A practical French grammar : with exercises and illustrative sentences from French authors

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PC 2111.W62 1887

Practical French grammar :

3 1924 027 102 023

PKAOTICAL

FEENCH GRAMMAR

•9k
WITH EXERCISES

AND ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES PROM FRENCH
AUTHORS

BT

WILLIAM DWIGHT WHITNEY

C<yrregpondent of the Institute of France; Professor of Sanskrit and

GompaTdtive Philology and Instructor in Modern Languages

in Yale College.

NEW YORK

HENEY HOLT AND COMPANY

r. W. Chbistbbn

Boston: Cakl Schoenhof

OoprRifta*< 1887,

BY

HENRY HOLT & CO.

Robert DBintiuoNi},

Printer,

New York.

PREFACE.

This volume is the outcome of the author's experience
as a teacher of French during many yearsin one of the
departments of Yale College. The designjiad in view in
it has been to furnish for such classes, and for preparatory
schools (where training in French is coming to be more and
more demanded), a grammar which should combine the
advantages of practice and theory in a higher degree than
others now existing. To this end, the most important
facts of the language have been grouped and arranged in a
series of Lessons, in an order suggested by practical con-
venience, each Lesson being accompanied by sufficient
Exercises. These Lessons constitute the First or Practical
Part of the grammar, which it is expected that every
learner of the language will work through. Its general
plan, while not unlike the method followed in many gram-
mars, is so far accordant especially with that of the widely
used and valued " Conversation-Grammar" of Otto, that it
may fairly be said to be founded upon the latter — though
no more than that, since both text and Exercises are en-
tirely new, and deviations from the older plan not only
numerous, but of much importance. As one example
among many, a more systematic course is followed in the
important item of the learner's introduction to the verbs :
all the principal forms are learned and practised, one after
another, before any complete paradigm is set forth ; and the
commonest and most useful of the irregular verbs are
•worked in by degrees, before they are taken up as a body.

lY "5^ PEEFACB.

It is believed that the method here adopted of presenting
and teaching the irregular verbs has decided practical advan-
tages over any other, and lightens, as much as it is possible
to lighten, this heaviest burden in French grammar. In
the Exercises, care has been taken not to embarrass the
learner with long lists of words of which little use is to be
made, but rather to make him practise over and over a
more limited and slowly increasing vocabulary.

If, in the case of any class, the Lessons are found too
long, the intelligent teacher will easily divide the Exercises,
returning to take up what was omitted, in the course of
that review and reiteration by which alone the desired
degree of mastery of the material can be obtained. Where
an early introduction to reading is especially aimed at,
the Exercises may be reduced to a minimum, and (so much
like English are French words and construction) a Eeader
or a text can be taken up as soon as the auxiliaries, the
regular conjugations, and a few of the commonest irregular
verbs are learned. This summary process will be greatly
aided by the French Vocabulary, in which are to be found,
besides many of the oftenest used words of the language,
nearly all the form-words — ^the auxiliaries, the articles and
pronouns, and the prepositions and conjunctions— with full
references to the explanations and illustrations of their use
that are given in the volume.

The Second Part is to be regarded and used both as a
supplement and as a successor to the First. Eesting upon
the basis of the First Part (while not rejecting the occasional
repetition, in more proper connection or in fuller form, of
statements there made), it gives a more penetrating view of
the usages of the language, especially of its syntactical
usages. The framework of Lessons, which could only em-
barrass such a presentation, is discarded in it. That it
should be worked and written through as soon as the First
Part is despatched, does not at all lie in the author's plan.
No class should be expected to take it up in that way until

PEBFACB. . V

after having read considerable French text as well, and thus
gained some practical familiarity with the facts of the lan-
guage which the grammar attempts to systematize, ifoth-
ing is worse than to try to make pupils learn more French
grammar than they learn French. But the practical
knowledge of the language gained in connection with the
First Part stands in need of frequent reference to the
Second, for the explanation or further elucidation of special
points, in order to their proper understanding ; and with
many students the chief use of this Part will he as a book
of reference, to be consulted under the guidance of the
teacher. Another way to use it with profit is to read with
care the sets of Illustrative Sentences, noting in connection
with the reading the grammatical points which those illus-
trate. One has there a series of selected phrases from
French authors of repute, exemplifying most of the usages
of which it is the duty of a grammar to take note ; after
despatching those, with the accompanying explanations of
the volume, one will meet with little in French reading
that win cause grammatical diflSculty, The English
Themes of this Part give the means of reaching the same
result in a different or an additional way ; and the English
Vocabulary will, it is believed, be found full enough, in its
phrases and references, to make their rendering into French
fairly easy. Here, again, the working through of these
Themes wiU be found a sufficient grammatical preparation
for rendering into French, or writing in French, in a more
general and freer way. A class, finally, that has due
preparation, in age and knowledge, may profitably go
through the whole Second Part, just as it stands.

An attempt has been made to lead the way toward that
comparison of French with Latin which forms a natural
and even a necessary part of the more advanced study of
the former, by directing attention from point to point to
the correspondences between the two languages, by setting
forth their general relations in a chapter introductory to

Vi PBEFACE.

the Second Part, and by giving, in a brief and unsystematic
form, the Latin (and other) etymologies of French words
in the first Vocabulary. The comparative study of the two
languages cannot, of course, be taken up otherwise than by
the way, while the pupil has his hands full with learning
the modern language itself j but this task may be made
both easier and more interesting by the use, under the
guidance of an intelligent teacher, of such material as is
here put within convenient reach.

The pronunciation of a new language is not a thing that
can be learned out of a book and by rule ; it must be gotten
through the ear of the pupil from the mouth of the teacher.
Yet there is sufficient consistency in French orthography
to render it possible to hold a pupil, after sufficient intro-
ductory practice, to responsibility for not making too
blundering work of uttering a word that is normally pro-
nounced, or even of an exceptional one that he has met with
before. In order to this, however, distinct statements as
to the facts of pronunciation are required. And they are
of no small value to the teacher also, unless he have enjoyed
very exceptional advantages. It is partly in view of the
needs of the great majority of teachers not French by birth
or education, that so much fulness has been given in this
work to the preliminary chapter on pronunciation, and that
all the commoner words that are exceptionally pronounced
(whether they do or do not occur in the Exercises and
Themes) are entered, marked as such, in the Vocabularies.
Different teachers will make different use of the chapter in
instruction, according to their various training and habit.
It is believed, however, that a class of beginners may to
their decided advantage be required to learn at the outset
certain points : namely, the division of syllables (4a, b) ; to
name correctly the orthographic marks (5-10); to tell when
e is mute (18) ; the value of y as double i (37) ; the chief
rules as to the nasal vowels (46-7, 52, 53) ; those as to
final consonants (56a, S) ; as to ch (59) ; to gn (63) ; to h

PREFACE. VU

(64rt, e) ; to liquid 1 (68, 68e) ; to r (73, 73rt) ; to s pro-
nounced as z (74a) ; to ti in endings (77a) ; and as to the
linking of final consonants (84a, b, 856, 86a). The rest
may well be left to oral teaching, one and another rule
being later brought in as found desirable : especially, the
pupil will need further on to note the rules as to the occur-
rence of mute e and 6 and 6 (19, 20a, 21a), which settle so
many cases of otherwise doubtful orthography.

The grammars of which most use has been made in the
preparation of this one are that of Matzner (of which
there is a re-working in English, under the name of
" French Syntax," by Professor J. A. Harrison — a valuable
work, especially for teachers) and that of Ploetz. From
them have been taken also a few of the Illustrative Sen-
tences.

YiUK CoiiLESB, Nev Haten, Atigiut, 18S6.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

The references are to pages only.
FIRST PAET.

PAQE

Alphabet anb Pronunciation, 1-36

Alphabet, 1-3 ; division of syllables, 3 ; accents and
otter orthograpbic marks, 3-4 ; accent, 4 ; pronuncia-
tion of the simple vowels, 4^10 ; of the digraphs or
vowel compounds, 11-3 ; of the nasal vowels, 13-5 ;
of the consonants, 15-35 ; linking or earrying-oa of
final consonants, 35-6.

Lessons, with Exercises, 37-198

I. Gender, articles, etc. ; present of avoir, . . 37
II. Plural of nouns ; present of 6tre, . . .30
in. The prepositions a and de ; imperfect of avoir

and 6tre 33

IV. Partitive and inclusive senses of the noun ; pret-
erit of do. , 86

V. Material and measure ; future of do. , . . 40
VI. Prepositions ; proper names ; conditional of do. , 43
VII. Adjectives— gender ; imperative of do. , . . 46
VIII. Adjectives — ^number, position ; present subjunc-
tive of do. , 50

IX. Adjectives — comparison ; imperfect subjunctive

of do., ." 54

X. Conjugation — the verb avoir have, . . .57

XI. Conjugation of the verb 6tre be, ... 63

XII. Negative conjugation, 65

XIII. Demonstrative and interrogative adjectives, . 69

XIV. Possessive and indefinite adjectives, . . .73
XV. Cardinal numerals, 76

XVI. Ordinal numerals, 79

XVII. Numerals continued — ^months and week-days, . 83
XVIII. Regular verbs ; first conjugation, . . 85

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

XIX. Second regular conjugation, . • -90

XX. Third regular conjugation, . . • -94

XXI. Irregular verbs : first conjugation, . . 98

XXII. Conjunctive personal pronouns, . . .102

XXIII. Disjunctive and conjunctive pronouns, . . 107

XXIV. Demonstrative pronouns ; irregular verbs,

vouloir Ill

XXV. Interrogative pronouns; the irregular verb

ponvoir 117

XXVI. Belative pronouns ; the irregular verb devoir, 131
XXVII. Possessive and indefinite pronouns ; the ir-
regular verb aller, ... . 126
XXVIII. Passive verbs ; auxiliaries, . . . .131

XXIX. Eeflexive verbs, . 135

XXX. Impersonal verbs, 139

XXXI. Adverbs from adjectives; the irregular verb

venir, 143

XXXII. Various adverbs ; the irregular verb faire, . 148

XXXIII. Prepositions ; the irregular verb dire, . . 153

XXXIV. Conjunctions ; the irregular verb savoir, . 157
XXXV. Irregular verbs ending in ire (1-14), . ■ 162

XXXVI. Irregular verbs in aindre etc. and aitre

etc. (15-20), 166

XXXVII. Further irregular verbs in re (21-29), . . 171

XXXVIII. The remaining irregular verbs in re (30-37), 175

XXXIX. Irregular verbs in ir (88-51), . . .180

XL. The remaining irregular verbs in ir (52-64), 185

XLI. Irregular verbs in oir (65-71), ■ . . 190

XLII. The remaining irregular verbs in oir, and those

in er (72-83), 194

Index op Ireegulab Verbs, Simple and Compound, . 199-201
Abbreviations of Authors' Names ; References, . . 202

TABLE OS COSTTENTS. XI

SECOND PAKT.

PAGE

I. The Relation of French to Latin, . . 308-9

II. Nouns, 309-33

Gender, 209-13; number, 313-15; case-relations,
315-31 ; noun used absolutely, 315-6 ; noun witb
do, 317-8 ; partitive noun, 330 ; noun with k, 321.

III. Articles, . . 333-33

Definite article, 333-8 ; indefinite, 339-30.

IV. Adjectives, 333-41

Adjective forms, 338-4 ; agreement with noun,
384-6 ; place, 336-7 ; noun-adjuncts, 339-40.

V. Numerals, 341-4

VI. Pronouns and Pronominal Adjectives, . . 344-63
Personal pronouns, 344^8 ; possessives, 351 ; de-
monstratives, 353 ; interrogatives, 354-5 ; rela-
tives, 355-6 ; indefinites, 358-60.

VII. Verbs, 263-340

Uses of the tenses, 364^8 ; uses of the indicative
mode, 373 ; uses of the subjunctive, 373-83 ; sub-
junctive in independent clauses, 373-3 ; in sub-
stantive clauses, 374-6 ; in adjective clauses,
378-9 ; in adverbial clauses, 380-3 ; uses of the
imperative, 383-4 ; verb and subject, 386-9 ; and
predicate noun and adjective, 393-3 ; and object,
394-6 ; and prepositional phrase, with a, 398-300 ;
with de, 801-3 ; and adverb, 305 ; negative ex-
pression, 305-11; expletive ne, 310-11; the infini-
tive, 313-33 ; as subject, as predicate, in apposi-
tion, 313-5 ; as object of, or dependent on, a verb,
316-=36 ; without sign, 316-8 ; with de, 330-1 ;
with a, 328-5 ; with de or a, 335-6 ; iaflnitive
as dependent on an adjective, 337-8 ; on a noun,
338-9; on other prepositions than de and k, 330-1 ;
• the present participle, 333-3 ; the gerund, 333 ;
the past participle, 334-7.

VIII. Adverbs, 840-1

IX. Prepositions, 341-4

X. Conjunctions, 345-7

Xii TABLE OF CONTENTS.

FAQS

XL INTEEJECTIONS, ^^^

XII. Arrangement of the Sentence, . . ■ 350-3
XIII. French Versification, 354-8i

Illustrative Sbntencbb (in the second part).

I. Noun used absolutely, 316

II. Noun with de, qualifying a noun, .... 218

III. Partitive noun, 330

IV. Noun with a, qualifying a noun, . . . .331
V. Partitive and inclusive article, .... 334

VI. Article with proper names, 336,

VII. Various uses of the article, 3291

VIII. Indefinite article, 330

IX. Agreement and place of adjectives, . . . 237

X. Noun-adjuncts of adjectives, 340

XI. Numeral's, 343

XII. Personal pronouns, 348

XIII. Possessives, 352

XIV. Demonstratives, 353

XV. Interrogatives, . . ; 255

XVI. Relatives, . . . 256]

XVII. Indefinites, 261

XVIII. Tenses of the verb, 268,

XIX. Subjunctive in independent clauses, . . . 373;

XX. Subjunctive in subject and object clauses, . . 276

XXI. Subjunctive in adjective clauses, .... 279,

XXII. Subjunctive in adverbial clauses, .... 3821

XXIII. Imperative, 284

XXrV. Verb and subject 290

XXV. Verb and predicate, 394

XXVI. Verb and object, . .^ . . . .296

XXVII. Verb and case-phrase with a, 300

XXVIII. Verb and case-phrase with de, 302

XXIX. Negative expression, 308-

XXX. Expletive negative, 311

XXXI. Infinitive as subject and as predicate, . . . 315

XXXII. Object-infinitive without sign, 318

XXXIII. Object-infinitive with de 323

XXXIV. Object-infinitive with a, 326

XXXV. Infinitive dependent on an adjective or noun, . . 329

XXXVI. Infinitive after other prepositions than de and a, . 331

XXXVII. Present participle and gerund, . 333

XXXVIII. Past participle, •...".'.! 337

XXXIX. Adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, . ." [ 347

XL. Inverted arrangement of the sentence, . ! '. 353

TABLE OF CONTENTS. XIH

Themes (m the second pabt).

PAGE

1. Case-ielations of nouns, 222

2. Articles, -281

3. Adjectives, 240

4. Numerals, 243

5. Personal pronouns, 250

6. Possessives, 262

7. Demonstratives, 254

8. Interrogatives and relatives, 257

9. Indefinites, 262

10. Tenses of the verb, 270

11. Subjunctive in independent and in substantive clauses, . 277

12. Subjunctive in adjective and adverb clauses, and imperative, 285

13. Verb and subject, 291

14. Verb with predicate and object, 297

15. Verb and case-phrase, with a or de, 303

16. Negative expression 312

17. Subject and predicate infinitive, 316

18. Object-inflnitive without sign, 319

19. Object-inflnitive with de, 322

20. Object-inflnitive with a, 327

21. Indnitive dependent on an adjective or a noun, . . . 330

22. Infinite after other prepositions than de or a, . . . 331

23. Present participle and gerund, 334

24. Past participle, 339

25. Prepositions, 349

359-433

. 859

. 410

. 414
435-42

VOCABULAEIBS,

I. French-English vocabulary,
n. Vocabulary of French proper names,
in. English-French vocabulary,
Genebal IllDIlX, ... . .

FIRST PART.

ALPHABET AND PEOFDNCIATION.

Fop suggestions as to the use of this introductoiy chapter on pronunciation, see
the Preface.

o

u u

p p6

q ku

V y6

•w double v6

r erre

X iks

s esse
t t6

y igreo
z z^d

ALPHABET.

1. The French alphabet is the same with the English.

a. But the letters k and w occur only in a few words, borrowed
out of other languages.

2. The letters of the alphabet and their names are as
follows (the names pronounced as French words) :

a a h ache

b b4 i i

c o6 j ji

d d6 k ka

e 6 1 elle

f effe m emme

g g6 n enne

a. In reading and spelling, however, it is now common to name
each consonant by its own sound followed by a mute e (18), which
is pronounced only just enough to let the character of the conso-
nant be distinguished : thus, for b, be instead of b^ ; for g, gue or
je (according as the g is hard or soft) instead of ge ; and so on.
But when any letter is named by itself, it is always by the name
given in the above table.

3. Use of Capitals. — ^As regards the use of capitals,
French agrees in general with English, but with the fol-
lowing important exceptions :

a. An adjective derived from a proper name does not

take a capital when used as an adjective, but only when

it has the value of a noun.

Thus, nn livre SessuiaM, a French book, but un Frangais, a
iFrenehman ; des chevaox am^ricains, American horses, but des
i^^ricains, Americans.

1

2 ALPHABET. [8-

l. The names of the days of the week and of the
months are not written with capitals in French.

Thus, lundi, Monday, juin, June.

c. The word for I, namely je, is not written with ai
capitaL

DmSION OF SYLLABLES.

4. The rules as to how a French word is to be divided
into syllables are of much practical importance in theii^
bearing on the mute e (18) and on the nasal vowels (46).

a. A single consonant between vowels always belongs^
to the following vowel.

Thus, fi-ni, ai-me-rai, de-cou-ra-ger, g^-n^-reu-se-ment, i-ni-
mi-ta-bi-li-t4

h. Also two consonants, if they are such as may begin;

a French word, belong to the following vowel.

Thus, a-pres, re-gler, a-bri, ^-clos, a-droit, tr^-fle, ou-tre,
ou-vris.

Such groups have r or 1 as their final member : they are br, bl ;
cr, cl; dr; fi:, fl; gr, gl; pr, pi; tr; vr. J

c. A consonant digraph, or group of two consonants repreii
senting a single sound, is treated as if one consonant only ; suchl
are ch, ph, th, gn : thus, a-che-ter, pro-phe-ti-e, pa-th^-ti-que,
a-gneau.

d. Other groups of two consonants are divided, the former
consonant going to the preceding vowel, the latter to the follow-
ing vowel : thus, al-ler, frap-per, in-su, es-p^-ran-ce, ad-mi-ra-
ble.

e. Groups of three or more consonants follow the same princi-
ples of division : thus, com-bler, per-dre, in-stant.

/. A few exceptional cases occur : x belongs to the preceding
vowel, as ex-em-ple; n and b. (in words of compound origin)
are divided, though the h is silent, as bon-heur; also divide
iu-strui-re, at-mo-sphe-re, etc.

ACCENTS AND OTHER OETHOGEAPHIC MAEKS.

5. Three accent-marks are used in French, and consti-
tute a part of the necessary written form of French
words. They are the acute accent, as in 6t6, cr66 ; the

9] OETHOGEAPHIC MAKES. 3

GEAVE ACCENT, as ill dfes, Id, oil; and the oiecumflex ac-
cent, as in pate, fete, ile, h6te, fates.

a. These accent-marks do not at all point out the actually ac-
cented syllable of a word ; but they in part show differences of
vowel-soTind, in part are means of distinction of words otherwise
spelt alike, and in part show something respecting the history of
the word.

6. It is just as great a fault in writing French to leave off an
accent or to write a wrong accent, as to leave out a letter or to
write a wrong letter.

c. In speUing, the accent should always be mentioned along
with the vowel to which it belongs : thus, ^te is "e acute, t, e
acute"; a is " a grave"; He is "i circumflex, 1, e"; and so on.

6. a. The acute accent occurs only on the vowel e.

6. The grave occurs almost always on e ; but also on a in a
very few words (16), and on u in oil, where.

c. The circumflex occurs on all vowels, usually as a sign of con-
traction, and in the great majority of cases showing the loss of an
s, formerly written after the vowel now circumflexed : thus, hate
for older haste (Eng. haste), fiSte for feste (Eng. feasf), hdte for
hoste (Eng. hx)st), ile for isle (Eng. isle), :^tes for fustes (Lat.
fuistis), maitre for maistre (Eng. master), coiiter for couster
(Eng. cost), and so on.

7. The CEDILLA is a mark placed under a c (thus, 9), to
give it its soft or s-sound before the vowels a, 0, u (where
it would otherwise be pronounced hard, like h : 585) :
thus, pla^a, fa^on, re^u, c'a.

8. The DiJEEEsis (Fr. tr6ma) is a double dot, set (as
sometimes also in English) over a vowel which is to be
pronounced separately from a preceding vowel, not form-
ing with it a diphthong : thus, hair (i.e. ha-ir), oui (i.e. ou-i).

a. It is also used on the vowel that follows a gu, if the u is to be
pronounced (compare 62/) : thus, ambiguity, ambigue (where
the e itself is silent).

9. The APOSTKOPHE shows, as in English, the loss of a
final vowel which has been cut ofE before another vowel :
thus, rami, s'il.

a. The vowel thus cut off is almost always e (26o);
but in a few cases it is a (15) or i (296).

4 PROisruiirciATioM-. [lo—

10. The HYPHEN is used, as in English, but more fre-
quently and strictly, between parts of words, and whole
words regarded as having an especially close connection!
with one another. The cases where it is required will be
stated below.

ACCENT.

11. The actual accent, or stress of voice on one of the

syllables of a word of two or more syllables, rests in

French on the last syllable that is fully pronounced — ^i.e.

that does not have as its vowel a mute e.

Thus, palais', mala'de, maladroit', maladroi'te, m^lancoli'e, :
indubitaHble, r^concilier', reconcilie'rent, indivisibility'.

a. This accented syllable regularly and usually represents the one which bad
the accent in Latin: see Fart Second, § 9a.

i. But the stress of voice is very slight. In general,

the syllables of a French word (except those containmg a

mute e) are uttered with equal distinctness and nearly

even stress.

c. TMs evenness of utterance, and equal distinctness of vowel
sound in all the syllables of a word, is one of the most striking
peeuharities of French pronunciation as compared with English,
and cannot be too much insisted on and practised.

PEONUNCIATION OF THE VOWELS.

12. QuANTnr. — There is no strongly-marked distinc-
tion of long and short vowels in French, such as there is
in English (and in German). French vowels are in generalr
short, though sometimes a little prolonged — oftenest be-
fore a final pronounced r, and when circumflexed.

13. A, a. — a. When final, or followed at the end of a
word only by a silent consonant or by r, a has very nearly
the full open sound of English a in far ox father.

Thus, ira, donna, la, a, cas, bras, plat, drap, car.
I. Elsewhere, a is a little flattened, like English a in
fiat, cap, jack, only not quite so much so.

1*1 VOWELS. 5

Thus, ami, animal, cabane, malade, bague, place, passe, &me,
p&te, fi.ge, ch&tean.

c. For an and am nasal, see 48.

14. The a is silent -in aofit, August, ao^teron, reaper, taon,
Jwrse-fly, Caen, Cnra^o (last syllable), Sa6ne.

15. The final a of la (article and object-pronoun) is cut off be-
fore a vowel (or a silent h): thus, I'amie, I'histoire, il I'aime.

a. But not that of la as pronoun after the verb, except before
another object-pronoun: thus, trouve-la aimable; but envoyez-
I'y.

16. An a has the grave accent in the preposition k, to, and
the adverbs la, tTiere (with most of its compounds, but not cela,
t?ia(), and ;^, here (with its compound de^a, on this side), to
distinguish these words from a (verb), la (article and pronoun),
and ^a (pronoun) ; also in d^jsi., already (and the almost obsolete
ja). It often has the circumflex ; but never the acute.

17. E, e. — This vowel has in French a greater variety
of written form and of pronunciation than any other,
being written as e, 6, fe, S, and pronounced with a mute,
a closer, and an opener sound.

18. Mute ob Silent e. — a. A simple e (that is, one
without accent-sign) standing at the end of a syllable (4)
has the so-caUed " mute" or " silent" value (e nniet) :
that is, it is pronounced as briefly and lightly as possi-
ble, and what sound it has is like that of English u in hut
or httrt.

b. The sound is quite precisely that in English the before a
consonant in real colloquial utterance : thus, " tiell us tTie name of
the man." Examples are le, me, de, te-nir, re-gard, re-gar-de,
re-le-va, ra-me-na, en-ne-mi. In many situations — especially at
the end of a word of more than one syllable, as table, rare, ma-
chine, abortive — ^it is in ordinary utterance entirely silent ; but
stDl it makes theoretically a syllable (thus, ra-re, ma-chi-ne, a-
bor-ti-ve), which counts as such in poetry, and in singing must
be uttered as much as any other syllable. In learning French
pronunciation, the pupil must first be able to give the right sound
to the vowel, and then duly to slight or omit it.

c. The same sound belongs also to the e of es at the end of a
word (excepting in the monosyllables les, des,'ce8, mes, tes, ses),
and to that of ent at the end of the 3d pers. plural of a verb :
thus, rares, machines, certes, donnes, donnent, regardent, don-
nassent.

PEONTTKCIATIOIT.

[18-]

d. More exceptional cases are dessus, dessous, ressource, and
most other words beginning with ress- ; also faisant etc. (sue),
and monsieur (54&).

e. The e of je, J, when foUowing i\e verb, is completely,
silent, in the same manner as at the end of a word of more than
one syllable : thus, ai-je, have If i)ronounced as if written
aige ; suis-je, am I? as. if suige ; avais-je, Tiad I? as if avaige ;
and so on.

19. The acute and grave accents, as used on e, are
signs giving it a full pronunciation, where otherwise it
would be mute. No 6 or 6 is ever written unless with-
out the accent the e woiild (by the rules of the preced-
ing paragraph) have its mute value.

20. a. As between the acute and grave, the general
rule is that the grave is written if a next following sylla-
ble in the same word is a mute one ; otherwise, the acute.

Thus, pS-re, cke-re, le-ve, ce-de, mfe-ne-rai, pe-le-rin; but
c€-der, c^-da, c^-d^, c^-l^-bri-t6 ; and de-ce-de, c6-le-bre, c6-le-
breut, pr^-fe-res, t6-ne-bres.

But to this rule there are some exceptions:

h. An 6 remains in the future and conditional of a verb having
6 in the infinitive: thus, c6-de-rai, c^-de-rais.

c. An i, and not e, is usually written before g thus, col-16-ge,
ab-r6-ge.

But the French. Academy has recently ruled that e should stand
before g, just as before other consonants: thus, college, abrege.

d. On the other hand, e is written before s at the end of a few
words : thus, des, tres, pres, apres, expres, progres, succes.

e. There are a few other special exceptions : thus, only € is in-
itial, as in 6-le-ver ; 6 is used in certain individual words, as d^-
velopper, ^v^nemeut, m^decin.

21. a. It is to be noted that the occurrence of two
successive mute syllables in the same word is generally
avoided. Thus, no word is ever composed of, or ends
in, two mute syllables ; nor do two often come together
in the middle of a word ; at the beginning they are not
quite so rare (especially when re or de is prefixed to a
verb already beginning with a mute syllable, ae venir

28] VOWELS. 7

revenir, devenir, and even redevenir). And no word ever

begins witli a mute e.

6. Hence, such words as leve, mene, jete, chore, complete, ap-
peles, leves, menes, chores, or (as 3d pi. of a verb) levent, me-
uent, are impossible in French; and wherever they would occur
in the regular processes of word-formation or inflection, the con-
currence of the two mute syllables is avoided by giving a full
pronunciation to the flrst. This is oftenest done by writing the
grave accent over it : thus, leve, m^ne, chere, complete, m^ues,
menent — but sometimes by doubling the consonant (if it be 1 or
n or t) instead : thus, belle (bel-le), appelles, sienne, prennent
(3d pi.), nette, jette.

c. Hence also (since a following je is pronounced as if a part of
the same word with a preceding verb : 18e) the final e of a verb-
form before je takes an accent, and this accent is the acute : thus,
donu^je.

22. The e with acute accent, or 6, has the sound of
EngKsh so-called " long a," in day and they, and the like
(yet without the vanishing sonnd of " long e," with which
our " long a" usually ends). It is called the close e (e
ferm6).

23. The 6 with grave accent, or h, has an opener sound,
nearly like our " short e," in ebh, send, and the like ; and
it even in some cases, especially before a following r, ap-
proaches our still opener sound of e in there and the like.
It is called the open e (e ouvert).

24. The e with circumflex accent, or e, has the open

sound, like d.

a. The 6 is not, like 6 and h, restricted to situations where the
e would otherwise be mute, but it is found (though not often) be-
fore a consonant in the same syllable : thus, for§t, bendt.

25. An e that is followed by a consonant in the same
syllable (whether that consonant be pronounced or silent)
is not mute, but has either the closer sound of 6 or the
opener of 6.

a. It has the closer sound in the final syllables (with silent con-
sonants) er, ez, ed : thus, citer, chantier, nez, citez, pied.
6. It has the opener sound before a pronounced r (whether

8 PBOlftJNCIATIOIT. I**""

final or not), and usually before a double consonant ; also before
(silent) t final : thus, fer, verre, elle, nette, mienne, ricbesse,
valet.

26. E In a few words has an irregular pronunciation :

a. It is pronounced as an a would be, before n and m, in
femme, woman, solennel, soUmn, and its derivatives, and ad-
verbs ending in -emment; also in nenni, nay, hennir, neigh,
indemnity, indemnity.

h. It is sometimes used after g merely as" a device for showing
that the g is to have its soft sound, being itself not pronounced
(62e): thus, mangeai, maugeons.

c. The final mute e of a monosyllable is generally cut
off before a vowel, and replaced by an apostrophe.

Such monosyllables are : the article le ; the pronouns je, me, te,
se, ce, le, que; the preposition de; the conjunction que; the
negative particle ne. But the subject-pronouns je and ce are not
thus abbreviated when they come after the verb ; nor the object-
pronoun le in the same position, except before another object-
pronoun, as eavoyez-l'y.

The same elision takes place also in jnsqne ; and in lorsqne,
poisqne, qnoique before il, elle, on, un. Further, in a few com-
pound words, as quelqu'nu, presqu'ile, entr'acte, aivJonrd'hnL

d. For en and em nasal, see 48.

27. I, i. — The vowel i has in French invariably the
sound (as regards quality) of English " long e," or of i in
the words jnacMne, pique.

Thus, il, ri, vite, ici, midi, d^flni, divis€, visibility.

a. The error of pronouncing a French i anywhere like the
English " short i " of ^w, finish, and the like, must be very care-
fully avoided.

6. For i before a liquid 1, see 68; for in and im nasal, see 50.

28. a. An i followed by mute e has, of course, its full pro-
nunciation, the e being the vowel of a succeeding mute syllable :
thus, vie, ajnies, rient (divided vi-e, a-mi-es, ri-ent).

6. But an i followed in the same syllable by an e not mute or
by any other vowel (or diphthong), is uttered very brieflv as a
mere y-prefli to the following sound : thus, pied, ciel, metier
6tiez, arriere, arri^rd, vierge, vienne, vient, vieille, lieu 'non-
sieur, viole, avions, fiacre, diable, bestiaux. And even if the
i is (in verse) regarded as forming a separate syllable, it is apt to
lose more or less of its full quantity before another vowel • thus !
manier, prigre, pieuz, meudiaot, niais, action. '

38]

VOWELS.

29. a. An i never takes any other accent-mark than the cir-
cumflex : thus, lie, plait, fit, maitre.

6. A final i is elided only in the conjunction si, if, before the
pronouns il, lis, he, they : thus, s'il, s'ils.

30. 0, 0. — a. The vowel o has in general the sound of

the English o in note (but without the vanishing sound

of 00, in which the EngHsh " long o" usually ends).

It is so pronounced especially when it is circumflexed, or is the
final sound of a word : thus, cdte, udtre, rdle, trdne, mot, cachet,
trop, nos.

h. But in many words o has an opener sound, ap

proaching that of English o in not (or midway between

that and the o of come); and before a final T'-sound it

comes near to our o in 7ior.

Thus, robe, mode, Rome, dogae, €cole, dorer, notre, porter,
occuper, modeste ; and or, mort, corps.

31. a. The o is silent in faon, fawn; paon, peacock; Laon
(pronounced as fkn, etc.).

6. An o never takes any other accent-mark than the circumflex :
thus, hdte, rdti, hdpitaL

c. For the diphthong oi, see 43 ; for on and om nasal, see 49.

32. IT, n. — The French u has a sound unlike anything
in English (but precisely agreeing with that of the Grer-
man " modified a«," or " u with umlcmt," written u). It
is produced by a combination of that position of the
tongue with which ee (as in meet) is made, with that po-
sition of the lips with which oo (as in msot) is made. Fix
the tongue, then, to say ee, and, without moving it, round
the lips as if to say oo, and the product is the sound de-
sired.

Thus, vn, dfi, nnl, pure, siire, sncre, minute, fimle, occuper,
mnltitude, minuscule.

33. a. U is generally silent after q ; for the exceptions, see
under q (726).

6. TJ is also regularly silent after g, when itself followed by
another vowel, usually e or i, except when the following e or i
has the diaeresis (see 8): thus, guerre, guide, langae, longueur,
fatigue, ^tign^, voguer, vogua, voguons. For the exceptions,
see under g ^^.

10 PEONUNCIATION.

H

c. The um at the end of a Latin word is pronounced nearly as
in EngUsh : thus, forum, album. In mamelnk and a few other
foreign words, it has the sound of English oo.

d. For un and um nasal, see 51.

34. U often has the circumflex accent : thus, dfi, mflr, chflte,
fat, fates. It never takes the acute ; nor the grave except in oii
vihere (for distinction from ou or).

35. A u followed by a mute e keeps its own full sound : thus,
vue, vues, saluent (3d pi.). But before any other vowel — name-
ly, a, i, and e not mute — in the same syllable, it is abbreviated
and slighted, becoming nearly like English to, while the following
vowel has the principal vowel-sound of the syllable. Thus, in
words where it is by exception pronounced after g and q, lingual,
linguiste. Guise, loquace, loquele, ^questre ; after other conso-
nants (where it retains more of the pecidiar French sound of n),
lui, ennui, autrui, fruit, fiiite, cnir, nuire, suivre, coisse, pnis-
saot, duel, ^cuelle.

36. Y, y. — The sound of y, when it is the vowel of a

syllable, is the same with that of 1 : thus, y, style, sys-

tfeme, syllabe, physique, Yves.

a. The value of i belongs to y also when followed in the same
syllable by another vowel, as in yeuz, eyes^ Yonne, and a few
other proper names and foreign words.

37. Ay between two vowels has the value of double
i, or i-i, one of the i's belonging to the vowel of the pre-
ceding syllable, the other (as a brief y-like prefix : 28J)
to that of the following syllable.

Thus, essayer is pronounced as if written essai-ier ; appnyer,
as if appui-ier ; envoyer, as if envoi-ier ; and so on.

a. The same value belongs to the y in pays (pronounced as it
written pai-is), and in its derivatives pay sage, paysan.

6. A y is not allowed as final, nor in general before mute e ;
and, both in derivation and in inflection, the interchange of i and
y, according as final or not, and as a mute e or any fully pro-
nounced vowel follows, is very common : thus, joie, joyeux ; roi,
royal ; aie, ayons, ayez, aient ; appuie, appuies, appuyons ap-
puyez, appuient ; and so on.

c. But y is in some verbs allowed to stand after a even before
mute e, as essaye ; and it is the rule (though rare) after e as
grasseye, asseye. '

*y VOWELS. H

DIPHTHONGS OR VOWEL COMPOTINDS.

38. There are a few very common combinations of two
vowels (or three), which represent for the most part sim-
ple sounds, but which are commonly called diphthongs ;
they are ai and ei, au (and eau), eu (and oeu), ou, and oL

a. It is to be noticed that real diphthongal sounds, like those
in English ^7e, foul, foil, are altogether wanting in French.

b. As to vowels followed by mute e, see 45 ; as to the vowel-
groups, compound both in form and in pronunciation, which be-
gin with i and u, see 286, 35.

39. Ai and ei. — These compounds have no other
sounds than those of e when not mute, or of 6 or 6.

a. Ai final is pronounced as 6 : thus, gai, donnai, donnerai.
Elsewhere, it is usually like e, especially in the endings ais, ait :
thus, 6tais, aurait.

6. Ei (which is never final) has usually the sound that e (not
mute) would have in the same situation : thus, peine, reine.

c. In certain forms of the verb faire, do (XXXII. 8) — namely,
the pres. pple. faisant and those foIl9wing its analogy, also in
the compounds of faisant and the derivatives faisance and fai-
seur — ai is pronounced as a silent e (but recently also as ai).

d. For ai and ei nasal, with following n or m, see 50c/ for
their pronunciation before liquid 1, see 686.

40. Au and eau are pronounced as o would be in the
same situation.

Thus, au, eau, beau, beauts, tombeau, chevauz, aurai, Maure.

41. Eu has a peculiar sound, nearly like that of Eng-
lish u va.fv/r, hurt (or nearly like German o).

It is closer in feu, lieu, peuple, etc. ; and opener in leur, jeune,
aveugle, etc.

a. (Eu, which is much less common, is pronounced in the same
manner as eu : thus, vcbu, oeuf, bceuf, oeuvre.

6. In all parts of the very common verb avoir, Tmve, en is
pronounced as if simple u (32): thus, eu, eue, eus, eurent, eusse,
etc. The same is true in a few words after g, where the e is only
written in order to preserve the soft sound of the g (62e) : thus,
mangenre, gagenre.

c. In a word or two occurs oe before liquid 1 (68 : written il) ; it
is pronounced like eu : thus, oeil, eye.

d. After c and g, before liquid 1 (written il or ill), in a very

12 PEONTmClATIOM-. f**~

few words, ue is written instead of en, and is pronounced like en;
thus, cneillir, orgneiL
c. For eu nasal, with following n, see 51.

42. Ou. — The combination ou is everywhere pro-
nounced like English oo, iujpool, hoon, etc.

Thus, on, on (34), con, bont, hibonx, coupe, source, conrte, joii-
jou, donlonrenz.

a. In a few words, ou is followed in the same syllable by a
pronounced vowel (not mute e). In such a case, the following
vowel has the principal vowel-sound of the syllable, and the on is
shortened before it to a sound nearly like that of English w;
thus, oni, onais, onest, bivouac, fouet, fonetter, etc.

43. OL — The combination oi, which is extremely com-
mon in French, is everywhere pronounced like the Eng-
lish wa in was (not with the broader sonnd of wa ir
water).

Thus, moi, sol, foi, oiseau, toile, ploie, cloitre, crois, txois,
adroite, froidenr, proie.
a. The i is silent in oignon, onion.

44. a. As to oy as substitute and equivalent of oi-i, see 37 ; as
to oi nasal, with following n or m, see 50c?.

6. Until recently, many syllables now written with ai were
written with oi, and the latter speUing is still occasionally met
with : thus, €tois, Anglois, connoitre, foible, and so on. They
should be pronounced as when written with aL It is still in good
usage to write oi in roide and its derivatives, but the usual pro-
nunciation is that of raide.

45. As after i (28a) and u (35), so also after e and the vowel-
compounds, a mute e may stand without making (in prose) any
difference in their pronunciation: thus, fSe, crfe, cz^es, creent
(3d pi.); gale, gaies, aient (3dpl.); blene, blenes ; moue, lone,
loues, louent (3d pi.); oie, croie, croies, croient (3dpL); plnie,
appuie, appuies, appuient. In all such cases, the e is the vowd
of an additional mute syllable : thus, fe-«, lon-«s, croi-«nt.

NASAL VOWELS.

46. If a vowel, simple or compound, is followed in
the same syllable by n or m, the n or m loses its separate
pronunciation, and the vowel itseK is made nasal.

a. A nasal vowel is one that is pronounced partly throuffh tht
mouth and partly through the nose : that is, whHe the iMuth-

60] VOWELS. 13

organs are fixed as in the utterance of an ordinary vowel, the
passage from the mouth into the nose is also opened, so that a
part of the expelled air goes through the nose and resounds there,
giving a nasal twang to the vowel-tone. Beginners may help ac-
custom themselves to recognize and produce this nasal twang by
shutting the nostrils with the fingers, ia which case the nasality
becomes especially loud and conspicuous.

6. In learning to pronounce the nasal vowels, the fault especi-
ally to be avoided is the shutting of the mouth-organs after the
vowel-sound, so as to end it with anything like an n or wgf-sound.
A habit of so doing, if once formed, is extremely hard to get rid
of. Better than this is to leave the vowel at first unnasalized,
hoping to leam by degrees *-^ give it the right quality.

47. Thece are in French four nasal vowels, or nasalized
vowel-sounds. They are very nearly those heard in the
English words wan, song, sang, and sung, or on, pawn,
pom, and jWTi — as these would be if the n- and «^-sounds
in them were not separately uttered, but had their nasal
tone as it were absorbed into the vowel itself.

48. The nasalized vowel-sound of English wcm or on
belongs in French to an and am, and to en and em.

Thus, aji, pan, banc, quand, lance, manger, ^ranler, ban-
quet, anse, ayant, vaster ; camp, lampe, ample, chambre ; en,
dent, enfant, pente, pmdence, genre ; temps, trempe, i-emplir,
membre, embleme.

a. The same sound is heard, of course, after the prefixed half-
vowel sounds of i, y, etc., in the same syllable: thus, viande,
croyant (pronounced as croi-iaoit), patience, orient, pingonin.
But en after i or y has sometimes a different sound ; see 50e.

49. The nasalized vowel-sound of 'Emgiish. pmon or
song belongs in French to on and cm.

Thus, on, non, done, long, plonge, annonce, center, ronde;
nom, plomb, tomber, romps, rompre, combler, comte. So also
action and the like.

i 50. a. The nasalized vowel-sound of English sang or
pan belongs in French especially to in and im.

Thus, vin, vint, vinrent, vinsse, pincer, Inde, ingrat ; imbn,
timbre, simple, impnr.

6. The same sound belongs to ym and yn, in the few words in
which tiiey occur : thus, thjrm, nymphe, symbole ; syntaxe.

14 PKONTTNCIATION. P^"

c. The same sound belongs to the compound vowels
ai and ei with following n or m.

Thus, sain, sainte, craindre ; faim, essaim ; sein, serein, pein-
dre, peinture.

d. The oi of oin has not its ordinary value, but the in of it has
the regular nasal sound of in, to which the o gives a prefix like a
w. Thus loin, moins, ointe, oindre, joindre, accointance.

e. Final en after 1 (or y), and en everywhere after i in the
forms of the verbs tenir and venir, has the sound of in : thus,
rien, bien, sien, moyen (pronounced as moi-ien), tiens, viendra.
Many pronounce in the same way final en after e : thus, enro-
peen, vend^en. En and em are also pronounced as in in a few
proper names and foreign words : thus, Hentor, Memphis, Ben-
gale, Rubens, agenda, appendice, pensum, ezamen, pentame-
tre, etc.

51. The nasalized vowel-sound of English sung or
ipun belongs in French to un, um, and eun.

Thus, un, brun, tiibnn, defimt, lundi, empmnter ; parfam.
humble; jeun.

a. j:n a few foreign proper names, un has the sound of on:
thus, DunkercLue, Sund.

6. In reading Latin, and in a few words taken unchanged from
the Latin — as album, pensum, museum, Te-deum, triumvir, also
in rhum, rum — um is pronounced very nearly as ia English, the
vowel not being nasal.

52. If the n or m is followed by a vowel, the preced-
ing vowel is of course not nasal, because (4a) the n or
m is not in the same syllable with it.

Thus, tenir, semer, honorer, une, inutile (divided te-nir, ho-
no-rer, i-nu-ti-le, etc.) ; also itihinnain, inhabite, etc. (the h be-
ing silent, and not counting as a consonant : see 64).

a. But in enivrer and enorgueillir and their derivatives the e
is nasal.

53. Also when the n or m is doubled, the preceding
vowel is not nasal.

Thus, ann^e, hebamme, tienne, ennemi, femme, lionne,
homme, innocent, immoler.

a. But in ennui and its derivatives, in ennoblir, also in em-
mener, and most other words beginning with emm (from en-m)
the e is nasal.

6. The combination mn is also treated as if a double letter so

8T] COKSOSAHnS. 15

far as concerns the nasalization of a preceding Yowel : thns, con-
damner (eL SSa), indemnity (26a), hynme, gynmase.

54. Other cases of vowels which, against the general rule, are
not prononnced as nasal are :

a. The en of ent in the 3d plnral of verbs (the e being here
mote: 18c).

6. The on of monsienir, being prononnced as a mute e (l&f).

e. Final am, em, en, im in many foreign propeiv names : thus,
Priam, Abraham, Jerusalem, Niemen, Ibrahim, Ephraim.

d. A few other words of foreign origin and form : thns, amen,
hymen, specimen, ^en, decemvir, Kemrod, Kremlin.

55. As to the pronunciation of the n or m of a final nasal syl-
lable npon a following vowel, see 86c.

PEOHTIKCIATIOar OF THE CONSOlSfASTS.

56. Geseeal Rtji.e8. — a. Final consoo^its, either one

or more than one, are in general silent at the end of a

French word.

Thns, pied, trop, les, &it, prix, manz, nez; plomb, rand,
pieds, dra^, romps, £iits, doig:t, vingt, vents, vends, instincts.

b. Bnt final c, ^ 1, and r are usually pronounced.
Thns, sec, avec, tic, bloc, snc, turc ; fie^ vi£, nenf ; bal, cruel,

vol, senl ; par, fer, finir, or, snr, martyr.

For exceptional cases, in which these four finals are silent, or
others than these are pronounced, see under the several letters ;
for the pronunciation of a final usually silent upon a following
initial vowel, see 84 etc.

c. Consonants written double are, as in English, pre
nonnced as Mngle.

Thus, abb^, greflSer, pelle, conronn^, firappant, arriver-
bless^, jettera.
For certain exceptions, see below, 58e (c), 62e (g), 73<2 (r).

57. B, b. — ^The letter b is pronounced as in English.
Thus, bean, bien, robe, barbier, bombe, snbtiL

a. Final b is silent after m : thus, plomb ; but after a vowel
(in a few cases only, mostly foreign words and proper names) it

! is pronounced : thus, dnb, radonb, Achab, Joab.

' 6. B is silent also in a few proper names : thus, Donbs, Lefbb-
vre.

16 PEOSrUNCIATIOK. C^'"'

58. C, c. — This consonant has in French, as in Eng-
lish, two sounds : a soft sound, like s ; and a hard sound,
like k.

As to ch, see the next paragraph.

a. C is soft before e and i (or y), and the compound

vowels in which e or i is first (ei, eu, ie).

Thus, ce, ceci, ici, plac€, proces, douce, ceiut, ceuz, adoncie,
ciel, cymbale.

h. In all other situations — before other vowels, before

consonants, and as final — c has its hard sound.

Thus, car, caisse, cause, col, coeur, cour, cxa6, cuir; croc,
clair ; lac, sec, tic, roc, due.

e. A double c is pronounced as single only if the second c
would be hard according to the above rule ; otherwise, cc is Uke
ks or X : thus, succes, accident ; but accord, acclamer, accroc.

d. C is soft also before a, o, u, if it has the cedilla (7): thus,
plaga, plagons, frangais, regu, q'a, (from ce a).

e. For the exchange of c and qu, when c comes to be followed
by a soft vowel, see 72a.

/. The c of second and its derivatives is pronounced like g.

g. A final c is usuaUy pronounced (566). But it is silent after
a nasal vowel: thus, blanc, jonc, vainc; — also ia some words
after r: thus, clerc, pore, marc; — also in estomac, stomcu^i
tabac, tobacco; lacs, snare; cxio, Jack; hroc, jug; croc, Jiook;
accroc, nook; caoutchouc, india-rubber.

59. Ch, ch. — This combination has in French regu-
larly and usually the sound of English sh, or ch in mor
chine.

Thus, chasse, chaise, chand, chez, cochon, chooz, choiz, chute,
chuinter ; hS^he, recherche, chu(dioter, poache.

a. But there are many words of foreign origin (chiefly Greek)<
in which ch has the sound of k. Thus, always before a conso-
nant, _ as Christ, Chretien, chroniqne, technologie, chloral,
fiichsia, yacht ; — ^but often also before a vowel, as in archange,,
arch^ologie, chaos, choeur, choldra, orchestre, 6cho, and oth^
less common words ; and in proper names, as Chald^e, Bacchus,
Charybde, Autiochus, Chanaan, Moloch, Munich, Michel-Angfl
Achab. ■

b. As special, irregularities, ch is silent in almanach ; it is usu-
ally pronounced as g in drachme. For sch, see 75c.

62]

OOKSOKANTS. 17

60. D, d. — ^This consonant is pronounced as in Eng-
lish-
Thus, de, des, d^dire, dindon, droit, guide, mode, poudre,

plaindre.

a. Final d (usually silent : 56a) is pronounced in sud, south,
and in most proper names, as Alfred, David, Cid, Nemrod,
Joad (but not in Madrid, Saint-Cloud).

61. r, f. — This consonant is pronounced as in English.

Thus, fkux, feu, fou, fleur, froid, fief, sauf, affaire, forfait,
serf, neuf.

a. Final f (usually pronounced : 566) is silent in clef, kej/, in
cerf (as usually pronounced), in the chef of chef-d'oeuvre, in the
plurals cenfs, boeufs, nerfs (though pronounced in the singular of
these words, except in nerf used figuratively), in the combina-
tions boenf gras, oenf dur, cenf frais, nerf de boeuf, and in Neuf-
chd,teL Also the f of neuf, nine, is silent before an initial con-
sonant of a word numbered by it : thus, neuf livres, neuf cents
(not in le neuf Janvier, Jan. 9th; neuf par an, nitie a year, etc.).

62. G, g. — This consonant has in French, as in Eng-
lish, two sounds : a soft sound, like English z in azure
or 8 in pleasure,' and a hard sound, like English g in gig.

a. G has its soft sound before the vowels e, 1, y.

Thus, gel^, gele, gdnie, geindre, orageux, gilet, bougie,
gymnase.

i. In other situations— before any other vowel than
e, 1, y, and before a consonant — g has its hard sound.

Thus, gant, gai, gauche, gomme, goitre, goiit, aigu ; gloire,
gros, flegme, ogdoade. For g with following n, see the next
_paragraph.

e. Of double g? (which very rarely occurs), the second g is
pronounced soft if followed by e, i, y : thus, suggerer (but ag-
glutiaer).

d. A final g (generally silent : 56a) is pronounced (hard) in
jong and in a few foreign words and proper names, as zigzag,
grog, Zadig. By some it is pronounced in legs.

e. In order to preserve the soft sound of a g, when in the
changes of inflection or derivation it would come to stand before
a or or u, an e (not itself pronounced) is often written after it :
thus, from manger come mangeaut, mangeons, mangeure.
The same silent e used to soften a g is found in a few independ-
ent words, as geai, George, Geoffroi, pigeon.

18 PBOlSrUNCIATIOK.

/. A u after g, when the u is followed by e or i or y, has usu-
ally in like manner the office of giving the g its hard sound, and
is itself silent. But u af t«r g is pronounced when the following
vowel has the diaeresis (8), also in aiguille, aiguiser, lingual,
linguiste, arguer (and their derivatives), and a few proper names,
as Guise, Guide, Guy, Guyane.

g. The u of a verb like conjnguer is retained through the
whole inflection : thus, coiyuguant, copjuguons, etc.

63. The combination gn has in general a peculiar
liquid sound, nearly like English ny in lanyard or ni in
^l/n^on.

Thus, gagner, r^gner, regne, ligue, cicogne, repugne, cygne,
magniflque, ignorant, rognon, seigneur.

This is in reality a palatal m-sound, made with the flat of the
tongue, instead of its tip, against the fore part of the roof of the
mouth.

a. But in a considerable number of words, coming from other
languages and not yet fully naturalized, tlie g and n are pro-
nounced separately, the g having its usual hard sound before a
consonant. Some of the commonest of these are : gnome (and
all other words with initial gn), agnat, cognat, magnat, g^og-
nosie, cognition, stagnant, expugnable.

h. In a few words, the g is silent before n : thus, signet, Com-
piegne, Clugny, Regnard, Segnault.

64. H, h. — This consonant is not pronounced in
French ; no such sound as the English h should ever be
heard in any French word.

a. But there is a considerable number of words in

which an initial h, though now silent, is treated as if it

were still pronounced — ^namely, by the absence before it

of the elision (26c), of the carrying-on of a final consonant

(84), etc. Such an initial h is called " aspirate h," the

other being called, for distinction, " mute or silent h." '

6. The commonest of the words beginning with aspirate h are
as follows :

hOTS

honille

huguenot

huit

humer

hnrler

hache

hanter

harnais

heros

hale

harangue

harpe

heurter

hall

harasser

hasard

hibou

halle

hardes

hate

hideuz

halte

hardi

haut

homard

hameau

haricot

herant

honte

68] CONSOISrANTS. 19

c. In general, tlie other words related with these have aspirate
h. also : thus, haine and haissable like hair, hauteur and hausse
like haut ; but heroine, hdroic[ue, h^roisme, have mute h, though
h^ros has aspirate. And the h of hnit is silent after dix.

d. Initial aspirate h is generally marked in the dictionaries
with an inverted apostrophe — thus, ' hale, ' h^ros, ' honte, etc. ;
and the same method wiU be followed in this work in the vocabu-
laries.

e. The silent initial h is treated as if it had no exist-
ence, or as if the word actually began with the following
vowel ; the aspirate initial h is treated like any other con-
sonant.

Thus, rhomme like I'ombre, cet homme like cet ombre, son
henre like son enphonie, etc. ; but le hasard, ce h^ros, sa harpe,
etc.

/. The words oui and onze (with onzieme) are treated as if
they began with an aspirate h : thus, que oui, le onze.

g. H with preceding c forms a compound consonant, pro-
nounced like English sh; see 59 above. In a number of words of
foreign origin, it follows other consonants, but without changing
their usual pronunciation : thus, th^e, ath^iste, Rhin, rhum,
myrrhe. Ph is pronounced as f : thus, philosophe.

65. J, j. — This consonant has in French invariably
the sotind of English s in azure, or s in pleasure (the
same as soft g : 62),

Thus, jamais, je, jeu, joie, joujou, juge, juif.

66. K, k. — This consonant occurs in French only in a
few borrowed words ; it has the sound of English Jc.

Thus, kilometre, k^pi, kermesse, kiosque.

a. The A-sound is represented in French words by c hard (586),
by ch (59a), and by qu (72).

g7_ I,^ 1, — This consonant, except when liquid, is pro-
nounced in French as in English.

Thus le, la, lilie, loi, lui, lucre, lamelle, folle, nul, table,
boucle,'sotiffle, ^branle, simple, hurle.

a. L is silent in soul, surfeited, pouls, pulse, aulx, pi. of ail,
garlic; and before a consonant after an, eu, on in the endings of
a few other words.

68. An 1 following 1 in the same syllable is generally
made liquid — ^that is, it is pronounced as a close y.

30 PEON'trKOIATION'. [68-

Thus, «il, babil, mil, millet, avril, p^ril, gresil, fiUe, c^dille,
billard, artillerie, guillotine, barbillou.

a. The sound of French " liquid 1" (1 mouill^) was formerly
that of a palatal I, one made with the flat of the tongue, instead
of its tip, against the roof of the mouth, nearly like English ly
in steelyard, or Hi in brilliant; and this sound it still has in parte
of France ; but the now prevailing and accepted pronunciation
has changed the Zy-sound into a simple y.

b. If the i before 1 is preceded by another vowel, simple or
compound, that vowel has its own sound, not forming a com-
pound with the i, the latter's sole office being to show the liquid
sound of the 1: thus, travail, travailler, conseil, conseiUer,
vieil, vieillir, seuil, feuille, fenillage, houille, houillenr. And
ue (after c or g) and oe before liquid il have the sound of eu;
thus, accueil, orgueil, obU. But in poil the oi is the usual diph-
thong, and 1 has its full sound.

c. But final 1 is silent after i in a number of .words. The com-
monest of these are : baril, barrel, cbenil, Tcennel, coutil, tich-
ing, foumil, bakehouse, fusil, gun, nombril, navel, outil, tod,
sourcil, eyebrow; also 1 in flls, son CUd), and the plural gen-
tilshommes, gentlemen (in gentilhomiue it is liquid ; also in
gentil, nice, except at the end of a sentence or when followed by
a consonant, when it is silent).

d. Final 1 has the proper 1-sound after i in a number of words :
thus, il, he, fil, thread, mil, thousand. Nil, Nile, vil, civil,
exil, profil, subtil, viril, pueril, volatil; further, according
to tie more usual pronunciation, in cil, avril, and peril (pro-
nounced also with liquid or with silent 1).

In fact, il final except after a vowel is liquid only in the few
words given at the beginning of this paragraph ; in some of the
others, usage varies.

e. At the beginning of a word, ill is not liquid : thus, iUatif,
illegal, illimitd, illogique, illustre.

/. Double 1 after i has the full I-sound also in the interior
and at the end of a number of words : thus, ville, town, mille,
thousand, tranquille, pupille, ward, distiller, distil, vaciller,
vacillate, pusillanime, axillaire, axillary (with their compounds,
and derivatives), and a few others.

69. M, m. — Except where it makes the preceding
vowel nasal, and is itself not pronounced (46 etc.), m has
the same sound in French as in English.

Thus, me, ma, mgme, moi, meurt, mflr, femme, homme immfr
mor^, hymne. '

'8] CONSONANTS. 21

a. But m is pronounced as n in automne (not in automual),
etc. ; also in damner and its compounds and derivatives.

70. N, n. — Except where it makes the preceding

vowel nasal, and is itself not pronounced (46 etc.), n has

the same sound in French as in English.

Thus, nappe, naine, ne, ueuf, nid, non, noir, nouveau, nnl,
nuire, bonne, brune.

71. P, p. — This consonant is in general pronounced

as in English.

Thus, pape, pere, peuple, pourpre, pur, puits, plaire, prd,
&apper, hnppe, sonpe.

a. Final p is usually sUent (56), as drap, trop, coup ; also, a p
followed by another silent final, as rompt, temps, corps. It is
also silent in sept, seven, and septieme, seventh (not in other
derivatives of sept, as septembre) ; in baptSme, baptism, and
baptiser, baptize ; in compter, reckon, dompter, subdus, exemp-
ter, prompter, sculpter, and the words related with these (ex-
cept exemption, impromptu). But final p is pronounced in cap,
cape, and in a few proper names, as Alep. For ph, see Gig.

72. Q, q. — This consonant is almost always followed

in French, as in English, hy n; but in French the u is

generally silent, and the combination qu has the sound

oik.

Thus, quatre, qaai, que, queue, quelque, qui, quint, quotidien,
quoique, calquer, marquer, vainquis, vainquons.

a. A hard A;-sound before e or i cannot be written in French
except by qu ; and hence qu sometimes takes the place of c in
inflection and derivation when e or i is added : thus, vainqnez,
vainquent, vainquis, from vaincre; turque, from turc; ca-
duque, from caduc.

6. But in a number of French words qu has the same sound as
in English. The commonest of these are quadrat, quadri-,
qnadru-, quarto, qua'ieme, questeur, quiescent, quiet (according
to some authorities), quinqua-, qninque-, quintette, quintuple,
^quateur, Equation, ^questre, equilateral, requiem.

c. A final q occurs (save in a very few proper names) only in
cinq, five, and coq, cock, and is usually pronounced as a A; ; but
it is silent in coq d'Inde, and in cinq before an initial consonant
of a word numbered by it : thus, cinq livres,^»e books (not in le
cinq mai. May 5th, etc.).

73. R, r. — This consonant is always more or less rolled

22 PEONUNCIATION. P*^

or trilled in French, and so is made much more distinct
than in ordinary English pronunciation.

Thus, rare, frere, rire, aurore, parure, roi, trois, froid, croix,
droit, partir, porteur, arbre, menrtre, bruit, grand, pres, vrai,
arriverai.

a. A final r is regularly pronounced (56&) ; but it is
usually silent after e in words of more than one syllable.

Thus, sUent in fier (verb), aimer, parler, l^ger, entier, officier,
etc.; pronounced In cher, fer, fier (adj.), hier, mer, etc., and,
before other silent finals, in clerc, perd, perds, cerf, tiers, sert,
etc.

6. Pinal r is also pronounced after e in the words of more than
one syllable, amer, hitter, cancer, cuiller, spoon, enfer, JieU,
hiver, winter, and a few foreign words, chiefly proper names, as
magister, Jupiter, Esther, Oder. It is not silent in such words
before another silent final, unless that final be the plural-sign s:
thus, it is pronounced in envers, Anvers, univers, acqniers,
desert, Robert (but silent in entiers, officiers, etc.).

e. Final r is silent in monsieur, messieurs.

d. In the future and conditional of the verbs conrir, run,
mourir, die, qu^rir, ask, and their compounds, the double r is dis-
tinctly to be heard as two separate r's : thus, courrai, mourraig,
acquerront:

74, S, s. — This consonant is in general pronounced

with the sound which it ordinarily has in English (in our

words sense, sister, etc.).

Thus, sa, se, si, son, sur, espace, estime, poste, prisme, fiasqne,
disparu, descriptif, transcrire, anse, penser.

a. But s between two vowels has the sound of our z.

Thus, raser, raison, lese, misere, rose, blouse, ruse ; also
d^shonneur (silent h), deshabiller, etc.

6. S has the sound of e also in trans- before a vowel : thus,
transaction, transhumer (h silent), transitif ; also in Alsace
and alsacien, and in balsamique; also in a few other words
where followed by a sonant consonant, as presbytere, Desde-
mone, desmode, and disgrace (according to some authorities).

c. On the other hand, s has its own «-sound even between two
vowels, when it is the initial of the second part of a compound
word, as in vraisemblable, parasol, polysyllabe, d^su^tude,
resauver, Deseze ; also in the conjugation of g^sir (XL 4) ex-
cept the infinitive g^sir itself.

d. S final is regularly silent (56) ; but it is sounded in as, ac^

'8] CONSONANTS. 83

alods; cens, census, express, fils, son, h^las, alas ! ja,iia, for-
merly, laps, lis, lily (except in fleur-de-lis), mais, maize, mars,
March, mosurs, morals, ours, bear, sens, sense (except in sens
conunun), sus (in en sus), tons, all (except when followed by a
word which it limits adjectively), vis, screw; also in a number of
words of unchanged Latin form, as atlas, bis, ttoice, blocus,
gratis, omnibus ; also in most foreign proper names, as Romulus,
Adonis, Memphis, Lesbos, Andalous, Ladislas, Gil Bias, and a
number of French ones, as Mons, Rheims, Senlis, Frdgus, Sieygs
(usually si-dze).

e. S in the interior of a word is usually pronounced, even in
the compounds lorsque, presque, puisque, plus-que-parfait ; but
it is silent in many proper names (which have kept unchanged an
ancient style of spelling), as Cosme, Cosne, Rosny, Dugnesclin,
Praslin, vosges, P^lasges.

75. There are certain consonant compounds containing s and
having a simple sound. Thus :

a. A double s, or ss, is pronounced like a single s (as usual :
56c), but always with the hissing s-sound, never as z : thus, assez,
blesser, disse, grossesse, poussasse, prussien, vinsse.

b. Sc, before e, i, y, is sounded as ss : thus, scene, scie, science,
asc^tique, lascif, obsc^nit^. Scythe.

c. Sch occurs only in a few foreign words, and is mostly pro-
nounced as ch would be (English sJi) : thus, schisme, schamane ;
but sometimes like sk, as in schdme and its related words, scho-
lastique.

76. T, t. — This consonant is generally sounded as in
English.

Thus, ta, taire, taux, titer, te, tdte, titre, ton, toute, tuteur,
nette, trottoir, 6troite.

a. Final t is regularly silent (56a) ; but it is pronounced in a
number of words : namely, after a vowel in nt, do, brut, crude,
clrnt, hics?i ! deficit, dot, dotvry, fat, fop, mat, cmR, net, neat,
subit, sudden (according to many authorities), transit, and
huit, eight (except before the initial consonant of a word num-
bered by it) ; after a consonant in est, east, onest, west, lest,
ballast, Christ (but the s and t are silent in anticlirist, and
usually in J^sns-Christ), whist, rapt, rape, aept, seven (except
before an initial consonant of a word numbered by it), and vingt,
twenty, in the numbers 31-29. As to words ending in ct after a
vowel, there is much difference of usage ; ordinarily, c and t are
both pronounced in tact, contact, exact, abject, correct, direct,
infect, strict ; only c is pronounced in circonspect, suspect, dis-
trict; both c and t are silent in aspect, respect. Final t is
further pronounced in a few unchanged Latin words, as exeat,

g4 PEOlTtJNCiATlON. [76-

and in many foreign ptoper names, as Japhet, Achmet ; also, ac-
cording to some, at the end of a sentence, in but, goal, and in
fait, deed, and sot, fool, used as nouns.

77. a. T followed by i, in certain endings where ti in English
has the sft-sound, is sounded as s (not as sh) : thus, partial, es-
sentiel, ^gyptien, ambitieux, pl^nipotentiaire, Actium, pa-
tient, patience, portion ; also in tie corresponding to cy or tia
in English, as ddmocratie, proph^tie, minutie, inertie, B^otie;
and in tier (of a verb) corresponding to -tiate in English, as
initier, balbutier ; and in satiate.

b. But where the ti is preceded by s or x (and ti has in Eng-
lish the c/j-sound), t retains its proper value : thus, question,
mixtion. The same is the case in Chretien and in ch3,tier.

c. Elsewhere, t before i has its own proper sound : thus, moiti^,
portier, contient, portions and portiez (i.e., before the endings
ions and iez of 1st and 3d pi. of verbs), etc.

78. The combination th is everywhere pronounced as simple
t : thus, theatre, the, pathetique, ath^iste, sympathie. It is
silent in asthme and isthme.

79. V, V. — This consonant is sounded as in English,

It never occurs as final.

Thus, vain, venir, veuve, vivant, vienne, vol, voir, vrai,
active, vivre.

80. W, w. — This consonant occurs only in a very small num-
ber of foreign words. It is usually pronounced like English v;
thus, wagon ; but in a word or two rather as Enghsh w: thus,
whist, whig (the h silent).

81. X, X. — This consonant is for the most part pro-
nounced like ]cs, as in English.

Thus, saxe, sexe, fixer, boxeur, luxe, Alexandre, annexation,
exciter, excuse, experience.

a. In the initial syllable ex before a vowel, it is pronounced
like gz : thus, exalte, exemple, exister, exil, exode, exhorter,
exhumer (h silent); as also, of course, in the compounds of such
words, as inexact. Initial x has in most words the same gz-
sound : thus, Xenophon, Xavier, xylographe. Xerxes is pro-
nounced gzersesse.

6. Final x is regularly silent (56a) but it is ]Dronounced, like
s, in the numerals six, six, and dix, ten (except before an initial
consonant of a word numbered by them), in dix-sept, seventeen,
Beatrix, Cadix, Aix en Provence ; in Aix-la-Chapelle it is pro-
nounced like ks, also in a few foreign words, as Ajax, Styx,
larynx, index, prefix. In the compound numerals dix-huit,
eighteen, and dix-neuf, nineteen, it is sounded as z

84] CONSONANTS. 35

c. Medial z is sounded as s (not 0) in soizante sixty, and in a
few proper names, as Bruzelles, Auzerre ; and as'0 in deuzieme
second, sizieme sixth, dizieme tenth, sizaine half a dozen.

82. Y, y. — This letter has generally the value of a vowel,
being pronounced as i, or as double i, and as such has been
treated of above (36, 37). In a few foreign words, it has the
value of the English consonantal (semi- vowel) y : thus, yacht
(pronounced yak), Y^men, Yucatan, etc.

83. Z, z.^-This consonant has in general tlie same
sound as in English,

Thus, Zama, zele, zigzag, zone, zymotique, gazon.

a. Final z is regularly silent (56a) : thus, nez, aimez, riz.

But it is pronounced, as z, in gaz gas, and in certain proper
names, as Achaz, Berlioz ; and as s in a few other proper names,
as Cortez, Velasquez, Suez.

LINKING OE CAREYINGHON OF FINAI, CONSONANTS.

84. A final consonant usually silent is liable to be pro-
nounced when followed by another word beginning with
a vowel (or mute h). This is called the linking or carry-
ing-on of the final (in French, liaison).

a. The final consonant thus carried on is pronounced
directly upon the following Towel, as if a part of the
same syllable with it ; any relaxation or pause is to be made
before the consonant, not between it and the vowel.

b. The carrying-on of the final in any case depends
upon the closeness of connection between the two words,
and also in part upon the general style of utterance.

c. Thus, close grammatical connection between the two words,
dependence of the one on the other, favors the Unking.' This,
then, generally or invariably takes place between an article or
possessive or other adjective and the following qualified noun ;
between a verb and its preceding or foUowiag pronoun, subject
or object, or a verb and its preceding subject noun ; between an
auxiliary and following participle ; between an adverb and the fol-
lowing qualified adjective or adverb ; between a preposition and
its governed noun ; and so on. In cases of less close connection,
the linking depends in part on euphony as determined by the
general habits of the language, in part on the style of delivery :

36 PBOKtnsrciATiosr. ['*

in reading aloud, namely, and in formal or solemn discourse, a
great deal more linking is done than in the freedom of conversa-
tion. This class of differences, of course, is only to be learned by
much experience. And linking is to be avoided where there is a
natural pause, whether marked by a sign of punctuation or not.

85. a. Some final consonants have their own proper

sound when carried on to the following initial vowel.

Thus, de broCwen bouche, il est donc^arrivi, uUwhomme,
rien^^ faire, trop^avant, beaucoup,.,occup^, cinq^enfants,
aimer^il boire, le premier^homme, cetwhabit, est-U, motca-
mot, avez.^^t6, allez^y.

J). But final s and x, when linked, take the sound of z ;
d takes that of t ; and g (rare) takes that of k.

Thus, leSwhommes, nos^amiSs^ont, nous^anrons^en, paswen-
core, sans^elle; denx^hommes, de beaux^yeuz, des chik-
peaux..,6normes, tu peux^y aller; tin grand^homme, vend.il,
quand^il vient, piedoa-terre ; un rang^^lev^ ce long.^hiver,
le jongwinsupportable. But the d of uord keeps its d-sound.

c. A final consonant that is not silent has in general the same
sound before a vowel as before a consonant : thus, sud-onest,
David ^tait, Ajax eut. But six and dix are linked with a fol-
lowing numbered noun after the manner of words ending in
silent X (i.e., with z) ; and the f of neuf in a like situation has
the sound of v : thus, six^^enfants, dix^hommes, neufLans. Al-
so, according to most authorities, the s of fils, jadis, sens, is
linked as z.

86. Special exceptional cases are to be noted as fol-
lows:

a. The t of et and is never carried on.

6. A final consonant after r (unless it be the plural sign s) is
averse to linking : thus, vers une heure, hers un seul, 11 ne sert
a rien (but sert-il).

c. The final n of a nasal syllable is carried on only in cases of
close grammatical connection ; and when the carrying-on takes
place, the preceding vowel loses more or less (sometimes all) of
Its nasal tohe, while retaining the same vowel-quality as in its
nasal utterance : thus, un.^enfant, mon^ami, ce bonjiomme,
en^Italie, bien^aimable, rien^i. dire, en plein^air, enivrer,
enorgueilhr.

«„ *», ^^ words having an exceptional pronunciation will be marked
m the vocabularies below by a prefixed asterisk : thus, 'fils. Then

GENDEE, ABTIOLES, ETC. 2'!'

LESSON I.

6ENDEB, ARTICLES, ETO.

1. All nouns in French are either masculine or femi-
nine.

For the distinction of masculine and feminine nouns as shown
by their meaning or by their ending, see Second Part, § 13 etc. In
general, names of male beings are masculine, and those of female
ibeings are feminine ; the names of things having no sex are mas-
culine or feminine, for the most part according as they were so in
Latin ; but, the old neuter having been lost, nouns of that gender
in Latin have become mascuUne in French.

2. Hence, words qualifying or relating to nouns —
as articles, adjectives, pronouns — ^have also usually a dis-
tinction of masculine and feminine form, so as to agree
in gender with the nouns to which they belong.

3. There are, as in English, two articles, the definite
and the indefinite.

4. The definite article has in the singular a different
form for each gender: namely, le before a masculine
noun, and la before a feminine. Examples are :

■ le pere, ffi« father la mere, the mother

le roi, the Mng la leine, the queen

le cheval, the horse la vaclie, the cow

le Uvre, the book la fleur, the flower

But in the plural there is one form of the article, leg,
for both genders : thus,

les peres, the fathers les meres, the mothers

les livres, the books les fleurs, the flowers

5. Before a word beginning with a vowel (or h mute :
64e), le and la both lose their vowel, and take the apos-
trophe, becoming alike 1' (26c, 15) : thus,

rami, the friend I'amie, the {femaZe) friend

I'homme, the man I'henre, the hou/r

28 lESSON I.

6. The indefinite article is un before a masculine
noun, and tine before a feminine ; thus,

un pere, a father nne mere, a mother

un roi, a king une reine, a gueen

un livre, a book une fleur, a flower

The indefinite article has no plural.

7. The articles must always be repeated m French
before every noun to which they belong (that is, an ar-
ticle may not be understood from a noun to a following
noun, as it often is in English) : thus,

^ ths father and mot?ier, U pere et la mere

'^'-' a king and gueen, un roi et une reine

8. The commonest possessives used with nouns are
mon masc, ma fern., wiy/ son m., sa f., Ms or her or
its,' notre m. f. our; votre m. f. your: thus,

mon pSre , my father ma mer^ my mother

son livre, ht» or Ji/ir hook g a AoMt fhis or her or its flower

n otre ami, our friend votre amie. y our (fema^) friend

VEEB-LESSON.

9. The PRESENT tense of the verb avoir home is as fol-
lows:

j'ai, Ilia/ve nona avone, we have

tu as, thffu hast voub avez, y ou b^ve

^ a, /le has ils ont. th ey (mAJia/Be

elle a, she has elles ont, they (f.) ham

a. The abbreviation j' is for je, I (26c). Notice that je is not
written with a capital, like Engl&h /.

6. In French, as in English, the pronoun of the 2d pers. plural,
vous you, is ordinarily used in addressing any one, instead of
tu tTiou. In the exercises, therefore, you should always be ren-
dered with vous (and your with votre), and tu should be used
only when thou is given in the English.

10. The same tense in the interrogative form is as
follows :

al-je, Tiave If avons-nons, have wef

aB-tn, hast thou t avez-vous, have you f

a.-t-i\, has he* on.t-i\a, have they (m.)^

a-t-elle, luis she* ont-elles, hme they (f.)?

GENDER, ARTICLES, ETC. 29

a. For the pronunciation of je in ai-je and the like, see 18e.

6. It is seen that in French (as in English) the subject-pronoun
is put after the verb in asking a question ; and it must always be
joined to the verb by a hyphen.

c. If the 3d pers. sing, of any verb ends in a vowel, a t is
added to it, with a hyphen between, whenever it is followed by
the pronoun il or elle (or by on: XXVII. 4).

This t is that of the 3d sing, in Latin, restored in such cases by analogy with
the verbs that have retained it throughout, as est-il, veut-il.

11. But if the subject of a verb used interrogatively
is a noun, the noun is generally put first, and then a cor-
responding pronoun is put after the verb : that is, tlie
subject is first stated, and then the question is asked about
it by means of a pronoun.

Thus, has the man a book? is not a rhomme un livre? but
rhomme a-t-il un livre ? (literally, the man, has he a book f).

a. For certain exceptions, see XXV. 6.

VOCABULARY.

le pere, the fainter la mere, the mother

le *fils, the son la fiUe, the daughter, girl

le firere, the hroth&r la soenr, tt

I'oncle, the unele la tante, the aunt

le cousin m., the cousin la consine, the cousin t.

I'homme m., th^ man la 'femine, iJte wotmm, wife

le livre, the book le papier, the paper

la plume, the pen le crayon, thepeneH

le cMen, the dog le chat, the eat

et, and ou, or

oui, yes non, no

Exercise 1.

' L'homme a un pSre et une m^re. " A-t-il un chien ou
in chat ? ° II a un chien, et nous avcns un chat. * Avez-
vous le livre ? ° Oui, j'ai mon livre et votre crayon. " Mon
p6re a le papier et la plume. 'As-tu une soeur? "J'ai
une soeur et un frdre. ° Ont-ils un cousin ? '° lis ont une
cousine et une tante. " La femme a-t-elle sa plume ou son
crayon ? " Elle a mon papier et notre crayon. " Sa tante

30 LESSON I.

a-t-elle un file? "Non, elle a une fiUe. "Nous avons
notre livre, et vous avez votre papier, " Mon oncle a une
femme. " A-t-il un fils ? " Non, il a une fiUe.

Theme 1.

' I have an uncle. ' My uncle has a dog, and my aunt
has a cat. ^ Has the man the paper ? * He has my paper
and your pen. 'Have you a brother? ° No, we have a
sister. ' Our sister has her book and her penciL ' Hast
thou a dog ? ' Yes, and my brother has a dog and a cat.
" Has the woman a mother or a father ? " She has a moth-
er, and her mother has a father and a cousin. " Has your
cousin our pencil? " No, she has her pencil and our pen.
" They have our pencil and your pen. " The man has his
book, and we have our paper.

The Bentenoes given in the exercises and Hiemes should be varied and repeated,
and turned into question and answer between teacher and pupils, until the words
and forms are impressed on the memory.

LESSON IL

PLTTBAI. OF NOUNS.

1. The plural of a noun is generally formed in
French, as in English, bj adding s to the singular: thus,

le roi, the Mng les rois, the Mngs

la fleur, fhe flower les fleurs, fheflmoen

I'homme, the ma/n les homines, the men

The principal exceptions to this rule are as follows :

2. Nouns ending in the sibilants s, x, and z have the
same form in the plural as in the singular : thus,

le fils, the am les flls, the sons

la noix, the wcitnut les noix, tlie loaltmts

le nez, the rwse les nez, the rmes

PLURAL OF NOUN'S.

u

3. Nouns ending in au and eu, and a few in ou, add x
instead of s : thus,

le chapean, the fiat les chapeanz, the hats

le lieu, the place les Uenz, the places

le genoa, the knee les genoax, the knees

The nouns in on taking z in the plural are bijou Jewel, cail-
lou pMle, chou ccMage, genou knee, hibou owl, jonjou play-
thing, pou louse— all masculine. Other nouns in on take s, ac-
cording to the general rule : e.g., fons fools, clous nails, trous
holes.

4. Most nouns ending in al and ail change these end-
ings to aux for the phiral : thus,

le cheyal, the horse les chevanz, the horses

le travail, the work les traTaux, the marks

Exceptions are bals baHs, camavals carnivals, chsuNHs Jackals,
r^gals treats, details details, eventails fans, gonvemajls rud-
ders, portails doorways (all masculine), and a few others.

5. A few nouns form their plural quite irregularly ;
the most important are :

I'oeil, the eye les yeuz, the eyes

le ciel, the heceeen les cienz, ths heavens

For other cases, see Second Part, § 19 etc.

6. Some nouns are used only in the singular, others only in
the plural ; some have different plural forms, according to their
different meanings : see Second Part, § 19 etc.

7, The plurals of the possessives already given are

mes m/y, ses his or her or its, nos our, vos your.

VERB-LESSON.

The PEESENT tense of the verb 6tre he is as fol-

n o ns s a mmoD) we ar e
vo ns etes. vov, are _
ils sent, they (m.) are
elles sont, they {f.) are

a. Compare the Latin : ego gum, ta ea, ille est, nos samiu, tob estlg. Uli
Bunt.

5. The question-forms are snis-je, es-tn, etc. (as for the pres-
ent of avoir : I. 10), with the subject after the verb, and a hy-
phen between.

32 LESSON n.

VOCABUIiAET.

la maiBon, tU house la chambre, tJis room. eJumbei-

la porte, th^ door, gate la fenetre, the windov)

I'habit m., the coat la robe, the dress

le chateau, tJie hat, bonnet le tableau, the picture

I'aaimal m., the animal le cheval, the horse

. le bras, the arm la jambe, ths leg

I'oeil m., the eye les yeux, the eiyea

un m., une f., (me den», two

trois, three quatre,/(«w

mais, hit axaA, also

Exercise 3.
' Votre p^re a-t-il une maison ? ° Oui, U a une maison.
' Sa maiHon a une porte, deux chambres, et quatre fenetres.
* Mon oncle a deux fils ; ils sont mes cousins. ' J'ai un
halbit et deux chapeaux. ' L'homme a deux jambes ; mais
les chevaux et les chiens ont quatre jambes. ' L'homme a
deux bras et deux yeux, et les animaux ont aussi deux
yeux. * La fiUe a-t-elle une robe? ° La fiUe a trois robes
et un chapeau. " Avez-vous mes tableaux ? " J'ai mon
tableau ; mais ma cousine a vos tableaux. '" Sa chambre
a trois fenetres et deux portes. " Vous avez nos robes et
nos habits. " Mes cousins ont une maison, un cheral, et

deux chiens.

Theme 2.

' Has the man two legs ? " He has two arms and two
legs, but the animals have four legs. ' My father and my
mother have a house, three horses, and four dogs. * The
girls are my cousins. ' Her cousins are three girls, and
they have three hats and three dresses. ' The men have a
dog and a horse. ' Our uncle has four sons ; they are our
cousins. ' His daughter is also a cousin. " She has my
hat, and I have her dresses. '" Your sister has a house.
" Her house has two doors, three rooms, and four windows.
'* The horse is an animal. " His brothers have three pic-
tures. " My two sisters have two horses.

THE PBEPOSITIONS A AND DE.

VERB-EXEEOISE.

Are you ? We are and you are also. Are they ? Has

she ? Thou art. Is he ? They have. They are. I am.

You have. Are we ? She is. Hast thou ? We are and

we have.

All the tenses learned should be exercised upon -with such scattering questions
as these.

LESSON ni.

THE PEEPOSITIOTrS k AND de.

1. Nouns in French have no cases. The same noun-
form is used both as subject and object of a verb, and
after a preposition (as in English) ; and the meaning of
the English possessive is (as often in English also) ex-
pressed by help of the preposition de of.

a. Thus, we have to say in French the book of the man, le
livre de rhomme, for the man's book, because the French has no
possessive case-form like man^s. The phrase de rhomme of the
man is in some grammars called the genitive case of honune
man — and so with other nouns.

2. The preposition de is always contracted with th e
article le into du, and with the article las into des; while
with la and 1' it rem ainH unchanged : thus.

du pSre (never de le pere), of the father, the father" a
des peres (never de les peres), of the fathers, the fathers'
des meres (never de les meres), of the mothers, the mother^

but, on tiie other hand,

de la mere, of the mother, the AelaAenr, of the flower

mother's
de I'homme, of the man, tite man's de I'amie, of the (female) friend
%

34 LESSON III.

3._Th e^e of de is apostrophized (26c) before any
vowel (or eilent h): thus,

i'wi homme, of a man i'vaae Aeur, of a flower

d'ami, of friend d'homme, of man

4. The preposition a, to is in li ke manner always con-
tracted with the article le into an, and witii tJie articje jes
Into aux ; but wit h la and 1' it remains nncbanged : thn y.
au pere (never a le pere), to the auz peres, to the fathers

father
an Toi (never a le roi), to the Mng auz reines, to the queens

but, on the other hand,

a la mere, to the mother a la fleor, to the flower

a I'honuae, to the man a I'amie, to the (female) friend

a. A noun in French is never used (as it sometimes is in English)
datively, or as indirect object of a verb without a preposition.
Thus, I give the man the hook is always je doime le livre k
rhomme — literally, I give the book to tJie man. The phrase a
rhomme to the man is in some grammars called the dative case
of homme man — and so with other nouns.

5. The prepositions de and k must be repeated before

every noun that they govern : thus,

des peres et des meres, cf the fathers and mothers
aux hommes, anz femmes, et auz enfants, to the men, women, and
children

6. For belong is used the verb 6tre be, followed by a to.
Thus, k qui est-il wTwse is it? il est a ma consine it is my
cousin^s (literally, it is or belongs to my cousin).

VERB-LESSON.

7. The iMPEKFECT tenses of avoir Juive and etre h
are as follows :

j'avais, I had ^.i'etais. Jwaa
taavaig, tnou nadst tn etais. thou wasf.

i l A v a it rhe^baii il etait. 7ie was

nous avio ns, we had nogs etions. we we re

vo m a v in z , yauj^ v ona Btiaa, y mi. were

ilfl-aisien t, they ha d ils etaiantlifeej/ were

a. Every imperfect in the language, without exception, is in-

THE p^OSlTIONS A AND DE. 35

fleeted in this way, with the endings -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez,
-aient.

6. This tense expresses continnous past action (see § 119), and
is often to be rendered by was having, kept having, used to have,
and the like.

e. The interrogative form is avais-je, €tais-tu, avait-il, etc. ,
as in the tenses ^ready given.

d. The French imperfect is from the Latin imperfect : avals is habebam ;
6tais is stabam — since parts of the verb stare stand have been taken to £11
Up the inflection of the verb be in French (see below, ZI. la).

VOCABULARY.

I'ami m., the friend I'amie f., the friend

• le neven, the nepheiB la niece, the niece

I'enfant m. , ^ child le garden, the hoy

le jardin, the garden I'arbre m., the tree

la fenille, ths leaf, sheet la fleur, the flower

je donne, I give il, elle donne, he, she gives

void, here is or are voila, there is or are

EXEECISE 3.

' La fille de men oncle est ma cousine, et je snis son
cousin. ' Ma cousine donne la fleur k votre ni^ce. ' Le
gar9on est le fils du neveu de mon p6re. ' Je donne les
fleurs du jardin aux enfants. 'Votre soeur a-t-elle mes
crayons? "Elle a les crayons des fiUes et des gar9ons.
' L'enfant est le fils de I'ami de ma sceur. ' Voici la maison
des deux amies de ma mere. ° Votre ami a-t-il un jardin ?
" Voila les arbres du jardin de mon ami. " La femme
donne une fleur au gar9on. '" La maison est k mon p^re.
" Voila les feuilles de I'arbre ; elles sont a votre amie.
" A-t-elle aussi les fleurs ? " Non, les fleurs sont a l'enfant.
"Voici la porte de ma chambre. "La maison de nos
amis a quatre f entires.

Theme 3.

' The man's coat and hat. " The woman's dress. ' The
eyes of the horse are two, his legs are four. ' I have the
boy's dog and the girl's cat. ° I give the cat to the chil-

36 LESSON IV.

dren, and the dog to the son of my cousin. ° The brothers
of the girls have also a horse. ' He gives a hat to the son
of his friend. ° My uncle gives the boys the leaves, and
the girls the flowers. ° There are the boy's books. " The
honse is my friend's. " The boy gives his sister a book,
and the girl gives her brother a pen and pencil. " The
paper is the children's, but the pens are my sisters'. " The
house belongs to my father's brother. '* The sister of my
nephew is my niece. " She gives her aunt a flower and
three leaves.

VEEB-EXERCISE.

He was. Had you? They are. Was she? Thou
hadst. They were. Are we? I had. Was I? Had
she or had he ? They have and they had. Am I ? You
are. Art thou ? She is.

LESSON lY.

PAETTTIVE AND mCLUSIVE SENSES OP THE NOTJN.

1. H ^he partitive sense of a no un is that which in —
f English may be expressed by putting some or any befor fi—

the noun, but which is oftenest left unexprea sfid.

Thus, Tiave you bread (i.e., some bread, or any bread)? we
have books (or, some books) ; they fiadpens, but they had no ink
{i.e., some pens, not any ink) ; and so on.

2. In French, this sense of a noun is in general dis-
tinctly expressed, by putting before it the preposition de
of, along (usually) with the definite article : thus,

j'ai du pain, I ham bread (literally, of the bread)
avez-vous des livres, have you books (literally, of the books)'!
donnw-mpi de 1ft farine et de I'ean, give me some flour and water

PAKTITIVE AKD INCLtTSIVE SENSES OF THE NOTTK. 37

The ndes for the combination of de with le and les, and for
the repetition of de before every noun that it governs, have been
already given (III. 2, 5).

3.* Sometimes, however, the article is omitted, and the prepo-
sition alone expresses the partitive sense of the noun. This is
the case :

a. When the noun has an adjective before it (see below, VIII.
6) : thus,

i'ai de bon pain (not dn bon pain), I have good bread
nous avons d'excellents livres, we Tiave excellent books

b. After a negative verb (see below, XII. 7) : thus,

je n'ai pas de pain (not du pain), I have not any bread
nons n'avons jamais de livres, we never have books

4. More rarely, both preposition and article are omitted, and
the bare noun stands in the partitive sense, as in English. This
is the case :

a. After ni . . . ni, meaning neither . . . nor (see below, XII. 7a) :
thus,

je n'ai ni pain ni beurre, I have neither bread nor butter

b. In long enumerations : thus,

11 y a snr la table eaa, vin, biere, pain, beurre, &omage,

there is on the table water, wine, beer, bread, butter, cheese
For further details and exceptions as to the expression of the
partitive sense of a noua, see Second Part, § 35.

5. On the other hand, a noun is sometimes used in
its most inclusive sense, or as signifying the whole class
of objects to which it applies. This sense, which is usu-
ally left unexpressed in English, requires in French the
definite article before the noun : thus,

mom (i.e., the whole race) is mortal, I'homme est mortel
men (i.e., all men) a/re mortal, les honunes sont mortels
life is short, la vie est coorte

sleep is the brother of death, le sonuneil est le frere de la mort
a. The article thus used may conveniently be called

the INCLUSIVE AETICLE.

6. The inclusive article is especially common before abstract
nouns : e.g., la. vie life, la beauts beauty, la nature Nature, la
fortune fortune, la sensibility sensibility.

* Paragraphs 3 and I are added here because it is desirable to have in one place
all the prin<apal rules about the partitire. Classes may well omit them untuth^
tiUte this Lesson in review, after having bad Lessons vIII. and XU,

38 tESSOK IV.

c. The inclusive article is not wholly wanting with a singular
noun in English : thus, the dog is an enemy of the cat; the hand
lias five fingers, and so on.

6. The frequently occurring expression of the partitive and
inclusive senses of the noun, which in English are left to be
simply inferred from the connection, is a marked feature of
French usage. Often, the two senses, alike unexpressed in Eng-
lish, are distinguished in French in the same brief sentence:
thus, Urds have wings {i.e., all birds, but a certain limited num-
ber of wings), les oiseaux ont des ailes; time is money, le temps
est de I'argent.

VEEB-LESSON.

7, The PEETEEIT tenses of avoir have and Stre he are
as follows :

j'eus, IJiad je fas, I was

tu eus, thov, Jiadst tu fas, thou wast

il eat, he Tiad il fat. Tie was

nous eftmes, toe had, nous fnmes, we were

vous etttes, yov, had vons futes, you were

Us eoient, they Jiad ils farent, ffieff ^Dere

a. As to the pronunciation of eu in eus etc. , see 416.
6. All preterits in the language, without exception, have th«
plural endings -mes, -tes, -rent, and before the first two of these
endings they have a circumflexed vowel (either fl, as here, or S.,
or i) ; and all excepting those of the first regular conjugation
(XVIII.) have -s, -s, -t, as here, in the singular.

c. The preterit expresses simple past action, with nothing else
implied. In some grammars, the tense is called the past defi-
nite (Fr. pa,sa6 d^fini).

d. The interrogative form is eus-je, fas-tu, eut-il, and so on, as
in the other tenses.

e. The French preterit is the Latin perfect : compare with fas etc. the Latin
ful, folsti, fult, falmus, fulstls, fuerunt.

VOCABULARY.

Sieu, God la terre, the ea/rth

le pain, the bread la viande, the meat

le benrre, the butter le fromage, the cheese

le sel, the salt le poivre, the pepper

le cafe, the coffee le the, the tea

le lait, the milk le suore, the sugar

le fruit, the fruit I'enore f., the mk

pa.btitive and inclusive senses of the noun. 39

Exercise 4.

' L'enfant avait-il du pain ? ' Oui, il avait du pain et
du beurre. " Mon frSre donne des fruits d votre soeur.

* Ses fiUes ont-elles du cafe ? ' EUes ont du caf 6, et elles
ont aussi du lait et du sucre. ° Avez-vons du fromage ?
' Non, mais j'ai du beurre. ' Je donne au gar9on de la
viande ; il a du sel et du poivre ausBi. " A-t-il des livres
et des crayons? "Elle avait du papier et de I'encre,
" L'homme est I'enfant de Dieu. " Dieu donne aux
hommes les fruits de la terre. " L'homme est un animal.
" Voild des livres ; ils sont a mon ami. " As-tu des frSres
et des soeurs ? " Non, mais j'ai des amis et des amies.

Theme 4.

' Have you any coflfee or tea ? ' Yes, we have some
coffee, and our mother has some tea. ° His mother gives
bread and milk to her children. ' Have your sisters meat,
pepper, and salt ? ' No, but they have bread and cheese.

* I have a garden, and I give fruit to my friends. ' Have
you my pencils ? " Tour brother has your pencils, but I
have some paper and pens. ' The boy has horses and
dogs. " Cats are animals. " The dog is also an animal.
" God gives to man flowers, the fruits of the earth. " God
is the friend of man. '* The earth is the garden of God.
"Had the child a father or mother? "No, but she had
friends and sisters. " Here are coats and hats. " There
are books and pens.

vebb-exebcise.
(For the past forms, give both imperfect and preterit.)
You had. Had they? Has she? We have. They
were. Is he? Have you? You were. He was. Had
I ? I am. Thou wast. Hadst thou ? I was.

40 LESSON V.

LESSO]!^ Y.

MATEEIAl AJSTD MEASIJEE.

1. In French (as often in English), the material of
which anything is made is expressed by help of the
preposition de of : thus,

nne bagne d'or, a ring of gold nne 'cniller d'argent, a spoon

ofsil/Ber

la.'haTaBe ie soie, the xmrie of sille des chapeanz de Telonrs, Tiati

of velvet

a. Such expressions as a gold ring, a silver spoon, a silk purse,
a velvet hat, in which we use in English the noun of material as
if it were an adjective, are impossible in French.

6. English adjectives of material in -en or -n, as wooden, woolen,
leatTiern, also have to be expressed in French by de and the noun
of material : thus,

nne table de bois, a wooden table dn drap de laine, some woolen doth

2. Nouns expressing measure of quantity, of weight,
of number, and so on, are also followed (as usually in
English) by de of before the name of the thing meas'
ured: thus,

nne bonteille de vin, a bottle of nne livre de sncre, a pound of
wine sugar

des morceanz de pain, bits of des paires ie has, pairs of stock-
bread ings

3. ^Also after adverbs of quantity. Ac. of ia TRquirP'"'
in French (thou gh usuall y omitted in English^ : th us.

beanconp d'ean, nmch water (literally, much of wafer)
trop de vin, too mtieh wine assez de flenrs, etumgh fUmera

This construction is that of a noun instead of an adverb, or

like that of the corresponding English words before tJiis and

that: thus, emmgh of this and too much of that.

4. The commonest adverbs of quantity are :
beanconp, mmh, many pnn ^nng-ff^j-
pins, more niiiinfl, 1ms

trop, too much, loo many trop pen, too litO e.. too few

' tont, so mmh, so rrumy antant, as miich, as many

oombien, how much* assez, enough

UATEBIAL AUTD MEASmtB. 41

«. Assez enough is never allowed to stand, as in English, after
the noun measured : thus, always assez de pain, for English
enough bread, or bread enough.

b. After bien, also meaning much, many, and la plupart
most (literally, the more part), de must be followed by the defi-
nite article before the noun : thus, bien des hommes (not
d'hommes) many men, la plupart des livres most books.

VERB-LESSON.

5. The FUTUEE tenses of avoir ha/ve and etre ie are
these :

j'anrai, I shall have je serai, lahaU ie

tn anras, thou wilt have tu seras, thou wilt be

il aura, h/i will Ji/imn ^ 11 ser a, he will be .

nous aorons, we shaU have nous serons, we shaM be

vous anrez, you mil have vous serez, you will be

Us auTont, th^ will have ils seront, they will be

a. Every future in the language, without exception, is inflected
like these, with the endings -ai, -as, -a, -ons, -ez, -ont, and with
r before the endings.

6. The interrogative form is, as in other tenses, aurai-je,
seras-ta, aura-t-il (1. 10c), etc.

c. The French future corresponds with no Latin tense, but is a modem forma-
tion, made by adding the present of avoir to the inflnitive of the verb : thux,
anral is contracted from avolr-al, I have to have, etc. Hence the correspond
ence of tlie endings with those of the present of avoir, and hence also the pre.
ceding r ; since the French infinitive always ends in r (or re).

VOCABULARY.

(Besides the words of quantity given in the Lesson.)

Ie vin, the wine I'eau f., the water

Ie drap, the cloth Ie velours, the velvet

la laine, the wool la sole, the silk

la table, th£ fable la chaise, the chair

Ie metre, the meter, ya/rd la livre, ths pound

la bouteille, the bottle Ie verre, the glass

la tasse, tTie cup Ie morceau, the bit, piece

Ie bois, the wood que, than, as

Exercise 5.

' Avez-vous une bouteille de vin ? ' Non, mais j'ai an
verre d'eau, et un morceau de pain, ' Men ami a nne table

43 LESSON- V.

de bois et beaucoup de chaises. * II a plus de chaises que
de tables. 'Combien de tableaux avez-vous? 'Nous
avons trois tableaux. ' Le gar^on a moins de plumes que
de crayons. "Votre soeur a-t-elle des robes de drap?
' Elle a des robes de sole et un chapeau de velours.
" J'avais deux habits et autant de chapeaux. " Avaient-
elles du drap de laine ? " Aviez-vous autant de sole que
de velours ? " Nous avons quatre metres de soie, et assez
de velours. '* II avait trop de vin et trop peu d'ean.
"Elle donne k son frSre une tasse de th6 ou de caf§.
" Bien des hommes out peu de pain et de viande. " La
plupart des tables sont de bois.

Theme 5.

' Had you much wine ? " I had a cup of tea and a bit
of bread. ' Tour daughter has my silk dress. * I had too
many pens and pencils, and too little paper. ' Has the girl
dresses enough ? ° She has three woollen dresses, and as
many hats. ' The man gives a bottle of wine to his friends.
' She had also a bit of bread and cheese, and a glass of
milk. ° I have more friends than brothers. " Most men
have water enough, and many men have too much wine.
" My mother had many yards of silk and velvet. " We
have wooden tables and glass bottles. " Most bottles are
of glass. " My father gives his niece four yards of cloth
and a little velvet. " I had three pounds of tea and as
much coffee, and a pound of sugar. " You have less pep-
per than salt. " There are many books and sheets of pa-
per.

VERB-EXEECISE.

She will have. Will he be? Were they? We shall
be. They will have. Is he? Had you? I shall be.
Shall I have? They had. We are. We shall have.
Wilt thou have ? You will be.

PEEPOSITION S J PEOPEE NAMES. 43

LESSON VI.

PREPOSITIONS ; PKOPEE NAMES.

1. The commonest French prepositions (besides k acd
de) are as follows :

^aprm, /i,fljir - demere. behind. pour, /or

a roit, before (p reTJous de vant, before (in front sana, witnout^

to) "~^ - "

avee, m<A en, in, into ^ aons, under ^

Chez, «s< <A« hmisejf entre. between, snr, wpo?^

Sa ns, ^7^, ^w^o par, iy. through vers, envers, toward

Other prepositions and preposition-phrases will be given in a
later Lesson (XXXIII.).

a. For in or mto, dans is more common than en ; and en is
almost never used before the definite article or a possessive.

6. Of the two prepositions meaning hefore, avant is used only
of time, devant only of place.

c. Chez at the Tiotise o/may oft«n be rendered by toith, but in a
different sense from avec : thus, dinez chez nous, dine toith us,
i.e., at our house ; but dinez avec noTis, dine imth us, i.e., along
with us, in our company somewhere.

2. Names of countries and provinces in French gen-
erally take the definite article.

a. Some of the commonest names of countries are :

la France, Frwnce I'Amerique, America

I'Angleterre, England I'Europe, Europe

I'Allemagne, Qermany I'Asie, Asia

I'Sepagne, ^Mvn I'Afriqne, Africa

I'ltalie, Italy la Chine, OMna

la Snisse, Sieiteerland la Belgique, Belgium

I'Antriche, Atigtria la'HoIlande, Holland

la Fnuse, Prussia la Snede, Sweden

la Bnsiie, Suatia la Horvege, Norway

.»«

44- LESSON VI.

All these are feminine ; masculine are le Danemark Denmark,
le Eanovre Hanover, le Mezique Mexico, le Japon Japan, and
a few others.

3. But the article is omitted before names of coun-
tries in certain cases, especially the following :

a. After en in, into, to : thus, 11 est en France he is
in JFrcmce, je vais en Am6rique lam going to America.

b. After words meaning king, emperor, kingdom, empire,
duchy, or the like ; also after histoire history, carte mup, etc. :
thus, roi de France king of France, I'empire d'Allemagne the
empire of &ermany, une carte d'Am^rique a map of America.

e. After the name of a commodity coming from the country
designated : thus, les vins de France the tvines of France (French
wines), du cuir de Bussie Russian leather, de I'or de Califomie
som^ Californian gold.

4. With the name of a country, the preposition en is

used, to express both in and to (literally, into) ; but with

the name of a city or town, & is used, to express both to

and at or in.

Thus, je vais en Angleteire / am going to England, but je
vais a Londres I am going to London, and 11 demenre en Italie
he lives in Italy, but 11 demeure a Rome he lives in {at) Rome.

5. With regard to the use of the article, other proper
names follow the same rules in French as in English :
thus,

a. Names of persons and of cities and towns are used without
the article.

6. Names of mountains and rivers take the article.

c. Examples of common names of persons are :
Jean, John Jeanne, Jane, Joan, Joanna
Louis, Leiois Louise, Louisa

Henri, Hervry Henriette, Henrietta, Haurriei

Jules, Julm» Julie, Julia

I^an9oi8, Francis, Frank Franf oise, Frances, Fanrny

Ouillaume, WUliam Marie, Mary, Maria

d. Examples of names of towns are :
Londres, London Geneve, Geneva
Vienne, Vienna Venise, Venice
*BruxeU6B, Brussels Lyon, Lyons

PBEPOSITIONS ; PKOPEK NAMES. 45

e. Examples of names of mountains and rivers are :

les Alpes, the Alps les Pyrenees, the Pyrenees

le filiin, the Rhine la Tamise, the Thames

le Danube, the Danube la Seine, the Seine

But »a.mes of single mountains also take the article : thus, le
V^snve Vesuvitis.

f. A few names of persons and places require the article : thus,
le Dante Dante, le Havre Havre, le Caire Cairo.

VEBB-LESSON.

6. The CONDITIONAL tenses of avoir have and Stre he
are:

j'anrais, I should have je serais, I should le

tn anrais, thou wouldst home tu serais, thou wouldst ie

il aniait, Tie would have il serait, he would be

nans anrions, we should have nons serions, we shoiUd be

Tons anriez, you would have vous seriez, you wovM he

ils anraient, they vxmld have ils seraient, they would be

a. Every conditional in the language, without exception, is in-
flected like these, with the endings -ais, -ais, -ait, -ions, -iez,
-aient — which are precisely the same with the imperfect endings
(III. 7a) ; and these endings are invariably preceded by r.

b. The conditional is, in fact, a kind of imperfect or past tense to the future,
always differing from it in tlie endings only. It is made up of the infinitive with
the imperfect of avoir added to it lanrals = aToir avals, literally, I had to
have).

VOCABULARY.
(Only the words of the lists given in the Lesson.)

Exercise 6.

' Jean est-il chez son cousin ? " Non, il est chez sa tante.
' Sa Boeur est avec ses amies dans le jardin derri^re la
maison. * Le vin de France 6tait sur la table de bois entre
les deux f en^tres. ' Aviez-vous du th6 dans votre tasse ?
' J'avais du tli6 avec du lait et du sucre. ' La bouteille de
lait 6tait pour I'enfant. ' Louis est en France, mais sa
soeur est A Rome. ° Paris, sur la Seine, est la capitale de
la France. '° Serez-vous en Angleterre ? " Oui, nous

46 LBSSOK VII.

serons k Londres. " La Suisse est entre la France et
I'ltalie, "Les Alpes sont en Suisse. "Le chapeau de
Jeanne 6tait sous une chaise devant la porte. " Avez-vous
des amis en Amerique ? " Mon ami a beaucoup d'arbres
devant sa maison.

Theme 6.

' Is the child at his uncle's ? ' No, he is in his room with
his brothers. 'The fruit on the table is for the girls.
' Your brother William is in front of the house behind a
tree. ' John is with Mary at her father's. ° The chair is
between the two windows. ' Henry is in France, and he
will be at Paris. * The dress was of French silk, and the
coat was of English cloth. ' The trees are in the garden
behind my house, and the fruit is on the trees. '°Tou
will have sugar and milk in your coffee. " Henry's dog is
under the table. " Frank had water in his glass. " The
bread and the Italian cheese will be on the table.

VEKB-BXEECISE.

Would you have ? They will be. She would be. He
will have. Will she have? They had. I should be,
Wouldst thou be? We are. Have they? We should
be. Would they be? lam. Havel? He had. They
will have.

LESSON VII.

ADJECTI VE8 GENDEE,

1. Adjectives in French have in general a variation
of form for gender and for number, and are made to
agree in both these respects with the nouns (or prononiiB)
to which they relate.

ADJECTIVES — GENDBK. 47

a. The adjective, whether attributive or appositive or predioa^
tive, whether before or after the word it qualifies or otherwise
separated from it, whether qualifying a word expressed or under-
stood, must be of the gender and number of the qualified word.

6. Exceptions are adjectives relating to nous we and vous
you, when these pronouns are used with reference to a single per-
son. Such adjectives are singular only. Thus, you are very good
is vous 6tes tres bon (to a man), or vous 6tes tres bomte (to a
woman) ; but tres bons or tres bonnes, if addressed to more than
one.

2. A^fe minine a djective ends always in mute e ; and
the feminine of most adjecti^etj ia made by tilliiply add-
ing mute e to the masculine lorm : thus, "

petit, petite, snutil aise, aisee,

grand, giande, great joli, jolie, pretty

noir, noire, black vrai, vraie, true

royal, royale, royal nu, nne, naked

plein, T^leine, full ^ bleu, blene, blite

But there are many exceptions to this rule. Thus :
•3. If a masculine adjective ends already in e mute,
the feminine has the same form : thus,

m. f. m. f.

sage, WM«, well-behaved honnete, honest

facile, easy impie, impums

4, Adjectives ending in the mascuhne in el, ell, ien,
on, also many in s and t, double their final consonant be-
fore the added mute e of the feminine : thus,

m. f. m. f.

cmel, oruelle, <yrud pareil, pareille, lihe

ancien, ancienne, ancient bon, bonne, good

gros, grosse, big bas, basse, low

net, nette, neat sot, sotte, stupid

a. Adjectives in s and t falling under this rule are mostly
monosyllabic, but also 6pais (^paisse) thick, sujet (siyette) lia-
ble, muet (nmette) mute, and a few others. But ras smooth,
obtus obtuse, pr6t ready, mat dull, add e simply.

5. Nta (ntiUe), gentil (gentille), and fW and mol (below, 7),
follow the analogy of adjectives in el and ell.

5. Adjectives ending in the masculine in x and f

48 LESSON VII.

diange these respectively to s and v before tlie added e
mute : thus,

m. t. m. f.

Kenrenz, heureose, happy jaloux, i&louse, jealous

yif, vive, lively neuf, neuve, new

For an exception or two, see below, 8.

6. In some adjectives, changes of spelling are the ne-
cessary result of the addition of e for the feminine : thus,

a. Adjectives having in the masculine an e before a
final consonant (whether pronounced or silent) change it
to 6 in the feminine, if the consonant is not doubled
(215) : thus,

m. f. m. f.

Cher, chere, dear complet, complete, complete

And ef in like manner becomes eve : thus, bref, breve, brief,
h. Final c is changed for the feminine to que (72a), and final g
to gue (62/) : thus,

m. f. m. f,

public, pabliqne, pvhlie [franc,] franqne, Fram.Msh

tnrc, torque, Turkish long, longne, long

And so oblong oblong. But grec Gh-eek makes grecque (not
greqae) ; and blanc white, &anc frank, sec dry, make more
irregularly blanche, franche, seche.

c. Adjectives ending in gn add e for the feminine (8a) : thus,
aign, aigue, acute ; ambigu, ambigue, ambigitous.

7. Five adjectives have two different forms in the
masculine, from one of which the feminine is made;
they are :

m. f.

beau bel, belle, becmUful

nouyeau nouvel, nonvelle, new, novel
vleux vieil, vieille, old

fou fol, toUe, foolish, mad

mou mol, molle, soft

a. Of the two masculine forms, the one in 1 is used be-
fore a word beginning with a vowel (or li mute) : thus,
un bel homme, a handsome man
le nouvel ordre, the new order
un fol espoir, a foolish hope

ADJECTTVES — GENDER. 49

but nn beau livre a handsome book, le livre est beau the hook
is handsome, and so on.

8. Some adjectives form their feminine more irregu-
larly ; of these the commonest are :

m. f. m. f.

fcais, frajche,/re8^ faux, iaaase, false

doux, douce, sweet favori, favorite, /cswnte

VERB-LESSON.

9. The IMPERATIVES of avoir have and etre be are as
follows :

aie, Tiave, have thou, do thou have sois, be, etc.

ayons, let us have, have we aoyons, let us he, etc.

ayez, ham, have ye, do you have soyez, be, etc.

a. While the English imperative may be used either with or
without a subject expressed, the French never allows one.

6. Third persons imperative are supplied from the present sub-
junctive : see below, VIII. 7c.

VOCABULARY.

bon, bonne, good manvais, -aise, bad, wicked
beau bel, belle, handsome, beautiful joli, jolie, pretty

grand, grande, large, tall petit, petite, small, little

vienx vieil, yieille, old jeone, young

Toage, red noir, noire, black

blanc, blanche, white long, longne, long

heureaz, henrense, happy cher, chere, dea/r

la *viUe, the city le 'village, t7ie village

le maitre, ihe master I'eleve, the pupil

tres, very trop, too

Exercise 7.

' Votre soeur est-elle jolie ? " Ma petite soeur est sage
et jolie. ' La maison de mon pSre est belle, et son jardin
est grand. * Le fruit de son arbre est bon. ° Votre oncle
est-il beau ? ° Oui, mon oncle est un bel homme, et ma tante
est une tr^s belle femme. ' Le maltre est bon, et I'enfant
sera heureux. ' Le petit enfant a un vieux maitre. ' Le
village est-il grand ? " Non, il est petit, mais la ville est
grande et belle. "Le petit vieil homme est mon cher

50 LESSON VIII.

maltre. " La fleur est blanche, mais le fruit est rouge ou
noir. "Le maltre 6tait tr^s vieux, et l'616ve 6tait trop
jeune. " Ma vieille tante est chez ma ch^re cousine.
" Le beau jeune homme est le cousin de mon vieil ami.
" Votre robe est trop longue.

Theme 7.
' Is your brother large ? " Yes, I have a tall brother and
a pretty little sister. ' The house is handsome, but it is too
small. * We have a large house and a small garden. ' The
flower is red and the fruit is white. " Your city is large
and beautiful ; our village is small and pretty. ' I was
young and happy, but my master was old. " The old man
is tall and black. ° The woman is young, white, and hand-
some. " The beautiful woman is my dear aunt. " The
master was too old, or the pupil was too young. " Is your
mother beautiful ? " No, but she is good and happy.
" My cousin (f .) is a pretty young woman. " Milk (IV. 5)
is white, wine is red, and ink is black. " The tree is tall
and handsome, but the fruit is small and bad.

VBEB-EXEECISE.

Be. Let us have. They were. He would be. Be
(ye). You will have. They would have. He is. We
were. ^ Have (thou). Will he have? Would they be?
She has. They (f.) will have. Let us be. He will be.
We were. Should I be ?

LESSON YIIL

ADJECTIVES — NUMBEE, POSITION.

1. The plural of an adjective is generally formed as

the plural of a noun of like ending would be : thus,

a. A feminine adjective (since it ends in e) always adds s for
the plural.

ADJECTIVES — NTTMBEB, POSITIOK. 51

6. Masculines in general add s ; but final s or x (z does not
occur) remain unchanged; an and eu (not on) add x; al is
usually changed to anx.

c. But bleu blue makes bleus ; some in al make als (as fatals,
finals, ovals, etc.) ; of the adjectives having two forms in the sin-
gular (VII. 7), the plural is made from the form ending in u :
thus, beaux, nouveaox, fous, mous.

2. The adjectiye in French comes more usually after
than before the noun which it qualifies.

a. Adjectives have great freedom of position in French, and it
depends very much upon the euphony of the sentence and the
choice of the writer or speaker whether in a given case the adjec-
tive shall precede or follow the noun. The following rules point
out some of the leading considerations that help to determine the
question.

3. A few of the commonest adjectives are almost in-
variably placed before the noun.

a. These are especially the adjectives meaning good
and had (bon, mauvais), large or big and smaU (grand or
gros, petit), yourig and old (jeune, vieux), also beau hcmd-
some, vrai tr^le, with some others : thus,

le bon 'senB, good sense nn beau livre, a handsome book-

ie grands bonunes, great men mon vieax cousin, my old cousin

4. a. An adjective denoting a physical quaUty, as color or
form, inclines to follow the noun ; one denoting an ideal or moral
quality, to precede it : thus,

des fleuTS rouges, red flowers une tete ronde, a round head
son lit dur, his hard bed le bouillon cbaud, the hot broth

6. An adjective tends to foUow the noun when taken in a more
literal sense, and to precede it when taken in a more figurative
sense : thus,

un fosse profond, a deep ditch un profond silence, a deep silence

la barbe noire, the black beard une noire trabison, a black treason

nn livre ober, a dear book un cber ami, a dear friend

5. a. An adjective having adjuncts rather follows the noun ;
but a simple adjective rather precedes a noun that has other ad^
juncts : thus, one fiUe assez jeune et passablement belle a
rather young and tolerably handsome girl ; I'lmmortel auteur
du Paradis perdu the immortal author of Paradise Lost.

b. Aa adjective used more appositively, or having a special
prominence or emphasis, or signifying something brought for-

12

LBS80K VIII.

ward as new rather than referred to as already understood,
comes after the noun : thus, c'est un livre excelleut this is an
excellent hook, but cet excellent livre est a moi this excellent
hook is mine.

e. In virtue of these differences, some adjectives have a well-
marked distinction of meaning, according as they precede or fol-
low the noun : thus, cher dear means costly after the noun, but
loved before it ; brave is hrave after, but excellent, worthy be-
fore ; honndte is nice, civil after, but honest before ; pauvre is
indigent after, but of poor quality or pitiable before ; simple is
mere before ; certain is certain in the sense of one or so?ne be-
fore, of sure after ; dernier is last elapsed after, but concluding,
final before ; propre is neat after, but own before — and so on.

6. The partitive sense of a noun that is preceded by

an adjective is usually expressed by de alone, without the

definite article : thus,

de bon pain, good bread de petits en&ntB, little children

de manvais sucre, had miga/r de belles fleurs, beautiful flowers

a. But if the adjective follows the noun, the article is not
omitted: thus, du pain excellent excellent bread, des fleurs
magnifiques magnificent flowers.

b. Also, if the adjective and following noun form together a
current combination, a kind of compound name for something, the
article remains : thus, du bon sens good sense, des jeoned gens
young folks, des petits pois green peas.

VEEB-LESSON.

7. The PEE8ENT suBJimcTrvES of avoir have and 6tre
he are as follows :

que j'aie, t?iat I may haw que je sols, that I may be

que tu Aies, that thm mayest have que tu sois, that thou mayest be

qn'il ait, that Tie may have qu'il eoit, that he may be

que nous ayons, ^wi we may hate que nous soyons, that we may be
que vous ayez, (hat you may have que vous soyez, that you may be

qu'ils aieut, that they may have qu'ils soient, that they may be

a. For the exchange of i and y in these forms, see 376.

6. It is customary to prefix the conjunction que that to the
inflection of the subjunctive tenses in French grammars, because
a subjunctive usually (not always) has that conjunction before it.
For the abbreviation of que to qu', see 26c.

c. The 3d persons of this tense are often used in an imperative
sense, and in some grammars they are given also with the impera-
tive, as its 3d persons : thus, _

ADJECTIVES — NUMBER, PQSITIOK. 53

qu'il ait, let Iim, Time qu'il Boit, let him he

qu'ils aient, let them ham qu'ils soient, let them be

d. This tense corresponds to the one of the same name in Latin.

VOCABULAKY.

I'ecole f., the school I'eglise f., the church

la vie, life la famille, the family

patiTTe, poor riche, rich

Uen, hlv,e bmn, brown

actif, actvBe laborienz, laborious

aimable, amiable honnete, honest

simple, simple modeste, modest

interessant, interesUng excellent, excellent

nonveau (VII. 7), new aveugle, blind

Exercise 8.

' Avez-vons de belles fleurs ? " J'ai des fleurs bleues et
rouges. ' Les jeunes filles ont de beaux chapeaux. * EUes
ont aussi de nouvelles robes simples et modestes. 'Mon
pauvre oncle a un fils aveugle. ° Les homines pauvres ont
une vie active et laborieuse. ' La vieiUe 6glise est de bois
noir. ° L'enfant aimable est a I'ecole chez un maitre ex-
cellent. ° L'excellent maitre est un bon ami des euf ants
riches et des enfants pauvres. " Nous avons des livres
trSs bons et trSs int^ressants, mais nous avons aussi de
mauvais livres. " L'honnete homme laborieux aura une
vie heureuse. " Mon fr^re est un gar^on honnete et aima-
ble. "J'ai de bon vin blanc.dans des bouteilles noires.
'* Us ont de bon pain noir, du beurre, et de tr^s-mauvais
fromage. " La pauvre fille aveugle a un p^re riche. " Elle
a de grands yeux noirs. " Mon p^re a une famille aimable
et int6ressante.

Theme 8.

* Have you good friends ? ' I have interesting friends
and dear sisters. ' She is a laborious young girl. * My
poor cousin is very unhappy. ' She has a little blind
daughter. 'I have a rich uncle. 'My rich uncle is an

54 , LESSON" IX.

honesL man. ' He has a simple and modest life. * We
shall have an excellent school in our little village. " There
is an interesting old church. " Mary is a pretty and mod-
est girl. '^ She has small hands and large blue eyes.
" Have you black bread and good butter ? " Here is
good white bread and excellent butter. " You have old
red wine in new black bottles. " My good old uncle has
very interesting books in his little brown house. " He has
a large family.

LESSON IX.

ADJECTIVES— COMPAEISOir.

1. Adjectives in French are for the most part not
otherwise compared than by putting before them ad-
verbs meaning more etc.

a. Xhe comparative adverb is p lus mo re, and this is
made superlativ e by prefixing to it the definite article :
thu s, le v\xi&J Ji,&jmosL-

b. We may also prefix moins less and le moins least to an
adjective, producing a comparison downwards, or of diminution.

2. Hence, examples of the ordinary comparison of a
French adjective are as follows :

bean, handsome plus bean, Itandsomer le pins bean, handsomest

jenne, young pins jeone, young&r le pins jenne, youngest

aimable, a/micible pins aimable, more a/mi- le pins aimable, mmi
able amiable

a. The article before plus is of course varied for gender and
number, like the adjective : thus, la plus belle handsomest (wo-
man), les plus jeunes youngest (men or women).

3. But three adjectives have a special form for the
comparative, which then is made superlative by prefix-
ing to it the definite article. They are :

bon, goo d^^ — ^ mfiillemjJeWer le m eillenr, best

manvais, li ad p ie^worse ' — le pire, toorst

'petit, muM moindre, smaUer le inomdre ,lmaHegt.^

ADJECTIVES — COMPAEISON. 58

«. But mauvais and petit are also compared with pliig ; and
even bon, in the sense of good-natured.

4. Comparison of equality is expressed by aussi as
before tbe adjective. After the adjective, both as and
than are expressed by que. Thus :

auBsi belle que sa soeur, as Jicmdaome as her sister
plus petit que mon frere, smaller than my brother

5. Special rules are :

a. The article showing the superlative has to be dropped after
a possessive : thus, mon plus jeune frere my youngest brother
(not distinguishable from my younger brother) .

h. If a superlative adjective is put after a noun having the
definite article, the article must be repeated : thus, rhomme le
plus savant the most learned man, la ville la plus peupl^e the
most populous dty.

c. After a superlative, the preposition de of, and not dans in,
is used before a word of place : thus, le plus bel homme du
monde the Jiandsomest man in the world, la plus grande ville
de I'Europe the largest city in Europe.

VEBB-LESSON.

6. The iMPEEFECT SUBJUNCTIVES of avoli Jut/oe and etre
he are as follows :

que j'eusse, that I might home que je fusse, that I might he

que ta eusses, that thou mightest que tu fusses, that thou mighiest

ham be

qu'il eut, that he might home qu'il fut, that he might be

que nous euasions, that we might que nous fussions, that we

be
que vous eussiez, that you might que vous fussiez, that you might

home be ^

qu'ils eussent, that they might qu'ils fussent, that they might be

a. Every imperfect subiunetive in the language, without excep-
tion, is inflected like these, with the endings -sse, -sses, -t, -ssions,
-ssiez, -ssent, and with a circumflexed vowel (u or 3. or i) before
the t of the 3d singular.

6. The subjunctive tenses are by no means always to be ren-
dered in English with the auxiliaries may and might, but some-
times with others, as should and would, and sometimes by simple
subjunctive or even indicative forms.

56 LBSSOK IX.

c. This tense is from the Latin pluperfect subjunctive : compare fusse etc.
with Lat. fuissem etc.

VOCABULARY,
pins, more moins, to»

meilleur, letterr pire, wor»e

le paysan, the peasant la rose, t7w rose

laid, ugly 'haut, high

Exercise 9.

•Mon fr^re est le plus joli gargonN^u^illage. 'Mon
ami est plus beau que ton f rdre. ' Le pauvre gar9on est
le plus jeune des enfants de mon vieil ami. ' Etiez-vous
plus jenne que votre soeur? 'Non, ma sceur 6tait la plus
jeune et la plus jolie de notre famille. ° Paris est la plus
grande ville de la France, mais elle est moins grande et
moins ricbe que Londres. ' L'Am^rique est plus grande
que I'Europe, et moins grande que I'Asie. ' Louise est la
jeune fille la plus aimable du monde, ' L'enfant sera aussi
laid que son pauvre pSre. " Le meilleur vin 6tait dans la
plus petite bouteille. " Les paysans les plus honn^tes et
les plus beaux de I'Europe sont dans les plus hautes mon-
tagnes. " Les 61^ves sont plus jeunes que le maitre.
" Henri est le pire des gargons du vUlage. " Avez-vous de
meilleur vin ? '° La rose est la plus belle des fleurs du jardin.
Theme 9.

