats of bears' and
10 leopards' skins.
The carriages (^) in which (the chiefs) drive are chased with the images
of wild beasts, and only several tens of men walk in front and behind *. They
have no regular tax revenue, but when occasion arises, a duty in the nature
of an equal impost (on all classes) is levied.
15 They do not understand the solar and lunar divisions of the year, but
simply record time by observing the phases of the moon^
Fathers and sons sleep together on the same couch. They evaporate sea
water in the sun to make salt, and they brew rice barm into spirits. When-
ever they happen to have any extraordinary delicacy, they first offer it to
20 their principal men (or Worthies ;^ ^ ^ ^)-
Of meats they have bears and wolves, a great many pigs, and domestic
fowls; but no cattle, sheep, donkeys nor horses ^ The soil of this country is
rich and loamy. After burning the grass (i. e., the stubble of the last crop),
they flood the land and merely hoe it up a few inches deep.
25 There are no goods of any special importance to be got there; the
people are, moreover, given to robbery, for which reason traders do not go
there; but the natives, from time to time, take whatever they can get together
in the way of yellow wax, native gold, buffalo tails and jerked leopard meat
to San-sii for sale''.
30 By its side are the countries of P'i-sh8-ye (HJfc ^ ^) and T'an-ma-
yen(fl,i^)«.
Notes.
1) There is no doubt that the country here called Liu-k'iu is Formosa, the indications
furnished by our author are quite conclusive on this point. The name Liu-k'iu was used by the
35 Chinese-prior the sixteenth century-to designate all the islands from the coast of Fu-kien to Japan.
Hervey St. Denis, Ethnographie, I, 414. Our author has taken nearly textually all this
chapter- with the exception of the two last paragraphs -from Sui-shu, 81,io-i3, which relates
to the period extending from A. D. 581 to 617. It states (81,is») that in A. D. 605, a certain
skipper, called Ho-man (>fffl* #), and some others, (reported or noted) that every spring and
40 autumn, when the sky was clear and there was no wind, when looking eastward one distinguished
11*
164 NORTHERN FOKMOSA. 1,42
somotMng resembling smoke or mist, but they did not know how many thousand U away it was.
In 607 the Emperor having ordered Chu Kuan (;^ '^) to go to sea to seek for strange places,
he took Ho-man with him and sailed to Liu-k'iu. A year or so afterwards the Chinese sent an
expedition to Liu-k'iu, which, judging by the course it sailed, was the Formosan coast E. of the
Pescadores. This expedition captured and sacked the king's capital and carried off the population. 5
After this relations with this country came to an end. See HerveySt. Denis, Ethnographie, I,
422—424, and G. Schlegel, T'oung-pao, VI, 174 et seqq.
2) Sui-shu, loc. cit., says the king was styled Eo-la-tou ("^^ ^\ ^) or Ko te'i- (^j) tou
«it is not known, it remarks, whence (his family) comes, but it has r uled over the country for several
generations)). The people also called the ruler E'o-lau-yang ("pp -^ :^) and his consort 10
To-pa-ch'a (^^ jj^ ^k)' ^^^ '*"'*' headmen were called Niait-liau (j& J ).
The character tung ('/|3) s^ft^r the name of the king's residence, and which commonly
means «ravine)), is clearly to be understood here as meaning «a village)), in which sense our
author uses the character (written |l||n|) in his chapter on Hal-nan in speaking of the villages of
the aborigines. Sui-shu, 81,11" says of Liu-k'iu ceach villagehas its' own little chief)) ("^jS ;^ 15
A-\ ^£)- Each tung comprised a certain number of hamlets (jpit), ruled by local headmen.
In modern Kuang-tung a tung ('^1^) is equivalent to a ta-hiang {'/^ ^fP)' * community of
villages, or parish, as a subdivision of a ssi, or township, which again is a subdivision of a terri-
tory in charge of a district magistrate. See Hirth, China Review, II. 1873, 158.
3) Sui-shu, 81,12*, remarks that the people have deep-set eyes and long noses, somewhat 20
like the people of Western Asia (Hu). The men pull out their moustaches, the hair on their
temples and wherever it grows on their bodies. The women tattoo insects and snakes on their
hands. This last custom, we may add, is still observed in the Liu-k'iu islands; some of the natives
of Formosa tattoo their faces.
4) This is presumably our author's interpretation of the unintelligible phrase in Sui-shu 25
(81,ii'') which says: «The prince rides a mu-shou (lit. 'wooden animal') C^P ^^ T^J ■^^) and
«the princelings ride a loto (lit. 'a low table') carved to look like an animal ("yK ^P ^& i^H,
5) Sui-shu, 81,12* says: «By looking at the waxing and waning of the moon they reckon
the divisions of the seasons (Q^ '^ff)- Tliey await the drying-up of (certain) medicinal plants to 30
reckon a year {^ M M ^'^ ii^ ^ ^ M>-
6) «0f meats (fi!*t) they have bears, etc.». This is a quotation from Sui-shu (81,ia'') giving
the products of Liu-k'iu. The addition of the word jou ameat)) is clearly an error on the part of
our author or the editor of his work.
7) This reference to a regular trade existing between Formosa and the Philippine islands 35
is extremely interesting. Were it not that our author calls the Pescadores by the name of
P'6ng-hu, one would be disposed to think that he was referring to this latter group of islands,
which in the Yiian period were called San-sii. See Yiian-shi, 210,15.
8) On P'i-sho-y§, or Southern Formosa, see infra, p. 165. T'an-ma-yen, in Cantonese Tam-
ba-gan, may be Botol Tobago island off the S. coast of Formosa. ' 40
From the fact that our author takes practically all his information concerning Northern
Formosa from the Sui-shu, and from his remark that traders did not in his time visit that part
of the island, it seems fair to assume that intercourse was not kept up after the Chinese discovery
of the island in A. D. 607. See however, C. Imbault Huart, L'ile Formose, 4, who is of a contrary
opinion, but Ma Tuan-lin (Hervey St. Denis, Ethnographie, I, 42'1) says distinctly, that since 45
the time of the Sui there was no intercourse with Liu-k'iu. The Liu-k'iu-kuo-chI (3E^ 3Sfe |i9
^) 15,io''-ii* agrees with this. The first mission to China from Liu-k'iu proper was in the fifth
year of Hung-wu of the Ming (A. D. 1372).
■'■'*3 SOUTHERN roRmosA. 165
43.
SOUTHERN FORMOSA.
P'i-sh8-y6 im ^
The language of P'i-sho-ye cannot be understood, and traders do not
5 resort to the country. The people go naked and are in a state of primitive
savagerj' like beasts.
In the district of TsHian-chou there is an island in the sea by the name
of P'ong-hu (^ ^); it belongs to the jurisdiction of Tsin-kiang-hien (^
1^ ^); now the country referred to is so near to this island that smoke on
10 it may be discerned^.
The savages come to make raids and, as their coming cannot be fore-
seen, many of our people have fallen victims to their cannibaUsra, a great
grief to the people !
During the period shun-M (A. D. 1174 — 1190) their chiefs were in
15 the habit of assembling parties of several hundreds to make sudden attacks
on the villages of Shui-au (^ y^) and Wei-t'6u (g ||) in Ts'uan-ch6u-fu,
where they gave free course to their savage instincts, slaying men without
number and women too, after they had raped them ^.
They were fond of iron vessels, spoons, and chopsticks; one could get rid
20 of them by closing the entrance door, from which they would only wrench
the iron knocker and go away. By throwing away spoons or chopsticks they
could be got to stoop down to pick them up, and thus fall behind some paces.
The officials' soldiers used to lay hold of them in this manner: when
the savages got sight of a horseman in mail, they struggled to strip off his
25 armour, when, in their headlong rush, they met their death without being
sensible of the danger.
When attacking an enemy, they are armed with javelins to which are
attached ropes of over an hundred feet in length, in order to recover them
after each throw; for they put such value on the iron of which these weapons
30 are made, that they cannot bear to lose them.
They do not sail in junks or boats, but lash bamboo into rafts, which
can be folded up like screens, so, when hard pressed, a number of them can
lift them up and escape by swimming off vdth them^.
jiSTotes.
35 1) In the preceding chapter our author says that P'i-sho-ye is beside (^) Liu-k'iu. He
now states, that from the Pescadores (P'6ng-hu) smoke could be seen in the country of the
166 KOKEA. 1,43
P'i-sho-ye, consequently it was the south-western coast of Formosa. Tsin-kiang-hifin is Ts'uan-
cMu-fu. See Playfair, Cities and Towns, JVs 1087.
Terrien de Lacouperie, China before the Chinese, 127, was the first to identify the
P'i-sho-ye with the Visaya or Bisaya of the Philippines. More recently B. Laufer, in his Relations
of the Chinese to the Philippine Islands, 253 — 255, has on aculture-historical considerations)) 5
greatly strengthened the evidence, previously based solely on phonetic coincidence. Laufer,
however, thinks the text of Sung-shi, 491,1 — which is an abstract of our author's account of the
P'i-sho-ye, refers to only one raid on the China coast, by a band of Visayans who had failed in a
descent on the Formosan coast, and had been driven to attack that of China. In this, however,
he is wrong, for both our author and Sung-shi state that during the period A. D. 1174 — 1190 10
these raids on the Fu-kien coast were of frequent occurrence. The P'i-sho-ye were consequently
established along the south-western coast of Formosa at that time, but it seems probable that
they were of Philippine origin. This belief is further strengthened by the statement of our author
in the preceding chapter that the people of Liu-k'iu, the Formosans immediately to the north of
the P'i-sh5-ye, had regular trade relations with the Philippines (San-sii). It must be noted that- 15
the raiders came to China on rafts, not in boats as they would have done had they come directly
from the Philippines.
Although phonetic coincidence is but poor evidence on which to base identifications, never-
theless it is interesting to note that there is still a branch of the Pepohuan Formosans called the
Pazehhe tribe living scattered over the Taihoku plain and in the Kelung and Tamsui districts 20
of Formosa. The name resembles somewhat P'i-sho-y6. See J. W. Davidson, Island of Formosa,
581, C. Imbault Huart, op. cit, 256 et seqq., and R. Tor ii, Aboriginal Tribes of Eastern
Formosa (Hansel Zasshi, XII, JV» 10), 48.
2) Wei-t'6u exists at the present day, it is situated on the spit of land to the east of and
opposite Quemoy island in Chang-chou Bay. It seems likely that these raids by the Formosans 25
continued for some time. In 1211, according to the Ts'uan-ch6u-fu-cM, the foreign traders
residing in Ts'uan-ch6u petitioned the Throne to be allowed to put the city walls in thorough
repair with funds to be raised by subscription among themselves. The Japanese pirates also
made frequent descents on the Fu-ki6n coast at this time.
3) Ma Tuan-lin, WBn-hien-tung-k'au, 347,4, reproduces this chapter of our author. See 30
also Hervey St. Denis, Ethnographie, I, 425.
44.
KOREA.
Sin-lo m B)-
«The country of Sin-lo is inhabited by a race which descends from 35
Pien-han» (^ ^Y- This country rises opposite to the sea entrance to Ts'iian-
chou, but, from the popular superstition concerning what geomancers call the
nrelation between north and south» (ff^ ^ ^ "?" '^), traders journeying
thither must first go to Ssi-ming (^ ^), and then put out to sea again;
others say that the water current of Ts'uan-ch6u gradually lessens, which 40
renders is necessary to pass by way of Ssi-ming ^.
I,'44 KOREA. 167
There are two great clans called the Kin (^) and the P'o (^[).
During the mt-io period of the T'ang dynasty (A. D. 618 — 627) ChQn
Kin (^ ^ or the true Kin) was appointed Prince of Lo (or Yo)-lang (i^ J^
M 3l)'j ^is descendants have always been princes (j^y.
5 During the period k'ai-yau (A. D. 681 — 682) they sent a mission to
ask for the T'ang Ceremonial and their request was complied with*.
Their houses, utensils and implements, their mode of dressing and their
methods of administration are more or less copies of what we have in China.
In their government the people are ruled by severe laws, for which
10 reason offences are of rare occurrence; and the idea of theft is so foreign to
the people that they do not even pick up things dropped on the road *.
When contracting marriage, they do not send presents. The people can
write, and are fond of learning; even the menial classes are given to studious
pursuits; in the villages they have colleges, called «pubUc halls» (^ '^) in
IB the inscriptions over their doors. In these their unmarried sons and younger
brothers are placed in order to study literature and to practice archery.
They have a triennial examination for the degree of K^u-jon, also the exami-
nation for the degree of Tsin-sM, with the several faculties, as «Exact Scien-
ces)), etc. On account of all this the country is styled Kun-tzi-kuo (^ -^
20 PI «the Country of Gentleinen»)^
The soil of the country is w^ell adapted to the growing of rice, and
there are (no) camels or buffalo. They use no cash, but merely barter with
rice. Their household vessels and other implements are all made of copper,
and they have two kinds of music called the h'u (j^ ^) music and the
25 Mang (^ ^) music'.
During the period ¥ai-ymn (A. D. 713—742) Hing Sh6u (Jf|5 J§)
was sent on a mission of condolence (to the Sin-lo Court)*. During the
periods fung-huang (A. D. 923—926) and ch'ang-Mng (A. D. 930—934)
of the Five Dynasties, tribute missions were sent to the Court of China to
30 perfect the ceremonial; and under the present (Sung) dynasty, in the second
year Men-lung (A. D. 961), they sent tribute; this was repeated in the second
year oiking-kuo (A. D. 977).v
The people of this country believe in the theory of the male and female
principles, and in good and evil spirits, and are very superstitious. When
35 Chinese envoys arrive, they must first select a lucky day before they can
properly receive the Imperial commands; and, whenever such a message has
been received, an address of thanks is written by them to the Emperor, which
is not devoid of elegance in style.
168 KOKEA. 1,44
The products of the country are ginseng, quicksilyer, musk, pine-seeds,
hazel-nuts, haliotis shells (^ ^ ^), pine-cones, lihanotis root (^ ||,),
pai-fu-tzi (Q 1?^ -^), fu-lmg (^ ^), cotton cloth of all sizes, mau-sM
(^ M) *^^<^t^j bronze temple hells (^ ^), porcelain, straw mats, and writing
brushes made of rats' hair ( jK, ^f. Trading ships barter in exchange for these 5
articles coloured silk piece-goods, calendars, and books (^ ^ ^ ^) ^°.
Notes.
1) Quotation from T'ang-shu, 220,is''. The kingdom of Sin-lo (in Korean SMnra) occupied
tlie eastern and south-eastern portions of the Korean peninsula, from Fusan to the Tumen river,
thus extending over most of present northern Korea. This kingdom appears to have been 10
founded in the middle of the first century B. C; the first mention of the name in Chinese histories
appears to date from the Wei period (A. D. 220—264), when it was written Sin-lu (0f j^).
In the fifth century it occurs under the form Ssi-lo (^ ^). Liang_-shu,_54,25». In 934 Sin-lo
was absorbed into the newly founded united Korean dynasty of Kau-li ( ^ J^)i ''y ^Mch name
it was calledduringtheSungdynasty.Sung-shi, 487,1-20. See Hervey St. Denis, Ethnographie, 15
I, 298 et seqq., J. Ross, History of Corea, 147—195, W. E. Griffis, Corea, 32, 45 et seqq.
The Arab traders of the ninth century, though they knew something of Korea, do not
appear to have been there. Suleyman says of it: ((Towards the sea China is bounded by the
islands of Sila (Al-Sila); they are white people, who live in peace with the sovereign of China,
and who pretend that if they did not send him presents, the sky would not send down rain on 20
their land. However, none of our countrymen have visited them, so as to be able to tell of them.
"White pheasants are found in that country)). Eeinaud, Relations, I, 60.
Masudi (Prairies d'or, I, 346), differs slightly with this. «Beyond China, he says, there
is towards the sea no known kingdom or country which has been described, except the territory
of es-Sila and the islands which depend on it. It rarely happens that a foreigner who has gone 25
there from Irak or any other country, leaves it afterwards, so healthful is the climate, so clear
the water, so fertile the soil, so abundant all things)). Cf. Ibn Khord&dhbeh, (de Goeje edit.,) 51, 182.
2) Ssi-ming-chou in Shang-yu-hien in Ch5-kiang. Playfair, Cities and Towns, J\ii 6655.
Sung-shi, 487,20 says that after leaving Ting-hai (^^ jife) of Ming-chou (HH >|>|J i. e.,
Ning-po) with a good wind the sea is reached in three days. Five days later Mo-shan (^^ |_[j 30
Nimrod islands, off extreme S. W. coast of Korea) is made, and the frontier (of Korea) entered.
After Mo-shan, passing islands and islets by tortuous rocky channels, the junk sailing swifty
arrives in seven days at the Li-chong-kiang (jjj^ M^ |^ Ta-dong-gang). The river flows
between two mountains and rushes down through a rocky gorge called Ki-shui-mon (^^
■jdC P^ "*^^ S^ts of hurrying waters))), a very dangerous point. Three days hence and 35
the landing point is reached, where there is ahouse('i&) called the Pi-lan-ting (^, iiij i&).
From this point the land-route leads by a rough and uneven path over hills and through vales
for over 40 li to the capital of the kingdom (Pyong-yang))).
Ssi-ming is the name of a hill near Ning-po which gave its nameT to the entire neighbour-
hood, especially the coast facing the east. Yti-ti-ki-shong, 11,6. The name may be said to stand 40
for Ning-po, as it does in the term Ssi-ming-kung-so, well-known in Shanghai as the «Ning-po
joss-house.))
3) T'ang-shu, 220,14" says: «the king's family name is Kin, the family name of the nobles
is P'o. The common people have no clan names but only surnames)).
Lo (or To)-lang, in Korean Ak-rang (the present Pyong-yang), was a Chinese colony since 45
B. C. 108, and remained subject to foreigners until near the fourth century. Maurice Courant
La Coree jusqu'au IX" sifecle, 3.
4) The T'ang Ceremonial or T'ang-li (j^ jjj^). The full title of this work has not been
preserved, it was probably Hi6n-k'ing-li-shu (j^ ^ j|ffl ^). It was published during the
1,44 KOREA. 169
chong-Tcuan period (A. D. 627 — 650) and served as tlie basis for tlie Ta-T'ang K'ai-yiian-li
i'^ ^ ^ TC Jis) ^° ^^^ chapters, publisiied in A. D. 713—742, and described in the
Shi-k'u-ts'tiari-sliu-ts'ung-mu, 82,2. The material from which both these works were compiled is
to be found in Tu-Yu's T'ung-tifin, and in the Li-chi (jjjffi ^) division of the T'ang-shu.
5 The phrase of our text is taken from T'ang-shu, 220,15*'.
5) Sung-shi, 487,20* says «Their forms of punishment are neither barbarous nor cruel;
opfen rebels and those who curse their parents are beheaded, all other criminals are punished
with the heavy bamboo on the ribs. Those who have been condemned to death in the provinces
are sent to the capital, where, every year in the eighth moon, there is a revision of criminal
10 cases; capital crimes are commuted to deportation to an island, and other sentences are reduced
or pardons granted)).
6) The Shan-hai-king mentions a ((Country of Gentlemen)) where the people wore modest
clothing and carried swords, and who were of an amiable disposition and not given to litigation.
Liu An (t B. C. 122) in his Huai-nan-tz'i refers to a ((Country of Gentlemen in the East)). Pei-
15 w6n-yfln-fu, 102-4,24. Our author bases presuJnably his application of this name to Korea on the
use made of it by Hing Sh6u during his mission to Korea in A. D. 737 referred to further on (infra,
n. 8) and which is related in T'ang-shu, 220,16*.
7) The information contained in this paragraph, and the previous remarks about exam-
inations, etc., are derived' from the statements made in A. D. 1015 by the Korean envoy Kuo-
20 Yuan (^K tt'). He said there were neither sheep, hares, camels, buffalo nor donkeys. We have
corrected our author's text accordingly. He said there were two kinds of music called h'lt and
hiang. In a subsequent passage (20*) Sung-shi states that there were two styles of music in Korea,
the right and the left style; the right style is called T'ang-yo[^ ^)°^ ((Chinese musio), the
left Mang-yo (W& ^) or "Tillage musicn is their old music. Conf. infra, p. 171, line 10, Kuo-
25 Yuan said that his countrymen did not use cash, but only stuffs and rice for purposes of barter.
Sung-shi, 487,17 et seqq. under date A. D. 1164, says that in Korea rice and cloth were used to
barter with, for, though there was copper in the country, they had not known how to cast cash,
and had hoarded in their storehouses that which came from China. After the ts ung-ning /peTioi
(A. D. 1102—1106) they learnt how to cast cash, and they had three denominations.
30 8) It was in A. D. 737 that Hing Sh6u was sent on a mission of condolence to Korea on
the death of Hing-kuang (^ ■^), king of Sin-lo. When the deceased king's son Ch'ong-k'ing
i^i 1^) ascended the throne, the envoy was instructed to state in the name of the Emperor
that Sin-lo was styled the ((Country of Gentlemen)), because its people understood poetry and
literature, and that, as Hing Sh6u was deeply versed in literary matters, He had chosen him as
35 His envoy so that he might discuss with them the meaning of the Classics, and impress them with
the mental superiority of the Great Country.
9) On the fang-fong or libanotis root, see Bretschneider, Botanicum Sinicum, III, 76—79.
Fai-fu-tzi (the second character is usually written [Jj^) is an official root, resembling closely
that of the Aconitum. Bretschneider, op. cit., 257—258, and Porter Smith, Materia medica,
40 s. v., Aroidese. Fu-ling a funguslike substance used medicinally by the Chinese. It is the Pachyma
Cocos, Fries, or China-root. It is found also in North America, where it is called «Indian
Breadn. Bretschneider, op. cit., 532—536. ((Serge» is the usual rendering for mau-sU. Sung-
shi, 487,18'', under date A. D. 1164 says that Korea ((is cold and mountainous, the soil is good
for pines (M) and juniper (}jf|[); it produces rice (^Jx,)' ™'"«* (^)' ^®™P ^^^ ^^^^*' ^"* °°
45 Shu (f Jj a glutinous variety of Setaria italica, Kth.). They make wine from rice. Silkworms are
rare, and a piece of silk (|l|) is worth over ten ounces of silver. Clothes are made of hempen
cloth. There are several hundred Chinese, mostly from Fu-kien province, living in the capital
(Pyong-yang), who have come there on trading junks)).
10) It may be that these four characters should be translated ((books printed at Foochow)).
170 JAPAN. 1,45
45.
JAPAN.
Wo m.
The country of Wo is to the north-east of Ts'uan-(ch6u). It is at pre-
sent called Ji-pon (Q 2|S), which name has arisen from the fact that this 5
country is situated near the place where the sun rises. Some people say that
they changed the old name because they disliked it ^
The country extends for several thousand li in all directions. In the
south and west you come to the sea, in the north and east the country is
bounded by big hills; beyond the hills is the country of the Hairy men (^ ^) *. lo
The country is divided into five Ki (^), seven Tau (^j, three islands
{^), 3772 communes (|||5), and 414 postmg-stations (,^), and its population
amounts to fully 883,000 male adults ("J')^
Since the country is full of hills and forests and without good arable
lands, the inhabitants have a liking for the various kinds of sea food *, i5
Many of them tattoo their bodies, and they call themselves descendants
of T'ai Po (^ 'f^)^- It is also said^ that from remote antiquity they have
sent envoys to China who styled themselves Ta-fu (-f^ ^), and, just as in
olden times when the descendants of Shau-k'ang of the Hia dynasty were
invested with the rule of Kui-ki ("^ ^) they cut their hair and tattooed 20
their bodies in order to ward off the harmful attacks of dragon-monsters, so
the present people of Wo tattoo their bodies, in order to drive away the
beasts of the sea when they dive under water for fishing purposes.
From a calculation of the way thither, (Wo) lies due east from Kui-ki.
The climate resembles that of China ''. 25
The king's surname (^) is Wang (^), and this has been so without
change for the last seventy generations at least. Civil and military offices are
hereditary *.
Men's dresses consist of strips of cloth worn crosswise, tied, not sewn,
together. Women's dresses are like bed sheets, with an opening to run the 30
head through, a whole suit consisting as a rule of two or three pieces of
cloth. Both sexes wear their hair unbraided and go barefooted'.
They have the Chinese standard works, such as the Five Classics and
the Collection of poetry by Pal Lo-t'ien (^ i^ ^ ^ ^), all of which
are obtained from China ^°. 35
1,45 JAPAN. 171
The country yields all kinds of cereals, but little wheat. For purposes
of exchange they use copper cash bearing the inscription Kien-yiian-ta-pau
i^TCix. ^)- They have water-buffalo, donkeys, sheep, (but neither) rhino-
ceros (nor) elephants, also gold and silver, fine silks and fancy cotton cloth".
5 The country produces quantities of cryptomeria trees (ij^ TJ^) and lo
trees (^ TJ^), reaching to heights of upwards of fourteen or fifteen chang,
and fully four feet in diameter. The natives split them into planks, which
they transport in large junks to our port of Ts'iian-chou for sale. The people
of Ts'iian-chou rarely go to this country ^^.
10 As regards music, they have the Chinese and the Korean notation (^).
They have swords, shields (ifj^), bows, and arrows which have iron points,
but they cannot shoot far with thek: bows, the reason being that in this
country the people are not accustomed to fighting ^*.
In their houses separate rooms are used as bed-rooms by father and
15 mother and by the different brothers ".
When taking their meals, they use dish-stands and dishes (^ S.)^^-
When contracting marriage, they do not make presents of money ^^.
For the dead they have coffins (>Ji^), but no coffin-cases {^). Their
tombs consist of simple earthen tumuli. At the beginning of their time of
20 mourning they lament and wail and e.at no meat, but when the burial is over,
the whole family takes a bath to wash away ill-luck from their bodies^'.
Whenever important affairs are to be entered upon, they scorch bones
in order to foretell whether they will turn out luckily or otherwise ^«.
They do not know the division of the year with its four seasons, but
25 reckon the year from harvest to harvest ^». The people attain to great age,
frequently to about eighty or ninety years 2".
Women are neither licentious nor jealous. There is no litigation, but
when some one is found guilty of a crime, serious cases are punished by the
extirpation of the culprit's family, light offenses by the enslaving (j^) of his
30 wife and children ^^
Gold and silver are used in paying taxes to the government; these
metals are found in Yu6-ch6u (^ f\\) in the east of this country, and in
another island ^^
This county has had intercourse with China since the later Han dynasty
35 (A. D. 25—221), and it has sent envoys with tribute to our Court during
the Wei, Sung, Sui and T'ang dynasties. During the first year ymg^ of the
present dynasty (A. D. 984) a Japanese bonze, by name Tiau-jan(^^)2S
' came across the sea to China with five or six of his disciples and offered
172 JAPAN. 1,45
presents of more than ten pieces of copper (bronze) ware of most delicate
workmanship. The Emperor T'ai-tsung gave orders that he should have an
audience and that he should be lodged at the T'ai-p'ing-hing-kuo temple (^
2p j^ ig ^); he bestowed on him a purple priest's robe and treated him
with great kindness. On hearing from him that their kings formed an unin- 5
terrupted line of rulers, all of the same family name, and that the high offices
in the country were hereditary, the Emperor sighed, and said to his ministers
Sung K'i (^ ^) and Li Fang (^ \t^) ^: «These are merely island barbar-
ians, and they have a line of monarchs for such a long time, and even their
officials form an uninterrupted hereditary succession; this is indeed the "Way lo
of the Ancients»!
Thus it came about that the barbarians of a single island caused the
Emperor T'ai-tsung to sigh. Cannot these customs be a survival of the spirit
inherited from T'ai Po, who «used the doctrines of our Great Land to change
barbarians))? ^^ 15
Notes.
1) The name Wo — in Japanese Wa, or perhaps Wani, was probably the name of the ruling
tribe or family from which the sovereigns of Japan were at one time taken. Wani appears not
unfrequently, as a proper name in the Kojiki and Nihongi. W. G. Aston, Early Japanese History,
40, 41. The Arabs of the ninth century appear to have known of Japan under the name of 20
Waqwaq, transcribing the Japanese words Wa Tcdku ((kingdom of Wa» Van der Lith & Devic
Livre des merveilles de I'Inde, 295 et seqq.; also Ibn Khordadbeh, 50. According to T'ang-shu,
145,18'' the name Ji-pSn — in Japanese Nippon, was first used in A. D. 670. See also T'ang-shu,
220,18*'.
The character Wo means ((dwarf», and the Chinese have frequently called Japan Wo -jon- 25
kno {^. ^ U ), ((kingdom of dwarfsn, and Wo-nu-kuo (-^ ^j^ 1^ ) ((kingdom of dwarf
slaves)). See e. g, Sung-shif, 491, and Yiian-shi, 101. It was only in 1895 that, at the urgent
request of the Japanese Government, an Imperal Rescript was issued by the Chinese Emperor
prohibiting the use of this term in China.
2) This refers to an early period of Japanese history, probably in the seventh century, when 30
the Ainu still possessed the northern portion of the island of Hondo. We find mention of «Hairy
men» in as old a work as the Shan-hai-king, but it is not possible that they were the Ainu, the
((Hairy men» of our text. The earliest mention we have found in Chinese works of the use of the
correct name of the Ainu, Hia-i ($^ ^), occurs in T'ang-shu, 145,l8^ where it is said that in
A. D. 632 the Wo came to Court and with them were Ainu ($S ^|| hA who lived on an island 35
in ,the Ocean. Their envoy had hair four feet long. They wore earrings and had arrows stuck in
their hair. A gourd was hung up, and at a distance of some tens of feet they hit it with their
arrows every time.
3) The Japanese bonze Tiau-jan — in Japanese Chonen, who visited the Court of the Sung
in A. D. 984, is the authority for this statement. Sung-shi, 491,7. He also gave the population of 40
Japan as 883,329 male adults. The division of Japan into five Home Provinces (551 W^ 6b)
in Japanese Qo-Ttinai, consisting of the Kyoto, Nara and Asaka districts, seven Provinces — in
Japanese Bo, and two islands — Tsushima and Iki,— was made in the third century of our era by the
Empress Jingo, after her Korean expedition, and in imitation of the Korean system. The Emperor
Mommu (696 — 707) increased the number of provinces to 66 by subdividing the older ones. See 45
Tsin-shu, 97,7 and Chamberlain, Things Japanese (fifth edit.), 211. ffiawgr, in Japanese ^o, here
1,45 JAPAN. 173
rendered «commune», was, in Japan, a group of hamlets. The «postiug-stationsi), called yeJci in
Japanese, were established along all the highroads throughout the Empire. Sui-shu, 81 ,15 notes
that females were more numerous than males in Japan, so likewise does the T'ang-shu, 220,17*.
4) See San-kuo-chi (Wei-chii), 30,94*. Our author quotes, however, Tsin-shu, 97,4*.
5 5) Quotation from Tsin-shu, 97,4*. See also Liang-shu, 54,25, and conf. H6u Han-shu,
145,la^ On T'ai Po, see Mayers. Chin. Eeader's Manual, 263, s. v., Wn T'ai Peh. See also Legge,
Chinese Classics, I, 71.
6) In Tsin-shu, 97,4. See also San-kuo-cM (Wel-chi), 30,25. Hou Han-shu, 115,13* says: «In
the second year chung-yuan (A. D. 57), in the reign of Kuang-wu, the Wo-nu country sent an envoy
10 with tribute. He styled himself Ta-fu (In Japanese Baibu). He came from the extreme southern
part of the Wo country» (Satsuma?). On tattooing in early Japan, conf. Aston, Nihongi, I, 200,
305, and Munro, Prehistoric Japan, 256 — 260.
7) Kui-ki is, roughly speaking, the present province of Cho-kiang. The first phrase is
quoted from Tsin-shu, 97,4*. Conf. H6u Han-shu, 115,12''.
15 Down to the middle of the eighth century intercourse between China and Japan appears to
have mostly been carried on, at least by the official envoys, by a circuitous sea-route which,
starting from Satsuma — for the Chinese down to the days in which our author wrote, do not
appear to have gone beyond the island of Kyushu — led to Hakata in Chikuzen, then to Ikishima,
Tsushima and the coast of Korea, from whence the coast was followed all the way to Chekiang
20 or Fu-kien. In A. D. 761 a mission was sent for the first time directly from Kyushu to Ning-po.
T'ang-shu, 220A,i9».
The San-kuo-chi (Wei-chi), 80,24 describes the earlier route between China and Japan;
unfortunately many of the names mentioned are still, we believe, unidentified. See Aston, Trans.
Asiat. Soc. Japan, XVI, 57. Liang-shu, 54,28'', describes practically the same route, but with less
25 detail, though in clearer terms. It says in substance that Wo is distant from Kui-ki (i. e., Chb-kiang)
over 12,000 li, in a general easterly direction by way of Tai-fang (near Pyong-yang in Korea). The
■ extreme, point of this route by way of Tai-fang is in Wo. «The stages of this sea-route are
successively, the Han country (i. e., northern Korea), then east, then south for 7,000 li and more.
(Then) one crosses a sea which is over 1,000 li broad and is called the Han-hai (i. e.. Sea of
SO Japan). Then one comes to the Iki country (— • ^ Ikishima). Thence again across the sea for
over 1,000 li to the Mo-lu country (^ J^ ^ Matsura, but probably Hakata in Chikuzen).
Then south-east overland 500 li to the 1-tu country('^ ^ °' ta i ^^° ^^ Chikuzen?). Thence
going south-east 100 li one comes to the Nu country (^ |g probably in Naka, Chikuzen).
Going thence east 100 li one come's to the Pu-mi country (^ §^ ^ Kasaga, Chikuzen).
35 Proceeding thence south by water (possibly partly descending the Chikugo gawa) for. 20 days one
comes to Sho-ma (|5; ^ , not ;^ as in text, Satsuma). Thence ten days by water (and) a
month overland, and one comes to the country of Ye-ma-t'ai (^J ,^ g Yamato), where the
Prince of Wo has his residence)). Some modern Japanese, historians are of opinion that the Yamato
here mentioned was in S. E. Kyushu, presumably in the present Hyuga; its rulers were probably
40 thought by the Chinese — who had never been farther in Japan — to be the rulers of the Empire.
See, however, Aston's remarks on this point, loc. cit.
' ' 8) Hou Han-shu, 115,12'' says: «Wo comprises over one hundred principalities ( |^ }
more than thirty of them hav° had intercourse with China. All the principalities are styled Wang
, (III -^ jM T); they succeed each other generation after generation. The Great Wang of
45 m liv^in the Y6-m'a-t'ai principality (Yamato)... Sui-shu, 81,ls^ says «Wo 1^ divided^o tMrty
principalities and they all call themselves Wang (Japanese mio) or Prince., (-g- g 7^ ±>
T'ang-shu 220,1;"° says that around the principal island of Wo there are some fifty
islands, each one of which calls itself cprincipality.. (U). In 984 the Japanese bonze Tiau-jan
(Chonen) told the Emheror T'ai-tsung of the Sung that the sovereign of his country was called
50 Wane (^ T W T ^ lA) ^^^ ^'^^^ ^* *^^ present time there had been a succession
of sixtJ-Fur l^neV^ions of Wangs in direct descent. Civil and military offices were hereditary.
Sung-shi, 491,5*.
174 JAPAN. 1,45
9) This is the description of the dress of the Japanese in the first or second century of
our era; our author quotes hero from H6u Han-shu, 115,12''-1S*. Conf. San-kuo-chi (Wei-chI),
30,25^, Tsin-shu, 97,4 and T'ang-shu, 220,i&='.
10) This paragraph is talren from Tiau-jan's (Chonen's) statement in 984, mentioned
previously. «We have, he said, in our country the Five Classics, also the Buddhist Canonical • 5
works, and Pai Ku-yi's poetry (Q JS Mj ^M) in 17 books, all of which have been obtained
from China». Sung-shi, 491,4^ On Pai Lo-t'ien's works, see Pfizmaier, Der Chinesische Dichter
Pe Lo-t'ien, and Mayers, Chin. Read. Manual, 170.
11) The bonze Chonen said: «The soil produces the five kinds of cereals, but little wheat.
For purposes of barter (or exchange) we use copper cash bearing the inscription Kim-won {yuan) 10
ta-pau (^ A^ (TC) "JX. W)" ^® ^^'^^ water-buffalo, donkeys and sheep in abundance,
also rhinoceros and elephants. The native product is much silk, from which we weave a fine,
soft silk, most pleasant to wear». Sung-shl, loc. cit. The correct superscription of these coins is
Eien-yiian-ta-pau, in Japanese Ken-gen tai-ho. Both our author and Sung-shI write the second
character erroneously won. This coin, which was in use in the second year of Tentoku (A. D. 958), 15
was the last of the antique coins issued in Japan. No coins were made by Government during
the six hundred and odd years which separate the period of Tentoku from the fifteenth year of
Tensho (A. D. 1587). N. G. Munro, Coins of Japan, 75, 79. The earliest mention of coin in
Japan appears to be in the year 486 A. D. Copper coins were first made in Japan in A. D. 708.
Aston, Nihonji, I, 360, 391, II, 414. 20
The text of Chonen's statement concerning Japan contained in the Sung-shi was presum-
ably taken from an original in which there were a number of undoubted clerical errors, as for
example, in the superscription of the coins of Japan, and in the phrase ^§ HiJ -m lIj S ^Bj
which should unquestionably read ^ ^r J^ Hj Q ^^. We are justified, therefore, in
thinking that the text used by Chau Ju-kua and the author of Sung-shi, and which makes Chonen 25
say that there were rhinoceros and elephants in Japan, was corrupt also in this case, and that he
really told T'ai-tsung the simple truth, that there were neither rhinoceros nor elephants in Japan.
12) So far as we can learn there is no tree in Japan called lo. It is possible that lo is a
truncated form of so-To (^^ ^S Shorea robusta), though we do not believe that this tree grows in
Japan. It may, however, be the Chinese horse-chestnut (Aesculns chinensis, Bge.), which is also 30
called so-Io (as in text, though more commonly ^v|? t-^)- T"u-shu-tsi-ch'6ng (XX, 314, p. 11),
quoting the Ko-ku-yau-lun (:^ "^ ^ |^, completed in A. D. 1387, see Hirth, Ancient
Chinese porcelain, 13), says that lo wood (>[^ ^) comes from the Hu-kuang provinces aadNan-
an-fu (^^ ^- rap Kiang-si), where a hill called Wan-yang-shan produces it. Its wood is white
with yellow streaks, and coarsely veined, though not unpleasant to the eye. This kind is called Wo-lo 35
(^< T^E '■ ®'' J^P^i'^^^ ^)i "f which many trees are not veined. Another variety, rather tough,
with straight fine streaks is called ts'au-lo ( S. 1>^S) and is popularly known as t'u-mu
('f^ >tC)- S^^ ^Is" K'ang-hi-tzi-tien, s. v. Lo (i^^S)- Giles, Chin. Engl. Dictionary, 746,
identifies the ts'au-lo with the horse-chestnut (Aesculus chinensis). The lo mentioned by our
author was probably some kind of pine tree, but it seems impossible to identify it. This paragraph 40
of our text is practically the only original contribution of our author in the chapter on Japan.
1 3) The first phrase of this paragraph is taken from the bonze Chonen's statement, quoted
previously. The substance of the second phrase is taken from Tsin-shu, 97,4*. Conf also H6u
Han-shu, 115,is* and San-kuo-chi (Wei-chl), 30,25*. Chinese music, called iwre ^aitw, is said to
have been introduced into Japan from Korea in A. D. 612. Aston, Nihongi, II, 144 — 376. 45
14) Quotation from H6u Han-shu, 115,is*. See also Ban-kuo-chi (Wel-chi), 80,i5*, and
Tsin-shu, 97,4*.
15) Quotation from H6u Han-shu, 115,is* except that for few-Zdw it has ^'en-iOM (^ff
^). Tsin-shu, 97,4" uses the word tsu-tim. Conf. San-kiio-chi (Wei-chi), 30,25" and Sui-shu, 81, 15*.
16) Quotation from Tsin-shu, 97,4*. Conf. Sui-shu, 81,15*. wShinto never had a marriage 50
ceremonys. Aston, Shinto, 249.
17) Quotation from Tsin-shu, 97,4* or Liang-shn, 54,2a^ Conf. H6u Han-shu, 115,18* and
San-kuo-chi (Wei-chi) 30,25^ See Aston, Shinto, 252.
1,45 ISLAND OP HAINAN. 175
18) Quotation from H6u Han-shu, 115,i8». See also San-kuo-chl (Wei-chi), 30,29*. Aston,
Shinto, 339 says : tcThe greater, or official, divination consists in drawing conclusions according to
certain conventional rules from the cracks which appear in a deer's shoulder-blade when
exposed to firen.
5 19) San-kuo-cM (Wei-chi) 30,28% quoting the Wei-lio, says: aThey (the Japanese) do not
usually know the true year and the four seasons. They simply reckon as a year from the spring
cultivation of the fields to the autumn in-gathering» . Aston, Trans. Asiat. Soc. Japan, XVI. 59,
remarks on this passage: «It is not quite clear what is meant by this. It may mean simply that
the Japanese reckoned their year from the spring or autumn equinox and not from the New
10 Year, and it may not have been intended to imply that their year consisted of only six months.
Another writer says that the Was reckoned their year from autumn to autumn . . .» This latter
view is that of Tsin-shu, 97,4*' which our author quotes from. Some native etymologists connect
tosM, the Japanese word for «year» with the harvest and with tcru «to taken.
20) Quotation from Tsin-shu, 97,4*. See also H6u Han-shu, 118,13*; San-kuo-cM (Wei-chi),
15 30,28% and Liang-shu, 54,28*.
21) Hou Han-shu, li5,is*. San-kuo-chi (Wei-chi), 30,26*- Tsin-shu, 97,4^
22) It was again the bonze Chonen who told this to the Chinese in 984. The text, both in
our author and in Sung-shi, is certainly corrupt here in two places. The character yiie in Yfle-ch6u
is clearly an error for au (^^ in Japanese o), as Oshu (.^ >)>H ) was the part of Japan where
20 gold was first discovered, in A. E. 749. Oshu is now divided into several provinces, but it is
probable that the Handa mine in the province of Iwashiro is the one referred to by Chonen. The
other error is, as pointed out on page 174, note 11, writing aanotherislanda, instead of ajTwi-teMa
(^fer .^) in Japanese Tsushima, on which island silver was found in A. D. 675, and where
mines were worked for a long period subsequently.
25 23) Tiau-jan, in Japanese. Chonen (posthumous title, Koisi daisi), belonged to the great
Fujiwara clan. He was a priest of Nara. Our author has incorporated into this chapter all the
information which the Sung-shi" states he gave the Emperor T'ai-tsung.
24) The biography of Sung K'i is in Sung-shi, 264,i2; that of Li Fang, in Sung-shi, 265,1.
Mencius, Bk. Ill, Pt. I, Ch. IV, 12 (Legge, Chinese Classics, H, 129) said: «I have heard
30 of men using the doctrines of our great land to change barbarians, but I have never yet heard
of any being changed by barbariansn.
46.
ISLAND OF HAINAN.
Hai-nan (y$ ^). '
35 Hai-nan is the Chu-ai (:^ j^) and Tan-ir {j§ I^) of the Han period.
When the Emperor Wu-ti (B. C. 140 — 86) had made the conquest of
Southern Yu6 (i^), he sent a mission from Sii-won across the sea to recon-
noitre the country; as a consequence the two prefectures (^) of Chu-ai and
Tan-ir were established. His successor Chau-ti (B. C. 86—73) dropped Tan-ir
40 and incorporated it in Chu-ai. On the advice of Kia Kiian-chi (^ :f| ^),
the Emperor abandoned Chu-ai, and it was only again occupied under the
Liang (A. D. 502—527) and the Sui (A. D. 589—618) dynasties^
176 ISLAND OP HAINAN. .1,46
In the first year of the chong-huan period of the T'ang dynasty (A. D.
627), the country (of Hai-nan) was divided into three departaments(;f>|>(), Ai
(^)) Tan (-(J^), and Ch6n (^), and they were attached to the province of
Ling-nan (^ ^ ^). In the fifth year (A. D. 631), K'iung shan (j| \l^)
in Ai was made a prefecture (km), and Wan-an-hi^n (H ;^ ^) was raised 5
to departmental rank (chou), identical with the military districts (^) or Mn
of the present day; while Tan and Chon were then as now the military districts
of Ki-yang (^ ^) and Ch'ang-hua (^ 4^)^-
In the fifth year of the chon-yucm period (A. D. 789), K'iung was made
the seat of a military prefecture (^ )^\ which it still remains. lo
K'iung-(ch6u) lies some 360 U from the place (called) Ti-kio-ch'ang
(M ^ -^^ ^'^ Sfl-w6n on the main-coast, and the passage to it can be
made with a fair wind in half a day. The mid-channel is called San-ho-liu
(^ -^ */g); when this has been passed, if there is neither wind nor sea,
the sailors can congratulate themselves with raised hands on their good luck^. 15
Ki-yang lies at the extreme (southern) end of the coast (of Hai-nan), and
there is no land beyond it, but outside there are two islets, Wu-li (,^ H^)
and Su-ki-lang (^ ^ ^). Chan-ch'ong faces it to the south, and to the
west it looks towards Chon-la. To the east (of Hai-nan) are the «Thousand li
banks» (=p- ||, -^ |j?) and the «Myriad li rocks» (^ M 'H ^)j ^^^^ 20
(beyond them) is the boundless ocean, where the sea and the sky blend their
colours, and the passing ships sail only by means of the south-pointiug needle
— if it be closely watched by day and night — for life or death depends on the
slightest fraction of error *.
The island (of Hai-nan) is divided into four prefectures Qtun), eleven 25
departments Qiim) in all, being attached to the western circuit (^) of
Kuang-nan (^ ]^). They lie around the Li-mu mountain (^ -^ (Jj)
where the wild Li (1^ :^^) have their huts (^ ^). The Li are divided
, into Savage Li and Semi-civilized Li. Although they have much fallow land,
there is not raised enough rice to supply food for the people; to get their fill 30
they have to make soup of tubers, taro, and different kinds of grain; this is
the reason for the trade in sweet-scented woods (carried on by the Li)^.
The products of the country are gharu-wood, p'ong-lai gharu-wood,
cJio-hu-pan-Mang (gharu-wood) (1^ ^ Jj^ ^), tsien-hiang (gharu-wood),
shong-Mang (gharu-Wood), cloves, betel-nuts, cocoanuts, cotton (Jd-pei), hemp 35
(^ M)^ paper-mulberry bark,- red and white rattan, flowered silk sarongs
(^ #): aid curtains embroidered by the Li (^ 1^^), green cassia-wood,
rose-wood,' to'-we?-cM ("^ ^ g^), kHimg chH-ts'ai (jl ;^ ^), hai-tsH
T 4fi
' ISLAND OF HAINAN. J 77
mm), loEg pepper (f p), galangal root(^ ^ ^), fi^h glue («
p). yellow wax, and fossil crabs (^ ^^). Most of te products cof;
from the mountaxn villages of the Li and are exchanged with the Chinese for
salt, iron, fish, and rice; the latter sell them to traders (on the coast) «
5 The junks which come hither from Ts'uan-ch6u to trade, are laden
with samshu, rice, flour, silks, lacquer, and china ware. They sail from Ts'uan-
ch6u at the end of the year, or in the first month of the year, so as to return
thither in the fifth or sixth month (i. e., June to August); but, if they want
cargoes of fresh betel-nuts, they must sail earlier, so as to get back in the
10 fourth month (i. e., April-May).
K'iung-chou is situated to the north-east of the Li-mu mountain. The
prefectural capital is the same as Ai-chou of antiquity. During the chong-Jio
period (1111—1118) it was made the headquarters of a military brigade
(fjj ^), with the Tsing-hai (^ «^) regiment as garrison. It borders on
15 the sea, and is not very hilly. As to the climate, it is rainy in autumn, dry
in spring, not too hot in summer, not too cold in winter. Typhoons (H ^)
are frequent in the fifth and sixth months (i. e., June to August), and if one
of these is accompanied by a rainbow, the latter is called «storm (or typhoon)
mother)) (^ -^y.
20 According to the 'Records of the Sui dynasty' (^ ^J the people (of
K'iung ch6u?) were of a frivolous but cruel nature. They did their hair up in
a mallet-shaped knot, and wore clothes made of grasses (^ ^). They kept
records by means of notches in pieces of wood, were laborious cultivators, but
of uncouth manners. Father and son followed different vocations. Important
25 persons cast bronze into big drums and hung them up in their houses; when one
of them beat his drum to call his people (|^ ^), and if they hastened to
gather around him in great numbers, he was known as a fu-lau (^ ■^) ^
The people wore silk clothes (X M M OB, and made pots out of clay,
and household vessels of calabashes. As they had no yeast, they fermented
30 their wine with pomegranate flowers.
At the present time their upper garments differ not from those of the
Chinese, the nether clothing of the men is a cotton sarong (^) and that of
the women a plaited skirt (|g"). They make their living by spinning cotton.
They still use earthenware pots, and occasionally calabashes to ladle water;
35 in brewing wine they use tubers and grain for ferment (\^ ^ -^). Although
there are no wealthy people among them, nevertheless, as they are a thrifty
people, there are no poor and one sees no beggars in bad years.
When Ting, Duke of Tsin ("f ^ ^), was degraded to the rank of
12
178 ISLAND OF HAINAN. 1,46
Prefectural Finance Commissioner {}]] oj ^) lie taught the people (of K'iung-
chou) to read books and to compose (^ ^)^ During the kHng-li period (1041 —
1049) Earl Sung Kuan-chi (^ ^ ;^) built the prefectural college, which was
renovated in the Mng-wu year of the Tiia-ting period (1210) by Earl Chau Ju-
hia (^ f^ ^), on which occasion tablets to the manes of Dukes Su Tung-po 5
iW- Mr ^) ^^^ Hu Tan-an (]^ '^ ^) were erected on the east and west
sides of the Lecture hall, and on the tablet of the hall was written iming
tam (^ ^ ((Understanding and Methods or «Enlighteners of the Way»)^°.
In Hai-k'6u (y$ P) there is a «Temple of the two Fu-po of the Han
dynasty)) (>^ M ik^&. M)' where the manes of Lu Po-to ({^ ]^ f^) and lo
Ma Yiian {^ j^) are worshipped. Those who pass by on the sea must pray
here, and no one may pursue his journey before learning his luck from tlie
pei-kiau tablets (i^ 3^)"-
Five towns, K'iung shan (j| jij), Ch'ong-mai ('^ ^), Lin-kau (^
j^), W5n-ch'ang (^ ^) and Lo-hui (^ ^), are subordinate to this 15
district (of K'iung-chou), and in each of them there is a Maritime Customs
Collector (1^ ^y^.
The junks which trade there are divided into three classes: the first is
called po (^), the second pau-fou (^ H), the third tan (^)'^. When a
junk arrives, a Customs Inspector ("/^ ^) reports the fact to the District 20
Magistrate (^I>|), who then sends an officer to gauge the tonnage and determine
the regulation duty. Officials of all ranks, as well as the soldiers, look to this
(duty) for their maintenance.
After a journey of 236 li farther west the military district (^ f^) of
Ch'ang-hua ( ^ ^) is reached. 25
Ch'ang-hua is situated to the north-west of the Li-mu mountain, and is
the same as the ancient Tan-ch6u ". The city walls are fourteen feet high
and measure 220 paces (p'u) around. According to ancient records the city
was built by the noblewoman Tan-ir (j^ ^ ^ \y, she made the goblins
(51) """ork for her, and they with baskets and shovels completed the whole so
work in a single night.
According to another version the people of this country were called
Tan-ir (i. e., ependant ears») because their ears hung down on their shoul-
ders. Although at the present time no children are born in Ch'ang-hua with
long ears, nevertheless the Li, as devout Buddhists, put big rings in their 35
ears, making them to reach down to the shoulders ^^
The country is free from epidemics (i. e., malaria) and marshes. As the
climate is absolutely different to that of China, all flowers bud early in the
I>46 ISLAND OF HAINAN. 179
year and have already ceased blooming in the spring, only the water-lily blooms
from the fourth or fifth month (i. e., May to June) to the end of the twelfth
month, and the plum and chrysanthemum follow it immediately.
The people are simple, honest, and frugal folk. The women do not wear
5 silk gauzes (^ ^), nor do they whiten their faces nor blacken their
eyebrows (as Chinese women do). They follow the orthodox (Chinese) fashions
in their marriage and funeral ceremonies. No one of the common people suffers
from hunger or cold (i. e., there are no indigents).
The College was originally situated in the south-eastern section of the
10 city; it was later on transferred to the western, but in the shau-hing period
(1131 — 1163) it was again transferred to the eastern. The Memoir (|g)
concerning it was written by Duke Li Kuang (^ ^ 3^), Assistant Prime
Minister (^ ^y\
Fifteen U from the Departmental Capital there is a place called Tan-
15 ch'ang (^ :^). When Chau Ting, who was canonized as Duke Chung-kien
iM- ^ M ^ 7^)' '^^^ degraded to the rank of Magistrate in Ki-yang ",
he passed this place, where all the springs had gone dry during a great
drought in midsummer; and here, on digging a well, water was found at a
depth of a few feet. (This well) has not dried up to the present day, and it
20 is called the Siang-ts'iian or «The Minister's spring» {j^ ^); it is also well
known as the Pai-ma-tsing-ts'iian or .(White horse well springa ( ^ ^^ ^ ^);
it has wonderfully good water, and trading junks supply themselves from it
for the voyage home.
There is a shrine called the Ling-tsi-miau (^ ^ j^) inside the
25 Ch5n-an gate (^ ^ P^ ), which is dedicated to the worship of the noble-
woman Tan-ir {\^ ^ ^ A)- Inuring the sAaM-AM*^ period (1131 — 1163)
she was raised to the rank of an official deity under the appellation of Hien-
ying Fu-jon (^ J® ^ A. "*^® Noblewoman not invoked in vain»). When
the Li villages (il||^) away from the coast (i. e., in the mountains) get much
30 loot in a raid on the Tan district, they believe they have solely to thank the
power of the Fu-j5n.
Some 60 li west of the city there is, in a big laguna on an islet of the
sea, a rocky peak shaped like a lion, which the people call «the Lion god»
(^ j^ II). The fact is that there is here one of the temples consecrated
35 to the manes of Marquess Chon Li (^ %\\ ^^^, where trading junks pray
for good wind. The district has three cities, I-lun (g ^), Ch'ang-hua, and
Kau-on(^^)^«.
After a journey of 340 U in a southerly direction, one reaches the
12*
180 ISUND OF HAINAN. 1,46
border of the military district of Ki-yang (^ |^ ^), which is situated to
the south-west of the Li-mu mountain. The capital, a second-class prefecture
(^ */p jf]]), is founded on the site of the (older city of) Ki-yang-hien ^''.
Although the different districts of K'iung(-ch6u, i. e., Hai-nan) might
be reached by land, they are nevertheless so cut off from the Capital by the 5
villages of the wild Li, that one must go by sea to get to them. That is what
Hu Tan-an (^ j(^ ^) meant when he said: «Again I passed a great billowy
dangero (H ^ ^ «^ 1^)=''. '
To the south of the district city (of Ki-yang) is the post-station of Hai-
k'ou ('/^ p ,|^), below which traders moor their junks. There is a small lo
pavilion in front of this place for the reception of travellers.
The country is a narrow strip (along the foot of the Li-mu mountain); it
is sparsely peopled. The climate is not normal, for the spring is usually
excessively dry, while, when the summer is already passed, then comes the
rain (^ g ^ pg). 15
They cultivate the land without either manuring or weeding it. Wood-
choppers, herdsmen, fishermen and huntsmen must go about carrying bows
and arrows, as they are always falling in with Li savages. The women do not
occupy themselves with raising silkworms and making silk, but they weave
with cotton (ki-pel) flowered coverlets, and sarongs in the Li patterns. The 20
men have no occupation, and live simply from hand to mouth. They all believe
in spirits, and have neither medical science nor medicines. When some one is
ill, they slaughter a bullock, then, with beating of drums and music, they make
an offering of it (jjiE,); and this they call amaking good luck»; furthermore no
one is allowed to pass by the door (of the sick person). In their mortuary 25
ceremonies they have music ^^-
The country is full of lofty peaks and picturesque mountain scenery ( |Sj
Ij^ ^ ll|^ ^), so it has come about that among the scholars of the district
many have made reputations (as able poets) (^ -^ 1^ ^ ^ i A. ^
The College is situated in the north-eastern part of the district capital.
Thirteen li from the city there is a rock with a surface which is as flat as the
palm of the hand, without any human labour having been used to make it so.
It is some tens of feet in circumference so that visitors can sit on it;
(here) there is a grove of thick, luxuriant trees, and a cool, clear brooklet 35
ripples by. At this spot the Marquess of Chou (^ '^) built a reed hut, and
over the entrance he put this superscription «untroubled enjoyment» ('I^ ^).
The villages of the semi-civilized Li are few and far between, their
Ij^^ ISLAKD OP HAINAN. 181
dwelling-places being from five to seven li apart. The wild Li who formed
over an hundred villages, from- time to time made raids (upon the country
of the Chinese settlers). The Marquess of Ch6u sent a head-man of the
semi-civilized Li on a mission to them to get them to malie an arrange-
6 ment for holding a weekly market (|| ^ zi 0)^*; after this they came
on foot with their goods on their backs and shoulders, or else floated down
on rafts to trade with the Chinese settlers. The district (of Ki-yang-kiin) was
divided into two districts Qiien), Ki-yang and Ning-yuan (^ ^), which,
in the chong-ho period (1111—1118), were united into one, Ning-yiian-hien.
10 A hundred and twenty U to the east, one reaches the border of the military
district of Wan-an (|| ^ ^). The Wan-an military district is north-east of
the Li-mu mountain. It was founded in the fifth year of the cMwgr-Awaw period of
the T'ang dynasty (A. D. 631) under the name of Wan-an-chou {j\\), and
divided into three districts (him) called Wan-an, Fu-yiin {'^ ^) and Po-Iiau
15 (|Ft| ^). In the beginning of the fien-pau period (742) it was changed from
a department or chou, to a Mn (^) or prefecture. In the second year of the
cKi-to period (757) its name was changed to that of Wan-ts'iian (^ ^),
and in the beginning of the kHm-yumi, period (758) it was once more made
a department.
20 During the present (Sung) dynasty the two districts (Men) of Fu-yiin and
Po-liau were done away with, and Wan-an-hi6n was called Wan-ning (^
^); but in the sixth year M-ning{1073)it (i. e., the whole district) was made
a military district (kun), and the name of Wan-ning was changed to Ling-
shui ((^ ;([c); at the present time they are both included (in the one dis-
25 trict or Men) *^.
The Chinese settlers of this district live mixed with the Li and the Tan
(^-)28. They are plain and uncouth in their habits, but so law-abiding and
disliking robbery and theft that people can let their cattle and sheep roam
about unguarded without fear of their being wrongfully claimed.
30 Their dwellings are mostly of reeds and bamboo, and seldom have tiled
roofs. Women of all ages occupy themselves with weaving cotton, but they
do not make patterns on it. The sick take no medicine. They put their faith
in sorcery (^), and devils, (to whom) they sacrifice an ox, praying for happi-
ness and aid. After the establishment of the first drug shops by Huang Hou-
35 shon (^ -^ ^)", they gradually came to see the advantage of taking medi-
cine. In the eastern part of the city is the Po-chu Tu-kang-miau or «Temple
of the ship-captain Tu-kang» (M ± ^ M M^- Whosoever with
profound faith prays here for an omen (|>.), gets a reply. Passing ships
182 ISLAND OF HAINAN. 1,46
make an offering here before proceeding (farther). The annual and tri-
ennial examinations for literary degrees for the three prefectures (of Ch'ang-
hua, Ki-yang and Wan-chou) are all held, with those for K'iung-chou, (at
this place).
The native tribes of the four prefectures of the island of Hai-nan are 5
called Li (^). The Li-mu mountain of the island is recognizable at night by
its cheering glitter (jj^ 3fe)> which is visible in all the four adjacent prefec-
tures. According to a passage in the Tsin-shu (or History of the Tsin (^)
dynasty) referring to the divisions of the land, (this) division, which is under
the influence of the wu-nu star (^ ;;^), is said to be under the light of the lo
stars Li-niu (^ ^) and Wu-nii (^ ^), which are (collectively) called
Li-wu (^ ^), the sound of which has been corrupted to Li-mu (^ -^j
the name of the mountain) ^'.
The dwelling places of the native tribes (§) are situated around this
mountain, whose summit rises to an extraordinarily great height, for it is 15
generally wrapped in fog. The Li themselves only rarely see it, save on clear
autumn days, when its azure peak is visible, floating as it were in space (y^
;p[ -^ S)^"- There is a spring on this mountain which bubbles up to form
five streams, one of which flows to (the town of) Ch'ang-hua, one to Ki-yang,
one to Wan-an, two to K'iung-chou, one of which becomes a big creek (;^) 20
and, with 36 rapids (in its course), flows down to the village of Chang-liau
(M. ^ ^) ^^ Ch'ong-mai-hien (^ ^ ^), the other becomes a small
creek which, with 24 rapids (in its course), runs to the village of Chu-yiin
(^^ ^ M) ^^ Lo-hui-hi6n {^ ^ ^). These two streams flow into
each other and become the San-ho-shui (^ -^ ^), which goes to 25
K'iung-shan-hien.
(Those of the aborigines) who live in the remotest parts of the province
are called 8hdng-Li (i. e., 'Wild Li'), those who live nearer (to the Chinese)
are called SMu-IA (i. e., 'Tame Li'), and these latter are under the control of
the nearest one of the four Military districts {^). The villages (ilij^f) of the 30
Li grow daily, so it is not possible to know their populousness. Neither do
they remain under one chief, but usually each village has its own head-man
who must belong to either the Wang (3g), the Fu (^), the Chang (gg) or the
Li (^) family. Persons of the same family name may inter-marry. Frequently
Chinese criminals seek refuge among the Li. The males wear their hair 35
twisted in a knot, they go barefooted and stick silver, copper or pewter
pins in their hair. The women wear copper rings and ear-pendants which
hang down to their shoulders. Young girls when they reach marriageable age
1,46 ISLAND OF HAINAN. 183
have their cheeks finely tattooed; this is called «emhroidering the face» (|§
^), and, when the tattooing is completed, the relatives and friends assemble
to offer congratulations. Female slaves do not «embroider» their faces ^^
The women's work is spinning and weaving, for which purpose they
5 buy Chinese coloured silk stuffs, draw out the coloured threads and weave
these with tree-cotton (tJ; j^^) into single curtains (^ ^); they also make
excellent cloth of (both kinds of) cotton.
They sacrifice to the gods oxen, dogs, fowls, and pigs, often as many as
an hundred (at a time). As there is neither salt nor iron, fish, nor shrimps
10 (in their country), they barter for them with the neighbouring Chinese settlers
with gharu-wood, unbleached cotton cloth, tree-cotton, and hemp (Hff^ ^),
for they do not make use of coined money.
Their dwellings have bamboo frames; the ground fioor is occupied by
their live-stock, the inhabitants live in the upper part. The men carry usually
15 a long wooden-handled knife (fg) and a long bow (5§ ^ ); they do not take
a step without them. They delight in taking revenge and killing (their ene-
mies), they call this «seizing» (:^ \^j)- ^^ the case of a relative being killed,
they lay hold of and fetter some member of the family of the (dead man's)
enemy or of his village, and, for a fetter, they use a piece of hchee-wood six
20 feet long and in shape like a foot-pestle (^^). Then they demand of the
prisoner, before they will release him, either a cow, wine, silver, or a pitcher
(^), to «ransom his life» as they call it^^
On the conclusion of a marriage contract they break an arrow in
two as a proof of good faith. The festivals are held with beating of drums,
25 dances and singing. When a person dies they always kill an ox as a
sacrifice ^'.
Among the native products of this country the ch'on-shui and fong-lai
(varieties of gharu-wood) take the first rank in the Hiang-p'u (^ |f )^*.
The mountains are covered with areca and cocoanut palms; there are also
30 ponies, kingfishers' feathers, and yellow wax^^ It often happens that traders
from Min (i. e., Fu-kien), driven on the coast by storms and having lost
everything in the wreck of their junks, have gone into the Li country to make
a living by tilling the soiP®. "When Chinese officials or people are travelling
to the native villages, they can expect perfect security when they stop in the
35 houses of (these Chinese inland-settlers).
Military posts of the four departments (^fj) of Hai-nan keep guard
outside the (territory of the) Tame Li in the four quarters (pg |5^), along
a line of a thousand U. There is a road like a connecting ring (between
184 ISLAND Of HAINAN. 1,46
the posts). A person wishing to take a trip through this country could not do
so in less than a month ^'.
When Ma Fu-po (J^ jf^ jj^) had pacified Hai-nan, he ordered potters
to make some earthenware vessels {^), the larger of which held several
piculs of rice, the smaller from five to two or three bushels. Then he invited 5
(the natives), even from the most remote villages, who had made their sub-
mission, and he gave (these vessels) to them at their choice. By this means
he was enabled to form an idea of the accessibility, or otherwise, of their
nests and caves (^ ^). The Wild Li took the small jars of two or three
bushels, and when asked the reason, replied that they had all come down lo
from steep cliffs and the (forks of) trees (^ ;^) and that they could not
take the big ones, because they feared that they would not be able to carry
them home. By this (the General) learnt that their villages and caves (il||^[ ^)
were deep in the interior, in precipitous and inaccessible places ^^.
Among (the Chinese) population of the four prefectures the clan name is
of Li (^) is very common, because this clan is descended from the Li. At
the present time there are many descended from the Li who bear the surname
of Wang (^), In the first year of the shun-M period (1174) the head-man
of the wild Li of the Wu-cM-shan (i ^fg* ^]), Wang Chung-k'i (3£ fiji
^) by name, gathered together the neighbouring Li villages, eighty in 20
number with a population of 1820 adult males (X), for the purpose of making
their submission to Chinese rule. When Chung-k'i and the various head-men,
Wang Chung- won (3£ i^ '^) and others, in all eighty- one men, repaired to
K'iung (-chou) to present themselves, they bound themselves, by an oath taken
in the Hien-ying-miau (^ |§ j||), by stone-rubbing and blood-drinking (§f 25
■^ i^ J^)j to give up misdoing and to desist from rapine and acts of vio-
lence. The Prefect of K'iung-chou arranged drawings of their outward
appearance and of their clothing which were submitted to the Viceroy (|g ^
alf^. (According to these drawings) those of the natives who wore their hair
in a knot (or knob) and uncovered, wrapped the lower part of the knot with 30
red silk, or wrapped the hair entirely in coloured silk, or else they wore little
flaring ornamented bamboo hats (>J> :^ ^), but all of them wore two
silver combs (^ ^) stuck in their hair. Some of them wore a short embroi-
dered skirt*"- Wang Chung-k'i was further distinguishable by a blue turban
( rtl ) and a long red silk brocade gown, bound round with a girdle. He 35
himself said that this was a brocade gown which one of his ancestors, during
the suan-lo period (1 1 1 9— 1 1 26), had received from the Emperor for having
ceded a piece of land to the Chinese Government".
I;46 ISLAND OF HAINAN. 185
The products of Hai-nan are also found in foreign lands; the difference
is in their quality. The isien and c¥6n (gharu-wood) from K'iung (i. e. Hai-
nan) far surpass those from foreign lands by the quality and strength of their
perfume; those from Chan-ch'ong and Chon-la are not to be compared with
5 them. On the other hand, the yellow wax of Hai-nan is not to be compared
with that of San-fo-ts'i, it is even inferior to that of San-sii. The other pro-
ducts are mostly like those of foreign lands, with the exception of betel-nuts
and cotton (^ ^), which are extraordinarily plentiful; the Ts'iian-chou
traders look principally to the latter as a profitable article *^
10 Notes.
1) In the two texts we possess of the Chu-fan-chi, the account of Hai-nan appears as an
appendix to Part II. Nan Yfie or Southern Yiie, was the southern portion of the kingdom of Yiie,
and corresponded approximately with the present province of Kuang-tung. Su-w6n, a note in the
text says, «is the present prefecture (Hien) of Su-w6n in the Lei-ch6u peninsula)). For fuller notes
15 on this chapter of our author, see Hirth, Die Insel Hainan nach Chao Ju-kua. Only such notes as
are necessary for a good understanding of the text have been added in the present work. See also
Ts'ien-Han-shu, 6,20''.
2) ((Province (Tau) of Ling-an». It corresponded roughly with the present Kuang-tung, a
portion of Kuang-si and of Tung-king. On Gh'ang-hua, in Cantonese Ch'oong-fa, see infra, p. 178.
20 Substantially all the information in this and the first paragraph is found in Ling-wai-tai-ta, 1,16.
3) B. C. Henry, Ling-nam, 332, speaking of Hainan straits, says that it (cis the most
dangerous point on the route; the rocks and the currents are so treacherous and the channel
so intricate, that no ship will go through in the night. These difficulties of the passage are
increased by the state of the tides, which ebb and flow through the straits but once in twenty
25 four hours)).
Ch6u ira-fel says of it: c(The Great Sea which is south-west of Hainan is called the Sea
of Kiau-chi (^ K|[; y|fe). In it is the San-ho-lin (((the Triple-joint-currents»). The waves
break here violently, dividing into three currents; one flows south and is the sea which forms the
highway to foreign lands; one flows northward and is the sea of Kuang-tung, Fu-kien and Gho-
80 kiang. One flows eastward and enters the Boundless Place (^E |3^ ^)' '^^^'^^ ^^ called the
Great Eastern Ocean Sea.
((Ships in the southern trade, both going and coming, must run through the San-ho-liu. If
they have the wind, in a moment they are through it. But if on getting into the dangerous
place, there is no wind, the ship cannot get out and is wrecked in the three currents)). Ling-wai-
35 tai-ta, 1,13''.
4) Ling-wai-tai-ta, I, 13^ — 14* says; (dt is said that in the Great Eastern Ocean Sea there
is a long bank of sand and rocks some myriads of li in length, it marks the Wei-lO, the gulf
leading to Hades ( M ^ PJT ^ f^ 7^ ^tt ^^- ^^ °^^^^ *™®^ ^^^^^ ^^^ ^^ °'^^^^
going junk which was driven by a great westerly wind to within hearing distance of the roar of
40 the waters (falling into) the Wei-lii of the Great Eastern Ocean. No land was to be seen. Suddenly
there arose a strong easterly wind and (the junk) escaped (its doom)».Gonf. supra, pp. 26, 75, 79, n. 2.
Groeneveldt, Notes, 25, translating the narrative of Shi Pi's (J^ ^) expedition to
Java in 1292 (Yuan-shi, 162,i2^-is), refers to the fleet — which started from Ts'San-chou, sailing
through the Sea of the Seven Islands (-^ ^i|>| 7^ the Sea of the Paracels Islands) and the Long
45 Reef(J| J3 ^ ;*i| Macclesfield Banks), and passing the land of Kiau-chii and Champa, etc.
This identification is, I think, correct. Our author's Wan-li-shi-ch'uang is certainly the same, and
ch'uang ( fi^) may well be an error for fang (^), the two characters are somewhat alike. The
along bank of sand and rocksa (-^ ^ ^ ^) of the Ling-wai-tai-ta can hardly be
the same.
186 ISLAND OF HAINAN. 1,46
5) During the Sung dynasty most of the present provinces of Euang-tung and Kuang-si
formed one province called Kuang-nan, divided into an eastern and western Circuit or Lu.
On the Li-mu mountains and the Hainan aborigines, or Li, see pp. 182 — 183, and infra,
note 30.
6) On these different varieties of gharu-wood, see infra, Pt. II. Ch. XI. Em-me%-c7M, 5
literally «Sea-plum gum» may be the same as the la-mei (^^ ^j^)) Chimonanthus fragrans,
Porter Smith, Chin. Materia medica, 60. O-mel-shan-cM, as cited in T'u-shu-tsi-ch'Ong, XX^
206, describes a hai-mei growing on Mt. Omi, as a shrub about three feet high with fruit like
the Chinese cherry (Cerasus pseudo-cerasus).
K'iung-cM-ts'ai is said by P6n-ts'au-kang-mu, 28,28, to be identical with the sM-hua-ts'ai, 10
or agar-agar, an edible sea-weed much used in China. Eai-is'i, literally «sea-varnish», is, I
believe, unidentified. SM-hie or wstone-crabsB are mentioned in the List of medicines exported
from Hankow, etc. (Imp. Marit. Customs. II. Special Series, JV» 8), 37 as aFossil crabs. Macro-
phthalmus Latreilli and Portunus leucodea.a Ling-wai-tai-ta, 7,15 says they are found along the
whole coast of Hainan and that they are exactly like the big sea-crab or siu-mo (^ffi i^)- I* ^5
is used, it adds, as a medicine in eye complaints.
7) Ling-piau-lfi-i (^ ^ ^ ^) written by Liu Sfln (^J j^) during the T'ang
dynasty says (1,1*), that a hu-fong is a terrible wind which destroys houses, trees, etc. Sometimes
there is none for two or three years, while at times there may be three in a single year. This
appears to be the real typhoon. Certain works quoted in the T'ai-wan-fu-chi, however, distinguish 20
between the Tcu-fon^ and the fai-fong, the former being less disastrous than the latter. See
Hirth, «The word Typhoons, J. R G. S., 1880, pp. 6—7 of reprint.
8) See Sui-shu, 31, is, of which this paragraph of our text is an abstract. In regard to the
bronze drums Sui-shu says that as soon as they had cast a big bronze drum they hung it up in
their courtyard, put out wine and invited their people to come. Some of the well-to-do sons and 25
daughters made big hair-pins of gold or silver, and proclaimed the fact by beating their drum, then
they stored them away. Such wealthy people were known as abronze drum and hair-pin peoples
(SwI ^t W^' ^^^y "'l^" ^^** their drums to call their clan together to avenge the death of
one of their number. Those who had drums were called Tu-lau. In the days of the Han the great
chief of the Man savages (^ ^) was called Lau-fu-ch'6n (^- .^ B^), the Li continued 30
thereafter to call their elders (or persons of high standing, ^|) tau-lau ("f^lj ;^), a word
which by phonetic decay has become tu-Um.
On the subject of the bronze drums, the invention of which is ascribed by the Chinese to
the General Ma Yflan (regarding whom see infra, note 11), see F. Hirth, Chinesische Ansichten
liber Bronzetrommeln, 1904. . 35
9) Ting Tsin-kung was born in Su-ch6u in the latter part of the tenth century; his name was
Ting Wei ("J" g^). He rendered distinguished services to the state in various capacities, and
was made Duke of Tsin in 1022. Later on, having become implicated in an intrigue with the
eunuch Lei Yun-kung, he was degraded and banished. Three years of his exile he lived in a
village in Hainan and five more on the Lei-ch6u peninsula. He died in 1033. Sung-shi, 283,8 40
et seqq., and Hirth, Die Insel Hainan, 15, note 2.
10) Sung Kuan-chi, also called Sung-hien (-^ ^) was born about the beginning of the
eleventh century; so far as known he did not visit Hainan. The great biographical work called Wan-
sing-t'ung-pu, mentions a Sung Shou-cM {^ ^ ;^) as having promoted literary studies in
Hainan. The name given in the text should presumably be corrected accordingly. 45
Chau Ju-hia was an ancestor of our author (see Hirth in J. E. A. S. 1896, 77—81). He
wrote several works, one entitled K'iung-kuan-t'u-king (Jfi ^^ ^ j2E) which, to judge
from the title, must have been an illustrated description of the island of Hainan. The date here
mentioned in our text, 1210, is the latest found in Chau Ju-kna's work.
Su Tung-p'o, or «Su of the eastern slope», is the popular name of Su Shi (^^ ^^) one 50
of the greatest poets of China. A. D. 1036—1101. In 1069 he entered official life. In lOmie was
dismissed to Huang-ch6u for having lampooned in verse a couple of Censors. Here be built himself
a hut on the eastern slope {tung-p'o) of a hill, and afterwards took these two words as his fancy,
1,46 I8LAKD OP HAINAN. 187
or literary, name. In 1086 he was restored to favour, but in 1094 he was banished, first to Hui-ch6u
in Kuang-tung, and afterwards to Hainan. In 1101 he was recalled to Court, but died the same
year. See Sung-shi, 338, particularly p. 12, and Giles, Biographical Dictionary, 680.
Hu Tan-an or Hu Ts'uan ("j^ ^^) was born in Kiang-si about the beginning of the
5 twelfth century. He rose to high office at Court and used all his influence to oppose the policy of
Ts'in K'ui, which was in favour of a division of the Empire with the Xin Tartars. Hu Ts'uan was
degraded and exiled, in the first place to Kuang-si, and later on to Hainan, where he remained
for eight years in a small official office. On the death of Ts in K'ui in 1156, he was recalled to
Court, and held the highest offices of state till his death in 1169. Hirth, Die Insel Hainan,
10 17, note 2.
11) Hai-k"6u, in Cantonese Hoi-how, is the port of K'iung-ch6u-fu, which is three miles
distant from it. Hoihow is now the principal port of the island.
Lu Po-to, was the General of the Emperor Wu-ti of the Han dynasty, who in 120 B. C.
conquered the kingdom of Nan-yiie, i. e., the present two Kuang provinces and Tongking. He
15 received the title of Fu-po-tsiang-kiln or aGeneral Queller of the waves» on account of his
victories along the sea-coast and on the sea. Ts'ien-Han-shu, 55,17. Mayers, Chin, reader's
Man., 138.
Ma Yuan, the greatest Chinese General of the first century of our era. In A. D. 41, when
already more than seventy years of age, he commanded an army sent to Tongking to suppress
20 an insurrection. After successfully terminating h;s military operations he fixed the southern
border of China in the present Annam by erecting five bronze pillars, at each of which he
established Chinese garrisons. The title of Fu-po-tsiang-kun, formerly given to Lu Po-to, was
revived for him. Hou-Han-shu, 54. Mayers, op. cit., 149. See also infra, p. 184, and infra, note 38.
The pei-Tiiau tablets were two pieces of jade or of wood, convex on one side, flat on
25 the other, which were used for divination. They were thrown down before the altar, if both
fell with the flat side up, the omen was bad; if they fell with difi'erent sides up it portended
good luck.
12) These five towns still bear the same names, which in Cantonese are K'ing-shan, Ch'ing-
mai, Lam-ko, Man-ch'oong and Lok-ui.
30 13) Po is the ocean-going junk used in the foreign trade by Chinese and Arabs. See supra,
pp. 27, 34, n. 2. Pau-t'ou is the same as the present t'ou-mong (^^ jf^])' ^ small junk with open
framework in the bows, and known in Canton as «West Coast boat». Tan, literally «egg-boat»,
the boat peculiar to the Tanka or boat-people of Canton. See Notes & Queries on China and
Japan, 1,28,107. On the present Li Aborigines of K'iung-shan, see China Review, XIX, 383—394.
35 14) Ch'ang-hua, in Cantonese Ch'6ong-fa, is on the west coast of Hainan in Lat. 19° 12'.
15) This paragraph is practically a paraphrase of Ling-wai-tai-ta, 10,8*'. ,See also Ts'ien-
Han-shu, 6,20'', which is probably the authority on which our author relies. On the Tan-ir Fu-jon,
see supra, p. 179.
16) Li Kuang, an official of the beginning of the twelfth century, died in 1156. Through
40 political intrigues he was degraded from his high office of Assistant Prime Minister and exiled
to Hainan where he held a small office. Sung-shi, 363,1 et seqq.
17) Chau Ting was born in the latter part of the eleventh century in Shan-si. He attained high
metropolitan honours under the Emperor Kau-tsung. Later on he was degraded for his opposition
to the weak policy of Ts'in-k'ui (^ j^) with the Kin Tartars, who were rapidly overrunning
45 China. He was then sent in an insignificant capacity to a place in Fu-kien, and later on
to Hainan, whence he continued to admonish the Emperor. He died in exile in 1147. For his
fidelity to his sovereign he was canonized by the Emperor Hiau-tsung (1163-1190) and given the
title Chung-lien or «Loyal and true» — the same which was also given by the same Emperor to
Hu Tan-an mentioned previously (supra, note 10). Chau Ting was a voluminous writer. See for his
50 biography, Sung-shi, 360,ii et seqq.
18) A temple bearing this name is mentioned in the 1672 edition of the «Description of
Hainan)) (K'iung-ch6u-fu-chi).
188 ISLAND OF HAINAN. 1,46
19) I-lun may be the present Pak-lai on Pak-lai Bay, south of Ch'ang-hua. Kan-bn, in
Cantonese Kom-yan, still bears this name. It is south of Ch'ang-hua, and near Uen-mun Bay on
the S. "VV. coast of the island.
20) Ki-yang is, I take it, the present Ngai-chou on Po-ping Bay on the extreme southern
coast of Hainan. 5
21) This paragraph is substantially taken from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 1,18.
22) Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,8* says of the Li: «Wheu a relative dies they sacrifice an ox, but they
do not cry or have a funeral festival, they only eat raw beef. As to the burial, a man goes ahead
of the coffin-bearers throwing eggs on the ground, and wherever one falls without breaking it is
considered a lucky place for the interment)). Conf infra, 213. 10
23) The idea appears to be that the wild, picturesque scenery of this part of Hainan has
been a source of happy inspiration to the Chinese scholars who have lived in this district. The
characters siu-pa are understood as abbreviated forms of siu-ts'ai (^^ ^J") obachelorsof arts»,
and pa-hung (J^ "g") asenior bachelors)). A literal rendering of this phrase would be athere
are siu-ts'ai and pa-kung, so of the scholars of this district there are those who have been able 15
to establish themselves (as able literary men))).
24) Yin is the third of the Twelve Branches, and i/u the tenth; in other words there were
two market days in every twelve.
25) The town is still called Ling-shui; it is a Hi6n or District town.
26) These Tan or Tan-ka were of the same tribe as the boat-people of Canton. 20
27) Nothing is known to us of this person, not even the period in which he lived.
28) K*iung-ch6u-fu-chi (as cited in T'u-shu-tsi-ch'ong, "VT, 1880,7), mentions a temple
called Chau-ying-miau, 35 U N. W. from Wan-chou. The divinity there worshipped bore the
name of «Captain)) or aPo-chu)). In 1370 he was raised to official rank under the name of Sin-tso-
hai-kiang. It was forbidden to offer pork in sacrifice to it. This temple was popularly known as 25
the Fan-shon-miau or tcTemple of the Foreign god» (^ )jj^ J||). Captain Tu-kang, here
worshipped, was probably a Moslim skipper.
29) The passage referred to in the Tsin-shu is in Ch. 11,23^ Conf. also Sui-shu, Sljia*". On
the star Wu-nti, see G. Schlegel, Ouranographie Chinoise, 203. The derivation of the name of
the Li-mu-shan here given is fanciful. Mayers, Historical Sketch of the Island of Hainan (J. N. 30
C. B. R. A. S., new Series VII), 6, note, states on good authority that the aborigines had a tradi-
tion that the mother of their race dwelt on this mountain; hence the name, which means «Li
mother mountain)).
30) R. Swinhoe, Exploring visit to Hainan (J. N. C. B. R. A. S., new Series VII), 57, esti-
mated the highest peak of the Li-mu-shan range as not exceeding 7,000 feet. Henry, Ijng-Nam, 35
478, placed the height of the Li-mu-shan at about 5,500 feet. He refers to the fleecy veil of clouds
which hung most of the time over the summit. Ling-wai-tai-ta, 1,8—9, from which this paragraph
of our text is substantially taken, says: «In the autumn the sky is clear and the peak is visible,, a
(spot of) azure floating in space, while below are masses of fog)). It then goes on to say that on
the summit of the mountain, cut off from the rest of the world by impassible gorges and guarded 40
by tigers and other wild beasts, live recluses; «can it be, Ch6u K'ii-fei' adds, that they are of the
family of the old men's village of the Astor pool?)) (:^ ^W-^A-^^^M. W^-
Ma Tuan-lin quates all that Chou K'a-fei wrote on Hainan, giving as his authority Fan Shi-hu
(i. e., Fan Ch'6ng-ta, middle of twelfth century). Hervey St. Denis, Ethnographic, II, 400— 401.
Wylie, Notes on Chinese literature, 218 mentions a collection of odes of the Sung dynasty 45
entitled KU-t'an-shi (JSS ^M gs) or aOdes of the Astor pool)).
31) The customs and dress of the Li of the present day do not differ very materially from
what they were in the twelfth century. See R. Swinho e, op. cit., 26 — 27. He nry, op. cit., 882—883,
410 et seqq., and an article in the North China Daily News (Shanghai), of Sept. 3, 1902 entitled
The Lois or Aborigines of Hainan; also China Review, XIX, 383 — 394. 50
Ch6u K'u-fei (Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,ii''), whom our author substantially quotes for the last
part of this paragraph, says in effect that ((there being many good-looking women among the Li
1,46 ISLAKD OF HAINAN. 189
■women, foreigners in olden times used to steal them. So the chaste ones at least took to smearing
their faces with mud to hide theii- charms, and later on tattooing was resorted to for the same
purpose. When a girl reaches marriageable age the family sets out wine and invites the relatives.
Then an old woman prickes out with a needle patterns of flowering plants and flying moths and
5 puts in the colour in kingfisher blue; the work is very fine and well done». At the present day the
designs tattooed on the faces of the Li appear to be lines and dots, like those of the Formosans.
See Henry, op. cit., 383.
32) Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,«, from which this paragraph is substantially taken, says that the
Li knives were two feet long, with handles of horn over a foot long. The Li also wore helmets
10 of rattan. Eeferring to the Li bow, the same work (6,6*) says that they were of wood or bamboo,
and the string of rattan. They were shorter than the Japanese bow, though like it. The arrow was
not feathered. Conf. Swinhoe, J. N. C. B. E. A. S., new Series VII, 79. The Ling-wai-tai-ta,
speaking of the revengeful spirit of the Li, says they call killing a person in revenge atso-yaua
(tt ^^h) ™6aning, like the cho-yau of our text, «seizing, mancipation (?)».
15 — The same work also notes that nfor the most part, the Li are ignorant and superstitious.
When a stranger comes to see them, they do not meet him at once, but first examine him through
some peephole. If he is of pleasing presence and not a dangerous looking person, they send a
slave to spread a mat for him to sit on, and after a little while the master himself comes out and
meets him. After a short conversa tion he has wine served, but in the first place he tries the
20 visitor with some bad-tasting herbs (^S 1^,)> and if he patiently eats of them without hesitating,
the host is pleased, and follows up the wine with beef. But if the guest refuses (to eat the herbs)
he is sent back to his people».
The Li of the present day all carry heavy wood-knives in small baskets, long and narrow,
attached to the waist behind. In these they also carry their flint and steel and a few other neces-
23 sary articles.
33) Taken from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,s^
34) Hiang-p'u or «List of perfumes». This title has been given to several works on the
subject of aromatic substances. One was written in the early part of the twelfth century by Hung Chu
(»yt :|S). Surg-shi, 205,22, mentions this work, which it says is in 5 chapters, and also one
30 by Shon Li (^ ^). Still another work with this title was written during the Sung dynasty
by Ye T'ing-kui (^ ^ {^). See Bretschneider, Botanicon Sinicum, 1, 149, J\^s 153.
35) See Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,8*, which also mentions sapan-wood {su-mu) among the products of
Hainan.
36) Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,7* says that aliving among the semi-civilized Li (Shou-Li) are many
35 desperadoes (^ ^) from the Hu-kuang and Fu-kien provinces, a cruel, thieving lot who,
though to all outward appearances obeying the officials, are in league with the Wild Li (Shong-
Li) to plunder the country».
37) Quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 1,16*.
38) Ma Fu-po is the Ma Yuan mentioned previously p. 178. The text states that these
40 earthenware jars could hold several piculs of water (;;]<). This must be a clerical error for rice
(^), as water is not measured by the picul or bushel.
39) The Wu-chi-shan or « Five-finger mountain)), is south-west from the Li-mu-shan
proper. Henry, op. cit., 478 estimated its height as about 1,000 feet more than the Li-mu-shan,
or about 6,500 feet. There is also a Ts'i-chi-shan or «Seven-finger mountain)) in this Hainan
45 central massif. With the exception of the first and the last phrases of this paragraph, all the
rest is a quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,7". On the form of oath here mentioned, see Hirth,
Die Insel Hainan, 29, note 5. .,,,•„
40) This description of the costume and head-dresses of the Li occurs, m substantially
the same words, in Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,8"^, but it is not said that the description is based on the
50 pictures of the Li. Emg-lio-ssl was one of the titles, corresponding to the present «Governor
General)), or «Viceroy», used during the T'ang and Sung dynasties.
41) Instead of this reference to Wang Chung-ki's dress^in^ai-tai-ta, 2,8 , has «for-
merly in the M-ning period (A. D. 1068-1078) Wang Tsu-tau ( J ]^ ^), head-man of the
190 ISLAND OP HAINAN. 1,46
(pacified) Li villages was given official Chinese robes. At the present time his descendants (lit.,
grand- children) wear an additional garment consisting of a long silk brocade gown (^S ajw)
with a girdle and silver buckle. They say they do so because their ancestor received the like
from the Emperor».
Concerning the dress of the women among the Li, Ling-wai-tai-ta, 2,8^ says: «The married 5
women wear their hair in a high knot (or knob ^S), tattoo their faces, and wear copper
earrings which hang down to the shoulder. Their clothing consists of a plaited skirt of cotton
stuff of bright colours. Though they have neither trowsers nor jacket, the skirt they wear is of
several thicknesses, for they make their skirts with four flounces (^1) sewn together; they put
it on by the feet (not over the head), and tie it at the waist». 10
42) On these various products, see infra, Pt. II.
— "^-^^»{^'
PART II
CAMPHOR (li ^).
Nau-tzi, or camphor, comes from P'o-ni, called according to some Fo-ni
jfS); it also comes from the country of Pin-su (^ ^Y-
6 The common report that it is also found in San-fo-ts'i is an error; the
fact is merely this — that, owing to this country being an important tho-
roughfare for the traffic of all foreign nations, the produce of all other
countries is intercepted and kept in store there for the trade of foreign ships.
The camphor-tree is like the pine-tree (;|0); it grows in the depths of
10 the hills and the remotest valleys. So long as branches and trunk continue
unhurt, the tree will contain the gum even for hundreds and thousands of
years; otherwise it will evaporate.
When the natives go into the hills in order to gather the camphor,
they go in troops of several tens of men; they are provided with clothes made
13 of tree bark (or fibre) and with supplies of sJia-Jiu ("^ ^ sago) for food.
They go in different directions, and whenever they find any camphor-trees,
they fell them with their hatchets, and mark as many as ten or more; they
then cut these into lengths and divide them among themselves equally, after
which each one cuts his share into boards; these again they notch along the
20 sides and cross-wise so as to produce chinks, and the camphor collecting in
these is got out by forcing a wedge into them ^
The camphor which forms crystals is called «plum flower camphor»
(il& :^ |g), because it resembles the plum flower; an inferior quality is
called «gold foot camphor» {-^ ^ |^); broken bits are called «rice camphor»
25 (^ jg^); when these are mixed up with splinters, it is called «grey camphor»
(^ Is); after all the camphor has been removed from the wood, it is called
((Camphor chips)> (JJ^ :J^[j). Nowadays people break these chips into small
bits and mix them with sawdust, which mixture they place in a vessel of
porcelain, covered by another vessel, the openings being hermetically closed;
30 when baked in hot ashes, the vapour formed by the mixture condenses and
13
194 CAMPHOR. ir,l
forms lumps, which are called «collected camphor» (^ JJ^); it is used for
women's head ornaments and the like purposes*. There is furthermore an
oily sort of camphor called «camphor oil» (Jgg y^), which is of a strong and
pungent aroma; it answers for moistening incense, or mixing with oil *.
. Notes. 5
1) Fo-ni and P'o-ni, both pronounced in Cantonese Fat-ni and Put-ni, transcribe respectively
Brni, Borneo, and apply more particularly to the west coast of that island. See supra, pp. 155, 156.
Pin-su, in Cantonese Pan-ts'iit, the latter form representing the sound Pansor, is the Pansur or
Fansur of mediaeval Arab and vrestern writers, the Barus of later writers. Barus is the name of
the principal mart of this commodity in Sumatra, and the word has been affixed by traders to 10
discriminate it from the camphor of Japan. See Reinaud, Relations, I, 7, Masudi, Prairies d'or,
, I, 338, Ibn Batuta, Voyages, IV, 241, and especially Yule, Marco Polo, II, 282, 285—288. Also
Crawfurd, Hist. Malay Archipelago, I, 515—517.
Liang-shu, 54,i4% mentions among the products of Lang-ya-siu (3& ^' Vm} (which
may be Tennasserim or the Kra district on the Msilay Vemnsuls!) p o-lit-Mang (^^ :ffi' .S>), t5
and T'ang-pon-ts'au (Pon-ts'au-kang-mu, 84,56) says that «in olden times p'o-lu-hiartg came from
P'o-liis. We are inclined, however, to believe that^ o-Zit is a truncated transcription of Sanskrit Jcar-
pura, and does not represent Barus, as Gerini (Researches, 427) and Pelliot (B. E. F. E.G., IV
341) are disposed to think. Hiian-tsang, Si-yu-ki, 10, speaks of Me-pu-lo (^■^ 'f|j -^i) as a
product of Madura. 20
Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, 18,7*, says nThe tree which produces the alung-nau perfumes (■»§ H^
^^ j comes from P o-li [-^' y^\\ Perak, or thereabout), where it is called hu-pu-p' o-lii
( fffj '^ "i^- ffi" Icapur). It also comes from Po-ssi (Persia, i. e., it was brought to China
by Persian ships). The tree is from eighty to ninety feet high, and some six or seven (feet) in
circumference. The leaves are round and white on the back. It has no flowers. The tree is either 25-
«fat» (J52) *"' "^6an» (^^)- Lean trees produce t\6 p o-lu-Ttau (or tibalm» >M^). One authority
says that lean trees produce lung-nau (our abaroos camphor))), and the fat ones p'o-lii-kau
(camphor balm). If one cuts into the heart of the tree and splits it open, the oil (lit. grease) flows
out freely from the butt (i^)- The drug can be got also by chopping up the wood and putting
thepiecesinapit. There are other methods of extracting it». Conf. Marsden's remarks in note 2. 30'
2) Marsden, History of Sumatra, 121, says: nThe natives, from long experience, know
whether any (camphor) is contained within, by striking it (i. e., the tree) with a stick. In that case,
they cut it down and split it with wedges into small pieces, finding the camphire in the interstices in
the state of a concrete crystallization. Some have asserted that it is from the old trees alone that
this substance is procured, and that in the young trees it is in a fluid state, callei meeniacapoor, 3S
or camphire oil; but this, I have good authority to pronounce a mistake. The same kind of tree
that produces the fluid, does not produce the dry, transparent, and flaky substance, nor ever
would .... The traders distinguish usually three difi'erent degrees of quality in it, by the names
of head, belly and foot, according to its purity and whiteness, which depend upon its being more
or less free from particles of the wood, and other heterogeneous matter, that mix with it in 40
collecting, after the first large pieces are picked out. Some add a fourth sort, of extraordinary
fineness, of which a few pounds only are imported to Canton in the year, and sell there at the
rate of two thousand dollars the pccula.
3) In a previous passage (supra, p. 156), our author mentions four varieties of camphor as
coming from Borneo; one of these he calls su-nau; it may be the same as the ts'ang-nau here 45-
mentioned. See Gerini, Researches, 432 et seqq.
Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, 1,8% mentions some extraordinarily fragrant camphor which was brought to
the Emperor of China Huan-tsung (in A. D. 756) as tribute from Kiau-chi or Tongking. It was
called lau-lung-nau (^ ^| |§), and also, a^v^Tentlj, jui-lung-nau ('^ ^| HS). This
11,1-2 FRAKKINCEXSE. 195
may be atlie fourth sort» mentioned by Marsden in the preceding note, though no longer known
by the name given it in the T'ang dynasty.
Nearly all the camphor used in China is procured from the Laurus camphora, L., called
Chang {^m)- Nan-yufe-pi-ki (of the eighteenth century), 5,io, says that lung-nau (baroos camphor)
5 comes from Fo-ta-ni ('^ ^ ;^ Patani?). The Cantonese mix it with chang-nau (i. e., camphor
from the Laurus camphora) which comes from Shau-chou (^^ M in Kuang-tung); hence its
name of shau-naun. In northern China camphor is usually called ch'au-nau (iM B^) from Ch'au-
ch6u, also in Kuang-tung, and not far distant from Shau-chou. This latter name ck'.au-nau must
be the correct form. See also Bretschneider, Botanicon Sinicum, 346 (J. 0. B. K. A. S., XXV).
10 Linschoten, Voyage to the East Indies, II, 118 (Hakl. Soc. edit.) remarks that one pound of
Borneo camphor was worth one hundred pounds of Chin-cheu (i. e., Chinese) camphor.
4) Marsden, op. cit, 123 says: «The camphire oil is a valuable domestic medicine, and
much used by the Sumatrans It is rather a liquid and volatile resin, distilling from one
species of the camphire tree, without any oleaginous quality».
15 Our author states (supra, p. 67) that camphor was also a product of Tan-ma-ling, of Java
(p. 77), and of Ling-ya-ssi-kia (p. 68) Chou K'ii-fei adds Chu-lien. See supra, p, 100, n. 8.
FRANKINCENSE (^ #).
Ju-Mang («milk incense))), or Mn-lu-hiang {"^ P^ ^)S comes from (|j[j)
20 the three Ta-shi countries of Ma-lo-pa, Shi-ho, and Nu-fa, from the depths of the
remotest mountain Valleys. The tree which yields this drug may, on the whole,
be compared to the sung (;^ pine). Its trunk is notched with a hatchet, upon
which the resin flows out, and when hardened, turns into incense, which is
gathered and made into lumps. It is transported on elephants to the Ta-shi
25 (on the coast); the Ta-shi load it upon their ships for barter against other
goods in San-fo-ts'i; and it is for this reason that the incense is commonly
collected at San-fo-ts'i*.
When the foreign merchants come to that place to trade, the Customs
authorities, according to the relative strength of its fragrance, distinguish
30 thirteen classes of incense. Of these, the very best is called Uen-Uang {1^
^), or «picked incense»: it is round and of the size of the end of a finger;
it is commonly called ti-ju (^fL) or «dripping milk»^ The second quaUty
is called pHng-ju (^ fi) or «potted milk», and its colour is inferior to
that of the «picked incense». The next quality is csMq^ fing-himg {^ ^)
35 or «potted incense», so called, they say, owing to its being prized so much
at the time of gathering, that it is placed in pots {pHng ^). In this pHng-
Uang (variety of frankincense) there are three grades, superior, medium,
and inferior. The next quality is called tai-Mang (^ ^) or «bag incenso);
13*
196 FEANKIKCENSE. 11,2
thus called, they say, because at the time of gathering, it is merely put into
bags; it is also divided into three qualities, like the p'ing-Mang.
The next kind is the ju-fa (^ '^); it consists of incense mixed
with gravel.
The next kind is the Jiei-t'a {^ :^), because its colour is black. The 5
next land is the shui-sM-Jm-t'a (^ '^ ^ i^), because it consists of
incense which has been «water-damaged», the aroma turned, and the colour
spoiled while on board ship.
Mixed incense of various qualities and consisting of broken pieces is
called cho-siau (^ ^\\ «cut-up»); when passed through a sieve and made lo
into dust, it is called ch'an-mo (|§ ^ «powder»). The above are the various
varieties of frankincense.
Notes.
1) Ju-Mang or «inilk incenseo; this, the common name for olibanum or frankincense in
China, was given it from its appearance. The Arabic name of incense luban means likewise 15
«milk». Marco Polo calls it «white incenses. The second name liun-lu (in Cantonese fan-lvk,
old sound hun-luk) is unquestionably derived from the Arabic kundur (.iX^), or the Indian form
hnndu 01 Tiundwra. Turkish-osm. giinlUJc, afrankincense, olibanum », Eadloff, Worterbuch d.TQrk-
Dialecte, vol. II, col. 1636, may be derived from the Chinese. Conf. Hirth, J. A. 0. S., XXX, 23.
The older Chinese works only use the word Mn-lu to designate frankincense, but there is some 20
confusion in their use of the term, benzoin and other drugs being frequently confounded with the
true olibanum. See Bretschneider, Botanicon Sinicum, 111,460 — 462, and Ancient Chinese and
Arabs, 19; also Hirth, China and the Eoman Orient, 266—268. Pon-ts'au, 34,45'' gives its
«foreign names» as mo-lo (^ ffi||), tu-lu (j^ "'S') *°^ h'ie-to-lo, ('/^ ^ .^S, erroneously
written to-Tc'ie-lo). Tu-lu is probably Sanskrit turu{shJca), the Indian incense, and k'ie-to-lo is 25
hhadira, the Acacia catechu.
2) Ma-lo-pa or Merbat, Shi-ho or Shehr and Nn-fa or Dufar, were the three ports of the
Hadramaut coast of Arabia, the «Land of Frankincense)). See supra, pp. 116 and 121, n. 11.
Nan-fang-ts'au-mu-chuang (third century A. D.) 2,i'', says ahun-lu incense comes from the
sea-coast in Ta-ts'in. It is a big tree (which furnishes it), the branches and leaves are just like 30
those of an old pine (/j^). It grows in the sand. The flowers (lit. buds) are full-blown in summer,
(when) the sap of the tree flows onto the sand, where it is gathered)). Sni-shu, 83,i6* mentions
hun-lu-hiang among the products of Po-ssi (Persia), meaning probably that it was brought to
China on Persian ships. Huan-tsang stated that in the country of 0-ch'a-li (in Southern
India, near Malwa) grew the hun-lu-hiang tree, the leaves of which resembled those of the 35
t'ang-li (^ ^ pyrus). This is presumably the Boswellia thurifera, Colebrooke, whereas the
Arabian olibanum is produced by the Boswellia Carterii, Birdw. See Bretschneider, Botanicon
Sinicum, II, 303, III, 460. See also Linschoten, op. cit., II, 99.
Marco Polo, II, 441, says «Dufar is a great and noble and fine city, and lies 500 miles
to the north-west of Esher (i. e., es-Shehr) .... Much white incense is produced here, and I will 40
tell you how it grows. The trees are like small fir-trees; these are notched with a knife in several
places, and from these notches the incense is exuded. Sometimes also it flows from the tree with-
out any notch; this is by reason of the great heat of the sun there.)) See also Yule's exhaustive
note on the above in his Marco Polo, II, 442—447. Theodore Bent, Exploration of the Fran-
kincense country. Southern Arabia (Geo. Journal VI, 109—134, says (p. 119): «Near Cape Risut a 45
large tract of country is covered with frankincense trees, with their bright green leaves like ash
trees, their small green flowers, and their insignificant fruit .... The best is obtained at spots called
Hoye and Haski, about four days journey inland from Mirbat .... The second in quality comes
II>2-4 MTEEn. — dkagon's-blood. 197
from near Cape Risut, and also a little further west at a place called Chiseri». «To the south of
Mount Haghier (in Sokotra) one comes across valleys entirely full of frankincense-trees. The best
quality is called leban Idkt, and the second quality Ulan resimln Theo. Bent, Southern Arabia,
234, 252, 380. Our author knew of the African frankincense (supra, p. 130) as well as of the Arabian.
3) Also called ju-fou-hiang (^ |^ ^) or anipple incenses by mediaeval Chinese
writers. Bretschn eider, Botanicon Sinicum, III, 460.
3.
MYRRH ii^ ^).
Mo-yau comes from the country of Ma-lo-mo (0 R|| j^) of the Ta-shi.
10 The tree resembles in height and size the pine-tree (7^) of China; its bark is
one or two inches thick. At the time of gathering the incense they first dig
a hole in the ground at the foot of the tree, and then split open the bark
with a hatchet, upon which the juice runs down into the hole during fully
ten days, when it is removed.
15 Note,
The Chinese name for myrrh, meaning «mo medicine or drug» is a transcription of the
Arabic name mwrr — through the Cantonese mu*. See BretschneiderJ Ancient Chinese and
Arabs, 20, note 4; and Hirth, J. C. B. R. A. S., XXI, 220. Pon-ts'au, 34,49, quotes no authorities
on this subject earlier than the Sung.
20 Ma-Io-mo is clearly an error for Ma-lo-pa or Merbat, the Hadramaut coast of Arabia.
This error has been noticed in a previous passage, supra, p. 121, n. 11. Our author has stated in his
description of the Berbera coast (Pi-p'a-lo) that that country produced much myrrh (supra, p. 128).
At the present time the best myrrh comes from the Somali country near Harar. The myrrh which
is got from the hills about Shugra and Sureea to the east of Aden (which must have been included
25 in Merbat as Chinese understood it) is of an inferior quality. See Encyclopaedia Britannica
(9* edit.) XVII, 121. Theo. Bent, Southern Arabia, 254, says myrrh in large quantities grows
in the Gara mountains of the Hadramaut. Hanbury, Science Papers, 378—380, says myrrh
comes from the Ghizan district on the east coast of the Bed Sea, from the coast of Southern
Arabia, east of Aden, from the Somali country, south and west of Cape Gardafui, and from the
30 country between Tajura and Shoa. See also Linschoten, op. cit., II, 99.
The mo mentioned in the Yu-yang-tsa-tsu (18,io^) as being called a-tz'i ([JfH" -^^ the
last Character being also read so, tso and tsoJc) in Fu-lin, is the myrtle, the Aramean name of
which is asa, the original of a-tz"i. Hirth, J. A. 0. S., XXX, 21.
4.
35 DRAGON'S-BLOOD (j^ ^).
Hiie-Jcie comes also from the Ta-shi countries. This tree is somewhat like
the myrrh-tree, except that its leaves are rather different in size from those
of the latter; the manner of gathering is also the same. There is a variety of
198 SAYEET BENZOIN. 11,4-6
tree whicli is as smooth as the face of a mirror; these are old trees, their juice
flows spontaneously, without their heing tapped by the hatchet; this is the
best quality. Incense which contains an admixture of bits of wood is made of
the juice of the lakawood-tree (|^ m. ^), and is commonly called «imitation
dragon's-blood)) (^ j^ ;6g). 5
Note.
In his description of Chung-li, i. c, the Somali coast including the island of Socotra, our
author says (supra, p. 131) that dragon's-blood, aloes, tortoise-shell and amhergris were procured
from this island or the adjacent waters. The Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (§ 30) mentions it
as a product of the island of Dioskorides (Socotra) under the name of aindian cinnabari) (xcvva- 10
Papt TO Xeroptevov 'IvStxov), «which is gathered as it exudes in drops (tears) from the tree.» The
Arabs called it katir (jJjUiJl), and this name, occurring in Yakut's description of Socotra (ed.
Wustenfeld, III, 102,3), may be the original of hiie-Me, pronounced hUt-Jc'it in Cantonese. This
Socotran dragon's-blood is the «drop dragon's-blood» of commerce, the spontaneous exudation of
a leguminous tree, Pterocarpus draco, which grows at elevations between 800 and 2,000 feet 15
above sea-level. See also Theo. Bent, Southern Arabia, 379, 388.
The ordinary Me-kie used in China is the produce of a large species of rattan growing
on the north and north-east coasts of Sumatra, with some parts of Borneo, and principally manu-
factured at Jambi, Palembang and Banjermassin. Crawfurd, Hist. Indian Archipelago, III, 240.
The Fon-ts'au (34,50-5i) calls dragon's-blood k'i-lin-kie (||^ ^^ jt^ «fc't-Zm blood»). iiO
The Nan-yue-chii (^7^ ^), it adds, saysthat «it is the sap of thete«-fcM«5'-tree (^'' 0j)|*}.
The test of its purity is that it is like wax when bit into.» This is a confusion with stick-lac, arid
traceable to T'ang period writers. Giles, Dictionary, s. v., fm Hsiieh, says that dragon's-blood
is yielded by the it'o-Zra (V-S ^3 Daemouorops draco). Bretschneider and Porter Smith
are of opinion that the Chinese drug is furnished by the Pterocarpus draco. Bretschneider, 25
Ancient Chinese and Arabs, 21, note 6. See also Encyclop. Britann. VII, 389.
5.
SWEET BENZOIN (^ M #)•
Kin-yen-Mang comes, in its best and standard quality, from Chon-la;
the Ta-shi kind is of inferior quality. The statement that this incense is 30
found in San-fo-ts'i must be understood as meaning that it is imported thither
from the Ta-shi and merely transshipped at that place by merchants for
importation to China.
This incense is the juice of a tree; there is a pale yellow coloured kind,
and another of a black colour. That which, on being broken open, shows a 35
snow-white colour, is the best; that which contains gravel is of inferior
quality. Its aroma is so strong that it may be used in combination with all
other perfumes. It is largely used for mixing by those who wear sachets of
ambergris and other perfumes of delicate aroma. Foreigners also prepare from
it, with (other) perfumes, a mixture with which they rub their bodies. 40
'' ''' ° DAMMAR. igg
Note.
Ein.yen hiang or agolden coloured incense,,. From the description given of it in the second
rb?:fdorb th:t"""V^"'^ '""* ^"^"'^ °^ '' <=-
5 1197 whi^e thl "'"^ """^ '' "''"'■ ''' ""'^"''"'^ '^'^ "^^'-^^^ °f Linschoten, op. cit.,
Sumal^o rs n fo I' r"\; T "'"''°°"^ subsequently (infra, p. 202) as a product of Eastern
L7l« (f;"-f!>-*«>)/« the «benu,m amendoado,, of the same writer. It was known to the Arabs
rJi f^f T.r T''"'" "^ ^'"^ ^^^^^^^A but did not become known in Europe before the
?V tri K f century. Heyd, Hist, du Commerce, II, 580. See also Ibn Batuta, Voyages,
in ^^Y°T '^ l^^n-ym.^uang was the name specially given the Kambojan variety of the drug.
lu ihe btyrax Benzoin is a native of Sumatra and Java, and was introduced into Siam,
Borneo, etc «Siain benzoin is generally regarded as the best, and of it two varieties are
distinguished. The finest quality is Siam benzoin «in tear», it being in small flattened drops, from
tne size of an almond kernel downward. «Lump., Siam benzoin consists of agglutinated masses
ot such tears, or of tears imbedded in a darker coloured resinous matrix. Tear benzoin varies in
15 colour from a pale yellow to a reddish-brown colour, and lump benzoin has a conglomerate-
like structure from the dissemination of almond-shaped tears throughout the substance
Sumatra benzoin occurs in larger rectangular masses of a greyish tint, with few large tears in
It, but contammg small white opaque pieces, with chips of wood and other impurities, in a
translucent matrix),. Encyclop. Britann. (gth edit.). Ill, 581.
^° PI,- "■'■^^ Ta-shi kind is of inferior quality,, means, I take it, that the incense brought to
China by the Arabs from their various trading-stations by way of Palembang in Sumatra, was
inferior to that which was brought direct to China from Kambqja.
^B -J"'^°'^''y^"S-k'au, 3,17*, refers among the products of Palembang to Un-yin-Jiiang (^
alR ^) or "gold and silver incense,,, which seems, from the few words of description there
25 given of it — and quoted from the Hua-i-k'au (^ || :^) — to be the same as the fo-n-2/en-
hiang. It is true that on this same page we find mention of an-si-Mang, but the description of
this drug there given only strengthens the probability of these two products being the two
varieties of benzoin mentioned by Linschoten and other travellers. In another passage, Tung-
si-yang-k'au, 3,9^ mentions Un-yen-hiang as a product of Kamboja and describes it on the
30 authority of the I-t'ung-chi ( — ■ j^ J^), which in turn quotes textually our text.
6.
DAMMAR (:^ ^ f:).
Tu-nau-hiang comes from the country of Chon-la: it is the exudation of
a tree -which resembles the pin? {i^) and juniper (|^) family in shape; but
55 the gum (^) lies concealed in the bark. "When the tree is old, it runs out
spontaneously, as a white and vitreous resin, for which reason it does not
melt, though the summer heat may be at its height; this is called tu-nau.
If, in the summer months, the trunk of the tree is scorched by a fire
kept burning around it, this will cause the fluid resin to flow out freely
-40 again; it may be gathered during the winter, when it hardens; for this
variety of incense is liquid in the summer, and hardens during the winter;
it is called «7^e^ (or black) tu-naun. The natives fill gourds (^ pHau) with it,
200 LIQUID STORAX. 11,6-7
and the shippers afterwards transfer it into porcelain vessels. The ilavour of
this incense is pure and lasting; the black variety easily melts and leaks
through the gourd; but by breaking the gourd and exposing it to the fire,
one may obtain something similar to the original substance. This is the
article now called tu-nau-'fiau or agourd dammar». 5
Note.
The Chinese word tu-nau transcribes the Malay damar. In the fifteenth century Ying-yai-
sheng-Ian the form ta-ma-'ir occurs (:^ ^^ 0|). Crawfurd, Hist. Indian Archipelago, I,
455, says: «In almost every country of the Indian islands there are trees which afford damar.
Bumphius enumerates four varieties. These produce different sorts of the rosin, which take 10
their names in commercial language from their colour or consistency. One is called Damar-batu
in Malay, or Bamar-selo in Javanese, which means the stony rosin, and another in common use
Damar-putch, or white rosin Damar is used for all the purposes to which we apply pitch,
but chiefly in paying the bottoms of ships and vesselso.
Marsden, Hist, of Sumatra, 128, says that white dammar is a species of turpentine, 15
yielded by a tree growing in Lampoon called cruyen, the wood of which is white and porous. It differs
from the common sort, or dammar tattoo, in being soft and whitish, having the consistence, and
somewhat the appearance of putty.» See also Yule and Burnell, Glossary, 228.
7.
LIQUID STORAX (^ -^ # yft). 20
Su-ho-Jiiang-yu comes from the countries of the Ta-shi. Its aroma and
taste are, on the whole, similar to those of tu-nau (dammar). Richness and
freedom from sediment are the first requisites in a good sample.
Foreigners commonly use it to rub their bodies with, and the natives of
Fu-kien use it in like fashion when afflicted with paralysis (;^ ^)., It is 25
mixed with jum-Uang (^ ^ or cdncenses of delicate aroma»), and may be
used in medicine.
Note.
The present day su-ho-Uang-yu or «sweet oil of storax», or su-ho-yu nstorax oil», which
occurs in commerce in China, is a product of the Liquidambar orientalis, L., of Asia Minor. The 30'
storax of the ancients, which became known to the Chinese in the early part of the Christian era as
a product of Ta-ts'in, and the name of which OTupa?, they may have mutilated into su-ho, was a
solid gum, and appears to have been a product of the Styrax officinalis, which is still common in
Syria. Sui-shu, 83,i6* mentions su^lio as a product of Po-ssi (Persia). Apparently the storax sent to
China in those early days was very largely adulterated, for Liang-shu, 54,i7», (covering the first half 35-
of the sixth century), says that in Western Asia (Ta-ts'in) astorax (su-ho) is made by mixing and
boiling the juice of various fragrant trees and that it is not a natural product. It is further said that
the inhabitants of Ta-ts'in gatherjhe su-Jio (plant, or parts of it), squeeze out its juice, and thus
make a balm or ointment [^ ^); they then sell this drug to the traders of other 'countries;
11,7-8 BEXZOIN. 20 1
it thus goes through many hands hefore reaching China, and when arriving here, it is not so very
fragrant.)) See Hirth, China and Koman Orient, 41, 47, 263—266.
D. Hanbury, Science Papers, 143, has conclusively shown that the drug now used in
China is imported into Bombay from Aden, the Persian Gulf and the Red Sea, being probably
5 brought thither from Alexandria. He has also established by comparison its identity with the
substance known as Liquid Storax, obtained from the Liquidambar orientalis, L., in Asia Minor.