' His sister is ugly, but his niece is the ugliest girl in the
city, " The boy is as handsome as his beautiful cousin.
' The largest pieces of bread are for the poorest children.
' The good and honest peasants are less poor than the bad
men of the city. ' The Alps are the highest mountains in
Europe. ° A city is larger than a large village. ' Mary is
as pretty as Helen, but she is less amiable and interesting.
' The youngest of the children are my sisters. ' The pret-
tiest child is ray youngest sister. " The peasants of the
Alps were his best friends. " The women are as handsome
as the men. " The smallest horse is larger than the largest

coKJtjGATiON OF avoir. S7

dog. " The cat is smaller than the dog. " The worst boy
in the village was your dearest friend. " The red wine is
better than the white wine.

LESSON X.

CONJUGATION — THE VEEB avoii Tw/oe.

1. In the preceding lessons have been given, with
their complete inflection, examples of all the simple
tenses and modes of the French verb. The remaining
parts are the infinitive, the present and past participles,
and the compound forms, made with an auxiliary verb.

2. The iNFiNnTVEs of the two verbs ha/oe and he are :

avoir, Tia'ce, to _ham et re, be, to be

a. The inflnitive always ends in r or re.

6. The "sign of the inflnitive," corresponding to the English
to, is either a to or (quite as often) de of. As to the use of the
one or the other of these, see Part Second, § 172 etc. But the
French inflnitive is often also (Uke the Enghsh) used without a
sign, as subject of a verb, after various verbs, and after preposi-
tions, especially pour in order to (Uterally for, for to) : thus,
parler est mieux to speak is better, 11 veut avoir he tvishes to
have, pour gtre in order to he.

c. The French mflnitive corresponds to the Latin inflnltiTe active.

3. The PEESENT PAETiciPLES of the same verbs are :

ayant, Tiamng etant, being

a. The present participle invariably ends in ant.
6. This participle, when used as a participle, has no variation
for gender or number. Often, however, it is used as an adjec-
tive, and then is varied hke any other adjective : thus, una char-
mante femme a charming woman, des yeux pergants piercing

c. This participle is also (apparently) very commonly used after

the preposition en : thus, en etant in being, in the act of being,

while being (and often best rendered being simply).

d. In fact, however, the so-callcJ participle with en answers to the Latin abla-
tive gerund in -udo (en ayant = Lat. in habendo). The participle is the Latin
present participle (ayant = Lat. habent-em).

4. The PAST PAETICIPLES of the same verbs are :
eu, had ete. been

68 lEssoK X.

I
a. This participle is" variable for gender and number, like any
ordinary adjective.

6. The past participle corresponds to the Latin passive participle.

5. Compound forms for all the parts of a French
verb (except the imperative and the past participle) are
made, as in English, bj adding its past participle to the
various fojjms of an auxiliary verb. The auxiliary is
usually avoir Iw/oe ; but some verbs take instead etre he
(see below, XXYHI. 5-7).

a. Hence, to make any given compound form, the correspond-
ing simple form of avoir (or sometimes of §tre) is to be taken,
and the past participle of the principal verb added to it.

h. The participle is for the most part unvaried, or has its mas-
culine singular form, in the compound forms of the verb when
made with avoir. But it is a rule in French that if a compound
verb-form has a direct object, and that object stands before the
verb, the participle is made to agree with it in gender and num-
ber : thus, quels livres avez-vous eus what books have you had f
les fleurs que j'ai eues the flowers which I have had, and so on :
see Part Second, § 191 etc.

6. The compounds of the present and imperfect tenses are
best called, as in English, the peefect and pltjpekfect ; that of
the preterit, the past antebior ; those of the future and condi-
tional, the FUTURE PERFECT and CONDITIONAl. PERFECT.

a. In many grammars, the indicative perfect is called the past
indefinite (Fr. pass^ ind^fini). It is very often used where in
English we have the preterit ; and especially, of anything that
has happened during this day, or during any period of which the
present is viewed as a part.

6. For the use of the past anterior, see Part Second, § 122.

7. The compound forms of avoir have are made, as
in English, with avoir itself as auxiliary. The simple
and compound forms are given together in full below.

Complete Conjugation of avoir have.

iMniiTivn. Perfect Infinitivb.

avoir, have, to home avoir en, to have had

PaBSENT Fabticiple. Perfect Participle.

ayant, having ayant eu, hamng had

Past (or Passive) Participlb.
eu, had

CONJUGATION OF avolr.

59

PB£SSNT.

j'ai, Ihaw
tu as, thou hast
il s, Tie has
nons avons, we have
vous avez, you have
ils ont, th^ hate

Imperfect.
j'avais, I had, was hamng,
ta avals, thcni hadst etc.
il avait, he had etc.
noas avions, we had etc.
yoQs aviez, you had etc.
ils avaient, they had etc,

. \\J^^'^

Fbetebit.
j'eus, I had ■ _^^
ta eus, thou hadst
11 eat, he had
noas eomes, we Tiad
Toaa eates, ^cw had
lis earent, t^^ Aa<{

Future.
j'aorai, IshaU have
ta aoras, thou teilt have
11 aora, he will have
nous aarons, we shall have
voos aorez, you wUl have
lis aoront, Oiey wUl have

CONDinONAl..

j'aoialB, I should have
ta aarais, thou wouldst have
U aoralt, he would home
noas aurlons, 2ce should home
voos aurlez, ^(w would have
ils aoraient, t^ w<n<2<2 ^se

Iin>IOATIVS.

Perfect. ( ^ i,^,-/ , ,»
j'ai ea, Iham had
ta as ea, thou hast had
11 a ea, Ae has had
noas avons ea, we have had
vous avez ea, you home had
lis ont ea, they home had

Pluperfect.
, etc. j'avais ea, I had had

ta avals ea, thou hadst had
11 avait ea, he had had
noas avlons ea, we had had
vous aviez ea, you had had
lis avaient ea, they had had

Past Anterior.

j'eus ea, Ihad had
ta eus ea, thou hadst had
11 eat ea, hs had had
nous eomes eu, we had had
vous eates ea, you had had
ils earent eu, they had had

Future Perfect.

j'aural ea, IshaM heme had
tu auras eu, thou wilt have had
11 aura eu, he will have had
nouB aurons eu, we shall hame had
voos aurez eu, you will ham had
ils aur^K^u, they will ha/oe had

CoNDinoHAL Perfect.

j'aurals eu, I should ha/Behad
ta anrais eu, thou wouldst have had
11 aurait eu. Tie would have had
noas aurions eu, we should have had
vous aurlez eu, you would hame had
lis aoraient ea, they would home had

ale, hame, have thou

Iaifsrativu.

ayons, let us ha/ne
ayez, Tiave, have ye

60 LESSON X.

SnBJUNCTITB.

Present. Peefkot.

que j'aie, that Ima/y have que j'aie eu, tJiat I may ha/ve had

que tu aies, that thou mayest ham que tu aies eu, th^t thou mayest etc.

qu'il ait, that he may ham qu'il ait eu, that he ma/g hme had

que nous ayona, that we may hxjme que nous ayons eu, that we mwy, etc.

que vous ayez that you ma/y ham que vous ayez eu, that you may etc.

qu'ils aient, that they may ham qu'ils aient en, tliat they mwy etc.

Imperfect. Pluperfect.

que j'eusse, that I might have que j'eusse eu, that I might havehad

que tu eusses, that t?wu mightest que tu eusses eu, that thou mighteat

havehad

qu'il eut, that he might have qu'il eflt eu, that he might ham had

que nous eussions, that we might que nous eussions eu, that we might

have ha/ve had

que vous eussiez, tfiat you might que vous eussiez en, that you might

have have had

(Ivi'ilaevLBsent, that they might ham qu'ils eussent eu, that they might

have had

VOCABULARY.

I'or m., gold I'argent m., sUmr, money

la main, the hand la poche, the pocket

le marcliand, the (retail) merchant le boulanger, the iaker

malheureux, unhappy ignorant, ignorant

si, if quoique, alihough

Note.— OuoJque (XXXIV. lo.) always requires the following verb to be in the
subjunctive ; si (XXXIV. 16) has the indicative. For the abbreviation of si to
8', see 99b.

EXEBCISE 10.

' J'ai un morceau de pain, et j'aurai aussi du beurre.
'^ Avez-vous eu assez de from age? "Nous aurions eu au-
tant de beurre que de f romage. * Eurent-ils de I'argent ?
° Elle eut de I'argent dans la main, et 11 avait eu de I'or
dans la poche. ° Mon cousin aurait eu du vin, s'il avait
eu un verre. ' Mes soeurs auront de jolies robes. * Aurai-
ent-elles eu aussi de beaux chapeaux ? ' Ayez du caf6 avec
votre pain. '° Ayons de la viande aussi. " Mon fr^re a
eu un grand cheval laid ; il aura un beau petit chevaL

CONJTTGATIOIT OF avoir. 61

"11 aura eu deux chevaux. '= Qu'il ait aussi un chien !
'* Si nous avions eu un frSre, nous aurions eu des amis.
" Quoique nous ayons beaucoup d'argent, nous sommes
trSs malheureux. '" Ayant un bon p^re, elle est heureuse.
" Quoiqu'il ait eu un maitre excellent, I'^leve est ignorant
et malheureux. " Le marchand a-t-il eu de la sole bleue ?
" H avait beaucoup de soie, mais j'avais tr^s peu d'argent.
''° Le boulanger a du pain noir et de bon pain blanc. "' II
6tait malheureux, quoiqu'il eut assez de pain et de vin.

Theme 10.

' Had the merchant some pens ? " He had pens, and he
will have paper, ink, and books. ' You have had black
ink ; he will have had good red ink. * Had you had white
bread ? ' I should have had bread enough, if he had had
butter. ° The boys had money enough ; they will have
meat and wine. ' Our old master would have had a new
school, if he had had more pupils. * Although he had few
pupils, he was satisfied. ° Had you a bit of gold in your
pocket ? '° I had gold in my hand, and silver in my pocket.
" Have a bit of bread and cheese. " Let us have new
hats and handsome red and blue dresses. " We shall have
had coffee and tea. " Will your sisters have red flowers?
"Though they had much money, they were unhappy.
" That I might have some wine and water ! " That you
might have had a horse ! " The man will have a laborious
life, if he has too little money. '" The baker, having had
some wine, had a bottle in his hand. " Although the peas-
ants have little money, they are happy and content. " Al-
though the girl had beautiful eyes, she was very ugly.

62

ij:sso:n^ xi.

LESSON XI.

CONJUGATION OF THE VEEB etre 1)6.

1, All the simple forms of fetre he have been given in
previous lessons. They are here repeated, in their order,
along with the compound forms, which are made, as in
English, with the help of the auxiliary avoir hoAje.

Infinitive. Pbrfpct iNFiHiTiva:.

etre, he, to be avoir ete, to heme been

Fbbsent Fabticiple. Pebfbct Participle.

etant, being

ayant ete, having been

Past (or Passive) Participle.

ete, been

Indicative.

Pbesent,

Pebfect.

je Buis, lam

j'ai ete, / Tta/se been

tn es

tu as ete

ilest

ilaete

nons sommes

nons ayons ete

vous etes

vons avez ete

ils sont

ils ont ete

lUFEKFECT.

Plupesfect.

j'etais, I was,

used to be, etc.

j 'avals ete, I had been

tu etaia

tn avals ete

il etait

il avait ete

nouB etions

nons avions ete

Tons etiez

^

vons aviez ete

ils etaient

~ 1, ,

ils avaient ete

Pbetebit.

V-' -

Past Anterior,

H

je fas, /was

)

j'ens ete, I had been

tufus

tn ens ete

^' J

ilfiit

il ent ete

>'"

nous fames

nons enmes ete

TOQs fates

vons entes ete

ils furent

ils enrent ete

CONJUGATION OE etre.

63

FUTCBE.

je serai, IshoM he

taseras

ilsera

nous serons

yous seiez

ilB seront

Future PEaPEcr.

j'anrai ete, I shall have
ta auras ete
il aura ete
nous anrons ete
yous anrez ete
ils auront ete

CONDinOKAL.

je serais, I should, I
ta serais
il serait
nous serions
yens seriez
ils seraient

CoNsmoNAij Perfect.

j'aurais ete, I should hme i

tu aurais ete

il aurait ete

uons anrions ete

yens auriez ete

ils auraient ete

Imperative.

soyons, let us be
sois, be, be thou soyez, be, be ye

SnaniHCTivB.

Perfect.

ma/y be que j'aie ete, that I may have

que tu aies ete
qu'il ait ete
que nous ayons ete
que yous ayez ete
qu'ils aient ete

que je sois, that I
que tu sois
qu'il soit
que nous soyons
que yous soyez
qu'ils soient

lUFEBFECT.

que je fosse, that I might be

Pluperfect.

que j'ensse ete, that I might ha/oe
been
que ta fusses que ta eusses ete

qu'il fat qa'il eut ete

que nous fossioms que nous enssions ete

que yoas fassiez que yous eossiez ete

qu'ils fassent qu'ils eussent ete

a. fitre corresponds only in part to the Latin esse etc.; the infinitive (dis-
puted), participles, and imperfed; come from tlie corresponding forms of Htare
stand; the future and conditional are formed in the usual way (V. 6c) from
essere, made by adding the usual inflnitiTe-ending re to esse.

2. To express the indefinite subject it of it is, it was,
etc., tile French generally uses ce, literally this (XXIV. 2),
bnt sometimes also il it.

64 LBSSOir XI.

a. n is used in statements of time, particularly of the
time of day ; and ce in most other cases. Thus :
il est quatre heures, it is 4 o'cloek il etait midi, it was noon

il sera dix heures, it wUl he 10 il est minuit, it is mu

o'clock
il est tard, it is late il est temps de partir, it is time to

SO
o'est bien, it is well e'etait en vain, it was in vain

e'est moi, it is I e'etait nous, it was we

e'est a vous que je parle, it is to you that I speak
b. If the verb after ce is followed by a plural noun,' or a plural
pronoun of the third person, it is itself made plural : thus,
ce furent elles, it was they ce seront mes amis, it will be my

ce sont nos livres que je vols, it is our books that I see

VOCABULARY.

malade, sick, iU faiWe, feeble, weak

paresseux, idle, laey content, contented, happy

a la campagne, in the country I'heure f., the hour, o'ebck

a present, at present, now toujours, always

Exercise 11.

' Votre ami est-il riche ? ° Men ami est pauvre k pre-
sent, raais il a 6t6 tr^s riche. ' Us seraient heureux, s'ils
avaient 6te honnetes et laborieux. ■" Nous avons ete El
I'^cole, et nous serons d I'eglise avec nos scBurs. ^ Vous
auriez eu de tres bon vin, si vous aviez ete chez mon oncle.
' L'homme a-t-il 6te malade ? ' II a 6t6 trds f aible, et il
sera malade. * Quoique les jeunes filles soient tres con-
tentes a la campagne, elles seront malheureuses a la ville.
' Sois bon et sage, et tu seras heureux. '° Vous ^tes jeune
et belle ; soyez contente. •" II est trois heures k present ; il
sera quatre heures. "' Ce sont les enfants de mon fr^re.
^'Ils auraient eu de belles fleurs et des fruits, mais ils ont
6t6 tr^s mauvais. " H est deux heures, et elle sera k
rgglise. "C'etait l'homme le plus paresseux du monde.
" Quoique le gargon fut k I'^cole, il 6tait toujours pares-

KEGAIIVE CONJTJGATIOir. 65

seux. "Ayant 6t6 malade, la femme est tr^s faible.
'" Quoiqu'il f ut riche, il 6tait plus malheureux qu'un homme
pauvre. " II aura 6t6 chez mon p6rc une heure. ^ C'etait
du vin d'Espagne.

Theme 11.
' It is my,cliildren. ' They have been very bad, but they
will be good now. ' It is three o'clock. * My sisters will
have been at school two hours. ' Although they are very
young, they are very idle. ° If the man has been sick, he
will be feeble. 'Although we have been poor, we were
always contented. ' I should have been at school, if we
had had a new master. ' The boy had been at church dur-
ing three hours. " Although the girls had beautiful hands,
they were ugly. " Be good and active, and you will be
happy. " Let us be lazy and happy. " It will be three
o'clock, and the boys will be at school. " I should have
been at Paris, but my father is in England. " If we had
been in the country, we should have had fruit and flowers
enough. " It was one o'clock, and Henry was in his room.
" My sister had been very rich, and she was in Rome with
my mother. " Having been in Italy, she is very happy.
" It is a good man, but it is a bad merchant. " It is a
wooden table.

LESSON XIL

NEGATIVE CONJUGATION.

1. A-K firh iR made negative by putting ne before an d
pas after it, — in a compound tense, before and after the
auxiliary.

a. It must always be borne in mind that in any compound form
it is the auxiliary that is the real verb, the added participle being
only a verbal adjective. All rules, therefore, as to the place of
negative words, subject and object pronouns, and so on, given
with reference to the verb, apply to the auxiliary and not to the
participle in compound forms.
5

66 LESSOH" XII.

6. The ne comes after the subject, but precedes a pronoun-ob-
ject (XXII. 7). It is abbreviated always to n' before a vowel or
h mute (26c).

2. Examples of tenses inflected negatively are :

je ne snis pas, la/m not je n'avais pas en, Ihad not had

tu n'«s pas, thou art Twt tn n'avais pas en, thm hadatnothad

il n'est pas, hs is not 11 n'avait pas en, he had not had

nous ne sommes pas, we are not nous n'avions pas en, we had not had

vous n'etes pas, you are not vous n'aviez pas en, you had not had

ils ne sent pas, they a/re not ils n'avaient pas en, they had not had

3. Instead of pas is sometimes used point, which makes a
stronger or more emphatic negative : thus,

11 n'est point, he is not {at all) je n'avais point en, I {certainly)

had not had.

a. Pas and point are really nouns, meaning step and point, used adTerbially
to strengthen the negation, like English not a Sit and the like.

6. With some verbs, ne is usually or always used alone, the pas
being omitted : see Second Part, § 166.

A__FW i^f-iffir^ nrinhntlij ^ aTifl nni.Umjj^ the Frennh say
ne . . . jamais (literally, not &oer), ne . . . personne (liter-
ally, not a person) and ne . . . rien (literally, not a thing),
respectively, the two words being separated, and the ne
put always before the verb (or auxiliary) : thus,

je ne snis jamais malade, lam n&ser ill

il n'avait jamais ete chez nous, he had never been at our lumse

je n'ai vu personne, Ihame seen nobody

personne n'a eu mon livre, no one has had my hook

n'avez-vous rien, haw you nothing f

rien ne serait pins cmel, nothing would he more cruel

5. A verb made negative by ne is also followed by
ni . . . ni, to give the sense of neither . . . nor / by gufere,
to give the sense of scarcely, but little ; very often by
que (literally than : i.e. else than), to give the sense of
only ; and by plus, to give the sense of no longer: thus,

il n'est ni jeune ni bean, h^ is neither young nor handsome
il n'a guere d'argent, he has ha/rdly any money
je n'ai que trois livres, I have only three books
elle n'est plus ici, she is no longer here

NEGATIVE COKJUGATION. 67

6. The negative ne belongs strictly to the verb, and
can never be used except with a verb expressed. If the
verb, then, is omitted (for example, in answers), the ne
is also omitted, and the other word has by itself a nega-
tive sense : thus,

aTez-voos des livres, ham you hooks f pas on, not one

qu'avez-Tons, what home you ? rien, nothing

qui est ici, who is here ? persoune, nobody

7. After a negative verb, the partitive sense of a noun
Is expressed by de alone, without the article : thus,

je n'ai pas de pain, ITume no bread

nous n'avions guere de Tin, we had sca/rcely any wine

V0U3 n'anrez plus de patience, you will no longer have patience

a. After ni . . . ni, both preposition and article are omitted,
and the partitive sense is left unexpressed, as in English : thus,

je n'ai ni pain ni benrre, / have neither bread nor butter

b. On the other hand, after ne . . . que only both preposition
and article are used : thus,

noos ne voyons que des ennemis, we see only enemies

8. "When a negative verb is made interrogative, the
subject-pronoun is put, as usual, immediately after the
verb (and joined to it by a hyphen), while everything
else remains unchanged. An example of a tense used
both negatively and interrogatively is as follows :

n'anrai-je pas ete, shall I not have been?

n'anras-tu pas ete, wilt thou not ha/oe been ?

n'anra-t-il pas ete, wiU he not have been ?

n'aurons-nous pas ete, shall we not have been?

n'aurez-voos pas ete, wiU you not have been?

n'anront-ils pas ete, mil they not have been ?
a. N'est-ce pas is a much-used phrase, meaning is it not so ?
or corresponding to English repeated questions like is he not ? do
they not ? and the like : thus, 11 est encore malade, n'est-ce pas
he is still ill, is Tie not? vous avez men livre, n'est-ce pas you
have my look, have you not ?

VOCABULAET.

No new words are given with this Lesson, but aU the negative expressions given

above are to be well learned.

68 LESSOK XII.

Exercise 13.

' N'avez-vous pas 6te chez votre oncle ? ' Non, il n'6tait
pas 4 la maison. ° Avez-vous du pain ? ' Non, nous n'a-
vons pas de pain, nous n'avons que du beurre et du fro-
mage. ' Le marchand a-t-il du fruit ou du vin ? ' II n'a
ni fruit ni vin. ' Le pauvre paysan n'a-t-il pas 6t6 ma-
lade ? ° II n'a jamais 6t6 malade, mais sa f emme est trds
faible, et il n'a rien pour ses enfants. ' Quoiqu'elles
ne soient pas riches, elles ne sont jamais malheureuses.
" Votre frdre ne sera-t-il pas a Paris avec ses amis ?
" Non, il ne sera ni k Paris ni k Londres ; il est en Italie.
" Personne n'a 6t^ chez men p^re. " N'avez-vous rien
pour mes pauvres petits enfants ? " Vous n'avez jamais
eu d'enfants ; vous n'avez que des fr^res et des soeurs.
" J'ai eu de bon papier rouge et de I'encre excellente, mais
je n'ai plus rien. " Les gar9ons n'avaient-ils pas un trfes
mauvais mattre ? " Non, le maitre n'6tait point mauvais;
il n'a et6 que faible et malade. " Nous avons assez d'eau,
mais nous n'avons gufere de vin. " Je n'aurais jamais et6
k I'^cole, si mon p^re n'avait pas eu une maison k Paris.
"" Elle n'a 6t6 chez personne.

Theme 13.

' Had you not a sister ? ' No, I had neither sister nor
brother, but I had many good friends. ' Is not your father
at Paris ? * No, he has never been in Paris. ' The young
girls will not be either at the house or at the school ; they
will be at the church. ° The poor woman is not happy ;
she has been ill, and she has only a bit of bread in the
house, ' Has not the peasant many children ? ° No, he
has no children ; he has only a wife and a niece. ' The
school was not in the city. " Although the master was
old, he was not (at all) ugly. "He had good scholars,
and he was never unhappy. " He would not have been
unhappy, if his pupils had not been very bad. " We have

DEMONSTRATIVE AND INTERROGATIVE ADJECTIVIJS. 69

been ill, but no one is ill any longer. " If he had never
been idle, he would not be poor now. " I have only one
friend, and he has neither books nor paper. " Are you not
happier than your friend ? "I shall not have had any wine
in my glass. " If the girls had not had new hats, they
would not have been at the church. " The children were
in the garden, but they had no fruit. '° No one had any
fruit. " He is no longer at my father's.

LESSON XIII.

DEMONSTRATIVE AND XNTERROGATTVE ADJECTIVES.

1. In French is made a fuller distinction than in English be-
tween pronominal adjectives, accompanying an expressed noun
which they qualify, and pronominal substantives, or pronouns
proper, standing for a noun not expressed. The pronoun forms
will be given in later Lessons (XXTV. -XXVII.) ; the adjective
forms, here and in the next Lesson. The pronominal adjectives
always qualify a following noun, and are of the same gender and
number with it.

2. The DEMONSTRATIVE ADJECTIVES, meaning this or
that and these or those, are as follows :

cet or ce m., cette f. ; ces m.f.

Cet m. is used when the following word begins with a
vowel (or h mute) ; otherwise, ce. Thus :
ce chapean, this (or that) liM ces chapeauz, theie (or tlwsi) hats

cette robe, this (etc.) dress ces robes, these (etc.) vlresses

cet arbre, this (etc.) tree cet homme, this (etc.) mam,

cet bonnete bomme, iMs (etc.) honest fellow

3, When the demonstrative is meant to be emphatic,
or when this and that are to be distinguished from one
another, the adverbs ci here and \k there a re added re-
spectively to the qualified noun ; and they are joined to
it in writing by a hyphen : thus,

70 LESSON XIIT.

ce chapean-ci, this Tiai (literally, this hat Tieri)

ces robes-la, those dresses (literally, those dresses there)

cet homme-ci et cette femme-la, this man wnA that woman

4. The iNTEEEOGATivE ADJECTIVE, meaning which or

what, is :

Sing, qnel m . ^ quelle f.: phir. an pi" ^ <|Tionna t —

Thus : ^ _

quel livre avez-vous, which (or what) hook ham you f
quelles flenrs sent snr la table, what flowers a/re on the table f

5. a. The interrogative adjective is also used in ex-
clamation: thus,

quelle bonte, what goodness ! quels beaux livres, what beautiful books/

h. It is likewise used as relative : thus,

je ne sais quel livre il a, I don't know which book he has
c. The iadefinite article, sometimes added in English after what,
is not expressed in French : thus, qnel bel honune, what a hand-
some man !

VERB-LESSON.

6. In phrases signifying bodily conditions which one
feels or is conscious of, avoir with" a noun is used in
French, where the English has the verb he with an adjec-
tive: thus,

j'ai faim, I ami hungry (literally, I home hunger)
il a soif, he is thirsty (literally, he has thirst)
n'avez vous pas sommeil, are you not sleepy?
nous avons froid, we a/re cold vous avez chaud, you are wa/rm

tu avals penr, thou wast afraid ils auront honte, they will be a^shamed

a. Similar phrases are avoir mal a, Tiave a pain or ache in,
avoir raison be right or in the right, avoir tort he wi-ong or in
the wrong : thus,

j'ai mal a la tete, I have the headache
vous avez raison et j'ai tort, you are right and lam, wrmig
h. In a corresponding manner, questions as to one's personal
condition are asked and answered with avoir: thus, qu'avez-
vous what is the matter with you ? (literally, what have you f)
■■J-J and avez-vous quelque chose is anything the matter with you f
(hterally, have y6u~amytMng7) and je n'ai rien nothing is the
matter viith me (literally, ITtave nothing).

DEMONSTEATIVE AND INTEEEOGATIVE ADJECTIVES. 71
VOCABULABT.

la MbUotheqae, t?ie librwry le conte, the story, tale

le roman, ths romaiux, novel I'histoire f., tJie history

la tete, th^ head la dent, ffie tooth

/ autre, other ennuyeux, dull, tedious

,y ponrqnoi, why f parce que (XXXIV. 5a), because ^

Exercise 13.
' Quels enfants ont 6t6 3, 1'ecole ? " Ces bons petits gar-
pons-ci sont toujours a I'^cole, mais ces filles-l&. n'ont jamais
6t6 a 1'ecole. ° Quels livres avez-vous dans la main ? * Ce
livre-ci est un roman, et cet autre livre est une histoire.
° C'6taient des livres de la biblioth^que de mon oncle.
' Ces livres-lji sont-ils int^ressants ? ' Ces romans-llk sont
tr^s interessants, mais cette histoire-ci est trop ennuyeuse. ^
° Les contes et les remans sont toujours plus interessants
que les histoires. ° Quelles histoires avaient-ils cues (X. 55) ?
'" lis avaient eu I'histoire de France ; cet autre livre est une
histoire d'Angleterre. " Cet homme est-il I'ami de votre
fils ? " Non,mon ami, c'est son ceusin. " Quel maitre vos
enfants avaient-ils ? " Je n'ai pas d'enfants ; ce garpon-ci
est mon neveu, et cette jolie fiUe-la est ma niSce ; ils
avaient un mattre tr^s bon, mais tr^s ennuyeux. " Cette
femme a beaucoup de cousins ; mais elle n'a que ces deux
enfants. " Quels jolis petits enfants ! " Dans quelle mai-
son avez-vous 6t6 ? '* J'ai 6t6 h Paris chez ma cousine.
" Quoique cette femme-ci soit tr^s pauvre, elle n'est pas
plus malheureuse que cet homme-la. "" Pourquoi cette
femme est-elle malheureuse ? " Elle est malheureuse, parce
qu'elle est toujours malade.

Theme 13.

This young girl has been in the country with her father.
'What dresses has she had (X. 55) ? " She has had these
dresses and that hat. * These histories are longer and less
interesting than those novels. ' What book have you in

72 LBSsojr XIV.

the hand ? " This book is a dull little story. ' This womaD
is the mother of this little girl, and the aunt of that big
boy. ° These young girls are not her daughters. " She
has many cousins, but she has only this child. " These
books belong (III. 6) to my uncle's library, " What beau-
tiful books, and what a large . library ! " If this man had
not been ill, these children would have had enough bread.
" Although this man and this woman are honest and in-
dustrious, they have always been poor. " He had the bot-
tle in this hand, and the glass in that hand. " In what
cities have you been ? "I have been in this city, but I
have never been in that village. " This old man is very
dull. " Why is he so dull ? " He is dull because he has
always been idle, and because he has never been at school,
" What an interesting story !

VEEB-EXERCISE.

Are you cold ? I am cold, but he is warm. Will he be
hungry? He will be hungry and thirsty. What is the
matter with him ? He is sleepy. Is anything the matter
with you ? No, nothing is the matter with me. They
have the headache. I am right and you are wrong. I am
always right ; I am never wrong. Nothing is the matter
with us. Has she not the toothache ? No, nothing is the
matter with her. We were afraid. They are ashamed.

LESSON XIY.

POSSESSIVE AND INDEFINITE ADJECTIVES.

The POSSESSIVE adjectives are :

Sing, .mon m.. ma f. ; plii r. mes m.f., my
$on m., ta f . ; tes m.t., my

son m ., sa t.; ses m.t., his, her, :

notrem.f; HAS hi f ^"-i-" '

votre m.f.: vnn -m f ^ y/i } |H-

lepT m.f. ; lenra m.f., their

POSSESSIVE AND IKDEFINITE ADJECTIVES. 73

a. There is no distinction made ia French between his and her
and ite; son etc. has all these meanings, and, like the other ad-
jectives, is varied only to agree with the noun which it qualifies.

2. But the feminine singular forms ma, ta, sa are not
allowed before a word beginning with a vowel (or h
mute) ; instead are used men, ton, son : thus,

mon amie, my (female) friend ton epouse, thy spouse

son ame, his smd son histoire, her history

mon avengle scenr, my blind sister ton aimable fille, thy lovely daughteir

3. The possessives are repeated before every noun
that they qualify : thus,

my father and mother, mon pere et ma mSre
hsr friends and relatives, ses amis et ses parents

4. Titles of respect or politeness, used both in ad-
dressing and in speaking of persons, are the following :

♦monsieur, sir, Mr., the gentleman
•messieurs, gentlemen, Messrs.

madame, mada/m, my lady, the lady, Mrs.

mesdames, my ladies, the ladies

mademoiselle, Miss, the young lady

mesdemoiselles. Misses, the young ladies

a. These words are compounds with the possessive mon my, and hoth parts of
the compounds are inflected.

6. In speaking to any one of his or her relatives, politeness often
requires these titles to be put before the possessive : thus,

yov/r mather, madame votre mere

yowr brothers, messieurs vos fireres

yov/r son and danighter, monsieur votre fils et mademoiselle votre fille

e. When these titles are used with a surname, they are written
with a capital thus, Monsieur Guizot; or, by abbreviation, M.
Guizot.

5. The possessive is often used in French, especially in address,
where it is omitted in English : thus, bonjour, ma soeur good-
day, sister, oui, mon general yes, General.

a. On the other hand, the definite article is often used in
French instead of the possessive, where the connection shows
clearly what is meant : thus, il I'avait dans la poche he had it
in his pocket, fermez las yeux shut your eyes.

6. The commonest HSDEFmirE adjectives are :

74 LESSOR- XIV.

diaqne. each, ev&ni nnl. 7U)t amu, W) ^

tont. every, all anenn. not any , no

.quelgne, some plngienra, nfmernl .

a. Of these words, chaque is only singular, and plnsieurs only
plural ; nul and aucun form f eminines, nulle and aacnne, but no
plural ; quelque has the plural quelcLues ; tout makes the femi-
nine toute, and the plurals tous m. , toutes f .

6. Tout means all when followed by an article or possessive or
demonstrative : thus,
toute la ville, ail the city {the toute ville, every aty

whole eily)
touB Bes enfiints, aU hia children tout enfant, eizcA child

tout ce temps, aM this time a tout taups, ai every time

c. Quelque signifies a more limited some than the partitive (IV.
1, 2), and is usually better rendered by a little, a few : thus,

des pommes, some applet quelques ponuues, a few apples

de I'argent, money quelque argent, some little money

d. Nnl and aucun both alike require ne with the verb : thus,

nul homme n'est parfait, n/> man is perfect
il n'a aucune faute. Tie has not any fault

VOCABTJLABT.

le Ixeuf, th^ox la vacbe, the cow

labrebiB, the sheeip le champ, thefdd

la pomme, the apple la pomme de terre, the potato

la poire, the pea/r la peche, the peach

le panier, the basket le vase, t%e vase

le legnime, the tiegetaMe le parent, the relative, pa/rent

Exercise 14.

' Monsieur B. a-t-il des enf ants ? " Oui, madame, ce gar-
9on-ci est son fils, mais la petite fiUe est sa ni^ce. ' Ces
demoiselles avec Mademoiselle B. sent ses cousines. ' Ces
messieurs sont-ils les amis de monsieur votre pfere ? ' Non,
ce sent ses fr^res. ° Men amie a un grand vase d'argent.
' Quelles fleurs a-t-elle dans la main ? ° Elle n'a point de

POSSESSIVE AND INDEEIITITE ADJECTIVES. 75

flenrs ; elle n'a qu'un livre dans la main, et une pomme
dans la poche. ° Mademoiselle votre soeur n'a-t-elle pas
6t6 en Allemagne ? " Non, elle a &t6 en Angleterre avec
madame votre tante. " As-tu des amis, mon enfant ?
" Oui, madame, j'ai plusieurs amis et quelques parents.
" Cette f emme-ci est-elle ta m^re ? " Non, madame, elle
est ma tante. " Voici mon p^re et ma m^re. " Ces pay-
sans ont-ils des vaches et des "boeuf s ? " Non, mon oncle,
chaque paysan a une vache et quelques brebis, mais aucun
paysan n'a de boeufs. " Toutes leurs brebis sont dans les
champs. " Quels fruits avez-vous dans votre panier ?
'° J'ai quelques pommes et plusieurs poires. " N'avez-vous
pas aussi des pommes de terre ? "' Je n'ai aucune pomme
de terre, mais j'ai des p^ches.

Theme 14.

'Is your mother at the house? ""No, she is in Paris,
■with her cousin. Miss B. ' Are these boys your friends ?
* No, cousin ; they are the children of my teacher. ' They
have been in all the schools of this whole city. ' Every
friend of my son is my friend also. ' All these peasants
have been in the fields, and each woman has a basket on
her head. " Several women have vegetables in their baskets.
' Have you peaches and pears, my good woman ? '° I have
a few pears, sir, but I have no peaches. " Do all these
animals belong to your son ? " No, sir, the sheep belong
to my son, but he has no horse, and we have only three
cows. " What vegetables have we, Mary ? '* We have a
few potatoes in the house, and several apples. " Each
child will have an apple, but no child will have a peach.
" I had some little money in my pocket, but my brother
had nothing. "I never have potatoes in my pocket.
" They had some flowers, but they had no vase. " This
poor old woman had a basket on her head. " My friend
(f .) had her history in her hand ; she is now at school.

76

LESSON XV.

LESSON XV.

OAEDINAL NTTMEEALS.

1. The names of numbers are as follows :

Ljui.

10

dix

61 soixante et un

Osss.

20

vingt

62 soixante-deux

3 trois

30

trente

63 soixante-trois

4 quatre

40

qnarante

64 soixante-quatre

5 *cinq

50

cinqnante

65 soixante-cinq

6 "six

60

"soixante

66 soixante-six

7 "sept

70

soixante-dix

67 soixante-sept

STiuit

80

quatre-vingts

68 soixante-huit

9 nerd

90

quatre-vin^-dix

69 soixante-nenf

10 *dix

100

cent

70 soixante-dix

11 *onze

101

cent un

71 soixante et onze

12 donze

102

cent deux

72 soixante-donze

13 treize

103

cent trois

73 soixante-treize

14 quatoTze

200

deux cents

74 soixante-quatorze

15 qninze

201

deux cent un

75 soixante-quinze

16 seize

206

deux cent six

76 soixante-seize

17 -dix-sept

1000

*miUe, mil

77 soixante-dix sept

18 *dix-hnit

2000

deux mille

78 soixante-dix Iiuit

19 "dix-neuf

1,000,000

un million

79 soixante-dix-nenf

20 *vingt

2,000,000 deux millions

80 quatre-vingts

2. a. Un is masculine only, and forms the feminine
une ; no other numeral makes a distinction of gender.

b. Vingt l/wenty, score, and cent himdred, are the only
numerals (below million) that make a plural : thus, vingts,
cents. This plural form is used when score or hundred
is multiplied by a preceding numeral — not, however, if
an added numeral follows : thus,

cinq cents, Jke hundred cinq cent dix, Jive hundred and ten

quatre-vingts, /oiWicofe quatre-vingt-un, eighty-one

CARDINAL NTTMBRALS. 77

3. The French has now no separate names for seventy, eighty,
ninety, but after sixty-nine (as shown in the table) it counts
sixty-ten, sixty-eleven, etc., -up to sixty-nineteen ; and so in like
manner fourscore-ten, fourscore-eleven, etc., up to fourscore-
nineteen or ninety-nine.

a. But the older septante seventy, octajite eighty, and uonante
ninety, are still occasionally met with.

4. The other odd numbers between the tens are made
in the same way as those for 61 to 69 in the table.

Thus, vingt et nn 21, "vingt-deux 33, trente-trois 33, qua-
rante-ciiiq 45, cinquante-hnit 58, and so on.

a. Vingt-un 21, trente-un 31, etc., are sometimes used; also
cent et nn 101, soizante et dix 70, soixaute-onze 71 ; but only
quatre-vingt-unSl, qnatre-vingt-dix 90, quatre-vingt-onze 91.

5. A hyphen is always inserted between a ten and a
unit immediately following, but not when et stands be-
tween ; and it is not used after cent or mille.

6. Tin is not used before cent or mille in counting : that is, the
French says simply hundred, thousand, not one hundred or a
thousand and so on.

7. In giving dates, the briefer form mil is used in-
stead of mille: thus,

mil sept cent Boixante-Beiz6, 1776
mil hnlt cent qnatre vingt-cinci, 1885
a. The French seldom says, in dates or elsewhere, eighteen hun-
dred and so on, but rather (a) thmisand eight hundred etc.

8. StiU higher numbers are used than those given in the table :
thus, on mUliard or on billion a thousand million, uu trillion
a million millions, etc.

9. After plus more and moins less, before a numeral,
them is expressed by de : thus, plus de trois ans more thin
three years, moins de dix minutes less them ten minutes.

VOCABULABT.

I'an m., I'annee f., the yea/r le mois, the, month

la semaine, the week le jour, the day

la minnte, the minute la *seoonde, the second

comUen, how miiehf how many? (V. 4) la chose, the thing

ia fois, the tim f<"itt ''^^ (XXXU. 8J)

78 LEssoir xy.

EXDBGISB IS.
(The figures ore to be read Into words.)
• 5 ; 17 ; 23 ; 44 ; 72 ; 98 ; 117 ; 361 ; 1492 ; 1776 ; 1886.
' Ce paysan-ci a 3 chevaux, 4 bceufs, 13 vaclies, et 219
ibrebis. ° L'ann6e a 365 jours. * Chaque jour a 24 heures.
' L'heure a 60 minutes et 360 secondes. ' L'annSe a 12 mois.
' Le mois a 29, ou 30, ou 31 jours. " Combien de minutes
le jour a-t-il ? ' 60 fois 24 font 1440 ; le jour a 1440 min-
utes. '° Combien de livres avez-Vous sur la table ? " J'ai
plus de 7 livres. " Mon oncle a plus de 565 livres dans sa
bibliotb&que. " Combien de fruits a-t-il dans son panier ?
^11 a 11 pommes, 7 poires, et plus de 10 pScbes. "J'ai
§t6 en Angleterre 6 mois et 3 semaines. " Combien
d'heures la semaine a-t-elle ? " La semaine a 168 heures :
7 fois 24 font 168. " 5 fois 9 font 45.

Theme 15.
'Have you many books? 'I have less than a hundred
books, but my father has more than a thousand books in his
library. ° How many peasants are in this village ? * Nine-
ty-six ; and each peasant has a wife and several children.
' How many animals have you, my good friend ? ' I have
nine cows, twelve oxen, and a hundred and twenty-one
sheep. ' Charles, how many weeks has a year ? " A year
has fifty-two weeks and one day. " Three times four make
twelve. " Five times two make ten. " Seven times nine
make sixty -three. " Eleven times twelve make a hundred
and thirty-two. " Where is your mother, sir ? " She has
been more than four days in the country, but she is at home
now. "■ These boys have had 41 apples ; they will be sick.
'" We shall have been in London less than three weeks.
" A month has thirty or thirty-one days.

OBDIITAL NUMBSALS. 79

LESSON XVI.

OBDIITAL NTTMEEALS.

1. The ordinals are mostly formed from the cardi-
nals, whether simple or compound, by adding the ending
-ifeme ,' before -which a final e of the cardinal is omitted.
Bat—

a. First is premier, and second is either "second or the
regular deuxidme — except in compound numbers, where
fi^st is unidiue, and second is deuxi^me only.

J. Cinc[ makes cinquidme, with inserted u ; and neuf
makes neuvi6me, with change of f to v.

2. Examples of the ordinals are :

21st \ 'i^St-i^o^^
( vingt et unieme

22d Tingt-deuxieme

43d qTiarante-troisieme
4tli qnatrieme 56th cinqnante-sixieme

5tli cinqnieme 67tli soizante-septieme

6tli gizieme 77th soizante-diz-septieme

7th septieme 99th quatre-vingt-diz-neuTiSme

8th hnitieme 100th centieme

9th neuvieme 101st cent unieme

11th onzieme 713th sept cent treizieme

18th diz-hnitieme 1000th millieme

20th vingtieme 1248th mille denz cent qnarante-hnitieme

a. An ordinal is generally preceded by the definite

article, le or la or les ; and premier and second have a

special feminine form : thus, la premiere, la seconde.

6. Second and deuxieme are used somewhat indiflferently ; but
second is rather preferred where there are only two objects (no
third, fourth, etc. , to follow) : thus, le second tome the second
(and last) volume, or le denzieme tome, (he second volume (of a
series).

3. The cardinal numeral sometimes stands in Frenoli

where in English we use the ordinal : namely —

80 lESSOK XVI.

a. In giTing the day of the month, except the first :

thus,

le deux Janvier, tlve second of January

le quatre ou le cinq avril, the fourth or fifth of April

du douze an vingt-trois mai, from the XWi to the %M,of May

le dix du mois, the tenth of the month

but <

le premier mai, the first of Ma/y
h. In giving the title of a sovereign, except the first
and sometimes the second : thus,

Gnillaiune trois, WUlia/m lU.
Henri quatre, Henry IV.
Louis quatorze, Louis XIV.

but

Henri premier, Henry I.

Charles deux or Charles second, Charles U.
c. In other numerations also, where the number follows the
thing enumerated : thus,

tome deux, volume second chapitre quatre, chapter fourth

page vingt-cinq, page twenty-fifth article quarante-neuf, article 49

4. As in Enghsh, the ordinals are used also as frac-
tionals — but only from Jlfth upward : thus,
nn cinquieme, a fifth part trois vingtiemes, three twentieths

a. For half, the French has two words, moiti6 f. as
noun, and demi (demie f.) as adjective. But demi before
a noun is joined to it with a hyphen, and is not varied
for gender. Thus :

la moitie du temps, half of the time

un demi-pied, a half-foot, haif afoot

une demi-heure, a half -hour, half an hmir

un pied et demi, afoot and a half

une heure et demie, an hour and a half

l. The wordsifor third wadi. fourth or quarter are tiers
and quart respectively : thus,

trois et un tiers, three and a third
un quart d'heure, quarter of an hour
une aune et trois quarts, a yard and three quarters
G. Quint is also rarely used tor fifth part, instead of cinquieme.

OBDINAL NUMEEALS. 81

VOCABULAE^.

le grand-pere, the grandfather le petit-flls, the grandson

le roi, Oie Id/ng la reine, the gueen

le siede, the century le tome, Uie volume

le chapitre, the chapter la page, the page i

dernier, last (YIU. 5c) prochain, next

i^onard, Mwa/rd Elisabetli, Mkabeth

Exercise 16.

(The figures are to be read into words.)

' Le V, le 5"% le 14"'% le 23"°% le 34""% le 57"°% le 72"% le
96"% le 151"°% le 4004"^ ' Henri 6tait le quatri^me fils et
le septi^me enfant de ses parents. ' Louis XV. f ut petit-
fils de Louis XIV., et grand-p^re de Louis XVL et de
Charles X. *Les deux fils de Charles I. etaient Charles
n. et Jacques 11. ^ Henri VHI. avait 7 f emmes ; la
premidre. avait une fiUe, Marie. ' Quel livre avez-vous
dans la main ? ' J'ai le 3™° tome d'une histoire de France.
° Combien de pages ce livre a-t-il ? " II a 387 pages ; mais
le 2"* tome a 419 pages, et le 1"^ n'a que 278 pages. '° Com-
bien de mois avez-vous 6te en Italie ? " J'ai 6t6 k Rome
deux mois et demi, et h, Florence une semaine et demie.
" J'etais h, Londres le 15 du mois, et j'avais 6t6 h, Paris du
18 au 29 du mois dernier. " Quel tome avez-vous ? " J'ai
tome trois, chapitre quarante-deux, page trois cent cinq.
" Ce gar9on a ete une demi-heure k I'ecole ; il sera k l'6glise
ideux heures et un quart, " Ce mois est le 12"° de Tannic.
" Avez-vous du pain ? " Non, monsieur, nous avons trois
livres et demie de sucre, et une livre et quart de beurre ;
mais nous n'avons pas de pain. " J'ai 6t§ ici trois quarts
d'heure, et je n'ai rien eu. "" Nous sommes enfants du
19"« siScle.

Theme 16.

' She is the fifth daughter of her parents. " George HL
was grandson of George H., and father of William IV.
* Were you in Paris the 13th of last month ? * No, I was
6

82 LESSOK XVII.

at Paris the 18th, and I^hall be in London from the 12th
to the 27th of the next month. * What history have you?
' I have volume fifth of the history of Henry VII. ' Henry
Vni. was son of Henry VH., and father of Edward VI.,
Mary, and Elizabeth. ° Elizabeth was the second queen of
England ; Victoria is the fifth. ' Have you been in Ger-
many? "I was in Germany a year and three quarters.
" I shall have been in school two hours and a half. " Six
months are (the) half of the year. " Each child had a
half -cup of tea and a bit of bread. " They had a pound
and a quarter of cheese, and three pounds and a half of
sugar. " These (ce) are the children of my fourth son.
" The first, the fourth, and the sixth of the children are
boys. " The second, the third, and the fifth are girls.
" My grandfather is now in his 83d year ; he has many
grandsons. " You are the 14th grandson of your grand-
father. " The France of our days is not the France of the
I7th century.

LESSON XVIL

NUMEEALS CONTmUED MONTHS AND WEEK-DATS.

1. The names of the months are as follows :
Janvier, Janwury mai, Majy septembre, September
fevrier, Mbruarj/ juin, June octobre, October
'mars, March jnillet, July novembre, Ifvmrnber
*Bvril, AprU "aofit, August decembre, December

2. The names of the days of the week are as follows :
dimancbe, Bunda/y mercredi, Wednesday vendredi, Friday
lundi, Monday jeudi, Thwaday samedi, Saturday
mardi, Tuesday

a. The names of months and of week-days are not written with
capitals, as in English, but are treated like common nonns.

3. In giving a date, the number (generally cardinal :
XVI. 3a) of the month-day stands before the month-

KUMBKALS: MONTHS AND WEEK-DAYS. 83

name, and is not usually followed by de of ^ before it
stands the article le (in old style, ce this, and in mercan-
tile style aa on the) : thus,

lundi le premier avril (rarely d'avril), Monday, AprU 1st

mardi le quatre juillet, Tuesday, July 4th

au trente jnin, payei etc., on June SOth, pay etc.

Paris, ee dix-sept aoiit, mil hTiit cent, Paris, Aug. 17, 1800.

a. In asking the day of the month, various expressions are
used : e.g. quel jonr da mois (or quel quantieme) sommes-nous
(or avons-nons, or est-il) anjonrd'hni wTiat day of the month is
it to-day? nous sommes (etc.) le treize it is the l%th.

4. In giving the time of day, o^ clock is expressed by
henres, literally hours, and the parts of hours, as in the
following examples :

one o'doek, nne heare jme o'clock, cinq heures

wJuU o'clock is it, quelle henre esi-il %

it mil soon be eleven, il sera bientot onze heures

half past three, trois henres et demie

quarter past four, qnatre henres et quart (or et un quart)

at a quarter to sewn, a six henres et trois quarts or
a s$t heures moins un quart

tioenty three minutes past eight, huit henres et vingt-trois minutes

at twehe minutes before ten, a dix henres moins douze minutes

a. As the examples show, henres is not to be omitted.

J. But dooze henres is not used for twelve o'clock / in-
stead of it is said midi (literally rmdday) for twelve at
noon, and minuit (literally midnight) for twelve at night :
thus,

half past euiel/oe o'doek, midi (or minuit) et demie

twemty minutes to twelve, midi (or minuit) moins vingt minutes

5. One's age is thus expressed :

houi old are you, quel age avez vons ! Oiterally, wTiat age ha/ee you)
I am fifteen years old, j'ai quinze ans (literally, I ham 15 yea/rs)
my sister isfime and a half, ma soeur a cinq ans et demi

6. Measure is expressed as follows :

he is 6 feet high, il est haut de six pieds (literally, high by 6 feet)
thu house is 45 feet long, cette maison est longue de quarante-oinq pieds
or a qnarante-cinq pieds de longueur

84 LESSON xvn.

7. For times with a numeral is used fois: thus, deux fois
twice, cinq fois sept font trente-cinq. flve times seven are (lit-
erally, make) thirty-flve.

8. Tor other numeral derivatives, see the Second Part, §§ 67 etc.

VOCABULAET.

longueur, length largeur, breadth

anjonrd'hui, to-day souvent, often

ici, here la, there

demain, to-morrow apres-demain, day after to-morrow

hier, yesterday avaiit-hier, day before yesterday

Exercise 17.
' Paris, le 23 avril, 1886. " Quel jour du mois avons-
nous aujourd'hui? ' Aujourd'hui est le 19 ou le 20; de-
main sera le 21. * F6vrier est le 2me, et ddcembre le 12me
mois de I'ann^e. ^ Dimanche est le ler et vendredi le 6me
jour de la semaine. ° Nous avons mercredi aujourd'hui ;
avant-hier a et6 lundi, et aprds-demain sera vendredi. ' A
quelle heure seras-tu chez mon p^re demain ? 'Je serai h,
r^glise h, dix heures et demie, et je serai chez ton pere 4
midi et quart. ' Quelle heure est-il ? '° II est onze heures
moins dix minutes, et nous avons ete a I'ecole deux
heures et trois quarts. " Quel dge votre fils a-t-il, madame ?
" Mon fils a dix-neuf ans et demi, et il est grand de six
pieds. " Notre maison a quarante-deux pieds de largeur,
et elle est haute de trente-cinq pieds. " lis ont 6t6 ici de
dix heures k midi. " Les enfants ont ete k l'6cole deux
fois aujourd'hui, h, neuf heures moins un quart, et h, deux
heures et demie. '° A midi ils auront ete h I'Soole trois
heures et un quart. " Trois fois quatre font douze. " Sept
et huit font quinze.

Theme 17.
■ London, Sunday, Nov. 5, 1773. » Washington, July 4,
1776. ' What day of the week is it to-day ? * It is Thurs-
day, the 9th of June. " What day were you in Paris ? * I
was at Paris Tuesday or Wednesday of last week. ' Satio?'

riBST BEGTTLAB CONJUGATION". 85

day, Aug. 12th, I shall be in the country. ' At what hour
was my father here yesterday ? ' He was here at half past
six or a quarter to seven. " He will be at the house to-
morrow at a quarter past twelve. " Is this gentleman often
ill ? " He was ill yesterday, but he is not ill to-day. " He
has been here a year and nine months. " How old is he ?
" He is 67 years old, and he is 5f feet tall. " I have been
three times at the school, but the master was not there.
" Yesterday we were at church an hour and a half. " Our
garden was 150 feet long, and 200 feet wide. " 1 times 9
are 63. " 10 times 11 are 110. " 1 and 9 are 16.

LESSON XVIII.

EEGULAE verbs; FIEST CONJUGATION.

1. There are three ree;ular coD]'ngations of Frep ch

verbs Ttheir infinitives end resp ectively in 1. er ; 2. ir ;

3. re : thns, donner. ttnir. vendre.

a. There are also many irregular verbs having these same end-
ings in the infinitive, and others having oir. Half-a-dozen of
those ending in oir in the infinitive are in many grammars called
another regular conjugation (the third, those in re being reckoned
as the fourth). The irregular verbs will be given further on.

2. All the forms of regular verbs (and also most of
those of irregular verbs) may be inferred from five lead-
ing forms, which are therefore called the peincipal parts
of the verb. These are 1. the infinitive; 2. the pn
ent participle ; 3. t he past or passive participle
present indicat ive ; 5. the preterit i ndicative.

a. In learning a French verb, then, regular or irregular, the
first thing is to learn and make familiar the principal parts.

3. From^ e infiniti ve are made the fnturn nnd noT»
ditional, by add ing res pectively ni nnd aig (tho o of th e
jnfjnitive finding re being lost) : thus.

86 LESSON xvin.

lOTTOiTivB donner flnir vendra

Fdtdke donnerai flnirai vendrai

Conditional donnerais fisirais vendrais

o. This Is the only case of a real deriTatlon : see V. 5c, VI. 66.

4. From the present participle may be found the im-
perfect indicative and the present subjunctive, by chang-
ing ant into ais and e respectively : thus,

Fbbs. pple donnaxit finisBant vendant

luFF. iNDio. donnaiB finiBgaiB vendais

Pbbs. bcbj. donne finiBse yendd

a. In many verbs, the plural persons of the present indicative
need also to be inferred from the present participle : thus, finis-
sons etc. from finissant ; see XXIV. 5c.

5. From the past participle are made, with the aux-
iliary verb avoir or fetre (see XXYIII. 5-7), the various
compound forms— the perfect infinitive, perfect indica-
tive, and so on : thus,

Past pplb

donne

ani

yenda

Pbsf. infih.

avoir donne

avoir fini

avoir yendn

Febf. indic.

j'ai donne

j'aifini

j'ai vendu

6. From the present indicative may be found the im-
perative : thus,

Prbs. indic. donne finis vends

Ihfv. donne finis vends

a. In general, the three persons of the imperative are the same
■with the corresponding persons of the present indicative ; only,
in the first conjugation, the final s of the 2d sing. impv. is usu-
ally (see below, 10a) lost, so that its form agrees with that of the
1st sing, indicative.

7. From the preterit indicative may be made the im-
perfect subjunctive, by changing final s (in 'the first con-
jugation, that of the 2d sing.) into sse : thus,

Pbbt. indic. donnai, donnas finis vendis

IMPF. 8DBJ. donnasse finisse vendisse

a. Verbs of the first conjugation are the only ones in the lan-
guage that do not end in s in the 1st sing, preterit.

fiest regular conjugation. 87

First Eegulae Conjugation.

8. The first regular conjugation, with infinitive end-
ing in er, contains the great majority of all the verbs in
the language.

a. They are principally the verbs of the first Latin conjugation, in are, but
also a few of those of the second and third conjugations, now come to be inflected
like them, and many borrowed and new-made verbs.

9. As a model of its inflection may be taken the verb
donner give (donate / Lat. donare).

a. The synopsis of its principal parts and the parts
derived from them is as follows :

donner

donnant

donne

donne

donnai

donnerai

donnais

avoir donne

donne

donnaise

donnerais

donne

etc. etc.

h. The complete inflection of the simple tenses is (with
inflnitive and participles prefixed) :

iNFrarnvE, give, to give,

donner (a donner, de donner)

Fbesent PiBTioiPLBi, giving Past Pibtioiph given

donnant donne

Indicative.

Pbbsent, I give, da give, am giving, etc.

je donne nous donnons

tu donnea vous donnez

il donne Us donnent

IKFSBTECT, Igave^vjoa giving, etc.
je donnalfl nous donnions

tu donnais tous donnies

il donnait ils donnaient

Fbktsrit, I gave, did give, etc.

je donnai nous donnamei

tu donnas vous donnates

il donna ils donn&rent

Futdbz, lehdU or mill give, etc.

je donnerai nous donnerons

tu donneras tous donnerez

il donnera ils donneront

88 lESSOlT XVIII,

CONDrnoNAii, lahould or vjould aive^ etc
je donnerais nons donnerionB

tn donnerais vons donneriei

il donnerait ils donneraient

luPER^TZTE, give, give thou, etc.

donnons
donne donnez

SUBJtTNCnVE,
Pbzsent, that I may give, etc.

que je donne que nous donniona

que tu donnes que tous donniez

qu'il donne qa'ils donnent

IHPEBFSCT, that I might give, etc.

qne je donnasse que nous donnassiona

que tu donnasses que tous donnassiez

qu'il donnat qu'ils donnassent

c. Of the compound forms, made with the auxiliary
avoir, it will be sufficient to give the synopsis, the in-
flection of the auxiliary being already familiar (X.) : thus,

Pebfect Infinttivk, to have given

avoir donne

FsBFECT Pasticifle, having given

ayant donne

Indicative Perfect, Ihave given, eto.
j'ai donne etc.

Pluperfect, I hud given, etc.

j'avais donne etc.

Past Ajn:EBioB, I Aad given, etc

j'eus donne etc.

Future Perfect, / s?iall have given, etc

j'aurai donne etc.

CoNDmoNAl. Pebfect, I should have given, etc

j'aurais donne etc.

Subjunctive Perfect, that I may have given, etc

qnej'aie donne etc.

Pluperfect, that Imight liave given, etc
que j'eusse donne etc.

10. a. The 3d sing. impv. of the first conj. adds an s when
followed by the object-pronouns en or y (XXIIL 5-7).

PIBST EEGULAR CONJTTQATIOK. 89

6. As in all verbs (1. 10c), the 3d sing, present, preterit, and fu-
ture add -t when followed by the subject-pronouns 11, elle, or on :
thus, donne-t-il, donna-t-elle, dounera-t-on.-

c. If the 1st sing, present indicative or imperfect subjunctive
(the latter, of any conjugation) comes to be followed by its sub-
ject, it takes an acute accent on its final e (21c) : thus, donn^-je
do I give? donnass^-je should I give.

VOCABULARY.

donner, give apporter, bring

chercher, seek, look for trouver, jimd

aimer, Vne, like travailler, MDork, latny

le joaet, t?ie plaything, toy la lettre, tTie letter

Exercise 18.
' J'ai donne un joli cheval k men cousin. ' Aimez-vous
votre cousin ? ' !N"on, madame, je n'aime point ce cousin-l£l,
mais j'aime beaucoup ses frdres et ses scEurs. * Ces
jeunes fiUes cherehaienfc des fleurs, mais elles n'ont rien
trouv§. ° Quelles fleurs ont-elles cherchees ? ' Elles aiment
toutes les fleurs. ' Donnez du pain k ce petit garjon ; il a
faim. ' Quoiqu'il ait travaill6 toute la semaine, il n'a pas
d'argent. ' Pourquoi le marchand ne donna-t-il pas d'ar-
gent au gar9on hier? '°I1 aurait donne de I'argent, s'il
n'avait pas ete malade. " N'avez-vous pas trouv6 le maltre ?
" Nous trouvdmes le maitre k l'6cole k dix heures, " Ce
bon paysan apportait cbaqne jour du lait k mon oncle.
" Hier il ne trouva pas ses vaches, et il n'apporta pas de
lait. " S'il cherchait trois jours, il ne trouverait pas ses
vaches. "Marie, apporte la lettre de ta tante. "Pour-
quoi madame votre soeur ne donne-t-elle pas de jouets
aux enfants? "Si elle avait trouve de beaux livres chez
le marchand, eUe aurait donn^ un livre k chaque enfant.
" Quoique nous ayons cherch6 dans toute la ville, nous
n'avons trouve que de mauvais livres. '° Cherchons dea
fruits, et donnons une pomme ou une poire k chaque gar9on,
et une fleur k chaque fiUe.

90 LESSOir XIX.

Theme 18.
• Do you love your friends ? ' I love all my friends and
relations. ' What plaything shall I give to your brother ?
* Let us give a book to her brother, ' What cows was the
peasant looking for ? ' He was seeking his cows, but he
has found nothing. ' If he does not find his cows, he will
not bring milk to the city. ' Although he had not found
his cows, he brought milk enough yesterday. ' The peas-
ants work all day. '" They love the country ; we love the
city. " What letter did Louisa give to this man? " She
had not found her father's letter, but she gave to the man
her uncle's two letters. " I often give handsome things
to my friends. " My uncle will bring from (de) Rome
some beautiful pictures for (pour) his nieces. " Children,
let us give some wine to this poor woman. " She has
worked ten hours, and she is very unhappy. " Give your
old black coat to this man ; he is cold. " Did these young
girls look for flowers? " Yes, sir ; they had been seeking
flowers an hour in the garden. " Why have they not
brought flowers to their mother ? " They have found no
flowers ; they have found only leaves in the garden.

LESSON XIX.

SECOND BEQTTLAB CONJUGATIOir.

1. The verbs of the second conjugation, with infini-
tive ending in ir, are much fewer than those of the first.

a. They are principally verbs of the Latin fourth conjugation, in ire, but mixed
with a few of the second and third conjugations, and wfth denominative verbs,
made from adjectives and nouns. The forms showing -las- are of inceptive ori-
gin, as if from flniaco beside flnlo.

2. As model of the second conjugation, we will take
the verb Snirjimsh.

SECOKD EEGULAR CONJUGATIOK.

91

a. The synopsis of principal and derived parts is :

finir

flniwBUt

flni

finis

finis

flnirai

finigsaiB

STOirfini

flnii

flnine

flniraiB

flnisse

etc.

h. The fall inflection of the simple tenses is :

INFIHITIVIE, finish, to finish
finir (a finir, de finir)

Fbesemt Pabticiple, finishing
finiiunt

Past Participle, /tnishcct
fini

je finis
tu finis
Ufinit

je finissais
tufinissais
il finissait

je finis
ta finis
Ufinit

je finirai
tnfiniras
il finira

je finirais
tafinirais
il finirait

finis

INSIOATITE.
PlOBXST, I finish, etc.

nous finissons
Tons finissez
ils finissent

IHPEBFXOT, I v]a» finishing, etc.

nous finissions
Yons finissiez
ils finissaient

Fbstsbit, I finished, etc.

nous finimes
Tons finites
ils finirent

Future, I shall finish, etc.

nous finirons
vonsfinirez
ils finiront

GONDinOHAL, I should finish, etc

nons finirions
Toas finiriez
ils flniraient

iMFKAkTm, finish, etc.

finissons
finissez

SCBJIIHCnYE.

Pbessht, that I may finish, etc.

qne je flnisse
que tu finisses
qn'il finisse

qne nons finissions
qne vons finissiez
qu'ils finissent

92 LESSON xrx.

Imperfect, that I mi^ht finiah, etc.
que je finisse que nous finiBsioiiR

que tu finisses que toub finissiez

qu'il flnit qu'ils finissent

c. Of the compound tenses, the brief synopsis is:
Pekf. Ikfin. avoir fini, to have finished

Pbrf. Part. ayant fini, jMving finished

iKDic. Pebf. j'ai fini, I ham finished

Plxtp. j'avais fini, I had finished

Past Ant. j' ens &iA, I had finished

Fdt. Perp. j'aurai fini, I shall home finished

CoND. Perp. j'anrais fini, I should hate finished

SuBj. Perf. tine j'aie fini, that Ima/y have finished

PLtipp. "ine j'eusse fini, tliat I might home finished

d. Note that, of the simple tenses, the present and preterit in-
dicative are alike in the singular, but different in the plural ; also,
that the present and imperfect subjunctive are alike throughout,
except in the 3d singular.

3. Two or three verbs of this conjugation have slight irregulari-
ties, which may be pointed out here :

a. The verb hair hate loses its diaeresis (that is, has its a and i
united into a diphthong) in the singular persons of the present
indicative and of the imperative. These two tenses are thus ia-
flected :

Present Indicative. Impebatite.

je hais nous halssons halssons

tu hais vons halssez hais halssez

il hait ils halssent

5. The verb fleurir flourish, otherwise regular, has a second
present participle and imperfect indicative, florissant, je floris-
sais etc- , from the old verb-form florir. The forms with o are
used only ia a figurative sense.

c. The verb b^nir iless has a second past participle b^nit, used
as adjective, consecrated : thus, du pain b^nit consecrated bread,
I'eau b^nite hjoly water.

VOCABULABT.

tmx, finish batir, hvHd

punir, punish 'hair, liMe

clioisir, choose saisir, seKe

benir, bless fleurir, fimirish

la tacbe, ths task la chose, the thin^

le pretre, the priest les gens pi., the people

bien, well mal, iU

second regular conjugation. 93

Exercise 19.

' Ces enf ants n'ont-ils pas fini leur tdche ? " Le maltre
punira les enf ants, s'ils ne finissent pas leur tdche. ' Le
mauvais homme n'a point d'amis ; il halt les homines, et
les hommes haissent le mauvais homme. ' Le pretre a b6ni
le pain et le vin. ' II donnera aux gens le pain benit, mais
il ne donnera le vin a personne. ° Ces hommes ont b4ti
une nouvelle eglise pour le vieux pretre. 'lis finiront
I'eglise le mois prochain. ' Quoiqu'ils bdtissent I'eglise, ils
ne batiront pas I'ecole. ° Mon oncle bsitissait une tr^s-jolie
maison pour sa fille. '° Nous choisissions de beaux ta-
bleaux pour cette maison. " Le fruit fleurit-il dans votre
jardin, monsieur ? " Oui, madame ; tons les fruits et toutes
les fleurs fleurissent dans ce jardin. " Pourquoi punissez-
vous ces enf ants ? " Parce qu'ils ont saisi les fleurs de ce
pauvre gar9on. " Mes enf ants, ne saisissez jamais les choses
des autres. " Je choisirai beaucoup de tr^s jolies fleurs,
et je donnerai les fleurs k ma mere. " Edouard, finis ta
tdche. "Le maltre ne punira pas Edouard, quoiqu'il ne
finisse pas sa tdche. " II ne halt pas la tache, mais U a 6te
malade.

Theme 19.

' Have you finished your task, Edward ? ' No, sir ; but
I shall have finished this task to-morrow. ' Although you
have not finished this book, choose another book. * I will
choose a history. ' My sister chose a novel yesterday ;
she does not like a history. ° We hate histories, but we
like stories and novels. ' My uncle built the last year a
library for the people of the village, and he will build a
pretty house for the priest. ° Why does he not build a
church also ? ° Were you choosing a picture for your
room? '°I should have chosen a picture, if I had had
money. " Charles, choose a present for thy sister, but do
not seize the things. " Good children never seize other

94 LESSON XX.

people's things. " Why did you punish the dog ? "I
punished the dog, because he seized this poor boy's meat.
" Do the flowers flourish in your garden ? "I have many
flowers, and they flourish well in my garden. " Although
these children hate their tasks, they love books. " They
did not choose good books ; they chose bad novels.
" Their master will punish the children. " If you have
finished your history, give the book to your brother.

LESSON XX.

THIED EEGULAE CONJUGATION.

1. The verbs of the third conjugation, with infinitive
ending in re, are but few in number.

a. They are certain verbs of the Latin tliird conjugation.

2. As model of their conjugation may be taken the
verb vendre sdl (Lat. vendere).

a. The synopsis of principal and derived parts is :

▼endre

vendant

yenda

yendi

yendiB

yendrai

vendais

ayoir vendn

vends

yendiwe

vendrais

vende

etc. ete.

h. The full inflection of the simple tenses is :

iNFiNrrivB, sell, to sell.
vendre (a vendre, de vendre)
Pbbsent Pabtioiplb, selling Past Paktioiplk, told

vendn

INDIOATIVB.

Pbbsint, Isell, eta.

je vends

nous vendons

tn vends

vous yendez

Uvend

ils vendent

iHPEEraoT, Imtu selUng, etc

je vendais

nona vendlons

tn vendais

vous vendlez

il vendait

ils vendaient

THIRD REGULAR CONJUGATION.

95

je Tendii
tu vendis
il vendit

je Tendrai
tu vendras
il yendra

je vendraig
tu vendrais
il vendrait

vends

Fbktzrit, Isold, etc.

nous vendimes
TouB vendites
ils vendirent

FUTCBB, Iihail sell, etc.

nous vendroBg
vous vendrez
ils vendront
CoHomoNAL, I should sell, etc.

nous vendrions
vous vendiiez
ils vendraient

lUPERATlTE, seU, etc.

vendong
vendez

SUBJmfCTIYE.

Freseht, that Imay sell, etc.

que je Tonde que nous vendions

que tu vendes que tous vendiez

qu'il vende qu'ils vendent

Imperfect, that I might sell, etc.

que je Tendisse que nous vendissions

que tu yendisses que yous yendissiez

qu'il yendit qu'ils yendissent

c. Of the compound tenses, the brief synopsis is :

Fbiut. Ihfih. ayoir vendu, to ha/m sold

Perf. Fart. ayant yendu, homng sold

iNDic. Pbbf. j'ai yendu, I heme sold

Plcpf. j'avais yendu, IJiad sold

Past Ant. j'eus yendu, I had sold

Fur. Perf. j'aurai yendu, I shall heme sold

CoND. Perf. j'aurais yendu, I should heme sold

ScBj. PzRF. que j'aie yendu, that Imay have sold

Plupf. que j'eusse yendu, tluit I might home sold

d. Notice that the verbs of this conjugation have different
vowels in the endings of the preterit and of the past participle :
thus, vendis, vendu. In nearly all other verbs, regular and
irregular, these two forms agree in vowel.

3. Two or three verbs of this conjugation have slight irregu-
larities, which are best pointed out here.

96 LESSON XX,

a. Vaincre conquer (Lat. vincere) is perfectly regular to the
ear, but is necessarUy spelt with qu instead of c before e and i
(72o), and then also before a and o ; the c remaining only before
n, before a consonant, and as final. The synopsis of principal
and derived parts is as follows :

vaincre

vainquant

vaincu

vaincB

vainquiR

yaincrai

vainqoais

avoir vaincu

etc. etc.

vaincs

vainqoisse

vaincraiB

vainqne

The pres. indicative and imperative (in which alone any change
" of spelling occurs in inflection) are as follows :

Pbbsent Indicative. Imferatitie.

je vaincs nous vainquons vainquons

tn vaincB vons vainqnez vaincs vainqnez

11 vainc ils vainqnent

The compound convaincre convince is conjugated in the same
manner.

6. Bompre break (Lat. mmpere) adds a t in the 3d sing, indie,
present : thus 11 rompt (not romp) ; in all other respects it is
regular.

c. Battre beat (Lat. battuere) loses one of its two t's in the
singular of the pres. indicative and of the imperative, which are
thus inflected :

Peesent Indicative. Iufebativs.

je bats nons battona battens

tu bats vons battez bats battez

il bat ils battent

The rest is regular.

VOOABULABT,

Vj9ndre, sell perdre, lose

attendre, wait, expect rompre, hreak

battre, heat vaincre, conquer

le gatean, ths cake la voiz, (lie mice

I'oiseaum., the bird Tennemi m., the

entendre, hear, understand la cerise, cherry

Exercise 20.

' Ce boulanger vend du pain et des giteaux. ' Pourquoi
n'a-t-il pas vendu de pain d cet homme-ci ? ' H n'a pas
vendu de pain k rhomme, parce qu'il n'avait pas d'argent.
* H perdit hier tout son argent. ' Entend ez-vous les oiseaux
dans le jardin ? ' Non, madame ; je n'ai point entendu les

THIKD BEGTTLAR COKJUGATION. 97

oiseaux, mais j'entends la voix d'une jeune fiUe. ' Ma soeur
a 6t6 malade, et elle a perdu sa belle voix. ' Quel livre
avez-vous perdu ? ' J'ai perdu I'histoire d'Angleterre. '° Je
perds souvent mon histoire. " Les mauvais gar9ons bat-
tent les pauvres chiens. '" Henri ne bat jamais son chien.
" Le roi Louis XTV". a vaincu tous ses ennemis. " II vainc
toujours. " Avez-vous attendu une lettre ? " Oui, j'attends
des lettres ehaque jour. " Quoique ce boulanger vende
beauconp de pain, il perd toujours de I'argent. " Le pritre
rompt et b6nit le pain, et donne les morceaux atix hommes.
'" S'il vendait tout le fruit, il n'aurait plus de cerises pour
les enfants. '° II n'aurait rien perdu. " Rompez le pain,
et donnez un morceau a ce pauvre enfant.

Theme 20.

' I hear a voice in the house. ' What voice did you hear ?
' I heard yesterday the voice of this young girl in the gar-
den. 'Did you expect nobody day before yesterday?
' Yes, I expected my brother. ' I shall expect many friends
to-morrow. ' This poor man has lost his wife, and he wiU
lose his daughter. ° This man does not beat his horses.
'He does not sell his horses, though they are very old.
'" If we sold our horse to this man, he would beat the horse.
" A good boy never beats his dog. " Why does your cousin
not break the big cake ? " Let us break the cake, and let
us give a piece to this little girl. '* Have you sold your
bird ? " No, we did not sell the bird ; we lost the bird.
" If I had not lost all our birds, I should give a bird to this
boy. " Have the enemies conquered ? " No, our king has
conquered the enemies. " He always conquers his enemies.
" This bad baker often sells bread to our enemy. " He
win sell bread to all the people, if they have money.
7

98 LESSON" XXI.

LESSON" XXI.

rEEEGULAE VEEB8 I FIEST CONJUGATION.

1. Besides the verbs of the three regular conjuga-
tions, the French has a large number (near a hundred)
that are more or less irregularly inflected. Of all these,
the inflection has to be separately learned, and it will be
given in the lessons following.

2. a. Of the first conjugation, or with infinitives ending in er,
there are but two really irregular verbs, aller go^ and envoyer
smd (for which, see XXVII. 8, and XLII. 11).

J. But many verbs of the first conjugation, otherwise
regular, have to undergo in inflection certain changes of
spelling, in accordance with the general rules of the lan-
guage (laid down above, in the Lesson on Pronunciation).
Thus:

3. Since (21a) no word in French may end in two silent syllables,
and their occurrence anywhere in a word is generally avoided —
therefore

a. Yerbs having in the infinitive a mute syllable be-
fore the final syllable have to give the former a full pro-
nunciation whenever in infiection the syllable after it
becomes mute.

1). This is usually done by putting a grave accent upon

the e of the syllable in question.

Thus, from the infinitive mener lecud, we have je mene, tn
m^neras, il menerait, mene, qu'ils m^nent, etc. ; but nous me-
nons, je menais, tu menas, qu'il menat, etc. Also, from acheter
huy, we have 11 achete, nous acheterons, que ta achetes, etc. ;
but vous achetez, 11 acheta, achetons, que nous achetious, etc.

c. But a few verbs double instead the consonant (t or

1) following the e.

Thus, from jeter throw, we have je jette, tu jetteras, U jette-
rait, jette, qu'ils jettent, etc. ; and from appeler call, we have
11 appelle, nous appellerons, que tu appelles, etc.

lEEEGULAB VERBS: FIRST CONJUGATIOK. 99

The verbs thus doubling the consonant are jeter (and its com-
pounds) and cacheter; appeler, chanceler, ^tinceler, renou-
veler, and ensorceler.

d. The synopsis of principal and derived forms of mener is as
follows :

mener

menant

mene

mene

menai

menerai
menerais

menais
mene

avoir mene

etc. etc.

mene

menasse

The only tenses that show the difference of spelling in their
tense-inflection are the pres. indicative, the imperative, and the
pres. subjunctive ; they are :

Pbssent Indicative. Ihfebativb. Fbbsent Subjunctive.

mSne menons menons mene menions

menes menez mene menez menes meniez

mene menent mene menent

And in like manner with the other verbs.

4. Since the accent on an e followed by a silent syllable is regu-
larly and usually the grave (20a) — ^therefore

a. Verbs having in the infinitive an acute 6 before the
final syllable change the accent to grave (6) when the
next syllable becomes mute — except, however, in the
future and conditional, where the acute is retained.

Thus, of the verb c^der cede, for example,

b. The synopsis of principal and derived forms is :

•ieder cedant cede cede cedai

cederai cedais avoir cede cede cedasse

cederais cede **"' "^'

And the inflection of the tenses that show a change of accent is :

Present Indicative. Imperative. Present Subjunctive.

cede cedons cedons cede cedions

cedes cedez cede cedez cedes cediez

cede cedent cede cedent

c. But the verb cr^er create retains the acute throughout :
thus, je cr^e, lis cr^ent, etc. ; also, in general usage hitherto, the
verbs ending in the infinitive in 6ger : thus, from prot^ger pro-
tect, je protege, lis prot^gent, etc. (but now better je protege,
Us protegent, etc.: 20c).

5. Verbs having c or g (pronounced soft) before final
er of the infinitive retain the soft sound of these letters
through their whole conjugation ; and this is signified by

100 LESSON XXI.

writing a cedilla under the c (thus, §), and by keeping an
e after the g (62e), wherever in conjugation tho'se letters
come to be followed by a or o.

Thus, from placer place, and manger eat, we have
je place, and nous platens ; je mange, and nous mangeous
je plagais, and nous placions ; je mangeais, and nous mangions
nous pla9§,mes and ils placerent; nous mange&mes, and ils

mangerent
and so on.

6. Since y ( = double i; does not usually stand before a mute e
(376)— therefore

a. Yerbs having a y before the final er of the infinitive
change it to 1 when in conjugation it comes to be fol-
lowed by a mute e.

b. Thus, for example, of the verb payer pay the synopsis of
principal and derived forms is :

payer payant paye paie payai

paierai payais avoir paye paie payasse

• • • etc. etc.

paierais paie

And the present indicative is thus inflected :
paie payons

paies payez

paie paient

And in like manner with employer employ, appuyer support,
and so on.

c. But verbs in eyer preserve the y throughout : thus, je
grasseye (not grasseie), etc. And some writers retain the y
after a : thus, je paye, etc.

7. When the i of a verb ending .in ier comes to be followed by
i in inflection (namely, in 1st and 2d plur. impf. indie, and pres.
Bubj.), the two i's remain unchanged (do not become y). Thus,
from prier pray, oublier forget, we have nous priions, vous
priiez ; que nous oubliions, que vous oubliiez.

VOCABULARY.

appeler, caM acheter, buy

mener, take, lead proteger, protect

manger, eat commencer, begin

employer, employ nettoyer, clean

crSer, create onblier, forget

la domestique, servant, maid le berger, the sTupherd

le monde, the world le temps, the Ume

IBBEGULAB VERBS: FIBST COSTJITGATIOK. 101

Exercise 21.

' Appelle la domestique, H61^ne. " Je I'ai appelde, ma
m^re, mais elle n'6tait pas ici ; elle nettoyait les chambres.
' Elle nettoieravotre chambre demain. * Ce petit gar9on-ci
mdne aux champs les yaches et les brebis de son p^re. ' Le
berger et son chien prot^gent toujours les brebis. ' Si le
berger n'etait pas ici, ce vieux chien m^nerait et prot6gerait
les brebis. ' Quel fruit mangez-vous, mes enfants ? ° Nous
mangeons des cerises ; hier nous mangedmes des pommes,
et demain nous mangerons des poires. ' Achetez-vons
beaucoup de fruit ? '" J'ach^te du fruit tous les jours de
cette vieille femme. " Si nous donnons de I'argent d ce
gar9on, il ach^tera du pain pour sa mSre malade. " Quoi-
qu'il ait achete du pain pour sa mere, elle ne mangera rien.
" Elle acheta du fruit et du vin pour cet homme, mais il ne
mangea rien. " Charles, avez-vous commence ce livre-ci ?
"Non; mais je commencerai le livre demain matin. " Nous
commencjons I'^cole aujourd'hui, et je mineral tous les en-
fants i leur mattre. " Ont-ils oublie le mattre ? " Quoique
nous oubliions le maitre, il n'oublie jamais ses ^ISves.
" Emploie bien le temps, mon enfant, et n'oublie point ta
tdche. " Dieu a cr66 le monde, et il protege toujours les
hommes. " II cr6e les arbres et leurs fruits.

Theme 31.

'Edward is hungry, but he does not eat any bread.
' Let us buy some fruit, and let us eat two apples. ° You
ate (pret.) too many peaches yesterday. * If they buy
bread to-day, they will buy wine to-morrow. ' The ser-
vant was cleaning the windows yesterday ; to-day she will
clean the rooms of the house. ' Did the school begin yes-
terday ? ' It would have begun, but the master was ill.
• Let us begin the school to-morrow. ' The servant will

103 LESSON- XXII.

take all the children to the school. " Call Mary ; I called
her, but she was not there. " The shepherd takes the sheep
to the fields. " At five o'clock he will take the cows to
the water. " He took the sheep to the water yesterday at
two o'clock. '* If they call the boy, he will protect the
sheep. " My cousins buUd houses, and they employ many
men. " We only employ one servant. " Let us begin
this pretty story. " I have forgotten the book. " We
were at the school, and you always forgot the books.
" These children were employing their time well. " They
had finished the history, and they were beginning a new
story. " God created all men, he created also the sheep
and the cows.

LESSON XXII.

CONJUNCTIVE PEKSONAL PKONOUNS.

1. Many pronouns in French, especially the personal
pronouns, have a different form according as tiiey are
used conjunctively or disjunctively.

2. A conjunctive pronoun is one that is immediately
connected with a verb, as either its subject or its direct
or indirect object ; any other is disjunctive.

3. The subject-pronouns are already familiar; they
are:

(^ 1ST PEBS. 2D PERS. SD FEBS.

SiHo. je, I tu, thou il, he/ sUe, she

Pldb. nous, we vous, you ils m., elles f., theff

a. In rare instances, however, even the subject-pronoun is
obliged to take the disjunctive form : see Second Part, §§ 74a, 76.

4. The subject-pronoun stands in general immedi-
diately before the personal verb, only the negative ne
and the object-pronouns being allowed to come in be-
tween the two.

COITJUNCTIVE PEESOlfAL PBOKOUUS. 103

a. But, as in English, the subject-pronoun follows the
verb in questions, and in interjected phrases like dit-il
said he, and occasionally in other cases : see Second Part,
§ 224 etc.

h. In a question, only the subject-pronoun changes its
place, everything else remaining as it would be if the
sentence were an assertion.

5. Of the object-pronouns, direct and indirect object,
all the forms are these :

SmauitAB. Pltjbal.

1st pk bs. me, moi, me, to me nous, us. to ua

8d " te, toi , t/uie, to tfie yons, y<ni, to you

sd " le, him ; Vd^^Tietf^, to Mm oi hsr — I6s, thetn; lenr, to them

6. The uses of the object-pronouns are as follows :
a. _Kous and vous are unvaried, standing in eve ry con-
struction and position — as conjunctive pronouns and as
disjunctive, as subject and as object, as direct and as in-
direct object, before the verb and after it.

t. Me and moi. and te and toi, are used either as dire ct
or as indirect object, me and te before the verb, and m oi
and toi after it (for one exception, see XXIII. 6J). Thus :

ta m'aimes, thou lonest me aimemoi, low me

tn te donnes, Oum givest fhyadf donne-toi, gim thyself

vous me donnez, you give to 7ne donnez-moi, giee to me

0. Le, la, and les ar e used as direct object only, le be-
ing masculine, la feminine, an d les of either gender ; Iwi
and lenr are used only as indirect object, both being of
either gender : tnusT

il I'aime, he loves heir aimez-Ia, low her

ellel'aime, she loms him aime-le, love him

je Ini donne, Igiee to him or her donnez-lui, give to him at her

nous les Tendons, we sell them vendons-les, let us sell them

Tons lenr vendez, yo/u, sell to them Tendez-leni, sell to them

104 LESSON XXII.

d. Thus it is seen that the object-pronouns of the 1st and 2d
sing, vary in form according to their position before or after the
verb, and for that only ; while, on the contrary, those of the 3cl
pers. vary according to their character as direct or indirect object,
and the direct object in the singular also for gender, but they have
the same form before and after the verb.

e. Notice that the direct-object pronouns le la les have the
same form, and the same distinctions of gender and number, with
the definite article. Le and la also have their vowels cut off be-
fore a following vowel (or h mute), just as when they are articles.

7. ^ Ad ob ject -pronoun, whether direct or indir ect ob-
ject, stands in ge ^pral iTnTr"d^'{it°lj >>pfnTo * hp. gnyf ^rpiTjjr
verb — in the compound tenses, immediately before th e
auxili ary ; but with this exception, that if the verb is an
imperative affirmative, the pronoun stands instead direct-
ly after it (and is joined to it by a hyphen).

For examples, see above, 66, c.

a. Nothing is allowed to come between the verb and
its pronoun-object; the subject, and the negative ne,
when used, are placed outside of them : thus,

je ne yoos donne pas le livre, I do not give you ths book
men ami ne t|a pas tu, my friend has not seen thee
ne Igs aimez-TOUB pas, do you not love them f
ne Paura-t-il pas fini, vnll he not have finished Ut

h. If the verb is an imperative negative, the object-
pronoun precedes instead of following it : thus,

neiai donnez pas le livre, do not give him the hook
ne les aimez pas, do not love them

8. When a verb governs two object-pronouns, one

direct and the other indirect, they are both together

placed either before or after it, according to the rules

just given — ^that is, after it in the imperative affirmative,

otherwise before it.

a. A verb in French does not have two direct objects; and al-
most never two indirect, unless one be en or y (Second Part.
§ 158).

CONJUNCTIVE PSifiSONAL PBONOUNS. 105

9. As regards their position relative to one another :
a. When both come before the verb ^ the indirect stands

first, unles s it he of the thirrl perann (Ini or leur ), in which

case it follows the dirfifit ; thnS j '

je t9 Ifi donne, I give it to thee

Tons IUI118 Je donnerez, you will give it to lis

je 2fi tniai donne, I have given it to Mm (or to her)

Tous le Isstr aviez donne, you had given it to them

il ne me IsB vendra pas, lie will not sell them to me

il ne QSBjs ]ss a pas vendns, he has not sold them to us

ne me ls& donne pas, do not give them to me

ne Tons J^yendra-til pas, wiO. he not sellit to youf

h. When both come after the verb, the indirect always

stands last : thus,

donnez-Ies- moi . give them to ms
vendons-le-lenr. let us sell it to them

c. As the last examples show, both object-pronouns, when they
follow the verb, are joined to it by hyphens. Some, however,
prefer to omit the second hyphen : thus donnez-les moi.

d. A brief rule, covering aU cases of the relative position of
direct and indirect object-pronoun, objects of the same verb, is as
follows :

Before the verb, the indirect-object pronoun, unless of the third
person, precedes the direct.

VOCABtTLAET.
No new words, except the pronotm-f orms above, are given to be learned with this

EZEBCISE 33.

' Le maitre n'aime-t-il pas ces enf ants ? " II ne les aime
pas ; il les punit toujours. ^ Donnez-moi ces gateaux.

* Non, men enfant, je ne te les donnerai pas ; tu ne les
mangeras pas. ' Avez-vous bdti votre maison d Paris ? ' Je
I'ai bdtie dans la ville. ' Le boulanger vous a-t-il vendu ce
pain-ci? °I1 ne nous I'a pas vendu, il nous I'a donn6.

• Les enf ants ont beaucoup de gateaux ; le boulanger les

106 LESSON XXII.

leur a donn6s. '° Si vous avez de bons litres, donnez-les-
moL " Apportes-tu cette fleur A ma scaur ? " Oui, mon
ami ; je la lui apporte. " Apportez-moi aussi des flenrs.
"Ne lui apportez pas de fruit. "Si j'avais du pain, je
vous le donnerais. " II a faim ; je le lui donnerai. " Avez-
vous votre livre, ou I'avez-vous perdu? "Je I'ai perdu,
monsieur ; je le cherche, mais je ne le trouve pas. " Cher-
Bhez-le toujours ; vous le trouverez. '" Ne me donnerez-
vous pas.ces jolies fleurs ? " Je ne vous les donnerai pas ;
je les ai achet^es pour ma m^re, et je les lui donnerai.
" Si vous ne me I'aviez pas donn6, je ne vous aurais pas
aim6, " Tu as les pommes de ces enfants ; donne-les-leur.
" Si tu ne les leur donnes pas, je te punirai.

Theme 33.

' I give you the book ; you give me the book ; they give
her the book ; we give them the book ; he gives us the
book ; thou givest him the book. ' I give it to my friend ;
thou givest them to thy brother ; we give it to our father.
° I give it to you ; you give it to me ; they give it to her ;
we give it to them ; he gives it to us ; thou givest it to
him ; give it to them ; do not give it to her. * Will you
not give me this apple ? ' I shall not give it to you ; I
shall give it to this boy. ° Do not give it to him ; ^ve it
to me. ' Did not the baker sell the bread to this woman ?
' Yes ; he sold it to her ; he did not give it to her. ' Will
she give it to her children ? '" She will not give it to them ;
she is eating it. " Give it to me ; do not eat it. " Eat it ;
do not sell it to them. " Bring me the book, and I will
buy it. " If she had brought me cherries, I should have
eaten them. " The shepherd had sheep, but he has lost
them. " He is seeking them, and if he finds them, he will
lead them to us. " Find me the book, and bring it to me.
" Does the baker sell bread to the poor people ? " He does
not sell it to them, because they have no money. °° Let us

DISJUNCTIVE AND OONJUNCTIVB PEONOtTITS. 107

buy a piece of bread, and let us give it to them. " Although
we have bread enough, we will not eat it ; we will give it
to you.

^LESSON XXIII.

DISJUNCTIVE AND CONJUNCTIVE PBONOUNS.

1. Personal pronouns not immediately connected with
a verb, as either its subject or its direct or indirect ob-
ject, are called disjunctive, or are said to be used disjunc-
tively.

2. The disjunctive forms of the personal pronouns
are:

1st Fists. 2D FEBS. 3D FEBS.

Smo. moi, rne toi, thse lui, him; elle, A«r

Plub. noTis, Its Tous, you mx_m., eUss f., tTiem

a. Note that in the first and second persons these pronouns
have the same form with some of the conjunctives, while in the
third person enx is new, and Ini, which as conjunctive pronoun
(indirect object) is of either gender, as disjunctive is masculine
only.

3. The ordinary constructions of the disjunctive pro-
noun are these :

/ a. With a preposition.

Thus, a. moi to me, de toi of thee, avec lui wifh him, saas elle
uritJiout her, pour eux for them (m.), entis elles between them
(f.).

h. Used absolutely — ^that is, without any verb expressed

with which they should be immediately connected : thus,

qni a dit cela, v>7u> has said that moi, /(for je I'ai dit)

qui avez-vons va, whom ham you Ini, him (for je I'ai vu)

seenf

elle est plna grande cLue toi, sh^ is taller than thou {art)

futes Gomme moi, do as Udo)

108 LESSON XXIII.

c. In combination with meme self, tofo rm empha tic
pronouns correspondllig tu our i)vyself, thyself, etc. : thus,

moi-meme, mytdf nons-memes, ourmlries

toi-meme, ihyidf Tovs-memes, yourtehies

Im-meme, Mnrnlf enz-memes, themselves (m.)

elle-meme, herself elles-meme*,' themselves (f.)

But nons-mSme ourself and vous-mSme yourself, when used of
a single person (VII. 16).

These pronouns admit of being used as subject : thus, lui-
mSine me I'a dit himself has said it to me.

d. As predicates after the in^ersonal c'est, ce sent, it is : thus,
c'est moi it is I, c'est vous it is you, est-ce Ini, is it Tie? but
(XI. 2V) ce sont eux, ce sent elles, it is tJiey.

e. But after personal forms of 6tre be, the conjunctive pronoun
of the direct object is used as predicate, especially in the sense of
it or jp, standing for an adjective or noun already expressed :
thus, 6tes-vous heoreux ? nous Is. sommes, are you fiappy f we
are so; la reine? je la siis, the queen f I am she (see Second
Part, § 81).

/. When mor eJJian. one .pronoun, or a pronoun und noun, are
subjects of the same verb, the pronoun has the disjunctiveJorm ;
aiM if the two are not of the same person, the compound subject
is usually represented by a suitable pronoun before the verb : thus,

Tons et moi (nons) sommes amis, ytm and I a/re friends
Ini et son oncle sont partis, hs wnd his unde are gone

The same is necessary in the case of a compound object : thus,
je vous ^conte toi et lui et elle, I listen to thee and him and her.

g. If a subject-pronoun is separated from the verb by anything
but the negative ne and object-pronouns, it has to take the dis-
junctive form : thus, lui, saisissant un crayon, ecrivit he, seizing
a pencil, wrote; eux seuls sont venus they alone have come.

4. Besides the personal pronouns already given, there
is another, a reflexive pronoun of the 3d person, having
^ the conjunctive f orm se an d the disjunctive sol (like me
moi, te toi). ' '

Se is used in the inflection of reflexive verbs (XXIX.), both as
direct and as indirect object, both as singular and as plural ; sol
is only singular, and usually relates to an indefinite subject : thus,
chacun pense a soi, every one thinks of himself
n'aimer gse soi, to love <m^ one's self

DISJUNCTIVE AND COITJUNCTIVB PRONOUNS. 109

5. There are also two words, en and y, which have the
value of genitive and dative cases, respectively, of per-
sonal pronouns of the third person. They are used chief-
ly of things, not of persons (except of unspecified persons
in the plural).

a. Jin meap g f;f ^'^j nf fhom^ nnrl so on ; it is the equiva-
lent of a pronoun with the preposition da (dfi Ini, d'ell^.
d'etiz, d'elles).

5. Y me ans to it, to them, and so on ; it is the equiva-
lent of a pronoun with the prep^itionT (k lui, d, elle, k
enx, & elles).

e. Hence they are often used with verbs to represent nouns
which, if expressed, would have to be connected with the verbs
by de and 3. respectively : thus, s'en approcher to approach it
(because one says s'approcher de quelque chose to approach
something) ; je vous en remercie I thank you for it (because re-
mercier de qnelque chose) ; j'en ris I laugh at it (because rire
de qnelciue chose) ; y arracher to wrest from them (because ar-
racher a qaelqu'iin wrest from any one), j'y pense I think of it
(because penser a qnelqne chose think of something) — and so on.

6. En and y are treated as conjunctive pronouns, be-
ing always joined with the verb in the sentence, whatever
their logical connection, and being put before or after
the verb according to the same rules as other object-pro-
nouns (XXII. 7): thus,

j'en snis certain, lam certain of it

il en connait les lois, he knows tlie lams of it {its lam)

yons y etes obeissant, you are obedient to it

a. When used along with other object-pronouns, they stand
last, whether before or after the governing verb : thus,

je I'y condnirai, I will conduct him to it

condnisez-l'y, conduct him to it

donnez-Ini-en, gim him of it (some)

je ne vons en donnerai pas, I will not give you of it {a/ny)

h. After the verb as well as before it, me and te are used
instead of moi and toi before en, and usually before y: thus,
donnez-m'en give me of it (or some), rends-t'y betake thyself to
it (but sopietimes rends-y-toi).

110 LBSSOir xxin.

c. When y and en are used together, en follows y : thus, il y
en a there are some.

7. En is often used partitively, standing for a noun
with the partitive preposition de.

Thus, avez-Tous du pain ? have you bread ? j'en ai ; je vons en
donnerai, I have some; I mil give you some.

a. Where the noun would have an adjective qualifying it, the
adjective takes the partitive preposition : thus, j'en ai de bon 1
have some (that is) good (equivalent to j'ai de bon pain) ; vonlez-
7oas des flenrs ? je tous en donnerai de belles do you want
flowers ? I will give you some handsome ones.

8. En and y are originally adverbs, and are, especially y there,
not seldom used with that value. They have many idiomatic
uses, for which see the Second Part, § 85.

VOCABULAET.

le bal, the ball, danee le theatre, Uie fheaibre

le plaisir, <Jie j)2ea«!ire senl, oZtme

penser (a) think {of) parler, gpetik

Exercise 23.

' Es-tu plus grand que ton frdre, ou est-il pins grand que
toi ? ° II est plus beau que moi, mais je suis plus grand
que lui. ' Le plus grand, c'est moi ; et le plus beau, c'est
lui. 'As-tu ton livre avec toi? 'Non, je I'ai perdu.
' Toi et moi, nous le chercherons. ' Moi-m4me I'ai trouv6,
sans vous. °Le boulanger donne-t-il des gateaux k ces
enf ants ? ° II en a, mais il ne leur en donne pas. " Moi,
j'en ach^terai pour eux ; il en a de bons. " Toi et lui,
avez-vous 6t6 au bal hier ? " Moi seul y ai 6t6 ; il 6tait au
theatre avec eux. " Ce tableau n'est-il pas tr^s beau?
" II Test ; mais j'en ai de plus beaux. " Cet homme parle
beaucoup de ses amis ; mais il n'y pense pas ; il ne pense
jamais qu'd soi-mdme. " Les gargons sont-ils au th^Atre ?
" lis y ont et6 avec moi, mais ils n'y sont plus. " Us y ont
eu beaucoup de plaisir, mais ils n'en auront plus ; ils sont
k r^cole k present. " Menez-m'y, je cherche leur maltre.
'° C'est moi, monsieur ; je le suis moi-m^me. " Aviez-vous

DEMONSTRATIVE PBONOUNS. Ill

parle de ce livre ? *' Nous y avions pens6, mais nous n'en
avions pas parl6. " Ltd et elle en parleront.

Thtsme 33.

' These children are hungry ; givfe me hread for them.
' I haven't any ; but I will buy some. ' No, I will buy
some myself. * They are poorer than I, but I am smaller
than they. ' They alone are unhappy ; we are not so.
' The most unhappy of men — ^it is I. 'I have lost my
friend, and I am unhappy without him. ' I do not speak
of him, but I think always of him. ' I was happy, but I
never shall be so again. " This good man never thinks of
himself. " He has much money, and he gives some to these
poor people. " Are these men the peasants of the village ?
" It is they. " If you have money, give me some for them.
'° Have you been at the ball ? " No, I have not been at it.
" I shall be at the theatre with her to-morrow. " My friend
and I were at the ball. " These books are very handsome,
but I have handsomer ones in my library. '° I will give
you some for yourself. " What book have you ? "I have
forgotten the name of it. " I shall be at the house ; wait
for me there (at it). ^ I shall not be there (at it) ; I shall
beat my uncle's.

LESSON XXiV.

DEMONSTEATIVE PE0N0TJN8.

1. The demonstrative pronouns are :

ce, this, tltat, it (indeflnite and neuter) ;

celui m., celle f., this or thut om; ceuz m., celles f., these, those

a. To all of them may be added the demonstrative ad-
verbs -ei and -14 (as to the noun following a demoustra-
tive adjective : XIII. 3).

113 LESSON XXIT.

2. Ce has the value of a pronoun as subject of etre he
in its various tenses, and as antecedent of the relative
pronouns qui, que, etc.

a. In the former case, it is generally to be rendered
by it in English : thins, c'est moi it is I, ce fut son devoir
it was his duty^ §'a 6t6 lui it was {has heen) he, ^'aurait
6t6 dommage it would hwve heen a pity.

h. Ce is much more often used than 11 with the 3d persons of
etre in the sense of it is, it was, etc. This is especially the case
when something already described or intimated is referred to, so
that the ce would admit of being rendered by that; but it is not
limited to such cases. In fact, 11 is hardly used except in ex-
pressions of time f XI. 2a), before an adjective followed by a logi-
cally subject-clause (infinitive or relative) which the 11 anticipates,
and in the parenthetic 11 est vral, meaning to he sure.

Thus, 11 est temps de partlr it is time to leave, U est taxd it
is late, U est six heures it is 6 o''dock, 11 est difficile de vous
plalre it is hard to please you (i.e. to please you tsTmrS), U est
ivldent que vous avez tort it is plain that you are wrong,
cherement, 11 est vral, mals fort loin at a dear rate, to be sure,
but very far off; — ^but vous avez tort, c'est Evident you are
virong, it (tJiat) is plain; faltes cela, ce n'est pas difficile do
that, it is not hard, ce fut ma faute it was my fault, c'est votre
ami qui est parti it is your friend that has left.

c. Ce is also sometimes used with pouvolr and devoir as aux-
iliaries of Stre, and in a few phrases with sembler seem : thus,
ce poavalt Stre lul it might be tie, ce doit @tre it must be, ce me
semble it seems to me.

d. For ce as antecedent of a relative, see XXVI. 10.

3. The compounds of ce with the demonstrative ad-
verbs are written ceci and cela (without grave accent ; it
is often contracted colloquially to 9a) ; they mean this
and that in an indefinite way, without reference to any
particular object expressed. They are used in all con-
structions. Thus :

cela ne me plait pas, that does not please me

je ne venx pas ceci ; donnez-moi cela, I don't want this; gim me that

que dites-vous de cela, what do you say about that?

a. In a question, ceci (rarely used) and cela are divided into
ce cl and ce \k : thus, est-ce 111 votre livre is that your book f
sont-ce ci vos gants are these your gloves f

DEMONSTRATIVE PBOITOUITS. 113

4. The other demonstratives, celui etc., distinguish
gender and number, and are used of persons and of
things, with more direct reference to something already
expressed or distinctly understood. They are used either
alone or with ci and Ik added to them by a hyphen : thus,
^elui thi fi nr th/r.t onj>.^ foini-ni th^^^ nns, cehii-lA. fh/it, mt.i>.

a. The simple celui celle ceux celles are used only as
antecedents of a following relative, and before the prepo-
sition de in possessive phrases : thus,

celni qui est mon ami, he who is my friend

mes amis et ceux de mon frere, my friends and my brother's

(literally, and those of my brother)
ma lobe et oelle de ma soeur, my dress and my sister's

h. In all other constructions, the compounds celui-ci,
celui-li, etc., are used — as subject, as object, after prepo-
sitions, and so on : thus,

voici deux flenis; youlez vous celle-ci ou celle-la, here are two flowers ;

will you home this one or that one f
ce livre-ci est a moi ; je ne sais rien de celui-la, this book belongs to me;

I know nothing of that one

c. As the last example shows, the demonstrative adjective is to
be used when there is a noun with it for it to qualify, but the
demonstrative pronoun to represent the noun, when the latter is
lomitted.

d. Celni-ci etc. often mean the latter, and celui-ll, etc. the
former.

VEBB-LESSON.
~~ IiiBEQCi<AB Verbs — Vonlolr.

6. a. Those verbs in French which are inflected
throughout like one or other of the three — donner, finir,
vendre — already given, are called eegulae veebs. But
there are also many others in the language deviating
more or less from these models, and they are called ib-

BEGTJLAE VEBBS.
8

114 LESSON XXIV.

6. The irregular verbs are one of the principal difficulties of
French Grammar. They are of various degrees of irregularity:
some are irregular only in their principal parts, all the derived
parts coming from them precisely as in the verbs of the three
regular conjugations; others are irregular also in the formation
of the derived parts (only the impf. subj. coming without any
exception regularly from the pret. indie). But, in all of them,
irregularities of tense-inflection are confined to the three present
tenses — ^the present indicative, the imperative, and the present
subjunctive. Of the other tenses, vrhen the first person is known,
the rest follow from it with certainty.

c. The only rules for the formation of the derived

parts are those already given for regular verbs (XYIII.

1-7).

Of more special importance among the irregular verbs is the
rule for finding the plural persons of the present from the present
participle (XVIII. 4a).

d. In learning an irregular verb, the principal parts should
first be mastered and made familiar, then the synopsis, then the
inflection of the present tenses when this is in any way irregular.
The synopsis of principal and derived parts will be given in this
grammar for every irregular verb, and the inflection of the
present tenses when called for. In the synopsis, those derived
parts which do not come regularly from the principal parts will
have attention called to them by being printed with spaced or
open letters.

6. The very common verb vouloir wish, desire, will
(Lat. veiie), is also a specially irregular and difficult one.

a. Its synopsis is as follows :

veuz vonlus
Tonlnsse

vouloir

Toulant

voulu

yondrai

voolais

avoir voulu

voudrais

veuille

etc. etc.

b. Its pres. indie, and subj. are thus inflected :

Peesent Inbioativb. Pesbeni ScBjmionvK.

veux voulons veuille :70ulioii8

veuz vonlez venilles vouliez

veut veulent. veuille veuillent

c. The regular imperative veux vonlons voulez is very rarely
used ; instead of it, the 2d pers. sing, and plur. veuille venillez
are used, but only with a following infinitive, and in the sense of

DEMONSTBATIVE PBONOUlfS. 115

please to, he good enough to : thus, veuillez vous asseoir please
sit down.

d. In Toulolr, as in a number of other verbs, the vowel of the root is changed
(here, from ou to eu) wherever the radical syllable is accented, not being fol-
lowed bv another of full tone. These forms with changed vowel are soxnetimes
called the stbono forms (veaz, veulent, veuillent, etc.).

e. Vouloir is used with the infinitive of another verb almost as
an auxiliary, and must stand for our wiZZ whenever a wish or
request is implied : thus, vonlez-vous diner chez nous will you
dine with usf It also signifies u}ish to have, want : as, voulez-
vous dn lait will you have some milk ?

f. En Tonloir, followed by a, means have a grudge at, he vexed
or angry at, he hostile to, etc. : thus, il en voulait a ce pauvre
homme he hore a grudge against this poor man.

VOCABULARY.

le portrait, the portrait la peintore, the painting

le peintre, the pa/inter I'atelier m., the studio

TTai, true mieuz adv., hetteir

EXEBCISE 24.

' Est^ce la votre pere ? " Non, monsieur, c'est men oncle.
' II est vrai que nous ne I'aimons pas, mais c'est parce qu'il
est un mauvais homme. * Ce sent les trois freres de notre
ami ; celui-ci travaille toujours, mais ceux-la sont paresseux
et ne travaillent jamais. ' Cherchez-vous oeci ? ' Je ne
cherche point cela ; je cherche mes livres et ceux de mon
fr^re, ' Voild les portraits de ma famille ; celui-ci est tr^s
bon, mais ceux-la sont mauvais. ' Ce peintre a beaucoup
de beaux tableaux dans son atelier. ° Acb6terez-vous cette
peinture-ci ou celle-ld ? '" Celle-ci est le portrait de Louis
XIV., et celle-U de Louis XV. " C'6taient deux rois de
France ; celui-la 6tait un trSs grand roi ; celui-ci 6tait un
tr^s mauvais homme. "^ Ne me donnez pas cela ; je ne
I'aime pas ; j'aime mieux ceci. " Ceci est trop cher ; je ne
vous I'acheterai pas. " C'est cher, il est vrai ; mais c'est
trSs beau. "Si j'avais assez d'argent, j'acheterais tout
ceci. " Sont-ce la vos livres ou ceux du maitre ? " Ce
sont mes livres ; ceux de mon maitre sont k l'6eole.
" Quoique nous f ussions trSs riches, nous n'achSterions pas

116 TjESSON xxit.

ces tableaux-ci ; ceux-la sont beaucoup plus beaux. " Cet
homme n'est pas tr^s riche, mais celui-ld est tr^s pauvre.
" J'ai beaucoup de robes, et je vous donnerai celle-ci. " Je
lui donnerai aussi celle de ma soeur. "'' Donnez-moi celle-
la ; je I'aime mieux.

Theme 24.
' Is that your house ? ' Yes, it is my house, and it is a
very good house. ' We have prettier ones in our village ;
but this one is larger than my father's. ' This picture is
handsome ; I do not like that one. ' Are you the painter
of it ? ' I am the painter of this one, and I have many
pictures in my studio. ' Do you like this one better, or
that one ? ' I like this one, but those are also very pretty.
" Which portrait have you bought? '° I have bought that
of the king of England. "Have you brought me this?
" Yes ; but if yon do not like this, I will give you that.
" I have lost your present and your brother's, but I will
look for them. " I have found this in the garden, and I
will give it to you. " It is seven o'clock, and I am hungry ;
give me bread. " I have some, but it is not for you.
" You had some fruit, and you did not give me any ; now
I do not give you this. '" These men do not work, but
those work always. " We have lost our horse, but we have
my brother's. " If we had not had these flowers, we should
have bought the old woman's. " These flowers are not
handsome ; I like those better.

VERB-LESSON.

' Voulez-vous du pain ? ' Je n'en veux pas ; je n'ai pas
faim. ' Ne voudriez-vous pas manger ce fruit ? * Veuillez
m'en donner. ' lis ne veulent pas travailler. ' II voulait
manger. ' H ne veut pas me le donner. - Quoiqu'il voulut
manger, il n'avait rien.

" I will ; they do not wish ; will you ? we shall have
wished ; you will wish ; that I might have wished ; that

INTERKOGATtVE PROJTOTTKS. 117

she might wish ; that we may wish ; they wished ; we
were wishing ; they would have wished. " Will you have
some milk ? " No, I do not want any ; I want some water.
" I want to give her a present. " Give her a new dress ;
she wants it. " Will you buy a dress for her ?

LESSON XXV.

DTTEEKOGATIVE PE0N0DN8.

1. The interrogative pronouns are :

qui, wh o? vahom ? loM tl gnoi, i'nh( i.t ?

qne, w hat? lequel etc., which

2. ftui is hardly used except of persons. It stands
for all genders and numbers, and in all constructions —
as subject, object, predicate, after a preposition, etc.
Thus:

qui est la, who is there?

qui cherchent-ils, whom do they seek ?

qui etes-vons, wAo are you?

pour qui ce crayon est-iI,/or whom is this pencil?

& qui est ce livre-la, to whom does that book belong ?

3. Qui is sometimes, but only rarely, used as subject in the
sense of what f Generally, the phrase qu'est-ce qui what is that
which or what is it that is employed instead. Thus :

qni vous amene, what brings you here ?
qn°est-ce qui vous trouble, what troubles you? (literally,
what is it that troubles you ?)

4. ftue and quoi what ? are also without distinction of
gender or number, but are used only of things ; que is
conjunctive (XXII. 2), and quoi is disjunctive (like me
moi, etc.).

118 LESSON XXV.

a. ftue is only object of a verb, or predicate with an

intransitive verb : thus,

que voulez-yons, wTiat do you wish?

que nous dit cet homme, what does this man say to ua?

qu'est-ce (or qu'est-ce que o'est), what is it?

que sert-il, of what use is it?

que deTiendra-t-il, what will he become? (i.e. what will become cfhim?)

i. ftuoi is used absolutely, and with a preposition : thus,

elle vouB a donne — quoi, she 1ms given you — what?
de quoi parle-t-il, of what is he speaking?

c. Both que and quoi are frequent in exclamation : thus,

que de bonte! que de bienfaits! what (i.e. how much) goodness!

what (i.e. how many) kindnesses !
quoi de pluB heurenx, what m^ore fortunate I
quoi ! VOUB y etes encore, what ! you are here stUl?

d. Que is often also an adverb, meaning how ? why ? : thus,

que Tons etes belle, how handsome you are !

que parlez-vouB si baut, why do you speak so loud?

5. Lemuel is made up of the interrogative adjective
quel (XIII. 4) and the definite article ; it is written as if
one word, but both its parts are inflected for gender and
number: thus,

Sing, lequel m., laquelle f. Plur. lesquels m., lesquelleB f.
They are used in all constructions, in the sense of
which ? which one ? what one ? Thus :

Toici deux livreB: lequel cboiBiBBez-vouB, here are two books:

which do you choose?
laquelle de bob Bceurs est mariee, which of his sisters is married?
par lequel de ceB cbemins, by which one of these roads?

a. The article in lequel etc. also combines with the prepositions
de and I. just as when it stands alone, making dnquel, desqnels,
desquelles; auquel, auxquels, auzqueUes: thus, dnquel de
vos amis parlez-vous of which of your friends do you speak ?
auxquelles de ces ^colieres les a-t-il donnas to which of these
scholars has he given them f

6. After some interrogative words— the pronouns qui and que,
the adjective quel, and the adverbs ou where f quand when ? com-

INTEEBOGATIVB PRONOUNS. 119

ment how f combien how much, how many ?— a subject-noun is
allowed to be Itself put after the verb in asking a question (com-
pare I. 11) : thus, que veut cette femme what does this woman
wantf on est notre ami where is our friend f quel livre a
r^colier what book has the scholar ?

7. It is common in French to use paraphrases in asking ques-
tions: thus, qa'est-ce que vous avez what is it that you have ?
for qu'avez-vons wTiat have you f qui est-ce qui vend w?w is it
that sells f for qui vend who sells ? and the like; also est-ce que
vous avez is it [the cawe] that you have ? for avez-vous have you ?
and especially est-ce que j'aime instead of aim^-je, and the like.

VERB-LESSON.

8. The verb pouvoir be able, can, is, like vouloir
(XXIY. 6), a very common and very irregular verb,
used somewhat in the manner of an auxiliary of mode.

a. Its synopsis of principal and derived forms is :

pouToir pouvant pu penz or puis pus

poarrai ponvais avoir pn pussa

• etc. etc.

ponrrais puisse

6. This verb has no imperative. Its pres. subj. is entirely regu-
lar in inflection. The pres. indie, is as follows :

penz, puis poavons

penz ponvez

pent penvent

c. In this tense is seen the same exchange of on and eu as in vouloir. The
pres. subj. conies regularly from another form of the pres. pple, puissant,
now used on^ as ordinary adjective, meaning powerful, puissant.

d. Puis and peux are equally common as 1st sing. In ques-
tions, however, only puis-je is used.

e. When this verb is made negative before an infinitive, the pas
is often omitted : thus, cela ne pent tarder that cannot delay.
The omission is more usual with puis than with peux in 1st sing,
present.

/. Pouvoir sometimes expresses general possibility, and is to
be rendered by may, might, etc. : thus, cela pent 6tre that may
be, 11 pouvait avoir ving^t ans he might (perhaps) be 30 years
old. It is sometimes used reflexively, in the sense of be possible
thus, cela se pent that is possible.

g. Pouvoir often takes an object directly where in English we
have to use another verb : thus, pent-il attendre can he wait,
il le pent he can (do) it.

130 LESSON XXV.

VOCABULARY.

la serviette, the napkin la nappe, the table-doth

I'assiette, the plate la •cniller, the sipoon

le eouteau, the Tcnife la fourchette, the fork

diner, dine dejeuner, breakfast

maintenant, now ' alors, then

* Exercise 35.

' Qui est ce jeune homme ? " C'est Monsieur B., mon
ami. ° Lequel de vos amis aimez-vous? ' Je les aime tous.
' Qui veut diner avec moi ? ° Moi, je le veux ; je n'ai pas
encore dln6, et j'ai faim. ' Laquelle des deux nappes
voulez-vous employer ? ' Nous emploierons la rouge ;
nous voulons nettoyer la blanche. ° A qui est cette assi-
ette-ci ? '° C'est k mon fils, mais il n'est pas encore ici.
" Qu'avez-vous k manger ? " Veuillez manger de la viande
et des legumes. " Voild une cuiller et une fourchette ;
laquelle voulez-vous ? " Donnez-moi la fourchette, et un
eouteau aussi. " Que veut-il ? '" II veut du sel et du
poivre. " Que lui donnez-vous maintenant ? " Je lui
donne une assiette. '" Lequel de vos fr^res est ici, et que
veut-il? ""11 veut dejeuner avec moi. "' De quoi vous a-
t-il parl6 ? '"' II m'a parl6 du concert ; qu'en pensez-vous ?
" A quoi pensiez-vous alors ? "* Je pensais a ma tdche.
'" Auxquelles des jeunes fiUes pensez-vous maintenant?
"" Je pense d ma niSce.

Theme 35.

' Who has been in my room ? " It was I, madam.
' What did you want ? ' I wanted to find the table-cloth
and napkins. ' Which did you find ? " I found the white
ones. ' At what hour do you wish to dine ? * I will dine
now, because I have not breakfasted to-day. ° What have
you on the table ? '° We have butter and cheese ; which
do you wish ? "I wish cheese with my bread ; give me a
knife and a plate. " Here is a blue and a white plate ;

RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 121

whicli do you want ? " Please to give me that large knife.
" Which of the knives is the largest ? " This knife is
larger than that. " Of what are you thinking ? " Why
do you not bring me the meat and the vegetables?
" Who is this woman, and what has she in her basket ?
" She has potatoes ; and I will buy you some. '"' To which
of the children did he give the cake ? " He gave it to
nobody then ; he will give it now to this good child. ^' Of
whom have you bought this picture ? "I bought it of the
painter for my sister. "* Of what were you speaking?
" We were speaking of this portrait.

VEEB-LESSON.

' n pent travailler. ' II ne pouvait pas travailler. ' H
ne pourra pas travailler, s'il est malade. * H pourrait tra-
vailler, s'il n'^tait pas malade. ' II veut travailler, mais il
ne le pent pas. ° Nous le pouvons, mais nous ne le voulons
pas. ' A-t-il attendu ? * II ne I'a pas pu.

' Can I ? you can ; we were able ; they will be able ; she
has been able ; though he cannot ; if thou couldst ; that
he might be able. '° We can if we will ; he could if he
would ; he will be able if you shall be able. " This one
would work if he could ; those can (it) and will not (it).
'" I should have been able to love you, if you had been
willing to love me. " I cannot love you, but I have not
been able to hate you.

LESSON XXVI.

RELATIVE PEONOimS.

1. All the interrogative pronouns are used also as
relatives, but with some notable differences from their
use as interrogatives.

123 LESSON XXVI.

2. By far the commonest relatives are qui andque^.-
qui standing as subject, and que as cHi'ecL ulJjectof a
verb. Both of them signify either persons or things, of
any gender or number. Thus,

I'enfant qni plenre, the child that cries

dee oiseauz qui volent, birds that fly

le liyre que toub avez, the book which you home

lea amis que nous aimonB, the friends whom we lone

a. Que is also sometimes predicate with an intransitive, espec-
ially dtre : thus, imbecile que vous 6tes fool that you are, ce
que c'est t?Mt which it is, ce que vous devenez that which you
become, ce qu'il nous faut what we lack.

b. The participle of a compound tense following que agrees in
gender and number (X. 56) with the word to which que relates :
thus, les gants qu'il a achetds the gloves that he Tias bought, les
fieurs que nous avions vues tTie flowers which we had seen.

c. A verb having qui as subject is of the person of its ante-
cedent : thus, moi qui suis I who am, toi qui as thou that hast,
etc.

3. ftui is also used with prepositions, but generally
only oFpersbns : thus,

I'homme a qui je I'ai donne, the man to whom Iha/oe given it
les amis chez qui vous demenrez, the friends with whom yon line

4. Lequel etc. is used with prepositions of objects
other than persSns: thus,

le cliieii auquel j'ai doune a manger, the dog to which I haw

gveen (something) to eat
les maisons dans lesqnelles vous demeurez, the houses in which

a. Aft er pax miju nong , lesquels (or lesquelles) is always used,
and not ^uT

5. But lequel etc. is also used as subject or direct
object of a verb, in place of qui or que — ^generally, how-
ever, only when there is special reason for distinguishing
the gender and number of the person or thing referred
to : thus,
TOilfi rami de ma mere, lequel vient me voir, Tiere is my mother's friend,

who comes to see me (where qui, it used, might seem to refer to

mere mother)

BBLATIVB PEOIfOTJNS. 123

6v_ftuoi,jFlien used as relative, is more often a com-
pound relative (or relative implying also its antecedent),
and taken in a general or indefinite sense : thus,
des choses a quoi on fait attention, things to lehieh one pays attention
apres quoi, il s'en alia, after which, he went off
je ne aaia quoi, Tdon't know what
vans me diiez a quoi me fier, y<m wiU tell me on what to rely

7

e quoi. before an inflmtive, means wh eretcith : thus, j'ai
de guoi vons amuser I have wherewith to anlMHil yuu (fiie means
of amusing you).

7. Instead of qui or leqnel with preceding de is often

use d dont, meaning of whom, of whic h, whose :__ thus,

lliomme dont Tons parlez, the man of whom you tfpeak
notre ami, dont le fils est ici, ourfrien/d, whose son is here

a. If the word on which dont is dependent is object of a verb,
it takes its regular place after the verb, however far separated
from the relative : thus, la femme dont vons avez regu la lettre
the woman whose letter you have received, le livre dont je ne
connais pas le titre the book of which I do not know the title.

6. Dont is originally an adverb ( = Lat. de unde), meaning
whence, from whence, and it is often best so rendered : thus,
I'esprit retoume au ciel, dont il est descendu^Ae spirit returns
to heaven, wTience it descended.

8. The adverb m wTiere i s also often used almost as a relative
pronoun, meaning"to or at or in which, and the like : thus, les
hoimeiirs ou vons aspirez the honors to which you aspire, la
donlesr on je snis plough tJic grief into which lam plunged.
And d'oft means from which or whence, and par on by which,
by which route, etc.

9. Qnicongne wh/ieiier^ . ani/rm^, wTio, is an indefinite relative,
generally without antecedent expressed : thus, qniconqne ment,
sera pnni whoever lies shall be punished.

10. "The pronoun used as antecedent of a relative (as
already pointed out, XXIV. 2, 4a) is not the personal,
as in English h£ who, they who, and so on, but the de-
monstrative, ce or celui etc.

a. ^ Ce qui a nd ce que answer to English what or that
which, the one as subjectj the other as object (or some-
times predicate) of a verb : thus,

124 LESSON XXVI.

dites-moi ce qui vous trouWe, tell me what troubles you
dites-moi ce que vous voulez, tell me what ymi wUih
dites-moi ce que vous etes, tdl me what you are
laites tout ce que je vous dis, do all that I tell you
h. Ce dont means of what or that of which : thus, dites-moi
ce dont vous avez a vous plaiudre tdl me of what you have to
complain.

c. fjelni qui or que etc- means 7 ^1 li^ ■maiaua^h/>. iff^/ij
fhe one which, S T^f^ «» "^ • <^^"St

celui qui est dans les cieuz, he who is in the heavens
celle que vous aimez, she whom you low

11. Note that the relative, often omitted in English,
must always be expressed in French : thus,

the friends I lone, les amis que j'aime

the hooks he has bought, les livres qu'il a achetes

VERB-LESSON.

12. The irregular verb devoir owe, ought etc. is con-
jugated as follows :

a. Synopsis of principal and derived parts :

devoir devant

devrai devais

devrais doive

6. Inflection of the present tenses :

Pbesent Ihbicativb. Jh

dois devons

dois devez dois

doit doivent

c. Note that in the accented or strong forms the root-vowel changes from e to
oi.

d. Several other verbs (recevolr etc.) are conjugated like devoir, and in
some grammars form with it the third regular conjugation (Xviu. la.)

e. The past participle has the circumflex only in the masc. sing,
(to distinguish it from du = de le) ; the other forms are due, dus,
dues.