Bretschneider, Botanicon Sinicum, III, 465.
The Hiang-p'u, a Treatise on perfumes of the eleventh century, makes the remark that su-
ho-yu is akind oitu-nau-hiang or dammar. Bretschneider, op. cit., 464. The Su-ch'bn-liang-fang
10 {Wk VJnj ^J ~/j)i ^^®° "^ ^^^ eleventh century, says (Ijis'): «The su-ho-hiang of the present
day is like hard wood, of a dark red colour. There is also su-ho-yu which is like birdlime.o This
su-ho-hiang may well have been the classical or solid storax.
Our author, in the first part of his work, mentions liquid storax as a product of Baghdad,
Asia Minor (Lu-mei, Rum) and of Ki-tz'i-ni (Ghazni). The Huan-yii-chii (-^ ^^ ^^ of the
15 tenth century) says that su-ho-yu was produced in An-nan and San-fo-ts'i. Bretschneider,
Bot. Sinic, III, 464. It is likely that this was the resin of the Liquidambar altingiana, Bl. of Java,
called in Malay rasamala. P6n-ts,'au, 34,54, gives the Sanskrit name of su-ho-yu as twushlca
(HiH *^ ^^ '^)> ""'^ich, according to Monier Williams, Sansk. Engl. Diet., is Indian olibanum-
See supra, p. 190, n. 1.
20 The expression ta-fong is actually used in the province of Fu-ki6n as a term for paralysis
of either the body or limbs.
8.
BENZOIN (^ J, #).
An-si-Mang comes from the country of San-fo-ts'i; it is the resin of a
25 tree. It resembles the edible part of a walnut in shape and colour, but it is
not fit to bum as incense; however, it brings out other scents, for which reason
there is a demand for it for mixing purposes.
The T'ung-tien (jg ^), speaking of the Western Barbarians, says
that the country of An-si has sent tribute to China during the periods fien-lio
30 of the Chou (A. D. 566—572) and ta-ye of the Sui dynasty (A. D. 605—
617). It may be conjectured that the name is derived from this (country)
and that the article was imported by way of San-fo-ts'i.
Note.
Our author's doubts about the country of origin of this incense and his failure to explain its
35 name, are common to other Chinese writers. See Bretschneider, Ancient Chinese and Arabs,
19, note 2. Bot. Sinic, III, 465—467. An-si, which, in the second and third centuries of our era,
was the Chinese designation of Parthia, was transferred, after the overthrow of the Arsacides, to
the new Persian kingdom of the Sassanide dynasty. Hirth, China and Roman Orient, 198. During
the Ch6u and Sui dynasties (A. D. 557-618) An-si may therefore be held to be identical with
40 Persia. Sui-shu, 83,i6 says that «the kingdom of Ts'au (j^), which was the same as theKi-pin
(Hi W) °^ ^^^ ^^^ dynasty, had (whether as a product or brought there from other countries
is not clear) an-si-hiang, ts'ing-mu (putchuck, our author's mu-hiang) and other aromatic sub-
stances.)) The same work, in the section on K'iu-tz'i (^ ^ Kuchar in Chinese Turkestan),
202 GARDENIA ILOWERS. 11,8-9
83,ii'', mentions an-si-hiang among its products. I fancy it only means that an-si-hiang reached
China by way or K'iu-tz'i'. It is evident none reached China in Chan's time.
Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, ISjV'' says: «TLe an-si-hiang tree comes from Po-ssi (Persia). In Po-ssi it
is called the pi-sie tree (Jg^ ^|^ j^ or ((destroying evil tree»). It is thirty feet high; the
bark is yellowish black. The leaves have four angles (^); they do not shrivel up in winter. 5
In the second moon it blossoms; the flower is yellowish, the heart of the flower is greenish. It
has no fruit. When the bark of the tree is cut, its gum (^■) is like syrup ('^p); it is called
an-si-hiang. In the sixth and seventh moons it hardens, when it can be burned, propitiating
the gods and dispelling all evils.
The I-t'ung-chi (of the Ming), as quoted in Tung-si-yang-k'au, 1,11, says that the tree 10
which produces an-si-hiang is like the k'u-Uen (^ ^»^ Melia azedarach, L.)but straighter;
the leaves are like those of the yang-t'au (:¥l Jd^ Carambola tree) but broader. The sap which
supplies the incense is in the heart of the tree. Pon-ts'au, 34,53*, says ((formerly it came from
Persia, but now An-nan, San-fo-ts'i and all foreign countries have it.»
Marsdon, Hist, of Sumatra, 123, says: aBenjamin or benzoin (caminyan) .... is produced 15
by a tree which grows in great abundance in the northern parts of the island (of Sumatra),
particularly in the Batta country, and met with, though rarely, to the southward of the line.»
Crawfurd, Hist. Indian Archipelago, I, 518, remarks that «Borneo and Sumatra are the
only countries which produce it (i. e., benzoin), and the territory of Borneo proper in the one,
and that of the Battas in the other, the only portions of them .... It has but one name, or at 20
least only one which is current. This is a native term, and is at full length Kaminyan, or abbre-
viated Minyani). The Pon-ts'au-kang-mu, 34,52, gives as the «foreign» name of an-si-hiang
i|j] ^ ^S Tcu-pei-lo, which seems to be a corrupt transcription either of Sanskrit khadira
or of kundura, catechu or Indian frankincense. See supra, p. 196, n. 1.
BothDuarteBarbosa(op. cit., 185) and Linschoten (11,96— 98) distinguish two varieties 25
of benzoin, one which does not smell except when in the fire, and the other with a strong scent.
Barbosa adds that it is with this latter variety that othe good and genuine storaxis made in the
Levant, before extracting from it the oil, which in the Levant is extracted from iti>. Linschoten
calls the scented variety ((benioin de boninasa or benzoin of the flowers; it is of blackish colour;
the other variety is «benioin amendoado» or abenzoin of almonds», because it is mixed with pieces 30
of white benzoin, like pieces of almonds among the black. aThe benzoin from Sumatra and Java,
he adds, is not as good as that from Siam and by Malacca.))
9.
GARDENIA FLOW^ERS (|ji ^ :?5).
The cTil-tsi-hua comes from the two countries of Ya-pa-hien (i^ ^ 35
^) and Lo-shi-mei of the Ta-shi. It resembles the safflower (^j^ 1^) in
appearance, but it is of a light brown (or purple) colour. Its scent is pene-
trating and lasting. The natives gather the flowers, dry them in the sun, and
place them in bottles of opaque glass. Flowers of carnation colour are rare.
What in Buddhist books is called tan-ipo ( ^ -'gj) is the same as this. 40
11,9-10 KOSE-WATER. 203
Note.
On the Gardenia florida or becho-nuts, see Hanbury, Science Papers, 241 et seqq., and
Bretschneider, Bot. Sinic, III, 500—503. Although our author only refers to its use as a per-
fume, it was, however, largely used as a dye. Ya-pa-hien (or as it is written supra, p. 116 Ya-ssi-
5 pau-hien) is Isfahan, and Lo-shl-mei probably stands for Khwarizm. Supra, p. 134, our author
refers to the trade in gardenia flowers from the Persian coast through the island of Kish. He also
says (supra, p. 141) that it was a product of Asia Minor (Lu-meii).
Ling-wai-tai-ta, 7,s-4 says: «The foreign gardenia (^ jjfj^ ^) comes from the land
of the Arabs. It is what is called in the Buddhist books tan-po (1^ ^). The Sea foreigners
10 (y^ ■^) dry it like dyer's safflower. At the present day when one wants to be scented as if
with ambergris, one uses foreign gardenia, which is even more penetrating. There is a white
flower just like the gardenia but five-petaled. People say that (the chi-tzi) brought from Si-chu ( ^
^t possibly an error for ^ ^ ^ aWestern India») is (real) tan-po, but I apprehend
that this is not correct.))
15 Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, 18,s^ says of this product: vChi-tzi flowers with six petals are rare, but,
according to T'au Chbn-po ([^ ^^ {^ or Tan Hung-king |^ ^i ;^ A.D. 451— 536,
the author of an important work on materia medica; see Giles, Biograph. Dictionary, 718— 719),
only six-petaled chi-tzi flowers can properly be called by that name. If one cuts off a six-petaled
flower and slits open the calyx in seven places, the perfume is very powerful. It is said that it is
20 the chan-po of the Western Kegions.)) The text has fe yen, which stands for ps. tan or dian, the
change of radicals being frequent in old texts. Hirth, J. A. 0. S., XXX, 27. Chan-po, in Cantonese
cham-pak or chan-po-Tcia (B^ 3^ ^P), is Sanskrit champaka, the champac tree, Michelia
Champaca.
10.
25 ROSE-WATER (§ # :^).
TsHang-wei-shui is the dew of flowers in the country of the Ta-shi. In
the time of the Five Dynasties (A. D. 907—960) the foreign envoy P'u-
ko-san {^ ff f^ Abu-1-Hassan?), brought as tribute fifteen bottles, after
which time importation became rare. Nowadays a common substitute is
30 manufactured by gathering the flowers, which are steeped in water and
steamed, in order to extract the essence.
Rose-water is much counterfeited and adulterated; to test its genuineness,
- the substance should be placed in glass bottles and shaken about for a while,
then, if it is full of bubbles moving up and down, the substance is genuine.
35 The flower (from which it is made) is not identical with the Chinese rose
Note.
Eose-water is also known in China as ts iang-wet-lu or «rose-dew». In a preceding passage
(supra, p. 1 34) Chau refers to the trade through the island of Kish in rose-water. The adjacent province
40 of Fars was celebrated for its rose-water, which, says Ibn Haukal, was exported to all parts of
the world. The city of Shapur and its valley produced, according to Muk add asi, ten different
'204 GHARU-WOOD. 11,10-11
kinds of perfumed oils, which were exported far and wide over the Eastern world. Le Strange,
Lands of the Eastern^Caliphate, 293. Edrisi, op. cit, I, 394, speaks of the rose-water of Djur in
Fars as being particularly pure. In another passage (supra, p. 141) our author mentions rose-
water among the products of Asia Minor (Lu-mei).
Rose-water, gulab in Persian, is not to be confounded with the «essence of roses» 'atr in '5
Persian, our attar of roses, which is an essential oil obtained from the petals of the flower, the
chief seat for the manufacture of which is at Ghazipur on the Ganges. «The attar is obtained after
the rose-water is made, by setting it out during the night and till sunrise in the morning in
large open vessels exposed to the air, and then skimming off the essential oil which floats at the
top». Yule and Burnell, Glossary, 494. The acommon substitute)) of which our author speaks 10
seems to have been prepared in much the same way as the attar. We are told, however, that the
Arabs and Persians did not know of attar of roses, it was a discovery of Princess Nurdjihan, wife ,
of Jehangir. L. Langles, Recherches sur la dficouverte de I'essence de rose, 1804.
The Chinese rose is the Rosa indica. Lour. According to the Pon-ts'au the people in
southern China prepared a fragrant water from the petals of the fe'ta»(ir-z»« flowers. Bret- 15
Schneider, Bot. Sinic, III, 303. See also Duarte Barbosa, op. cit., 188.
11.
GHARU-W^OOD m ^).
Gli'dn-Mang comes from different places. That coming from Chon-la is
the best; the second quality is that of Chan-ch'ong, and the poorest qualities 20
are those of San-fo-ts'i and Sho-p'o. It is customary to distinguish between
«Upper Coast» and «Lower Coast» countries; Chon-la and Chan-ch'6ng are
called «Upper Coast»; Ta-shi, San-fo-ts'i and Sho-p'o are called «Lower
Coast)) ^
This incense is, as a rule, considered superior in quality if it comes 25
from a living tree; and inferior, if from a decayed one. The hard and black
kind is considered superior, the yellow (or brown) inferior. The shape of this
incense varies widely, and several varieties have, accordingly, to be distin-
guished ; one looks like a rhinoceros horn (si-kio), and is called ti-kio-ch^on
iW ^^ "rhinoceros horn gharu-wood»); another which resembles the beak 30
of a swallow (yen-k'ou), is called yen-¥6u-c¥6n (^ p JJg); another kind,
resembling aconite roots (fu-tsi) is called fu-td-ch'6n (pjfvj- ^ ^); another
kind resembles a shuttle (so) and is called so-ch'on {H^ |^), If the graining
be well marked and the veins close together, it is called hong-ko-dfon
m m UY- 35
But, on the whole, when judging of the. quality, more importance is
attached to fragrance than to appearance. Furthermore, the common opinion
that it is a product of P'o-ni (y^ '^^ Borneo) is a fallacy ^
Some authorities assert that sh6ng-kie-c¥on or «fresh» (^ &t) gharu
11,11
GHAKU-WOOD, 205
is pruned off the tree with a knife while still growing, whereas shou-ch'on,
or «ripe» (fb) gharu, drops from the tree of itself*. The produce of the Lower
Coast is called fan-cJi'on (^ JJg «foreign gharu-wood»). Its smell catches
the breath and its taste is bitter and pungent. As it is used for curing chills,
5 it is also called yau-c¥on (^ ^ cmedicinal gharu-wood»). Hai-nan also
prodnces^gharu-wood of a pure and lasting fragrance; it is called jp'ow^-Zai-
Uang (^ ^ ^y.
Notes.
1) Ch'on-Mang means literally Ksinking-incensei); it is thus called because it sinks in
10 water. Its name in Malay and Javanese is Tcalambak or Manibah, but it is also known in those
languages by that of gharu or Jcayu gharu, gharu-wood, a corruption of the Sanskrit agaru,
which in turn is the original from which the Portuguese formed the name of i^ao d'aguila, whence
the French lois d'aigle and our « eagle- toooda. The name, «aloes-wood» or «aIoes», which is also
given it in the Bible and by Arab and other mediaeval writers, is likewise derived from the
15 Sanskrit form. The French «bois de calaniboura is derived from the Malay name TcoHambak.
On the division of countries into aUpper Coast» and «Lower Coast» countries, conf. supra,
p. 79, lines 37—40. Ta-shl is here to be understood as the Arab colonies in Sumatra, and the
lower part of the Malay Peninsula. See also quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta in Note 2.
2) Nan-fang-ts'au-mu-chuang, the earliest Chinese work in which I have found gharu
20 described, says (2,3) «The mi-hiang ( ^ ^) tree of Kiau-chi has a trunk like the kii-Uu (iig MB
a kind of elm), its flowers are white and abundant. Its leaves are like those of the orange
(tw)' ^^ °^^ wants to get the aromatic substance, it must first be cut into (-(^c)) *^s following
year its root, stem, branches and joints are each of a different colour. The (parts of the) heart
of the wood and of the joints ("fff)) which are hard and black, and which sink in water, are
25 ch'on-hiang; those which float on the surface of water are M-ku-hiang (^^ *h* ^i achicken
bone perfume))); its root is called huang-shou-Mang (^^ Sfti ^^)> its trunk is chan-hiang
('W ^►)) its small branches which are hard and unbroken are ts'ing-kui-hiang (^ jl^ ^^
ffgreen cassia perfume»); the knots in the root which are light and of large size are ma-t'i-hiang
f jPy ^^ -^^ Bhorse-hoof perfumea). The flowers have no perfume. When the fruit has ripened
30 it is aromatic and is known as Jci-sho-hiang (^^ ^S" ^^ «chicken-tongue perfume))). It is
certainly a most wonderful wood!)) On the true nature of ki-sho-hiang, see infra, p. 210.
The same work (2,6) says the kind of paper called mi-hiang-chi is made from the bark
and leaves of a mi-hiang tree. It is somewhat of a yellow clay colour and has markings in it like
fish-roe. It is strongly perfumed, strong and tough, though soft. Soaking in water does not disinte-
35 grate it.» In A. D. 284 a mission from Ta-ts'in presented 30,000 rolls of it to the Emperor of
China. The mission had, of course, landed in Tongking, and had purchased the paper there as an
acceptable present. See Hirth, China and Roman Orient, 272, 275. A paper known by the same
name was, at a later date, made in the province of Kuang-tung at Lo-ch6u (^g wl) from the
bark of a tree called chan-hiang (^& ^^)- ^^^ Ling-piau-lu-i (written in the T'ang dynasty), 2,^.
40 Ling-wai-tai-ta, 7,i says: «The best ch'on-hiang comes from Chon-la (Kamboja), the second
best from Chan-ch'ong (Tongking). The Chon-la kind is the hardest, that from T6ng-liu-mei
(Ligor possibly, in Malaly Peninsula; see supra, p. 57) the most aromatic. The San-fo-ts'i product is
called «Lower Coast incensea, that from P'o-lo-man (i^ ^ ^ probably an error for Fo-
lo-an, see supra, p. 69) is far superior to the Lower Coast incense.»
45 Ibn Batuta, Voyages, IV, 242 says the best quality of lign-aloes was that of Kakulah
and Kamarah (the Khmer country, Kamboja). The Arabs knew also the lign-aloes of Chan-ch'ong
(their Sanf), which they called Sanfi. See Heyd, Hist, du Commerce, II, 581, 584.
According to Loureiro, Flor. Cochin., 327, gharu is a product of the Aloexylon agallochum
(the Aquilaria agalocha, Koxb.), Bretschneider, Bot. Sinic, III, 459. W. W. Skeat, Malay
206 TSIEX-HIAXO GHAKU-WOOD. II,n-ll'''
magic 206—210, (quoting Journal Koy. Asiat. Soc, Straits Branch, JV» 18, 359—361) says: «The
gharu-tree is a tall forest tree, sometimes reaching the size of fifteen feet in diameter. The barii
is of a silvery gray colour, and the foliage close and dense, of a dark hue. The Malay name for
the tree is tahaJc ... Gharu, the diseased heart-wood of the tabaJc, is found in trees of all sizes,
even in trees of one foot in diameter, thus showing that the disease attacks the tree at an early 5
stage. The gharu is found in pockets, and may sometimes be discovered by the veins which run
to these pockets .... The tree is generally cut down and left to rot, which exposes the gharu in
about six months There are great differences in the quality of gharu, and great care is taken
in classifying them. It requires a skilled man to distinguish between some of the varieties)). Eight
varieties are then given with their distinctive peculiarities. The first— which is the ch'dn-Mang of 10
the Chinese, is called in Malay clia,ndan. The tsien (or ehan)-hiang referred to in another passage
(infra p. 206) is the Malay tandok (or tandak). The other varieties of gharu mentioned by the CM-
uese are more difficult to identify with the Malay ones. The classification varies greatly in
different Chinese works, thus the Nan-yiie-pi-ki (^ ^ ^ gg) by Li T'iau-yiian, the
eighteenth century editor of Chau Ju-kua's work, mentions (14,2°) fifteen varieties, most of the 15
names being quite different from those used by older writers. Pon-ts'au, 34,26-29, describes twenty
odd varieties of gharu-wood.
3) In the first part of this work, our author says that gharu-wood of one kind or another is
procured in the following countries: Kiau-chi, Chan-ch'ong, Chon-la, Tong-liu-mei, San-fo-ts'i, Tan-
ma-ling, Ling-ya-ssi-kia, Fo-lo-an, the islands east of Borneo, and Hainan. In Chan-ch'ong (Annam), 20
he tells us (supra, p. 48) there was levied a special tax on persons engaged in hunting for gharu.
4) This definition of the difference between «raw» and «ripe» gharu appears — in the
light of the information supplied from Malay sources (supra, n. 2.)— to be correct; it is however, very
difficult to follow our author in his explanations concerning the various varieties of this product.
5) Kiau-chi also produced p'ong-lai gharu (see supra, p. 46). Ling-wai-tai-ta, 7,1—2 says that 25
p'ong-lai gharu-wood is also known as cli on-shui-hiang or asinking in water incensen. Perfect
nodules are rare, they are like little bamboo hats (>U ^^) or big mushrooms. If they float on
water, they have lost their fragrance and are worth but little. This ch'Sn-shui is used in mede-
cine. There is also a good variety ot p'ong-lai-hiang called cho-leu-pan-hiang (^^ jjM ^^ •^*)
because it is spotted like a partridge's breast. Its perfume is weak but agreeable. There is also a 30
pong-lai-tsien-hiang which comes from Hainan.
11 ^
TSIEN-HIANG GHARU-AVOOD (^ ^).
Tsien-Mang is an inferior quality of gharu-wood, being similar to (ch'on-
liiang) in fragrance and taste, but fibrous and not very solid, whence it is 35
considered inferior to the ch'dn-Mang, though better than the «ripe sm (^
jg) variety.
Note.
Nan-fang-ts'au-mu-chuang (loc. cit.) says that chan-hiang [^ ^) is the product
of the trunk of the tree; this is probably the same as the tsien-hiang. Ling-wai-tai-ta, 7.2, says 40
that tsien-hiang comes from Hainan; it flows from the tree in liquid form and coagulates in a
mass like needles. P'ong-lai-tsien-hiang coagulates in a flat plate-shaped mass. The small frag-
ments off the edges of this variety are known as hie-k'o-hiang (®> ^& 35: « crab-shell
incense))). The Icuang-hiang (-^ ^ ((brilliant incense))) which comes from ((north of the Sea))
('/§ ^(j Southern China?) and Kiau-chi is identical with tsien-hiang. The shdu-su variety is 45
mentioned in the next paragraph.
II,ll''-ll° STJ AXD CHAN GHAKU-ATOOD, ^ HUAXG-Sn^U-HWKG GHARTJ-WOOD. 207
lib.
SU AND CHAN GHARU-WOOD (jg ^ ^).
Shong (or fresli)-SM (^ ^g) comes from Chon-la and Chan-cli'ong, but
shou (or ripe)-si« (ft jg) has various sources. The Chon-la kind is the best;
5 the second class is the one from Chan-ch'ong, and the lowest that of Sho-p'o.'
We call shong-su that kind ■which is obtained from the wood of the tree cut
down for the express purpose (of getting it), and sJiou-su the incense remain-
ing in the rotten wood of a tree which has fallen down. The fragrance and
taste of shong-su are lasting, those of shou-su are apt to have a singed
10 smell; for this reason the shong kind is superior to the shou.
A still inferior incense is called chan (§). Its source of origin is the
same as that of shou-su; but we call the incense which has fallen off the
tree from its own accord shou-su, and that which consists partly of wood
chan; it is partly shong, partly shou. Traders slice the wood with a knife,
15 in order to obtain the incense, of which the better pieces are selected to be
mixed with shou-su, in which state it reaches the market; nor can purchas-
ers distinguish it from the genuine article (i. e., shou-su-hiang).
20
11'=.
HUANG-SHOU-HIANG GHARU-W^OOD
Huang-shdii-hiang comes from several countries, but the Chon-la variety
is the best. It is so called because it is yellow (huang) and ripe (shou). It is
called hua-ng-shou-Pung (^ ^ ^^) if its surface is hard, while the inside
is decayed, and if it is barrel (rtOT^)-shaped. When it contains tsien-hiang
25 and is black throughout, and when its aroma is particularly good, it is called
kia-tsien-huang-shou (^ ^ ^ ^); this is the best quality of this variety
of gharu^
Note.
1) Nan-yiie-pi-ki, 14,3 says, speaking of Hainan liuang-shou-Mang, that it is divided into
30 Tcio-cKon ('^ JJ^) and Imang-ch'on (^w |5tl)' t^iere is furthermore a kind of soft huang-
ch'on called la-ch'6n (4^ ^Jr£ «wax-gharu»). Kia-tsien-huang-sMu means literally nyellow-ripe-
containing-teieM-gharu».
208 SHOXG-HIASO GHAKU-WOOD. — SANDAL-AVOOD. 11,11^-12
11^.
SHONG-HIANG GHARU-W^OOD (^ #).
Shong-Jiiang comes from Chan-ch'ong and Chon-la; it is also found
throughout Hai-nan. Its price is cheaper than that of black Mo^cJi'dn (,^
The incense is procured from the lopped off young branches. If the
incense is fresh (^) in the wood, it is called shdng-Mang.
If the bark (over the gharu) has grown three-tenths (of an inch) in
thickness, (the gharu) is called chan-Mang (^ ^); if it is five-tenths (of
an inch) thick, it is tsien-Mang (^ ^); when a full inch thick, then it is lo
eh'on-Mang (JJg ^)^.
Notes.
1) A character or two are missing in the text after the word «black)) {tmi); but there can
be no doubt that this blank should be filled by the characters Jcio-ch'on, as the only kind of
gharu called «black» is the hio-ch'on variety. Supra, p. 158, our author says that shdng-Mang 15
was a product of the islands lying to the east of P'o-ni, presumably the Celebes; he was misinformed.
2) In other words the quality of the gharu improves with the thickness of the bark (^^)
over the gharu — ch'on-hiang, the best quality, being found in the heart of the wood.
12.
SANDAL- WOOD (H ^). 20
Tan-hiang comes from the two countries of Ta-kang {^J ■^) and
Ti-wu (Jfg ^); it is also found in San-fo-ts'i, The tree resembles the lichee
of China, even the leaves are like it. The natives fell the tree and dry it in
the shade. Its aroma is pure and strong and apt to evaporate; in burning it
surpasses all other incenses. A variety of yellow colour is called huang-fan 25
(^ M); a red-brown variety is called td-fan .(^ ;g); a light and brittle
kind is called sha-fan ('IJ? ;jg). The aroma of these varieties is about
the same.
The best quality is that derived from old trees, when the bark is thin
and the full proportion of fragrance is contained in it. The second quality 30
contains only seven or eight tenths of fragrance. The poorest quality is called
tien-sing-Mang {§^^ ^ ^). Pieces of sandal-wood which have dropped
down like rain are called p'o-lou-Uang (^ '^ ^), or «scented (wood)
broken off and dropped down.» The root of the tree is called Uang-fm (^
1^) or ((incense head.» 35
11,12-13 CLOVES.
209
Note.
In Chinese Buddhist worirs sandal-wood is called clian (or chon)-f an (tfe [or m:^ ^)
transcribing the Sanskrit word chandana; fan, the name now in general use in Ch^a, is ^unS
, ^7^;' f /^-L^^'iSr^'^- Y'^"'"'' ^°^'''' °''''*'°"' "''^^^ '=''«'»-*'«» (S ft if ) as a product
6 of Pa-lai (;^ ^) m Southern India. Ta-kang and Ti-wu are mentkTned'among the dependen-
cies of Java. Ta-kang, which our author says (supra, p. 84) was an island, remains unidentified;
Schlegel has suggested (see supra, p. 86) that Ta-kang is the old name of Samarang. Ti-wu, in
Cantonese Tai-mat, is the island of Timor, elsewhere called Ti-mon. In the first part of his work
our author has told us that sandal-wood was also a product of T'i6n-chu (western coast of India),
10 and of the Malay Peninsula, and that Ts'ong-pa (Zanguebar) produced yellow sandal-wood. On this
latter point, see supra, p. 127, n. 4.
The Ku-kin-chu ("^ ^ >^ 2,2) mentions red sandal-wood, which it calls Ui-fan and
tsl-mei-mu {^ ^ TJ^v), as a product of Fu-nan (Siam). Conf. POn-ts'au-kang-mu, 84,85-S8»,
which quotes the T"u-king-p5n-ts'au to the effect that a fan tree, but with odorless wood, grew
15 in the valleys of the Tang-tzi and of the Huai-ho.
Crawfurd, Hist. Indian Archipelago, I, 519, says, regarding sandal-wood, that «from Java
and Madura eastward it is scattered in small quantities throughout the different islands, improving
in quality and quantity as we move to the east, until we reach Timur, where the best and largest
supply occurs. In the language of Timur sandal-wood is called Aikameml, and in that of
20 Amboyna Ayasru. In the western countries, where it either does not exist at all, or exists in
small quantities and of bad quality, it is universally known by the Sanskrit name Chandana.n In
another passage (III, 421) he says «the sandal-wood of the Indian Islands is considered inferior
to that of Malabar. »
13.
25 CLOVES (T #).
Ting-liiang come from the countries of the Ta-shi and from Sho-p'o.
They are called ting-liiang or «nail-incense» because they resemble in shape
the Chinese character ting (Hp, «a nail»). They have the property of removing
bad smells from the mouth, and high officials at Court put cloves into their
so mouths when they have to lay matters before the Emperor. The large ones
are called ting-hiang-mu (~J^ ^ -^), and this is the same as ki-sho-Mang
(^ f^ ^)> though some say that M-sM-Mang is the stone of the Persian
date (=f- i^ ^).
Note.
•35 In the first part of this work, Chau has stated (supra, pp. 77, 84) that cloves were a pro-
duct of Eastern Java and of its dependencies, the same region which produced sandal-wood, in
other words the Moluccas. He refers also to the trade in cloves in Ceylon and in Malabar, whither
they were brought by foreign traders (Fan-sJiang). Our author was, therefore, better informed
on this subject than Marco Polo who, though stating in one passage (II, 254) that they were a
40 product of Java, adds in another (II, 289) that they grew also on the island of Necuveran (Nico-
bar Islands). Ibn Batuta, Voyages, IV, 243, confounded the cinnamon and the nutmeg-tree
14
210 NUTMEGS. 11,13-14
with cloves. De Candolle, Origine des plantes cultivees, 128, thinks that cloves, a product of
the Caryophyllus aromaticus, Linnfi, are indigenous to the Molucca Islands. See Heyd, Hist, du
Commerce, H, 603—607, and Crawfnrd, History Malay Archipel., I, 494.
In the Chinese Customs Tariff of the present day we find mu-ting-hiang, «mother-cloves»,
answering to the ting-hiang-mu of our text. The Su-ch'5n-liang-fang (||Hj ^^ ^^ JJ) ^''' ^
says that M-sho-hiang (achicken-tongue incensea) is ting-hiang-mu, but, it adds, «at the present
day the name is likewise applied to a substance found in ju-hiang (frankincense), and which is
of the size of a sJian-cTiu-yu / ijj ^ ^ Cornus officinalis); when cut out it is like a per-
simmon seed; it is tasteless.)) According to the P6n-ts'au-kang-mu(34,82*)K-sM-femw^ is the female,
and ting-hiang the male, clove. The Nan-fang-ts'au-mu-chuang (2,s, and supra p. 205, note 2) says 10
that M-sho-hiang is the ripe and aromatic fruit of the mi-hiang, or eagle-wood tree, of China.
The Chinese name here given the date, ts'ien-nien-tsaw, or ccthousand year tsaun, was
evidently used on account of the stony hardness of the dates on reaching China, and on
account of their resemblance to the tsau or common jujube (Zizyphus vulgaris. Lam.), which is
indigenous to China. Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, 18,9*, the earliest work we have seen describing the date, 15
calls it Po-ss'i-tsau, i. e., ((Persian tsau», and says that in Persian it is called h'u-mang (^g ^p
Arabic, hhurma). In the T'ang-shu, 221B,is*, we find the name written hu-mang (^|| ^), and the
Pon-ts'au, 81,21'', gives also the form k'u-lu-ma (^ ^ ^). See also Ling-piau-lU-i, 2,4^'.
14.
NUTMEGS mmm)'
J6u-t6u-¥6u are brought from the foreign tribes in the depths of the
20
islands of Huang-ma-chu and Niu-lun (^ |Ij^). The tree resembles the Chinese
juniper (^j^^), and attains a height of upwards of an hundred feet. Its trunk '
and branches, with the foliage, present the appearance of a large shady roof
under which forty or fifty men may find protection. When the blossoms open 25
in the spring they are taken off and dried in the sun; this is the article now
known as tou-k'du-hua (^ ^ :^). The fruit (nut) resembles the fei-f£ (^^
■^) nut; when the shell is removed the pulp can be kept a long time, if
preserved in ashes (^). According to the P6n-ts'au its properties are
warming. 30
Note.
Huang-ma-chu and Niu-lun were dependencies of Java (supra, p. 83), presumably in the
Moluccas, in which islands the nutmeg (Myristica fragrans) is indigenous. De Candolle, Origine
des plantes cultivees, 336, Crawfurd, op. cit., I, 505. Heyd, Hist, du Commerce, II, 644, says the
original home of the nutmeg-tree is still doubtful.' 35
In the early part of the eighth century Ch'on Ts'ang-k'i ( ^^ ^§5 SS), in his Pon-ts'au-
shi-i (2fc ^S. f^ ^fi)' ""^^ ^^^ ^^^^ Chinese author to ieacrihe jou-t6u-k'6u, which he states
was brought to China from foreign countries, where it was called Jcia-M-lo (^p ;tpj Hfl),
probably intended for Icakulah (AlSLs), which is the Arabic name for cardamom. Bretschneider,
Bot. Sinic, III, 123, 124. The nutmeg-tree must have been imported from its original habitat 40
into the province of Kuang-tung somewhere between the time of Ch'on Ts'ang-k'i and the end of
the eleventh century, for we find it mentioned in Su Sung's (^k ^S) work, entitled T'u-king-
pon-ts'au (^ ^^ .2J5k .^)) ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ee was cultivated in'Ling-nan. «The buds and flowers,
he says, grow in the spring; the fruit resembles the cardamom, but it is round and smaller, the
11,14-15 LAKA-WOOD. 211
shell darker brown, sticking closer to the puljj and thinner than that of the cardamom. The
pulp has an acrid taste. The crop is gathered in the sixth moon.» He gives an illustration of a
nutmeg, which he calls aCantonese nutmega. Su died in A. D. 1101, according to Sung-shi, 340,30.
Tou-lcoA-hua is mace, the arillus of the nutmeg. Cr a wfurd, op. cit., 1,506. The fei-tg'i is
5 now the hazel nut (torreya nucifera); it seems that the name was applied to that nut at the time
our author wrote. Bretschneider, Bot. Sinic, III, 429, and Hanbury, Science papers, 233.
We translate hui by ttashesn and not «lime» on the strength of a passage in the Chong-lei
pon-ts'au (g^ ^§ ^?|j Q.),9,32,inwhichLei-kung(^^ .^ fifth century A. D.) says with
regard to the nutmeg: «when it is to be used glutinous rice is powdered and soaked in boiling
10 water, after which the nut is wrapped in it and baked in hot ashes until the rice coating has
turned brown. The rice is then remoTed and the nut is fit for use. The use of copper vessels is
to be avoided.)) The correct translation may be, ^however, «lime)), for Crawfurd (op. cit., I, 509)
says that in the process of curing nutmegs they are adipped twice or thrice in lime-water, or
rather a thick mixture of lime and water, made of fine shells, which is supposed to secure them
15 from the depredations of insects and worms.» The Pon-ts'au referred to, the chief botanical work
of the Sung dynasty, was compiled in A. D. 1108. See Bretschneider, Botanicon Sinicum, I, 47.
15.
LAKA-^WOOD (I^ A #).
Kiang-chon-hiang comes from San-fo-ts'i, Sho-p'o and P'ong-fong; it
20 is also found in all the districts of Kuang-tung and Kuang-si ^ Its aroma is
strong and penetrating; it counteracts bad smells. All the people of Ts'iian-
ch6u, no matter whether a household be rich or poor, burn this incense at
the end of the year, as if (they were making) a Sacrifice to Heaven ^
Its price is very cheap. The product of San-fo-ts'i is considered the best
25 on account of the purity and strength of its fragrance. This wood is also
called td-fong-Mang (^ ^ #) or «red vine incense»'
.3
Notes.
1) P'ong-fong, Pahang, on the east coast of the Malay Peninsula. In the first part of this
work the author states that laka-wood was a product of Sumatra, Tan-ma-ling (Kwantan), Fo-
30 lo-an (Beranang), Sho-p'o (Java), the Celebes (?), and Borneo.
Tung-si-yang-k'au, 3,is*,i7* uses the name kiang-Uang, and says it was a product
ofPatani(-:/r VM), and Palembang. The Pon-ts'au, 34.36, says it is also c&Wei U-M-Mang,
which, in another passage (supra, p. 205, line 25), is given as the name of a kind of gharu-wood.
2) The ..Sacrifice to Heaven)), or fan-ch'ai {j^ ^ lit. ..burning fueb), was not performed
35 by the people at large, but by the Sovereign. See Legge, Li Ki, II, 202. The simile does not
appear a happy one; it can only mean that, in view of the cheapness of this odoriferous wood,
every one celebrated the coming of the New Year in the same way as the Emperors did with the
fan-ch'ai. ^ ^. , i , j.
3) In another passage (supra, p. 198) our author states that the sap of the laka-wood tree
40 was used to make an (.imitation dragon's-blood».
14*
212 MUSK- WOOD. — JACK-FKUIT. II, 16-17
16.
MUSK-W^OOD (0 # tK).
Sho-hiang-mu comes from Chan-ch'ong and Clion-la. It is a tree which •
from age falls down and sinks into the ground, where it decays; this is the
best variety. As its fragrance has a slight resemblance to that of musk, the 5
wood is called «musk-wood». When fresh cut, it is of a strong and unpleasant
odour; this is the inferior quality. The people of Ts'uan-chou use this wood
a good deal for making furniture resembling that made of rose-wood (:^
Note. 10
We have been unable to identify this product, nor have we found any mention of it in other
Chinese works. The Tung-si-yang-k'au, 3,io'' mentions this product as coming from Kamboja, but
has nothing to say concerning it, except that the I-t'ung-chi says it has the odour of musk. The
Pon-ts'au does not refer to it.
17. 15
JACK-FRUIT ('^ B ^).
The po-lo-mi is of the size of a pumpkin; its outer skin is covered with
nodules like the hair on a Buddha's head. Its colour is green while growing,
and turns yellow when ripe. The pulp, when cut out of the fruit, is of
extreme sweetness. The tree resembles a banian, and the flowers grow in 20
clusters (|^). When the flowers fall and the fruit sets, only one develops, the
rest shrivel up. The po-lo-mi comes from Su-ki-tau; it is also found at the
Nam-hoi Temple (^ y$ j^) in Canton.
Note.
This fruit is the product of the Artocarpus integrifolia; the origin of our name for it, jack, 25
is the Malayalam name of the fruit, chaMa. Its Sanskrit names are panasa, phalasa, and lantaka-
phala. Yule and Burnell, Glossary, 335. Crawfurd, Hist. Indian Archipel., I, 422. De'can-
dolle, op. cit., 239, thinks it is indigenous to the Western Ghats-possibly Malabar. The fruit was at
first calleip'o-na-so by the Chinese, which is the Sanskrit name ^amasa. The Sui-shu 82,?'' is I be-
lieve, the earliest Chinese work to mention this fruit. Among the products peculiar to Chon-la (Kam- 30
boja) it spe^s of «the p'o-na-so ( 1^ ^[J ^) tree which had no flowers, and whose leaves were like
the sM (^ Diospyros kaki) and whose fruit was like a pumpkin (tung-kua). «Later on it received
the name of po-lo-mi, which, the Chinese say, was given it on its introduction into Canton in the
sixth century by a native of «the country of Po-1ob ('^ ^), whence the name of the fruit.
Po-Io, according to T'ang-shu, 222B, was S. W. of Kamboja'(Chi-t'u), and Won-hien-tung-k'au, 35
331. Sect. P'o-li, identifies it with P'o-li, which is supposed to have been in the Malay Peninsula.
Conf. supra, pp. 83, 85, n. 4, 96.
11,17-18 ARECA-KUTS. 213
Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, 18,8^ has the following on the jack-fruit: «The F'o-na-so (^ ^[5 ^)
tree grows ({jj) in Po-ssii (Persia); it also grows in Fu-lin, where it is called a-p'u-to (|J^
nP ?lS °^ a-sa-to |J^ ^ ^1 according to Pon-ts'au). The tree grows to 50 or 60 feet
high. The bark is blueish-green. The leaves are very shiny, they do not wither in winter or
5 summer. The fruit does not come out of the flower, but proceeds from the stem of the tree, and
is as large as a pumpkin. It has a husk enveloping it, and on the husk are spines (^J)- The
pulp is sweet and edible. The pips (inside the pulp) are as big as jujubes, and one fruit has a
number of them. They have stems (;^)- Inside the pips there is a kernel like a chestnut and
yellow, which is excellent eating when roasted.)) See also Hirth, J. A. 0. S., XXX, 24.
10 P'ing-chou-k'o-t'an, 2,5* says: «In front of the Nan-hai-miau (in Canton) there is a big tree.
The ripe fruit is like a pumpkin, when opened its sections (J^) are like bananas. The natives
call it po-lo-mi. When properly prepared (lit. steeped) it is good to eat (y^ ^ 'pT ^^).»
The Nan-hai (Nam-hoi in Cantonese)-miau in Canton is supposed to have been founded
• at the end of the sixth century A. D. The two jack-fruit trees in it were said to have been
15 planted during the Liang dynasty (A. D. 502—557), and are supposed to have been the ancestors
of all the jack-fruit trees in the neighbourhood. See Kuang-tung-sin-yii (published in 1700), 6,7,
and 25,28, et seqq. At the present time the jack-fruit is found all over Kuang-tung, Hainan and
southern Formosa. The image of the iirst propagator of the jack-fruit in China — the native of
the kingdom of Po-lo referred to previously — is worshipped down to the present day in the Nam-hoi
20 temple, where jack-fruit trees are still grown. Notes and Queries on China and Japan, II, 169,
191, III, U.
Concerning the origin of the Chinese name joo-Zo-mi for this fruit, Thos. Watters, Essays
on the Chinese language, 437, is inclined to think it a mixed term, po-lo may be Sanskrit for
phala fruit, and mi may be the Chinese word for honey. This explanation appears to us a fairly
25 satisfactory one.
The T'ang-shu, 22lA,i7'', mentions that in the twenty-first year of the chong-Tcuan period
(A. D. 647) a mission from Magadha (Central India) which came to the Chinese court, presented the
Emperor with 2k po-lo ('/ij^ viffi) ^'^^^- This tree, it is said, resembled a pai-yang tree (y 7^
Populus alba, L.). Po-lo is, as noted previously, the Sanskrit word for «fruit)) — but it seems
30 possible that this particular one may have been a po-lo-mi or jack-fruit tree, if not a pine-apple.
18.
ARBCA-NUTS (^ M)-
The pin-lang comes from several foreign countries, also from the four
districts of Hai-nan; it is likewise found in Kiau-chi. The tree resembles the
35 coir-palm (^#^)^
«The fruit grows on the leaves, fastened to them in clusters, as on
willow twigs. "When gathered in the spring it is called juan-pin-lang (^
or «soft areca-nuts») and is commonly known as pin-lang-sien (;^J
or afresh areca-nuts»); it is then good to chew. When gathered in
40 the summer or the autjumn and dried it is called mi-jpin-lang {^ ^ ^
214 COCOANDT. 11,18-19
or ccrice areca-nuts»). Preserved in salt it is called yen-pin-lang (^ /^ |^
or «salted areca-nuts»). Small and pointed nuts are called M-sin-pm-lcmg
(^ ^Ij? ^^J ^ or «chicken heart areca-nuts»), large and flat ones ta-fu-td
(^ ^ -^ or «big bellies»).»^
"When chewed, these nuts have the effect of preventing eructation. In 5
San-fo-ts'i they make wine out of the juice.
«The Customs at Canton and Ts'iian-chou derive an annual revenue of
several tens of thousands of strings of cash from the trade carried on in this
products by foreign ships. But most of the product comes from Hai-nan. The
"fresh nuts» and the «salted nuts» come from there, whereas the M-sin and lo
the ta-fu-td varieties come mostly from Ma-i.
JSTotes.
1) Pin-lang is a transcription of the Malay name of the areca-palm (Areca catechu, L.)
pinang. Nan-fang-ts'au-mu-chnang, S,!* says that it comes from Lin-i {mR &. Southern Indo-
China) and that it is also caWei pin-mon-yau-tsim {^S P^ ^S "^g) <"■ «pin-mdn medicinal 15
comfit)). De Candolle, op. cit., 344 thinks it may be indigenous to the Malay Peninsula. Our
author mentions betel-nuts in the first part of his work as a product of Ooromandel, of Hainan
and of the Philippine islands (Ma-i). He calls (supra, p. 160) the betel-nuts brought from the last
named place yau-pin-lang or «medicinal areca-nutso. He mentions (supra, pp. 60, 78) wine made
with areca-nuts as in use in Sumatra (San-fo-ts'i) and Java. 20
2) This paragraph, as also that part of the last paragraph in quotation marks, are taken
from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 8,3. The Pon-ts'au, 31,14—19, says the ta-fu-tzi is also called chu-pin-lang,
apig betel-nut)).
19.
COCOANUT (if ^). 26
«The ye-tsl, as regards the trunk and leaves, closely resembles the
coir-palm and the areca-palm. Th« fruit grows in the leaves in bunches of
several nuts of the size of a vessel holding five pints (4f-). It is the biggest
of fruits, with the sole exception of the jack-fruit. When cut the outer skin
is at first green and tender, but after some time it turns yellow, and when 30
kept a long time the skin shrivels and dries up. The nut shell contained in
the outer skin can be made into vessels; the pulp inside the shell is of a
jade-like white, and of an agreeable taste, resembling that of cow's milk. The
juice (vg) inside the pulp is very clear and fragrant when fresh, but when
stale it turns muddy, and is no longer drinkable.* In the states of Nan-p'i 35
they make wine out of the juice of its flower mixed with syrup.
11,19-20 OAK-GALLS. 215
Note.
The whole of this section, except the last phrase, is quoted from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 8,4.
De Candolle, op. cit., 345 — 350 discusses the question of the original habitat of the cocoanut.
He is disposed to place it in the Indian Archipelago. It appears to have been already known in
5 China in the second century before our era. Nan-fang-ts'au-mu-chuang, 3,2, refers to the toddy
made from it in Indo-China (Lin-i and Nan-ytt6) and to its intoxicating property. The cocoanut,
it adds, is commonly called YUe-wang-t'ou (;^ ^ ^ ahead of the king of Yue»), because in
olden times there was a feud between the king of Lin-i and the king of Nan-yli§, and the former
sent an assassin who killed the king and cut off his head, which the king of Lin-i had hung on
10 a tree. After a while it changed into a cocoanut, when the king in anger had it cut down and
made into a slop-bowl ('^ ^r)' "^^^ people of the South, the author adds to clinch the story,
still follow this custom of making slop-bowls, out of cocoanuts. See also Ling-piau-l(l-i, 2,6^' (T'ang
dynasty). On the subject of liquors used in southern Asia, the Pon-ts'au, 31,20, refers to a number,
among them to one made in Tun-sun (in the Malay Peninsula probably) with the juice of the
15 flowers of a tree like a pomegranate. In a previous passage (supra, p. 89) our author says that
in Ku-lin (Quilon) athey made a liquor with a mixture of honey (or syrup) with cocoanuts and
the juice of a flower, which they let ferment;» perhaps it was similar to that mentioned in the
Pon-ts'au.
20
20.
OAK-GALLS H^ :^ ^).
Mo-slii-tzi come from Wu-ssi-li {^MW- Mosul) in the Ta-sM country.
The tree resembles the camphor-tree, it blossoms once a year and bears a fruit
similar to the Chinese acorn (^ |^), and called sha-mo-lu (fp j^ ^), or
p'u-lu (>j^ ^), and which is edible. The following year it grows what is
25 called ma-ch^a (^ ^), which is the same as mo-sM-td. The year following
appear again sha-mo-lu, and the mo-sM-tz'i grow in alternate years, so it
is a valuable article. What a wonderful thing to see one root produce diffe-
rent fruits !
Note.
30 The Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, 18,8% appears to be the earliest Chinese work to describe in some detail
oak-galls. It says: « Wu-sU-U% (fife ^ ^,) come from Po-ssi (Persia), and in Persian they are
called mo-ts6 (^ tt)- The 'tree is sixty to seventy feet high, and eight or nine feet in cir-
cumference. Theteaves are like peach leaves but larger. In the third moon its flowers open, they
are white and reddish in the center. The seed is round like a pill, at first green, but when ripe
35 a yellowish white. Those with holes in them have been pierced by insects, the perfect nuts are
without holes in the skin; these are used to make medicine. One year the tree produces wu-sM-tei,
the following it produces po-lu-tei (^ Jp ^) of the size of thefingqr tip and three inches
long. On the upper end there is a cup (^) in which is the kernel, like a chestnut, of brown
colour and which is' edible.»
40 Our author derives most of his information from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 3,4», only adding the
Persian names of the oak, Mut, (p'u-ltt) and shdh-lalut or royal oak, m^Chinese sha-mo-lu. Wu-
sM-tsi, mo-sM-m, mo-tso and ma-ch'a, all represent the Persian »!«««, the word for oak-galls.
216 EBOKY. 11,20-21
Thos. Watters, Essays on the Chinese language, 349. See also supra, p. MO. Wei-shu, 102,12%
and Sui-shu, 83,16* mention tou-shi-tz'i as one of the products of Po-ssi (Persia).
Duarte Barbosa, in the beginning of the fifteenth century, speaking of the trade of
Malacca, says that among the articles its merchants dealt with were magican, awhich are gall-
nuts, which they bring from the Levant to Cambay, by way of Mekkah, and they are worth a 5
great deal in China and Java». Description of the Coasts of East Africa and Malabar, 191 (Hakl.
See. edit.). See also Heyd, Hist, du Commerce, II, 644.
There is some doubt whether mau-li, which we have translated by «acorn», should not be
rendered by «chestnut»; this confusion exists among the Chinese. See Porter Smith, Contri-
butions, 60 and Bretschneider, Botanicon Sinicum, II, 320. 10'
21.
EBONY i% m ^).
Wu-mon-tzi resembles the coir-palm (/j?^ ^f^)', it is an erect tree of
olive-green colour, growing to a height of an hundred feet and more, with a
thick green and highly luxuriant foliage. Jts wood is as hard as iron and 15.
lends itself to the manufacture of woodware, being glossy like lacquered
ware, for which reason it is generally considered a precious wood (^ ;;fc).
Note.
Ku-kin-chu, 3,i, says: «I-mu (^ ^) or wo-i-mu (^^ ^ '^) comes from
Tongking (Kiau-chou). Its colour is black, and it is veined. It is also called ««M-if6w-(Canton.m6TC) 20^
"'"(iIto '^ ^1^ ((black -veined- woods).
P6n-ts'au-kang-mu, 3513,87, says that the name wu-mon-mu and ivu-wfin-mu are identical
with wu-mu (J^ '^)< ^^'-^ name used at the present day to designate ebony. This disposes of
Schlegel's doubts, who (T'oung Pao. Ser II, Vol. II, 127) says tou-man-mu (^^ |Si yij\;)
stands for ((Black fir-tree» and signifies wArenga saccharifera.» 25-
Nan-yiie-pi-ki, 13,6 says that «wu-mu is a product of Kiung-ch6u (in Hainan) and of the
islands. It is much used among the natives to make chopsticks of. The Euang-cM ( 1^ ^)
says there comes from Hainan a kindofwM-mu called Tiio-wu (-^ ,^ ), which is uniformly
black throughout and is very brittle. There is also a variety called cVa-wu (^ ^\ which is
(brought to China) by foreign ships and which is eo dense that it sinks in water.' There are a 30'
great many varieties of (this kind of) wu-mu, all of which are good for making canes and tables.
None is real unless it sinks in water.s In Amoy dialect wu-mdn-fei is pronounced o-han-tgl, and
this word no doubt corresponds to the Persian abnus (e'Pevoq) (cebonyj), from which the Spanish
abenuz and our eimy are derived. The Persian ahmis is also, apparently, the lonus of Marco
Polo, of which he says there were vast forests in Champa (the Chan-ch'6ng of the Chinese). Yule, 36-
Marco Polo, II, 250, 252.
The explanation of this wood being designated by the same term in old Chinese works
and by the Persians must be that, either the Chinese received their first supplies of it through
Persian traders, or the word is indigenous to one of the Indo-Chinese districts where the
tree grows, and that it had travelled to the east and west with the article. This last expla- 40.
nation would somewhat modify the traditional etymology of the names for ebony known to the
ancient Greeks, Hebrews and Latins. Ebony, it should be remembered, is the wood of various
species of trees of the genus Diospyros and the natural order Ebenacete. The Nan-yue-pi-ki, ia '
the passage quoted above, shows that the Chinese are aware of this fact.
11,22-23 ' SAP AN-WOOD. — COTTON. 217
22.
SAPAN-WOOD m ^)'
Su-mu comes from the country of Chon-la. The tree resembles the pine
and juniper. The leaves are like those of the tung-tsHng tree (^ pj). Its
6 habitat is in the uncultivated parts of the hilly country, where the people
are allowed to cut it. "When the bark is removed and the wood dried in the
sun, it is of a deep red colour and may be used in dying purple. It is popu-
larly known as wa-mu (^ TJiC).
Note.
10 The wood of the Caesalpinia sappan. It was known to the Arabs as bakkam, and as
Brazil-wood in Western mediaeval commerce. Its name in Malay is supang, which is the original
of the Chinese su-mu, or rather of the earlier form su-fang, concerning which Nan-fang ts'au-mu-
chuang, 2,4, says: «T)ie su-fang (|^ i^) belongs to the huai {J^ sophora) variety. The
flowers have black seeds. The tree grows in Chan-ch'Sng (Annam). The men of the south (of
15 China) make a deep red dye by steeping it in Ta-yu (^ J^) water, which (has the property of)
making the colour particularly deep.» The word su-fang is said by some Chinese writers to be the
name of an island. Pon-ts'au, 352,35''. Conf. Yule, Marco Polo, II, 869, where sappan is derived
from Japan, an impossible derivation, as the name J'i-pon (Japan) was first used in A. D. 670.
In connexion with dye stuffs, it is interesting to note that already in the sixth century, or
20 very early in the seventh, the true indigo or Indigofera tinctoria, L. was known to the Chinese
as a product of the Persian (Sassanian) province of Ts'au (:J^); it was called in Chinese ts'ing-tai
(W ^). Sui-shu, 83. Sect. Ts'au. See Bretschneider, J. C. B. K. A. S., XXV, 214.
The term tung-tsing here used is a descriptive and comprehensive one («winter-green»)
applied to certain evergreen oleaceous trees which harbour the wax-insect. Porter Smith,
25 Materia medica, 229, Hanbury, Science papers, 67.It is the Ligustrum lucidum, Bretschneider,
Bot. Sinic. Ill, 513—517. Wa-mu may be an abbreviation for Wa-li-mii or «wood of "Wa-li».
Wa-li is mentioned by our author (supra, p. 54) as a dependency of Chon-Ia.
23.
COTTON (^ M)-
30 «The U-pei tree resembles a small mulberry-tree, with a hibiscus-like
(^ M) ^0^'®^ furnishing a floss half an inch and more in length, very
much like goose-down, and containing some dozens of seeds. In the south the
people remove the seed from the floss by means of iron chopsticks, upon
which the floss is taken in the hand and spun without troubling about
85 twisting together the thread. Of the cloth (^) woven therefrom there are
several qualities)), the most durable and the strongest is called tou-lo-mien
218 COTTON. 11,23
(5iL M ?il); *^® second quality is called fan-pu or aforeign cloths (^ :j^);
the third «tree-cotton» or mu-mien (:^ j^); the fourth M-pu (^ ^).
These textures are sometimes dyed in various colours and brightened with
strange patterns. The pieces measure up to five or six feet in breadth.
ISTote. B
All the first part of this article is substantially a quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 6,12-is,
the only change made by our author being that Chou K'fl-fei compares cotton to willow-down
Oriental or herbaceous cotton (Gossypium herbaceum, Linn.), which de Candolle, op. cit.,
323, thinks is indigenous to Sindh, and which was called IcarpSsa in Sanskrit, was in general use 10
throughout India in the Vedic times. The Greeks first learnt of it by the expedition of Alexander;
they retained its Indian name, calling it xapTrauo?. By the end of the first century of our era
cotton, both raw and manufactured, formed one of the staples of trade between the ports on the
western coast of India, Egypt, and the Greek world. See M" Or indie, 52, 64, 108, 113, and Strabo,
XV, I, 20, 21. Cotton was introduced into Nineveh about 700 B. C; it was called «wool-tree». 15
Proc. Soc. Bibl. Archeol., Dec. 1909, 339.
It would seem that cotton and cotton fabrics first reached China from Central Asia, for
the earliest name given them in Chinese, po-{oT pai-)tie, is certainly borrowed from one of the Tnrki
languages. The two characters composing the name yo-t4e(s ^3 or pi SS^) furnish no sense
in Chinese, and the use of different but homophonous characters to write it, point to its being a 20
foi'eign word. The nearest equivalent seems to be the Jagatai Turki word for cotton paJckta (A.Xsb).
See Radloff, Worterbuch d. Tiirk-Dialecte, IV, 1138. Conf. Gerini, Eesearches, 243, u. 2.
Strangely enough the earliest recorded use of the word po-tie which has come down to us
relates to a country lying to the south-west of China, and it is applied to a hempen fabric. H6u-
Han-shu, 116,18'' says that the Ai-lau aborigines (then in Yiin-nan) manufactured ^o-iSie, which a 25
later history (V\rel-shu, 101,28'') tells us was a textile fabric of hemp, which was called in
their language lan-Jcan. V^e have to come down to the sixth century of our era to find a reference
to cotton in Turkestan. Liang-shu, 54,si*, says that «in K'au-chang (Turfan) there grew in
great abundance a plant the fruit of which resembled a silk cocoon. In the cocoon is a silky
substance like fine hemp (^OT ^jm) which is called po-tie-tzi (^ HS -?*). The natives 30
weave it into a cloth which is soft and white, and which they send to the markets (of China).»
Its use was not so general in Turkestan in the sixth century but that we find in Yen-ki in
Eastern Turkestan the people using silk cocoons as wadding for clothes. Wei-shu, 102,7*-
The pilgrim Fa-hi6n, who travelled in India in the beginning of the fifth century, calls
the cotton fabrics of the country po-tie in the only passage of his Fo-kuo-ki in which he refers to 35
them (26,27 of Legge's edit., 79 of his translation). Conf also, China Keview, XIX, 192.
A century later occurs the first use of anew term for cotton, Tcu-pei ("db ^) or Tei-pei
(^S ^ ), which is the Malay word Jcapas (the Sanskrit karpasa), still in use throughout the Indian
Archipelago, from Macassar to Sumatra, to designate Gossypium herbaceum. This reference occurs
in Liang-shu, 5l,i5% where it is said of the people of P'o-li (^ 5^|J north coast of Sumatra 40
or Southern Malay Peninsula?): «the people of this country wear M-pet as a breech-clout (ijlPj)
or to make sarongs (^ ^)-'' ^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ 7^^^ of the p'u-twng period (A. D. 523) a mission
from this country to the court of the Liang brought, among other presents, some lci-p€i, and
probably introduced the use of the term; as to the material itself, the Chinese did not perceive,
apparently, that it was the same as po-tie. Conf. Nan-shi, 78,2*. 45
The great traveller Huan-tsang in the early part of the seventh century, describing the
dress of the people of India, says they wore clothing of Uau-shi-ye ('I'^ ^ 5pK) — which he
also chinesefies into ch'au-hia (^ ^ literally ablush of the Courts), both terms transcribing
Sanskrit Jcausheya «silken stuff»— and also clothing of tie-pu (@S^ ^ «cloth of (po-)tie»). He
makes nowhere mention of the term karpasa, nor does he use the Chinese ku-pei or M-pei. See 50
11,23 COTTON. 219
Watters, On Yuan-chwang's travels, I, 147, 287. The original meaning of the word ^o-«ie, it
would seem from Hiian-tsang's use of a mutilated form of it, had already been lost in his time.
It would appear that the identity of po-tie and M-pet was not realized till some time later;
it was, at all events, when the T'ang-shu was written, for it says (222C,2*), in referring to this
5 same P'o-li country (in Siam or Sumatra): «The ku-pei plant is found in P'o-li. The flowers are
gathered and cloth (^) made from them; the coarse kinds (we) call (fa)-2)e* (_^), the fine ones
(po-) tie (^Si|)». It seems probable fh&t po-tie was given as a name to the lighter Sumatran cotton
fabrics because they resembled in texture those from India and Persia, to which the name had
long been exclusively applied.The Pon-ta'au, 36,69'',says Jci-pei was also called hu-chung (-jfe ^),
10 pronounced Tiu-tiXng in the Foochow dialect, probably from Arabic Tcutun. Mayers, Notes and
Queries, II, 95.
With the simultaneous use of two distinct terms, ^JO-iie and Tei-pei, to designate the same ma-
terial, it becomes very difficult to distinguish the various cotton fabrics mentioned in Chinese works.
Thus T'ang-shu, 22ic,i°' says that the king of Huan-wang(Annam) wore clothes of po-fe'-ftM-^ei,and '
15 his consort's were otch'au-hia-Jcu-pei, ch'au-hia the Indian word Tiausheya «silken stu£f», being here
transferred to a cotton fabric. The confusion still existed in the twelfth century, for Ling-wai-tai-ta,
6,ia, says: «the people of the Laos country (^g ^ ) wore an extraordinarily fine and beautifully
white (cotton fabric) called ch'au-hia». Another instance of the confusion in the Chinese cotton ter-
minology is furnished by T'ang-shu (222C,4^) in its notice of Java (Ho-ling), where the word for
20 cotton is fcapas; it says: «theymake^o-<ie-^ and c7i'aM-Am-j9M.» In another passage of the same work
(222C,6*) it speaks of c^'aw-Tiia-iie; and,in reference to the cotton of K'au-chang(Turfan),it reproduces
(221A,6*) substantially the earlier statement of Liang-shu given previously, without any suspicion,
apparently, that the po-tie of that country was the same as the M-pei of the South. «There is in
Kau-ch'ang, it says, a plant called po-tie ( t^ SS), the flowers of which are gathered and can be
25 woven into cloth (■m)""
In the Sung period the use of the word M-pei was at last extended to Indian cotton fabrics,
and a new term introduced (not occurring, however, in Ling-wai-tai-ta or any other work earlier
than our author's), tou-lo-mien (^ ^ ■^^), composed of the Sanskrit word iwZa «cotton»,
and of mien «soft, downy», a word which appears to have been applied to certain cotton stuffs of
30 Western Asiatic manufacture as far back as the Wei period, when we find Mn-mien (^^ ^^
or kin-tie (^^ @S) used to designate brocaded cotton stuffs. Wei-shu, 102,3,10,12.
At the time at which our author wrote there were, therefore, four foreign terms in use in
China for cotton fabrics, po-tie, ch'au-hia, ki-pei and tdu-lo, and two purely Chinese terms, pu
(^\ which in the earliest Chinese works designated hempen cloth, and mien (^j|) or
85 mim-puH^ ^). It appears likely that the word mien was more particularly applied to
certain fabrics made from the «tree-cotton» (Gossypium arboreum, Linn.), which oar author states
in the first part of his work was cultivated in Tongking, Hai-nan and probably Siam, and which
is still cultivated in the Indian Archipelago and in India.
The word mien (J>S), now in general use in China to designate the cotton shrub, and
40 mien-hua (^^ ^) «cotton» were unknown to the Chinese of the Sung dynasty. They would
appear to hare been coined after the introduction of cotton cultivation and spinning into China
(Kiang-su) in the fourteenth century. Already in the twelfth century the cotton of Hai-nan was
woven into cloth in various localities of Kuang-tung adjacent to that island. Ling-wai-tai-ta, 6,13,
mentions Lei-chou, Hua-ch6uand Lien-chou (ig 'ft ^ j|>|>)) as mMufaeturing cotton cloth
45 both beautifully fine and white, which was called man-ki-pei (i|^ ^ ^) oi «%ohU-pei,>^
and also a coarser and yellowish coloured kind called ts'u-M-pei {^ "^ M) °^ '"^^^^^^
ki-fei.» As an article of clothing it was only used in Kuang-tung and Ha^an^ ^\''°"^° P^°P^®
who preferred it to silk and linen. It was a woman, Huang Tau-p'o (^ ^ ^), a native of
Hai-nan, who introduced cotton spinning into Kiang-nan. Mayers, Chin, reader's Man., 71.
50 In the latter part of the twelfth century, as we have seen in the first part of this work,
China got most of her cotton, both raw and manufactured, from Hai-nan and Indo-China, but
Java, Borneo, India, Persia, the Philippines, and even Asia Minor, supplied her with certain
220 MATS. 11,23-24
cotton fabrics. These stuffs were either white or dyed various colours, also dotted, striped, mixed
silk and cotton stuffs, brocaded, or gold-spangled. Chintzes came to China from Annam, India
and Persia, and damasks from Java.
One fabric of which our author, as well as Ch 6 u K'ii-f e i", speaks, cannot as yet be identified.
It is yue-no-pu {j^ ^ ^), a manufacture of the Coromandel coast, of Baghdad, of Asia 5
Minor, and of Ghazni (Ki-tz'i-ni). It would seem to have been a light cotton gauze, or muslin,
and was of two kinds, pure white, and spangled with gold. The word yvA-'no is not otherwise
known in Chinese literature, except possibly as the name of a country— Bukhara, or neighbour-
hood — from which, on one occasion at least, dwarfs were brought to the court of China. T'ang-
shu, 221B,ii>. Edrisi (I, 185) speaks of the cotton stuffs made in Cabul and which were exported 10
to China, Khorasan and Sindh.
Onthesubjectof cotton in the Middle Ages, see Heyd, Histoire du Commerce, II, 611— 614,
693—710, and Hirth, J. C. B. K. A. S., XXI, 230 et seqq.
24.
MATS {^ ;\!> %). 15
The mats called ye-sin-tien come from Tan-jung-wu-lo. The foreign
traders carry them to San-fo-ts'i, Ling-ya-mon and Sho-p'o for trade. They
also come from the island of P'u-li-lu in the San-sii. They are made from a
plant resembling the rattan in shape and more than ten feet in length with a
longitudinally striped and smooth surface without knots, which is called ye-sin- 20
ts'au (^ i'(^ '^). The women in those foreign parts gather (this vine),
peel it and weave it into mats. They are sometimes dyed with red and black
checkered patterns, when they are called «figured mats» or hua-tien {1^ ^)
They are warm in the winter and cool in the summer, and are very conve-
nient to carry about. The mats coming from San-fo-ts'i are the best, those 25
coming from the San-sii being of the poorest quality.
Note.
Tan-jung-wu-lo is mentioned by our author (supra, p. 84) as a dependency of Sukitan or
Java. Ling-ya-mOn is the island of Lingga (see supra, p. 60). P'u-li-lu is the island of Polillo off
the east coast of Luzon. The mats made in the Philippines are still famous, though perhaps not 30
so fine as those of Formosan manufacture, which are locally called i-nan-ts au ("h* S ^T ).
The Pei-won-yun-fu, 58,52, mentions liu-sin-tien (:^jj j^ ^ lit., awillow-heart matsa), and
the Tung-si-yang-k'au 4,3" refers to tsiau-sin-tien (^ f(^ ^ lit., «banana-heart matsa) as
a product of Ma-liu (Malacca), and (3,4^), among the products of Hia-kiang in Java, to t'ong-hiux-
ttin (JJ^ :^ ^ lit., (crattan figured matsa). The ye-sin-tien, lit., «cocoanut-heart matsa of 35
our author are not mentioned elsewhere.
11,25-26 PUTCHDCK. — CAKDAMOMS. 2 2 1
25.
PUTCHUCK (tI^ #).
Mu-Mang comes from the country of Ma-lo-mo of the Ta-slii; it is also
found in Shi-ho and Nu-fa. The plant resembles the Chinese ssi-km (^ JJ}^
5 Luffa cylindrica, Koem.). The winter months is the time for gathering the
root, which is chopped into pieces of one or two inches in length and sun-
dried. Pieces like a chicken bone are of the best quality.
Note.
Ma-lo-mo is Merbat, SM-lio is Shehr, and Nu-fa is Ziifar, the modern Dhofar, all on the
ID Hadramaut coast of Arabia. See supra, p. 116. Our author also states (supra, p. 128) that mu-hiang
came from the Somali coast (Pi-p'a-lo); but the best quality of the drug came, he says (supra, p. 98)
from Nan-ni-hua-lo, which we think must be identified with Sindh, or a section of that region. Our
author is wrong in stating that this product was found in Hadramaut and on the Somali coast. It
is a native of Kashmere and was an important export from the ports of Sindh, when the author
15 of the Periplus wrote, and probably ages before his time, as it was well known to the Hebrews who
called it Icetgiofh (niV'Sp cassia), which, we presume, is derived from its Sanskrit name, IcusMlia, which
is the original of the Greek xoffTo?, and the Latin eostus. In Malay it is called pueho, which may
be the origin of our putchuk, or our term may be derived ivomputchok, by which name this root is
known in Calcutta. Putchuck is the root oftheAucklandia eostus, Royle. Hamilton, New Account
20 of the East Indies (1744), I, 127, says: «The Wood Ligna dulcis grows only in this country (i. e.,
Sindh). It is rather a Weed than a Wood, and nothing of it is useful but the Root called Putchock,
or, Radix dulcis. I never heard it is used in Physic, but it is a good Ingredient in the Compos-
ition of Perfumes. There are great Quantities exported for Surat, and from thence to China.»
The earliest mention we have found in Chinese works of this drug is in the Wei-shu, 102,i2^,
25 and the Sui-shu ,83,16'', where mention is made among the products of Po-ssi (Persia) ofts'ing-mu-
hiang (^ 7^^ ^i lit., agreen-wood incense»). The name mu-Mang occurs, however, in a
Chinese Materia medica of the fifth century, Ming-i-pie-lu by T'au Hung-king, as a plant growing
in western Yun-nan, and which was also called mi-Mang (^ ^•)- ^^^ already at that time
the Chinese product was no longer used, and ts'tng-mii-hiang was brought to China from abroad
30 by foreign ships, it being said that it came from Ta-ts"in. Bretschneider, Bot. Sinic, III, 111.
It would seem, therefore, that the name mu-hiang was at first applied by the Chinese to a native
product, probably because it was 'wood perfume'. In Chinese Buddhist books it -is called Jcii-so-t'o
(^ ^/^), Sanskrit ftwsTii/sa. Bretschneider, loc.cit.,112. See also Yule, Marco Polo, 11,387.
26.
35 CARDAMOMS ( Q S _
Pai-t6u-¥dti come from Chon-la, Sho-p'o and other foreign countries;
but Chon-la produces them in the largest quantity. The plant resembles the
ssi-km (^ JR), and the seed a grape; it is a creeping plant fond of deep
valleys ([Jj ^). It blossoms in the spring and ripens in the summer. The
40 people are allowed to gather it without hindrance.
222 PEPPEK. 11,26-27
Note.
The pai-tou-k'm is the Amomum cardamomum, Linn., the 'round' or 'cluster carda-
mom', a native plant of Kamhoja, Siam and Java. The Javanese name MpuJaga, appears to be
the only one in use in the Indian Archipelago. Crawfurd, Hist. Indian Archipelago, I, 514.
The earliest mention of the pai-tm-h'oti or awMte t6u-h'6u» in CShinese works occurs in 5
the eighth century. Ch'on Ts'ang-ki (supra, p. 210, line 36) says that it was a product of
K."i6-ku-lo (^ i W possibly Kia Tan's Ko-ku-lo, east coast Malay Peninsula) and is there
called to-Jcu (0, »^). In another passage (supra, p. 210) the same author gives the native
name of the nutmeg as Ja-M-Zo, which Bretscbneider points out is probably MJcula, the
Arabic name for cardamom. Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, 18,io reproduces this phrase from Ch'6nTs'ang-k'i. 10
It says: «Pai-t6u-h'6u comes from K'ie-ku-lo, where it is called to-Jcu. In shape it is like the
banana (tree). The leaves are like those of the tu-jo (;^ ^) eight or nine feet long; they do
not wither in winter or summer. The flowers are light yellow. The seeds form clusters like grapes.
When the seeds first appear they are light green, when ripe they turn white; they are gathered
in the seventh moon.a 15
Already in the eleventh century, the cardamom was grown in Kuang-tung and Kuang-si,
but it was inferior in quality to that brought from abroad. Bretscbneider, Bot. Sinic, III,
120—123.
Ling-wai-tai-ta, 8,18'', says that the joai-tdu-h'du comes from the foreigners of the South,
while the herbaceous (^^) or ts'au-tou-k'ou comes from the mountainous districts of Yung- 20
ch6u ( S >|>M the present Nan-ning-fu in Kuang-si). «There is also the flower of the tm-k'ou
which is very much prized The people of the South pick the flowers, steep them in plum
juice and dry them. They are very tasty » The flower of the tou-h'ou is described in Nan-
fang -ts'au-mu chuang, l,2^ It is there said that it stops flatulency and dispels phlegm, it has
also the property of increasing the strength of wine. In A. D. 281 a basket of these flowers was 25
brought the Emperor from Tongking. He found out by experimenting with them that they
really possessed the properties attributed to them. Tung-si-yang-k'au, 3,5^ mentions red (^r)
pai-tou-k'ou among the products of Hia-kiang in Java.
27.
PEPPER (1^ #1).
30
Hu-tsiau conies from the following places in Sho-p'o: Su-ki-tan, Ta-pan,
Pai-hua-yiian, Ma-tung, and Jung-ya-lu; but the pepper coming from Sin-t'o
iMx ^) 's the best; the Ta-pan variety takes the second place.
Pepper grows in the uncultivated wilds, and the villages in the country
the Chinese grape. The natives grow it on frames made of bamboo 35
or other wood the flower opens, and in the fourth moon the fruit
forms\
The flower resembles a fong-wei (^ ^ or a «phoemx-tail»), and is
blue (and) red in colour. The grains are gathered in the fifth moon, dried
in the sun, and stored in godowns, whence they are withdrawn in the 40
11,27 PEPPER, 223
following year, carts drawn by oxen being used to transport them to the
market. The grain cannot stand the sun, but stands rain; therefore crops are
but poor after dry weather, whereas heavy rainfalls may double the ordinary
yield of the harvest.
6 (Note. Some say that most of the pepper comes from the country of
Wu-li-pa (^ ^ f^), in Nan-p'i, and that the produce bought by the
foreign traders in Sho-p'o comes from Wu-li-pa) ^
Notes.
1) The term tsiau was applied by the Chinese in the classical period to Zanthoxylon, of
10 which more than a dozen species are known in China. Bretschneidcr, Bot. Sinic, II,
323. Hu-tsiau, our Piper nigrum, literally 'Western Asian tsiau' is first mentioned, it would
appear, in the Hou-Han-shu, 118,12'', where it figures as a product of T'ien-chu (India). Later
on it occurs in the V\rei-shu, 102,ia°' and the Sui-shu 83,i6*, as a product of Po-ssii (i. e., it was
brought to China by Persian traders from India); they also mention pi-po (S. i^), iu Sanskrit
15 pippali, or along peppera.
Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, ISjO** says: aHu-tsiau comes from Mo-k'ie-to (i. e., Magadha, or Central
India), where it is called mo-li-chi (S^ ^§ "jy" Sanskrit maricha). The plant is a creeper, at
first very flexible. The leaves are an inch and a half long, they grow on stems two by two, on
either side of the stem. They open at dawn and close up at night, rolling up when closed. The
20 seeds are between the leaves; in shape they are like the tsiau (Chinese pepper). When they are
good they have a pungent taste. They are picked in the sixth moon (August-September). At the
present day people in China who eat meat cooked in foreign style ("jTO ^^ pjj '^l) all make
use of it.»
Of the long pepper, the same work (18,io*) says that it comes from Magadha, where it is
25 called pi-po-U CBB j^ ^j^), and that in the country of Fu-lin it is called a-li-ho-t'o ([JfJ"
^^ ppf P^)- On *^^ localities here mentioned and the pepper trade, see more particularly,
supra, pp. 70, 78, 83, and on the great profits of the pepper trade in our author's time, supra,
p. 78. Crawfurd, op. cit., I, 482 et seq. says that to enable the vine to bear first it must be
trained on some tree or pole. There are two crops which, in point of time, are, extremely irre-
80 gular, and in some situations run into each other in such a manner that the reaping is pursued
nearly throughout the year. The mutilated paragraph in our text is made clear by this remark.
Crawfurd, Hist. Indian Archipelago, III, 358, says that pepper is principally obtained
on the north-eastern coast of the Archipelago, at Patani, Tringanu and Kalentan; in the straits
on the island of Lingen, also at Achin, Tikao, Bencoolen, Padang and the country of the Lam-
35 pongs. That of Penang and the west coast of Sumatra is the best.
2) This paragraph is printed in the text in the form of a foot-note. It is due presumably
to the editor Li T'iau-ytian, as the name Wu-li-pa— in Cantonese Mo-li-pat,— -is not used by our
author, for whom the Malabar country was Nan-p'i. It is just possible that the dependency of
Nan-p'i which appears in his work (supra, pp. 88, 90, n. 8) under the name of Ma-li-mo (in Amoy
40 dialect Ma-li-bwat) is Malabar. Even then he does not speak of pepper being a product of Nan-p'i,
presumably because nearly, if not all, the pepper trade of China in his days was with the Indian
Archipelago.
It is noteworthy that Ch6u K'u-fei is the first Chinese author to mention pepper as a
product of the Indian Archipelago; the Arab traders of the ninth and tenth centuries speak
45 only of the pepper of India. Ibn Khordadbeh knew that pepper was produced in Ceylon, but his
information went no farther; the one source of supply was, for him, Malabar. As showing the great
importance of the Chinese pepper trade in Marco Polo's time, that traveller tells us (II, 186), that
he ((heard it stated by one of the Great Kaan's officers of customs that the quantity of pepper
224 CIIBEBS. — ASA-FOETIDA. 11,27-28
introduced daily for consumption into the city of Kinsay amounted to 43 loads, each load being
equal to 223 lbs.» And in another passage (II, 217) he says «And I assure you that for one
shipload of pepper that goes to Alexandria or elsewhere, destined for Christendom, there come a
hundred such, aye and more too, to this haven of Zaytun». Duarte Barbosa, op. cit, 206,
mentions also the great quantity of pepper used in China. See on the pepper trade in the Middle
Ages, Heyd, Hist, du Commerce, II, 658.
28.
CUBEBS ($. m »
Pi-tong-kHe come from a plant of creeping habits, which blossoms in
the spring and bears fruit in the summer, resembling the hHm-niu-tzi (^ lo
^ ■y*), with a white flower and black seeds, which are packed up after
being dried in the sun. It is grown in Su-ki-tan in Sho^p'o.
Note.
Pon-ts'au-kang-mu, 32,i2, says that pi-tonff-h'ie is a foreign word, and that the form
pi-ling-h'ie (^j^ [^ ^Jj ) also occurs. It adds that it belongs to the same family as hu-isiau. 15
The cubeb (Piper cubeba), called in Javanese liurmikus, and in Malay lada barekor or
«pepper with a tails, is, like the common black pepper, the product of a vine, a native of Java,
and grows there only. Crawfurd, Hist. Indian Archipelago, I, 465. See also Hanbury, Science
papers, 246 et seq.
E'ien-niu-tz'i is Pharbitis triloba, according Bretschneider, Bot. Sinic, II, 89, 193. It is 20
Ipomoea hederacea or Pharbitis Nil, according to Porter Smith, Materia medica, 170.
29.
ASA-FOETIDA (psf M)-
A-wei comes from the country of Mu-kii-lan (^j^ ^ M) ^'^ *^^ Ta-shi
country. The tree is not a very high or large one, but the resin exudes freely 25
from its bark. The natives wind a piece of string round a twig, remove its
tip, and cover it with a bamboo tube which fills with resin. This bamboo
tube is broken up in the winter, when the resin is gathered and packed in
skin bags.
Some say that this resin is so poisonous that people do not dare to 30
come near it themselves, but, when the drug has to be gathered, tie up a
sheep at the foot of the tree and shoot arrows at it from a distance. The
poison of the resin then drops upon the sheep, which dies of it, and its
decayed flesh turns into asa-foetida. T do not know which of the two accounts
is correct; meanwhile they are both placed here on record. 35
11,29-30 ALOES.
225
Note.
Asa-foetida is a gum-resin, the product of the Narthex asa-foetida of Falconer. It was
prmcipally collected in the Persian province of Laristan - which confined on the Mekran - our
author s Mu-ka-lan. It is also found near Kandahar. See Bretschneider Medieval Researches,
5 I. 85 In Sanskrit it is called Am^ru POn-ts-au-kang-mu, 34,61-62, gives the Persian name as
a-yu-(isie), and the Indian as Mn-k'u (|^ ^), and Mng-yu (^ ^)
The earliest mention I have found of this drug occurs in Sd-shu, 83,16" where «a.wei
medicine» is mention^among the products of the kingdom of Ts'au (i^) which, it says, is the
same as the Ki-pin (^ ^ Cabul) of the Han period. A-wei is a foreign word, derived pre-
10 sumahly from the Sanskrit or Persian name of the drug.
The next mention of the drug occurs in Huan-tsang's Si-yu-ki (12,i. Julien. Pelerins
Bouddhistes,II, 187), where ho gives itsSanskrit name liing-k'ii (M Ji ^), and says that it is
found in the country of Tsjau-ka-ta ( >;§ ^ p:^ the Ts'au of Sui-3hu);Te capital of which he
notes is Ho-si-na (^j| ^ ^[J Ghazni).
15 Yu-yang-tsa-tsn, 18,8^ says eA-viei comes from K'ie-sho-na (^ ^ ^\^ Ghazni),
which is also called Northern India. In K'ie-sho-na it is called /ifn^-yw (^ J^). It also comes
from Po-ssi (Persia), where it is called a-yu-tsie (^ ^ ^ Persian angvmd, anguea). It grows
to 80 or 90 feet (1). The bark is a yellowish green. The leaves come out in the third moon; they
are like a rat's ear in shape. It has neither blossoms nor fruit. When a branch is cut off, the sap
20 flows like syrup and for a long time. When it coagulates, it is called a-wel. Wan (A)
the monk from Fu-lin, agrees with T'i-p'o (^ ^ Deva) the monk from Mo-k'ie-to (Maga^a,
or Central India) in saying that a-wei is formed by the joining together, of particles of the sap
each of the size of a grain of rice or a bean.n
25
30.
ALOES (M #).
Lu-wei comes from the land of Nu-fa of the Ta-shi country. It is
derived from a vegetable product, which looks like the tail of a king-crab.
The natives gather it and pound it with implements made of jadestone, after
which it is boiled into an ointment and packed in skin bags, and this is
30 called lu-wei.
Note.
Our author states (supra, p. 131) that lu-wei was a product of an island off the Somali coast,
which must be the island of Socotra, whence it was probably taken to Nu-fa on the Hadramaut
coast for exportation. The name lu-wei seems to be Persian cHwa, the name given the Socotran
35 aloes (Aloe Socotrina, Lam.). Yule and Burnell, Glossary, 10. See also Thos. Walters,
Essays, 332.
The Socotran product must have disappeared from the Chinese market after our author
wrote, for in the Ming dynasty the substance w^ich went by the name of lu-wei, but which was
also called nu-hui (-h^ ■^), no-hui (^(| '^) and siang-tan (^ J|g welephant's gall») was,
40 as it is now, catechu, a product of the Acacia catechu (Sanskrit khadira, see supra, p. 196, n. 1).
See P5n-ts'au-kang-mu, 34,63*'— 64, and Bretschneider, Ancient Chinese and Arabs, 20, note 5.
Edrisi (1, 47), speaking of the aloes of Socotra, says: «In the month of July the leaves are
gathered; the juice is then extracted and dried in the sun, and iu the month of August it is
packed in skin bags.»
15
22& CORAL-TREE. 11,30-3!
Theo. Bent, speaking of the collecting of the aloe-juice at the present day in Soeotra,
says (Southern Arabia, 381): «The aloe-gatherers dig a hole in the ground and line it with a
skin. Then they pile old leaves, points outward, iill round till the pressure makes the juice
exude .... The drops are knocked off into bags. The drops which come off unbroken are the
most Talued, and called edah amsello.... It is exported in skins.. ..» He also notes that the juice,
when first extracted is called in Socotran taif diho (or riho), the latter word -meaning «water».
31.
CORAL-TREE {M ^ #
The slian-hu-shu comes from the country of P'i-no-ye of the Ta-shi. The
tree grows in the deepest parts of the sea; its colour is at first white', as the lo
buds form and the twigs put forth, after rather more than a year, the colour
gradually turns yellow, and the branches begin to interlace. The greatest
height it attains is three or four feet, and large specimens are a foot in
circumference.
The natives, in fishing for it, first make use of a grappling-iron of five is
prongs fastened to a silk rope; it is kept under water by leaden sinkers, the
whole apparatus being thrown into the sea. "When the root has been detached,
the rope is made fast to the boat and the tree is hauled on board by means
of a windlass. They are not always sure to get the (whole) tree, though pro-
bably they will get a branch. At first covered with a slimy coating, it dries up 20
and hardens when exposed to the air, and then assumes a dull carnation colour.
The higher the tree, the more valuable it is. If the proper time for fishing is
missed, it will be destroyed by worms.
Note.
The earliest mention of coral in Chinese literature seems to be in H6u-Han-shu, 118,10", 25
where it occurs as a product of the Roman Orient (Ta-ts'in). T'ang-shu, 221B,i2^, describes the
coral fisheries in the 'Coral islands' (^ffl 3^ ^|ij), presumably in the Red Sea, in much the
same terms as our author, who may have derived much of his information on the subject from
this source. See Hirth, China and Roman Orient, 41, 59 and 246.
In the first part of this work, our author says that coral was found (on the market) of 30
Wu-ssi-li (Mosul), and was fished on the coast of Mo-k'i6-la (el-Mogreb, substantially the same as
the P'i-no-y6 here mentioned (see supra, p. 122, line 6), and also on the coast of Polillo island in the
Philippines. At these last named fisheries two varieties of coral were found, the one known as
shan-hu, the other as ts'ing (blue or green) lang-Tcan. The term lang-kan occurs in Shu-king,
Pt. Ill, Bk. I, Ch. X, 81 (Legge's, Chinese Classics, III, Pt. 1, 127), but no satisfactory explanation 35
is given of it. Hou-Han-shu and Wei-lio mention both shan-hu ahd lang-Jcan among the products
of Ta-ts'in. Hirth, China and Roman Orient, 41, 73.
■'■■^'^^ OPAQUE GLASS, 227
32.
OPAQUE GLASS {^ j^,).
Liu-li comes from several of the countries of the Ta-shi. The method
followed in melting it is the same as that of China, that is to say, it is made
5 by burning oxide of lead (|§), nitrate of potash (:gf ), and gypsum (;ff m).
To these materials the Ta-shii add southern borax (^ || |^>), which causes
the glass to be elastic without being brittle (^ f^ ;f '^J), and indifferent
to temperature, so that one may put it in water for a long time without
spoiling it. It is, therefore, more valuable than the Chinese product.
10
Note.
Liu-li, or as it was first written, pi-liu ^ J^) anipi-liu-K (^ *fe M), is a very
early transcription of the Sanskrit word vaidurya,' orjhe I'ali veluriija, whicl^robably meant lapis-
lazuli or rock-crystal. It occurs in the Shuo-won (=^ ^ published A. D. 100), and also in the
Ts len-Han-shu, 96A,ii, where it is said to be a product of Ki-pin (Cabul). Tuan Yu-ts'ai, the fa-
15 mous eighteenth century editor of the Shuo-w6n says in his Shuo-won kie-tzi-chu (19' "^ ^
^ j^ s. v., J^^), <,the three characters (pi, liu, li) form a Hu ((^Western AsianfvTordijus^s
s^2/|^i (J-^ ij- 3^) form an I (^Eastern Asian Barbarian) word .... Indian books
(^ W Chinese Buddhist Classics) speak oifeUiu-U [Jjf^ Jp| J^), the sound /e? approii-
mating that oipi .... Present day commentators of the Han-shu have omitted the character j)i,
20 students wrongly holding th« character pi by itself and Uu-li to designate two separate and
district things ....» See also Hirth, China and Eoman Orient, 230.
The Arab-Persian lullur,the Greek Pi^puXJ-o;, Latin leryllos, our bery], are traced likewise
to the word vaidurya. Yule and Burnell, Glossary, 67.
While originally designating a precious stone it appears likely that, from the first, the
25 word liu-li was applied to coloured glass which was imported from India, Egypt or Phoenicia. It
occurs, with the sense of a precious stone, in Hou-Han-shu, 116,19", and as a native product of
the Ai-lan country — the present Yflnnan — being there mentioned with rock-crystal, amber, etc.
Pliny, Nat. Hist., XXXVI, 26, 66 says that no glass was to be compared with that made in
India, and its superiority was due to the fact that it was made from broken crystals; but we find
30 that the liu-U from the. Eoman Orient, that is to say Egypt as well as Syria, was most prized
in China; even in the twelfth century the liu-U from Baghdad was held to surpass all others.
The Wei-lio, speaking of the period between A. D. 220—264, states that glass often colours
was found in Ta-ts'in. These colours were carnation, white, black, green, yellow, blue, purple,
azure, red and red-brown. Hirth, China and Roman Orient, 73.
35 The manufacture of liu-U was introduced into China in the latter part of the fourth
century A. D. In the reign of Shi-tsu of the Wei there came to the capital (which was the
present Ta-t'ung-fu in northern Shan-si), men from the land of the Ta-yiie-chi {~hc ^ .pf )
in Northern India, who said they knew bow to fuse certain minerals together and to make liu-li
of any colour. They dug in the hills and got together what they required and fused it in the
40 city. The finished product was more brilliant and beautiful than that which came from the West,
so dazzlingly radiant was it that, when they took it to the Palace, all the people standing there-
about were filled with fear, thinking there was something supernatural about the radiance. After
this liu-li became cheap in China and no one prized it particularly. See Wei-shu, 102,i5— le.
Yen Shi-ku (^® ^ffi ~^ ^ seventh century commentator of the Han-shu), referring to the
45 mention of liu-li in Ts'ien-Han-shu says that it was the custom in his time (in China), when maiing
what was called liu-li,to use all (the ten kinds of coloured ?(«-?» known in the West?) and to melt
15*
228 OPAQUE GLASS. — CAT'S-ETKS, 11,32-33
them down to a liquid state (•^ ^ l^^ ^ y4-), to which certain chemicals were added
(J!JB JM ^ ^)' ''^'^^ ^''"'^* ^^^^^ manufactured) was, however, filled with air-holes
(lit., hollow l^)j and brittle, not the clear, true, genuine thing. Ts'i6n-Han-shu, 96A,n».
At an early date, but much later than that when the word liu-U first appeared, we find
another word in Chinese literature used to designate the ordinary, transparent glass. This word 5
po-U (^ J^ or J^^), and sometimes jpi-po-U (^ ^ ^), appears to have been copied
on the word liu-U a.n6.pi-Uu-li. So far as we can find out, the earliest record of the word is in the
dictionary called Yfl-pien (^ ^^)> '"^^'^^ dates from the fifth century A. D. It is there
explained as meaning «a precious stones (3£)- It seems possible that the word was coined in
the fifth century after the manufacture of glass had been introduced into China, and it had 10
become necessary to differentiate this common glass from the more valuable coloured and cut
kinds. It transcribes, in a contracted form, the Sanskrit word sphatika, one of the seven precious
substances (sapta ratna), and originally meamnjt rock-crystal. In Chinese Buddhist works
fpfttrW/ca is usually transcribed y'o-cfei-ftm (J^^ 5j[ ^p), but Hiian-tsang (Si-yu-ki, 8,25'', et
230ssim) uses the contracted from iJ0-c/i4 (^ J3^). ^ ^^
Chang Ytl6 (3M s^ seventh century A. D.) says in his Liang-ssi-kung-ki (^^ |7^
•^ nE) "'^^® '''S sea-going junks of Fu-nan that come from Western India sell mir-
rors of pi-po-K (^ ^ 3^ ^) which are clear and transparent on the surface and
throughout their mass (pb ^K fe 'jM). Objects of all kinds placed before them are
reflected to the sight without one's seeing the mirror itself. These plates are a foot and a half 20
in diameter and weigh forty catties.» T'u-shu-tsi-ch'6ng, 32,227, Ki-shi, 4.
In A. D. 643 we read (T'ang-shu, 221B,i3») of a king of Fu-lin sending red (^) po-U
as a present to the Emperor of China. As late as 742, the same work (221^,7'") chronicles the
fact that a prince of Tokharestan sent «red pi-po-lia (^J| ^ ^ 3^^ "^*"' glS'Sss or «red
transparent glasss) as a present to Court. 25
Ch6u K'ii-f ei and our author both speak of the superior quality of the coloured and opaque
glass ware (liu-li) made in the countries of Islam, which was «cut into patterns)) or ctengravedi)
(^S -?£)> ^^^ annealed (4^)- Baghdad led in this industry, but Asia Minor, Ki-tz'i-ni (it
included probably Cabul, the Ki-pin of the Han period, whence liu-li was first brought to China),
and other places sent specimens of it to China which were greatly prized. 30
Transparent glass (po-U) is mentioned by Chau as a product of Ceylon and of the Coromandel
coast. It was perhaps from the former country that the Fu-nan traders, mentioned previously, got
the big glass mirrors they brought to China, for it appears, from what our author states, that
it was extensively used there for decorative purposes, and was probably made in sheets, or lenses,
as he speaks of glass screens which surrounded the throne of the king of Ceylon. 35
Glass beads of sundry colours and glass bottles (presumably very small ones for carrying
perfumes .or for such like purposes), both of opaque glass, were used as regular trade
articles in the dealings between the Chinese and Arab traders of the period and the natives of
Borneo and the Philippine islands. See supra, pp. 156, 162.
Edrisi is the only Arab writer we know of who mentions the manufacture of glass in 40
China; he says (I, 100) that at Djankon (Khanfu, Hang-ch6u) nthey worked in Chinese glass.))
33.
CAT'S-EYES m la Hft)-
Mau-'i/r-tsing are of the size of the end of the thumb, that is, they are
but small stones. They are brilliant, smooth, and transparent like the eyes of 45
a cat, for which reason they are called «cat's-eyes». They come from the
11,33-34 CAt's-EYES. - PEAKLS. 229
country of Nan-p'i. In this country there is a river, called the Tan-shui-kiang
{'/^ tK I^X)> where several streams unite into one. There, in the depths of
the hills, pebbles are washed down by the heavy rains and collect there. The
officials go there in small boats and dredge them out of the water. Round
5 and brilliant specimens are called «cat's-eyes». Some people say that they are
the reflection of stars shining on the surface of the earth and hardened there
by magic influence.
Note.
((The cat's-eye is one of the jewels of which the Singhalese are especially proud, from a
10 belief that it is only found in their island; but in this I apprehend they are misinformed, as
specimens of equal merit have been brought from Quilon and Cochin on the southern coast of
Hindustana. Tennent, Ceylon, I, 37.
In the first part of his work (supra, p. 73) our author says that cat's eyes were also found
in Ceylon. The present article is substantially a repetition of what he has said in his chapter on
15 Nan-p'i (Malabar), supra, pp. 88, 90, n. 7. It would appear from the passage of the P'ing-chou-
k'o-t'an there quoted that in the eleventh century the use of this jewel in China was confined
to the Moslim traders of Canton.
Linschoten, Voyage to the East Indies (Hakl. Soc. edit.) II, 141 says that cat's-eyes
come from Cambaia, obut the best out of Seylon and Pegu the Indians esteeme much of
20 them, specially the Chinos, and thether they are caryed, better esteemed, and sold there then
any other stones. »
34.
PEARLS (M #).
The cMn-chu, or «real pearls», which come from certain islands in the
25 land of the Ta-shi are the best. They also come from the two countries of Si-nan
(ffi 1^) and Kien-pi. Pearls are even found in Kuang-si and Hu-pei, but less
brilliant than those of the Ta-shi and of Kien-pi \
Whenever pearls are fished for they make use ofthirty or forty boats, with
■ crews of several dozens of men (to each). Pearl-fishers, with ropes fastened around
30 their bodies, their ears and noses stopped with yellow wax, are let down into
the water about 200 or 300 feet or more, the ropes being fastened on board.
When a man makes a sign by shaking the rope, he is pulled up. Before this
is done, however, a soft quilt is made as hot as possible in boiling water, in
order to throw over the diver the moment he comes out, lest he should be
35 seized with a fit of ague and die. They may fall in with huge fishes,
dragons, and other sea monsters and have their stomachs ripped open or a
limb broken by collision with their dorsal fins". When the people on board
notice even as much as a drop of blood on the surface of the water, this is a
230 PEAKLS.
11,34
sign to them that the diver has been swallowed by a fish. Cases occur in
which the pearl-fisher makes a signal with his rope and the man holding it
on board is not able to pull him up; then the whole crew pull with all their
strength, and bring him up with his feet bitten off by a monster.
What the pearl-fishers call «pearl's-mother» (^ ■^)Ms under the con- 5
trol of the foreign officials, who keep a register in which the finds of shells
are entered under the names of the fishermen, in the order in which they
occur. The shells are then placed in a pit. After rather more than a month
the shell will be found to have decayed, when the pearls may be removed,
cleaned, and divided between (the government and) the pearl-fishers. lo
As a general rule a pearl is considered valuable if it is perfectly round;
the test for its absolute roundness is, that it will not cease rolling about all
day when put on a plate. Foreign traders (coming into China) are in the
habit of concealing pearls in the lining of their clothes and in the handles of
their umbrellas, thus evading the duties leviable upon them. 15
Notes.
1) The substance of this article is taken from Ling-wai-tai-ta, 7,6. The word chon-chu, lite-
rally 'real pearl', is possibly connected with Turkish janehii. In the Old Turkish inscriptions we
h&ye jdncliu-iigiiz as the equivalent of Chinese chon-chu-ho aPearl rivers. Hirth, Nachworte zur
Inschrift des Tonjukuk (in Radloff's, Alttflrk. Inschrift. d. Mongolei, 2. Folge, p. 80). Jimii and 20
inzii, «a pearla occur in A. Vanibery's, Etymolog. Worterb., 33. Conf. also Russian shemchug,
the standard word for «pearl». The term Kuaag-si referred to as covering a district containing
pearl fisheries probably stands for Kuang-nan-si-lu, the official designation under the Sung
dynasty of the Western Kuang province, of which Lien-ch6u-fu with its celebrated fisheries on
certain islands of the sea south of Pakhoi was then a dependency. «Kaang-si» as an official 25
designation of that province, it appears, dates from the Yiian period. The pearl fisheries along
the coast of Li^n-ch6u-fu did not yield sufficient profit to justify their being continued after the
sixteenth century. They have become famous in literature by the story of a disinterested magis-
trate of Ho-p'u, i. e. Lien-chou-fn, who in the second century A. D. distinguished himself by the
just administration of his offic ewith its pearl fisheries. See F. W. Mayers, in Notes and Queries 30
on China and Japan, I, 1, and Stewart-Lockhart, Manual of Chinese Quotations, 284.
Si-nan, in Cantonese Si-lan, is Ceylon. See supra, p. 74, n. 2. Kien-pi is Kampar on the east
coast of Sumatra, see supra, p. 71. Our author elsewhere says that pearls came from the Chola country -
(Coromandel), the Oman coast, the island of Kish, the Philippines, and Java. In Wei-shu, 102,18'',
pearls are mentioned among the products of Southern India, and are there called mo-ni-elm 35
(® j/^ ^fe)' '"'■"i-V-^ being the Sanskrit word for «pearl». Edrisi, I, 375 et seq., says there
were about BOO famous places in the Persian gulf where pearls were fished for. The fishermen
lived on the island of Awal, the capital of which was called Bahrein. The fishing was principally
carried on in August and September. See also Heyd, Hist, du Commerce, II, 648.
2) Ling-wai-tai-ta, loc. cit., remarks that the shark was so fierce and redoutable that 40
he was called «fish-tiger-dragon-fly» ( ^ 1^ !fe5£)'
3) Chu-mu, literally 'pearl's-mother', is the pearl bearing oyster, the oyster in which a
pearl has grown, a pearl producing shell. It stands for chu-mu (^j^ ^) literally ((pearl's
pasture-ground)), which appears to be the correct expression. Chong-lei-pbn-ts'au, 20,io, and Pien-
tzi-lei-pien, 77,7. ((Mother of pearl)) Is yun-mu-Tc'o (^ -f^ ^), at least at the present day. 45
11,35 CH'O-K'it. 231
35.
CH'O-K'U m ^^).
The ch'6-k'u comes from Kiau-chi. It has the appearance of a large
cockle shell (^). The inhabitants of the coast grind the shell and, owing to
5 its (scolloped) surface, the cups they make are called «lotus-leaf cups» {^
^ '^). Its surface is smooth and clean, like that of a cowrie shell (I^ 3g).
The lower part of the calyx of the largest specimens is worked into cups of
up to three inches in thickness, and the remnants and chips are still useful
for making rings, trinkets and other trifles.
10 According to the Buddhist books this substance was considered as a very
valuable jewel; nowadays it (i. e., what is called c¥6-¥u) is only an ordinary
sea delicacy ('/^ ^). We do not know for certain whether it is identical
with the ancient ch'S-lc^u.
Note.
15 Ku-kin-chu (fourth century, A. D.) says (5*): «The Emperor Wu-ti of the Wei made
bridles of ma-nau (cornelian) and wine bowls of ch'o-h'u.ii At that time the term ch'o-h'H, was
applied to a cornelian or violet coloured gem, m which sense it is used by early Chinese
Buddhist writers as the equivalent of Sanskrit mMsara</afoa, which Childers, Pali Dictionary,
241, says was a sort of cat's-eye; but Monier Williams, Sansk. Engl. Diet., says it was a kind
20 of coral. See also Eitel, Handbook of Chinese Buddhism, 102.
The word ch'o-lc'ii is probably not Chinese. There is an Uiguric word tscheku meaning «a
large spiral shell, prized as a jewel» Klaproth, Sprache und Schrift der Uiguren, 22. Radloff,
Worterbuch d. Turk-Dialecte, III, 2036, gives coko «the button worn on Chinese officials' hats», and
cokoliA, ((Chinese officials)). These words may have been borrowed from the Chinese. Huan-tsang
25 (Si-yu-ki, Sjas') writes the word ^ra. .^^ and uses it in the sense of musaragalva. The Wel-shu,
102,12*, mentions ch'o-k'u, along with amber and cornelian, as a product of Po-ssi (Persia). It
would seem that it was only in the eighth century, or even later, that this word came to have its
present signification. Confirmation of this seems to be given by Liang-shu, 54,i6*, where we read
of the kingdom of P'o-li (in the Malay Peninsula) presenting as tribute to the Emperor cups of
SO Zo (jfcB :^ or ((Conch cups))), probably the same as the lien-yen-pe'i mentioned by Ch6u
K'u-fei. The word ch'o-Jc'u does not, it is believed, occur in Liang-shu, lo is used instead.
((Big shells and ch'o-Tc'ua are mentioned by T'ang-shu (221B,is) as products of Fu-lin.
In the Sung period this name was applied to a very large sea shell. Ling-wai-tai-ta, 7,8* says
that in the Southern Ocean there was a kind of cockle shell (^) called eh'6-h'u, which was like
35 a big han (i^ a big bivalve shell with scolloped surface). It was from one to three feet and
over across and increasing in value with the size. Cups and vases were made out of them. In
another passage of the same work (6,3) it is said that the cups like a lotus-leaf and which were
broad and shallow, were called lim-ym-pei (J^ j§^ :^ «billowing-waves cup))).
It seems likely that the ch'6-lc'u of commerce was procured from many large shells
40 found in the waters of the Philippines, and the Indian Archipelago, some nacreous, others
white. In Sumatra there is a very large one called keemo; it is perfectly white and is worked up
like ivory by the natives. Mars den. Hist, of Sumatra, 9.
K'o-yii, here rendered Hcowrie shell», was also at one time, according to some authorities,
a smooth, pure white, cornelian-like stone.
232 IVOKT. II,3B
36.
IVORY (^ ^).
Siang-ya, or ivory, comes from several countries of the Ta-shi and the two
countries of Chon-la and Chan-ch'ong. The Ta-shi product is the better, and
that of Chon-la and Chan-ch'ong is inferior. Among the Ta-shii countries it is 5
only at Ma-lo-mo that one finds any large supply.
The elephant lives in the depths of the hills and the remotest valleysj
but every now and then he comes out of the wild into the plains and tramples
down everything, so that man is afraid to come near him.
Elephant hunters make use of bows of extraordinary strength and pois- lo
oned arrows. When hit by an arrow the elephant runs away, but before he
has gone a U or two, or a little more, the arrow poison acts and the
animal falls down dead. The hunters follow him, remove the tusks from the
carcass and bury them in the ground. When ten tusks or more have been
collected, they are brought to the Ta-shi, who ship them to San-fo-ts'i and i5
Ji-lo-t'ing (0 Rp ^) for barter.
Large specimens weigh from fifty to an hundred catties. The tusks which
are straight and of a clear white colour and which show a pattern of delicate
streaks come from the Ta-shi; whereas the produce of Chon-la and Chan-
ch'ong consists of small tusks of a reddish tint, weighing only from ten to 20
twenty or thirty catties, and of tips of tusks, which can only be made into
scent holders (^ ^). Some people say that elephants are caught by decoys,
and I presume that the tame elephant is used for this purpose.
Note.
Besides the countries here mentioned, our author states elsewhere that ivory was procured 25
from various countries in the Malay Peninsula, from Sumatra, Java, and Coromandel. The prin-
cipal source of supply was the Berbera and Zanguebar coasts. Ma-lo-mo, or Merbat, was only the
great entrepot of the ivory trade. Conf. Piin-ts'au-kang-mn, 61A,io— ii.
Our author's apparent ignorance as to the method of capturing elephants is strange as he has
told us in. a proceeding chapter (supra, p. 117) the way followed by the Arabs. Ling-wai-tai-ta, 30
9,1-2, describes also the method followed in Tongking for capturing elephants, their management
in captivity, their intelligence, etc..
Masudi, Prairies d'or, III, 8, says the negroes of East Africa (Zendjs) killed great num-
bers of elephants for the ivory which was sent to Oman and shipped thence to China and India,
so that very little reached the Moslim countries. See also Marcel Devic, Le Pays des Zendjs, 35
170—187.
Gerini, Researches, 627, thinks that Ji-lo-t'ing was very likely Jelatang on a small
stream, a little to the south-west of the present Jambi town in Sumatra. Conf. supra, pp. 62, 67.
I-fj37 RHINOCEKOS HOKNS. 233
37.
RHINOCEROS HORNS (ff ^).
The si, or rhinoceros, resembles the domestic cattle, but it has only one
horn. Its skin is black and its hair scanty; its tongue is like the burr of a
5 chestnut. Fierce and violent in its temper, this animal runs so quickly that
you may imagine it is flying. Its food consists solely of bamboo and other
woods. Since he rips up a man with his horn, none dare come near him, but
hunters shoot him with a stiff (?g) arrow from a good distance, after which
they remove the horn, which in this state is called a afresh horn» (^ -^),
10 whereas, if the animal has died a natural death the horn obtained from it is
called a «dropped-in-the-hills horn.) ('^J jjj ;^). The horn bears marks like
bubbles; the horns which are more white than black are the best.
Note.
The rhinoceros is already mentioned in Shan-hai-Mng, 10,4, where it is called si-niu ( ff
15 ^). Ling-piau-ltt-i (written in the T'ang dynasty) gives (2,io) an interesting description of the diffe-
rent varieties of rhinoceros of Indo-China and of the peculiarities of the horns of each. When one of the
horns is high up on the head, the animal is called ssi-si (Sjl, ^), when one horn, and that a rather'
small one, is down on the snout, the animal is called hu-mau-si (^^B ^'M ffi). The largest
kind of rhinoceros is the to-lo-si (^ ^ ^ ), or to-ho-lo (^ ^ ^) rhinoceros, as the
20 name is written in T'ang-shu, 222C,io*, whose horns attain a weight of seven or eight catties.
Gerini, Kesearches, 830—831, says To-ho-lo was a district on the Gulf of Martaban.
Another classification of rhinoceros is mentioned in the Kiau-ch6u-ki (^ J>M =3 possibly
of the fifth century A. D.) as quoted in Tung-si-yang-k'au, l,io*. This work divides them into water-
rhinoceros and mountain-rhinoceros, the former, it says, have three horns, the latter two. Conf.
25 Pon-ts'au-kang-mu, 51-A,is— 15.
Our author in the first part of his work, besides mentioning rhinoceros in Tongking, Annam,
and the Malay Peninsula, says the horn was also a product of Java, India, and the Zanguebar
coast of Africa; he does not state they are fojind in Sumatra. The finest horns came, according to
him, from the Berbera coast.
30 Masudi, op. cit., I, 385, says that in his time there was a great trade in rhinoceros horns
with China from Eahma in India, which was probably about Dacca or Arracan. See also Keinaud,
Kelations, 28 — 30. The method followed in killing rhinoceros was described by the Arab envoy to
China in A. D. 973. See supra, p. 118. Asiatics believe that rhinoceros horn detects the presence
of poison, as does also tortoise-shell.
35 The belief in the formidable nature of the rhinoceros' tongue was old and widespread.
Marco Polo (II, 265, 271—272) says of them: «They do not mischief, however, with the horn,
but ,with the tongue only; for this is covered all over with long and strong prickles and when
savage with any one they crush him under their knees and then rasp him with their tongue.»
234: CASTOKEUM, CIVET. 11,38
38.
CASTOREUM, CIVET (|U M M)-
(The drug called) wu-na-tsH comes from the country of K'i6-li-ki (jfjf!
^ ^ Kalhat?) of the Arabs. (The animal called wu-m) resembles in shape
a hua (^^). Its legs are as long as those of a dog; its colour is either red or 5
black. It moves as if it were flying. Hunters stretch nets near the sea-shore
to catch it. What is taken from its scrotum and mixed vyith oil {J^ ^ ^
rfij i^ ]iX vft) is called wu-na-isH.
P'o-ni (j^ '^ Borneo) is the only foreign country in which it is very
abundant. lo
Note.
According to the Pon-ts'au-kang-mu, 51B,i7-i8, this animal was known in China as early
as the first century of our era, when it was mentioned in the Shuo-wiin (|^ ^) under the form
ku-na (*^ ijij)- I"! ^^^ "^'^^S period thejorm »^* ^^ (or ^) was also used. This word,
the P6n-ts'au says, is a foreign term (^^ '^). «The ku-na», it goes on to say on the authority 15
of the eighth century writer Ch'On Ts'ang-k'i (^ |^ ^), awas found in the countries of the
Si-fan (^ ^ Tihet) and of the T'u-kue (^ J^ Turks). The people of Western Asia
(■■jft^ >\) called it a-tz'i-p' o-t' a-ni (|J^ ^i W) i^ "f^)' ^^ resembled in shape and size a
fox, though a little bigger. It had a long tail. Its testicles (|^) were like musk, of a
yellowish red colour and like decayed (or soft) bone.n 20
Li Shi-chon then goes on to say that «according to the T'ang-shu the animal called Tcu-na
is found in Ying-ch6u (^^ »|>|J) of Liau-si (i. e., in southern Manchuria). It was also found in
the Kie-ku (^^ *h* Kirghiz) country. The I-t'ung-chi ( — • j^ ^) says that wu-na-tsi
came from the Nu-chi {-hc T^" Northern Manchuria) and the San-fo-ts'i countries. The animal
is like a fox, its legs are as long as those of a dog. It moves as if it were flying. What is taken 25
from its scrotum mixed with oil is called wu-na-ts'i.» Cf. T'ang-shu, 117B,ia''.
From the above (the last two phrases of which are, however, a quotation from Chau
Ju-kua) it seems clear that, at the time of which our author writes, there were two drugs known
to the Chinese by the name of Tcu-na-ts'i or wu-na-ts'i, but of widely difi'erent origin. The
one was derived from Northern Asia, from Manchuria to the Kirghiz steppes, the other was 30
brought to China by the Arabs of Oman, who called it a-t/i-p o-t' a-ni, in which we have no
difiiculty in recognizing the Arabic word al-zabad, our «civet». Hearing that the drug procured
from the Tcu-na and from the animal in the country of the Arabs was secreted in a somewhat
similar way in both animals, the Chinese, quite naturally, gave both products the same name,
though that brought them from Northern Asia was not civet, but castoreum, the oily and strong- 35
scented liquor secreted by the beaver. The word ku-na or wurna is eastern Turki huna, Russian
kunitsa, the marten, or skunk. Eadloff, Worterbuch d. Ttirk-Dialecte, II, p. 910. As used by
the Chinese, the name seems to have been applied to the whole family of Mustelidae, and also to
the beaver, on account of the castoreum.
Chan's remark that the wu-na resembled the fabulous animal called liua, seems the 40
result of a copyist's error, as shown by the quotation of our text in the Pbn-ts'au given above.
All the authorities quoted in the Pon-ts'au agree that the animal resembled a fox.
The next two phrases of our text, as well as the last one of the chapter, refer to another
animal from which was derived a substance used medicinally by the Chinese, and which, at an
early date, was taking the place of the genuine wu-na-ts'i, which at all times was largely 45
falsified, according to the PQn-ts'au. This third wu-na-ts'i producing animal was a seal, a «sea-dog»
(*/$ ^^)' °^ «Wack dragon)) (^ ^^ ^|), and the authorities quoted in the Pon-tg'au (loc.
11,38-39 kingfishers' featheks. 235
cit.), show tliat it was found in the Sea of Korea, the Eastern Sea, and down to the Malay
Penmsnla, where, according to Li Sfln (^ i^) of the Tang, „the K'un-Iun people (W, "#
^) shot It with arrows, remoyed its outer scrotum (;J?f» ^) a nddried it in the shadi for^
hundred days. Its perfume was sweet and very strong... In view of the above, there seems no
5 vahd reason for supposing that the drug supplied by the sea-dog, and known by the name of
wu-na-tst, may not have been principally procured from the coast of Borneo, as stated by our
author, although it is remarkable that he makes no mention of the fact in the chapter devoted
to that region.
At the time the Pon-ts'au-kang-mu was written, in the latter part of the sixteenth cen-
10 tury, genuine vm-na-ts'i must have nearly disappeared from the Chinese market — as had
long before an-si-hiang, su-ho-yu, and other drugs originally brought from the West — in
comp^ion with similar but cheaper products from nearer countries, and hai-Jcou-shon (vg
^RI W)' •"■ «sea-dog scrotum.., had taken its place in the Chinese pharmacopoeia, where it has
since remained as the identical substance known in olden times as wu-na-ts'i. See Bretschnei-
15 der. Ancient Chinese and Arabs, 12, and Mediaeval Researches, 1, 149—150, also Porter Smith,
Chinese materia medica, 54.
Our author's reference to wu-na-ts'i being procured from K'ie-li-ki, which there seems good
reason to identify with the important mediaeval port of Kalhat on the Oman coast, is interesting,
for Abyssinia and Arabia had long been the principal centres of production of civet. In the
20 sixteenth century, and probably for centuries before, civet was one of the principal articles of
export from Zeila on the Somali coast, Chan's Pi-p'a-lo. See Portuguese expedition to Abyssinia
in 1541—1543, pp. 140, 232 (Hakluyt Soc. edit.).
39.
KINGFISHERS' FEATHERS (^ ^).
25 Tsui-mau, or kingfisliers' featliers, are got in great quantities in Chon-la,
where (the birds) are brought forth in nests built by the side of lakes or ponds in
the depths of the hills. Each pond is the home of just one male and one female
bird; the intrusion of a third bird always ends in a duel to the death. The natives
taking advantage of this peculiarity, rear decoy birds, and walk about with
30 one sitting on the left hand raised. The birds in their nests noticing the in-
truder, make for the (bird on the) hand to fight it, quite ignoring the presence
of the man, who, with his right hand, covers them with a net, and thus makes
them prisoners without fail.
The river Ku in Yung-ch6u( ^ ^[>| "]^)?Il)is also the habitat of a bird called
35 jung-ts'ui ( j^ ^ downy kingfisher), covered with soft blue feathers all over the
back, which are used by luxurious people as an ornament, ihe feathers being
twisted and woven into each other so as to resemble long nap satin (^ g).