/. Doit etc. very often signifies is to, is planned or destined to :
thus, il doit venir chez nous demain he is to come to tis to-
morrow, je savais ce que je devais &ire I knew what I was to
do. In many cases it has the sense of must, have to, etc. : thus,
elle a dii Stre belle dans sa jeimesse s?ie must have been beauti-
ful in her youth. The meaning ought belongs especially to the
conditional : thus, quand devrais-je revenir when might I to
come back f il aurait dii le faire Ae ought to have done it.

du

dois duB

avoir du

dois dnsse

etc. etc.

tenses :

BATTfli.

Fbessnt Subjunctive.

devons

doive devions

devez

doives deviez

doive doivent

RELATIVE PKONOtJNS. 125

VOCABULABY.

la cuisine, the hitchen la cnisiniere, the cook

I'oeiif m., the egg les pois m., the peas

la me, the street demander, ask

preparer, prepare demeurer, live, dwell

EXEBCISE 26.

' Qui est-ce qui vous cherche ? " C'est ma cuisiniere qui
me cherche. ' Qu'est-ce qu'elle veut ? ' Elle demande d
quelle heure je veux dejeuner. ^EUe preparera tout ce
que vous voudrez. " Voulez-vous de la viande qu'elle a
preparee, ou des 'ceuf s qui sont dans la cuisine ? ' Je man-
gerai les pois que j'ai sur men assiette. 'La femme dont
je vous ai parle est dans la cuisine. " C'est la femme a qui
j'ai donn6 de I'argent. " Que veut-elle ? " Elle veut vous
vendre ce qu'elle a dans son panier. " Qu'est-ce que c'est ?
" Ce sont des ceufs qu'elle a apportes de la campagne.
" Oil cherchez-vous les brebis ? " Je les chercherai dans
les champs ou je les ai perdues. " Oil demeurent ces
pauvres gens ? " lis demeurent dans la vieille maison ou
je vous ai men6 hier. " Quiconque donne aux pauvres sera
b6ni. " Celle qui vous aime vous donnera ce que vous
voulez. '° Donnez a celle que vous aimez ce qu'elle veut.
" Voila la maison ou nous demeurons.

Theme 36.
' Whom do you love ? ^ I love those who love me ; but
I do not hate him who hates me. ° Speak to me of her of
whom I was thinking. ' I looked for the house in which
he lived, but I had forgotten in which of the two streets
it was. ' The house is in the street in which my brother
lives. ' If I had found him whom I sought, I should have
given him all that I had. ' My cook bought all the eggs
which he had brought in his basket. ' Does she not want
Also the peas which are in the basket ? ' No, we have pota-

126 LBSS02sr XXVII.

toes still. '° The friend at whose house I wish to dine is
he of whom you spoke to me. " He is a handsome man
whom I love, and whose mother was my friend. " The
books of which you spoke to me are in the library. " These
houses are those to which we bring milk and eggs. "* The
man to whom we sold the eggs lives in that house. " Who-
ever wishes to be good can be so. " I will love him who
finds me what I have lost. " Give me what is in your
pocket, and I will give you what I have in my hand.
" What is that which you are eating ? " There is the man
to whom I sold my book. '^ Where is the little boy whose
father lives in our street ?

VERB-LKSSON.

' Je ne vous dois rien. " II me doit beaucoup d'argent.
' II me donna ce qu'il me devait. * Ces enfants devraient
^tre punis. ' Nous devious I'apporter hier, mais nous ne
le pouvions pas. ° J'ai du 6tre ici k cinq heures.

'He owes; they were owing; we owed (pret.) ; they
will owe ; she would owe ; that you may owe ; that he
might owe. ' We are to dine at four o'clock. ° He was
to be here at noon. '° You must be hungry. " You ought
(cond.) not to forget what I have told you. '' They must
have forgotten it.

LESSON XXVII.

POSSESSIVE Airo INDEFINTTE PEOHOUTfS.

1. When used mibstantively, or without an accom-
panying noun expressed, the possessives have a special
form (difEerent from that of the possessive adjectives:
XIY.), sind are always preceded by the definite article :
thus,

POSSESSIVE AND INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. 137

Singular. PiitrBAt.

lemien la mienne les miens les nuennes. mine -^

le tien la tienne " leg tieng lea tiennea, Oiine^

le gjen la aienne lea aiens lea aiennea. his. Jterit, it s

la notre la notre leg notrea. ou rg

le Totre la votre . Ifla vntrfln, ymrt

__ le lenr la lenr , lea lenra, thein.

a. The feminines and plurals are made regularly, according to
the rules for adjectives (VII., VIII.), except that lenr has the
same form for masculine and feminine.

2. These possessive pronouns (as they may be called)
take the gender and number of the object possessed, and
must be used whenever the noun expressing that object
does not immediately follow them : thus,

mon chapean et le aien, my hat and his (or hers)
son chapean et le mien, his (or her) Mt and mine
nong avona nos chapeanz et ila ont les lenra, we have our hats
and they ham theirs

3. A few other words, more or less akin with pro-
nouns in value, call for mention and explanation.

4 ._ Ah an indefinite subject, on is used in the sense of
one, they, people, and the like : thus"

on dit, one says, they say, people say, etc.

a. Instead of on simply. Ton (with the article prefixed) is often
used after a vowel sound, especially after et, on, on, qne, si : thus,
si ron volt if one sees : but not if the next word begins with 1.

b. This is the inclusive article (IV. 5), saved in order to prevent hiatus ; since
on is by origin the same word as bomiiie (Lat. tiomo).

c. It is very often convenient to substitute in English a passive
expression for an active with on : thus, it is said for on dit.

5. Compounds of un with the pronominal adjectives

(XIV. 6) chaque each an d quelque some are

chacun m., chacune f., each, each one, every one
qnelqu'nn m,, qnelqn'nne f., some one, somebody
qnelqnea nna m., qnelqneg nnea f., some, some people

a. Something, cmything is expressed by quel que choget

128 LESSON XXVII.

and everything by tout or by toute chose (not chaque

6. Some words used as pronominal adjectives (XIY.

6) may stand also substantively, or as pronouns : such are

aucimm.. aacnne f. (with ne before the verb), not one, no

one, none r ..tul .a,Titt&umQt&&n,.ta,iitTe ihe-^tH^ d'^ utreg""

others, etc. ; plus ienrs_ggt>gm?X,J;aflt.^ZZ, -exeii!ythimg4..}sL^

mSme the same.

a. From autre comes the pronoun autrui another, other people,
others than one's self; it is never used as subject.

7. Tin one and autre other ar e combined into certain
phrases : thus, I'un et 1 autre the one and the other, i.e.
both / I'un ou I'autre th£ one or the other, i.e. either / ni
I'un ni I'autre (with ne before the verb) neither thfi one
nor the other, i.e. neither ; I'un I'autre the one the other,
i.e. one am^other, each other.

a. Both is also expressed by tons deux or tous les deux
(literally, all the two).

b. Tout le monde (literally, all the world) is a very com-
mon expression for everybody : thus, tout le monde I'aime
everybody loves him.

VEEB-LESSON.

8. The verb aller go is extremely irregular, being
made up in its conjugation of parts derived from three
different verbs. It takes etre as auxiliary (XXVIII. 6a).

a. Its synopsis of principal and derived parts is :
aller allant alle vais allai

irai allais etre alle va allasse

irais aille *'°-^"=-

6. Its three present tenses are inflected thus :

PBK8ENT iHBIOATm. IMPEKATITB. PRESENT SCBraKCTITI.

vais aliens aliens aille alliens

vas allez Ta allez ailles alliez

V» 'ont aille aillent

POSSESSIVE AKD IKDEPIITITB PBONOTJIfS. 139

9. a. Va 3d sing. impv. becomes vas before en and y (com-
pare XVm. 10a).

b. Vaisetc. come fi:om Lat. vadere walk; irai etc., from Lat. ire go; the
Lat. origjml of aller etc. is obscure and disputed,

c. The present and imperfect indie, of aller are used
before an infinitive (without infinitive-sign), precisely
like lam going, I was going in English, as a sort of im-
mediate future tense, or to denote something just about
to take place: thus, 11 va partir he is going to leave,
j'allais lui r^pondre I was gov)ig to answer him.

d. Allons let us go \& used in the sense of come, come on.
Aller voir,- aller chercher correspond to our visit, and Imk for
OT fetch For the reflexive s'en aUer go off, see XXIX. 7e.

VOCABULARY.

le salon, the saloon, dimng-room le ragout, the stew, ragout

le coaveit, tlw cover {place at table) le plat, the dish

la sonpe, the soup la soupiere, the tureen

le poisson, the fish la confitnre, the sweetmeat

casser, break oter, remove, take off or away

Exercise 37.
' Est-ce que votre oncle et le mien sent ici ? " Oui, ma-
dame, ils sont tons les deux ici. " Si tout le monde est ici,
nous pouvons diner. * Votre salon est plus grand que le
mien. " Oui, monsieur, le mien est plus grand, mais le
v6tre est plus joli. ° Ce sont toutes les deux de trSs belles
chambres. ' Voici votre couvert, et voild les leurs. ' Marie,
apporte de la soupe d monsieur. ° Voulez-vous de ce plat-
ci ou de I'autre ? '° Je ne veux ni de I'un ni de I'autre ; don-
nez-moi le ragofit et quelques legumes. " Ne voulez-vous
pas de pommes de terre ? " J'en ai d6jA mang6 plusieurs ;
mais j'en mangerai encore quelques unes. " Dois-je don-
ner des confitures aux enfants ? " Non, aucun des enfants
ne doit manger de confitures. " On a donn6 aux enfants
du poisson et de la viande, et ils out mang6 de I'un et de
I'autre. " Ou est la soupiere ? "' On I'a cass6e. '" On ne
doit jamais casser les ctoses d'autrui... " Si Ton casse une

a

130 LESSON XXVJI.

chose, on devrait en acheter une autre. " Ces messieurs
ont 6t6 leurs chapeaux ; 6te aussi le tien. " On 6te tou-
jours son chapeau dans la maison. ^^ J'aime toutes les
choses que vous aimez.

Theme 27.

" Are you looking for my brother or hers ? " I have
looked for both, but I have found neither ; they have dined
already. ° Several of my friends are here ; let us dine
without the others. *Each one ought to have a cover.
' We have eight places, and we can have others. ° Tou
have not plates enough ; some one has broken several. ' If
one looks in the kitchen, one will find some. ' We have
several dishes ; which will you (have) ? " Will you (have)
fish or meat ? '° We will (have) neither ; give me some
stew. " I am not hungry ; give me only very little of'the
meat ; I ought to eat something. " Remove these sweet-
meats, and bring me others. " Your sweetmeats are much
better than mine. ^ Ours are good, but theirs are very
bad. " Everybody is hungry, but no one of us eats stew.
'" I am poor ; but I have never eaten the bread of others.
" My children are much more amiable than hers, but his
are prettier than yours. " Every one loves his children
better than those of other people, " If one has good chil-
dren, one is always happy. " What do you think of (de)
this book ? " Each of us thinks something of it, but no
one thinks the same of it.

VERB-LESSON.

' Oil allez-vous ? ' Je vais h. la ville. ' Ces enfants iront
chercher leurs amis. ' Us vont h r6cole. ' Va chercher
des confitures, nous aliens en manger. ' Je vais les appor-
ter. ' Allons, parlous d'autre chose.

' Thou goest ; they were going ; she went ; did you go ?
we shall go ; he would go ; that I may go ; that he might
go. ' We are going to eat. '" He was going to be hungry.

PASSIVE TBEBS. 131

" I shall go to-morrow. " Did they go to look for the dog ?
" My friends are going to the city. '* Come, let us find
them.

LESSON XXVIII.

PASSIVE VEKBS; AUXILIARIES.

1. The forms of the passive con]'iip[at,ioTi nf g ^t^r-^
are made in Jb'rench precisely as in English : name ly, by
prehxmg tne auxili ary etre ~6e to a •past ^artifiiide.

a. Ttr make, then, any given passive form of a verb,
add to the corresponding form of Stre the past or passive
participle of that verb : thus,

he was praised, il etait lone
he would have been praised, il anrait ete lone
h. The participle agrees in gender and number with
the subject of the verb : thus,
she was praised, elle etait louee

tJi^ (m.) would home been praised, ils auraient ete loues
c. Note, however, that (VII. 16) if vons is used to represent a
single person, the participle agrees with it only in gender : thus,
you (sing, f.) ufill be praised, vous serez loueb.

2. a. Taking as an example the verb louer praise, the
synopsis of simple passive tenses is as follows :

Infinitive.
etre loue (louee, loues, lonees), be praised
Present Fabticiple.
etant lone (etc.), being praised
Indicativic Pbebbnt, J6sma\fme{e\c), I am praised
IHPEBFECT, j'etais lone (etc.), /w(Mpr«BM«(Z
Pbetbbit, iefxxs\imld(e\xi.), I was praised
roTOBE, je serai loue (etc.), I shall be praised
Conditional je serais loue (etc.), I should be praised

iHPEBATiTz sois loue (etc.), Jeiwawed

SuBjcNOTivB Fbesbnt, quo je sois loue (etc.), thM I may be praised

IHFEBFECT, que je fusse loue (etc.), thxit I might be praised

133 LESSON XXVIII.

h. The synopsis of compound passive tenses is :

Pebfbot iNiTOirnvE, avoir ete loue (etc.), to Jume heen praised

Pbrtect Pabtioiple ayant ete lone (etc.), AaOTmg'6ee»i^«M»a?

iHDioATivB Pekpect, j'ai ete loue (etc.), I home been praised

Plupbbpect, j'avais ete loue (etc.), I had been praised

Past Akt., ] exLB ete loue (etc.), I Tiad been praised

For. Pert. j'aurai ete loue (etc.), I shall ha/mbeen praised

Conditional Pekfect," j'aurais ete loue (etc.), / shovM ham been

Subjunctive Perfect, que j'aie ete lone (etc.), that Ima/y have been

praised
Plcpebfeot, que j'eusse ete loue (etc.), that I mig'i

3. After a passive ver b, jj^ is gpneialljz-yftprBspnJuad
by par ; but sometimes also by de, if the verb expresgfia.

il est aime de tout le monde, he is loved by emrybody
il fut trouve par le chien, hs was found by the dog

4. The passive is less used in French than in English; instead
of it often stand active verbs with the indefinite subject on
(XXVII. 4), or reflexive verbs (XXIX.).

Avoir OB Stre as auxiliaeies.

5. Avoir is the auxiliary used in forming the com-
pound tenses of all transitive verbs, and of the great ma-
jority of intransitive or neuter verbs (including etre he
itself) ^

6. Etre is used to make the compound forms of all
passives (above, 1) and reflexives (XXIX. 3), and also of
a few intransitives.

a. The commonest intransitives taking always etre as
auxiliary are :

aller, go eclore, open, hatch

venir, come (with its compounds devenir, monrir, die

parvenir, etc.) deceder, decease

arriver, arHve, happen tmahBt,faXl

entrer, enter Vhoix, fall
naftre, be bom

AUXILIABIES. 133

7. A number of intransitives take sometimes avoir
and sometimes etre — avoir when there is had in view es-
pecially the performance of an act, but etre when the re-
sulting condition is intended : thus,

il a passe a quatre heares, he went by at four o'clock
il est passe et disparn, he has gone by and disappeared

a. . Such verbs are especially those that signify a distinct change
of place or condition! The most frequent of them are partir,
sortir, retoumer (these three almost always with §tre), passer,
rester, monter, descendre, acconrir, changer, cesser, ^chapper ;
and croitre, grandir, vieillir, d^gen^rer, disparaitre, pirir,
and so on.

8. When an intransitive has etre as auxiliary, its par-
ticiple in the compound tenses agrees in gender and
number with the subject of the verb ; but the participle
with avoir remains unchanged (i.e. has the masc. sing,
form, whatever the character of the subject).

TOCABULAEY.

le royaume, t?ie kingdom,, realm la repnblique, the republic

la patrie, the (one's) country la loi, the lam

le citoyen, the citizen Tennemi m., the enemy

chasser, di-ive off or away rappeler, recall, call back

arriver, amve rester, remam, stay

passer, pass retonrner, return

vieillir, a^ge, grow old obeir a, obey

inviter, invite louer, praise

EXBBOISE 38.

' Le roi est-il aim^ de ses sujets ? " Non, le roi n'est aim&
de personne, mais la reine est aim6e de tout le monde.
' La patrie doit ^tre aimSe de tous les citoyens. ' Les
cifoyens sont prot6g6s par les lois. ' Ceux qui n'ob^is-
sent pas aux lois seront punis. " Le roi a 6t6 chass6 de son
royaume par ses ennemis. ' II a pass6 en Angleterre, et il
y est rests pendant deux ans. ' II a 6t6 rappelS par les ci-
toyens, et il est retourn6 en France. ' Charles est-il rest^

134 LESSON XXVIII.

chez vous ? '° Nod, monsieur, il n'est pas encore arriv6.
" Votre m^re a beaucoup vieilli pendant I'ann^e demi^re.
" Cette f emme est beaucoup vieillie, mais elle est encore
tr^s belle, " Est-ce que votre amie est arriv6e, madame ?
" Non, je suis allee la chercher, mais je ne I'ai pas trouvee.
" Etes-vous invito au bal ? " Non, madame ; je ne suis
pas invit§, mais vous et votre scEur 4tes invitees. " N'est-
elle pas all6e a sa chambre ? " Oui, mais nous I'avons rap-
pel6e, et elle est retoum§e au salon. " Mon ami veut ven-
dre sa maison ; la mienne est d6jS, vendue. " Elle a 6t6
achet^e par mon riche voisin.

Theme 38.

' The republic is loved and praised by everybody. " The
country ought to be protected by its citizens. ' Where is
the king of France ? * He has gone to England, but the
queen has stayed here. ° Has he never returned ? ' Yes,
he returned last year. ' The citizens are praised because
they obey the laws. ° Many of the enemies of the republic
have been driven away, but some have remained. ' Has
not Helen been here ? " No, she went by at six o'clock,
but she did not stay. " She has not yet returned. " At
what hour did you arrive ? "I arrived at ten o'clock.
" We arrived at half past eight. " You (pi.) did not stay
long in Paris. " Where has Mary gone ? " She had gone
to her room, but I called her, and she has returned to the
dining-room. " Is she not invited to the concert to-day ?
" No ; we are invited, but she and her sister are not in-
vited. '° She is still very handsome, although she has aged
very much. "' The enemy passed into Germany last week.

BBBLEXITB VEBBS. 135

LESSON XXIX.

REFLEXIVE VERBS.

1. A EEFLExrvE Verb, or verb used reflexively, de-
scribes the subject as acting upon itself.

a. Reflexive verbs are a mncli more marked and important class
in French than in English. Some verbs are reflexive exclusively,
or nearly so ; others are often such ; and almost any transitive
verb, and some intransitives, may upon occasion be used reflex-
ively ; but the conjugation of them aJl is the same.

2. A verb is made reflexive, as in EngL'sh, by adding
to it an object-pronoun corresponding in person and num-
ber to the subject.

a. The reflexive pronouns of the first and second per-

^sons~are the sam e'witg'ttfg' ofdtnaTy^'^^^ ^O T rom ii i :

ja^m^, mejtnd.te4or-toi)iu the singular, nous and vous

in the plural., JEor^-tbe- thMpApeEsonJi^e is -a spedaLrer

flexive pronoun, se ; it is the same in Ri'ng-nlar anrl p^nral .

J. The place of the reflexive pronoun is the same with

that of any other object-pronoun (XXII. 7) : namely, in

genecal before the verb, but after it in the imperative

affirmative (when te becomes toi : XXII. 65).

3. The auxiliary of a verb used reflexively is always
and only etre.

4. In accordance with the general rule (X. 55), if the
reflexive object is a direct one, the participle in the com-
pound tenses agrees with it in gender and number ; if it
is indirect, the participle is invariable.

Thus, from se blesser wound one's self,
U 8'est blesse, elle s'est blessee, nous nons sommes blesses,
but from s'imaguier imagine to ons's self,

il s'est imagine, elle s'est imagine, nous nous sommes imagine

136 LESSON XXIX.

5. As a model of reflexive conjugation may be taken
the verb se r6jouir deUght one^s self, rejoice.

It is a regular verb of the second conjugation, inflected like
finir (XIX.).

a. The full inflection of the present indicative and im-
perative, with the synopsis of the other simple tenses,
is:

iNFTNlTlva.

Be (or te, me etc.) rejooir, r^oke

FBBSBNT FABTICIFI.B.

se (etc.) rejonissant, rejoicing

iNDIOATIVi:.

je me rejoms, Ir^<nee nons nons rejomesons, i

tn te rejonis, tlwu r^oieeat voos vous rqonisBez, you r^oiee

il se rejouit, he r^oices ils se rqonissent, t?uy r^oiee

lapEBracT, je me rejovisBais, Twos rejoiei'ng

fbetebit, je me rejonis, Ir^mced

ruTDBB, je merejouirai, /iAaMr^oice

cossmosAi,, je me rejonirais, I should r^oiee

rejomssons-noiis, let us rejoice
rejonis-toi, r^oiee {Gum) rejomBsez-vons, r^oiee {ye)

StrBJTJNCTIVB.

fbeseht, que je me rejomsse, that I may rejoice
iHFSKncT, c^ne je me TejoniBse, that I might rejoice
h. The full inflection of the perfect indicative, with
the synopsis of the other compound forms, next follows.

To save burdensome repetition, the various forms of the reflex-
ive pronoun (in infln. and pple), and of the past participle (which
in this verb must agree in gender and number with the objedt)
are not given.

Pertbot Intinitive. Perfect F.abticiple.

s'etre rejoni, (to) have r^oiced s'Stant rejoui, homing rooked

Indicative.

Pbbfkct.

je me suis rejoni Iha/oe rejoiced nous nous sommes rejonis, vie have

tu t'es rejoni, thou hast r^oieed vous vous etes rqouis, gou have re-
joiced
il s'est rejoni, ?te has rejoiced ils se sent rejonis, theg ham rejoiced

REFLEXIVE VEBBS. 137

PLOTKBiwrr, je m'eUda Tojon, I Tiad rejoiced

Past asteriob, je me fas rejoni, I had r^oieed

PnTTOE pkbfect, je me serai rejoni, IshaU Iw/oe rejmeed

coNDmoNAi, pebfkot, jo me setals rejoni, I should ha/ne r^oiced

BoBjuHOTivE pebfect, qno je me sois rejoni, tTiat I may ha/oe r^oiced

PLurEBFKCT, qne je me fosse rejoni, that I might home rejoiced

c. Note the form (VII. 16) vous vous Stes r^joui you have re-
joiced {yourself), when referring to a single individual.

6. The negative and interrogative forms are made in
the same manner as those of any other verb taking ob-
ject-pronouns. Examples are :

je ne me rejonis pas, I do not r^oiee

ne se rejonit-il pas, did he not rejoice?

vans rejonissez-vons, do you r^oieef

ne nons rejonissons pas, let tts not r^oiee

vous ne Tons serez pas rejonis, you (pi.) will not have rejoiced

qn'elle ne se fat pas rejonie, that she might not have r^oiced

ne se sont-elles pas rejonies, have they (f.) not rejoiced?

7. a. Many reflexive verbs (Mke se r^jonir itself) have to be
rendered with simple verbs in English. A few of the commonest
of these are as follows :

s'arreter, stop se lever, arise, get up

s'asaeoir, sit doum se plaindre, lament

se concher,^o to bed se porter, be (in reject to health)

se depecher, m/ike haste se promener, take a walk

se hater, hasten se retirer, retire

s'ecrier, reclaim, erry ovi se sonvenir, remember

s'ennnyer, be bored se taire, be silent

se facher, be angry se tromper, be mistaken

h. A number of reflexive verbs followed by certain prepositions
form transitive expressions of special meaning. Those most fre-
quently occurring are :

s'approcher de, avpproaeh, go near se fier a, trust
s'attendre S, await se mettre a, begin (set one^s self at)

se defier de, distrust se mociner de, ridicule, mack

se donter de, suspect se passer de, do or go without

s'ontendre a, be a judge of se servir de, use, make use of

Thus, il s'approcha du feu he approached thejire, lis se mi-
rent I. ^crire they began to write, elle ne pent se servir de ses
mains she cannot use her hands.

138 LESSON XXIX.

c. Of the intransitives used reflexively, the most noteworthy is
s'en aller go away, clear out, he off vnth one's self (literally, go
one's self from it). The indirect pronoun-object en always fol-
lows the other pronoun. Thus : je m'en vais I go off, il s'en est
alls Tie Tias gone away, va-t'en be off! ne nons en jQlons pas let
us not go away, c[a'il ne s'en f&t pas a31€ that he migM not have
gone away, etc.

8. Plural reflexive forms are often used in a reciprocal sense :
thus, aimons-nous let us love one another, lis s'aiment tltey hm
each other, and so on.

VOCABtJLAET.

The vocabulary of tbls LesBon consists of the examples of reflexive verbs given
above in the Lesson (except, of course, irregular verbs not jet explainea).

Exercise 29.
' A quelle heure vous 6tes-vous couchd hier ? ' Je me
suis couche k dix heures, et je me suis lev6 h six heures.
' Pourquoi n'^tes vous pas alle d Paris la semaine derni^re ?
* Je ne me portais pas bien, et je me suis arr6t6 sL Rouen.
° Ces jeunes fiUes oii se promenaient-elles ? ° Elles se sont
promenSes dans la ville. ' Pourquoi s'en all^rent-ils ? ' Bs
se f Ach^rent, et ils ne Youlurent plus rester. " Ne vous
rejouissez-vous pas ? " Non, nous nous sommes beaueoup
ennuy^s. " Nous irons chercher quelque chose de nouveau.
" Approche-toi, mon enfant, ne te defie pas de moi. " Get
enfant se doute de tout, et ne se fie plus k personne. '* Elle
se serait beaueoup rejouie si vous vous 6tiez approchS d'elle.
" Nous ne nous serions jamais arr^tfes k Paris, si nous nous
6tions dout^s de cela. " Pourquoi ces jeunes gens se hdtent-
ils tant ? "lis s'en vent chez eux ; ils veulent se coucher.
" Vous vous porteriez mieux si vous vous passiez de votre
diner. " Arr^tez-vous ; je veux vous parler. " Je ne peux
m'arr^ter 4 present; je me hdte de me coucher. " Ne vous
fiez pas au roi ; il se moque de vous. "" Nous ne pouvons
nous passer de lui.

Theue 29.
' Let us rejoice ; I rejoice and you rejoice ; that they
might rejoice ; thou didst rejoice ; she will rejoice. ' Have

IMPEESONAL VERBS. 139

you rejoiced ? had she not rejoiced ? I should have rejoiced
if you had rejoiced ; though they rejoiced, we did not re-
joice. ' Go to bed ; has he not gone to bed ? we should not
have gone to bed ; you would go to bed ; that they may
have gone to bed. * Get up ; I have got up ; she would
have got up ; will you not get up ? he had not yet got up ;
I have gone to bed, but I will get up ; let us not go to bed,
though he has got up. ' Have your children gone to bed ?
mine are getting up. ° Make haste, children ; get up, we
are going to take a walk. ' Helen will not go to walk, be-
cause she is not well. * I shall be bored, if I cannot take
a walk. ° Let us not take a walk ; it is two o'clock, and
we shall dine soon. " The dog did not approach the chil-
dren ; he did not trust them. " I cannot do without the
book that I have lost. " Take a walk with the dog, and I
will look for your book. " We are going away, because
we distrust these men. " He who distrusts everybody will
never be happy. " Why did not the little boy come with
you? " He stopped at the baker's. " He is not well ; he
ought not to go near the baker. " If he does not go with-
out cakes, he will be ill. " Go away ; we can do without
you. "' The king cannot return to France, because the
citizens distrust him. " Do not be angry ; we will retire.
'" If you trust this man, you will be mistaken.

LESSON XXX.

mPEKSONAL VERBS.

1. A few verbsiuIVea^,-as^ in-o&er hmgaages^ are
nseao niy m the j^d^x n^ular, with th e indefinite or im-

^jgisonal BTihject ii ^'i^, a,Tid arPLthe£fjfoi:e.ca]ile<L]saE^g,<ffAL
verbs. Tbose-oftenest so used are^s™— .-— -

140 LESSOK XXX.

gelex, freeze (il gele it freezes, il a gele, etc.)
degeler, thmi (il degele, il a degele, etc.)
greler, hail (il grele, il a grele, etc.)
neiger, snow (il neige, il a neige, etc.)
plonvoir, rain (il pleat, il a plu, etc.)
tonner, thunder (il tonne, il a tonne, etc.)

a. These verbs are conjugated like any others (always with the
auxiliary avoir), except that only the 3d sing, is in use. Plenvoir
is irregular : see XLI. 6.

2. Many other verbs are used in great part imperson-
ally, with il as subject, and often in a somewhat special
meaning. Examples are :

il importe (etc.), it ii of conseguenee (etc.)

il conyient, it is suitable or proper

il 8emble, it seems

il arrive, it happens

il soffit, it is sufficient

il vaut mienz, it is better

il s'agit, the question is

3. Almost any verb may take the impersonal subject il repre-
senting by anticipation its real subject, stated later : thus, il vient
un autre there comes another, il parait qu'elle u'y ^tait pas it
appears tJiat she was not there.

4. The English expression there is, there are, etc., is
represented in French by the VCTFWdi^li'SSd ittpereOT-
ally with'Ihe adverb y tJifiie before it : _ thus,

il y a, there is or a/re (literally, it has there)

il n'y a pas, there is not

y a-t-il eu, hus there been ?

il n'y aura pas, there wiU not he

n'y anrait'il pas en, would there not ha/oe heenf

qu'il n'y ait pas, that there may not he

qu'il y efit eu, that there might have heen

a. Since the following noun is in French grammatically the ob-
ject of the verb, and not its subject as in English, there is of
course no change of number in the verb when tne noun becomes
plural : thus, il y avait un oiseau there was a bird, and il y
avait quatre oiseauz tTiere were four birds (literally, it had there
one bird, four birds).

b. Even the infinitive, y avoir, is used, along with certain verbs

IMPEESONAL VERBS. 141

having the value of auxiliaries : thus, il pent y avoir there may
be. il ne doit pas y avoir eu tJiere ought not to have been.

c. n y a etc. is often used, elliptically, in expressing extent or
distance of time reckoned backward from the present • thus, il y
a hnit jonrs qu'il est malade he has been ill (tTiese) eight days
(literally, tJiere are eight days that he [has been and] is ill), je le
vis il y a deux mois I saw him two months ago (literally, I saw
him, there are two nwnths [since]).

d. n est etc. is also used impersonally, especially in poetry, in-
stead of il y a etc.

5. In speaking of the conditions of the vreather, the French uses
il fait etc., it makes etc., with a noun or adjective, where the
English uses it is : see XXXII. 9a.

6. To expres s En^]isIi-m t/.jsi{..th&..£i:enab..T]jse&-tbe im-

tti Falloir is an irregular verb ; its synopsis of princi-
pal and derived parts (the tenses in 3d sing.) is as fol-
lows:

faUoir (fallant) faUu faut &llut

faudra fallait a f alia falltit

faudrait faille *'°'"'-

7. Since falloir is impersonal only, while the equiva-
lent English expressions, Twwst, have to, he obliged to, etc.,
admit subjects of all persons and numbers, the sentence
has to be cast into a quite different form in French.

a. n faut etc. is oftenest Jolla^ed—bjt que iAoi. before

the verb"wTiich~ irTEngKsh takes must as its auxiliary.

This verb^ust iiTFrench always T)e injthe subjunctive :

-present if the-tense «f falloir is -pregeBtor future, sther-

wise imperfect. Thus :

he must work, il faut qu'il travaille (literally, it is necessary that

he work)
you rrmst read, il faut que vons lisiez
the boy had to go, 11 fallait que le garf on allat
the a/rmy will he obliged to retreat, il faudra que I'armee se retire
Hie books would have had to be sold, il aqrait fallu que lea livr«8

fosBent vendui

142 LBSSON XXX.

I. But if the subject be a pronoun, a briefer expres-
sion is more often used, the subject being made indirect
object of the tense of falloir, which is then followed by
the infinitive of the other verb : thus,

Jie must work, il lui faut travailler (literally, it is Tiecesswry to him

to work)
you must read, il vous faut lire
she had to go, il lui fallait aller

thsy win he obliged to withdram, il leur fandra se retirer
8. n faut etc. is also used with a following subject-noun to ex-
press that something is lacking or desired : thus, il me faut un
chapeau / want a hat (literally, there is wanting to me a hat),
vous fallait-il des livres did you want some books ?

VOCABULARY.

The vocabuUuy for this Lesson is the impersonal verbs given above in the
Lesson (except those that are irregular).

Exercise 30.
' Est-ce que vous ^tes all6 a la ville ? ° Non, monsieur ;
il a neig6 touts la journSe, et il me fallait rester k la maison.
' Nous devions aller a Paris ; mais il g^le, et nous resterons
chez nous. * S'il degdle, nous irons demain. ' T a-t-il
de jolies villes en Angleterre ? ° II y en a de tres jolies ;
mais la plupart des villes ne sont point jolies. ' Nous y
avons 6t6, il y a deux ans. ' N'y a-t-il pas eu un bal chez
madame votre m^re ? ' Non, il n'y avait pas de bal, mais
il y avait plusieurs de nos amis qui dinaient chez nous.
" II arrive tr^s souvent que nous avons des amis chez nous.
" II me faut aller ^ I'ecole, et il faut que mon cousin y aille
avec moi. " Est-ce qu'il y aura un beau concert au th64tre ?
" II me faudra entendre ce qu'il y a, " Vous faut-il quelque
chose ? '' II me faut quelques livres que je ne puis trouver
a la biblioth^que. " II m'a fallu les chercher chez mon
oncle. " II fallait que les pauvres paysans vendissent toutes
leurs brebis. " Leur faudra-t-il vendre leurs vaches aussi?
" Quoiqu'il leur ait fallu vendre leurs brebis, ils ont encore
beaucoup de vaches et de chevaux. " Que vous faut-il ?
"' II nous faut de I'argent, nous en avons trop peu.

ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES. 143

Theme 30.

' It snows and hails, and I shall not go to the school.
' K it freezes, do not go there to-morrow. ' I shall have
to go there to-morrow, if it does not thunder. ' It thawed
yesterday, and it will not freeze to-morrow. ' There was
no concert yesterday, because it was snowing. " Will there
not be a ball in the town to-morrow ? ' There would have
been a ball, if it had not snowed. * What does he need ?
' He needs some new pictures for his room. '" She must
buy a new dress and a hat. " This man must buy another
horse ; the one which he has is very old. " It seems to me
that you are never at home. " It happens often that I am
in the city. " I dined with your aunt three days ago. " I
should have been there, if it had not snowed. " Are there
not fine things in this book ? "I must buy it. " It seems
to me that everybody is talking of it. " I had to go to
England to (pour) buy English books for the library.
"' Are there not many fine castles in England ? " There
may be some, but I have not found them. " Although it
had snowed all day, I should have had to go to the city.
" My sister was expecting me, and I had to speak to her.
" If you go, you will be bored. " I must go, and my sister
must return with me.

LESSON XXXL

ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES.

1. Most adje ctives, in French a8jn_English, Jbavejd-
-Jeiaibs.madeJssffij£^%-adding^a^

The_advexhsOaakin^gfilfe,,iii Exencb. is. meat, and
it 18 in general added to the fgoiiBiiie form of the adjec-

-— -^ ^^ Hill ^ - n - ^....wawlWg*''-^^ ^ •*

tive — -vet with not a few exceptions.

. r-r*^."™---'^-*'^'*^-'^"' ' -— ^a--~-f— ■-■■■ [TtrniifilllliJ - I

144 LESSON XXXI.

a. The sufSz ment comes from Latin mente, ablative of mens mind, a
feminine noim, and hence taking before it a feminine adjective: thus, vivementrr
viva mente with lively mind, etc. ^

3. Most adjectives ending in a consonant in the mas-
culine add ment to their feminine form : thus,

'haut, high 'hautement, >

grand, great grandement,

plein, full pleinement, full

certain, certain certainement, a

seni, sole seulement, otily, solely

cmel, cruel cmellement, cruelly

ancien, ancient anciennement, andently

vif, liisely vivement, in a lively manner

heorenz, happy henreusement, happily

cher, dear cherement, dearly

fraud, frank tca,'acl[ieTaient, frankly

long, long longnement, lengthily

donz, sweet doucement, sweetly, softly

Exceptions to this rule are the following :

4. a. Adjectives ending in ant and ent for the most part
change their nt into m, and add ment directly to it ; thus,

constant, constant constanunent constantly

prudent, prudent "prademment, prudently

But lentement slowly, pr^sentement presently, v^h^mente-
ment vehemently, by the general rule.

6. A few adjectives change e of the feminine to e before ment :
thus, commun^ment, confus^ment, diffds^ment, express^ment,
importundment, obscur^ment, profond^ment, pr^cisemeut.

c. Gentil forms gentiment nicely.

5. Most adjectives ending in a vowel add ment to
their masculine form : thus,

facile, easy facilement, easily

joli, pretty joliment, prettily

absolu, absolute absolnment, absolutely

modere, moderate moderement, moderately

vrai, true vraiment, truly

6. Exceptions to this rule are as follows :

a. Beau, nouveau, fou, and mou add ment to their femi-
nine form (VII. 7) : thus, nouyellement, foUement, etc.

ADVERBS PBOM ADJECTIVES. 145

6. A few adjectives change their final e to 6 before ment : thus,
avengl^ment, commodement, conform^ment, ^norm^meut, im-
meiu^ment (and one or two others, httle used).

e. A few adjectives change final u to 4 before ment : thus, as-
siddment, contin&ment, crlment, n^ment ; and gal gay makes
either gaiement or gaiment.

^. Impuni forms impun^ment vnth impunity.

7. Adverbs derived from adjectives (and a few oth-
ers, as souvent often) liave a comparative and superlative,
made by prefixing plus and le plus respectively (as in the
comparison of adjectives : IX. 1) : thus,

facilement, pins facilement, le plus facilement, easUy, more eoMly, ete.
Boavent, plus souvent, le plus souvent, often, •ofterwr, oftenest

8. Four original adverbs have special comparative
forms, which are made superlative by prefixing le : thus.

Men, mieux, le miens, well, better, best
mal, pis, le pis, J<w??£or ill, worse, worst
pen, mains, le moins, little, less, least
beaucoup, plus, le plus, rrmeh, more, most

9. Many adjectives are, either commonly or in cer-
tain phrases, used directly as adverbs, without any change
of form. Some of the commonest of them are :

Tjas, in a low tone fort, wry

"haut, load, aloud, juste, correcUy

Clair, dearly tout, quite

droit, straight soudain, suddenty

ezpres, expressly vite, guiekly, fast

tffl. Most of these form also adverbs in ment for certain uses.

VEKB-LESSON.

10. The very irregular verb venir come is also one of
the commonest in the language, and has many idiomatic
uses.

a. Its synopsis of principal and derived forms is (it takes the
auxiliary etre: XXVIII. 6a):

venir

venant

venu

viens

vins

viendrai
▼iendrai*

venais
vienne

etre venu

etc. etc.

viens

vinsf*

10

146 LESSON XXXI.

6. The inflection of the present tenses is:

Pbes, Indic. Ikpt. Pubs. Sdbj.

▼iens Tenons venons vienne venions

Tiens Tenez viens venez viennes veniez*

Tiest vieunent vienne viennent

c. Note the change of.e to ie in all the accented or strong forms
(in this verb, also in future and conditional).

d. The preterit is regularly inflected : thus, vins, vins, vint,
vinmes, vintes, vinrent. It (with the pret. of tenir) is the only
preterit in the language having a nasal vowel.

e. The common verb tenir hold is conjugated throughout pre-
cisely like venir (except that fTtakes avoir as auxiliary).

/. Tenir and tenir are Lat. Tentre and tenere.

11. a. Venir is followed by an infinitive directly (without ^
or de), when it means come in order to do anything : thus il est
venu me voir he came to see me, venez diner chez nous (xtme and
dine tvith us.

b. The present and imperfect indicative of venir followed by de
are used before an infinitive to signify time just past : thus, je
viens de le voir I have just seen him, il venait de diner he hud
just dined.

Such phrases mean literally lam, coming from, he was coming
from etc., and are the exact opposite of I am going to (e.g. je
vais le voir I am going to see him), he was going to (il aUait
diner Jie was going to dine), etc.

VOCABULAKT.
(Besides the adverlbs given above in the Lesson.)
amuser, a/muse se fatiguer, he tired

marcher, walk pleurer, weep, weep for

chanter, sing la mnsique, rmmo

eztremement, easbremdy parfaitement, perfeetty

demierement, lately, recently continnellement, continuaXly

EXEECISE 81.

' Qu'est-ce que vous aimez le mieux, men enfant ? ' J'aime
men p6re mieux que tout le monde. ' Men oncle a vieilli
tr^e vite ; malheureusement il a perdu sa fiUe. ■* Est-ce
que vous allez plus souvent au th6Atre qu'au concert?
' J'y vais constamment, mais je ne m'y amuse que mod6r6-
ment. " Moi, je m'y amuse toujours extremement. ' Cette
jeune f emme a-t-elle perdu son man derniSrement? * Oui ;

ADVERBS FROM ADJECTIVES. 147

quoiqu'il fut absolument mauvais, et qu'il la battit cruelle-
ment, elle I'a aim6 aveuglement, et elle le pleure continuelle-
m'ent ° De quoi cet homme vous a-t-il parl6 si longuement ?
'° II a parl6 trop bas, et je n'ai absolument rien entendu.
" Cette jeune fiUe chante parfaitement; elle a une voix vrai-
ment belle. " Elle ne chante pas toujours juste. " Vous
marcbez trop vite, monsieur; vous vous fatiguerez certaine-
ment. " Non, madame ; je marche constamment, et je ne
me fatigue pas facilement. " Marcher, c'est ce que j'aime
le plus. " Malheurensement, je ne dois marcher que tres
rarement. " Pourquoi parlez-vous si haut ? " Je parlerai
plus doucement, si vous le voulez.

Theme 31.

' Do you love music, sir ? "I love it extremelv, but un-
fortunately I cannot sing. ' Frankly, I do not love music,
but it amuses me greatly at the theatre. * You go there
often, but I go there oftenest. " Can I find easily the
house of your uncle ? ' Ton will find it more easily if you
walk straight to the village. ' If you walk too fast, you
will certainly tire yourself. ' Walk slowly, we shall easily
arrive in an hour. ' We ought to take a walk constantly.
'" If you love blindly, you will be extremely unhappy.
" They love her dearly, but she absolutely does not love
them. " If you wish to be well, you must eat moderately.
" Speak softly, but do not speak too low, or I shall not
understand you perfectly. " Why does this woman weep
so cruelly ? " She is extremely unhappy, because she has
lately lost a child that she loved dearly. " I trusted my
friend fully, but unfortunately I was mistaken in him,
" No one is constantly happy.

VERB-LESSON.

' Venez-vous chez nous ? ' Pourquoi ne vient-il pas ?
' lis ne sont pas encore venus. * Vint-il hier ? ' Non, il ne

148 LESSON XXXII.

viendra que demain. ' Quoiqu'il vienne, elles ne viendront
pas. ' Je suis venu vous trouver. ' II vient de trouver les
livres que vous aviez perdus. ' Viens ici, je veux te parler.
" Je viendrai k quatre heures. " II serait venu, si vous
I'aviez appel6. " Nous venions d'arriver, et il nous fallait
nous en aller encore. " Venez diner chez moi. " Elles
sont venues il y a trois heures.

" Will she come ? they would not come ; he came ; you
■were coming ; they come ; come ! that I may come ; that
you may not come. " Has he not come ? they would have
come ; will she not have come ? though he had not come ;
you had come ; will they have come ? "I have come to
speak to you. " Will you come to dine with us ? "I
have just dined with my friend. " He had just dined,
when we invited him. " They are going to come to-
morrow. " She had just gone to Paris, but she is going
to return to-morrow.

LESSON XXXII.

VARIOUS ADVEEB8.

1. Of adverbs and adverb-phrases there are in French, of
course, a great many, which it belongs to the dictionary to give.
Only a few of those most used will be presented here ; some of
them have been already given, and used in the Exercises.

2. Some of the commonest adverbs of place are :
Ua.,Aere • "' la,i7iere -

on inhere f where jasqne, at far as

pres, aupres, near loin, far

ailleors, elsewhere partont, everywhere,

alentour, roundabout en8eiiible,-<e^e^%«r

'dessufl, above •dessous, I>me(t^^

dedans, within, inside dehors, outs ide, without

a. The conjunctive adverbs y and en were explained at XXnt~-
5-8 ; the relative adverbs dont and oti, at XXVI. 7.

TAEIOtrS ADVERBS. 14:9

61 Some of these adverbs (as well as others) make phrases with
prepositions : thijs, d'ici hence, par Isi that way, d'ou, whence f
par ou by what road f jusqn'oti how far ? etc.

3. Some of the commonest adverbs of time are :
maintenant, tww alors, then

qoand, wh^rifwhen long^emps^ long

BoaTent, often tonjonrs, oMoays

quelqaetdtis, sometimes axLtxetoU, formerly

tot, bientot, soon tard, late

encore, yet, still, again deja, already

aojourd'huii to-day - - — desormaia, h&naeforth

demain, to-morrow *luer, yesterday

4. Some of the commonest adverbs of degree, com-
parison, etc., are :

ainsi, ihiu anssi, as

comment, how t how si, so

tres. Men, fort, very snrtont, espeeiaily

pintot, sooner, raXheir davantage, StiXl more

presqne, at/most meme, even

a. The most often used adverbs of quantity — as beaucoup,
pins, pen, moins, assez, trop, tant, antant, combien — were given,
and their uses with nouns explained, at V. 4.

6. Of the very numerous compound adverbs and ad-
verb-phrases, a few of the commonest are :
a present, at present, now inr le champ, direcUy, at once

tont de soite, immediaMy tont a coup, suddenly

tout a fait, entirely da tont, at all

a pen pres, nearly, almost a peine, hardly, scarcely

qnelcLiie part, somewhere nulle part, nowhere

en hant, aioft, upstairs en bae, below, downstairs

la-bas, yonder en attendant, meanwhile

pent^etre, may be, perhaps en effet, in fact, really

de bonne henre, in good tmte, early a bon marcbe, cheaply, cheap

6. a. The interrogative adverbs — on, quand, combien, com-
ment — are, like the interrogative pronouns, also used as relative,
in which case their value is rather that of conjunctions.

6. The negative adverbs, and rules for their use, have already
been given : see XII.

c. The responsives, oui yes and non no, are already familiar.
Instead of oni, si is sometimes used (especiaUy colloquially), in

150 LESSON xxxn.

reply to a negative question : thus, vbus n'y avez pas 6t6 ? si
you have not been there ? yes, I have.

7. Adverbs have considerable freedom of position in
the sentence. General rules are :

a. An adverb is almost never allowed before the verb in
French : thus, sTie always cries elle plenre toujoars, / often take
a walk je me promene souvent.

h. With a verb in a compound tense, the adverbs of most fre-
quent use ordinarily come between the auxiliary and the parti-
ciple : thus, elle a toujours pleure she has always cried, je
m'etais souvent promene 1 had often taken a walk. But such
may for special reasons come after the participle, as do adverbial
phrases ; and the words for to-day, yesterday, to-morrow, etc.,
always foUow the participle.

VEKB-LESSON.

8. a._Of, the very fipmmon irregular verb falre «i«/fe«,- —
do, the'sy nopsis' of principal and derived forms ia.as,JQl-.
lows:

faire faisant fait fais fig

ferai faisais avoir fait fais fisse

ferais fasse ''"•''"•

6. The inflection of the present indicative and the imperative
(the pres. subjunctive being regular) is :

Prbs. Inmc. Impt.

fais falsons faisons

fais faiteB fais faites

fait font

c. Note that in this verb (39c) fai before s of another syllable
is pronounced as fe.

d. Note the special irregularities of the plural : the 2d pers.
ending in tes (found elsewhere only in 6tes and dites), and the
3d in ont (elsewhere only in ont, sent, vont).

9. Faire has many special uses and idioms ; among
them may be noticed here :

a. It is used impersonally in describing the conditions

of the weather.

Thus, 11 fait &oid it is cold, 11 falsalt chaud it was warm, U
fera beau temps it will be fine weather ; even 11 fait du vent it
is vAndy, 11 a fait des Eclairs it has lightened; and so on.

VARIOUS ADVERBS. 151

h. Faire is mucli used in the sense of cause to etc. with
a following infinitive, or as an auxiliary forming a kind
of causative verb-phrase.

Thus, je le fais savoir / cause to know it (i.e. make it
known), il les a fkit venir Ae 7ms made them come, vous ferez
fjaire im habit ycu will Jmve a coat made (literally, will cause to
make a coat).

If the following infinitive has a direct object, the object of faire
itself must be made indirect (see Second Part, § 1586) : thus, je
le fais ^crire / make Mm tvrite, but je lui fais €crire une lettre
I make Mm lorite a letter.

c. Faire is sometimes (but much less often than do in English)
used to avoid the repetition of a preceding verb : thus, je lui ai
^crit, comme je devais le faire / wrote Mm, as I ought to do.

VOCABTILART.
(No new words will be given, besides the adverbs listed above.)

E2ERCISE 33.

' D'oii venez-vous, et oii allez-vous ? ' J'ai 6t6 k peu
pr6s partout. ° Je viens d'arriver, et je vais aller sur le
champ ^ Paris, oil j'ach^terai des robes d bon march6.
* Alors vous viendrez diner aujourd'hui chez moi, et je vous
mineral plus tard au th^Alre. ^Nous sommes tout k fait
fatigues k pr6sent ; nous pouvons k peine marcher. ° Ne
voulez-vous pas venir tout de suite dejeuner avec nous?
' J'ai d6j£l. dejeune ; je viendrai demain. ° J'ai perdu mes
gants quelque part ; il me faut les chercher ; mais j'irai
bientdt, et j'arriverai de bonne heure. ' Je les ai cherch^s
partout, mais je ne les trouve nuUe part. " Je les ai eus
en haut. " Voici votre ami ; menez-le en bas, et allez
vous promener. " Jusqu'oii nous f aut-il aller, et par ou ?
" Allez jusqu'd la ville, par le chemin de Paris. " La
petite fiUe est dedans; je veux qu'elle vienne dehors. " II
est dgjS, tard ; elle viendra bientdt. " La France etait
autrefois un royaume ; maintenant c'est une r6publique.
"Elle ne I'a pas 6t6 longtemps. " Ou est ton frSre?
" II n'est pas ici ; il est peut-^tre la-bas. " D'ou vient la

153 LES80K XXXII.

lettre que vous avez dans la main ? "' Elle vient de mon
oncle d'AmSrique.

Theme 33.
' Where is your brother? ' I do not find him here ; he
must be elsewhere. ° Look for him everywhere ; you will
certainly find him somewhere. * He has already arrived,
but the others have not yet come. ' He must go imme-
diately to the city. " He is going to-morrow to England ;
he will stay there almost two years. ' I was there formerly,
and I should like (vouloir) to be there still. ° I have never
gone so far ; I have always stayed at home ; but you, yon
have been everywhere. " I shall come henceforth often to
your house. '° When will the merchant arrive from Paris ?
" He has already arrived ; he is within. " He cannot have
been here long. " I looked for her, but she was far from
here. '* How far had she gone ? '^ She had gone as far as
to Paris ; but she will return soon. " Do you like the
country as much as the city ? "I have always liked the
city better ; I do not like the country at all. " I go there
often, but I do not stay there long. " Whence do you
come now, and where have you been to-day and yesterday ?
'° Formerly I often went to my uncle's, but I no longer go
there ; he lives too far. " I have been sometimes at his
house.

VEKB-LESSON.

' Que f aites-vous Ik? "Je ne f ais rien. ' Qu'est-ce qu'ils
vont faire? *Ils viennent de faire de jolis cadeaux.
" Ferez-vous chercher vos gants ? " Je les ai fait chercher
partout. ' Que ferez-vous demain ? ' Je f erais venir la
servante, si elle 6tait i la maison. ' Si vous ne I'avez dejk
fait, il faut que vous le fassiez tout de suite. '° II fait beau
temps aujourd'hui, mais il fera trSs chaud demain. " Quoi-
qu'il fit froid hier, j'en 6tais content.

" They make ; will he not make ? let us make ; that you

PREP0SITI0K8. 153

may make ; she would not make ; I shall do what you do ;
do what you wish to do. " Thou hadst not done ; they
would have done nothing ; I should have done it if he had
done it. " Is it cold ? it will be warm ; it would be fine
weather if it was not too cold. " I have made him come ;
he will make me come. " The cook has made bad bread
to-day ; she must make better to-morrow. " I have just
made bread, and I am going to make butter.

LESSON XXXIII.

PKEPOSmONS.

1. The prep ositions moBt used in French were given

in early lessons (IILjJI.}. Other simple prepositions
a,re'aa"£5Itows : — -- ' - -

contre, against moyeniiant, hy means of

depnis, since outre, besides, beyond

iSB,from, sinee parmi, among

dvrant, during pendant, during, pending

hots, hormis, out of, except pres, hear, next

malgre, in spite of selon, according to

2. Some prepositions are also used along with a pre-
ceding preposition or adverb, forming a prepositional
phrase : thus,

a travers, across, through par-dessus, o»er, beyond

jnsqn'a, asfa/r as quant a, as for, as regards

A'aprea, according to d.'entre, from among

d'avec, /roOT with, from de par, by OMthority of

3. Many prepositional phrases are made of adverbs
or adverbial phrases followed by de of; some of the
commonest are :

154 LESSON XXXIII.

antour de, around, about lors de, at the time cf

faute is, for lack of le long de, along

hors de, out of pres de, -newr

loin iti,fa/rfrom vis-a-vis de, opposite to

au-devant de, in front of, to au-dela de, beyond

4. A few prepositions are followed by the infinitive

directly ; they are :

de, of (to) pour, in order to, Jo

a, to , sans, without

apres, after par, by

a. Of these, par is little used, and apres almost only with the
perfect infinitive : thus, apres avoir dine after Jiamng dined.

h. The English to as sign of the infinitive is represented by both
a and de. Often, the reason for using de, as meaning properly
of, from, is to be seen : thus, 11 est temps de partir it is time
to leave (literally, time of leaving), nous sommes d^fendus de
parler we are forbidden to speak (literaUy, hept off from speah-
ing), 11 a cess^ d'etre he lias ceased to he (literally, ceased from
being), and so on. But in considerable part this is not the case,
and the distinction has to be learned for each phrase. See the
Second Part, § 171 etc.

5. Prepositional phrases often followed by the infini-
tive are :

afin de, in order to, to loin ie, far from

au lieu de, instead of a moins de, short of, without

a force de, by dint of de penr (crainte) iB,forfea/r of

avant de, before plutot que de, rather than

a. It is the English infinitive in ing that in very many eases
corresponds to the French infinitive after a preposition or prepo-
sitional phrase : thus, sans attendre without waiting, avant de
mourir before dying, de peur de Xoraiber for fear of falling.

6. Frequent special uses of di and de are :

a. A is much used before the name of that by which anything
is characterized (as possessing it, being for it, acting by it, and
the like) : thus, un homme au coeur tendre a man of tender heart,
le ver a sole the silk-worm, nn bateau I, vapeur a steamboat
(see Part Second, § 36).

6. De is much used before a numeral to express the measure of
anything, or that by which one thing differs from another : thus.

PBEPOSITIONS. 155

ig^e de seize ans aged 16 years, long de douze pieds twelve feet
long, plus grand de la moitie larger by a half (see Part Second,
§ 61c).

YEEB-LESSON.

7. a. Of tlie very common irregular verb dire say,
tell, the synopsis of principal and derived parts is this:

dirs disant dit dis dis

dirai disais avoir dit dis disse

dirais dise "'"■'*°-

h. The inflection of the present indicative and imperative (the
impf. subjunctive being quite regular) is:

Pres. Indic. Impv.

dis disons disons

dis dites dis dites

dit disent

c. Note the 2d plur. ending in tes (like §tes, faites).

d. Common phrases containing dire are : on dit (XXVII. 4)
or jl se dit CXXVIII. 4) it is said; c'e-st X dira that is to say,
that, ^'o • B- ilirf •°^''' to tell the truth ; pour ainsi dire so to speak ;
cri a_va sans d ire that does not need to be stated or is a matter of
course (literally, goes ivithout saying). Vouloir dire (lit erally.
wish to say) means signify, mean.

VOCABULABT.

(Besides the prepositions and preposition phrases given in the Lesson.)
le chemin, road le chemiu de fer, raUroad, railway

le bateau, boat le bateau a vapenr, steamboat

la gare, station, depot le bateau a voiles, sailboat

la poste, the post, post-office le voyage, the journey

le matelot, the sailor la mer, the sea

le matin, the morning le soir, t)

le fleuve, the riser ordinairement, usually, ordmanly

Exercise 33.

' Par oil allez-vous k la ville ? " J'y vais par le chemin
de fer. ' Est-ce que la gare est prSs de votre maison ?
* Non, elle en est tr6s loin ; elle est hers du village. ' Plu-
tdt que d'aller par le chemin de fer, je n'irais jamais au
dehors du village. ° Quant a moi, j'aime extrSmement k

156 LESSON XXXIII.

Toyager. ' Au lieu de r ester chez moi, je suis all6 autour
du monde. ' Je ne peux jamais aller sur la mer, de peur
d'etre malade. "Avant de quitter la France, j'en avals
toujours peur ; mais k force d'avoir voyag6, je n'y
pense plus. '° Ce matelot est-il alle ^ travers la mer ?
" Selon lui, il est all6 dix fois jusqu'en Am§rique. " Est-ce
qu'il va en bateau k vapeur ou en bateau d voiles ? "II
voyage ordinairement en bateau a voiles. '* Mon p6re
vient d'arriver, et je suis alle au-devant de lui. " Depuis
quelle heure est-il ici? "II est arrive pendant la nuit.
" Vous ne me quitterez point, sans f aire ce que vous devez
f aire. " J'y suis venu pour le f aire. " Apr^s avoir d6jeun6,
il nous mSnera sur son grand bateau k vapeur. " Je n'ai
pas le temps d'aller avec vous. " Au lieu d'aller au bateau,
il me faut aller a l'6cole.

Theme 33.

' Where have you been since (the) morning ? " I went
to the post in order to find the old sailor. ' He came to
meet me, and we dined together on the steamboat. * After
having dined, we went around the boat. ' It is 300 feet
long, larger by (the) half than most of the sailboats, ' Did
you talk with the sailors ? ' No, one ought not to speak
to them ; but, in spite of that, I spoke to one sailor. ' Be-
fore arriving here, he had been around the world. * He
had gone three times as far as America. '° For lack of
money, I have to remain here, without travelling. " In-
stead of doing nothing, you must work, in order to have
money. " By dint of working, one can have as much
money as one wants. " It is time to go to the station.
" The station is opposite the house of my brother. " It is
necessary to go along the river, in order to arrive there.
" As for the railroad, I do not like it at all. " I have not
the time to travel, but I am not content without going often
to Paris. " Rather than travel by the railroad, I go usu-

CONJUNCTIONS. 157

ally by the steamer. " Far from loving to (k) travel, I
hate it. " I can never travel without being sick.

VEEB-LESSON.

' Que dites-vous ? ' Je n'ai rien dit. ' Qu'en dira-t-on ?
* On dira que nous ne faisons rien. ' Dis-moi ce que tu as
fait. * Je n'en dirai rien a personne. ' Qu'est-ce qu'ils
vous disaient ? ' lis m'ont dit de m'en aller. " Qu'est-ce
que cela veut dire ? " Cela veut dire qu'ils ne m'aiment
pas. " Dites-lui de venir ici. " II viendra tout de suite :
c'est-d-dire, k six heures et demie.

" Tell it to me ; I shall tell you nothing ; he told it to
her ; wiU she not tell it to them ? we should tell it to you,
if they had told it to us. " What were you saying? " I
was going to say that I do not like her. " That is a matter
of course. " What does that mean ? " It means that she
bores everybody. " It is said that the queen is in London :
that is, she will arrive there soon. ''° Don't tell me that.

lesso:n^ xxxiy.

CONJUNCTIONS.

1. The conjunctions most used in French are :

et. ««&----•--«**•'"'*''"'■""■■ ■"""' ■" °^< <^

maia,^it car,/w,

<ia.e, that lorBqne, when, as

pnisgtie, »ince, becmise, as juoique, although, though

BJ. if. whethe r comme, as

a. Of these conjunctions, quoique although requires
the following verb to be always in the subjunctive : thus,

although he is HI, quoiqn'il Boit malade

tJuntgh we had nothing, quoique nous n'euBsions rien

J, The conjunction si if (which in English especially

158 LESSON XXXIV.

requires the subjunctive) is in Frencli almost always fol-
lowed by the indicative (pres. or impf.) : thus,

if lie come, s'il vient if they were here, s'ils etaient ici

But the subjunctive pluperfect is also allowed after si : thus, if
he had teen here is s'il eiit ^te ici (or s'il avait ^te ici).

Si may be followed by the future (or conditional) when used
in the sense of whether : thus, qui sait s'il viendra who knows
whether he will come ?

Note the abbreviation of si before il or ils (296).

c. The conjunction que that (as well as the relative : XXVI.
11), though often omitted in -English, must always be expressed
in French : thus, I believe you are right je crois que vous avez
raison.

2. The interrogative adverbs, in their relative sense (XXXII.
6a), have the value of conjunctions : thus, quaud je le vis, je ne
savais pas d'oii il 6tait venu wJien I saw him, I did not know
whence he had come.

3. Correlative conjunctions, used in successive clauses,
are:

et . . . et, both . . . and _ ou . . . ovl, either . . . or

ni . . . ni, neither . . . nor soit . . . soit, whether . . . or

pins . . . plus, the more . . . the more moins . . . mains, the less . . .the less
autant . . . antant, as much .... as tantot , . . tantot, now . . . runci

4. Connectives of sentences, having the character
rather of adverbs than of conjunctions, are :

aussi, also, too, accordingly ainsi, thus, so

or, Tiow done, then, consequently

puis, then, next alors, i/iew

neaiimoins, nevertheless tontefois, yet, however

cependant, meanwhile, however ponitant, yet, siiU

autrement, otherwise d'ailleurs, besides, moreover

5. Many phrases having a conjunctional value ^e
made by adding the conjunction que that to a preposition
or adverb or adverbial phrase.

a. Some of those most commonly used are :
B,^eSJias^J|^erihat^after depois que, since (the time that)

aussitot que, as soon as des que, when, as soon as

^ndant que, while tandis que, while, whereas

parce que, heaiuse ains i que, as

tant que, so long as autanfquej'oi much as

cosrJtJKrcTioiirs, 159

5. Some such phrases require the following verb to W
in the subjunctive ; examples are :

, ofiji fl"Bi m (frder ifiat — pour que, in order that

ft vant que, h/if/rrf jusqu'a ce que, until

lien que. d iSf""'ff^ j>onisu-xtue, provided that
I ttiiiBjWyWitlumt that au cas que, in ease that

A^ex sans que, the verb can hardly be rendered except by our
infinitive in ing: thus, sans que personne s'en apergoive witTwut
any one's perceiving it.

c. One or two require the following subjunctive to be preceded
by the negative ne : they ar e a moins cui fl unless, de cra inte (or
peur) que for fear that, lest : thus, a moins qu'il ne vieiuie un-
less lie come.

VEEB-LESSON.

6. a. Of the irregular verb savoir know (Lat. sapere)
the synopsis of principal and derived parts is ;

aavoir sachant su sais sus

sauiai savais avoir su sache suase

< etc. etc.

sanrais sache

6. The inflection of the present indicative and imperative (the
pres. subj. being quite regular) is as follows:

Pees. Indic. Impv.

sals Savons sachons

sais savez sache sachez

salt savent

c. The impf . indic. comes from another form of the pres. pple, saTant, now
used only eis an adjective, meaning learned.

7. a. With an object and a predicate relating to it, savoir
means krww to he : thus, je le sais modeste I know Mm to he
modest; with a following iaflnitive, it means know fww: thus, 11
salt se taire lie knows how to hold his tongue.

b. The pres. subj. (?) je sache etc. is in certain phrases used like
an indicative : thus, je ne sache personne qui I know no one who
etc. ; que je sache so far as I know. The conditional saurais
is used (negatively) in the sense of can, be able: thus, lis ne
sauraient servir t?iey are unable to be of use.

c. The phrase je ne sais quel (or qui, quel, etc.) is much used
in the sense of something, I can't tell what etc.

d. Savoir is very often conjugated negatively with ne alone
(pas being omitted).

160 LESSON xxxiy.

VOCABULABY.
(Besides the conjunctions given in the lists above.)
la fabrique, thefaeUyry le fateicant, the manufaeliwrer

le magasin, the shop, sU/re se marier, rmwry, he married

I'ouvrier m., the vxrrkmum I'ouvriere f ., tTw workworrum

Exercise 34.

» II va geler ; allez-vous done a Paris ? ° Bien qu'il g^le,
il f aut que j'y aille. ' D'ailleurs je ne veux pas rester chez
moi toute la journ6e. * Que ferez-vous pendant que vous
y serez ? ' Je vais chercher un cadeau pour mon amie,
parce qu'elle vient de se marier. ' D6s que je suis arrive,
j'ai cherch6 partout des cuillers d'argent ; mais je n'en ai
trouT6 de jolies, ni au magasin ni k la fabrique. ' Pour-
tant on m'a dit que ce marchand en a de tr^s belles. ' II
me les a montrSes ; mais plus je les regardais, plus je les
trouvais laides. ' Alors que me faut-il faire, afin que j'aie
quelque chose pour elle ? " H faut attendre jusqu'^ ce
qu'on en fasse de plus jolies. " Est-ce qu'on aura le temps
de les faire avant qu'elle se marie ? " Depuis que je vous
ai parl6, je suis alle 4 la fabrique. " Pourvu qu'il y ait
assez de temps, le fabricant va me les faire. " II ne
pourrait les faire, sans qu'il elt de bons ouvriers. "II
en aura, dSs qu'il voudra en avoir. " S'il efit eu de bons
ouvriers, il aurait d6j4 de jolies choses.

Theme 34.
' Have you been at the shop since you left me ? ' I have
been both at the shop and at the factory. ' Then you have
bought something. *I wanted to buy either forks or
spoons ; but I have bought neither forks nor spoons. ' If
you had found some, should you not have bought them ?
' Although I have found some, nevertheless they were not
pretty. ' Moreover, the manufacturer wishes that I wait
(subj.) until he shall make some new ones. 'Provided
that he makes them at once, we can wait ; otherwise we

COKJUNCTIONS. 161

shall go elsewhere. ' I wish to give them to my friend,
before she is married. " The workmen go to the factory
early, in order that they may work longer. " Although
she is ill, this poor workwoman works the whole day.
" Unless she works ten hours, the merchant will not give
her money. " So long as she shall work, she will be ill,
" However, she must work, in order that he may give her
bread for her children. " She cannot work much, because
she is iU. " She had to work, lest he should give her noth-
ing. " As soon as she shall be better, she will work more.
"The more she works (fut.), the more he will give her
money. " You must stay at home, since you are not well.
" While you are working, I shall go to the school.

VEEB-LESSON.

Sais-tu quelle heure il est ? ° Je ne sais pas. ' Ds n'en
savent rien. * Je ne sanrais vous le dire. " II salt tra-
vailler. ' II n'y a personne ici, que je sache. ' Charles
vous savait malade, et il n'est pas venu. ' Savez-vous s'il
viendra demain ? " Personne ne saurait dire oil il sera de-
main. '° Je saurai le trouver.

" Does he know ? you know ; she knew ; they were know-
ing ; we shall know ; that he might know. '" Has he known
it ? we know what you know ; I knew, but I do not know
now ; she knew and she had always known ; you would
not have known it, if I had not told it to you. " Did you
know that'he was ill ? " I had known it, but I had forgotten
it. " You know how to work. " I could not tell how he
loves her. " I do not know whether he is going to Paris.
11

162 LESSON XXXV.

LESSON XXXY.

rEEEGULAK VEEB8 ENDING IN irC.

1. a. The general account of the irregular verbs was
given above, at XXIY. 5, and some of the commonest
among them have been explained in full.

Those so explained are as follows : avoir Tiave, X., Stre 6e, XI.,
vouloir wish at XXIV. 6 etc., pouvoir he able at XXV. 8 etc.,
devoir owe at XXVI. 12 etc., aller go at XXVII. 8 etc., falloir
must at XXX. 6 etc., venir come at XXXI. 10 etc., faire do at
XXXII. 8 etc. , dire say at XXXIII. 7 etc. , and savoir hnow at
XXXIV. 6 etc.

&. It remains now to give the rest of the irregular

verbs, and to explain their inflection.

2, The verbs conduire conduct etc., instruire vnsbruct
etc., and cuire cook, are conjugated alike, having past
participles ending in it, and preterits in isis. Their de-
rived parts are all made regularly. Thus :

a. 1. conduire conduisant conduit conduis conduiBis

conduirai conduisais avoir conduit conduis conduisisse
conduirais conduise ^^' ''°'

h. The present indicative and imperative (the pres. subj. being
entirely regular) are inflected thus :

Pbes. Indic. Impt.

conduis conduisons conduisons

conduis conduisez conduis conduisez

conduit conduisent

c. Like conduire are conjugated the other compounds of -duire
(Lat. duoere) : namely,

deduire, deduce introduire, introduce seduire, seduce

econduire, remove produire, produce traduire, translate

enduire, do over reconduire, reconduct

induire, induce reduire, reduce

The simple verb, duire suit, is used only in the 3d sing, present.
Of the other two verbs, it will be enough to give the principal
parts only.

d. 2. instruire instruisant instruit instruis instruisi

IKEEGULAR VERBS EifDiiirG IK ire. 163

e. Like instruire are conjugated the other compounds of -struire
(Lat. stpuere) : namely,

constrnire, construct detrnire, destroy reconstruire, reconstruct

f. 3. cuire cnisant cuit oais caisis

g. Like coire (Lat. coqnere) is conjugated its compound :

ieenixe,cook again

3. The verbs nuire injwre and luire shvne are conju-
gated in the same way, except that their past participle
ends in i instead of it. Thus :

a. 4:. noire noisant nui nuis nnisis

5. luire luisant lui Inis

6. The pret. indie, and impf . subj. of luire are not in use. Like
it is conjugated its compound :

reluirej shine, glisten
t. These verbs are Lat. nocere and lucere respectively.

4. The verbs suffire suffice, conflre Reserve, and cir-
concire oircumcise, are conjugated alike, except the past
participles, which end respectively in i, it, and is. Their
preterit ends in is simply, like the present (not in isis,
Hke the preceding vprbs). Thus :

1. 6. sofSre

snffisant

snffi

snfliii

t. confire

confisant

confit

confis

confis

8. circoncire

circoncisant

circoncis

circoncis

circoncis

b. These verbs are respectively Lat. sufflcere, conflcere, and cirvumcid-
ere.

c. Like confire is conjugated its compound :

deconfire, discomfit
5. The very common verb dire say, tell differs from
confire only by having in the 2d plural pres. indie, and
impv. dites (instead of disez). Its principal parts are :
9. dire disant dit dis dis

The complete inflection of this verb was given above, at XXXIII.
7 etc.
a. Of the compounds of dire (Lat. dicere), only
' redire, say again
is conjugated precisely like it. Most of the others — namely,

contredire, contradict interdire, interdit^ predire, predict

dedire, disown medire, slander

—are like confire, having -disez (instead of -dites) in the 8d

164 LESSON XXXV.

plural. But maudire curse (Lat. maledicere) is muclt more ir-
regular, having double ss in the present participle and in all the
forms that follow its analogy. Thus :

10. maudire mandissant ' maudit mandis mandis
maudirai maudissais avoir maudit maudis maudisse
maudiral8 maudisse

The inflection of the pres. indie, and impv. is :

Pbes. Indic. Impt.

maudis maudissons maudissons

maudis maudissez maudis maudissez

maudit maudissent

6. Lire read forms its past participle in u and its pret-
erit in us. The other parts and their inflection are like
those of conduire, above (2). Thus :

11. lire lisant lu lis lus

lirai lisais avoir In lis lusse

,. . .. etc. etc.

lirais liBO

a. Like lire (Lat. legere) are conjugated its compounds

elire, elect relire, read again reelire, re-eleei

7. The verb 6crire lorite is in the main like conduire ;
but it has everywhere v instead of s after i in the fall
forms of the root. Thus :

a.

12. ecrire

ecrivant

ecrit

ecris

eorivis

ecrirai

ecrivais

avoir ecrit

eoris

ecrivisie

ecrirais

eorive

etc. etc.

6. The inflection of the pres. indic. and impv. is as foUows :

Pbes. Indic. Impv.

ecris ecrivons ecrivons

ecris ecrivez ecris ecrivez

ecrit ecrivent

c. Like ecrire (Lat. scribere) are conjugated the compounds :
circonscrire, cireumseribe presorire, prescribe souscrire, subseribe
decrire, describe proscrire, proscribe transcrire, transcribe

inscrire, inscribe recrire, rewrite

8. The verb rire laugh is still more unlike the above
verbs. Thus :
a. 13. rire riant ri ris ris

avoir ri ris riise

etc. etc.

rire

riant

rirai

riais

lirais

rie

lEBEGULAE VEEBS ENDING IN ire. 165

6. The inflection of the present tenses is :

Puis. ISDIO. IlIFT. Piim. Btnj.

lii lions rions rie riions

ris riez rii riet ries riiez

lit rient rie rient

c. Like lire (Lat. rldere) is inflected its compound :

sonrire, smile
9. The verb frire fry is Kke rire, except that its past
participle ends in it, and that it lacks the present parti-
ciple and all forms following its analogy — namely, the
impf. indie, the pres. subj., and the plural of the pres.
indicative. Thus :

14. firire — frit fris fris

VOCABULARY.
(Besides tbe verbs in the Lesson.)
le poete, the poet la poesie, poetry

la tragedie, the trctgedy la comedie, the comedy

I'ouvrage m., the work la maniere, the mamwr

le jonmal, thejov/nud, new^aper le redactenr, the editor
fraii9aii, Vremeh anglais, English

Exercise 35.
' Avez-vous la les ouvrages de ce podte, madame ? ' Je
lis toujours de la po6sie, mais je ne sais ce que cet homme
a 6crit. ' Je lus I'annSe derni^re une de ses comedies, qui
me fit beaucoup rire. * Nous lisons les tragedies, et nous
ne rions jamais. 'Vous §crivez beaucoup pour les jour-
naux, n'est-ce pas ? ' Ce sont les redacteurs qui 6crivent
pour les journaux ; moi, je n'6cris que de la po6sie. ' Qu'6-
criviez-vous hier ? ° Nous tradnisions les comedies de Mo-
liSre. * Les avez-vous lues ? " Si vous les avez traduites,
je les lirai certainetoent. " Vous en rirez ; elles sont tr^s
amusantes. '° Nous en avons beaucoup ri, quand nous les
lisions. " Pourquoi le po^te maudissait-il le r6dacteur ?
'* Parce que celui-ci lui a nui. " II a d6crit sa derni^re
trag6die d'une maniere amusante, et tout le monde en rit.
" J'ai lu ce qu'il en a 6crit, et je n'ai pas m^me souri en le

166 LESSON XXXVI.

lisant. "Que faites-vous avec ces jeunes filles? "Nous
les conduisons au th^dtre, afin qu'elles s'y amusent. " Les
bonnes comedies instruisent beaucoup les jeunes gens. '° Si
vous voulez 6crire de la po6sie, il faut que vous lisiez les
pontes fran9ais.

Theme 35.

■ He will conduct ; I have conducted ; we were conduct-
ing ; conduct him ! they would conduct her, if she wished
to go there. ^ Head your letter ; I have read it ; we shall
read it to you ; let us not read it to her. ' They were
writing ; she would write ; we had written ; you will never
have vrritten ; I shall write to nobody ; nobody has written
to me. * Has he read the letter that she has written him ?
write him a letter, in order that he may read it. ' He has
laughed ; she will laugh ; they were laughing whUe I was
reading ; do not laugh at (de) the books which you read.
' I read much poetry ; but I have not read the works of all
the poets. ' Do you write nothing ? • ° Yes, I have always
written a great deal for the newspapers. ' I translate many
comedies, but I do hot write any. ' ° I was reading a tragedy,
and I did not laugh at it. " Why do you not read the
newspapers ? " Because they do not instruct me. " My
daughters write poetry, and my son has written a tragedy.
" They have always read the best works of the French
poets, and they have translated English poetry.

LESSOE" XXXYI.
iBBEGTTLAK VERBS m aludie eto., AND aitrc etc.

1. Among the other irregular verbs ending in re, there
are two important groups which may be taken up first.

2. A considerable number of much-used verbs have

lEEEGULAR VERBS IK aindre etc., and aitre etc, 16?

their infinitiTe in ndre preceded -by one of the three di-
graphs ai, ei, oi — verbs in aindre, eindre, and oindre.
They are conjugated precisely alike, and their derived
parts are made with entire regularity from the principal
parts — which, however, are quite irregular in their rela-
tions to one another.

3. As examples may be taken craindre fea/r, peindre
fwmt, j oindre jom,. Thus :

a. IS. craindre ciaignant craint ciains craignis

craindrai craignais avoir craint crains craignisse

. , . > etc. ete.

cramdiais craigne

6. The inflection of the pres. indie, and impv. (the pres. subj.
' being quite regular) is as follows :

Fbes. Indic. Ihpv,

crains ciaignons craignons

ciains ciaignez crains . craignez

craint craignent

c. Of the other two verbs, it will be enough to give the princi-
pal parts. Thus :

16. peindre peignant peint peins

n. joindre joignant joint joins

d. Like these verbs are conjugated :

peignis
joignis

contraindre, eonsl/rain

enceindre, gvrd
enfeeindre, infringe
epreindre, squeeze out
eteindre, extinguish
etreindre, draw tight
feindre, feign

enjoindre, er^oin
oindre, a/rwint

plaindre, 'gUy

astreindre, constrain __
atteindre, attain
ceindre, gird
depeindre, depict
deteindre, fade
empreindre, imprint

conjoindre, conjoin

dejoindre, d^oin

disjoindre, disgoin

e. These verbs end in Latin mostly in -ngere : thus, plaindre, Lat_planBere ;
peindre, Lat. pingere; joindre, Lat. jungere ; 6teindre, Lat extln-
guere ; and so on. Hence the gn in many of their forms. But -premdre and
geindre are Lat. -premere, gemere.

4. A number of verbs in altre and oltre, some of them
very common ones, are conjugated nearly alike. They,

geindre, groan
ratteindre, re-attain
repeindre, paint again
restreindre, rest/ram,
reteindre, dye over
teindre, tinge

poindre, punaliwre
rejoindre, r^oin

168 LESSON XXXVI.

too, make their derivea parts quite regularly from an
irregular set of principal parts.

5, As models may be taken paraltre appear and croitre
grow. Thus :

a. 18. paraltre paralBsant paru parais panu

paraitrai paraissais avoir para parais pariuie
paraltrais paraisse

6. The inflection of pres. indie, and impv. is :

Pees. Droio. Ihpt.

parais paraissons paraisions

parais paraissez parais parainez

parait paraissent

Note that the circumflex of the infinitive appears here in the
3d sing., but not elsewhere.

c. Like paxaitre are conjugated its compounds :
apparattre, appear comparaitre, appear diaparaitre, duappea/r

also connaitre know, be acquainted with, and its compounds :

meconnaitre, fail to recognise reconnaitre, reeogtme
also paitre graze and its compound :
repaitre, feed
But of paitre the pret. indie, and impf. subj. are not in use.

d. Old infinitive forms are apparoir and comparoir, for ap-
paraitre and comparaitre ; from apparoir is made also the im-
personal 3d sing. 11 appert it appears.

6. Of croitre grow the principal and derived parts are :

19. croitre croiuant crfi croii crdi

croitrai croiasais avoir era croil crfiwe

A. . • etc. etc.

croitraiB croiue

a. The inflection of the pres. indie, and impv. is :

PBBB. INDIO. IKPT.

crots croisions crolMoni

crois oroisBez orols eroliiez

croit croisient

Note that the circumflex of the infinitive appears here through
the whole singular. The circumflex in past pple and pret. is
chiefly for the purpose of distinguishing the forms from those of
croire believe (below, XXXVII. 5).

iBBEGiTLAR VEEBs IN aindre ETC., AND aitre etc. 169

6. Like croitre are conjugated its compounds :
acoroltie, increase decroitre, decrease recioltre, grovi ogam

snrcroitre, overgrow
These, however, have no circumflex in the past pple : thus, acorn
etc. ; and some authorities omit it in the impf. subj. throughout :
thus, crusse, accrosse, etc.

7. The verb naitre ie bom is in part inflected like
paraitre etc., but is very peculiar in its past participle and
in its preterit. It takes the auxiliary 6tre (XXVIII. 6a).
Thus:

20. naitre naissant ne nais naqnii

naitrai naissais etre ne nais naqniiae

naitrais naisse ""■ **°"

a. The inflection of the pres. indie, and the impv. is precisely
as in paraitre :

Fbbs, Ihsic. Iuft.

nais naissons nalssons

nais naissez nais naissei

nait naissent

b. Like naitre is conjugated its compound :

renaitre, be lorn again

c. In the sense of was born is used the perfect, suis n^ etc. , if
the person spoken of is living.

S. These verbs come, with some anomalous changes, from Latin verbs in
-acere : thus, paraitre is Lat. parescere ; connaltre, Lat. cognoscere ;
croitre, Lat. crascere ; naitre, Lat. nasci.

VOCABCLART.
(Besides the verbs given in the Lesson.)
le general, the general le soldat, the soldier

I'armee f., the a/rmy la guerre, tlie wa/r

le bonhenr, happiness, good for- le malhenr, unhappiness, mis-

tune fortune

Exercise 36.
' Ne plaignez-Tous pas cette pauvre f emme ? ' Je la
plains beaucoup, car elle est trds malheureuse. ' Elle a eu
un bon mari ; mais il joignit I'arm^e l'ann6e derni^re, et il
a tout k fait dispam. * Elle n'a pas de pain pour son pauvre
enfant, qui est n6 il y a quelques mois. ^ Connaissez-vous
le yienx g6n6ral ? ' Nous I'avons connu autrefois, mais je

170 LESSON XXSVI.

ne pense pas qu'il nous reconnaitra a present. ' Ces arbres
ont beaucoup crA, depuis que je ne les ai vus. * Les enfants
croissent trfes vite, et aprfes peu de temps on ne les reconnait
plus, ' II parait que nous allons avoir une guerre avec
I'AUemagne. '" Tous les malheurs de la patrie naissent de
la guerre. " Aussit6t que la guerre commencera, le bonheur
des citoyens aura disparu. "" Qui est-ce que vous plaigniez ?
" Nous plaignions les panvres soldats, qui doivent aller a
la guerre. " Qui est-ce que cet homme veut peindre ?
" II a peint beaucoup de g6n6raux de France ; maintenant
il va peindre ce soldat-ei. '°Napol6on naquit en Corse
le 16 aout, 1769. "La plupart de nos grands hommes
sont n6s en France. " Donnons-nous la main, et soyons
bons amis. '" Mon p6re naquit en 1796, et moi, je suis n6
en 1853. "Nous ne craignons pas le malheur ; pourquoi
le craindrions-nous ?

Theme 36. ''■

' They fear ; we shall fear ; that he may not fear ; fear
nothing ; did he never fear ? he would have feared it. ° I
had recognized her ; do you not recognize me ? we should
recognize him ; he will recognize them ; she recognized
him as he was entering. ° Will he not appear? if he ap-
pears, we shall disappear ; although he had not yet appeared,
we went away ; do they not appear ? he appeared yester-
day ; we appear to-day ; they will appear to-morrow.
* You paint ; was he not painting ? I will paint it, if you
wish ; give me what you have painted. ' What was the
man painting ? " He has painted the beautiful flowers
which grow in our garden. ' Does he never paint men ?
° Those painters always paint animals. ° Do you not recog-
nize this picture ? '" Yes, I recognize it well ; it is the
portrait of the young general. "Did you know him?
" I knew him very w:ell, and we have always known his
family. " Where is he now ? " He disappeared last year.
"It appears that his family has had many misfortunes.

FTTETHEE IRREGULAR VERBS IK rC. 171

" Yes, we pity them very much. " When was your son
born? "He was born in 1878. "He has grown a good
deal since I went away. ''° Yes, he grows very fast ; all
the children are growing ; he will still grow a little.

LESSOE^ XXXVII.

FUBTHEE IEEEGT7LAE VERBS IN TC.

1. The verb traire d/raw, milk lacks the preterit and
the imperfect subjunctive.

a. Its principal and derived parts are as follows :

21, traire trayant trait trais

trairai trayais avoir trait trais

trairais traie **"' *'°'

6. The inflection of pres. indie, and impv. is :

Pbes. Indic. Impv.

trais trayons trayons

trais trayez trais trayez

trait traient

c. Like traire (Lat. trahere) are conjugated its compounds :
abstraire, abstract distraire, distract rentraire, dam

attraire, atiraet eztraire, extract retraire, mUk a,gain

soustraire, subtract

2. The verb braire bray is conjugated like traire, but is hardly
used except in the infinitive and the 3d sing, and p'. of pres. in-
dic. , f ut. , and conditional.

22. braire brait braira brairait

braient brairont brairaient

a. This verb is of doubtful origin.

3., The very common verb faire make, do, which is
also very irregular, has been given in full above: see

XXXII. 8.
a. 23. Like faire (Lat. facere) are conjugated its compounds :
oontrefaire, counterfeit malfaire, do ill refaire, remake

defaire, undo mefaire, do ha/rm satisfaire, satisfy

tortaire, offend parfaire, complete snrtaire, overdo

173 LESSON XXXTII.

4. The verbs plaire please and taire Jcee^ silent are
conjugated alike, except that plaire has an irregular cir-
cumflex in the 3d sing. pros, indicative. Thus :

a. 24L. plaire plaisant plu plais plus

plairai plaisais avoir plu plais pluue

plairais plaise ***' ""'

6. The inflection of the pres. indie, and impv. is :

PBES, INDIC. iHFT.

plais plaisons plaisons

plais plaisez plais plaisez

plait plaisent

c. Like plaire (Lat. placere) are conjugated its compounds :

complaire, he complaisant deplaire, diepleaae

d. Plaire is-much used impersonally, especially in the phrase
s'il vous plait if you please.

e. Of taire, it is enough to give the principal parts :

25. taire taisant tu tais tns

The 3d sing. pres. indie, is il tait.

/. Taire (Lat. tacere) is much used reflexively, in the sense he
silent, hold one's peace : thus, tais-toi or taisez-vous he silent !

5. There are two verbs in oire — namely, croire think,
heUeve, and boire, drink — of which the former is regu-
lar in the formation of its derived parts and in its
tense-inflection, while the latter is irregular in both.
Thus:

a. 26. croire croyant cm crois cnu

croirai croyais avoir cm crois crnsse

croirais croie etc. etc.

Inflection of the three present tenses :

Fbks. Indic. Impv. Pbis. Subj.

crois croyons croyons croie croyions

crois croyez crois croyez croiei eroyiei

croit croient croie croient

6. A compound of croire (Lat. credere), accroire (in faire
accroire deceive into believing), is used only in the infinitive ;
another, d^croire disbelieve, only in the 1st sing, present.

c. Croire in French is followed by an infinitive without
infinitive-sign, where in English we use instead a dependent
clause, or insert a reflexive pronoun : thus, je crois Tavoir dit I
think (myself) to have said it, or I think tMt I have said it.

FXTBTHER IRREGULAR VERBS IK re, 173

d. 27. boire bnvant bn bois bas

boirai buvais avoir ba boia bnisa

boirais boive °'°'*°-

Inflection of the three present tenses :

Pbbs. Indio. Impv. Pbes. Subj.

bois buvoiu buvons boiye bnyions

bois bnvez bois buvez boives bnviez

boit boivent boive boivent

e. Like boire (Lat. bibere) are conjugated its compounds :

emboire, imbibe imboire, imbibe, imbue reboire, d/rinh again

6. There is one verb in ore, namely clore close, with
its compound 6clore open, hatch (taking etre as auxiliary :
XXVIII. 6a). Their conjugation is as follows (only a
few of the forms being in actual use) :

a. 28. olore [closant] clos clos

dorai avoir clos

clorais close (etre eclos)

b. The 3d sing. pres. indie, is cl5t (and 6clQt) ; of the plural
only the 3d pers. ^closent is in use. The fut. and cond. of Iclore
are more usually -written with the circumflex : ^cldra etc. (only
the 3d persons are in use).

c. Of clore (Lat. claudere) there are other compounds :
declore, ■unclose enclore, enclose toieltae, foreclose

but they are rarely used, and only in a few forms.

7. There is also a single verb ending in ure, namely

-clnre in conclure conclude etc. The conjugation is as

follows :

a. 29. conclure conclnant concln conclns conclos

conclnrai concluais avoir concla conclns conclnsse
conclurais conclne ^'*'' "''*'

6. Inflection of the present tenses :

PBSS. INDIC, lUPV, FRES. SUBJ.

conclos conclnons conclnons conclne conclulons

conclns conclnez conclus conclnez conclnes conclnlez
conclnt concluent conclne conclnent

c. Like conclure are conjugated also the other compounds of
-clore (Lat. -cludere) : namely.

174 LESSON XXXVII.

ezclore, exclude redure, shut up

but of reclure only a few forms are in use.

VOCABULARY.
(Besides the verbs given In the Lesson.)
la ferme, fhefwrm la fermiere, thefwpmer'B toife

le lis, t7te lily la violette, the violet

le matin, the motiving le soir, th^ evening

EXBBCISE^37.

' Que buvez-vous ? ' Je bois du lait frais ; voulez-vous
en boire ? ' Ou I'avez-vous trouv6 ? * La f ermifire trayait
ses vaches, et elle m'en a donne. * Croyez-vous que je
puisse en avoir aussi ? ° Elle les a dej^ traites, mais elle les
traira encore ce soir. ' Alors j'en boirai ce soir. ' VoU^
de jolies fleurs ; elles sont ^closes ce matin. ' Les roses
ecldront demain, je crois. " J'en veux quelques unes. " Je
crois vous avoir dit que j'aime extr^mement toutes les fleurs.
" Est-ce que ces petites fiUes ne vous plaisent pas? " Elles
m'ont beaucoup d^plu, parce qu' elles ne se taisent jamais.
" II f aut qu'un enfant se taise lorsque les autres veulent
parler. " Avant de m'en aller, il faut que je boive un pen
de vin. '° Vous en avez dejk bu, et nous ne croyons point
qu'il vous en faille encore. " Mais le lait ne me plait pas.
" Taisez-vous, et buvez ce qu'on vous donne. " Je me tai-
rai, mais je ne boirai pas ce qui me d^plait. " Ne croient-
ils pas ce que je leur ai dit ? " lis n'en ont rien cru.

Theme 37.

' He believes ; does she not believe ? they will believe ;
believe what I say ; I have believed what she has said to
me. ° Will he drink ? do you drink ? they would have
drunk ; drink, and go away ; let us drink water ; he would
drink wine, if he had some. ' Does she please you ? that
would never please me ; they have pleased me. * She spoke

THE BEMAINIITG VERBS IN rC. 175

and I was silent ; be silent while your mother speaks ; if
you do not keep silence, I shall say nothing. ' I want to
go to the farm this morning, if you please. ' I will con-
duct you there ; but you must be silent while I speak to
the farmer's wife. ' Do you believe that she will milk the
cows while we are there ? ' If she milks them, she will
give you some milk. ° I drank some fresh milk formerly,
and I shall drink some to-day. " We drink milk often, but
we have never drunk wine. " Do you think that the lilies
have opened ? " Tliey have not yet opened, but they will
open this evening. " These violets please me much ; give
me some, if you please. '* Be' silent, my child ; you have
displeased me. " We thought that we had pleased you.
" Since you are silent, we conclude that we displease you.
" Although we drink much milk, we are always thirsty.

LESSON XXXVIII.

THE EEMAIOTNG VEEBS IN TB.

1. The remaining verbs ending in the infinitive in re
have a consonant next before the r. They are quite dis-
cordant, and in part very irregular, in their conjugation,
and must be taken up one by one.

a. We will begin with two that are extremely common in use.

2. The verb prendre take is thus conjugated :
SO. prendre prenant

prendrai prenais

prendrais prenne

Inflection of the present tenses :

Pees. Indic. Impv,

prends prenons
prendB prenez prends

prend prennent
a. For the doubling of the n in premie etc..

priB

prends

pris

avoir pris

etc. etc.

prends

prisse

Pkes.

Sdbj.

prenons

prenne

prenions

prenez

prennes

prenlez

prenne

prennent

)remie etc.

, see 21,

176 LESSON xxxvin,

6. Like prendre (Lat. prehendere) are conjugated its numerous
compounds (some of them very much used) :

apprendre, learn rapprendre, relearn meprendre, mistake

desapprendre, unlea/rn comprendre, understand reprendre, resume
eprendre, sem entreprendre, undertake snrprendre, surprise

3. The verb mettre j?wi is thus conjugated :

31. mettre mettant mis mets mis
mettrai mettais avoir mis metB misse
mettrais mette °'*' °'°"

Inflection of the pres. indie, and impv. :

Pres. Indio. Ihft.

mets mettons mettons

mets mettez mets mettez

met mettent

a. Like mettre (Lat. mittere) are conjugated its numerous and
much-used compounds :

admettre, admit omettre, omit remettre, remit

commettre, commit permettre, permit somnettre, svJbmU

demettre, put out promettre, promise transmettre, transmit

emettre, emit compromettre, compromise

b. For the phrase se mettre d, begin (literally, set one's selfaf),
see above, XXIX. 76.

4. The verb vivre live is very irregular in its preterit
and past participle : thus,

32, vivre vivant vecu vis vecns
vivrai vivais avoir vecu vis vecnsse
vivrais vive ***■ '*"•

Inflection of the pres. indie, and impv. :

Pkes. Indic. Impv.

vis vivons vivons

vis vivez vis vivez

vit vivent

a. Like vivre (Lat. vivere) are conjugated its compounds :

revivre, remve survivre, surmve

b. The pres. subj. is used in good wishes for English long live:
thus, vive le roi long live the king. The expression qui vive
who goes there f is explained as meaning who [do you iBish\ may
line long ? i.e. on whose side are you f

THE EEMAIiriKG VEKBS IK re. 177

5. The verb sm.yTB follow is qxiite nearly regular. It
is coajagated as follows :

S3, snivre

suivant

suivi

suis snivis

snivrai
sniTTais

snivais
suive

avoir suivi

etc. etc.

snis suivisse

Inflection of the

pres. indic.

and impv. :

Fbes. Indic.

HOT.

snis

suivons

suivons

snis

snivez

Boig

snivez

consn

couds cousis

avoir consn

conds consisse

etc. etc.

d impv. :

IHPV.

oousons

conds

consez

snit snivent

a. Notice the identity of je suis I follow with je suis / am.

b. lake snivre (Lat. sequl) are conjugated its compounds :

ensnivre, ensue poorsnivre, pursue

6. The verb coudre sew is thus conjugated :
34:. coudre consant

OMidrai consais

«DndraiE conse

Inflection of the pres. indic. and impv.

Pbes. Indic.
couds consons

conds cousez

cond consent

a. Notice the unusual difference in the final vowel-sound of the
pple cousu and pret. cousis. Such difference is found only in
coudre, vgtir (XXXIX. 11), and voir (XLI. 4).
i. like coudre (Lat. consaere) are conjugated its compounds :

dieoudre, UTisem, rip recondre, sew over again

V. The verb moudre grind is thus conjugated :
35. mondre monlant moulu monds moulus

mondrai monlais avoir mouin mouds moulnsse

mondrais monle ^*°' ^^^

Inflection of the pres. indic. and impv. :

Fbes. Indic. Impv.

mouds moulons monlons

monds moulez mouds moulez

moud monlent

a. Like moudre (Lat. molere) are conjugated its compounds :
emondre, whet remoudre, grind over

8. The very irregular verb r6soudre resolve is thus
conjugated :
12

178 LESSON XXXVIII.

36. rsBOudrs resolvant resolu resoods resolui
reBondrai reiolvais avoir resolu resouds resolasBe

^ 3 . > , etc. etc.

resondraiB resolve
Inflection of the pres. indie, and impv. :

Pres. Indic. Impv.

resouds resolvons resolvons

resouds resolvez resouds resolvez

resoud resolvent

a. Nearly like r^soudre are conjugated the other compounds
of -soudre (Lat. solvere) : namely,

absoudre, absolve dissoudre, dissolve

except that their past participles are absoos and dissous (fem.
-scute). And r^sous (only masc.) is also a rarely used participle
of r^soudre, in the sense of dissolved.

9. Of sourdre (Lat. snrgere) rise forth are used only the in-
finitive and the 3d persons pres. indicative : thus,

37. sourdre sourd, sourdent.

VOCABULAEY.
(Besides the verbs given in the Lesson.)
la malle, tlie trunk le mouchoir, tJie handkerehitf

le col, tfte colla/r la manchette, {he cuff

la lefon, the lesson le theme, the exercise, theme

anglais, English allemand, German

EXEBGISE 38.

' Qu'avez-vous appris de votre f rere ? " J'apprends qu'il
va entreprendre un long voyage. ' Permettez-vous qu'il
s'en aille ? ' II I'a resolu, et 11 faut que je le lui permette.
* Est-ce qu'il prendra toutes ces malles avec lui ? ' II ne
prend jamais qu'une malle. ' Voila la malle qu'il a prise
I'ann^e derni^re. ° Prenez ces mouchoirs et mettez-les
dans la malle. ' Est-ce que vous y avez mis les manchettes
et les cols ? " II faut que je les couse avant de les y mettre.
" Ne les cousez pas, il en achetera d'autres. " Si votre
fr^re va en Angleterre, 11 lui faudra apprendre 1' anglais.
"Ha r6solu de I'apprendre, et 11 prend des lemons d' an-
glais depuis un an. " Maintenant il I'aura appris tr^s
bien, je crois. " Comprenez-vous 1' allemand, mademoi-

THE REMAINING VERBS IK re. 179

selle ? " Non, monsieur; mais je me suis mise k I'apprendre.
" Ce qu'on a r6solu d'apprendre, on I'apprend toujours.
" Est-ce que votre chien vous suit ? '° II m'a toujours
suivi ; mais il devient vieux, et je ne crois pas qu'il me
suive plus longtemps. "Les chiens ne vivent pas aussi
longtemps que les hommes. " Bien que celui-ci n'ait vecu
que dix ans, il est d6J£t vieux, et il faut que je me resolve a
en acheter nn autrCb "" Nous vivrons d6sormais dans la ville.

Theme 38.

' You will take ; they have taken ; take it ; we took it ;
will she not take it? I wish that you may take it ; thou
wast taking ; I have taken nothing. ' We would put ; that
they may put ; let us put it there ; he put it in his pocket;
will he not put it there ? I shall put it where I wish ; he
will have put it on the table ; I never put them there. ' They
were living ; he lived ; do we not live ? live ! I wish that
the king may live long ; you would have lived. * She sews ;
they were sewing ; I did not sew ; if you sew, we shall sew
also ; that he might sew ; let us sew. ' That he may re-
solve ; I have resolved ; we shall resolve ; would he not
resolve ? they were resolving ; let us resolve ; she would
not have resolved. ° What have you done with (de) the
handkerchiefs which I was sewing ? 'I put them in your
trunk. ° I did not permit you to (de) put them there. " If
I had not put them there, my brother would not have been
able to go away. '" Which trunk has he taken ? " He has
taken the old black trunk which he took last year. " Have
you learned why he leaves ? '^ My father permits him to
leave, in order that he may learn English " Does he not
understand English ? '^ He does not understand it yet,
but he is beginning to learn it, and he will understand it
soon. " You take English lessons also, I believe. " No,
sir ; but I take German lessons. " This child must under-
stand German, if he is going to Germany. " Where have

180 LESSON XXXIX.

you put your little dog ? "" It is dead ; it lived only three
months. " I took your pencil, and put it on the tahle ; hut
it is no longer there. '" Put your book where you will be
able to find it again.

LESSON XXXIX.

IBEBGULAB VEEBS IN ir.

1. A number of verbs ending in the infinitive in ir
are conjugated alike, and quite regularly.

Such are partir set out, leave, depart, sortir go out, sentir
feel, mentir lie, tell a lie, repentir (reflexive) repent, dormir
servir serve.

a. These verbs are more properly regular than the so-called regular verbs of
the second conjugation (like finlr), since they do not, like the latter, mix togeth-
er simple and inceptive forms. But the verbs like flnlr are much the more nu-
merous.

2. The verb partir is thus conjugated :

38, partir partant parti pars partis

partirai partais etre parti pars partisse

... i etc. etc.

partirais parte

Inflection of the pres. indie, and impv. :

Pkbs. Indic, Impv.

pars partons partons

pars partez pars partez

part partent

3. Of the others in tir, it will be enough to give the
principal parts :

S9.

sortir

sortant

sorti

sors

sortis

40.

sentir

sentant

senti

sens

sentis

41.

mentir

mentant

menti

mens

mentis

42.

repentir

repentant

repenti

repens

repentis

a. Like these verbs (Lat. partirl, sortirl, sentire, mentiri,
-poenitere) are conjugated their compounds :

departir, distribute repartir, set out again

resBortir, go out aga/in

consentir, consent pieaaeatiT, foresee reeaentii, feel, resent
dementir, giue the lie to

IREEGULAB VERBS IN ir. 181

b. But r^paitir distribute is like finir ; and so also ressortir
when it means resort; and assortir assort is not a compound of
sortir, and is regular.

e. As to the auxiliary with partir and sortir, see XXVIII. 7.

4. Of the two verbs in mir and vir, the principal parts
are as follows :

43. dormir dormant dormi dors dormis

44. servir servant servi sers servis

Their pres. indie, (with which the imperative persons, as usual,
agree) are these :

Fres, iNDic. Pres. Indic.

dors dormons sers servons

dors dormez sers servez

dort dorment sert servent

a. Like these verbs (Lat. dormire, servire) are conjugated
their compounds :

endormir, put to Bleep redormir, deep again rendormir, put to
desservir, elewr (a table) sleep again

But asservir s:ubjugate is regular {Uke flnir).

6. The phrase se servir de use, make use of, was given at
XXIX. 76.

• 5. Somewhat less regular is assaillir assodl, which has

a present indicative like a verb of the first conjugation.

a. The principal parts are :

45. assaillir assaillant assailli assaille assaillis
The pres. indic. and impv. are :

Pbbs. Indic. Impv.

assaille assaillons assaillons

assailles assaillez assaille assaillez

assaille assalllent

6. Like assaillir is conjugated another compound of saillir,
tressaillir, he startled
but the simple saillir (Lat. salire) gush forth is like finir ; in
the sense of jut out, project, it has the 3d persons pres. indic.
like assaillir.

6. The verb cueillir gather is still further irregular, in
having also the future and conditional made after the
manner of the first coujugation : thus,

182 LESsojsr XXXIX.

46. cneillir cueillant cueilli cueille cueillis

cueillerai cueillais avoir cueilli cueille cneillisse
caeilleiais cueille

The present tenses are like those of assaillir.

a. Like cueillir (Lat. colligere) are conjugated its compounds :
accueillir, receive recueillir, colleet

7. The verb fuir Jlee, shun has a very regular conju-
gation : thus,

4:7. Aiir fayant fui fais fuB

foirai fuyais avoir fni fois foisBe

fuirais fnie '*"*'*•

The pres. indie, and impv. are :

Fbbs. Ixtac. Isft.

fuis fuyous fayons

fois fuyez fuis fayez

fuit Ment

a. like ftiir (Lat. fngere) is conjugated its compound :
s'enftiir, run a/usay, fij)

8. Of the verb bruire (probably from Lat. mgire) roar, be
noisy, the few forms that occur may best be put here, on account
of their. analogy with those of fuir. They are only

48. bruire bruyant il bruit il bruyait

ils bruyaient

9. The verb ouir hear (Lat. audire) is now hardly used except
in the infinitive and past participle, with the perfect indie, and
pluperfect subj. Its full conjugation is as follows :

49. ouIr oyant onl ois oniB
oirai oyais avoir onl ois oulsse

etc. etc.

oirais oie

10. The verb faillir miss, fall short is also very defective, being
used at present only in the infinitive, future, and conditional,
and in the compound tenses : thus,

50. faillir [faillant] failU [fanz] [faillis]
faillirai [faiUais] avoir failli

faillirais [feille] *'*•'"'=•

a. Other forms of this verb are met with in older use, and
sometimes agreeing in form with those of falloir (originally the
same word : Lat. fallere). As meaning fail {in btisiness), it is
sometimes conjugated like finir.

6. The perfect j'ai failli etc. is used with a following infinitive
in the sense come near, jtist escape : thus, j'ai failli tomber 1
came within an ace of falling.

lEBEGULAE VERBS IN ir. 183

c. The compound d^faillir fail is also used only in a part of
its forms, and with somewhat varying conjugation.

11. The verb vetir clothe differs from the preceding

in having n as ending of its past participle. It is thus

conjugated :

51, vetir vetant vetu vSts vetis

vetirai vetais avoir vetu vets vetisse

vetirais vete "*• "^

Inflection of pres. indie, and impv. :

Pbes. Indic. Ikpt.

vets vetons vetons

vets vetez vets vetez

vet vetent

a. But this verb is also sometimes conjugated Uke finir.
6. Like v6tir (Lat. vestire) are also conjugated its compounds ;
devetir, undathe revetir, redothe, dregs

VOCABULARY.
(Besides the verbs given in the Lesson.)
le ccenr, the hea/rt Tainitie f., the friendship

la voitore, the cwrriage adien, farewell, adie/u

!• mari, the huAand le bean-frere, the brother-in-lwu>

Exercise 39.
' Pourquoi sortiez-vous de bonne heure aujourd'hui ? ' Je
snis sorti avec mon ami, qui partait pour I'Angleterre.
' On m'avait dit qu'il ne partirait pas avant ce soir. ' On a
menti, monsieur; il est parti ce matin. ' S'il n'etait pas parti
de si bonne heure, nous nous serions lev6s pour lui dire
adieu ; mais nous dormions encore. ' Moi, je n'ai point
dormi ; je me sentais trop malheureux. ' Ressentez-vous
tant d'amiti6 pour lui ? ' Je ne mens pas; je I'aime de tout
mon coeur. " Est-ce que les enfants sont partis ? " Us sor-
tirent il y a deux heures. " Qu'est-ce qu'ils font ? " lis
vont donner anx pauvres soldats malades les fleurs qu'ils
ont cueillies. " lis sont sortis ce matin, et ils ont cueilli
les fleurs dans les champs. '* De quoi se sont ils servis pour
aller aux champs ? " lis se sont servis de notre grande voi-

184 LESSON XXXIX.

•ttire. " Qui est cette femme, qui est v^tue de noir ? " C'est
ma tante ; depuis la mort de son enfant elle se v^t tou-
jours ainsi. " Elle a failli perdre anssi son mari. " J'ai
oui dire que les soldats avaient f ui devant I'ennemi. " On
a menti ; les soldats frangais ne fuient jamais. "' Celui qui
ment doit ^tre puni. "" Ne sortez pas, mon ami ; il fait
trop froid.

Theme 39.

' Let us set out ; they were setting out ; she ■would de-
part ; shall you not set out ? that he might depart ; she
has departed ; you would have departed. ' Is he not sleep-
ing ? she slept ; if he had slept ; sleep ! that you may
sleep ; if we had not slept. ' You clothe ; they had not
clothed ; do I not clothe ? that you might clothe ; let us
clothe. * She gathers flowers ; we will gather flowers for
her ; she has gathered them for us ; why have you not
gathered any flowers ? " Go out of this room ; he will not
go out of it ; we have gone out of the town ; he went out
by the door ; you will go out by the window. ° Why does
this woman always dress herself in black ? ' She dresses
herself in black because she has lost her husband. ' Let us
gather some violets in order to give to her. ' Where have
you gathered these beautiful flowers ? '° We went out of
the house and gathered them in the garden. " Did your
cousins go away in the large carriage ? " No, they made
use of the small carriage. "Where have they gone?
" They did not sleep at all here. " I go to sleep very early,
when I am in (A,) the country. " We shall sleep before
going out. " Has the teacher gone away without saying
farewell to us ? " Although he has lied to us, we still feel
friendship for him. " Why do these women dress them-
selves so badly ? " They are very poor, and they use old
dresses, which some one has given them. " Let us flee,
while our enemies sleep.

IBBEGULAB VEBBS IIT IT. 185

lESSON XL.

OTHER IBBEQULAB YEBBS IN ir.

1. In this Lesson will be given the rest of the irregu-
lar verbs having the infinitive ending in ir.

2. The verb courir rwn, is thus conjugated :

52. coniir conrant

conru

conrs oonms

conrrai courais
conrrais coore

avoir couru

etc. etc.

conrs connsse

The pres. indie, and impv. are

Fkes. Ihdic

IMFV.

conrs conrons

conrons

conrs coTirez

COOTS

conrez

court coment

a. Note the double pronunciation of the rr in the (abbreviated)
fut. and cond. of this verb i^Zd).

b. Like conrir (Lat. currere) are conjugated its compounds :
acconrir, ran up enconrir, incur reconrir, recur
concoorir, concur parconrir, traverse seconrir, succor
disconrir, discourse

c. An old form of the infinitive, courre, is sometimes used as a
hunting term.

3. Four verbs — ^namely, offrir qfer\ Bouffrir suffer,

ouvrir open, and convrir cover — have ert as ending of

the past participle, and e of the present indicative ; thus,

a. 53, offiir offirant offert oSn offiris

offirirai offirais avoir offert o£:e offrisse

ofiirais offire *'"**°-

The pres. indie, and impv. are ;

IHFT.

offiroos
offire ofiez

PBE3.

INDIO.

offire

offirons

offi:es

offirez

offire

offirent

186 LESSON XL.

b. Of the others, it will be enough to give the principal parts :

54. sonffrir soufErant souffert souf&re souffiis

55. ouvrir ouvrant ouvert ouvre onvris

56. couvrir couTiant eouvert couvre couvris

c. Of offrir (Lat. offerre) and soirfeir (Lat. sufferre), there are
no compounds ; hke ouvrir (Lat. ajierire) and couvrir (Lat.
cooperire) are conjugated their compounds :

rouvrir, reopen entr'ouvrir, half open

deoouvrir, discover recouvrir, cover again

4. Certain verbs in it are used in only a few f onns :
a. 51. Ferir strike (Lat. ferire) occurs only in the infinitive

(and, very rarely, the past participle fSru).
6. 58, Issir issue (Lat. exire) has only the past participle

issu (and, according to some, also the present participle issant).
c. G^sir lie (Lat. jacere) has only the following parts :

59. gesir gisant gis

gisais

And of the pres. indie. , only the 3d. sing, and the plural per-
sons are in use : thus,

glsona
gisez
git gisent

especially in the phrase ci git Tiere lies, on a tombstone. As to
the pronunciation of s in this verb, see 74c.

5. The remaining verbs in ir change the root-vowel
in a part of their forms — namely, in those persons of the
three present tenses which are accented on the root, being
either monosyllables or followed only by a mute syllable.

6. The verbs venir come and tenir hold are conjugated
precisely alike. They change their e to ie in the accented
persons ; and also in the future and conditional, which
are irregularly formed.

a. Of venir the whole conjugation has been already
given (XXXI. 10); it takes (XXVIII. 6) 6tre as auxili-
ary. Only its principal parts will be repeated here :

QO. venir yenant venn viens tIiui

h. The verb tenir is thus conjugated :

IBBEGDLAR VEBBS IN ir. 18?

61.

tenir

tenant

tenu tiens

tins

tiendrai

tenais

avoir tenu tiens

tinsse

tiendrais

tienne

etc. etc.

The inflection of the present tenses is as follows :

Pebs. Ihdio.

IMPV

Fbes, Sdbj,

tiens

tenons

tenons tienne

tenions

tiens

tenez

tiens

tenez tiennes

teniez

tient

tiennent

tienne

tiennent

c. Like venir (Lat. venire) and tenir (Lat. tenere) are conju-
gated their numerous and much-used compounds :

advenir, happen parvenir, a/rrive ressouvenir, remmd

avenir, happem, intervenir, intervene

eJieoTrreBiXfCircum- prevenir, <

contrevenir, contra- provenir, proceed

vene

convenir, agree redevenir, become again se sonvenir, remember

devenir, become revenir, return, come snbvenir, a^M,

back

disconvenir, disagree survenir, corns in addi-
tion

abstenir, abstain detenir, detain obtenir, obtain

appartenir, belong entretenir, entertain retenir, retain

contenir, contain maintenir, waintain sontenir, sustain

d. For the auxiliary used with venir and most of its com-
pounds, see XXVIII. 6a.

7. The verb mourir die changes its ou to eu in the ac-
cented forms, and is also irregular in the future and con-
ditional. It is conjugated thus :

62. mourir monrant mort

menrs monms

mourrai monrais etre mort

menrs moumsse

mourrais menre etcoxa.

The inflection of the three present tenses

is:

Fbes. Indic, Impv.

FBXa SUBJ,

menrs monrons monrons

menre monrions

meurs monrez menrs moni-Oa

menres monriez

meurt menrent

meure meurent

188 LESSON XL.

With mourir (Lat. mori) are formed no compounds.

a. For the pronunciation of rr in the fut. and cond., see 73(f.

8. Of the simple verb qu6rir seek, only the infinitive
is in use ; but its compounds are fully conjugated.

As example may be taken acqn^rir acquire. The change of
the root- vowel e is to ie (as in venir) ; the future is made as in
mourir and courir.

63. acquerir acqaerant acquis acqniers acquis

acqaerrai acquerais avoir acquis acqniers acquisse

• •^ etc. etc.

acquerrais acquiere

The inflection of the three present tenses is :

Pees. Indic. Impv. tjrbs. Subj,

acquiers acqaerons acquerons acquiere acqnerions

acquiers acquerez acquiers acquerez acquieres acqueriez
acquiert acqnierent acquiere acquiereut

a. In the same manner are conjugated the other compounds of
-qn^rir (Lat. quaerere) :

conquerir, conquer s'enquerir, iTiquir* reconquerir, reconquer

requerir, require

9. The verb bouillir hoil is conjugated nearly like partir
(XXXIX. 2), being irregular only in the singular of the present
indicative and imperative. Thus :

64:. bouillir bouillant bouilli bous bouillis

bouillirai bouillais avoir bouilli Iioos bonillisse

bouiUirais boniUe ^'°-'*°-

Inflection of the pres. indic. and impv. :

Impv.

bouillons
bous bouillez

a. Like bouillir (Lat. buUlre) are conjugated its compounds :
ebouillir, hoil ama/y rebouillir, boil again

VOCABULAET.
(Besides the verbs given in the Lesson.)
I'air m., t}i£ air le pied, the foot

le bas, the slocking le Soulier, the shoe

la poule, the fowl, hen la basse-cour, the poultry-ya/rd

trold, cold cbaud, uja/rm

PBKS.

IHDIC.

bous

bouillons

bous

bouillez

bout

bouillent

IREEGULAK VEEBS IN IT. 189

Exercise 40.

' Est-oe que vous ne vous sentez pas bien, mon enfant ?
" J'ai mal a la t6te, et je souffre beaucoup. ' II vous faut
de I'air frais ; j'ouvrirai la fen^tre. * Si vous ouvrez la
fen^tre, j'aurai froid. ' Alors sortez, et courez dans le jar-
din. ' Nous avons beaucoup couru ce matin, et nous avons
mal aux pieds. 'Nous courrons ce soir, si vous voulez.
' Que f aites-vous Id ? ° Je f ais bouillir de I'eau ; nous aliens
avoir du the. '° 11 faut que I'eau bouiUe, pour faire de bon
the. " Lorsque j'aurai fait le th6, je vous en ofErirai.
" Pourquoi ne m'avez-vous pas offert aussi des oeufs ? " Les
ceufs ne m'appartiennent pas ; done je ne vous les offre pas.
" Qu'est-ce que vous tenez dans la main ? " Un livre qui
appartient k mon fr^re ; il a appartenu autrefois k Mon-
sieur B. " Mon ami mo'urut I'annee derni^re. '' II 6tait de-
venu trSs pauvre, et depuis qu'il est mort, on a du vendre
tout ce qui lui appartenait. " Mon p6re a acquis beaucoup
de Mens en travaillant ; si vous travaillez, vous en acquer-
rez aussi. " Je n'ai pas ouvert ce livre-M. " Que quelqu'un
ouvre la porte, ou je moun-ai. ^' On vient d'ouvrir la porte
de la basse-cour, et toutes les poules courent dans le jardin.
"' Si nous avipns des has et des souliers, nous ne souffririons
pas du froid aux pieds.

Theme 40.

' They run ; we were running ; you ran ; he will run ;
she would run ; let us run ; that I may run ; that thou
mightest run. ' Offer ! we shall offer it to him ; they would
have oflEered them to me ; I offered her nothing ; thou
never offerest anything to anybody. ' He holds ; will you
not hold ? hold ! they were holding ; that she might hold ;
we should have held ; do not hold it ; that he may hold
them. * Why do not thfise children run ? ' Their feet have
become cold, and they cannot run any more. "If you run

190 LESSON XLI.

very fast, your feet will become warm. ' These poor chil-
dren have been able to obtain neither shoes nor-stockings.
' Their father has died, and they have become very poor.
• He died six months ago ; and now their mother is dying.
'° We have offered her a fowl, but she suffers so much that
she cannot eat. " They are suffering from headache. " If
they opened the window, they would have more air, and
they would suffer less. " Where does he acquire all his
money ? " He has sold all that which belonged to him,
but he has not acquired much. "If he works well, he will
acquire more. " This dress belongs to me, and I will offer
it to her. " Let us offer to the children the old shoes which
have belonged to us. " The water boils ; make the tea.
" Give me some boiling water, and I will make it. " If my
uncle does not come back to-day, he will come back cer-
tainly to-morrow.

LESSON XLI.

lEKEGTJLAE VEEBS IN olr.

1. The verbs ending in oir are much less numerous

than the irregular ones in ir aud in re, but some of them

are very common and important.

We may take up first among them a little group ending in the
infinitive in evoir, which in many grammars are treated as a
separate regular conjugation— called the third, the verbs in re
being reckoned as the fourth.

2. The verb recevoir receive is thus conjugated :

65. recevoir recevant re9u refois regus

recevrai recevais avoir re;u regois re9nsBe

recevrais re9oive etcetc.

The inflection of the present tenses is :

IBBBGULAB VERBS IN oir. 191

Fbes. Indic Ihpv. Preb, Subj.

refoii reoevons recevons refoive reoeTiona

refois recevez refois recevez refoives reoeviez

r0;oit refoivent refoive Te9oiTent

a. like recevoir are conjugated the other compounds of -oevoir
(Lat. -cipere) ; namely,

concevoir, conceive decevoir, deceive percevoir, receive

apercevoir, perceive

3. In the same manner is conjugated also the verb
devoir owe, which has been given in full above (XXVI.
12 etc.) ; its principal parts are :

66. devoir devant du dois diu

a. like devoir (Lat. debere) is conjugated its compound :
redevoir, owe again

4. The verb voir see is thus conjugated :

67' voir yoyant vn vols vis

verrai voyais avoir va vois visse

▼ errais vole eus.etc

The present tenses are thus inflected :

PBES. iKDia iHPT. Pkes. Sttbj.

vois voyons voyons voie voyions

vois voyez vois voyez voies voyiez

voit voient voie voient

a. Like voir (Lat. videre) are conjugated two of its com-
pounds :

revoir, see again entrevoir, see pa/rtly

b. But two other compounds, prevoir foresee and pourvoir
provide, make regular futures and conditionals, and the latter
also has the preterit in ns instead of is : thus,

68. prevoir prevoyant prevu prevois previs
prevoirai prevoyais avoir prevu prevois previsse

' . . '' . etc. etc.

prevoirais prevoie

c. Of pourvoir it will be enough to give the principal parts :

69. pourvoir ponrvoyant ponrvu pourvois povrvns

d. Like pourvoir is conjugated its compound

deponrvoir, deprive

5. Of the verb choir fall, only the infinitive and the
past participle chu are now in use.

192 LESSON XLI.

But its compound d^choir fall, decay is still conju-
gated in full.
70. dechoir [dechoyant] decha dechoi8 dechns

decherrai dechoyais avoir dechn dechois dechnsse .

,>, . ,^.. etc. etc

decherrais decnoie
The pres. indie, and impv. are thus inflected :

PbES, iNDIC. IHF7.

dechois dechoyons dechoyons

dechois dechoyez dechois dechoyez

dechoit dechoient

a. The pres. pple is not in use, and in its value as gerund after
en (X. 3c, d!) is found d^ch^ant.

6. The other compound of choir (Lat. cadere), namely

echoir, fall in
is conjugated in the same way, but is used in only a few of its
forms, chiefly the 3d persons singular : thus, pres. ^choit (some-
times ^chet), pret. ^chut, gerund ^ch^ant, etc.

6. The verb pleuvoir rain is impersonal, or used only
in the third persons singular (XXX. 1) ; it is thus con-
jugated :

tl. plenvoir pleuvant pin pleut pint

p 1 e n V r a pleuvait avoir pin pint

, .J. „i^ ^ eto. etc.

plenvrait plenve
a. Of pleuvoir (Lat. pin ere) there are no compounds.

7. For apparoir and comparoir, see XXXVI. ftd.

VOCABULAET.

(Besides the verbs given in the Lesson.)

le projet, ths plan, prqject le paqnet, the package

le hesoin, the need, requirement la difficnlte, the diffleuUy

le ponvoir, the power pent-etre, perhaps, ma/jjbe

Exercise 41.

' J'ai regu nne lettre de men ami. " Qu'est-ce qu'il vous
4crit ? ' II me dit qu'il me verra demain, s'il ne pleut pas.
' B pleuvra certainement, et je ne le reverrai jamais. ' II
faut que vous le voyiez av^nt de partir. ° Je ne confoiB
popt pourquoi vous voulez partir. ' II a couqu un projet.

iBREGtrLAR VEEBS IN oir. 193

dont il n'aper9oit pas encore toutes les difficult6s. ' N'a-
vez-vous pas re9u le petit paquet dont je voue ai parle ?
' Nous ne Favions pas trouvS, mais nous le voyons mainte-
nant. '° Est-ce que vous ^tes pourvu d'argent pour tons
vos besoins ? " Oui, et nous en recevrons encore le mois
prochain. " Avez-vous vu le roi depuis qu'il est dechu du
pouvoir? "II partit pour I'Angleterre, et il n'a jamais
revu la France. " Avez-vous vu les soldats qui partaient
pour la guerre ? " Je ne les ai pas vus ; il pleuvait, et je
n'ai pas pu sortir. " Nous les reverrons dans quelques
jours. " Avez-vous re9u des lettres du general B. ? " Les
lettres ne sont pas encore venues ; il faut qu'il les regoive
demain. " Pourquoi n'^tes-vous pas venu me voir hier?
"" Parce qu'il a tant plu. " DSs que je vous verrai chez
nous, je vous montrerai le cadeau que je viens de recevoir
de lui.

Theme 41.

' They will receive ; let us receive ; he received ; she was
receiving ; you receive ; that she might receive ; we have
received them ; they had received it ; that I may have re-
ceived her. ' Do you see ? I have seen nothing ; he will
see what I saw ; let us see ; did you not see him ? they •
will have seen us ; though he had not seen them, they saw ^
him. ' It rained ; it would have rained if it had not been
too cold ; it has not rained to-day, but it will rain to-mor-
row ; if it rains to-day, it will not snow. * Have you seen
the general to-day ? ° No, but I saw him yesterday, and I
shall perhaps see him to-morrow. ' You will not see him
again; he has gone off to the war. 'Tou have received
a letter ; is it not so ? ' Here is the letter which we have
rieceived this morning ; we shall receive a package this
evening. ' I shall receivq|money from my father next week.
'° He must receive many letters from us. " Do you ndv
perceive the difficulties of the plan which you have con-

194 LESSON XLII.

ceived ? "I perceive all the difficulties, but I must provide
for (k) the needs of my family. " Although I have seen
my father, I have received no money from him. '* Whom
did you see in Paris ? ''I saw no one of my friends. '" It
rained so much that nobody came to see me. " Although
it rained a good deal, I went to the shops, but I saw noth'
ing there. " If it had not rained, I should have seen you
there. " Does it not rain ? "" I do not think that it rains
now ; but it will perhaps rain this evening. " We could
see nothing, for it was night.

LESSON XLII.

THE EEMAmiNG lEEEGUI/AE VERBS (iN OIT AND Cr).

1. ' The remaining verbs in oir are more irregular in
their conjugation, and for the most part show changes of
radical vowel in the inflection of their present tenses.

2. Of the extremely common verb vouloir wish, he
willing, will, the conjugation has already (XXIV. 6 etc.)
been given in full. The principal parts are here re-
peated :

72. Tonloir vonlant toqIh veux vonlns

a. Of vonloir (Lat. velle) there are no compounds.

3. The verb valoir he worth, ha/oe the value of is con-
jugated nearly like vouloir. Thus :

tS. valoir yalant

V a u d r a i valais

vaudrais vaille
The inflection of the present tenses is :

PBBS. INDIO. IHPT.

yaux valons

raux valez vaux

▼ant valent

vain

vaox

valuB

avoir valu

etc. etc.

vauz

valnsae

inses is :

valons

PRK8.

vaiUe

Sdbj.
valions

valez

vailles

vaUez

vaiUe

vaiUent

IBKEGTTLAK VEBBS lU" Oir AND BT. 195

a. Like valoir (Lat. valere) are conjugated its compounds :
^nivaloir, be equivalent prevaloir, prevail revaloir, pay hack
except that pr^valoir makes the pres. subj. prevale etc.

6. Be worth more is valoir mieux ; be worth the trouble or be
worth while is vak/ir la peine.

4. The impersonal verb fEdloir he necessary, must has

been conjugated in full above (XXX. 6 etc.). Its forms

closely correspond "with those of valoir. The principal

parts may be repeated here :

74. &UoiT faUant falln faut fallut
a. This verb and faillir (XXXIX. 9) are by origin one (Lat.

fallere).

6. The extremely common verb pouvoir he able, can
has been given in full above (XXV. 8 etc.). Its princi-
pal parts may be repeated here :

75. pouvoir ponvant pa penz, puis pus

6. The verb mouvoir move is thus conjugated :

76. mouToir mouvant mu mens mus
monvrai mouTais avoir mu mens musse
mouvrais meuve °'°"' '

The circumflex is taken only by the singular masculine of the
participle. The inflection of the present tenses is :

Fbbs. Iia>io. IMPV. Pees. Subj.

mens monvons moavons meuve mouvions

mens . mouvez mens mouvez meuyes mouyiez

meut meuvent meuve meuvent

a. Like mouvoir (Lat. movere) are conjugated its compounds :
emouvoir, agitate, move promouvoir, promote

but they take no circumflex in the participle : thus, ^mu, promu.

7. Of the common verb savoir know, know how the
full conjugation has been already given (XXXIV. 6 etc.).
The principal parts only are here repeated :

77. savoir sacliaiit su saia sus
a. Savoir (Lat. sapere) has no compounds.

8. The verb seoir sit is defective as a simple verb.
But its compound asseoir — chiefly used reflexively, s'as-

196 > LESSON XLII.

seoir seat on^s self, sit down — is conjugated in full.
Thus:

T/8. asseoir asseyant assis assieds assis

assierai asseyais avoir assis assieds assisse

. ^ . etc. etc.

assierais asseye
The usual inflection of the present tenses is this :

Pbes. Indic. Impt, Pres. Subj.

assieds asseyons asseyons asseye asseyons

assieds asseyez assieds asseyez asseyes asseyez

assied asseyent asseye asseyent

a. The above are the more usual and accepted forms. But a
variety of others are occasionally met with : thus, pres. indic. and
impv. asBois, asseyons, etc. ; impf . assojrais ; pres. subj. assoie ;
fut. assoirai, or asseyerai. The compound rasseoir seat again
is conjugated like asseoir.

6. Of the simple verb seoir (Lat. sedere) in the sense of sit are
used almost only the infinitive and the two participles (seyant and
sis ) ; but in the sense of sit on, fit (said of clothes and the like),
the 3d persons sled silent, seyait seyaient, si^ra si^ront, si^e
silent, are also met with. The compound messeoir fit hadly,
misfit is used in the same forms, except the infinitive.

c. Another compound of seoir — namely surseoir supersede —
lacks the pres. participle and the parts made from it, and has the
pres. indic. sursois and the fut. surseoirai.

9. 79. Of the old verb sonloir he a/:customed (Lat. solere) is
left in use only the imperfect soulait, itself antiquated and rare.

10. 80. Of the common auxiliary avoir have the com-
plete conjugation was given above (X.).

a. The sole compound of avoir (Lat. habere), namely ravoir
have again, is used only in the infinitive.

11. There are only two irregular verbs having tht
infinitive ending in er.

One of these, envoyer send, is irregular only in the
future and conditional (which are like those from voir).
It is thus conjugated :
81. envoyer envoyant envoys envoie envoyai

enverrai envoyais avoir envoye envoie envoyasse
enverrais envoie etc.etc.

a. Like envoyer is conjugated its compound :
renvoyer, send back

lEBBGULAB, VBSB8 IN oir AND Cr. 19?

12. The other irregular verb in er — namely, aller go
—has been conjugated in fuU above (XXYII. 8 etc.).
Its principal parts are repeated here :

S2. aller allant alle vais allai

13. 83. The common auxiliary 6tre he is, like aller,
made up of the forms of more than one root. Its com-
plete conjugation was given above (XI.),

a. Of Stre (Lat. esse, stare) there is no compound.

VOCABULABT.
le taillenr, the tailor la contnriere, the d/rernnake/f

le cordonnier, the shoemaker la botte, the boot

le manteau, the cloak le recit, the tale, story

le franc, the frame le feu, the fire

■jiret de, near to, nea/r autonr de, a/round, dbout

Exercise 43.
" ' Qui vous a envoy6 cet habit ? ' Men tailleur me I'en-
voya il y a deux jours ; mais il ne me sied pas bien. ' Vous
le lui renverrez, n'est-ce pas ? * II vaut mieux en acheter
un autre. 'Allons, nous irons chez la couturiSre acheter
un manteau. ° Celui que vous portiez I'hiver dernier vous
seyait trop mal. ' Je vous en donnerai un qui vous si6ra
mieux. ' Asseyez-vous pendant que je le cherche. ° Est-ce
que celui- ci vous plait ? '° Combien vaut-il ? " II vaut cent
vingt-cinq francs ; mais ce manteaii-l^ vaudra deux cents
francs. " Mon vieux manteau ne valait que quatre-vingts
francs. '" Pourquoi le cordonnier ne m'a-t-il pas envoyS
mes bottes ? " Le pauvre homme est malade ; il les en-
verra d6s qu'il se portera mieux. "II m'a fait le r6cit de
ses malheurs ; et j'en suis tout 6mu. " Les malheurs des
pauvres emeuvent tous les coeurs. " Assieds-toi, mon en-
fant. " J'ai tr^s froid, madame ; il ne faut pas que je
m'asseye. " Tu t'assi6ras prds du feu, n'est-ce pas ? " Pen-
dant que tu y seras assis, nous enverrons chercher des gd-
teaux pour toi et ta petite soeur. " Cela ne vaut pas la
peine, madame ; nous n'avons pas faim.

198 LBSS02Sr XLII.

Theme 42.

' They have sat down ; sit down ; do not sit down there;
I will sit down ; we sat down ; that she may sit down ; he
sits down. ' What is that worth ? it is worth nothing ;
they were worth ten francs last month ; they will be worth
twelve francs to-morrow. ° That is not worth the tronble.
* Those books are worth more than these. ' Will the dress-
maker send you anything to-day ? ° She has already sent
me a cloak. ' Does it fit you ? " No, the things that she
sends me never fit me ; I shall send it back to her to-mor-
row. ' Are you going to take the coat which the tailor has
sent you ? '° That one was worth a hundred francs, and I
shall buy one which is worth (fut.) only seventy-five francs.
" Who makes your boots ? " An English shoemaker makes
them, and they fit me always well. " I must send [and]
buy some. " How much are they worth ? " They are very
dear ; they are worth fifty francs. " It is not worth the
trouble to (de) show them to me ; I shall not buy them.
" It will be better to buy our boots from this poor French
shoemaker. " Why have you seated yourselves about the
fire ? and what has moved you so much ? " Charles is tell-
ing (fairs) the tale of the poor king. "" Sit down also, and
hear the tale. " This tale does not move me, and I do not
wish to sit down. "' The tale is finished ; let us go away.

SECOND PART.

L— THE RELATION OF FRENCH TO LATIN.

1. The French is a language descended or derived
from Latin.

a. By this is meant, that the old Latin has gradually changed
into French, by processes of alteration similar to those which
every living language (English as well as the rest) is undergoing
at the present day. These processes consist in the loss of old
words and forms, the acquisition of new words (in considerable
part, by borrowiiig out of other languages) and new forms (this,
however, on only a very small scale), and the alteration in respect
to meaning and construction of what has been preserved from
former times : and all this, accompanied by a great change in the
pronounced form of the words preserved, partly by abbreviation,
partly by turning certain sounds into certain other sounds. To
explain all this in detail would be the duty of a comparative or
historical grammar of French ; only the principal points can be
touched upon here.

6. What we call French is only one among many dialects found
in France. But it is the principal dialect, the one taught in the
schools, and universally used by educated people and in literature.
In a similar way, what we call Latin was the cultivated or literary
dialect of Eome and its provinces, and some of the peculiarities
of the other dialects, imperfectly known to us, may be traced in
French.

c. By race, the French people is mainly Celtic, related with
the Welsh, the Bretons, the Irish, and the Scotch Highlanders.
Their Latin language was a consequence of the conquest and gov-
ernment of the country by Eome, and the introduction of Boman
institutions. Extremely little of Celtic language is left in French.
The country was later conquered by Germanic tribes, especially
the Franks, from whose name come the words France, French,
etc. ; and the French vocabulary contains a considerable number
of words of German origin. But also, in later times, a great

204 THE RELATION OF FBElfCH TO LATIK. [1—

many words have been borrowed into French, just as into Eng-
lish, out of the classical languages, especially the Latin. The
words thus obtained from Latin are in general much less altered
than those that form a part of the language by regular descent

d. Other languages besides French are descended from Latin,
in the same way as French, and are therefore related (as it is
called) with the latter. The chief among them are the Italian,
the Spanish and Portuguese, and the Wal&chian. They form to-
gether the group of so-called Bomanic languages.

e. The oldest specimens preserved to us of what has the right to
be called French, as distinguished from Latin, date from the tenth
century ; a considerable French literature b^ins in the twelfth
century. But the Old French of that period is very different from
the present French, so different that a Frenchman has to study it
hard in order to understand it (much as we have to study the
Anglo-Saxon). Its condition is in many respects intermediate
between those of Latin and of modem French, and it illustrates
in a very instructive way the transition from the one to the other
of these.

2. Of the changes of pronounced form by which Latin

words have become French words, a very brief statement,

touching only upon the most important points, is here

given.

a. The accented syllable of the Latin word is the last fuUy pro-
nounced syllable of the French word, being either actually the
final syllable, or virtually so, as having after it only a syllable
containing a mute e.

Examples are : F. aimer, L. ama're ; aimerent, amave'rant ;
fates, fnis'tis ; cruel, crade'lem ; &ire, fac^ere ; frSle, tra^i-
lem ; siecle, sec'nlam ; &ble, fab'nlam.

6. If the accented syllable is preceded in Latin by two others,
the latter of these, when a short vowel, is lost ; when a long, is
changed to e : thus, bonte, bonlta'tem ; bl4mer, blaspbema're ;
poitrail, pectora'Ie ; cercler, circiila're ; but omement, oma-
men'tam ; vStement, vestimen'tnni.

c. Of vowels not lost, those that in Latin were followed by more
than one consonant oftenest remain unchanged in French : thus,
arbre, arborem ; sept, septem ; fort, fortem ; juste, justmn :
yet i in such a position becomes e, and n more usually on: thus,
ferme, flrmam; sourd, sardam. In other situations, a vowel
long in quantity is treated otherwise than a short : short a, e, i, u
becoming respectively ai, ie, oi, on, as maigre, macerom; fier,
femm; poire, pirum; loup, Inpam; while long a and e become
e and oi, as nez, nasiun; avoine, avenam ; and long i and a re-

4] CHAKGES OP LATIN SOUNDS TO FRENCH. 305

tain the same form, as ami, amicnin ; pnr, purum. But long
and short o both become eu, as nenf, nov'em ; henre, ho'ram.
The diphthong au becomes o, as or, aurum ; and se and oe be-
come e or ie, as ciel, csBlum.

d. Of the Latin consonants, the hquids m, n, 1, r have on the
whole suffered least alteration : thus, vonir, venire ; nous, nos ;
mer, mare ; nom, nomen ; lettre, literam ; sel, sal ; rare, rarum;
ver, vermem; their exchanges with one another are only ex-
ceptional. The mutes, c and g, and t and d, are often lost be-
tween vowels : thus, faire, facere ; froid, frigidum ; chaine,
catena m; crnel, crndelem ; and sometimes b: thus, ayant,
habentem. In other situations (as sometimes in this), they re-
main ; or the surd mute (c, t, p) is changed to the sonant (g, d,
b) ; and c and t not seldom become sibilants ; thus, char, caram ;
raison, rationem. The vowels brought together by the loss of
an intervening consonant then show another series of combina-
tions and changes.

e. Groups of two or more consonants, either coming from the
Latin, or arising by the loss of an intermediate vowel, are to a
great extent simplified, by the loss or assimilation of a consonant :
thus, fait, factum; route, rnplam; dette, debitum ; dame,
dominam. Those groups of which r or 1 is a member undergo
least alteration. But before 1 or r is not seldom inserted a mute
after a nasal : thus, epingle, spinulam ; humble, hnmilem ;
cendre, cinerem ; chambre, cameram. Very frequent, even in
inflection, is the change of 1 before another consonant into u:
thus, autre, alternm ; coupable, culpabilem ; vaut, valet ; che-
vauz from chevals, travaux from travails, and so on. To ini-
tial sc, St, sp was prefixed an e : thus, escalier, scalariam ; es-
tomac, stomacimm ; esprit, spiritum ; and then, in many such
words, the s was later dropped, and the e marked with the acute
accent : thus, ^cole (earlier escole), scbolam ; €tnde, studinm ;
€ponz, sponsum, and many others.

3. The differences in inflection between Latin and
French consist chiefly in losses by the latter of forms
possessed by the former.

They may be summarily stated as f oUows :

4. In declension, or inflection for case and number
and gender, in nouns and adjectives and pronouns :

a. The distinctions of case have been entirely lost in modem
French, except to a certain extent among pronouns.

For the distinction in pronouns of subject and object, or nomi-
native and accusative, and, in the 3d personal pronoun, of direct

306 THE BELATION OP FKENOH TO LATIN. [4—

and indirect object, or accusative and dative, see the Lessons on
the Pronouns (XXII. -XXVI.).

b. In Old French, there still remained a distinction of subject
and object form, or nominative and accusative, in nouns. Thus,
murs wall (L. murus) nom., mur (murum) accus. sing.; mnr
(muri) nom. , murs (mures) accus. plur. ; and so pS.tre shepherd
(L. pas'tor) nom., pasteur (pasto'rem) accus.; sire sir (L.
se'nior) nom., sieur (senio'rem) accus. But this also died
gradually out ; and it was generally the accusative or objective
form that remained in use, in either number: thus, mnr sing.,
murs plur. That is to say, the French noun is, as a rule, the
representative of the Latin accusative, and has its pronounced
form determined by that of this case, and not by that of the Latin
nominative.

c. In a few cases, however, the nominative form has been re-
tained instead ; examples are fils, soeur, peintre, anc@tre, traitre.
And sometimes (as in pd.tre pasteur, sire sieur, mentioned above)
both forms are left in French, as apparently independent words.

d. There remains in most French nouns and adjectives a dis-
tinction of the plural from the singular. And the s that marks
the plural is, as seen above, that of the Latin accusative plural
(that is, as found in words having a difference of nominative and
accusative plural, as rosse rosas, muri muros ; pastores having
both values).

e. The Latin triple distinction of gender, as masculine, femi-
nine, and neuter, is represented in French by a double one only,
since the differences of masculine and neuter forms have been
effaced, and these two genders have been merged into one, which
we call masculine. There are a number of exceptions to the iden-
tity of gender between a Latin noun and its French descendant ;
they are pointed out below (§ 12). Those adjectives which in
Latin had the same form in masculine and feminine, as grandis,
have mostly come to have a distinction of gender — as grand,
grande — made in them in modem French, by analogy with the
others ; in Old French this was wanting, and such combinations
as graud'mere, grand'messe, grand'route (instead of grande
mere etc.) are relics of the former state of things. Traces of
old neuter forms (used adverbially) are to be seen in the adverbs
mieux (melius), pis (pejus), moins (minus), as distinguished
from the adjectives meilleor (meliorem), pire (pejorem), moin-
dre (minorem).

/. The Latih comparison of adjectives is almost lost ; the su-
perlative being entirely gone, and of the comparative only a few
examples being left, in adjectives (IX. 3) and adverbs (XXXI. 8).

5. The changes in the inflection of verbs, or in con-

iugation, are as follows :

5] VERB-INFLECTION-. 207

a. The Latin passive is entirely lost, its place being filled with
compound forms, or verb-phrases.

6. Of the tenses of the active, there are saved in French the
present, imperfect, and perfect indicative, and the present and
pluperfect subjunctive— the last, with the value of a past simply.
Then there are supplied a new future and conditional, made by
combining the infinitive with an auxiliary (see V. 5c, VI. 66).
And a whole series of compound tenses, or verb-phrases, made
with an auxiliary, are added.

c. The endings of tense-inflection are much changed, although
the distinctions of person and number are well preserved. Of
the 1st singular, all signs of a final m are lost ; but an s has in
recent time (since the 14th century) got itself generally added,
though even now sometimes omitted in poetry. The final s of the
2d singular is everywhere retained. The final t of the 3d singu-
lar is to a great extent lost, but reappears by analogy in case
certain subject-pronouns follow, and is treated as if a euphonic
insertion (I. 10c). The mns of the 1st plural is retained as mes
in all preterits, and in the present sommes (sumus) ; elsewhere
it is contracted to ns (for ms), and a constant o has come to be
prefixed. The tis of the 2d plural is retained as tes in aE pret-
erits, and in the presents Stes, faites, dites ; elsewhere the t is
lost, and ez written, instead of es. The nut of the 3d plural has
become in general ent (of which, however, the n is wholly lost in
pronunciation) ; but it is ont instead in four present tenses,
namely sent, font, vent, ont (and hence also in the futures,
which contain ont as auxiliary : V. 5c) .

d. The Latin infinitive active is saved as French infinitive ; also
one case of the gerund, in the so-called present participle as used
with en (more properly called gerund : see X. 3c, d). The su-
pines and the gerundives, or future passive participles, are gone.
The present active and the past (passive) participles are retained ;
and the latter, with auxiliaries, makes a double series of verb-
phrases, active and passive.

e. The four Latin conjugations are much made over. The
French 1st conjugation, indeed, corresponds in the main to the
Latin 1st, and has become still more the predominant one, in-
cluding perhaps five sixths of all French verbs ; it has drawn in
many verbs from the Latin 2d and 3d conjugations, and contains
the majority of borrowed verbs, and of new verbs, made from
nouns and adjectives. The French 2d conjugation corresponds in
a general way with the Latin 4th (ir = ire) ; but in its inflection
it has become mixed with the Latin inceptive conjugation (see
XIX. la) ; it too has drawn in verbs from the Latin 2d and 3d
conjugations, and it contains a considerable number of borrowed
and new verbs. The French 3d conjugation is made up of a few
verbs from the Latin 3d, which agree in their inflection well

208 THE EELATION OF FEBNCH TO LATIN. [5—

enough to be classed together. The rest are so discordant as to
have to be left as irregular verbs.

6. Of new synthetic formations (that is, such as result in the
combination into one word of two independent words, one of
which acquires the value of a formative element), the French has
not many to show. The principal ones among them are the new
future and conditional, spoken of above, and a large class of ad-
verbs from adjectives with ment (L. mente) added (see XXXI. 2a).

a. Many French words, however, exhibit a fusion of two or
more Latin words into one ; and some of the cases are very curi-
ous : e.g. encore, lianc horam; devant, deabante; d^sormais,
de ipsa hora magis ; m§me, semet ipsissimnm : see the Vocabu-
lary.

7. The changes in the value and constraction of

French words as compared with Latin are innumerable

and infinitely various.

The lost inflection is in part replaced by fixed rules of position,
in part by auxiliary words : thus, prepositions stand instead of
cases, auxiliary verbs instead of tenses and modes, and adverbs
instead of endings of comparison. Of parts of speech, or what
are analogous with such, the French has added only the articles :
the definite article altered from a demonstrative (le, la, les from
ilium, illam, illos and ilias), and the indefinite from the nu-
meral one — both as in other languages. Numerous additions, in
part quite peculiar, have been made especially to the classes of
prepositions and conjunctions.

8. The power of mating compound words, possessed
in a high degree by the Latin, has been almost entirely
lost in French.

9. It was pointed out above (§ la) that many new
words have been borrowed into French out of other lan-
guages : especially, in former times, from German ; re-
cently, from Latin and Greek; but also more or less
from a great variety of different tongues.

In this way, there are in modern French many pairs of words
coming from the same Latin word, one by ancient descent, and
the other, much less altered, by recent borrowing : examples are
freie and fragile from ft-agilem ; bliLmer and blasphemer from
blasphemare ; essaim and examen from examen; center and
computer from computare, and so on. Many new derivatives,
also, have been made from primitives of every kind and source.

12] GENDER OF NOUlirS. 309

10. Many of the items of correspondence and of dif-
ference here grouped together have been pointed out in
detail in the Lessons of the First Part, and others will be
pointed out in their order in the Second Part. And the
general Vocabulary at the end of the volume gives the
Latin and other sources from which the French words it
contains are derived.

a. It must depend upon the class and the teacher what use is
made of this chapter in the class-room. It does little good to call
a class's attention to the details of comparison between French
and Latin unless its members have already a fair knowledge of
Latin ; but the general facts of the relation between the two lan-
guages may in any case profitably be set before his pupils by the
teacher. And a teacher well versed in the subject, with a class
prepared for it, may well follow the comparison into much greater
detail than is indicated here. The most convenient and accessi-
ble guide for the teacher in such a case is Brachet's little Histori-
cal Grammar and Etymological Dictionary of French.

n.— NOUNS.

A. — Gendee op Nouns.

11. All nouns in French have a distinction of gender,
a part of them being masculine and the rest feminine.

a. For the reduction of the three genders in Latin to the two in French, see
above, § 4e.

12. For the most part, French gender corresponds

with Latin : that is to say, a noun is feminine in French

if its original in Latin was feminine; otherwise, it is

masculine.

Hence, a rule of general use (if one knows Latin) is to call to
mind the Latin gender, which is in many cases plainly shown by
the ending of the word, in order to determine the French.

But there are a considerable number of exceptions:
thus,
14

310 NOtTNS. [W-

o. Abstract nouns in eur (Latin -or masc.) are feminine in
French : thus, la douleur, una eixeur, etc. Exceptions are un
honneur, le labeur, les pleurs.

5. A number of nouns corresponding to Latin neuter plurals in
a or la are feminine in French : e.g. la moraille (L. muralia),
la merveille (L. mirabilia), une arme (L. arma). Other cases
are more irregular, and must be learned from the dictionary :
examples are la levre (labram), la joie (gaudium), la r^ponse
(responsum), and other words from neuters in nm ; la mer
(mare n.), etc.

c. Not a few words are masculine in French that were feminine
in Latin : examples are un 6pi (spicam), un ongle (ungulam),
un art (artem f.), un arbre (arborem f.), le sort (but also la
sorte : sortem f.), la dent (dentem m.).

13. The gender of many nouns may be inferred from

their endings.

a. It is not worth while to attempt to give rules for all endings,
because of the small number of words belonging to some, and the
numerous exceptions to others ; only a few of the principal classes
will be noted.

6. Masculine are most nouns ending in age, Sge (or ^ge : 20c),
asme, isme, ime, iste, eu, au, oir : examples are le voyage, le
privilege, renthousiasme, le paganisme, le crime, un artiste,
le feu, le chapeau, le miroir ; also the great majority of those
ending in a consonant (except eur).

c. Feminine are most nouns ending in t^ and ti6 (L. -tatem), in
tion and sion (L. -tionem etc.), and in ence, ense, ance (L. -ntiam) :
examples are la bontd, la piti^, une action, la passion, la pru-
dence, la defense, la connaissance ; also, nearly all those ending
in mute e preceded by another vowel or by a double consonant :
e.^. une ep^e, la vie, la vue, la plaie, la lieue, la chatte, la
noisette, la faiblesse, la lionne, la feuille.

14. The gender of many nouns may be inferred from
their meaning : thus,

a. Masculine are the names of all male persons, and also of
animals conspicuously male : e.g. un homme, le roi, le maitre,
le boeuf.

But a few abstracts, used concretely, are feminine even when
they designate males : thus, la caution hail, une connaissance
acguaintance (also dupe, pratique, recrue, sentinelle, victime) ;
and the feminine name of a musical instrument sometimes desig-
nates its player, as une clarinette a clarinettist.

b. Masculine are the names of seasons, months, days, most

18] GENDER. 211

divisions of the day (not hours), and cardinal points : e.g. tm
hiver, le fevrier, le dimanche, le matin, le sud.

c. Masculine are the names of trees and metals : e.g. le pom-
mier, le chSne, le fer, le plomb.

d. Masculine are infinitives used as nouns, as le rire, laughter ;
also other parts of speech and phrases used as nouns, as le non
the no, un si an if, le qn'en dira-t-on the " what will people say
about it " f most names of letters (not of f, h, 1, m, n, r, s) ; and
adjectives taken as abstract nouns, as le bon et le vrai the good
and the true.

e. Feminine are the names of female persons and of animals
conspicuously female : e.g. la fenune, la jument, la vache.

/. Feminine are most names of countries, islands, towns, and
rivers, if they end in e mute : e.g. la Prance, la Sardaigne, la
vieille Rome, la Seine : exceptions are le Hanovre, le MexicLue,
le Bengale, le Hd.vre, le Danube, le RhSne, and a few others.

g. Feminine are most names of fruits and flowers : e.g. la
pomme, la cerise, la rose.

15. Some nouns are either masculine or feminine, ac-
cording to their different meanings.
a. The most important of these are as follows :
m. f.

aide, Tielper aide, h^lp

aigle, eagle aigle, standard

couple, united pair couple, pair or brace in general

enseigne, ensign (officer) enseigne, sign, mwrk

garde, keeper, gv^rd garde, watch, gua/rd

guide, guide guide, leaMng-rein

manoeuvre, workman manoeuvre, manceiuiore

manche, ha/ndle manche, sleeiie

memoire, memorial memoire, memory

paillasse, down paillasse, straw-bed

pendule, pendulum pendule, hanging-dock

poste, post (military etc.) poste, post-office

vapeuT, steamer vapeur, steam

voile, veU voile, sail

6, In this list are not included words that have accidentally
the same form, though coming from different originals. Such
are livre m. hook (L. liber), livre f. pound (L. libra) ; page m.
page (in waiting) (It. paggio), page f. page (of a hook) (L.
pagina) ; other examples are aune, moule, mousse, po61e, somme,
tonr, vase.

212 NOUNS. [16—

c. Amour, d^lice, orgnie are masculine in the singular, and
feminine in the plural (amour, in poetry, sometimes in sing, also);
also Piques Easter (Pactue passover is fern, also in sing.).

d. Gens pi. people, folks (almost never used in sing.) is in gen-
eral treated as a masculine ; but an adjective preceding it has the
feminine form ; and also tout before such an adjective, provided
the latter is distinctively feminine in form : thus, les gens sensfe,
but les bonnes gens ; and toutes les bonnes gens, but tous les
braves gens, like tous les gens senses.

e. Enfant child is feminine in the singular if it 'means a girl :
thus, cette pauvre enfant ; and the same is true of esclave slave.

16. Some nouns, names of living creatures, have a
special derivative form for the feminine : thus,

a. Many nouns in eur, coming directly from French verbs,
have a feminine in euse: e.g. danseur danseuse chancer, chas-
seur chasseuse hunter, huntress. A few in teur have a feminine
in trice: e.g. acteur actrice, bienfaiteur bienfaitrice ; impera-
trice is feminine to empereur. But many — as auteur, orateur,
sculpteur — are used in their mascuUne form for persons of both
sexes.

6. Some nouns ending in e have a feminine in esse : e.g. comte
comtesse, maitre maitresse, 3,ne djiesse. More irregular cases
are abb^ abbesse, dieu deesse, due duchesse, p^cheur p^che-
resse.

c. Many nouns form a corresponding feminine in the manner
of adjectives (VII.), by adding e, often along with various
modification of a final consonant : e.g. ami amie, cousin cousine,
ours ourse, marquis marquise, lion lionne, chien chienne, chat
chatte, ^pouz Spouse, veuf veuve, citoyen citoyenne, paysan
paysanne.

d. More irregular cases are roi reine, h^ros heroine, loup louve,
mulet mule, and a few others.

17. Many names of animals are masculine or feminine only,
without regard to the natural sex of the animals : e.g. un Ele-
phant, le leopard, le cygne ; la panthere, la souris, la monche.
A few, ending in e, take either the masculine or feminine article,
according as a male or female is intended : e.g. un baffle ime
buffle.

18. a. The gender of a compound noun is in general deter-
mined by that of the noun or the principal noun in the compound,
to which the other element serves as modifier : e.g. le chef-lieu,
la fiSte-dieu, une mappe-monde, le beau-i>ere, le chat-huant, nne
eau-forte, un arc-en-ciel, un avant-bras.

6. Compound nouns made up of a verb and governed noun are

23] NUMBEB. 213

masculine : e.g. uu casse-cou, uu essaie-mains, le prie-Dieu, le
portefeuille.

B. — ^NtJMBEE OF Nouns.

19. The general rules for forming the plural of a
aoun, and their principal exceptions, were given in the
First Part (Lesson II.). Further matters requiring notice
are the following :

20. Nouns ending in ant and ent usually dropped their final
t in former times before the plural ending s, and this spelling
is stUl met with in some . authors : e.g. enfans, conqu^rans,
momens, sentimens. Gens (sing, gent no longer in use) is always
so spelt.

21. Nouns in al and ail that add s in the plural (instead of
changing those endings to aux) are : bal iall, cal callus, cama-
val carnival, chaxxil. JacJuil, pal stake, regal treat, detail detail,
^pouvantail scarecrow, ^ventail fan, gouvemail rudder, poi-
trail poitrel, portaAl portal, serajl seraglio.

a. Travail forms travails when it means reports or certain
machines ; ail garlic forms ails or (less often) aulx. The col-
lective b^tail cattle has also the equivalent plural bestiaux.

22. Other cases of a double form of plural are :

a. Ciel has as plural dels (instead of cieux, II. 5) when it
means awnings, or climates, or the skies of pictures.

b. (Eil has cells (instead of yeux, II. 5) in the compound ceils-
de-boeuf 6mZZs' eyes.

c. Aienl has aieuls meaning grandparents, but aieux meaning
ancestors in general.

23. Some nouns — besides those ending in the singular
in s or X or z (II. 2) — form no plural different from the
singular: thus,

a. Some foreign words not whoUy naturalized remain un-
changed when used with a plural meaning: examples are ave,
credo, specimen, fac-simile, andante, crescendo; while others
of the same class make regular plurals, as operas, pensums,
z^ros ; and with regard to many there is a difference of usage.

6. Proper names are often used unchanged with plural mean-
ing : as, les deux Caton the two Catos. They are always singu-
lar when, though preceded by the plurals les or ces, they signify
but a single person (§ 42e) : thus les Moliere et les Racina On

214 NOUNS. [28-

the other hand, they take the plural-sign when used in the sense
of people like so-and-so, or tTie works of so-and-so : thus, lis
^talent les Cic^rons de leur pays they were the Ciceros of their
country, j'ai vu plusieurs Raphaels au mns^e / saw several
Raphaels at the picture-gallery.

0. Other parts of speech used as nouns, and the names of let-
ters and figures, take no plural-sign : thus, les mais et les si ifs
and huts, ilcrivez trois a write three a's, 6tez les deux nn can-
cel the two Vs.

d. Some words are naturally without a plural, as certain proper
names and abstract words : thus, Europe, modestie. But many
abstract nouns are used concretely, and form plurals : thus, les
vertus the virtues, ses bont^s his kindnesses.

24. Some nouns are used only in the plural.

The commonest of them are : annales annals, ancfitres ances-
tors, debris ruins, environs and alentours environs, entraiUes
entrails, frais and d^pens expense, fiinerailles and obsec[nes
funeral, hardes clothes, manes manes, mceurs manners, morals,
mouchettes snuffers, pleurs tears, vivres victuals.

25. Some nouns have a special meaning in the plural
— ^usually, in addition to their regular plural meaning.

The commonest of these are : ciseau chisel, ciseaux chisels,
and also scissors; fer iron, fers irons, fetters, gage pledge,
gages pledges, and also wages ; and in like manner lette'es lit-
erature, lunettes pair of spectacles, lumieres enlightenment,
^pingles pin-money, armes coat of arms, and a few others.

26. In compound nouns, the principal word, if a noun
or adjective, takes its plural form for the plural. Thus :

a. If the compound is made up of a noun and an adjective
qualifying it, or another noun in apposition with it, both parts
take the plural form : e.g. beau-&ere, beaux-&eres hrothers-inr
law; chou-fleur, choux-fleurs cauliflowers; chef-lieu, chefs
lieux chief tovms.

h. If the compound is made up of a noun and a qualifier of
any other kind, the noun alone takes the plural form : e.g. pots-
au-feu broth-kettles, arcs-en-ciel rainbows, chefs-d'ceuvre mas-
terpieces, timbres-poste postage stamps, vice-rois viceroys.

c. If the compound is made up of a verb and a following ob-
ject-noun, the plural is regularly like the singular: e.g. les coupe-
gorge the cutthroats, les porte-drapeau the standard-bearers.
But those more familiarly used not seldom take the plural sign ;

38] CASE-EELATIONS. 215

thus, porte-mauteanx valises, porte-crayons pencil-cases, gar-
derobes wardrobes.

Some of the compounds of this kind have the objeet-noun in
the plural: e.g. nn tire-bottes a boot-jack, ressuie-mains the
towel, le cure-dents the toothpick; these are of course without
change in the plural.

d. A compound not containing a noun as principal word is not
changed for the plural : thus, les passe-partout the master keys,
les forte-piano the pianofortes ; and so also such as les t@te-a-
t§te the private interviews, les pied-ar-terre lodgings on the road.

But a word that has lost by frequent and familiar use the sense
of its character as a compound is liable to take the plural-sign
irregularly.

C. — Case-eelatioks of Nouns.

27. !No Frencli noun has any variation of form to
express the varying relations of case ; the simple noun
stands as subject and as object, or as nominative and ac-
cusative or objective ; the other case-relations are in gen-
eral expressed by prepositions.

a. For the gradual loss in Trench of the Latin cases, see above,
§4a, 6.

6. Of the prepositions, de of and k to are especially frequent,
and form with a following noun combinations closely analogous
with the cases of Latin, and of various other languages ; so that,
in some grammars, de rhomme of the man, for example, is
called the " genitive case" of homme, and i. I'homme to the man
its " dative case" — this, however, is artificial and false. The uses
of a noun with de and a, as with other prepositions, will be ex-
plained in this work under the various constructions.

28. But the simple noun has a number of independ-
ent constructions (analogous with those of the accusative
in Latin). Thus :

a. It expresses place where or whither, but only rarely, in the
adverbial expressions quelqne part etc.: thus, il est quelque
part he is somewhere, je n'irai nulle part I shall go nowhere,
vons le trouverez autre part you vnll find him elsewhere.

b. It often expresses time when : thus, 11 est venu ce matin
he came this morning, il viendra le onze Ae mil come {on) the
eleventh, nous le voyons tons les jours we see him every day.

316 NOUKS. P8-

But a preposition (a, de, en, sur, etc.) is often used with a noun
in expressions of time.

c. It expresses very often duration of time, extent of space,
measure of dimension, of weight, of price, and so on : thus, 11
restera. deux jours fte vMl stay two days, ils travaillerent tonte
la nuit they worked the whole night, allez trois milles go three
miles, cela vaut dix francs that is worth ten francs.

But dimension with an adjective is usually expressed hy de:
see § 61c.

d. A noun is not seldom used absolutely in French, along with
an accompanying adjunct, which is of tenest a participle (compare
§ 195) : thus, le diner fini, il sortit the dinner done, he went out,
parleriez-vous ainsi, le maitre present (or 6tant present) would
you speak thus, the master being present ? il court, les mains
dans les poches he runs along, his hands in his pockets, elle me
r^pondit les larmes aux yeux sM answered me mth tears in Tier
eyes.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— I. THoua used absolutely.

(§ 28.) ' Et, s'il va quelque part, on le met k la porte.
(Pon.) ' Nulle part il n'y a plus de paroles et moins
de faits. (G. Sand.) ' Le 5 mai 1789 etait le jour fix6 pour
I'ouverture des Btats G6n6raux. La veille, une c6r6monie
religieuse pr6c6da leur installation. Le lendemain, la
stance royale eut lieu dans la salle des menus. {Mig.)
' Oil courez-vous la nuit ? (Bac.) " Je ne veux de trois
mois rentrer dans la maison. (.Bac.) ' II gagnait en un jour
plus qu'un autre en six mois. {Bac.) ' lis attendirent encore
quelque temps, les yeux* toujours clou6s sur cette poterne.
(Dau.) ° Je continual nia route I'espace de six milles.
IVoln.) ' Paris 6tait rest6 vingt-et-un jours sans nouvelles
de I'empereur et de la grande arm^e. (Bon.) "Elle
vend ce secret mille louis k Fouch6. (Bour.) " Le m6rite
vaut bien la naissance. (Mar.) " On r^solut de p6rir les
armes a la main. (Vol.) " Le coude appuye sur la ba-
lustrade, le menton dans la main, le regard distrait, elle
avait I'air d'une statue de Venus, deguis6e en* marquise.
(de Mais.) '* Je pouvais, suivant une douce habitude,
r^ver les yeux ouverts, en attendant le d6jeuner. (Lab.)
" Paris tombS, l'exp§rience a prouv6 que la France tombe,
(Chat.)

• 8 »8d. " § 207e.

I

32] CASE-EELATIONS. 211

29. A noun preceded by de of is nsed (ranch as in

English) to limit another nonn, in all the ordinary senses

of a genitive or possessive case.

The more noteworthy of these uses are given in the following
paragraphs.

30. A noun with de is used to express possession, ap-
purtenance, connection, in the most general and varied
way.

Thus, la tSte da lion the lion's Tiead, la porte de la maison
tTie door of the hottse, le fils du pere the father'' s son, le pere du
fils the son's father, les oeuvres de Racine Racine's works.

a. De is sometimes used in French where the English prefers
another preposition : e.g. le chemin de Paris the road to Paris
(Paris road), le voyage du Bliin the Journey on the Rhine
{Rhine journey).

6. Sometimes, as in other languages, this expression assumes
the value of a subjective or objective genitive : thus, les conquStes
de Napoleon Napoleon's conquests, la conqugte de ce royaume
the conquest of this Jcingdom, la haine du tyran the tyrant's
hatred {of some one), la haine de la tyrannie t?ie hatred of
tyranny (by some one).

c. A noun with preceding de not seldom follows another noun
in French as an adjectival adjunct to it where in English an ad-
jective would be used or a compound formed : thus, une ville de
province a provincial city, le maitre de chant the singing-mas-
ter, son bras de h6ros his heroic arm (i.e. arm like that of a
hero).

31. A noun with de is used as a genitive of apposition
or equivalence.

Thus: le titre de president the title of president, le nom de
Henri the name of Henry, le pays de France the country of
France, la ville de Rouen the city of Rouen, le mot de gueux
t?ie word " beggar" -

a. In familiar and low language are used (as also in English)
inverted appositional genitive phrases like un diable d'homme
a demon of a man, ces &ipons d'enfants these rogues of children,
la drdle d'id^e the oddity of an idea (i.e. the odd idea).

32. A noun with de is used as a genitive of character-
istic quality, or as the equivalent of a descriptive adjec-
tive.

£18 KOUKS. P2—

Thus, un homme de sagesse a man of wisdom (i.e. toise man),
line femme d'nne grande beauts a woman of great beauty, un
temps de d^sordre et de trouble a time of disorder and trouble,
il est d'un caractere tres g^n^reux Tie is of a very generous
character.

33. A noun with de is used to signify material.
Thus, la table de bois the table of wood (i.e. wooden table),

une cuiller d'argent a silver spoon.

Owing to the deficiency of adjectives of material in French, this
use is a common one. See Part First, V. 1.

34. A noun with de is used partitively, or as a parti-
tive genitive, signifying something of which a certain
part or quantity is taken.

Thus, un peu d'argent a little money, un morceau de pain a
bit of bread, trois livres de tb.6 three pounds of tea.

a. Such a partitive genitive is used after adverbs as well as
nouns of quantity : thus, assez de pain enough bread, infiniment
de courage an infinite amount of courage. See Part First, V.
2-4.

6. It is much used, after superlatives, numerals, and other
words implying selection : thus, le meilleur des amis the best of
friends, trois de ces messieurs three of these gentlemen, lequel
de nous tons which of us all ?

c. By a grammatical confusion, we meet sometimes with ex-
pressions like qui des deux est le plus grand, ou de C^sar ou de
Pomp^e, or even qui est le plus grand, de C^sar ou de Pomp^e
which is the greater, Casar or Pompey? the alternatives, when
specified, being treated as if in apposition not with the interroga-
tive but with the added genitive phrase (whether expressed or
understood).

d. A partitive genitive is sometimes used in French where the
English has an appositive noun or adjective : thus, cent soldats
de prisonniers, cent de tu^s a hundred soldiers prisoners, a
hundred slain, y a-t-il personne d'assez hardi is there any one
bold enough f donnez-nous quelque chose de bon give us some-
thing good, rien d'etonnant nothing astonishing : such instances
as the last two are especially frequent.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.- II. IToun with de, qualifyine a noun.

(§ 30.) ' Une demi-heure apr^s, il traversait le jardin
maralcher du No. 12 de la rue de la Sante, et il sonriait d
la porte de Madame Blouet. (Theuriet.) ' II nous racontait
pour la centi^me fois cette sinistre retraite de Bussie,

f

84] CASE-RELATIONS. 319

(Bau.) ' Le bon abbe est 6tonn6 que les voyages d'Aix
et de Marseille vous aient* jet6s dans une si excessive
d^pense. (de Sev.) * Les vents, depuis* trois mois en-
chain6s sur nos t^tes, d'Hion trop longtemps vous ferment
le chemin. [Eac.) ' Lisez la vie de St. Louis ; vous verrez
combien les grandeurs de ce monde sont an-dessous du
desir du coeur humain. (de Maint.) ° Les hommes, presses
par les besoins de la vie, et quelquefois par le dSsir du
gain ou de la gloire, cultivent des talents profanes, ou s'en-
gagent dans des professions Equivoques. (La Br.) ' II sent
peu k pen" s'amollir son coeur de fonctionnaire. (Theuriet.)

(§ 31.) ' Je ne sais qui pronon9a d'abord le mot de ma-
nage ; mais qu'importe* ? (About.) ' Votre coquine de
Toinette est devenue plus insolente que jamais. (Mol.)
' C'6tait un grand diable de gar9on, d'une quarantaine
d'ann§es. (Coppee.) * Votre belle dme de comtesse s'en
scandalise ; mais tout le monde n'est pas comtesse.' (Mar.)

(§ 32.) ' II est permis aux gens de mauvaise humeur de'
la trouver comme ils voudront.s (Mar.) " La femme 6tait
d'une jolie figure, mais d'une mauvaise sant6. (Berquin.)

(§ 33.) ' Le pot de fer proposa an pot de terre un voyage.
(La F.) ' Quelques chaises de paille, un bureau de noyer,
formaient tout I'ameublement. (Bum.)

(§ 34.) ' H y a gagn6 beaucoup d'id^es, et perdu consi-
d§rablement de vigueur. (About.) ' L'amour-propre est le
plus grand de tous les flatteurs. (La R.) ' Les dieux et
les deesses d'Olympe avaient les yeux attaches sur I'ile de
Calypso, pour voir qui serait victorieux, ou de Minerve ou
de I'Amour. (Fen.) * De ton coeur ou de toi, lequel est le
poete ? C'est ton coeur. (de Mu.) ^ Qu'il ach^ve, et degage
sa foi, et qu'il choisisse apr^s de la mort ou de moi. (Corn.)
'II n'y a pas une seule plante de perdue de celles qui
6taient connues de Circe. (Fen.) ' La vie est trop courte ;
je voudrais qu'on elt*" cent ans d'assur6s, et le reste
dans I'incertitude. (de Sev.) ' La perte des ennemis a H^
grande ; ils ont eu, de leur aveu, quatre mille hommes de
tu6s. (de Sev.) ' H n'y a rien d'^troit, rien d'asservi, rien
de limits, dans la religion, (de Sev.) "S'il y a quelque
chose de bon et d'utile dans ce r6cit, profitez-en, jeunes
gens, (de Stael.)

•S134b. "sail. =S37c. 05148ft.

•$60b. 'fl73&. '%\93a. '>il34u.

220 NOUNS. [85-

35. A noun preceded by de (with or without the defi-
nite article), having the value of a partitive genitive, is
much used in French where it is desired to express a cer-
tain part or number or quantity of what the noun signi-
fies, or where in English we put or might put some or
cmy before the noun.

This is called the PAEimvE noun, or the noun used
partitively. It may stand in any noun construction — as
subject, as object, as predicate, as governed by a prepo-
sition (except de), and so on.

Thus, des soldats TarrSterent some soldiers arrested Mm, il
est des gens qni menteut there are people who lie, ils boivent
du vin they drink wine, avec du secret et de I'adresse toith
secrecy and address, pour des raisons snffisantes for sufficient
reasons, stijet a de graves errenrs liable to grave errors.

a. The principal rules for this frequent and important usage
were given in Part First, IV. 1-4. For further rules as to the
use or omission of the article, see § 39.

6. After a negative verb, a nonn not properly admitting par-
tition is often put in the partitive form : thus, il n'a pas de mere
/je has no mother, elle n'a d'aatre d^sir que celui-ci she Tias no
other wish than this.

c. Nouns are often also used in a sense really partitive without
de : thus, after ni . . . ni, and in an enumeration, the usual par-
titive expression is omitted (see Part First, TV. 4) ; also after
certain prepositions, especially sans: thus, sans fante without
fault; also a plural noun in the predicate expressing condition,
profession, and the like (compare § 506) : thus, soyons amis let
us be friends; also as objects of verbs in many famQiar phrases,
as avoir peur be afraid, chercher fortune seek one^s fortune,
donner courage give courage, entendre raison listen to reason,
faire grand bruit make a great noise, perdre haleine lose breath,
prendre conseil take counsel, rendre justice do justice, tenir
compagnie Jceep company, and so on.

HiLUSTEATrVE SENTENCES.— III. Partitive noun.

(§ 35.) " De puissants defenseurs prendront notre querelle,
(Eac.) ' Ce sont des h6ros qui fondent les empires, et des
Idches qui les perdent. ( V. Hugo.) ' Polyeucte a du nom,
et sort du sang des rois. ( Com.) * Us disaient que ce

37] CASE-EELATIONS. 221

n'etait poini avec des garnisons que I'on prend des Etats,
mais avec des armees. (Vol.) ' II la fit asseoir pr^s de lui,
la coBSolant par de douces paroles. (Blanc.) °I1 n'est
point de noblesse oii manque la vertu. (Crebillon.) 'Un
homme libre, et qui n'a point de femme, peut s'61ever au-
dessus de sa fortune. (La Br.) * L'homme n'a point de
port ; le temps n'a point de rive ; il coule, et nous passons.
(Lam.) ' Nous n'avons point de banqueroutiers, parce
qu'il n'y a chez nous ni or ni argent. ( Vol.) " II tombe sur
son lit sans chaleur et sans vie. (Bac.) " Je f ais grdce k
I'esprit en faveur des sentiments, (de Sev.) " II faut tenir
tete k trois f eux. (de Vi.) " Je vous aimais trop pour vous
rendre justice. (Mar.)

36. A noun preceded by k is often used to express
that by wMch something is characterized, as a distinguish-
ing feature or quality, a purpose, means, ingredient, and
the like.

Thus, rhomme au long nez t?ie man with the long nose, Lydie
au donz sourire Lydia of the sweet smile, des arbres h fruit
fruit-trees, la boite anx lettres the letter-box, la poudre an
canon gunpowder, un bateau a vapenr a steamboat, da cafe au
lait coffee with milk.

As the examples show, such phrases often correspond to com-
pound words in English.

37. Other special uses of a with nouns are :

a. After mal ache etc., with thg part affected : thus, mal a la
t@te headache, mal anz dents toothache.

&>-Setffifi fin two nuTnftr{f ,1s, t^ exp ress -appEoximate nujExber :
thus, d jiff a dnpafi tc" "'^ " iin^^^

e. Between two repetitions of the same noun, to signify suc-
cession : thus, nn a nn one by one, goutte a gontte drop by drop.

IMiUSTRiTIVE SENTENCES.— rV. Noun with 5, qualifying a noun.

(§ 36.) 'Le poudre a canon change le systdme de la
guerre; la peinture A I'huile se developpe, et couvre I'Europe
des* chefs-d'ceuvre de I'art. (Guizot.) ' On parlait de Thebes
aux cent portes. ( Vol.) ' Cette ressemblance continuait

222 NOUNS. [87—

encore, autant qu'un homme aux yeux noirs, k la ohevelure
dpaisse et brune, peut ressembler d ce souverain aux yeux
bleus, aux cheveux chdtains. (Bal.) * Combien d'hommes d
talent k qui il ne manque qu'un grand malheur pour deve-
nir hommes* de g6nie ! (Bum.)

(§ 37.) ' II approcha une chaise de* la cheminee et s'assit.
J'ai froid aux pieds, dit-il. (V. Hugo.) "Son p6re avait
assez loyalement gagn6 six k huit mille Hvres de rente.
[Bal.) ' Vous Toyez un homme de quarante-cinq d cin-
quante ans, endurci au travail manuel. (About.) * L'eau
6tait bien bonillante, et je I'ai vers6e goutte k goutte.
( Coppee.)

Theme 1.

case-belations of nouns.

' Did you go nowhere yesterday ? '' I went to Paris last
week, and stayed there three days, but I did not find my
friend ; he was elsewhere. ° I shall go there Monday, May
15th ; the ceremony will take place Tuesday, and we will
return together the next day (morrow). * They had been
several days without news of their son. ' He will remain
some time at Bordeaux ; one cannot gain much in a few
days. ' These beautiful pictures are well worth a look.
' I have just bought them for 10,000 francs. ' Why do
you look at this house with tears in your eyes ? ° Because
it was my parents' house. '" The winds and the rain have
closed to us the road to Paris, and we shall lose the jour-
ney to Italy. " Have you read the history of the con-
quests of Napoleon ? " He wanted to make also the con-
quest of England. " He was born in Corsica, and gained
later the title of Emperor of France. " His name is ad-
mired and loved in all the country of France. " He was
a man of much talent, but of little virtue. " The silver
spoons are in an iron box on the wooden table. " If I had
money enough, I should buy a little bread. " If I had an

"§35c. '8168/.

89] AETIOLES. 223

infinite amount of money, I should give him none of it.
" Which poet is the greater, Victor Hugo or Lamartine ?
"" Victor Hugo is the best of all the modern French poets.
" Bead me something beautiful. " There is nothing inter-
esting in this book. " Good books are rare ; but there are
books that we love very much. " One does not make con-
quests by soft words, but by brave deeds. " Kings are
not always heroes. " The child that has no mother is very
unhappy. " This man has neither money, nor friends, nor
talent. " He is without hope and without happiness.
" If he will listen to reason, he will go to seek his fortune
in America. " Who is this woman with blue eyes and
brown hair ? "I have seen her on the steamboat, but I do
not know her. " There are six or eight steamboats on the
river, but I see no sailboat there. °' I have a pain in the
eyes ; I can see nothing. " I hope that you will be better
little by little. " They walk two by two.

m.— ARTICLES.

38. The forms of the definite and indefinite articles, and the
general rules as to their use, were given in Part First. Certain
points require further or more detailed notice here.

A. — Definite Aeticlb.

39. The partitive noun, or noun used partitively with
de (§ 36), is usually accompanied by the definite article.

Thus, du pain et de la viande bread and meat, des soldats

a. The common exceptions — that the article is omitted after a
negative, also before an adjective, and both article and preposi-
tion after m . . . ni and in a long enumeration — were given in
Part First, IV. 3, 4.

6. The article is also omitted after an infinitive governed by
sans witTiout, as implying a sort of negation : thus, sans avoir
d'amis without Tiamng any friends : compare § 210.

c. After que of ne . . . que, meaning only, the article is re-

224 ARTICLES. [M—

tained : thus, U n'a pas de pain, il n'a que de la viande he has
no bread, Tie has only meat.

d. The article is also sometimes retained after a negative verb,
when a, certain affirmative sense is intended to be impUed : thus,
n'avez-vons pas des amis hUve you not friends f (i e. is it not
true that y(m have friends ?), je ne vous ferai pas des reproches
&ivoles U is not frivolous reproaches that I am going to make
to you.

e. The article is retained before an adjective, if this and the
following noun form a sort of compound noun, or current phrase
of simple meaning : thus, des grauds-peres grandfathers, du bon
sens good sense, des jeunes gens young folks, des petits pains
rolls.

f. The article is used also with the partitive genitive after bien
and la plupart: (see Part First, V. 46).

40. The article is used in Frencli, much more gener-
ally than in English, before a noun taken inclusively, or
expressing the whole kind or class.

See Part First, IV. 5. Further examples are: le chien est
I'ennemi du chat, et le chat de la sonris tlie dog is the caVs foe,
and the cat the mouse's (here the usage is the same in both lan-
guages : but), le vinaigre est acide vinegar is sour, le bois l^ger
a moins de valenr light wood is worth less, j'aime la salade I
like salad, nous apprenons I'histoire we learn history. The ar-
ticle thus used we have called the inclusive article (see Part First,
IV. 5a).

a. By a like usage, the article generally stands before an ab-
stract noun : thus, la foi, la charite, et I'esp^rance faith, love,
and hope, la modestie est one belle verta modesty is a beauti-
ful virtue, le temps du p^ril est aussi celui du courage the time
of danger is also thai of courage. So also with an adjective
used as an abstract noun : thus, le culte du bean tfie worship of
the beautiful, elle aime le vert sTie likes green.

b. But the article is often omitted in proverbial and old-style
expressions, as well as in various phrases.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— V. Partitive and InclusiTe Article.

(§ 39.) ' On a des bras, pas de travail; on a du ccBur, pas
d'ouvrage. ( V. Hugo.) " II y avait sur cette table, et k pro-
fusion, brosses, Sponges, savons, vinaigres, pommades, etc.,
mais pas une goutte d'eau. (Lab.) ' Je n'ai vraiment que
des obligations au baron Taylor. (Dum.) * Madame, je
n'ai point des sentiments si has. (Rac.) ' Vous savez bien

*1] DEFINITE ARTICLE. 235

que nous ne sommes pas des hypocrites. {G. Sand.) Vou-
lez-vous des petits pains ? restez ; j'en* ai d'excellents.
(Bum.) 'H s'agit d'avoir*" du bon sens, mais de I'avoir
sans fadeur. {^Constitutionnel.)

(§ 40.) ' On eprouTatout-^-coup les horreurs dela famine.
{de Genlis.) ' Cast vrai ; mais quand la colere me prend,
ordinairement la memoire me quitte. (Mar.) ' Si on avait
pu, on aurait mis la force entre les mains de la justice.
(Pas.) * Jeune fiUette a toujours soin de" plaire. ( Vol.)
* Ce que f emme veut, Dieu le reut. ( Vol.)

41. The article is generally used before the name of a
country.

That is, when the name is subject or object of a verb, or gov-
erned by any other preposition than en and sometimes de. See
Part First, VI. 2-4. Further special rules are as follows :

a. If the name of a country is the same with that of a city
contained in it, it is generally used without article ; hkewise an
island of little extent : thus, Naples, Bade (there are a few ex-
ceptions, as le Hanovre) ; Malte, Elbe (but la Sardaigne, la
Sicile).

6. The article is generally omitted after venir de, partir de,
and the like : thus, U vient d'Amerique he comes from America,
sortir de France go out of Fi-ance.

c. The article is generally omitted after de when it makes a
genitive of equivalence (§ 31), also when it follows the name of a
product, of a ruler or other official, the words history, map, war,
etc., and in various other cases where the name of the country is
used with the value of an adjective.

Thus, le royanme de France tJie kingdom of Prance, dn vin
de Hongrie Hungarian teine, la reine d'Angleterre the queen
of England, Tambassadenr d'Autriche the Austrian ambassa-
dor, I'Mstoire de Bussie the history of Russia, les villes d'Alle-
magne the German cities, la frontiere d'Espagne the Spanish
frontier.

d. But, in both these classes of cases (6 and c), the article is
generally retained if the name of the country is masculine, or
plural, or contains an adjective ; also if it designates a remote
and unfamiliar country : and there are special cases besides.
Thus, venir du Meziqne come from Meayico, I'empire des In-
des the empire of t?ie Indies, I'emperenr de la Chine the em-
peror of China, en toile du Bengale in Bengal cloth, I'histoire
de la Grande Bretagne the history of Great Britain.

• YYTn 7o. ' § 178c. ' § 135a.

15

226 ABTIOLES. t^—

e. The article is always omitted after en, meaning both in and
to or into : see Part First, VI. 3a. But dans, with the article, is
used instead of en, if the name of the country is qualified by an
adjective : thus, dans la Suisse franQaise in French Switzerland.

42. With other proper names, French usage in regard
to adding the article is in general the same as English.

But the following differences are to be noted :

a. The article is used before the name of a single mountain :
thus, le V^suve Yesumtis, le Mont-Blanc Mont-Blanc.

b. Proper names, whether of persons or places, take the article
when qualified by an adjective : thus, le pauvre 3ea,npoor John,
I'antique Rome ancient Borne.

c. Some proper names are always joined with the article as an
inseparable prefix to them ; the most common are le Havre, an
Caire at Cairo, le Dante, le Titien, du Correge of Correggio, le
Ponssin, le Camoens.

d. In famUiar language, the article is often added to the names
of noted persons, especially women : thus, la Rachel, la Grisi ; in
a still more colloquial and lower style, it is used yet more widely :
thus, sans attendre la Barbette witTumt waiting for Barbette.

e. The plural article is, in a higher narrative style, often put
before the name of an individual, to mark him as a person of note
and importance : thus, les Bossuet et les Bacine ont i\^ la
gloire de leur siecle such men as Bossuet and Racine were the
glory of their century.

f. Before the name of a saint's day, la stands by abbreviation
for la fSte de the festival of: thus, la Saint-Jean St. John's day,
la Saint-Martin Martinmas.

La is used also before a word for the middle of a month : thus,
la mi-mai.

g. A la is famiUarly used by abbreviation for a la mode de in
the manner or after the fashion of: thus, nne barbe k la Fran-
cois I. a beard in the style of Frands I.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— "VI. Article with Proper Names.

(§41.) ' Heritier, comme archidue, de I'AIIemagne orien-
tale, souverain des Pays-Bas, de I'Espagne, de Naples, de la
Sicile, comme successeur des dues de Bourgogne, des rois
de Castillo et d'Aragon, ce possesseur de tant de territoires,
qui regnait sur les principales lies de la M6diterranee, qui
occupait par plusieurs points le littoral de I'Afrique, n'avait
alors que dix-neuf ans. {Mignet.) ' Vous arrivez de France ?
— Ce matin m^me. {Scribe.) ' La loi des Visigoths inte-

*8] DEFINITE ARTICLE. 237

resse plus I'histoire d'Espagne que I'histoire de Prance.
(Guizot.) * Le roi des Indes lui ofErait cent 616phants.
( Vol.) * Portez ces porcelaines du Japon chez la marechale.
l Scribe.) *En Espagne, au milieu du rdgne de Philippe
II., eclate la revolution des Provinces Unies. [Guizot.)

(§ 42.) ' Le joyeux §colier n'avait jamais songe d ce qu'il y
a de lave bouillante furieuse et profonde sous le front de
neige de I'Etna. ( V. Hugo.) ' C'etait un des rois qui ont,
apr^s un siege de dix ans, renvers6 la fameuse Troie. (Fen.)
' A ton tour, re9ois-moi comme le grand Byron, (de Mu.)
* A sa suite parut le jeune Mazarin. {de Vi.) ' Si I'dme de la
Pompadour 6tait revenue visiter son chateau, elle aurait
trouv6 peut-^tre que la vie qu'on y menait manquait de
gaiete. \Cherh.) ' Je ne viens pas pour te parler de la Ma-
delon. (G. Sand.) ' Les scrupules de justice ne sont pas,
en g§n6ral, ce qui arrete les hommes de la portee des Fre-
deric et des Napoleon. [Ste.-£.) ° Tous les arts, k la v^rite,
n'ont point et6 pousses plus loin que sous les M6dicis, sous
les Auguste et les Alexandre. (Vol.) 'Monsieur ne sait
pas ce que c'est que* la Saint-Mcolas . . . k Paris on ne
Mte pas ce saint-l£. (Theuriet.)

43. The article is used before a title.

Thus, le docteur AkaMa Dr. Akakia, le professeur B. Prof.
B., le g^n^ral Bonaparte &en. Bonaparte. The titles of polite-
ness, monsieur etc. (XIV. 4), stand before this article : thus,
monsieur le docteur A.

44. In describing the parts of a person or thing, the French
ordinarily uses, after avoir, the article before the name of the
part, and the descriptive adjective after the latter (really as ob-
jective predicate) : thus, elle a les yeux bleus she has blue eyes
(literally, has her eyes bliie), 11 a I'esprit cnltiv^ Tie has a culti-
vated mind, le chgne a I'^corce rude the oak has rough bai-k.

45. The article is often used in French where the

English uses a possessive, when the connection points

out the possessor with sufficient clearness.

Thus, je tonmai la t8te / turned my head, fermez les yeux
shut your eyes.

46. The definite article is often used distributively, or
where in English each or every might stand.

228 ABTIOLES. [**—

Thus, deux fois la semaine tvme each week, trois frames la
livre three francs a pound, le bateau part le Inndi, et revient
le jeudi the boat goes every Monday, and returns every Thurs-

As the examples show, English often has the Indefinite article
in such a case.

47. There are many phrases where the article, omitted

by abbreviation in English, is retained in French ; as also

where, retained in English, it is omitted by abbreviation

in French.

Examples are : a I'^cole at school, a I'^glise at church, I'an
pass^ last year, avez-vous le temps de le faire fiave you time to
do it ? vers le soir toward evening ; and a genoux on the knees,
sous pr^texte tinder the pretense, courir risque run the risk,
mettre pied a terre set foot on the ground, monter a cheval get
on a horse.

a. In many other phrases, French and English agree in the
omission of the article : for example, apres diner ^er dinner,
a table at table, perdre de vue lose from sight.

b. Before a numeral following the noun it qualifies, the article
is omitted more uniformly than in English : thus, Charles First
or Charles the First, Charles premier.

c. For the more etc. the French says simply plus etc. : see
XXXIV. 3.

48. a. For Ton instead of on one see XXVII. 4a.

6. In hke manner, I'un is sometimes used for un : thus, le
bec-crois6 est I'nn des oiseaux the crossbeak is one of the birds.
In the combinations of un and autre, the article is always used :
see Part First, XXVII. 7. For the article in expressions of time,
see § 706.

c. In intimate and familiar address, the article is sometimes
put before a noun used voeatively : thus, I'ami, crois-moi, rentre
chez toi friend, take my advice and go home.

d. Either tous deux or tons les deux both is said; so with
tous les trois all three. Higher numbers generally take the ar-
ticle.

49. Though the article is generally required to be repeated be-
fore each separate word (Part First, I. 7), it is occasionally under-
stood, especially when a word is added by way of explanation :
thus, les d^putds ou representants du peuple the deputies or
popular representatives, les ministres et grands officiws thf
ministers and high oj^ers.

B*] INDEFINITE ARTICLE. 229

nOiUSTBATIVE SENTENCES.— VII. Various Uses of the Article.

(§ 43.) ' Monsieur I'abbe ! voulez-vous m'ouvrir ? je vais
qu6rir madame la baronne. {de Mu.) ' Dans* une heure, a
cheval, et I'attaque des lignes ! Messieurs les marechaux,
suivez-moi. (de Vi.)

(§ 44.) ' Les habitants de la Noiivelle-HoUande ont le nez
gros, les l^vres grosses, et la bouche grande. (Buffon.)
' Pauline a I'dme noble, et parle k^ cceur ouvert. (Com.) ' Ce
n'est rien, dit-il ; j'ai senti que j'avais encore la jambe sftre
et la t^te froide. (G. Sand.)

(§ 45.) ' Mais je veux t'6pouser demain ; viens, Jeanne,
donne-moi la main, (de Vi.) ' Elle 6tait v^tue de blanc, et
avait un voile blanc sur la t^te. ( Vol.)

(§ 47.) ' Tu te tais maintenant, et gardes le silence.
(Corn.) " L'enfant met pied a terre, et puis le Tieillard
monte. (La F.) ' Monsieur mon neveu, je vous souhaite le
bonjour. (de Mu.) * Les loups firent la paix avec les brebis.
(La F.) ' Sachez que plus mes bontes sont grandes, plus
vous serez puni si vous en° abusez. (Mont.) ' Dieu ! que*
plus on est grand, plus vos coups sont k craindre^ ! ( Vol^

(§ 48.) ' AprSs cela, I'un de ces messieurs de'la Com6die
frangaise et I'une de ces dames r6citaient une sayndte.
(Cherb.) ' Adieu, done, la fille ; bonjour, I'ami. (Mar.)
' Vous pourriez encore danser, la belle ! ( V. Hugo.)
* Faites comme moi, I'ami, et vous deviendrez riche comme
moi. (Arnault.) * Du moins devait-eUe attendre, et les voir
tons deux. (Mar.) ° Ne les grondez point ou ne les cor-
rigez point tous les deux en m^me temps. (G. Sand.)

(§ 49.) ' Les voies ferries ou chemins de fer 6tablissent
la communication la plus rapide entre les grandes villes.
(Ploetg.)

B. — ^Indefinite Abticle.

50. In certain cases, where the English usually has
the indefinite article, it is omitted in French. Thus :

a. The article is often omitted before a word standing in appo-
sition with another : thus, Dieppe, ville de Kormandie Dieppe,
a city of Ifbrmandy, Charles, fils de M. Pierre Charles, a son
(or the son) of Mr. Pisrre, Zaire, trag^die de Voltaire Zaire, a
tragedy of Voltaire,

tSOTc. »S161d. «S16«/. ,'%X»Oa. •|134c.

230 ARTICLES. ■ [W—

6. It is usually omitted before a predicate noun designating, in
a general way, nationality or condition in life or profession.
Thus, je suis Am€ricaiu J am an Ameriean, son &ere est soldat
his brother is a soldier. But there are frequent exceptions, es-
pecially when the predicate noun is qualified by an adjective etc.,
also after c'est etc. : thus, il est nn bon peintre he is a good
painter, c'est un peintre it is a painter.

0. It is omitted, by abbreviation, in titles of books, superscrip-
tions, etc. : thus, Grammaire anglaise an English Grammar.

d. It is often omitted, especially in familiar speech, before
nombre, quantity, and the like : thus, je I'ai vne nombre de
fois I have seen her plenty of times.

e. It is omitted before cent and mille (see XV. 6) : thus, mille
jours, cent ans a thousand days, a hundred years; also after
quel used interjectionally (see XIII. 5c) : thus, quelle vue afiireuse
what a horrible sight !

f. It is omitted after jamais before a subject-noun : thus, ja-
mais houune n'a 6t6 plus exalte never has a man been more ex-
tolled.

g. It is omitted by abbreviation in certain phrases, where the
English retains it : thus, mettre fin put an end, faire present
make a present, prendre femme take a wife. There are other
phrases where the contrary is the case, or where the two lan-
guages agree.

h. As to English a used distributively, see above, § 46.

i. Both articles are omitted in those combinations in which a
noun after de is added to another noun with adjectival value :
see § 30c.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— VIII. Indefinite Article.

(§50.) ' Sylla, homme emportS, mdne violemment les Re-
mains k la liberte ; Auguste, rus6 tyran, les conduit douee-
ment d la servitude. (Mont.) ^Anne, belle-soeur de Guillaume
III., et fille de Jacques II., marine 4 George, prince de Dane-
mark, 6tait I'hSritieie coristitutionnelle de la couronne.
[Remusat.) ' Un jeune homme nomm6 Croisilles, fils d'un
orf evre, revenait de Paris au* Havre, {de Mu.) * Ma fille
est veuve d'un homme qui 6tait fort consid6r6 dans le
monde. (Mar.) ' Monsieur est Persan ? c'est une chose
extraordinaire ! Comment peut-on 6tre Persan ? (Mont.)
' Dans le langage des partis, on est courtisan quand on
appuie la royaut6, republicain quand on d6fend la liberty,

M] IN^BFINITB ABTIOLB. 331

traitre ou d6serteur quand, de I'opposition montant au
pouvoir, on soutient le gouvernement qu'on a voulu. {Be-
musat.) ' Danton 6tait un r^volutionnaire gigantesque.
(Miffnet.) * Un Trieux domestique, nomm6 Jean, qui servait
sa famille depuis* nombre d'ann6es, s'approoha de lui.
(de Mu.) 'Quel joli metier vous lui apprenez ! (Cherb.)
" Quelles belles 6paules blanches ! quel sourire d'6ternelle
jeunesse dans cette toile merveilleuse ! (Gautier.) "Jamais
personne ne recouvra la sant6 avec moins de plaisir que
moi. {G. Sand.) " Jamais homme n'a eu tant d'6clat ; ja-
mais homme n'a eu plus d'ignominie. (Pasc.) " Saint-
Nicholas est descendu dans ma cheminSe . . . et il m'a fait
cadeau d'une femme. [Theuriet.)

Theme 2.

articles.
' Have you neither brush nor comb ? " Brushes, combs,
sponges, we have them all ; and we have soap also ; but
we have no water. ' Has not the servant brought you
water ? * He has not brought me any hot* ; he has only
brought me cold water. ° I will not return without bring-
ing you news of your friends. ' Do not be anxious ; have
you not health, fortune, and friends ? ' Young folks have
not always good sense. ° I do not like history ; most"
histories speak only of war and of famines. ° Force is
sometimes the friend of justice. " The love of the true
and the beautiful is one of man's finest qualities. " This-
history of Germany is very tedious, but I will give you a
history of the United Provinces, which will interest you
very much. "I have travelled in Italy and in Italian
Switzerland ; I come now from Germany, and I shall go
next winter to China or Japan. " The queen of England
is also the* queen of Great Britain and the* empress of
India. " We sell French and Spanish wines, Italian silk,
and English wool. "Which is the higher mountain, Ve-

• i ail. fcxxm. la. " V. 46. " i 606.

232 ABTIOEES. [60—

suvius or Etna ? " Parnassus is the favorite mountain of
the poets. " Little John is better ; but his grandmother,
poor old Mary, died this morning. " Great Demosthenes
was the most eloquent orator of ancient Greece. '" Rachel
was the glory of the French theatre. '° Shakspeare and
Racine are in literature what Napoleon and Wellington
are in war. " The English hardly know what St. Martin's
day is. " He dresses in the style of Louis XV. " Gen.
Thomas and Prof. St. Pierre are going to dine to-day with
Dr. Lucas. '* Madame Tellier has blue eyes and auburn
hair. " His heart is young, though his hands are weak.
" If you are afraid, shut your eyes and give me your hand ;
I will guide you. " She is cold, because she has nothing
on her head. "' He has lost his right arm. "' I go to Paris
three times a month ; I start from here Tuesdays, and ar-
rive there Fridays. " This cloth costs ten francs a yard.
" I wish you good morning, sir ; I am going to church.
" I have not time to go there at present ; I shall perhaps
go toward evening. " The more he goes to school, the
less he likes to study. " The greater one is, the more one
runs the risk of falling. " I admire one of these ladies
and love the other. " As for me, I admire them both ; but
I love neither. " Marcus Aurelius, an emperor of Rome,
was a good philosopher also. " James H. of England, the
son of Charles L and the brother of Charles H., and the
constitutional heir of the crown, was, during many years,
a guest of Louis XIV., the king of France. " William, a
grandson of our friend Mr. Morton, is a soldier, and he
hopes to become a general. ■'° His brother is a painter, I
think. *' How can he be a painter? he has made quanti-
ties of pictures, indeed, but they are all very bad, " What
an ugly woman ! ■" Never has an author been more ad-
mired than she.

54] INFLECTION OF ADJECTIVES. 233

IV.— ADJECTIVES.

51. The French adjective corresponds in general to the Latin.
Respecting its loss of the neuter gender, of the distinctions of
case, and of formal comparison, see above, § 4e,/.

52. The adjective is in general varied for gender and

number.

For the rules for forming the feminine and the plural of an
adjective from its masculine singular (as being the simplest form),
see Part First, VII. -IX. A few particulars remain to be added
here.

53. Further specialties of formation of the feminine
are as follows :

a. The following adjectives in ot add e without doubling the t
(see VII. 4) : bigot, d^vot, idiot, manchot, cagot, ragot.

b. Bel is used instead of beau ia a few titles : thus, Philippe
le Bel ; vieoz is sometimes allowed to stand before a vowel :
thus, nn vienz homme (see VII. 7).

c. A few more adjectives that form their feminine irregularly
(YII. 8) are : tiers tierce third, rouz rousse red, b^nin benigne
benign, malin maligne malignant, coi coite quiet, h^breu h.^-
braiqne Hebrew.

d. Masculines without corresponding feminine are chd.tain
chestnut-colored, fat foppish, dispos in lusty health. Feminines
without corresponding masculine are crasse crass, ociane oceanic.

Certain other words of color, properly nouns, are sometimes
used in the manner of adjectives, but without variation of form :
such are aurore, sou&e, orange, etc.

e. Certain classes of nouns make a feminine, after the manner
of adjectives : see above, § 16. Of these, the nouns in -eur -euse
are often used as adjectives : thus, une langue trop flatteuse a
too flattering tongue.

64. As regards the formation of the plural :

a. Pen late (i.e. deceased), according to some authorities, has
no plural ; others allow one to say les feus rois de Prusse et
d'^gleterre the late kings of Prussia and England, and the
like : compare below, § 56a.

6. Plurals in als from adjectives in al (VIII. 16, c) are little
used ; for some adjectives such plurals are altogether wanting,
being avoided by using some other form of expression.

234 ADJECTIVES. [B4—

c. Adjectively used nouns of color form no plural (as no femi-
nine : above, § 53d) : thus, des cheveux ch&tain-clair brigM
brown fiair.

56. As regards comparison :

a. Certain French adjectives represent Latin comparatives and
superlatives, without having (any more than the corresponding
words in English) a value as such. Examples are : majeur ma-
jor, ant€rieur anterior, extrSme extreme, snpr@me supreme.
They are not themselves compared.

b. Absolute superlatives in issime, as illustrissime most illus-
trious and r^v^rendissime mast reverend, are late and learned
fabrications.

66. As regards the agreement of an adjective with

the noun which it qualifies :

a. Some adjectives are diflferently treated according to their
position. Demi half before a noun is taken as forming a com-
pound with it, and is invariable : thus, une demi-livre a Tialf-
pound, une livre et demie a pound and a half. Nu bare is
similarly treated : thus, marcher nn-t@te, or marcher tHe nne
walk bare-headed ; but only la nue v6rit6 the naked truth. The
participles excepts, suppose, y compris are invariable, as if used
prepositionally, before the noun : thus, excepts les dames except
the ladies, but les d-ames exceptdes the ladies eaxq>ted. In like
manner franc de port prepaid (as letters etc.) : thus, je regois
franc de port les lettres que . . . I receive prepaid the letters
which . . ., but envoyez-moi vos lettres firanches de ■port send
me your letters prepaid. Ci-inclus and ci-joint enclosed, anneceed.
Therewith are invariable at the beginning of a phrase, and also
with a noun not accompanied by the article : thus, ci-inclns vous
recevez la copie you receive enclosed the copy, but vous tronverez
ci-jointe la copie you will find anneaxd the copy. Feu late
{deceased) is variable only after an article or possessive : thus,
fen la reine, but la feue reine, the late queen ; feu ma tante,
but ma feue tante, my late aunt.

b. An adjective following avoir I'air Tiave the aspect or look is
sometimes made to agree with air and sometimes with the sub-
ject of the verb : thus, elle a I'air content or elle a I'air con-
tente she looJcs satisfied (the one meaning rather she Tuis a satis-
fied look, the other the look of being satisfied).

c. Soi-disa,nt pretended stands always before its noun, and is
invariable : compare § 189c.

d. An adjective used as adverb (XXXI. 9) is of course invari-
able. But in frais cueilli fresh-picked and tout-puislsaiit ail-
powerful, the adverbial adjective is treated as an adjective if' the
qualified noun is feminine: thus, des flenrs fraiches cneillies

89] AGREEMENT OF ADJECTIVES. 235

fresh-picked flowers, nne reine toate-pnissante an all-powerful
queen. There are also combinations in which nouveau, premier,
etc., are treated as adjectives while logically rather adverbs :
thus, les nonveaux mari^s the newly-married couple {or couples).
For the treatment of tout, see § 116c.

57. As regards the form of an adjective qualifying

more than one noun, the general rale is that it is made

plural, and masculine if any one of the qualified nouns is

masculine.

Thus, le &^re et la sceur fiirent contents the brother and sis-
ter were happy, nne veste et un pantalon bleus a blue ve,H and
trousers, da pain et du beurre excellents excellent bread and
butter, la langue et la litterature latines the Latin language
and literature, vos nom et pr^noms your surname and given
names.

a. But the adjective is not seldom made to agree with the
nearest noun alone, and especially if this is added rather as an
equivalent or explanation of another noun, or if a gradation is
implied. Thus, avec une vitesse, une rapidity inconcevable
iffith a swiftness, a rapidity inconceivable, I'estime et la confi-
ance publique the public esteem and confidence, point de roman,
point de com^die espagnole sans combats no Spanish romance
or comedy without fights.

b. If two nouns are connected by the disjunctive ou or, the
adjective regularly and properly agrees only with the nearer one :
thus, I'estime on la confiance publique the public esteem or con-
fidence. But it is not always so : for example, voir son fils on
sa fille perdns ponr la soci^t^ to see one's son or daughter lost to
society (Vol.).

58. Two or more singular adjectives sometimes qualify a plu-
ral noun, as including a singular belonging to each of them :
thus, les langnes fran; aise et anglaise the French and English
languages, les diz-huitieme et dix-neuvieme siecles the IMh
and 19th centuries. But the same thing may be expressed by
la langn^e fi:an<;aise et la langne anglaise or la langne fran-
faise et I'anglaise ; and, in like manner, le diz-huitieme et le
dix-nenvieme siecle, or le diz-huitieme siecle et le diz-neu-
vieme.

59. An adjective, of either gender or number, is of-
ten used as a noun.

Thus, nn riche a rich man, cette belle this beauty, le bon et
le vrai the good and the true, les pauvres the poor.
a. An adjective so used may be qualified by another adjective

236 ADJECTIVES. [6*—

or an adverb : thus, le vrai bean tM true beautiful, de panvres
avengles poor blind men, les infiniment petits tJie infinitely
small.

60. The adjective in French, when used attributively,
stands often before the noun that it qualifies, but still
more often after it.

The principal rules respecting the place of the adjective were
given in Part First (VIII. 2-5) ; a few more particulars are added
here.

a. The adjectives that most regularly and usually pre-
cede the noun (compare YIII. 3a) are :

bon, good gr^iidi large beau, handsome

maavais, bad gros, big joli, pretty

mechant, wicked petit, gmail vilain, tigly

meillenr, better moindre, lens jenne, young

pire, worse vaste, vast vienz, old

Even these are sometimes made to follow the noun ; and there
are others which nearly as regularly precede.

b. Since (YIII. 4, 5) a physical meaning rather than
an ideal or moral one, and a literal rather than a figurative
one, tend to belong to an adjective following its noun,
some adjectives have a well-marked difference of mean-
ing, according as they precede or follow.

The most important of these are instanced as follows :

certain honune, a certain man ane cboae certaine, a sure thing

un pauvre homme, a poor fellow un honune pauvre, a poor man

nn brave homme, a fine fellow un homme brave, a brave man

un galant homme, a gentleman un homme galant, a man of gallantry

diverses ichoses, sundry . j diverses, ,._ ,.

difierentes ) things ( diflerentes, •" ^

mon eher ami, my dear friend un Uvre cher, a dear book

sa propre main, his own hand sa main propre, his dean hand

une sage femme, a midwife une femme sage, a wise woman

Dernier following the noun means last in the sense of next
preceding the present time : thus, I'ann^e demigre last year, but
la demiere ann^e de sa vie the last year of his life.

c. With a proper name, the adjective usually precedes : thus,
le vertneux Aristide the virtuotis Aristides, le v^ndrable Socrate
the venerable Socrates.

60] PLACE OF ADJECTIVES. 237

d. If two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, and are
not coordinate, but each added one further qualifies the noun as
already limited, each is put before or after the noun as it would
be if used alone.

I'hus : un cheval noir a hlaek horse, un petit cheval noir a
little black horse, un panvre petit cheval noir a poor little black
horse; and so une grande tasse bleue cassee a large white
cup broken.

e. Two or more adjectives joined by conjunctions (expressed or
understood) stand together either before or after the noun — usu-
ally after, if one of them is such as does not ordinarily precede the
noun. ThuSj un grand et beau jardin a large and fine garden,
one dame riche, jenne, et aimable a young, rich, and amiable
lady, une femme petite, mais bien faite a short but well-formed
woman.

ILLTTSTEATIVE SENTENCES.— IX. Agreement and Place of
Adjectives.

(§ 56.) ' J'6tais, depuis une demi-heure environ, plong6
dans une sorte de torpeur. (Feuillet.) ' Hier, i dix heures et
demie, le roi d6clara qu'il epousait la princesse de Pologne.
(Vol.) 'Las demi-savants s'en moquent", et triomphent
k^ montrer l^dessus sa folie. (Pasc.) * C'est I'abbe de
Sainte-Genevi^ve, nu-pieds, precede de cent cinquante
religieux, nu-pieds aussi. {de Sev.) ° Louis suivait, pieds
nus, l'6tendard de la sainte croix. [Flechier.) ° J'ai oui
dire d° feu ma soeur que sa fille et moi naquimes'' la mSme
ann6e. (Mont.) ' Ah, monsieur ! si feu mon pauvre p6re
§tait encore vivant, c'etait bien votre affaire. {Bac.) ' La
feue reine y allait souvent de Fontainebleau, et prenait
grand soin du bien-6tre du convent. {St. Simon.') ° Alors
ce sont les premiers arrives qui font la loi dans votre au-
berge ? {Liicking.) " Celui-ci avait d6jd jete un coup
d'oeil penetrant sur le nouveau venu. {de Vi.)

(§ 57.) ' Les arriv^es et les departs principaux n'ont lieu
que pendant la nuit. (Constitutionnel.) " La paix et le con-
tentement etaient done revenus a la Bessoni^re. (<r. Sand.)
' C'est d'eux' que nous sont venus cette tendresse, cette deli-
catesse de sentiment, cette religion, ce culte des f emmes, qui

• XXIX. 76. ' § 188a. ■= § 1586.

^ $ l46i * i.e. des couteurs «rab«s.

238 ADJECTIVES. [6*-

ont eu une si gxaade influence Bur notre chevalerie. {de Sis-
mondi.) ' Lisez les Commentaires de C6sar ; c'est nn style
d'une nettet6 et d'une f ermet^ siaguliSres. {Ampere.^ ' Sa
vie n'a 6te qu'un travail et une occupation perpetuelle.
(Massillon.) ' II semble avoir compldtement oublie qu'il
est fils*, et qu'il s'agit de ses p^re et m^re. (Ste.-B.)

(§ 58.) ' Les armies fran9aise et italienne traversent le
Tanaro. ( Vol.) " La ville de Nuremberg, beaucoup plus
populeuse aux douzieme et treiziSme sidcles qu'elle ne*" I'est
aujourd'hui, etait le centre d'une grande industrie. {B.d.
deux Mondes.)

(§ 59.) ' L'aveugle ne repondit rien. {G. Sand.) " D6s
qu'un grand est mort, on s'assemble dans une mosqu6e, et
I'on fait son oraison f undbre. ' {Mont.) ' Quelques habiles
prononcent en faveur des anciens contre les modernes. {La
Br.) * lis sortent de I'art pour I'ennoblir, s'^cartent des
regies, si elles ne les conduisent pas au grand et au subUme.
{La Br.) ' Va trouver de ma part ce jeune ambitieux.
{Rac.)

(§ 60.) ' Penseur'^ profond sous le r^gne du pedantisme,
auteur brillant et ing^nieux dans une langue informe et
grossifire, Montaigne 6crit avec le secours de sa raison et des
anciens. Son ouvrage, longtemps unique, demeure toujours
original ; et la France, enrichie tout a coup de brillantes mer-
veilles, ne sent pas refroidir son admiration pour ces antiques
et naives beautes. ( Villemain.) ' Au mois de mai dernier a
disparu une figure unique* entre les femmes qui ont r6gne
par leur beaute et par leur grdce. {Ste.-B.) ' M. de Chateau-
briand, dans les vingt derni^res annees, f ut le grand centre
de son monde. {Ste.-B.) * A quoi le bon oncle r^pond, en
decoupant son propre melon de sa propre main : Ce neveu-
Id aura I'hSritage. (Soulie.) ° Et ne craignez-vous point I'im-
patient Achille ? {Bac.) ' Le venerable Malesherbes s'ofFrit
k la Convention pour d6fendre Louis XVL {Mignet.) ' Lau-
rence vit la vieille femme aveugle 6tendue sur son lit. {&■
Sand.) 'Ah, madame ! excusezmon aveugle douleur. {Com.)
' Je m'^tais assis devant cette vieille petite table noire que
vous connaissez. {Sue.) '" Un long et sourd g6missement
s'^leva autour de Whitehall. {Gukot.)

•§506. "SlTOc.

• $ 50o, " i.e. Mme. R€c<uniQr.

WJ ADJtriirCTS OF ADJECTIVES. 239

61. Adjectives are often, as in English, modified or
limited by nouns, joined to them by a preposition, es-
pecially de or &.

In the majority of cases, the French preposition corresponds to
the one that is used in English : thus, capable de trahison capa-
ble of treason, cher a ses amis dear to his friends, exempt d'or-
gaell exempt from pride, c^lebre par (or pour) ses victoires
celebrated by (or for) his victories, constant dans I'adversit^
constant in adversity. But there are certain cases that require
notice.

a. De is often used before a noun expressing source or cause or
motive, after an adjective which in English requires a different
preposition : thus, content de loi satis(/ied loith him, £S.ch^ de
ma fante sorry for my fault, snrpris de cette nouvelle sur-
prised at this news.

The commonest adjectives having this construction are aise,
amonrenz, avide, coniiis, content and m^content, d^sol^, 6pris,
fS«h^ sorry, fon, forieuz, gros, inconsolable, indig^^, inquiet,
ivre, justiciable, offens^, ravi, rassasi^, rempli, surpris, tribu-
taire.

6. De is sometimes used in the sense of in reject of, in regard
to, where the English uses a different preposition : thus, riche
d'attraits rich in attractions, curieux de I'avenir curious about
the future.

The commonest adjectives thus used are complice, curieux,
d^daignenz, fiiible, reconnaissant, redevable, responsable,
riche, soigneux, triste, victorieux.

c. De is used before a numeral after an adjective signifying
quantity or dimension ; also after a comparative adjective, to
signify measure of difference. Thus, grand de six pieds six feet
tail, large de deux ponces two inches tvide, S.g^ de douze ans
tweive years old; plus hant d'un pied higher by a foot, moins
ig6 de cinq ans less aged by five years, inflrieor de vingt pieds
twenty feet lower.

d. More peculiar is the use of de after words of nearness : thus,
proche d'eUe near to Tier, voisin du grand chemin bordering on
the highway (also pres de near to : compare § 162/, end).

e. The preposition a to, toward, at, is sometimes used in the
sense of in respect to where English prefers a different expres-
sion : thus, adroit au jeu skilled in play, S,pre au gain greedy
for gain, 11 n'est bon h. rien he is good for nothing.

f. Some adjectives are followed by different prepositions, either
without or with noticeable differences of meaning : thus, cruel h,
or envers cruel to or toward, indulgent a or pour or envers in-

340 ADJECTIVES. ['1—

diHgent to etc., habile a or dans or en skilled in: butfach^
contre means angry at, and filch^ de means angry on aocovmt of
OT sorry for.

g. Participles in general take the same prepositions after them
as the verbs to which they belong.

h. For the use of de or a before an infinitive after an adjective,
see § 184. For the use of de or par with a passive verb-phrase
see XXVIII. 3.

ILLUSTEATIVE SENTENCES.— X. If oun- Adjuncts of Adjectives.

(§ 61.) ' Savez-vous, aprSs tout, de quoi je sais capable^?
(Mol.) ° Oswald §tait m^content de lui-m^me. {de Stael.) ' A
tort ou k raison, le monde s'imagina que Marchal etait plus
amoureux du cadre que du tableau. [About.) * Je n'en
suis pas surprise ; son caract^re etait si different du v6tre.
(Mar.) * II est tres adroit k tons les exercices ; nul ne tire
mieux Pare que lui. {Oautier.) ° H y en a qui sont braves k
coups d'ep6e, et qui craignent les coups de mousquet. {La R.)
' Elle f ut sublime de soins et d'attentions pour son vieux
p^re, dont les f acultes coramen^aient k baisser. {Bal.) ' Fa-
tigu6 d'6crire, ennuy6 de moi, d6gout6 des autres, abim6
de dettes, et 16ger d'argent, . . . j'ai quitt6 Madrid. {Beaum.)
'En 1783 vivait dans le Calvados une jeune fille, 4gee de
vingt-cinq ans, reunissant a une grande beaute un caract^re
ferme et indSpendant. {Thiers.) " Quoique voisin d'une
ville populeuse, ce lieu prSsente un aspect melancolique.
(Topfer.) " Un peuple si juste devait 4tre ch^ri des dieux.
{Mont.)

Theme 3.
adjectives.

' We went there at half past four, and we were there
about half an hour. ° A hundred monks, bare-footed, pre-
ceded the coffin of the late princess, and all the court, ex-
cept the ladies, followed it, with bare heads. " Do you re-
ceive your newspapers prepaid ? ' I receive them every
day, and I send you one of them herewith. ' This lady
looks very happy. "It is because the count marries her
to-day at half past ten. ' To-morrow all their friends will
come to see the newly-married [couple] ; there will be no
place for tbe last comers. ° She is very well acquainted

631 NUMERALS. 241

with the French language and literature. ' The first and
second emperors of France were the two Napoleons. '° He
passed the first and last years of his life in London. " They
found the door and window shut. " Montaigne, the great-
est thinker of his time, enriched the young and unformed
literature of France with his profound and brilliant essays.
" The illustrious Chateaubriand was a much-esteemed au-
thor, but during the past* twenty years France has felt*"
her admiration for his works grow cold. " This old black
table is not very neat, and I will hold the melon in my own
hands. " The poor sick child was stretched upon her little
old hard bed. " If I thought you capable of that, I should
be much dissatisfied with you. " Were you angry at the
news which I brought ? " No, but I was surprised at it.
" I imagined that our friend was inconsolable for the loss
of his wife, but they say that he is already in love with this
young and handsome girl. " They say also that she ia rich
in charms and attractions. " This young man, seventeen
years old, is six feet and two inches tall ; he is taller by
seven inches than his brother, who is three years older.
" He is skilled in all games.

v.— NUMERALS.

62. The numerals, both cardmal and ordmal, along with the
principal rules for their use, were given in the First Part (Les-
sons XV.-XVII.)- A few further particulars are added here.

6a. Mille is used instead of mil even in dates, when
not followed by another number, and also usually when
ihe date is before Christ.

Thus, en mille in (the year) a thousand, en I'an deux mille in
the year two tTumsand.

a. In giving the year, one uses oftenest en simply, but also en
I'an, or I'an alone (for numbers under 100).

• i ail. " i 118d.

16

243 NtJMBBALS. [M—

64. Cent and quatre-vingt are used without b in dat-
ing, and also when following the noun in an ordinal

sense.

Thus, en mil huit cent in (tJie year) 1800, tome quatre-vingt,
page deux cent volume 80, page 200.

65. The indefinite article un is the numeral un with
weakened meaning; and sometimes it may admit of
question whether the word is to be called numeral or
article.

66. Old ordinals, now hardly in use as such, or used only in
special phrases, are prime first, tiers (tierce f.) third, quart
(quarte f.) fourth, quint fifth. The last three are used also as
fractionals (see XVI. 46, e). Quint still appears in one or two
names of sovereigns : Charles-Quint, Sixte-Quint.

67. Collectives are formed from cardinal numerals
by the ending aine ; they mean about the number of.

Thus, une douzaine a dozen, about 13, une vingtaine a score
or so, une soixantaine some threescore.

a. The only ones in ordinary use are huitaine, dizaine, dou-
zaine, quinzaine, vingtaine, trentaine, quarantaine, cinquan-
taine, soixantaine, centaine. Instead of une centaine is said
un cent, especially of articles sold by the hundred : thus, un cent
de clous a hundred nails.

h. Un millier a thousand or so is a like collective from mille.

68. Of special multiplicatives are in use only the fol-
lowing :

simple, mmpL quadruple, quadruple septuple, seven-fold
double, double quintuple, fivefold octuple, eightfold

triple, triple sextuple, sixfold decuple, tenfold

centuple, hundredfold
a. For the other numbers, one says neuf fois nine times, or

neuf fois autant nine times as much, or neuf fois plus nine times

more ; and so onze fois eleven times, and so on.

69. a. For the numeral adverbs once, twice, thrice,
and so on, the French uses fois f. with the numeral pre-
fixed.

Thus, une fois, deux fois, trois fois, quatre fois {four times),
and so on. But bis is also used in certain special connections for
twice.

70] NUMERALS. 243

6. Numeral adverbs are also made, as in English, from the
ordinals, in the same manner as from other adjectives (XXXI.) :
thus, premierement firstly, secondement or deuziemement sec-
ondly, troisi^mement thirdly, and so on.

70. The following special uses are to be noted :

a. After plus tnore or moins less, the English tlian before a
numeral is expressed by de : thus, plus de dix minutes more than
ten, minutes, moins de cent ans less than a hundred years.

b. The article is not seldom used after vers toward and sur
about in expressions of time : thus, vers or sur les six heures
about 6 o'clock ; and then, by analogy, even in vers les une henre
about 1 o''dock.

G. Such expressions as lui cinq^uieme, literally himself the fifth,
are sometimes used for he and four others, and the like.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.-XI. Numerals.

(§ 66.) ' Charles-Quint ! dans ces temps d'opprobre et de
terreur, que fais-tu dans ta tombe ? ( V. Hugo.)

(§ 67.) ' H vit devant lui une jeune fills d'une vingtaine
d'ann^es, qui se tenait sur le seuil. ( Theuriet.) ' L'album
contenait des portraits, parmi lesquels se trouvaient une
trentaine d'amis intimes. (Bal.) ' II se retirait toujours
le visage droit aux ennemis, et I'epee au poing, leur don-
nant plus de crainte qu'nn cent d'autres. (Michelet.)

(§ 69.) ' Le timbre sonore lentement fr6mit douze fois
. . . et I'annee expire d sa voix. (Tastu.) ' J'ai vu deux ou
trois fois iei M. d'Autun. {de Sev.)

(§ 70.) ' Votremaiest6 aura encore plus d'une heure pour
s'y reposer. (Guizot.) ° Les scel6rats ! Us m'ont attach^ les
mains, comme vous voyez ; ils Staient plus de vingt. (de
Vi.) ' C'6tait sur les cinq heures de I'apr^s-midi, par le plus
beau temps du monde. ( Q. Sand.) ' Tu partiras vers les deux
heures apr^s diner ; tu seras la-bas a la nuit. {G. Sand.)
* II est parti lui douzi6me ; tout le reste courra aprds.
{de SSv.)

Theme 4.
numerals.
' Charles the Fifth died in the year 1558. " He had ab-
dicated sovereign power in 1555, but he lived, in the clois-
ter to which he had retired, more than three years longer.
' Have you begun the second volume of the novel you were

244 PRONOUNS AND PEONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. ['"'—

reading yesterday ? ' It has three volumes, sir ; I have
just finished the second, and I am going to begin the third
this evening. ' I left at Paris some hundred friends,
among whom there were not more than ten or so intimate
ones. " He would not have retired before a hundred ene-
mies. ' He was in the army more than twenty years ; he
has made a dozen campaigns, and has been wounded five
or six times. ° I have seen him only once ; it was toward
eleven o'clock in the evening. " He came in, he and nine
others, but he stayed less than an hour.

VI.— PRONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL
ADJECTIVES.

71. In the First Part, the substantive forms and the adjective
forms of the various classes of pronouns, with their uses, were
explained separately ; here the two kinds will be treated together
in each class.

A. — Personal Pbonouxs.

72. The forms of the personal pronouns, and their principal
uses, were explained in the First Part (Lessons XXII. and XXIIL).
Further rules are added here.

73. Both the subject-pronoun and the object-pronoun
are ordinarily repeated with each verb to which they be-
long in sense.

Thus, nous aliens at nous venons we go and come, je le vols et
je I'entends I see and hear it.

a. But exceptions are not infrequent : the rule applies more
strictly to object- than to subject-pronouns, to pronouns of the
first and second than to those of the third person, and with sim-
ple than with compound tenses of the verb. The repetition is
necessary if the object-pronouns are in different constructions :
thus, je I'ai vn et je lui ai parle I have seen and spoTisn to him.

74. If a subject-pronoun is to be made emphatic, it is
usually repeated, in its disjunctive form, either before
the verb or, sometimes, after it.

79] PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 245

Thus, moi, je I'ai dit or je I'ai dit, moi / (myself) have said it.

a. Then the proper subject is sometimes omitted, and the em-
phatic disjunctive is left alone as subject : thus, lui n'a en qa'un
ami he (emphatic) had only one friend.

75. In like manner, an object-pronoun is repeated, in
combination with meme, for emphasis or distinctness, and
with k if it is indirect object.

Thus, il se I'est fait d. lui-mSme he has done it to himself, je
t'ai vn toi-m6me I have seen thee thyself.

76. A subject-pronoun separated from the verb, by a
clanse or even a single word, like seul or aussi, has to
take the disjunctive form (see XXIII. 3^).

Thus, enx anssi nous ont vus they too have seen us, lui seul a
raison lie alone is right.

a. But in old-style and official speech this rule is sometimes
violated : thus, je sonssigne declare / the undersigned declare.

77. The use of two conjunctive pronouns with one
verb, as its direct and indirect objects respectively, is
limited to cases in which the direct object is of the 3d
person, and not reflexive (se) ; otherwise, the direct ob-
ject alone is made conjunctive, and the indirect follows
the verb as disjunctive, with k.

Thus, je me presente a toi or a lui I present myself to thee or
to him, U. se montra a moi he shmoed himself to me.

78. While a noun-object with a ^o is ordinarily represented in
pronoun-form by the simple conjunctive pronoun of the indirect
object, there are certain verbs which require instead the disjunc-
tive pronoun with a.

Such verbs are especially p enser k or sonety y ^- fhiiik. o/,vgnJE
kc ome to, t-n^py a, yYjTO to. Stre a belon g^; also appeler a call
to, T&assDa«e-kf-X£!osiwrMe, a ccontniner a a^cenLttom, t n ■ thus, -jc
pense k toi I think of'theeTll yint a nons fie came t o if-t, p.Rtt.B
ma^mj nst. a. mnj ffj^£Tpmsp. helongsJg_rne.

79. a. Certain verbs that govern an infinitive directly
(without de or i) are treated like auxiliaries in taking be-
fore them an object-pronoun logically belonging to the
infinitive.

Such verbs are faire or laisser cause, sentir fed, entendre

246 PROKOUNS AND PEONOMINAL. ADJECTIVES. [79—

hear, voir see : thus, je I'ai fait faire / Jiave caused to make it
(or caused it to he made), nous Tavons entendn dir e we have
heard it said (literally, haveTieard'say it). ' '

For the ease of two object-pronouns in such a combination, see
below, § 158.

6. The same is not seldom the case with vouloir voish, ponvoir
can, devoir ought : thus, il me le veut persuader or il veut me
le persuader he wants to persuade me of it, on le pent gagner
or on pent le gagner one can win him, qui le doit emporter
who ought to get the tetter ? Other cases sometimes occur : e.g.
nous I'allons montrer we are going to show it.

80. If an imperative affirmative is followed bj an-
other, connected with it by et and or ou or, the pronoun-
objects of the latter may be placed before it instead of
after.

Thus, console-toi et m'^coute (or et €coute-moi) comfort thy-
self and listen to me, montrez-les-moi ou me les peignez show or
describe them to me.

81. a. The direct object-pronoun of the third person,

le, is used predicatively without variation of gender or

number to represent a preceding adjective, or noun of

condition- or qua,1ity-,„ where ^r?_ may-bftnfiftd-in. Jlnglish.

Thus, 6tes-vous heureux? je le suis are you happy ? lam so^
fiit-elle servante ? elle le fiit was sTie a servantt. '

b. But where the question is oneoTTSeHG^T^the predicate pro-
noun is varied to agree with the noun to which it relates : thus,
. gtes-vous la Marie ? je la suis are you Mary ? I am she.

82. a. The French often uses le to repeat or to an-
ticipate something stated in a preceding or following
clause, while the English omits it.

Thus, ils ne sent pas ici, je le vois tliey are not here, I see,
vous le savez, c'est nn caractere faible you know, he is a weak
character.

The repetition, in fact, of either subject or object in the form
of a conjunctive pronoun (also en and y) with the verb is a fre-
quent and familiar pecuharity of French.

b. With a few verbs, the French uses le as a sort of indefinite
constant object : thuSt,rem£si:teE_^^ the better (literally, carry
it o^)^4e-G^d©r.#i2jg,^^pte'dis2Ulfir contest, vie, and so on.

83. The disjunctive pronouns of the third person —

86] PEESONAL PEONOUKS. 247

ltd, elle, eux, elles — are chiefly, though not exclusively,
used of persons, other modes of expression being substi-
tuted when things are referred to.

84. Sol (XXIII. 4) is used of persons only in an in-
definite way, when no reference is had to a particular
person. As relating to things, its employment is less
restricted ; but modern usage tends to substitute for it
the ordinary disjunctives of the third person, especially
in the feminine, and where definite objects are intended.

Thus, un bienfait porte sa recompense en soi a kindness
brings its ovm rewaxf^jm^LMr but les choses ne sont en elles-
m6ines ni pores ni impures things are neither pure nor impure
in themselves.

85. En and y (XXIII. 5-8) are adverbs that have ac-
quired the value and construction of pronouns, being
used instead of personal pronouns (rarely, of demonstra-
tives) in the genitive and dative cases respectively, or as
governed by the prepositions de and k. They refer usu-
ally to things ; but also to persons, if plural or under-
stood in an indefinite sense ; to a definite person in the
singular, only rarely.

a. Quite frequently, they refer to a whole (preceding) clause,
or to something still more indefinitely suggested : thus, 11 n'est
pas ici, j'en snis sur he is not here, I am sure of it, il_egt.SSJ:ti.^
fiez-Tons y /te has gone out, depend upon it.

h. Hence also, in many special combinations, they have a yet
more indefinite reference, to nothing specified or distinctly sug-
gested, but to things in general ; and they form idiomatic phrases,
where they are hardly, if at aU, translatable : en meaning. m re-
spect of it, because of it, from it, away ; and y meaning there,
unto it, etc.

Some of the commonest of these combinations are :
j'en all er (XXIX. 7c), go off h ^ prendre a,^ /i,ke respormble,

accuse
g'en retomner, come back en nserj£fiivi2:g^', handle

en avoir a, hamf , to deal with en etre . he at a point or situation

en Ton loir a, have a grudge a^gainst e n venir a , come to the point of
en 6tre fiiit, be all over en finir, make an end

248 PKONOUNS ASrt) pbOnOmInAl aSJScMVES. [86—

y avoir ( XXX. 4), there is, etc. y etre,

j_aUOT de, concern y voir,

En in the sense of away (as in s'en aller) is in many cases
compounded with a verb : thus, ^^jSaxe-fun awav^^ ^ea^lex
fly off, g'«TTip qr^.ar 7n.w one's self -Control, emmener (xerfy off'.

c. En is sometimes used pleonastically to repeat a genitive
(usually plural) depending on the same verb : thus, de ces trois
unites I Ln'y en a cLu'tme fi'importantn of these three unities there
is only one\tnat wj ttnponanv.

d. For en having the value of a possessive, see below, § 886.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XII. Personal Pronouns.

(§ 73.) ' Oui, j'etais et je suis encore dans une grande
perplexity. {^Ahout.) ' Votre lettre, madame, me plait, me
touche, et m'alarme. (Eouss.) ' En attendant le jour du
depart j'allais, je venais, je ne pouvais me rassasier de voir
la citadelle, I'arsenal, le port. (Barth.) ' Je la vis la veille,
je lui parlai, je me d6sesp6rai. {Mar.)

(§ 74.) ' Moi, sans me vanter, j'ai la mine qu'il fant*
pour les contes k faire* peur. {Courier.) ' Moi, j'ai passa-
blement couru pour trouver une femme. (About.) ' En at-
tendant, lui ne bonge pas de sa fen^tre. (Toep/er.^ * S'il
n'en dit rien k Claire, ce n'6tait pas qu'il craignit" de la
rendre jalouse, ou que lui-m^me garddt" au fond da coeur
un reste de d6pit. (About.) "' On ne loue point une femme
ni un auteur comme eux-m^mes se louent. (La Ji.)

(§ 75.) ' Si vous avez fait de votre mieux, ne vous en
veuillez" pas k vous-m^mes. (Jouffroy.) ' Je ne puis' sans
horreur me regarder moi-m^me. (Delavigne.)

(§ 76.) ' EUe les nomme ; et lui, saisissant un crayon, se
met k les 6crire. (Thiers.) " Mais lui, voyant en moi la
fiUe de son fr^re, me tint lieu, chdre Elise, et de pdre et de
m^re. (Sac.) ' Eux seuls savent juger, savent penser, sa-
vent 6crire, doivent eerire. (La Br.) * Lui, bravant tons
les dangers, semblait seul tenir la campagne. (Beranger.)

(§ 77.) ' C'est moi qui me fie a vous. (Mignet.) ' C'est
I'art et non pas la nature simple qui se montre k nous.
(Fen.) " J'ai m6rit6 ce qui m'arrive, puisque j'ai pu
m'adresser k lui. (Scribe.) ' On trouve k qui parler quand
on s'adresse k moi. (Delavigne.)

(§ 78.) ' J'ai pens6 k elle d'abord, c'etait mon devoir ;

•XXX. 8. ^ilSBb. '8133. " XXIV. 6/. •$1600.

^5] tEfiSOSTAt PEONOUKS. 249

k moi ensuite, c'6tait mon droit. (Augier.) ' Mon moulin
est k moi, tout aussi bien, au moins, que la Prusse est au
roi. (Andrieux.) ' Un soir, comme j'arrivais, I'enfant vint
a moi toute troubl6e. (JQau.)

(§ 79.) 'Monsieur lui voulut faire voir St. Cloud lui-
m^me, (St. Simon.) ' Aimez-moi toujours ; c'est la seule
cbose qui me peut donner de la consolation, {de Sev.\
'Tu trahis mes bienfaits ; je les veux redoubler. (Com.)
* Ainsi toujours les dieux vous daignent inspirer ! [Com.)
' N'ayant pu vous venger, je vous irai rejoindre. ( Com.)

(§ 80.) ' Monsieur Lysidas, prenez un si^ge vous-m^me,
et vous mettez Ik. (Moi.) ' Tenez, monsieur ; battez-moi
plutdt et me laissez rire. (Moi.)

(§ 81.) ' Sois gentille. — Je ne le suis done pas toujours ?
— Ob ! si. (About.) ' Vous n'6tiez pas coupable envers
moi ; c'est moi qui le fus envers moi-m4me. (G. Sand.)
' Vous etes Ardasire ? lui dis-je. — Oui, perfide, repondit-
elle ; je la suis. (Mont.)

(§ 82.) ' C'est dans cette chambre bien simple, vous le
voyez, que j'ai pass6 les plus douces heures que j'ai v6cu*.
(Dum.) ' II s'en va ; je n'ai pas tant de ponvoir sur lui
que je le croyais. (Mar.) ' Lui seul, madame, vous aura
aim6e comme vous devriez I'^tre. (Bal.) * Cette alterna-
tive prouve en effet qu'il leur manque quelque chose k
chacun. (Cuvier.) 'Les ricbesses et le luxe des arts le
disputent en eclat aux dons splendides des f6es. (de Sis-
mondi.)

(§ 84.) 'II est beau de triompber de soi. (Corn.) 'II
est plus aisd d'etre sage pour les autres que de I'^tre pour
soi-m^me. (La H.) ' Etre trop mScontent de soi est une
faiblesse ; ^tre trop content de soi est une sottise. (de
Sable.) * La poesie porte son excuse avec soi. (Boileau.)
' Les victoires trainent toujours apr^s elles autant de ca-
lamit6s pour un l^tat que les plus sanglantes defaites.
(Massillon.)

(§ 85.) ' En 1814, la Restauration, trouvant le g6n6ral
Dupont en prison, en eut fait un ministre de la guerre.
(Ste.-B.) ' En sortant de r6tat de nature, nous forQons nos
semblables d'en sortir aussi ; nul n'y peut demeurer malgr^
les autres. (Rouss.) ' J'gtais indigne de vous, et j'en rougis.

> S 1946.

250 PKONOUNS ,AND PBOKOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [88—

{G. Sand.) * C'etait elle, j'en 6tais siar, qui avail si douillette-
raent install^ la sa bonne m^re. (Coppee.) 'On m'a dit
tant de mal de cet homme, et j'y en vois" si peu ! {La Br.)
' Comment s'y prend-on, k la guerre, pour eviter les mau-
vais coups ? (About.) ' J'en 6tais Ik de mes reflexions,
quand j'entendis appeler*" mon nom. (Dau.). ' Ponrquoi
s'en prendre aux hommes de ce que les femmes ne sont pas
savantes ? (La Br.) ' C'en est fait, mes amis ; U n'est plus
de patrie.( FoZ.) "La dispute s'echauffant, on en vint
bientdt aux armes. ( Vertot.) "II y va de ma gloire ; il
f aut que je me venge. ( Corn.) " De deux personnes qui
s'aiment, soit d'amour, soit d'amitie, il y en a toujours une
qui doit donner de son coeur plus que I'autre, ( G. Sand.)

Thehg 5.

PBESOlfAI, PBONOUITS.

' We are and always shall be charmed with this book ;
it pleases and instructs us. ' Do you know who is its" au-
thor ? "I* know and have spoken with him ; he came
himself to see me, the eve of his departure. * He alone
knows how" to write really interesting stories. ' I will give
this book to yourself, but you will not permit her to' read
it. ° They also will read it, but he alone will understand
it. ' If he wants to present himself to us, we shall not
show ourselves to him. ° We were thinking of her when
she came to us. " This house — ^I cannot accustom myself
to it, although it is mine. '" I saw them arrive this morn-
ing. " I have caused to say to her that I cannot see her
to-day. '" She sends you this letter ; take it and read it.
" Is she not your sister ? ," She is (so) ; I was always kind
to her, but she has not been so toward me. " You know,
I have passed here many happy years. " I love this room
more than you would believe^. " Some men are happier
than they ought^ to be. " One ought not to be too well-
's leie. 'SlTOd. '8 886. « emphatic.
•IXXIV. 7a. 'jl'J'Oft. ■jlVOc.

•9] P08SESSIVES. 261

satisfied ■with one's self. " Every weakness carries its own
punishment in itself. "° He who triumphs over' himself
triumphs over" all misfortunes. "' It was she who said so
much evil of them, depend upon it. " It is all over ; let
us make an end, and go away. " Of all these people, there
is not one that I love.

B. POSSESSIVES.

86. The possessives are the adjective forms corresponding to
the personal pronouns as substantives. The forms and principal
uses of them have been already given (XIV. 1-5, XXVII. 1, 2).

a. The so-called possessive pronouns (Lesson XXVII.) are only
a different form of the possessive adjectives, made of substantive
value by prefixing the definite article.

87. The possessive pronoun is occasionally used predicatively
without article, and attributively after the indefinite article in-
stead of the definite : thus, cette maison est mienne this Tiouse
is mine, on mien parent a relation of mine.

88. The possessive adjective is often omitted in
French where English usage requires it, or its meaning is
expressed by the French in another manner than in Eng-
lish.

a. It is omitted especially in speaking of parts of the body or
dress, where the connection makes clear what is meant : thus, il
me donna la main he gave me his hand.

b. Its meaning is often expressed by an indirect object-pronoun
with the verb, or by en : thus, il s'est cass6 le bras he has bro-
ken his arm, le sol en est fertile its soil is fertile.

c. On the other hand, the possessive is used in address before
the name of a relative, the title of a superior ofBcer, and in other
like cases : thus, bonjour, men pere good day, father, oui, mon
g^n^ral yes, General.

89. The possessive is made emphatic, as in English, by adding
l yopre oj^w ; but also by adding the corresponding disjunctive
jjfonouli with a : thus, de mes propres yeux with my own eyes,
la maison de mon pere et la mienne propre my father's house
and my ovm, vnt.r g npininn a, vnns ifour very own omnion.

•de.

253 PRONOUITS AND PRONOMIKAt ADJECTIVES. [89—
ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XIII. Possessives.

(§ 87.) ' Elle pent" nous plaire plus ou moins, mais elle
est sienne. (Ste.-B.) ' Un mien cousin, C6sar, Comte de
Garof a, prfis de Velalcazar. ( V. Hugo.)

(§ 88.) ' Je me suis bless6 d la main. [Duvivier.)
' Jeunes femmes, ne jetez jamais les yeux sur les maitres
chanteurs de Boh^me. (Gautier.) 'Plus nombreux, ils le-
vaient le front plus haut que lui. IDelavigne.) * Je m'at-
tachai k me perfectionner le gout. {Le Sage.) ' Au second
coup seulement, le bourreau lui abattit la t^te. (Mignet.)
° Pour chasser ce cauchemar, je fermai les yeux ; le coeur
me battait k^ me rompre la poi trine. (Lab.) ' La main me
tremblait, mon regard se troublait, le coeur me manqua.
[Lam.) °En passant en Pologne, il en vit Je roi. (St. Si-
mon.) ' Cette vie, je I'ai en grande partie parcourue ; j'en
connais les promesses, les r6alites, les deceptions. {Jouffroy.)
'° Ma mSre, ma m^re ! pourquoi es-tu si longtemps couchee ?
(Berquin.) " Pauvre cher homme ! j'ai din§ hier avec lui ;
je lui disais : Vous mangez trop, mon oncle. (Augier.)
" J'en ferai confidence a tout le regiment ; merci, mon
vieux ! (About.)

(§ 89.) ' Aimable enfant, ajontait-il, votre presence et
vos doux sourires, voild mes f^tes k raoi. (Sandeau.) " Ainsi,
toute ma famUle k moi, c'est ma pauvre nourrice, la mere
Joseph. (Scribe.)

Theme 6.

possessives.

' Here is a cousin of thine ; give him thy hand. ' I can-
not give him my hand ; I have broken my arm. ' If you
perfect your taste, you will like books better ; you will un-
derstand their beauties and know their authors. * France
is the most beautiful country in Europe, and Paris is its
capital and largest city. ' Cousin, you do not know the
world. ° You are afraid, friend ; your hand trembles, and
your courage fails. ' Come with me, captain ; you shall
see the whole company. * I did it with my own hands.
• I am not going to dine with you at the restaurant ; it is

• XXV. 8/. b S 188ft.

9*] DEMOIfSTEATIVES. 253

my* happiness to* dine with my own family, in my own
house.

C. — Demonstratives.

90. The forms and principal uses of the demonstrative adjec-
tives and pronouns are given in the First Part (XIII. 1-3, XX'lV.
1-4).

91. The demonstratives containing ci and Ik are often

used respectively in the sense of latter (i. e. nearer) and

former (i.e. farther oflE).

Tnus, OoriieUle et Racine sont deux grands poetes ; celui-la
[i.e. Comeille] est plus sublime, celui-ci [i.e. Racine] est plus
vrai Comeille and Badne are two great poets ; the former has
more sublimity, the latter more truth. And in the same manner
ce . . . -ci and ce . . . -la, and ceci and cela.

92. a. Instead of the simple demonstratives celui etc. (XXIV.
4a) as antecedent of a relative, the compounds celui-la etc. are
used, if something intervenes before the relative, or if the rela-
tive clause is additive or parenthetic in value : thus, celui-la est
bon qui fait du bleu aux autres he is good who does good to
others, celui-ci, qui cofite deux francs, est meilleur que celui-1^,
qui en coute cinq this one, which costs two francs, is better than
that one, which costs five.

b. On the other hand, the simple celui etc. are in rare cases
used otherwise than before a relative or de : thus, cette remarque,
ainsi que ceUes purement grammaticales (Volt.) this remark,
as well as those purely gram,matical.

93. ^a is a fanuliar substitute for cela (XXIV. 3) ; it is some-
times used in a derogatory or contemptuous way of persons : thus,
Ini, qu'est-ce que ga ^ ? what is he ?

94. a. For the repetition by ce of a subject already expressed,
see § 147e.

6. The adjective ce is often used of persons present or near one,
where the English uses instead the article : thus, ces dames the
ladies (of the house), and so on.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.-XIV. Demonstratives.

{§ 91.) ' Livie a quelques traits de Madame de Mainte-
non ; si celle-ci fonda Saint-Cyr, celle-ld s'occupait des
jeunes fiUes en les mariant. (Ampere.)

{§ 92. ) ' Ceux-l£l, seals qui ont la conscience de n'^tre

• empbatic. "ilTSb.

254 PKOKOUNS AND PEONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [M—

rien par eux-m6mes, manifestent des regrets en tombant du
pouvoir. (Bal.)

(§ 93.) ' Qa, marche ! 9a marche ! dans huit jours nous
entrerons a Berlin. {Dau.) ' Aie bien soin de tout ; tu me
rendras compte de 9a 1^-bas ! dit-il. (Bal.) ' Davoust ?
Qu'est-ce que c'est que* 9a? — Qa, monsieur le marquis,
c'est le h6ros qui prepara Wagram. (Sandeau.)

(§ 94.) ' Ce que^je d6sire, c'est de*" vous voir reussir.
(Roc.) ' II a peur de° perdre une minute, parce que le
temps, c'est de I'argent. (Lab.) ' Faites approcher ce mon-
sieur, que ces messieurs avaient attach6. ( k. Hugo.)

Theme 7.

DEMOIfSTEATIVBS.

' I have read the life of Wellington and that of Napo-
leon ; the latter was the greater man, the former the bet-
ter citizen. ° He alone is happy who triumphs over* him-
self. ' Those who love others are themselves beloved.
* This man, who has never had anything, is happier than
that one, who has lost his great wealth. ^ Wagram ? what
is that ? " Wagram was one of the great battles of Na-
poleon's wars.

D. — Inteeeogatives.

95. The interrogative adjective and pronouns were given, and
their principal uses explained, in the First Part (XIII. 4, 5, XXV.).

96. De qui is not used in the sense of whose f with the govern-
ing noun immediately following : thus, de qui est-ce le livre
whose book is this $

97. The predicative que (XXV. 4a) is used almost as subject
in certain impersonal expressions, where the impersonal subject
is omitted : thus, que vous en semble what do you think of
them ? (literally, wMt seems to you of them f) qu'anive-t-il wJtat
is happening f

98. After qu'est-ce meaning what is? a que is added before
the predicate noun : thus, qu'est-ce que la vie what is We ?

a. The same is the case after the doubled interrogative qu'est-ce
que c'est (XXV. 7) : thus, qu'est-ce que c'est que la vie what
is life ?

"8 98- » 8 1736. •8186a. 4 de.

lOa} HBLATIVES. 255

99. For the repetition of de after an interrogative before two
alternatives, see above, § 34c.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XV. Interrogatives.

(§ 95.) ' Qui voulez-vous que men coeur mette a votre
place ? {Mar.) ' Qui vous rend si hardi de troubler mop
breuvage ? {La F.) ' Qui vous a fait po^te ? — Le malheur.
{Bum.) * Qui vous a engage a commettre cet assassinat ?
— Ses crimes. {Thiers.) 'Sais-tu que c'est son sang? le
sais-tu ? — Que m'importe ? ( Com.) ' Qu'^tes-vous mainte-
nant, soldats anglais? {Guizot.) ' Voulez-vous que je vous
apprenne la logique ? — Qu'est-ce que c'est que cette lo-
gique? {Mol.)

E. — Relatives.

100. The forms and principal uses of the relative pronouns
and adjective were given and explained in the First Part (XIII.
56, XXVI.).

a. For the use of a relative clause where in English a present
participle stands, see below, § 189g'.

101. a. Leqnel is occasionally used as adjective, when intro-
ducing a clause that has additive value : thus, lecLuel chevalier
devait ^pooser Mademoiselle B. which gentleman was to marry
Miss B.

b. In antiquated and ofBcial phraseology, leqnel stands some-
times where ordinary usage requires qui or que : thus, un t^moin,
leqnel a dit ... a witness, who has said . . .

102. Dont and de qui are not used as dependent upon an an-
tecedent that is governed by a preposition : thus, le roi anx bien-
&it8 duquel . . .the Tiing to whose benefits . . .