Although, of late years, the use of this luxury has been strictly forbidden
. by the govemmeiit, the well-to-do classes still continue to add it to their dress,
40 for which reason foreign traders, in defiance of the law, manage to smuggle
it in by concealing it in the cotton lining of their clothes.
236 PARROTS. 11,39-40
Note.
The two first paragraphs of this article are substantially a quotation from Ling-wai-tai-ta,
9,ii''-a2».
Sung-shl', 153,10,16, states that prior to the year 1107 «flne brocade of kingfishers' feathersa
(^. ^ 4;JJ ^^) was included in the list of dress materials presented to officials of certain 5
grades by the Emperor. In 1107 the Emperor forbade it in an Edict in which he said: «The Ancient
Rulers in their governmental measures extended the principle of humanity to plants, trees,
birds and beasts. Now the depriving of living creatures of their life, in order to get their plu-
mage for a perfectly frivolous purpose, is certainly unworthy of the kindness extended by the
Ancient Rulers to all creatures. "We therefore order the officials to stop the practice on pain of 10
punishment.))
Kingfishers' feather are still largely used in China to make ornaments for the head. They
are still imported from Tongking.
A river called Ku-kiang, flows near Nan-ning-fu in Kuang-tung — which in the Sung
period was called Yung-ch6u-fu. T'u-shu-tsi-ch'6ng, 6,U42. Ling-wai-tai-ta (loc. cit.) reads 15
Yu-kiang (;fc jtC)' ^°^ *^'^ ^® °°® "^ *^^ names of the Nan-ning West River, which quite
close to this city is formed by the two branches 'Left River' and 'Right River' (Yu-kiang).
Hirth, China Review, III, 47—48.
40.
PARROTS m M)- 20
Ying-um are procured in Chan-ch'Ong where they are found of all colours.
This is the kind of bird which, in the time of the emperor T'ai-tsung of the
T'ang dynasty (A. D. 627 — 650), was presented to our Court by Huan-
wang. In the Annals they are said to have been able to complain of cold,
for doing which the Emperor gave orders to return them to their home. The 25
country of Huan-wang is the same as Chan-ch'ong.
Jn K'in-ch6u (^ f\\) both white and red ying-wu are found of the
size of small geese. Birds with plumage covered with dust like the wings
of a butterfly are called «white ying-im» ; those showing deep scarlet colour
with a tail resembling that of a black kite are called «red ying-wm. 30
Note.
The ying-wu is a large parrot; the smaller varieties are called ying-ho (^fe "mj^)-
Kuang-tung-sin-yfl, 20,7, calls a specially clever variety of parrot pa-ko (^)J ^3-) and pa-pa
(^ij ^ij). This last name, which is in common use in Fu-ki^n for small parrots, may be derived
from the Arabic name for parrot babaga, and the last character, Ico, in the two preceding names 35
may perhaps also be traced to that word.
The whole of this article is taken from Ling-wai-tai-ta, Ojio*. P'ing-ch6u-k'o-t'aii, 2,5''
notes that white parrots that could speak were for sale in Canton. Presumably such parrots were
a rarity in China at that time.
The parrots sent to the Emperor T'ai-tsung of the T'ang were of two kinds, of variegated 40
plumage, and white. T'ang-shu, 222C,i*.
11,41 AMBERGRIS. 237
41.
AMBERGRIS (f^ ^).
«Iii the Western Sea of the Ta-shi there are dragons in great number.
Now, when a dragon (],ung) is lying on a rock asleep, his spittle (him) floats
5 on the water, collects and turns hard, and the fishermen gather it as a most
valuable substance. Fresh ambergris is white in colour, when slightly stale it
turns red, and black when it is quite old. It is neither fragrant nor bad-
smelling, it is like pumice-stone, but lighter. The statement that a special
perfume is derived from ambergris, and the other statement to the eflFect that
10 the odour of ambergris can bring out all other scents, are both erroneous.
((Ambergris does not affect the properties of perfumes in any way, either
by improving or by spoiling them; it merely has the power of keeping the
fumes together. When a quantity of genuine ambergris is mixed with incense,
and is being burned, a straight column of clear blue smoke rises high up into
15 the air, and the smoke will not dissipate, and those present (j^ ^) could
cut the column of smoke with a pair of scissors. This is occasioned by the
virtue left in the ambergris by which the dragon exhales cloud-borne build-
ings)) (# ^ # ft ;^ ^ ^rt -tfe.)-
Note.
20 This article is a quotation from-Ling-wai-tai-ta, 7,9. Couf. what our author said concerning
ambergris in the sea near the Somali coast (supra, p. 131). Yu-yang-tsa-tsu, 4,s'', calls it o-mo,
which is Arabic 'anbar (supra, p. 128). Ed ri si (I, 64) says that the best ambergris comes from
the Sea of Oman. «It is a substance which flows from springs in the depth of the sea, just as
naphta flows from the springs of Hit. "When the waves of the sea are raised by a storm, amber
25 is thrown on the coast. Some people have thought that it was the excretion of an animal, but it
is not so; it is as we have stated.. ..» Conf. also Masudi, Prairies d'or, I, 333-334. See also
Marcel Devic, op. cit., 188—194. A thirteenth century Chinese writer calls this substance
sa-pa-%r (^ R S). Bretschneider, Mediaeval Eesearches, I 152. Sa,-pa-ir is Persian
shahbuyijt^) «royal perfume», erroneously read shaMan (^^ifii). Vullers, Lexicon,
SO s. v. sMhbUy.'SeesAso Farhang-i Shu'url, Constantinople, 1100, II, fol. 139, v. A fifteenth century
Chinese work mentions a Lung-hien-sii, or island, in the sea of Lambri, at a distance of a full
day from Sumatra, where the ambergris was sold. Groeneveldt, Notes, 100. Gerini, Eesear-
ches, 691, takes Lung-hito-stt to be a transcription of Lam (p'u) yang, an old name of the island
of PuloBras. ^, ,j . ^, • r
35 The last phrase of this article refers to the mythological belief held in China from very
early times that certain mythical monsters, dragons, frogs, etc., blew out clouds of vapour m which
were temples and pagodas. Ambergris, or «dragon's spittle» lends itself to this belief. Vapour or
smoke which can carry a temple or pagoda must perforce be of very great density, hence the
connection between the dense smoke of this incense, in which ambergris is mixed, and the dragon
40 exhaled cloud-borne bnUdings. See Pei-wbn-yun-fu, 64,5.
238 TORTOISE-SHELL. —BEES- WAX. 11,42-43
42.
TORTOISE-SHELL (j^ J'^).
The tai-mei resembles tlie Mi -yuan (^ ^). Its back is covered
"with thirteen plates regularly marked with black and white spots and lines,
their edges jagged like a saw. It is without feet, in lieu of which it is provided 5
with four fins, the front fins being longer than the hind ones, serving as
paddles when moving about in the water. These fins, as well as the head, are
marked like the plates. The plates of old animals are thick and show the
black and white parts of the pattern quite clearlj-, whereas young specimens
have thinner plates with an indistinct pattern. There is no foundation for the 10
story that these patterns are produced by the animals being lashed to fury so
as to stir up the blood. They are caught on moon-light nights during the
autumn. Their flesh is edible. They come from P*o-ni, San-sii, P'u-li-lu and
Sho-p'o.
Note. 15
The Icui-ijii an is, according to Williams, Syll. Dictionary, the great sea-turtle. Ling-wai-
tai-ta, 10,2, after describing the big turtle found in the sea near K'iu-chou, the westernmost
port of Kuang-tung, and which it calls pi-tai-mc'i (^^ J^jg* J3)j says: «tl)e shell oi tai-mei
has, like it, thirteen plates, but the story that the distinctness of the pattern on the plates is a
result of the animal having had its blood lashed to fury is, of course, false.» 20
In preceding passages our author says that the best tortoise-shell, and also the largest
quantity of this product, came from Pi-p'a-lo (Berbera cflast). He says it was also procured from
Socotra, the Celebes and the Moluccas. Crawfurd, Hist. Indian Archipelago, III, 444, says the
tortoise is found in greatest abundance on the east coast of the Celebes, the coasts of the Spice
Islands, and those of New Guinea.' 25
Hou-Han-shu, 118,12'' mentions tortoise-shell as a product of India. The Ling-piau-lii-i,
1,4", quoting the (T'ang?) POn-ts'au, says that tai-mei detects the presence of poison as well as
bezoar stones. Conf. Pon-ts'au-kang-mu, 45,Si''-9,, and Marcel Devic, op. cit., 187—188.
43.
BEES-WAX (^ 41). 30
Huang-la, or «yellow wax», comes from San-sii, Ma-i, Chon-la, San-
fo-ts'i, and such like countries. The habitat of the bee producing it is in the
depths of hills and the remotest valleys of the interior, where it builds nests
in old trees, on the banana plant, or in caves in the rocks. The insect is
somewhat larger than the Chinese bee and is darker in colour. The natives 35
n,43 BEES-WAX. 239
in those foreign parts approach them by covering their bodies with a leather
coat, drive out and disperse the swarm by making a smudge of foul-smelling
grasses, when the nest is taken away and the honey squeezed out. What
remains of the nest is the wax, which is melted into a form and reduced to
5 proper shape.
Some dealers adulterate the substance by mixing with it lime and rock-
salt (^ ^). The produce of San-fo-ts'i is the best; the next quality comes
from Chon-la, and the poorest from San-su, Ma-i and P'u-li-lu.
Note. ,
10 Besides the countries here mentioned, we learn from the first part of this work that
bees-wax was also procured in Tongking, Tan-ma-ling in the Malay Peninsula, western Borneo,
the Celebes and Moluccas, from northern Formosa, and from Ha'nan, the wax from the last
named country being of very poor quality.
Crawfurd, op. cit., Ill, 438 says that nbees' wax constituted a very valuable aud consi-
15 derable article of commerce in the Archipelago. The greatest supply is obtained in the islands
furthest to the east, and, above all, in Timur and Flores. The trade is principally with China
and Bengal.»
GENERAL INDEX.
A-kti-lo — Arabs.
243
A-kii-lo, Akula (Kufa), the capital of the king
of the Arabs, according to Tu Huan, 110.
A-li-jo, a dependency of Nan-p'i, 88; possibly
the Hih or Eas Haili of the Arabs, near Cali-
cut, 90.
^ A-mei-lo-a-mi-lan, title of ruler of Ts'ong-
t'an; presumably Persian Am%r-i-am%ran, 127.
A-mo, Arabic 'aribar, ambergris, 128.
A-Dan, the name given dancing- girls in Kam-
boja, 53.
A-p'o-lo-pa, the Caliph Abu'l-'Abb4s, 117.
A.tz"i-p'o-t'a-ni, Arabic^ a?-;Sfabod, civet, 234.
A-yii-tsie, Persian anguzad, angUla, asa-
foetida, 225.
Abbaside Caliphs, 136-137.
Abraham, the Patriarch'— see P'u-lo-hung.
Abu 'All, — see P'u-a-li.
Abu Hamid, — see P'u-hi-mi.
Abu'l- 'Abbas the Caliph, and the Black-
robed Ta-shi, 117.
Adam's Peak, first mentioned by Chau Ju-
:ua, 73; not known to Fa-hien or Hiian-tsang,
75; its name of Si-lun-ti6 the Arab Serendib, 75.
Aden, emporium of early sea trade between
Egypt and India, 2; its trade with China, 3;
possibly visited by Chinese, 4; no mention of, by
Chinese down to twelfth century, 15; possibly
included in Ma;Ii-(or lo-)pa, 25.
Adultery, how punished, in Chan-ch'ong, 47;
jn Chon-Ia, 53; in San-fo-ts'i, 61; in Nan-ni-
hna-lo, 97.
AdministratiTe divisions of Ji-p6n, 170,
172, n. 3.
Aeta negritos of the Philippines, 161.
/ Africa, trade of, with Ceylon, 3; — gee also
Agriculture, in Chan-ch'ong, 48; in Chon-Ia,
53; in Sin-t'o, 70; in Sh5-p'o, 77; among Ta-shi
of Nile valley^ 116; yearly sacrifices on beginning
of, in P'o-ni, 1 56; methods of, in Liu-k'iu, 163;
little land fit for, in Ji-pon, 170; in Hai-nan, 180.
Ai-chou, in Hai-nan, 177; — see K'inng-ch6u.
Ai-lau, of Yun-nan, woven fabrics, 218.
Ainu, live north of Ji-pon, 170; first appear-
ance of, in China, 172, n. 2.
Alabaster, used in palace of king of Arabs,
Up, 120, n. 4.
Alexander the Great, his projects regarding
diversion of Indian trade, 1;— see also Tsu-ko-ni.
Alexandria, — see O-kon-t'o.
Aloes, bitter, imported to Aden, 4; imported
to San-fo-ts'i, 61; comes from island of Chung-Ii,
131; description of, mode of gathering, 225,
Altars in houses of Nan-ni-hua-lo, daily
prayers and offerings on, 97.
Alum, imported to Sho-p'o, 78.
Amazons, — see Women.
Amber, imported by Persians to China, 16,
19; imported to San-fo-ts'i, 61; exported from
Chu-li6n, 100, n. 8.
Ambergris, a product of Ts'ong-pa, 126; pro-
duct of Pi-p'a-lo, 128; called cMno-himg, 128;
comes from island of Chung-li, 131; origin of, not
known, 131; description of, 237; its properties,
Angkor, — see Lu-wu.
Aniseed, a product of Sh6-p'o, 77.
Annam, — see Chan-ch'ong.
An-si, the kingdom of, 201; perfume of, 201,
202; — see Benzoin.
Antioeh, — see An-tu.
An(or Yen)-t'o-man (Andaman Islands), 2,
147; -a group of two islands, one inhabited, 147;
the inhabitants, 147; no iron on, 147; legend of
the golden spring, 147—148; attempt of Nan-p'i
to conquer, 148.
Ap-tu (Antioeh), the city in which the king
or Ma-lo-fu of Ta-ts'in resides, 102, 104, n. 2.
An-tun, the Emperor Marcus Aurelius An-
toninus, subjects of, reach Tongking by ships, 5.
Apologos, reached by Kan Ying, 4.
Arabia, south coast of, and Indian trade of
Sabeans, 1; of Greeks, 2; not visited by Chinese,
3; trade of south, with Ceylon, 3.
Arabs (Ta-shi), may have used monsoons on
voyage to India before Greeks, 2; found establish-
ments in Ceylon, 3; control early sea trade
with India and Far East, 4; arrival of, in Can-
ton, 4; spread of knowledge of China through, 7;
in Canton in seventh century, 14; their earliest
narratives of China, 15; their life at Canton,
16-17; their trade with Canton and Ts'aan-ch6u
in ninth and tenth centuries, 18, 19; time. needed
to make round voyage to China by, 24; the seas
of the; 26; accompany, mission from Pin-t'ung-
lung to Court of China, 51; accompMiy mission
from P'u-kan, 58; their principal imports into
San-fo-ts'i, 61; horse trade at Ku-lin, 72, 91;
their nearest settlement to Sho-p'o, 76: introduce
gold coins into Java, 81; many, lived inKiji-lin, gg;,
take much of the produce of Hu-ch'a-la, Sg; how
treated in Nan-ni-hua-lo, 97; Ta-ts'in t£e great
emporium of the, 102; army protects Ta-ts'inj
103; army of Ta-ts'in has to ward off, 104,; voyage
from Ts'uan-chou to the lands of the, 114; pro-
ducts from the lands of the, brought to. Saji'^fo-
16*
244
Arabs — Birds.
ts'i, tlience to China, 114; noted for their distin-
guished bearing, 115; climate of realm of, 116;
the capital of the, 115; the king of the, 115; his
dress and palace, 115; throne of king of the, 115;
audiences at court of the, 115; ofdcers and army
of the, 115; streets and dwellings in capital of
the, 115; food and drink of the, 115—116; great
wealth in markets of the, 116: worship Ma-
hia-wu (Mohammed), 116; New Year's fast, 116;
daily prayers of, 116; agriculture and the Nile,
116; the great harbour and its fairs, 116; products
of the realm of the, IIG; dependencies of the,
116-117; rise of their power, 117; the White-
robed and Black-robed, 117; relations of with
China, 117-118, 12?-123; burial place in
Ts'iian-chou, lit); origin of their Chinese name
of Ta-shi, 119; trade at Ma-li-pa (Merbat). 120;
their pilgrimage to Ma-kia, 124; people of
Ts'6ng-pa of same race as, 126; their trade with
Ts'ong-pa, 126; trade with Oman, 133; trade with
Ki-shi, 134; Pai-ta the great metropolis of the,
135; how they capture slaves, 149; the Book of
the 154; open trade between P'o-ni (Borneo) and
China, 157, 159, n. 13; their knowledge of Sin-lo,
168, n. 1; their knowledge of Japan. 172, n. 1; in
frankincense trade, 195; in benzoin trade, 198,
201; their method of making glass, 227; pearls
of the, the best, 229; their trade in ivory,
232.
Archery, people of Ki6n-pi fond of. 71 ; people
of Nan-p'i skilled in, 88; people of Ku-Iin fond
of, 89; in Sin-lo, 167; Japanese not skilled in,
171; Ainu skilled in, 172, n. 2.
Areea (or betel) nuts, wine of, and honey, in
San-fo-ts'i, 60; used in making liquor in Sho-p'o,
78; palms, abundant in Hai-nan, 183; varieties
of, 213—214; wine of, in San-fo-ts'i, 214; revenue
derived from trade in, by Chinese Customs, 214. —
See also Betel-nut.
Armlets, worn in Po-ssi, 152; worn by king of
P'o-ni, 156; ivory, imported to P'o-ni, 156.
Armour, worn by escort of ruler of Pi-ssi-lo,
137; ring, worn in P'o-ni, 165.
Arms, of escort of king of Chan-ch'ong, 47;
of escort of king of San-fo-ts'i, 60; people of
Nan-p'i dextrous with, 88; of escort of king of
Hu-ch'a-la, 92; of escort of king of T'ien-chu,
111; of people of T'ien-chu, 111; of escort of lord
of Pi-ssi-lo, 137; of king of K'i-tz'i-ni, 138; of
escort of king of P'o-ni, 155; in Liu-k'iu, 163; of
P'i-sho-ye savages, 165; of people of Ji-pon, 171;
of the Li of Hai-nan, 180, 183.
Army, of Sh6-p'o, 76; of Hu-ch'a-la, 92; of
Chu-Iien, 96; of the Arabs protects Ta-ts'in, 103;
the army of Ta-ts'in, 104; of the Arabs, 115; of
Pai-ta, 135; of Mo-k'ie-la, 154.
Aromatios, in Tan-jung-wu-lo and Ma-li, 85;
in T'ien-chu, 111; ofBerbera coast, 129, n. 4.
' Arrows, poisoned, used in Lan-wu-li, 72; in
Pi-p'a-lo, 128; poisoned, used in elephant hunt-
ing, 232.
Arsenic, imported to Sh6-p'o, 78.
Asa-foetida, imported into San-fo-ts'i, 61; a
product of Mu-ka-lan (Mekran coast), 224; de-
scription of tree, how gathered, 224.
Asbestos, comes from Wu-ssi-li, 140.
Astrolabe, not known to the Chinese, 29.
Astronomy, people of San-fo-ts'i learned in,
64; people of T'ien-chu learned in. 111, 114.
Au-chou, in Japanese Oshu, gold mined in,
171, 175, n. 22.
Audiences, of king of Chan-ch'6ng, 47; of
king of Ch5n-la, 52; in Tong-liu-mei, 57; in P'u-
kan, 58; in Shb-p'o, 76; in T'ien-chu, 110; in
capital of the Arabs, 1 15.
Au-ki6n, the city of Urgendj, 121, n. 12.
Au-lo-lo-li, a dependency of Nan-p'i, 88;
possibly Cannanore, 90.
Babuyan islands (Philippine Islands), — see
Pai-p'u-yen.
Baghdad, possibly visited by Chinese, 4: Chi-
nese goods scarce in, in ninth century, 15; the
Ta-ts'in of Ch6u and Chau identified with, 104—
106; the Caliph and the patriarch of, 106—107; —
see Ta-ts'in and Pai-ta.
Bahrein, — see Pai-li6n.
Bali, island of, — see Ma-li and Pa-Ii.
Bamboo, indigenous in Chu-li§n, 96.
Bananas, grown in Chan-ch'5ng, 48; grown
in Sho-p'Oj 77; great size of, in Su-ki-tan, 83, 85,
Banishment, Moslims in Canton punished
with, 17.
Basra, Chinese goods scarce and expensive
at, 15; goods from, for China, shipped from Siraf,
15; possible reference to, as "great harbours, 116,
121, n. 9;-^ see also Pi-ssi-lo.
Bastinado, with rattan, Moslims at Canton
punished with, 17; in Chu-lien, 95.
Bathing, fondness for, of people of Chan-
ch'ong, 47; rose-water used by king of Sa-fo-ts'i
for, 61; people of Nan-ni-hua-lo fond of, 97.
Batta, the country of the, possibly the Pa-t'a
of the Chinese, 66.
Beacons, in sea near Ti-lo-lu-ho off Mekran
coast, 13.
Beans, grown in Chan-cho'ng, 48; grown in
Sin-t'o, 70; grown in Sho-p'o, 77; grown in Nan-
p'i, 88; green and black, grown in Chu-lien, 96;
much eaten in Nan-ni-hua-lo, 98.
Bears, in Liu-k'iii, 163.
Bell, worn on head by king of Sho-p'o, 76;
given by Emperor to Chinese temple of San-fo-
ts'i,' 62^ bronze temple, made in Sin-lo, 16S.
Beni Merwan, and the White-robed Ta-shi,
117.
Benzoin, sweet, 53, 198; countries of origin,
198; description of, 198; variety of, called an-si-
hiang, 201; origin of name, 201.
Beranang, — see Fo-lo-an.
Berbera, coast, — see Pi-p'a-lo.
Betel-nut, of king of Chan-ch'ong, by whom
carried, 47; and pearl ashes, chewed by king of
Si-lan, 72, 73; grown in Sh6-p'o, 77; a product
of Chu-lien, 96; used with camphor in P'o-ni,
155; used as marriage present in P'o-ni, 155;
medicinal, a product of Ma-i, 160; a product of
Hai-nan, 176; fresh, from Hai-nan, 177; great
plenty of, in Hai-nan, 185.
Bezoar stone, prized for ring, 90; a product
of K'i-tz'i-ni, 138; from Lu-mei, 141. /•
Bharoch, terminus Greek sea-route to India,
2; Ceylon trade with, 8; Chinese overland trade
with, 5; probably referred to as Pa-li-sha (q. v.).
Birds, flocks of migratory, visit Chung-li, 131.
Biruna — Cash,
245
Biruna, of the Nestorian patriarchs, 107.
((Black WaterDjthe Irrawadi river, 26; called
the ((Black-water muddy river», 59; formed
frontier of P'n-kan, 59.
Blood, brotherhood, 129; oath by drinking, in
Hai-nan, 184.
Boat, sailing, festival in Chan-cho'ng, 48;
used by king of Saii-fo-ts'i, 60; pleasure trips in,
in She-p'o, 77; whale-oil and lime used in Chung-
li to caulk, 131; fighting (praws), of king of
P'o-ni, 155.
Bokhara, — see P'u-hua-lo.
Book, The, of the Arabs, 154; carried before
king of Mo-k"i6-la, 164; trade in Chinese books
in Sin-lo, 168.
Borax, imported to Shb-p'o, 78; a product of
Lu-mei, 141; used by Arabs in making glass, 227.
Borneo, trade with China at end tenth cen-
tury, 19; — see Fo-ni.
Brahmans, possible reference to in Shb-p'o,
76; people of Nan-ni-hua-lo mostly, 97.
Branding, punishment for smuggling, 20; for
theft in Ch5n-la, 53.
Brawa, town of, on Berbera coast, 129.
Brocades, silk, imported to San-fo-ts'i, 61;
coloured silk, manufactured in Sho-p'o, 78; a
product of Ta-ts'in, 103; gold, of the Arabs, 116;
gold, of K'i-tz'i-ni, 138; weaving of, in Lu-mei,
141; worn in P'o-ni, 155; imported to P'o-ni, 156.
Browers islands, the Ko-ko-song-chi (or-ti)
ofKiaTan, 11.
Brushes, for writing, manufacture of, not
known in Kiau-chi, 45.
Buddha, people of Chbn-la, devout followers
of, 53; dancing-girls offer food to, in Chbn-la, 53;
said to have appeared after his nirvana in Tong-
liu-mei, 57, 58; people of P'u-kan devout follow-
^''^ers of, 58; offering of flowers to the, 58; the
two images of a, protect Fo-In-an, 69; people of
Nan-p'i devout followers of, 88; the, of the Arabs,
116, 124, 125; the Sacred, of P'o-ni, 157.
Buddhist, priests in Chon-la, 53; priests of
P'u-kan, their dress, 58; temple, erected in San-
,fo-ts'i, 62; monasteries in Shb-p'o, 76; temples
/" in Hu-ch'a-la, 92; shrine erected at Ts'tian-chou
by a T'ien-chu priest. 111.
Buffalo, two used in ploughing in Chan-
ch'bng, 48; legend connected with, in San-fo-ts'i,
61; ridden in Tan-ma-ling, 67; used in ploughing
in Shb-p'o, 77; eaten in Sho-p'o, 77; tails of, from
Liu-k'iu, sold in San-sfi, 163; none in Sin-lo, 167;
in Ji-p5n, 171.
Burial, at sea, 33; place of Moslim, at Ts'Qan-
ehou, 119, 124, n. 27; in P'o-ni, 156; customs in
Ji-pbn, 171; in Hai-nan, 180, 183, 188, n. 22.
Butter, much eaten in Nan-ni-hua-lo, 98;
eaten at Pai-ta, 135.
Byssus, a product of Lu-mei, 141.
Cabul, indigo from, 217; asa-foetida from, 225.
Cairo, called Fu-ta (Fostat), 14; called Kie-
y6, 144.
' Calamian island, — see Kia-ma-yen.
Calendar, people of T'i6n-chu able calcula-
tors of. 111; of Pi-ssi-Io tolerably correct, 137;
Chinese, sold by traders in Sin-lo, 168.
Caliph, called K'o-Ii-fu, 122, n. 17; of Bagh-
dad, 135, 186-137.
Camels, in T'ien-chu, 111; cloth of hair of,
116; numerous in Pi-p'a-lo, 128; eaten, 128, 129,
n. 3; numerous in Chung-li, 130; of Pi-ssi-lo,
137; raising of, in K'i-tz'i-ni, 138; hair fabrics of
K'i-tz'i-ni, 138; bred in Lu-mei, 141; ((water-
camels)) of the Nile, 145; in Mo-k'i6-la, 154;
none in Sin-lo, 167.
Camphor, imported to Aden, 4; imported to
Canton, 16; import duty on, 21; used with musk
in paste to scent the person in Chan-ch'ong, 47;
imported into Chan-ch'bng, 49; imported into
San-fo-ts'i, 61; a product of Tan-ma-ling, 67; a
product of Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68; in betel-nut of
king of Si-lan, 73; imported to Si-lan, 73; a pro-
duct of Sho-p'o, 77; used with musk as perfume
in Nan-p'i, 87; exported to Nan-p'i, 88; lump,
exported to Nan-p'i, 89; exported from Chu-lien,
100, n. 8; exported to Yung-man, 133; in P'o-ni,
156, 198; comes from Pin-su, 193; great entrepot
for trade in, at San-fo-ts'i, 193; description of,
tree, 193; mode of collecting, varieties of, 193;
oil, 194; notes on, 194-195.
Canna, red, a flower of Chu-lien, 96.
Cannanore, possibly referred to, 88, 90; —
see Au-lo-lo-ni.
Cannibalism, practised by the Ma-Io-nu,
150; practised by P'i-sho-ye savages, 165.
Canton (Kuang-tung), arrival of Arabs in, 4;
coasting trade between Tongking and, 6; arrival
of western foreigners in, 6; early cultivation of
jasmine at, 6; foreign colony in, in seventh cen-
tury. 14; called Khanfa by the Moslims, 15; burnt
and looted by Moslims, 15; frequent fires in, 15;
principal imports from western Asia and Africa,
16; government of foreign settlement in, 16;
where situated, 16; abandoned by foreigners
during troubles in ninth century, 18; junks from,
go to Ku-lin, 18; its foreign trade at end of
tenth century, 19; official godowns for foreign
imports at, 20; foreign trade at, in twelfth century,
22, 23; channels for ships entering, 23, 24; where
sea-going ships took water at, 29; Customs office
at, where situated, 29; seasons when ships sailed
to and from, SO; old Arab living in, 118.
Capital punishment, on Moslims, in Can-
ton, by who carried out, 17; in Chan-ch'bng for
adultery and cowardice in battle, 47; for adultery
in San-ib-ts'i, 61; for robbery, in Shb-p'o, 77; in
Ku-lin for killing cattle, 91; by decapitation or
trampling, in Chu-lien, 95; not inflicted on traders
in P'o-ni, 156.
Carbuncle, the great, of the king of Si-
lan, 73.
Cardamoms, imported to Aden from China,
4; a product of Tbng-liu-mei, 57; a product of
San-fo-ts'i, 61; a product of Si-lan, 73; a product
of Shb-p'o, 77; a product of pirate islands near
Shb-p'o, 84; exported to Nan-p'i, 89; a product
of Chu-lien, 96; exported to Yung-man, 133;
description of plant, 221; early mention of by
Chinese, 222; foreign name of, 222; use of, 222.
Carts, used in "Ta-ts'in, 103; of Liu-k'iu, 163.
Cash, Chinese, exported in tenth century, 19;
presented to tribute-bearers from Pin-t'ung-ling,.
51; none in San-fo-ts'i, 60; smuggling of, to Sho-'
p'o, 78; great demand for, in Malay Archipelago,
measures taken by China to stop export of, 81—82;
246
Cassia — Chinese.
given to Chu-lito mission of 1077, 101, n. 12;
none in Sin-lo, 167; Chinese, hoarded in Korea,
167, n. 7; not used in Hai-nan, 183.
Cassia wood, green, a product of Hai-nan, 176.
Castoreum, exported from Diul-Sindh, 3;
known to Chinese as Tcu-na-ts'i, 234.
Cat's-eyes, imported to San-fo-ts'i, 61; used
to ornament palace of king of Si-lan, 72; a pro-
duct of Si-lan, 73; found in the Tan-shui kiang,
88; prized in rings, 90; exported from Chu-li6n,
100, n. 8; come from Nan-p'i, 229; how found,
229.
Cattigara, port of Tongking known to
Greeks, 2.
Cattle, people of Kien-pi trade in, at Ku-lin,
72, 91; killing, punished by death in Ku-lin, 91;
raised in Chu-lien, 96; numerous in Chung-Ii,
130; in Mo-k'i6-la, 154; none in Liu-k'iu, 163;
sacrifice of, by Li of Hai-nan, 180, 183.
Cereals, in Chan-ch'bng, 48; in Chon-la, are
cheap, 53; king of San-fo-ts'i may not eat, 61.
Ceremonial, of T'ang dynasty sent to Korea,
167.
Ceylon, known by hearsay to Greeks, 2;
Greek knowledge of, 2; early Chinese knowledge
of, 3; its early trade relations, 3; products of, 3;
Arabs in, 3; first Chinese account of, 3; Cosmas'
description of, 3; Kia Tan's mention of, 12; other
Chinese names of, 12; Sea of, 26; Cholian rule
over, 98; pearls from, 229. — See also Si-lan.
Cb'a-na-ki, the capital of P'6ng.-k'ie-lo, 97.
Ch'a-pi-sha, possibly Arabic Djabulsa, Dja-
birso or Djaborso, the «Land of the setting sun»,
153; the king of, 153; products of, 153; houses
of, 153; the setting of the sun, 153.
Ch'ai-li-t'ing, possibly the Cherating river on
east coast Malay Peninsula, 76, 80.
Cbaldsea, Chinese first hear of, 4.
Chan, Fu-lin (q. t.) situated in west of, 104;
explanation of word, 108—109.
Chan-oh'ong (Annam), a commercial centre
for Wa-li, 25; its distance from Tongking, 46; its
boundaries, 47; its area, 47; its capital, 47; dress
of king of, audiences, 47; forms of salutation in,
47; people of, bathe frequently, 47; climate of,
47; festivals in, 47—48; products of, 48; scented
wood in, 48; ordeals, 48; slaves in, 48; arrival
of trading ships in, 48; duties on foreign goods,
how levied, 48-49; foreign imports into, 49;
dependencies of, 49; relations with China, 49; its
various Chinese names, 49; Pin-t'ung-lung paid
tribute to, 51: distance from, toP'o-ni, 155; early
use of cotton in, 219, line 12; ivory from, 232;
parrots from, 236.
Chan-li-p'o, a dependency of Chbn-Ia, the
same as Chon-li-fu (q. v.), 56.
Chan-pel, — see Djambi.
Chan-pin, passed by mission of 1015 from
Chu-lien; not identified, but presumably in Pegu,
100, n. 11.
Chan-pu-lau, an island off coast of San-fo-
ts'i, not identified, 100, n. 11.
Chan-pu-lau, Mount, Culao Cham, 10.
Chang K'ien, brought to China earliest
information of Western Asia, 4; learns of com-
mercial relations of Ssl-ch'uan with India and
Oxus valley, 6.
Chang Tsun, his voyage from Canton to
Siam, 8.
Chang-yau-sii (Pulo Senang,Bam Island), 64.
Ch'ang-hua, in Hai-nan, 176, 178; climate
of, 178-179; people of, 179; places of interest
near, 179; towns in the department of, 179;
source of river of, 182.
Charpoy, used in P'o-ni, 155.
Chau Ju-hia, 178, 186, n. 10.
Chau Ju-kua, author of the Chu-fan-chii,
35—36; his sources of information, 36—38; value
of his work, 36, 39; bibliography of work of, 38;
date at which his book was written, 136, n. 2.
Chau Ting, 179, 187, n. 17; his spring near
Ch'ang-hua, 179.
Ch'6-k'ii, nacre-shells, imported to China, 19;
a product of Kiau-chi, 46; description of, 231.
Cho-t'i, the Chittis, a caste in Malabar, 89,
n. 1.
Chon-la (Kamboja), a commercial centre for
Wa-li, 25; its position, 52; distance by sea from
Ts'uan-ch6u, 52; area of, 52; the king, his cloth-
ing, palace, audiences, 52; dwellings, 52; monu-
ments in capital of, 53; religion, laws, the priest-
hood, 53; customs of people of, 53; the soil of, 53;
products of, 53; trade 53; dependencies of, 53—54,
56; relations of, with China, 54; Chinese forms of
name, 54, 57; sweet benzoin from, 198; best kind
of cardamoms from, 221; ivory from, 232; king-
fishers feathers from, 235; wax from, 288, 239.
Chon-li-fu, a dependency of Chon-la, 53, 56.
Chon-p'u, a dependency of Chon-la, possibly
the same as Chon-li-fu (q. v.), 56.
Chon Li, the Marquess, his temple, 179.
Ch'ong-mai, in Hai-nan, 178.
Chess, how played by Moslims in Canton, 17
China, knowledge of Greeks concerning, 2;
may have been reached by Greeks, 2, 8; trade
of, described by, Cosmas, 3; its early trade with
Ceylon, 3; mentioned by Nefarchus, Onesicritus,
and Cosmas, 5; sea-route from India to, not
known to Huan-tsang, 8; introduction of Islam
into, 14; earliest narrative of Arabs concerning,
15; life of Moslims in, 16—17; its relations with
Kiau-chil; 45; with Chan-ch'ong, 49; with Pin-
t'ung-lung, 51, 52; with Chon-la, 54; relations of,
with P'u-kan, 58; with San-fo-ts'i, 62, 66; rela-
tions with Sho-p'o, 77; relations of, with Cfiu-
li§n, 94, 96, 100; early relations of, with Ta-ts'in,
103—104; relations with T'ien-chu, 111; early
relations with the Arabs, 117—118; relations
with Ma-Ii-pa (Merbat), 121, n. 11; relations of,
with P'o-ni, 157; relations of, with Liu-k'iu, 163,
n. 1, 164, n. 8; relations with Ji-pon, 170, 171—
172, 173, n. 7; introduction of cotton into, 219;
introduction of glass making into, 227.
Chinese, did not reach India, Ceylon or Ara-
bia before sixth century, 3; rarely if ever visited
Western Asian porta, 4; first hear of Syria and
Chaldsea, 4; when first hear of sea-route from
Persian Gulf to Egypt, 4; first relations by'sea-
with India and the West, 5; none had been to'
the Far West in sixth century, 6; vague know-
ledge of, concerning Ta-ts'in and India, 7; routes
followed by pilgrims to India, 8—9; products,
scare in Basra and Baghdad, 15; did not own or
navigate ships engaged in Western trade, 15;
Qhiutzes — Cotton.
247
ships go to Kalah, 18; efforts of government to
develop foreign sea-trade, 19; results of this
policy, 19; sea-going ships, methods of naviga-
tion, 27—88; traders to the Arabs' country change
ships at Ku-lin, 91; trade with realm of Arabs
conducted through San-fo-ts'i, 114; from Fu-ki6n
living in Sin-lo, 169, line 39; from Ts'1ian-ch6u
rarely go to Ji-p6n, 171; trade with Li of Hai-
nan, 177; settlers in Hai-nan, 181, 182, 183;
method of making glass, 227.
Chintzes, coloured, made in Nan-p'i, 88.
Chola dominion, — see Chu-li6n.
Cbonen Pujiwara, — see Tiau-jan.
Chou, Marquess of, 180; establishes markets
in Hal-nan, 181.
Chou K'ii-fei, author of Ling-wai-tai-ta, 22;
quoted on the foreign countries trading with
Canton, 22—24; quoted on the oceans and coun-
tries of the "West, 25—27; his description of sea-
going ships, 33—34; use made of his work by
Chau Ju-kua, 36—38; his use of the name San-
fb-ts'i, 63; quoted on the Arabs, 119-120, 121;
quoted on Mei-lu-ku-tun, 141—142.
Chou-pau-lung, an island or headland near
the port of San-fo-ts'i, 100, n. 11.
Christians, of India, 105, 106; their chief,
the patriarcl) of Baghdad, 105; of Syria, captives
in Persia, 109-110; of Malabar, possibly visited
China, 112-113. . .
Chrysanthemum, time of blooming in Hai-
nan, 179. ,. . . „ „ .
Chu-ai, one of the ancient divisions oi Hai-
nan, 175, 176. - ;, ..
Chu-ko Wu, Marquess, temple in Pagan dedi-
cated to, 58; his inventions for war operations,
111. 113- . , r,
Chu-lien, the Chola dominions, the Ooroman-
del coast, a vassal of San-fo-ts'i (Palembang), 59;
also called Southern India, 93; position of capital
of 93-94; no relations between, and China, 94;
how it can be reached, 94; the great city of, 94;
the thirty-two pu-lo of, 94-95; punishment of
crimes in, 95; ceremonies at banquets in, 95; the
dress and food of the prince of, 95; marriage
customs in, 95; taxes in, heavy, 95; the army ot,
96; methods of warfare, 96; products, 96; the re-
lations of, with China, 96; envoys of, ranked with
those of K'iu-tz'i {K6cha), 96; is the Ma abar of
the Arabs, 98; other Chinese names of, 98; rule
of, over Ceylon, 98; the mission of 1015, 99, n. d,
100, n. 11; sovereigns of, 99-100, n. 6.
Chu Ying, Ms mission to Indo-China, b.
' Chu Yii, author of P'ing-ch6u-k'o-t'an (q. v.)
when he lived, 16.
Chung-ka-lu, — see Jung-ya-lu.
Chung-li (Somali Coast), 130; the people of,
dress, food, occupations, 130; the only country
producing frankincense, 130; sorcerers ot, 130-
131; flocks of birds of passage id, 131; mortuary
customs in, 131; whales, how used in, 131; dra-
gon's-blood, tortoise-shell and ambergris come
from, 131. ^ . , _, . ,„.
Cinnabar, imported by Persians to CMna, lb,
a product of Kiau-chi, 46; imported to Sho-p o,
78; its use in Su-ki-tan, 83; exported from Ki-
ahi, 134. „ _, . .
Cinnamon, imported to Aden from China, 4.
Civet, procured frSm K'i6-li-ki, 284; exported
from Zeila on Somali coast, 235.
Cleanliness, in eating of Moslims in Canton,
17; habits of, of people of Chan-ch'5ng, 47;
customs connected with, in Chbn-la, 53; about
hair and nails among Arabs, 116,
Climate, of Chan-ch'ong, 47; of Chon-la, 52;
of San-fo-ts'i, 60; of Nan-p'i, 88; in Arabs coun-
try, 115; of Ts'6ng-pa, 126; of Ki-tz'i-ni, 138; of
Fo-ni, 156; of Hai-nan, 177, 178-179, 180.
Cloves, imported into Ceylon, 3; into Aden, 4;
a product of San-fo-ts'i, 61; imported to Si-lan,
73; a product of Sho-p' o, 77; a product of pirate
islands near Sho-p'o, 84; exported to Nan-p'i, 89;
exported to Yung-man, 133; a product of Hai-
nan, 176; varieties of, 209.
Coast, «Lower» and «Upper», countries,
explanation of terms, 79, 204.
Cobalt blue, — see Wu-ming-i.
Cock, fighting, in Sho-p'o, 77.
Coeoanuts, imported at Aden from China, 4;
principal food of Nicobar islanders, 12; juice of,
drunk in Chan-ch'ong, 48; grown in Chan-ch'ong,
48; wine of, in San-fo-ts'i, 60; grown in Sho-p'o,
77; wine of, in Sho-p'o, 78; a product of Ku-lin,
89; a product of Chu-li6n, 96; wine of, in P'o-ni,
155; a product of Hai-nan, 176, 183; description
of, 214; wine made from juice of, in Nan-p'i,
214; origin of Chinese name for, 215.
Coir-palm, bark of, used to thatch houses
in Sin-t'o, 70.
Comoro islands, — see Kan-mei.
Compass, when first used in navigation, 28—
29; its use in navigation in twelfth century, 32;
reference to use of, 176.
Conch shell, ground pieces of, used as money
in P'6ng-k'ie-lo, 97; pieces of, ground sharp used
as knives in Yen-t'o-man islands, 147.
Constantinople, possible reference to, 141,
142. ~ ,
Copper, exported from Calliana, 3; imported
to Canton, 16; household utensils in Si-lan of, 73;
used in alloy for Sho-p'o currency, 78; white,
used in Sho-p'o, 78, 81; a product of T'ito-chu,
111; exported to Ts'ong-pa, 126; household
utensils of, in Sin-lo, 167; temple bells, made in
Sin-lo, 168.
Copperas, imported to Sho-p o, 78.
Coral, imported by Persians to China, 16;
imported to China in tenth century, 19; imported
to San-fo-ts'i, 61, a product of Chu-lien, 96; a
product of Ta-ts'in, 103; comes from Wu-ssi-h,
140; found off coast of Mo-k'i6-la, 154; two kinds
of, on coast of P'u-li-lu (Philippine Islands), 162;
description of, mode of fishing, 226
Cornelians, imported by Persians to China,
16; imported to China in tenth century, 19; used
to ornament palaces of king of Si-lan, 72; a pro-
duct of Ta-ts'in, 103; pillars of, in palace otking
of the Arabs, 115. . „
Cosmas Indicopleustes, his knowledge oX
China, 2, 5; describes trade of Ceylon with China,
3- his reference to Kulam-Male (Quilon), 12.
' Cotton, fabrics, exported from India, 3; fabncs
imported to Aden, 4; tree, and fct-pc?, products of
Kiau-chi, 46; M-pet, a product of Chan-ch ong,
48- figured stuffs of, in Chan-ch'ong, 48; fabrics.
248
Counting — Dress.
products of Chon-la, 53; faCrics, imported to San-
fo-ts'i, 61; damasked gauzes of, manufactured in
Sha-p'o, 78; fabrics of, made on pirate islands
near Sho-p'o, 84; tissues, made in Nan-p'i, 88;
fabrics made in Hu-ch'a-la and sold to the Arabs,
92; Ma-lo-bua exports tissues of, 93; fabrics,
mixed witb sUk, a product of Chu-li§n, 96; tissues
made in P'Ong-k'ie-lo, 97; fine flowered and dotted
tissues of, from Nan-ni-hua-lo, 98; tissues expor-
ted from Chu-lien, 100, n. 8; tissues exported to
Ts'ong-pa, 126; red, 126; fabrics, exported from
Ki-sM, 134; in P'o-ni, 155; a product of Ma-i,
160; exported from the San-su, 161; fabrics of
Sin-lo, 168; tissues in Ji-pbn, 171; grown in Hai-
nan, 176; weaving in Hai-nan, 183; tree, in Hai-
nan, 183; chief export from Hai-nan, 185; descrip-
tion of plant, 217; tissues made from, 217-218;
early history of, 218—220; cultivation and spinn-
ing of, in China, 219; various tissues made of,
217, 218, 219, 220.
Counting, natives of pirate Islands near Sho-
p'o, unacquainted with, 85; natives of Tan-jung-
wu-lo, and Ma-li have some knowledge of, 85.
Cowries, a product of Kiau-chif, 46; the cur-
rency of T'ien-chu, 111.
Crabs, fossil, a product of Hai-nan, 177,
186, n. 6.
Crime, committed by foreigners in China, how
tried and punished, 17; of adultery in Chan-
ch'ong, how punished, 47; of adultery and theft
in Ohon-la, how punished, 53; of adultery, how
punished in San-fo-ts'i, 61; how punished in Sho-
p'o, 76-77; how punished in Chu-lien, 95; how
punished in Sin-lo, 167, 169, n. 5; how punished
in Ji-pon, 171.
Cryptomeria trees, planks of, exported from
Ji-p6n to Ts'aan-ch6u, 171.
Crystal, rock, imported by Persians to China,
16, 19; pillars of, in palace of Ta-ts'in, 102; tiles
of, in palace of king of Arabs, 115.
Cubeb^, imported to Aden, 4; a product of
Sho-p'o, 224; a product of Su-ki-tan, 224; de-
scriptioli of vine, 224; Chinese name for, a foreign
one, 224.
Culao Cham, 10, 100, line 50.
Cupchi Point, on coast of Kuang-tung, 24.
Currency, uoue in Chan-ch'ong, 48; of San-
fo-ts'i, 60; silver, of Su-ki-tan, 82; alloy of copper,
silver, white copper and tin used to make, in
Shb-p'o, 78, 81; of alloyed silver in Nan-p'i, 88;
gold and silver, of Ku-lin, 89; of P'6ng-k'ie-Io,
bits of coneh shells, 97; of Chu-lien, of gold and
silver, 100, n. 8; cowries, in T'ien-chu, 111, 113;
of Ts'ong-t'an, 127; of Ki-shi, 134; of Lu-meif, 141;
in Sin-lo, 169, lines 23-26; of Ji'-pon, 171, 174;
n. 11.
Curtains, embroidered by Li in Hai-nan, 176,
180, 188.
Customs, Maritime, Inspector of, at Canton,
9; his duties, 9, 15; Chinese ports where establish-
ed, 18; Maritime, at Canton, reorganized, 20;
all foreign imports by sea, deposited in ware-
houses, 20; Inspectorates of Maritime, established
at Hang-ch6u and Ning-po, 20; the organization
of the, from tenth to twelfth centuries, 20, 21;
duties, irregulairty in levying, 20; Maritime, at
Canton and Ts'uan-ch6u in 1178, 22, 23; annual
fairs for sale foreign imports established by, 23;
rules established by, for foreign ships entering
and clearing Canton, 23; Superintendent of, at
Canton, appoints head-men on trading ships, 31;
practices of, in Chan-ch'ong, on arrival of ships,
48; Maritime, try to prevent exportation of copper
cash, 81—82; statioiis in Hai-nan, 178; revenue
collected by, on betel-nuts, 214.
Daibul, possibly the Ti-yfi of Kia Tan, 13.
Damascus, possible reference to, 141.
Damasks, imported by Persians to China, 16;
of cotton, made in Shb-p'o, 78; black, imported
to Shb-p'o, 78; black, imported to San-sfl, 162.
Damietta, — see T'o-pan-ti.
Dammar, a product of Chbn-la, 53, 199;
description of, 199; varieties of, 199—200.
Dancing-girls, slaves, serve in temples of
Buddha in Chbn-la, 53, 55; of king of Nan-p'i,
87; in temples in Hu-ch'a-la, 92; attendants of
king of Chu-lien, 95; at the court of the king of
Calicut, 100.
Darkness, Land of, reached from Mu-lan-
p'i, 143.
Dates, imported' by Persians to China, 16; a
product of Chu-lien, 96; abundant in Yung-man,
133; of Pi-ssi-lo, 137; cloves confounded with
stone of, 209; Chinese names of, 210.
Degrees, literary, in Sin-lo, 167.
Dependencies, of Chan-chbng, 49, 50; of
Chbn-la, 53-54, 56; of San-fo-ts'i, 62; of Sho-p'o,
83; of Nan-p'i, 88; of the Arabs, 116-117.
Dhofar, — see Nu-fa.
Diamonds, imported by Persians to China 16;
found in Tien-chu, 111.
Dishes, used by foreigners in Canton, 17;
palm-leaves used as, in Tbng-liu-mei, 57; of cop-
per in Si-lan, 73; separate, used by each member
of family in Chu-lien, 96; used by Japanese, 171.
Diu, the island of, possibly referred to by Kia
Tan, 13.
Diul-Sindh, terminus Greek sea-route to
India, 2; its trade according to Cosmas, 3; Chi-
nese overland trade with, 5.
Divination, in Ji-pbn, 171; by pc'i-kiau
tablets, 178.
Djambi, in eastern Sumatra, 65; kingdom of,
sends missions to Chinese court, 66.
Dogs, bred in Lu-mei, 141; sacrificed in Hai-
nan, 183.
Donkeys, none in Liu-k'iu, 163; none in Sin-
lo, 169, line 17; in Ji-pbn, 171.
Dragon's-blood, comes from island near Pi-
p'a-lo, 131, 197; description of tree, mode of
gathering, 197-198, adulterated, 198.
Dress, in Kiau-chi, 45; in Chan-ch'6ng, 47;
in Tbng-liu-mei, 57; in P'u-kan, 58; in San-fo-
ts'i, 60, 61; in Tan-ma-ling, 67; in Ling-ya-ssi-
kia, 68; in Sin-t'o, 70; in Si-lan, 72; of king of
Shb-p'o, 76; of people of Shb-p'o, 77; in Su-ki-
tan, 82; of ruler of Nan-p'i, 87; of people of Hu-
ch'a-la, 92; in Chu-li^n, 95, 100, n. 8; in Ta-ts'in,
103, 104; of the Caliph and of the patriarch of
Baghdad, 106-107; of king of the Arabs, 15; of
people of Ts'6ng-pa, 126; of king of Wu-pa, 130;
of people of Chung-li, 130; in Yung-man, 133; in
Ki-shi, 134; iu Pai-ta, 135; in Lu-mei, 141; in
Po-ssi (in Sumatra?) 152; of king of Mo-k'i6-la,
Driving — Pu-ling.
249
154; in Po-ni, 155; of people of Ma-i, 159; in
Liu-k'iu, 163; in Ji-pon, 170; in Hai-nan, 177,
182, 184, 190. '
Driving out evil, New Year's ceremony in
Chan-ch'ong, 47-48; in Hai-nan, 180.
Drums, imported into Chon-la, 53; kettle, in
She-p'o, 77; bronze, in Hai-nan, 177, 186, n. g.
Ducks, abundant in Sho-p'o, 77.
Dumb trading, Tu Huan quoted on, in the
Western Sea, 104, 110.
Dung, cow, walls and floors of houses in Nan-
ni-hua-lo smeared with, 97.
Duties, collected on foreign ships at Canton,
9, 15; irregularities in collection of import, 20;
tariff of import, 21, 22; clearance, 21; local
market, 21; punishment for non-payment of, 21;
when levied, 23; import, in Chan-ch'ong, 48; har-
borage, none collected in Su-ki-tan, 83.
Dwarfs, country of, — see Ji-pon.
Ears, lobes of, of people of Nan-p'i reach
their shoulders, 88; of Li of Hai-nan, 178.
Eating, customs in, of foreigners at Canton,
17; customs in, of people of Chon-la, 53; do., of
people of Tong-liu-mei, 57; do., of islanders near
Sho-p'o, 84; customs concerning, in Chu-li6n, 96;
habits of, in Ta-ts'in, 103; customs in, in Po-ssi
(in Sumatra?), 152; customs, in Liu-k'iu, 163.
Ebony, of Ceylon, 3; imported to Aden, 4; to
China, 19; a product of Chan-ch'ong, 48; a pro-
duct of Tan-ma-ling, 67; description of, 216;
origin of name, 216, Note.
Eclipses, people of San-fo-ts'i able to calcu-
late, 64.
Edrlsi, his views on the China trade with
Aden, 3; quoted, 89, n. 3.
Educational establishments in Sin-Io, 167.
Egg-plant, grown in Sin-t'o, 70.
Egypt — see Mi-sii-li and Wu-ssi-li.
Elephants, war elephants of Chon-la, 53;
plentiful in San-fo-ts'i, 63; trade in, between
Kien-pi and Ku-lin, 72, 73, 91; used in war in
Nan-p'i, 88; used in war in Hu-ch'a-la, 92; do.,
in Ohu-lien, 96; gifts made to, in Chu-li6n, 100;
in T'ien-chu, 111; mode of capturing, 117—118,
232; none in Ji-pon, 171; how killed, 232.
Elias III, possibly «the king of Ta-ts'in»,
107; his love for building, 107.
Engano, island of, the country of women, 152.
Etna, Mount -^ see Ssi-kia-li-ye.
Exports, principal from China, 3; so called
Persian, 7—8, 9; from China at end tenth cen-
tury, 19; of Eiau-chi, 46; of Chan-ch'ong, 48; of
Chou-la, 53; of Tong-liu-mei, 57; of San-fo-ts'i.
61; of°Tan-ma-ling, 67; of Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68; of
Fo-lo-an, 69; of Si-lan. 73; to Sho-p'o, 78; to
Nan-p'i, 88-89; of Hu-ch'a-la, 92; of Ma-lo-hua,
93; from the Arabs' country, 116, 120; to Ma-li-
pa (Merbat) from Lan-wu-li, 120; to Ts'ong-pa,
126; to Yung-man, 133; from P'o-ni, 156; of the
Ma-i islands, 160; of San-sO, 161-162; of Sin-lo,
168; of Ji-pon to Ts'uan-ch6u, 171; of Hai-nan
176, 177.
Fa-hien, first Chinese to visit Ceylon, 3; crew
of ship on which he made voyage to Java, 7; his
narrative of his voyage from India to China, 27-28.
Fair, annual for sale foreign imports, 23; along
banks of the great harbour of the Arabs, 116.
Pansur — see Piu-su.
Festivals, of Kiau-chi, 45; on birthday of the
Buddha of Fo-lo-an, 69; of Sho-p'o, 77; atMa-kia
(Mecca) on anniversary of Mohammed's death,
124; in P'o-ni, 156, 157.
Fong-ya-lo, a dependency of Nan-p'i; in
Amoy dialect Jiang-ga-lo, probably Mangalore,
88, 90.
Fines, for crimes, in Sho-p'o, 75 -76; for crimes
by foreigners in P'o-ni, 156.
Fish, flying, 8; caught with smaller in belly,
33: devour corpses at sea, 33; saw-fish, 33; abun-
dant in Sho-p'o, 77; rarelv eaten in Nan-mi-
hua-lo, 98; little eaten atPai-ta, 135; little eaten
at K'i-tz'i-ni, 138; glue, a product of Hai-nan, 177;
sold to natives of Hai-nan, 177.
Flour, imported to Hai-nan, 177.
Flowers, worn in hair in Tong-liu-mei, 57;
offered to king and to the Buddha in P'u-kan, 58;
wine of, in San-fo-ts'i, 60, 64; offered the idols in
Hu-ch'a-la, 92.
Fo, Buddha, name used in sense of «a god»,
88, 90, n. 5; in sense of Brahma, 97; Mohammed
called a, 116.
Fo-lo-an (Beranang), W. coast Malay Penin-
sula, 26; a dependency of San-fo-ts'i, 62; its
distance from Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 69; two images of
Buddhas in, 69; the feast of the Buddha of, 69;
native products of, 69; sends annual tribute to
San-fo-ts'i, 69; chief of, appointed by San-fo-ts'i,
69; Arabs' trade centers at, 116.
Fo-shi, country of, Eastern Sumatra, 11; —
see San-fo-ts'i.
Food, of Moslims, in Canton, 17; allowed king
of San-fo-ts'i, 61; horses and buffaloes used as,
in Sho-p'o, 77; of natives of islands near Sho-p'o,
84; people of Nan-p'i dainty about, 88; given to
king of Nan-p'i, how regulated, 88; in Nan-p'i
abundant and cheap, 88; in Hu-ch'a-la, no meat
used as, 92; of king of Chu-lien, 95; of people of
Nan-ni-hua-lo, 98; of Ta-ts'in, 103, 104; of Arabs,
115; in Ts'6ng-pa, 126; in Pi-p'a-lo, 128; of Chung-
li, 130; of Yung-man, 133; of people ofPai-ta,
135; of people of Pi-ssi-lo, 137; of people of K'i-
tz'i-ni, 138; in Lu-mei, 141; in Wu-ssi-li (Egypt),
144; in Po-ssi (Sumatra?), 152; in Mo-k'ie-Ia, 154;
of Ji-pon, 170; of Li aborigines of Hai-nan, 176.
Foreign settlements in China, in seventh
century, 14; administration of Moslim, at Canton,
16-17; in Ts'iian-chou, in Yang-ch6u, 16.
Formosa — see Liu-k'iu and Pi-sho-ye.
Fowls, domestic, abundant in Sho-p'o, 77; in
P'o-ni, 155; in Liu-k'iu, 163; sacrificed in Hai-
nan, 183.