103. Qui, que, and quel are all often used as compound rela-
tives, or relatives implying also their antecedent, and having a
general or indefinite sense.

a. Qui referring to persons thus signifies any one who, whoever,
and is used also as object : thus, qui s'excuse s'accuse whoever
excuses himself accuses himself, qu'importe la vie & qui perd le
bonhenr of what use is life to any one who loses Jiappiness ? je
ne sais qui chercher I don't know whom to look for.

b. Qui is also used instead of ce qui as referring to things after
voici and voill., and in parenthetic phrases like qui plus est what
is more : thus, voil^ qui serait merveilleux that would be ad-
mirable (lit'ly, behold what would be admirdbli).

c. Que hardly occuiKin this sense except as object of an infini-
tive immediately following it : thus, il ne sait que faire ^ knows
not what to do.

256 PEONOUNS AND PEONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [lOS- •

d. Quoi stands with this value especially after a preposition
(see XXVI. 6) : thus, voili, de quoi 11 parle that is wJud Tie is
talking about, dites-moi en quoi je puis vous servir tell me in
what I can be of service to you. Anrl-ilB gnni 'has, hepnniB an iA\-
jomatic phrase, meaning the whereivith, tTie means of anything.
I 104. Qni. q uoi. and quel, when followed by que before a sjib-
Ijunctive, correspond to wlujever-eeaidrwhjat^er witBTthe subjunc-
/tive in English ; qui being used relating to persons, quoi as ob-
/ jeot relating to things, and quel as predicate adjective : thus, qui
I que vous soyez, quoi que vous fassiez, quels que soient vos ta-
lents whoever you may be, whatever you may do, whatever be your
talents, quoi qu'il en soit whatever the case may be.

a. The same phrases are used sometimes in the sense of any
one soever, anything whatever, and the like : thus, il ne con-
nait qui que'ce soit he knows nobody at all.

b. Very rarely, qni is used instead of que, with a verb follow-
ing of which it is the subject : thus, quoi qui suive whatever
may ensue.

c. For the use of quelque que in a similar sense, see below,
§ 107c ; for that of relative adverbs, see §*137c.

ILLUSTBATIVE SENTENCES.— XVI. Belatives.

(§ 100.) ' Moi qni suis royaliste, je le dis franchement.
{de Vi.) " Dis-moi, qui es-tu, toi qui me paries ainsi?
(Mar.) ' Ce fut moi qui m'iaclinai a men tour. (Dum.)
* Soleil qui vois, entends, connais tout ! ( Ghenier.)

(§ 102.) ' Monsieur, c'est un homme sur la vie duquel
reposent d'enormes capitaux. (Bal.) " Celui-14 seul avait
le droit de triompher, sous les auspices duquel la guerre
etait faite. (Mont.)

(§ 103.) ' Qui dit le peuple, dit plus d'une chose ; c'est
une vaste expression. (La Br.) ' A qui venge son p6re, il
n'est rien d'impossible. (Com.) "Qui sert bien son pays
n'a pas besoin d'aieux. ( Vol.) * Je n'aurai qui tromper,
non plus que qui me trompe. (Com.) 'J'ai de quoi me
def endre, et de quoi vous repondre. (Jiotrou.) " Voild, qui
m'etonne, que nous ayons 6t6 seules, I'une et I'autre, tout
aujourd'hui. (Moi.) 'ifidouard III. ne se crut pas assez
fort tout seul ; il chercha qui embaucher dans sa cause.
( Vacquerie.) ' C'est la pens^e qui fait I'^tre de rhomme, et
sans quoi on ne le peut concevoir. (Pasc.) ' S'il faut agir,
je ne sais que faire ; s'il faut parler, je ne sais que dire.
(Houss.)

1®*] BBLATIVES. 257

(§ 104.) ' Qui que ce soit, parlez, et ne le craignez pas.
[Bac.) ° Quoi que vous fassiez, votre image m'est rest6e.
[de Mu.) ' Le grand myst^re de la mort, quel qu'fl soit,
doit donner du calme. (de Stael.) * Madame, j'aime mieux
vos iivter^ts que les-siens, et que ceux de qui que ce soit aa
monde. (Mar.) ' Mais n'importe, ma ch^re niece ; quoi
qu'il arrive, quelle que soit notre famille, cela ne change
rien k mes projets. (Scribe.) ' D6sormais je ne douterai de
quoi que ce soit. (de Mu.)

Theme 8.
inteeeogatrves and relatives.

' Whose pretty picture is this ? " What matters it to
you who is its owner ? ' What is man's happiness ? * Who
told you that ? ' What do you want ?

' He alone has the right to bg happy, on whose life rests
the happiness of others. ' One who wants to be rich ought
to work. ' I do not know what to do, to whom to address
myself, with what to defend myself. ° Here is something
to defend yourself with. " We have worked a great deal,
and we have gained the means of living. " Nobody can
tell what she is thinking of at present. " That is the man
who has deceived me. " Speak to him, and you will find
that he has nothing to answer you with. " Whatever they
do, they are always wrong. " Whatever I said to her, she
would not listen to me. '" Whatever may be your talents,
you will never succeed without application. "Do your
duty, whatever it may be, and you cannot* be really un-
happy. " We have not seen any one whomsoever. "What-
ever may happen to you, be firm. "" They do not succeed
in anything whatever.

17

258 PKONOUNS AND PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. [105-

F. — ^Indefinite Peonouns and Pbonominai.
Adjectives.

105. Some of the forms and uses of the pronominal words
falling under this head were given in the First Part (XIV. 6,
XXVII. 3-7) ; further particulars are added here.

106. On (XXVII. 4). A predicate noun or adjective relating
to on as subject usually takes the number and gender corre-
sponding to the implied meaning : thus, on n'est point des es-
claves people are not slaves, qn'on est folle d'agir ainsi how
foolish one (i.e. a woman) is to a/it thus.

a. If a corresponding object-form to on is required, vous has
to be used. And vous is also sometimes tised as subject in an in-
definite way, as in English, instead of on.

6. On is sometimes used to soften the force of a command :
thus, qu'on se taise, instead of taisez-vons he silent.

107. Quelque, quelqu'un, qnelque chose (XIV. 6, XXVII. 5).
a. Quelque chose something is treated as masculine (although

chose is feminine) : thus, quelque chose de bon something good,
ce quelque chose this something.

I 6. The negative correlatives to quelqu'un and quelque chose
lare personne and rien. These are used not only where the nega-
Ition is distinct or distinctly expressed, but also often where a de-
I'gree of negative sense is implied : thus, sans voir personne lotth-
' out seeing any one, je le difie de rien dire de moi I defy him to
say anything of me.

0. In the sense of English whatever with subjunctive, quelque
. . . que stands in French in an attributive sense, or directly
qualifying a noun expressed : thus, quelques talents que vous
aycz whatever talents you may have, de quelque cdt€ qn'on se
toume in whatever direction one may turn.

Compare the corresponding use of qui, quoi, quel, with follow-
ing que, above, § 104. Here, also, the que is in rare cases replaced
by qui as subject : thus, quelques nouveaux malhenrs qui nous
doivent attendre whatever new misfortunes may await us.

d. Quelque is also used in the same way adverbially, qualify-
ing an adjective or adverb, in the sense of however, and is then,
of course, invariable : thus, quelque g:rands que soient vos ta-
lents however great your talents may be, quelque fort qu'on se
d^fende however stoutly one may resist. Compare the conjunc-
tion quoique although.

e. Quelque is also invariable when used in the sense of ahout,
nearly, with a word of quantity, generally a numeral : thus,
quelque vingt ans some twenty years, quelque pen some little.

108. Quelconque. This is a pronominal adjective of infre-

114] INDEFIliriTES. 359

quent use, meaning whatever, and always following the noun it
qualifies : thus, donnez-moi on point quelconque, des points
qnelconques give me any point whatever, any points whatever.

109. Chaqne, chacun (XIV. 6, XXVII. 5). Of the two words
meaning every, chaque is distributive and individualizing, tout
is inclusive and generalizing : thus, tout homme est mortel ;
diaqne homme a son caractere h. Ini eoery man is mortal; every
(or each) man lias his own character. In many cases, however,
the two may be used indifferently.

110. Tel siKih. Tel is varied for gender and number like any
other adjective in el : thus, tel, tels ; telle, telles. It is used in
all adjective constructions, and also substantively. It takes the
indefinite article before it, instead of after, as in English : thus,
nn tel homme such a man, sa conduite ^tait telle que . . .his
cdndttct was such as . . .

a. Tel has various idiomatic uses. It means so-and-so, or
such-and-siich, standing in place of a word which it is desired
not to express distinctly : thus, a telle enoaue at such-and-such \
an epochs monsieur un. tel Mr. such a one. It may often be ren-
dered by one and another or many a one, or the like : thus, tel
parle de choses qu'il n'entend pas some people talk of things
they don't understand. Tel . ■ ■ tel stand_for onj>, . . . another :
thus, tel lit, tel pleure one iaugns, anoiTier cries ; or for ofT. .
so : thus, tel pere, tel fils as the father, so the son. Tel quel
means elliptically such as it is, of whatever sort or quality.

lU. Ancnn, nul (XIV. 6, XXVII. 6). These words are used
both adjectively and substantively, and both alike require ne be-
fore the verb. They but rarely occur in the plural.

a. They are used not only as distinct negatives, but also where
a negative sense is implied or suggested, as after sans urithout
and verbs of denial or doubt : thus, sans nul ^gard without any
consideration, je doute qajaucun de vous le fasse I question
whether any of you woulaWrit. — ■imefaiB. is occasionally found in
old-style French with a fuUy positive meaning: thus, aucuns
croient que . . . some believe that . . .

112. Plnsieurs several etc. Plusieurs (XIV. 6, XXVII. 6) is
only plural, and used both adjectively and substantively.

a. Other adjectives used nearly in the same sense are (much as
in English) certain, different, divers, certain, sundry, divers,
and the like.

113. Haint many a, many. This is an attributive adjective
only, having the usual adjective inflection : thus, maint homme
many a man, maintes fois many times or many a time.

114. a. M6me self same, etc. This word, a pronoun by ori-
gin, has acquired a variety of values. For its combinations with
the' disjunctive pronouns, moi-m6me myself etc., see the First

Z60 PBONOUNS AND PEONOMINAI- ADJECTIVES. [Hi-
Part (XXIII. 3c). After a noun, it has a similar meaning, itself
etc. : thus, la vertu mfime virtue itself, les Prangais mSmes the
French themselves; and it is sometimes best translated very :
thus, ce matin m6me that very morning.

b. Before the qualified noun, it means same: thus, ce m6me
matin that same morning, les m6mes Fran^ais the same French-
men.

c. It is also often used as adverb, meaning even : thns, mdme
ce matin even this morning, ses ennemis mSme even his enemies.
With this value it is, of course, invariable in form.

115. Autre other (XXVII. 6). This word is for the most part
an ordinary adjective, capable of being used also substantively.
For its combination with un into phrases, see the First Part
(XXVII. 7).

a. It is sometimes added to nous or vous expletively, or simply
to emphasize the distinction of us or you from others : thus, nons_
antres Fran^ais we Frenchmen, vous autres Anglais you Fng-~
Ush.

6. Autre chose anything else is common with a negative verb
in the sense of nothing else.

116. Tout an, every (XIV. 6, XXVII. 5-7, § 109). This is also
in the main an ordinary adjective, but having some values analo-
gous with pronominal words.

a. In certain phrases, tout signifies all, whole without accom-
panying article etc.: thnu, a, t.niit^^ fmQ fi t'lifh' all ow-fi 'g might ;
this is especially the case in the plural : tn us. en tbntes ChOtlBti 't'U~
a ll tMn gs ^ de toutes sorteg ([-f gU xnrfs _

6. Tout everything is sometimes used in the sense of everybody.
Le tout is the whole.

c. Tout is very often used adverbially, meaning wholly, en-
tirely, quite, altogether, all, and the like. In these senses, it re-
mains invariable before a noun, an adverb, a preposition, a mas-
cuUne adjective, and a feminine adjective beginning with a vowel ;
but, before a feminine adjective beginning with a consonant, it is
itself treated as an adjective, and made to agree with the follow-
ing noun : thus, clJAS^snTlt. t.nnt gilTniy^oc fh^j, „v„ nlfffqffhi>>r' n/l.

mi red, but e llfij» «""<•■ t.nnt.Rs Tng.ia.iiq fi th/yy n.re q uite ill, elle ^tait
to!D^i_ aaBiat5e^_ tonte gracieuse sJie was altogether amiable and
gracious. ' ~~~' — — . .

d. Tout before an adjective, or noun used adjectively, with que
after it, adds the meaning of however : tout bon qu'il est how-
ever good h£ is, tout gentilshommes qu'ils pouvaient 6tre how-
ever much the gentleman they might be. Here, too, the tout is
treated as adjective before a feminine beginning with a conso-
nant : thus, tontes Ijonnes qu'elle^ sont good though they are.

116] INDEFINITES. 261

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.-XVII. Indefinites.

(§ 106.) ' Quand on est jeunes, riches, et jolies, mes-
dames, on n'est pas reduites k I'artifice. {Diderot.) ° Qu'on
redouble demain les heureux sacrifices. {Com.)

(§ 107.) ' XJn gentilhomme croit sinc^rement qu'il j a
quelque chose de grand et de noble d la chasse. {Pasc.)
' Quelques lumi^res, quelques traits d'esprit que I'on ait,
rien n'est si aise que de se tromper.^ (Pasc.) 'Enfin, de
quelque maniSre que les finances de I'Btat soient adminis-
trees, la France poss^de dans le travail d'environ vingl
millions d'habitants un tresor inestimable. ( Vol.) * Quel-
que corrompues que soient nos moeurs, le vice n'a pas en-
core perdu toute sa honte. {Massillon.) ' Et quel dge avez-
vous? — He ! qlielque soixante ans. {Max:.)

(§ 108.) ' Toutes les jouissances sont toujours prec6d6es
d'un travail quelconque. ( Campan.)

(§ 109.) ' Chaque condition a ses dugouts, et k chaque
6tat sont attach^es ses amertumes. {Massillon.) ' Toute
confiance est dangereuse, si elle n'est enti^re. {La Br.)
' Chacun se croit capable de tout. {Ificole.) * Comme si les
travers de la famille humaine ne rajeunissaient pas chaque
an, chaque semaine ! {de Mu.)

(§ 110.) ' Mais od Madame de Lafayette retro uvera-t-
elle un tel ami, une telle society ? {de Sev.) ' Tel qu'est le
juge du peuple, tels sont ses ministres. {Sad.) 'Telsdoivent
4tre lou6s de ce qu'ils ont fait, et tels de ce qu'ils auraient
fait, (-fa £r.) * La sculpture, au eontraire, ne fait guSre
rfever ; car elle represente nettement telle chose, et non pas
telle autre. ( Cousin.) ° Mais I'enf ant retrouvee telle quelle,
on s'est calm6 bien vite. {&. Sand.)

(§ 111.) ' Notre vie ne suffit pour aucun exercice, pour
aucun art, pour aucune profession. {Nicole.) ' H61as ! au-
cun son ne frappait notre oreille. {Chat.) 'Partout la
force eclate, mais sans gr^ce aucune. {Le Bury.) ' Je me
suis retourn6 ; je I'ai regarde : lui, sans nul egard, sans
nuUe attention, a r6p6te, le m^me discours. {Sedaine.) " A-
t-il lu un livre qui lui a plu ? C'est la plus belle chose qu'il
y ait en aucune langue. {de Mu.)

(§ 112.) ' Ah, monsieur ! il y a certains petits adoucisse-
ments k cause de la faiblesse du sexe. {de Sev.)

(§ 113.) ' Car, si les loups mangeaient mainte b^te 6ga-
r6e, les bergers de leur peau se faisaient maints habits.

262 PRONOUNS AKD PEONOMIKAL ADJECTIVES. [116—

(La F.) " Avec quelques vertus, j'ai maint et maint d6faut.
\Chaulieu.)

(§ 114.) ' C'est la voix m4me de la patrie, gonfl6e de
souvenirs et de larmes. {Dau.) «A la cour, S la ville,
m^mes passions, mdmes faiblesses, m^mes petitesses. {La
Br.) " Ce sont encore les Fran5ais, mais non les m^mes.
(Pasc.) * II est probable m^me qu'un seul ete [de fldnerie]
ne suffirait point k f aire un grand homme. ( Tapfer.)

(§ 115.) 'Nous autres diplomates profitons volontiers
des fautes de nos collogues. {Scribe.) ^ Vous avez fini,
vous autres ecrivains, par rendre bien ridicules les fenunes
qui se pr^tendent meconnues. {Bal.) ' Avez-vous de I'or
et de I'argent ? me disent-ils ; nous ne souhaitons pas autre
chose. {G. Sand.) * Toutes les passions ne sont autre chose
que les divers degrSs de la chaleur et de la froideur du
sang. {La S.)

(§ 116.) ' Tout petit prince a des ambassadeurs ; tout
marquis veut avoir des pages. {La F.) ' Autour d'elle tout
s'etait 6croule ; tout en elle souffrait et g^missait. {San-
deau.) ° Quand mon p6re venait au parloir, j'6tais toujours
aocompagn6 de C6sarine, qui 6tait pour lui tout aimable,
toute gracieuse. {Scribe.) * Pour voir done les passions dans
leur di£Eormit6 naturelle, 11 f aut les considerer toutes nues.
{Nicole.) ' Elle tressaillit, puis devint toute rouge. {Theu-
riet.) ° II est de ce h^ros, de Fr6d6ric 11., qui, tout roi qu'il
6tait, fut un penseur profond. {Andrieux.) ' La valeur, tout
h^roique qu'elle est, ne suffit pas pour faire des h§ros. {Mas-
sillon.) ' L'espSrance, toute trompeuse qu'elle est, sert au
moins £i nous mener k la fin de la vie par un chemin agr6-
able. {La B.) ' Vous semblez tout effray^e ! — ^Effray^e ?
r6pondit-elle ing^nument, non, mais troubl^e et oontente.
( Theuriet.)

Theme 9.
indefinites.
' Do not be deceived. ' How foolish people are to talk
thus ! ° Whatever riches we may have, we can lose them
in a day. * However dull a man may be, he has always
something good or noble in his character. "Whatever
gifts may be offered us, we shall not accept them, 'I
have been at his house already some ten times without

ill] INDEFINITES. 263

finding him. ' Although he is already some eighty years
old, he has not yet lost all his wit. ' I wanted to give you
something heautiful and interesting, but nothing is more
difficult than to find such an article. ' Give me any book
whatever, and I will be satisfied ; there is nothing easier
than to choose one. '° Every book pleases me ; I read
every volume that is given me. " Every man is more or
less unhappy, but each man has his own troubles. " Where
have you seen such a judge and such ministers ? " Some
love sculpture and some painting. " Such as are the peo-
ple, such is the government. " One ought not to admire
every painting, whatever its quality; praise only those that
are excellent. " No life is sufficient for more than one art
or for more than one profession. " No one has more grace,
but she is without any force. " I doubt if there is any
language that she does not speak. " Man has many a
weakness, many a defect ; but in many things he is strong.
" I saw my friend last week, and I have seen him again
this very morning. " We saw him at the same time as
you. " Even our weaknesses and our passions are not the
same. " You women, you are always asking gold and sil-
ver ; you want nothing else, it seems to me. " You men
never see in us anything else than faults. " During the
last century, everything has changed. " Prance has
changed in everything. "These little girls are quite
young still. " Life, however rich in attractions it may be,
is not always happy. "" The hopes of men are altogether
vain and deceptive.

VII.— VERBS.

117, The inflection of all the verbs in the language, regular
and irregular, was given in the First Part, together with the more
important rules respecting the uses of the forms ; such further
particulars as most need to be given foUow here.

264 VBBB8. [11»—

A. — ^Tenses of the Verb.

118. The PEESENT tense in French has no variety of
expression corresponding to the Engh'sh / give, I do
give, I am giving, etc. ; all alike are rendered by the
simple present je donne.

a. The present stands for the usual varieties of pres-
ent action, as purely present, habitual present, expression
of general truths, and the like.

T>. As in English, the present is often used instead of
the past in lively narration.

Thus, la unit approche, I'instant arrive ; C^sar se pr^sente
night draws nigh, the moment comes; Cmsar presents him^self.

And in French, much more often than would be regarded as
good style in English, present and past are mixed and interchange
in the same sentence.

c. The present not infrequently stands where the fu-
ture would be more logically correct.

Thus, des que je pourrai, je reviens as soon as I shall be able,
I[shMt\ come back, je pars demaiu I set out to-morrow.

But the French makes this substitution of present for future
less often than the English : see below, § 123a.

d. The present is regularly used (instead of the per-
fect, as in English) for past action continued into the
present, or for what has been and still is.

Thus, il est ici depuis une semaine he has been here fvr a
week, je I'ai d^jk deux ans I have had it two years already.

Compare the similar use of imperfect for English pluperfect,
below, § 119c.

119. As between the two simple past tenses, imper-
fect and preterit, the PREXEErr expresses simply past
action, without further implication; the imperfect ex-
presses past action viewed as continuous, as a lasting con-
dition or quality, as habitual, repeated, or the like.

a. This distinction is in part quite clear and easy to make, as
in cases where our language says or might say /wow giving, or i
k&pt giving, or I gave repeatedly, or I used to give, or the like,

^*^1 USES OF THE TEKSES. 266

the imperfect being required in such cases ; but often also it is
much more difacult, being determined by the way in which things
are looked at, or even by idiomatic usage that is not readily to be
accounted for. It depends in great part, not on the character of
the action itself, but on the relation of that action to some other :
especially, when one action is represented as going on at the time
another occurs, the former is imperfect and the latter preterit :
thus, in English, he was (impf. 6tait) tliere as I entered (pret.
entrai) ; he spoke (pret. parla) to me as I entered (impf. entrais);
I turned (pret. tonmai) while he spoke (impf. parlait) ; as 1
turned (impf. tonmais) I saw (pret. vis) something — and so on.
The student should never pass an imperfect in reading without
stopping to ask himself why that tense is used instead of the
preterit.

6. Certaru special cases are : the imperfect sometimes in verbs
of speaking, when the words of the speaker are quoted (as if
went on to say or the like) : thus, elle vons trahira, lui r^pond-
11 . . . Avouez, reprenait son ami . . . Jamais, jamais, r^p^tait
I'aatre she toill betray you, replies he . . . Confess, his friend
went on . . . Never, never, repeated the other ; sometimes a series
of successive events are combined,. as it were, into a whole by the
use of the imperfect ; the imperfect is used in an emphatic way
for the conditional : thus, s'il ne I'avait pas fait, I'antre ^tait
mort if he had not done so, the other was (i.e. would have been) a
dead man. For the imperfect instead of conditional or subjunc-
tive after si, see below, § 138a.

c. The imperfect is regularly used (instead of the plu-
perfect, as in English) for previous action continued to or
into a past time, or for what had been and still was.

Thus, 11 y ^tait depnls longtemps Tie had been (here for a long
time ; Us avalent des d^fenseurs ; Us n'en eurent plus they had
been having defenders ; they no longer had any.

Compare the similar use of present for our perfect, above, § 118(2.

120. The PEETEErr needs no other definition than that
given above ; it is the tense for simple past action in a
general way, when special reasons do not require the im-
perfect or perfect.

121. The, PEEFECT answers in the main to the English
perfect, being the expression for past action with some
reference to the present involved.

But there are also considerable differences between the two, es-

266 VERBS. [in—

peoially as the French often uses the perfect where we set the
simple, preterit : thus,

a. To express general facts of the past, not in connection with
their surroundings : thus, Alexandre a d^tmit Tempire des
Ferses the Persian empire was destroyed by Alexander, Dien a
cr66 le monde Ghd created the world.

h. Especially, the perfect is very often used to express

recent events, connected with the present, as having

taken place within a division of time now current.

Thus, je me suis lev€ a six heures ce matin I got up at 6
o'clock this morning ; lui avez-vous parl€ did you speak to him ?

c. Not seldom in other cases, not easy to define, the perfect is
employed where general analogy would lead us to expect the
preterit.

d. Occasionally, it stands instead of the future perfect : thus,
attendez, j'ai fini dans un moment wait; I [shall] have finished
in a moment.

122. The PLUPBKFEOT and the past auterioe both an-
swer to the English pluperfect, but the French pluper-
fect is its ordinary equivalent, and much the commoner of
the two tense-forms.

a. In general, the past anterior is used only after certain par-
ticles, which give a special definiteness to the action expressed,
in its relation to another past action. These particles are qnaod
and lorsqne when, apr^s que after, des que and anssitdt que as
soon as, k peine Mrdly, and the Like : thus, lorsqu'il eut fini, je
sortis when he had finished, I went out.

h. Only the pluperfect can be used after si if.

123. The future corresponds to the English future.

a. The French, however, often uses the future in compound
sentences where it is logically more correct, but where the English
has the present instead : thus, vous direz ce qu'il vous pkiira
you will say what you [shaZl] please, tant qu'il vivra as long as
he lives (or shall live).

b. The future is used after si only in the sense of whether :
thus, je ne sais s'il viendra I know not tohether he vnll come.

c. As in English, the future is sometimes used in an imperative
sense : thus, tu ne tueras pas thou shalt not kill; or to express
a probability : thus, ce sera quelque grand homme he is doubt-
less some great man.

^1} TOES OF THE TEirSBS. 367

124. The future perfect is used like tlie correspond-
ing tense in English.

a. Its peculiarities of use are closely analogous to those of the
simple future : thus, tn recueilleras ce que tu auras sem^ tfiou
wUt reap what thou hast {shalt have) sown, personne ne saura
s'il sera venu no one tcill know wfiether Tie has come ; 11 aura
rendu quelques services he has doubtless rendered some service.

125. The CONDITIONAL agrees in general in use with
the English conditional, or verb-phraee made with the
auxiliaries would and should.

a. The future has in some degree a modal character, as having
a contingent or hypothetical meaning ; and the conditional, which
is properly a past tense to the future, like the corresponding Eng-
lish {would and sho/uld being past tenses of will and shall), is
still more modal, and is often so classed and described, as the
" conditional mode."

6. The conditional answers to a past tense as a future to a pres-
ent : thus, j'espere qu'il viendra, j'esp^rais qu'il viendrait /
hope he will come, I hoped he would corns; qui I'aura, sera mort,
qui I'aurait, serait mort whoever has it urill he a dead man,
whoever had it vmuld be a dead man ; je ne sais s'il viendra, je
ne savais s'il viendrait 7 ctow'i hnow whether he will come, I 'did
not know wJiether he laould come; and so on.

c. In a hypothetical sentence, the conditional is used in the
conclusion : thus, si je I'avais, je serais content if I had it, I
sTwuld be satisfied. But instead of it, the past subjunctive may
be used : see below, § ISld. If quaud is used instead of si, the
conditional may stand also in the other clause : thus, quand je
I'aurais if I had it; also after que, in an idiomatically inverted
sentence : thus, je I'aurais, que je n'en serais pas content /
might have if, and yet not be satined.

d. As in English, the conditional is used to soften a request or
statement : thus, auriez-vous la bont^ . . . would you have the
kindness . . ., je voudrais que . . . I should like to have . . .
Sanrais (XXXIV. 76) is idiomatically used in the sense of the
present can.

126. The CONDITIONAL PEEFEOT corrcsponds to the
same tense in English, and is related to the simple con-
ditional precisely as the future perfect to the future.

127. For the quasi-tensea of immediate past and immediate
future formed with the present and imperfect of aller, and of
venir with de, see the First Part (XXVII. 8c, XXXI. 116). Oer-

268 VERBS. [187—

tain other phrases have an analogy with tense-forms : thus, j'ai
a-jfa.irA ffinnp tn (jp^ c'est 3 . esp^rer it is to he hoped, and so on.

128. Phrases with a redundant auxiliary participle are some-
times made in colloquial French, and occasionally appear even in
the literature : thus, des qu'il aura eu fini as soon as he sTiall
have (got) flnished.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XVIII. Tenses of the Verb.

(§ 118.) ' Au quinzi^me si^cle tout change; la pensee
humaine decouvre un moyen de se perpetuer*. ( V. Hugo.)
" Alors elle tire un couteau de son sein, frappe Marat au
flanc gauche, et enfonce le fer jusqu'au coeur. A moi",
s'6cria-t-il. ( Thiers.) ' Comme j'achevais la quatri^me ligne,
je 16ve vaguement les yeux, et j'apergois de° I'autre c6te
du foss^ . . . un ours qui me regardait fixement. ( V- Hugo.)

* Je pars dans I'instant, r6pondit Charles ; laiBsez-moi.
{Guizot.) ' Je vous ram^ne chez moi en sortant du Louvrej
\k je vous 6coute, et je pars pour continuer mon ouvrage;
car rien ne m'^branlera, je vous en avertis. {de Vi.) ' Je
songe, depuis quelques jours, que les inter^ts humains m'ont
trop d6tourn6 de cette unique pens6e. (de Vi.) ' II y a
longtemps que je rfeve d'un oflScier qui me sauve la vie.
-{V.Hugo.) . ,;A

(§ 119.) ' Quand je reyins k moi, il faisait jour . . . Pour
chasser ce cauchemar, je^fermai les yeux; le coeur me bat-
tait 4 me rompre* la poitrine; quand j'osai regarder, j'etais
seul ... Je n'avais qu'd me taire; je laissai Zambo ex-
haler sa f urie, et ne voulus pas voir qu'il me tirait la langue.
(Lab.) ' Pendant que j'ecrivais, une grosse mouche vint
se poser sur I'oreille ensanglant6e de mon spectateur . . .
Je commenQais a me faire k ce t^te-^-t^te lorsque survdnt
un incident. ( V. Hugo.) ' Nous cherchdmes, tant qu'il fit
jour, notre chemin d travers ces bois; mais, plus nouscher-
chions, plus nous nous perdions, et il etait nuit noire quand
nous arrivdmes pr^s d'une maison fort noire ... On crut
que nous portions les diamants de la couronne . . . Par les
fentes de la porte je vis le p^re, sa lampe dans une main,
dans I'autre un de ses grands couteaux. H montiait, sa
femme apr^s lui ; moi derridre la porte ; il ouvrit. (Courier.)

* Vous vous occupez toujours de police ? lui disait Bona-
parte avec une sorte d'admiration. — Oh ! r^pondait mo-

•SlSBa. "isesb. °§!i04a. " 8 ISaA.

128] USES OF THE TENSES. 369

destement Fouche, j'ai conserve quelqnes amis qui me
tiennent au courant. J (Lanfrey.) " A Eylau, I'infanterie
russe paraissait in6branlable ; Napoleon lan9ait sur elle
soixante escadrons de dragons et de cuirassiers, et v ouvrait
ainsi une br^che qui ne se refermait plus. (Thiers.) ' Si le
czar avait eu toujours cette humanity, c'^tait le premier des
hommes. ( Vol.) ' Pensez ! depuis quarante ans il 6tait Id
k la m^me place, avec sa cour en face de lui. (Dau.) * EUes
duraient depuis plus de dix ans, sans qu'il elat pu les chan-
ger. {St. Simon.)

— (1 12tr) i^-QuanS vous m'aviez connue, je n'etais pas
ce que je suis aujourd'hui. {G. Sand.) ' Ma ch^re, m'a-t-il
dit, j'ai failli 6tre tue sur les quatre heures. [Bal.) ' J'ai
su que vous etiez I'un des meilleurs amis de ce pauvre gar-
9on. (Bal.) * Achille Deveria a trac6 d'elle, le jour de sa
mort, une esquisse fidele, qui exprime la souffrance et le
repos. (Ste.-B.) 'Enfin, je me suis lev6 brusquement.
" Qu'est-ce que e'est ? ai-je dit ; qu'est-ce que vous faites ?"
Madame de V. a feint une vive surprise. Est-ce que mon-
sieur n'a pas demande a diner ? — Pas du tout. — Bdouard
m'a dit que monsieur*. . . ^^douard s'est trompe." ... La
pauvre femme s'est mise alors k plier tristement sa nappe,
en me jetant les. yeux eplor6s d'un chien qu'on a battu.
" Monsieur a probablement din6, a-t-elle repris d'une voix
timide. — Probablement." (Feuillet.)

(§ 122.) ' Apr^s que les deux comtes f urent sortis, Marie
CQUsola ses serviteurs, qui f ondaient en larmes . . . Quand
elle eut fini d'ecrire, il 6tait pr^s de deux heures du matin . .. ,
Lorsqu'on les eut 61oign6s, elle se remit en marche. (Mignet.)
' A peine sa jambe eut-elle touch6 le gazon, qu'il tomba h
genoux. {de Vi.)

(§ 123.) ' Fais comme tu voudras, Bourguignon. (Mar.)
' Mon p^re me pardonnera, dSs qu'il vous aura vue. {Mar.)
' Nous serous disperses sur la surface de la terra, parce quf
nous serons de ta famille, et maudits, parce que nous porte
rons ton nom. {Dum.) * Si mon fils le rencontre, il lui fera
tout le bien qu'il pourra. ( V. Hugo.) " Quand vous jugere2
la chose d point, et qu'il sera temps de I'arr^ter, vous tire
rez un coup de pistolet. ( V. Hugo.) " Enfin, ce sera, je le
suppose, un trait lanc6 contre la jurisdiction exp6ditive
{JJupin.)

(§ 124.) " Quand vous a,urez fini votre pridre, vous m'ap

270 VEBBS. 128—

prendrez si vous voulez m'aider. {de Vi.) ' C'est \k que,
lorsqu'il sera mort, elle virra obscure et paisible. (Cojipee.)
' Quand vous en aurez goute, vous ne voudrez plus manger
d'autre chose. {Hum.) * Jamais, k coup slir, il n'anra fait
autant de bruit de son vivant. {Scribe.)

(§125.) ' Je voulus voir si les races vivantes m'offriraient
plus de vertus, ou moins de malheurs que les races 6va-
nouies. {Chat.) " Si tu avais fait la guerre dans la Valte-
linej tu ne parlerais pas comme 9a. {de Vi.) ' Si nous de-
vious, dSs ce monde, recevoir le prix d<i d nos vertus ou i
nos forfaits, toutes les prosp^rites seraient honorables, pt
un coup de foudre serait une mort infamante. {Saintine.)

* Quand vous me donneriez cent mille francs, 9a ne me
ferait pas autant de plaisir que de vous voir manger mon
pauvre diner. {Feuillet.) ' Cet example, je I'esp^re, ne sera
pas perdu ; je voudrais qu'il servit 4 combattre I'espece
d'aflfaissement moral qui est la maladie de la generation
nouvelle. (^Thierry.) ' Je saurais tire pauvre, et je m'en
f erais gloire. {Ponsard.)

(§ 126.) ' Cependant que m'auraient servi des conseils?
Je ne les aurais pas suivi. {de Vi.) ' Madame Recamier les
connaissait tous, et en parlait tr^s bien ; celui qui aurait
voulu en ecrire avec go6t aurait dA en causer auparavant
avec elle. {Sle.-£.) ' Vous ne me r6pondez pas ; me serais-
je tromp6 ? {de Vi.)

(§ 127.) ' Le diner 6tait tout pr^t ; il va 4tre perdu, et
le petit va 6tre grond6 par son p6re. {Feuillet.) ' Je vais.
la'enf ermer et m'abandonner k ma douleur. {de Mu.) ' Vous
cherchez une explication k ce que je viens de vous dire,
n'est-ce pas ? — Et je ne la trouve point, je I'avoue. {Bum.)

* Le parlement de Paris venait d'etre relegue dans une
petite vUle. {Mont.)

(§ 128.) ' Quand M. Fouquet a eu cesse de parler, M.
Pussort s'est leve imp6tueusement. {Sev.) "11 sera sorti
d^s qu'il aura eu acliev6 la lettre. {Duvivier.)

Theme X.

TENSES OF THE VEEB.

^ I find Charles and speak to him ; but he answers nothing,
and I leave him again. *I am going to-morrow, said he,
and I shall take you back with me, ' I shall come back in

1S«3 USES OF THE TEKSE8. 371

half an hour ; wait for me here. * I have been here some
time ; I am waiting for the young ofBcer. ' He has been
talking for two weeks of his friend who was to come from
Paris. ' Now I shall leave you ; I have listened to you
already two hours. ' As I raised my eyes, I saw him in
front of me. ' He was looking at me. ' I drew near to
him, and said a few words. '° He listened to me, but said
nothing. " He departed, and I found myself alone.
" When she first came to our city, I kept seeking her every-
where. " I thought that she had arrived, but I could not
find her. '* As we were going to the theatre yesterday,
we discovered them. " H they had given me the letter
earlier, you would already have the answer. '° He had
been speaking several hours, and we were all very tired.
" During many years. Napoleon had appeared invincible,
but then he fell. " We had already been there a week
when our friends arrived. " Louis XIV. was the greatest
monarch of his time. " Where did your friends travel last
winter? "They visited England and Scotland. "We
told the poor boy that we were his best friends, but he did
not believe us. "I saw yesterday the picture which he
had made of her, and admired it greatly. " My friend, ^
■ said I to him, you never painted anything so beautiful.
" As soon as I had dined, I folded my napkin and went
out. " When I had arrived at home, I began to write.
"' After I had finished the letter, I sent it at once to the
post. " I cannot tell whether they will come ; but as long
as they are here, I shall be happy. " When you begin the
picture you will tell me so. '° They will get up as soon as
the dinner is ready. " I shall recognize them as soon as I
have seen them. " If this world were perfect, we should
receive the reward due to our virtues. '' If you ate my
poor dinner, I should be satisfied. " He would like to give
us a thousand francs, but he has not so much money. " I
cannot tell you what time it is ; I have no watch. '" Would

273 VBEBS. [128—

you have received me, if I had come to see you ? " If I
had known that you were coming, I should have stayed at
home in order to receive you. '° I have just visited one
of our friends ; I am going to come to your house again
to-morrow ; at present I have other things to do,

B. — ^MODBS OF THE VeEB.

INDICATIVE.

129. The indicative is used both in independent and
in dependent clauses, except in the cases to be stated
below.

a. The indicative appears in object-clauses after an aflBnnative
verb : thus, savez-vons qui je suis da you Tcnow who lam? je
vous ai dit que j'y ^tais I told you that I was there. The sub-
junctive of indirect statement is not a French construction.

6. After si if, only the indicative is used except in the pluper-
fect tense : see § 138a.

c. The conditional has been treated under the head of Tenses
(above, § 125-6) ; there remain, then, only the subjunctive and
imperative to be considered.

SUBJUNCTIVE.

130. The subjunctive is the mode of contingency, an-
ticipation, expectation, requirement. It belongs for the
most part to dependent clauses, and is usoally introduced
by the conjunction que that.

a. Hence, in giving the forms of the verb, it is customary to
prefix que to the subjunctive through its whole inflection : see
VIII. 76.

131. The subjunctive is used in independent clauses,
or without que that, in the following cases :

a. In sache ktww, used negatively in the 1st sing.: thus, je ne
sache pas I Jiardly know; also after que meaning so far as:
thus, que je sache so far as I know (but que je crois etc.).

Some regard this as an old or irregular indicative form. As
to vive, in qui vive who is there ? see above, XXXVIII 46 fn.
176, bottom). ^

_ 6. Sometimes, in wishes or requirements — that is, in an opta-
tive or imperative sense : thus, ainsi soit-il so he it, pnissiez-

181] SUBJUNCTIVE. 373

vous r^ossir may you (be able to) succeed, plflt h, Dieu que . . .
might it please Ghd that . . .

This is rare, except with the present subjunctives sols, puisse,
veuille, garde, vive, p^risse, and plaise, and with the imper-
fects pliit and dfit. Hence the use of soit . . . soit as conjunc-
tions (XXXIV. 3).

c. Hence also sometimes in a concessive or a conditional sense
(giving the meaning of if) : thus, vienne qui voudra, je resterai
come who vMl, I shall stay, efit-il et^ plus fort Tiad he been (or
if he had been) stronger.

Note in these uses the inverted order of verb and subject. In
the same senses, que is also often used before the subjunctive :
see § 142.

d. The pluperfect subjunctive may stand (instead of the condi-
tional : § 125c) in a hypothetical sentence, in the clause express-
ing conclusion or result, and even when the other clause is im-
plied only : thus, sa main I'e&t sauv^e (for I'aurait sauvee), si
elle efit pu Stre sauv^e his hand had saved her, if it had been
possible to save Tier, il eftt ^t^ embarrasse dans une telle con-
versation he would have been embarrassed in such a conversa-
tion.

ILLtrSTEATIVE SENTENCES.— XIX. Subjunctive in Independent
Clauses.

(§ 131.) ' Je ne sache pas qu'on ait" jamais appeI6 duel
ce qui se passait entre Louis XVI. et le bourreau. (Ohat.)
'H s'agit de Dorante; avez-vous sujel de vous plaindre"
de lui ? — Non, que je sache. (Mar.) ' On dit que celui qui
le gardera k Pignerol est un fort honn^te homme; Dieu le
veuille ! ou, pour mieux dire, Dieu le garde ! {de Sev.)
* Dieu soit beni ! vous voild vivant. {de Mu.) ' Dieu sauve
la reine Elisabeth ! Ainsi p6rissent tous ses ennemis ! ajouta
le docteur Fletcher. {Mignet.) ° Lou6 soit Dieu, dit-elle,
de" la nouvelle que vous m'apportez. {Mignet.) ' H61as !
fasse le ciel qu'elle ne vous brule pas ! {de Vi.) ' Plut aux
dieux que ce fut le dernier de ses crimes. {Rac.) " Dlit
cela vous fdcher encore, il faut que j'en convienne. {Meil-
hac.) " Le grand Conde n'en tira aucun suce^s, soit que
les circonstances des lieux lui fussent* moins favorables,
soit qu'il elit* pris des mesures moins justes. ( Vol.) " Vienne
un deluge, la montagne aura disparu depuis longtemps sous
les flots, que* les oiseaux voleront encore. ( V. Hugo.) '" Et
quel dge as-tu ? — Neuf ans, monsieur, vienne la Toussaint.

•134c. 'SlSSi- "MfiiSc, «S1376. »§asic.

274 TERES. [131—

{Coppee.) "Iln'estpas de demon, en effet, Mt-ce m^me
celui de la tristesse, qui ose affronter le voisinage des petits
enfants. (Ste.-B.) " Oui, monsieur, mais en eut-elle vingt
fois davantage, je ne I'epouserais pas. (Mar.) " S'il eM
os6, il se fut mis en colore. {La F.) " La HoUande n'elit pas
subsist^ longtemps, si elle se fiit borate k enlever la flotte
d'argent des Espagnols. ( Vol.) " A me voir', vous n'eus-
siez su si j'6tais mort ou vivant. {Courier.) '*La princesse
aurait en ce moment port6 le diad^me de la France, son
front n'eM pas et6 plus imposant qu'il I'^tait sous le beau
diademe de ses cheveux. {Bal?)

132. Subjunctives in dependent clauses (usually after
que that) may be best classified under the heads of
1. Subjunctives in substantive clauses, or those used as
subject or object of a verb ; 2. Subjunctives in adjective
clauses, or those used to qualify a noun ; 3. Subjunctives
in adverbial clauses, or those used to qualify a verb.

133. The subjunctive occurs in a clause used as logi-
cal subject of an impersonal verb — that is, of one having
the grammatical subject 11 or ce (XI. 2) — ^whenever an-
ticipation, expectation, requirement, or the like, is im-
plied.

The commonest of such impersonal verbs are J Lfant it isj ie-
-censor?/ (XXX. 6), j l convient it is .vn.ifnhlp.^ il ^T ^^t u is enough,
yjwM^ jpian-g it Tx'bptr/'i- fi iT|] porte it maiters T^ se pent it is
possible,^ il semble it seem s, i l estlaciie o r difficileor^gcfi^aire
or' possible 6V ^&re or i'aux or smgnoBirtt ts easy or Tiard or
necessary or possible or rare or false or singular, and the like :
thus, il faut qu'il soit ici he must be here, il sufB.t qu'elle ait
avoud sa faute it is enough that she has confessed ?ier fault, il
est possible que nous revenions it is possible that we come back,
c'est dommage que je I'aie perdu it is a pity that I lost it.

a. But the indicative is used if the clause is the distinct state-
ment of a fact ; so especially with il est vrai or siir or clair it is
true or sure or clear, il parait it appears, il arrive it happens,
il^r^sulte it follows, and the like : thus, il est vrai qu'U n'est
pas UKore arrive it is true that he has not yet arrived, il parait
que vous avez raison it appears that you are right.

134] SUBJUifGTIVE. 275

6. In some cases, either mode is admissible, according to the
degree of actuality implied or of the subject's responsibility for it.
And the use of the subjunctive is more decidedly suggested if
the principal clause is negative or interrogative : thus, est-il vrai
qu'il soit airivd is it true that he has arrived ? 11 ne parait-pas
qu'il ait tort it does not appear that he is wrong. The subjunc-
tive is alscf required if its clause precedes : thus, qu'il soit arrive,
at qu'il ait ete reqn avec joie, tout cela est vrai that he has
come, and has been received with Joy, is all true.

0. Sometimes the grammatical subject is omitted, or the prin-
cipal clause is otherwise incomplete : thus, mieux vaudrait qu'il
fnt ailleurs it would be better that he were elsewhere, quelle
honte qu'il se soit sauv^ whM a shame that he has run awayi
non que j'^prouvasse du plaisir not that I felt any pleasure.

134. The subjunctive stands in a clause which is used
as the object of certain verbs : namely —

a. Of verbs that signify wishing, requiring, approv-
ing, permitting, forbidding, expecting, deserving, and the
like.

Thus, 11 veut que nous disions la v^rlt^ he vmhes tJiat we tell
the truth, je defends qu'on sorte d'lcl I forbid any one to go out
from here. Verbs of preventing take further a ne before the
subjunctive : see § 170a.

J. Of verbs that signify regarding with such and such

a feeling, as admiration, joy, grief, apprehension, doubt,

indignation, and the like. ,

Thus, je m'etoane qu'il ne nous vole pas lam astonished that I
he does not (or should not) see us, il se r^jouit que vous fusslez /
de retour he was glad that you were book again. Vey);)! } of ap J-
prehend j'if: fi"4 4?iihtiTic; rpgnirp fiirthpr a. ti^ h^T-° the^ubjunc-
tive (see^§ 170a) : thus, je cralns au 'i^ ^f v^fiTinft tfen.r that (or
ZeSX) he is coming, doutez-vous que cela ne soit ■<fv&\'~dxryou
doubt that this is true ?

c. Of verbs that signify thinking, viewing, supposing,*"
and representing or stating — ^but usually only if the sen-
tence is negative or interrogative or conditional.

Thus, je ne crols pas qu'il soit deja arrlv^ / do not believe
that he has already arrived, esperez-vous encore qu'il vienue
do you still hope that Tie is coming f s'il affirme que ce soit ainsi
if he affirms tJiat it is so.

d. Under these heads, there are various exceptions. The sub-

2'J'6 VEEBS. [184-

junotive is not used when a distinct fact is intended to be implied ;
nor after verbs expressing decision or resolve (which take the
future or conditional) ; nor after verbs expressive of regarding
with a certain feeling, if de ce is introduced before que : thus,
se plain dre de ce qu'il est ici lament that he is here. Verbs of
doubtingT^enying, and the like, are treated as if negative. If
the objective clause is put first, it requires the subjunctive (of.
§ 1336, end).

e. There are various phrases composed of Stre or avoir with
following adjective or noun respectively, which are treated as if
simple verbs in regard to requiring the subjunctive. Such are
especially §tre heureux or ravi or triste or fache or surpris he
happy or ohanned or sad or sorry or surprised, and the like, and
avoir honte or peur be ashamed or afraid, and the like : thus,
j e snis ravi que vons a.yez besoin de moi lam de lighted that
you have need of me, j'ai penr qn'il ne jign^p j\a.a~Tjpnr up im{i
not come. Even after sucJi nouns as peur and craiute in other
constructions the subjunctive is used : thus, de penr qu'il ne
vienne pas for fear that he may not come.

f. For the subjunctive in a substantive clause really governed
by a preposition, see below, § 136a.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XX. Subjunctive in Subject and
Object Clauses.

(§ 133.) ' II faudrait que vous vinssiez vous-m^me pro-
poser ce mariage k men pSre. {de Mu.) "^ II f allait que la
mSre et la fille eussent vecu loin du monde. {About.) ' Ce
n'est pas que la puissance et les evSnements personnels
sclent comparables. {Vol.) *I1 n'est pas etonnant que
Rome ait accorde cette bulle; mais il I'est que des personnes
toutes-puissantes en aient besoin. ( Vol.) ' Cela ne m'e-
tonne pas, dit-il, qu'il soit mort. {de Mu.) ° Cela me fait
soup9onner qu'il se pourrait* bien que les dmes des me-
chants fussent aneanties k leur mort. {Bouss.) ' II semble
que I'on ne puisse rire que des choses ridicules. {La Br.)
' II serait pourtant singulier qu'il partit, apr^s tout ce que
j'ai fait. (Mar.) ' C'est fini ; 11 parait que decidement je
suis un homme de genie. (Scribe.") " Mais il me semble
que nous le savons MjL (Ste.-B.) " Qu'une chose aussi
visible qu'est la vanite du monde soit si peu connue, cela
est admirable ! {Pasc.) " II est bien rare qu'on s'gtablisse
en paix dans cette f aQon d'etre s^che et bornee. {de Stael.)
" Quel malheur, dit-il , que cette fidvre ne soit pas 6chue a

''§2CXV. 8/.

134] SUBJUNCTIVE. 377

son oncle ; elle I'aurait ga^ri ! (About.) " Pl^t au ciel que
je fusse de I'avis de mes amis sur mes ouvrages ! (BSranger.)
" Qu'importe* ^ I'Etat qu'Ergaste soit riche, qu'il ait des
chiens qui arr^tent bien ? (La Br.) " Non pas que je
veuille enleTer k^ d'habiles ministres, k de grands n^gocia-
teurs, la gloire qui leur appartient. (Scribe.)

(§ 134.) ' Voulez-vous qu'on dise du bien de vous ? n'en
dites point. {Pasc.) ^ Cond6 et Turenne voulaient qu'on
d^molit la plupart des places hoUandaises. ( Vol.) ° Enfin,
il parla de sa valise, priant fort qu'on en elit grand soin,
qu'on la mit au chevet de son lit. (Courier.) ' Charles-Quint
demanda que l'exp6dition fut ajourn^e. (Mignet.) ' Enfin,
il ne put empScher que I'empereur, I'empire, et I'Espagne
ne° s'alliassent avee la Holland e. {Vol.) °Nous verrons,
r6pondit M. Auvray; attends que la n^vre soit pass6e.
(About.) ' En v6rit6, ne meriteriez-vous que je les prisse ?
(Mar.) " Les HoUandais eussent bien mieux aime qu'il ebt
rendu la Flandre. ( Vol.) ° Je crains qu'il ne* vous vienne
k I'esprit que c'est pour moi que je parle. (de Vi.) " On
ne croirait pas que les souverains eussent obligation aux
philosophes. ( Vol.) " Je suppose que les hommes soient
6ternels sur la terre. (La Br!) '^ Je nie done en principe
qu'elle n'ait* fait du tort pour le plaisir de nuire. (About.)
" Je suis f4ch6 que tu puisses croire une pareille vilenie de
ma part. (G. Sand.) " Je n'aurais pas besoin qu'on repor-
tdt mon coeur dans ma patrie ; il n'en est jamais sorti.
(Souss.) "Nous avons peur que tu n'aies* pas tout dit a
madame. (Mar.) " La princesse Marie s'6tait d'abord jet6e
en arrifire, de peur que I'on ne°' distingudt les larmes de ses
yeux. (de Vi.)

Theme 11.
subjunctive in independent and in substantive

CLAUSES.

' I hardly know anything more beautiful than this pic-
ture. ° It is not a portrait, so far as I know. ° He is dead !
the will of Heaven be done ! may we find a successor who
is worthy of him ! * Long live the men who wish well to
the country ! ' Would to God that he arrive safe to day !

• i 148b. » i 161c. ' I XWa.

278 VEBBS. [184-

' Would to God, say I, that he had never gone away !
' Come what will, we have done our whole duty. ' Had he
heen here, we should not have had to seek another. ' Were
it my own son, I could not love him better. '° If they had
listened to us,' this misfortune would not have befallen
them. " They had hidden themselves, as if they had been
afraid of being seen.

"^ Must the boy come back, as soon as he has carried the
letters to the post ? " Yes, it is important that he be here
before four o'clock. " It is a pity that he is to go so far ;
who knows whether we find him at the appointed time ?
'* What a misfortune that we have not sent him sooner!
" I wish her to come and bring me the books that I lent
her. " Have you not permitted that your friend read them
before bringing them back ? '" Yes, but I should prefer
that she read them more promptly ; I fear that she may
have lost them. " I do not think that they are lost ; I
assure you that she has them still, and that she will send
them back ; she is waiting probably that you ask for them.
"" My teacher permits that we go into his garden, but he
doeff not wish us to carry away anything ; he would be
angry if (que) we should do so. " We are astonished that
you have got up so early. '' I got up early for fear that
you should not find me readv.

r ,/ J/

^fXS5. The subjunctive is used in adjective clauses —
''that is, such as are introduced by a relative pronoun and
qualify a noun — in the following cases :

a. When the noun qualified stands in a construction
implying anticipation — as demand, expectation, purpose,
and the like.

Thus, je cherche une retraite on je sois tranquille I seek a
nook in which I may be quiet, envoyez-moi quelqu'nu qui me
rende ce service send me some one who may do me this sei-viee.
In these oases the English also generally has a potential or condi-
tional phrase.

186] SUBJUNCTIVE. 279

h. After a superlative, or a numeral word having a
sense akin to the superlative.

Thus, c'est le meilleur homme qx\.B Je connaisse he is the best
man I know, le premier qui soit arrive jusqu'ici the first that
has yet arrived. In the same manner, after s^l, unique, or the
like : thus, le seul roi qui ait r^gne si lougtiem^S the orily Mng
that has reigned so long.

c. Often, after a negative or an interrogative or a con-
ditional clause. ^

Thus, il n'y a personne qui ne soit venu there is no one who
has not come, a quoi sert un roi qui soit iqjuste of what tise is a
king that is urytist ? s'il a un couteau qui soit bon if he has a
kmfe that is good. So after peu in the sense of hut few, not
many : thus, il y a peu de rois qui sachent gouvemer there are
few kings that know how to govern.

d. In all these cases, the indicative is used when greater actu-
ality or objectiveness is implied.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXI. Subjunctive in Adjective
Clauses.

(§ 135.) ' Ayez 1 'esprit de^ lui dire quelque chose qui la
persuade. {G. Sand.) * Je cherchai la solitude, et, k d^faut
d'dmes qui pussent me comprendre, je me plaignis k Dieu.
[Dum.) ' II semble qu'un p6re et qu'une m^re soient de
ces 6tres qu'on ne puisse trop louer, ou du moins trop aimer.
(Ste.-B.) ■* Vous me dites que votre amitie, telle qu'elle
est, subsistera toujours pour moi, tel que je sois. (JRouss.)
' L'homme est un etrange animal : je ne suis pas le premier
qui I'ait dit. {About.) ' On envoya chercher un carrosse
de louage, le plus beau qui fut dans toute la ville. {de Mu.)
' Le dernier barde qu'on ait oui dans ces deserts me chanta
les poSmes dont un h6ros consolait jadis sa vieillesse. ( Chat.)
' D n'y a que le bon Dieu qui puisse gouverner les choses
et les hommes. {G. Sand.) ' Pas un talent, pas une vertu,
pas une distinction qu'elle n'aimdt eL connaitre, a convier, 4
obliger. {Ste.-B.) " II n'y a gu^re de d^fauts qui ne soient
plus pardonnables que les moyens dont on se sert pour les
cacher. {LaB.) " II n'y a personne qui nous vaille pour
I'ordre, I'economie, et les confitures. {About.) " Jamais ce
nom ne sera pour un homme qui soit ou le vainqueur ou
I'esclave de Rome. ( Corn.) " S'il y avait un pays d'Ama-
zones qui se procurassent une colonic de petits garijons

I •185a.

^m VfiKSa. [186-

pour les 61ever comme on el6ve les femnles, bientdt les
hommes prendraient la premiere place, {de Maistre.)

136. The subjuDctive is used in adverbial clauses—
that is, such as limit or qualify the action of a verb — in
many cases, where a looking forward, anticipation, con-
tingency is implied.

a. The cases falling under this rule are in great part really
those of substantive clauses introduced by que tfiat, and having
various constructions : thus, especially, governed by a preposi-
tion, as in avant que, pour que, sans que, etc. ; or appositional
to or dependent on a noun, as in afin que, en cas que, de maniere
que, etc. ; or in absolute construction with an adjective, as in loin
que, suppose que, pourvu que, etc. ; or in more elliptical phrases,
as k moins que, bien que, encore que (and quoique, though writ-
ten as one word), etc. But it is convenient and usual to treat the
que as forming along with the preceding word or phrase a com-
pound conjunction or conjunction-phrase (XXXIV. 5), and so to
regard the clause introduced by it as directly adverbial.

137. Adverbial clauses having the subjunctive may
be classified as follows :

a. Temporal clauses, expressing time before or up to

which anything happens.

The conjunctions are avant que before, en attendant que un -
til pisq n'a, Rfi qiiR u nf.il^ tant que so long as. Thus, sortons
avant qu'ii soit trop tard let us go out before it is too late, je
resterai en attendant qu'il vienne / vrill stay until he comes.
But the indicative is used sometimes, when an actual past fact is
signified : thus, 11 r^sista tant qu'il pouvait he resisted as long
as he could.

h. Concessive and hypothetical clauses, expressing a

supposition (whether accepted or refused).

The conjunctions are : suppose que or en (or an) cas que etc.
supposing, pourvu que provided, ^it que wh etTier , quoique or
b ien que o r. pinnore (inp^thoughTai: imHHS ^UbUnless, sans que
or uors que ivithout or unless, malgr^ que or nonobstant que
notwitJistanding that, non que pot that , loin que far from its
being the case that, anS^-ft-tew olHefs less common. Thus, au
cas qu'il vienne in case he comes, .quoiqu'il ne soit pas cou-
pable although he is not guilty, maigr^ que je ne veuille pas
notwithstanding that I am unwilling, soit qu'il en ait on qu'il
n'en ait pas whether he has any or not, loin qu'il soit pauvre, il

188] SUBJUNCTIVE. 381

devient toqjours plus riche far from being poor, he grows all
the time richer.
As to si, and que by itself, see below, § 138.

c. Clauses introduced by que after a relative pronoun or

adjective or adverb, to be rendered iu English by whoevet^

or whatever or Iiowever, or other equivalent phrases.

These are special cases of the hypothetical clause. The usual
combinations are qui que, quoi que, quel . . . que, quelque . . .
que : see above, §104, 107c, d; much more rarely, ou que, comme
que, and the like : thus, ou qu'il soit wherever he may he. Less
commonly, other combinations than with the relative are used in
this sense and construction : as, si . . . qiie, pour . . . que, tel . . .
que : thus, si haut qu'il parlit Iwwever loudly he spoke, pour
peu que vous doimiez however little you may give. Tout . . . que
in a similar use takes the subjunctive when understood hypo-
thetieaUy: thus. ^tout aimable qn'elle so jtJtoegwr amiablejsbe.-
maybe^

d. Final and consecutive clauses, or those expressing

purpose and result.

The conjunctions are afln que or pour que in order that, de
maniere que or de sorte on e so that, si . . . que so . . . that; and
' que Aluim otteu stands in the sense of pour que : thus, afin que
(or pour que or simply que) vous le sachiez in order that you
may know it, faites de (or en) sorte que je puisse la voir man-
age so that I may see her. But when the result is not one of an-
ticipation, the subjunctive is not taken : thus, il fit de sorte que
je la vis he managed so that I saw her.

138. Certain special cases are as follows :

a. Si »/may be followed by the subjunctive pluperfect ; other-
wise, only by the indicative present or imperfect (XXXIV. 1&), or
by their compounds, the perfect or pluperfect.

Exceptions, showing other subjunctive tenses after si if, are
very rare, but not entirely unknown. And occasional instances
occur of a conditional so used.

6. If a si in one clause is repeated by que in a following clause
(§ 2216), the latter has the subjunctive : thus, s'il n'a qu'un mil-
lion, et qu'il en ait besoin de deux if he has only one million,
and wants two.

e. A que fol lowed bv ne. and usfifi in the npxiRf^ o f untbrnii. un-
less, until, takes the subjunctive : thus, il n'a jamais rien fait
qu'il ne m'ait consults he has never done anything mthmit con-
sulting me (or till he has consulted me).

382 VBEBS. [188-

d. For que used imperatively with the subjunctive, see below,
§142.

139. The tense of the subjunctive in a dependent
clause is in general governed by that of the principal
clause, being past (impf . or plupf.) if the latter is past or
conditional, and present (or perfect) if the latter is pres-
ent or future.

Thus, je veux qu'il vienne I wish Mm to come, je voulais (or
voulus or ai voiiu) qu'il vint I wanted Mm to come, j'avais
voulu qu'il vint Ihad wanted Mm to come, je ne crois pas qu'il
soit venu I do not believe that fie has come, je ne croyais pas
qu'il fut venu / did not believe that he had come, j'attendrai
qu'il vienne or qu'il soit venu I will wait till he comes or till he
has come, j'atteudrais qu'il vint or qu'il fiit venu I should wait
till he came or till he had come.

a. There are exceptions to this rule of sequence. Sometimes a
past subjunctive is used by a logical necessity, as in je ne crois
pas que les Remains parlassent ainsi I do not believe that the
Romans used to speak thus. After a perfect (as being a kind of
present ; also, when used instead of a preterit : § 1216, c) a pres-
ent subjunctive is frequently used-: thus, Dieu nous a donn^ la
raison afin que nous nous en servious Qod has given us reason
in order that we may make use of it. Other more irregular cases
occasionally occur. In familiar speech, especially, the use of an
imperfect subjunctive is mainly avoided, by various devices, and
in part by putting the present in its place : thus, 11 faudrait qu'il
s'en aille snr-le-champ he would have to go directly.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXII. Subjunctive in Adverb-Clauses.

(§ 137.) ' Ella lut avec uue grande ferveur les pri^res
des agonisants. Avant qu'elle les etit achevees, on vint
heurter k la porta. {Mignet.) ^ Ella me restera fiddle jus-
qu'^ ce qua ja puissa l'6pousar. {de Mu.) ' Oui, vous Ites
men oncla, quoiqua vous I'ayez oubli6 ca matin. {About.)
' J'avais affaire k un annemi qui savait mieux se battre que
moi, bien que j'ausse deux ans da salle. {Le Sage.) ' Je ne
I'ai pas, a moins qu'il ne soit dans mon lit. (About.) ° Us
I'aid^rent d poser sa t4te sur la billot, sans qu'alla cassdt de
priar. (Mignet.) ' Voyons, char beau-p6re, d quoi puis-je
vous ^tre bon ? — si tant est que ja puisse ^tre bon £i quel-
qua chose. (Augier.) * Quand ce fort n'eftt arr^t6 I'arm^e
qu'un seul jour, alle serait morte da faim et de fatigue.
(Vol.) ° Qualque rare que soit la veritable amour, il Test

1«>] IMPEBATIVE. 283

moins que la v6ritable amiti6. {La R.) '° Quoi qu'il en
soit, que m'importe ce que seront les mechants ? (Rouss.)
" H61as ! od que vous soyez, vous ^tes mort pour moi.
[Rouss.) " Combien que les malhonn^tes gens proep^rent,
ne pensez pas qu'ils soient heureux. (Marmontel.) " Lisette,
quelque Eloign em ent que tu aies pour moi, je suis forc6 de
te parler. (Mar.) '* Si honnete homme et si peu int6res86
que soit un paysan, on ne peut pas dire que la vue de I'ar-
gent lui fasse de la peine. (G. Sand.) " La liberty doit
vaincre a tel prix que ce soit. [Mignet.) '" Pour peu qu'elles
remuassent, le b^timent tremblait. (St. Simon.) " Pour
grands que soient les rois, ils sont ce que nous sommes.
{Com.) " Tout auteur que je sois, je ne suis pas jaloux.
{Regnard.) " Monsieur, il faut me dire votre nom, afin que
je sache a qui je parle. {de Sev.) " Seigneur Oluf, reculez-
vous, pour que je passe, dit le chevalier k la visi^re baiss6e.
{Gautier.) "Mais la tristesse avait pris trop imp^rieuse-
ment possession de lui pour qu'il se d^shabituAt de souifrir.
{Blanc.) " Reviens, que je te revoie. {Bum.) " Cachez-
Tous dans votre chambre, qu'on vous croie sorti. ( V. Hugo.)
" Placez-le de maniere qu'il soit bien ferme. {Guieot.)

(§ 138.) ' Je ne me serais pas console si monsieur le
comte eut succomb6. {Bouilly.) ' Ou, si d'un sang trop vil
ta main serait tremp6e, au defaut de ton bras, pr6te-moi
ton ep6e. {Rac.) ' Si j'etais riche, d'une condition hon-
nete, et que je t'aimasse autant que je t'aime, ton coeur
n'aurait point de repugnance pour moi? {Mar.) *I1 ne
courut plus par le monde de chansons ni de vaudevilles
qu'on ne les lui pr^tdt. {Ste.-B.)

IMPEEATIVE.

140. The imperative has in general the same uses in
French as in English (see VII. 9, YIII. 7c).

a. With the proper imperative persons (3d sing., and 1st and
2d pi.), no subject is ever expressed.

6. In the absence of a first person singular, the first plural is
sometimes used with that value : thus, soyons homme, m'ecriai-je
let me play the man, cried I to myself.

c. Some imperatives are used interjectionally ; the commonest
are aliens cowie, come on, tiens or tenez fwild ! stop a moment,
see here, take notice, and the like, voyons leVs see, see here, va
go! i.e. pshaw, nonsense, and the like.

884 VBEBS, [140—

d. In rare cases, a perfect imperative is found : thus, ayez
abaudonn^ la ville cinaiid rennemi y entrera have the dty aban-
doned when the enemy enters it.

141. For the lacking third persons of the imperative
are used the third persons of the present subjunctive.

Thus, c[u'il soit, qu'ils soient let him he, let them he (lit'ly, that
he may he, etc.). The case is properly that of a subjunctive after
verbs of wishing or requiring (134a), but with the verb omitted
on which the subjunctive should depend ; as if je veux qu'il soit
I wish that Tie be, j'exige qu'ils soient / require that tliey be, or
the like.

a. The same paraphrase is sometimes found also for other per-
sons of the imperative, especially the first singular : thus, que je
te retrouve ici let me find thee here again.

142. The imperative (both the proper imperative and
the paraphrase with que) not seldom has a concessive or
hypothetical meaning.

Thus, avoue-le, et je te le pardonne confess it, and I pardon
thee for it ("i.e. if thou confessest it, I will etc.), qu'il parle, tout
SB f,a.jt let him speak (i.e. if lie speaks), every one is silent, qu'il
parle ou qu'il se taise, peu m'importe / care little whether he
speaks or holds his peace.

a. For the infinitive used in the sense of an imperative, see be-
low, § iveg-.

niLUSTEATTVE SENTENCES —XXIII. Imperative.

(§ 140.) ' Surtout ne perds pas la lettre ! songe que tu
as deux cent mille francs sur toi ! ( V. Hugo.) ' Ne dispu-
tons point; car je ne changerai jamais. {Mar.) 'Hitez-
vous, et que I'on donne le mot a toute la maison. (Mar.)
* Feignons de sortir, afin qu'il m'arrSte. (Mar.) ' VoiM fort
d propos ce fripon de Saint Jean ; commen9ons par me d§-
barrasser de lui. (Scribe.) °Allons, Fanchette ; dis done
adieu k Marguerite. (G. Sand.) ' Va, le mal n'est pas
grand ; consolons-nous. (Mar.) ^ Je disais done qu'il me
restait un tableau prSeieux. Tenez, monsieur, voyez. ( V.
Hugo.) ' Ayez fini votre tdche k I'heure indiqu6e ou ne
I'ayez point fini ; on ne vous en temoignera ni plus ni moins
de satisfaction, (de Sacy.)

(§ 141.) ' Gn6ris-le Men, cher pSre, mais pas trop ; qu'il
reste assez fou pour m'aimer comme je I'aime. (About.) ' II
y a pourtant un Dieu ; que sa volont6 soit faite ! (de SSv.)

142] SUBJUNCTIVE AKD IMPEEATIVB. 285

' Que je sauve la France et que je sois fletrie ; la honte soit
pour moi, le fruit pour ma patrie. (Ponsard.)

(§ 142.) ' Va-t-en, reviens ; tout cela doit m'etre indiffe-
rent. (Mar.) ' Laissez-lui le temps, et tout s'arrangera. {de
Mu.) ' A tous Tos cavaliers je demande sa t^te ; oui, qu'un
d'eux me I'apporte, et je suis sa conqu^te. {Corn.) *Maia
que ce sauveur impatiemment attendu donne tout d coup
signe d'existence, I'instinot national le discerne et I'appelle.
[Napoleon.)

SUBJUKCTIVB IN ADJECTIVE AND ADVEEB-CLAUSES, AND
IMPEEATIVE.

' Send me a book that I can read without being bored.
' She wanted to buy a present that was pretty and did not
cost much. ' Show me a road that leads me to the city.
* I insist that you go away immediately. ' We cannot wait
till she comes from the city. ' That is the handsomest
picture that one has seen at the exhibition for several years,
and the only one that I wish to buy. ' I will tell you a
story, the most extraordinary that you can imagine. " There
are but few stories that I have not already heard. ° I have
met no one who is more sincerely attached to you. '° We
have done nothing to him of which we repent. " If you
find a book that I ought to read, send it to me by the post.

" I will be your companion until you find a better. " We
will not leave you before you have arrived at your destina-
tion. "Provided that you love me, we will never part.
"In case he tells me interesting news, I will write you
everything. " Far from my being his friend, he had hated
me since I had known him. " I shall not be able to visit
you unless it is fine weather. " Whatever riches he may
possess, however learned he may be, whatever he may have
done, it is the character that makes the man. " Whatever
may be your faults, you can cori-ect them. " Whoever he
may be, I do not fear him. "' Wherever one goes, one

286 TERES. [143-

carries with him the manners of his country. " However
great heroes may be, they are after all men. " Amiable
as she is, I cannot love her. " Give me that book, that I
may read it while I await her coming. ^' We must always
speak so that others understand us. " If you admire this
picture, and if you have means to buy it, why do you
hesitate?^" What must he do? "Your friend will be
obliged to stay with you until it is fine weather, " She
would not get up, although I called her three times. °° I
ran away, in order that she might not see me. " I did not
think that you were so cowardly. '"I know some onevho
would be willing to accompany me.

" Let me remember what she said to me. " If I must
die, let me die. " Come, let us seek them everywhere, and
perhaps we shall find them again. " Let him stay here,
without stirring, and we at least shall not lose him.

C. — Adjuncts or the Verb.

143. The adjuncts of the verb are these : the subject,
the predicate noun or adjective, the object, whether
direct or indirect, the prepositional case-phrase, and the
adverb.

SUBJECT.

144. In general, the verb has a single subject, ex-
pressed or implied^ which determines or " governs" it in
respect to number and person.

But the following points require notice :

a. The imperatively used exclamation vive long live ! sometimes
takes a plural subject : thus, vive las jeunes gens hurrah for
the young ! Vivent, however, is in such a case more usual and
preferable.

6. After ce (not il) as grammatical subject (indefinite or imper-
sonal), the verb agrees in number with the following predicate

145] SUBJECT. 287

noun ; also with the following pronoun, if it is of the 3d person
(XI. 26) : thus, ce sent nos amis it is our friends, ce sent eux U
is they; but c'est vous it is you.

Very rarely, the verb remains singular before a plural noun.
Barely, too, the same agreement is made after another subject
than ce : thus, sa nourriture ordinaire sent des fruits its visual
food is fruits. (Button.)

c. With a collective subject, the verb is, as in English,^ some-
times singular and sometimes plural, according as the collection,
or the individuals composing it, are the leading idea — more usu-
ally plural, if the noun is followed by de and a plural : thus, una
troupe de soldats marchaient a troop of soldiers were marching,
la troupe vient the troop is coining, beaucoup d'hommes y sent
many men are there.

d. After the relative qui (as was pointed out above : see XXVI.
2c), the verb is of the person as well as number of the antecedent
of qui.

e. More special cases are : a singular verb usual after plus
d'un : thus, plus d'un soldat a p6ri more than one soldier has
fallen; either singular or plural after un de (with plural) . . . qui :
thus, une des' plus belles actions qui soit or soient . . . one of
the noblest acts that have . . .

145. If a verb has more than one subject of the same
person, it is regularly plural.

a. But the verb is oftener singular if to one noun is added an-
other as its equivalent or emphatic repetition or explanation :
thus, son courage, son intrepidity ^tonne las plus braves his
courage, his intrepidity astonish the bravest, la beauts at la
grandeur de ce spectacle me frappa the beauty and grandeur
of this spectacle strucJc me.

b. The verb also often agrees with the nearest noun, the others
being, as it were, lost from view ; so especially where there is a
climax, or where the verb precedes the subjects : thus, un mot, un
soupir, un coup d'ceil, nous trahit a word, a sigh, a glance be-
trays us, tombe Argos et ses murs down go Argos and its walls.

c. A list of subjects is often summed up by tout all or each,
chacun each, or the like ; then'^ of course, the verb is singular :
thus, hommes, dieux, animaux, tout y fait quelque r61e men,
gods, animals — everything plays some part in it.

d. Along with two subjects that are connected by ou or or ni
nor, the plural as well as the singular is sometimes found used :
thus, le temps ou la mort sont nos remedes time or death is our
remedy, Ulysse ni Calchas n'ont point encore parl^ neither

288 TBEB8. [146-

Ulysses nor Calchas has yet spoken, ni Tnn ni I'autre n'est or ne
sont . . . neither one is . . .

e. But also, a singular verb is allowed after I'un et I'autre, and
a plural verb after a singular subject to which an addition is
made by means of avec loUh, ainsi que as well as, or the like :
thus, I'un et I'autre m'eimuie both bore me, le g^n^ral avec
quelques soldats sont sortis tfis general, toith a few soldiers, has
gone out.

146. If a verb has more than one subject of different
persons, the agreement of the verb in person is as it
would be if the different subjects were summed up in one
personal pronoun.

Thus, after a first person along with a second or a third, the
verb is of the first person, because he and I, or you and /would
both alike be represented by we ; and so a second and third have
the verb in the second person, because thou and he would be rep-
resented by you. For example, mon ami et moi sommes tombes
d'accord my" friend and I have agreed, vous et vos amis Stes
tombes d'accord you and your friends have agreed.

a. More often, such compound subjects are repeated by means
of a pronoun that includes them : thus, vous et moi, nous sommes
contents you and I are satisfied, vous et lui, vous savez I'afEaire
you and he understand the matter .

147. It is quite common in French that the true or
logical subject of a verb is repeated by a pronoun as
grammatical subject.

The principal cases are the following :

a. Eegularly and usually, when a noun, or anything else save
a conjunctive pronoun, is made the subject of a verb used inter-
rogatively (see I. 11) : thus, votre ami est-il ici is your friend
here f cela est-il vrai is tTiat true ?

b. Very commonly, a logical subject — whether a word, a
phrase, or a clause — that follows the verb is anticipated by the
indefinite or impersonal il or ce with the verb : thus, il me vient
une id^e tTiere comes into my head an idea, il est beau de mourir
pour la patrie it is noble to die for one's country, c'est 3. vous it
parler it is for you to speak, il est vrai qu'elle viendra ici
U is true that she mil come here, ce fiirent les ph^niciens qui
inventerent I'^criture it was the Phenicians who invented writ-
ing (see XI. 2, XXIV. 2).

The logical subject is then sometimes preceded by que, as a sort
of correlative to the grammatical subject ce: thus, c'est une
charmante chose qu'one femme it is a charming thing, a looman

149] SUBJECT. 289

(is). And in elliptical expression the que remains, even wlien ce
and the verb are omitted : thus, un singulier homme que ce roi
a singular man, this king !

Note further the idiomatic expressions qu'est-ce que or qu'est-
ce que c'est que for what is f (see XXV. 7). Also the common
est-ce que is it the case that ? used as a paraphrase for a simple
question (see XXV. 7).

c. A preceding subject is also often repeated by the grammati-
cal subject ce : thus, le temps, c'est de I'argent time is money,
ce que je desire, c'est de vous voir rdussir what I ivish is to see
you succeed, commander a ses passions, c'est remporter la plus
belle des victoires to control one'' s passions is to gain the best of
victories. The effect of this repetition is to emphasize the subject.

d. A subject is not seldom repeated by a personal or demon-
strative pronoun, principally for emphasis : thus, moi, je le sais,
or je le sais, moi / know it indeed, lis tombent, ces palais que
I'art en vain decore they fall, tTwse palaees that art adorns in
vain.

e. Repetition of the subject by a pronoun is usual in inverted
clauses after a peine, encore, peut-@tre, vainement, and the like :
thus, a peine men ami fut-il sorti hardly had my friend gone
out, peut-Stre la fortune reviendra-t-elle perhaps fortune will
return (§ 228a).

148. On the other hand, the pronoun-subject of a verb
is sometimes omitted.

a. The subject of the imperative 1st and 2d persons is always
omitted : see § 140a.

6. The usual impersonal or indefinite subject il is sometimes
omitted, especially in certain phrases, and also in coUoquial or
low style : thus, quand bon me semblera when it shall seem, good
to me, que m'importe 3, moi w?iat mMters it to me, soit dit entre
nous he it said between us, plut a Bleu would to Chd !

c. The usual grammatical subject ce or il (§ 1476) is not seldom
omitted, and the logical subject stands alone with the verb : thus,
a quoi nous sert d'etre venus of what use is our having come f

d. Other special cases are occasionally met with, in antiquated
style : thus, fais ce que dois, advienne que pourra do what thou
shouldst, come what may, si ne I'ai plus if I no longer have it.

149. Much more generally than in English, the pros-
nonn subject is repeated before each verb.

Thus, je I'aime etje Tadmire Hove and admire him.
IS

290 TBBBS. [M9-

rLLTTSTEATTVE SENTENCES.^ XXXV. Verb and Subject.

(§ 144.) ' Vive les jeunes gens ! tout est feu ; tout est
grice. {Bret.) ' Ce sont trente ans gagnes sans peine. (Paic.)
C'6taient des vieux soldats, plains de sante et de vignenr.
(Thiers.) ' Joindrette remarqua que I'oeil de M, Leblanc
s'attachait k ces hommes. C'est des amis ! ( V. Hugo.) ' U
est des visages de femme qui trompent la science et de-
routent I'observation par lenr cabne et par leur finesse.
{Bal.) ' Et comment aurait-U de la repugnance k revoir
ceux qui I'ont soigne ? C'est nous ! (About.) ' Un petit
nombre de choses anciennes sont restees debout en France
k travers nos revolutions periodiques. (Ste.-B.) * Une foule
d'6crits utiles et instructif s se repandent. {de Barante.) ' La
plupart des pontes se sont livr^s sans contrdle et sans frein
k tons les instincts de leur nature. {Ste.-B.) " Le pen de
bons ouvrages dont je me suis pen6tr6 depuis que j'existe
a d6velopp6 le peu de bonnes qualites que j'ai. {<?. Sard.)
" Et c'est moi qui ai combine, qui ai conduit tout cela, qui
suis la cause de tons ces grands 6v6nements. {Scribe.)
" Nous qui n'y 6tions pas, nous ne pouvons parler qu'avec
une extrime reserve de cette epoque. {Ste.-B.) " J'etais
alors un des plus beaux enfants qui aient jamais foule de
leurs pieds nus les pierres de nos montagnes. {Lam.)

(§ 145.) ' Tout I'inter^t et toute Paction du roman se
passent dans ce voyage. {Ste.-B.) ' II souiiait doucement
et regardait doucement, et pourtant ce regard et ce sourire
vous glagaient de terreur. {Gautier.) ° Un soupir, un re-
gard, une simple rougeur, un silence est assez pour expli-
quer un coeur. UUol.) * L'heure, le lieu, le bras se choisit
aujourd'hui. {uorn.) °Ce courage si grand, cette kme si
divine, n'est plus digne du jour ni digne de Pauline. ( Com.)
' Quand le crime d'Etat se mele an sacrilege, le sang ni
I'amitie n'ont plus de privilege. {Com.) ' Le del, tout I'u-
nivers est plein de mes aieux. {Jiac.) " L'habilet^, la pru-
dence, le bon goiit, tout conseiUait ce dernier parti. {Ste.-B.)
' Ni I'un ni I'autre n'ont su ce qu'ils faisaient. {de Vi.)

(§ 146.) ' Ah ! te Yoilk, Bourguignon ! Mon porte-
manteau et toi, avez-vous ete bien re9us ? {Mar.) ' C'est
heurenx que ni toi ni moi n'ayons pris le mal de ce pauvre
f r6re. {Bau.) ' Dorante et moi, nous sommes destines I'un
k I'autre. {Mar.) ' Helas ! non, nous serons tons tristes,
vous, moi, les magistrats . . . et le public. (<r. Sand.)

148] SUBJECT. 391

(§ 147.) ' Quel sens cela avait-il ? {V. Hugo.) ' La crise
terrible qu'elle avait provoquSe sans le savoir, guerirait-elle
le malade ? {About.) ' Mais, k propos de tes adieux, il me
reste encore une chose k savoir. (Mar.) * S'il court de m6-
chants bruits, c'est qu'on le calomnie. (Ponsard.) " II est
difficile d'aimer ceux que nous n'estimons point. {La H.)
' H me sera impossible de retenir mes larmes ; cependant il
faut s'en aller pour revenir. (de Sev.) ' Ce n'est pas un
petit objet que deux cent mille francs. (Mar.) ' Ah ! les
sottes gens que nos gens ! {Mar.) ' Mais c'est une satisfac-
tion bien rare pour les esprits s6rieux et judicieux que celle
de lire une suite de volumes si aises et si pleins. [Ste.-B.)
'° Qui est-ce qui me d^dommagera de votre perte ? {Mar.)
" Devenir amoureuse d'un jeune homme sur son reflet :
n'est-ce pas une folic ? {Gautier.) '" La plus veritable marque
d'etre ne avec de grandes qualites, c'est d'etre ne sans en-
vie. {La H.) " Moi, je n'ai pas r^ve. {About.) '* II regarde
si je retourne la tete, et je ne saurais le rappeler, moi.
{Mar.) '* Pent-dtre mes efforts en ce sens n'ont-ils pas ete
tout-d-fait vains. {ffuieot.)

(§ 148.) ' Soit, ma fille, je te permets le dSguisement.
{Mar.) ' Mais pen nous importe ; et le po^te a eu, dans sa
vie, bien d'autres oublis plus graves. {Ste.-B.) ' Pllit a
Dieu que je fusse mort en effiet, si je me trompe, et si ce
regard n'6tait pas pour moi. {de Mu.)

Theme 13.
veeb and subject.
' Is it you who wish to see me ? " No, it is our friends,
who come from the country. ' Here are your sisters ; it
was they who were looking for us. * Which are the four
cardinal points ? They are the north, south, east, and west.
' Most men are ambitious. ° I went to meet him ; a score
of his friends surrounded him, and a company of soldiers
marched behind him. ' A band of thieves had introduced
itself into the house, and was pillaging the rooms. ' Their
noise was heard by a few neighbors, who gathered and at-
tacked them suddenly. ° More than one escaped, but the
remainder were killed or taken, '° It was one of the most

292 VEEBS. [ISO-

successful affairs of the kind that have happened in our
village. " The courage, the dash of our friends was ad-
mirable ; the confusion and flight of the thieves were pitia-
ble. " Thou who art still so young, listen to me who am
thy friend. "It is we ourselves who wish to aid you.
"■ Astronomy is one of the sciences that do most honor to
the human mind. " My brother or I will go to see and
encourage , him. '° His ruin or his salvation depends on
(de) his reception of us. " He and I have been good friends
the past twenty years. " There has happened to him a
great- misfortune. " It will be impossible for him to re-
cover from it. °° It would be a great pleasure to me to see
him again. " Tours is a very handsome watch. " What
we wish is to see you happy. ''-It matters little to you
whether they go or stay.

PKBDICATE H'OUN' AND ADJECTIVE.

150. A predicate adjective or noun agrees in general,
in gender and number, with the word which, through
the verb, it is made to qualify.

But there are differences in this respect between the adjective
and the noun, and the agreement of the noun is more restricted.

151. A predicate adjective, not less than an attribu-
tive, agrees in gender and number with the noun (or
pronoun) which it qualifies, and is plural if it qualifies
two or more.

Thus, sa fortune dtait g^ande his fortune was great, la soeur
at la tante ftirent charm^es t?ie sister and aunt were charmed.

a. If the two words qualified are of different genders, the ad-
jective is ordinarily masculine ; but it is sometimes made to agree
only with the nearer or the more important noun : thus, le m^rite
et la vertu sont estim^s merit and virtue are esteemed, le fer, le
baudeau, la flamme est toute prSte t?ie steel, the bandage, the
flame are all ready.

b. A predicate adjective qualifying a personal or interrogative
or relative pronoun that does not distinguish gender (or either
gender or number, as qui) is varied in form to agree with the
noun represented by the pronoun : thus, nous (hommes) sommes

164] PREDICATE NOUN AND ADJECTIVE. 293

heurenx we (men) are happy, vous (femmes) @tes henreuses you
{women) are Jwppy, ceux or celles qui sont heureuz or heureuses

those who are happy.

The indefinite on is sometimes treated in the same way : thus,
quand on est marine wTien one (a woman) is married.

c. Vous and (more rarely) nous, when used with the yalue of
singulars, take a predicate in the singular (though the verb re-
mains plural): thus, 6tes-vous heureuz or heureuse are you
(sing.) happy ? nous sommes heureuse we are happy (said by a
queen).

d. "Words used adjectively without variation of form (§ 53c?,
54c) are of course invariable when predicative.

152. A predicate nouu agrees with that which it de-
scribes only so far as its own variations of form and the
logical meaning admit.

Thus, il est acteur, elle est actrice Tie is an actor, she is an
actress, elle est anteur et musicienne sAe is an author and mu-
sician, 11 en a ete la dupe Jie has been the dupe of it, il fiit les
d^lices de toute la ville ?ie was the delight of the whole city.
See §§ 15c, 16.

a. For the forms of the pronouns when used predicatively, see
XXIII. 3c;, XXV. 4a, XXVI. 2a. Examples are : c'est moi it is I,
elle est belle et le sera encore longtemps sTie is handsome, and
will long continue so, Stes-vous les trois &eres ? nous les sommes
are you the three hrothers f we are they, qu'@tes-vous what are
you f fon que je suis fool that I am !

153. The predicate is often a prepositional phrase,

with de, k, en, etc., or an adverb.

Thus, cette epee est de fer this sword is of iron, il ^tait a
genoux h£ was on his knees, les bles sont en fleur the wheat is in
flower, il est bien he is well off.

154. Yerbs of making, conceiving, declaring, and the
like, are followed by an objective predicate, qualifying
the direct object, and agreeing with it in the same man-
tier as the ordinary predicate with the subject.

Thus, je la declare innocente I declare her innocent, ils se
firent capncius they made themselves capuchins, il les soupgon-
nait morts Jie imagined them dead.

a. But pour for or comme as is ordinarily used after many
verbs before the predicate word : thus. Us le choisirent pour
g^u^ral tJiey chose him for general, il les consid^rait comme ses
ennemis he considered them as his enemies.

294 VERBS. [166—

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXV. Verb and Predicate.

(§ 151.) ' La science et la m6deciiie sont bonnes. (Bouss.)
' Paul et Virginie ^talent ignorants. {St. Pierre.) ' Sa
bonte, son pouvoir, sa justice est immense. (Com.) * Non,
non ; par ces soup(;ons je suis trop offens6e. (Mol.) ° Vous,
madame ! Eh ! n'^tes-vous pas except6e ? (Mar.) ' Mais
les frais de voyage, quand on est orpheline ? (Scribe.)

(§ 152.) ' J'etais son ennemie, et je ne la suis plus.
(Mar.) " La m^re est le premier instituteur de son enfant.
(St. Pierre.) ' Mon maitre en Palestine 6tait une abeille.
(Chat.) * Mile, de Schurmann . . . 6tait peintre, musicienne,
graveur, sculpteur, philosophe, gSom^tre, theologienne
m^me. (Biogr. Univ.)

(§ 163.) ' Les culottes sont de tricot, les bas de sole, et
les souliers de satin. (Bum.)

(§ 164.) ' Je vous ai promis d'avance de le faire capi-
taine dans mes gardes, dit le prince, (de Vi.) ' Je ne croyais
pas la Madelon si menteuse et si perfide. (G. Sand.) ' Est-
ce que tu pretends soutenir cette pi^ce ? — Parbleu ! je la
garantis detestable. (Mol.) * Je savais d6j4 que je le
trouverais grand ; mais je ne savais pas si je le trouverais
simple. (Dum.) ' Quand je les verrai heureux ensemble,
j'irai mourir en paix loin d'eux. (G. Sand.) ' J'aime la
compagnie, je I'avoue. — Je I'aime aussi, mais je I'aime
choisie. (Mol.) ' Cette scSne effrayante, et plus encore la
crainte de la voir se renouveler, la tinrent longtemps 6veil-
16e. (de Maistre.) ' Toute dme grande et forte, aux mo-
ments ou elle s'anime, pent se dire maitresse de la parole.
(Ste.-B.) ' Cette rudesse le rendit de fer. (de Vi.) " Puiss6-
je de mes yeux y voir tomber ce foudre, voir ses maisons
en cendre et ses lauriers en poudre. (Corn.) " A son re-
gard si doux, pour un ange il I'a prise. (G. Sand.)

OBJECT.

155. The object of a verb is a noun, or something
having the value of a noun — as a pronoun, an adjective
used substantively, an infinitive, a phrase, or a clause.

a. A partitive noun (§ 35), or one preceded by de, with or with-
out the article, having the sense of some or any, is to be regarded
as immediately related to the verb (whether as subject or predi-
cate or object), Uke a simple noun. So also with a noun preceded
by jus^u'a clear to, in the sense of rwt exciting or even : thus.

168] OBJECT. 295

il aime jusqn'd. ses ennemis Tie loves even his enemies ; or pre-
ceded by pres de nearly, about; and so on.

156. The object of a verb is either direct or indirect.
The direct object corresponds to the usual English objective or

Latin accusative ; the indirect, to the English objective with to, or
the Latin dative.

a. The pronouns are the only words in the language that have
a difEerent form as subject and as object (XXII. etc.). No noun
has a special object-form.

6. The personal pronoun of the third person (XXII. 5, 6c) is
the only word in the language that has a special form for the in-
direct object as distinguished from the direct.

c. No noun is used as indirect object immediately dependent on
the verb. A noun as indirect object is always preceded by sL to :
thus, je donne le livre a men ami / give my friend the book ;
but, je lui donne le livre I give him the book.

d. If a noun is connected with a verb by the preposition a, it
may usually be represented by an indirect object-pronoun, what-
ever the logical relation : see § IGlg.

e. For the indirect object-pronoun in the sense of a possessive,
see § 886.

/. The indirect object-pronoun is used as a so-called " ethical
dative" — ^i.e. to express some one indefinitely concerned in the ac-
tion : thus, bats-moi cet homme-lsl beat me that man.

157. Verbs are called "transitive" or "intransitive"
according as they do or do not admit a direct object.

a. Some verbs which in English are used as transitives are in
French only intransitive — and vice versd : thus, j'ob^is aux lois
I obey the laws, 11 approche (or s'approche) du but he approojehes
the goal ; il sonne le domestiqne he rings for the servant : see
below, § 1616, 16?f.

6. A few verbs usually intransitive may take a direct object
when used factitively (i.e. in the sense of making or showing by
means of a certain action) : thus, tout y respire la joie every-
thing there breathes joy, cet or sent le sang this gold smells of
blood. Other intransitives do so in certain phrases : thus, courir
risque run a risk, parler une langue talk a language, causer
litt^rature converse about literature. A so-called cognate accusa-
tive is very little used in French ; the noiin generally takes de
before it : thus, mourir d'une mort naturelle die a tiatural death,
dormir d'nn bon sommeil sleep a good sleep.

158. A verb in French does not take two direct ob-
jects, but only a direct and an indirect together.

296 VBEB8. [168—

a. An only apparent exception is the second noun that is taken
as predicate to the object of a verb, or as objective predicate :
thus, ils le firent roi fhey made him king : see above, § 154.

b. The prohibition of two direct objects is extended to those
compound verb-phrases in which an infinitive is directly (i.e.
without de or a) dependent on another verb, especially faire
make, cause. If the infinitive has a direct object, the logical ob-
ject of the other verb has to be made indirect. Thus, / have
made him say it is je le lui ai fait dire, IJiave made my friend
read your letter is j'ai fait lire votre lettre a men ami ; and so
je lui ferai voir ce que je snis I will let him see wTmt I am. In
aU these cases, the faire and following infinitive are treated as
forming a kind of unitary verb-phrase, a causative verb, taking
both its objects, if pronouns, together before it. The same con-
struction is also generally required with an iufinitive after laisser,
voir, entendre, coir : thus, je leur ai entendu dire ces paroles
I heard them say these words, je le Ini ai vu essayer I have seen
him try it.

An exception is now and then met with : thus, je les ai laisses
boire mon vin I let them drink my wine ; and always if the ob-
ject of the infinitive is reflexive : thus, je I'ai laisse s'^garer /
let him lose himself. On the other hand, the object of £a.ire is
sometimes made indirect when the infinitive has not a direct ob-
ject : thus, ces chants firent changer de visage a Atala these ■
songs made Atala change countenance. (Chat.)

159. A noun is often added to a verb directly, or

■without a preposition, to express measure or extent, time

when, or (rarely) place where.

Such a noun is not properly an object of the verb, but is rather
used adverbially ; though its value shades into that of an object.
It may be called an adverbial object. For examples, see above,
§ 28a-c.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXVI. Verb and Object.

(§ 155.) ' II avait du bon sens ; le reste vient ensuite.
{La F.) "Ha de la gaiet6 dans I'esprit ; il a du 16ger et
du plaisant. (Ste.-B.) = Faut-il tout sacrifier, jusqn'a Topi-
nion de la posterite ? (de Vi.) * II mena prds de trois cents
gentilsbommes A Candle ^ ses d^pens, quoiqn'il ne fut pas
riche. ( Vol.)

(§ 156.) ' Cette Ute colita cent mille livres k M. de Ven-
d6me.{Chaulieu.) "U faut montrer aux Allemands la
beaute, la grandeur de notre sc^ne tragique. (Thiers.)
'Qu'on me I'egorge, qu'on me lui fasse griller les pieds,

169] OBJECT. 297

qu'on me le mette dans I'eau bouillante. (Mol.) * Regarde
Bernard : 9a n'a pas encore vingt-huit ans ; eh bien, 9a
VOU8 a dSja un bout de ruban d la boutonniSre. {Sandeau.)

(§ 157.) * En le suivant, M. 8aint-Marc Girardin obeis-
sait de plus k sa nature. (Ste.-B.) " Nous pardonnons aise-
ment k nos amis les d6fauts qui ne nous regardent pas.
(La B.) ' Imaginez-vous qu'elle I'a querelle de ee qu'il
6tait bien fait. (Mar.) * II ne f aut pas courir deux lievres
k la fois. (Proverb.) ° Que tout respire ici luxe et magni-
ficence ! (Duval.) ' Tons les membres de cette famille par-
laient I'italien. le fran9ais, I'espagnol, I'anglais, et I'allemand.
(Bal.) ' Me parlerait-il po6sie ou farine, academie ou agri-
culture, publication ou r^colte ? (Dum.) ' Mars rit aussi
d'un rire amer. (de Vi.)

(§ 158.) ' Rien que la mort n'6tait capable d'expier son
forfait ; on le lui fit bien voir. (La F.) ' Les m^mes gens
de bien entreprirent de lui faire voir M. de Noailles. (de
Sev.) ' Le plus grand effort de I'amitie n'est pas de mon-
trer nos defauts k un ami ; c'est de lui faire voir les siens.
(La S.) * Les occasions nous font connaitre aux autres, et
encore plus k nous-m^mes. (La JR.) ' II faut se laisser em-
porter au torrent. (Chaulieu.) ° On pent pr^ferer de lui
telle ou teUe mani^re, mais il est curieux de les lui voir
essayer toutes. (Ste.-B.) ' Le gentilhomme de M. de Tu-
renne . . . dit qu'il a vu faire des actions heroiques au che-
valier de Grignan. (de Sev.) ' Des paroles singuli^res qu'on
lui a entendu dire sur la religion, sur la cour de Rome, nous
ont 6t6 repetees par des tSmoins dignes de foi. (Thiers.)
° Je lui laissai sans fruit consumer sa tendresse. (Rac.) '° Un
sentiment d'orgueil lui a fait applaudir k tout ce qui apla-
nissait la route des honneurs. (Uampan.)

Theme 14.

veeb with peedicatb and object.

'His virtue and constancy are great. 'The arm and
hand are made in order to execute the will. ° He and she
wUl be absent when you return. * You are our friend, and
we are yours, said the queen to him. ° This wine pleases
me, but that other seems to me better. ' She is a dancer,
and her sister is a musician ; their brother is a painter ;

398 VBEBS.

[160—

they are all able artists. ' We were bold ; but experience
has rendered us more cautious. ' God has not made life
too hard to bear. ° You think her sincere ; I have found
her false and mendacious. '" We know them (to be) rich
and happy. " Can one call courageous an action so rash
and foolish ? " I like to see people happy about me, " We
regard it as certain that they will be here. " He had taken
me for another.

" She likes everything in him, even his faults and weak-
nesses. " We have seen to-day nearly a hundred pictures,
and not one of them has pleased us. "He has fought
the good fight ; let him sleep now a long and deep sleep.
" I have made her write the letter of which I was speaking
to you ; and now I shall ring for my servant, to carry it to
the post. " We have heard them tell this story many
times. "" Have you not seen her give her hand to your
rival ? "Do not let him forget himself. " This cloth is
worth only ten francs a yard, but it has cost me twelve
francs, and I have had to run about the streets three hours
in order to find it.

PEBPOSITIONAL PHRASE.

160. A verb is extremely often qualified by a prepo-
Bitional phrase — that is, by a noun or other word or
phrase having substantive value, and joined to it by a
preposition.

Air the prepositions are used to connect the nouns they govern
with verbs, thus qualifying or Umiting the latter's meaning.
Some of these constructions need no explanation, being perfectly
simple and like English constructions ; some will be treated under
Prepositions (§ 202 etc.); a few, involving the commonest prepo-
sitions, k and de, may best be stated here, as being most closely
analogous with the relations ordinarily expressed by cases, the
dative and genitive.

161. A noun with k to is used after a verb datively,
or in the manner of an indirect object.

Hence it is representable by an indirect obiect-pronoun : name-

^81] PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE. 299

ly, lui and lenr for persons, and y for things (but sometimes also
for persons): see XXII. 5, 6; XXIII. 5, 6.

a. The uses of IL as connecting a noun with a verb come from
its original value as meaning both to and at, and it often has to
be rendered by at or about, and not seldom by other prepositions,
as on, by, with, etc. Sometimes, too, it is required where in
English the verb takes a direct object. The principal peculiari-
ties of its use are noticed here.

h. Some verbs which in English are transitive require
in French k before their object.

Such are especially conseiller k advise, nuire k harm, injure,
ob^ir k obey, plaire k please, renoncer k renounce, ressembler a
resemble, r^sister k resist, survivre k outlive, survive: thus,
ob^issez k vos parents obey your parents. Other verbs may take
k, or take it in certain senses or certain phrases : thus, aider or
aider k aid, help, atteindre it attain, assister a he present at, com-
mander El, ordonner ^ command, order, and persuader a per-
suade, urge, with a person, when the thing commanded or urged
is also expressed, croire k believe in, satisfaire k satisfy as a
general rule or obligation, toucher k come in contact with, be
close to, supplier k make up as a deficiency. In a case or two
the whole construction is different from English : thus, reprocher
k quelqn'un sa faute reproach any one for his fault (Ut'ly, re-
proach to any one his fault).

0. A few verbs take k where we should expect de, as meaning
from or of. These are arracher snatch, extort, 6ter and enlever
take away, soutirer withdraw, ^chapper escape, demander ask,
emprunter borrow, acheter buy (and sometimes gagner gain,
prendre take) : thus, arracher quelque chose k quelqu'un
snatch something from somebody, je demande pardon a cet
homme I ask pardon of this man, 11 a emprunt^ de I'argent a
un banquier he Jias borrowed money of a banker. Also peuser a
songer k, in the sense of think upon, turn one's thoughts to: thus
pensez k moi think of me.

These verbs (but not demander) take also sometimes de insteac
of k, for the most part with little difference of sense ; but pensei
de means Jiave an opinion of: thus, que pensez-vous de moi
what do you think of me f

d. In many phrases, a noun with k is added to a verb to ex-
press the manner or instrument of the action : thus, il voyagea
cheval he travels on horseback (by horse), 11 parle k haute voix
he talks in a loud voice, aller k voiles go by sail, fouler aux
pieds trample under foot : compare § 36.

e. In some combinations, k with a noun has the sense of be-
longing to : so especially with Stre : thus, cette malson est a

300

VERBS.

[161-

moi this home is mine; and simUarly with tronver, snpposer,
connaitre, and croire credit: thus, je ltd trouve un coeur excel-
lent I find him to possess an excellent heart, il leur croit assez
de bon sens he credits them good sense enough.

Related with this is the not infrequent use of 'the dative, espec-
ially of a pronoun, instead of a possessive adjective : thus, je lui
prends la main I take her hand, il s'est cass^ le bras he has
broken his arm.

■ /. Of special cases may be mentioned the reflexive phrases
_al attendre a expect, be prepared /or_sit*ft«Ui®P*i'*<^^ « quar-
rdykth, sgjtt6^E.aj;2r de) meddle with ; alsoSSSfeJa^-S'iexrfiA^
wxike war upon, a goir affaire- aL have a difficulty with, en voii-
loir a. 6ear a grudge agamst, tenir ^ depend upon (compare

XITfT 76). ■ ^

g. Examples of the use of an indirect object-pronoun to repre-
sent a noun requirhig a after the verb are as follows : jelnijjt^
I obey him, ii fe"t. y rfTinngpr one must rerwunxe it, jEIeujcjde;
mand§j£a££n^s he asks them tfieir names, nons y pensong
"lingoSs we think'of it all the ^Mrae, Je Ini en venfT feHgg a grudge
i-engmnsthim. But the noun of manner ur llislrument, and that
following 6tre in the sense of belong cannot be so replaced.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXVTI. Verb and Case-phrase with. a.

(§ 161.) ' Votre ingSnieuse critique n'obeit pas seule-
ment k une n6cessite, elle se livre k un golit et a un plaisir.
(Ste.-B.) ' II ressemblait ^ un fantome, mais a celui d'un
martyr, {de Vi.) ' On touche encore a son temps, et tr6s
fort,'mdme quand on le repousse. {Ste.-£.) *Ilacontant
I'emprisonnement de son p^re pendant la Terreur, M. de
Lamartine nous fait assister k des scenes tant soit peu ro-
manesques. (Ste.-B.) 'II* reproche k Byron de I'avoir
imite sans le nommer et sans lui en faire honneur. (Ste.-B.)
' Sa piete etait si vive, son effusion si touchante, son cou-
rage si admirable, qu'elle arrachait les larmes k tous les
assistants. (Mignet.) ' Je demande a Votre Maje'st6 la per-
mission de me retirer a Citeaux. (de Vi.) ° C'est Marie qui
a pensS k ce cantonnier ; Marie pense k tout, s'avise de
tout. (Ste.-B.) " Songe au fleuve de sang oil ton bras s'est
baigne. (Corn.) '° Dupont, lanc§ en" fl^che dans I'Anda-
lousie i-evoltee, est bient6t oblig§ de se rabattre et de son-
ger k une retraite ; mais il y songe trop tard. (Ste.-B.)

La Madelon, qui n'avait jamais pens6 bien sferieusement

■^i.e. liamartine.

> i aoie.

162] PKEPOSITIONAL PHRASE. 301

a Landry, se mit k y penser beaucoup. {G. Sand.) " Ce
n'est rien, monsieur le marquis ; c'est une folle qui est arri-
v^e a pied ici cette nuit. (de Vi.) '° II a parle de rappeler
la reine-m^re, dit le capucin A voix basse, {de Vi.) "A
I'oeuvre on connait Partisan. {La F.) " J'ai nomm6 M. de
Balzac ; ce romancier original a trouv6, je I'ai dit, une veine
•jui est bien a lui. {Ste.-B.) " Vous me croyez plus de qua-
lites que je n'en ai. {Mar.) " Je ne vous soup9onnai8 pas
les talents et I'habilete que vous avez d6ployes aujourd'hui.
{Scribe.) " II a I'esprit, le coeur naturellement mod6r6s, et
je ne lui ai jamais vu de passion. {Ste.-£.) '" Je leur ai
pardonne.du fond du coeur. {Guizot.) "Vous lui avez
peut-^tre arrachS enfin cet aveu;' vous avez bien fait. {G.
Sand.)

162. A noun with de of, from is used after a verb in

the manner of a genitive case, and may be i-epresented

in pronoun-form by the genitive pronoun en (XXIII. 5).

a. The uses of de as connecting a noun with a verb come in
great part from its original value as meaning from. It often
stands where English requires a difEerent preposition, especially
toUh, by, because of, and the like, and sometimes where the verb
in English takes a direct object. The principal cases are noticed
here.

i. A de stands after verbs of proceeding or removing,

in every variety ; after those of taking and the like ;

after those of depending; and so on.

Thus, il arrive fla Pg.Hs J^f. mmps from Paris, je I'ai reQU de
mon pere I have received it from my father, cela depend de vous
that depends on (lit'ly, from) you. —

G. A de is very often used after a verb to mark that

from which anything proceeds as cause, motive, occasion ;

and hence also agent and means or instrument — where in

English lyy or with is used.

Thus, 11 est mort de faim he has died of hunger, il se repent
de sa conduite he repents of his conduct, je les pnnis de leur
faute / punish them for thMr fault ; and lis la louent d'une
voix they praise her with one voice, il est arm^ d'une 6pde he is
armed vnfh a sword; and elle joue du piano she plays on (lit'ly,
voith) the piano.

Hence the frequent use of de (alternately with par) with a pas-

302 VERBS. [162—

sive to denote the agent : thus, il est a,im6 de tout le monde he
is loved by everybody : see the First Part, XXVIII. 3.

d. It stands before a noun expressing material, content, and
the like : thus, il I'a fait de bois he made it of wood, remplir
d'eau^ZZ tmth water : compare § 33.

e. It not seldom expresses manner : thus, ramRimr de force
bring back by force, agir de bonne foi act in good faim, parler
de la sorte talk in that fashion.

f. Some verbs that are transitive in English require in
French a de before their object.

Such verbs are especially jouir enjoy, user use, abuser abuse ;
also decider decide and juger judge (sometimes intransitive in
English) ; also redoubler redouble in certain phrases ; and
changer when it signifies the exchange by the subject of one
thing for another of the same kind : thus, il change d'opinion
he changes his opinion, il redoubla d'efforts tie redoubled his
efforts, je jouis de sa faveur I enjoy his favor, ils abusent de
ma bout^ they abuse my kindness. Also sometimes h^riter in-
herit : thus, h^riter d'une maison inherit a house. More
special cases are : de after approcher or s'approcher ap-
proach : thus, il s'approcha du feu hs approached t?ie fire ;
after certain reflexive verbs, as s'apercevoir perceive, se d^fier
distrust, se douter suspect, se passer do unthout, se servir make
use, and so on (compare XXIX. 76) : thus, je m'aperQois de cela
I perceive that.

g. Aiten iixaAi Cir and qiialifi gr with an obj ect, and after .gfiEdi:,
de^sjised to mean in rfinrnrfrr of nr rr? • rmii, jn I'ai traits de

jjnace / have treated him as a vrince. il me sert de modele he
serves me as model.

h. Examples of the use of the genitive pronou n en i n these va-
rious constructions (except to express manner) are : il ^tait d. la
campagne ; il en revient aigourd'hui he was in the country, he
returns from it to-day, il en est d^ja mort he has already died
of it, on Ten a arm6 they have armed him with it, il les aime, et
il en est aim^ he loves them and is loved by them, usez-en, mais
n'en abusez pas use it, but do not abuse it, le voyant, il s'en ap-
procha seeing it, Tie approached it.

i. For a few verbs taking both de and a, see § 183.

/ For the partitive noun with de, used like a simple noun as
the object of a verb as well as in other constructions, see § 35.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXVIII. Verb and Case-phrase
with de.

(§ 162.) ' Ceux qui ne sortent pas d'eux-m^mes sent
tout d'une pi^ce. (Girardin.) = Bien ; vous allez partir de
Madrid tout k I'henre. (V. Hugo.) » H revient de la Grfice

IBS] PBBPOSITIONAL PHRA3B. 303

et de Jerusalem ; il aborde en ]figypte. (Ste.-B.) * II ne
vit que de lait, ne descend jamais k la salle k manger. {Dau.)
* EUe se retira ensuite k part, et 6crivit de sa main, pendant
plusieurs heures, des lettres et son testament. (Mignet.)
Le bourreau lui-m^me etait 6mu, et la frappa d'une main
mal assur6e. (Mignet.) ' Le commissionnaire la renverse
d'un coup de chaise ; la gouvernante la foule aux pieds.
{Thiers.) ° Soudain ses traits se contract^rent comme de
I'espoir du triomphe. (Saintine.) " Je me sens pique de ce
discours etrange. (Mot.) '° Je le connais de vue, mais je
ne sais pas son nom. (Mar.) " La lune brillait de tout son
6clat. (J^apoleon.) " Et il continue de la sorte de donner
cours dunenthousiasme s6vdre. (Ste.-£.) " AUons, Zambo,
chantait-il d'un ton furieux et comique ; tourne le robinet
pour Massa. (Lab.) '* II a 6t6 frapp6 a premiere vue des
d6fauts, des travers, des ridicules du temps. (Ste.-B.) "De
l'h«ure fugitive, hdtons-nous, jouissons. (Lam.) "Vous
croyez qu'abusant de mon autorit6, je pretends attenter §,
votre liberty. (Bac.) " En changeant de nom, tu n'as pas
chang6 de visage. (Mar.) " Je leur 6cris qu'Achille a
change de pens§e. (Bac.) " Peuple sauvage ! m'ecriai-je
en approchant du feu. (Lab.) " Un ignorant herita d'un
manuscrit, qu'il porta chez son voisin le libraire. (La F.)
"Madame de Vaubert avait servi de mdre ^H616ne. (San-
deau.) " L'enthousiasme nous sert aussi d'asile k nous-
mSmes contre les peines les plus amdres. (de Stael.) " Et
j'ai traite cela de pure bagatelle. (Mol.) " Tu me traites
de m^chante sans que j'aie jamais fait de mal. ( G. Sand.)
" Charlotte Corday est condamn6e k la peine demort ; son
beau visage n'en parait pas emu. (Thiers.) "° J'^tais all6
k Claye, k quelques lieues de Paris. Je m'en revenais k
pied. ( V. Hugo.) " J'ai trop d'avantage, et, en ennemi
g6nereux, je ne veux pas en profiter. (Scribe.) " Profite de
tes biens, George. — ^J'en use sans plaisir, et les tiens en m6-
pris. (Ponsard.) " N'^tes-vous jamais passe sur une tombe
sans vous en douter ? (Dum.) " Laissez-moi, l'abb6, laissez-
moi, je vous en prie. (<^, Sand.)

Theme 15.

VEBB AND CASE-PHEASB, WITH k OR dc.

' The boy ought to obey his parents ; the man, the law
and God, " He who loves his parents will obey them ; he

304 VERBS. [162-

who honors the law will ohey it. 'Wisdom commands
every one to renounce all pleasures which can injure him.
' She pleases them because she resembles her mother.
' Tell him what we have promised him, and persuade him
to withdraw. ' Your memory will perhaps aid his. ' If
one has pardoned a friend his faults, one no longer re-
proaches him for them. ° He asked her what book she was
reading, and as she answered him nothing, he snatched it
from her. " What do you think of his conduct ? " He
will not escape the punishment due to his misdeed. " He
came on horseback, and they received him with open arms.
" I bought it cheap, with money that I had borrowed of
my uncle. " Speak with a louder voice, or we shall not un-
derstand you. " This house belongs to my neighbor. " It
is very handsome ; I did not credit him with so much
taste. " We have found no ill in him. " Do not meddle
with this affair. " I bear them no ill-will, although they
have quarreled with my friends.

" They have just arrived from America ; whether they
remain here depends upon their health. ^° At present, they
are wearied with the trials of the journey. °' They were
preceded by their courier, and will be followed by their
baggage ; they are accompanied by their servants and a
parrot. "' He is burning with impatience to see the East ;
but she is bored by everything, and weeps for grief at hav-
ing left her country. '" She has written me several letters
with her own hand. " He occupies himself too much with
his health. "' He does not know what to do with his time.
'' 1 thaiik you for your kindness. " If you wish to enjoy
my favor, you must not talk in that fashion. " She never
abuses her influence over him. • "' This man changes his
religion as one might change his coat. °° He redoubled his
efforts to approach the shore, and did not perceive the ef-
forts that were making to save him. " I can make use of
you; but if you think that we cannot do without you, you are

168] NEGATIOIfr. . 305

much mistaken. " He always treated me as a child. " That
will serve us as example for what we have to do.

ADVEEBS ; NEGATIVE EXPEESSION.

163. The verb is very often qualified by an adverb,
o. For the formation and use of adverbs in general, see XXXI.,

XXXII. , and below, § 196 etc Here only certain special matters
call for treatment.

6. As to the use of the adverbs y and en as pronominal objects
of verbs, see XXIII. 5-8, and § 85. As to the pronominal uses
also of dent and on, see XXYI. 7, 8.

164. A verb is made negative by prefixing the nega-
tive adverb ne ; and the verb of a sentence containing a
negation always has ne before it.

See Lesson XII. Much of what was said in the Lessons is un-
avoidably repeated here.

a. The ne is always placed after the subject, but before an ob-
ject-pronoun ; nothing but an object-pronoun ever stands between
the negative adverb and the verb negated by it.

6. For the very rare omission of the ne, see below, § 165e.

165. Bnt usually, in expressing simple negation, an
auxiliary word, pas or point, is added after the verb.

a. Pas and point are in reality adverbially-used nouns, making
distinct or strengthening the negation ; pas is literally pace, step,
and point is point. Point makes a stronger or more emphatic
nsgation than pas, like not at ail, by no means, or the hke.

6. Pas and point, if the verb is compound, are put after the
auxiliary and before the participle. With an infinitive, they are
usually (not always) made to precede : thus, ne pas dire or ne
dire pas not to say. And the object-pronoun of such an infini-
tive may be placed either between or after the two negative par-
ticles : thus, ne pas vous dire or ne vons pas dire (or ne vous
dire pas) not to tell you : the first is most usual.

c. Point is not used before plus nor before an adjective nu-
meral. In a question, pas is used if an affirmative reply is ex-
pected : thus, n'est-ce pas vons qui me I'avez dit means it is
you, is it not f that told me, but n'est-ce point vous etc. means
it surely is not you, is it ? that etc.

d. Quite rarely, mie (lit'ly, a crumb) is used instead of point
thus, ne les 6coutez mie do not listen to tJtem at all.

e. Very rarely, ne is omitted, and the negation expressed by

306 VBBBS. [168—

pas or point alone : thus, I'ai-je pas dit didn't I say so? This
hardly occurs except in low or vulgar style.

166. In certain cases, ne is used alone, without added

pas or point, to negative the verb.

The principal and most usual cases are those stated below. But
the omission of the second negative is sometimes made at the ar-
bitrary option of an author.

a. With the verbs savoir, pouvoir, oser, and cesser, pas

or point is usually omitted, especially when an infinitive

follows, and when the negation is not emphatic.

Thus, je ne sais ce que c'est I don't ktww what it is, il ne
peut tarder he cannot delay, elle n'oserait revenir sM would
not dare to come hack, vous ne cessez de tire you do not stop
laughing. Less common cases are such as je ne bougerai d'ici
I shall not stir (budge) from here. Saurais in the sense of can
(XXXIV. 76) always has ne only : thus, je ne sanrais le dire 1
cannot say; also usually puis : thus, je ne puis I cannot (but je
ne peux pas).

b. Ne is often used alone after si, after rhetorical questions in-
troduced by qui, after que in the sense of why f or unless, with a
perfect after depuis que and il y a . . . que, and in a negative
clause depending on one that is negative or impliedly so : thus,
si ce n'est vous if it is not you, qui de nous n'a ses d^&uts who
of us has not his faults ? que ne se corrige-t-il why does he not
correct himself f il y a trois mois que je ne I'ai vu I have not
seen him these three months, vous n'avez pas un ami qui ne soit
anssi le mien you have not a friend who is not also mine, and
avez-vous un ami qui ne soit aussi le mien have you (i.e. surely
you have not) a friend wha is not also mine f

c. Ne is used without pas or point in certain special phrases :
thus, n'importe no matter, Ti'a.-n-niT- g-a.rdR Ap. tnJeA care not to,
n layoir quB -fi iiir o n& L have anything to do, ne- plaise or ne d^-
plaisg. may it not please or displease, and a few others : thus, a
Dieu ne plaise God forbid, je n'ai garde de d^savouer ma fante
/ take care not to disavow my fault.

167. Ne is also used without second negative particle

along with certain words which are regarded as forming

with it a compound negative phrase, often to be rendered

in English by a single negative word.

a. These negative phrases are especiall y ne . . . rv^n^ nintMna.
ne • ,j. jarw,is we»er,.ne ._. ^.pex^nne rwboc^, 'fie . . . aucnn not

168] STEGATIOIT. 30?

any, none, no, ne . . . plus no longer, no inore (in sense of con-
tinuance of time), ne . . . que orily (lit'ly, not [else or other] than),
ne . . . gnere, hardly, scarcely.

b. Of the words thus used, rien and jamais and aucun and
gudre, though in themselves properly positive, occur almost only
in negative phrases and with negative value. Exceptions are oc-
casionally met with, especially in clauses that have a negative
implication : thus, personne a-t-il jamais rien vu de pareil
has any one ever seen anything like it ? (i.e. no one, surely, Tias
ever seen etc.).

c. Instead of rien thing, are found sometimes in special phrases
mie crumb, goutte drop, brin mote, mot word ; instead of jamais
ever, are found the obsolete one or onques ever, also de ma vie
in my life, and other similar expressions ; instead of personne
or aucun any one, any, are found qui que ce soit or quelconque
any one or any whatever, and the like.

d. Of ne . . . que, meaning only, the que stands where tJian
would stand if the expression were filled out : thus, je ne verrai
qu'elle I shall see only her, je ne la verrai que demain I shall
see Tier only to-morrow, je ne la verrai demain qu'apres le diner
I shall see her only after the dinner to-morrow. If the only
qualifies the verb itself, a paraphrase is made with faire do : thus,
"Ilf-"*^ fr-^*- 1"" •piBTiTBT- site merely cries, or eya_afi.fe!iiLaJitES-
c iose qn « ylBi^r"'^ "T"" does nothing else than cry. Autre other
is not seldom used with ne alone : thus, le droit n'est autre chose
que la raison mSme right is nothing but reason itself.

e. Not seldom, more than one second negative belongs with the
same ne: thus, je ne lui ai jamais rien donn^ I have never given
him anything, je n'en dirai jamais rien k personne I will never
say anything to any one about it. This is especially frequent
along with que, and then the rendering only must be changed to
something else : thus, je n'ai jamais aime que lui / have never
loved any one hut him, or the like.

/. Nul rume, not any (also its adverb nullement in no wise),
and ni nor, though themselves negative, require also ne before
the verb : thus, ni vous ni moi ne le pouvons neither you nor 1
can do it, je ne le puis, ni ne le veux / neither can nor will do
it, nul ne le saura none will know it. The same is the case with
non plus not any more : thus, elle ne I'aime non plus que moi
she doesn't like it any more than I.

But nnl used appositively or predicatively to mean null, of no
account, does not require ne.

168, Ne can never be used except directly with a, verb
expressed ; if it is omitted, because of the absence of the

308 VEBBS. [168-

verb, the other word usually associated with it in a nega-
tive phrase may itself be used in the negative sense.

Thus, point may stand by itself for not at all ; pas not alone,
but with another word, e.g. pas moi mst I, pas du tout not at all,
pourquoi pas why not ? ; rien as nothing, jamais a s neve r, per -
sonne as nobody, aucun as no, none, plus as no longer. But que
and guere do not stand thus (unless in very rare cases).

a. Rien que nothing [eZse] than, is used eUiptically with a fol-
lowing infinitive in the sense of merely by: thus, rien qu'a y
penser merely by thinking of it.

169. Thp negative word non is especially used as direct

answer to a question, meaning no.

In this, as in most of its other uses, it may be followed by the
second negative pas (or rarely by point) : thus, voulez-vous le
faire ? non (or non pas) loill you do it ? no.

a. It also stands, in incomplete expression, for an omitted neg-
ative verb or clause : thus, je gage que non / wager that it is
not so, si Ton souJBre ou non whether one suffer or not (i.e. or do
not suffer), non que je le croie not (i.e. it is not the ease) tJiat 1
believe it.

b. It is used to negative a particular member of a sentence
which is not a verb : thus, il demeure a la campagne, non loin
d'ici he lives in tJie country, not far from liere, il perit, non sans
gloire he perished, not without glory. Especially, with a nega-
tive alternative opposed to a positive : thus, nous voulons un
maitre et non (or non pas) une maitresse we want a master, and
not a mistress, je le feral non seulement pour lui, mais aussi
pour ses enfants I shall do it not only for him, but also for his
childr&rL^ . ..^^

c.^^n plus)mi^ any more, not any sooner, stands after a nega-
tive veMroT^f ter ni nm\ and is often best rendered by either :
thus, je ne le ferai pas non plus I shall not do it ettJier (lit'ly,
any more than he or than you, or the like) ; ni moi non plus nor
I either.

d. Non had formerly the oflBce of directly making a verb nega-
tive, and is sometimes still found so used, in antiquated style :
thus, non ferai-je I shall not do it.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.-XXIX. Negative Expression.

(§ 165.) ' Je ne vous reponds pas des volontes d'un p^re,
mais je ne serai point k d'autre qu'd Val^re. {Moi.) ' II
est capable de ne pas me croire ; et s'il me croit, c'est en-
core pis. (Scribe.) " C'est pourtant triste de ne jamais
danser, dit Landry. {G. Sand.) ' Dans les pieces s6rieuses.

lee] KEGATION. 309

il suffit, pour n'^tre point bMme, de dire des choses qui
soient de bon sens et Men ecrites. {Mol.) ' Je ferai tout
pour ne vous pas deplaire. {Roc.) °H6 bien ! I'ai-je pas
dit ? {Roc.) ' Voyez-vous pas s'enf uir les hdtes du bocage ?
(Delille.) ° Je parie que tu n'as pas encore . . . le consen-
tement de tes parents ? — ^a ne sera pas long; j'en ai pas.
[Scribe.)

(§ 166.) ' Certes, il est bien malheureux, mais il ne peut
etre cruel ; il entendrait la v6rite. — Oui, mais il n'oserait
la faire triompher, (de Vi.) ' Je ne sais si le marquis me
pardonnerait. (Sandeau.) ' On ne savait quelui dire; tout
le monde pleurait. (de Sev.) *I1 y a quelques centaines
d'ann6es que je n'avais revu votre petit monde. (G. Sand.)
" II n'y a pas de m6chancet6 qu'elle n'invente. (Segur.) ° Je
n'aurais jamais cru chose pareille, si je n'avais vu de mes
yeux, et entendu de mes oreilles. (Segur.) ' Qui de nous,
monsieur, n'est sujet k I'erreur ? (Scribe.) * Mme. Humblot
et sa fille n'eurent garde de manquer au rendez-vous.
(About.) ' En te reprochant ta faute, je n'ai garde de de-
savouer la mienne. (I'm.) ^^ N'importe ; au milieu de ces
sentiers tortueux, j'en veux prendre uu nouveau. (de Vi.)

(§ 167.) ' Si je n'ai plus de fils, que m'importe un em-
pire ? ( Vol.) " Mais il etait trop tard pour la Bichonne ;
elle ne vivait deja plus. (Nodier.) ' Mais ce bel horizon ne
nous tient guere chez nous. (Dau.) * II n'y a que ce valet
qui soit suspect ici ; Dorante n'a qu'a le chasser. (Mar.)
' Tous ceux qui la virent en ce moment crurent mieux que
jamais que c'6tait chose venue de la part de Dieu. (Mi-
chelet.) ° II serait difficile d'imaginer rien de plus beau.
(Chat.) ' Elles me font peur, encore que je n'y comprenne
goutte. (<?. Sand.) ' Eh bien ! c'est un homme qui ne dit
mot, qui ne rit ni qui ne gronde. (Mar.) ' J'en approuve
I'esprit ; s'il pensait autrement, je ne le verrais de ma vie.
(Mar.) '° II ne faisait k Paris que des voyages courts et
rares. (St. Simon.) " En toute affaire ils ne font que son-
ger au moyen d'exercer leur langue. (La F.) " II m'a fait
souvenir que mon fils est dans l'arm6e du roi, laquelle n'a
eu nuUe part k cette expedition, (de Sev.) " Je n'ai plus
rien k vous apprendre. (Scribe.) " Je n'ai jamais rien vu
qui imprime tant de terreur. (Chaulieu.)

(§ 168.) ' Vous n'auriez pas perdu la t^te, par hasard ? —
Pas que je sache. (About.) ' Dans la rue, des gens affai-

310 VEKBS. t"0-

r6s . . . point de bruit, point de c-is, point de flaneurs . . .
et, aussi loin que portait ma vue, pas un sergent de ville,
pas un gendarme. (Lab.) ' Vous croyez qu'on I'aceneille,
qu'on la soulage, qu'on la console ? — Point. {O. Sand.)
' Quoi, cousine ! personne ne t'est venu rendre visite ? —
Personne. (Mol.) ^ Vous avez re9u quelque Education, au
moins ? — Aueune. (Dum.) ' Plus d'amour ! partant, plus
de joie ! {La F.) ' Puis rien, pas m^me une plainte, ne suc-
ceda au cri de Guillaume. {Dum.) 'Les legions romaines,
que vous avez imit6es, mais pas encore 6galees, combattaient
Carthage . . . sur cette m^me mer. {Napoleon.) ' Non, ja-
mais mes professeurs ne m'ont donne le centi^me de I'in-
struction que je hume de \k, rien qu'il regarder dans la
rue. {Toepfer.)

(§ 169.) ' Non, non ; je me trahis moi-mdme d'ypenser.
{Corn.) " Elle a raison ! — Ma foi, j'ai soutenu que non.
( V. Hugo.) ' Que notre imperieux cardinal veuille ou non,
la veuve de Henri-le-Grand ne restera pas plus longtemps
exil6e. {de Vi.) " II a travaille pour le moment, et non
pour I'avenir. {de Vi.) "J'aime votre personne, et non
votre fortune. ( Corn.) ' Nous y entrdmes, non sans soup-
9on ; mais comment f aire ? ( Courier.) ' Non seulement le
coeur ne s'attache a rien dans ces gites, mais I'esprit y est
inquiet. {About.) 'Pour moi, je n'ai pas . grand'chose a
dire. — Ni moi non plus. {Mol.)

170. In dependent clauses, ne is not seldom found
used witb a verb expletively, or where no negation is
really implied.

Such, a ne is never accompanied by a second negative, pas or
point. It is inserted ' by reason of a confusion of two construc-
tions, a positive and a negative being both had in mind at once.
The special cases are as follows :

a. After verbs of fear or apprehension, of hindering, of doubt

or denial ; also, after nouns and adjectives of like meaning : thus,

jft ffrgins 1"''^ "" vifin"" I fear he may come, empgchez qu'il ne

vienne prevent his coming, ^vitez qu'll ne vons parle avoid his

speaking to you, je ne donte~pas gall fle Viefi"'< I do not douht

\that he is cominoT Tb. nenr qn'ii ne vienne / ^ fear th/it Ju', is

\coming, pQint_de donte qne cela ne soitwo ^t^^ that is so, 11

test dangereuz que 1^ VU3iC6 n'^touBe la reconnaissance it is to

oe feared that vanity may stifle gratitude.

In such cases, the verb of the dependent clause is always sub-

170] NEGATION". 311

junctive ; and the que with following ne may often be best ren-
dered in English by lest : I fear lest he may come, and so on.

But there are also many exceptions : thus, ne is not inserted
after an expression of fear or apprehension that is negative or
implies a negation ; nor, in modern style, after d^fendre forbid ;
nor unless the expression of doubt or denial is negative or implies
negation ; nor, generally, before an infinitive — and other more
irregular eases occur. The illogical intrusion of the negative is
coming to be more and more neglected.

6. After the expressions of time il y a . . . que,j^^]iis-qjie, and
avanfqn e. a superfluous ne is sometimes inserted : thus, depnis
que je ne vous ai vu since I saw you, je serai sorti avant qu'il
n'entre I shall have gone out hefore he comes in. Alan aftar ^J_
s'en fant tJiere is lacking, with negative implication : thus, ilne
s'en faut pas beaucoup qu'il r'ait perdu la raison h£ came very
near K>stng his rswion.- — ■ —

c. A ne is inserted before a verb following and depending on a
comparative : thus, c'est plus vrai que vous ne le croyez it is
truer than you think. So also after autre (and autrement):
thus, cela est autrement que vous ne croyez tTiat is otherwise
tJidn as you suppose. I

d. A ne is inserted before the subjunctive after k moins que
unless: thus, k moins que vous ne veniez unless you come; also
often after sans que toithout : thus, sans que cela ne paraisse
without its appearing.

ILLITSrEATIVE SENTENCES.— XXX. Sspletive Negative.

(§ 170.) ' On craignait que I'on n'eut touche au tr^sor
public. (Vol.) ' Parce que nous avions peur qu'elle ne
nous gronddt. (Segur.) ' II est abim6, mais il est content ;
et I'on ne doute pas qu'il n'aille 4 la Trappe. {de Sev.) ' J'i-
rai vous voir avant que vous ne preniez aucune resolution.
(de Sev.) 'Depuis que je ne vous ai vu, il s'est passe de
bien grandee choses. (Acad.) ' Pen s'en faut que Mathan
ne m'ait nomme son p^re. (Bac.) ' Ah, maman ! le bon
Dieu est cent fois meilleur qu'on ne le dit. (About.) ' Oh !
tu m'ennuies ; qu'ai-je besoin d'etre mieux que je ne suis ?
(Mar.) ' Je ne I'ai pas, k nioins qu'il ne soit dans mon lit.
(About.) " Toutes les ceremonies furent accomplies, sans
qu'il y manqu£i,t rien. (Michelet.) " EUes s'attachSrent plus
que pas une k leur nouvelle directrice. (St. Simon.)

313 VBEBS, [I1(y~

Theme 16.

negative expeessioit.

' He loves her too much (pour) not to tell her the truth.
" Please not speak to me while I am listening to the music.
' I cannot understand you, if you speak to me so softly.

* I cannot describe to you all the beautiful things that I saw.

* We will not stir from here, since you require it, " The
child did not dare to answer, hut it did not cease to weep.
' We shall not take a walk, if she does not come to accom-
pany us. ' I know no one who does not sometimes commit
faults. ' It is very long that his friends have not seen him.
'° Have I anything that is not at his service ? " God for-
bid that she should love him and not me ! " Take care
not to be absent when one calls you. "A man is only
good so far as he does his duty. " I never heard anything
so horrible. " Say nothing of it to anybody, or I will
never tell you anything. " Neither wealth nor fame
makes a man truly happy. " I neither admire nor love
her. " You give him everything and us nothing. " One
should trust his heart, and never his mind. °° That laugh
is a sign of despair, not of joy. "' Shall I take this pen ?
No, if you please ; take this one, not that one. '^ He does
not want it, nor you either.

" We fear lest he should come before the appointed time.
" Nothing can prevent his appearing to-day. " If he
comes, avoid his seeing you before you are ready to receive
him. " I do not doubt that he is at home at present.
" Who can deny that it is so ? " Speak low, for fear that
some one hear us. " It is ten days since I saw her. " I
should like to speak to him before he goes to bed, " No
one would dare wake her before she has rung. " Since I
have been there, great things have been done. " Their
condition was more dangerous than they had supposed.
" The weather is better to-day than it was yesterday. " He

178] INFINITIVE. 313

acts otherwise than he speaks. " We will take a walk this
afternoon, unless it is bad weather. " He never sees mis-
fortunes without his heart's being touched by them.

D. — The Infinitive.

171. So far as concerns its dependent adjuncts and

modifiers — object, predicate, prepositional phrase,, and

adverb — ^the infinitive is treated in the same manner as

the personal parts of the. verb to which it belongs.

a. As to phrases analogous with the Latin accusative subject of
an infinitive, see below, § 176d.

172. So far as concerns its own construction in the

sentence, the infinitive has in general the value of a

noun.

a. Thus, it is subject or predicate or object of a verb ; it is
governed by prepositions, especially de and h; and it is some-
times preceded by the article.

h. Like to in English, the prepositions de and k are to
a considerable extent used in French as standing accom-
paniments or " signs" of the infinitive, in constructions
where they do not have their proper meaning, and would
not be used with an ordinary noun.

Hence, under every construction, it is necessary to define when
the infinitive is used alone, and when along with preceding de, or
with preceding a.

c. A few infinitives, with preceding article or possessive, are
used quite as ordinary nouns ; the commonest of them are these :
le boire drink, le manger /bo(2, le parler talk, le dire asser-
tion, le savoir knowledge, le savoir-faire knowledge of conduct,
le rire laughter, le voiUoir will ; others are so used occasionally,
or in special phrases. Further, a certain number of ordinary
nouns are infinitives by origin : such are souvenir remembrance,
■powoir power, devoir duty, ^tre being, sonper supper,. and so
on.

173. The infinitive is used as subject of a verb, either

alone or with its sign de (very rarely h).

a. It may be used as subject without de especially when it
stands at the head of the clause or precedes its verb ; but also
when it follows, if the sentence is one requiring the inverted

314 VERBS. tl'*—

order: thus, paxler est imprudent to- speak is imprudent, I.
quoi sert parler of what use is it to speak f

h. An infinitive as logical subject is often anticipated, as in
English, by il or ce as grammatical subject ; in that case, it regu-
larly takes de, except after the verbs il faut it is necessary, il
vaut autant or mieuz it is as well or better, il semble it seems,
il fait bon or beau it is pleasant or looks well. Thus, il est facile
dS"ftClFe~cela it is easy to do that, il me plait d'obliger nn ami
it pleases me to oblige a friend, c'est k vous de parler it belongs
to you- to speak ; but il faut parler it is necessary to ^oeak, il fiut
bon voiis revoir it does one good to see you again. But a is some-
times used instead of de when the sense is future ; i.e. when an
action to follow is indicated : thus, c'est a vous k parler you
have now to speak.

c. Where, after such a verb, there is a comparison, the second
infinitive, preceded by que than, as, regularly has de : thus, il
vaut mieux se taire que de parler it is better to be silent than
to speak.

d. An infinitive as subject (like an ordinary noun : § 1476) is
liable to be repeated by a following ce ; thus, s'entretenir avec
sou ami, c'est penser tout haut to talk urith one's friend is to
think aloud, te voir c'est t'aimer to see thee is to love thee.

e. After ce, an infinitive (like a noun in general : § 1476) is
sometimes preceded by que : thus, ce n'est point cruaut^ que de
punir les coupables it is not cruelty to punish the guilty ; and
que is necessary after a predicate infinitive : thus, c'est miriter
la mort que de I'attendre d'autrui to await death from others is
to deserve it. In this case, the de may also be omitted : thus,
que I'attendre etc.

174. The infinitive is sometimes used as a predicate.

a. It is so used, without sign, after c'est, after semoler and
paraitre seem or appear, after se troxLverflnd one's self, chance,
and after etre censd or suppose be supposed or reckoned : thus,
veg^ter c'est mourir to vegetate is to die, il parait arriver it
seems to happen, il est cense Stre mort lie is reckoned as dead.
Karely, a de is found before the infinitive in such a use.

6. In other predicative uses, the infinitive has the sign de:
thus,' son premier commandement est^ d'aimer Dieu his first
eommandmenf is,'f6~loveG6d. ~ — —

c. After §tre, etc., an infinitive preceded by a has the value of
a predicate adjective (compare § Iffic) : thus, cette maison est a
acheter this house is purchasable, eU£_est_iLJ£end£e it is for sale
or to be sold, elle est ^ loner it is to let, ce theme est k refaire
this exercise is to be done over again, nous sommes k plaindre we
are pitiable or to be pitied. As the examples show, the corre-
sponding English expression is various, and in part identical with
the French.

174] IN-FINITITE. 315

d. The infinitive without sign is sometimes used as a noun in
apposition : thus, il me reste deux partis ^ prendre : combattre
on m'enftiir there are left me two courses to take : fight or run
away.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXXI. Infinitive aa Subject and as
Predicate.

(§ 172.) ' J'ai tout son 6tre, et jusqu'^ son nom'm^me,
en haine. (de Vi.) ' La Madelon s'etonna aussi pour sa
part du joli parler de la petite Fadette. (G. Sand.) ' Je ne
puis me fier qu'd vous pour me dire si je suis riche ou
pauvre, et pour savoir au juste le compte de mon avoir.
{G. Sand.)

(§173.) ' Attendre est impossible, agir ne I'est pas
moins. {Delavigne.) " A quoi bon vouloir sauver ma vie ?
( V. Hugo.) " C'est manquer de respect k la reine. ( Scribe.)
* Oh ! doucement ; s'aimer, c'est une autre affaire. {Mar.)
" Louer les princes des vertus qu'ils n'ont pas, c'est leur dire
impun6ment des injures. {La R.) ' Sauter k bas du lit, cou-
rir 4 la fen^tre, me toucher les bras et la t^te, ce fut I'af-
faire d'un instant. {Lah.) ' Plutdt souffrir que mourir :
c'est la devise des hommes. {La F.) ' II faut ne plus nous
voir ; c'est le monde qui le veut ainsi. {Sandeau.) ' II me
semble avoir vu remuer cette porte. {Bum.) '° Que sert de
se flatter ? {Bac.) " Je n'ai fait qu'une f aute : c'est de
n'^tre pas parti dds que je t'ai vue. {Mar.) " C'est k Mon-
seigneur . . . d lui faire oublier le pays qu'elle quitte avec
tant de joie. {de Sev.) "De vons dire pourquoi, cela serait
long. {Courier.) '* Cela donne de la tristesse, de voir tant
de morts autour de soi. {de Sev^ " Rien ne rafraiohit les
id6es comme de se faire la barbe. {Lab.) " Qaand on ne
trouve pas son repos en soi-m^me, il est inutile de le cher-
cher ailleurs. {La R.) " Eh ! monsieur, de quelle conse-
quence est-il de vous justifier auprSs de moi ? {Mar.)
" C'est en quelque sorte se donner part aux belles actions,
que de les louer de bon cceur. {La R.) " Ce n'est point
outrager le marquis que de chercher sous ces ombrages les
souvenirs qu'il,y a laiss^s. {Sandeau.)

(§ 174.) ' ;^pargner I'ennemi qui cede ou qui supplie,
c'est user du pouvoir, c'est agir en vainqueur. {Arnault.)
' Le plus grand bienf ait qu'il retira de ces relations fut de
recouvrer I'estime de lui-m^me. (<Sfl!m?eaM.) 'Ah! jeunesse!
jeunesse ! que votre dge est k plaindre ! ( Courier.) * II n'y

316 VERBS. t^'*

a plus qu'un pas k f ranchir. ( Guizot.) ' II n'y a pour rhomme
que trois Svenements : naitre, vivre, et mourir. {-La Jir.)

Theme 17.
stlbject akd pebdicate infinitive.

' To live is hard ; to die is yet harder. ' But to die is
better than to live in disgrace. " For her to show herself
was to please ; for me to see her was to love her. * To
hear you praised makes me happy. ' It makes him proud
to hear himself praised. " It is hard to live with a had
conscience. ' There are many occasions when it is as well
to be silent as to speak. " It ought to suffice you to know
that I shall return next week. ° It is a fine thing to keep
a secret. '° It seems to me that I saw you yesterday. " If
he appears to hesitate, he will be thought to be afraid.
" To speak is to express one's thoughts by words. " He
finds himself to be the last of all the company to arrive.
" He is to be pitied who has no friends. " It is to be hoped
that he will soon go where enemies will no longer be to be
feared. " This is what one calls being happy. " I have
two things to do : go to school and go to walk with my
friend.

175. The infinitive is especially used as object of, or
dependent on, a verb. In this construction, it appears
either witbout a sign, or with de or with &,

Sometimes more than one of these constructions is permissible
with, the same verb ; but in general, the governing verb deter-
mines the matter : compare § 183.

176. The simple infinitive, or infinitive witbout pre-
ceding sign, appears in the following cases :

a. After the quasi-auxiUaries vouloir, ponvoir, devoir, faire,
laisser : thus, voulez-vous venir will you come ? pouvez-vous le
faire can you do it ? je dois partir k cinq heures / am to set out
at five o^clock, je le feral appeler Iivill have Mm called (ht'ly, /
will cause to call him), vous I'avez laiss^ tomber vou have let it
fall.
But devoir in the sense of owe, having an indirect object, re-

W6] IKFINITIVB. 317

quires de (§ 179cf) ; also faire plus que do more than : thus, on lui
doit de I'aimer it is one's duty to love Mm.

h. After oser dare, daigner deign, savoir know how, and cer-
tain verbs of desiring, hoping, intending, and the like, as d^sirer,
souhaiter, pr^f^rer, aimer autant or mieux, esperer, pr^tendre,
compter, penser : thus, nous n'osons rien dire we dare not say
anything, elle ne sait pas nager she does not know how to swim,
d^sire-t-il nous parler does he want to speak to us ? nous esp^-
rons vous voir domain we hope to see you to-morrow, je compte
y etre a I'heure dite I count on being there at the appointed
hour; also after aimer in the conditional : thus, aimeriez-vous
le voir would you like to see him f

But after desirer, souhaiter, pref^rer, esperer, and compter,
de is sometimes taken ; and after aimer autant and penser, some-
times a. A second infinitive following que than, as regularly re-
quires de : thus, j'aime mieux partir que de rester I would
rather go than stay.

c. After certain verbs of believing, declaring, and the hke, if
their subject is also the subject of the action expressed by the in-
finitive. Such verbs are croire, s'imaginer, penser, affirmer, as-
surer, avouer, declarer, jurer, nier : thus, ils croient avoir
raison they think they are right (Uterally, believe [themselves] to
be right), il assure ne I'avoir jamais vue he declares that he
never saw her, il nie Stre malade he denies that he is ill. As the
examples show, the English usually expresses the subject of the
second verb.

Some of these verbs in..special constructions take de or a before
the infinitive : thus, je jure d'y 6tre I swear to be there.

d. After verbs of perceiving, and sometimes (in relative clauses)
of declaring, having a direct object which is the subject of the
action expressed by the infinitive : thus, je le vois venir I see him
come, il I'a entendue parler he has heard her speak, je le trouve
peser trois livres I find it to weigh three pounds, un pays
qu'on m'avait dit Stre tres ag^eable a country which they had
declared to me to be very pleasant. But the participle is often used
instead of the infinitive after such a verb : thus, on I'a vu cou-
rant he was seen running ; or a relative clause {§ 189gr) : thus, le
voici qui vient here he comes.

Such a construction (with these verbs and with laisser, faire,
envoyer, mener) is the nearest approach made in French to the
Latin construction of an accusative as subject of an infinitive.

If the infinitive itself has a direct object, the object of the gov-
erning verb is regularly changed to indirect : see above, § 158.

The object of the governing verb is often omitted when indefi-
nite :' thus, j'entends sonner /Tsear [some one} ring (i.e. I hear
a','

318 VEKBS. [176-

e. After certain verbs of motion and of causation of motion,
especially aller go, envoyer send, also mener eondud, mettre
set, venir come, revenir and retonmer return, rentrer come
back in, courir and accourir run, 8tre (in past tenses) in the
sense of go, etc. : thus, ils sent all^s demenrer a. Paris, they haw
gone to live at Paris, euvoyez le trouver send to find him, elle
viendra me visiter demaiu she unll come to visit me to-morrow,
il a €t€ trouver le roi he has been to find the king. The English
often coordinates the two verbs, with and : thus, go and see him,
send and find him, and the like.

Hence certain common combinations, which are used almost as
if simple verbs : thus, aller or venir ch.erch.er fetch (lit'ly, go or
come to look for), envoyer chercher send for, aller voir visit .
Also, the present and imperfect of aller are used with an infini-
tive to form a sort of tense of the immediate future (see XXVII.
8c) : thus, je vais le faire / am going to do it, il allait partir he
was going to leave.

Votiir is; fnllnworl hy ^| hpforp. the infinitive when it me ans ftap-
pmjjjhns s'il venait" k tomber if lie liappened to fall, ti also
faEes de before an infinitive to form a sort of tense of the imme-
diate past (see XXXI. 116): thus, je viens de le faire I have just
done it.

f. Special cases are : often after faillir and manquer in the
sense of just miss, and always after avoir bean in the sense of
try in vain : thus, vous avez failli tomber yoiu came uiithin an
ace of falling, vous avez beau resister it is of no use for you to
resist (or resist as you will).

g. The infinitive without sign is often found in incomplete and
exclamatory expression, where the verb on which it would depend
is omitted : thus, que faire what [is one] to do ? moi, vous aban-
donner /, abandon you ? plutdt mille fois mourir rather die a
thousand times, on ne sait que faire ou a qui s'adresser one
does not know what to do or to whom to address one's self, donnez-
moi de quoi ecrire give me wherewith to write.

An infinitive standing occasionally in the sense of an impera-
tive is of this character : thus, voir les affiches \one may] see the
advertisements.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.-XXXII. Objeet-inftnitive without

Sign.

(§ 176.) 'Non seulement je ne le feral pas jeter h. la
porte par mes laquais, mais encore je devral I'heberger !
iSandeau.) ' J'ai fait parler le loup et rgpondre ragniau.
(La F.) " Sait-elle coudre, savonner, faire de la soupe ? de-
manda-t-il brusquement. {Coppee.) *Elles ont daign'g me
seconder. (Scribe.) ° II aimait mieux ne rien faire que de

IW] INPINITIVB. 319

travailler. (Gautier.) ' Dans ce recit je pretends faire voir
d'nn certain sot la remontrance vaine. (Xa F.) ' Mais
croyez-vous avoir tu6 tous les Marats ? (Thiers.) ' Chacun
dans ce miroir pense voir son image. (JSoileau.) ' II disait
venir du fond de la Boh^me. (Gautier.) '° Viens voir mou-
rir ta soeur dans les bras de ton p6re. (Corn.) " Je fris-
sonne encore de ce que je lui ai entendu dire. (Mar.)
" J'entends frapper d la porte. J'ouvre ; bon Dieu ! c'6-
tait lui. (Beranger.) " On m'a voulu mener voir Mine, la
Dauphine. {de Sev.) " Je ne peux pas vous donner cent
mille francs, mais je m'en vais manger votre diner. [Feuil-
let.) "Allons done I'afEranchir de ces frivoles craintes.
[Com.) " La nouvelle que je viens t'annoncer te fera-t-elle
plaisir ? (Mar.) " Vous aurez beau vous mutiner, vous ne
changerez rien aux faits accomplis. [Sandeau.) " Madame
d'ifitampes, qiii a failli perdre la France. (Bum.) " Quoi !
condamner la victime, et 6pargner I'assassin ? {V. Hugo.)
" Quel parti prendre ? Votre situation est neuve, assure-
ment. (Mar.) " Ne pas comprendre mon enthousiasme
pour cet homme ? (Soulie.) " D6fendez-vou8, Horace. — A
quoi bon me d6fendre ? ( Corn.)

Theme 18.

OBJBCT-INFIiaTIVE WITHOCrT SIGN.

' Can you come to our house to-day ? " I should like to
come ; but I am to go elsewhere with my father. ' Then
I shall hope to see you to-morrow. ' Tou owe it to me to
visit me at least three times a week. * He knows how to
read and to profit by what he reads. " He likes better to
read than to play. ' He declares he was not at the theatre
yesterday, but I think I saw him there with my own eyes.
' He does not deny having been out of the house all the
evening. ' He imagines himself to be very cunning ; but
if he thinks to deceive me, he is much mistaken. " Have
you not heard it said that we are going to have a great
war in Europe ? "I had not reckoned to see it come in
our time. " Go find my servant, and send him to look for
my book. " I will run and find him at once. " We have

330 VERBS. [177—

been to visit our friends, but we did not see them ; they
had gone to take a walk. ''° Where can my shoes be ? some
one has perhaps set them to dry at the fire. '' Look for
them as you will, you will not find them.

177. Many verbs are followed by a dependent infini-
tive preceded by the preposition de.

a. The number of such verbs is very large, de being in French
more common than k before the infinitive. In a majority of
cases, the de has more or less clearly its proper prepositional
value, as meaning from, of, on account of, in respect to, and the
construction of the infinitive is quite analogous vrith that of a
noun following the same verb and requiring de before it ; but in
nearly as many cases it is not so, but the de is mere ^' sign" of the
infinitive.

178. Verbs requiring de before an infinitive-object in
the same manner as before a noun-object may be classified
as follows :

a. Verbs after which de has nearly the sense of from : thus,
s'abstenir abstain, se garder keep one's self, beware, (le or se)
d^saccoatumer or d^shabituer disacctistoin, wean, (le or se)
dispenser or excuser let off, eoocuse, (le) dissuader dissuade, (le
or se) empitSasiT prevent, hinder, venir be coming (§ 176e), etc.

6. Verbs after which de has the meaning of, or, much more
often, on account of in respect to, and the like. Thus, of in-
transitives, convenir agree, desesp^rer despair, donter dmbt,
eclater etc. (de rire) burst etc. (with laughing), enrager be in
a fury to or at, fr^mir shudder, g^mir groan, mourir in the
sense of long, parler talk, rire laugh, rougir blush, sonfiir suf-
fer, and br&ler in the sense of burn with desire. Further, of
transitives taking a reflexive or other object, or both : (le) accu-
ser accuse, (le) avertir notify, (se) repentir repent, (le) sonpgon-
ner suspect; (le) bl3,mer blame, (se) vanter boast, (le or se)
plaindre pity, (se) r^jouir r^oice, (le) remercier thank, s'^tonner
be astonished, and so on (the verbs are too numerous to give in
full).

c. More obscure cases are : (le or se) charger charge, (se) d^-
pficher or hater hasten, (se) ing^rer or m§ler meddle, (se) pres-
sor be eager, se passer do without, and the impersonal 11 s'agit
the question or matter in hand is.

179. Verbs requiring de as sign before an infinitive
object may be classified as follows :

179] INFIiriTIVE. 321

a. Verbs taking a direct object which is subject of the action
of the infinitive : such are (le) coiqurer conjure, persuader /ler-
suade, prier pray, sommer summon, supplier heg, and d^fiei
drfy, challenge.

h. Verbs taking the infinitive with de as direct object, along
with an indirect object (sometimes reflexive) which is subject bf
the action of the infinitive : thus, (lni> commander command,
conseiller advise, crier cry, d^fendre forbid, demander ask {of
any one), dire teU, ecrire tprite, enjoindre ety'oin, impnter iin-
pute, inspirer pu^ into the mind, mander order, ordonner order,
pardonner pardon, permettre permit, persuader persuade, pres-
crire prescribe, proitoser propose, recommander recommend,
reprocher reproach for, sonffi:ir suffer, suggerer suggest.

c. Verbs taking the infinitive with de as direct object, the sub-
ject of the action of verb and infinitive being the same : thus,
achever complete, affecter affect, ambitionner be ambitious or
eager, appr^ender apprehend, cesser cease (or this belongs
under 178a), choisir choose, contiuuer continue (also with a),
craindre fear, d^daigner disdain, differer defer, discontinuer
cease, entreprendre undertake, ^viter shun, feindre feign, finir
finish, saxAst feeep, hasarde r risk, m^diter meditate, jgiigaiBS.
deserve, n^gliger neglect, ODtenir get permission, omettre omit,
oublier forget, presumer presume, regretter regret, risquer
risk, tenter try, and some others.

d. A few such verbs take or may take in addition an indirect
object : thus, devoir owe (which without indirect object takes the
simple infinitive : § 176a), jurer swear, menacer threaten, pro-
mettre promise, proposer propose, rappeler (especially reflex-
ive) recall.

e. In certain phrases, the infinitive with de is taken by a verb
as direct object, along with an adjective as objective predicate :
such are tronver bon think [it] well, jnger n^cessaire or conve-
nable regard as necessary or suitable, &ire bien or mieux do
well or better, and some others.

/. It was pointed out above (§ 1766) that after a few verbs de
may be either taken or omitted : such are d^sirer desire, souhai-
ter tvish, esp^rer Tiope, detester detest, nier deny. For the verbs
that are followed by either de or a, see below, § 183.

g. The infinitive with de is used eUipticaUy, without governing
verb expressed, in the sense of begin to or the like : thus, ainsi
dit le renard, et flatteurs d'applandir thus spoke the fox ; and
his flatterers took to applauding (La F.). Also, at the head of a
sentence, to emphasize or put in due connection a following state-
ment : thus, de reconrir h, Louise, je ne I'aime plus to recur to
Louisa, I no longer love her (compare § iSZh).

?1

332 VBKBS. [179^

ILLUSTBATTVE SENTENCES.— XXXIII. Object-infinitive with (fe.

(§ 178.) ' Le souvenir du dernier de ses crimes auquel
j'assistai m'a emp^che de lui parler. {de Vi.) * Je viens de
I'apprendre tout a I'heure. (Mar.) 'lis convinrent de s'en
rapporter au jugement du peuple remain. (Bossuet.) * Ne
me fais plus rougir d'entendre tes soupirs. (Corn.) ' Votre
p^re souffre de vous voir en proie k un si violent desespoir,
(Oirardin^ ' Je te plains de tomber dans ses mains redou-
tables. (liac.) ' On ne devrait s'6tonner que de pouvoir
encore s'etonner. (La R.) ' L'enfant eclata de rire a cette
ridicule menace. (Merimee.) ° C'est parmi eux qu'il s'agit
pour nous de se cr6er des amis fiddles, sinc^res. (Ste.-B.)
" Le roi se m^le, depuis quelque temps, de faire des vers.
(de Sev.)

(§ 179.) " Je vous prie de monter k cheval et de sortir
de la ville. (de Vi.) ' II commande au soleil d'animer la
nature. (Mac.) ' 11 n'eut point pardonne k son frSre d'etre
venu voir la Fadette et non pas lui. (G. Sand.) * Je vous
defends, mademoiselle, de danser avec lui. (Scribe.) 'Rg-
pondez done ; je ne demande pas mieux que de me trom-
per. (Mar.'j ' Grand roi, cesse de vaincre, ou je cesse d'6-
crire. (Boileau.) ' Vous avez omis de me demander ce que
je yiens faire k Paris. (Augier.) ' Sur les pas d'un banni
craignez-vous de marcher? (Roc.) ' Je vous promets de
ne pas oublier votre numero aujourd'hui. (Scribe.) '" An
lieu de les interrompre, nous ferons mieux d'observer et
d'6couter. (Scribe.) ^^ Le voila done de courir jusqu'd la
demeurance de la m^re Fadet, et de lui conter sa peine.
(G. Sand.) '^ Un Stranger m'a jete ce secret k la face, et
chaque electeur alors de dire . c'est vrai. (Bum.) " De
recourir £l, Blanche ; elle avait trop d'int6r6t k dgguiser la
v6rit6. (Le Sage.)

Theme 19.

OBJECT-INFINITIVE WITH de.

' Beware of falling into the water, if you cannot swim.
" He has just fallen into the water, and that prevents him from
coming to school. ' He ought to blush at being absent for
such a cause. * We agreed to meet here, and I was aston-

181] INFINITIVE. 323

ished not to find him already arrived ; but now I despair
of seeing him to-day. ' I rejoice to hear you say that you
love me still. ' I beg you to remain an hour with me.
' He advised me to go home and to busy myself with my
own affairs. ^ Allow me to tell you that your conduct does
not please me. ° I forbid you to behave thus any longer.
'" She continued to write him, and to reproach him for his
bad conduct ; but he refused to answer her. " If you put
off starting, you will deserve to be abandoned by the others.
" I regret to make them wait ; but it is impossible for me
to do otherwise. " I must risk offending them, for I have
promised my father to stay here till he comes. " I judged
proper to let him see that he had offended me. " He finds
it better to conceal his evil designs in my presence.

180. Many verbs are followed -by a dependent infini-
tive having before it the preposition k.

a. Here also (as with de : § 177a), in a majority of cases, the
preposition has more or less its own value, as meaning to, unto,
at, or the like, and the construction of the infinitive is analogous
with that of a noun following the same verb, and requiring a be-
fore it ; but in part the &, is a more arbitrary " sign" of the infini-
tive.

181. Verbs requiring k before an infinitive-object in
the same manner as before a noun-object may be classi-
fied as follows :

- a. Intransitive verbs are : abontir come (to, as result), aspirer
aspire, attendre wait, defer, concoorir concur, condescendre
condescend, consenter consent, conspirer'feowspjre, contribuer con-
tribute, incliner, incline, parvenir attain, pencher incline, pen-
ser think, renoncer renounce, xipagner feel repugnance, reussir
su43ceed, servir serve, songer think, snffire suffice, tendre tend,
tenir in the sense of hold on, insist, be eager, viser aim.

h. Transitive verbs, with reflexive or other object, or with both :
j,haip8er l ower, accorder cau^e to agree, accoutumer accustom,
admettre admit, agnerrir harden, aider aid, amener bring,
animer animate, appeler call, appliquer a^jpi^/; apprSter jsre-
pare, assignor assign, assnjettir subject, attacher attach, atten-
dre ke&p waiting, avUir debase, bomer limit, complaire acqui-
esce^ condafKUiQr condemn, disposer dispose, encourag^er encour-

324 VEBBS. [181—

age, exciter excite, exercer exercise, exhorter exhort, exposer
expose, habituer hdbittuite, induire induce, int^resser interest,
inviter invite, mettre set (se mettre is frequent in the sense of
begin), plaire please, porter lead, pousser urge, preparer pre-
pare, provoquer provoke, r^duire reduce, r^signer resign, vouer
devote.

182. Yerbs requiring as sign k before a dependent
infinitive may be classified as follows :

a. Many verbs take an infinitive preceded by k in the sense of
at, about, in reference to : such are the intransitives balancer
waver, exceller excel, pers^v^rer persevere, persister persist,
tarder he slow, delay, travailler labor, triompher ti-iumph;
the reflexives s'achamer he eager, s'amuser amuse one's self,
se consumer wear one's self out, se divertir be diverted, s'en-
tendre fiave sconce, s'^puiser exhaust one's self, s'essayer try
one's hand, s'^tudier apply one's self, s'obstiner and s'opiniitrer
be obstinate, se plaire take pleasure ; and the transitives em-
ployer employ, passer pass {one's time etc.), surprendre catch.
With them may be mentioned the phrases prendre soin take care,
prendre plaisir or avoir da plaisir take pleasure, il y a plaisir
one has pleoMire. Other verbs than these are found taking the
same construction, it being a current and extensible one.

h. More peculiar cases are consister consist, and gagner gain
(where we should expect rather de).

c. After certain verbs, i. is used before an infinitive (much as
to after the same verbs in English) in a sort of future sense, point-
ing forward to the action expressed by the infinitive as something
anticipated or obligatory : thus, after avoir, j'ai cela a faire or
j'ai k faire cela I have this to do or Ihave to do this; and in like
manner after donner give, chercher seek, laisser in the sense of
leave, trouverfind. Hence also in the same sense predicatively
after 6tre (see above, § 174c) : thus, cela est a faire this is [a
thing] to do or to be done (and then also attributively une chose a
faire a thing to do or to be done) ; and after rester remain, be
left, and the like : thus, il me reste k faire it is left me to do,
combien cofite un cheval a nourrir how much does a horse cost
to keep ?

d. The infinitive with a is used as direct object after certain
verbs, the subject of the action of the infinitive being the same
with that of the verb : thus, aimer love, like (except in condi-
tional : § 1766), appreudre learn, chercher seek, d^sapprendre
unlearn.

e. The infinitive with h. is used as direct object after a few verbs
that take an indirect object which is subject of the action ex-
pressed by the infinitive : thus, (lui) aider help, (lui) enseigner
or apprendrQ teach, (lui) mpntr^r show.

IBS] INFINITIVE. 325

/. The infinitive -with k follows a few verbs taking a direct ob-
ject which is subject of the action expressed by the infinitive :
thus, (le) instmire or apprendre teach, (le) autoriser authorize.

g. After a few verbs, a may either be taken or omitted : such
are pretendre intend, claim, (lui) plaire please. For verbs fol-
lowed by either de or a, see below, § 183.

h. The infinitive with a is often used elliptically, or without
governing verb expressed, usually at the head of a sentence, to
signify (as in English) a condition of what follows : thus, k vous
entendre, on croirait . . .to fiear you, one would think . . . (i.e.
if one heard you). Also sometimes to express result, and hence
degree : thus, 11 sent le vin a faire horreur he smells of mne
[enough] to frighten one.

183. Some verbs admit either de or k before a follow-
ing dependent infinitive.

Sometimes the choice depends on a difference in the meaning of
the verb, or in its construction ; sometimes it is a matter of indif-
ference, or nearly so, being governed by no rule that is distinctly
statable and consistently followed.

a. The verbs accoatumer accustom (in compound tenses), de-
cider decide, determiner determine, hasarder venture, ofGrir of-
fer, refiiser refuse, r^soudre resolve, regularly and usually take
de when the infinitive is their direct object, but k when they have
another direct object, reflexive or otherwige : thus, j'ai r^solu de
partir / have resolved to leave, but je me snis r^solu a partir ;
and je I'ai decide a partir 1 have decided him, (i.e. made him
decide) to leave. Some other verbs take k after their reflexive
forms, but de in other constructions.

6. More special cases are : hair fiate takes a when aiflrmative,
but de when negative ; prendre garde beware takes de before an
affirmative infinitive, but k before a negative ; demander takes
de when it has an indirect object, the subject of the infinitive ac-
tion : thus, je Ini demaude de se taire I ask him to hold his
peace ; laisser, which in the sense of let or cause is followed by
the simple infinitive (§ 176a), takes k in the sense of leave to, and
de in that of leave off from, fail : thus, je vous laisse k penser
Heave to you to imagine, elle ne laisse pas de plaire she does
not cease to please.

e. Verbs that take either de or k in senses but little or not at
all distinguished from one another are : the verbs of endeavor
essayer and t&cher iry, s'efforcer and s'empresser endeavor,
s'occuper be busy ; the verbs of constraint (with direct object, as
subject of the infinitive action) contraindre, forcer, obliger ; and
a number of others : commencer begin, continuer continue, con-

326 VERBS. [lis—

seii to cons ent, manfluer/at7, o nblier for get, h ^siter and trem ^

hlsrhesitate ; anSTwififcr direct objects (subjeiJLs Of" liie-iafiiritlve
action) convier invite, engager engage, enhardir inure.

d. There are many other verbs which in antiquated or in loose
style, or in occasional cases, take another preposition before a
following infinitive than the one usually met with.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXXIV. Objeot-infinitive with O.

(§ 181.) ' AprSs une vigoureuse defense, il etait parvenu
k faire sa retraite. (Merimee.) ' Tout m'afflige et me nuit
et conspire k me nuire. (Bac.) ' L'erreur ne r^ussit qu'd
6tablir avec plus d'6clat la v6rit6. (Massillon.) * C'6tait
la prefiii^re fois, depuis son retour, qu'elle se decidait k
toucher cette rive. (Sandeau.) ' EUe I'amena doucement k
parler de son fils, et parut s'int6resser k tons ses discours.
(Sandeau.) ° II voulait accoutumer aussi ses Moscovites k
ne pas connaitre de saison. ( Vol.^ ' Qui pardonne ais6-
ment, invite k I'offenser. (Com.) ^Elle les exhorta k de-
meurer fermes dans la religion catholique. (Mignet.)

(§ 182.) 'II excelle k conduire un char dans la carri^re.
(Bac.) ' Le public revolte s'obstine a I'admirer. (Boileau.)
' Tu passes la nuit k r^ver ou k ecrire ; mais, je t'en avertis,
tu ne r^ussiras k rien, si ce n'est k maigrir, k 6tre moins
belle, et ^L n'^tre pas reine. (de Vi.) * La po6sie ne consists
pas k tout dire, mais k tout faire r^ver. (Ste.-B.) ' Deux
hommes si adroits n'ont rien k gagner a se tromper I'un
I'autre. ( V. Hugo.) ° Apr^s cela, je n'ai plus rien k vous
dire. (Mar.) ' J'ai une famille et le nom fran^ais a soute-
nir. (Lab.) ° Mais, k propos de tes adieux, il me reste en-
core une chose a savoir. (Mar.) ' Arr^te done, Lisette ;
j'ai k te parler pour la derni^re lois. (Mar.) '° On apporte
k manger; on sert un dejeuner fort propre. (Courier.)
" Elle apprend k chanter, k danser ; elle lit, elle travaille.
(de Sev.) " Je ferai justice ; j'aime k la rendre k tons, k
toute heure, en tout lieu. iCom.) " Aide-moi k oublier
que je suis roi. (Bum.) " A vous entendre, on croit que
vous avez raison. (d' Harleville.'^ " A vouloir le contraire,
Dieu lui-m^me perdrait sa puissance. (Sandeau.) " A me
voir, vous n'eussiez su si j'^tais mort ou vivant. (Cmiri^.)
" Mais elle va a ravir, continua-t-il ; on la croirait faite
pour madame la princesse. (de Vi.)

(§ 183.) ' Franchement, je ne haiirais pas de lui plaire

^'*3 INFINITIVE. 327

SOUS le personnage que je joue. (Mar.) ' Le public frangais
ne laisse pas d'etre singulier quelquefois dans see jugements
sur la po6sie. (Ste.-B^ 'Mais Paul et Virginie ! k peine
a-t-il commence a le leur traduire, qu'd I'instant la sc6ne
change. (Ste.-B.) * J'avais commence d'ecrire, et je m'ar-
rStai. (Mont.)

Theme 30.
object-inpinitive with &.

' Do you consent to see her ? ' He aspires to win my
approbation. ° Everything conspires to aid him, and he
will perhaps succeed in attaining his end. ' I have led
him to confess his crime, and have condemned him to sufEer
its punishment. ' This girl excels at playing the piano.
' They are slow to come when one calls them. ' They
were pleased to say that they had amused themselves with
taking a walk, and that they had not heard [any one] call.
' Let us get ready to depart, for the light is beginning to
appear, and we have a long journey to make. ° I like to
see the sun rise. " K you employ your mornings at study-
ing French, you will soon learn to read it, and you will
even come at last to speak it well. "I always do well
what I have learned to do. " Help me, I beg you, to read
this difficult passage. " I will teach you to understand it.
" To see you study, one would think that you like better
to play.

" He has tried to injure me, and I am trying to restrain
my indignation. '" He does not hate to do me an injustice,
but he hates to see me afterward. " The law will constrain
him to do what he had consented to do. " Take care not
to approach too near, and beware of falling. " Do you
ask to drink ? then ask some one to give you a glass of
water. "" One must resolve to drink only water here.

184. Many adjectives are followed by a dependent
infinitive having de or k as its sign.

328 VERBS. [184—

Usually, the proper value of the preposition is to be seen in
such constructions.

a. An infinitive preceded by de is used especially after adjec-
tives expressing a condition or movement of the mind. The de
here means of or hy reason of (though sometimes other preposi-
tions, or to as infinitive-sign, are preferred in English), and the
construction of the infinitive is the same with that of a noun
following the adjective. Such adjectives are : bi gn aise very
glad, .digne worthy, capable capable, c harm^ cTiwrmea, content
pleasecTpe^Bvoi curious, aesirenx desirou s, enchants enchanted,
etonn6 astonished, ^iCh§ sorry, angry, fi'er proud, henren^
'happy, honteux ashamed, incousolable mcowwZafcZe^'a 1 mi t jeal-
ous, las weary, m^content dissatisfied, satisfait satisfied, sfir
sure, surpris surprised, and many others of kindred meaning.
Examples are heureux de le voir happy to see him (i.e. on ac-
count of seeing him), curieux d'apprentb'e curious to learn , las
de la chercher weary of looking for her. Also after 6tre foUowea
by an adjective, especially bon, in such phrases as vons 6tes bien
bon de venir si t5t you are very good to come so soon, qn'il est
hardi de le risquer how daring he is to risk it ! Also in the sec-
ond term of a comparison : thus, si injuste que de nous pnnir so
unjust as to' punish us. A few adverbs, having the value of predi-
cate adjectives, are followed in like manner by an infinitive with
de : thus, loin de vous ahmec far from loving you.

6. An infinitive with h. is used in general after adjectives which
would admit a noun with the same construction, the preposition
having its proper value of to, at, in regard to, for. Such adjec-
tives are especially a4rsi]; skilful, ais^ eas y, bean ^ ^we. bon good ,
curieux remarkcMe, difficile hard, di^asi disposed, encUiLin-
c<iwecg . facile easy, habue skilled, i mpossib le impossible, lent
slow, prSt ready, prompt prompt, propre" suited, triste sad,
utile useful. Examples are bon £ manger good to eat, difficile a
faire hard to do, prgt k partir ready to leave. An infinitive
with a is also common after an ordinal used substantively, espe-
cially le premier and le dernier, and after le senl: thus, le pre-
mier a venir, le seul a rester the first to come, the only one to
stay.

The cases must be carefully noted where the infinitive is logical
subject (§ 1736), since it then takes de : thus, cela est difficUe d.
faire that is hard to do, but il est difficile de faire cela it is
hard to do that.

185. A noun often takes a dependent infinitive pre-
ceded bj de or k.

a. The infinitive with de after a noun corresponds in general
to the English infinitive in -ing preceded by of (though often ca-
pable also of being rendered otherwise) : thus, I'art d'^crire the
art of writing, I'occasion de parler fhe occasion of speaking.

M5] INFINITIVE, 339

Often, a verb and noun together form a sort of verb-phrase,
much used with a following infinitive : thus, avoir pear or
crainte be ajraid, avoir euvie desire, avoir soin take care, pren-
dre garde beware, faire semblant pretend, rendre gr&ce re-
turn thanks : for example, j'ai peur d'y aller I am afraid to go
there (have fear qf going).

b. An infinitive with a after a noun is used attributively in the
same sense as predicatively after 6tre (§ 174c) : thus, nn apparte-
ment a loner an apartment to rent ; or also, where k might be
rendered by calculated to, of a sort to : thus, un spectacle k
ravir a spectacle to delight one, nn conte a faire peur a story [of
a kind] to frighten one.

Not seldom, such an infinitive with k is used elliptically, and
forms a sort of compound noun, the infinitive being used like an
ordinary noun of characteristic (§ 36) with a : thus, une chambre
a concher a bedroom (i.e. chamber to sleep [in]), la salle a man-
ger the dining-room.

ILLUSTEATIVJ!; SENTENCES.— XXXV. Infinitive dependent on an
Adjective or a Ifoun.

(§ 184.) ' Regardez-moi done comme incapable de pro-
noncer un discours de reception, en supposant que je sois
capable de le faire. {JBeranger.) ' Je ne serais pas f ache de
subjuguer sa raison, de I'etourdir un peu. (Mar.) ' Je
serai charm6 de triompher, mais il faut que j'arrache ma
victoire. {Mar.) ' II 6tait habitu6 d nous serraonner, et il
sent qu'il ne trouverait plus d'eleve si docile k I'ecouter et
k I'applandir. {de Vi.) ' Elle est bien bardie d'oser avoir
une femme de chambre comme toi. {Mar.) ° Lisette s'ha-
bUle, et, devant son miroir, nous trouve trSs imprudents de
lui livrer Dorante. {Mar.) ' Dieu n'est pas si injuste que
de nous marquer pour un mauvais sort avant notre nais-
sance. {O. Sand.)

(§ 185.) ' Tu n'a pas besoin d'ordonner pour 4tre ser-
vie. {Mar.) ''Eh bien ! I'honneur de lui plaire ne me sera
pas inutile. {Mar.) ' Vous avez raison de plaindre M. de
Pomponne quand il va dans ce pays-lel. {de Sev.) ' II est
homme k profiter de cette f aveur ; il a do I'esprit. {Scribe.)
* Au milieu 6tait un beefsteak d'une mine k faire honte k
un beefsteak anglais. {Bum.) ° La sedne ... est d'une
magnificence k faire envie k Jean-Jacques et k Buffon.
(Ste.-B.)

330 VEKBS. [186-

Themb 21.
ikpinitive dependent on an adjective ob a noun,

' I am very glad to see you, but sorry to learn that you
have been so ill. " They were curious to know whether
she was there still. ' If he were capable of committing
such a crime, he would be unworthy to continue in our
society. ' I am more ambitious to serve you than to please
you. ' We are sure to start at five o'clock, but we are by
no means certain of coming back before to-morrow. ° Far
from believing his story, they were on the point of having
him cast into prison as a cheat. ' All that is born is liable
to die. ' He is equally inclined to acquire and to keep.
° That is a man very skilful in handling the pencil. " A
thing easy enough to say, but very hard to do. " He would
be the last to deny what he was the first to say.

" If I found an opportunity to serve you, I should be
ashamed not to avail myself of it. " Take care to walk
straight, and beware of falling. " The problem to solve
was very simple. " All men, born and to be born, count
upon a life to come. " He came down from his bedroom
to the dining-room.

186. Certain adverbs and adverbial phrases are followed before
an infinitive by de or k, forming a sort of preposition-phrase gov-
erning the infinitive.

a. Those formed with de are especially avant de before, pres
de near, plutat que de rather than, hers de apart from, loin de
far from, afin de for the purpose of, in order to, k force de by
dint of, a moins de short of, k condition de on condition of,
faute de for lack of (see XXXIII. 5) : thus, avant de partir before
setting out, k moins d'etre attentif Mor^ of being attentive (i.e.
unless one is attentive), plutSt que d'^tudier, il s'amuse ratTier
than study, he anmses himself

b. Those formed with k are especially de maniere or facon a
inawayto,i-as(iVL'k so far as to: thus, U est all^ jusqu'k la
frapper he went so far as to strike her. Less common are phrases
with the adjectives sauf sa/e and qnitte quits, used elliptically ,■
thus, sauf a changer reserving the right to change, quitte ^ 8tre
grond^ getting off with a scolding.

187] INFINITIVE. 331

187. A few other prepositions, besides de and k, gov-
ern the infinitive directly, having before it their own
proper value, as before a noun.

a. Pour is very common before an infinitive, with the sense of
for, in order to : thus, il est ici pour joner Tie is here in order to
play (OT for playing, or simply to play) ; and in this sense it is
especially frequent after assez, trop, and the like : thus, trop
jenne ponr marier too young to marry. Also sometimes in the
sense otfor, on aecourit of : thus, il est puni pour avoir voW he
is punished for having stolen.

Verbs admitting de or a before an infinitive sometimes take
ponr instead, when the sense is made plainer by it.

6. Par hy now governs the infinitive directly only after verbs of
beginning and ending : thus, il commence par ^crire he begins
with turiting.

c. Apres c^fter is properly used only before the compound in-
finitive : thus, apres avoir parl^ after Tiaving spoken.

d. Sans vnthout : thus, sans parler mot loithout saying a
word.

e. Entre between : thus, 11 balance entre aller et rester Tie
wavers between going and staying.

ILLUSTBATIVE SENTENCES.— XXXVI. Infinitive alter otter
Prepositions.

(§ 186.) ' H n'osait tirer, de peur de tuer Guillaume, s'il
n'^tait pas mort. [Bum.) ^ Avant de se mettre a table, il
pria Mile, le Couvreur de reciter quelque morceau. (Ste.-B.)
Je vais jusqu'^ former des voeux contra moi-m^me. (-Dela-
vigne.) * Avant deux jours, je le confondrai de mani^re k
ne lui laisser rien k r6pondre. (^Picard.)

(§187.) ' Je viens pour epouser, et ils m'attendent pour
^tre marJ6s ; cela est convenu. {Mar.) " Je ne suis plus
gourmand, pour trop I'avoir 6t6 ; et, pour avoir trop ri, je
n'ai plus de gait6. (Augier.) ' Vous m'avez predit, milord,
qu'un jour nous finirons par nous aimer. (Scribe.) 'Apr^s
m'^tre ras6, je me trouvai un tout autre homme. (Lab.)
' Je m'eloigne sans me plaindre et sans muiinurer. (San-
deau.)

Theme 23.

infrnitive aftee othee peepositioks.
"' Before finding us, he was near despairing of his life.
' For lack of having been notified, he did not know where

332 VERBS. [H8—

to seek us. ' Instead of running and seeking, she stands
still and weeps. * It is not possible to reason thus, short of
being crazy. ' Conduct yourself in a manner to be loved.
' No one is ever too old to learn. ' I want a pen and
some paper, to write a letter to my mother. ' He is sick
now, for having eaten too much yesterday. ' This man be-
gan by being simple soldier ; I think he will end by becom-
ing general. " We have returned, after having been three
years absent. " He had to depart without seeing her.
" There is a great difference between pj-omising and keep-
ing word.

E. — The PAETidPXES and Geeund.

188. The present participle has both a participial and
an ordinary adjective use ; the gerund agrees with it in
form (not in origin or construction : see X. 3o, d).

189. a. The present participle, in its participial use, is
not varied for gender and number to agree with the noun
to which it relates.

i. The present participle used adjectively is varied
like any other adjective to agree with its noun.

c. The participle is left unvaried when it takes an object, re-
flexive or other ; and, in general, when it has the adjuncts that
are distinctive of a verb : thus, deux hommes parlant ensemble
two men talking together, des preuves convainquant tout le
moude proofs convincing everybody, nne mere consolant sa fille
a mother consoling her daughter. Hence soi-disant is invaria-
ble : thus, des soi-disant amis self-styled friends. Ayant and
^tant are never varied.

d. The participle is varied when it has only the ordinary ad-
juncts of an adjective, and the construction of one : thus,
I'homme est une creature parlante man is a speaking creature,
ces preuves sent bien convaincantes these proofs are very con-
vincing, des paroles consolantes consoling words.

e. Many common adjectives are by origin present participles :
thus, charmant charming, iut^ressant interesting. Some are
such participles with a somewhat changed spelling : thus, fkti-
guant fatiguing, fatigant tiresome; excellant excelling, excel-

180] PBESENX PAKTICIPLB. 333

lent excellent ; viola,nt violating, \ioleii.t violent ; convainquant,
convaincant convincing.

f. The distinctions between the participial and adjectival uses
of the participle are not always strictly maintained, and they are
less regarded in older style.

g. Often, where we should use in English a present participle,
the French has a relative clause : thus, je le vols q.ui vient I see
Mm coming.

190. The gerund, having always the same form as
the present participle, is used only after the preposition
en, and signifies accompanying action, or means.

Thus, en lisant in [the act of] reading, while reading, on read-
ing, or simply reading.

a. The simultaneousness of the action is often made more
emphatic by prefixing the adverb tout altogether : thus, tout en
lisant in the very act of reading, even while reading.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXXVII. Present Participle and
Gerund.

(§ 189.) ' Se sentant un peu fatiguee, et voulant con-
server ou reprendre ses forces pour le dernier moment, elle
se mit au lit. {Mignet) ' Nous vom mangeant et buvant.
(Courier.) ' Tous deux partent, Germain r^vant k sa de-
funte plus qu'd sa future, et Marie pleurant de quitter sa
mSre et le pays. (Ste.-B.) * Les boeufs mugissants et les
brebis b^lantes venaient en foule, quittant les gras pdtu-
rages. (Fen.) ' Maman, toujours projetante et toujours
agissante, ne nous laissait gudre oisifs ni I'un ni I'autre.
(Rouss.) ° II ne bouge non plus qu'une pauvre pierre, et
voila Forage qui vient. (G. Sand.) ' Mais voici un char
qui passe, un chien qui aboie, ou rien du tout : il faut voir
ce que c'est. (Toepfer.)

(§ 190.) ' C'est ton fils, lui dit-elle d'une voix trem-
blante, en attachant ses yeux noirs sur ceux de son mari.
(Merimee.) ' " Ne lisez pas cela en vous coucbant ; vous en
r^veriez. (Courier.) ' C'est en meconnaissant ce but qu'on
blaspheme et qu'on est malheureux ; c'est en le comprenant
ou en I'acceptant qu'on est bomme. [Jouffroy.) * Louis
XVI., tout en condamnant la conduite des 6migr6s, ne vou-
lut pas donner son adhesion aux mesures prises centre eux.
(Mignet.) " Tout en 6crivant cela, elle s'acheniinait vers
Pjtris, (Thiers.)

334 VERBS [Wl-

Theme 33.
peesbnt participle and geeund.
' Our friendship, triumphing over jealousy, will endure
eternally. " Thus he spoke, with a triumphant voice.
' They (f.) took my book, knowing that it was mine ? ' His
words, striking my ear, attracted all my attention. ' He
addressed to them a few striking words of consolation and
encouragement. ° He is a very tiresome man. 'This woman,
suffering all that a woman can suffer, appeals to our com-
passion. ° Help her ; she appears [to be] suffering. * I
saw her playing at cards an hour ago. '" We walked slow-
ly, stopping often to listen. "Night came to part the com-
batants. " He grew pale while reading the letter which
I handed him. '^ Saying these words, the tears came to
his eyes. '* Even while speaking to us, she trembled and
fainted.
\J 191. The past participle is more distinctly and exclu-
sively an adjective than the present participle ; and its
constructions are in the main those of an ordinary adjec-
tive, agreeing in gender and number with the noun to
which it relates.

a. It has a peculiar treatment, eaUing for special rules, only
when combined with the auxiliaries avoir and Itre to make the
compound forms of a verb : see XXVIII. 5-8.

6. The past participle, being passive in its character, does not
take an object ; but it admits the other various modifiers of a
verb.

c. For certain participles which are unvaried before the nouns
which they qualify, see § 56a.

192. As regards the use of the participle with aux-
iliaries to make the compound forms of a verb, the fol-
lowing principles are to be noted :

a. When used with 6tre in intransitive and passive verbs (but
not in reflexives), the participle has the value of a predicate ad-
jective qualifying the subject of the verb, and with this it ac-
cordingly always agrees in gender and number. Thus, elle est
a.ll^e she is gone, lis sont ajm^s tJiey are loved, les lettr^g fureut

198] PAST PABTICIPLE. 335

Sorites the letters were written, nous serons partis we sTiall he
(or have) gone.

h. "When used with avoir in transitive verbs, the participle has
originally and really the value of an objective predicate qualify-
ing the direct object. Thus, in il a retrouv^ ses livres perdus
he has found again his lost books, it is the books that are found
again, and not the finder. Hence it is not with the subject, but
with the direct object, that the participle ought to agree. In the
present condition of the language, however, it is made so to agree
when the object stands before the verb, and not otherwise : thus,
quels livres avez-vous trouves wTiat books have you found 9 je
les ai trouves / have found them, les livres que j'ai trouves the
books which I have found ; but j'ai trouv6 les livres I have
found the books.

c. In every verb used reflexively, the auxiliary §tre (by a very
strange and anomalous substitution) is taken instead of avoir. In
the compound forms of such verbs, the participle has the same
form as if avoir were used : that is, it agrees with the preceding
reflexive object if that object is a direct one, but not otherwise.
Thus, elle s'est tronv^e sTie has found herself (like elle I'a trou-
v6e sTie has found her), ils se sont trouves they have found one
another (Uke ils les out tronv^s tfiey have found them) ; but, on
the contrary, elle s'est trouv^ des livres she has found for her-
self some books; and again, quels livres s'est-elle trouvds wTmt
books has she found for herself "^ — where the participle agrees with
the direct object livres, and not with either the indirect se or the
subject elle.

d. Many intransitive verbs now take, or take sometimes, the
auxiliary avoir instead of Stre. In these, the participle (though
it may logically qualify the subject as much as in the verbs taking
6tre) is never made to agree with the subject, but remains un-
varied. Thus, elle a sorti she has gone out (but elle est sortie),
ils avaieut descendu they had descended (but ils ^taient descen-
dns), ils out €\A they have been.

^ 193. Hence we have the following practical rules :

a. When used with etre, the participle, except in re-
flexive verbs, agrees in gender and number with the sub-
ject of the verb.

h. When used with avoir, and also with etre in reflexive
verbs, the participle never agrees with the subject ; but
it agrees with the direct object, in case that object pre-
cedes the verb,
c. The three cases in which a direct object may precede the

336 VBEBS. [WS—

verb, and so may have the participle agree with it, are those
illustrated above (§ 1926) : namely, when it is interrogative (or
exclamatory), when it is a personal pronoun (hence always in
reflexive verbs), and when it is the relative que (when the parti-
ciple agrees with the word which que represents).

194. Certain exceptional or apparently exceptional
cases require to be noticed, as follows :

a. The participle of an impersonal verb, or of a verb used im-
personally, is unvaried : thus, les pluies qu'il y a eu tM rains
that there have been, quelle chaleur excessive a-t-il fait what
excessive heat there has been !

b. The participle does not agree with an adverbial object, a
specification of measure or the like (§ 28c) : thus, les annfes
qn'elle a dur^ the years that it has lasted, les trois lieues que
j'ai march^ the three leagues that I have walked. But of coflter
cost, coimr run, and valoir be worth, the participle is sometimes
made to agree with such an object ; and, in certain phrases, even
that of vivre live.

c. With en of it, some, etc. (XXIII. 5-7), as an indirect object,
the participle of course does not agree ; but after an indefinite
word of quantity, like combien, it Is sometimes made to agree
with the noun that is logically implied : thus combien en avez-
vous vus how many of them have you seen f que de choses j'ai
vues how many things I have seen .'

d. An apparent object of a verb is sometimes really governed
by a following dependent verb or infinitive, and the participle of
the former has no occasion to agree with it : thus, les livres que
j'ai cm qu'elle me donnerait the books which I thought she would
give me, ces tableaux, je les ai vu peindre I have seen these pic-
tures painted (lit'ly, have seen [some one] paint them), je les ai
laiss^ porter autre part / have had them carried elsewhere (in
these phrases, the les is really object of donnerait, peindre, and
porter respectively). Ttnt. if tl^B "^'jp'^t is loffip-a.ny subject instead
"fjj^jftfft pf ^^f^ following iTifinitiyB, the participle of the former
is made to agree with it : thus, je I'ai vue peindre (or peindre
les tableaux) I have seen her paint (or paint the pieturei), je les
ai laiss^s manger quelque chose I have let them eat something,
les larmes qn'il nous a vus verser the tears which he has seen us
shed.

e. But the participle of faire make, cause, when used with a
dependent infinitive, never agrees with the object (faire being
viewed as forming with the infinitive a sort of compound verb-
form, of causative meaning, and its object, if the infinitive also
has an object, taking the indirect form : § 1586) : thup, je les ai
fait manger I made them eat, il nous avait fait soriir he had
•made us go out.

195] PAST PAKTICIPLE. 337

/. A governing infinitive is sometimes understood rather than
expressed : thus, je lui ai rendu tous les services ctue j'ai dti
(or pu, or vouln) 1 have done him all the services that I ought
(or could, or chose) — that is, to do Mm.

g. After avoir etc. (§ 182c), followed by an infinitive with a,
usage is varying, according as the object is viewed as belonging
more to the verb or to the infinitive : thus, la peine qu'il a eu
(or eue) a souffrir the pain which he has had to suffer.

195. The participles, both present and past, are (as in

English) often used absolutely, along with a noun or

pronoun.

Thus, cela fait (or cela ^tant fait), 11 partit that done (or that
being done), he departed, lui mort, tu mourras aussi he dead,
thou Shalt die also.

a. The noun or pronoun is sometimes expressed afterward :
thus, ^tant rentr^, il me dit having come in again, he said to me.

b. Certain participles are used in absolute construction in an
idiomatic manner, with a value like that of prepositions or
conjunctions : thus, excepte cette femme except this worn/in, eu
egard a sa jeonesse considering (lit'ly, regard being had to) his
youth, atteudu son age in view of his age.

njiUSTRATTVE SENTENCES.— XXXVIII. Past Participle.

(§ 191.) ' Que de palais detruits, de tr6nes renverses !
(Roc.) ' Le f er est 6mouss6, les blichers sont Steints. ( Vol. )
' Et quel temps f ut jamais si fertile en miracles ? L'impie
Achab d6truit, et de son sang trempe le champ que par le
meurtre il avait usurpe ; pres de ce fatal champ J6zabel
immolee, sous les pieds des chevaux cette reine foulee, de
son sang inhumain les chiens d6salt6r6s, et de son corps
hideux les membres d6chires ; des proph^tes menteurs la
troupe conf ondue, et la flamme du ciel sur I'autel descendue.
(Rac.) * Je vols aux flammes ^ternelles nos rois pr6cipit6s
sans fin. (Beranger.)

(§ 192-3.) ' Ceux de ces amis qui sont months trop haut
pour moi, je m'en tiens eloigne. {Beranger.) " Quelle triste
economic que celle de I'dme ! elle nous a 6t6 donn6e pour
^tre developp6e, perfectionnee, prodiguee m^me dans un
noble but. {de Stael.) ' Que sont devenus ces personnages
qui firent tant de bruit ? Le temps a fait un pas, et la face
de la terre a 6t6 renouvel6e. {Chat.) ^ Tu me demandes en
cela la raison d'une chose qui n'existe pas, et que je n'ai
33

338 TEEBS. [196—

jamais dite : les femmes ne sont nuUeraent condamii6es k
la m6diocrit6. {de Maistre.) * Je cesserai pour eux de pa-
raitre afflig^e, et j'oublierai leur mort, que vous avez ven-
g6e. ( Cirni.) ' Je ne sais s'il nous a reconnues. {Dau.) ' Si
le temps ne sillonnait pas leurs traits, quelles traces auraient-
ils gard6es de son passage ? {de Sta'el.) * LSurs v^tements
et leurs armes, qu'on n'avait jamais vus, excitaient la curio-
sit6 et la surprise. [Michaud.) " Elles avaient un air si
etrange que Prascovie 6prouvait une certaine crainte, et se
repentait de s'^tre arret6e chez elles. {de Maistre.) " Dans
la derniere moiti6 du XVIII^ siScle, deux puissances s'e-
taient elevees dans le Nord, la Prusse et la Russie. {Mignet.)
" Les cavaliers qui sont tomb6s sous vos coups se sont attire
eux-m^mes ce malheur. {Le Sage.) '^ Vous savez la piStre
idee que je me suis faite de mon merite litt6raire. (Beran-
ger.) " Nos regards parcouraient avec plaisir les nom-
breuses demeures que les habitants de la campagne se sont
construites sur ces hauteurs. {Barthelemy.)

(§ 194.) ' Que de maux il en est deja resulte ! {Bescher.)
' C'est une des id6es les plus utiles qu'il y ait jamais eu.
{Thomas.) ' Je regrette les nombreuses ann6es que j'ai v6cu
sans pouvoir m'instruire. {JRouss.) ' Le premier volume . . .
est assur^ment fort int^ressant ; la preface nous donne une
id6e des recherches qu'il a cout6es. {Remusat.) Mes ma-
nuscrits ratur6s, barbouill6s, et presque indechiffrables, at-
testent la peine qu'ils m'ont coutee. {Rouss.) ' On pent
juger des embarras sans nombre que lui avait valus cette
double parents. ( V. Hugo.) ' Mais je ne les ai pas vecues,
ces ann6es de ma vie. {Sardou.) " Tout le monde m'a ofFert
des services, et personne ne m'en a rendu, {de Maint.) ' Pen-
dant ces derniers temps, combien en a-t-on vus qui du soir
au matin sont pauvres devenus ! {La F.) " Tous les sol-
dats s'6taient laiss6 prendre. ( Vol.) " A peine I'avons-nous
entendue parler. ( Vol.) " O Julie ! si le destin t'eut laissee
vivre ! {Rouss.) '^ Voila le sujet des larmes que tu m'as
vue verser ! {Florian.) " EUe s'est fait aimer ; elle m'a fait
hair. {Corn.) ''II a 6t6 libre de mettre k cet abandon la
condition qu'il a voulu. {Serey.)

(§ 195.) ' Mais le combat fini, c'est alors qu'il se montre.
{Ponsard.) ' Eux punis, nous pourrons faire admirer au
monde ... la liberty. (Ponsard.) ' II ne sera pas dit que,
moi parti, vous rirez. {Bum) * Nous avons plus d'une pi^ce

18*] PAST PAETIOIPLB. 339

qui, 6tant corrigees, pourraient aller k la posterity. ( Vol.)

* Le cas ^cheant, je suis homme a retarder mon depart.
{Bum.) " Ces g6neralites 6tant adoptees, I'assemblee s'oc-
cupa de I'organisation du pouvoir 16gislatif . (Mignet.) ' Peu
de gens de nos jours se sont tu6s, eu §gard k tous ceux qui
ont song6 k le faire. {Ste.-B.)

Theme 24.

past pakticiple.

' If we do not hurry, they will have gone before we
have arrived. ' Virtue is loved by all the good, and only
hated by those who have addicted themselves to evil
habits. " Too many tears have been shed over her sorrows.

* I have not yet received the letter that my father has sent
m& ' What books have you already read ? ' I have read
only those which you had recommended to me. ' You are
mistaken ; I have not recommended them to you. ' The
few inhabitants whom war has left in this town are too
poor and weak to be feared. ° How many misfortunes have
we not seen in our time ! " I thank you for the trouble
which you have given yourself in order tQ_come. " My
sister has bought herself some beautiful dresses. " The
dresses which she had bought for herself are not yet
brought to the house. " What a beautiful evening it was
yesterday ! " That was perhaps the prettiest festival that
there has ever been. " Where has he borrowed the 10,000
francs that this house has cost him ? '" All the days that
this chimney has smoked have been rainy. " I have found
beautiful flowers in the meadow, and I have gathered some;-
but I have given them all to my mother. " Have you not
given any to your sisters ? '° No, they have gathered some
for themselYes. '" Those are actions which I have thought
that you would approve. " The story which I have begun
to ^read is very" interesting. "' The letter which I have
promised to write for her is not yet begun. "' I heard her

340 ADVEEBS. [196—

speak of the news which had just arrived, and I let her
finish Avithout interrupting her. " I saw her buy the pic-
ture which we had seen painted last year. " They have
made all the excuses which their conscience has permitted
them. " I pity him for all the trouble which he has had
to take. " The dinner finished, he went away without say-
ing farewell.

W

Vm.— ADVERBS.

196. The rules respecting adverbs and their use have for the
most part been already given.

Thus, as to the formation of adverbs from adjectives, XXXI.
1-6, 9 ; as to the comparison of adverbs, XXXI. 7, 8 ; as to nega-
tive adverbs and adverbial expressions, especially § 164 etc. ; as
to words construed now as adjectives and now as adverbs, §§ 56,
116c, d ; as to adverbs used in the manner of pronouns, § 85 ; as to
adverbs of quantity with following nouns, V. 3, 4 ; as to various
adverbs, XXXII. 1-6 ; as to the usual place of adverbs, XXXII. 7.

197. Adverbs are sometimes used in the manner of ad-
jectives or nouns. Thus :

a. As predicative adjectives : thus, 11 est bien maintenajit Tie
is v)ell now, cela n'est pas ainsi that is not so.

b. Rarely, as attributive adjectives : thus, le temps jadis tfie
time of old, la page ci-contre the page opposite, la presqueeter-
nite ahnost eternity.

c. Governed by a preposition, like nouns : thus, d'ou from
where, whence, les jambes de devant the fore-legs (lit'ly, legs of
in front), la plnie d'hier t?ie rain of yesterday, de trop in excess,
superfluous, par trop too nvuch, quite too, josqa'a demain until
to-morrow, des longtemps since long ago.

d. Quite rarely, in other noun constructions.

198. Sometimes an adverb in English is represented in French
by an adjective : thus, il est arrive le premier he arrived first.

Compare the cases in which the same expression is treated
now as an adverb and now as an adjective, § 56.

199. An adverb of degree is often separated from the
adjective which it qualifies. Thus :

RESPONSIVES. 341

a. Comme (with combieu) and que, always, in exclamatory ex-
pressions : thus, conune 11 est heureux how happy he is / que
vous Stes gentille ?imi> pretty you are !

b. Plus and moins in the sense of the more, the less; thus,
plus vous Stes vertueux, plus vous serez heureux, the more
virtuous you are, the happier you will be.

e. Sometimes other adverbs : thus, tant 11 est vrai so true is
it.

200. The responsives oui yes and non no are a sort of
elliptical adverb, used to represent a sentence.

a. They are sometimes preceded by que when used as repre-
senting a sentence which is the object of a verb : thus, je crois
que oui I believe yes (or I believe so), je te dis que non I tell you
no (or that it is not so).

b. In answer to a negative question implying a negative state-
ment, si is used instead of oui : thus, vous n'y etiez pas you were
not there, were you ? si yes, I was.

201. Voici and voila are also abbreviated sentences (from vois
ici and vois la), and they retain some of the constructions be-
longing to the verb which really forms a part of them.

a. Thus, they often take a pronoun-object, which (contrary to
the rule for an imperative affirmative : XXII. 7) is placed before
them : thus, les voila there they are, m'y voici here I am, vous
voulez de I'argent ? en voila you want money ? there is some ;
more rarely, they are preceded by the relative object que : thus,
ce monsieur que voici this gentleman here (Ut'ly, whom behold
here).

IX.— PREPOSITIONS.

202. Most of what relates to the prepositions and their uses has
been already stated ; what needs further to be added will be given
here.

203. The two prepositions de of, from, and a to, at are those
of which the uses are most various, depart most widely from the
simple original meaning of the words, and are most analogous
with inflectional endings, of genitive and dative respectively ;
they have been, therefore, most fully treated above.

a. Thus, the uses of de as connecting one noun with another
in the manner of a genitive are stated in §§ 29-34 ; as making a
partitive noun, § 35 ; as connecting a noun with an adjective, § 61 ;
as denoting material and measure, V. 1-4; after a verb, § 162;
as preceding an infinitive, §§ 177-9, 183-5 ; and so on.

342 PEBPOSITIONa. [208—

6. la like manner, the uses of a between two nouns, at §§ 36-7;
between an adjective and noun, § 61 ; between a verb and noun,
§ 161 ; before an infinitive, § 180 etc. ; and so on.

204. Further uses of de may be noted, as follows :

a. With the noun c6t^ side (and sometimes with part part), de
loses altogether its sense of removal, and signifies on or at : thus,
de ce cdti on this side, ils se rangent des deux c8t6s de la salle
they draw up on both sides of the hall, de toutes parts on every
side, de c5tl (or part) et d'autre on the one side and the other.

h. In like manner, de means at or the like in a few expressions
of time : thus, du matin at morning, in the morning (= of a
morning),, de bonne henre in good time or early, de nos jonrs
in our day, de ma vie in my life, du vivant de ce roi in the life-
time of this king.

c. After plus tnore or moins less, de is used in the sense of than
before a numeral, when the meaning is a greater or less quantity
than what is expressed by that numeral : thus, plus de deux ans
mwe than two years (i.e. a number of years greater than two), en
moins de vingt minutes in less than twenty minutes : but, quatre
yeuz voient plus que devxfour eyes see more than tux) [can see],
and so on. The words midi midday and minuit midnight (as
being equivalent to douze heures twelve o^clock), also demi half,
quart a quarter, and -k demi or k moiti^ by half, are treated as
numerals in respect to this construction : thus, plus de minuit
after midnight, plus d'a demi ruin^ more than half ruined.

205. Further uses of h, may be noted, as follows :

a. The preposition a is used elliptically in the sense of at the
distance of, at the age of at the rate of, in connections that point
out suflBciently what is intended : thus, a trente lieues de Paris
at thirty leagues from Paris, 11 est mort a vingi; ans he died at
twenty, vendre k la livre sell by the pound.

b. While en is in general used with the name of a country to
mean either to or in (VI. 4), a, with the article, stands instead
before a plural name, and also before certain names of distant
countries, and of ancient provinces of France : thus, aux ^ats-
Unis to (or in) the United States, au Japon in Japan, au Meziqne
in Mexico, au Poitou to Poitou. With partir set out, start, and
in one or two similar phrases, is used pour : thus, partant pour
la Syrie leaving for Syria.

0. A is used in such phrases as c'est bien k vous that is good
of you (or in you), c'^tait folie k Ini tliat was folly in him (or
foolish of him).

d. It occurs in many elliptical phrases : as, k moi or au seconrs

PBBPOSITIONS. 343

help! (i.e. come to me, come for help), an revoir [good-hye] till
we meet again, a nous deux betweeir ourselves.

206. The other prepositions have in a much higher degree each
its own meaning or range of nearly related meanings, correspond-
ing in a general way (though with not infrequent exceptions) to
certain prepositions in English ; and hence they call for only brief
treatment here.

207. Dans and en in, into, etc. Of these two prepositions,
having nearly the same sense, dans is more definite, en more gen-
eral and vague, in the relation designated.

a. Dans (except with proper names) is almost always followed by
a limiting word, an article or possessive or demonstrative, before
the noun it governs ; en, on the other hand, rarely stands before
such a limiting word, especially the definite article (never before
le or les, rarely before 1').

b. Instead of en (VI. 4), dans is used before the name of a
country when accompanied by an adjective : thus, dans la France
m^ridionale in southern Prance, dans toute I'Angleterre in all
England. Also, both with the name of a country and of a town,
when the meaning is vnthin, inside of.

c. In expressions of time, en is used to mean in the year, in
tJie month, in the season : thus, en mil huit cent trente, en et^,
en jnillet in 1830, in summer, in July (but, by exception, an
printemps in spring) ; but dans la m§me ann^e in the same
year, and the like. In expressions for a certain length of time,
en means rather in the course of, but dans at or hy the end of:
thus, je finirai ce travail en une semaine I shall finish this
work in a week, but je I'aurai fini dans une SBmaxas I shall have
it finished in a week.

d. En is used in many adverbial phrases of manner, means,
material, form, and the like : thus, en secret in secret, en an-
glais in English, en or in gold, en blanc in white.

e. En is used elliptically to signify in the character of, also
translatable as like or as : thus, agir en honngte honune act like
an honest man, parler en maitre speak as master.

f. En and les are contracted to es in certain learned titles :
thus, docteur es sciences doctor of science.

208. Avec vrith. This preposition usually signifies simply ac-
companiment. But it also, like with in English, not infrequently
designates instrument and manner, exchanging in these senses
with de (§ 162), often with a hardly definable variation of mean-
ing : thus, tner avec une 6pee slay loith a sword, ^crire avec
une plume ivrite tvith a pen, couvrir avec (or d') un manteau
cover viith a cloak, and the like.

209. Par hy. This preposition also often designates manner

344 PREPOSITIONS. l»09-

or motive, exchangeably with de (§ 162) : thus, par or de crainte
for fear. Alternately with de (XXVIII. 3), it is used along with
a passive verb to signify the performer of the action, especially if
the action is an external or physical one : thus, 11 est &appe par
quelqu'uu Tie is struck by sotnehody. But de and par can to a
great extent be used after the same verb : de then expressing a
more general or habitual action : par, one that is more special or
exceptional.

210. Sans without. This preposition is peculiar in being
treated in some respects as a negative word (since it so distinctly
implies a negation of accompaniment) : thus, sans rien dire with-
out saying anything, sans or ni argent toitJiout gold or silver,
sans nul doute toithout any doubt. After it, the partitive sense
of a noun is regularly left unexpressed : thus, avec de I'or mais
sans argent with gold but toithout silver.

211. Depuis, from, since. Depais marks a starting-point, in
space or in time, especially the latter : thus, depuis les Alpes
jusqu'^ roc^au from the Alps to the ocean, depuis cinq henres
jusqu'a six from five to six o'clock. But with a perfect or pluper-
fact, or a present or imperfect (§§ llSc^, 119c) in the sense of such,
it means since, ever since, during . . . past or for, ago, and the
like. Thus, je ne I'ai pas vu depuis son retour / have not seen
him since his return, 11 y rSve depuis trols jours he has been
dreaming of it during three days past (or for three days), elle
est arrivee depuis peu de temps she arrived a little while ago.

212. a. A large number of preposition-phrases or compound
prepositions are made by adding de to an adjective or adverb.
The commonest of these were given at XXXIII. 3. They call for
no further remark or explanation here.

6. The prepositions that govern the infinitive were given above,
at § 187. The preposition en, governing the gerund, was treated
above, at § 190.

213. The required repetition of de and a before each noun
governed by them was pointed out at III. 5. Excepted are espe-
cially a word added to another in apposition or as equivalent to
it, and a numeral added to another with on or: thus, ^v6qne a
Londres, capltale des Saisons bishop at London, the Saxon capi-
tal, de deux ou trols of two or three.

a. The repetition also of en is nearly as strictly required. As
to the other prepositions, they may be repeated or omitted before
successive nouns, much as in English : thus, malgre les erreurs
et les fautes in .spite of errors and faults, dans la palx et dans
la guerre in peace and in war.

21T] CONJUNCTIOKS. 345

X.— CONJUNCTIONS.

214. The conjunctions in French, as in other lan-
guages, may be divided into coordinating and subordi-
nating.

a. This distinction is much less important in French than in
German, because nothing in the arrangement of the sentence
depends upon it ; it is only a part of general logical grammar, of
the analysis of the sentence or period into its constituent parts,
which may be carried on in much the same way in French as in
English.

215. The commonest coordinating conjunctions are

et and, mais iut, ou or, ni nor, aussi also, car for, done

then, or now, ainsi thus.

a. Both . . . and is expressed by et . . . et ; and of nearly the
same value are the correlative pairs tant . . . que, non-seulement
. . . mais encore. Either ... oris on ... ou, also soit . . . ou, and
soit . . . soit. Compare XXXIV. 3.

216. Subordinating conjunctions are such as give to
the clause introduced by them a subordinate character, as
entering into the structure of another clause with the
value of a single part of speech — namely, of a noun or
substantive, of an adjective, or of an adverb.

217. Substantive clauses are introduced almost only
by the conjunction que that.

Thus, as subject, qu'elle soit belle n'est pas a nier tJmt she is
beautiful is not to be denied; as object, on ne pent pas nier
qu'elle soit belle one cannot deny that she is beautiful ; as gov-
erned by a preposition, malgr6 qu'elle soit belle, je ne I'admire
pas in spite of her being beautiful, I do not admire her.

a. But in such cases as the last, it is usual (see § 136a) to regard
malgre que as a compound conjunction or conjunction-phrase,
introducing an adverb-clause.

6. A subject-clause is much more usually, as in English, an-
ticipated or followed by a pronoun as grammatical subject, with
which then the clause is to be regarded as standing in apposition :
thus, ce n'est pas ^ nier qu'elle soit belle it is not to he denied
that she is beautiful.

346 CONJUIfCTIONS. [217—

c. Substantive clauses are also introduced by compound relative
pronouns and adverbs (that is, such as are used with the value of
antecedent and relative at once) ; also by si in the sense of whether :
thus, qui veut 6tre aim^ doit 6tre aimable whoever (or he who)
wants to be loved should be lovable, aimez qui vons aime love
(him) who loves you, je ne sais s'il vient / don't know whether
he is coming.

218. Adjective clauses are for the most part intro-
duced by relative pronouns, but also by relative adverbs,
whicb may then be regarded as conjunctions.

Thus, la table ou je I'ai mis tJie table where (or on which) I
laid it, le livre qui est sur la table th^ book which is on the
table, and so on.

219. Most conjunctions and conjunction-phrases in-
troduce adverbial clauses, or such as qualify verbs, ad-
jectives, and adverbs, by adding limitations of time,
manner, degree, condition, supposition, cause, purpose,
and the like.

Thus, je partais lorsqu'il entra / was going away.whsn he
came in, elle est si aimable qu'ou ue peut que I'aimer she is so
lovable that one cannot but love Tier, si vous y restez, j'y reste-
rai aussi if you stay here, I shall stay also, quoiqu'il soit panvre,
il est content though he is poor, he is ?w,ppy, venez que je vous
voie come, that I may see you.

220. It is explained above, under the head of Subjunctive
(§ 132 etc.), in what eases the verb of the dependent clause is
made subjunctive.

221. The conjunction having the greatest frequency and variety
of uses is que that, and its employment as conjunction shades off
into that as relative pronoun, meaning that or which, so that in
some cases they are not easy to distinguish from one another.
The Index will give references to the passages where the various
uses are explained.

a. While tlmt, both as pronoun and as conjunction, is often
omitted in English, it must always be expressed in French : thus,
the friends I have is les amis que j'ai, I know Tie is Tiere is je sais
qu'il est ici ; and so in all other cases.

6. When the conjunctions and conjunction-phrases containing
que — as lorsque, puisqne, quoiqne, pendant que, tandis que,
parce que, tant que, des que— are to be repeated, they are gen-
erally repeated by que alone ; and que is likewise used in repeti-
tion instead of quand, comme, and si: thus, lorsque remperenr

CONJUNCTIONS. 347

fiit revenu et qu'il eut visits le camp when the emperor had re-
turned and when he had visited the camp, s'il n'a que peu d'ar-
gent et qu'il veuille en avoir plus if he has only a little money
and wants more.

c. Especially in familiar language, que is sometimes used in-
stead of lorsque, avant que, depuis que, jusqu'a ce que, and
que . . . ne instead of sans que : thus, si peine ^tait-il sorti que
la maison s'ecroula he had hardly gone out, when the house fell
in, je u'y irai point que tout ne soit pr@t I shall not go there
unless (or till or bffore) everything is ready.

XI.— INTERJECTIONS.

222. The simple or pure interjections in French are
in part the same as in English.

a. Those most used are ah ah (in various senses), 6 or oh oh,
eh eh, h^las alas, aie oh (pain), fi^e, h9.h.pooh, hola h£llo, chut
sh, hein hey, parbleu zounds, and so on.

h. Many words and brief phrases are used elliptically in the
manner of interjections. Examples are : bon good, silence he
still, peste plague take it, aliens come, tiens or tenez hold, see
here, gare look out, par exemple indeed, a la bonne heure very
well, en avant forward, go ahead, a moi help — and so on.

c. The interrogative pronouns and adverbs are often employed
in an interjectional or exclamatory way. The usage in regard to
them is very much as it is in English. The same is true of the
abbreviation of sent^nees brought about by their use in exclama-
tion.

ILLUSTRATIVE SENTENCES.— XXXIX. Adverbs, Prepositions,
Conjunctions.

(§ 197.) ' Elle a quitte sa belle robe ; eh bien ! elle n'est
pas plus mal pour cela ; au contraire. (Scribe.) ' Le grand-
vizir ne s'avise pas de s'informer s'il est bien ou mal dans
ses aflEaires. (Le Sage.) ' Par des recits d'autrefois, mere,
aor^gez notre veille. (Beranger.) ''J'^tudiais de loin, en
silence, ce talent prScoce et grandissant. (Ste.-B.) 'Et
depuis quand as-tu cette id6e ? (Bum.) ' Ce moment pour
jamais a fixe mon destin. (Qirardin.) ' D'ici k un an, je
promets de rev4tir la robe blanche du bapt^me. (Souvestre.)
' Puis il saisit ses deux pattes de- derri^re avec ses deux
pattes de devant, et, comme satisfait de cette attitude

348 ADVERBS, PKBPOSITIONS, ETC. [222-,

classique, il se remit a me contempler. ( V. Hugo.) ' J'abuse,
cher ami, de ton trop d'amitie. {Bac.) "° Ce n'est qu'un
effet de leur peu de lumieres, qui les emp6che de connaitre
1^ grandeur de leur mal. {La B.)

(§ 198.) ' Tranquille jem'endors, et tranquille je veille.
( Chenier.) ' Les rares moments passent si rapides ! {Dum.)

(§ 199.) ' Ah ! mon Dieu ! que je suis malheureuse !
{Scribe.) " Plus leur cause m'est chlre et plus I'efEet m'en
blesse. {Corn.) ^ Plus j'y r^flechis, et moins je trouve cette
sc^ne naturelle. ( Vol.)

(§ 200.) ' Mais non, maman ! y pensez-vous ? — Mais si,
mademoiselle, je le veux. {Scribe.)

(§ 201.) ' II s'assied oii me voila, s'ecriant: Ah ! quelle
guerre ! {Beranger.) ° Mon jeune homme ne se fit pas prier ;
nous voild mangeant et buvant, lui du moins. {Courier.)
^ Tremblez, tremblez, mechants ; voici venir la fondre.
( Corn.) * Pourquoi m'en donneriez-vous la peine puisque
vous ToilA ? {Mar.) " Me voiU bien avanc6. — Ne le voilA-t-il
pas bien recul6 ? {Mar.)

(§ 204.) ' J'avais de mon c6t6 quelque chose k te dire ;
mais tu m'as fait perdre mes id6es. {Mar.) ' Voyez-vous
Londres de I'autre c6t6del'eau? {V.Hugo.) ^Detoutes
parts I'on ne voyait que champs cultiv^s. ( Volney.) * Le
roi arriva, la t^te haute, promenant de tous c6t6s ses re-
gards, et cherchant le peuple pour lui parler. {Guizot.)
" II me semble que de mon temps on n'6tait pas comme cela.
{Scribe.) °Du temps de I'architecture, elle se faisait mon-
tagne, et s'emparait puissamment d'un siScle et d'un lien.
( V. Hugo.) ' II se jeta d'abord sur I'omelette avec tant
d'avidite qu'il semblait n'avoir mang6 de trois jours.
{Le Sage.) ' En moins de deux ans Gustave Vasa rendit la
Su^de luth^rienne. ( Vol.) ' II etait alors plus de minuit.
{de Vi.)

(§ 205.) ' C'est une veuve assez riche, qui demeure i
quelques lieues de \L {Ste.-£.) ' A quelques jours de la,
ella gagna la rive droite du Clain. {Sandeau.) 'Mon plus
long s6jour fut au Perou. {Feuillet.) * N'importe, madame;
c'est bien mal k vous. {Scribe.) "Elle frappe Marat au
flanc gauche, et enfonce le fer jusqu'au coeur. A moi !
s'ecria-t-il. {Thiers.)

(§ 207.) ' Le boeuf 6tait absolument inconnu dans I'AmS-
rique m6ridionale. {Buffon.) = Je suis done enfin dans

ADVERBS, PBEPOSITIONS, ETC. 349

Moscou, dans I'antique pays des czars, dans le Kremlin !
(S4gur.) ' Dans quelques jours nous pourrons k loisir
poursuivre ce discours. {Delavigne.) * Enfin, qu'as-tu fait
en trente ans de devouement pour tes chers semblables ?
Rien du tout. {Feuillet.') ' Quand mon mari combat en bon
soldat de Rome, je dois agir en femme ainsi qu'il fait en
homme. {Ponsard.) ' II ressemble a une statue de jardin
habill6e en monsieur. (Mery.)

(§ 210.) ' Sans songer qu'4 me plaLre, executez mes lois.
(Com.) "Sans jeter d'alarmes, a tous mes Tyriens faites
prendre les armes. [Rac.) 'lis se condamnent k cette
froideur de sentiments qui laisse passer les jours sans en
tirer ni fruits, ni progres, ni souvenirs, {de Stael.)

(§ 211.) ' Comment, cousine ! depuis trois ans, voil^
deux fois que vous m'6crivez ! (Courier.) ''En orient, en
Occident, depuis plus de deux mille ans on ne parle que
d' Alexandre. (Bossuet.) ' Les pluies qu'il fait depuis trois
jours me mettent au d^sespoir. (de Sev.) * II 6tait absent
depuis plusieurs heures, et le petit Fortunate 6tait tranquil-
lement Stendu au soleil. (Merimee.) ' Je comprends I'etonne-
ment ou vous avez ete de tout ce qui s'est passS depuis le
15 jusqu'au 20 de ce mois. (de Sev.)

(§ 221.) ' Lorsqu'on est sans fortune, et qu'on epouse
quelqu'un qui en a beaiicoup, songez que de qualites il faut
lui apporter en dot ! (Scribe.) ° C'est la division Legrand
qui se trouvait le plus en danger, parce qu'elle 6tait plaoee
pr^s du Danube, et que, pour ce motif, I'ennemi voulait
I'accabler. (Thiers.) ° En tout cas, si je I'epouse, et qu'il
veuille en mettre un autre ici ^ votre place, vous n'y
perdrez point. (Mar.) * A peine, en effet, est-il expire
qu'on voit ^clater tous les d^sordres qui fermentaient
depuis quelques annees. (Barante.) ^ Vous le feriez officier
de la Legion d'honneur qu'il ne serait pas plus superbe.
(Janin.) ° La vie s'ach^ve que I'on a k peine 6baucli§ son
ouvrage. (La B.)

Theme 35.

peepositions.

' Do you wish that I pass on the other side ? ° I found

these flowers on both sides of the river. ' You got up quite

early this morning. ' I shall not see him again in eight

350 AKEAHTGEMEITT. [228-

days. 'It was a little more than midnight. 'He will
come in less than half an hour. ' I gave him more than
half of what he asked. ° He sells heer by the pot, butter
by the pound, cloth by the yard, and eggs by the dozen.
° It was wise of him to go to the United States, rather than
to Mexico. '° He will stay a year in South America before
returning. " I shall go to find him in three days, and we
shall finish our journey together within a month. " He lives
like a man of property. " I can speak of it only with pain
and regret. " One must bear her loss with, fortitude.
" You came in by the door; you will go out by the window.
" "Without money, without friends, what can one do ? "I
had to leave without seeing any one. '*She speaks with-
out committing faults. " For the last fifty years they have
talked only of Napoleon. "" He had not seen them for five
days.

XII.— ARRANGEMENT OF THE SENTENCE.

223. The arrangement of the sentence in French cor-
responds in a general way to that in English.

a. That is to say, especially, those very frequent and necessary
changes of order, consisting in inversion or putting the verb be-
fore its subject, and transposition or removing the verb to the
end of the sentence, which are characteristic of German, are
mainly wanting in French, as they are in English.

6. Minor matters regarding the position of words — such as put-
ting the adjective more usually after the noun, putting an object-
pronoun before the verb that governs it, and the like — have been
already disposed of above, under the different classes of words.

c. It remains here only to give a few rules respecting cases of
inversion, or putting the subject after the verb, which also in
general are like English cases, yet with some difEerences.

224. In questions, the rule for inversion is in general
the same as in English : that is, the subject is pat after
the verb, except when the subject is itself the interroga-

227] INVERSION. 351

tive element (either an interrogative pronoun, or contain-
ing an interrogative word).

Thus, 6tes-vous ici are you here ? but qui est ici who is here ?
quel homme ^tait ici what man was here ? combien d'hommes
seront ici demain how many men vnll he here to-morrow f

a. But it is only the conjunctive subject-pronouns, and also on
and ce, that may without restriction follow the verb in questions.
If, on the other hand, the subject is any other pronoun than
these, or a noun, the subject is usually required to be stated first,
and then the question asked about it by means of a conjunctive
pronoun (see I. 11).

b. When, however, the sentence begins with certain interroga-
tive words (XXV. 6), even a noun is allowed to be put after the
verb, unless the verb has a direct object. Thus, qu'a cet homme
(or cet homme qu'a-t-il) wTmt is the matter with this man ? oil
est votre frere (or on votre frere est-il) where is your brother ?
combien vaut cela (or combien cela vaut-il) how much is that
worth ? but only comment votre firere supporte-t-il son malheur
Tiow does your brother bear his misfortune f

c. Interrogative inversion with a noun as subject is very often
avoided by using the paraphrase est-ce que is it true that, or is
it the case that : thus, est-ce que votre frere est ici is your
brother here ? And the same paraphrase is also common even
with a pronoun-subject : thus, est-ce qu'il est venu has he come ?
— especially in the 1st sing. , with a verb-form ending in e : thus,
est-ce que j'aime (only rarely aim^-je) do I love ?

225. Interjected phrases, marking a quotation as made

in the words of the one who uttered them, are inverted

in French, just as in English.

Thus, venez, m'a-t-il dit co^me, said he to me, quoi ! m'^criai-je
wTiat ! cried I.

226. In optative phrases, or those expressing a wish

(sometimes having also an imperative Tor exclamatory

sense), the inverted arrangement is sometimes used, with

a subjunctive (see § 131^).

This is not common, a que, in the sense of would that, being
generally used instead. Examples are : vive la reine long live
the queen ! poisse-t-il (or qu'il puisse) revenir bientSt nmy he
soon return ! pl4t a Dieu might it please Qod !

227. Quite rarely, inversion is used with a subjunctive

353 ABKANGEMENT.

(usually past) to give a conditional sense — ^that is, one that
would be fully expressed with if or though (see § 131c).
Thus, dflt-il m'en couter la vie should it (i.e. though it should^
cost me my life, fussiez-vous homme ou d^mon were you (i.e.
whether you were) man or demon, lis auraient r^sist^, n'eflt €t6
le canon they would have resisted, but for the cannon (lit'ly, had
the cannon not been).

228. l^oi seldom, the sentence is inverted when some

other member of it than the subject is placed at its head.

Such another member may be a predicate adjective, an object,
an adverb or adverbial phrase of place or time or other accom-
panying circumstance, and so on. The inversion is nowhere re-
quired, but only more or less common. Some of the cases may
be more specially described as follows :

a. After certain adverbs and adverbial phrases — especially a
peine scarcely, en vain in vain, aussi accordingly, toujonrs ever,
encore besides, au moins or du moins at least, peut-gtre perhaps,
tout au plus at the utmost — a pronoun-subject is commonly made
to foUow the verb : thus, a peine etais-je entrd hardly had I
come in, en vain (or vainement) I'a-t-il essaye in vain did he
attempt it, ce sont de belles ^toffes, aussi cofitent-elles cher they
are handsome stuffs, and correspondingly dear, pent-Stre vous
attend-elle perhaps she is waiting for you. In corresponding
cases, a noun-subject also is sometimes treated as in asking a
question : thus, a peine cet homme etait-il entre hardly had
this man entered.

b. After a predicate adjective, with gtre, a noun-subject some-
times follows the verb. This is especially common with tel : thus,
telle ^tait sa condition such was his condition ; other examples
are : humbles furent d'abord les pouvoirs humble were at first
the powers, autres sont les temps de Moise different are the
times of Moses.

c. Likewise, after various specifications of time, place, and cir-
cumstance : thus, ainsi dit le renard thus said the fox, ici ^tait
jadis une ville here was formerly a city, alors commenga une
lutte terrible then began a terrible struggle, a c6te de notre
ami 6tait sa femme beside our friend was his wife, au milieu
de la foule se trouvait un petit garQon in the midst of the crowd
was found a little boy, h. cette condition fut ajout^e une autre
to this condition was added another.

d. Likewise, in a relative clause, after quel, que, oft, and the
like : thus, on vit quelle 6tait sa situation one saw what his situa-
tion was, le plaisir que lui donne la vue d'un ami the pleasure
which the sight of a friend gives him, c'est 1^ qu'est ne ce grand

830] INVERSION. 353

homme it is there that this great-man was bom, la place o4 €tait
dress€ I'^chafaud the place where was erected the scaffold.

e. These inversions with a noun-subject take place especially
where the subject is a complex one, or accompanied by adjuncts
which connect with following plauses. They can also hardly
occur if the verb has additional a,djuncts, especially objects that
foUow it.

229. In rare cases, the verb itself stands at the begin-
ning of an affirmative sentence.

Thus, vient nn autre {along) comes another.

230. In poetry, many of the ordinary rales for the

arrangement of the members of a sentence are liable to

be violated.

Illustrations of all the various cases of inversion are to be seen
among the sentences already given above. A few more are added
here.

ILLUSTRATIVE SiaJTENCES — XIi. Diverted Axrongement.

(§ 224.) ' Oil sont, Dieu de Jacob, tes antiques bont6s ?
(Roc.) ^ D'oii vient done la c6r6monie que vous faites ?
\Mar.) ' Quel est ce principe ? quels en sont les Elements ?
(Guizot.) * Et que dira men p^re, si je te cache sans sa
permission ? (Merimee.) ' A quoi pretend une religion,
messieurs, quelle qu'elle soit? (Guizot.) "A qui va cette
lettre? (Begnard.)

(§ 226.) ' Puisse-je raflfermir ta haine qui chancelle ;
puisse une juste horreur te saisir comme moi ! {Delavigne.)
' Sois-je du ciel 6cras6 si je mens ! (Mol.) ^ Plut d Dieu
que le sacrifice de ma vie pftt sauver la sienne ! [Guizot.)

(§ 227.) ' Eut-il 6te bien plus fort et bien plus habile,
eut-il 6te Richelieu ou Sully, il fut tombe de m^rae.
(Mignet.) ' Coutdt-il tout le sang qu'H^lene a fait r^pandre,
dus86-je apr^s dix ans voir men palais en cendre, je ne ba-
lance point. (Hac.)

(§ 228.) ' Comme la mode fait l'agr6ment, aussi fait-elle
la justice. (Pasc.) ' Si cela pouvait lui donner les senti-
ments d'un homme qui va paraitre devant Dieu, encore
serait-ce quelque chose, (de Sev.) ' Du moins, en tout cas, ne
la connait-on point comme on connait le chevalier. (Mar.)
* Peut-^tre traverse-t-il encore quelques rues solitaires.
( Girardin.) ' Combien les lunettes nous ont-elles decouvert
23

354 VEBSIFIOATIOK. [280—

d'fitres qui n'6taient point pour nos philosophes d'aupara-
vant ! (Pasc.) ' Aussi la mort de cet homme ne contrasta-
t-elle point avec sa vie. {£al.) ' En Espagne, au milieu du
rdgne de Philippe II., 6clate la revolution des Provinoes-
Unies. ( Ouizot.) ' Maintenant est fait le plaisir de Dieu.
(Michelet.) ' Ainsi s'est 6ooul6 le dix-huiti^me si^cle. (5a-
rante.) " Aux lettres de pierre d'Orphee vont succ^der les
lettres de plomb de Guttemberg. {V.Hugo.) "Au-dessous
du gros poirier qui touche au mur de la grange 6tait assis,
sur le banc de pierre, mon p^re adoptif . {Sue.) " Enfin
arriv^rent les jours d'agonie. (Bal.) '' Voici la maison oil
demeure Reboul. (Bum.) " Tout homme peut f aire ce qu'a
fait Mahomet. (Fase.) " C'est M que se ravive l'4me des-
s6ch6e sur les bouquins. (Toepfer.) " J'essaierai d'arriver
ainsi k comprendre quel a 6t6 dans Son ensemble, et d'une
maniSre complete, le dSveloppement de notre glorieuse
patrie. [Guizot.) " Je commen9ais a me faire d ce t^te-k-
t^te lorsque survint un incident. ( V. Hugo).

(§ 229.) ' Viennent ensuite les d^putSs de la Grece. {Le
Bas.)

Xni.— FRENCH VERSIFICATION.

231. Since any one wlio reads French poetry ought to know,
at least in a general way, how it is constructed, the following
brief statements are added here.

232. Since in French <!here is (12) no marked distinc-
tion of long and sbort vowels, and also (11) only a weak
accent, resting on the final syllable of each word, and un-
accompanied by a secondary accent on any of the pre-
ceding syllables, there can be in French verse no proper
metrical movement, either of quantity or of accent : a
French line of verse is only a certain number of successive
syllables, with a rhyme at the end. There is and can be
no French verse without rhyme.

233. a. In making out the proper number of syllables
for a line, the silent syllables, or those containing a mute

234] VEBSIFICATION. 355

e (18), count in general, as much as those which have a
full pronunciation in prose.

Thus, there are six syllables in

II re- I garde | toojonis ;
and seven in

Une I perle \ qu'il don- | na ;
and eight in

Fanvre | mere, | ton fils | est mort ;
and twelve in

Onvrent | des im- | mortels | les bien- | faisan- | tes mains ;
and thirteen in

Ta la I troubles ! | reprit | cette | bete | cruel- | le.

h. But if a final e mute comes to stand before an initial
vowel of a following word, it is lost, the two vowels
forming together only one syllable.

Thus, there are six syllables in

Le ri- 1 che^et le | puissant ;
and seven in

n Ian- I ce^un fou- | dre„a Tin- .| stant ;
and eight in

£t I'an- I nee^ex- { pire„a | sa voiz ;
and nine in

Un pas 1 en-co- | re„en-co- | re_une„heu- | re j
and twelve in

Oh ! I'es- I time | publi- | que,„eUe„est | vers les | ecus !
and thirteen in

II est I pauvre^i- | nuti- | le^et cha- { cun le | delais- | se.
e. Certain special rules will be given farther on.

234. Khyme is of two kinds, called respectively mas-
culine and feminine.

a. Feminine rhyme is that between words having a
mute syllable after those whose accordance makes the
rhyme.

Thus, feminine rhyme is that between mdre and pure, contente
and r^cente, dis-je and fis-je, est-ce and masse, glorifie and
fortifie, due and vue, chimeras and ameres, joum^as and
anuses, irritant and habitant, prient and fient, and the like.

h. Masculine rhyme is that between words which end

with a fuEy pronounced syllable.

356 VERSIFICATION. [234—

Thus, mflr and pur, content and recent, dis and fis, dfi and
vu, berceaux and tombeaux, pass6 and versS, lui and nui.

c. The names masculine and feminine are evidently given be-
cause the two kinds of rhyme are such as subsist between the
masculine and the feminine forms of adjectives respectively :
thus pur mflr and pure mflre ; contents r^cents and contentes
r^centes.

235. In French verse, masculine and feminine rhymes

are required always to alternate.

This may be line by line, or couplet by couplet, or one couplet
within another — or yet otherwise, if more than two lines are
made to rhyme together. Examples are :

Bien ne pese tant qn'an secret ;
Le porter loin est difficile anz femmes ;

Et je sais meme sur ce fait
Bon nombre d'hommes qui sont femmes, {La F.)

Oul, je viens dans son temple adorer I'Eternel ;
Je viens, selon I'osage antique et solennel,
Celebrer avec vans la famense jonrnee
Oh. sur le mont Sina la loi nous fnt donnee. {Bac.)

On parlera de sa gloire

Sous le chaume bien longtemps ;

L'humble toit, dans cinquante ans,
Ne connaitra plus d'autre histoire. {Beranger.)

236. Rhymes, to be allowed, must have more than
the mere sound in common ; there must also be a certain
correspondence of written form — so far, especially, that
the finals would carry on or link (84 etc.) alike.

a. Thus, miir and purs are never allowed to rhyme, nor con-
tent and r^cents, nor bleu and peuz, nor ai and nez, and so on ;
nor would banc and «inand or camp rhyme ; nor plier and fi^ or
fiez. But words ending in the different sibilants, as eux and
bleus, or fais and paix and nez, or crev^s and devez, may
rhyme ; also d and t, as attend and autaut ; or c and g, as banc
and rang ; also cases like passe and gr&ce, honte and prompte,
m6me and theme and aime, gants and temps, and so on.

J}. The first singular of a verb is sometimes used in rhyme with-

288] VBESIFI0ATIO?r. 357

out its final s : thus, j'averti with votre parti je vien with bien,
je croi with emploi, and so on.

This is because the final s of this person is only a recent addition to
it : see § 5c.

c. Some words have in verse two different forms, either of
which may be used : thus, encor beside encore, avecqne beside
avec, jusques beside jusque, and so on.

d. Earely, the liberty is taken of rhyming words generally for-
bidden to rhyme ; and then the spelling is sometimes changed to
correspond : thus, circonspec (for -spect) and coups de bee {La F.).

237. Words in which a mute syllable (-e or -es or -ent) follows
a vowel — ^thus, cr^e crdes orient, fle fies fient, and the like — are
of very restricted use in verse, the combinations being never
allowed to count as two syllables in the middle of a line. Those
in final e may be used there before an initial vowel, where their e
is lost (§2336): thus,

Mais bientot a ma vue^on I'a fait disparaitre.
Son maitre le rappelle, et CTie,_et se tounuente.
Que ne snis-je restee^auz bords ou j'ai fleori ?

But those in es and ent are only allowed at the end of a line,
where they make a feminine rhyme.

a. But the ending aient of imperfect and conditional (also
soient, aies, aient) is arbitrarily reckoned as a single syllable :
thus,

Erraient an gre da vent, de lenr sort inceitains.

. , . que les rois
Le soient aussi ; c'est I'indulgence.

238. An i and another following vowel often form together
only one syllable, while in other cases they make two syllables :
thus, rien, but li-en ; fier adj. , but fi-er v. ; lieux, but glo-ri-eux ;
and so on.

a. For the most part, such combinations have in the same word
always the same value, as one syllable or as two ; but there are a
few words in which they are allowed to be treated either way :
thus, an-cien or an-ci-en, hier or hi-er. The endings ions and
iez (of impf. indie, conditional, and pres. and impf. subj.) are in
general one syllable ; but they are two in the conditional if a
mute precedes the r : thus, 6-tions ^-tiez, se-rions se-riez, don-
nions don-uiez, fiis-sions fas-siez ; but vou-dri-ons vou-dri-ez.

6. The distinction between these two classes of cases has to be
learned principally by practice. But it may be pointed out that
where the combination corresponds to a single vowel in Latin, it
is one syllable in French : thus, rien rem, fiel fel, bien beu-e,

358 VERSIFICATION. [2*8

pied ped-em, fier fer-um, lien loc-um. On the other hand, the
i makes a separate syllable in the forms and derivatives of verbs
in ier : thus, li-er, li^ons, li-ez, li-ant, li-enr, li-en.

239. The same difference of value is found, much less often, in
combinations of u with a following vowel ; and, quite rarely, in
those of on.

Thus, m-i-ue, but plni-e ; nn-ar-ge, but i-gna-ne ; ouais, but
jon-ais ; and so on.

a. A n after q, or g is in general only an orthographic sign, and
has no separate value in making syllables. But in ar-gn-er it is
pronounced, and makes a syllable throughout, as in other verbs
in ner, like re-mu-er, fln-er.

6. Many otherwise doubtful cases are settled by the use of the
di8Bresis or of an accent.

240. Those pupils who are to learn to scan the lines of French
verse may best be practised in dividing off the syllables two by
two — in writing, in some such manner as is done above, in § 233 ;
and also in reading them with the same division. In ordinary
reading of French poetry, of course, no such artificial division
should be made.

VOCABULARIES.

I.— FRENCH-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

ABBREVIATIONS.

o(^-.

adjective.

irr.

irregular (the list no. added)

adv.

adverb.

It.

ItaUan.

art.

article.

L.

Latm.

conj.

coDiunctioii,

LL.

Low or late Latin.

k

feminine noun.

num.

numeral.

French.

m.

masculine noun.

It.

from, derived from.

OF.

Old French.

a.

German, Germanic.

pple.

participle.

Gr.

Greek.

prep.

preposition.

impers

inflnitive.

pron.

pronoun.

refl.

refleriTe.

Hkterj.

interiection.

V.

verb.

Words irregularly pronounced have * prefixed, and reference to the Bules of
Pronunciation added immediately after them.
A ' before initial h shows it to be aspirate (64a-<2).
References are made in the same manner as above in the text (see p. SX>2).
Phrases are given and explained under their principal words.

a prep. (§ 2036, 205) to, toward,

unto ; at, in ; of, for, with, etc.

(characterized by) ; about, in

respect or reference to ; on, by ;

from (§ 161c) ; belonging to

(§ 161«). [L. ad.]
abandon m. abandonment, renun

ciation. [a and bandon, fr. Q.

ba/i].
abandonner v. abandon, give up.

[fr. abandon.]
abattre v. (XX. 3e) beat or knock

down, strike off. [a for L. ab,

and battre.]
abbe m. abbe (name and title of a

clerical person of a certain

grade). [L. cMatem.']
abeille/. bee. [L. apiculam.']
abimer ». sink, overwhelm, swal-
low up. [abine, abyss ; fr.

Gr.]
abord m. access, arrival, attack :

d'abord, from the start, at first,
first, [a and bord, side, edge.]

aborder v. arrive, land. [fr. abord.]

aboyer v. bark. [L. a^iaubari.]

abreger v. abridge, shorten (hence,
cause to seem shorter, make to
pass pleasantly). [L. abbreviare,
fr. brevis, short.]

absent adj. absent. [L.]

absolument adv. absolutely, [fr.
absoln, L. aisolutus.'\

abuser v. make wrong use of (de :
§ 162/), abuse, [fr. abus, L.
abusus.l

academie /. academy, institution
of learning {hence, learning and
its interests). [L. , fr. Gr.]

accabler t. overwhelm, crush,
[fr. OF. caable, engine of war.]

accepter v. accept, submit, w re-
sign one's self to. [L. aceep-
ta/re.l

360

FBENCH-ENGLISH

accompagner «. accompany, [fr.
compagne, companion.]

accomplir «. accomplish, complete:
fait accompli, thing done and
finished. [L. ad-compleire, fill.]

accorder n. accord, grant. [LL.
accor da/re, tc. cor, heart.]

accoutumer v. accustom, inure,
[fr. coutnme, custom.]

*aecroc (68^) m. hook, hitch, tear,
[fr. croc, fr. G., =crook etc.]

accueillir v. {irr. 46) receive, wel-
come. [L. ad-colligere.l

acheminer v. despatch : s' . . ., set
out, proceed, [a and chemin,
on the road.]

acheter v. buy, purchase. [LL.
ad-ca^ta/re.l

acheyer «. achieve, bring to com-
pletion, finish, [a chef, to a
head.]

acqueiir «. (wr. 63) acquire, gain.
[L. aeguvrere.']

actif (M^. active, brisk. [L. ac
iimm.'\

action /. action, movement, play,
deed. [L. actionem.]

adhesion/, adhesion, concurrence.
[L. adhcBsionem.]

adieu m. adieu, farewell, good-by.
[a Dieu, (I commend you) to
God.]

administrer «. administer, man-
age. [L. administrate.]

admiTaUe a^. admirable, won-
derful, amazing. [L. adnma-
bUem.]

admiration /. admiration. [L.
admiratioTum.]

admirer «. admire. [L. admirare.]

adopter ». adopt. [L. adopfare.]

adoptif adj. adoptive, by adoption.
[L. adoptivum.']

adoucissement m. softening, miti-
gation, alleviation, [fr. adoucir,
fr. doux, soft.]

adresser v, address : s' . . ., address
one's self, apply, appeal, [fr.
L. ad-dirigere, direct.]

adroit adj. adroit, dexterous, skil-
ful, clever, [fr. L. ad-directum.]

aSaixBf. aSair, concern, business:

votre affaire, the thing for you,

what you want ; avoir affiiire

a, have to deal with, [a faire

(a thing) to do.]
affaire a^. (as if pple of affairer)

busy, occupied, [fr. affitire,]
affaissement m. being weighed

down, depression, ^ving way.

[fr. affaisser, fr. faiz, burden,

h.fascem.]
af9iger ®. afflict, grieve, vex. [L.

affligere.]
affranohir v. free, liberate, enfran-
chise, [fr. &anc, G., free.]
affronter v. stand in front of,

face, meet, brave, [fr. front,

Jj. frontem, front.]
afin adv. to end : afin de, for the

purpose of, in order to, to;

afin que (§ 137d!), in order that,

that, [a fin.]
age m. age. [L. cdattcum.]
age adj. (as if pple of ager) aged,

old, on in years, [fr. age.]
agir V. act, behave, proceed, ex-
ert one's self : s'agir de impeix.

concern, be question of, be the

matter in hand. [L. agere.]
agneau m. lamb. [L. agnellum.']
agonie /. agony, death-struggle.

[L. agoniam, fr. Gr.]
agoniser s. be at the point of death.

[L., fr. Gr.]
agreable adj. agreeable, pleasant.

[fr. agreer, fr. a gre, L. ad gra-

turn.]
agrement m. agreeableness, pleas-

ingness, gratification, charm.

[fr. agreer, fr. a gre.]
agriculture f. agriculture (crops

and theh" interests). [L. agii-

cuUuram.]
aide m.f. (% 15a) aid, help, helper.

[fr. aider.]
aider v. aid, help : aider a (g 1616),

give help to or about, assist.

[L. adjutare.]
aieul m. (§ 22c) grand-parent, an-
cestor. [LL. aviolum, fr. L.

avus.]
aigle m.f. (% 18a) eagle, standard.

[L. aquilam.]

VOCABTTLABT.

361

^aiguille (62/) /. needle, spire.
[L. acuculam.}

*aigmser (6Zf) v. sharpen, [fr.
aign, L. acutum, sharp.]

ail m. (§ 21a) garlic. [L. allium.']

ailleoTB adv. elsewhere, some w
an3rwhere else: d'ailleurs, oth-
erwise, besides, moreover. [L.
aliorsum.'l

aimaMe adj. amiable, lovable,
lovely, [fr. aimer ]

aimer ». love, like, be fond of or
attached to : aimer mienz, like
better, prefer. [L. amare.]

ainsi adv. thus, so, in this or that
way, likewise : ainsi qne, as, so
as, as well as, as also. [L.
aque sic or in sic.']

air m. air (atmosphere) ; air, look,
mien, aspect : avoir I'air, have
the look or aspect; (with adj.:
§ 566) appear, seem to be. [L.
aerem.]

aise adj. pleased, glad, happy.

[?]

aise adj. easy, not diflScult. [fr.
aise.]

aisement adv. easily, readUy. [fr.
aise.]

ajonrner v. adjourn, defer, pnt
offl. [a and jour, day.]

ajonter v. add; rejoin. [L., fr.
ad aad juxta, near.]

alarme /. alarm, fnght. [fr. a
I'arme, to arms !]

alarmer v. alarm, frighten, terrify,
[fr. alarme.]

*albtim (61 J) m. album. [L.,
white.]

alentoor adv. around, roundabout,
[a I'entour, in the neighbor-
hood.]

allemand adj. German. [OQ. ale-
man, Allemanni.]

aller v. (irr. 82 ; p. 138) go, be go-
ing : allons, come, come on ;
s'en aller (XXIX. 7c), go oflE or
away, be going ; y aller de
impers. concern. [?]

allier ». ally, join. [L. alligare.]

*almanach (696) m. almanac.
[Axabic]

*aloes (74e2) m. aloes. [Arabic]
alors adv. then, at that time ; in

that case : alors qne, at the time

that, when. [L. ad illam Jioram,

at that hour.]
alternative /. alternative, [fr. L.

alternare.]
ambassadenr m. ambassador, [fr.

G.]
ambitieuz adj. ambitious : as noun

ambitious person. [L. amin-

tiosum.]
ame/. soul, spirit. [L. animam.]
*amen (54rf), amen. [6r.]
amener v. bring, lead ; draw on,

induce, [fr. mener.]
*amer (73i) adj. bitter, sharp.

[L. amarum.]
amertome /. bitterness, vexation.

[fr. amer.]
amenblement m. furniture, [fr.

menbles, movables, fr. L. mobi-

lia.]
ami m. , amie /. (§ 16) friend. [L.

amicum, amicam.]
amitie /. friendship. [L. amiei-

tiam.]
amollir v. soften : s' . . ., be moUi-

fled or softened, grow soft. [fr.

mol, soft.]
amour m. f. (§ 15c) love : amour

propre, self-love. [L. am/>rem.']
amoureux adj. amorous, enam-
oured, in love (with, de). [fr.

amonr.]
amuser v. amuse, divert, entertain.

[a and muser, stare.]
an m. year (esp'ly in definitions of

length of time). [L. annum.]
ancetre m. ancestor. [L. antecessor,

preceder.]
ancien adj.' ancient, old, former.

[LL. antianum.]
anciennement adv. anciently, of

old. [fr. ancien,]
aneantir v. reduce to nonentiw^ an-
nihilate, [a and neant (L. ne-

ens), nothingness.]
ange m. angel. [L. angelum, fr.

Gr.]
anglais adj. English, [fr. angli,

Angles.]

362

FEENCH-BNGLISH

animal m. animal, living being.
[L. animal,']

animer v. animate, enliven, excite.
[L. animare.]

aunee/. year (esp'ly as a continu-
ous space of time), [fr. an.]

annoncer v. annoimce, make
known. [L. annuntiare.']

^antichrist (76a) m. antichrist.
[Gr.]

antique adj. antique, ancient, of
former times. [L. antiquiim,.'\

*aoiit (14) m. August. [L. augua-
tum.'\

*aouteron (14) m. harvestman,
reaper, [fr. aont.]

apercevoir v. (in: 65) perceive, no-
tice, observe. [L. ad-percipere.}

aplanir v. make plane or even,
smooth, [fr. plan, L. planum.]

appartenii v. (irr. 61) appertain,
belong. [L. adpertinere.]

appeler v. (XXI. 3e) call, summon,
appeal to. [L. appella/re.]

*appendice (60e) m. appendix. [L.]

applaudir v. applaud, cheer: ... a,
give applause to, applaud. [L.
applaitdere.]

apporter v. brmg, convey, procure.
[L. apportare.]

apprendfe v. (irr. 30) apprehend,
learn ; teach, make known, in-
form. [L. apprehendere.]

approcher v. bring near (to, de : §
162/) ; draw near, approach (to,
de); s' . . ., approach, draw near
(to, de). [fr. proche, near.]

approuver v. pprove, approve of.
[L. approbare.]

appuyer ». support ; lean, rest,
[fr. appni, a and OF. pui,
height.]

apres prep, after, next following.
adv. afterward, later ; further,
proceed : d'apres, according to ;
apres que, after that, after (conj.).
[L. ad-pj'easwm.]

apres-demain adv. day after to-
morrow.

apres-midi/. or m. afternoon.

arbre m. (§ 12c) tree. [L. arbo-
remJl

arc m. bow. [L. arcum.]

archiduc m. arch-duke, [archi-, fr.
6r., and due, L. ducem, leader.]

architecture /. architecture. [L.]

argent m. silver ; money, treasure.
[L. argentum.]