Frankincense, imported to Canton, 16;
imported to San-fo-ts'i, 61; of Pi-p'a-lo, 129, n. 4;
of Chung-li, 130, 132, n. s; countries producing,
195; description of tree, 195; mode of collecting,
195; varietes of, 195-196.
Fruit, extraordinary, of Mu-lan-p'i, 142; many
varieties in Mo-k'ie-la, 154.
Fu-li-la river, probably the Mindb on which
stood Old Hormuz, 14.
Fu-lin, a name of Ta-ts'in, according to Tu
Huan, 104; identified with Syria, 108-110.
Fu-ling, a medicinal fungus, a product of
Sin-lo, 168.
250
Fu-nan — Head-dress.
Pu-nan, trade between T'ien-chu and, 111.
Fu-ta, the city of, possibly Fostat, the modern
Cairo, 14.
Fu-yiin, in Hai-nan, 181.
Furs, exported from China, overland to India,
5; sable, from T'i6n-chu, 111.
Oalangal, imported to Aden from China, 4;
imported by Persians to China, 16; dried, im-
ported into San-fo-ts'i, 61; a product of Hai-
nan, 177.
Gambling, prohibited in Canton foreign
settlement, 17.
Gamboge, a product of Chon-la, 55.
Gardenia flowers, imported by Arabs to San-
fo-ts'i, 61; exported from Ki-shii, 134; a product
of Lu-mei, 141; countries of origin, 202; descrip-
tion of, 202.
Gauzes, of silk, imported to San-fo-ts'i, 61; of
cotton, made in Sho-p'o, 78.
((Gentlemen, the Country of», Sin-lo so called,
167, 169, n. 6, 8.
Gharu-wood, imported to Ceylon, 3; exported
from China to Aden, 4; varieties found in Kiau-
chi, 46; varieties found in Chan-ch'ong, 48, 50;
used in throne of king of Chon-la, 52; varieties
found in Chon-la, 53; varieties found in Tijng-
liu-mei, 56, 57; found in San-fo-ts'i, 61; su variety
of, a product of Tan-ma-ling, 67; varieties of,
found in Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68; varieties of, found
in Fo-lo-an, 69; of Sho-p o, 81; exported to Nan-
p'i, 89; on islands near P'o-ni, 158; trade in, of
aborigines of Hai-nan, 176: quality of, of Hai-
nan, 183, 185; countries of production, 204;
varieties of, 204-205; tsien-hiang, 206; su and
chan-hiang, 207; Imang-shou-hiang, 207; shong-
hiang, 208.
Ghazni — see Ho-si-na, Ki-tz'i-ni, K'ie-shO-
na, Ts'au.
Gift, of person's weight in money, to ward off
death, 61, 64-65.
Ginger, peel, a product of Chon-la, 53, 55.
Ginseng, a product of Sin-lo, 168.
Girafe — see Tsu-la.
Glass, both transparent and opaque, imported
by Persians to China, 16; opaque, screens round
throne in Si-lan, 72; red transparent, a product
of Si-lan, 73; transparent and opaque a product
of Chu-lien, 96; opaque, a product of Ta-ts'in, '.
103; best opaque manufactured in Fu-lin (Syria),
109; engraved, a product of Pai-ta, 135, 137, n. 4;
engraved, a product of K'i-tz'i-ni, 138; superior,
from Lu-mei, 141; beads arid bottles imported to
P'o-ni, 156; coloured, beads, imported to Ma-i,
160; coloured, beads, imported to San-sO, 162;
Arab, method of making, 227; early hisbory of,
from Chinese sources, 227—228.
Goats, abundant in Shb-p'o, 77; in Chu-
lien, 96.
Gold, imported by Persians to China, 16;
imported into China in tenth century, 19; a pro-
duct of Kiau-chi, 46; imported to Chon-la, 53;
imported to San-fo-ts'i, 61; bowls, imported to
Tan-ma-ling, 67; relative value of, and silver, in
Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68; brought to Fo-lo-an, 69;
brought to Si-lan, 73; used in trade in Sho-p'o.
78; trade gold, in Su-ki-tan, 82; currency, of Ku-
lin, 89; coins used in Chu-lien, 100, n. 8; a pro-
duct of Ta-ts'in, 103; a product of T'ien-chii, 111;
of Ts'6ng-pa, 1'26; of Pai-ta, 185; of K'i-tz'i-ni,
138; water turning everything to, in Yen-t'o-man
island, 148; a product of Ch'a-pi-sha, 153; house-
hold vessels of, in P'o-ni, 155; trade-gold in P'o-
ni, 156; trade-gold in islands near P'o-ni, 158;
do., taken to Ma-i, 160; exported from Liu-k'iu
to San-su; 163; found in Ji-p6n, 171.
Gourds, bottle, grown in She-p'o, 70; large,
used for household utensils in Hai-nan, 177.
Grapes, wine made of, by Ta-shi, 115.
Greeks, early knowledge of sea-route to
India, 1; route followed by, on voyage to India,
2; their knowledge of sea-route to Far East, 2;
their knowledge of China, 2; . took no share in
trade with China, 4; knew China only by name,
5; their information about Chinese exports, 5.
Green Sea, the, Arab name of the Ocean, 12.
Guzerat, early sea-trade of Sabeans with, 1;
the country of Pa-yu, on the coast of, 13; famous
for its temples, 92; pepper and tissues, 92-93; —
see Hu-ch'a-la.
Gypsum, used in making glass, 227.
Hadramaut — see Ma-lo-pa.
Hai-k'ou (Hoihow), in Hai-nan, 178; temple
at, 178.
Hai-Lau «Sea Lau», in Canton, 16, n. 2.
Hai-mei-ehi, a product of Hai-nan, unidenti-
fied, 176, 186, n. 6.
Hai-nan, early administrative divisions of,
175-176; the Li aborigines of, 176; the products
of, 176; trade of, 177; the people of, 177; K'iung-
chou in, 177-178; Hai-k'6u (Hoihow) in, 178,, 180;
Ch'ang-haa in, 178-179; Ki-yang, in, 179-180;
Wan-an, in, 181; Wan-ning, in, 181; Chinese
settlers in, 181; drug shops iirst established in,
181; temple to ship-captain in, 181; the Li-mii
shan in, 182; the natives of, 182; their chiefs'
names, 182; dress of natives, 182—183, 184.
Hai-tan, the Acta negritos of the Philippines,
161.
Haliotis shells, a product of Sin-lo, 168.
Hall, of Worship, of Ta-ts'in, 103; tunnel
from palace to, 103; worship every seven days
in, 103; public, in Sin-lo, 167.
Hammock-litter, of cotton, used by king of
Chan-ch'ong, 47; called ti-ya in Chan-ch'6Dg, 50;
used in Si-lan, 72; in Sho-p'o, 77; used in Nan-
p'i, 87, 90, n. 4; used in Po-ssi (in Sumatra?),
152; of P'o-ni, 155.
Han Huan-ti, mission from western Asia
comes to court of, 5.
Han-lin, an officer of the king of Nan-p'i,
his duties, 88.
Han Wu-ti, the Emperor, sends mission to
western Asia^ 4; sends a mission to Hai-nan, 175.
Hang-chou, organization of foreign settle-
ment at, 16; Maritime customs at, 18.
Hanoi, the Cattigara of the Greeks, 2; trade
route from, to K'in-chou, 6.
Hares, none in Sin-lo, 169, line 17.
Hazel-nuts, a product of Sin-lo, 168.
Head-dress, of ruler of Pin-t'ung-lung, 51;
of ruler of Tong-liu-mei, 57; in P'u-kan, 58; of
king of San-fo-ts'i, 61; in Tan-ma-ling, 67; in
Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68; of king of Si-lan, 72; of Idng
of Sho-p'o, 76; of king of Su-ki-tan, 82; of his
Head-dress — Indus.
251
attendants, and people, 82; of ruler of Nan-p'i
87; of people of Hu-ch'a-la, 92; in Chu-lien, lOo'
n. 8; of king of Ta-ts'in, 102; of T'iSn-chn, 110-
of king of the Arabs, 115; of ruler of Ch'a-pi-
sha, 153; of Li of Hai-nan, 182, 184.
Head-men,on merchant ships, their duties,31.
Heaven, the Arabs worship, 116; Arabs pray
to, five times daily, 135; prayers of king of Mo-
k'ie-la to, 154.
Hei-shui, the Irrawadi river, 26; formed
boundary line of Pagan, 59, 101.
Hemp, grown in Chan-ch'ong, 48; grown in
Sh6-p'o, 77; grown in Nan-p'i, 88; grown in Fo-
ni, 155; grown in Sin-lo, 169, line 42; grown in
Hai-nan, 176, 183.
Hen's nest island, — see Tsiau-shi island.
Hermut, a perfumed seed, imported to Aden
from China, 4.
Hi-ning, a dependency of Sho-p'o, 83; possibly
Singhasari, 86.
Hia-nau-tan tree, inner part used to make
a liquor in Sho-p'o, 78, 81.
Hiang-p'u, «List of perfumes», by Hung Chu,
183, 189, n. Si.
Hie-ki-si, a precious stone found in Ta-ts'in,
also called tung-t'ien-si; not identified, 103.
((Hill of Gold and Silvera, statue in San-fo-ts'i
called, 61.
Hing-k'in, the Bonze, his journey to the realm
of the Arabs, 117.
Hippopotamus, in the Nile, 145.
Ho-ch'i, silks from, sold in Tan-ma-ling, 67,
68; sold in Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68; sold in Nan-p'i, 88.
■ Ho-ling — see Java.
Ho-man, Chinese (or Arab ?) skipper who
discovered Liu-k'iu (Formosa), 163, n. i.
Ho-si-na (Ghazni), the capital of Ts'au, 225.
Holy -water, of T'i6n-chu which stills the
waves, 105, line 24, Hi; from the well Zemzem,
in Mecca, 113; from well of Ishmael, 113, n. 2.
Hormuz, possibly visited by Chinese, 4; only
probable reference to by Chinese, 14.
Horses, exported from China to Aden, 4; of
Chon-la, numerous but small, 53; numerous in
P'u-kan, 58; Arabs trade in, at Ku-lin, 72, 91;
imported to Si-lan, 73; eaten in Sho-p'o, 77; for
military service raised in Tan-jung-wu-lo and
Ma-li, 84—85; army, in Hu-ch'a-la, 92; large,
sent from T'i6n-chu to China, 111; of Arab army,
115; raising of, in Yung-man, 133; fine, in Ki-
Shi, 134; raising of, in K'i-tz'i-ni, 138; do, in Lu-
mei, 141; «water-horses» of the Nile, 145; none
in Liu-k'iu, 163; of Hai-nan, 183.
Houses, of Pin-t'ung-lung, how built, 51; of
Chon-la, 52; of San-fo-ts'i, 60; of Tan-ma-ling,
67; in Sin-t'o, 70; in Sho-p'o painted, 77; in Su-
ki-tan, 83; of Ta-pan, 84; of islanders near Sho-
p'o, 84; in Arab capital, 115; of Chung-li, 130; of
K'i-tz'i-ni, 138; of Ch'a-pi-sha, 153; of P'o-ni,
155; in Liu-k'iu, 163; of Li of Hai-nan, 183.
Hu, people of western Asia, first arrival in
Canton, 6; characters, used in writing in Ta-ts'in,
103; the name, sometimes applied to Indians, 114.
Hu-ch'a-la, a dependency of Nan-p'i (Mala-
bar), 88; extent of, 92; dress of people of, 92; no
ineat eaten in, 92; temples of, 92; elephants and
horses of, 92; the king of, 92; native products of.
92; trade of, with the Arabs, 92; Ts'ong-pa, south
of, 126; its trade with Ts'6ng-pa, 126.
Hu-pei, pearls from, 229.
Hu Tan-an, 178; quoted, 180, 187, n. lo.
Huan-wang — see Chan-ch'ong.
Hiian-tsang, the pilgrim; knew nothing of
sea-route from India to Far East, 8; first Chi-
nese to mention Nicobar islands by name, 12;
mentions Kulam-Male, 12; reference to his tra-
vels, 97; referes to cotton tissues in India, 218,
line 45.
Huang Hou-shon, establishes drug shops
in Hai-nan, 181.
Huang-hua-ssi-ta-ki, a work by Kia Tan,
quoted, 97. / '
Huang-lien, the rhizoma of the Coptis ieeta,
Wall., exported to Nan-p'i, 88.
Huang-ma-chu, a dependency of Sho-p'o,
83; nutmegs from, 210.
Huang Tan-p'o, introduces cotton spinning
into China, 219.
Huo-shi, possibly soapstone, 115, 120, n. 4.
Huo-ts'i, a stone like talc, a product of India,
possibly isinglass, or lapis lazuli, 111, 113.
I, a weight of twenty taels, used only in
weighing gold, 73.
I-lu (Irak) a dependency of the Arabs, 117.
I-lun, in Ch'ang-hua department, in Hai-nan,
179. . " '
I-ma-lo-li, an island between Chan-pin (q. v.)
and Ku-lo (q. v.), passed by Chu-lien mission of
1015, 100, n. 11, not identified.
I-tsing, the pilgrim, mentions the Nicobars, 12.
I-wu, a dependency of Sho-p'o, 83.
Ibn Wahab of Basra, his narrative concern-
ing China, 15.
Idols, of bronze in Ma-i,"159; Pigafetta's note
on idols in Qebu, 160, n. 2.
Ifrikiya, Africa, but more particularly the
coast of Tunis and "Tripoli, 122, — see P'i-no-ye.
Imports, principal, into China, 16, 19; duties
levied on foreign imports in China, 21, 23; into
Chan-ch'ong, 49; into Chbn-la, 53; into San-fo-
ts'i, 61; into Tan-ma-ling, 67; into Fo-lo-an, 69;
into Si-lan, 73; into Sho-p'o, 78; to Nan-p'i, 88—
89; from Yung-man, 133; into P'o-ni, 156; into
the Ma-i islands, 160; into Sin-lo, 168; from Hai-
nan, 176-177.
India, Sabeans trade with, 1; Alexander the
Great and the sea-trade with, 1; Ptolemy Phila-
delphus and the sea-trade with, 2; extent of
Greek knowledge of coast of, 2; West coast of,
and Greek trade, 2; visited by Chinese, 3; begin-
ning of sea-trade between China and, 6; vagueness
of Chinese knowledge concerning, in fifth century,
7; western frontier of, 13; Western, meaning of
term, 25; Christians of, 105, 112—113; frankin-
cense in, 196; cotton in, 218; — see also T'ien-chu.
Indigo, imported by Persians to China, 16;
Hu-ch'a-la produces a great quantity, 92; men-
tioned as product of Persia, 217, lines 23-26.
Indo-China, early trade with Ceylon, 3; early
trade between China and, 5-6; mission of Chu
Ying to, 6; sea route from India to, not known to
Hiian-tsang, 8.
Indus, sea-route from Bed Sea to, early
knowledge of, 1; Chinese overland trade to mouth
252
Indus — Ki-tz"i-ni.
of, 5; called Mi-lan by Kia Tan and Mihran by
the Arabs, 13; called the Sin-t'ou river, 13.
Inspector, of Maritime Trade, at Canton,
registered captains of ships, 9; inspected ships'
manifests, 9; collected duties and freight char-
ges, 9; prevented export of certain articles, 9; at
Canton, received complaints for non-payment of
loans, interest on loans, 17; customs, in Hai-
nan, 178.
Interest, on loans to foreigners at Canton, 17.
'Irak — see I-lu.
Iron, exported from China to Aden, 4; of
China exported overland to mouth of Indus, 5; a
product of Kiau-chi, 46; imported into San-fo-ts'i,
61; imported to Fo-lo-an, 69; tripods of, imported
to Sho-p'o, 78; swords, made on pirate islands
near Shb-p'o, 84; a product of T'ien-chu, 111;
none on Yen-t'o-man islands, 147; censers and
needles of, imported to Ma-i, 160; fondness for,
of P'i-sho-ye savages, 185; imported to Hai-nan,
177; none in Hai-nan, 183,
Irrawadi river, called the «Black Watera,
26, 59.
Ishmael, well of, same as well Zemzem,
113, n. 2.
Islam, when introduced into China, 14; law
of, administered in foreign settlement in Canton,
16, 17; people of Ts'ong-pa prefers, 126; in Pi-
p'a-lo, 128; in Mo-k'ie-la, 154.-
Ispahan — see Ya-ssi-pau-hien.
Ivory, imported to Aden, 4; to Canton, 16, 19;
import duty on, 21; comes from Kiau-chi, 46;
from Chan-ch'ong, 48; from Chon-la, 53; imported
to San-fo-ts'i, 61; comes from Tan-ma-ling, 67;
from Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68; from Fo-lo-an, 69; from
Ki6n-pi, 71; from Lan-wu-li, 72; from Sho-p'o,
77; from Chu-lien, 96; exported from Chu-lien,
100; comes from Arabs' country, 116; in Ts'ijng-
pa, 126; best in Pi-p'a-lo, 128; big tusks of, from
K'un-lung-ts'ong-k'i, 149; countries producing,
232; how procured, 232; various kinds, 232.
Jack-fruit, a product of Su-ki-tan, 83, 85;
grows in Chu-lien, 96; description of, 212; origin
of name, country of origin, 212—213.
Janggolo, in E. Java, — see Jung-ya-lu.
Japan, its commercial relations with Ts'iian-
chou, 17, — see Ji-pon.
Jasmine, introduction of culture of, in Can-
ton, 6; white, in Chu-lien, 96.
Jasper, bricks of, in palace of king of Arabs,
115.
Java, not known of by Huan-tsang, 8; when
first visited by Chinese, 9; mentioned by Kia Tan
as Ho-ling, 11; conquest of Sunda by, 71; Chinese
names of, 78-79; missions from China to, 77, 81;
ancient states in, 86; — see also Sho-p'o and
Su-ki-tan.
J'i-li, a dependency of Chan-ch'ong, 49.
J'i-lo-t'ing, a dependency of San-fo-ts'i, 62;
not identified, 65; like Tan-ma-ling, 67; its tri-
bute to San-fo-ts'i, 67; Arabs bring ivory to, 232.
J'i-li-hu, an island near P'o-ni, possibly Gi-
lolo, 157; its products and trade, 158.
J'i-pon (Japan), Origin of name, 170; its area,
administrative divisions, population, 170; little
arable land in, 170; tattooing in, 170; its situa-
tion, 170; surname of king, 170; offices in, here-
ditary. 170; dress, 170; Chinese books in, 170;
products, 171; currency, 171; music, 171; cus-
toms, 171; divination, 171; calendar, 171; longev-
ity, 171; women, 171; punishment of crime in,
171; gold and silver in, 171; relations of, with
China, 171; the bonze Tiau-jan (Chonen) visits
China, 171-172; Emperor of China's surprise
at information about, 172.
Jo-shui, the oWeak Water», near where the
sun goes down, 104.
Joseph, his works for supplying Egypt with
food, 144, 145, — see Shi-su.
Ju-lo, dried sour milk, Turki hurut, eaten in
K'i-tz'i-ni, 138, 139.
Jugglers, people of T'ien-chu clever. 111.
Jung-ya-lu, in western Sho-p'o, confined on
San-fo-ts'i, 62; its name also written Chung-ka-lu,
62; its position, 66- 67; also called Ta-pan, 84;
identified with Janggolo, 86; pepper of, 222.
Juniper trees, in Sin-lo, 169, line 41.
Kaabah, the, 124, 125.
Eadi, appointed by Chinese in foreign settle-
ments, 16.
Ealah, Greek knowledge of, 2; Kia Tan's
Ko-lo, 11; ships from Kulam-Male touched at,
15; foreigners from Canton and Ts'uan-chou seek
refuge at, 18; ships from Siraf meet those from
China at, 18.
Ealantan, E. coast Malay Peninsula — see
Ki-lan-tan.
Ealapang, identified with Kia Tan's Ko-lo, 11.
Ealhat, — see K'ie-li-ki.
Kamboja, — see Chon-la.
Eampar, E. coast of Sumatra, — see Kien-pi.
Ean-lo, a fruit of Chu-lien, not identified,
96.
Kan-me'i, a dependency of the Arabs, 117;
possibly the. Comoro islands, 122.
Ean-on, in Ch'ang-hua department, in Hai-
nan, 179.
Kan-pa-i (Cambay), the Kambayat of the
Arabs, a dependency of Malabar (Nan-p'i), 88.
Ean-pu, Maritime Customs at, 18.
Kan Ying, first Chinese to read Chaldaea, 4;
extent of his personal knowledge, 4.
Eau-chdng (Turfan), grew cotton, 218.
Ehanfu, the Moslim name of Canton, 15;
Marco Polo's, near Hang-chou, 20; additional
reasons for identification of, with Canton, 22.
Ehwarizm, — see Lo-ssii-mei.
Ki-lan-tan, a dependency of San-fo-ts'i, 02;
identified with Kalantan, 65; like Fo-lo-an, 69.
Ki-li-mon-sban (Pulo Krimun), 85.
Ki-lo Ta-nung, products of Nan-p'i, exported
via, 88; identified with Kw51a Terong, probably
on Perak coast, 91.
Ki-lung island, Koh-rang-kai or Hen's nest
island, 8.
Ki-pe'i, also written ku-pii, Sanskrit karpasa,
Malay hapas; cotton, 218.
Ki-shi (island of Kish or Keis), a dependency
of the Arabs, 117; its situation, 183; its ruler,
134; clothing, currency, food, products, trade, 134;
traded regularly with Pi-ssl-lo, 137.
Ki-t'o, ships from, trade of Ku-lin, 89.
Ki-tz'ii-ni (Ghazni), a dependency of tho-
Arabs, 117; distance of, from Ma-lo-pa, 138; the
Ki-tz'i-ni — Kung-shi-miau.
253
country and city of, 138; prayers in, 138; houses
and food in, 138; camel and horse raising in, 138-
the king of, 138; products of, 138. '
Ki-yang, in Hai-nan, 176, 179; islets near,
176; climate of, 180; natives of, their customs,
180; college at, 180.
Kia-lo-hi, a dependency of San-fo-ts'i, its
position, 52, 54, 66; not satisfactorily identified,
66; lilce. Tan-ma-ling, 67. '
Kia-ma-yen, an island of the Philippines
probably Calamian, 161.
Kia-mong, the gomuti palm (?), liquor made
fromsap of, in P'o-ni, 155.
Kia-pa-shan, an island or headland passed
between Ku-lo (q. v.) and San-fo-ts'i; not identi-
fied, 100, n. u.
Kia Tan, sailing directions compiled by, 9;
does not mention direct route between India and
Persian Gulf, 10; quoted, 10-14; quoted as to
overland route from Annam to India, 97; his
works,- 101-102.
Kia-t'u, sea-going ships called, 30.
Kia-tzi-mon anchorage near Canton, the
present Cupchi Point, 24.
Kiau-ehi (Tongking), its boundaries, 45; Chi-
nese ^ relations with, 45; king of, has Chinese
surname, 45; annual feasts of, 45; customs of
people of, 45; products of, 46; various Chinese
names of, 46.
K"ie-Ian, island of, the Kicobar islands, 12;
explanation of name, 12.
Kie-ye, Arabic al-KShirah othe Victorious)),
the modern Cairo, 144.
K'i6-ku-lo, country of, cardamoms in, 222.
K'i6-li-ki, a dependency of the Arabs, 1 1 7; pre-
sumably Kalhdt, 122; wu-nn-ts'i (civet) from, 234.
Kien-pi (Kampar), a dependency of San-fo-
ts'i, 62; identified with Kampar, E. coast of Su-
matra, 66; an important port-of-call, 71; distance
from, to San-fo-ts'i, 71; formerly dependent on
San-fo-ts'i, now independent, 71; products of, 71;
people fond of archery and head-hunting, 71;
distance from, to Lan-wu-li, 71; its trade with
Ku-lin, 72; ships of, visit Ku-lin, 89; ships ele-
phants and cattle to Ku-lin, 91; pearls from, 229.
Kien-yang, brocades of, in P'o-ni, 156.
K'in-chou, trade-mart in S. W. Kuang-tung,
6; foreign imports at, to be put in official godowns,
20; identical with Lien-ch6u-fu, 22; timber from
coast-hills near, 34; situated N. of Tougking, 45;
parrots from, 236-
King-hing-ki, a work by Tu Huan, quoted,
104.
Kingfishers, a product of Kiau-chi, 46;
feathers, a product of Chon-la, 53; in Hai-nan,
183; described, mode of capturing, use of feathers,
235; killing of, forbidden by Emperor, 236.
Eino, red, a product of Tong-liu-mei, 57;
Hu-ch'a-la produces, 92.
Kish (Keis), island of, ^- see Ki-shi.
Eia-ehou, a dependency of Chan-ch'6ng, 49.
Kiu-ehou, rocks, Taya islands, N. E. point
of Hai-nan, 10, — see Kiu-sing-shan.
Kiu-sing-shan, an island off the coast of
Kuang-tung, 101; possibly the same as the Kiu-
ch6u (q. V.) of Kia -Tan, i. e., Taya islands, N. E.
point of Hai-nan.
K'iu-tz'i", K'ucha in Eastern Turkestan; en-
voysfrom Chu-lien ranked with, 96.
1-7?'^^'^® '^'^'^-ts'ai, a product of Hai-nan,
176; an edible sea-weed, the agar-agar, 186,
n. 6>
K'iung-ohou, in Hai-nan, 176; its climate,
]lo' c ^ Pf^P"^' ^'^'^5 ''^'°»' ^^'^^ of Tsin in, 177-
178; Sung Kuan-chi in, 178; towns in district of,
178; source of rivers of, 182.
K'iung-shan, in Hai-nan, 178; the San-ho-
shm of, 182.
Ko-ko-song-oM (or -ti), Brouwers islands,
or Pulo Medang, 11; people are pirates, 11
slaves from, 150.
Ko-ku-lo, country of, possibly Ealantan or
Ligor, 11.
Ko-ling, the Klings of Malabar, 89, n. i.
Ko-lo, country of, probably Kora, W. coast
of Malacca, 11.
Korea, commercial relations with Ts'iian-
chou, 17, — see Sin-lo.
Ku-kiang in Yung-ch6u, kingfishers of, 235.
Ku-lin (Kulam-Male. Quilon), 10, 12; other
Chmese names of, 12; ships from Maskat sailed
to, 15; travellers going east transship- at, 24;
people of, good fighters, 68; trade of lien-pi at,
72; a dependency of Nan-p'i, 88; five days voyage
from Nan-p'i, 89; a month's voyage from Lan-
wu-li, 89; customs of people of, 89; the drinks
of, 89; people of, fond of archery, 89; currency of,
89; ships that visit, 89; many Arabs inhabit, 89;
dress and customs of, 91; travellers bound for
Arabs' countries transship at, 91; travellers to
Chu-lien change ships at, 94. '
Ku-lo, possibly the same as Ki-lo-ta-nung,
and on the Perak coast, 76, 80; old Arab who
sailed from, to Canton, 118; identified with
Acheen in Sumatra, 124, n. 25.
Ku-lun, a pirate state near Sho-p'o, 84;
possibly Gurgng off W. coast of Borneo.
Ku-na, Tdrki hina, Kussian kunitsa, the
marten, skunk, beaver, etc., the family of the
Mustelidae, 234.
Ku-tan, Kanthara, the present Nha-trang, 11.
Kii-lan — see Ku-lin.
Kuan-yin, the goddess, her images at Fo-
lo-an, 69, 70.
Kuang-chou-fu, — see Canton.
Kuang-nan, province of, Hai-nan part of
western circuit of, 176.
Kuang-si, pearls from, 229.
Kufa, — see A-kii-lo.
K'ui-ki, approximately Cho-kiang province, its
early inhabitants, 170; Ji-pOn lies due east of, 170.
K'un-lun, slaves, 32; language of, 32; country,
half a month's sail from Sho-p'o, 76; plum, a
product of Chu-li§n, 96.
K'un-lun-shan, Pulo Condore island, in Ma-
lay Pulo Kohnaong', 50.
K'un-lun-ts'ong-k'i, probably the islands of
Pemba and Madagascar, 149; the great p'ong
bird of, 149; products of, 149.
Kiln-t'u-nung, Mount, Pulo Condore, 11.
Kiin-tzi-kuo, aCountry of Gentlemen)), Ko-
rea, 167.
Kung-shi-miau (?), an island near P'o-ni,
its products and -trade, 158.
254
Ewantan — IiO-hui.
Kwantan, — see Tan-ma-ling.
Lacquer, a product of Kiau-chi, 46; ware,
imported into Ghan-cli"5ng, 49; ware, imported
to Fo-lo-an, 69; ware, imported to Sho-p'o, 78;
bowls and plates, imported to P'o-ni, 156; ware,
imported to Hal-nan, 177.
Laka-wood, a product of San-fo-ts'i, 61;
a product of Tan-ma-ling, 67; a product of Fo-
lo-an, 69; a product of Sho-p'o, 77; a product of
Tan-jung-wu-lo and Ma-li, 85; a product of P'o-
ni, 156; on islands near P'o-ni, 158; countries
producing it, its cheapness, varieties of, uses to
which put, 211.
Iian-li , — see Lan-wii-li.
Lan-wu-li, a dependency of San-fo-ts'i, 62;
extreme N. W. coast of Sumatra, 66; five days
sailing from Kien-pi to, 71; products of, 72; people
of, warlike, 72; distance from, to Si-lan, 72; length
of voyage from Ts'tian-ch6u to, 89; ships from
China to realm of Arabs, lay over for winter at,
114; trade of, 120; Yen-t'o-man (Andaman) islands
passed between, and Si-lan, 147.
Iiauce, people of Naa-p'i dexterous with, 88.
Iiang-ya-sii, the Lankachiu islands (Koh
Katu), 8.
Xiao, Sea, living in Canton, 16.
Lead, imported by Persians to China, 16; im-
ported into China in tenth century, 19; imported
into Chan-ch'ong, 49; one ounce of, buys two
bushels rice in Chon-la, 53; a product of T'ien-
chu, 111; net sinkers of, imported to P'o-ni, 156;
imported to Ma-i, 160; net sinkers of, imported
to San-sfi, 162; oxide of, used in making glass, 227.
Lengkasuka, — see Ling-ya-ssi-kia.
Leopards, in T'ien-chu, 111; dry flesh of,
exported from Liu-k'iu to Sau-sii, 163.
Li, aborigines of Hai-nan, savage and semi-
civilized, 176; paucity of food among, 176; their
trading in aromatic woods, 176; their customs
and dress, 177, 184; their pendent ears, 178; of
Ki-yang, their mode of life, 180; markets for the,
181; of Wan-ning, 181; divisions of the, 182;
names of chiefs, 182; ornaments worn by women,
182; tattooing among, 182—183; work of women,
183; sacrifices of, 183; barter of, with the Chi-
nese, 183; dwellings of, 183; revenge for murder
among the, 183; marriage, 183; death, 183; native
products, 183; revenge among the, 183; Chjaese
descendants of, 184; submission of,of'Wu-chi-ghan
district, 184; form of oath. among th«, 184.
Li-a-wu, an Arab envoy to China, tells of rhi-
noceros and elephant hunting,, 117—118,123; n. 23.
Li Fang, minister of Emperor T'ai-tsung, 172.
Li-hau, possibly the island of Lubang (Phi-
lippine Islands), 160.
Iii-kien, Ta-ts'in also called, 102.
Li-kin-tung, probably Lingayen in Luzon
island,- 160.
Li Kuang, Duke, 179, 187, n. le.
Li Li-lin, comes to Chinese Court from San-
fo-ts'i, 66.
Li-mu-shan, in Hai-nan, 176; origin of name,
182; streams that flow from, 182; its height, 188,
n. so,
Li-to, a kingdom of Western India, probably
the Lata of the Arabs, on the gulf of Cambay,
112; the king and queen of, 112.
Li T'iau-yuan, first editor of the Chu-fan-
chJ, 38; his prefatory note to Chau Ju-kua's
book, 43.
Li-ts'iu, a flower of Chu-lien, not identified, 96.
Li Yii, declines to receive Arab envoys, 117.
Liang-pau, a dependency of Chan-ch'ong, 49.
Libanotis root, a product of Sin-lo, 168. iJS'i
Licences accorded foreign traders, 19; ar-
ticles import of which allowed under, 21.
Lichees, in Su-ki-tan, their medicinal proper-
ty, 83.
Lien-ehou^fu, — see Kin-chou.
Lightning, along coast of Si-lan, 72.
Ligor, — see Ko-ku-lo and Tong-liu-mei.
Lime, used in adulterating wax, 239.
Limonite, — see Wu-ming-i.
Lin Chii-k'i, Inspector of Customs in Fu-kien
and author, 119, 124, n. 28.
Lin-kau, in Hai-nan, 178.
Ling-ki4-po-pa-to, island. Cape Varella, 8.
Ling-shui, in Hai-nan, — see Wan-an.
Ling-ya-mon (Linga island), one month's
sail from Ts'uan-ch6u, 60; ships from Ts'flan-
ch6u to San-fo-ts'i stop at, 60; trade in mats
at, 220.
Ling-ya-ss'i-kia, a dependency of San-fo-;
ts'i, 62; identified with Lengkasuka, 65; distance.,
from Tan-ma-ling to, 68; dress in, 68; native
products of, 68; trade in, 68; is tributary of San-
fo-ts'i, 68; four days from, to Fo-lo-an, 69.
Linga, island, a month's sail from Ts'uan-.
ch6u, 60; ships to San-fo-ts'i stop at, 60; its
other Chinese names, 64.
Lion, country of the, Ceylon, 12, — see Si-lan.
Lions, great numbers of, in Ta-ts'in, 103; in
T'ien-chu, 111. ' ;
Liquor, fermented, none made in Chan-ch'ong,
48; drunk in Chan-ch'ong, 48; intoxicating, used-
in San-fo-ts'i, 60, 64; used in Sho-p'o, 78;- made;
from sugar, in Su-ki-tan, 83; made from sugar-
and from nipa-palm, 84, 85; fermented, used in;
Ku-lin, 89, 91; fermented, not used in Ta-ts'in,
103; drunk by Arabs, 115-116, 120, n. 6; drunk,
at Ma-li-pa (Merbat), 121, r. il; of Ts'6ng«t'an,
127; drunk at K'i-tz'i-ni, 138; of P'o-ni, 155; as
wedding gift in P'o-ni, 155; made from rice in
Liu;k'iu, 163;. made from rice in Sin-lo, 169,
line 42; ferments used in making, in Hai-nan,
177; cardamoms put in, 222, line 25.
Literature, people of Sin-lo fond of Chinese,
167; people of Ji-p5n have standard, of China, 170,
Liu-k'iu (Northern Formosa), distance from
Ts'flan-chou, 162; the king of, his palace, 162—
163; dress in, 163; arms of, 163; taxes in,i63;
divisions.^ of the year, 163; habits of people of,
163; products of, 163; trade of people, 163; early
relations of Chinese with, 163, n. i; trade between,
and Philippines, 163.
Liu-sha, the «Flowing Sandss, near where;
the sun goes down, 104.
Liu-siii, possibly Luzon (Philippine Islands),
160.
Lo, the country, the Nicobar islands, 12.
Lo-hu, a dependency of Chon-la, 53; 56.
. Lo-hu-na, name of a priest from Ti6n-chu
who came to Ts'uan-ch6u, 111.
iiC-hui, in Hai-nan, 178, 182.
Lo-ki-lien — Mau-shi-pu.
255;
Lo-ki-lien, title of a minister of state in
Sho-p'o, 76, 80.
Lo-lan, south of Chu-lien, 94; probably a
copyist error for Si-lan, 99.
1.0- (or Yo-)lang, Prince of, 167; the present
Pyong-yang in Korea, 168, n. 8.
Lo-ssl-mei, a dependency of the Arabs, 117;
probably the Khwarizm, 121, n. is; gardenia
flowers from, 202.
Lo-yiie, the country of, S. extremity Malay
Peninsula, or Ligor, 11.
Iioans, to foreigners at Canton, 17.
Longevity, in Japan, 171.
Lotus, grows in Chan-ch'ong, 48; pond, in
palace of Lu-wu, 52, 55; seeds in kingdom of
woman, 151.
Lu-man, an island near P'o-ni, 157; its pro-
ducts and trade, 158.
Lu-mei (Rum, Asia Minor), 141; distance from
Ma-lo-pa, 141, also called Mei-lu-ku (q. v.), 141;
the city of, 141; the people of, 141; food, coinage,
industries, products, 141; camels, horses, dogs,
bred in, 141; Ssi-kia-li-ye, near, 153.
Lu Po-to, temple of, at Hai-k'ou, 178, 187,
n. 11.
Lu-wu, capital of Chon-la, 51; description of
palace in, 52, 53; identifled with Angkor, 54.
Lii-yang, a dependency of Chon-la, not
located, 54, 56.
Lucrabau seeds, a product of Chijn-la, 55.
Lung-ya-mon, Linga Strait and Island of, 64.
Lting-ts'ing, king of San-fo-ts'i styled, 61.
Lung-yung, a dependency of Chan-ch'ong,
49.
Lustring, coloured silk, imported to P'o-ni,
156.
Ma-hia-wii, the Prophet Mohammed, 116; his
birth place, 124; his House at Ma-kia, 124; feast
on anniversary of death of, 124; his tomb, 125;
earliest Chinese references to, 125; king of Pai-ta
successor of, 135.
Ma-i (Philippine Islands), thirty days from, to
P'o-ni, 155; situation of, 159; dress of people of,
159; their idols, 159; trading customs in, 159-160;
places belonging to, 160; products of, 160; San-su
(Three Islands) part of, 161; betel-nuts of, 214;
wax from, 238, 239.
Ma-j6, an island near P'o-ni, possibly Mahono,
its products and trade, 158.
Ma-kia (Mecca), a dependency of the Arabs,
117; eighty days' journey from Ma-lo-pa (Merbat)
to,. 124; the birth place of Mohammed, 124; the
House of the Buddha, 124; feast on anniversary
,of death of Mohammed at, 124; the Chinese
names of, 125.
Ma-lan, a dependency of Chon-la, 56, — see
Ma-lo-w5n.
Ma-li (Island of Bali), a dependency of Shb-
p'o, 83; people live qn sago, 84; drink nipa-palm
wine, 84; horses raised' on, 85; people have some
culture, 85; products of, 85; people much given
to piracy, 85.
..Ma-li-ino, a depe^dency of Nan-p'i, probably
Malabar, 88, 90.
Ma-lo-fu, the king of Ta-ts'in styled, 102;
presumably a transcription of Mar Aba, a title
of Nestorian patriarchs, 105.
Ma-lo-hua, a dependency of Nan-p'i, 88;
Malwa, 93; its products, 93.
Ma-lo-mo, — see Ma-lo-pa.
Ma-lo-nu, possibly Maldyu, our Malays, are
cannibals, 150; plug and plate teeth with gold, 150.
Ma-lo (or li-)-pa, Merbat, the trade centre
of the Arabs, 25; some make it the capital of the
Arabs, 115; a dependency of the Arabs, 116;
Ch6u K'tt-fei's note on, 120; its products, 120; its
ruler, people, food, etc., 121; sends missions to
China, 121; Ma-kia (Mecca) eighty days from,
124; distance from, to Pai-ta, 135; distance from,-
to K'i-tz'1-ni, 138; distance from, to Lu-mei, 141,
frankincense from, 195; putchuck from, 221;
centre of ivory trade, 232.
Ma-lo-won, a dependency of Chbn-la, not
located, 53, 56.
Ma-ni, an Arab envoy to China, 118, 123, n. w,
Ma-tung, a dependency of Sho-p'o, 83; prob-
ably Medang-kamolan, 86; pepper of, 222. ^
_ Ma Yuan (or Ma Fu-po), temple of, at Hai-
k'ou, 178; ascertains population of Hai-nan, 184;
note on, 187, n. ii. ,
Macclesfield Banks, 176, 185, n. 4.
Mace, imported to Aden from China, 4;
described, 210.
Madagascar, island of, 126, 149; — see also.
K'un-lung-ts'ong-k'i.
Madder, exported from Ki-shi, 134.
Magadoxo, reference to, 129.
Mahmud of Ghazni, possible reference to, 138.'
Majapahit empire, districts in Malay Penin-
sula included in, 65; Kampei, a dependency of
the, 72; the currency of the, 81; capital of, 86. -
Malabar, trade of Sabeans with, 1; Greek
sea-trade with, 2; — see Nan-p'i and Ma-li-mo.
Malabars, invasion of Ceylon, by, 74.
Malay Peninsula, Greek knowledge of, 2;
Ceylon trade with, 3; tortoise-shell from, export-
ed, 3; its trade with China at end tenth century,
19; Negrito slaves from, 81—32. ;
Malays, — see Ma-lo-nu.
Malwa, — see Ma-lo-hua.
Man-shan-shui, a river, presumably in
Kamboja, 100, n. ii.
Mangalore, reached by Greek ships, 2;
possibly referred to as Fong-ya-lo (q. v.).
. Manifests of ships, entering and leaving
Canton, 9.
Manna, a product of "Wu-ss'i-li, 140.
Marriage customs, in ShS-p'o, 76; of Chu-
lien, 95; of clergy of Christi.ans in India,, 112; iuj
P'o-ni, 155; in Sin-lo, 167; in Ji-pbn, 171; of Li
of Hai-nan, 183. . '
Mascat, ships for China sailed from, 15; —
see Yung-man.
Mathematics, people of San-fo-ts'i learned
in, 64. .1
Matting, fine bamboo, a product of Chan-,
ch'bng, 48; made in Sho-p'o, 77: fancy, made on
pirate' islands near ShS-p'o, 84; as presents in
P'o-ni, 156; cocoaiiut-heart, of San-sti, 161; straw,^
made in Sin-lo, 168; foreign matting, 220.
. Mau-shan (Pulo Eondo, off Achin) N, W.
coast of Sumatra, 74.
Mau-sM-pu, a tissue (gingham?) manufac-:
tured in Sin-lo, 168.
256
Maudgalyayana — Nan-ni-hua-lo.
Maudgalyayana, the* Arahat,— see Mu-li6n.
Mau-mon, Arabic Momemn «t]ie Faitliful»,
14; Prince of the, his capital, 14.
Mecca, — see Ma-kia.
Medicine, not used in Eiau-chi, 45; for
■Wounds, in San-fo-ts'i, 63, line 82; in Nan-p'i, 88;
dirt from tomb of Mohammed a powerfiil, 125;
in P'o-ni, 156; among the Li of Hai-nan, 180,
181; storax as a, 200.
Medina, the tomb of Mohammed at, 125.
Mei-lu-ku (-tun), capital of Lu-mei, 141;
wall of, 141; its mosques, 141; locality cannot
be identified, 141, n. i.
Mei-ssl-ta-hua-tsiu, a drink (or drinks) of
the Arabs made with honey and spices, 115—116,
120, n. 6, 121, n. 11.
Menang-kabau, kingdom of, its extent, 63;
possible legend concerning origin of, 61, 65.
Merbat, voyage from, to India by Greeks, 2;
Greek trade at, 2, — see Ma-lo-(or li-)pa.
Mi-biang, — see Gharu-wood.
Mi-lam, the river, the Arab name (Mihran)
of the Indus, 13.
Mi-sii-li, the capital of the Arabs, 115; Ara-
bic Misr, Egypt, 120, — see Wu-ssi-li.
Mi-tan-lo, a Hu (Western) priest comes to
China, 114.
Mie-a-mo, the capital of Nan-p'i styled, 87;
possibly Malabar, 89, n. 2.
Millet, grown in Chan-ch'ong, 48; grown in
Sho-p'o, 77; grown in Nan-p'i, 88; grown in Sin-
lo, 169, line «.
Ming-chou, — see Ning-po.
Mo-k'i6-la (Mogreb-el-aksa), its position not
known to Ch6u K'ii-fei, 24, 154; dress of king of,
154; extent of kingdom of, 154; army of, 154; food
of people of, 154; coral found off coast of, 154.
Mo-lai, — see Ku-lin.
Mo-la-ye, — see Ku-lin.
Mo-liang, a dependency of Chon-la, possibly
identical with Ma-lo-wbn (q. v.), 56.
Mo-lo, the country of, an emporium of Arab
trade, probably Old Eormuz, 14.
Mo-lo-kii-ts'a, — see Ku-lin.
Mo-so, stones, — see Bezoar stone.
Mo-t'i-na, Medina, reference to, 125.
Moghreb-el-aksa, — see Mo-k'i6-la.
Mohammed, the Prophet, — see Ma-hia-wu.
Momenin, Ameer-al, in Chinese Mau-mon
Wang, 14.
Money, coined, imported into China in tenth
century, 19; not used in trade in Chan-ch'ong,
48, — sec Currency. '
Monkeys, hills in Sho-p'o full of, 77.
Monopoly, foreign sea-trade made, by China,
19, 20.
Monsoons, effect of discovery of on size of
Greek ships, 2; Nearchus noticed, 2; Hippalas
discovers, 2; possibly availed of by Arabs at
earlier date, 2; voyage from China to India and
back made with, 9, 28; sailing with, from China
to San-fo-ts'i, 60; effect of sailing by the, on po-
sitions assigned different countries by Chinese, 79.
Mon-tu, country of, probably nearQuinhon, 10.
Mortuary customs in San-fo-ts'i, 61; in Sho-
p'o, 80; in Chung-li, 131; of Iji of Hai-nan, 180,
183.
Moslims, in China, in seventh century, 14;
sacking of Canton by, 15; administration of
settlement in Canton, 16; referred to as Fan, 16;
their women called P'u-sa-man, 16; life of a
wealthy, in Canton in thirteenth century, 16—17;
mode of eating, food, gambling, games, 17; how
punished in Canton and other settlements, 17;
officials in settlement, 17; their duties, 17; loans
contracted by, from Chinese, how recoverable, 17;
people of Wu-pa, 130; customs of, in Pai-ta, 135;
temple to Moslim sailor in Hai-nan, 188, n. 28.
Mosques, in foreign settlements in China, 16';
in K'i-tz'J-ni, 138; in Mei-lu-ku, 141.
Mosul, — see Wu-ssi-li.
Mu-kli-lan, a dependency of the Arabs, 117;
the Makran province, 122; asa-fo^tida comes
from, 224.
Mu-kua, the Mukuva caste of Malabar, 89.
Mu-lan bark, a product of Si-lan, 78; the
maratha-maram of the Tamils, the Pentaptera
tomentosa, Rox, 75.
Mu-lan-p'i, the kingdom of the Almoravides,
Southern Spain, a commercial centre, 26; where
situated, 27; ships of, 34, 142; its location, 142;
the extraordinary products of, 142; grain' kept
in silos in, 142; sheep of, 142; the Land of
Darkness from, 143.
Mu-lien, the Arhat, in Sanskrit Maudgal-
yayana, his hut in Pin-t'ung-lung, 51.
Murabit, the kingdom of the Almoravides, —
see Mu-lan-p'i.
Music, instruments of, in Kiau-chi, 4.5;
instruments of in Sho-p'o, 77; in P'o-ni, 156; two
systems of, in Sin-lo, 167, 169, n. 7; two systems
of, in Ji-pijn, 171.
Musk, exported from Diul Sindh, 3; exported
from China to Aden, 4; u§ed with camphor in
paste to scent body in Chan-ch'ong, 47; imported
into Chan-ch'ong, 49; used in Nan-p'i, 87; a pro-
duct of Sin-lo, 168; wood, used for making furni-
ture like rose-wood, 212.
Muslin, traded by Greeks at Merbat, 2; from
Ceylon, 3; brocaded, imported by Persians to
China, 16, — see Po-ti6.
Myreitica iners, a product of Chon-la, 55.
Myriad li rocks, (south-)east of Hai-nan, 176.
Myrobalans, imported to Aden from China,
4; a product of Hu-ch'a-la, 92.
Myrrh, imported by Arabs to San-fo-ts'i, 61;
a product of Pi-p'a-lo, 128; country of production
of, 197; descriptioii of tree, mode of collecting, 197.
ITairs, of Malabar, — see Nan-p'i.
Ifa-wu-tan, an island or headland passed by
the Chu-lien mission to China of 1015, between
Chu-lien and So-li Si-lan-shan (Ceylon of the
Cholas?). It is not identified, 100, n. 11.
Ifames, of kings of Kiau-chi, 45; in San-
fo-ts'i, 60, 64; in Sh5-p'o, 77; in Hai-nan, 182,
184.
ITan-chau (Laos country), early use of cotton
in, 219, line 15.
Nan-ni-hua-lo, a country of India, 97; its
city, 97; people bathe twice daily, 97; besmear
their bodies with turmeric, 97; many Brahmans in,-
97; use of cow-dung, domestic altars, 97; treat-
ment of Arabs when visiting, 97; adultery, 97;
products of, 98; food, 98; method of defense in,
Nan-p'i — Pau-lin-yiian.
257
against raids from West, 98; situated possibly in
Sindh, 102.
. Nan-p'i (Malabar), Si-Ian under rule of, 72;
its position, 87; its capital, 87; its ruler, 87; the
.body guard of the ruler of, 87; his officers, 87;
■much sandy soil in, 87; diet of king of, 88; people
of, devout Buddhists, 88; climate of, 88; currency of,
88; products of, 88; cat's-eyes, 88; dependencies,
88; Chinese relations with, 88; its trade with China
goes via Ki-lo-Ta-nung and San-fo-ts'i, 88; people
from, living in Ts'flan-ch6u, 88, 90; tries to con-
quer the Yen-t'o-man islands, 148; Wu-li-pa in,
produces much pepper, 223; cat's-eyes from, 229.
Na-lo-ki-lo islands, the Nicobar islands, 12.
Navigation, of Chinese, in fifth century,
27-28; method of, 32, 34.
Nearchus, effect of his expedition on sea-
trade with India, 1; mentions China, 5.
Needles, imported to Ma-i, 160.
Kelisseram, reached by Greek ships, 2;
Ceylon trade with, 3; Chinese exports overland
to, 5.
Ifestorian patriarch of Baghdad, the king of
Ta-ts'in of Ch6u K'ii-fei, 104-106.
New Year, how observed in Kian-chi, 45; in
Chan-ch'Ong, 47—48; a month of fasting and
prayer at, among the Arabs, 116; in P'o-ni, 156;
celebration at Ts'ttan-chou, 211.
Nicobar Islands, Greek knowledge of 2; first
mentioned by Kia Tan, 12; Chinese names for, 12;
cocoanuts principal food on, 12; ships from Per-
sian Gulf, passed, on way to China, 15.
Nile, the river, insures Arabs against inun-
dations and droughts, 116; official who watches
the rise of the, 116; its source not known, 144;
annual rise of the, 144; legend of the old man of
the, 144—145; animals of the, 145.
Ning-po (K'ing-yaan). Maritime Customs at,
18, 20.
Ning-yiian, in Hai-nan, 181.
• Nipa, arrak of, 64; juice of palm used in mak-
ing liquor, 84.
Niu-lun, a dependency of Sho-p'o, 83; nut-
megs from, 210.
Notched sticks, records on, in Hai-nan, 177.
Nu-fa (Dhofar), a dependency of the Arabs,
116, 121; frankincense from, 195; putchuck from,
221; aloes from, 225.
Nu-ku, a dependency of Shb-p'o, 83.
■ Nii-kua, a Kambojian extension of legend
of, 55.
Nutmegs, imported to Aden, 4; a product of
"Sho-p'o, 81; description of, and of mace, 210.
0-k6n-t'o (Alexandria in Egypt), 146; the
great, tower of, built by Tsu-ko-ni, 146; mirror
on tower, its use, how destroyed, 146-147.
Oak-galls, imported by Persians to China,
16; called p'u-lu in Wu-ssi-li, 140; description
of tree bearing acorns or, in alternate years,
215; foreign names for, 215.
Oarth, form of, in Hai-nan, 184.
Officials, of Sh6-p'o, 76; in Nan-p'i ride in
litters, 87; hold hereditary offices in Ji-pon, 170.
Oil, foreign, product of Chon-la, 53; of cam-
phor, 194; whale, use of in Chung-li, 131.
Oman, — see Yung-man.
Onesicrltas, mentions China, 5.
Ordeals, in Chan-ch'6ng, on supposed death
by tiger or crocodile, 48.
Orris root, imported to Sho-p'o, 78.
Ostrich, or «camel-crane», in Pi-p'a-lo, 128,
129, n. 5.
Pa-ki-nung, an island of the Philippines,
possibly Bnsuanga, 161.
Pa-lau-yu, the island of Palawan (Philip-
pines), 161.
Pa-li, — see Ma-li.
Pa-ssi-li, a dependency of Ch6n-la, possibly
identical with Po-ssl-lan (q. v.), 56.
Pa-t'a, a dependency of San-fo-ts'i, 62; pro-
bably the country of the Batta in Sumatra, 66;
likie Tan-ma-ling, 67.
Pa-yii,the country of, on the Guzerat coast, 13.
Pai-fa-tzi, an officinal root, a product of Sin-
lo, 168.
Pai-hua-yiian, a dependency of Sho-p'o, 83;
probably Pejajaran, 86; pepper of, 222.
Pai-i Man, situated W. of Tongking, 45, 46.
Pai-lien, a dependency of the Arabs, 117; the
island_ and coast of Bahrein, 122.
Pai IiO-t'ien, his poetry popular in Ji-p6n,
170.
Pai-p'u-yen (the Babuyan islands in the Phi-
lippines), 160, 161, — see also San-sii.
Fai-ta (Baghdad), a dependency of the Arabs,
117; its commercial importance, 135; distance of,
from Ma-lo-pa, 135; its army, 135; the king of,
135; the umbrella of the king of, 135; the city
of, 135; food in, 135; products of, 135; dress,
religion, 135; honours shown rulers of, 135; Pi-
ssi-lo subject to, 137; ruled over Wu-ssi-li (Egypt),
144.
Pahang, — see P'ong-fong.
Palawan island, — see Pa-lau-yu.
Palembang, — see San-fo-ts'i and Sumatra.
P'6n-ni-mo-huan, the Omayyad Caliph
Merwan II, 117.
Pon-t'o-lang (Panduranga, Panrang), 11.
P'ong, the great, therucof mediaeval writers,
it can eat a camel, water-butt can be made of
feather of, 149.
P'ong-fong (Pahang), a dependency of San-
fo-ts'i, 62, 65; like Fo-lo-an, 69.
P'6ng-hu islands (The Pescadores), P'i-sho-ye
near, 165.
P'6ng-k'ie-lo, a country of India, possibly
the kingdom of the Balhara, 97, 102.
Panrang, — see Pin-t'ung-lung.
Pantomimes, in Sho-p'o, 77.
Paper, manufacture of, unknown in Kiau-chi,
45; pet-to leaves used as, in T'ien-chu, 111, 114;
mulberry bark, from Hai-nan, 176; from bark of
mi-hiang tree, 205, lines 32-39.
Parrots, found in Chan-ch'ong, 48; Hill of,
in Sho-p'o, 76; in Sho-p'o, 78; in Ta-pan, 84; in
Chu-lien, 96; talking, and the Emperor T'ai-
tsung, 23; from K'in-chou, 236.
Fatani river, 65.
Patriarch, of Antioch, 104-106; of Baghdad,
104-106; his dress, 106-107.
Pau-lau-an, Mount, landmark on coast of
Su-ki-tan (Central Java), 82, 85.
Pau-lin-yiian, in Ts'flan-chou, origin of,
111.
17
■25B
Peacocks — Pb-ssi.
Peacocks, found in Chan-ch'Bng, 48; standard
of, feathers of king of Nan-p'i, 87; umbrellas of
feathers, in Nan-p'i, 87.
Pearls, of Ceylon, 3; imported by Persians to
China, 16, 19; import duty on, 21; imported to
San-fo-ts"i, 61; seed, plentiful in San-fo-ts'i, 63;
a product of Kien-pi, 71; a product of Shb-p'o,
■77; a product of l^an-p'i, 88; a product of Chu-
lien, 9.6; a product of Ta-ts"in, 103; product of
Arabs' country, 116; on coast of Yung-man, 133;
of Ki-shi, 134; sacred, in P'o-ni. 157; found in
Ma-i, 160; countries of origin of, 239; mode of
fishing, 229-230.
Pegu, trade-route from, to Yiin-nan, 6.
Pei-kiau tablets, divination by the, 178, 187,
n. 11.
Pei-to, leaves, used as paper in T'ien-chu, 11;
varieties of, 114; used to thatch dwelling of king
of P'o-ni, 155; used as dishes and cups in P'o-
ni, 156,
Pemba, island of, — see K'un-lun-ts'6ng-k'i.
Pepper, black, grows in Male (Ku-lin), 3;
brought to Aden from China, 4; imported by
Persians to China, 16; some, produced in Chbn-
la, 55; of Sin-t'o, small-grained but of superior
quality, 70; in Sho-p'o, 77—78; copper cash in
demand in Sho-p'o for buying, 78; great quantity
of, in Su-ki-tan, 83; its price, 83; gatherers suffer
from fumes of, 83; not referred to as a product
of Nan-p'i or Hu-ch'a-la, 91, n. 12, 92; countries
producing, 222; description of vine, gathering,
storing of, 222-223; Wu-li-pa (Malabar) reported
to produce almost all, 223.
Pepper, long, brought to Aden from China,
4; imported by Persians to China, 16; a product
of Hai;nan, 177; comes from Central India, 223,
line 24.
Perfumes, their use in Chan-ch'Bng, 47; pro-
ducts of Si-lan, 73; used, by women of escort of
king of Nan-p'i, 87.
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, extent of
its knowledge about China, 5.
Persia, trade with Ceylon, 3; products classed
by Chinese as coming from, 7—8, 16; traders
■ from, and the China trade, 8; sea-route between,
and China, 15; putchuck from, 221.
Persian Gulf, products of India reach head
of, through Sabeans, 1; reached by Chinese, 3;
sailing directions from Canton to, 9—14.
Persians, engaged in China trade, 8; in
foreign settlement in Canton, 14; route followed
by ships of, to- China, 15; products brought by,
to China, 16; Arabs a branch of the, 117.
Pescadore islands, — see P'6ng-hu.
Pheasants, in Chu-liSn, 96.
Philippine Islands, trade with China at end
tenth century, 19, — see Ma-i, San-su and P'i-
sho-ye.
Pigafettaj his description of gharu-wood
hunting in Annam, 50; and the pearls of king of
Brunei, 159.
Pi-li-sha (Bharoch?), a dependency of Nan-
p'i, 88, 90.
Pi-p'a island, near entrance to port of Can-:
ton, 101.
Pi-p'a-lo (Berbera coast), a dependency of
the Arabs, 117, 122; four towns in, 128; people
pray to Heaven, 128; products of, 128; descripe
tion of the ostrich, the girafe and the zebra of,
128; early notice of, 128—129; §reat mountain
on boundary of, 131.
Pi-ssi-lo (Basra), a dependency of the Arabs,
117; the ruler of, and his escort, 137; the people
of, 137; the almanack of, 137; products of, 137^
trade of, 137.
Pi-ts'i, a dependency of Chan-ch'8ng, 49.
P'i-no-y6, a dependency of the Arabs, 117;
the Ifrikiya of the Arabs, the coast of .Tunis and
Tripoli, 122; coral from, 226.
P'i-sho-y6 (Southern Formosa), near Liu-k'in,
163; its language, 165; smoke in, visible from
islands of P'5ng-hu, 165; savages of, raid envi-
rons of Ts'lian-chou, 165; fondness for iron of
natives of, 165; their arms and rafts, 165; identity
of, with Visaya of the Philippines, 166. ;
Pien-han, the people of Sin-lo descend from,
165.
Pigj fighting, in Sho-p'o, 77; sacrificed in Hai->
nan, 183.
Pigeons, carrier, on board sea-going ships,
28.
Pin-su, Pasuri, the Fansur of the Arabs,
the Barus of mediaeval writers, 193; camphor
from, 193.
Pin-t'ie, — see Steel.
Pin-t'ou-lang-shan (Cape Panrang or Pa-
daran), 101.
Pin-t'6u-lu, the Arhat, gives his name to
Pin-t'ung-lung, 51.
Pin-t'ung-lung (Panrang), a dependency of
Chan-ch'ong, 49; the Panrang coast of Cochin-
china, 51; clothing and dwellings of people, 51;
origin of name of, 51; hut of Mu-li§n in, 51;iits
relations with China, 51; — see also Pin-t'ou-
lang-shan.
Pindola, the Arhat, — see Pin-t'6u-Iu.
Pine, cones, a product of Sin-lo, 168; trees,
in Sin-lo, 169, line 41; variety of, called to, 171,
174, n. 12.
Ping-ya (Banca), a dependency of Sh5-p'o,
83, 86.
P'ing-chou-k'o-t'an, when written, 16;
quoted, 16, 17, 20, 21, 23, 29-33; earliest work
to mention mariner's compass, 29.
Piracy, on southern coast of China and Tong-
king, 7; of people of Ko-ko-sbng-chi, 11; eflfects
trade between Persian Gulf and China, 15; pro-
tection against, at San-fo-ts'i, 62; at Linga, 63;
prevalent in island dependencies of Sho-p'o, 84;
people of Tan-jung-wu-lo prefer, to trade, 85;
among natives of Sha-hua-kung, 150; rare 'in
Ma-i, 169.
Plaster, used instead of tiles in Ta-ts'in, 102;
in T'ien-chu, 110.
Plum, the K'un-lun, a product of Chu-lien,
96; season for blooming in Hai-nan, 179.
Po-liau, in Hai-nan, 181.
Po-lo, the country of, 212, note; native of,
brings jack-fruit to China, 212, note; — see also
P'o-li.
Po-lo-mi, the jack-fruit, a product of Su-ki-
tan, 83; of Chu-li6n, 96; description of, origin ef
name, 212-213.
Po-ssi, -T- see Persia.
Po-ss'i — Rattans.
25 a
Po-ssi, possibly a locality in Sumatra, Besi
or Lambesi (?), 152; the people, their dress, the
king, the food, 152.
Fo-ss'i-lan, a dependency of Ch8n-la, 53.
Po-tie, fine muslin, a product of Chan-ch'ong,
48; probably Tmki pakhta acottonn, 50; a product
of T'ien-chu, 111; use of term in China, 218-
219.
Po-to-li, king of Fu-lin, sends mission to
China in 6, 43: Po-to-li represents presumably
baink the Syrian word for «patriarch», 105.
P'o, country of, possibly contracted form of
Nicobar, 12.
P'o-li, country of, in Malay Peninsula (?) or
Sumatra; identified with Po-lo, whence came the
po-lo-mi or jack-fruit, 212, note; brings cotton
to Chinese Court, 218, line so; varieties of cotton
in, 219.
P'o-lo, name of a flower of Chu-lien, not
identified, 96.
P'o-lo-mon, the west coast of India, 7, 12;
also means Brahman, 97.
P'o-lou, a section of ChOn-la during the T'ang
period, 57.
P'o-lu, country of, in Sumatra, Perlak or
Peeir, 12.
P'o-lun mountains, Bolor, the modern Balti,13.
P'o-ni (western coast of Borneo), its distance
from Sho-p'o, 76, 155; distance of, from San-fo-
ts'i, from Chan-ch'ong and from Ma-i, 155;
dwellings in, 155; the king of, his dress, escort,
and fighting boats, 155; products, food, drinks,
155; female dress, weddings, 155; burial, 156;
ceremony on beginning of ploughing, 156; festi-
vals in, 156; dishes in, 146; medicine for wounds,
156; products of, 156; trading customs between
Chinese and natives of, 156—157; the god of, 157;
the two great pearls of, 157; relations with China,
157; islands near, 157—158; their products, 158;
Ma-i north of, 159; gharu-wood does not come
from, 204; imt-na-ts'i (here sea-dog scrotum)
abundant in, 234; tortoise shell from, 238.
P'o-to-li, a Tauist deity in Chon-la, 53, 55.
t Polillo Island (Philippine Islands), — see
P'u-li-lu.
- Pomegranate flowers, use as ferment in Hai-
nan, 177.
Population, of Ji-pon, 170.
Porcelain, exported from China in tenth
century, 19; imported into Chan-ch'Ong, 49; im-
ported into Ch5n-la, 53; imported to San-fo-ts'i,
61; basins, bowls, etc., of, imported to Tan-ma-
ling, 67; sold in Ling-ya-ssr-kia, 68; imported to
Fo-lo-an, 69; imported to Si-lan, 78; green, im-
ported to Sh6-p'o, 78; exported to Nan-p'i, 88;
exported to Ts'oug-pa, 126; celadon, imported to
P'o-ni, 156; white, imported to islands near P'o-
ni, 158; imported into Ma-i, 160; imported to
San-sii, 161, 162; made in Sin-lo, 168; imported
to Hai-nan, 177.
Porpoise, fresh-water, eaten by Moslims in
Canton, 17.
Potash, nitrate of, used in making glass, 227.
Pottery, brought to Aden from China, 4;
large quantity of, exported from Canton, how
packed, 31.
Priests, Buddhist and Tauist, in Chon-la, 53;
their dress, their style of life, 53; dress of
Buddhist, in P'u-kan, 58.
Ptolemy, his knowledge of sea-route to Far
East, 2.
Pu-lo {pura), the thirty-two, of Chu-lien, 94-
95, 99, n. 5.
P'u, equivalent of ((Abu» in Arabic, 16; a
common surname in San-fo-ts'i, 60, 64.
P'u-a-li, envoy from P'o-ni to China, 157;
also called P'u Lu-sie, 159, n. is.
P'u-hi-mi (Abu Hamid), an Arab who twice
visited Chinese Court, 122, n. 17, 123, n. is.
P'u-hua-lo (Bokhara), a dependency of the
Arabs, 117.
P'u-kan (Pagan), its position W. of Chon-la,
52; a dependency of Ch6n-la, 54, 56; hair-dressing
in, 58; head-covering of, 58; many horses in, 58;
people of, devout Buddhists, 58; king of, his
court, 58; Chinese temple in, 58; missions from,
to China, 58, 59; recognized as independent and
powerful state by China, 59; a road to Chu-lien
said to pass through, 94.
P'u-kia-lung, another name of Sho-p'o, 75;
identified with Pekalongan, N. coast of Java, 79.
P'u-11-lu (Polillo Island, Philippine Islands),
160; the people of, cruel and robbers, 162; coast
along, dangerous, 162; coral along coast of, 162;
mats from, 220; tortoise-shell from, 238; wax
from, 239.
P'u-lo-himg, Abraham the Patriarch, 144.
P'u-lo-kan-wu, a dependency of Chan-
ch'ong, possibly Pulo Condore, 49, 50.
P'u-lu, oak(-galls), Persian halut, 140.
P'u-tuan, its relations with China, possibly
identical with P'u-kan (Pagan), 59.
Pulo Aor, — see Shang-hia-chu.
Pulo Ceeir de Mer, — see Shi-tzi rocks.
Pulo Condore island, 11; ships from Kalah
touched at, 15; — see also K'un-lun-shan, Kiin-
t'u-nung and Pu-lo-kan-wu.
Pulo Gambir, — see Yang-shan.
Pulo Krimun, — see Ki-li-m6n-shan.
Pulo Medang, — see Ko-ko-song-chii (or ti).
Pulo Bondo, — see Mau-shan.
Pulo Sapatu, — see Shi-tzi rocks.
Pulo Senang (Bam Island), — see Chang-
yau-s'u.
Pumpkins, grow in Sin-t'o, 70.
Purification after burials in Japan, 171.
Putchuck, imported by Persians to China, 16;
imported to San-fo-ts'i, 61; best quality comes
from Nan-ni-hua-lo, 98; much in Pi-p'a-lo, 128;
countries producing, 221; mode of gathering,
221.
QaQola, of Ibn Batuta, identified with Kia
Tan's Ko-ku-lo, 11.
Quicksilver, imported by Persians to China,
16; exported from Ki-shi, 134; a product of Sin-
lo, 168.
Bafts, people of San-fo-ts'i live on, 60, 63;
bamboo, used by P'i-sho-ye savages, 165.
Bamie fiber cloth, 160.
Rattans, imported to Aden, 4; Moslim offen-'
ders at Canton beaten with, 17; white, grow in
Chan-ch'ong, 48; use of, in Tan-ma-ling, 67; use
of, in Sin-to, 70; white, a product of Lan-wu-li,
72; white, exported from Lan-wu-li to Ma-li-pa
17*
260
Battans — Satinets.
(Malabar), 120; baskets made with, in San-sil, 161;
red and white, from Hai-nan, 176.
' Begistration, of ship captains, 9.
Bhinoceros, horns, imported to Canton, 16,
19; a product of Kiau-chi, 46; a product of Chan-
ch'ijng, 48; plentiful in San-fo-ts'i, 63; horns, a
product of Tan-ma-ling, 67; horns, a product of
Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68; horns, a product of Sho-p'o,
77; in T'i§n-chu, 111; in Arabs' country, 116;
mode of killing, 118; largest found in Pi-p"a-lo,
128; possible reference to, as «water-horse», 145;
horns from K'un-lun-ts'ong-k'i, 149; none in Ji-
pbu, 171; description of, 233.
Bhubarb, imported into San-fo-ts'i, 61;
exported to Nan-p"i, 88.
Bice, in Chon-la, cheap, 53; imported into
San-fo-ts'i, 61; imported to Tan-ma-ling, 67;
imported to Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68; imported to Fo-
lo-an, 69; grown in ShO-p'o, 77; price of, in Su-
ki-tan, 82; quantities of, stored by wealthy people
in Su-ki-tan, 83; grown in Nan-p'i, 88; grown in
Chu-lien, 96; much eaten in Nan-ni-hua-lo, 98;
not eaten in Ki-shi, 134; little, at Pai-ta, 135;
little eaten at K'i-tz'i-ni, 138; of Mu-lan-p'i,
kept in silos, 142; none in Mo-k'ie-la, 154; grown
in P"o-ni, 155; grown in Sin-lo, 167; liquor di-
stilled from, in Sin-lo, 169; line 42; insufficiency
of supply in Hai-nan, 176; sold by Chinese in Hai-
nan, 177.
Bings, for fingers, foreigners in Canton prize
them, 90, n. 7; set with cat's-eyes and bezoar
stones, 90, n. 7; exchanged when asking to marry
in Chu-lien, 95; finger, come from Chu-lien, 100,
n. 8; used as marriage presents in P'o-ni, 155.
Boads, in Ta-ts'in, sheds and beacon towers
on, 103.
Bose-water, used by Moslims in Canton, 17;
used by king of San-fo-ts'i in bathing, 61; im-
ported by Arabs to San-fo-ts'i, 61 ; exported from
Ki-shi, 134; of Lu-mei, 141; country producing,
203; rare in China, 203; imitations of, 203; test
of genuiness, 203.
. Bouge, imported to P'o-ni, 156.
Bugs, gold embroidered, made in T'i6n-chu,
111; called t'a-tong, 111, 113; much prized by
Arabs, 115.
Bum — Asia Minor, — see Lu-mel.
Sa-po traders, in Ceylon, possibly Arabs, 3.
Sabeans, sea-trade of, with West coast of
India, 1; extreme point on Malabar coast reached
by, 2.
Sacrifices, of animals by the Li in Hai-nan,
180, 183.
Saddles, brought to Aden from China, 4;
not used in P'u-kan, 58.
Saffron, a product of Sho-p'o, 78.
Sago, king of San-fo-ts'i fed on, 61; palm,
fruit of used in making a liquor in Sho-p'o, 78;
method of making, 84; used as standard of value
in trade, 84; used in P'o-ni, 155; used by cam-
phor-gatherers, 193.
Salt, a product of Kiau-chi, 46; imported to
Tan-ma-ling, 67; made from sea water in Sho-
p'o, 77; bay, made in Ta-pan, 84; imported to
isHnds near P'o-ni, 158; in Liu-k'iu, 163; in
Hai-nan, 177, 183; rock, used in adulterating
wax, 239.
Samshu, imported into Chan-ch'oug, 49; im-
ported into Chon-la, 53; imported into San-fo-ts'i,
61; imported into Tan-ma-ling, 67; imported into
Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68; imported to Fo-lo-an, 69;
imported to islands near P'o-ni, 158; imported to
Hai-nan, 177.
San-fo-ts'i (Palembang), Chinese begin going
to India via, 9; foreigners from Canton and
Ts'uan-ch6u seek refuge at, 18; its importance
in sea-trade of China, 23; its area, 60; distance
of, from Ts'iian-chou, 60; the city of, 60; the
king of, 60, 61; people of, warlike, 60, 63; currency
of, 60; climate of, 60; drinks of people of, 60;
mode of writing in use in, 60; laws of, 61; the
«Hill of gold and silyers, 61; customs oi, 61;
legend connected with, 61; products of, 61; foreign
trade at, 61; piracy in, 62; dependencies of, 62;
its relations with China, 62; other Chinese names
of, 63; Ch6u K'ii-fei's notes on, 63; people of,
could calculate eclipses, 64; missions from, to.
court of China, 66; tribute sent to, by Tan-ma-
ling and Ji-lo-t'ing, 67; yearly tribute sent, by
Si-lan, 73; distance from, to Sho-p'o, 76; distance
from, to Nan-p'i, 87; ships from, trade at Ku-
lin, 89; products from realm of Arabs brought'
to, 114, 116; distance from, to P'o-ni, 155; centre
of camphor trade at, 193; centre of frankincense
trade, 195; benzoin trade centered at, 198, 201;
sandal-wood from, 208; mats from, 220; ivory
trade of Arabs at, 232; wax from, 238, 239.
San-ho-liu, rapids in channel between Lei-
ch6u and Hai-nan, 176, 185, n. 3.
Saa-lo, a dependency of Chon-la, 53, 56.
San-po, a dependency of Chon-la, 56; possibly
identical with San-lo.
San-sii, a flower of Chu-li§n, not determin-
ed, 96.
San-sii, «The Three Islands)), in Ma-i, 160;
their names, 161; local customs of, 161; huts in,
161; women in, carry water jars, 161; theHai-tan
savages in, 161; trade customs in, 161; coasts of,
rooky and dangerous, 161; products and trade of,
162; their trade with Liu-k'iu, 163; mats from,
220; tortoise-shell from, 238; wax from, 238,
239'.
Sandal-wood,importedinto Ceylon, 8;import-
ed by Persians to China, 16; imported into Chau-
ch'ong, 49; a product of San-fo-ts'i, 61; a product
of Fo-lo-an, 69; imported to Si-lan, 73; a product
of Sho-p'o, 77; a product of pirate islands near
Sh6-p'o, 84; exported to Kan-p'i, 89; found in
T'ien-chu, 111; yellow, a product of Ts'6ng-pa,
126; countries of origin, 208; description of tree,
varieties, 208.
Sapan-wood, imported to China end ot tenth
century, 19; import duty on, 20; a product of
Chon-la, 53; a product of Lan-wu-li, 72; a pro-
duct of Sho-p'o, 78; a product of Ku-lin, 89; Arabs
export, from Lan-wu-li to Ma-li-pa (Merbat), 120;
description of, 217.
Sapphires, a product of Si-lan, 73.
Sarong, worn in San-fo-ts'i, 60; Chinese names
for, 64; worn in Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68; in Hu-ch'a-
la, 92; flowered silk, from Hai-nan, 176; woven by
the Li of Hai-nan, 180.
Sarsenets (man-pu) made in Ta-ts.'in, 103.
Satinets, imported into Chon-la, 53.
Satins — Si-wang-mu.
261
. Satins, of the Arabs, 116; great store of, in
Pai-ta, 135.
Scales, used by Arabs for weighing gold and
silver, 116.
Scented woods, imported into China in tenth
century, 19; import duty on, 21, 22; fumes of,
used in Chan-ch'ong to perfume clothing, 47: poll-
tax for cutting, in- Chan-ch'ong, 48; best comes
from Tong-liu-mei, 56; — see also Gharu-wood.
Sea, the Green, 12; of Kiau-chi, 23, 24; Great
Southern Ocean, 25; Great Eastern Ocean, 26; of
Ceylon, 26; Eastern, of the Arabs, 26, 75;
Western, of the Arabs, 26; serpent, 33; water of
the Eastern Ocean, flows into wei-lu, 79; islands
in the, near P'o-ni, 157-158.
Sea-dog, drug procured from, 234-235.
Sea-route, of Sabeans to India, 1; of Greeks
to India in first century, 2; Greelss did not know
of, from India or Ceylon to China before Cosmas,
5; of Chinese pilgrims to India in seventh century,
9; Kia Tan's sailing directions for, from Canton
•to Persian Gulf, 9—14; followed by ships between
Persian Gulf and China, 15, 23, 24, 120; from
Sho-p'o to Canton, 76; from Chu-li6n to Canton,
100-101; from Canton to Merbat, 120.
Serendib, — see Si-lun-tie and Adam's Peak.
Sha-huarkiuig, probably the Malay «Orang-
laut.B, 150; pirates, sell slaves to Sho-p'o, 150.
Shagreen skins, exported from China to
Aden, 4. .
Shang-hia-chu islands, Pulo Aor, 23, 2i.
Sheep, none in Chan-ch'ong, 50; in Ta-pan,
84; in Pi-p'a-l6, 128; many in Chung-li, 130; milk
of, drunk in Yung^man, 138; of Pi-ssi-lo, 137;
fat-tailed, of Mu-Ian-p'i, 142; in Mo-k'i6-la, 154;
in P'o-ni, 155; none in Liu-k'iu, 163; none in
Sin-lo, 169, line i/jin Ji-pon, 171; in Hai-nan, 181.
Shehr, — see Shi-ho.
Sheikhs, appointed by Chinese in foreign
settlements', 16.
SM-ho (Shehr) a dependency of the Arabs,
116, 121; frankincense from, 195; putchuck from,
221. •■
Shi-ir-tz'i rocks, N. of Carimata island, Bor-
neo, 24.
Shi-na-weii, an Arab of Ts'aan-ch6u who
built a charnel house, 119.
Shi-BU (Yusuf, Joseph), descendant of P'u-lo-
hung (Abraham), how he warded off famine in
Wurssi-li, 144.
Sb'i-tzi rocks, Pulo Sapatu or Pulo Cecir de
Mer, 8.
Sho-p'o (Java), San-fo-ts'i invaded by, 62; also
called P'u-kia-lung, 75; distance from Ts'uan-
ch6u, 75; regions lying east of, 75; other countries
reached by sea from, 76; nearest Arab colony^to,
76; dimensions of island of, 76; religions of, 76;
officials in, 76i amusements in, 77; monkeys in,
77; dwellings, dress and character of people of,
77; relations of, with China, 77; products of,
77-78; agriculture in, 77; currency of, 78; pepper
in, 78; slaves brought to, from Sha-hua-kung,
150; distance from, to P'o-ni, 155; cloves from,
209; trade in mats in, 220; cardamoms from, 221;
pepper from, 222; tortoise-shell from, 238.
Sho-shon, «to renounce the world», sect in
Sho-p'o, possibly Brahmans, 76, 80.
Sho-ts'i-sang, a flower of Chu-lien, not iden-
tified, 96. ;
Shong-tong, island of, a district of Sumatra,
near present Deli, 11.
Ships, employed by Greeks in trade with
India, 2; from Ceylon, 3; from Persia and East
coast Africa visit Ceylon, 3; shape of, employed
in China trade in seventh century, 9; foreign
captains of, in China trade, 9; manifests of, exa-
mined in Canton, 9; frequent wrecking of, in
voyage to and from China, 15; employed in China
trade not navigated by Chinese, 15; small, em-
ployed between Quilon and Persian Gulf, 15;
Chinese-manned, go to Kalah, 18; regulations for
foreign, entering Canton, 23; tide-waiters put on
board, on arrival, 23; travellers from West re-
ship to larger, at Kulam-Male, 24; large, cart
sail 1000 li a day, 24; size of Arabs', 24; of Chi-
nese type on route between Kulam and China,
24; Chinese, in the fifth century, 27; methods of
navigating sea-going, 27-28; carrier pigeons oii
board, 28; water supply on, where procured at
Canton, 29; seasons when, sailed to and from Can-
ton, 30; shape and rigging of, 30; called Jcia-t'u, 30;
large hia-ling, their crews, 30-31; large trading-
ships only profitable, 31; traders on board,31; con-
fiscated and crew sold on putting into ports not on
route, 31; leaks in, how mended, 31; description of
big sea-going, of twelfth century, 33-34; of Mu-
lan-p'i, 34, 142; size of Chinese mediaeval, 34-35;
manifests of, in Annam, 48; merchant, forced to
enter San-fo-ts'i, 62; importance of Kien-pi for
trading, 71; from San-fo-ts'i, Kien-pi and Bj-t'o
visit Ku-lin, 89; Chinese traders bound west
change, at Ku-lin, 91; from Ts'uan-ch6u to lealm
of Arabs, length of voyage, 114; how caulked,
131, 132, n. 4; cargoes from Ki-shi, 134; date of
sailing of, from P'o-ni, 157; date of sailing of,
from the Philippines, 162; course followed by,
from Ts'uan-ch6u to Sin-lo, 165, 168, n. 2; of
Japanese bring lumber to Ts'iian-chou, 171;
course sailed by, from China to Japan, 173, n. 7;
engaged in Hai-nan trade, 178, 187, n. is.
Shui-au; village in Ts tian-chou-fu, 165.
Si-lan (Ceylon), a dependency of San-fo-ts'i,
62; under rule of Nan-p'i, 72; distance of, from
Lan-wu-li, 72; lightning along coast of, 72; the
king of, 72; his palaces, jewels, 72; his betel-nut,
73; his great rtiby, 73; the people of, 73; the
great mountain of Si-lun-tie in, 73; products of,
73; sends yearly tribute to San-fo-ts'i, 73-, Cho-
lian rule over, 98; Andaman islands between, and
Lan-wu-Ii, 147; — see also Ceylon.
Si-lun-tie, the mountain of, in Si-lan, 73;
impress of foot on, 73; identified with Adam's
Peak, 74-75.
Si-lxmg (possibly Ceram), 157; its products
and trade, 158.
Si-p'6ng, a dependency of Chon-la, not iden-
tified, 54, 56.
Si-tan-chang-shu, a book studied in T'ien-
chu, HI; a woris; on astronomy, 114.
Si-t'ien, India, exclusive of Chu-li4n, and
westward, 102.
Si-wang-mu, her residence near the Jo-shui
and the Liu-sha, 104.
202
Siam — Su-tan.
Siam, first mission from, to China, 6; first
Chinese mission by sea to, 8; its trade with China
at end tenth century, 19; — see also Ghon-la.
Siang-kung, title given chief of Tan-ma-
ling, 67.
Siang-shi, Tinhosa island, 10.
' Sicily, — see Ssii-kia-li-y6.
\ Silk, exported from China to Ceylon, 3; Greek
knowledge of silk trade of China, 5; produced in
Chan-ch'ong, 48; raw, a product of Ch6n-la, 53;
brocades, gauzes and skeins of, imported to San-
fo-ts'i, 61; tissues of Ho-ch'i, sold in Tan-ma-ling,
67; tissues of Ho-ch'i, sold in Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68;
•tissues, imported to Si-lan, 73; weaving in Sho-
p'o, 78; stuffs, imported to Sho-p'o, 78; tissues
of cotton and, a product of Chu-lien, 96; people
of Ta-ts'in clever weavers of, lO-l; tissues worn
in P"o-ni, 155; tissues of, imported to P'o-ni,
156; tissues imported to islands near P'o-ni, 158;
■tissues imported to San-sil, 162; tissues imported
to Sin-lo, 168; value of, in Sin-lo, 169; line 43;
fine, fabrics in Ji-pon, 171; tissues imported to
Hai-nan, 177. .
. Silkworms, in Sho-p'o, 78; none in P'o-ni,
155; few, in Sin-lo, 169; none in Hai-nan, 180.
Silver, imported by Persians to China, 16;
imported into China in tenth century, 19; a pro-
duct of Kiau-chi, 46; imported to Chon-la, 53;
lumps of, currency of San-fo-ts'i, 60; imported to
San-fo-ts'i, 61; currency of Su-M-tan, 82; bowls
imported to 'Tan-ma-ling, 67; used in trade at
Fo-lo-an, 69; brought to Si-lan, 73; used in alloy
for Sho-p'o currency, 78; used in trade in Sho-
p'o, 78; currency of alloyed, in Nan-p'i, 88;
currency of Ku-lin, 89; coins used in Chu-lien,
100, n. 8; bullion exported from Ki-shi, 134; a
•product of Pai-ta, 135; a product of K'i-tz'i-ni,
138; found in Ji-p6n, 171.
Siu-chou, the capital of Chan-ch'ong, 47.
Sin-lo (Korea), route of ships from Ts'uan-
chou to, 166; clans of, 167; relations of, with
China, 167; mode of living, government, fondness
for literature, 167; products of, 167, 168; music
in, 167; people of, superstitious, 167.
Sin-t'o (Sundas), a dependency of San-fo-ts'i,
62; situated west of Su-ki-tan, 82; has a large
harbour, 70; houses of, 70; dress of people of, 70;
pepper of, 70; native products of, 70; country in
unsettled condition, traders rarely visit; 70;
pepper of, the best, 222.
Sin-t'ou, the Sindhn or Indus river, 13.
Singapore Strait, 11. ;
Siraf, possibly visited by Ciinese, 4; ships to
and from China came to, 15; not referred to by
Chinese, 15; possible reference to, by name of
Ssii-lien, 117.
Skin, of boa-constrictor, used to cover musi-
cal instruments, 45.
Slaves, black, expert divers, 31, 32; from
Africa and Negritos countries, 32; price of, in
Chan-ch'ong, 48; dancing-girls in temples of Chbn-
la, 53; how procured in islands near Java, 84;
their value, 84; exported from Ki-shi, 134, n. 2;
in escort of king of Wu-ssi-li (Egypt), 144; how
caught by the Arabs, 149; of Sha-hua-kung sold
in Sho-p'o, 150; how made in Ji-p6n, 171; not
tattooed among the Li, 183.
Smuggling, punished by prison, 9; by brand-
ing and exile, 20; confiscation of goods for at-
tempted, 21; of copper cash from China to Sho-
p'o, 78; punished in P'o-ni, 156; pearls into
China, 230.
So-li, Chola, or Soladesam, Coromandel, 98,
n. i; Ceylon called So-li Si-lan, 98, n. i, 100, n. u.
Socotra, island of, referred to, 131; sorcerers
of, 132, n. 3; dragon's-blood and aloes of, 131,
132, ri. 5.
Sohar, — see Wu-la and Wu-pa.
Soleyman,his narrative concerning China, 15;
his statement concerning exports to China, 16;
concerning government of foreign settlement in
Canton, 16.
Solomon, his tomb in Andaman islands, 148.
Solstice, winter, when kept in Chan-cli'6ng,48.
Somali coast, — see Pi-p'a-lo and Chung-Ii.
Sorcerers, of Chung-li, 130-131; in Hai-nan,
181.
Spelter, exported from Ki-shi, 134.
Spikenard, possibly exported from Diul-
Sindh, 3.
Ssi-ch'uan, products of, exported to India and
Oxus valley, 6.
SM-'ch'uan-kung, imported to Shij-p'o", 78;
a species of levisticum, 81; used to cure pepper-
gatherers, 83.
Ssi-kia-li-ye (Sicily), near Lu-mei", 153;
clothing and customs of, 153; the volcano of,
153-154.
Ss'i-lien (Sirdf ?), a dependency of the Arabs,
117, 122.
Ssi-lu-wa (Surabaya), 85.
Ssi-ma-kie, title of a minister of state in
Sho-p'o, 76.
Ss'i-su, a drink made by the Arabs with sugar
and spices; probably th.^. sherbet or sharab of the
Arabs, 115.
Statues, in gold, ojf kings of San-fo-ts'i, 61; of
four-armed and six-armed Buddha;, in Fo-lo-an,
69.
Steel, imported by Persian to China, 16, 19.
Stones, precious, of Ceylon, 2; used in orna-
menting palaces of king of Si-lan, 72; of T'ien-
chu. 111; in palace of Mi-ssii-li, 115; of streets
of same, 111; 'precious, brought to Mecca, 125; of
wall of Lu-mei, 141: precious, of Ch'a-pi-sha, 153.
Storax, imported by Persians to China, 16;
imported to San-fo-ts'i, 61; liquid, much in Pi-
p'a-Io, 128; liquid, a product of Pai-ta, 135;
liquid, from K'i-tz'i-ni, 138; liquid, from Ln-mei,
141; description and lises of, 200. ' '
Su-ki-lang, a small island outside of Ki-yang
in Hai-nan; 176.
Su-ki-tan (Java), traders bound for Sho-p'o
deceive Chinese Government by referring to it as,
reason for this deception, 78; a portion of Shij-
p'o, 82; coast of, marked by Pau-lau-an moun-
tain, 82; dress in, 82; currency, 82; houses, 83;
fruits, 83; liquors, 83; products, 83; pepper-
gatherers, 83; cinnabar much used in, 83; no harr
borage dues charged in, 83; dependencies of, 83;
location of, 85; pepper of, 222; cubebs from, 224.
Su-tan, a king of the Ta-shii styled, 103; sends
yearly tribute to Ta-ts'in, 103; protects Ta-ts in,
103; — see Sultan.
Su Tung-po — Taxes.
263L
Su Tung-po, 178, 186, n.'io.
Sugar, imported by Persians to China, 16;
cane, grown in Chan-ch'Ong, 48; imported into
Chan-ch'ong, 49; imported into CliOn-la, 53; im-
ported into Saa-fo-ts'i, 61; imported to Tan-ma-
ling, 67; imported to Fo-lo-an, 69; grows in Sin-
t'o, 70; cane, grown in Sho-p'o, 77, 78; great
height of cane in Su-ki-tan, 83; liquor made from,
in Su-ki-tan, 83, 84; cane, grown in T'ien-chu,
111; made in T'ien-chu, 111; early use of, 113;
its manufacture in China, 113.
Sukatana, a Javanese colony in Borneo, 85.
Sulphur, a product of Sho-p'o, 78.
Sui Yang-ti, the Emperor, sends mission to
Siam, 8.
Sultan, title assumed by Mahmud of Ghazni,
108; the Sultan in text possibly Saladin, 108.
Sumatra, Greek knowledge of 2; not known
to Hiian-tsang, 8; sections of, referred to by Kia
Tan, 11—12; its trade with China at end tenth
century, 19; — see also San-fo-ts'i.
Sun, the setting of the, in Ch'a-pi-sha, 153.
Sun-eh'uan, the Emperor, sends mission to
Indo-China, 6.
Sunda, W. Java, a dependency of San-fo-ts'i,
62, 66; conquered by Javanese, 71; pepper of,
the best, 222; — see Sin-t'o and Sun-t'a.
Sung Euan-cM, 178, 186, n. lo.
Sung K'i, Minister of Emperor T'ai-tsung, 172.
Surnames, of kings of Kiau-chi, 45; P'u (Abu)
a common, in San-fo-ts'i, 60, 64; none in Sho-p'o,
77; in Hai-nan, 182, 184.
Swine, none in Ch^nrch'ong, 50; abundant in
Liu-k'iu, 163. ■>
Sword, blades, damascened, exported from
China to Aden, 4; blades imported to San-fo-ts'i,
61; blades, made in Sho-p'o, 77; iron, made on
pirate islands near Sho-p'o, 84; people of Nan-
p'i dextrous with, 88; fine kind of, made in P'ong-
k'i6-lo, 97.
Syria, when first heard of by Chinese, 4; the
Chan and Fu-lin of the Chinese, 108-109.
Ta-fu (in Japanese Datbu), title of Japanese
envoys to China, 170, 173, n. 6. ^
Ta-hia, trade relations with Ssi-ch'uan, 6.
Ta-j6n, court grandees in P'o-ni styled, 156.
Ta-kang, a dependency of Sho-p'o, 83; sandal-
wood from, 208.
- Ta-ni ho (the Patani river), 65.
' Ta-pan, a part of Java, east of Su-ki-tan, it
was also called Jung-ya;-lu, 82, 84; pepper of,
inferior to that of Sin-t'o, 70; situated on a bay,
84; its products, 84; pepper of, 222.
Ta-shi, the, — see Arabs.
T'a-tong, a product of T'ien-chu, possibly a
tissue or carpet, 111, 113.
Ta-ts'in, JSrst Westerners to come to Tong-
king by sea, 5; the merchant Ts'in-lun of, visits
China, 5; vagueness of knowledge of Chinese
concerning, in fifth century, 7; is the 4<'™™6''*''*1
centre of Western India (i. e., Asia), 25; situ-
a;tion of, according to Ch6u K'a-fei, 26; also called
Li-k'ien, 102; the place where the Ta-shi (Arabs)
assemble for trade, 102; king of, lives in An-tu,
102; his dress, 102; the cities of, 102; seven gates
in the wall, 103; tribute bearers to, 103; the
people of, 103; origin of the name of, 103; records
and writing of, 103; carts in, 103; roads of, 103;
lions numerous in, , 103; tunnel under palace in,
103; the hall of tirorship of, 103; divine service
every seven days, 103; king of, rarely seen, his
horse, 103; the Su-tan of the Ta-shi sends tri-
bute to, 103; protects the country of, 103; food
in, 103; native products of, 103; the intercourse
of, with China, 103-104; Tu Huan calls it Fu-
lin, 104; his King-hing-ki quoted on, 104; king
of, the Nestorian Patriarch of Baghdad, 101-106;
appoints ruler of T'ien-chu, 110; T'ien-chu trades
with. 111; a subject state of the Arabs, 123, n. is;
its trade with western Country of Women, 151.
Ta-tso-kan-hiung, title of a minister of
state in Sho-p'o, 80.
Ta-yiie-chi, artisans from, introduce glass
making into China, 227.
Tablet (hu), carried by foreign head-man in
Canton, 17.
T'ai Po, people of Ji-pon call themselves de-
scendants of, 170; his influence on the Japanese,
172._
T'ai-tsung, the Emperor; introduces sugar
making into China, 113, n. 4; his interview with
an Arab, 117—118; his remarks about Japan,
172; and the talking parrots, 236.
T'ai-wei, the generals of the Arabs called^ 115.
Talc, stone like, a product of T'ien-chu, 111;
called huo-ts'i, 113; possibly isinglass, 113.
Tamlook, Fa-hien sails from, for Ceylon, 3;
Chinese pilgrims to India land at, 9; its import-
ance, 27.
Tan, or Tanka, the «boat people» of Canton,
in Hai-nan, 181.
Tan-chou, — see Ch'ang-hua.
Tan-ir, an ancient administrative division of
Hai-nan, 175; origin of name, 178; the Fu-jon,
178, 179; her temple, 179.
Tan-jung-wu-lo, a dependency of Sho-p'o,
83; a large island, 85; horses raised on, 85;, people
of, have some knowledge of writing and counting,
85; products of, 85; people of, much given to pi-
racy, 85; possibly the Tanjong pura (Borneo) of
the Javanese, 86; fine mats from, 220.
Tan-ma-ling (Kwantan?), a dependency of
San-fo-ts'i, 62, 66; title of ruler of, 67; palisades
round capital of, 67; people of, ride buffaloes, 67;
dress ofpeople of, 67; houses ofy67;native products
of, 67; trade in, 67; its tribute to San-fo-ts'i, 67;
distance from, to Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68.
Tan-shui-kiang, a river in Nan-p'i or Ceylon
in ^ich cat's-eyes were found, 88, 229.
Tan-yii (?), an island near P'o-ni, its products
and trade, possibly Ternate, 158.
T'an-ma-yen, probably Botol Tobago island
situated near Liu-k'iu, 163.
Tanjong Fautuman, — see Pau-lau-an-shan.
Taro, grown in Sho-p'o, 77; eaten by aborigi-
nes of Hai-nan, 176.
Tattooing, among islanders near Sho-p'o, 84;
why Japanese practice, 170; by early inhabitants
of ChG-kiang, 170; among the Li, 182-183; ori-
gin of custom in Hai-nan, 188, n. si.
Tauist, priests, in Chon-la, their dress, their
deity called P'o-to-li, 53.
Taxes, not levied on river population of San-
fo-ts'i, 60, 64; in Sho-p'o, 77; heavy in Chu-Iien,
264.
Taxes-rr Trade.
95; no regular, in Lin-k'iu, 163; in Ji-pon, paid
in gold and silver, 171.
Taya islands, — see Kiu-chSu rocks.
Tong, an animal, its skin used as seat bj the
king of T'ien-chu, 110.
Tong, a dry measure used^ by traders in Ling-
ya-ssi-Ka, 68; in Chung-li, 131.
Tong-liu-mei (Ligor?), a depend«ncy of
ChBn-la, 53; produced finest scented words, 55;
dress of its ruler, 57; houses and eating, in, 57;
famous mountain in, 57; products of, 57.
Tong-ya-nong (Trengganu), a dependency of
San-fo-ts'i, 62, 65; like Fo-lo-an, 69.
T'6ng-lo, a fruit of Chu-lien, not identified,
96.
Tea, none grown in Cha,n-ch'6ng, 48; none
raised in Sho-p'o, 78.
Teeth, studded and covered with gold among
the Ma-lo-nu, 150.
Theft, in Chan-ch'ong, how punished, 47; how
punished in Chon-la, 53; how punished in Sho-
p'o, 77.
Thousand li banks, east of Hai-nan, 176.
Throne, of king of ChOn-la, 52; succession to
the, of San-fo-ts'i, 61; of king of Si-lan, 72, 73; of
the king of Ta-ls'in,.102; of king of Arabs, 115.
. Ti-kio-eh'ang, place on Iiei-ch6u peninsula
whence K'iung-ch6u in Hai-nan was reached, 176.
Ti-la-ta, a dependency of Chon-la, not iden-
tified, 56. -
Ti-lo-lii-ho country, probably on Mekran
coast near entrance of Persian Gulf, 13; also
called Lo-ho-i, 13; beacons insea at, 13.
Ti-wu (Timor), a dependency of She-p'o, 83,
86; also called Ti-nion, 156; other Chinese names
of Timor, 158, n. e; sandal-wood from, 2f>8.
TJ-yii, the country of, Taiz of the Arabs at
month of Indus, 13.
- T'iau-chr(Chald8Ba), suggested explanation-of
word, 4. - . ''
Tiau-jan, in Japanese Chonen, a Japanese
bonze who visited China in tenth century, 171;
his reception by the Emperor, 172; his statements,
172, n. 3j 173, n. 8, 174, n. lO, and n. ii.
' T"i6n-chu (India), Chu-lifen called Southern,
93; Western, lies west of Chu-lien, 93; kingdoms
of Westeril; 97; subordinate to Ta-ts'in, 105, 110;
rulers of, appointed by Ta-ts'in, 110; customs of
people of, .110; the. king of, 110; the queen of,
111; the ((holy water» of,. Ill, '113; products of,
111, . 11^3; people of, good astronomers. 111; people
of, cowardly, 111; its relations with China, 111;
priesf of,. builds shrine in Ts'flan-ch6u, 111; pro-
ducts of, 113; sugar in, 113; early currency in,
113; its trade with western Country of Women,
151.
T'ien-ohu-shan, or Pulo Aor, 23, ICO, n. ii.
- Ting, Puke of Tsin, 177, 178, 186, n. ».
Timber, from near K'in-ch6u, used in ship
building, 34; Japanese export, to Ts'tian-chou,
171.
- Tin, imported to Aden, 4; imported into Chan-
ch'ong, 49; palace of king of P'u-kan covered
with,.59; a product of Ki6n-pi, 71; used in alloy
for Sho-p'o currency, 78; a product of T'i6n-
chu. 111; exported from Lan-wu-li to Ma-li-pa
(Merbat),. 120;. exported from Berbera coast, 120,
n. i; imported to P'o-ni, 156; imported to San-
sfl, 1G2.
Tissues, imported by Persians to China, 16:'
imported to China in tenth century, 19; made in
Chan-ch'ong, 48; cotton, of Chon-la, 53; of slUc,
and of cotton manufactured in Sho-p'o,- 78; of
cotton, made on pirate islands near Sho-p'o, 84;
of cotton, made iii Nan-p'i, 88; cotton, and cotton
and silk, products of Chu-lien, 96; fine flowered
cotton, from Nan-ni-hna-lo, 98; from Ta-ts'in,
103; of the Arabs, 116; of cotton, 217-220.
Tiz, on the Makran coast, — see Tsi-ki.
T'o-pan-ti (Dimiath, Damietta), ships sail
from, to Mu-lan-p'i, 142.
T'o-p'o-li, an Arab, visits Court of China, 118,
123, n. 23; given rank of general by China,. 124.
Tongking, Greek knowledge of, 2; traders
from Ta-ts'in reach, by sea, 5; coasting trade
between Canton and, 6; pirates from, on Chinese
coast, 7; its trade with China at end tenth cen-
tury, 19; included in Chinese customs system,
20; — see also Kiau-chi.
Tortoise-shell, from Ceylon, 3; from Malay
Peninsula exported to Ceylon, 3; imported to
Aden from China, 4; imported to Canton, 16, 19:
import duty on, 21; a product of Sho-p'o, 77; a
product of Tan-jimg-wu-lo and Ma-li, 85; found,
in T'i§n-chu, 111; thickest, comes from Pi-p'a-lo,
128; comes from island of Chung-li, 131; a pro-
duct of P'o-ni, 156; a product of islands near
P'o-ni, 158; a product of Ma-i, 160; tortoise-;
described, 238; where found, 238.
- T'oTl-lo-mieh, cotton cloth, made in Nan-p'i,
88; made in P*6ng-k'i§-lo, 97; of the Arabs, 116;:
best quality of cotton fabrics, 217; origin of term,
219. . : i
T'ou-shi, possibly damascened steel, deri-
vation of term, 81.
T'6u-su (?), an island near P'o,-ni, 157; its
products and trade, 158. ;
Trade, of Merbat, .3; of Ceylon, 3;. of Persia
with Ceylon, 3; of East coast of Africa .with Cey->
ilon, 3; of China with CeylonJ 3; of Chinsi with
Aden, 3—4; of China, according to Greeksj 5; of,-
China with .Ta-ts'in, •5-6; between .China and
Indo-China, 6; overland, between Ssi-ch'uan and
the Oxus valley, 6; route, between Yfin-nan and
Pegu, 6; of China with Basra and Baghdad in.'
ninth century, 15; between China and the West
ill latter part ninth century, 18; of Canton and
Ts'0an-ch6u at end tenth century, 19; foreigii'
iseEir-trailej made state monopoly in China, 19;.
value of foreign, of China, in eleventh and twelfth '■
centuries, 19, 22; foreign, confined to Canton and
Ts'tian-ch6u in twelfth century, 22; great centres
of, of the Barbarians, 25, 26; of Chan-ch'ong, r
48-49; in Chon-la, 53; in San-fo-ts'i, 51; in Tan-
ma-ling, 67; in Ling-ya-ssi-kia, 68; foreign, with'
Sin-t'o, very small, 70; foreign, in ShS'-p'o, 78; 5
customs of foreign, in Su-ki-tan, 82, 83; customs ■
of islanders near Sho-p'o, 84; of Nan-p'i, 88;
of Hu-ch'a-la with the Arabs_, 92; export, of,
Ma-lo-hua, 93; Ta-ts'in great" trade Centre of
Arabs, 102; by dumb bargaining, 104; of T'ien- ,
chu with Ta-ts'in and Fu-nan, 111, 113; of the.
Arabs, 116; at Ma-li-pa (Merbat), 120; of Pi-p'a-
lo, 128; of Yung-man, 133; of P'o-ni, 156; customs
Trade — War.
?65
and ceremonies attending trading in P'o-ni, 156—
157; with islands near Fo-ni, 158; in Ma-i, 159-
160; customs of, in San-sfl (Philippine Islands),
161-162; of Liu-k'iu, 163; of Sin-lo, 168; lumber,
' of Japanese with China, 171; with Hai-nan, 177;
between Li of Hai-nan and Chinese, 183.
Tree, of gold and jewels, in palace of king of
Si-lan, 72.
Trengganu, — see Tong-ya-nong.
Ts'au, the country of, indigo from, 217; asa-
foetida from, 225; its capital Ghazni, 225.
Tsi-ki (Tiz ?), a dependency of the Arabs,
117, 122.
Ts'6ng-pa (Zanguebar), a dependency of the
Arabs, 117, 122, 126; is south of Hu-ch'a-la, 126;
people of, are of Arab stock, 126; food of people
of, 126; products of, 126; trade of, 126.
Ts'ong-t'an, a country in the Southern Ocean,
possibly same as Ts"ong-pa, description of, 127,
n. 4.
Tsiau-shi island, the Hon Tseu island near
Tourane, 8.
Ts'ien-mai, a dependency of San-fo-ts'i, 62;
possibly in N. Sumatra, 66; like Tan-ma-ling, 67.
• Ts'in-lim, a merchant of Ta-ts'in, comes to
China, 5.
■ Ts'ing-lang-kan, a variety of coral found on
coast of P'u-li-lu, 162, 226.
Tsu-ko-ni, Alexander the Great, builds tower
of 0-kqn-to, 146; Visits Ch'a-pi-sha, 153.
Tsu-la, the girafe, in Pi-p'a-lo, 128, 129, n. e.
Tsushima,^ silver mines on, 171, 175, n. 22.
Ts'uan-eliou, foreign settlement in, 14; admi-
nistration of foreign settlement in, 16; where
situated, 16; Arab trade goes to, 17; called Zaytun
by the Arabs, 18; foreigners abandon, during
troubles in ninth century, 18; its foreign trade
at end of tenth century, 19; official godowns for
foreigp imports at, 20; distance from, to Chan-
ch'Ong, 47; distance by sea from, to Chan-ch'Sng,
47; distance to Chon-la, 52; distance by sea from,
to San-fb-ts'i, 60; distance from, to Sho-p'o, 75;
natives of Nan-p'i residing in, 88; distance from
to Lan-wu-li and Ku-lin, 89; distance from, to
Chu-li6n, 94; priest from T'i6n-chu comes to, and
Builds a shrine, 111; the Pau-Iin-yflan in. 111;
the Ta-shi live north-west of, 114; Arab living in,
built Moslim burial ground, 119; P'o-ni (Borneo)
south-east of, 155; distance from, to Liu-k'iu,
162; raids on district of, by savages of P'i-sho-ye,
165; Ji-p5n lies N. E. of, 170; Japanese junks
bring lumber to, 171; cotton its principal import
from Hai-nan, 185; great consumption of laka-
wood at, 211; people of, use musk- wood to ma,ke
furniture, 212.
Ts'm-lan-shan, fifteenth century Chinese
name for Nicobar islands, 12.
Tu-huai-siin, a dependency of Chon-la, not
identified, 54, 56.
Tu Huan, his King-hing-ki quoted about Fu-
lin, 104, 108, n. u; his account of Fu-lin, 108-110.
Tu-kang, a ship captain, his temple in Liilg-
shui, in Hai-nan, 181, 188, n. 28; literary examin-
-ations held at temple of, 182.
Tu-lau, headmen in Hai-nan called, 177;
explanation of term, 186, n. 8.
Tu-man (Tuban in Java), '85.
Tu-nu-ho, a dependency of Nan-p'i, 88;
possibly the Tana of the Arabs, on Salsette island
near Bombay, 90.
Tuan Ch'ong-shi, author of the Yu-yang-
tsa-tsu, 28.
Tubers, grown in Nan-p'i, 88; used as ferment
in Hai-nan, 176.
Tui-tau, in Japanese Tsushima, silver mines
on island of, 171, 175, n. 22.
Tun-t'ien, north of Chu-lien 4000 li, 94; pro-
bably, a copyist's error for Tun-sun on the
southern extremity of the Malay Peninsula, 99.
T'un-li-fu, a dependency of Chon-la, not
identified, 54, 56.
T'ua-mon, Mount, passage out to sea from
Canton, 10, 24.
Tung-ki, a dependency of Sho-p'o, 88.
Tung-nan-ki-won, work of fourteenth cen-
tury quoted, 16-17.
Turmeric, imported by Persians to China, 16;
people of Ku-lin anoint their bodies with, 89;
derivation of Chinese name of, 91—92; people of
Nan-ni-hna-lo smear themselves with, 97.
Turtles, abundant in Sho-p'o, 77.
Tush, imported by Persians to China, 16; —
see T'6u-shi.
Typhoons, in Hai-nan, 177, 186, n. 7.
Tzi-kong, a kind of lacquer found in Chon-la, 55.
Tz'i-shui-tsiau, a canna'(?) from Chu-lien, 96.
Umbrella, Chinese, kittysols, exported to Chon-
la, 53; silk, carried over king of San-fo-ts'i,
60; black or white, carried over king of Su-
ki-tan, 82; silk umbrellas and kittysols sold
by foreign traders in Tan-ma-ling, 67; of peacock
feathers in Nan-p'i, 87; carried over king of
Ta-ts'in, 103; of the ruler of Ta-ts'in, possibly
a reference to the biruna of the patriarch,
107; black, of ruler of Ki-shI, 134; black, of
king of Pai-ta, 135; as present in P'o-ni, 156;
white, used by chiefs of Ma-i, 159; silk um-
brellas brought to San-su, 161.
TTrgendj,— see Au-kien.
Value, relative, of gold and silver, in Ling-ya-
ssi-kia, 68; relative, of gold and silver in Ku-
lin, 89; do. in T'ien-chu, 113, line 45.
Vinegar, imported into Chon-la, 53.
Wa-Ii, possibly Laos country, its trade centers
in Chan-ch'bng and Chon-la, 25; a dependency
of Chon-la, 54; was sixty days from P'u-kan, 59.
Wa-mu, colloquial name of sapan-wood, 217^
Walls, of bricks, round San-fo-ts'i, 60; pa-
lisade, round Tan-ma-ling, 67; of Lu-mei^ 141;
palisade, of P'o-mi, 155. '
Wan-an, also called Wan-ning and Ling-shui,
in Hai-nan, 181; Chinese settlers in, 181; the
aborigines of, 181; the temple of Captain Tu-
kang, 181—182; source of river of, 182.
Wang Kiin, his voyage from Canton to Siam, 8.
Wang-sho-eh'ong, T'ien-chu of. Central
India, 26; said to be in Pin-t'ung-lung, 51; said to
be west of Ta-li, 97; means Magadha, 101.
War, customs as to, in Chan-ch'ong, 47; pre-
paration for, in San-fo-ts'i, 60; customs as to, in
San-fo-ts'i, 63; people of Nan-p'i fond of, 88;
people of T'ien-chu cowards in 111; conntrivanCes
for, used in T'ien-chu, 111, 113; Japanese unused
to, 171.
26a
Warehouses — Yu6-nb.
Warehouses, governmental at Chinese ports,
20; all foreign imports to be deposited in, 20.
Wax, yellow (or bees), a product of Chan-
cb'ong, 48; yellow, a product of Chon-la, 53; a
product of TSng-liu-mei, 57; a product of Tan-
ma-ling, 67; a product of Tan-jung-wu-lo and
Ma-li, 85; a product of P'o ni, 156; on islands
near P'o-ni, 158; a product of Ma-i, 160; a pro-
duet of San-su, 161; exported from Liu-k'iu to
San-sOf 163; a product of Hai-nan, 177, 183; in-
ferior, from Hai-nan, 185; countries whicb pro-
duce, 238; mode of collecting, 238; adulteration
of, 239.
Won-eh'ang, in Hai-nan, 178.
- Won-ohou, Maritime Customs at, 18.
Wong-man, — see Yung-man.
Wei-jui, a dependency of Chan-ch'6ng, 49;
hot indentified.
Wei-IQ, waters of the Great Eastern Ocean-
Sea, flow into the, 26, 75, 79; eastern Kingdom
of Women near the, 151; junk that came near
the, 185, n. 4.
Wei-pa, the nipa palm, pith used in making
liquor in islands near Shfl-p'o, 84, 87; liquor
made with sap of, in P'o-ni, 155.
Wei-tou, a village in Ts'flan-oh6u-fu, 165.
Western Heaven (Si-t'ien), all countries of
India, exclusive of Chu-lien, included in, 97. Ta-
ts'in the great mart of the, 102.
Western Regions (Si-yu), the light horsemen
of, make raids on Nan-ni-hua-lo, 98.
• Whales, use made of bodies of, in Chung-li,
131, 132, n. 4.
• Wheat, none in Chan-ch'ong, 48; imported
to Fo-lo-an, 69; none in Sh8-p'o, 77; grown in
Nan-p'i, 88; grown in Chu-lien, 96; of Mu-lan-
i)'i, kept in silos, 142; in Mo-k"i6-la, 154; none
in P'o-ni, 155; grown in Sin-lo, 169, line 42;
little, in Ji-p6n^ 171.
Wind, which, favourable for sailing, 30; god
Fong-lung prayed to for, 30; in the desert, 143;
women conceive by action of south, 161.-
. Wo, the country of, — see Jj-pbn.
Wolves, in Liu-k'iu, 163.
Women, Kingdom of, 26, 151; form escort of
king of Chan-ch'ong, 47; kingdom of, situated in
the Eastern Ocfean-Sea 75; native, of pirate is-
lands marry traders, 84; guard of, of king of
Nan-p'i, 87; put to death for adultery in Nan-
ai-hua-io, 97; eastern kingdom of, 151; lotus
seed and peach stones of the kingdom of, 151;
men, how treated in kingdom of, 161; conceive
under eiffect of south wind, 151; western island
of, 161; its trade with Ta-ts'in and India, 151;
women in San-sii, 161; in Jii-pon, 1 71; in Hai-nan,
179, 180, 182, 183.
• Wool, tissues of, worn in Lu-mei, 141; tissues
of, worn in Mo-k'i§-la, 164
' Writing, characters used in, in San-fo-ts'i, 60,
64; unknown among islanders near Sho-p'o, 84;
some knowledge of, in Tan-jung-wn-lo and Ma-
li islands, 85; Mu characters used for, in Ta-
ts'in, 103; brushes for, made in Sin-lo, 168.
Wu-chi-shan, in Hai-nan, 184; its height,
189, n. so.
Wu-la (Sohar ?), — see Wu-pa.
Wu-laii-mu, a wood from K'in-ch6u used in
ship building, 34.
Wu-li, a small island outside of Ki-yang in
Hai-nan, 176.
Wu-li, a dependency of Chan-ch"8ng, 49, not
identified.
Wu-li-ma {?), an island near P'o-ni, its pro-
ducts and trade, 158.
Wu-li-pa, Cantonese Mo-li-pat (Malahar), a
country of Nan-p'i, producing much pepper, 223.
Wu-ma-pa, a dependency of Chan-ch'ong, 49,
not identified.
Wu-ming-i, a product of K'i-tz'i-ni, 138;
limonite or cobalt blue, 140; a product of Liu-
mei, 141.
Wu-na, — see Ku-na.
Wu-na-ts"i, a drag, imported by Arabs tb
San-fo-ts'i, 61, 116; procured from K'i6-li-ki
(Kalbat) and P'o-ni (Borneo), 234; origin of name,
234; applied originally castoreum, civet, 234—
236.
Wu-nung, Mount, in Tong-lin-mei, 57.
Wu-pa (Sohar?), a dependency of the Arabs,
117, 122; its position, 130; the king of, and his
religion, 130; Yung-man resembles^ 133.
Wu-si-hu-lu-hua, a centenarian Arab, living
in Canton, 118. '
Wu-8Si-Ii (Misr, Egypt); its position not
known to Chou K'u-fei, 24; a dependency of the
Arabs, 117; other Chinese names, 120; under
the rule of Pai-ta, 144; the king of, his escort,
144; food of people of, 144; the annual rise of
the river of, 144; the story of Shi-su (Joseph)
the descendant of P'u-lo-hung (Abraham), 144;
the city of Kie-y6 (Cairo), .144; the legend of
the old man of the river, 144—145; O-kon-t'o
belongs to, 146.