*arguer (62/) «. argue. [L. ar.
guere.]

arme/. (S 126) arm, weapon. [L.
ai'ma.]

armee/. army. [L. armatam.]

arracher v. take away or obtain by
force, wrest, extort, snatch,
force (from, a : § 161c). [L. ab-
radieari.]

arranger v. arrange : s' . . ., ar-
range itself, come out all right,
[fr. rang, rank.]

arreter v. arrest, bring to rest, stop,
check ; stay, (of a dog) point, set :
s' . . ., arrest one's self, stop,
stay. [fr. rester, stay.]

arriere adv. in the rear, backward,
behind : en arriere, backward,
back, into the background. [L.
ad retro.]

arriver v. arrive : arrive, person
arrived, arrival. [L. ad-ripare,
fr. ad ripam, to the shore.]

arrivee/. arrival, [fr. arriver.]

arsenal m. arsenal, [fr. Arabic]

art m. (§ 12c) art. [L. artem.]

artifice m. ai-tifice, deceit, trick.
[L. artijicium.]

artisan m. artisan, workman, [fr.
art.]

*as (lid) in. ace. [L. a.s.]

asile m. asylum, refuge. [L., fr.
Gr.]

^aspect (76a) m. aspect, appear-
ance. [L. anpecium.]

assassin m. assassin, [f r. Arabic]

assassinat m. assassination, [fr.
assassin.]

assemblee/. assembly, [fr. assem-
bler.]

assembler v. assemble : s' . . . ,
gather, come together, assemble,
[fr. L. simul, together.]

asseoir v. (irr. 78) sit down, take
a seat: s' . . ., sit down. {L. ad-
sidere.]

VOCABtJLAET.

363

Bnerrir ®. reduce to servitude, sub-
jugate, enslave : asservi, slavish.
[£r. serf, serf, slave.]

assez adv. (Y. 4a) enough, suffi-
ciently; tolerably, fairly, rather.
[L. ad aatu.l

assiette f. plate, [fr. L. ad and
situs, site.]

assister v. assist, aid, succor ; be
present (at, a : § 161&), be a wit-
ness (of, a) : assistant, one pres-
ent, bystander, spectator. [L.
ad-sistere.'l

assnrer i). assure, make certain :
assure, sure, secure, certain,
steady. [L. a,ssecurare.~\

assorement adv. assuredly, certain-
ly, [fr. assure.]

atelier m. workshop, studio. [LL.
haiiUllarium,{1).'\

attacher v. attach, fasten, bind,
tie, join, fix : b' . . ., attach one's
self, be attached or fastened or
fixed ; apply one's self. [fr.
tache, tack, nail ; prob. Celtic.^

attaque /. attack, [fr. attaqner.'

attaquer v. attack : s' . . . ii, fal
upon, pick a quarrel with, [same
as attacher.]

atteindre v. (irr. 16) attain : . . . a,
attain to, attain. [L. attinge)-e.'\

attendre ■». wait for, await ; wait,
stay : s' . . . a, await, expect, be
prepared for; en attendant, while
waiting, meanwhile, in the mean
time. [L. attendere.^^

attenter «. attempt : . . . a, make
an attempt upon, assail, plot
against. [L. attentare.'\

attention /. attention ; mark of
attention or regard or considera-
tion, considerate notice. [L.]

attester v. attest, bear witness to.
[L. attestari.']

attirer v. draw down, attract :
s' ■ , ., bring upon one's self, in-
cur. [S and tirer, draw.]

attitude/, attitude. [L. a^titudi-
nem.]

anberge /. inn, tavern, [fr. G.
herberge, camp.]

aacnn pron. {with ne : § 111, 167)

not any, none, no. [L. aliquem

unum^
an-dela adv. beyond : . . . de, be-
yond (pi-ep.). [au (a le), de, and

la.]
an-dessous adv. below : . . . de, be-
low, beneath (prep.), [au (a

le), de, and sons.]
au-dessus adv. above : . . . de, above

(prep.), [au (a le), de, and bus,

sur.]
anjonrd'hni adv. to-day, nowadays.

[au (a le) jour, de, and hui, L.

hodie, to-day.]
*aulx asTa) pi. of ail (§ 21a).
auparavant adv. before, formerly,

previously, beforehand, [au (a

le), par, and avant.]
aupres adv. near, at liand : . . . de,

near to, in presence of, in lie

eyes of, before, [an (a le) and

pres, near.]
aurore/. dawn, aurora ; gold color,

of gold color (§ 53d). [L. auro-

ram.\
auspice m. auspice. [L. atispi-

cium.'l
aussi adv. also, too ; as ; as much,

equally; accordingly. [L. aliud

sic, else so.]
aussitot adv. as soon : . . . que, as

soon as {conj.). [aussi and tSt,

soon.]
antant adv. as much or many: . . .

que, as much as (conj.). [L. aliud

tantum.']
autel m. altar. [L. altare.]
auteur m. author. [L. auioi-em.]
*automne (69a) m. autumn. [L.]
autorite/. authority. [L.]
autour adv. around, roundabout :

. . . de, around, about (prep.).

[au (a le) and tour, turn.]
autre pron. other (XXVII. 6, 7 ; §

116). [L. alterum.]
autrefois adv. formerly, of old.

[autre and fois, time.]
autrement adv. otherwise, differ-
ently, [fr. autre.]
autrni pron. others than one's self,

other people, [fr. autre.]
avance /. advance, advantage :

364

FBEKCH-ENGIISH

d'avance, in advance, before-
hand. [/. avanoer.]

avancer v. advance, put forward,
push on, prefer, benefit, [fr.
avant.]

arant prep, before, previous to :
. . . de {with inf.), before ; . . .
que, before that, before (conj..-
§ 137a). [L. ab ante.]

avantage m. advantage, odds on
one's side, superiority. [fr.
avant.]

avant-Uer adv. day before yester-
day.

aveo prep, with, along with, by :
d'avec, from with, from. [L.
apud hoc]

avenlr m. time to come, . future,
[a venir, to come.]

avertir v. advertise, give notice,
inform, warn. [L. admrtei-e.]

aveu m. avowal, confession, ac-
knowledgment, [fr. avoner.]

avengle cMj. blind. [LL. ab-
oculum.']

aveuglement adv. blindly, [fr.
aveugle.]

avidite/. avidity, greediness. [L.
aviditatem.']

avis m. advice, opinion, way of
thinking. \L. advisum.]

aviser v. advise, inform : s' . . .,
bethink one's self, be thought-
ful, take notice, have come into
one's head. [fr. avis.]

avoir v. (in: 80 ; p. 58) have : y
avoir (XXX. 4), there is, etc.;
en avoir a, have to deal with; as
auxi/., see XXVIII. 5-7 ; for
phrases, see the nouns used: cf.
XIII. 6. [L. luibere.']

avoir m. what one has or possesses,
property, [inf. of avoir.]

avouer v. avow, acknowledge, con
fess. [LL. advotare, ad and
votum, vow.]

*avril {6Sd) m. April. [L. aprilem.']

bagatelle /. bagatelle, trifle, [fr.

It.]
baigner v. bathe, steep, drench.

[ft. bain, bath, L. balneum.]

baisser v. lower, drop, decline, fall
off, ebb. [fr. bas.]

bal TO. ball, dance, [fr. L. balla/re,
dance.]

balancer v. balance, waver, hesi-
tate, [fr. L. bilancem, bal-
ance.]

*balsamique (74J) adj. balsamic,
balmy, [fr. Gr.]

balustrade /. balustrade, railing,
[fr. baluBtre, baluster, fr. Gr.]

banc m. bench, seat. [fr. G.]

bannir v. banish, [fr. ban, fr. G.]

banqneroutier m. bankrupt, [fr.
It. banco rotto, bench broken.]

*bapteme (71a) m. baptism, [fr.
Gr.]

*baptiser (71a) v. baptize, [fr. Gr.]

barbe /. beard : faire la . , ., put
one's beard in order, shave. [L.
barbam.]

barbouiller v. smear, blot. [?]

barde m. bard. [L., fr. Celtic.]

*baril (68c) m. barrel. [LL. bariU
lum.]

baron m. baron. [LL. baronem.]

baronne/. bai'oness. [fr. baron.]

bas adj. low,, base, mean : a bas,
downward, down ; en bas, be-
low, down-stairs. [LL. bassum 1

bas adv. (XXXI. 9) low, in a low
tone.

bas m,. stocking, hose. [fr. bas
adj.]

basse-cour /. poultry yard, pit'ly
lower yard.]

bateau m. boat: . . . a vapeur, steam-
boat, steamer ; . . . a voiles, sail-
boat, sailing vessel. [LL. baium, J'
fr. G.]

batiment m. building, [fr. batir.]

batir v. build. [fr. bat, LL.
bastu7n.]

battre v. (XX. 3c) beat, strike :
se . . . , fight, fence. [L. batvere.]

beau, bel (VII. 7) adj. beautiful,
handsome, fine : avoir beau
(§ 176/), do or try in vain, make
useless effort to. [L. bellum.]

beauooup adv. (V. 4) much, a good
deal, many ; very much, very,
[bean and coup, stroke.]

TOCABULART.

365

beau-frere m. brother-in-law. [beau
and frere.]

beau-pere m. father-in law.

beante/. beauty, [fr. beau.]

bee&teak m. beefsteak. [English
word.]

bel, see bean.

beler v. bleat. [L. ialare.']

belle-soBur /. sister-in-law.

benin adj. (§ S3c) benignant, be-
nign. [L, benignum.]

benir v. bless. [L. benedicere.]

berger m. shepherd. [LL. berbi-
carium, fr. berbex, ram.]

besoin m need, necessity, require-
ment : avoir besoin, have need,
be in need or want, need. [?]

betail, bestiaux m. (§ 21a) cattle.
[L bestiale.]

bete /. beast, animal, brute, crea-
ture: bete noire, special aversion.
[L. bestiam,.'\

beurre to. butter. [L. bulyrum,
fr. Gr.]

bibliothenue/. library. [Grr.]

bien adv. well, rightly ; all right,
very well ; quite, indeed, truly,
surely ; very ; much, many (V.
4J) : bien que, though, although
(§ 1376). [L. J«7ie.]

bien m. what is well or good, good
thing, good ; wealth, fortune :
homme {or femme or gens) de bien,
honest or excellent person.
[= bien adv.]

bieu-etre m. well-being, welfare,
[bien and etre.]

bienfait m. benefit, good office,
kindness, [bien and fait, deed ]

bientot adv. very soon, soon, [bien
and tot, soon.]

billot m. block, [fr. Celtic]

*bi8 (74(Z) adv. twice. [L. 6m.]

blamer v. blame. [L. bktspJiemare,
fr. Gr.:8 9.]

Wane ailj. (VII. 66) white, [fr. G.]

blasphemer v. blaspheme. [L.
blasphemare, fr. Gr.: § 9.]

blesaer v. wound. [?]

Hen adj. thie. [fr. G.]

bocage m. woods, grove, boskage.
[LL. boseum, fr. G.]

boBuf TO. (*b(Bufs pi. 61a) ox. [L.
6o»em.]

boire v. (irr. 37) drink. [L. bibere.']

bois TO. wood, timber; wood, forest.
[LL. boseum, fr. G.]

bon adj. good (for, a), excellent ;
right ; kind : a quoi bon, good
for what ? of what use ? what
avails it 1 de bonne heure, in
good time, early ; a bon marche,
bon marche, cheap. [L. bonum.}

bonheur TO. happiness, good for-
tune, felicity, blessing. [L. bo-
num augurium.'\

bonjour m. good day, good morn-
ing, one's greeting or compli-
ments, [bon and jour, day.]

bonte/. kindness, goodness; act of
kindness, favor. [L. bonitatem."]

borner v. boimd, limit, confine,
narrow, stint. [?]

botte/. boot. [fr. G.]

bouohe/. mouth. [L. buccam.]

bouger v. budge, stir, move. [fr.
G.]

bouillir v. (in: 64) boil. [L. bul-
lire.^

boulanger to. baker, [fr. boule,
ball, loaf.]

bouquin m. old book, musty old
volume. [Dutch boehen, books.]

bourreau to. executioner. [?]

bout TO. end, tip, bit, small piece,
[fr. bouter, push, fr. G.]

bouteille/. bottle. [L. butieulam.l

boutonniere /. button-hole. [fr.
bouton, button, fr. bout.]

bras TO. arm. [L. brachium.']

brave adj. brave, gallant, excellent,
worthy (§ 606). [?]

braver v. brave, face bravely, defy,
[fr. brave.]

brebis/. sheep. [L. berbicem.']

breche/. breach, gap. [fr. G.]

breuvage to. drink, beverage, [fr.
L. bS)ere, drink.]

briUant adj. brilliant, shining,
[pple of briller.]

briller v. shine, be brilliant. [LL.
beryllare, fr. beryllus, beryl.]

brin to. blade, bit, jot, mote. [?]

*broc (58^) TO. jug. [?]

366

FEENCH-ENGLISH

brosse/. brush, [fr. G.]

bruit m. noise, bustle, ado ; ru-
mor, report, [fr, broire, L.
rugire (?).]

bruler v. burn, scorch, consume,
set on Are. [fr. 'L.per-vstum(T),
burnt up.]

brtin adj. brown, [fr. G.]

bmsqaement adv. bluntly, abrupt-
ly, roughly, [fr. brusque adj.,
f r. Italian ]

*brut (76(i) adj. crude, raw. [L.
brutum.\

biicher m. pile, funeral pile. [fr.
LL. busca, fr. G.]

bulle /. bull, papal edict. [L.
buUam, boss, seal.]

bureau m. bureau, desk. [fr. bure,
woolen stuff.]

but (76a) m. butt, mark ; end ;
aim, purpose, [same as bout.]

fa pron. (XXIV. 3 ; § 93) that,
that thing (or person), [fr. cela.]

cacher v. conceal, hide. [fr. L.
coactum, crowded together.]

cadeau m. gift, present. [L. ea-
tellum, chainlet.]

cadre m. frame, framework, bor-
der. [L. quadrum.^

mSe m. coflEee. [fr. Arabic]

calamite /. calamity. [L. calami-
tatem.'\

calme adj. calm : as noun, calm-
ness, tranquillity, serenity, [fr.
LL. eaumii (?).]

calmer v. calm, quiet, tranquil-
lize, [fr. calme.]

calomnier v. calumniate, slander,
libel. [L. calumnian.]

campagne /. field ; fields, country
(as distinguished from city).
[LL. campaniam, fr. eampuiiA

*cancer (736) m. cancer. [E.,
crab.]

canon m. cannon : poudre a . . .,
gunpowder, [fr. canne, cane.]

cantonnier m. roadsman, gate-
keeper, [fr. canton, canton.]

^caoutchouc (685') m. caoutchouc,
india-rubber. [West Indian
word.]

*cap (71a) m. cape, headland. [L.

ea/put.l
capable adj. capable ; just the one

or the thing to (de). [fr. L.

capax.'\
capitaine m. captain. [LL. cavi-

tanus.']
capital m. capital, invested funds.

[L. eapUale.']
capucin m. capuchin (monk), [fr.

capuce, cape.]
oar cojij. toT. [L. guare."]
caracterem. character. JTi.,fr.Gr.]
cardinal m. cardinal. [L.]
carriere/. career, race-course, [fr.

L. carrum, chariot.]
carrosse m. carriage, [fr. It., fr.

carrum.']
cas m. case, hap, event : en tout

cas, in any case, at any rate; en

or au cas que (conj.: § 137i),

in case that, supposing. [L.

caMim.]
casser v. break ; quash, [fr. L.

cassus.]
cathoUque adj. catholic. [Gr.]
cauchemar m. nightmare. [OF.

caucher (L. cakare, tread) and

G. mar.]
cause/ cause, reason, matter, case:

a cause de, by reason of. [L.]
causer ®. talk, converse, discuss

matters. [L. causari.]
cavalier m. horseman, cavalier,

knight, [fr. L. caballvs. horse.]
ce, cet pron. (XI. 2; XIII. 2, 3;

XXrV. ; § 147ft) this, that ; it

(they, these, those) : ce qui or

que, that which, what ; jusqu'a

ce que, until, till. [fr. L. icce Iwc,

ecce istum.]
ceci pron. thfe. [ce and ci.]
ceder v. yield, cede, give up : le

ceder (§ 82ft), give way. [L.

cede7-e.i
cela pi-on. that, [ce and la : XXIV.

3.]
celui, ceUe, etc. (XXIV. 4 ; § 92)

this or that one. [L. ecee tUum,

etc.]
cendre /. ashes, cinder. [L. eine-

rem.]

VOCABULABT.

367

*cenB (tid) m. franchise ; census.

[L. eensum.'\

cent num. hundred (XV. ; § 64).

[L. centum.}
centaine /. century, five score, a

hundred or so. [fr. cent.]
centieme num. hundredth, hun-
dredth part, [fr. cent.]
centre m. centre. [L. centrum.]
cependant adv. pending or during

this, meanwhile ; however, nev-
ertheless, [ce and pendant.]
ceremonie/. ceremony ; ceremoni-

ousness. [L. aBrim/miam.]
*cerf (61a) m. stag. [L. cervum.]
cerise,/, clierry. [fr. L. cerosum.]
certain adj. certam, sure ; certain,

some, sundry (VIII. 6e ; § 606).

[fr. L. eertus.]
certainement adv. certainly, surely.

[fr. certain]
certes adv. certainly, assuredly.

[L. certe."]
cesser v. cease, refrain from, stop.

[L. cessare.']
cet, see ce.
Chacon pron. (§ 109) each one,

each, every one. [L. quemque

unum..'\
chaise /. chair, seat. [L. cathe-

dram, fr. Gr.] Jrem.1

chalenr/. warmth, heat. [L. calo-
ehambre f. chamher, room : femme

de chambre, lady's maid. [L.

cam^ram (8 2e).]
champ m. field : snr le champ, on

the spot, at once, directly. [L.

ea/mpum.']
chanceler v. (XXI. 3c) stagger,

waver, falter. [L. caneellare.]
changer v. change, alter : changer

de (§ 162/), make a change in

regard to, shift, change. [L.

carrMare.']
chanson f. song, ditty. [L. can-

tionem]
chanter v. sing. [L. caniare.]
chantenr m. singer, [fr. chanter.]
chapean m. hat. [fr. OF. chape,

cape, cape.]
chapitre m. chapter. [L. capitu-

lum.l

chaqne pron. (XIV. 6 ; § 109) each,

every, [abbrvn. of chacun.]
char m. car, chariot, cart. [L.

carrum.]
charmer «. charm, delight, [fr.

charme, L. carmen.]
chasse /. chase, hunt, sport, [fr.

chasser.J
chasser v. chase, hunt ; chase

away, drive off, expel ; dismiss

(as a servant). [L. capta/re.]
chat m. cat. [L. cattum.}
chatain adj. (g 53d} chestnut-color-
ed, auburn. [L. castaneum.]
chateau m. castle, chateau. [L.

caxtellum.]
chand adj. warm : avoir chaud

(XIII. 6),be warm, feel warm (of

persons); faire chand (XXXII.

9a), be warm (of weather). [L.

calidum.]
chef m. head, chief : *chef-d'oBuvre

(61a), masterpiece. [L. caput.]
chemin m. road, way : chemin de

fer, railroad, railway. [LL.

caminum, fr. Celtic ?J
cheminee /. chimney ; fireplace ;

chimney-piece, [fr. chemin.]
^chenil (6ic)m. kennel, [f r. chien.]
Cher adj. (VIII. 5o ; § 606) dear,

costly, precious, loved, valued.

[L. carum.]
chercher v. seek, look for, try to

find : aller chercher, go for,

fetch. [L. circare, run about.]
cherement adv. dearly, at much

cost, at a high price. [fr.

cher.]
cherir v. cherish, treat with affec-
tion, hold dear. [fr. cher.]
cheval m. horse : a cheval, on

horseback. [L. caiallum.]
chevalerie/. chivalry, [fr. cheval.]
chevalier m. chevalier, knight.

[fr. cheval.]
chevelnre /. head of hair, hair.

[fr. cheveu.]
chevet m. head of a bed, bolster,

pillow, [fr, chef.]
cheveu m. (gen'ly pi.) hair. [L.

capillum.]
Chez prep, at or to the house of,

368

FRENCH-ENGLISH

where (one) lives, with, among.
[L. cam, in the house.l
chien m. dog. [L. canem.']
choir V. {in: 70) fall. [L. cadere.]
choisir v. choose, select, cull :

choisi, select, [fr. G. \
chose /. thing, object, matter, af-
fair : qnelque chose, something ;
toute chose, everything ; autre
chose, some or any thing else.
[L. eausam.]
*Christ {76a) m. Christ. [Gr.]
*chut (76a) mteij. hush, [imita-
tive.]
ci adv. (XIII. 3, XXIV.; § 91)

here. [L. ecce hic,'\
ciel m. (II. 5 ; § 2Za) heaven, sky,
clime ; canopy, awning ; Heav-
en. [L. cmlum.'l
ci-inclus, ci-joint, § 56a.
*cinq (72c) num. five. [L. quin-

gue.]
cinqnante num. fifty. [L. quin-

quaginta.'\
cinqnieme num. fifth, [fr. cinq.]
circonstance/. circumstance. [L.]
oitadelle/. citadel, [fr. It.]
citoyen m. citizen, [fr. cite, city.]
*ciTil (68d) adj. civil. [L. civUem. \
classiqae adj. classic, classical.

[L. classicum.'\
*clef (61«)/. kejr. [h. davem.']
clover ». nail, nvet, fix. [fr. clou,

nail, L. clavum.']
*club (57«) m. club. [English ]
coBur TO. ^ heart; courage, resolu-
tion : a cceur ouvert, with open
heart, openly, frankly ; de bon
coBur, with all one's heart, heart-
ily, sincerely. [L. air.']
col TO. collar. [L. coUum, neck.]
colere/. choler, anger, rage, wrath.

[L. choleram, fr. Gr.]
collegue m. colleague. [L. eoUe-

gam.]
coionie/. colony. [L.]
combat m. combat, struggle, fight.

[fr. combattre/|
combattre v. (XX. 8c) combat,
fight ; fight or struggle against,
contend with, [con and battre. ]
combien adv. how much or many ?

how much or many (relative),
how, in what measure or degree:
combien que, however much,
[comme and bien.]

combiner v. combine, contrive.
[L. combinare.l

comedie /. comedy ; Comedie fran-
9aiBe, name of a certain company
of actors at Paris. [L., fr. Gr.l

comique adj. comic, comical. | L J

commander v. command, order ;
... a, give in charge to, give
conunand or order to, direct.
[L. commendare.]

comme adv. conj as, just as, like ;
in character of, as being. [L.
guomodo ]

commencer v. commence, begin.
[L. CMTO-mttore,]

comment adv how ? how ! how
{relative), [fr. comme (-ment,
XXXI. 2).]

commentaire m. commentary. [L.]

commettre v. {irr. 31) commit. [L.
committere. \

commisBionnaire m messenger, er-
rand-man, porter, [fr. commis-
sion, errand.]

communication /. communication.
[L.]

compagnie /. company, society,
fellowship ; troop, band. [fr.
compagne, companion.]

comparable ndj. comparable, ad-
mitting comparison, commen-
surable. [L. comparabilem.']

complet adj. complete, entire. [L.
completiim.']

completement adv. completely, en-
tirely, [fr. complet.]

comprendre v.{irr. 30) comprehend,
include ; understand : y compris,
being included, with inclusion
of (§ 56a). [L. comprehendffie.'^

*compte (71a) m. account, com-
putation, reckoning, [fr. comp-
ter.]

^compter (71a) v. compute, count,
reckon. [L. computare.']

computer v. compute. [L. ; § 9.]

comte m. count, earl, f Tj. comitem^

comtesse /. countess, [fr. oomte.J

VOCABULAKT.

369

concevoii v. (irr. 65) conceive, form
a conception or idea of. [L.
cone£pere.'\

conolme v. {irr. 29) conclude ; in-
fer. [L. eoncludere.l

*oondamiier (69a) v. condemn. [L.
eondemnare.'\

condition /. condition, state, rank
in life. [L. conditionein.]

condnire v. {irr. 1) conduct, lead,
guide, manage, drive. [L. con-
ducere.'\

Gondoite/. conduct, [fr. condmre.]

eonfiance/. confidence, trust. [L.
conjidentiam.'l

confidence / confidence, trustful
communication : faire confidence
de, confide, disclose. [L. con-
fdeniiam.]

confiture /. sweetmeat, preserve,
jam. [fr. confire, L. conficere,
put together.]

confondre v. confound, confuse,
perplex, baffie. [L. eonfundere.]

connaitre v. {irr. 18) know, have
knowledge of, be acquainted
with, be informed of, have cog-
nizance of. [L. cognoscere.']

eonqnerir v. {irr. 63) conquer. pEi.
eonguirere.'\

mnqnete/. conquest. [L. conqui-
sitcMn."]

conscience/, conscience ; conscious-
ness, inner sense. [L.]

conseil m. counsel, advice. [L.
consilium.^

conseiUer v. counsel, advise (some-
thing); ... a, advise (some one).
[L. eonsiliari.]

consentement m. consent, [f r. con-
sentir, L. conaentire, consent.]

consequence /. consequence, im-
portance. [L. eoTisequentiam,.']

conserve! v. preserve, keep, retain.
[L. eonservare.]

consideraUementotfe. considerably,
[fr. considerable, fr. oonsiderer.]

considerer v. consider, regard, es-
teem. [L. considerare.J

consister ^ consist, be composed
or made up (§ lS2b). [L. con-
listere.]

consoler®, console, comfort, soothe.

[L. consolari.]
consolation/, consolation. [L.]
conspirer v. conspire, combine.

[L. eonspira/re.']
constitutionnel adj. constitutional.

[fr. constitution, L.]
oonstamment adv. constantly, [fr.

constant, L. (XXXI. 4a).]
constmire v. {irr. 3) construct,

build. [L. construere.']
consumer v. consume, waste. [L.

con8umere.'\
conte m. story, tale. [fr. oonter.]
contempler «. contemplate, regard,

gaze at. [L. eontemplari.'^
contenir v. {j/rr. 61) contain, hold,

include. [L. continere.^
content adj. content, satisfied, glad,

happy. [L. Ciontenlum'\
contentement m. contentment, sat-
isfaction, happiness, [fr.' con-
tenter, fr. content.]
conter v. tell, relate, [same as

compter, computer : § 9 ]
continuellement adv. continually.

[fr. continuel, fr. continuer.]
continuer «. continue, keep on

with ; keep on, last; go on. [L.

eonUnuare.'\
contracter v. contract, draw to-
gether. [L. conir(uAare.'\
contraire adj. contrary, opposite :

au contraire, on tlie contrary ;

quite otherwise. [L. caidra^

rium.]
contraster v. contrast, be opposed.

[fr. Italian, fr. L. contra,

against.]
contre pi'ep. against, in opposition

to ; in exchange for. [L. contra.]
controle m. con&ol, restraint, [fr.

contre-role, counter-roll.]
convenir v. {irr. 60) come together,

accord, agree ; suit, be suitable

or proper : convenir de, agree

upon, assent to, acknowledge,

own. [L. convenire.l
convention /. convention, assem-

wy- [LI ...

convier v. mvite, mcite, quicseBL
[LL- convitcM-e.']

370

FRENCH-ENGLISH

coq (TZfl) m. cock, [imitative.]

coqnin m. coqnine/. (g 16c) rogue,
knave, scamp. [?J

oordonnier m. shoemaker, [lit'ly,
worker in Cordovan leather.]

corps TO. body ; corpse. [L. cor-
pus.']

corriger v. correct, amend ; chas-
tise. [L. ctm-igere.']

corrompre v. (XX. 3 J) corrupt, vi-
tiate, spoil. [L. corrumpere.]

cote m. side, part (de, on : § 204a).
[fr. L. casta, rib.]

coucher v. lay down, put to rest or
to bed : se . . ., retire to rest, go
to bed. [L. collocare.']

coude m. elbow. [L. cubitum.']

coudre v. (irr. 34) sew. [L. con-
suere.]

couler V. flow on, glide by, pass
away. [L. colare, filter.]

coup m. blow, stroke, hit ; dis-
ciiarge, shot : tont-a-coup, sud-
denly, all at once ; a coup aur,
assuredly, to a certainty, with-
out fail ; coup d'oeil, glance, sud-
den look ; and compare beau-
coup. [L. eolaphus, fr. Gr.]

coupable adj. culpable, guilty. [L.
culpabilem.]

couple m. /. (§ 15a) couple, pair,
brace. [L. copulam.J

cour /. court ; courtyard, yard.
[L. choriem.']

courage m. com'age. [fr. coeur.]

conrant m. current, stream : au
courant, abreast of the stream,
not behindhand, up with the
times, well posted, [pple of
courir.]

courir v. (irr. 53) run ; be current,
circulate ; run after, hunt
(§ 157J). [L. currere.]

couronne/. crown. [L. coronam.}

cours m. course, run, vent : donner
cours a, give free course or vent
to, allow to go on unchecked.
[L. cursum.]

court acl^. short, brief, curt. [L.
eurtum.]

courtisan m. courtier, courtling.
[fr. It., fr. corte = cour,]

cousin m. consine/. (§ 16c) cousin.

[L. consobrinum.']
ceuteau m. knife. [L. culteUum.]
couter V. cost. [L. eonstare, stand

in.]
*coutil (686; m. ticking. [L. cvl-

ciiam.]
couturidre/. seamstress, dressmak-
er, [fr. couture, L. consuiuram,

sewing.]
couvent m. convent, monastery.

[L. conventum.l
couvert m. cover, plate etc. for

eating, seat at table, [pple of

couvrir,]
couvrir v. (irr. 56) cover, envelop;

fill. [L. cooperi «.]
craindre ». (irr. 15) fear, be afraid ;

be afraid of, dread. [L. ire-

mere, tremble.]
crainte /. fear, terror, dread : de

crainte que, for fear that or lest

(XXXIV. 5c ; § 134e). [fr. crain-

dxe.]
crasse adj. f. (§ bid) crass, gross.

[L. craasam^
crayon m. pencil, [fr. L. cretam,

chalk.]
creer v. create. [L. creare."]
cri m. ciy, street-cry. [fr. crier,

cry, L. quiritare.']
*cric (big) m. jack, lifter, [imita-
tive.]
crime m. crime. [L. CTWiera.]
crise/. crisis. [L., fr. Gr.]
critique /. criticism, review. [L.

criticam, fr. Gr.]
*croc iSBg) m. hook. [fr. G.,=

crook.]
croire v. (irr. 36) believe, think, be

of opinion, suppose ; believe to

belong (§ 161e), credit ; with in-

Jin. (§ 176c), think one's self. [L.

credere.]
croitre v. (in-, 19) grow, iucreasei

[L. cieseere.]
croix/. cross. [L. crucem.]
cruel adj. cruel. [L. erudelem.]
cruellement adv. cruelly. [fr,

cruel.]
cueillir v. (irr. 46) collect, gather,

pick, cull. [L. coUigere^

VOCABUIABT.

371

*CTuller (7SJ) /. spoon. [L. eoch-

leare.'\
cnirassier m. cuirassier, [fr. coi-
. rasse, fr. onir, leather, L. con-

um,.'\
cuisine/, kitchen. [L. coguinam.']
caisiniere/. cook. [fr. cuisine.]
culotte/. {gen'ly pi.) trousers, pan-
taloons, [fr. cul, L. culumT]
cnlte m. veneration, adoration,

worship. [L. culium.'\
cultiver v. cultivate, improve by

exercise. [LL. culUvare.'\
cnrieoz a^. curious, peculiar,

queer. [L. curiosumJX
cnrioslte/. curiosity. [L. ewioni-

tatem. ]
czar in. czar, Russian emperor.

[Russian.]

daigner n deign, think worthy,

vouchsafe. 7l. dignari.]
dame/, lady. [L. dominam.l
*damner (69a) v. damn. [L. dam-

nare.]
danger m. danger. [LL. domini-

arium, fr. domiims, lord.]
dangereuza<2/. dangerous, attended

with danger, [fr. danger.]
dans prep. (§ 207) in, into, to. [L.

de intus.] ~

danser d. dance [fr. G.]
davantage adv. yet more, more,

further, in addition, [de and

avantage.]
de prep. (III.-V. ; § 203a, 204) of ;

from; about, respecting ; out of,

because of, on account of, for ;

with, by, through ; at, in, on ;

to (§ 1726); some or any (IV. ;

§ 35); than (XV. 9); as (§ 162(7).

[L. de.]
debarrasser v. disembarrass, disen-
cumber, rid. [fr. barras, fr.

barre, bar, obstacle.]
debont adv. on end, in upright

position, erect, standing, not

thrown down, [de and bout,

end.]
decoder v. decease, depart this life.

fL. decedere.]
decembre m. December. [L.]

deception/, deception. [L. deeep-
tionem.]

decbirer v. tear asunder, lacerate,
mangle, [probably fr. 0-.]

decboir v. {m: 70) fall, sink, de-
cay. [L. decidere.]

decidement adv. decidedly, [fr.
decide, pple of decider.]

decider v. decide, settle, deter-
mine : . . . de, decide about, set-
tle ; se . . ., make up one's mind,
resolve. [L. decidere.]

declarer v. declare, state, proclaim.
[L. declarare.]

deconper ». cut up, cut. [de- (L.
dis) and conper, cut.]

decouvrir v. (irr. 56) discover, un-
cover, disclose, [de- (L. dts)
aflid couvrir.]

dedans adv. within, [de and
dans.]

dedommager v. indemnify, com-
pensate, make up (for, de). [fr.
de- (L. dis) and donuuage, dam-
age.]

deesse/. goddess, [fr. L. dea.]

defaite /. defeat, [fr. defaire, un-
do.]

defaut m. defect, deficiency, fault,
blemish : au or a defaut de, in
default of, in the absence of,
failing, [fr. defaillir, be want-
ing]

defendre v. ward off, keep away :
forbid, prohibit; defend, pro-
tect. [L. defendeie.]

defense /. defense ; prohibition.
[L. defensam.]

defenseur m. defender. [L. defen-
aorem.]

♦deficit (76a) m. deficit. [L.]

defier v. defy: se . , . de, distrust,
doubt. [L. diffidere.]

defnnt Ofdj. defunct, deceased. [L.
defunetum.]

degager v. disengage, extricate,
free, relieve of obligation, dis-
charge, redeem, [de- (L. dis) and
gager, fr. gage, pledge.]

degeler «. thaw, melt, [de- (L. dis)
and geler.]

degont m. disgust, dislike, aver-

373

FBENCH-BNGLISH

sion, vexation, mortification.

[de- (L. dis) and go4t, taste.]
degotiteT v. disgust, sicken, weary.

[fr. degotit.]
degre m. de^ee. [L. de-gradum.^
deguiser ». disguise, hide. [fr. de-

(L. dis) and guise, guise.]
deguisement m. disguise, [fr. de-

gniser,]
dehors adv. without, outside, [de

and hors, without.]
deja adv. already, [des and ja,

li. jam, now.],
dejeuner m. breakfast. [LL. diye-

junare, relieve of hunger.]
delicatesse/. delicacy, [fr. delicat,

delicate, L. delicatum.'l
delice m. f. (§ ISc) delight ; pi. de-
light, darling. [L. delicias.']
deluge TO. deluge, flood. [L. dilu-
vium.']
demander v. ask, request (of, a:

§ 161c). [L. demandare.]
demain adv. to-morrow: apres-de-

main, day after to-morrow. [L.

de and mane, in the morning.]
demeurauce /. dwelling, abode.

[provincial, fr. demeurer.]
demenre /. dwelling, abode, [fr.

demeurer,]
demeurer v. continue, abide, dwell,

live. [L. demorari.']
iemi adj. (§ 56a) half : demi-heure,

half-hour ; demi-savant, half-
learned, sciolist. [L. dimidium.]
demolir v. demolish, unbuild, pull

to pieces. [L. demoliri.]
demon m. demon, devil, evU spirit.

[L., fr. Gr.]
dent/. (§ 12c) tooth. [L. dentem.]
depart to. departure, setting out.

[fr. departir, depart.]
depecher v despatch : se , . . , make

haste, hasten. [LL. dispedicare,

dis-impede.]
depens to. pi. (§ 24) expense, cost.

[L. dispensum.]
depense /. expense, outlay, [f r.

depenser, pay out, fr. L. di.ipen-

sum.]
depit TO. spite, vexation. [L. de-

deplaire v. (irr. 24) displease, be
disagreeable to. [de- (L. dis) and
plaire.]

deployer v. unfold, develop, dis-
play, put in action, exert, [de-
(L. dis) and ployer, L. plicare,
fold.]

depnis pi-ep. (§ 211) from, since,
during . . . past, for, ago : depuis
que, since (conj.). [de and puis,
then.]

depute TO. deputy, [pple of de-
puter, depute.]

dernier adj. (VIII. 5c ; § 60J) last,
concluding ; last past, next pre-
ceding the present, [fr. OF.
derrain, fr. L. de relio.]

demierement adv lastly ; lately,
recently, [fr. dernier.]

derouter v. throw ofE the track, lead
astray, bewilder, baffle. [de-(L.
dis) and route, track.]

derriere prep, behind, [fr. L. de
retro.]

des prep, from, starting from, be-
ginning with, since : des que,
from title time that, as soon as
(§ 122'i). [L. de ex ?]

desalterer v. relieve or thirst, re-
fresh, [des (L. dis) and alterer,
alter, make thirsiy.}

desavoner v. disavow, disown, re-
fuse to acknowledge, [des (L.
dis) and avoner.]

descendre v. descend, come down,
fall. [L. dexcendere.]

desert m. desert. [L. desertum.]

deserteur to. deserter, [fr. deser-
ter, fr. L. desertus.]

desesperer v. despair : se . . ., give
way to despair, be in despair,
[des (L. (2m) and esperer, hope.]

desespoir to. despair, [des (L. dis)
and espoir, hope.]

desir m,. desire, wish. [fr. desirer.]

desirer v. desire, wish. [L. de-
siderare.]

deshabituer v. disaccustwn, wean,
[des (L. dis) and habitner, habit-
uate.]

desordre to. disorder, tumult, [des
(L. dis) and ordre.]

VOCABTTLAKY.

373

deaormais adv. henceforth. [L. de
ipsa hora magis.l

dessecher ». dry up, wither. [L.
desiccare, fr. siccus, dry.]

*de89ons (18(i) adv. prep, under, be-
neath, [de and sous, L. subtus.'\

*dessus (ISd) adv. prep, above,
upon, on. [de and bos, L. su-
sum.'\

destin m. destiny, fate. [fr. desti-
ner.]

destiner v. destine, intend by fate.
[L. desUna/re.'\

detestable adj. detestable, abomina-
ble, [fr. detester, L. detestari.'\

detonmer v. turn away, avert,
divert, [de- (L. diii) and tourner,
tui'n.]

detmire v. (irr. 2) destroy, ruin,
demolish. [L. destruere.'\

dette/. debt. [L. d^ita.]

deux num. two. [L. dno.^

deuzieme (81c) num. second, [fr.
deux.]

devant prep. adv. before, in front
of, in front : au-devant de, to
the front of, so as to meet, to
meet, [de and avant (L. ab
ante).'\

developper v. develop, unfold,
evolve. [?]

developpemeut m. development,
evolution, [fr. developper.]

devenir v. (irr. 60) become, come
to be, turn. [L. devenire.']

devise/, device, motto, [fr. devi-
ser, fr. L. divisum.l

devoir «. (irr. 66) owe (§ 179rf), be
under obligation, be required,
have to, be appointed or intend-
ed or destined, be to (with infin :
XXVI. 12/) ; be sure to. [L.
debere.'\

devoir m. duty. [inf. of devoir.]

devot adj. (§ 63a) devoted, dpvout,
pious. [L. devotum.'\

devouement m. devotion, [fr. de-
vouer, L. devota/re.']

diable m. devil. [L. didbolum, fr.
Gr.]

diademe m. diadem, crown. [L.,
fr. Gr.]

diamant m. diamond. [L. ada-

maiitem]
Dieu TO. God. [L. deum.'\
different adj. (60i) different, di-
verse ; various, sundry. [L.

differentem.]
difficile adj. difficult, hard. [L.

difflcilem.']
difflculte/. difficulty. [L. diffiaul-

tatem!\
diffonnite/. deformity. [L. defor-

mitatem.]
digne adj. worthy, deserving. [L.

dignum.]
dimanche m. Lord's day, Sunday.

[L. dominicam-, of the Lord.]
diner v. dine. [?]
diner m. dinner, [inf. of diner.]
diplomate m. diplomatist. [fr.

diplome, diploma, fr. Gr.]
dire v. (irr. 9 ; p. 155) say, tell ;

name, appoint. [L. dicere.]
directrice /. directress, female su-
perintendent, [fem. of direc-

teur (§ 16a), fr. L. dirigere.]
discemer v. discern, descry. [L.

discernere.]
discours m. discourse, speech, ad-
dress, talk, words. [L. diseur-

SMjra.]
disparaitre v. (irr. 18) disappear;

vanish, [dis and paraitre.]
disperser v. disperse, scatter, [fr.

L. dispemum.]
dispoB m. (§ 93a!) ia lusty health,

hale and hearty. [L. disposi-

tum.]
dispute / dispute, controversy.

[fr. disputer.]
dispnter v. dispute, contend, argue:

le . . . (§ 826), contest, vie (with,

a). [L. disputare.}
*distiller (68/) v. distil. [L. dis-

tillare.]
distinction/, distinction. [L.]
distinguer v. distinguish, discern,

notice. [L. disiinguere.']
distrait adj. distracted, absorbed,

unheeding, [pple of distraire,

L. distraKsre.']
divers adj. (§ 60J) diverse, dififer-
' ent, various, [h, diversum,}

374

FEENCH-EISTGLISH

divin adj. divine. [L. dimnum.]

division /. division, corps (of an
army). [L. dwisionem.]

*dix (815, 86c) num. ten. [L. de-
cern.]

*dix-liuit (81J) num. eighteen,
[dix and huit.]

*dix-huitieme (81J) nnm. eigh-
teenth, [fr. diz-huit.]

*dizieme (81c) num. tenth, [fr.
dix.]

*dix-iieuf (81i) num. nineteen,
[dix and neuf,]

*dix-sept (81ft) num. seventeen,
[dix and sept.]

docile aiij. docile. [L.]

doctenr to. doctor. [L. dociorem.l

domesticiTie adj. domestic : as noun,
domestic, servant. [L. domes-
tieum.]

*dompter (71a) «. subdue. [L.
domitiire.1

don m. gift. [L. donum.]

done adv. then ; therefore, conse-
quently ; pray, do (with impv.).
[L. ad tunc]

donner «. donate, give, bestow.
[L. donare.]

dont adv. pron. (XXVI. 7 ; § 102)
whence ; of whom, whose. [L.

' de unde.]

dormir v. (irr. 43) sleep. [L. dor-
mire ]

*dot (jl6a)f. dowry, marriage-por-
tion. [L. dntem.]

double adj. double. [L. du-
plum.]

doncement adv. sweetly, softly,
mildly, [fr. doux.]

douillettement adv. softly, delicate-
ly, [fr. douillet, fr. L. ductikm.]

douleur /. pain, grief. [L. dolo-
rem. ]

douter v. doubt, question (about,
de) : se . . . de, suspect. [L. dubi-
tare.]

doux adj. (VII. 8) sweet, soft,
pleasant. [L. dulcem.]

douzaine /. dozen, twelive or so
(§ 67). [fr. douze.]

douze num. twelve. [L. diwdecim]

douzieme num. twelfth, [fr. douze.]

*drachme (596) /. drachm, dram.

[Gr.]
dragon m. dragoon. [L. draconem.]
drap m. cloth. [?]
droit ac0. direct, straight, right:
adv. (XXXI. 9) straight, direct-
ly. [L. directum.]
droit m. right. [L. directum.]
due m. duke. [L. ducem, leader.]
duel m. duel. [L. duellum.]
durant prep, during, pending.

[pple of durer.]
dnrer v. endure, last, continue in
being. [L. durare.]

eau/. water. [L. aquam.]

ebaucher v. sketch, outline, rough-
hew. [?]

ebranler v. shake, disturb, unset-
tle, [fr. brandir (?), brandish,
fr. G.)

ecarter v. discard, remove : s' . , .,
turn away, swerve, deviate, [fr.
e (L. ex) and carte, card.]

echapper v. escape (from, a : § IGlc).
[fr. OF. cape, cape, envelop.]

echauffer v. warm, heat : s' . . ., be-
come warm or hot, grow excited,
[fr. L. calefacere ]

echoir v. (irr. 70) fall, befall, oc-
cur : le cas echeant, the case
occurring, if it so happens. [L.
ex endere.]

eclat m. burst, outburst, flash,
splendor, brilliancy, brightness,
glory, renown, [fr. eclater.]

eclater ». break out, burst forth;
shine out, come to light, ap-
pear : . . . de rire, burst out
laughing, [fr. G.?]

eclore a. {in: 28) unclose,open,bud,
hatch. [L. ex and daudere.]

ecole /. school. [L. scholam, it.
Gr.]

ecolier.m. ecoliere/. (§ 16) scholar,
pupil. [L. scholarem J

economie/. economy, savmg ; stint-
ing, stinginess. [L. (economiam,

^ fr. Gr.]

econler «. s' . . ., flow or pass away,
run by, elapse, [e- (L. ex) and
conler.J

VOCABTTLAET.

375

ecouter v. listen to, hear. [L. aua-

cultare.]
gcraser v. crush, [prob. fr. G.]
eorier v. s' , . ., cry out, exclaim.

[e- (L. ex) and crier, cry.]
ecrire v. (irr. 13) write. [L. scri-

bere.]
ecrit w. writing, written work.

[pple of eorireT)
ecrivain m. writer, author, [fr.

LL. scnbanum.'\
ecronler v. s' . . ., crumble, fall in

pieces, go to ruin. [fr. L. coio-

ivlare, roll together.]
edacation/. education. [L.]
effet m. Aect, result : en effet, in

fact, indeed, really, to be sure.

[L. effeetum.'l
effort m. effort, [fr. efforcer, fr.

force.]
effirayer v. make afraid, frighten,

alarm, startle. [L. ex-fngidare^]
effasion /. effusion, outpour of

feeling, expression of emotion.

[L. effusionem.l
egaler«;.equal. [fi.egal,li.CEqiuilem.]
egard m. regard, consideration,

considerate or respectful atten-
tion : eu . . . a, regard being had

to, considering, [e- (L. ex) and

garder, keep.]
egarer v. mislead : s' . . ,, go astray,

get lost, [e- (L. e«) and garer,

keep, fr. G.]
eglise / church. [L. ecdedam,

fr. Gr.]
egorger «. cut the throat of,

slaughter, [fr. gorge, throat.]
eh interj. ah : eh bien, well,
electenr m. elector, voter. [L.]
element m. element. [L. elemen-

tum.'\
elephant m. elephant. [L.]
eleve m. one brought up, pupil.

[fr. elever.]
elever v. raise, elevate ; bring up,

educate : s' . . ., rise, arise, go

up. [L. elevare.]
elle pron. she ; it. [L. illam.]
eloignement m. removal, distance,

estrangement, aversion. [fr.

eloigner.]

eloigner «. put to a distance, re-
move, withdraw : s' . . ., go to
a distance, retire, withdraw.

. [fr. loin, far.]

embarras in. embarrassment, hin-
drance, difficulty, [fr. barre,
bar.]

embaacher v. involve, engage, en-
list, [fr. bauche, workshop.]

emigrer v. emigrate : emigre, no-
ble emigrated from France dur-
ing the Revolution. [L. emi-
grare.']

*emmener (53a) v. lead away, carry
off. [en (L. inde: 86b) and
mener.]

*-emment (26a) adv. ending.

emonsser v. dull, blunt, deaden.
[fr. mousse, dull, fr. G.]

emouvoir v. (irr. 76) touch with
emotion, move, agitate. [L.
emoDere.]

emparer v. s' . . ., possess one's
self, take possession, seize, mas-
ter. [L. in and parare, pre-
pare.]

empecher v. prevent, hinder (170a).
pjL. impedieare, fetter. |

empereur m. emperor. [L. impe-
ratorem.']

empire m. empire. [L. imperium.'l

employer v. employ. [L. imph-
eare. ]

emporter e. carry off or away:
s' . . ., 'be carried awaj^ with
passion ; emporte, passionate,
violent ; I'emporter, carry it off,
get the better, [en (L. inde) and
porter, carry.]

emprisonnement m. imprisonment,
[f r. emprisonner, f r. en prison, in
prison.]

emprnnter v. borrow (from, a:
§ 161c.) [fr. L. in promutuum,.]

en adv. pj-on. (XXIII. 5-8 ; § 85)
thence, away ; of it, of them, of
him or her ; its, their (§ 886) ; in
respect to or about it or them ;
some or an^ (XXIII. 7) ; one or
ones. [L. inde.]

en prep. (VI. la ; § 207) in, at, on;
to, into i in the act or course of.

376

FRENCH-ENGLISH

while (X. Se ; § 190) ; in char-
acter of, as, like (§ 207e). [L.

enchainer i). enchain, chain up,
fetter, restrain, [en chaine (L.
catenam), in chains.]

encore (or encor: § 2360) adv. to
this time, yet, still ; further, in
addition, besides, more, again :
encore que (§ 137*), although,
even though. [L. Imtic horam/\

encre /. ink. [L. encausUtm, en-
caustic, fr. Gr.]

endormir v. {irr. 43) put to sleep :
s' . . ., fall asleep, go to sleep.
[L. indormire.^

endurcir v. harden, inure, [en and
dnrcir, fr. dnr, hard.]

enfant m. {andf. : § 15«) child. [L.
infantem, infant.]

*enfer(73J)m. hell. [L. infernum.']

enfermer ». shut up, lock up. con-
fine, [en and fermer, shut, L.
firmare.l

enfin adv. in fine, at the end, at
last, finally, [en and fin.]

enfoncer «. sink, plunge, bury,
drive in. [fr. en and fond (L.
fundum), bottom.]

enfnir «. (irr. 47) b' . . ., flee, run
away, take flight, [en adv. and
fuir, flee.]

engager «. engage, induce, lead :
a' . . ., become engaged or occu-
pied, [en prep, and gage,
pledge.j

*enivrer (52o) v. intoxicate. Inebri-
ate, [fr. en prep, and ivre (L.
ebrium), drunk.]

enlever v. carry off, take away, re-
move (from, a : § 161c). [en and
lever.]

ennemi m. ennemie/. (§ 16) enemy.
[L. inimieum.l

*ennol)lir (dSai) ». ennoble, raise to
high rank. [fr. en prep, and
noble, L. nobilem, noble.]

*ennm (53a) m. ennui, weariness,
[fr. L. in odio, in odium.]

*'ennuyer (63a) v. weary, bore :
s' . . ., be wearied or bored (w
tired, [fr. ennni,]

*enuQyeuz (S3a) adj. wearisome.

tedious, [fr. ennni.]
*enorgueilllr (63a) v. make proud.

[en prep, and orgueil, pride.]
enorme okdj. enormous, immense.

[L. eraoj'mem.]
enrichir v. enrich, make wealthy.

[fr. en prep, and riche, rich.]
ensanglanter «. bloody, cover with

blood, [fr. en prep, and san-

glant, fr. sang, L. mnguinem,

blood.]
enseigne m. f. (g 16a) sign, mark ;

ensign. [L. insignia^
ensemble adv. together, at the same

time, in company or union. [L.

in simul.']
ensemble m. entirety, whole taken

together, general effect, [same

as ensemble adv.]
ensuite adv. in the next place, next,

afterward, then, [en and suite,

succession.]
entendre v. hear ; attend to, under-
stand: s' . . . a, understand

about, be a judge of. [L. in

tendere.]
enthonsiasme m. enthusiasm. [L.

fr. Gr.]
entier ac(j. entire, whole, com

plete. [L. integrum.]
entre pi-ep. between, among : d'en

tre, from among. [L. inter.}
entreprendre v. {irr. 30) undertake.

[entre and prendre, take.]
entrer v. enter, go in . VL.t ntra/re. ]
envers prep, toward, [en and vers,

toward.]
envie /. envy ; inclination, desire.

[L. invidiam.l
environ adv. prep, about, some-
where nearly, not far from, [en

and viron, circuit, fr. virer,

turn (?).]
envoyer v. (irr. 81) send, despatch.

[L. inviare.l
epais adj. thick. [L. gpitsum.']
epargner v. spare, save. [?]
epaule /. shoulder. [L. spatu-

lam.']
epeef. sword. [L. spatham.]
eplore adj. tearful, red with weep-

TOCAB0LABY.

377

ing. [as if pple of epiorer, L.
plorare, weep.]
eponge /. sponge. [L. spongiam,

fr. Gr.]
epoque /. epoch, age, period (of

time). [Gr.]
eponz m., epouse /. (§ 16) spouse,
husband or wife. [L. spon-
sum.'\
epouser «. espouse, marry, [fr.

epouz.]
eprouver «. make proof of, experi-
ence, go through. [L. ex-pro-
bare.}
*eqiiateur (72J) m. equator. [L.]
*equestre (724) ad/, equestrian. [L.]
e^nlToq^ae adj. equivocal, of doubt-
ful or questionable character.
[L. mquiwcum.]
erreur/. error. [L. errorem.']
es, in the. [en and les : § 207/.]
escadron m. squadron, [fr. It.,
fr. L. ex-qiuuirare, form square 1
eaclave m. f. (§ 15e) slave, ^r. G.]
espace m. space, extent. [L. spa-

tium.'i
espagnol adj. Spanish : as noun,

Spaniard. [L. hispaniolum.']
espece /. species, kind, sort. [L.

spedem.^
esperance/. hope. [fr. esperer,]
esperer v. hope. [L. sperare.l
espoir m. hope. [fr. esperer.]
esprit m. spirit, soul ; mind, in-
tellect ; wit, cleverness, bright-
ness. [L. spiritum.'i
esqnisse /. sketch, outline, rough
drawing, [fr. It., fr. L. sc/ie-
dium, fr. Gr.]
essaim m. swarm. [L. examen.]
CBsayer v. try, make trial or essay
of, attempt, [fr. essai, L. ex-
agium.]
*est (76a) m. east. [G.l
estime /. esteem, good opinion.

[fr. estimer.]
estimer v. esteem, regard with re-
spect, value. [L. cBiitimare.'\
*eBtomac (58^) m. stomach. [L.,

fr. Gr.]
et (86a) conj. and : et . . . et, both
. . . and. [L. et.]

etablir v. establish, fix, settle. [L.
siabilire.]

etat m. state, condition, position
in life ; State, commonwealth,
country; estate : £tats Generauz,
States General, assembly of or-
ders for legislation. [L. atatum. |

etc. (et ceetera) and so forth. [L.]

ete m. summer. |L. astatem.']

eteindre e. {in: 16) extinguish.
[L. exutinguere.']

etendard m. standard, banner. [G.]

etendre v. extend, stretch out. [L.
extendere.l

eternel adj. eternal, everlasting.
[L. ceternaUm.']

etonner v. astonish, astound : s' . . .,
be astonished or surprised. [L.
ex tonare.]

etonnement m. astonishment, [fr.
etonner.]

etourdlr v. stun, daze, bewilder,
cause to lose self-possession, [f r.
L. torpidus, torpid (!)/|

etrange adj. strange. [L. ext/ror-
neum.]

etranger m. stranger, [fr. etrange,]

etre ». {irr. , p. 63) be ;. as auxil. , be,
have (XXVIII. 6-8); go (S 176e):
c'est que, the thing or fact or
reason is ; etre a, belong to
(I 161«); y etre, be up to any-
thing, imderstaud ; en etre, be
with respect to things, be at a
point. [L. stare, esse.]

etre m. being, creature ; exist-
ence ; essence, characteristic,
[inf. of etre.]

etroit adj. strait, narrow, limited.
[L. stnctum.]

etndier v. study, examine, investi-
gate, [fr. etude, study, L. stu-
divm.]

evanouir n. vanish, fade away.
[L. ex^anencere.]

eveiller v. wake up, waken : s' . . .,
wake up, be awake. [L. ex-
vigilare.]

evenement m. event, occurrence,
[fr. L. evenire.]

Sviter 9. shtm, avoid, escape. [L.
■ ■]

378

FEEKCH-ENGLISH

^ezamen (50e) m. examination, in-
quiry. [L.]

ezceller v. excel. [L. excellere.l

excellent adj. excellent, [fr. ex-
celler : § 189e.]

excepte pple. (§ 66«) excepted, ex-
cepting, save. [fr. excepter.]

exceptor ■». except, leave out, re-
move. [L. ex-ceptare.'\

excessif adj. excessive, [f r. exces,
excess, L. excessiim.'\

exciter «. excite, arouse, stir up.
[L. exdtare.']

excuse/, excuse, apology, [fr. ex-
cuser.]

excuser v. excuse, pardon. [L. ex-
ciisare.']

execnter v. execute, carry out.
[fr. L. exxecutum.']

exemple m. example, instance. [L.
exemplum.']

*exempter (71a) e. exempt, [fr.
L. exemptum.']

exercer v. exercise, practise. [L.
exercere. ]

exercice m. exercise. [L. exera-
iium.'\

exhaler v. exiiale, blow off, give
vent to. [L. exhalare.']

exharter v. exhort, admonish. [L.
e.xhoriari.l

*exil {66d) m. exile, banishment.
[L. exilium.'\

exiler v. exile, banish, [fr. exil.]

existence/, existence, [fr. exister.]

exister v. exist, be in life oi- being,
live. [L. existere.}

expeditif adj. expeditious, expedit-
ing [fr. expedier, L. expedire.]

expedition/, expedition. (L.]

experience / experience ; experi-
ment, trial. [L. experien-

foVlTO.]

expier «. expiate, atone for. [L.
expiare.]

expirer «. expire, pass away, die.
[L. exspirare.l

explication/, explication, explana-
tion. [L.]

ezpliqner v. explain, make intel-
ligible. [L. exphcare, unfold.]

expression/, expression. [L.]

exprimer «. express, render. [L.

exprimere. ]
extraordinaire adj. extraordinary.

[L.]
extreme ad;), extreme. [L.]
extremement adv. extremely, [fr.

extreme.]

fabricant m. manufacturer, maker,
[pple of fabriquer (§ 189e), L.
fabiican ]

fabriqne/. factory. \L.falrricam,
workshop.]

face / face, front : jeter a la face,
cast in the teeth ; en face de, in
front of, before. [L. faeiem.\

facber v. offend, disturb, fa^,
anger : se . , ., be offended or dis-
turbed, be angry, [fr. L.fasii-
dium, aversion.]

facile a/fj. easy. [L. facUem.']

facilement adv. easily, [fr. facile.]

fe^on/. fashion, manner, way : . . .
d'etre, way, habit, habitual man-
ner, [h.'factionem. make.]

facolte/. faculty, capacity, power.
[L.]

fadeor/. flatness, msipidity, tame-
ness. [fr. fade, flat, L. wipidum^

faible adj. feeble, weak. [L. fle-
Mlem, pitiful.]

faiblesse /. weakness, feebleness,
[fr. faible.]

faillir v. {in: 50) fail, come short ;
come just short, be close upon
or near to, just miss of (§ 176/).
\h.fallere, deceive.]

faim / hunger, famine : avob
faim, be hungry (XIII. 6). [L.
famem.l

faire «. (in: 23, p. 150) make, do,
act ; cause, make (XXXII. 9i ;
^58J, 194e) ; be {of weathei)
(XXXII. 9a); put in order, fix:
se . . . fi, accustom or reconcile
one's self to ; en etre fait, be all
over (§ 854) ; bien &it, well
shaped, shapely, of good figure ;
faire grace, nee grace ; faire voir,
show, exhibit. [L. facere.]

*faisance (39c) /. extra dues. [fr.
faire.}

VOCABULARY.

379

*fuseui (39c) m. maker, jobber.

[fr. faire.]
fait (76a) m. feat, deed, action, ex-
ploit, [pide of feire.l
lalloir V. (irr. 74, p. 141) impers.

be obliged, must, have to; be

lacking, need, vant : peu s'en

faut, there is little lacking. [L.

fallere, deceive.]
famenz adj. famous. [L. famo-

«(tm.]
famille /. family. [L. familiam ]
famine/, famine, [fr. faim.]
fantome m. phantom, ghost, spec-
tre, {h. fantasma, fr. Gr.]
*faon (31a) m. fawn, whelp, [fr.

L. foetum.']
farine/. flour. [L. /arwiaro.]
*fat (76a) m. fop, dude ; adj.

(§ 63d) foppish. [L. fatuum,

foolish.]
fatal <t(^'. fatal. \h. fatalem.]
fatigue/, fatigue, weariness, [fr.

fatiguer.]
fatigaer s. fatigue, tire, weary : se

. . ., be tired w weary. [L.

faUgare.']
faute /. lack, deficiency, fault :

faute de, for lack of , in default

of. [fr. faillir.]
faveur / favor : en favenr de, in

favor of, on behalf or account

of. \L. favorem.']
favorable arij. favorable. [L.]
fee/, fay, fairy. [L. /ato, fate.]
feindre v. {irr. 16) feign, make

believe. [L. fingere.]
*feinme (26'/)/. woman, wife : . . .

de chambre, see chambre. [L.

feminam.]
fenetre/. window, [li.fenestram,.]
fente/. split, crack, [fr. fendre,

L, findere, split.]
fer m. iron, steel ; weapon. [L.

ferrum.']
ferme <Mtj. firm, strong. [L. fir-

mum.'\
ferme/. farm. [fr. fermer.]
fermenter ». ferment, work. [L.

fermentare ]
fermer «. make fast, shut up, close.

lli.jimMre, make firm.]

fermetS/. firmness, vigor, strength,
[fr. ferme.]

fermier m. fermiere/. (S 1^ farm-
er, [fr. ferme, noun^

ferrer v. furnish or equip with
iron : voie ferree, railway, [fr.
fer.]

fertile adj. fertile, fruitful. [L.
fertUem.']

ferveur/. fervor. [L.]

fete /. festival, feast, ffite. [L.
/(S»to.]

fSter «. celebrate ; observe as holi-
day ; keep the festival m- holi-
day of. [fr. fSte.]

feu m. fire. [L. focum.']

feu adj. (§ 64a, 56a) lately de-
id, laf " " ■ ■

late.

[L. fuU, he was
[L. folia,

ceased,

(?).]
fenille /. leaf, sheet.

leaves.]
fevrier m. February. [L.]
fiddle adj. faithful, true, exact.

[L. fidelem.']
fier V. confide : se . . . a, trust one's

self to, trust. [L. fidere.']
AeYTef. fever. [L./efirem.]
figure/, figure, shape, form ; face.

[L. flguram.]
*fil (68d) m. thread. [L. JUum.]
fille/. daughter, girl. [L. JUiain.']
fillette/. girl, lass. [fr. fiUe.]
*fils (eSc, 74d) m. son. [L. filius

(§ 4fi).]
fin /. end, finis : a la fin, in the

end, at length ; sans fin, without

end, to all eternity ; afin, see the

word. [L. flnem.'l
fin a^j. fine, delicate, elegant. [L.

finitum, finished.]
finance /. finance, [fr. fin, end

(settlement).]
finesse /. fineness, subtlety, art,

artifice, finesse, [fr. fin, adj.]
finir V. finish, bring to an end : en

finir, make a finish or close (§

85*). [L. finire.']
Sxei V. fix, det«rmiae. [fr. fixe,

li.fxum, fixed.]
fizement adv. fixedly, steadily.

[fr. fixe, fixed.]
flimune f. flame. [L.]

380

FEENCH-ENGLISH

flanc m. flank, side. [L. flaccum,

lax (?).]
flaner v. lounge, idle. [?]
flanerie/. lounging, idleness, [fr.

flaner.]
flaneur m. lounger, idler, [fr.

flaner.]
flatter ».' flatter. [?]
flatteur m. flatterer, [fr. flatter.]
fleche/. arrow, [fr. G.]
fletrir ». wither ; sully, dishonor,

disgrace. [L. flaceere.']
flenr/. flower. [L. florem.'\
fleurir v. (XIX. 86) flourish, [fr.

flenr.]
flenve in. river. [L. fluvium^
flot m. wave, flood. [L. fluctum.l
flotte /. fleet, navy. [fr. flotter,

float, fr. flot.]
foi /. faith ; plighted word. [L.

fidem.']
fois /. time (successive), turn in

succession (§§ 68, 69) : a la fois,

at the same time, at once. [L.

»«■(!€?».]

fol, see fon.

folie /. folly, foolishness. [fr.

fou.]
fonctionnaire m. functionary, ofS-

cial. [fr. fonctiou, L. funetio-

nem.']
fond TO. bottom, depth, base. [L.

fundum.]
fonder ®. found, base, establish.

[L. fundare.']
fondre v. melt, dissolve, \h.fun-

dere.l
force /. force, strength, might,

power : a force de, by dint or

means of. [L. fortia, strong.]
forcer ». force, compel, [f r. force.]
forfait m. misdeed, [fr. forfaire,

L. forts faeere, misdo.]
former v. form, shape, make, con-
stitute. [L. formare.]
fort adj. strong. — adv. strongly,

greatly, much, very much, very.

[li. fortem.]
fort m. strong place, fort, ffort

adj.]
fortune/, fortune ; lot in life, fate ;

wealtii. [L.fortu nam . 1

foBse m. fosse, ditch, trench. [L.

foHsam, dug.]
fou, fol adj. (vll. 7) foolish, mad,

insane, crazy. [?]
foudre /, thunderbolt, lightning.

[L./ulgm.]
ioxde f. crowd, multitude, great

quantity, [fr. fouler.]
fouler ». crowd, press, trample,

tread : . . . auz pieds, tread tm-

der foot. [L. fulla/re, in fuUo,

fuller.]
fourchette/. fork. [fr. h.furm.]
*foumil (68c) m. bake-house, [fr.

h.furnus, oven.]
fragile adj. fragile, \h.fragilem

(§ 9)0
frais, fraiche (VII. 8) adj. fresh:

frais cueilli (S S6fQ, fresh-picked.

[fr. G.]
frais m. pi. (§ 34) expense. [L.

fractum (?).]
franc, franche (VII. 66) adj. frank,

free ; prepaid (§ 56a). [fr.

G.]
franc m. franc (piece of money).

[fr. inscription Vrancm-um rex,

king of the French.]
fran^ais adj. French, [fr. France,

France.]
franchement adv. frankly, [fr.

franc]
franchir «. clear, jump or pass

over. [fr. franc]
frapper v. strike, deal a blow to,

hit, knock ; affect strongly, im-
press, [prob. fr. G.]
frein m. rein, check, curb, con-
trol. [L.frenum.]
frele adj. frail, fragile. [L. fra-

gilem (§ 9).]
fremir ». shiver, vibrate, thrill. [L.

fremei-e.}
frere m. brother ; holy brother,

friar. [L. fratrem.]
ftipon m. friponne /. (§ 16) knave,

rascal, rogue. [?]
frissonner ». quiver, thrill, shiver.

[fr. frisson, L. frictionem.'\
frivole adj. frivolous, trifling, vain,

empty. [L. frivolum.]
froid adj. cold, cool : avoir froid

VOOABULABT.

381

(XIII. 6), be cold (in, a). [L.
frigiduin.'\

froideur /. coldness, coolness, fri-
gidity, [fr. froid.]

fromage to. cheese. [LL. farma-
tieum, shaped.]

front m. front, forehead, brow.
[L. frontem]

fmit TO. fruit ; valuable result,
profit. [L. ^j'ucium.']

fagitif adj. fugitive, fleeting, tran-
sient. \Jj. fugitivum.]

fuir V. (iir. 47) flee, fly ; fly from,
shun, [h.fugere.}

fonebre adj. funereal, funeral. [L.
funebrem.'l

furie/. fury, rage, wrath, passion.
[L./Mnam.]

farienz adj. furious, raging, an-
gry. [L. fwiosztm.']

*fMiI (68c) m. gun, musket, [fr.
h.foeu.<i, fire.^

fatsr adj. future, that is to be, in-
tended. [L. futurum.']

gai a^. gay. [fr. G.]

gaiete, gaite /. eayety, liveliness,
fun. [fr. gaiij

gagner v. gain, win, acquire ; at-
tain, reach, arrive at. [fr. G.l

gain TO. gain, acquisition, [fr.
gagner.J

galant adj. (§ 60b) gallant, [fr. G.]

gant m. glove, [fr. G.]

garantii v. warrant, guarantee,
[fr. G.]

garfon to. boy, lad, fellow, ser-
vant, waiter, bachelor. [?]

garde ^. (§ 15a) guard, watch ;
keeping : n'avoir garde de, take
care not to. [fr. garder.]

garde m. (§ 15a) guard, keeper,
soldier of a certain class, [do.]

garder v. guard, watch ; keep,
keep up, maintain, preserve,
[fr. G.]

gare /. station, termmus, depot,
[fr. G. (Eng. ware) ]

garnison/. garrison, [fr. garnir,
garnish, fr. G.]

gStean to. cake. [fr. G.]

ganche adj. awkward, clumsy ;

left (hand or side), [fr. G.
(Eng. gawk).']

*gaz (83o) TO. gas.

gazon TO. turf, sward, [fr. G.]

geler v. solidify, stiffen, freeze.
[L. gelare.]

gemir v. groan, moan, lament.
[L. gemere.]

gemissement to. groan, [fr. ge-
mir.]

gendarme to. man-at arms, guards-
man, policeman, [gent, de, and
arme.]

general adj. general : en general,
in general, ordinarily. [L.]

general m. general oflicer, generaL
[= general adj.]

generalite /. generality. [fr.
general,]

generation/, generation. [L.]

genereux adj. generous. [L.]

genie to. genius. [L. genium.]

genou nt. knee. [L. geniculum,.'\

gens /. pi. (§ 16rf) folks, people,
persons ; servants. [L. gentem.]

*gentil (68c) adj. nice, good, well-
behaved, pretty. [L. genti-
lem.]

gentilhomme (pi. ^gentilshommes,
68c) m. man of good birth or
breeding, gentleman, [gentil
and homme.]

geometre m. geometer, mathema-
tician. [Gr.]

gigantesqne adj. gigantic, [fr. L.
gigantem.]

gite m. quarters, lodging, deposit,
layer, [fr. gesii,L.jacere,lie.]

glacer v. turn to ice, freeze, chill,
[fr. glace, L. gi-aciem, ice.]

gloire /. glory: falre gloire de,
make one's boast, glory in. [L.
gloriam.']

glorieuz adj. glorious. [L.l

gonfler v. swell, inflate, distend.
[L. conflare, blow up.]

gourmand to. gourmand, epicure.

[?]
gout TO. taste. [L. gugtum.]
gouter v. taste. [L. gusta/i-e.']
goutte /. (§ 1676) drop, particle.

[L. guttam.l

382

FRENCH-ENGLISH

gouvernante/. housekeeper, [pple
of gouverner.]

gouvernement m. government, [f r.
gouverner.]

gouverner v. govern, direct. [L.
gubernare.']

grace/, grace, favor; gracefulness,
charm: faire grace a, show favor
or be indulgent to, excuse, par-
don. [L. gratiam.'\

gracieux adj. gracious, obliging ;
graceful. [L. graUosum.'\

grand adj. great, grand, large, talh
grand'chose (§ 4e), something or
anything great, matter of im-
portance. [L. grandem.']

grandement aS«. greatly, largely,
grandly, [fr. grand.]

grandeur /. greatness, extent,
grandeur, [fr. grand,]

grandir ■». grow large, increase,
[fr. grand!]

grand'mere /. (§ 4«) grandmother,
[grand and mere.]

grand-pere m. grandfather, [grand
and pere.]

grand- vizir m. grand -vizier, [grand
and vizir.]

grange /. grange, bam. [LL.
graneam, granary.]

graB adj. fat, plump, thick, rich.
[L. crassum.^

*gratis (74(i) adv. gratis. [L.]

grave adj. grave, serious, impor-
tant, weighty. [L. gi-avem.)

graveur m. engraver, [fr. graver,
fr. G.]

greler v. impers. hail. [fr. grele,
gravel-stone, fr. ?)

griller v. grill, broil, [fr. grille,
fr. L. craticula, gridiron.]

gronder «. growl, scold, chid<3, find
fault, ^tr. L. grunmre.']

gros adj. big, stout, large. [L.
grossum.'\

groBBierai^'. coarse, rude, uncouth,
[fr. gros.J

guere adv. (with ne : § 167cj) hard-
ly, scarcely, but little, [fr. G.
weigaro, much.]

guerir v. heal, cure. [fr. G.
wahren, protect.]

guerre/, war. [fr. G., = war.]
guide m.f. (§ 16a) guide ; leading-
rein, [fr. gnider, guide, fr. ?J

habile adj. able, skilful, compe-
tent. [L. habilem.]

habilete f. ability, skill, cleverness,
[fr. habile.]

habiller v. dress, clothe : s' . . .,
dress one's self . [fr. habile (?),]

habit m. coat, dress. [L. habitumf]

habitant m. inhabitant, [pple of
habiter.]

habiter v. live, dwell, inhabit. [L.
habitare.]

habitude /. habit, custom. [L.
/labitudinem .]

habituer v. habituate, accustom,
wont. [L. habituare.]

'haine /. hate, hatred, aversion :
avoir en haine, regard with hate,
have an aversion for. [fr.
hair.]

'hair v (XIX. 3a) hate, detest, dis-
like, [fr. G., =Eng. hate ]

'hardi adj. bold, daring, forward,
[fr. G., =Eng. ha7-d.]

'hater n. se . . ., huiTy one's self,
hasten, [fr. hate, haste, fr. G.,
=Eng. haste.]

'haut adj. high, tall, lofty, up-
lifted : en haut, on high, above,
upstairs. [L. aUum.]

'hant adv. (XXXI. 9) in a high or
loud tone, aloud. [=haut adj ]

'hautement adv. highly, haugh-
tily, boldly, loudly, [fr. haut.]

'hauteur /. height, elevation, lofti
ness. [fr. haut.]

'hasard m. hazard, chance: par-
. . ., by chance, perhaps, I won-
der, [fr. Arabic]

heberger v. shelter, entertain, re-
ceive as guest, [fr. G.=Germ.
Ji^rbergen.]

hebreu m. hebrlaque /. (§ 53c) He-
brew, Hebraic. [L. hebrmum,
?iebraicum.'\

*helas (Jid) interj. alas ! [he, ah,
and L. lasmm, miserablej

*'hennir (26o) ». neigh. [L. kin-
nire.}

TOOABULAKT,

383

heritage m. heritage, inheritance.

- [fr. heriter.]

heriter v. (§162/) inherit. [L.
hei-editareT]

heritier m. heritiere /. (| 16) in-
heritor, heir. [L. heredztarium.'

heroine/, heroine. [h.Jieroinam.'

herolqae adj. heroic. [L.Jieroieum.'

'heroB m. hero. [L., fr. Gr.]

lieure/. hour ; time of day, o'clock
(XVII. 4) : de bonne heure, in
good time, early ; a la bonne
henre, in good time, very well,
veil done ; tout a I'henie, at
this moment, immediately, just
now, presently. [L. lioram.]

benreosement adv. happily, luck-
ily, [fr. henrenz.]

benrenz adj. happy, fortunate,
lucky, [fr. beur, L. augwium,
augury.]

■benrter v. run against, collide
with, jostle, knock, rap. [?]

'bidenz adj. hideous, horrid. [L.
hispidoaum, prickly.]

bier (73a) adv. yesterday : avant-
bier, day before yesterday. [L.
heri.]

bistoire /. history ; story. [L.
7istori(im.'\

luver (736) m. winter. [L. hiber-
num.]

'bollandais adj. Dutch, Kether-
landisb, of Holland, [fr. Hol-
lande.]

bomme m. man : etre homme a, be
the right person for, be the one
to. [L. homiriein.'\

bonnete adj. (VTII. 5c) honest ;
worthy, excellent ; respectable,
creditable. [L. honestum.']

bonnenr m. honor, respect, credit :
foire bonnenr a, give the credit
(de, of anything) to. [L. fio-
noi'em.]

honorable adj. honorable. [L.l

'honte/ shame : avoir honte (XIII.
6), feel shame, be ashamed, [f r.
Q-., Saxon honda, dishonor.]

horizon m. horizon. [L.,fr. Gr.]

bormis prep, except, [hors and
mis, pple of mettre, put.]

horreur/. horror. [L.]

'bors adv. prep, out, out of, out-
side : hors de, outside of, out of.
[L./o?'as,]

bote m. guest, visitor ; host, enter-
tainer. [L. hospiiem.']

bnile/. oil. [li. oleum.'

*'huit (646, 76a) num. eight. [L.
octo.']

'huitieme num. eighth, [fr. bait.]

bumain a^f. human ; humane. [L.
Jium/inum.]

bumanite/. humanity. [L.]

burner v. draw in, inhale, imbibe.

[?]
bumeur/. humor. [L. humarem.]
*hymen (bid) m. hymen. [Gr.]
hypocrite m. hypocrite. [Gr.]

ici adv. here. [L. ecce hie. ]
idee/ idea. [L., fr. Gr.]
ignominie/. ignominy. [L.]
ignorant adj. ignorant, unlearned.

[L.]
il, ils {68d) pron. he, it, they;
there (§1476) ; as indef. sulyeet
(XI. 2, XXIV. 2), it ; as impers.
subject (XXX. 1), it. [L. ilium,
iHos.]
lie /. isle, island. [L. ituulam.']
image /. image, likeness. [L.

wuiginem.^
imaginer v. imagine : s' . . ., im-
agine to one's self, fancy. [L.
imagina/ri.'\
imlter v. imitate. [L. imitari.']
immense adj. immense. [L.]
inunoler v. immolate, sacrifice,

slay. [L. immolare.^
impatient orT;. impatient. [L.]
*impatieinment (26a) adv. impa-

patiently. [fr. impatient.]
imperieusement adv. imperiously.

[fr. imperieuz.]
imperieuz adj. imperious. [L.

im.periosum.']
impetnensement adv. impetuously,
[fr. impetueuz, L. impetuosum.^
impie adj. impious. [L. impium.'\
importer v. be important or of con-
sequence, matter, signify, con-
cern (§ 1486) : n'impoite, it is of

384

FEBNCH-BNGLISH

no consequence, no matter, never

mind. [L. impm-tare.']
imposant adj. imposing, [pple of

impoaer, fr. L. imponere^
impossible adj. impossible. [L.]
imprimer v. impress, impart, give.

[L. impnmere.l
imprudent adj. imprudent. [L.]
impunement adv. with impunity,

unpunished. [fr. impnni, fr.

punir, punish.]
incapable adj. incapable. [L.]
incertitude f. uncertainty. [L. in-

certiiudinem.]
incident m. incident, occurrence.

[L.]
incliner v. incline, bend : a' . . .,

bow. [L. inclinare.l
inconnn adj. unknown, [in- and

conuu.]
indechiffirable adj. undecipherable.

[fr. dechifErer, fr. chifEre, cipher,

fr. Arabic]
*indemmte (26ns)j^. indemnity. [L.]
independant adj. independent. [L.]
*index (81J) m. index. [L.]
indifferent adj. indififerent, imma-
terial, [in- and different.]
indigne adj. imworthy. [L. in-

dignum.']
industrie/. industry. [L.]
indiqner v. indicate, point out, ap-
point. [L. indicare.']
inebranlable adj. not to be shaken,

immovable, [fr. ebranler.]
inestimable adj. inestimable. [L.]
infamer ». render infamous o?" dis-
graceful, cover with ignominy.

[L. infaTnare.'\
infanterie/. infantry. [?]
influence/, influence, [fr. influer,

L. influere, flow in.]
informe adj. unformed, shapeless,

crude, rough. [L. informem.^
informer v. inform, apprise : s' . . .,

get informed, seek to know, in-

quu'e, ask. [L. vnformar6.'\
ingenienz adj. ingenious, clever.

[L. ingenio»um.'\
ingennment adii. ingenuously, [fr.

ingenu, fr. L. mgenuum.\
inhumain adj. inhuman. [L.]

injure / insult, abuse. [L. ivju-

riam.']
injuste adj. unjust. [L.]
inquiet adj. unquiet, disturbed,

restless. [L. inguietum.]
insolent a(^. insolent, impertinent.

[L.]
inspirer v. inspire. [L. tnepirare.]
installation /. installation. [fr.

installer.]
installer v. install. [LL., fr. Btalle,

fr. G., =Eng. stall.]
instant m. instant, moment. [L.]
instinct m. instinct. [L.]
instituteur m. instructor, teacher.

[fr. L. insiituere, establishj
instructif at^'. instructive. [L.]
instruction/, instruction. [L.]
instmire ». {irr. 3) instruct. [L.

instruere.']
interessant adj. interesting, [pple

of interesser.]
interesser v. interest, concern, [fr.

L. interesse.1
interet m. interest, concern. [L.

interest.']
interrompre v. (XX 3b) interrupt,

break in upon. [L. interrum-

pere.]
intime adj. intimate, close. [L.]
inutile adj. useless. [L. inutilem..]
inventor ». invent, devise. [L.

inmntare.]
inviter ». invite, [h. inmtare.]
italien adj. Italian. [L.]

*jadis (74d) adv. of old, in old

times, formerly. [L. jam diu.]
jaloux adj. jealous. [L. selosum.]
jamais adv. {with no : § 167) never,

not ever ; ever (§ 1676). [L.

jam magis.]
jambe /. leg. [LL. gambam.]
Janvier m. January. [L. janu-

arium.]
jardin m. garden, [fr. Q-., =Eng.

garden.]
je pron. I. [L. ego.]
Jeter v. (XXI. 3c) throw, cast, hurl;

spread, ffr. jet, jet, Ii.jactiim.]
jeudi m. Thursday. [L. Jams

diem, Jupiter's day.]

VOCABULARY.

385

jenne adj. young. [L. juvenem.']
jennesse/. youth, [fr. jenne.]
joie /. joy. [L. gavdium.']
joindie ■». {irr. 17) join, unite. [L.

jungei'e.'\
joU adj. pretty, nice, pleasing.

[fr.G., = Eng.>%l
joliment adv. prettily, [fr. joli,]
joner c. play. [L. ^ocan.]
jouet m. plaything, toy. [fr.

jouer.]
*joug (62d) m. yoke. [L.jugum.']
jonir V. take pleasure (in, de :

§ 162/), enjoy. [L. gatidm-e.'\
joniasance /. enjoyment, pleasure.

[fr. jonir.]
jour m. day ; daylight, light : faire

jonr (XXXII. 9o), be daylight.

[L. diurnuin.^
jonmal m. joui-nal, daily paper,

newspaper. [L. diurnalem.'\
jonrnee,/. day. [fr. L. diuma.'\
joyenz auj. joyous, merry, glad.

[fr. joie.] \dvsU>sum.'\

jndicienz adj. judicious. [L. jii-
jnge m. judge. [L. judicem.']
jngement m. judgment, [fr. jnger.]
jnger «. judge, decide. [L. judi-

farel]
jnillet m. July. [L.ju?iM«i.]
juin m. June. [L. junium.']
jurisdiction/, jurisdiction. [L.]
jnaque adv. as tar as, all the way :

jusqu'a, all the way to, as far as,

clear to ; jnsqn'a ce qne (§ XZTa),

until ; jnsqn'on, how far ? [L.

de and usgue.]
juste adj. just, correct, suitable ;

exact, precise : au juste, precise-
ly, exactly. [L. jimtum.]
juste adv. exactly, correct, in

tune. [=jnste adj. : XXXI. 9. ]
justice/, justice. \tj. justitiam.]
justifier v. justify. [L. justificare.]

la art. pron. the ; her, it. [L.

iUaml
\&adv. (XIII. 3, XXIV.; §91-2)

there: de la, from there, thence;

par la, that way, by that route.

[L. illac.'\
l&-ba8 adv. down there, over there.

yonder; in the other world, [la
and bas.]

labour m. labor, cultivation. [L.
taborem.]

laborieuz adj. laborious, industri-
ous. [L. laborioaum.^

lache adj. lax, slothful ; cowardly,
dastardly, base : as noun, cow-
ard, dastard. [L. laxum.'\

*Iacs (S8^) TO. snare, string. [L.
lagueum.'\

la-dessns adv. thereupon, with re-
gard to that, in that respect, [la
and dessus.]

laid adj. ugly, homely, [fr. G.,
=:Eng. loathe.]

laine/. wool. [L. lanam.]

laisser v. leave, quit, abandon ; let,
leave, allow, permit, cause ;
leave off (from, de), omit, fail,
fall short of. [L. laxare ]

lait m. milk. [L. lae.']

lampe/. lamp. [L. lampadem.']

lancer v. dart, hurl, launch, shoot
forth, let loose, discharge, [fr.
lance, lance, f r. ?]

langage m. language, speech, dia-
lect, [fr. langue.]

langue/. tongue; language, speech;
tirer la langue, thrust out the
tongue, make faces or grimaces.
[L. Unguam.l

*laps (^id) m. lapse. [L. lapsum ]

laquais m. lackey, footman, ser-
vant. [?]

large adj. broad, wide, large. [L.
largum.]

largeur /. breadth, width, [fr.
large ]

larme/. tear, tear-drop. [L. laeri-
mam.]

*larynx (816) m. larynx. [L., fr.
Gr.]

laurier m. laurel, bay. [fr. L.
laurum ]

lave/, lava. [fr. It., fr. L. lavare.]

le art. pron. the ; him, it ; so
(XXIII. 3e). [L. ilium.]

leqonf. lesson. [L. lectionem.]

leger adj. light, nimble, lively ;
frivolous, empty, [fr. L. levis.]

legion/, legion. [L.]

386

FRENCH-ENGLISH

legislatif adj. legislative, lawgiv-
ing. [L.]
legnme m. vegetable, pot-herb.

[L. legumen.'\
lendemain m. moiTOW, following

day. [le, en, and demain.]
lent adj. slow, tardy. [L. Untum ]
lentement adv. slowly, [fr. lent.]
lequel firon. (XXV. 8, XXVI. 4-7 ;

S 101) which one, who, that.

[le and quel.]
les art. pron. the ; them. [L.

illos, UlaK^
lettre/. letter. [L. literam.']
lenr pron. to them ; their, theirs

(XrV. 1, 3, XXVII. 1). [L. Ulo-

rum.}
lever v. raise, lift : se . . . , rise, get

up. [L- levare.]
levre f. lip. [L. labrum.]
Uberte/. liberty. [L.]
libraire m. bookseller. [L. libra-

rium.}
litre adj. free, at liberty. [L.

liberum.}
lieu m. place : avoir lieu, take

place, happen ; tenir lieu de,

take the place of, serve as ; au

lieu de, instead of. [L. lo-

cum.l
lieue /. league. [L. leucam, fr.

Celtic]
lievre/. hare. [L. lepwem.]
ligne/. line. [L. Uneam.']
limiter v. limit, .shut in, confine.

[fr. limite, L. limitem.]
*Ungual (62f) adj. lingual. [L.]
*linguiste (63/ ) m. linguist, [fr.

L. lingua, language.]
lire V. (irr. 11) read, peruse. [L.

legere.l
*lis (74«i) m. lily. [L. lUium.l
lit m. bed, couch. [L. lectum.}
litteraire adj. literary. [L.]
littoral m. coast, shore. [L. lito

ralem.']
livre m. book. [L. Ubrum.\
livre /. pound ; livre (piece or

amount of money, nearly =

franc). [L. libram.}
livrer v. deliver, give up, make

over, surrender : se . . ., give up

or lend one's self ; be applied or
devoted. [L. Uberare.l

logique/. logic. [L., fr. Gr.]

loi/. law. ]]L. legem.']

loin ad-B. far, to or at a distance :
loin de, far from ; loin que (g
137J), far from its being the
case that. [L. longe.']

loisir m. leisure. [L. Ucere, be
permitted.]

long adj. (VII. &>) long, a long
story, lengthy, tedious : le long
de, the length of, along. [L.
longum.]

longtemps adt. for a long time, for
a great whUe, long, [long and
temps.]

longuement adv. at length, length-
ily, [fr. long.]

longueur/. length, [fr. long,]

lors adv. then : lors de, at the time
of. [L. ilia liora. at that hour.]

lorsque conj. at the time that, when,
as. [lors and que.]

louage m. hire, letting out : de lou-
age, on hire. [fr. 1 louer.]

1 loner ® let out, lend, hire. [L.
loeare.l

3 louer ®. praise. [L. lavdare^

louis m. louis, louis d'or (piece of
money, of 20 or 24 francs), [fr.
Louis, name of king.]

loup m. wolf. [L. lupum.]

loyal adj. loyal. [L. legalem.]

loyalement adi>. loyally, honestly,
fairly, [fr. loyal.]

lui fn'on. him ; to him or her. [L.
illi hvic.'\

luire V. (in: 5) shine. [L. lueere ]

lumiere /. light ; pi. lights, en-
lightenment, intelligence and
knowledge. [fr. L. lumen.
light.]

lundi TO Monday. [L. luna diem,
moon's day.]

lune/. moon. [L. lunam.']

lunette/, magnifying glass ; spec-
tacles, [fr. lune (from the
shape).]

lutherien adj. Lutheran, Protes-
tant, [fr. Luther, proper name.]

luxe m. luxury. [L. luxum.]

VOCABULARY,

387

madame siri^. meadames pi. (XIV.

4)/. my lady, the lady, madam,

Mrs. [ma and dame.]
mademoiselle sing, mesdemoiselles

pi f. mj young lady, the young

lady, Auss. [ma and demoiselle,

damsel.]
magasin m. miagazine, store, shop.

[fr. Arabic]
*magiBter (736) m. schoolmaster,

dominie. [L.]
magistrat m. magistrate. [L.l
magnificence/, magnificence. [L.]
mai m. May. [L. maiam.']
maigre adj. meager, thin, lean.

[L. macerum.']
maigrir v. grow thin or meager or

lean or emaciated, [fr. maigre.]
main /. hand: a la main, in the

hand ; entre les mains, between

or into the hands, into the

charge. [L. manum.l
maint prvn. (§113) many a, many.

[?]

mamtenant adv. now, at present,
[pple of maistenir.]

maintenii «, {in: 61) maintain,
keep up. [main and tenir, keep
in hand.]

mais eonj but. [L. magiii, more.]

*mals (74f2) m. maize, Indian corn.
[Indian word.]

maison /. house, mansion : a la
maison, in the house, at home.
[L. mansionem.']

maitre m. master, owner, ruler,
teacher : maitre chanteiu', mas-
ter or chief singer. [L. magis-
trum.']

maitresse /. mistress, owner, di-
rector, [f em. to maitre :§ 166.]

majeste /. majesty. [L.]

mal adv. badly, ill. [L male.']

mal m. evil, ill, harm, hurt, pain,
disease : avoir mal a (XIII. 6a ;
% 37a), have pain or ache in.
[L. malum.]

malade adj. sick, ill : as noun,
sick person, patient. [L. male
aptum.]

maladie /. malady, illness, dis-
ease, [fr. malade.]

maigre pi-ep. in spite of, notwith-
standing, [fr. L. malum gra-
turn. ]

malhenr m. unhappiness, misfor-
tune, [fr. L. malum augurium.]

malheureuz adj. unfortunate, un-
happy, [fr. malheor.]

malhonnete adj. dishonest ; un-
civil, rude, [mal and honnete.]

malin, maligne (§ S3c) adj. malig
nant, malign. [L. miilignum^

malle /. trunk, mail. [fr. G.]

maman /. mamma.

manche m. f. (g ISa) handle ;
sleeve, [fr. L. manus, hand.] ^

manchette/. cuff. [fr. manche.]:*

manger v. eat. [L. raandwiare,
chew.]

maniere /. manner, way, method :
de maniere, in such a way, in
such wise, so ; de . . . que (§ 13W),
so that. [fr. L. manun, hand.]

manifester v. manifest, show. [L.]

manoeuvre m. f. (§ 16a) workman ;
manoeuvre, [fr. L. manu ope-
ran, work with the hand.]

manquer v. be wanting or deficient
(in, de), be lacking or absent,
lack ; fail, give way, leave in
the lurch; just ihiss (§176/).
[fr. L. mancus, defective.]

mantean m. mantel, cloak. [L.
maniellum.']

manual adj. manual, with the
hand. [L. manualem.]

manuscrit m. manuscript. [L.]

maraicher adj. for vegetable-rais-
ing or market-gardening, vege-
table, [fr. marais, marsh, wet
land.]

marchand m. dealer, retail mer-
chant, shopkeeper, [fr. L. mer-
cari.]

marche m. market : bon marche or
a bon marche, in a favorable
market, cheaply, cheap. [L.
mercatum.l

marche/ march, walk : en marche,
on the march, in motion, [fr.
marcher,]

marcher «. march, walk, advance,
get on, make progress. [?].

388

FBTINCH-BNGLISH

mardi m. Tuesday. [L. martis
diem, day of Mars.]

marechal m. marshal, [fr. Gr.]_

marechale /. (§ 16) marshal's wife,
[fr. marechal.]

atari m. husband. [L. maritum.']

mariage m. marriage, [fr. marier.]

uarier «. marry, give in marriage:
se . . ., get married, marry. [L.
mantare.'\

marque/, mark, sign, token, [fr.
G.]

mariner 11. mark, mark out, des-
ignate, [fr. marque.]

marquis m. marquis, [fr. G., fr.
mark, frontier.]

marquise /. (§ 16c) marchioness,
[fr. marquis.]

*mars (74(Q m. March. [L. mar-
tium.']

martyr m. martyr. [L., fr. Gr.]

massa m. massa {negro far master).
[American word.]

*mat (76o) adj. dull, dead ; check-
mated, [fr. G. matt.']

matelot m. sailor. [?]

matin m. morning: de grand or
bon matin, very early. [L. ma-
tutinum.']

maudire v. (irr. 10) curse, accurse.
[L. maledicere.]

mauvais adj. bad, evil, -wicked,
naughty, wrong. [?]

me pron. me, to me. [L. m^.]

mechancete /. ■wickedness, mis-
chief, maUcious act. [fr. me-
chant ]

mechant adj. wicked, bad, evil,
malicious, mischievous. [fr.
meschoir, L. minus cadere, turn
out ill.]

meconnaitre b. (in: 18) misunder-
stand, misappreciate. [me-,
mis-, and oonnaitre, know.]

mecontent adj. ill-content, dissatis-
fied, [me-, mis , and content.]

medecine/. medicine. [L.l

mediocrite/. mediocrity. [L.]

meiUeur adj. (IX. 3) better. [L.
m^liorem.']

melancolique adj. melancholy. [L. ,
fr. Gr.]

meme adj. (§
(XXIII. 3c);
very ; a» adi).
in fhe same

§ 15a) mem-
[L. mxmorir

threat. [L.

[L.

meler v. mix, mingle : se . . . S, be
mixed with, mix one's self up
with, meddle with, dabble in.
[fr. L. miscere.]

melon m. melon. [L., fr. Gr.]

membre m. member, limb. [L.
membrum.']

"■ " 114) self, -self
self-same, same,
even: de meme,
manner, all the
same. [fr. L. »emet ipsissimum,
very own self.]

memoire /. {and m. .
ory, recollection,
am]

menace /. menace,
minacias.]

mener v. lead, conduct, take.
minare, drive.]

-ment adv. ending (XXXI. 2) = -ly.
[L. mente, with mind.]

menteur m. menteuse /. (g 16a)
liar : as adj. lying, false, deceit-
ful, [fr. mentir.]

mentir v. {irr. 41) lie, tell a lie,
speak falsely. [L. mentiri.]

menton to. chin. [L. minium.]

menu adj. minute; — as rwun, minor
matter, detaU : salle des menus,
hall of minor pleasures (name
of a certain hall). [L. minu
turn.]

mepris to. contempt, [fr. mepriser,
misprize.]

mer/. sea. [L. mare.]

merci m. gratitude, thanks. [L,
m^rcedem, recompense.]

mercredi m. Wednesday. [L. ?««?'
curii diem. Mercury s day.]

mere /. mother. [L. matrem.

meridional adj. southern.

merite m. merit, desert,
[L. meritum.]

meriter v. merit, deserve. [L.
meritare.]

merveille /. miracle, marvel, won-
der. [L. mirdbilia.]

merveilleuz adj. marvelous, won-
derful, [fr. merveiUe.]

mesdames, see madame.

*m?8Bieurs, see monsieu;.

•em,.]
[L.j
worth.

VOCABTJLAET.

389

mesore J^. measure, means, method
of action. [L. mensuram.}

metier m. business, handicraft,
occupation. [L. ministei'ium.1

metre m. meter, (a little more than
a) yard. [L. metrum, fr. Gr.]

mettre «. (jjt. 31) put, place, set :
mettre a, put in a state of, re-
duce or drive to ; mettre a la
porte, turn out of doors ; se . . .
a, set one's self at, begin, com-
mence. [L. mittere, send.]

meurtre m. murder, homicide, [f r.
G., =Eng_. murdei:]

midi m. midday, noon, twelve
o'clock. [L. medium diem.']

mie /. crumb, particle, mite
(§ 165d, IBTc). [L. micam.]

mien adj. (XXVII. 1 ; § 87) mine,
[fr. L. meum.']

mieoz adv. (XXXI. 8) better ;
more : le mieuz, best ; aimer
mienz, like better, prefer (t?
VtW) ; de son mieoz, one's best
or utmost, the best one can. [L.
mefo'u*.]

*mil (68<2), see mille.

milieu m. middle, midst. [L.
medium locum, mid place.]

*mille (68/), *mil (XV. 7 ; § 63)
rium. thousand. [L. mille.)

'^ille (68/) /. mile. [L. millia,
thousand (paces).]

million m. million, [fr. mille.]

milord, my lord. [English words.]

mine /. mien, bearing, aspect,
look. [fr. It. ; L. minare f]

ministre m. minister. [L.]

minnit m. midnight, twelve o'clock
at night, [fr. L. rnediam noctem.']

minute/, minute, moment, sixtieth
of an hour. [L. minutam,
small, minute.]

miracle m. miracle. [L. mircuyii-
Iwn.]

miroir m. mirror, looking-glass,
[fr. mirer, L. mirari, contem-
plate.]

mode/, mode, style, fashion. [L.
madum.l

moderer v. moderate, keep within
bounds, temper. \h. tnoderari.]

moderement adv. moderately, [fr.
modere, pple of moderer.]

moderne adj. modern. [L.]

modeste adj. modest. [L.]

modestement adv. modestly, [fr.
modeste.]

^oBurs (74d)/. pl. (§ 24) mann»»,
morals, habits. [L. m^res.}

moi pron. me, to me, I. [L. me.]

moindre adj. (IX. 3) less : le moin-
dre, least. "[L. minorem : § 2e.]

moins adv. (XXXI. 8) less, the
less (XXXrV. 3): le moins, least ;
au or du moins, at least, at any
rate ; a moins de, short of, with-
out ; a moins que (§ 1375), un-
less. [L. minua~\

mois m. month. [L. mensem.']

moitie /. moiety, half. [L. medi-
etatem.]

mol, see mou,

moment m. moment, instant. [L.]

mon, ma, mes pron. (XIV. 1) my.
[L. meum.]

monde m. world ; company, so-
ciety, set, audience : tout le
monde, everybody. [L. mun-
dum.]

monseigneur m. my lord, his grace,
[mon and seigneur.]

*monsieur (18d, 73c) ning. *mes-
sieurs (73c) pl. m. (XIV. 4) the
gentleman, sir, Mr., Messrs.
[mon and sieur, L. seniorem.]

montagne / mountain. [L. mon-
taneam.]

monter v. mount, ascend, climb,
rise ; get on to (a horse, etc.) ;
go upstairs, [fr. L. montem,
mountain.]

montrer v. show, set forth, ex-
hibit. [L. monatrare.]

moquer v. mock : se . . . de, deride,
scoff, ridicule, make fun oi-
game of. [?]

moral adj. moral. [L.]

morceau m. bit, morsel, small
piece, extract, [fr. L. morsum,
pple of m^rdere. bite.]

mort /. death. [L. mortem.]

mort adj. dead ; as noun, dead
person, corpse, [pple of mourir,]

390

FEENCH-BNGtISH

mosquee /. mosque, Mohammedan
place of worship, [fr. Aiabic]

mot m. word, term, expression,
utterance (§ 167c) : donner le
mot, pass the word. [LL. mut-
turn, fr. ?]

motif m. motive, cause, reason.
[L.]

mouche/. fly, insect. [L. museam.]

mouchoir m. handkerchief, [fr.
moucher, fr. LL. muccare, fr.
mticufi, mucus.]

mou, mol (VII. 7) adj. soft, lax,
weak, effeminate. [L. mollem.]

moulin m. mill. [L. molinum, fr.
mola, mUlstone.]

monrir «. (irr. 62) die, decease.
[L. mori.]

monsquet m. musket, gun. [LL.
muscheta, fr. musca, fly.]

mouvoir v. (irr. 76) move. [L.
movere.']

moyen m. way, means. [L. me-
dianum.']

moyenner v. mediate, bring about :
moyennant, by means of, in con-
sideration of. [fr. moyen.]

mngir v. low, bellow. [L. mugire.']

muraille /. wall. [L. muralia.']

murmurer v. murmur. [L.]

*museum (516) m. museum. [L.,
fr. Gr.]

musicien m. musicienne /. (g 16)
musician, [fr. mnsique.]

muBique /. music. [L., fr. Gr.]

mutiner v.: se . . ., mutiny, rebel,
be refractory. \iT. mntin, fr.
L. motus, moved.]

mystere m. mystery, secret, se-
crecy. [L., fr. Gr.]

naif adj. simple, unaffected, artless,

naive. [L. nativum.l
naissance/. birth. [L. nascentiam.]
naitre v. (irr. 20) he born, come

into being or existence, spring

up, arise. [L. nasci.]
nappe/, table-cloth. [L. mappam.]
nation/, nation. [L.]
national adj. national, [fr. nation.]
nature/, nature. [L.]
naturel a^. natural. [L.J

natoreliement a«fe. naturally, [fr.

nattirel.]
ne adv. (§ 164 etc.) not : expletive,

§ 170. [L. mm.]
neanmoins adv. nevertheless. [n§-

ant, nothing (fr. L. ne ens), and

moins.]
necesBite/. necessity. [L.j
negociateur m. negociator. [L.]
neige/. snow. [L. niveam.']
neiger v. impers. snow. [fr. neige,]
nerf m. (*nerfs [eifls] pi.) nerve,

sinew ; string. [L. ner'vum.'l
*net (76«) ddj. neat, clean, fair.

[L. nitidum.']
nettement adv. neath^, clearly, dis-
tinctly, [fr. net.]
nettete /. neatness, clearness, con-
ciseness, [fr. net.]
nettoyer v. make neat ar clean,

clean, put in order, [fr. net,]
nenf adj. new, fresh. [L. novum.']
nenf (61(i, 86c) num. nine. [L.

vovem.]
nenvieme num. ninth, [fr. nenf

num.]
neveu m. nephew. [L. nepolem..]
nez m. nose. [L. noMtm.]
ni adv. (XII. 5 ; § 167/) neither,

nor. [L. nee]
niece/, niece. [L. neptia/m.]
nier v. deny. [L. negare.]
no., abbrev'n for nnmero.
noble adj. noble, exalted, lofty.

[L. noWfera.]
nobleBse/. nobility, [fr. noble.]
noir flsrf; black. [L. nigrum.]
nom m. name ; reputation, char-
acter, note. [L. nomen ]
nombre m. number ; great number

of, many (§ 50(2) : sanB nombre,

numberless, innumerable. [L.

niimei"um,.]
nombrenz adj. numerous. [L. nu-

merosum.]
*nombril (68c) m. navel, [fr. L.

umbilicum.]
nommer v. name, call or mention

by name. [L. nominare.]
non adv. (§ 169, 200) not ; no : non

plus, not any more, either

(§169c). [L. 7W».]

VOCABTTLAET.

391

nonante num. (XV. Sa) ninety.

[L. nonaginta.^
nord m. north, ^r. G.]
notre, nog pron. (XIV. 1) our. [L.

nostrum.']
notre pron. (XXVII. 1) ours. [L.

nostrum.]
nonirice/. nurse. [L. nutrieem.]
nourrir «. qouiish, feed. [L. nu-

trire.]
nouB pron. vie, us, to us. [L. nos.]
nonvean, nonvel cidj. (VII. 7) new,

recent, novel, new-fashioned.

[L. TwveUum.]
nonvelle /. piece of news, news.

[fern, of nonvean.]
novembre m. November. [L.]
noyer m. walnut-tree, walnut-
wood, walnut, [fr. noiz, L.

nucem. nut.]
nu arlj. (§ S6a) naked, bare, nude.

|L. nudum.]
nnire v. {in: ^ injure, harm, do

hurt (to, a : §. 161A). [L. nocere.]
nnit/. night. [L. noctem.]
nul pron. (§ 111) not any, none,

no ; no one ; null, of no value

or effect: nolle part (28a), no-
where. [L. nullum.]
nollement adv. in no wise, not at
. all. [fr. nul.]
nnmero m. number (in a numbered

series). [L. numero, abl. case.]
na-pieds (§ 56a) 0(2/.. barefoot, [nu

and pieds.]

obeir n. be obedient (to, a : § 1616),
obey. [L. obedire.]

objet m. object, matter, article,
thing. [L. objectum ]

obligation/, obligation : avoir obli-
gation, be under obligation.
[I']

obliger V. oblige, compel, force ;
lay under obligation, do favors
to. . {L. .obUffare.]

obscuT adj. obscure, hidden, dark.
[L.]

observation/, observation. [L.]

observer e. observe, [h. observare ]

obstiner jr.: a' . . ., be obstinate, per-
sist, insist. [L. obstiiiare.]

obtenir v. (irr. 61) obtain. [L. ob-

tinere.]
occasion /. occasion, opportunity.

[L.]
Occident m. Occident, west. [L.]
occupation/, occupation. [L.]
occuper v. occupy : s' . . ,, occupy

01- employ one's self, be busy

(with, de), spend one's time (up-
on, de). [L. oceupare.]
oceane adj. f. (§ 5Sd) oceanic. [L.]
octante num. (XV. 3a) eighty. [L.

octaginta.]
octobre m. October. [L.]
ceil m. (yeux pi. : § 226) eye. [L.

oculum. ]
oBuf m. (*OBufs [61a] pi.) egg. [L.

ovum.]
oeuvre /. work. [L. operam.]
ofFenser v. offend. [L. offensare.]
officier m. oflBcer. [L. officiarium,]
offirir ». (irr. 53) offer, set before,

present: s' . . ., make offer of

one's self, offer, [fr. L. offerre.]
oh interj. oh I ah !
^oignon (43a) m. onion. [L.

unionem.]
oiseau m. bird. [LL. amceUum,

fr. avis, bird.]
oisif adj. idle, unoccupied, [fr.

L. otium, idleness.]
ombrage m. shade, umbrage. [L.

umbi-aticum, fr. umbra, shaae.]
omelette /. omelet. [?]
omettre v. (irr. 31) omit, pass over,

let pass. [L. omittere.]
*omnibus {^id)m. omnibus. [L.,

for all]
on pron. (XXVII. 4; § 106) one,

people, they. i^OF. hom, L.

7u>minem.]
one, onques adv. (§ IGTc) ever. [L.

unguam.]
oncle m. uncle. [L. avunculum.]
onques, see one.
onze (64/) num. eleven. [L. un-

decim.]
onzieme (64/") num. eleventh, [fr.

onze ]
opinion /. opinion, good opinion.

[L.]
' opposer V. oppose, [fr. L. opponere.^

393

FEENCH-BNGLISH

opposition /. opposition. [L.]
opprobre m. opprobrium, disgrace,

shame. [L. J
or adv. conj. now. [L. haram,

hour.]
or m. gold. [L. av/rwm.'X
orage m. storm, [fr. L. aura,

breeze.]
oraison/. oration, speecb ; prayer.

[L. m'ati(mem!\
orange m. orange ; orange color

(§ hZ3). [fr. Persian.]
ordinaire adj. ordinary, common,

usual. [L. ordma/riu'm.'\
ordinairement adv. ordinarily, usu-
ally, [fr. ordinairej
ordonner ®. give orders (to, a:

§ 161i), order. [L. ordirMre.'\
ordre in. order. [L. ordinem,.'\
oreille/. ear. [L. auri/mlam.l
orfevre m. goldsmith, jeweller.

[fr. L. auri fahrum, worker in

gold.]
organisation/, organization. [L.]
orgue m.f. (§ 15c) organ. [L.

organum.'\
orgneil m. pride, [fr. G.]
orient to. orient, east. [L. orien-

iem.l
oriental adj. oriental, eastern. [L.]
original adj. original. [L.]
origine/. origin. [L.]
omement m. ornament. [L.]
orpheliu m. orpheline /. (| 16) or-
phan, orphaned, [fr. L. o?--

p/ianus.}
oser V. dare. [fr. L. audere.]
oter V. take away (from, a: §

161c), take off, remove. [?, =:

Eng. oust.]
ou conj. or ; ou . . . on, either . . .

or. [L. aut.]

on adv. pron. (XXVI. 8) where ?

where ; to or at or in which :

d'o4, from where, whence ; par

ou, by what way or route ; on

qne (§ 137c), wherever. [L.

ubi.]
ouUi m. piece of forgetfulness,

oversight, omission ffr. oublier.j
oublier v. forget, [fr. L. oblmici.]
*onest (76a) m. west. [G.]

oui (64/) adv. (§ 200) yes. [L. hoc
iliud, that same.]

oulr V. (irr. 49) hear. [L. audire.]

*onr8 (74d) m ourse/. (§ 16) bear.
[L. wsum.l

*ontil (68c) m. tool, instrument,
[fr. L. uti, use.]

outrage m. insult, abuse, maltreat-
ment, outrage, [fr. ontrer, ex
ceed, fr. L. ultra?]

outrager v. insult, abuse, [fr. oa<
trage.]

outre pi'ep. beyond ; besides. [L,
ultra.]

outrer v. go beyond, exceed, [fr,
outre.]

ouvert adj. open ; frank, free,
[pple of ouvrir.]

ouverture/. opening, [fr. ouvert.

ouvrage ni. work, labor ; result oi
labor, product, work. [fr.
ouvrer, L. opej-ari.]

onvrier m. ouvriere jf. (§ 16) work-
er, laborer, workman or work-
woman. [L. operarium.]

ouvrir v. (irr. 55) open ; open the
door. [L. aperire.]

page/, page (of a book). [L. pa-

ginam,.]
page m. page (in waiting). [Gr.

paidion, boy.]
paillasse f.m. (§ 16a) straw bed;

clown, [fr. paille.]
paille /. straw : chaise de paille,

straw-bottomed chair. [L. pale-
am.]
pain m. bread: petit pain, roll,

biscuit. [L. panem.]
paisible adj. peaceful, [fr. paiz.]
pais /. peace, quiet : en paiz, in

peace. [L. pacem.]
palais TO. palace. [L. palatium.]
panier to. basket. [L. pana/rium,

tor bread.]
*paon (81a) to. peacock. [L.pavo-

nem.]
papier m. paper. [L. papyrum.]
paque m. /. (§ ibc) paasover, Easter.

[L. pascfwm, fr. Hebrew.]
paquet to. packet, package, parceL

[fr. G.]

VOCABtJLABT.

393

par prep, by, through, by means
of : par ou, by. what route or
way. [L. per!)

paiaitre v. (irr. 18) appear, be visi-
ble, show one's self ; seem. [L.
pn/re8cere.'\

parbleu interj. zounds, [fr. par
Dieu.]

paroe que eonj. because, for the
reason that, [par ce, by this.]

parconrir v. {irr. 52) run through
or over, go or pass tbrough,
traveree. [L. percurrei-e.^

par-dessns adv. above, over and
above, beyond, [par and dessns.]

pardon m. pardon, forgiveness,
[fr. pardonner.J

pardonnable adj. pardonable, wor-
thy of forgiveness, [fr. pardon-
ner.]

pardonner v. pardon, forgive ; par-
don anything (to, a, any one).
[LL. perdonare!]

pareil (uij. like, similar, such : nn
pareil, such a. [LL. parieulum,
fr. li. par, equsd.l

parent m. relative, parent. [L.
parentem.]

parente /. relationship, kindred,
[fr. parent.]

paresseox adj. idle, lazy. [fr. pa-
resse, L. pigritiam, laziness.]

par&it adj. perfect. [L. perfectumi]

parfaitement adv. perjEectly. [fr.
parfait.]

parier v. bet, wager ; dare say. [L.
pariare. balance, fr. par.]

parlement m. parliament. [fr.
parier.]

parier v. speak, talk, discourse,
[fr. parole.]

parier m. speecb, talk, words,
[inf. of parler.J

parloir m. talking-room, parlor,
[fr. parier.]

parmi prep, among. [L. per me-
dium, through the midst.]

parole/, word ; speech, language,
[fr. L. parabolam, fr. Gr.]

part /. part, portion, share ; side ;
concern : a part, aside, apart ;
de la part de^ on the part of, in

the name of, on behalf of, as
from ; pour ma (etc.) part, for
my (etc.) part, so far as I (etc.)
am concerned ; autre or quelque
or nulle part (§ 28a), elsewhere
or somewhere or nowhere ;
prendre part, take a part, share ;
se donner part, make one's self
a sharer, assume a share. [L.
partem.'\

parti m. division, party, side ; de-
termination, resolution, [fr.
partir.]

partant adv. accordingly, bence.
[par and tant.]

partie /. part, portion, share, [fr.
partir.]

partir v. (irr. 38) set out, start, go
away, leave, depart. [L. partire,
divide.

partout adv. everywhere, [par
and tout.]

parvenir v. (irr. 60) arrive, attain,
reach one's object, succeed. [L.
pervenire.l

pas m. step, pace ; footstep, track.
[L. passum.l

pas adv. (with ne) not (XII.;
§ 165-9). [same as pas,
noun.]

passablement adv. passably, toler-
ably, pretty well. [fr. passable,
fr. passer.]

passage to. passage, passing, [fr.
passer,]

passer v. pass, go on or by or
through ; spend : se . . . , take
place, occur, happen ; se . . .
de, dispense with, do without,
forego, [probably f r. pas.]

passion /. passion. [L.]

paatenr m. pastor, shepherd, par-
son. [L. pasiorem.']

patre to. shepherd, herdsman.
[L. pa.'dor (% 4b, c).]

patrle/. one's own country, father-
land. [L. patriam.]

patte /. paw, foot. [?]

paturage to. pasturage, pasture
land. [fr. paturer, fr. pature, L.
pasturam.'}

pauvre adj. (VIII. Sc ; § 604) pogr.

394;

FEBUCH-BNGLI8H

needy, pitiful, miserable. [L.
pauperem,]

*payB (370) m. country, land :
Pays-Bas, Low Countries, Neth-
erlands. [L. pagensem, fr. pa
gus, village.]

^paysage (37a) m. landscape, [fr.
pays.]

*paysaii (87a) m. peasant, [fr. pays.]

peau /. skin, hide, pelt. [L. pel-
lem.]

peohe/. peach. [L. peraicum, Per-
sian.]

peche /. fishing, [fr. pecher, L.
piscari.'\

peche rn. sin, trespass. [L. pecca-
tum.']

pedantisme m. pedantry. [fr.
pedant, fr. It.]

peindre v. (irr. 16) paint. [L
pingere.']

peine /. pain, distress, grief, anx-
iety ; trouble, difficulty ; pen-
alty : a peine, with difflcul^,
hardly, scarcely, but just. [L.
panam.']

peintre m. painter. [L. picior.]

peintnre /. painting. [L. pictu-
ram.']

pendant prep, during, pending :
pendant que, during the time
that, whUe. [pple of pendre,
L. pendere, hang.]

penetrer v. penetrate, permeate.
[L. penetrai'e.']

pensee/. thought, [fr. penser.]

penaer v. think : penser a, think
on or of, turn one's thoughts to ;
penser de, think about, have an
opinion of. [L. pensare, fr.
pendere, hang.]

pensenr m. thinker, (fr. penser.]

*pensum (60«) m. task imposed.
[L.]

»pentametre (SOe) m. pentameter.
[Gr.]

perdre «. lose ; ruin, undo. [L.
perdere.]

pere m. father. [L. patrem.']

perfectionner ». make perfect, bring
to perfection, perfect, [fr. per-
fection, L.]

per-

perfide adj. perfidious, treacherous,
deceitful. [L. perjidum.']

peril (fiBd) m. peril, risk, danger.
[L. periculum.']

periodiqne adj. periodical. [fr.
periode, L., fr. Gr.]

perir v. x>erish, go to destruction.
[L. peirire.']

permettre v. (irr. 31) permit, allow.
[L. permitlere.']

permission /. permission. [L.]

perpetner v. perpetuate. [L.
petua/re.']

perpetnelaif;'. perpetual, never end-
ing, [fr. L. perpetuus.']

perplexite/. perplexity. [L.j

persan adj. Persian.

personnage m. personage; char^
acter, part. [fr. personne.]

personne/. person, individual; own
self: with ne (Xn. 4: §1074,
167-8), nobody, no one, not any
one. [L. personam.]

personnel adj. personal, [fr. per-
sonne ]

persuader v. persuade, convince.
[L.]

perte/. loss. [fr. perdre.]

petit adj. little, small, petty : as
noun, little one, ddld, hoy or
girl. [?]

petitesse /. littleness, pettiness,
small or mean action, [fr. petit.]

petit-fils m. grandson, [petit and
fils.]

pen adt. (and as mown, m.) little,
not much, not very ; few : pen a
pen, little by little, by degrees ;
a pen prea, within a little, al-
most, nearly; poor pen qne, how-
ever little (§ 137c) ; tant soit pen,
ever so litfle, slightly, \h.pavr
cum.]

penple m. people. [L. populum.]

penr /. fear, fright, terror : avoir
penr (XIII. 6), feel fear, be
afraid ; faire penr, cause fear,
frighten ; de penr de, for fear of ;
de penr que . . . ne (§ 170a), for
fear that or lest. [L. pavmem.]

peut-etre adv. may be, perhaps.
[fr. il pent (pouvoir) etre.]

VOCABULARY.

395

philoBophe m. philosopher. [Or.]

piece /. piece ; piece (of music,
etc.), dramatic piece, drama,
play : tout d'nne piece, all of one
piece, without pliancy, stiff,
monotonous. [?]

pied m. foot : a pied, on foot. [L.
perfem.]

pierre /. stone. [L. petram, fr.
Gr.]

piete/. piety. [L.]

pietre adj. poor, sorry, pitiful. [L.
pedestrem.^

piquer v. pique, sting, offend, [fr.
pic, point, fr. Celtic]

pire adj. (IX. 3) worse. [L. p^o-
rem.]

pis adv. (XXXI. 8) worse. [L.
pejus.}

pistolet m.. pistol. [?]

place /. place, room, stead ; forti-
fied place, stronghold. [L.
plaieam, fr. Gr.]

placer v. place, set, station, fix.
[fr. pUuie.]

plaindre v. (irr. 15) weep over,
lament, pity : se . . ., complain ;
lament. [L. plangere.l

plainte /. plaint, lamentation, cry
of grief or pain, groan, [fr.
plaindie.]

plaire ». (irr. 34) please, be pleas-
ing or give pleasure (to, a:
g 161b) : pint a Bieu, would to
God ; a Sien ne plaise (§ 166c),
Grod forbid. [L. plaeere.]

plaisant adj. pleasing, pleasant,
[pple of plajre.]

plaisir m. pleasure : faire pk.igir,
cause or give pleasure, gratify.
[old inf., =plaire.]

plante /. plant. [L. plantam.]

plat m. dish, plate, [fr. G.,
=flat.)

plein ad/, full. [L. plenum.]

pleinement adv. fully, [fr. plein.]

pleura m. pi. {%lZa, 24) tears, cries,
weeping, pr. plenrer.]

plenrer v. lament, shed tears, weep.
[L. plorare.y

pleuToii V. {irr. 71) rain. [L.

plier V. fold, bend. [L. plieare.]
plomb m. lead. [L. plumbum.]
plonger v. plunge, immerse, sink.
[L. plumbicare, fr. plumbum,
lead.]
plnie /. rain. [L. pluviam.]
plume /. feather, pen, plume. [L.

plum^m.]

plnpart /. greater part, majority :

la plnpart de {with a/rt. , V. 46),

most of, most, [plus and part.]

plus adv. (IX. la, XXXI. 8)

more ; the more (XXXIV. 3) ;

(with ne : § 167-8) no longer, no

further, no more ; de plus,

moreover, besides, further. [L.

plus.]

plusieurs pron. pi. (§ 112) several.

[fr. plus.]
plutot adv. sooner, rather, by pref-
erence : plutot que de (jjoith inf.),
rather than, [pins and tot.]
poche /. pocket, [fr. G.]
poeme m. poem. [L. , fr. Gr.]
poesie /. poesy, poetry. [L., fr.

Gr.]
poete m. poet. [L., fr. Gr.]
poing m. fist, clenched hand. [L.

pagnum.]
point m. point, dot, spot : a point,
at the right point, in due time ;

ne: § 16S-8) not, not at
all, by no means. [L. punctum.]
poire/, pear. |L. pirum.]
poirier m. pear-tree. [fr. poire.]
pois m. pea. [L. pisum.]
poisson m. fish. [fr. L. piseem.]
poitrine/. breast, [fr. L. pectus.]
poivre m. pepper. [L. piper.]
police /. police, matters of police.

[L., fr. Gr.]
pommade/. pomade, [fr. pomme,]
pomme /. apple : ponune de terre,

potato, [h. pomum.]
popnlenx adj. populous. [L.]
porcelaine /. porcelain, china,

piece of china-ware. [fr. It.]
port m. port, harbor, place of ref-
uge. [L. portum.]
porte/. door, gate. [L. poriam.]
portee/. reach, compass, capacity,
calibre, [fr. porter.]

396

FBBNCH-BNGLISH

porter v. carry, bear, convey ;
wear; reach, extend: se . . .,
carry one's self, be (in respect to
health). [L. portare.l

portemanteau m. portmanteau, va-
lise, [porter and manteau.]

portrait m. portrait, [fr. L. pro-
trahere.']

poser «. place, set, lay : se . . . ,
settle, alight. [L. pamare.l

posseder v. possess. [L. ^osswfere.]

possesseur m. possessor. [L. pos-
seasorem.^

possession/, possession. [L.]

poste /. post, post-office, [fr. L.
positam.'l

posterite/. posterity. [L.]

pot m. pot. [L. potUTTK]

poterne /. postern. [LL. postern-
lam.']

poudre /. powder, dust : pondre a
canon, gunpowder. [L. pulve-
rem.l

poule/. fowl, hen. [L. puUam.]

*potas (67a) m. pulse. [L. pul-
sum.]

pour prep, for, on account of, for
the sake of, in favor of ; in or-
der to, to ; as (§ 1540) : pour
que (§ 137a!), in order that. [L.
pro.]

pourquoi adv. covj. for what, why.
[pour and quoi.]

poursuivre v. (in: 33) pursue, fol-
low, follow out, continue. [L.
prosequi.']

pourtant adv. for all that, yet,
still, nevertheless, [pour and
tant.]

pourvoir v. {irr. 69) provide : pour-
vu que (§ 1374), provided that,
provided. [L. piovidere.]

pousser v. push, urge on. [L. pul-
sare.]

pouvoir V. {in: 75, p. 119) be able,
have power, can ; may, might
(XXV. 8/): 11 se peut, etc.
(XXV. tf), it is possible, etc.
[L. possel]

pouvoir m. power, [inf. of pou-
voir..]

precederv. precede, [h. prmcedere.]

precieuz adj. precious, valuable.
[L. pretiosiim,.']

precipiter v. precipitate, hurl head-
long. [L.]

precoce adj. precocious. [L. pra-
eocem.]

predire v. (ot. 9) predict, foretell.
Hu. praedicere.]

pretaee f. preface. [L. pr.(efaiio^
iiem.]

preferer v. prefer, [fr. L. prcB-
fe?'re.]