Wu-ssi-li (Mosul), climate of, 140; mannafrom,
how produced, 140; oak-galls of, 140,215; asbestos
and coral products of, 140.
Wu-tsii, an island inhabited by women, 152,
lines 17-19.
Ya-ss'I-pau-hien (Ispahan), a dependency
of the Arabs, 116, gardenia flowers from, 202.
Yamato, in Japan, where situated, 173, n. 7.
Yang-chou, foreign settlement in, 14; admin-
istration ' of foreign settlement in, 16; sugar
first cultivated in, 113.
Yang-Shan, Pulo Gambir, 101.
Yau-lien-oh'an, a flower of Chu-lien, not
identified, 96.
Yan-tung (Yortan), 85.
Ye-si-ming,— see Jasmine.
Year, how reckoned in Liu-k'iu, 163; how
reckoned in Ji-pon,171, 175, n. 19.
Yin-tu (India), Southern, Chu-lien also called,
93. ,
Yii-kan, a fruit of Chu-li6n,,96;not identified.
Yii-ta cloth, a product of Ma-i, probably
ramie fiber cloth, 160.
Yud-li, a dependency of Chan-ch'ong, 49.
' Yiid-np, clcith, sent as bridal present in Chu-
li6n, 95; probably a fine muslin, 100, n. 7; a pro-
duct of Pai-ta, 135; a product of K'i-tz'i-ni, 188;
gold spangled, a product of Lu-mei, 141; name
of a country, 220.
Yud-wang-t'ou — Zeyd.
267
Yiie-wang-t'ou, "King of Ytt6's head" origin
of name for cocoanut, 215.
Yfin-naiif trade route between, and Pega, 6.
Tung-ohou, in communication witli Chan-
ch'ong 47.
7uiig-(or Wdng-)inan, Oman, a dependency
of the Arabs, 117, 133; dress, food, prodn,cts,
dates, pearls, horse raising, trade, 133; traded
regularly with Pi-ssi-lo, 137.
Yung-shiij a priest from Li-t5 in Western
India who came to China at the and of the tenth
century; possibly a Christian, 112.
Zatiguebar, — see Ts'6ng-pa.
Zaytun, the Arab name of Ts'iian-chdu, 18.
Zebra, in Pi-p'a-Io, 128, 129, n. 7.
Zeila, town of, on Berbera coast, 129.
Zemzem, well in Mecca, water from the 106,
113. — See Ishmael.
Zeyd Hassan of Siraf, his work on early
Arab voyages to the East, 15.
OF
UNUSUAL FOREIGN NAMES AND TERMS
OCCURING IN
CHINESE TEXTS.
271
^"^ M -^-M-lo, Akula or Kufa,
the Abbaside Capital, HO.
n^g Pjl P^ A-li-jo, a dependency of
Nan-p'i, 88; possibly the Hili or Ras Haili
of the Arabs, near Calicut, 90.
|Jnf tJ^ a-mo, Arabic 'anbar, amber-
gris, 428.
|J^ ]^ a-nan, the name used in Chon-
la to designate the temple dancing-girls,
53, 55. n. 7.
PhT ^ M i^ A-p'o-lo-pa, the
Caliph Abu'l 'AbbSs, 4 1 7.
IW .# 1^ 11 f?jt a-t0'-i-p'o-t'a-ni,
Arabic al-mhad, civet, 234.
|Jpf ^5^ a-ts% Aramean asa, the
myrtle, 197.
1^ J^ ^ O'-yi^-tsi-e, Persian angU-
iad, angUsa, asa-foetida, 225.
^ 1^ § -^^^ {Yen)4''o-inan, the
Andaman islands, 147.
^ ^ An-tu, Antioch, the nominal see
of the king or Ma-lo-fu of Ta-ts'in, 102.
^ ^[>[ Au-chou, in Japanese ds)^M,
where gold mines were exploited, 175;
text of Chau Ju-kua writes first character
erroneously ^ Tile, 171.
^ ^ All-Men, probably Urgendj,
the Gorganiya of the Middle Ages, 121,
n. 12.
1^ ^ ii RB -A-U-lo-lo-li, a depen-
dency of Nan-p'i, 88; possibly Gannanore,
90, n. 8.
^ ^[5 P^ Ch'a-na-M, the capital of
Pong-k'i6-Io, 97. Not identified.
^ 50? 'B^ Ch'a-pi-sha, the Land of
the setting sun, Arabic Djabirso or Djaborso,
1 5 3 . Also written '^^ ij^ ^ 8ha-pi-c¥a.
^ M ^ Gh'ai-U-fin(f, a locality
on the Cherating river, east coast Malay
Peninsula, 76, 80, n. 3.
"g" Chan, in CantoneseSMw, ash-Sham,
Syria, or Damascus, 104, 108, n. i4.
^ ^ (Mn-ch'dng, Annam, 47 — 50;
its other names, 49, n. i.
t^ M. ^ Chan-U-p'o, a dependency
of Chon-la, the present Chanthabun, 56;
see also GMn-li-fu.
^ ^ Ghan-pei, Djambi, the capital of
eastern Sumatra after the Javanese conquest
in A. D. 1377, 65, 66, n. is.
^ ^ Ghan-pin, a country, presu-
mably on coast of Pegu, passed by the Chu-
li6n mission of A. D. 1015, 100, n. ii.
|l§ -j^ ^ chan-po-Jcia, Sanskrit
champaka, the champac tree, Michelia
Champaca, 203.
^ ^ ^ \U Ghan-pu-lau-shan,
Culao Cham, 10.
^ (or -^ ?) :^ ^ G}mn-(or Ku-)
pu-lau, an island passed by Chu-lien mis-
272
sion of A. D. dOlS on voyage from Malay
Peninsula to San-fo-ts'i, 100, n. ll.
^ ^ Gh^ang-Jiua, in Ilai-nan, 176.
:^ 1^ ift Gh^ang-yau-sU, Pulo Se-
nang or Bam Island, 64.
^ ^ c¥au-Ma, — see Uau-sho-ye.
^ CM, the Singapore Straits, 1 1 .
^i-l^ C/!dWi, the Ghittis of Malabar, 89.
M J^ Chon-la, Champa, Kamboja, 52,
54, n. i; — see Ki-mie and Kan-pu-cM.
^ ffi. W Ghon-li-fu, a dependency
of Chon-lg, the present Chanthabun on the
lower Menara, 53, 56.
M >^ (yidn-p% a dependency of
Chon-la, possibly the same as Chon-li-fu
(q. v.), 56.
^ ^ si Ghou-pau-limg, an is-
land or headland near entrance to port of
San-fo-ts'i, 100, n.ii.
^ ^ Ghu-ai, an ancient administra-
tive division of Hai-nan, 175, 176.
^ ^Ij ^\} ,Ghu-U-ye, Choliya, iden-
tical with Ghii-lien (q. v.), 98, n. i.
jhj^ ^ Ghu-lien, the Chola dominion,
or the Coromandel Coast, 93; — see also
Ma-pa-'ir and So-li.
M^ ("^ ^) l*^ ^^'"" (°J" shu-)mi,
Arabic jum'ah «assembly)> (on friday, for
prayer in the mosque), 138, 139, n. 2.
^^ JM. Ghwn^-Ma-lu^ a variant of
Jung-ya-lu (q. v.), a portion of western
Java, 62, 66, n. 19.
FJI ^ Chung-li, the Somali coast;
the name may be derived from Zang or
Zenj, 130.
"^ -^ Fang-chang, the «Cube House»
the «House of AIlah)> (BaytlJllah)or Kaaba,
at Mecca, 125, note.
i^ ^ fip F6ng-ya-lo, in Amoy dia-
lect Bcmg-ga-lo, probably Mangalore, 88,
90, n. 8.
■^ M ^ Fo-lo-cm, a dependency of
San-fo-ts'i, 62; Beranang, W. coast Malay
Peninsula, 65, n. 16, 69.
'^ ^ Fo-slii, 11, 63, n. i, — see
Scm-fo-tsH.
% %^] M M Fu-li-la-ho, probably
the Minab river on which stood Hormuz, 14.
^ ^ Fu-Un, situated in the west
of the Chan ("^) country (q. v.); it was
also called Ta-ts'in according to Tu Huan,
104.
^ ^ iSK -Pw-ta ch'dng,.the city of
Fostat,the modern Cairo, or Baghdad, 1 4, n. 3.
y$ '^ 3p| hai-mei-ch'i, a product of
Ilai-nan; unidentified, 176..
'/$ Ift Hai-tan, the Acta, the Ne-
gritos of the Philippine Islands, 161.
^ ^ han-lin, title of an officer of the
king of Nan-p'i who watched over his food,
88.
^ ^ Hei-sliui, probably the Irra-
wadi river, 26, called || ^ ^ '^
'/rJ" Hei-shui-yu-ni-lio, «Black-water-
muddy riven) ; formed the frontier of P'u-
kan, 59, n. i.
jf fi ^ Hi-nivig, a dependency of Java,
(Sho-p'o), 83; possibly the Singhasari of the
Javanese, 86, n. 7.
4^ ^^ ^ Jiia-nau-tan, a tree of
Sho-p'o, inner part of which was used to make
a liquor, 78;. hia-nau protably Malay
anaoiy the gomuti palm, 81, n. 13.
^ ^ Hing-kHn, the Bonze, travels
to the West, 117.
J^ II Mng-Jc'u, also written hing-yil,
273
and Mn-k^il (q. v.), Sanskrit ^iw^?^, asa-
fetida, 225.
f^ [^ Ho-ling, or Western Java, 1 1 .
^ J^ hing-yu, Sanslorit hingu, asa-
foetida, 225.
^ ^ Mn-k% Sanskrit hingii, asa-
foetida, 225.
'f^ ^ Ho-man, a sailor, probably-
Arab, of Ts'iian-chou, at beginning of se-
venth century, who discovered Formosa, 163,
n. 1.
^Ji ^ j?5 Ho-si-na, Ghazni, the
capital of Ts'au (j^), 225.
^ ^ ^ Hu-ch^a-la, Guzerat, a
dependency of Malabar (Nan-p'i), 88; 92.
fS ^ Jm-mang, Persian khurma,
the date, 210; see also ¥ti-lu-ma and
h'u-mang.
^ ^ Huan-ssi, the family name of
the kings of Liu-k'iu, 162.
^ Mji .i^ Suang-ma-cJiu, a depen-
dency of Java (Sho-p'o), 83. Not identified.
»^ ^ huo-tsH, a stone like talc,
probably isinglass, 411, 113, n. ii.
fj][ ^ Me-kie, Cantonese Mt-kHt,
possibly Arabic Mf^V, dragon's-blood, 198.
^^ *, a weight of gold, equivalent to
20 taels, 73, 74.
— ■ ^ I-cM (I-ki), in Japanese
Iki(shima), 173, n. 7.
-j^ ^ I-^«<, in Cantonese I-luk, Irak,
a dependency of the Arabs, 117.
'^ M^ ^ M I-ma-lo-U, a country
or island between Chan-pin (q. v.) and Ku-
lo (q. v.), on the west coast Malay Penin-
sula, 100, n. 11.
•p- ^ I-tu, also written ^ j^' *°
Japanese Ido, in Chikuzen, 1 73, n. 7.
^ ^ J-M'U, a dependency of Java (Sho-
p'o), 83.
J^ J'^-li, a dependency of Chan-
ch'ong, 49.
B M t^ J^-ii-hu, an island near
PVni, possibly Gilolo, 157.
^ ^ Jl-lo-tHng, a dependency of
San-fo-ts'i, 62; not identified, 65, n. 6.
?L S^'i**"^'', usually «milk», but when
used in connexion with Mongol and Turkish
countries, «dried sour milk» or kwut, 102,
n. 19, and 139, n i.
$^ 'ill ^ jwin-pu-tou, a litter or
hammock carried by four men, in Chan-
ch'ong, 47; other names of same, 50, n. 4;
also written i^ ^ juan-tou, 72; — see
pu-tai-kiau.
^ ^ ^ Jung-ya-lu, in Western
Java, but east of Sin-t'o; a dependency
of Sho-p'o, 62, 66, 83, n. 19; also
written Chung-kia-lu (q. v.). Probably the
Janggolo of the Javanese, 86, n. 7.
"M* ^ kan-lo, a fruit of Chu-li4n,
not identified, 96; is also caWei kan-mau-
sun {-^ ^ %), 100, n. 9.
■^ ^ Kan-mei, a dependency of the
Arabs, 117; possibly the Comoro islands,
122, n. 13.
-y^ ^ j[^ Kan-pa-i, in Cantonese
Kom-p^a-yat, the city of Cambay, the
Kambayat of the Arabs, 88, 90, n. 8,
?it 7^ Kan-pu (or fu), near Hang-
chdu in Ch'o-kiang, Marco Polo's Ganfu,
20, n. 3.
-y^ :^ :^ Kan-po-chl, the name
given Kamboja during the Ming period, 54;
it was also written ^ j^ ^ KHen-pu-
chai.
18
274
db
^ Ki-lan-tan, a dependency
of San-fo-tsM, 62; identified with Kalantan,
65, n. 4.
^ M. P^ MJ Ki-li-mon-shan, Pulo
Krimun, north coast of Java, 85, n. 2.
^ 5P ^ f^ Ki-lo-ta-mmg, the
products of Nan-p'i were exported to China
by way of this place, 88; it is not
identified, but was probably on the extreme
N. E. coast of Sumatra, 91, n. lo; — see
Ku-lo.
W^ ^ ■^ ^i-l'^'ng-tau, Hen's nest
(or Koh-rang-kai) island, 8.
^ ^ Ki-mie, Kamboja, according to
the T'ang-shu. It is probably a transcrip-
tion of Khmer, 54, n. i.
^ ^ Tci-pei, or "jjp _^ Jcu-pei,
Sanskrit Jcarpasa, Malay hapas; cotton,
218; — see also Tiu-chmg.
bE J^ Ki-sM, a dependency of the
Arabs, 117; the island of Kish (Keis) in
the Persian Gulf; other forms of name, 134,
n. 1.
^ IJ;^ Ki-t^o, a port probably of north-
western Sumatra, its ships traded with Ku-
lin, 89, 91, n. 16.
o^ ^ (oi" M) Hi Ki-ts''i-ni, a de-
pendency of the Arabs, 117; probably
Ghazni; — see Ho-si-na and KHe-sho-na.
^ ^ Ki-yang, in Hai-nan, 176.
^ -f^ Hd ^iC'-kii-lo, Arabic Mku-
lah, the cardamom, but used by Chinese as
name of nutmeg, 210.
J[jH ^ ^ Kia-lo-M^ a southern- de-
pendency of San-fo-ts'i, probably in Malay
Peninsula, 52, 54, 62, 66, n. lo.
JSlB Mr 5^ Kia-ma-yen, Calamian,
one of the Calamianes islands, N. E. of Pa-
lawan (Philippine Islds.). It was one of the
San-sii (q. v.), 161.
JffP ^ kia-mong, presumably the go-
muti palm; sap used in P'o-ni to make li-
quor, 155.
t/0 A iJj Kia-pa-shan, an island or
headland presumably on S. W. coast of
Malay Peninsula, 100, n. il.
JfjP ^ Ua-fu, a sea-going ship, the
hatwr, used on the south-west coast of
India, 30, n. 2.
^ -^ P^ Eia-td-mon, the point of
present junk passage on Canton coast called
Cupchi Point, 24.
Kiaii-cJii, Tongking, 45 — 46.
^ ^|5 Jciau-sho-ye, Sanskrit
kausheya, silken stuff, 218; use of term
by Chinese, 219, lines 13 et seq.
^ 7^ Kiau-yang, Sea ofKiau-chi,
the China Sea, 23.
f ^ "flj ^ A;ie-|w«-?o, Sanskrit kar-
pUra, camphor, 194 n. i.
M ^ Kie-ye, Arabic KdhiraJi, «the
Yictoriouss, the modern Cairo, 1 44.
>fjtl -^ ^ KHe-ku-to, possibly same
as earlier Ko-ku-lo (q. v.) in Malay Penin-
sula, 222, line 7.
>(j{f|I ^ ^J KHe-lcm-shan, the Nico-
bar islands, 12; — see Ts^ui-lan-shan.
^H -/j ± KHe-li-ki, a dependency
of the Arabs, 117; presumably Kalhat, 122.
# ^ i5 K'U-sM-m, probably
Ghazni, 139, line u; — see Ki-ts'l-ni.
^ ^ ^ A;'*e-^o-Zo, Sanskrit Ma-
dira, acacia catechu, 196, n,i; to-¥ie-lo
occurs, it may be Sanskrit taga/ra, cassia
auriciilata.
1^ '^ Kien-pi, a dependency of San-
^
275
fo-ts'i, 62; Kampar, E. coast of Sumatra,
66, n. 13.
jt^ j>W Kiu-cMu, Taya islands, N. E.
point of Hai-nan, 10.
■^ j^ Kiu-chou, a dependency of
Chan-ch'ong, 49.
^ y^ Kiu-Mang, Palembang, 63.
>^ M Ui Kiu-sing-sJian, an island
between Panrang coast and Canton, possibly
same as Kiu-chou or Taya island, 101.
JH ^ ^ KHung cM-ts'ai, a pro-
duct of Hai-nan, not identified, 176.
JH j^ KHimg-chou, in Hai-nan, how
reached from China coast, 176.
MM\% ^^ ("^ ^^) So-Jco-song-
cKi (or ti), the Brouwers islands or Pulo
Medang, 11.
■^ -^ ^ Ko-ku-lo, possibly Kalan-
tan, 1 1 ; ' — see also KHe-Jcu-lo.
"^ ^ Ko-Ung, the Klings of Mala-
bar, 89, n. 1.
"^ ^ Ko-lo, Kalah of the Arabs, 1 1 .
pj* ;^ k'o-lau, the style of address
of the king of Liu-k'iu, 162, 164, n. 2.
i^^^ K'o-li-fu, the Caliph, 1 22,
-n. 17.
-^ M Ku-lan, Kulam-Male (Quilon),
12;^ — see Ku-Un SiHi. Mo-la-ye.
^E M 'Pfe Jtu-so-t'o, Sanskrit
TcusMha, putchuck, 221.
■^ ^ hu-chung, Foochow dialect ku-
filng, Arabic kaitan(kuiun), cotton, 219.
1^ ^ (or "^ #)> ^w-?m, Kulam-
Mal6, 12; a dependency of Nan-p'i, 88.
■^ M (°^ M) ^^-^^^ possibly the
same as Ki-lo-ta-nung (q. v.), 76, 80,.
1 00, n. ii; identified in sixteenth century
with Acheen, 124, n. 25.
1^ g^ Ku-lun, a pirate state near
Sho-p'o, 84; — see Niu-lun.
'W tHJ ^M-na^ Turki Mwa, the mar-
ten, skunk, the family of Mustelidae, 234.
® ^ ^ ^ ku-'pu-p'o-lu, Malay,
hwrpur, camphor, 194.
■^ ^ Ku-tcm, the present Nha-trang,
11.
^ ^ ^L h'u-lu-ma, Persian
Tihurma, the date, 210.
^ ^ k'it-mcmg, Persian khurma,
the date, 210.
^ ^ ^ Kun-fu-nung, possibly
Poulo Condore, 11.
^ -^ p4 K^un-lim-shcm, Pulo
Condore, — see Kun-Pu-nung and P'k-
^ ^ ^ ^ K'un-lun-ts'dng-k%
alhfi Zanj (or Blacks) from K'un-lun», probr
ably the islands of Pemba and Madagascar,
149.
'^ fi' JH Kimg-sM-miau (?), an
island near PVni, 157; its products and
trade, 158.
^ Jl^ Xci/n-U, the Bamni of the
Arabs, the Lamori of Marco Polo; the north-
ern part of the west coast of Sumatra, 73,
n. i; — see Lan-wur-li.
^ ^ ||_ Lan-wu-U, a dependency
of San-fo-ts'i, 62,. 72, 73; extreme N. W.
coast of Sumatra, 66; the name is also
writtem ^ »^^ %\\ Nan-(Lan-)fo-li,
and ^ 2^ M N<m-{Lan-)wu-li; ^[5
^ ^ Na-(La)-mo-U, is also found.
^% "^ ^ i'aw^-2/a-SM, the Laur
kachin islands (Koh Katu), 8.
^ 55 '^ Li-<^wti, a Moslim envoy
to China, 117.
18*
276
tp '^ lA-han, possibly the island of
Lubang, Philippine Islds., 160.
^ ^ lA-Men, also called Ta-ts'in,
but this is not true for the Ta-ts'in of Chau,
102.
M :^ ^ Li-Mn-ttmg, presumably
Lingayen, on west coast of island of Luzon,
160.
^l) ^^: lA-to, a country of Western In-
dia, probably the Lata of Mas'udi; situated
on the Gulf of Cambay, and a part of the
kingdom of the Balhara, 112.
JS Wi ^«-'^'*^; a flower of Ghu-Iien,
not identified, 96.
^ ^ Licmg-pau, a dependency of
■Chan-ch'ong, 49.
H # 1^ ^ ^ m Ling-kHe-
^o-^o-fo island, Gape Varella or Gape Sa-
hoi, 8, n. 2. .
1^ ^ P^ Lmg-ya-mon, Linga is-
land and strait, 60, 63, n. 2; also called
Limg-ya mon (q. v.).
^ ^ ^ jfjfl Ling-ya-ssl-kia, a
dependency of San-fo-ts'i, 62; identified
with Lengkasuka, 65, n. 16.
^ 5Jc lAu-kHu, Northern Formosa,
162.
^ ^ lAu-sin, possibly Luzon (Phi-
lippine Islds.), 160.
1^ Lo, country, I-tsing's name for
Nieobar islands, 1 2, n. 2.
^ ^ ^ Lo-ho-i, another name of
Ti-lo-lu-ho (q. V.) on Mekran coast, 13.
^ ^ Lo-hu, a dependency of Ghon-
la, the modern Lopburi on the lower Menam,
53, 56, n, 10.
B^ ^ P^ Lo-hu-na, Rahula, a
priest from T'i6n-chu who came to Ts'iian-
chou in the latter part of the tenth century
and built a dagoba there. 111.
M- ia M lo-U-lien, the title of a
minister of state in Sho-p'o, 76, 80, n. 7.
^ /t^ lo-mu, a Japanese tree, carried
as planks to Ts'iian-chdu, 171; presumably
a species of pine, 1 74, n. 12.
^ M» ^ Lo-sKi-mei, a dependency
of the Arabs, 1 1 7; a truncated form of the
name Khwarizm 121, n. 12.
^ T^ Lo-yUe, Ligor, or S. extremity
Malay Peninsula, 1 1 .
^ *^ Lii-hai, or «Green Sea», medi-
aeval Arab name of the Ocean, 1 2, n. 6.
^ "^ lu-Jccm, Gantonese luk-kom,
Arabic, Persian, rukham, marble, alabas-
ter, 115, 120, n. 4.
^ 7^ Lu-yang, a dependency of
Ghon-la, not located, 54, 56, n. 1.
^ ^ Lu-mcm {?), an island near
P'o-ni, 157.
^ ^ Lu-mei, Arabic Riim (Bilad
er-Rum), Asia Minor, but as used by Ghau
extending possibly to Gonstantinople and
Rome, 141.
^ -^ lu-wei) Persian alwa, Soco-
tran aloes, 225.
^ JI^ Lu-tvu, in Gantonese Luk-
ngaf, the capital of Kamboja, 52, 54, n. 2.
^ ^ Iwng-tsHng, the style of the
king of Palembang, 61, 65, n. 12.
hI ^ P^ TMng-yor-imn, Linga
Strait and Island, 64; — see lAng-yor-mon.
^ ^ Lung- {or Nung-) yung, a
dependency of Ghan-ch'dng, 49.
m 3^ ma-ch*a, Persian mazu, oak-
gall, 215; also written mo-sM, mo-tso,
and wu-sln(<i.\.).
277
/^ ® ^ Ma-Ma-wu, Mohammed,
416, 120, n. 7, 13S.
Ifji ^ Ma-i, in Cantonese Ma-yat,
Mait, «the country of the Blacks», the
Philippine islands, or a portion of them,
159, 160, n. 1.
^ P^ Ma-jo or, Ma-no, an island
near P'o-ni, possibly Mahono, 138.
|§jt ^ Ma-Ma, Mecca, a dependency
of the Arabs, 117, 124.
H^ ^ Ma-lan, a dependency of
Chon-la, possibly identical with Ma-lo-won
(q. v.), 56.
Hjt ^ Ma-li, Bali, a dependency of
Java (Sho-p'o), 83, 86, n. 7. see Pa-li.
1^ PJI :^ Ma-U-mo, i Amoy dia-
lect Ma-U-hwaf (Malabar?), 88, 90, n. 8.
B M (or m) S ^«-^^ Cor ?o-;
pa, Merbat on the Hadramaut coast of
Arabia, 25, 115, 149, n. 2.
MH ^ ^ M«a-?o-fM, the style of the
king of Ta-ts'in, 102; transcribes presum-
ably Mar Aha, a title of the patriarchs
of the Nestorians, 105.
m ^ Ip Ma-lo-Tma, in Cantonese
Md-lo-wa, Malwa, a dependency of Mala-
har (Nan-p'i), 93.
M^ i^X Ma-lo-nu, probably Ma-
Idyu, our Malays; lived by piracy, were
cannibals, 150.
H^ M 5^ ilfa-?o-«<;ow, a dependency
of Chon-la, the Malyan of Cham inscriptions,
but not located, 53, 56, n. lO.
m f^ Ma-ni, an Arab envoy to China
in A. D. 4003, 418, 423, n. 20.
i^ A ^ Ma-pa-w-, Ma'bar of the
Arabs, the Coromandel coast, or Chu-Iien
(q. v.), 98.
B ^ Ma-tung, a dependency of
Java (Sho-p'o), 83; possibly the Medang-
kamolan of the Javanese, 86, n. 7.
^ |Jj ;;^ Man-shan-shui, a river,,
presumably in Kamboja, passed by Chu-lien
mission of A. D. 1 01 5 on voyage to Cliina,
400, n. 11.
]^ P^ I Mau-mon Wang, in Ara-
bic Amir-al-Mu'menin «Commander of
the FaithfulB, 44; — see also 449, 1. 20.
"jig [1| Mau-sJian, Pulo Rondo or
Pulo Way, off Acheen, Sumatra, 74.
M ^ '^ ('!$) Mei-lu-ku-(tmi),
the capital of Lu-mei, not identified; may
be Arabic mulhidun <!lnfidels», points to
Constantinople or Rome, though details con-
cerning it seem to apply to Damascus, 444.
>S ^@» -JT ^ vM fnet-ssz-ta-Jma-
tsiu, a drink (or drinks?) of the Arabs
made with honey and spices, 446, 420,
n. 6, 4 27, n. 4.
5^ ^ Mi-lan, the Indus river, call-
ed Nahr Mihran by the Arabs, 43.
^ ^ ^ Mi-su-U, the capital of
the Arabs, ll^;Misr of the Arabs, Egypt,
420, n. 3; — see Wu-ssi-li.
^ ,g, ^ Mi-ssi-vr (Misr of the
Arabs, Egypt), 4 20, n. 3; — see Wu-ssi-li.
^ i@. M Mi-tan-lo, Sanskrit Mitra;
a Western priest who came to China about
A.D., 984, 444, n. 5.
"M N^ ^ Mie-a-mo, in Cantonese
Mii-a-maf, the style of the capital of Nan-
p'i; may possibly be Malabar, 87, 89,
n. 2; — see Ma-U-mo.
P^ ^ Mon-tu, probably near Quin-
hon, 40. Not identified.
ilt # ^M Mo-kHe,-la, Cantonese
278,
Mak-¥e-lap, Arabic Maghreb (el-aksa),
454.
J^ ^ij IflJ Mo-la-ye, Sanskrit Jfa-
Zffi«/a; Kulam-Mal6, (Quilon), 12.
;j^ ^ Mo-lai, Kulam-Mal6 (Quilon),
12; — see also Ku-lin, Ku-lan, Mo-Iq-
ku-ts% Mo-la-ye.
^ ^ !i ^o-li-chij Sanskrit ma-
rlcha, black pepper, 223.
^ ^ Mo-Uamg, a dependency of
Chon-la, possibly identical with Ma-lo-w6n
and Ma-lan (q. v.), 56, n. lo.
)^ Hd mo-^o, in Cantonese mo-ldk,
used as a foreign name of frankincense,
196, n. 1.
^^ ^ ^V^ Mo-lo-M-ts% ^diU-
skrit ilfaZaAjMte; Kulain-Mal6, Quilon, 12.
^ ;S -^0-?**, Japanese Matsura, 173,
n. 7.
i^ -^ ^o-sM, — see ^ ^ ma-
cli^a.
■ W- ^ -^ mo-so-sM, bezoar stone,
90, 131, 141.
M i^ 5?P Mo-ti-na, Medina, 125.
)^ ^ mo-tso, — see ^ ma-
€¥a.
^ "1^ M Mu-M-la/n, Mekran, a
dependency of the Arabs, 117, 122, 224.
yfv JJ^ Mu-Jcim, the Mukuva or fisher-
men caste of Malabar, 89, n. i.
^ Wi ^ Mu-lan-p% Arabic Mu-
rabit, the kingdom of the Al-Mur3bitiin or
Almoravides, 142.
/^ M .^ inu-loM-pH, the bark of
the maratJia-maram of the Tamils (Pen-
iaptera tomentosa, Rox.); a product of
Ceylon, yields a black dye, its ashes are
•used as lime with betel-nut, 73, 75, n. 9.
g 5^ Mu-lien, the Arhat Maudgal-
yayana, 51.
M M ^ MM Na-lo-U-lo-cMu,
Sanskrit narikera, «cocoanut»; the Nicobar
islands, 12.
i^|5 ^ :^ |1| Na-wu-toM-shan,
an island between Coromandel coast and
the northern.(?) coast of Ceylon, 100, n. ii.
^ ^ ^ ^ Nan-ni-Jiua-lo, a
country of India, 96; situated probably in
Sindh, 102. Nahrwala inOuzerat, according
to Gerini.
^ 0i{; Na/fi-p% the country of the
Nairs, the Malabar coast, 89.
■^ 1^ Niu-lim, a dependency of Java
(Sho-p'o), and adjacent to Su-ki-tan, 83;
probably the same as Ku-lun (q. v.).
^ ^ Nu-huo, probably Naka, Chi-
kuzen, in Kyushu, Japan, 173, n. 7.
•^ 1^ Nvnfa, Dhofar, a dependency
of the Arabs, 116, 121, 195.
j^ IK Nu-ku, a dependency of Java
(Sho-p'o), 83. Not identified.
1^ ^ |5£ O-kon-fo, Iskanderiah,
Alexandria in Egypt, 146.
. g» ^ f^ Pa-ki-nung, possibly
Busuanga island, Philippine Islds. It was
one of the San-sii (q. v.), 161.
Gi "k^ W ■P'^s-te-t/M, possibly the
island of Palawan, Philippine Islds. It was
one of the San-sii, 161.
§ %^ P^a-li, Bali, a pirate state,
84; Chau uses the form Ma-li, (q. v.).
El /J5JC Jl^ Pa-lin-fong, Palembang,
also written y^ ^ ^ P'o-Un-pang,
62,-63.
B f^P >^ |Jj Pa-na-ta-slmn, —
see Pau-lau-an-shan.
279
P^lJ ^^l]pci-pa, Arabic babagha, parrot,
236.
A ^ M Pa-ssi-U, a dependency of
Chon-la, possibly the same as Po-ssi-lan
(q. v.), 56.
^ ^^ Pa-Pa, a dependency of San-
fo-ts'i, 62; possibly the Baftas in N. Su-
matra, 66, n. 8.
^ ^ Pa-yli, a country probably on
the Guzerat coast, 13.
W -^S SI Pai-hua-yiian, a depen-
dency of Java (Sho-p'o), 83; possibly the
Pejajaran of the Javanese, 86.
^ ^ Pai-Uen, Bahrein, in Persian
Gulf, a dependency of the Arabs, 117.
Q '/^ ^ Pai-p'^u-yen, the Babuyan
islands, Philippine Islds., 160.
S ^ Pai-ta, in Cantonese Pak-
tat, Baghdad, a depenency of the Arabs,
117; other forms of name, 135, n. i.
'^ ■^ ^ (Jj Pau-lau-cm-shcm, a
high mountain on coast of Su-ki-tan (Cen-
tral Java), 82; identified with TanjongPau-
tuman, 85, n. 2; it was also called Pa-
na-ta-shoM (q. v.).
^ ^ P^i-to, Sanskrit ^afo'a, leaf,
but more particularly the leaf of !he Boras-
sus flahelliformis, 111, 114, n. 4.
^ H^ ^ Wk Pon-ni-mo-Jman,
Beni MerwSn, the last Omayyad Caliph,
117.
^ |X6 \%, Pon-fp-lamg, on the coast
of Cochinchina, Panrang, 11; — see Pin-
fung-lunff, Pin-fo-Ung, and Pin-fou-
lam,g.
^ ^ I^ong-fpng, Pahang, a de-
^pendency of San-fo-ts'i, 62, 65.
^ W^ P'ong-JiUjthe Pescadores, they
were in the district of Ts'iian-chou-fu,
165.
JH 5$& ^ P'dng-hHe-lo, a country of
India, its capital was Ch'a-na-ki, (q. v.),
97; possibly «the kingdom of Balharai) of
the Arabs, 102, n. 14.
3S5 W. tl'" Pi-H-sM, Bharoch?, a
dependency of Malabar (Nan-p'i), 88, 90.
BJfc 1^ ^ pi-Ung-kHe, said to be a
foreign word meaning «cubeb)> (piper
cubeba), 22 A.
^ ^ fM Pi-p^a-chou, island off
entrance to port of Canton, 101.
505 ^ 5^ Pi-P^ci^lo, Berbera coast,
a dependency of the Arabs, 117, 128,
Ipi j^ ^ pi-po-U, Sanskrit ^«^^a?*,
the long pepper, 223.
5B5 ^ M Pi-ssi-lo, Basra, a de-
pendency of the Arabs, 117, 137.
ffllfc ^ Pi-tsH, a dependency of Chan-
ch'ong, 49. Not identified.
Wife P^ ^ PH-no-ye, a dependency
of the Arabs, 117; the Ifrikiya of the Arabs;
the coast of Tunis and Tripoli, 122, 226.
Bft '^ ^ P^i-sho-ye, a district or
people of southern Formosa, 163, 165;
the name may possibly represent Visaya
or Bisaya, 166.
■^ ^ Pin-su, Pasuri, the Fansur
in al-Bamny, Sumatra, of the Arabs, 193.
W 1^ 1^ Hw-f o-^iw^r, Panrang
coast, — see Pin-fung-lung and Pon-fo-
lang.
" ^ 1^ ^M UJ Pin-fou-lang-shan,
cape Panrang or Padaran, 101.
^ IS M Pin-fo^-lu, the Arhat
Pindola Bharadvaja; gave his name to Pin-
t'ung-lung (Panrang), 51.
280
^ BM hI Pii^-t'ung-limg, Pan-
rang), 51; — see also Pin-fo-ling, and
Pon-fo-lang.
^ ^ P'ing-ya, island of Banka?; a
dependency of Java (Sho-p'o), 83.
tik. M P(^-^(^} 31 region of Chi-t'u
(Siam), in the Malay Peninsula, gave its name
to the jack-ihiit, 212, note; — see Po-li.
M "^ >ft Po-pa-li, Berbera, the
Somali coast, 128; — see Pi-p'a-lo.
S S^ or ^ ^ po-tie, in Canto-
nese pak-tlp, TuTiipakhta, cotton, 218.
'^ ^ ^ Po-to-U, king of Fu-Iin;
presumably transcribes Syriac hatrik, «pa-
triarchn, 105.
^ ^ Po-ssi, Persia, the Persians;
the Arabs a branch of the, 117.
^ ^ Po-ssi, a country or tribe of
Negritos, possibly in Sumatra, 152.
^ ^ M Po-ssi-lan, a dependency
of Chon-la, near the present €hanthabun,
53, 56, n. 10.
^ Po, possibly stands for ha/r or var
in name of Nicobar, 12.
^^'~^ M Fo-U, a region of Chon-la (Siam),
probably in Malay Peninsula, identified with
Po-lo, the home of the ^o-?o-wi (jack-fruit),
_212, note.
W ^ p'o-lo, a flower of Chu-li6n,
Sanskrit ^^aZa, 96.
^ M PI P'o-lo-mon, the west
coast of India, 12; also used for Brahman,
97.
^ ^ Po-Uu, a section of Chon-la,
during the-T'ang period, 57, n. 12.
^ ^ Po-lu, in N, W. Sumatra, poss-
ibly Perlak or Pedir, 12.
Vf§ ^ |1| P'o-lm-shm, Bolor, 13.
^ 05 ^ p'o-na-so, Sanskrit ^a-
wasa, the jack-fruit, 212.
^^{'or'^)fijPo-{oTFo-)ni, Cantonese
Put-ni, Brni, Borneo, 155, 158, n. 1.
^ ^ P^-^o> probably Sansltrit ^wra,
<icity»; there were thirty-two _pM-?o in Chu-
lien,- 94—95.
^ §^ S Pw-m kuo, Japanese Ka-
saga, in Chikuzen, Kyushii, 173, n. 7.
^ ^ ^ pu-iai-Mau, a hammock-
litter, called maw^W(muncheel) in India, 87,
90, n. 4; — see jucm-pu-fdu and ti-ya.
W ^ ^'1 P'^-'^^h Arabic Abu Ali,
the first envoy from Borneo to the Court of
China, 157; also called P'u Lu-si6 (q.v.).
W ^ ^ P'm-Mo-Zo, Bokhara, a
dependency of the Arabs, 117.
W ^ ^ P*M-Ai-m«, Arabic Abu
Hamid, twice visited Chinese Court in
tenth century, 122, n, 17; 123, n. 18.
^ -^ P'u-ka/n, Pagan on the Irra-
wadi, 58.
^ ^ si P^'^kia-lung, a name of
Sho-p'o, 75; identified with Pekalongan,
on N. coast of Java, 79.
^ B^ %i P^i^-ko-san, Arabic Abul
Hassan, an Arab envoy to China in the
tenth century, 203.
W S P*^ Pu-U-ln, the island of
Polillo off easl coast of Luzon, Philippine
Islds., 160, 162.
W 5P ^^ Pu-lo-Jiung, Abu-lo-hum,
Abraham, 144.
^ "M* JC P'l^io-km-wu, a
dependency of Chan-ch'ong, possibly Pulo
Condore, 49, 50, n. 10.
W M i'*^-^^^ Persian hallut, oak-
(galls), 140, 215; also written ^ M
281
po-lu, and slm-mo-lu, (q. v.), Persian
shahballut — aroya! oak», 245, note.
W )M. W> F^i^-lv,-sie, the Arab who
opened relations between Borneo (P'o-ni) and
China, 159, n. is; also called P'u-a-li
(q. v.).
^ ^Wt P^'u-sa-man, in Cantonese
Po-sat-man, Arabic Mtissulman, 16.
^ ^^ P*M-^Maw, possibly identical
with P'u-kan (Pagan), 59.
^1^ Ej ^ sa-pa-h; Persian shah-
ban, (correct form shahbuy), ambergris,
literally «royal perfume», 237.
^ -^ ^ San-fo-tsH, Cri-Bhoja, the
Serboza of the Arabs, the north-eastern
coast of Sumatra, Palembang, 60, 63, n. i.
^ 'a* '/M San-ho-Uu, «three-joint
cm'rentss, rapids in channel between Lei-
chou peninsula and Hai-nan, 176.
^ YI^ San-lo, a dependency of Chon-
la, possibly an early transcription of the
name Syam, later on transcribed Sien-lo,
our Siam, 53, 56, n. lo.
^ »)A San-po, a dependency of Chon-
la, 56, n. lo; — see San-lo.
^ ^ san-ssi, a flower of Chu-li^n;
not determined, 96.
^ lll^ San-su, or «Three Islands*,
belonged to Ma-i, Philippine Islds., 161;
see Kia-ma-yen, Pa-lau-yu and Pa-M-
nong.
j>\^ ^ sha-hu, Malay sagu, sago, 61.
Ij? ^ ^ Sha-hua-Tiung, pirates
on islands near Sho-p'o, the «Orang laut»
or «Men of the sea» of the Malays, 150.
ij^ i^ "^ sha-mo-lii, Persian shah-
ballut, «royal oak», 215.
Jl T ^ Shang-hia-chu, the island
of Pulo Aor, 23; also called T'ien-chu
(q. v.).
-{' II, -^ ^ SM-ir-tzi-shi, rocks N.
of Carimata island, S. W. coast Borneo, 24.
j^ ^ SKi-ho, in Cantonese iS'M-Ao^,
Shehr, a dependency of the Arabs, 116,
121, n. 12, 195.
^ ^1] # « (or W SM-li-fo-
shl, 63, n. i; — see San-fo-isH.
J^ 0P ll@ 8Ki-na-wei, an Arab of
Ts'iian-chou who built a charnel-house for
Moslims, 119.
-j- ^ Shi-su, in Cantonese Shap-suk,
Arabic Yusuf, Joseph, descendant in the
third generation of P'u-lo-hung (Abraham),
144, 145, n. 3.
0f|j "T* ffl Shi-tsi-kuo, Singhala,
Ceylon, 12; — see Si-lan.
$ffi ~^ ^ SM-td-sM, Pulo Sapatu,
or Pulo Cecir de Mer?, 8, n. 2.
IS! »% Sho-ma, Japanese Satsuma,
173, n. 7.
1^ ^ Sho-p'o, Java, 75, 78, n. i.
^ifii ^ ^ sho-tsH-sang, a flower of
Chu-lien, not determined, 96.
^ ^[5 Shong-tong, a district of Su-
matra near present Deli, 1 1 .
^ -^ Shui-au, a village in Ts'iian-
chou-fu, 165.
^ffl IS Si-lan, Ceylon, a dependency
of San-fo-ts'i, 62, 66, 72; also written ^
^ Ki-lan, and ^ ^ Si-lan, 74,
n. 2; older forms used by Chinese, 74, n. 2.
J^ffl Iw ^ l-U Si-hn-tie-shan, the
Serendib of the Arabs, Adam's Peak in Cey-
lon, 73, 74, n. 8.
gg si Si-lwng, possibly the island of
Geram, 157.
282
® m 'S'i-jj'ong') a dependency of Chon-
la, not identified, 54.
:;jig ^ siang-liung, the ruler of Tan-
ma-ling in the Malay Peninsula, was ad-
dressed by this title, 67.
^ ,^ Sicmg-sM, Tinhosa island?, 10.
^ Sim, in Cantonese TsHm, Siam,
56, n. 10.
^ j\\ Sm-cMu, the capital of Ghan-
ch'ong, 47, 49, n. 3.
7^ 1^ 8in-fo, Sunda, a dependency
of San-fo-ts'i, also written Sun-fa, (q. v.)
62, 66.
Wx H ^rT Sin-foti-ho, the Sindhu
or Indus river, 13; — see also Mi-lcm.
^ (also written ^ and ^) J^ So-
li, the Cholas of Coromandel or Chu-lien, 98.
MMM. ^ Ssi-Jcia-U-ye, Ski\Y,
153.
>S> -^ Ssi-lien, a dependency of the
Arabs, 117.
.(@^ "^ K Ssl-lu-wa, Surabaya, in
Java, 85.
a} ^ "^ ssi-ma-kie, title of a min-
ister of state in Sho-p'o, 76.
^ Mr i^ Ssi-ma-yen, Ishmael, son
of Abraham, 113, n. 2.
M> W^ VM ssi-su-tsiw, a drink of the
Arabs made with sugar and spices; probably
the sharah or sherbet of the Arabs and
Persians, 115.
i^ ^ 3R iSM-X;i-Zaw^, a small is-
land outside of Ki-yang in Hai-nan, 176.
"^ "^ -^ Su-M-tan, CenfraJ Java,
between the Sundas and Tuban, 82, 85;
sometimes used to designate Sho-p'o (Java),
.78.
^ ^ su-tan, Arabic Sultan, title
of a ruler among the Arabs, a tributary
of Ta-ts'in, 103.
^ f^^ Sun-fa, the Sundas,^ in Western
Java, 84; — see Sin-fo.
^ ^ Ta-kang, a dependency of
Java (Sh()-p'o), 83.
'JK.ID^i^ Ta-ni-Jio, the Patani river,
E. coast Malay Peninsula, 65.
^ i^ Ta-pan, Tuban, Java east of
Su-ki-tan; it was also called Jung-ya-lu,
(q.v.), ,82, 84.'
■^ ^ Ta-sM, Cantonese Tai-sMk,
Persian Tad, or Tadjik, the Arabs, 114,
;119, n. 2.'
■^ ^ Ta-tsHn, the Roman Orient, but
Baghdad as used by Chdu and Chau, 102,
104, n. 2 ,
^ ^ ^ J^ ta-tso-kan-Mung,
title of a minister of state in Sho-p'o, 80.
^^ §J fa-tong, a product of T'i^n-
chu, 111; a woollen texture.
j^ ^ Tan-lr, an ancient adminisb-a-
tive division of Hai-nan, 175, 176.
^ 1^ ^W: Tcm-jung-wu-lo, a
dependency of Java (Sho-p'o), 83; in
fifteenth century the Javanese called S. Bor-
neo Tanjong-pura, 86, n. 7.
^ 1^ "^ Tan-ma-ling, a depen-
dency of San-fo-ts'i, 62; probably about
mouth of Kwantan river, E. coast Malay Pen-
insula, 67.
J ^ tan-po, or ^ ^ tan-p%
an abbreviated form of chan-po-kia(([.\.).
y^ 7jC jtt Tan-sJiui-kiang or ((Brack-
ish river», in the Nan-p'i country, or Ceylon;
cat's-eyes found in it, 88, 229.
|g ^ Tan-yil (?), an island near
P'o-ni, 158. '
283
Wi ^ ^ T'an-ma-ym,. probably
the island of Botel Tobago off the S. E. coast
of Formosa, 163.
^1 tong, an animal, not identified; its
skin used as a seat by king of T'ien-cihu, 110.
i^ t6ng,m Sanskrit tola, a small weight.
It seems in this work to be used as a dry
measure, 68, 131.
^ ^^ M Tong-liu-md, Ligor?,
a dependency of Chon-la, 53, 57.
, ^ ^ ii Tong-ya-ndng, Treng-
ganu, a dependency of San-fo-ts*i, 62, 65.
B^ ^ fong-lo, a fruit of Chu-lien,
not identified, 96.
^ ^ Wi Ti-kio-ch'ang, port
on Lei-chou peninsula coast facing K'iung-
chou in Hai-nan, 176.
'^ ^ ^ Ti-la-ta, a dependency of
Chon-la, not identified, 56, n. lo.
■^ M J^ 5Rl Ti-lo-lu-ho, probably
"on Mekran coast near entrance Persian
Gulf, 13. It was also called Lo-Jio-i
(q. v.).
Jf^ ^Ti-wu, island of Timor^ a
dependency of Java (Sho-p'o), 83; also
called Jfg P^ Ti-mon, 156^
^ §5S ti-y(^-, tie name used in Chan-
ch'ong to designate a litter with one pole
and borne by four -men, 50, n. 4; — see
juan-pu-tou.
^ K Ti-yu, possibly the port ofi
Taiz on the Indus, 13.
ra ^ liau-jan, in Japanese Gho-
nen; a Bonze who visited the Court of China
in A.-D. 984, 171, 175, n. 23.
^ M Tien-chu, India, 13; —
used in a restricted sense, 110, 112,
n. 1.
^ :^ l-I-I THen-chu-rshan, Pulo Aor
23, 100; see also SJiang-hia-chu.
^ *^ to-Jcu, said to be a foreign
name for the cardamom, 222, line 8.
P£ M itlll To-pan-ti, Damiath of
the Arabs, Damietta on the eastern branch
of the Nile near its mouth, 142.
p^ ^ ^ To-p'o-U, an j^rab ship-
master who visited the Court of China, beginn-
ing eleventh century, 118, 124, n 23. '
5iE ^ ^ tou-lo-mien, or 4ula cot-
tons, from Sanskrit tula, cotton, 217, 219.
^HU -?i i'ou-sM, «tush», copper, or an
alloy of copper, produced in Persia, 8 1 , n. 14.
^ ^ Ts'ong-pa, Zanguebar, a de-
pendency of the Arabs, 117.
^ ^0. Ts^ong-fcm, Zanguebar?, a
country in the «Southern Oceans, possibly
same as Ts'6ng-pa, p. 127, n. 4.
^ ^ Tsi-Tci, a dependency of the
Arabs, 117; possibly Tiz on the Mekran
coast, 122.
^ 'S UJ Tsiau-sJii-sh(m,[ Hon
Tseu island near Tourane, 8.
=p |g_ -^ *^ Tsien-li-chang-sha,
«Thousand-li-banks», east of Hai-nan, 176.
1^ ^ TsHm-mai, a dependency of
San-fo-ts'i, 62; possibly in N. Sumatra,
66(7).
^ ^ 3Fp tsHng-lang-Jccm, a va-
riety of coral, 162, 226, Note.
W tK ^ tsHng-mu-Mang, put-
chuck, 221.
& -© /Ei Ts'u-Jco-ni, in Cantonese
Ts^o-kot-ni, Arabic Dhu-l-lcarnein,
Alexander the Great^ 1 46,
<^ ^ ts'u-la, Arabic, zq/rafa, the
girafe, 128, 129, n. 6.
284
^ ^ iJj Ts'ui-lan-shan, the Ni-
cobar islands, 12.
;jtt "^ ^ Tu-Jmai-sun^ a depen-
dency of Chon-la, not identified, 54,
^ y^ tii-lau, a head-man in Hai-nan,
177.
! tu-lu, probably an abbreviated
twushka or tu-lu-so-kien
M
*fcp|
form foif
(q. v.).
tu-lu-so-kien, San-
skrit furushka, Indian olibanum, the resin
o[ the BoswelUa Serrati, i96,n. i, 201,
line 18.
^ ^ Tw-jwaw, Tuban, in Java,
85; — see Ta-pan.
^ j^ "Pi Tu-nu-Tw, a dependency
of Nan-p'i, possibly the Tana of the Arabs,
on Salsette island near Bombay, 88, 90,
n. 8.
^ ^ Tui-tau, in Japanese Tsu-
shima, the island of, on which silver was
mined, 174, n, ii, 17S, n. 22.
•^ M. 'M -^^w^-fe-ZM, a dependency
of Chon-la, not identified, 54.
"jig P^ T'un-mon, passage leading
out to sea from Canton, 10, 24.
^ |I|^ Tung-ki, a dependency of Java
(Sho-p'o), 83. Not identified.
^ ^ Wa-li, possibly Laos, 25.
^ tJc wa-mu, colloquial name for
su-mu, sapan-wood, 217.
M M.'S !^ Wan-li-sM-ch'ucmg,
«Myriad-li-rocks», (south-)east of Hai-
nan, 176; the Macclesfield Banks, 185,
n. 4.
I '^ ftB ^ ^ Wang-sM-ch'ong
THen-chu, Central India, Magadha, 26; a
Wa g-sho-ch'6ng said to be in Pin-t'ung-
lung, 51; less than forty stages west of
Ta-li (Yiin-nan), 97.
35c M- Won-tan, a section of Chon-
la during the T'ang period, 57, n. 12.
^ /^ Wong-man, in Cantonese
Ung-mm, Oman, a dependency of the
Arabs, 133; the second character is some-
times erroneously written ^ li, H7.
^ fib TFei'-i^«, a dependency of Chan-
ch'ong, 49. Not identified.
J^ 2i i^^i-po,, in Cantonese mi-pa,
the nipa palm, 84.
3l ^ ill Wu-chi-shan, a peak in
the Li-mu-shan of Hai-nan, 184, 189,
n. 39.
,1^ ^ij Wu-la, Sohar in Oman?,
14; — see Wu-pa.
^% M Wu-li, a small island outside
Ki-yang (Hai-nan), 176.
il^ ^ Wu-li, a dependency of Chan-
ch'ong, 49.
^ M. M Wu-li-ma (?), an island
near PVni, 158.
^ ^ 'fe^ Wu-li-pa, in Cantonese
Mo-ll-paf, Malabar, 223.
il^ 1^ ■^ Wu-ma-pa, a dependency
of Chan-ch'ong, 49. Not identified.
^ ^ til Wu-nung-shin, a hill
in Tong-liu-mei, on which Sakyamuni Bud-
dha manifested himself, 57, 58.
^ ^^ PFm-^<j, Sohar?, a depen-
dency of the Arabs, 117.
M ;g' wu-sM, — see ^ ma-
c¥a.
M M M' iM.^ Wu-si-hu-lu-
hua, a centenarian Arab living in Canton,
118.
^ |lf ^ (or M) Wu-ssUi, a de-
285
pendency of the Arabs, 117; Misr of the
Arabs, Egypt; — see also Mi-sU-li,
^ M M Wu-ssi-U, Al-Mawsil,
Mosul, 25, 140.
^ $1. Wu-tsu, an island in the Great
Ocean inhabited by women, 152, n. 2.
'^ '■^j^ Tau-tvmg, Yortan, south of
Surabaya, Java, 85.
I® G» Pl^ Ya-pa-hien, Ispahan,
202; — see Ya-ssi-pau-hien.
I® P3 'M P^ Yci-ssi-pau-Men,
Ispahan, a dependency of the Arabs, 116,
121, n. 12.
i|^ [Jj Jflw^'-s^aw/PuloGambir, 101.
yau-Uen-ch'an, a flower
of Chu-li6n, not identified, 96.
^ i^ ^ Te-ma-fai, in Japanese
Yamato, 173, n. 7.
^ "^ yu-Jcan, a fruit of Chu-lien,
not identified, 96.
^ -^ yii-Mn, Cantonese wat-Jcam,
old sound hat-ham, Persian ' karJcam,
Arabic hurhum, curcuma, 89, 91, n. 17.
"f* 3^ ^yu-tapu, «clothof«/M-to,
presumably ramie fiber fabric, a product of
Ma-i, 160.
^ ^ Tile-U, a dependency of Chan-
ch'ong, 49. Not identified.
■<" ^» » 'H' * *tf" -
286
Errata and Addenda.
P. 12, line 46, read P'o-lo-mSn.
P. 13, note 2, add: Dr. Bretschneider's opinion is fully corroborated
by Ts'au Chau (^ flg) who, in his Eo-ku-yau-lun (^ "^ ^ |^), written
in 1388, says (4, 12): «Pin-tHe comes from the Western Foreigners (^ ^).
On its surface are spiral designs; some has a design like sesamum seed, and
(some like) snow flakes. When sword blades are being burnished and polished,
gold wire is used to gild them (^ ^ ^ ^ ^ >S)> ^^^ fiiese designs (in
gold wire) are plainly visible. The price (of such blades) is greater than (their
weight in) silver — Imitation pin-tHe has designs in black; it must be care-
fully examined)).
P. 37, line 13, read O-kon-t'o, An-t'o-man, Ch'a-pi-sha, Mo-k'i6-la.
P. 37, line 17, read Pin-t'ung-lung.
P. 37, line 18, read Pi-p'a-lo and Ki-tz'i-ni.
P. 37, hne 20, read K'un-lung-ts'ong-k'i.
P. 38, line 8, read Pan Ch'au.
P. 38, line 22, read K'au-ku-pien.
P. 48, line 13, reaApo-tU.
P. 51, line 31, read hHen-
P. 53, line 26, read ^ ^
287
' P. 55, line 33, read Ling-k'i6-po-p'o.
P. 61, line 30, read Wb.
P. 62, line 14, read P'Ong-fong.
P. 70, line 36, read % )Jl.
P. 75, line 28, read irreconcilable.
P. 76, line 11, read ^ M ^•
P. 85, line 34, eleventh character, read HJ.
P. 89, line 28, read Ch8-ti.
P. 90, line 43, read |^ ^.
P. 94, line 25, read Ku-t'an ...
P. 94, line 27, read P'o-lun ...
P. 95, line 2, read P'a-li-p'a-li-yu.
P. 95, line 5, read Po-lo-ye.
P. 95, line 14, read T'idn-chu-li.
P. 102, note 15, add: The J. R. A. S. for April 1911, pp.437— 445,
contains an article by Col. G. F. Gerini on the subject of the Nan-ni-hua-lo
of Chau Ju-kua. The author identifies it, with great plausibility, with the
«well-known mediaeval kingdom of Nahrwara, AnhilwSla or Anhilvada in
Gujarat, which flourished between c. 746 and 1298. A. D.»
P. 102, line 33, read ^ |f .
P. 196, line 25, after the word to-¥ie-lo, add: Hung Chu in his
Hiang-p'u (Ijis'') gives, however, this latter form on the authority of the
Shi-shi-hui-yau (^ ^ -^ ^), and says it means «root perfumes (;f^ ^).
It may be Sanskrit tagara, which is Cassia auriculatis.
P. 215, line 41, read hallut and shah-ballut.
P. 219, line 31, add: The Ko-ku-yau-lun (4,23') refers to tm-lo-km, or
tula brocade, as a velvety tissue, from five to six feet broad, made from the
contents of the seeds of the so-lo (^ :^% Sanskrit sala) tree, and procured
from the Southern and Western Foreigners, and also from Yun-nan. It also
mentions si-yang-pu O y^ ^ «Western Ocean cloth») as a snowy-white
tissue, seven or eight feet broad.
P. 235, line 22, add: John Saris (1605—1609) noted that «the best
288
(civet) is that which is of a deepe yellow colour some-what inclining to the
colour of Gold, not whitish, for that is usually sophisticated with grease — »
Purchas, His Pilgrimes, III, 504. (Mac Lehose edit.).
Although the wu-na-tsH from Borneo here mentioned was unquestion-
ably a secretion of the sea-dog, the true civet-cat may also have been found
there. Three centuries later Juan Gonzalez de Mendoza mentions it as very
abundant in the neighbouring islands of the Philippines. Purchas, op. cit.,
XII, 147.
-.]
S6
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