*prefix (81 J) m. prefix. [L.]

premier adj. first. [L. primarium.]

prendre v. (irr. 30) take, take up,
seize, take hold of, capture :
s'y . . ,, set one's self about some-
thing, proceed, manage ; s'en . . .
a, lay the blame on, impute, find
fault with, come back upon;
prendre garde, beware. [L. pre-
hendere.]

preparer v. prepare, make ready.
[L.]

pros adv. prep, near, next : pres de,
near, near by, next to. [L.
pressum.]

presence/, presence. [L.]

present adj. present : a present, at
present, now. [L.]

presentement adv. presently, im-
mediately, [fr. present.]

presenter v. present, offer. [L.
praesentare.]

presque adv. almost, nearly, [pres
and que.]

presser v. press, urge, crowd, hast-^
en. [L. pressare.]

pret adj. ready, prepared. [LL.
prcestum.]

pretendre v. put forth claim, claim,
presume, profess, intend, pre-
tend. [L. p7-<Btendere.]

preter v. put forward, advance,
lend ; put to one's account, at-
tribute. [L. prmstare.']

pretre m. priest. [L. pi-eAyterum,
fr. Gr.]

prior V. pray, beseech, beg, re-,
quest, ask; offer prayer : se faire
prior, wait to be urged. [L.
precari.]

TOCABITLAET.

397

priere /. prayer, [fr. prier.]
prime adj. first (| 66). [L. pri-

mum.']
prince m. prince. [L. pHndpem.']
princesse /. princess, [f r. prinoe :

§16.]
principal (idj. principal, chief. [L.]
principe m. principle. [L. pria-

dpium.]
privilege m. privilege. [L.]
prix m. price, cost ; prize, reward.

[L. pretium.l
probable adj. probable. [L.]
probablement adv. probably, [fr.

probable.]
procbain adj. next, next following

or to come. [fr. proche.]
procbe adj. near (to, de). [L.

propium.1
procurer -b. procure. [L. procu-

rare.'] .
prodigner v. be prodigal of, spend

freely, lavish, [fr. prodigue, L.

prodigum.'\
profane adj. profane, secular. [L.]
professor v. profess, [fr. L. profes-

««/».]
professenr m. professor, instructor,

teacher. [L.]
profession /. profession, occupa-
tion. [L.]
*profil (68(?) m. profile, [fr. L.

filum, thread.]
profiter v. profit (by, de), take or

fet advantage, [fr. profit, fr.
I. profeetum.]
profound adj. profound, deep. [L.

profandum.]
profusion /. profusion. [L.]
progres m. progress, advancement.

[L.]
proie /. prey : en proie a, a prey

to. [L. prcedam.]
projet m. project, plan. [L. pro-

jectum.']
projeter v. project, plan. [fr.

projet.]
promener v. lead forth, take or

send about : se . . '. , take a walk.

[L. prominare.']
promesse /. promise. [LL. pro-

missa/m, fr. 'promiUere7\

promettre ». (irr. 31) promise. [L.

promittere.']
*prompter (71a) v. prompt, [fr.

prompt, L. promptum.'\
prononcer ij. pronounce, utter, de-
liver ; give opinion or judg-
ment. [L. pronuntiare.']
prophete m. prophet. [L., fr. Gr.]
propos m. talk, discourse ; intent,
purpose : a propos, to the pur-
pose, in point, appositely ; a
propos de, in connection with, as
suggested by. [L. propositum. ]
proposer v. propose, [fr. L. pro-

ponere.l
propre adj. (§ 60')) own ; very ; suit-
able ; nice, clean: amour propre,
self-love. [L. proprium.]
prosperer ». prosper. [L. prospe-

rare.]
prosperite/. prosperity. [L.]
proteger ». protect. [L. proiegere.^
prouver v. prove. [L. probare.]
province /. province : Provinces-
ITnies, the United Provinces (of
the Netherlands). [L.J
provoquer v. provoke, excite. [L.

promcare, call forth.]
*prudemment (26i) adv. prudently.

[fr. prudent.]
prudence/, prudence. [L.]
prudent adj. prudent. [L.].
public adj. public. [L. publicum.']
public m. public, [same as adj.]
publication/, publication. JX.]
*pueril (68d) adj. puerile. [L-J
puis adv. then, next, thereafter.

[L. post.]
puisque conj. since, because, as.

[puis and que,]
puissanunent adv. powerfully,
mightily, by force, [fr. puis-
sant,]
puissance/', power, might, domin-
ion, [f r. puissant.]
puissant adj. powerful, mighty,
puissant, [old pple of pouvoir.j
punir V. punish. [L. puiure.']
pur a(^. pure ; mere, simple. [L.

purum.}
*pnsillanime (68/) adj. pusillani-
mous. [L., small-spirited.]

398

FKENCH-ENGLISH

qualifier v. qualify, entitle, term
(as, de : § 162g). [LL. qvali-
jficare.}

qualite /. quality. [L.]

quand adv. couj. when ; if, sup-
posing that. [L. guando.]

quant pron. how much m- many :
quant a, as for, as regards, in
respect to. [L. quantum.']

quarantaine /. two score, some
forty, [fr. qnarante,]

quarante num. forty. [L. guad-
raginla.]

quart num. fourth (§ 66) : as noun,
quarter, fourth part. [L. guar-
ium.]

quatorze num. fourteen. [L. gua-
ium'deeim.]

qnatre num. four. [L. guatuor.]

quatre-vingts num. four twenties,
four-score, eighty, [quatre and
vingt.]

quatrieme num. fourth, [fr. qua-
tre.]

que pron.: inieiTog. (XXV. 4)
what, which ; relat. (XXVI. 2)
which, that, whom ; what (§
lOSc); after qui, quoi, etc. (% 104),
ever ; expletive (§ 98, 147J, 1736) :
ce que (XXVI. 10), that which,
what. [L. quem, quam, quod,
guid.]

que adv. how, w^ (interrog., re-
lat., exclam.). [L. guam, quod.]

que conj. that (§ 221) ; sign of sruhj.
(VIII. 76), sub}, after, § 182 e/c;
making conj. phrases. XXXIV.
5 ; § 186-8 ; in order that. (§
137d); repeating si etc. § 1886,
221*; f&r lorsque etc. § 221c ,•
que . . . ne, unless, until, 1 138c;
que in comparison (IX. 4), than,
as ; after quelque etc. (§ 107c, d),
ever : ne . . . que (XII. 5 ; § 167),
only. [L. qiind, qunm.]

quel prmt. (XIII. 4) what, what a,
which : quel que (§ 104) what-
ever. [L. qualem.]

quelconqne pron. (§ 108) whatever,
whatsoever, of some sort. [L.
qiiaUmeungiie.]

quelque pron. (XIV. 6; § 107)

some ; ahout, nearly, some (§
107c) : quelque chose (§ 107a),
something, anything ; quelque
. . . que (| 107c, d), whatever,
however ; quelque part (§ 28a),
somewhere. [L. guaJemguam.]

qnelquefois adv. sometimes, [quel-
que and fois.]

quelqu'unjjron. (XXVII. 6 ; § 107)
some one, somebody, some peo-
ple, some, [quelque and un.]

querelle /. quarrel, contest. [L.
qiterelam.]

quereller v. quarrel or wrangle
with, scold, chide, [fr. querelle.]

querir v. {irr. 63) seek, look after.
[L. qvm-ere.]

qui pron.: interrog. (XXV. ;§96)
who, whom, what ; relat.
(XXVI.; § 102) who, whom,
that, which ; (§ 103) whoever,
any one who, what : qui que
(§ 104), whoever. [L. qui.]

quiconque prvn. (XXVI. 9) who-
ever, any one who. [L. quicum-
que.]

quint num. (§ 66) fifth ; fifth part
(XVI. 4c). [L. quintum.]

qninze num. fifteen. [L. quin-
dccim.]

quinzieme num. fifteenth, [fr.
guinze.]

quitte adj. free, rid, discharged.
[L. guiettim.]

quitter v. quit, leave abandon,
give up. [fr. quitte.]

quoi pron..' interrog. (XXV.) what;
relat. (XXVI. 6 ; § 103rf) what,
which ; exclam. (XXV. 4r) what !
quoi que (§ 104), whatever ; de
quoi, wherewiti, the means
(XXVI. 6«). [L. quid.]

quoique conj. (XXXIV. In ; § 187J)
though, although, [quoi and
que.]

rabattre v. (XX. 3c) beat down:
se . . ., fall back, [re and
abattre.]

raconter v. recount, relate, tell,
[fr. center,]

*radoub (67«) m. repair, [fr. G.]

VOCABTTLAET.

399

Taffermir v. make firm or strong
again, refinforce, confirm, [fr.
affermir, fr. ferme.]

ra&aichir v. refresh, freshen up.
[fr. fraichir, fr. frais.]

ragont m. stew, ragout. [fr.
agouter, fr. govt, taste.]

raison /. reason, sense ; motive,
cause ; ratio, proportion ; jus-
tice, right : It raison, rightly ;
avoir raison (XIII. 6a), be right,
have the right of it. [L. ra-
tionem.']

rajennir v. rejuvenate, renew
youth, make or become young
again, [fr. jeone, young.]

ramener v. bring back. [fr.
amener.]

rapide adj. rapid, swift, fleet. [L.]

rappeler v. (XXI. 3c) recall, call
back, [re and appeler.]

rapporter v. bring or carry back,
refer: s'en ... a, refer one's
self to, leave the decision to,
abide by the judgment of. [re
and apporter.J

*rapt (76a) to. rape. [L. rectum.]

rare adj. rare, unusual, uncom-
mon. [L. rarum.]

raser ». slmve. [L. rasare.]

rasaasier v. satiate, satisfy, surfeit,
[fr. L. ad-satiare, tt. satis,
enough.]

raturer v. scratch out, erase,
cancel, [fr. ratnre, fr. ?]

ravir v. ravish ; enrapture, de-
light, charm. [L. rapere.'\

ravlver v. revive, bring back to
life. [fr. vif, alive.]

realite /. reality. [L.]

reception /. reception, entrance
(into a society). [L.]

recevoir «. {irr. 65) receive. [L.
recipere.']

recherche/, research, search, [fr.
rechercher, re and chercher.]

recit m. recital, narrative, story,
tale. [fr. reciter.]

reciter v. recite, rehearse, declaim ;
narrate. [L. recitare.']

recolte m. harvest, crop. [L. re-
eolleetiim.']

reconnaitre «. {irr. 18) know again,
recognize, [re and connaitre.]

reconrir v. (irr. 53) recur, go back,
[re and courir.]

recouvrer v. recover, regain. [L.
reauperare.]

recaler v. pull or draw or throw
back : se . . ., draw back, back,
recoil.] [fr. cul.]

redactenr m. editor, [fr. L. re-
dactum, put in shaper]

redoublsr v. (de : § 162/) redouble,
make twice as much. [fr.
double.]

redontable adj. redoubtable, for-
midable, [fr. redouter, fr. doute,
doubt.]

rednire v. (j/rr. 1) reduce. [L. re-
ducere.'\

reformer v. close or shut again, re-
close, [re and fermer.]

reflechir v. reflect, meditate. [L.
rejleeiere.']

reflet m. reflection, reflected im-
age, [fr. refleter, L. reflectere.']

reflexion/, reflection. [L.]

re&oidir v. cool down, become less
warm, chill or slacken, [fr.
froid, cold.]

regard m. look, glance, notice,
[fr. regarder.]

regarder v. look, look to, see ; look
at, gaze at, regard ; have regard
or respect to, concern, [re and
garder, keep.]

regiment m. regiment. [L.]

regie/, rule. [L. regulam.]

rSgne m. reign. [L. regnum.'\

regner v. reign, rule, govern. [L.
regnare.']

regret m. regret, sorrow, concern,
[fr. regretter.]

regretter v. regret. [?]

reine/. queen : reine-mere, queen-
mother, king's mother. [L.
reginam.'\

rejoindre v. {irr. 17) rejoin, [re
and joindre.]

relation /. relation, connection.

releguer v. relegate, consign, ex-
ile. [L. relegai-e.]

400

FBBIfCH-ElTGLISH

religienx adj. religious : a» noun,
monk. [L. religioswm.l

religion/, religion. [L.] _

remarquer v. remark, notice, [re
and marqner,]

remettre v. (CiT. 31) put back, put
again, set again ; hand over,
consign : se . . . a, begin or com-
mence again, [re and mettre.]

remontranoe/. remonstrance, [fr.
re-montrer, show again.]

remuer v. move, stu\ [L. re-
mutare.']

rencontrer v. meet, fall in with,
[re and encontrer, encoimter, fr.
centre, against.]

rendezTous m. rendezvous, ap-
pointed place of meeting. [=
rendez-Toua, betake yourself.]

rendre v. render, return, give back,
restore ; make, cause to be ;
give, pay, do. [L. reddere.'\

renoncer e. {with a : § 78, 161J) re-
nounce. [L. renuntiare.l

renonveler «. (XXI. 3c) make new
again, renew, [fr. re and nou-
veau,]

rente /. rent, income. [L. reddi-
tam.']

rentrer v. re-enter, go back in.
[re and entrer.]

renveraer v. overthrow, lay low,
knock or throw down. [fr. L.
invei'sus.l

renvoyer v. (irr. 81) send back
[re and envoyer.]

repandre ®. spread abroad, scatter,
diffuse, shed. [fr. L. re-expan-
dere.]

repentir ». .• se . . ., repent, [fr. L.
repcsnitere.]

repeter v. repeat. [L. repetere.']

repondre v. respond, reply, an-
swer ; . . . de, be answerable or
responsible for, warrant. [L.
respondere.}

reponse /. response. [L. regpon-
sum.]

reporter «. bring or carry back,
[re and porter.]

repoB rrt. repose, calm, rest. [fr.
reposer.]

reposer v. repose, rest: «e . . .,
take rest or repose, rest. [fr. L.
reponere.l

repousser v. push back, repulse,
thrust off. [L. re-pu£iaj'e.]

reprendre -d. {irr. 30) take again,
resume, recover; begin again,
go on to say. [re and prendre.]

representer v. represent. [L.]

reprocher ». make a matter of re
proach or reproof, reproach (any
one, a : § 1614) for. [re and
proche, near.]

republicain adj. republican, [fr,
republiqne.]

repnbliqne /. republic. [L.]

repugnance /. repugnance, aver-
sion, [fr. L. repvgnare.]

reserve /. reserve, [fr. L. re-
servare.'\

resister v. {with a : § 1614) resist
[L.]

resondre ®. {iir. 36) resolve. [L,
resolvere.'^

resolntion /. resolution. [L.]

respect (76a) m. respect, regard,
[L.]

respirer v. respire, breathe; be-
token. [L.]

%esseml)lance (18<2)/. resemblance,
likeness, [fr. ressiBmUer.l

^ressemUer (18d) «. {with a : § 1614)
be like, resemble. [re and
sembler.]

%essoarce {\id) f. resource, [fr.
L. resurgere.]

restanration /. restoration, [fr.
L, reatau7'are.'\

reste m. rest, remainder, remnant,
[fr. rester.]

rester v. remain, be left, stay, con-
tinue. [L. restare.}

resulter v. result, ensue. [L. re-
sullare.'\

retarder v. retard, delay, put off.
[L.]

retenir v. {irr. 61) hold back, re-
tain, restrain. [L. retinere.}

retirer v. drawback, draw, derive:
se . . ., draw one's self back,
withdraw, retire, retreat, [re
and tirer.]

TOCABULART.

401

vetonr m. return, [fr. retoorner.]

retouraw v. return, turn back or
the other way : se . . ., turn
around or back ; s'en . . ., go or
come back, return, [re and
toumer]

retraite /. retreat, [ft. retraire,
L. re-irahere.'\

retronver v. iSnd again, [re and
tronver.]

reunir v. reunite ; unite, join,
combine, [re and nnir.]

leossii V. succeed (in, a), [re and
UBsir, L. exire.l

rever v. dream, muse, exercise the
imagination, be in a revery, rave,
[fr. rove, dream, fr. ?]

revenir v. (irr. 60) come back, re-
turn. [L. revenire.']

levetir v. (fiT. 51) put on again,
clothe one's self iA, put on. [re
and vetir ]

revolr v. (irr. 67) see again ; re-
view. jTJ. revidere.^

revolter ». revolt ; rouse to rebel-
lion or opposition, shock, [fr.
revolte, L. revolutam.^

revolution/, revolution. [L.]

revolationnaire adj. revolutionary;
as noun, revolutionist. [fr.
revolution.]

*rliiun (SU) m. rum. [fr. Eng-
lish.]

riche lulj. rich. [fr. O.]

richesse /. riches, wealth, [fr.
riche.]

ridicule adj. ridiculous. [L. ridi-
eu,lum.'\

ridicule m. ridiculousness, absur-
dity, [same as adj.]

rien pron. {with ne: XII. 4; §
1076, 167-8) not anything, noth
ing ; anything : rien qu'a or
rien que de, merely by, by noth-
ing but. [L. rem.']

rire «. (ii-r. 13) laugh. [L. ridere.']

rire m. laugh, [inf. of rire.]

rive/, bank, shore. [L. ripam.]

robe/, dress, frock, [fr. G.]

robinet m. stop-cock, faucet, [fr.
Sobin, nickname for sheep.]

roi m. king. |Tj. regem.'\

remain adj. Roman. [L. rorrut-
num.l

roman m. romance, novel, [fr.
L. romaniis.]

romancier m. romance writer, nov-
elist, [fr. romance, fr. roman.]

rompre v. (XX. Zb) break, burst.
[L. rumpere.]

rose /. rose. [L. rosam.]

rouge adj. red. [L. rubeum.]

rougeur m. redness, blush, [fr.
rouge,]

rougir «. turn red, blush, [fr.
rouge.]

route /. route, course, way, road.
[L. ruptam.']

rouz, rousse (§ 53c) adj. red, red-
dish. [L. russum.']

royal adj. royal. [L. regalem.']

royaliste m. royalist, of the king's
party, [fr. royal.]

royaume m. kingdom, realm, [fr.
roi.]

royaute /. royalty, [fr. royal.]

ruban m. ribbon. [?]

rude adj. rough, coarse, rude. [L.
rudem.l

rudesse /. rudeness, coarseness,
harshness, [fr. rude.]

rue /. street. [LL. rugam, fur-
row.]

ruse adj. crafty, shrewd, cunning,
[fr. ruser, L. recusare.']

russe adj. Russian.

sacrifice m. sacrifice. [L.]

sacrifier v. saciifice. [L. sacri-
ficare.'\

sacrilege m. sacrilege. [L.]

sage adj. sage, wise ; well-be-
haved. [L. napium.']

saint adj. holy, sacrea, saintly;
as noun, saint. [L. sanctum.]

saisii V. seize, take hold of. [LL.
sacire, fr. G-.]

saison /. season, time of year. [L.
.lationem.]

salle/ hall, room; fencing-school :
salle a manger (§ 165b), dining-
room, [fr. G., =Germ. saal.]

salon m. saloon, large room, par
lor. [fr. salle.]

403

FEEN^CH-ENGLISH

lamedi m, Saturday. [L. sabbati
diem, day of sabbatn (Hebrew).]

sang in. blood ; kindred, race. [L.
sanguinem.'\

aanglant adj. bloody. [L. san-
ffuilenium.^

Bans prep. (§ 210) without ; apart
from, but for: sans que cory.
(XXXIV. Bb ; § 137J) without
that, without, unless. [L. sine.]

sante/. health. [L. sanitatem.]

satin m. satin, [fr. L. seta, silk.]

satisfaction/, satisfaction. [L.]

satisfaire v. (irr. 23) satisfy, make
content. [L. satisfacere.']

santer v. jump, leap. [L. saltare.]

sanyage adj. wild, barbarous, sav-
age. [L. silvaticum.]

sanver ». save. [L. sahare.]

sauTenr m. savior, deliverer, [fr.
sanver.]

savant adj. knowing, wise, learn-
ed ; as noun, scientific man,
scholar, [old pple of savoir.]

savoir v. (irr. 77 ; p. 159) know ;
know as, know to be ; (with inf.)
know how. [L. sapere.]

savon m. soap. [L. saponem.]

savonner v. soap, la&er, wash,
[fr. savon.]

saynete /. saynet, little Spanish
farce. [Spanish.]

scandaliser v. scandalize, give of-
fense, [fr. L. scandalum.]

seelerat m. villain, scoundrel. [L.
sceleratum.]

scene /. scene; stage. FL., fr.
Gr.]

science /. science, knowledge,
skill. [L.]

scrupule m. scruple, qualm. [L.
scrupulum. ]

*scalpter (71a) v. sculpture, cut or
carve in stone. [fT. h. seulpere.'

*sculpteur (71a) m. sculptor. [L.

*sculpture {^l''Sf. sculpture. [L.

se pron. (XXIII. 4; XXIX. 2)
one's self. [L. ««.]

seance /. sitting, session. [fr.
seoir ]

seo, seche (VII. 65) a^. dry. [L.
ticeum.1

^second (68/) num. second. [L

secundum.]
*seconde (68/)/. second, sixtieth of

a minute, [same as num.]
*seconder (58/) v. second, stand

by, support, [fr. second.]
secouTB m. succor, aid, help. [L.

suecursum.]
secret m. secret. [L.]
sein m. bosom. [L. sinum.]
seize num. sixteen. [L. sedecim.]
sejour m. sojourn, stay, stop. [fr.

L. sub and diurnus.]
sel m. salt. [L. sal.]
selon pr^. according to, on the

authority of. [L. sub-longum,

along.]
semaine/. week. ^. sepiimanam.]
semblable adj. smiilar, like ; as

noun, fellow, fellow-being, [fr.

sembler.]
semhler v. seem, appear. [L.

simulwre.]
*sens (74rf) m. sense, intellect, un-
derstanding ; sense, meaning ;

way, direction: ton sens, good

sense, sensibleness. [L. sensum.]
sentier m. track, path, footway.

[L. semitarium.]
sentiment m. sentiment, feeling.

[fr. sentir.]
sentir v. (}rr. 40) feel, be sensible or

have a sense of, be conscious.

[L. sentire.]
seoir v. (in: 78) sit. [L. sedeire.]
*sept (71a, 76(i) num. seven. [L.

septem.] ^^

septante num. (XV. 3a) seventy.

[L. septuaginta.]
septembre m. September. [L.]
^septieme (71a) num. sevenflj. [fr.

sept.]
sergent m. sergeant : sergent de

ville, constable, policeman. [L.

servientem, servant.]
serieusement adv. seriously, [fr.

serieux.]
serienz a^. serious, [fr. L. se-

rius.]
sermonner v. preach to, lecture.

[L. sermonari.]
service m. service. fL.J

TOCABTJIAET.

403

serviette /. napkin, [fr. servir.J
servir «. {iii\ «) serve ; be of use,

avail, advantage, help ; serve

up, put on the table : servir de,

serve as, take or fill the place of

(§ Wig) ; se servir de, serve one's

self with, make use of, employ.

[L. semre.l
serviteur m. servitor, servant.

[LL.]
servitude /. servitude, slavery.

[L.]
seuil m. sill, threshold. [L.

soleam.^
seul adj. sole, alone, only, single.

[L. solum,.^
aeulement adv. only, solely, sim-
ply, [fr. seul.]
severe adj. severe, strict, stem,

austere, restrained. [L.]
sexe m. sex. [L. sexum.']
iiamj. (XXXIV. lb; §1235, 138a)

if ; whether. [L. sz.]
si adv. so, as ; yes (§ 3006) : si . . .

que (§ 137c), however. [L. sic.']
sieole m. age, century. [L. soeeu-

lum.']
siege m. seat, sitting ; siege, [fr.

L. »edes.'\
sien pi-on. (XXVII. 1) his, hers,

its. [L. sumn.']
sieur m. master, Mr. [L. seni-

orem, older.]
signe m. sign. [L. signum.]
*signet (63J) m. signet ; mark.

[fr. signe.]
silence m. silence : garder . . .,

keep silence, be silent. [L.]
sillon m. furrow, [fr. siller, fr.

G.]
sillonner v. furrow, groove, wrin-
kle, [fr. siUon.]
simple adj. simple. [L. simplum.']
sincere adj. sincere. [L.]
sinoerement adv. sincerely, [fr.

sincere.]
singolier adj. singular, peculiar.

[L.]
sinistre adj. sinister, inauspicious,

dismal. [L.]
sire m. sire, sir. fL. senior (§

44).]

situation f. situation, condition.

[L.]
*six (815, 85c) num. six. [L. sex.]
*sizaine (81c)/. half a dozen, some

six. [fr: six (§ 67).]
*sixieme (81c) num. sixth. [fr.

six.]
societe/. society. [L.]
soeur/. sister. [L. soivr (§ 4c).]
soi pron. (XXIII. 4 ; § 84) one's

self, [same as se,]
soi-disant adj. (§ 189c) self-styled,

professed, pretended, [soi and

disant, pple of dire,]
sole/, silk. [L. setom.]
soigner a. take care of, tend, nurse.

[fr. soin.]
soin TO. care, attention, pains :

avoir or prendre soin, take care.

[?]
soir m. evening, latter part of the

day. [L. serum, late.]
soit conj. whether, or ; be it ; be it

so. [subj. pres. 3d sing, of

etre,]
*soixantaine (81c) /. three-score,

some sixty, [fr. soixante (§ 67).]
*Boixante (81c) num. sixty. [L.

sexaginta.']
Boldat TO. soldier. [LL. soldaium,

paid.]
soleil m. sim ; sunshine. [L. soli-

eulum, fr. sol, sun.]
*solennel (26a;) adj. solemn, [fr

L. solemms.]
solitaire adj. solitary. [L.]
solitude /. solitude. [L.]
son, sa, ses pron. (Sly. 1) his, her,

its. [L. suumj
son TO. sound. [L. sonum.1
songe TO. dream, revery. [L.

somnium.']
souger V. dream, muse, meditate,

reflect, thmk (of, a : § 161c). [fr.

songe.]
sonner v. ring, ring for. [L.

sonare.]
sonoM adj. sonorous, clear-sound-
ing, loud, ringing. [L.]
sort m. lot, fate, destiny. [L.

so?'fem.]
sorte /. sort, kind, species : de la

404

FRENCH-BITGLISH

sorte, after that fashion, in this

<»• that way. [L. nortem.]
Bortir V. (irr. 39) come or go forth,

issue, proceed ; go out (from

room, etc., de): sortir de, quit,

leave, abandon. [L. sortirC]
sot (76a) adj foolish, silly, stupid ;

an noun, fool, silly fellow,

blockhead. [?]
sottise/. folly, piece of folly, silly

act. [fr. sot.J
soudain adj. sudden ; as adv.

(XXXI. 9) suddenly. [L. iroSJ-

taneum.'\
sonffirance /. suffering, [fr. souf-

frir,]
sonffirir v. {irr. 54) suffer. [L.

sufferre.l
sonfre m. sulphur ; sulphur color ;

of sulphur color (§ bid). [L.

8iilphur.'\
souhaiter v. wish, desire. [fr.

OF. haiter, fr. G. ?]
soul (67as) adj. satiated, surfeited.

[L. satuUum, fr. mtur.'\
soulager v. solace, comfort, help.

[L. sub-leviare.']
Soulier m. shoe. [?]
BDup9on TO. suspicion. [L. »us-

ptcionem.']
soupfonner v. suspect, form or

have a suspicion of. [fr. soup-

9on.]
soupe /. soup. [fr. G.]
soupiSre /. soup-dish, tureen, [fr.

soupe.]
soupir TO. sigh. [L. suspirium.]
*sourcil (68c) m. eyebrow. [L.

supercilium.]
sourd adj. low-toned, obscure in

sound, dull ; deaf. [L. mirdum.']
sourire ». {irr. 13) smile. [L.

subndere, laugh slightly.]
sourire to. smile, [inf. of sourire.]
sous prep, under, beneath, below.

[L. subtua.]
soutenir ». {irr. 61) sustain, up-
hold, support, maintain, pro-
tect, favor. [L. sustinere.J
Boutiier v. withdraw, subtract

(from, a: § 161c). [sous and

tirer.]

souvenir v. {iii\ 60) come into the
mind ; have comfe into the mind,
remember : se . . . , remember,
recollect, be reminded of. [L.
sub-venire.']
souvenir to. remembrance, recol-
lection ; memorial, memento,
souvenir, pnf . of souvenir.]
souvent ad/e. often, frequently.

[L. tubinde.']
souverain to. sovereign. [L. sw-

peranum.']
^specimen (S4(i) m. specimen. [L]
speotateur to. spectator. [L.]
splendide adj. splendid. [L.J
statue/, statue. [L. statuam.']
style TO. style. [L., fr. Gr.]
subjuguer v. subjugate. [L.]
sublime adj. sublime. [L.]
subsister v. subsist, exist, continue.

[L. subsistere.l
*subtil ifiid) adj. subtile. [L.]
succeder ». succeed : ... a, suc-
ceed to, follow. [L. suecedere.]
Bucces TO. success. [L.]
Buocesseur m. successor. [L.]
snccomber v. succumb, give way,

perish. [L. suceumbere.]
Sucre TO. sugar, [fr. Arabic ]
*8ud (60a) TO. south, [fr. G.]
suffire v. {irr. 6) suffice, be suffi-
cient or enough. [L. mifflcere.]
suite /. what follows, sequel,
train ; succession, series, suite :
tout de suite, at once, immedi-
ately. [L. secutam.]
suivre v. {irr. 33) follow. [L.

sequi.]
sujet adj. subject, liable. [L.

subjectum.]
sujet TO. subject, reason, occasion,

cause. [L. subjeetu7n.'\
superbe adj. proud. [L. svper-

bum.]
supplier v. supplicate, beseech,

beg. [L. supplicare.]
supposer v. suppose, make the sup-
position, assume, [fr. L. sup-
ponere.']
BUT prep, on, upon ; over, above ;
about, near to ; on account of,
on the strength of : sur le champ

VOCABULARY.

405

on the spot, at once, immedi-
ately. [L. super.}
' BUT adj. sure, secure, steady, trust-
worthy. [L. secui'um.l

surface /. surface. [L. super
ficiem.]

surprendre v. (irr. 30) take by sur-
prise, surprise, [sur and pren-
dre.]

surprise /. surprise, astonishment,
[fr. surprendre.]
' surtout adv. above all, especially.
[sot and tout.]

survenir ®. {in: 60) supervene,
come unexpectedly, befall. [L.
gupej-oenM'e.]

survivre v. (irr. 33) survive, out-
live (vyith a : | 161J). [sur and
vivre.]

sus adv. above, upon : en ^sus
(74d), over and above, besides.
[L. susum, sursum.l

suspect ndj. suspected, suspicious.
[L. su^ectum.l

systeme m. system. [L., fr. Gr.]

*tal)ac (58^) m. tobacco. [Indian
( word.]

table /. table. [L. tabulam.}
tableau m. picture, painting, [fr.

table,]
tacbe /. task. [LL. taxam, fr. L.

taxare, tax.]
tailleur m. tailor, [f r. tailler, cut,

fr. L. taUam, cut branch.]
taire v. (fiT. 25) keep secret w

silent : se . . ., be silent, keep

silence, hold one's peace. [L.

taeere.']
talent m. talent, natural gift,

ability, capacity. [L. , fr. G.]
' tandis que eonj. wUlst, while,

whereas. [L. torn, diem quod.}
tant adv. so much or many, as

much or many : si tant est que,

if so be that, supposing that ;

tant soit pea, ever so little,

slightly, in some measure ; tant

que (§ 137a), so long as. [L.
I tantum.}

f tante /. aunt, [ta and ante, L.

amUa/m.}

tahtot adv. presently, soon : tan-
tot .. . tantdt, now . . . now.
[tant and tot.]

*taon (14) TO. gadfly. [L. taba-
num.}

ta,Ti adv. late. [L. tardum, slow.]

tasse/. cup. [fr. Arabic]

te pron. thee, to thee. [L. ie.]

tel pron. (§ 110) such (such a, un
tel) ; such a one, so and so ;
one, another, as ... so : tel que,
whatever, any soever ; telle
quelle, such as it is, in whatever
condition. [L. talem.]

temoigner v. testify, attest, indi-
cate, show. [fr. temoin.]

temoin m. witness ; testimony, evi-
dence. [L. tesHmoniiim.}

temps m. time ; weather. [L.
tempus.}

tendresse /. tenderness, fondness,
[fr. tendre, L. tenerum.]

tenlr v. (irr. 61) hold, keep : tenez
(§ 2226), hold, look here, well
now ; se . . ., keep one's self,
stay, stand; tenir lieu de, nee lien ;
tenir tete a, see tete. [L. tenere.}

terre /. earth, ground, land : de
terre, earthen ; a terre, on the
ground. [L. terram.}

terreur /. terror, dread, fright ;
la Terreur, the Terror, the time
of fear and dread dming the
French revolution. [L.]

terrible adj. terrible, pj.]

territoire m. territory. [L. terri-
torium.]

testament m. testament, will. [L]

tete /. head : tenir tete a, make
head against, cope with, resist ;
perdre & tete, lose one's head <»•
wits or presence of mind. [L.
teslam, potsherd.]

tete-a-tete m. private interview,
tgte-atSte. JJit'ly. head to head.]

the m. tea. [fr. Chinese.]

theatre m. theater, stage. [L., fr.
Gr.]

theme m. theme, exercise. [Gr.]

theologien m. theolofienne/. (§ 16)
theologian. [Gr.J

tien pi-on. thine. [L. tuum.}

406.

FBENCH-BNGLISH

tiers, tierce (§ 66) num. third. [L.

tcrtium.]
timbre m. bell. [L. tympumim.]
timide adj. timid, fearful. [L.l
tirer v. draw, pull ; derive ; dis-
charge, shoot off, shoot: tirer
la langue, see langue, [fr. G.,
=Eiig. tear.]
toi pi-on. thee, to thee. [L. ie.]
toile /. cloth ; canvas, hence pic-
ture. [L. telam.]
tombef. tomb, grave. [L., fr, Gr.]
tomlier «. fall, tumble, [fr. G. (?)]
tome TO. tome, volume. [L., fr.

Gr.]
ton m. tone. [L., fr. Gr.]
ton, ta, tes pron. thy. [L. tuum.']
tenner v. impers. thiuider. [L.

lonare.']
torpeur/. torpor. [L.]
torrent m. torrent. [L.]
tort m. wrong, harm : avoir tort
(XIII. 6a), be in the wrong, be
wrong ; a tort, wrongly. [L.
iortum, twisted.]
tortueuz adj. tortuous, involved.

[L.]
tot adii. soon. [L. tosium, burnt

toucher v. touch, be in contact
with, be close upon, approach ;
lay the hand upon, handle, med-
dle with ; touch with emotion,
move : toucher a, be close upon
or in contact with, meddle
with. [?]
toujours adv. always, all the time ;
jeven now, still, yet, all the same,
[fr. tous jours, all days.]
tour m. turn. [fr. tourner.]
tourner «. turn. [L. iornare.]
Toussaint /. All Saints' day. [tous

saints.]
tout (*tous, 74rf) pron. (XIV. 66 ;
§ 116) all, every, whole ; every-
thing, everybody, the whole : as
adv. (§ 116c) wholly, entirely,
quite, altogether : toute chose,
everything ; tous deux or tous
les deux (XXVII. 7a), both;
tout le monde (XXyil. 76),
everybody; du tout, at all;

tout . . . que (§ 116d), however ■,
tout a coup, all at once, sud-
denly ; tout a fait, wholly, en-
tirely ; tout a I'heure, just now ;
tout de suite, at once, immedi-
ately. [L. ivtum.]

toutefois adv. yet, however, never-
theless, [toute fois, every time.]

tout-puissant adj. (§ S6d) all-power-
ful, [tout and puissant,]

trace /. trace, [fr. tracer.]

tracer v. trace, draw, sketch, out-
line, [fr. L. tractu.i.]

traduire v. (irr. 1) translate. [L.
tradacere.']

tragedie /. tragedy. [L , fr. Gr.l

tragique adj. tragic. [L., fr. Gr.]

trahir v. betray, be traitor to, de-
ceive, frustrate, abu.se. [L.
tradere, deliver.]

trainer v. drag after one, draw
along, trail, [fr. train, train,
fr. tralre,]

traire v. {irr. 21) draw, milk. [L.
trahere.l

trait TO. trait, feature, lineament ;
arrow, shaft, dart. [L. tractum,
drawn.]

traiter v. treat (as, de : § 162g).
[L. tractare.]

traitre m. traitor. [L. iradiior

^ (§ 40]

*tranquille (68/) adj. tranquil,

calm. [L.]
*tranqnillement (68/) adv. tran-
quilly, calmly, [fr. tranquille,]
*trans- (746).

*transit (746, 76n') m. transit. [L.]
travail (§ 21a) m. work, labor,

toil, travail, [fr. L. Irabem,

beam (?).]
travailler v. work, toil, labor.

[fr. travail,]
travers m. oddity, whim, caprice,

eccentricity : a travers, across,

athwart, through. [L. trans-

versum, crosswise.]
traverser v. traverse, cross, pass

over ov through, [fr. travers,]
treize num. thirteen. (L. tredecim.]
treizieme num. thirteenth, [fr.

treize,]

VOOABULABT.

407

trembler «. tremble. [fr. L.
I Iremulus,]

/ tremper v. steep, soak, wet, dip.
[L. temperare.]

trentaine /. (§ 67) some thirty,
[fr. trente.]

trente »«m. thirty. [L. triginta.]

trei adv. very, very much. [L.
trans.]

tresor m. treasure, treasury. [L.
ihesaurum, fr. Gr.]
> tresaaillir ®. (m\ 45) start, be
startled or agitated. [L. trans-
salire.]

tricot m. knitting, knitted work,
network, [fr. tricoter, knit, fr.
6. stricken!]

triomplie m. tnumph. [L.]

triompher v. triumph, gain the
victory (over, de). [fr. tri-
omphe.]

trjste adj. sad, dull, dreary. [L.
tiistem.l

tristement adv. sadly, [fr. triste.]

tristesse /. sadness, melancholy,
gloom, [fr. triste.]

trois num. three. [L. tres.]

troisieme num. third, [ft:, trois.]

tromper v. deceive, mislead, cheat,
baffle, disappoint : se ..., de-
ceive one's self, be mistaken,
make a mistake. [?]

tTompeor m. trompense/. (§ 16) de-
ceiver; as adj. deceitful, mis-
leading, treacherous, [fr. trom-
per.]

trone to. throne. [L., fr. Gr.]

trop adv. too, too much, in excess,
beyond what is called for : de
trop, superfluous, not wanted,
betteraway; trop pen,too little. [?]

tronbler v. trouble, disturb, agi-
tate, stir up : se . . ., become
disturbed or agitated or con-
fused, falter, pj. turbulare.]

troape /. troop, band. [LL. trop.

pum, fr. ?]
tronver v. find, discover, come or
hit upon ; find to be, regard as,
consider, think : se . . ., find
one's self, chance to be, be. [L.
turbare, disturb (?).]

tu pron. thou. [L. <«.]

tner v. kill, slay. [L. tutari,

make safe.]
tyran m. tyrant. [L., fr. Gr.]
tyrien aclj. Tyrian, of Tyre. [L.]

nn num. art. (§ 65, 60) one ; an, a
[L. unum.]

nniqne a^. unique, sole, solitary,
without a match or equal. [L.
unieuin.l

tmivers m. universe. [L.]

user V. (with de : § 162/) use, make
use of, employ ; use up, wear
out : en user avec, deal with,
treat, handle, [fr. L. uti.]

usurper v. usurp, teike unjust pos-
session of. [L.]

*ut (76a) m. do (name of first note
of scale).

utile adj. useful, advantageous.
[L. utilem.]

vache /. cow. [L. vaecam.]
*vaciUer (68/) v. vacOlate. [L.]
vague adj. vague. [L. vagum.]
vaguement adv. vaguely, uncer-
tainly, [fr. vague.]
vain adj. vain, useless, idle ; con-
ceited. [L. vanum.i
vaiucre v. (XX. Sas) vanquish, con-
quer. [L. sincere. 1
vainqueur m. conqueror. [fr.

vaincre.]
valet m. valet, flunky, [fr. LL.

vassalis, vassal, fr. Celtic]
valeur /. value ; valor, bravery.

valise/, valise, portmanteau, [fr.
It]

valoir «. (irr. 73) be worth, have
the value of ; have as much
value as, be equal to ; be good
for, win, procure : valoir mieuz,
be worth more, be better or pref-
erable. [L. valere.']

vanite/ vanity. [L.J

vanter v. vaunt, extol : se . . .,
boast, brag. [L. vanitare.']

vapeur/. steam, vapor ; m. (§ 16a)

steamer. [L.]
' vase m. vase, vessel. [L. vas.]

408

FEENCH-ENGLISH

vaste adj. vast. [L.]
vaudeville m. vaudeville, ballad.
[fr. val de Vire, name of a
place.]
veille/. watch, wakrag, sitting up ;
evening before, eve, verge. [L.
■cigilius.^
veilier v. wake, watch ; wake up.

[L. mgilare.'\
veine/. vein. [L. venam.]
velours m. velvet, [fr. L. villo-

sas, hairy.]
vendre v. sell. [L. vendere.]
vendredi m. Friday. [L. mneris

diem, Venus's day.]
venerable (Mi;, venerable. [L.J
venger v. avenge. [L. mndicare.]
venir v. {trr. 60 ; p. 145-6) come,
be coming : vena, one arrived,
comer ; venir de (with inf.,
XXXI. 116), have just (done
anything) ; en venir a, come to
the point of, have recourse to,
resort to. [L. venire.']
vent m. wind. [L. ventum.']
veritable adj. veritable, true, ac-
tual, real. [fr. verite.]
verite /. verity, truth : a la ... ,
or en . . ., in truth, indeed, veri-
ly. [L.]
verre m. glass, drmkmg - glass,

tumbler. [L. vitrum.'\
vers p7-ep. toward ; about. [L.

versus.]
vers m. verse. [L. versum.]
verser «. pour out, shed. [L.

versare.]
vertu/. virtue. [L. mriuiem.]
vetement m. garment, vestment,

dress. [L. i)estimenium.]
vetir «. (mt. 51) clothe, dress (in,

de). [L. iiestire.]
veuve /. widow. [L. viduam.]
viande /. meat, flesh ; viand. [L.

■Biveiida.]
vice m. vice. [L. mtium.]
victime /. victim. [L.]
victoire /. victory. [L . ■Bicioriam.]
victorieux adj. victorious [L.]
vie /. life ; biography : de sa vie,

in his life, ever. [L. vilam.]
vieil, see vieux.

vieillard m. old man. [fr. vieux,]
vieillesse /. old age. [fr. vieux.]
vieillir v. grow old, become aged,

age. [fr. vieux,]
vieux, vieil (VH. 7 r § 5SJ) a<ij.

old, not young, aged ; as noun,

old fellow w friend. [LL.

vetuhtm.]
vif adj. lively, vivacious, brisk,

smart. [L. vimim.]
vigonreux adj. vigorous. [L.]
Tignenr /. vigor, strength, force.

[L.]
*vll (68d) adj.-nle, base, mean. [L.]
vilenie /. villany, baseness, [fr.

vilain, base, fr. L. Dillanus, of

the country.]
*village (68/) m. village, [fr.

viUe.]
*ville (68/) /. city : a la ville, in

the city. [L. mllam.]
vin m. wine. [L. vinum.]
vinaigre m. vinegar, [vin aigre,

sour wine.]
vingt (76a) num. twenty. [L.

mginti.]
vingtaine /. a score, some twenty.

[fr. vingt.]
vingtieme num. twentieth, [fr.

vingt.]
*violemment (26a) adv. violently,

by force m- violence, [fr. vio-
lent.]
violent adj. violent. [L.]
violette/. violet, [fr. L. viola.']
*viril (68(Q adj. virile, manly. [L.]
*vis (74(i) /. screw. [L. vitem,

vine.]
vis m. face : vis-a-vis de, face to

face with, opposite to, fronting.

[L. visum.]
visage m. visage, countenance,

face. [fr. vis, m.]
visible adj. visible. [L.]
visiere /. visor, [fr. vis, m.]
visite /. visit : rendre visite, pay a

visit or call. [fr. visiter.]^
visiter v. visit. [L. visitareT]
vite adj. quick ; as adv. (XXXI.

9) quickly, rapidly, fast. [?J
vivant to. life-time, life, [pple of

vim'e.]

VOCABtJLABT.

409

vivement ac^. livelily. [fr. vif.]
vivre v. (irr. 33) live. [L. mvere.]
vizir m. vizier, [fr. Arabic]
voeu m vow ; wish, desire, prayer.

[L. votum.']
voici inter}. (% 301) see liere, here

is or are or come, behold, lo.

[voia and ci]
voie /. way, road, track. [L.

warn.]
voila inter}. (§ 201) see there, there

is or are or come, behold, lo.

[vois and la.]
voUe m.f. (§ 15a) veil ; sail : bateau

a voiles, sailing vessel. [L. ve-
lum.']
voir V. (irr. 67) see, behold, view,

look : voyons, lef s see, see here,

come now ; y voir, see things,

have eyes. [L. videre.]
voisin adj. neighboring, near (to,

de); as noun, neighbor. [L.

vicinum.l
voisinage m. neighborhood, vici-
nage, [fr. mmin.]
voiture /. carriage, vehicle. [L.

vecturam]
voix/. voice. [L. vocem.}
*volatil {68d) adj. volatile, flying.

[L.]
voler V. fly. [L. wlare.']
volonte/. will, intention, desire.

[L. wluniatem.]

volontiers adv. willingly, gladly,
[fr. L. voluntarie.l

yolome m. volume. [L.]

votre pron. (XIV.) your. [L. ves-
trum^

votre pron. (XXVII. 1, 2) yours.
[L. vestrum.l

vonloir v. (irr. 73 ; p. 114) wish,
desire, want; be willing or in-
clined or pleased; mean, in-
tend: vonloir dire, mean, signify;
en vouloir a, have a grudge or
spite against, lay something up
against, have a design upon,
aim at. [L. velle,}

vous p7-on. you, to you. [L. vos.]

voyage m. journey. [L. viaticum.l

vrai adj. true, veracious, real, ac-
tual, genuine, [fr. L. vernm.']

vraiment adv. truly, really. Indeed,
in fact. [fr. vrai.]

vue /. view, sight : de vue, by
sight, [pple of voir.]

*whist (76(1, 80) m. whist. [Eng
lish word.]

y adv. pron. (XXIII. 6-8 ; § 85)

there; to it or them, etc. [L.

iJi.]
•yacht (82) m. yacht. [English

word.]
yeux (36a) pi. (II. 5 ; § 226) eyes.

[L. oeulos.}

11— VOCABULARY OP FRENCH PROPER NAMES;

mCLTTDING NAMES MENTIONED IN THE ILLUSTBATIVE SENTENCES.

Achab (59a, 576) m. Ahab (wicked
king of Israel: 1 Kings xxi. etc.).

Achille (68/) m. Achilles (chief
Greek hero before Troy).

Achille Deveria, a French artist.

Afrique/. Africa.

*Aix (en Provence) (Sli) /. Aix
(town in southeastern France).

Alexandre m. Alexander (king of
Macedon).

AUemagne/. Germany.

Alpes/. Alps (mountains of Switz-
erland).

Amazone /. Amazon (female war-
rior).

Ameriqne/. America.

Andalousie /. Andalusia (province
of southern Spain).

Angleterre/. England.

Anne/. Anne (queen of England).

Aragon m. Aragon (province of
Spain).

Ardasire /. character in Montes-
quieu's " Arsace et Ismenie."

Asie/. Asia.

Auguste m. Augustus (first empe-
ror of Rome).

Autriche/. Austria.

d'Auttm, name of a French gentle-
man.

Auvray, M. Auvray (character in
About's story " I'Oncle et le
Neveu").

de Balzac, m. Balzac (French nov-
elist).

Belgique/. Belgium.

Berlin to. Berlin (capital of Prus-
sia).

Bernard m. Bernard (character in
Sandeau's " Mile, de la Sei-
glifire").

Bessonniere /. the Bessonni^re
(name of a farm in the story

" la petite Fadette" : place of
the bessons, provincial [fr. L.
bis, twice] for twins).

Bichonne/. name.

Blanche/. Blanche (girl's name).

Blonet, Elouet (name of character
in Theuriet's story "la Saint-
Nicolas").

Boheme /. Bohemia ; Gypsy-land
(applied to aggregate of artists,
as homeless and free livers).

Bonaparte, Bonaparte (name of
family of Napoleon).

Bonrgogne /. Burgundy (eastern
French province).

Bonrgnignon m. Burgundian (as-
sumed name of Dorante).

^Brazelles (81c)/. Brussels.

Boffon, Buffon (French naturalist).

Byron, Byron (English poet).

Calvados m. Calvados (a depart-
ment of France, in Normandy).

Calypso /. Calypso (nymph pos-
sessing an island where Ulysses
was long detained).

Candle/. Candia (or Crete ; island).

Carthage/. Carthage (city).

Castille/. Castile (province of cen-
tral Spain).

Cesar m. Caesar (Julius Csesar, gen-
eral and historian, uncle of Au-
gustus) ; name of other persons.

Cesarine /. Cesarine (woman's
name).

Charles m. Charles : Charles-Qnint,
Charles V., emperor of Ger-
many; Charles I., Charles II.,
kings of England.

Chateaubriand, Chateaubriand
(celebrated French author).

Chine/. China.

Circe /. Circe (nymph and sor-
ceress).

PROPER NAMES.

411

Citeaux, an abbey in eastern
Prance.

Clain m. Clain (name of a river,
branch of the Loire).

Claire /. Clara (character in
About's story " la Fille du
Chanoine").

Claye /. Claye (small town near
Paris).

Conde, prince of Conde (celebrated
French general).

Corday, Charlotte Corday (slayer
of the French revolutionist
Marat).

Croisilles, Croisilles (name of the
principal character in a story of
de Musset).

Oanemark m. Denmark.

Danton, Danton (noted charactei-
in the French Revolution).

Danulje m. Danube.

DaupMne /. Dauphiness (title of
the wife of the Dauphin, or heir
to the throne of France).

Davonst, Davoust (one of Na-
poleon's marshals).

Dorante m. Dorante (character in
a play of Marivaux, " le Jen de
I'Amour et du Hasard ").

Dupont, Dupont (French general).

Edouard m. Edward ; Edward

, III., king of England.

¥gypte/. Egypt.

Elisabeth /. Elizabeth (queen of

. England).

Elise /. Eliza (character in Ra-
cine's "Esther").

Ergaste m. Ergastes (fabricated
name).

Espagne/. Spain.

d'Etampes, Duchess, favorite of
Francis I. of France.

Etna m. Etna (volcano in Sicily).

Europe/. Europe.

Eylau m. Eylau (scene of one of
Napoleon's battles).

Fadet, name of a family in George
Sand's story " la petite Fa-
dette."

Fadette /. name of a girl, the
heroine of the story just men-
tioned.

Fanchette/. girl's name.

Flandre /. Flanders.

Fletcher, Dr. Fletcher (clergyinan
in attendance at the execution
of Mary Stuart).

Fontainebleau m. Fontainebleau
(French town and palace, south
from Paris).

Fortunato, name of a boy in
Merimee's story "Matteo Fal-
cone."

Fouche, Fouche (at one time min-
ister of police under Napoleon).

Fouquet, Pouquet (a superinten-
dent of finances under Louis
XIV.).

France/. France.

Francois m. Francis, Frank.

Francoise/. Frances, Fanny.

Frederic m. Frederick ; Frederick
II., or Frederick the Great,
king of Prussia.

Geneve/. Geneva.

George m. George (character in
Ponsard's play "I'Honneur et
I'Argent ") ; George, husband of
Queen Anne.

Germain, character in George
Sand's " la Mare-au-Diable."

Girardin, M. Saint-Marc, French
writer and politician.

Greoe/. Greece.

de Grignan, count, son-in-law of
Madame de Sevigne.

Gmllaume to.' William ; WiUiam
III. (William and Mary), king
of England.

Gttstave Vasa, Gustavus Vasa (he-
roic king of Sweden).

Guttemberg, Gutenberg (inventor
of printing).

Hanovre m. Hanover.

le Havre (VI. 5/), Havre (city of
France).

Helene /. Helen (character in
" Mile, de la SeigliSre"; Helen
of Troy, cause of the war and
destruction of the city).

Henri m. Henry ; Henri-le-Grand,
Henry the Great (or Henri IV.,
king of France).

Henriette/. Henrietta, Harriet

413

VOCABULARY OF

'HoUande/. Holland.

Horace, Horatius (character in

Corneille's play of that name)._
Humblot, Mme.', character in

About's story "!' Album du

Regiment."
Ilion TO Ilium (other name of

Troy).
InieBj.pl. the Indies, India.
Italie/. Italy.
Jacob (57a) m. Jacob (ancestor of

the Hebrews).
Jacques m. James ; James II.,

king of England.
Japon m. Japan.
Jean to. John ; Jean Jacques, J. J.

Rousseau.
Jeanne/. Jane, Joan, Joanna.
* Jerusalem (54c)/. Jerusalem.
Joindrette m. name.
Jezabel / Jezabel (wife of Ahab :

1 Kings xxi., etc.).
Joseph, Joseph.
Jules m. Julius.
Julie /. Julia ; heroine of a novel

of Rousseau.
*KremUn (54rf) m. Kremlin (palace

at Moscow).
de Lafayette, Ume,, authoress and

leader of society in Paris (17th

century),
de Lamartine, celebrated French

author.
Landry to. a character in Q. Sand's

story " la petite Fadette."
Laurence, name.
Leblanc, name.
le Couvreur, Mile., celebrated

French actress.
Legrand, name of a certain army-
corps, from its commander.
Lisette /. {abbrev'n o/£lise) Lizzie

(name of a character in a play

of Marivaux).
Livie/. Livia.
Londres m. London.
Louis to. Lewis, Louis : Louis

XIV., Louis XVI., kings of

France.
Louise/. Louisa.

Louvre to. Louvre (palace and gal-
lery of art in Paris).
Lyon TO. Lyons.

Lysidas to. Lysidas (character in

MoliSre's " la Critique del'Ecolc

des Femmes").
Madelon /. Madeline (a character

in Q. Sand's story "la petite

Fadette").
Uadrid to. Madrid (capital of

Spain).
Mahomet m. Mohammed (Arab

prophet),
de Maintenon, Mme., celebrated

French lady and authoress.
Malesherbes, French advocate,

once minister of Louis XVI.
Marat, Marat (ferocious French

revolutionist).
Marchal, a character in About's

story "la Pille du Chanoine."
Marie/. Mary, Maria (Mary Stuart,

133').
Marguerite/. Margaret.
*Mars (jtid) m. Mars (Roman god

of war).
Marseille /. Marseilles (French

city).
Mathan to. Mathan (character m

Racine's "Athalie").
Mazarin, Mazarin (cardinal, and

prime minister of Fi-ance).
Medlcis to. Medici (ruling family

at Florence).
Mediterranee / Mediterranean

(sea).
Mezique to. Mexico.
Minerve /. Minerva (Roman god-
dess of wisdom).
Montaigne, Montaigne (celebrated

Pi'ench author).
Moscou m. Moscow (ancient capi-
tal of Russia).
MoBcovite TO. Muscovite, Russian.
Naples TO. Naples.
Napoleon to. Napoleon (French

emperor),
de Noailles, French gentleman, of

high rank (cardinal or duke).
Norvege/ Norway.
Kouvelle-Hollande /. New Hol-
land, Australia.
Nuremberg m. Nuremberg (Cter-

man city).
Oluf TO. character in Gautier's

story "le Chevalier double."

PBOPEE NAMES.

413

Olympe m. Olympus (mountain in
Greece, seat of the gods).

Orphee m. Orpheus (Greek hero,
said to have made stones build
themselves into walls, etc., by
the power of his music).

Oswald m. Oswald (hero of Mme.
de Stael's " Corinne").

Palestine/. Palestine.

Paris m. Paris.

Paul m. Paul (character in the
story " Paul et Virginie").

PaTiliiie /. Pauline (character in
Comeille's " Polyeucte").

Ferou m. Peru.

Philippe m. Philip : Philippe II.,
king of Spain.

Pignerol, fortress in which Fou-
quet was confined.

Pologne/. Poland.

Polyeacte, Polyeuctes (character in
Comeille's play of that name).

PompadooT, favorite of Louis XV.
of Prance.

de Pomponne, marquis, a minister
of Louis XrV.

Prascovie /. Prascovie (Russian
girl's name).

Prusse /. Prussia.

PnsBort, French statesman, one of
the judges of Fouquet.

Pyrenees /. Pyrenees (mountains).

Bebool, Reboul (French baker-
poet).

Secamier, Ume., noted French
beauty and leader in society.

Ehin m. Rhine (river).

Sichelien, Richelieu (cardinal and
prime minister of France).

Borne /. Rome (as seat and repre
sentative of the Catholic religion).

Bnssie/. Russia.

Sainte-Oenevieve, French abbey.

Saint Jean, St. John (name).

St. Louis, St. Louis (Louis IX.,
king of France).

Saint-Sicolas, St. Nicholas.

de Schnrmann, Ulle., celebrated
Netherlandish savante (17th cen-
tury).

Seine /. Seine (French river run-
ning through Paris).

Sicile/. Sicily.

St. Cloud m. St. Cloud (French

town and palace).
Saint-Cyr m. young ladies' school,

founded by Mme.. de Main-
tenon.
Suede/. Sweden.
Suisse/. Switzerland.
Sully, Sully (minister of Henry

IV. of Prance).
Sylla, Sylla (Roman leader).
Tamise/. Thames.
Tanaro m. river in Italy, branch of

thePo.
Taylor, Baron (a French literary

man, of English descent).
Xhebes/. Thebes (Egyt>tian city)_.
Toinette /. Toinette (character in

Moliere's "le Malade imagi-

naire").
Toussaint/. All-Saints' day.
la Trappe, la Trjippe (famous mon-
astery, of especially rigid rules).
Troie/. Troy,
de Turenne, Tm-enne (famous

French general).
Valere to. Valerius (character in

Moliere's " T^rtuffe").
Valteline /. valley in Italy, near

lake Como.
de Vaubert, Mme., a character in

Sandeau's "Mile, de la Sei-

glifere."
Velalcazar, place in Spain,
de Yeudome, celebrated French

general.
Venise/. Venice.
*Venus (lid) f. Venus (Roman

goddess of beauty).
Vienne/. Vienna.
Virginie /. Virginia (character in

St. Pierre's "Paul et Virginie").
Visigoth TO. Visigoth (one of a

German race, conquerors of

Spain).
Wagram m. "Wagram (Austrian

village, scene of a victory of Na-
poleon).
Whitehall, Whitehall (palace in

London, scene of the execution

of Charles I.).
Zambo m. Sambo (name of a ne-
gro servant, in Laboulaye's

" Paris en AmSrique").

III.— ENGLISH-FRENCH VOCABULARY.

Additional Abbreviations : n. noun. intr. intransitive, trans, transitive.
Eeferenoe is occasionally made to theme and sentence : thus, 10".

a, an, un.

abandon, a'bandonner,

abdicate, abdiquer.

able, capable, bon, habile : be able,

pouvoir V. (in: p. 119.)
about, (roundabout) autour de,

(nearly) environ, sur (§ TOi),

quelque (§ 107e) : run about,

courir.
above, dessus adv., au-dessus de

pi-ep.
absent, absent : be absent, etre ab-
sent or s'absenter (19').
absolutely, absolument.
abuse v. abuser de (§ 162/").
accept, accepter,
accompany, accompagner.
according to, d'apres, selon.
accordingly, aussi
accustom one's self, s'accontumer.
acquaint : be acquainted with,

connaitre,
acquire, acquerir (irr. 63).
across piep. a travers.
^t, agir.
acMon, action/,
active, actif.

addict one's self, s'adonner.
address v. adresser: address one's

self, s'adresser.
adieu, adieu m.
admirable, admirable,
admiration, admiration/,
admire, admirer,
advise, conseiller,
affair, affaire/,
afraid : be afraid, avoir peur or

crainte (XIII. 6).
Africa, Afrique/.
after prep, apres ; conj. apres que :

after that (conj.), apres que (§

afternoon, apres-midi /. or m.

afterward, apres, ensuite.

again, encore, de nouveau (10'\

against, centre.

age (grow old), vieillir.

agitate (move), emouvoir (irr. 76).

ago, il y a (XXX. ic).

agree, convenir (irr. 60).

aid V. aider,

air, air m.

all, tout (XrV. 6 ; § 116) : at all,

see at ; after all, apres tout,
allow, permettre (trr. 31).
almost, presque, a peu pres,
aloft, en haut.
alone, seul.

along p7-ep. le long de.
aloud, 'haut.
Alps, Alpes/.
already, deja.
also, aussi.
although, quoique (XXXIV. In),

bien que, encore que (§ 137i!>).
altogether, tout a "feit, tout

(§ 116^.
always, toujours,
ambitious, ambitieux.
America. Amerique/.
amiable, aimable.
among, parmi (XXVI. 4a), entre :

from among, d'entre,
amount, an infinite, see infinite,
amuse, amuser : amuse one's self,

s'amuser.
ancient, ancien.
anciently, anciennement.
and, et.

angry, fache (at, contre; on ac-
count of, de) : be w get angry,

se facher.
animal, animal m.
annexed, ci-joint (§ 56«).

VOCABULARY.

415

anotlier, un autre: one another,
I'an i'antre, les ons les autres
(XXYILJ), se (XXIX. 8).

answer v. repondre.

answer m. reponse/.

anxious, inqoiet.

any, de mt/i art. (IV. ; § 36, 89),
quelque : not any, ne . . . aucun
or nul, ne . . . pas de (§ 856).

anything, qnelque chose : not any-
thing, ne . . . rien ; anything
whatever, quoi que oe soit (|
104i).

appeal v. en appeler (XXI. 3c).

appear, paraitre (in: 18).

apple, pomme/.

application, application/.

appointed, convenu, indique, dit.

approach, (trans.) s'approcher de,
se rapprocher de (§ 162/), (intr.)
s'approcher.

approbation, approbation/.

approve, approuver.

April, avril m.

arise, se lever.

arm (limb), bras m.

army, armee/.

around prep., antonr de,

arrive, arriver (with etre, XXVIII.
6a).

art, art m.

article, article m.

artist, artiste m.

as adv. (before adj.) aussi, (after
adj.) que : as much or many,
autant ; as much or many as,
antant que ; as long as, tant que ;
as soon as, aussitot que, des que ;
as far as, jusque, jusqu'a (pi-ep.);
as for, as regards, quant a.

as e->nj. comme, ainsi que, de
(§ 162^?), en (§ 207e) ; (since) puis-
qne ; (when) lorsque,

ashamed: be ashamed, avoir
houte (Xin. 6).

Asia, Asie/.

ask, ask for, demander (of, a :
§ 161c).

aspect : have the aspect, avoir I'air
(§ 56J).

aspire, aspirer.

assure, assurer.

astonished, etonne.

astronomy, astronomie/.

at, a ; en, dans ; de ; par : at all,
du tout ; not at all, ne . . . point
(§ 165a) ; at once, sur le champ,
tout de suite ; at present, a pre-
sent; at the time of , lore de; at
the house of, at some one's,
Chez.

attach, attacher.

attack V. , attaquer.

attain, atteindre (in: 16).

attention, attention/.

attract, attirer,

attraction, attrait m.

auburn, brun.

August, *aont (14) m.

aunt, tante/.

Austria, Autriche/.

author, auteur m.

avail one's self, profiter.

avoid, eviter.

await, s'attendre a.

back : bring back, see bring, etc.

bad, mauvais : bad weather, mau-
vais temps.

baggage, bagages m. pi.

baker, boulanger m.

ball (dance), bal m.

band (troop), bande /

bare, nu (§ 56a).

barefoot, barefooted, nu - pieds,
pieds nus (g 56a).

bareheaded, vyith bare heads, nu-
tete, tete nue (§ 56u).

basket, panier m.

battle, bataille/.

be, etre {irr. p. 62) ; be (in re-
spect to health), se porter ; be
(in respect to weather), faire
(XXXII. 9a) : be all over, en
etre fait ; be oil with one's self,
s'en aller ; be better, se porter
mienz, se remettre ; be to, de-
voir (XXVI. 12/).

bear v. supporter : bear ill-vnll, see
ill-will.

beat V. battre (XX. 3c).

beautiful, beau (VII. 7).

beauty, beaute/.

because, parce que, puisque.

416

BNGLISH-FBENCH

become, devenir {irr. 60).

bed, lit TO. : go to bed, se concher,
aller se concher (16™).

bedroom, chambre a coucher /.
(§ 1866).

beer, biere/.

befall, arriver a.

before prep, (previous to) avant,
(in front or in presence of) de-
vant ; witli ivf. avant de.

before eorij. avant que (§ XZTa),
que . . . ne (§ ISSc).

beg, prier.

begin, commencer, se mettre (irr.
31) a.

behave, se conduire (irr. 1).

behind, derriere.

Belgium, Belgiqne/,

believe, croire (vrr. 36).

belong, appartenir, etre (to, a : III.
6 ; 1 161e).

beloved, cheri.

below adv. en baa.

beneath prep, sous, au-dessous de ;
adv. dessons.

besides prep, outre ; covj. d'ail-
leurs.

best adj. le meilleur ; adv. le
mieux,

better adj. meilleur ; adv, mieux :
be better (in health), se porter
mieux, se remettre (irr. 31), (be
preferable) valoir mieux ; love
better, aimer davantage ; like
better, aimer mieux ; find it bet-
ter, trouver meilleur ; get the
better, I'emporter.

between prep, entre.

beware v. prendre {irr. 30) garde
(of, de), se garder.

beyond prep, outre, par-dessus, au-
dela de.

big, gros.

bird, oiseau m.

bit, morceau m.

black, noir.

bless, benir.

blind adj. aveugle.

blindly, aveuglement.

blue, bleu.

blush V. rougir.

boat, bateau m.

boil V. bouillir {irr. 64).

bold, 'hardi.

bonnet, cbapean m.

book, Uvre m.

boot, botte/.

Bordeaux, Bordeaux m.

bore V. ennuyer ; be bored, etre

ennuye, s'ennuyer,
bom, ne j be bom, naitre (mt. 30 :

witk etre, XXVIII. 6a).
borrow, emprunter (of, a : § 161(').
both prov,. tous deux, tous les

denx, I'un et I'autre (XXVII. 7),

les deux (35^').
both conj. et (XXXIV. 8).
bottle, bonteiUe/.
box, boite/.
boy, garf on to.
brave, brave (VIII. 5c).
bread, pain m.
breadth, largeur/.
break, rompre (XX. 36), (the arm,

etc.) casser.
breakfast, dejeuner m.
brilliant, brillant.
bring, apporter ; bring back, rap-
porter,
brother, frere m.
brother-in-law, beau-frere m.
brown, brun.
brush II. brosse/.
Brussels, *BruxelleB (81e) /.
build, batir.
burn, brnler (with, de).
busy one's self, s'occuper (with, de).
but conj. mais ; prep, ezcepte :

but little (with « ), ne . . . guere.
butter, beurre m.
buy, acheter (XXI. 3&).
by (XXVIII. 3), par (§ 209), de

(§ 61f, 162c), a (§ 87f , 161d) : by

means of, moyennant ; by dint

of, a force de.

cake, gateau m.

call V. appeler (XXI. 3c); call
' back, rappeler.
campaign, campagne /.
can, pouvoir (irr. p. 119).
cannot, ne pouvoir (irr._p. 119 ;

§166r(), ne saurais.etc. (^SXIV.

76).

VOCABtTLABT.

417

capable, capable.

capital (chief city), oapitale /.

captain, capitaine m.

card, carte/. ; at cards, auz cartes.

cardinal adj. cardinal.

care n. soin m.: take care, avoir

soin ; take care not to, n'avoir

garde de (g 166c).
carriage, voitiire/.
cany, porter; carry away, em-
porter,
case, cas m. : in case that, in case,

an or en cas que (§ 1374).
cast ». Jeter (XXI. Sc).
cat, chat m.
cause n. raison/.
cause «. (MiWt inf., XXXII. 96: §

1586, 176a) faire {irr. p. 150).
cautious, prudent,
cease, cesser,
century, siecle m.
ceremony, ceremonie/.
certain, certain,
certainly, certainement.
chair, chaise/,
chamber, chambre/.
change ii. changer, changer de

(§ 162/).
r-hapter, chapitre m.
character, caractere m.
charm n. charme m.
charm v.. charmer (with, de).
cheap, cheaply, a bon marche, bon

marche.
cheat n. fonrbe m.
cheese, fromage m.
child, enfant m.f. (§ Vie).
chimney, cheminee/.
China, Chine/
choose, choisir.
church, eglise /. : to or at church,

a I'eglise.
citizen, citoyen m.
city,*viUe(68/)/
clean n. nettoyer.
clear «.: clear out, s'en aller

(XXIX. 7c).
cloak, mantean m.
cloister, cloitre m.
close v. former.
cloth, drap m.
clothe, vetir {prr. 51).
37

coat, habit m.

coffee, cafe m.

coffin, cercneil m.

cold, froid : be cold, feel cold,
avoir froid (XIII. 6) ; be cold
(weather), faire froid ; grow cold ,
se re&oidir.

collar, col m.

comb, peigne m.

combatant, combattant m.

come, venir (mt. p. 145 ; with etre, _^(}-
XXVIII. 6a), (happen) advenir, /
(arrive, get so far as) arriver,
en venir ; come! allons (XXVII.
8d) ; come back or again, reve-
nir ; come down, descendre ;
come in, entrer.

comedy, comedie/.

comer, venu m.

coming n. arrivee/.

command, commander a (§ 1616).

commit, commettre (j/rr. 31), faire
(irr. 23) (nne fante).

companion, compagnon m.

company, compagnie /.

compassion, compassion/.

conceal, cacher.

conceive, concevoir {yrr. 65).

concert, concert m.

conclude, conclnre (in'. 29).

condemn, *condamner (69a).

condition, condition/.

conduct n. condoite/.

conduct «. condnire {}1t. 1) ; con-
duct one's self, se condnire.

confess, confesser, avouer.

confusion, confusion/.

conquer, vaincre (XX. 3a).

conquest, conquete /.

conscience, conscience/.

consent «. consentir (irr. 40).

consequently, done, *consequem-
ment (26a).

consolation, consolation/.

conspire, conspirer.

constancy, Constance/

constantly, constamment.
constitutional, constitutionnel.
constrain, contraindre (mt. 15).
contact : come or be in contact

with, toucher a (§ 1616)
contented, content;.

418

ElfGLISH-rEEKCH

continually, continuellement.

continue, contlnner, (remain) de-
meurer, contlnner.

cook, cuisiniere/.

correct v. corriger.

correctly (in tune), juste.

Corsica, Corse/.

cost V. center.

count 1). compter (upon, sur).

count n. comte m.

country, pays m., (one's or native)
patrie/., (as distinguished from
the city) campagne /.: in the
country, a la campagne.

courage, courage m.

courageous, courageuz.

courier, courrier m.

court, cour/.

cousin, cousin m., cousine/.

cover n. (place at table) convert m.

cover V. couviir {irr. 56).

cow, vache/.

cowardly, poltron,

crazy, fou (VII. 7).

create, creer.

credit «. : credit one with, croire
(quelque chose) a (§ 161e).

crime, crime m.

crown n. couronne/.

cruel, cruel.

cruelly, cruellement.

cry V. cry out, s'ecrier.

cuS n. manchette/.

cunning, fin.

cup, tasse/.

curious, curienz.

curse V. maudire {irv. 10).

dancer, danseur m,., dansense/.

dangerous, dangereux.

Danube, Danube vi.

dare, oser.

dash n. intrepidite/.

daughter, fiUe/.

day; jour m. : day before yester-
day, avant-hier m. ; day after to-
morrow, apres-demain m.

dead adj. mart.

deal : a great deal, beaucoup.

dear, oher (VIII. 8c).

dearly, cherement.

decay «. dechoir {irr. 70).

decease v. decoder.

deceive, tromper, dScevoir {irr. 66).

December, decembre m.

deceptive, trompeltz.

declare, declarer.

deed, fait m.

deep, profond.

defect, defant m.

defend, defendre

Demosthenes, Bemosthene m.

Denmark, Sanemark m.

deny, nier, renier (21").

depart, partir {irr. 38).

departure, depart m.

depend, se fier (upon, a : 5*'), de-

pendre (on or upon, de : § 1624)
depot, gare/.
describe, decrire {irr. 13).
deserve, meriter.
design n. dessein m.
desire «. vonloir {irr. 72), desirer,

avoir envie de.
despair n. desespoir m,
despair v. desesperer.
destination, destination/,
die, moxuir (irr. 63 ; with etre,

XXVIII. 6a).
difference, difierence/.
difficult, difficile,
difficulty, difficulte/.
dine, diner,
dining-room, salle a manger /. (S

185*).
dinnerj diner m.
dint : by dint of, a force de.
directly, sur le champ,
disappear^ disparaitre {in: 18).
discomfit, deconfire {irr. 7).
discover, decouvrir {irr. 56).
disgrace, honte/.
dish, plat m.

displease, deplaire {irr. 34).
dissatisfied, mecontent (with, de).
distrust, se defier de.
do, faire {in-, p. 150) : do without

se passer de.
doctor, docteur m.
dog, chien m.
door, porte/.
doubt V. douter (if, que . . .no:

§ 170a).
down-stairs, en bas.

VOCABTTLAET.

419

lozen, douzaine/.

[raw, traire (irr. 31) : draw near,

B'approoher (to, de : § ie?f ).
Iress V. a'habillw.
iress n. robe/.
Iressmaker, couturiere/.
Irink, boire (m\ 27).
Irive ofE or away, cbasser.
Iry adj. sec (VII. 66).
Irr V. aecber.
lue, du (XXVI. 12e).
loll, (tedious) ennuyeux, (stupid)

lonrd d'eBjirit.
luring, pendant, dnrant : during

the past, during . . . past, de-

puis (§ au).
iuty, devoir m.
IweU, demenrer.

iacli, (adj.) chaqne, (n.) chacun :

each one, chacun ; each other,

run I'antre (XXVH. 7), se

(XXIX. 8).
ar, Oreille/.

earlier, pins tot, de meilleure henre.
!arly, de bonne henre : so early, de

si bonne henre ; quite early, de

bien {or tres) bonne henre.
sarth, terre/.
easily, &cilement.
last, *est (76a) m. ; the East, I'Ori-

ent m.
lasy, aise, facile.
lat, manger,
iditor, redacteur m.
Mward, ^donard.
iffort, effort m.
igg, oenf ( pi. *OBnfs : 61a) m..
light, *hnit (76a).
lighteeu, ^dlz-hnit (81i)
ighth, hoitieme.
lighty, quatre-yingts (XV. 26).
ither conj. on ( ... on, or), (nor

. . . either) non plus {% 169c).
ither pron. I'un on I'antre

(XXVn. 7).
leven, *onze (64/).
Illizabetta, Elisabeth,
loquent, eloquent.
Ise : nothing else, rien d'autre ;

nothing else than, ne . . . rien

cine.

elsewhere, ailleors, antre part
(§ 28a).

emperor, empereur m.

employ, employer.

empress, imperatrice/.

enclosed, ci-inclus (§ 56a).

encourage, encoorager.

encouragement, enconragement.

end w. fin /., (object) bnt (76a) m. :
make an end or finish, en finir.

end V. finir.

endure, dnrer.

enemy, ennemi m.

England, Angleterre/.

English, anglais, d'Angleterre.

enough, assez (V. 4a).

enrich, enrichir.

enter, entrer {witJi etre : XXVIII.
6a)

entire, entier.

entirely, tout a fait, entierement,
tout (§ 116«).

enjoy, jonir de (§ 162/).

equally, egalement; equally . . .
and, auBsi . . . que.

escape v. (iiitr.) s'echapper, (<?■.)
echapper a (§ 161c).

especially, surtout.

essay, essai m.

esteem, estimer.

eternally, etemellement.

Etna, Etna m.

Europe, Europe/.

eve, veille/.

even, meme (§ 114c), (not except-
ing) jusqu'a (§ 15Sa), {with ger-
und : § 190a) tout.

evening, soir, soiree : in the even-
ing, du soir.

every, chaqne, tout (XIV. 66; §
109) ; every one. chacun ; every-
body, tout le monde ; every-
thing, tout, toute chose; every
day, tons les jours ; everywhere,
partout.

evil adj. mauvais.

evil n. mal m.

example, ezemple m.

excel, ezceller.

excellent, excellent.

except, hors, ezcepte (§ S6a).

exclaim, s'ecrier.

420

ENGLISH-FEENCH

excuse n. excuse /.

execute, executer.

exercise n. exercice m., theme m.

exhibition, exposition/.

expect, attendre.

experience, experience /.

express, exprimer ; express one's

tlioughls, s'exprimer.
extraordinary, extraordinaire,
extremely, extremement.
eye, ceil m. (pi. yeux 36a).

fact : in fact, en effet.

factory, fabrique/.

fail, faire defaut a (6«).

faint, s'evanouir.

fall, tomber (with etre : XXVIII.

6ii), dechoir (in: 70) ; fall short,

faillir.
false, faux (VII. 8).
fame, renommee/.
family, famille/.
famine, famine/.
Fanny, Frangoise/.
far adv. loin : far from, (with inf)

loin de, (witli v.) loin que (g 1376);

as far as, see as ; so far as, see so.
farewell, adieu m.
farm, ferme /.
farmer, fermier m. ; farmer's wife,

fermiere/.
fashion : in that fashion, de cette

fafon, de la sorte.
fast adv. vite.
father, pere m.

fault, faute/., defaut m., errenr /.
favor, fayeur/.
favorite, favori (VII. S).
fear v. craindie (in: 15), avoir

peur (ll'S).
fear n. peur/., crainte/. : for fear

of, de peur or crainte de ; for

fear that, de peur or crainte que

... ne (§ 170fl!).
February, fevrier m.
feeble, faible.
feel, sentir (irr. 40).
festival, fete/,
fetch, aller or venir chercher (S

1766).
few, peu (de : V. 4) ; a few, quel-

ques (XIV. 6c) ; but few, peu ;

too few, trop pen ; the few, Ift "

quelques (24*).
field, champ m.
fifteen, quinze.
fiftai, cinqnieme, quint (XVI. 4c ;

§66).
fifty, cinquante.
fight «. combattre (XX. 3c).
fight n. combat m.
find, trouver : find one's self, se

trouver ; find again, retrouver.
fine adj. beau -(VII. 7) ; fine weath-
er, beau, beau temps ; a fine

thing, beau,
finish, finir.
fire, feu m.
firm, ferme.
first adj. premier : adv. pour 1»

premiere fpis.
fish, poisBon m.
five, *cinq (72c).
flee, fnir (in: 47).
flight, fuite/.
flourish, fieurir (XIX. 3b).
flower, fleur/.
fold V. plier. •
folks, gens pi. (§ 15(f).
follow, suivre (in: 33).
foolish, sot, insense (14"), fou

(VII. 7).
foot, pied m.
for prep, pour, de, (during) depuis

(§ 211) : as for, quant a.
for C0J7J. car.
forbid, defendre (de : § 1796) ; God

forbid, a Sieu ne plaise (§ 166c).
force, force/,
forget, oublier.
fork, fouichette/.
former, celui-la (subst.), ce . . . -la

(adj.) (§ 91).
formerly, autrefois,
fortitude, courage m.
fortune, fortune /. ; good fortune,

bonheur m.
forty, quarante.
four, quatre.
fourteen, quatorze.
fourth, quatrieme : fourth part,

quart m.
fowl, poule/.
franc, franc m.

VOCABTTLAET.

421

ranee, France/,
ranees, Tranfoise /.
raneis, Frank, Franfois m.
•ank, franc (VII. 66).
•ankly, franchement.
•eeze, geler.

Tench, franf ais, de France,
riday, vendredi m.; Fridays, le
vendredi (§ 46).
:lend, ami m., amie /.
iendsliip, amitie/.
■om, de, des, d'avec, depnis (§ 211).
:ont : in front of, en face de ; to
the front of, au-devant de.
mt; fruit m.
ill, plein.
lily, pleinement.

ain e. gagner.

ame, jeu m.

arden, jardin m.

at«, porte/.

ather, {trans.) cneillir (^rr. 46),
(Inir.) se rennir.

eneral n. general m.

tenevj, Geneve/.

entleman, monsienr (XIY. 4),
gentilhomme (pi. *gentils-
hommes: 68c).

lerman, allemand.

lennany, Allemagne/.

Bt, obtenir (trr. 61): get up, se
lever ; get ready, s'appreter.

ift, cadean m., present m., don m.

irl, fille/

ive, donner : give a present, faire
(irr. 33) un cadeau.

lad, aise ; very glad, bien aise.

lass, verre m.

lory, gloire/.

B, aUer (irr. p. 128), etre (§ 176e),
(go away) partir (ijr. 38) : go
away,' s'en aller (XXIX. 7c),
partir (mt. 38) ; go out, sortir
(irr. 39) ; be going to (with inf.),
aUer fXXVII. 9c).

od, Dien to. ; god, dieu m.

aid, or m.

Md adj. bott (IX. 3) : good for-
tune or luck, bonhetir m. ; good
morning or day, bonjour m.

9vernment, gouvemement m.

grace, grace/,
grand, grand,
grandfather, grand-pere m.
grandmother, grand'mere /. (§

46).

grandson, petit-fils m.

great, grand : a great deal, beau-
coup (V. 4).

Great Britain, Grande-Bretagne/.

greatly, beaucoup, grandement.

Greece, Grece/.

grief, chagrin m. \

grow, oroitre (irr. 19) : grow old,
vieillir ; grow pale, palir ; grow
cold, se refroidir.

grudge : have a grudge at, en von-
loir a (XXIV. 6/).

gue.st, bote m.

guide, gnider, conduire (irr. 1).

habit, habitude/.

hail V. greler.

hair, cbeveux m. pi.

half n. moitie.

half a<ij. (XVI. 4a ; § 56a) demi,

demi- : half an hour, nne demi-

benre.
hand ii. main/,
baud V. remettre (irr. 31).
handkerchief, moucboir m.
handle v. manier.
handsome, beau (VII. 7).
Hanover, Hanovre m..
happen, arriver (with etre :

XXVin. 6a), venir a (with inf.:

§ 176«).
happily, heureusement.
happiness, bonheur ra.
happy, benrenx, content,
hard, dur, (difficult) difficile,
hardly, a peine, ne . . . guere (§

167a) : I hardly know, je ne

sacbe pas (§ 131a).
Harriet, Henriette/.
haste : make haste, se hater, se

depecher.
hasten, se hater, se depecher.
hat, chapeau m.
hate V. bair (XIX. 3a).
have, avoir (irr. p. 58) ; as auxil.,

avoir or etre (XXVIII. 6-8,

XXIX. 3, XXX. la) ; have to,

in

ENGLISH-FEElirCH

avoir a (|182c), etre oblige de,

falloir (XXX. 7).
he, il (68rf), Ini.
head, tete/.
health, sante/.
hear, entendre, ouir (mt. 49).
heart, coenr m.
heaven, ciel (II. 5) m.
heir, heritier ■in.
help v. aider ; help ! a moi (§

20Sc2).
hen, poule/.
hence adv. d'ici.
henceforth, desormais.
Henrietta, Henriette/.
Henry, Henri m.
her pron. (XXII.) la, lui, elle

(XXIII. 2); pass. (XIV. 1-3) son;

hers, sien (XXVII. 1, 2).
here, ici; -ci (XIII. 3, XXIV. ; §

91-2) ; here is oi- are, voici (§

201).
herewith, ci-joint, ci-inclus (§ 56a).
hero, 'heros m.
hesitate, hesiter.
hide one's self, se cacher.
high, 'haut.
highly, 'hauteihent.
him (XXII.), le, ltd.
his (XIV. 1-8, XXVII. 1, 2), son,

sien.
history, histoire/.
hold, tenir {in: 61).
Holland, 'HoUande/.
home : at home, chez moi (etc.), a

la maison; go home, aller a la

maison.
honest, honnete (VIII. 5c).
honor n. honnenr m.
honor i). honorer.
hope V. esperer, (wish) souhaiter.
hope n. espoir m., esperance/.
horrible, horrible,
horse, cheval m.
horseback : on horseback, a cheval

(§ 161d).
hot, chaud.
hoin% heure /. : half an hour, une

demi-heure (XVI. 4ns).
house, maison /. : at the house of,

Chez.
how, comment (inierrog., relat.,

exelam.), que (XXV. 4<i) ; how
many or much, combien, (ex-
elam.) que de (34').

however adv. quelqne . . . que (§
lOtd), si . . . que, pour . . . que,
tout ... que (§ 116rf, 137c).

however covj., cependant, toutefois.

human, humain.

hundred, cent (XV. 26, 6 ; § 67a).

hunger, falm /. ; be hungry, avoir
faim (XIII. 6).

hurry v. se hater.

husband, mari m.

I, je, moi.

idle, i>are8senz.

if, si (29* ; XXXIV. lb ; § 138a),

quand, que (§ 138c, 2216).
ignorant, ignorant,
ill adj. malade ; adti. mal (XXXI.

8).
ill n. mal m.
illustrious, illustre.
ill-will : bear ill-will to, en vou-

loir a.
imagine, imaginer, s'imaginer, se

figurer.
immediately, tout de suite,
impatience, impatience/,
impious, impie.

ihiportant, important; be impor-
tant, importer, etre necessaire.
impossible, impossible,
in, en, dans (VI. la; §207), a

(VI. 4, XIII. 6a), de (§ 2046).
inch, pence m.
inclined, enclin.

inconsolable, inconsolable (for, de).
indeed, en e£fet, (= to be sure) il

est vrai.
India, Indes/. pi.
indignation, indignation/,
infinite : an infinite amount, in-

finiment.
influence, influence/,
inhabitant, habitant m.
injure, nuire {in: 4) a (§ 1616).
injustice, injustice^
ink, encre/.
inside adv. dedans,
insist, esdger.
instead of, au lieu de.

TOCABTJLAET.

433

instruct, instniire {irr. 3).
interest v. interesser ; interesting,

interesBant.
interrupt, interrompre (XX. 3ft).
intimate adj. intime.
into, en, dans (VI. 1«, 4 ; § 207).
introduce one's self, a'introdaire

(iVr. 1).
invincible, invincible,
invite, inviter.
iron, fer m.; adj. (=of iron), de

fer, en fer.
it, il, elle ; le, la ; as indef. subj.

(XI. 2, XXrV. 2 ; § 1476), ce, il.
Italy, ItaUe/.
Italian, italien, d'ltalie^
its, son (XIV.), sien (XXVII. 1, 2),

en (§ 88ft).

James, Jacqnes m.

Jane, Jeanne/.

January, Janvier m.

Japan, Japon m.

jealou^, jalousie/.

Joan, Joanna, Jeanne/.

John, Jean m.

join, joindie (irr. 17).

jouinal, journal m.

journey, voyage m.

joy, joie/

judge n. jnge m.; be a judge of,

B'entendie a.
judge v.: judge proper, jnger bon.
Julia, Julie/.
Julius, Jnles m.
July, jnillet m.
June, join m.
just adj. juste,
just adv. : have or had jiist (done

^ything), viens or venais de

(XXXI. lift),
justice, justice/.

keep, tenir (irr. 61), garder ; (word
or a secret) tenir ; keep silent,
taire (irr. 35) ; keep doing any-
thing, impf. (III. 7ft ; § 119a).

kill, tner.

kind ac0. bon (to, pour).

kind n. sorte/., genre m.

kindness, bonte/.

king, roi m.

kingdom, royanme m.

kitchen, cuisine/.

knife, couteau m.

know, savoir (mt. p. 159), (be ac-
quainted with) connaitre (^r>:
18) ; know how (with inf.)
savoir (XXXTV. 7a) ; know to
be, savoir (XXXIV. 7a).

labor V. travailler.

laborious, laborieux.

lack n. : for lack of, faute de.

lady, dame /. ; my lady, the lady,

madame (XIV. 4) ; the young

lady, mademoiselle (XIV. 4).
lament, se plaindre (irr. 15).
language, langne/.
large, grand,
last, dernier (VIII. 5c ; § 60ft) ; at

last, enfin.
late, (tardy) tard, (deceased) feu

(§ 56a) ; later, plus tard.
lately, demierement, *recemment

(26a).
latter, .celni-ci (§ 91).
laugh V. rire (irr. 13).
laugh n. rire m.
law, loi/.
lazy, paresseuz.
lead v. mener, conduire, (induce)

amener.
leaf, feuiUe/.

learn, apprendre (irr. 30). ""

learned ac^. savant,
least, adv. le moins (XXXI. 8) ; at

least, au moins.
leave, (trans., abandon) cLuitter,

(leave behind) laiaser ; (inir., de-
part) partir (irj; 38).
leg, jambe/.
lend, preter.
length, longuenr /.
lengthily, longnement.
less adv. moins (XXXI. 8); the

less, moins (XXXIV. 3).
lesson, le^on/.
lest, que . . . ne (§ 170(x),
let, laiaser ; impv. (VIII. 7c; § 141).
letter, lettre/.
Lewis, Louis m.
liable, sujet (VII. 4a).
library, bibliotheiiue/.

434

ENGLISH-FREirOH

lie V. (be false) mentir (irr. 41).
life, vie / : in all my life, de ma

vie (§ 167c).
light n. (daylight) jour m.
like ®. aimer, vonloir (irr. p. 114) ;

like better, aimer mieuz.
like adj. pareU.

like prep. conj. comme, en (§ 207e).
lily, *Us (74<?) m.
listen, ecouter ; listen to, ecouter ;

listen to reason, entendre raison.
literature, litterature/.
little adv. pen (de, V. 4, XXXI. 8);

a little, nn pen, nn pen de ; little

by little, pen a pen, petit a petit ;

too little, trop pen de ; but little

(with «.), ne . . . guere (XII. 5).
little adj. petit,
live, (dwell) demeurer, (be alive)

vivre (irr. 33) ; long live ! vive

(§ 144«).
lively, vif; in a lively manner,

vivement.
London, Londres m.
long adj. long (VII. 6b).
long adv. (a long time) lougtemps ;

longer, encore ; any longer, plus

longtemps (19'); no longer, ne

. . . plus (XII. 6) ; so or as long

as, tant que (g 137a).
look n. regard m.
look «. (appear to be) avoir I'air

(§ 56i) ; look at, regarder ; look

for, chercher.
lose, perdre, manquer.
loss, perte/.
loud adj. adv. 'haut.
Louis, Louis m.
Louisa, Louise/,
love V. aimer ; be loved, se faire

aimer (23*).
love n. amour mj'. (§ 15c) ; in love

mth, amoureuz de.
low, Itas ; in alow tone, low (adv.),

bas.
Lyons, Lyon m.

mad, fou (VII. 7).
madam, madame (XIV. 4).
maid, (servant) domestique/.
make, faire (irr. p. 150) ; (cause to
be) rendre.

man, homme m.

manner, maniere /. ; in a mannef

to, de faf on a.
manufacturer, fabricant m.
many, beancoup de (V. 4), bien de
(withart.: V. 46), maint (§ 113) ;
many a, maint (§ 113) ; as many,
autant de ; how many, comtnen
de, que de (XXV. 4(!) ; so many,
tant de ; too many, trop de.
map, carte,
march v. marcher.
March, *mars m. C74d).
Marcus Aurelius, If arc-Aurele m.
Maria, Marie/.

marry, (trans.) epouser, se marier
avec ; (iiitr.) se marier ; he mar-
ried, se marier ; newly-married
(person), nouveau marie (§ 56d).
Mary, Uarie, /.
master, maitre m.
matter n. affaire /.; what is the
matter vrith him, qu'a-t-il<
(Xin. 6J).
matter v. importer (§ 148i).
May, mai m.
may v., suhj. pres. (IX. 66), pouvoir

(trr. p. 119 ; XXV. 8/).
maybe, peut-etre.
me, me, moi.
meadow, pre m.

mean v. vouloir dire (XXXIII. 7d).
means: the means (of anytbiog),
de quoi (8 lOSd), les moyeng; by
means of, moyennant, a force de ;
by no means, ne . . . nullement,
ne . . . point,
meanwhile; en attendant, cepen-

dant.
meat, viande/.

meddle with, se meler a or de.
meet v. (trans.) rencontrer, (intr.)
se rencontrer ; go to meet, aller
a la rencontre or au-devant de.
melon, melon m.
memorjr, memoire/.
mendacious, menteur m., menteuse

/ (§ 16).
merchant, negociant m., (retail)

marchand m.
merely by, rien qu'4 or que de (§

TOOABFLABT.

425

meter, metre m.
Mexico, Uezique m.
midday, midi ro. (XVII. 4d).
midnight, minnit m. (XYII. 46).
might v., subj. (IX. 66), pouToir

(XXV. 8/).
milk n. lait m.
milk V. traire (irr. 31).
million, million m.
mind n. esprit m., intelligence/,
mine, mien (XXVII. 1, 2).
minister, ministre m.
minute n. minute/,
misdeed, for&it 7»., mefait m.
misfortune, malhenr m.
Miss, BademoiseUe /. (XIV. 4),

MUe.
miss V. faillir {irr. 50).
mistake : be mistaken, se tromper.
mock, (trans.) se moqner de.
moderately, moderement.
modem, moderne.
modest, modeste.
monarch, monarqne m.
Monday, Inndi m.
money, argent m.
monk, moine m.
month, mois m.
more, plus (XXXI. 8), plus de (V.

4) ; the more, pins (XXXIV. 3).
moreover, d'ailleurs, de plus,
morning, matin m., matinee /. ;

good-morning, bonjour m.
morrow, lendemain m.
most, le plus (XXXI. 8), le plus

de, la plupart de (with art. ; V.

46).
mother, mere/,
mountain, montagne/.
move, mouvoir (iiT. 76), (with

emotion, the feelings) emouvoir

(irr. 76), toucher.
Mr., Monsieur m., M. (XIV. 4).
Mrs., Madame/., Mme. (XIV. 41.
much, (with «.) beaucoup, tres, fort ;

(wii?L n.) beaucoup de (V. 4) ; as

jnuch, autant de ; how much,

«ombien, combien de ; so much,

tant, tant de ; too much, trop,

trop de ; very much, beaucoup ;

not much, ne . . . pas beaucoup,

ne . . . guere.

music, mnsique/.
musician, musioien m. mnsicienne/.
must, 11 faut etc. (XXX. 6, 7),
devoir (irr. p. 134 ; XXVI. 12/).
my, mon (XTV.).

naked, nu.

name, nom m.

napkin, serviette/.

Kapoleon, Napoleon m.

near adv. pres, aupres ; too near,

trop pres.
near, near to, prep. prSs, pres de ;

go or draw near or near to,

s'approcher de (§ 162/).
nearly, a peu pres, pres de (14").
neat, *net (76a), (clean) propre.
necessary : be necessary, falloir

(irr. p. 141).
need n. besoin m.
neighbor, voisin m., voisine/.
neither pron. ni I'un ni I'autre

(XXVII. 7).
neither conj. ni (XXXIV. 3).
nephew; neveu m.
never, ne . . . jamais (XII. 4 ; §

167).
nevertheless, neasmoins.
new, nouveau (VII. 7), neuf.
news n. nouvelle/. (s. or pi.).
newspaper, journal m.
next adj. prochain ; next day,

lendemain, jour suivant.
nest prep., pres ; conj. puis,
niece, niece/,
night, nuit/
nine, neuf (61a, 66c).
nineteen, *dix-neuf (816).
ninety, *c[natre-vingt-dix (816).
ninth, neuvieme.
no resp. non (§ 169, 200).
no, none, no one adj. n. ne . . .

aucun, ne . . . nul (XIV. 6a, d,

XXVII. 6 ; § 111), ne . . . pas

or point de (| 366) ; no longer,

ne . . . plus (XII. 5).
noble, noble,
nobody, no one, ne . . . perionne

(XII. 4 ; § 167).
noise, bruit m.
none, see no, a^.
nor, ni (XII. 6).

426

ENGLISH-FEENCH

north, nord m.

Norway, Norvege/.

not, ne ; ue . . , pas, ne . . , point

(§ 164-6), non, non pas (§ 169) ;

not any, ne . . . aucun, ne . . .

nul, ne . . . pas de (§ 3Si) ; not

anything, ne rien ; not ever, ne

. . . jamais ; not any one, ne . . .

personne.
nothing, ne . . . rien (XII. 4 ; §

167).
notify, avertir.
novel adj. nonvean (VII. 7).
novel n. reman m.
November, novembre m.
now adi!. a present, maintenant ;

conj. or ; now . . . now, tantot

. . . tantot.
nowhere; nnlle part (§ 28a).
nuU adj. nul (§ 167/).

obej', obeir a (§ 161i).

oblige: be obliged to, falloir
(XXX. 7).

obtain, obtenir (irr. 61).

occasion, occasion/.

o'clock, heure/. (XVII. 4).

occupy one's self, s'occnper (with,
de).

October, octobre m.

of, de (III. 1-3) ; en, a.

off : be oflE, s'en aller (XXIX. 1c).

offend, offenser.

offer, offirir (irr. 53).

officer, officier m.

often, souvent (XXXI. 7).

old, vienx (VII. 7), (so many
years) age de ; too old, trop
age ; be (so many years) old,
avoir . . . ans (XVII. 6) ; grow
old, vieillir.

on, anr.

once, une fois ; at once, (immedi-
ately) tout de suite, sor le champ,
(at the same time) a la fois.

one, un (XV. 8a), (indef.) on
(XXVII. 4) ; no one, see no ;
some one, see some ; one anoth-
er, lun I'autre (XXVII. 7), se
XXIX. 8) ; one who, anyone
who, quiconque, qui (§ 103a).

onion, *oignon (43a) m.

only adj. seul.

only adv. ne . . . que (XII. 6;
§ 167a, d), seulement.

open «. ouvrir {irr. 55), eclore (irr.
28).

opportunity, occasion/.

opposite to, vis-a-vis de.

or, ou, Boit (XXXIV. 3).

orator, oratenr m.

order : in order to, afin de, pour ;
in order that, afin que, pour que
{%_ 187<Q.

ordinarily, ordinairement.

other, autre (XXVII. 6, 7 ; § 115) ;
others, other people than one's
self, autrui (XXVII. 6a).

otherwise, autrement.

ought, devoir {irr. p. 134).

our, notre (XTV. 1).

ours, notre (XXVII. 1, 2).

out of, hors de, hors.

outside, dehors.

over, aur, (above) au-de^sus de, (be-
yond) par-desBus ; triumph over,
triompher de ; be all over, e'en
etre f^it.

owe, devoir {irr. p. 124 ; § 179d).

own adj. propre (§ 89).

owner, possesseur m.

ox, boBuf m. {pi. ^boeuft ; 61a),

package, paqaet m.

page, (of a book etc.) page/.

pain, mal (XIII. 6a; § 37a),

(grief) peine/,
paint ». peindre (mv. 16).
painter, peintre m.
painting n. peintnre/.
pale : grow pale, palir.
paper, papier m.
pardon v. pardonner (to [any one],

a).
parent, parent m.
Paris, Paris m.
Parnassus^ Famasse m.
parrot, perroquet m.
part ®. {trans.) sepaMr, {intr. te

separer.
part n. part/., partie/.
pass v. passer,
passage, passage m.
passion, passion/.

VOCABTTLART.

427

past : half past, etc., see XVII. 4 ;

during . . . past, depnis (§ 211).
peach, peche/.
pear, poire/,
peas, pois m,

peasant, *payaan (37a) m.
pen, plnme/.
pencil, crayon m.
pending prep: pendant,
people, (nation) peuple m. (folks)

gens (§ 16d), (indef.) on (XXVII.

4).
pepper, poivre m.
perceive, apercevoir (itT. 65),

g'aperceyoir de.
perfect adj. parfait.
perfect v. perfectionner.
perfectly, parfaitement.
perhaps, pent-etre, prohablement.
permit, permettre (irr. 31) a.
persuade, persuader,
philosopher, philosophe m.
piano, piano m.
picture, tableau m.
piece, morcean m.
pillage, piller.
pitiable, pitoyable.
pity «. plaindre {irr. 15).
pity n. pitie: ifs a pity, e'est

dommage.
place, lien m., place/.; take place,

avoir lien,
plan n. projet m.
plate n. assiette/.
play V. (trans.) joner de, (intr.)

joner.
plaything, jonet m.
please, plaire a {irr. 34 ; § 1615) ;

if you please, s'il vous plait ;

please to (impv.), veuillez

(XXTV. 6c) ; be pleased to, se

plaire a.
pleasure, plaisii m,
pocket, poche/.
poet, poete m.
poetry, poesie/.
point, point m.; on the point of,

sor le point de.
poor, pauvre (VIII. 6c).
portrait, portrait m.
possess, posseder.
possible, poHiblfl.

post, post-offlce, poste/.

pot, pot m.

potato, ponune de terre/.

poulhy-yard, basse-cour/.

pound, livre/.

power, pouvoir m.

praise v. loner.

precede, preceder.

prefer, preferer.

prepaid, franc de port (§ 56a).

prepare, preparer.

presence, presence/.

present n. cadeau m., present m.,
donm.

present adj. : at present, a present,
maintenant ; be present at,
assister a (§ 1615).

present v. presenter.

presently, presentement.

pretended, soi-disant (§ S6c, 189s).

prettily, joliment.

pretty, joli.

prevent, empecher (§ 170a).

priest, pretre m.

prince, prince m.

princess, princesse/.

prison, prison/. ; in or into prison,
en prison.

probably, probablement.

problem, probleme m.

profession, profession/.

professor, professenr m.

profit, profiter (by, de).

profound, profond.

project, projet m.

promise, promettre {irr. 31: to, a).

promptly, *promptement (71a).

proper : judge proper, jnger bon.

property, propriete ; man of prop-
erty, proprietaire,

protect, proteger.

proud, orgneilletut.

provide, pourvoir {irr, 69) : pro-
vided that, pourvu que (§ 1874).

prudently, *prudemment (a6a).

Prussia, Prusse/.

punish, punir.

punishment, punition/.

pupil, (scholar) eleve m.

put, mettre {irr. 31) ; put off, dif-
ferer.

Pyrenees, Pyrenees/.

428

ENGLISH-FRENCH

quality, ^ualite /.

quantity, quantite/.

quarrel, se quereller.

quarter, quart m. (XVI. 46).

queen, reine/.

quickly, vite.

quite, tout (§ llBc), Men.

ragout, ragout m.

railroad, railway, chemin de fer m.,

vole ferree/.
rain v. pleuvoir (mt. 71).
rain n. plnie/.
rainy, pluvieux.
raise, lever,
rare, rare,
rash, temeraire.
rather, plutdt.
read, lire {irr. 11).
ready, pret ; get ready, s'appreter.
really, vraiment, reellem.eut,en effet.
realm, royaume vh.
reason n. raison/.
reason «. raisonner.
recall, rappeler (XXI. 3c).
receive, recevoir {irr. 65).
recently, dernierement, *receinment

(26fls).
reception, reception/,
reckon, *conipter (71ffl).
recognize, reconnaitre (irr. 18).
recommend, recommander.
recover, se relever.
red, rouge.

redouble, redoubler de (§ 162/).
refuse, refuser,
regard, regarder : as regards,

quant a.
regret n. regret m.
regret «. regretter.
rejoice, se rejouir.
relative n. parent m.
religion, religion/,
remain, rester.
remainder, reste m.
remember, (recall to mind) se

rappeler, se souvenir (irr. 60).
remove, oter.
render, rendre.

renounce, renoncer a (§ 161i).
repent, se repentir {irr. 43).
reply, rgpondre.

reproach, reprocher (§ 1615).
republic, republiqne/
require, eziger.
requirement, besoin m.
resemble, ressembler a (§ 161S).
resist, resistor a (§ 161&).
resolve, se resoudre (irr. 36), re-

Boudre.
rest, reposer.

restaurant, restaurant m.
restrain, contenir (irr. 61).
retire, se^ retirer.
retmTij'revenir (irr. 60), retoumer,

eti^ de retour (17*;.
reward, recompense/.
B^ine, Bhin m.
rich, riche (in, de <»• en),
riches, rlchesse/.
ridicule v. se moquer de.
right n. droit m.
right adj. droit : be right, avoir

raison (Xin. 6a).
ring, ring for, sonner (§ ISTas).
rise, se lever,
risk ®. risquer.
risk n.: run the risk, courir le

risque, risquer.
rival n. rival m.
river, riviere/., fienve m.
road, chemin m., route/,
romance, roman m.
room, chambre/.
rose, rose/.

roimdabout ndv. alentonr.
royal, royal,
ruin, mine/,
run, courir (ii-r. 52) ; run away,

se sauver ; run the risk, see risk.
Russia, Sussie/.

safe, sauf.

sailboat, bateau a voiles m.

sailor, matelot in.

salt, sel m.

saloon, salon m.

salvation, salut m.

same, meme (§ 114).

satisfied, well satisfied, content,

satisfait.
Saturday, samedl m.
save, sauver.
say, dire (in: p. 165).

VOCABULARY.

439

scarcely, ne . . . gnere (XII. 6), a

peine,
school, eoole f. ; to or at school, a

I'ecole.
score, vingt, (about twenty) ving-

taine (§ 67).
science, sdenoe/.
Scotland, Ecosse/.
sculpture, *sculptnre (71a)/.
sea, mer/.

seat one's self, s'asseoir (irr. 78).
second adj. *second (S8/), *deuxi-

eme (81c).
second n. *seconde (58/')/.
secret n. secret m.
see, voir (irr. 67) ; see again, re-

Toir.
seek, chercher ; seek one's fortune,

chercher fortune,
seem, sembler.
Seine, Seine/,
seize, saisir.

-self, -meme (XXIII. Sc).
self-styled, soi-disant (§ 56c, 189c).
sell, vendre.
send, envoyer {irr. 81) ; send back,

renvoyer ; send for, envoyer

chercher (S 176e).
sense : good sense, bon ^sens (§

September, septembre m.
servant, domestiqne m.f., bonne/,
serve, servir (irr. 44) ; serve as,

servir de (§ 162^).
service, service »«.; at the service

of, an service de.
set, mettre (irr. 31) ; set out, par-

tir (frr. 38).
seven, *sept (71a, 76a).
seventeen, *dix-8ept (71a, 816).
seventh, ^septieme (71a).
seventy, *soizante-diz (816, c).
several, plnsienrs.
sew, condre (irr. 84).
she, elle.

shed V. repandre, verser.
sheep, brebie/.

sheet, (of paper etc.) fenille/.
shepherd, berger m.
shoe, Soulier m.
shoemaker, cordonnier m.
shop, bvntique/., magasin m.

shore, o6te/.

short adj. court ; short of (with

inf.), a moins de.
show V. montrer.
shun, fuir (mt. 47), eviter.
shut, fermer.
sick, malade.

side, cote tn. (on, de : § 204a).
sign, signe m.

signify, vouloir dire (XXXIII. Id).
silent : be silent, se taire (irr. 25).
silk, soie/.
silver, argent m.
simple, simple.

since prep, depuis (§ 211), des ;
conj. pnisque, (since the time
that) depnis que, depuis que . . .
ne (§ 1706).
sincere, sincere,
sincerely, sincerement.
sing, chanter,
sir, *monsieur (546, 73c).
sister, soeur/,

sit, seoir (irr. 78) ; sit down, s'as-
seoir (irr. 78).
sis, *six (816).
sixteen, seize,
sixth, ^sixieme (81c).
sixty, '^soixante (81c).
skilful, skilled, habile, adroit,
sleep II . sommeil m.
sleep V. dormir (irr. 43).
sleepy : be sleepy, avoir sommeil

(Kin. 6).
slow, lent,
slowly, lentement.
small, petit.
smok6, fomer.

snatbh, arracher (from, S. : % ISlc).
snow, neiger.

so adv. si, ainsi, le (XXIII. 3e ;
§ 81a) ; so much or many, tant
de ; so long as, tant que ; so far
as, tant que, que (§ 137a) ; so-
and-so, tel, un tel (§ 110a) ; or
so, see § 67 ; so that (in such a
way that), de or en sorte que.
so covj. ainsi.
soap, savon m.
society, societe /.
soft, doux (VII. 8), mol (VII. 7).
softly, doucement, bas (XXXI. 9).

430

EKGLISH-FKESrCH

soldier, soldat m.

solely, seulement.

solve, resoudre {in: 36).

some, de wit/i art. (Iv.; § 35), en
(XXIII. 7), quelque (XIV. 6c ;
§ 107), quelques una (XXVII. 5),
tel (§ 110a) ; some time, quelque
temps; some one, somebody,
quelqu'un (XXVII. 5) ; some
men are, il y a des gens qui sont
(5").

something, quelque chose (XXVII.
5 ; § 107(i); something to . . .
with, de quoi.

sometimes, quelquefois.

somewhere, quelque part (g 28a).

son, *fils (68c, 74rf) m.

soon, tot, Mentot ; as soon as,
aussitot que, des que.

sooner, plus t8t, (rather) plutot.

sorrow, peine/., douleur/.

sorry, filche.

soup, soupe/.

south, *snd (60a) m.

South America, Amerique du Sud/.

sovereign adj. souverain.

Spain, Espagne/.

Spanish, Espagnol, d'Espagne.

speak, parler (with, a).

spite : in spite of, malgre.

sponge, eponge/.

spoon, *cuiller (73 J)/.

stand : stand still, s'arreter.

start, partir (,irr. 38).

station, gare/.

stay, rester.

steamboat, bateau a vapeur m.,
vapeur m. (§ 15a).

stew n. ragout m.

still adv. encore; still more, da van-
tage ; conj. ponrtant.

stir V. houger (§ 166a).

St. Martin's day, la Saint-Uartin
(§ 42/).

stocking, bas m.

stop, s'arreter.

store, magasin m.

story, recit m., oonte m., histoire/.

straight, droit.

street, rue/.

stretch, etendre.

strike, tapper.

strong, fort.

studio, atelier m.

study V. etudier.

stupid, sot.

style, maniere/., mode/.; In the
style of, a la (§ 42^).

succeed, reussir.

successful, heureuz.

successor, successeiu: m.

such, tel (§ 110) ; such a, nn tel;
such-and-such, tel.

suddenly, soudain, soadainement,
tout a coup.

suffer, Bouffirir (irr. 54).

suffice, be sufficient, suffire {irr.
6).

sugar, Sucre m.

Sunday, dimanche m.

suppose, supposer, croire.

sure, sur.

surprise, surprendre {irr. 30) ; sur-
prised, surpris (at, de).

surround, entourer.

suspect, se douter de.

Sweden, Suede/.

sweet, doux (VII. 8).

sweetly, doucement.

sweetmeat, confiture/.

swim, nager.

Switzerland, Suisse/.

table, table/.

table-cloth, nappe/.

tailor, tailleur m.

take, prendre (m-. 30), (conduct)
mener ; take back (along with
one), ramener ; take off or away,
oter (from, a : § 161c) ; take
place, avoir lieu ; take a walk,
se promener ; take care, avoir
soin,

tale, conte m., recit m.

talent, talent m.

talk, parler.

tall, grand.

task, tache/.

taste, gout m.

tea, the m,

teach, enseigner.

teacher, maitre m.

tear n. larme/.

tedious, ennuyeux, ennuyant.

VOCABULABT.

431

tell, dii« (*"". p. 155),, raconter
(14") ; tell a lie, mentir (irr. 41).

ten, *diz (81»).

tenth, *dixiome (Sic).

Thames, Tamise/.

than, lue (IX. 4), de (XV. 9 ; §
204c).

thank «. remerciei (for, de).

that pron. ce, ee . . .-la (XIII. 2,
8), celui, celni-la, cela (XXIV.) ;
{idat.) qni, que, leqnel (XXVI.) ;
all that, tout ce que ; that which,
ce qni or que (XXVI. 10a).

that eovj. que, pour que, afln que.

thaw, degeler.

theatre, theatre m.

thee, te, toi;

their, leur (XIV.).

thefrs, leur (XXVH. 1, 2).

them, le8,leui (XXTI. 5), euz, elles
(XXm.).

theme, theme m.

then adt. alors; eonj. done, alors,
puia.

there, 18, -la (Xm. 8, XXIV. \a),
J (XXni. 8) ; there (demonsir.)
is or are, Toila (§ 201) ; there is
etc., U y a etc. (XXX. 4).

they, ila m ., elles /., (w4tf.) on

(xxvn. 4).

thief, Tolenr m.

thine, tien (XXVH. 1, 2).

thing, chose/. ; other things, autre
chose.

think, penser, songer ; think of
(tum one's thoughts to), penser
S ; think about (have an opinion
0^, penser de ; (be of opinion)
eroire (irr. 36) ; (think to be, re-
^rd as) eroire, censer (17").

thmker, penseur m.

thud, troisieme, (third part) tiers
(§ 66).

thint, soif /. ; be ihiraty, avoir soif
(XIII. 6).

thirteen, treize.

thirty, trente.

this, ce, ce . . . -ci (XIII. 2, 3),
celni, celui-ci, ceci (XXIV.) ; this
w that is, voila {% 201).

thou, tu.

though, same as although.

thousand, *mille (68/), *mil (68(7)

three, trois.

through, par, a travers.

throw, Jeter (XXI. 3c).

thunder v. tonner.

Thiu^day, jeudi m.

thus, ainsi, de la sorte.

thy, ton (XIV. 1, 2).

till coiij. jusqu'& ce que, que.

time, (period) temps m., (succes-
sive) fois/. (XVII. 7; § 69a), (of
day) henre /. ; in good time, de
bonne heure ; at the time of, lors
de ; at the same time, en memo
temp^ ; have time, avoir le temps.

tire, fatiguer ; be tired, se fatiguer.

tiresome, fatigant, ennuyeuz.

title, titre m.

to, a (III. 4-6), en, dans ; de (§
61cQ ; witJi inf. , a, de, pour.

to-day, aujourd'hui.

togellier, ensemble.

to-morrow, demain ; day after to-
morrow, apres-demain.

too, trop ; too much or many, trop
de; too little or few, trop
peu de.

tooth, dent/.

touch, toucher.

toward, vers, envers ; toward even-
ing, vers le soir ; (about, some-
where neai-) vers or sur les (§
70J).

town, *viUe (68/).

tragedy, tragedie/

translate, traduire («T. 1).

travel, voyager.

treat, traitor (as, de : § 162^).

tree, arhre m.

tremble, trembler.

trial, epreuve/.

triumph, triompher (over, de).

triumphant, triomphant.

trouble, (vexation) ennui m., (ef-
fort) peine/.

true, vrai.

truly, vraiment, veritahlement.

trunk, malle/.

trust V. se fter a.

truth, verite/

try, essayer ; try in vain, avoir

I beau (1 17^).

432

BSTGLISH-FEEKOH

Tuesday, mardi m. ; Tuesdays, le

mardi.
tureen, soupiere/.
twelve, douze; twelve o'clock,

midi or minuit (XVII. 46) m.
twentieth, vingtieme,
twenty, vingt (76a).
twice, deux fois, *l)is (74(?) (§ 69a).
two, deux,
ugly, laid, vilain.
uncle, oncle m.
under, sous,

understand, comprendre {irr. 30).
undertake, entreprendre {in: 30).
unformed, informe.
unfortunately, malheurenaement.
unbappiness, malhenr m.
unhappy, malheureuz,
united, uni ; United Provinces,

Frovinces-Unies ; United States,

Etats-TTnis.
unless, a moins que . . . ne (§ 137i,

170^, sans que, hors que (§ 1374).
until cimj. jusqu'a ce que (§ 137«),

en attendant que (§ 137").
unworthy, indigne.
upon, sur,
up-stairs, en haut.
us, nous,
use «. user de (§ 162/), se servir

(irr. 44) de ; used to, imnf. (^

119ffi). '

use n. : make use of, se servir (irr.

44) de.
usually, ordinairement.

vacillate, *vaciller (68/).

vain, vain.

value : have the value of, valoir

(mt. 73).
vase, vase m.
vegetable n. legume n.
velvet, velours m.
Venice, Venise /.
very adv. tres, bien, fort ; very

much, beaucoup.
very adj. meme (§ 114(1).
Vesuvius, Vesuve m.
vie, le disputer (g 82&).
Vienna, Vienne /.
Village, *village (68/) m.
violet, violette/.

virtue, vertu/.

visit V. visiter, aller voir (§ 318e).

voice, voix /. ; with louder voice,

d'un ton plus haut.
volume, volume m., tome m.

wait, attendre ; wait for, attendre.
wake, {tram.) eveiller, {inlr.)

s'eveiller.
walk, marcher, se promener ; take

a walk, se promener ; go to walk,

aller se promener.
want, (desire) vouloir {irr. p. 114),

Oack, be in need of) falloir {iir.

p. 141 ; XXX. 8).
war, guerre/,
warm ndj. chaud : feel or be warm,

avoir chaud (XIII. 6) ; be warm

weather, faire chaud (XX3JI.

9a).
watch n. (timekeeper) montre/.
water, eau /.
we, nous,
weak, faible.
weakness, faiblesse/.
wealth, fortune/,
weaty ». fatiguer.
weather, temps m.
"Wednesday, mercredi m.
week, semaine/.
weep, weep for, plenrer.
well, bien (XXXI. 8) ; wish well,

vouloir du bien ; be as well,

valoir autant.
well-behaved, sage,
well-satisfied, content (with, de).
west, *ouest (76a).
what adj. quel (XIII. 4) ; »ubst,

qui, que, quOl (XXV.), ce qui or

que (XXVI. 10a).
whatever, quoi que, quel que (§

104), quelque ... que (§ 107c),

quelconque (§ 108).
when ado. quand, (in or at which)

on ; conj. quand, lorsque, des que,

que.
whence, d'ou, dont (XXVI. 76).
where, ou (XXVI. 8).
whereas, tandis que.
wherever, ou que (§ 127c), en

quelque endroit que.
wherewith, de quoi (XXVI. 6a).

VOCABULARY.

433

whether, si (XXXIV. lb), que
(15") ; whether ... or, soit . . .
soit, soit que . . . soit que (§ 137A),
que . . . ou que (13**).

which adj. quel (XIII. 4), subst.
leqnel(XXV. 5), {relat.) qui, que,
lequel (XXVI.) ; of which, dont
(XXVI. 7) ; to oj- at which, ou.

while eonj. pendant que, tandis que.

white, Mano (VII. 66).

who, whom, qui (XXV.), (relat.)
qui, que, lequel (XXVI. ; 8 103).

whoever, qui que, quel que (| 104),
qui (1 103«), quiconque (XXVI.

»)■
whomsoever, qui que ce soit (§

104ot, 167c).
whole, tout entier, tout,
whose, de qui, dnquel, dont, (to

whom belonging) a qui.
why, ponrquoi, que (XXV. id).
wicked, mauvais.
wife, *femme {Z6a)f.
will, be willing v. vouloir (in: p.

114; XXIV. 66).
will n. volonte/.
William, Guillaume m,
window, fenetre/.
win, gapier.
wind It. vent m.
wine, vin m.
winter, *liiver (736) m.
wisdom, sagesse /.
wise, sage,
wish V. yonloir (iri: p. 114), de-

sirer ; (wish good-day etc.) sou-

haiter.
wit, esprit to.
with, avec (§ 208), (by) par, a (§

36), de (§ 1620), (at the house

of) Chez,
withdraw, se retirer.
within adv. dedans ; prep, en (§

207c).
38

without prep, sans (§ 310), a mains
de {with inf. ) ; go or do without,
se passer de ; conj. (XXXIV.
66 ; § 1376, -138c), sans que, hors
que, que . . . ne.

without adD. dehors.

woman, *fenune (26a)/.

wood, bois m.

wooden, de bois (V. 16).

wool, laine/.

word, parole /., mot (§167o) m. ;
keep one's word, tenir parole.

work n. (labor) travail m., (pro-
duction) ouvrage m.

work V. travailler.

workman, onvrier m.

workwoman, onvriere/.

world, monde m.

worse adj. pire (IX. 3) ; adv. pis
(XXXI. 8).

worst, le pire (IX. 3) ; adv. le pis
(XXXI. 8).

worth : be worth, valoir {in: 73).

worthy, digne.

would to God, plut a Dien (§ 1816),
Dieu veuille.

wound V. bless er.

write, eorire {irr. 13).

wrong /(. tort ; be wrong or in the
vn-ong, avoir tort (XIII. 6).

yard n. (measure) metre m.

year, an m., annee/.

yes, oui (§ 200), si (§ 2006).

yesterday, *hier (73«) ; day before
yesterday, avant-hier.

yet adv. encore ; conj. pourtant,
tojitefois.

yonder adv. la-bas.

you, vous (I. 96, VII. 16).

young, jeune; young lady, ma-
demoiselle (XIV. 4).

your, votre (XIV.).

yours, votre fXXVII. 1, 2).

GENERAL INDEX.

The references are to pages ; but the numbers of subdivisions occurring on the
page are added in parentheses where called for, in order to the ready finding of
a reference.

AU French and English words are to be looked for in the Vocabularies, and not
in the Index.

a, pioriun'n of, 4-5 ; when silent,
5 (14) ; when elided, 5 (15) ; its
accent-marks, 5 (16).

absolute construction, 316, 337.

abstract nouns, inclusive article
with, 37 (56), 224 (40<8).

accent of ^ word, 4 ; relation of
Latin "Bnd French accent, 204
{U).

accent-marks or written accents,
2-3 : — and see acute, circumflex,
grave, and the different vowels.

accusative, Latin, represented usu-
ally by form of French word,
206 (4*>.

accusative, Latin constructions of,
represented in French, 315-6 ;
accus. with infinitive, construc-
tions resembling, 317 (d).

acute accent, 3-4 -.—and see tJie
different vowels.

address, vous chiefly used in, 28
(9ft) ; titles used, 73.

adjectives, gender, 46-9, 333; num-
ber, 50-1, 233-4 ; agreement, 46-
7, 234-5, 39^3 ; place, whefl at-
tributive, 51-2, 286-7; difference
of meaning, depending on dif-
ference of place, 52 (5c), 336 ;
comparison, 54^5, 334 ; adverbs
from, 143-5 ; adj. used as ad-
verbs, 145 (9), 334-5, 360 (116';);
as nouns, 335-6 ; with de and a
before modifying noun, 239-40;
before dependent infinitive, 337-

8 ; adj. from present participles,
333-3 (189«).

adjective clauses, 346 ; subjunctive
used in, 378-9.

adverbs, 340-1 ; made from ad-
jectives, 143-5 ; adjectives used
as, 145, 334^5, 360 (116c) ; com-
parison of adv., 145; classes,
148-9 ; adv. of quantity, and
their construction with follow-
ing nouns, 40-1 ; negative adv.
and their uses, 65-7, 305-11 ;
position of adv., 150, 340-1 ;
adv. in adjective or noun con-
struction, 40, 149 (2ft), 340.

adverbial clauses, 346-7 ; subjunc-
tive used in, 379-81.

adverbial object of a verb, 315-
6, 396.

age, mode of expression of , 83 (5).

ai, diphthong, pronun'n of, 11 ; oi
sometimes written for, 13 (44ft).

aim, ain, nasal vowels, pronun'n
of, 14 (50c).

alphabet, 1-3.

am, an, nasal vowels, pronim'n
of, 13 ; exceptions, 15 (54).

antecedent, pronoun, of relative,
113(2), 113(4-0, 123-4.

apostrophe and its use, 3.

appositional noun, omission of
article before, 339 (50a); app.
infinitive, 315.

arrangement of the sentence, 350-
4.

436

GENERAL INDEX.

articles, 37-8, 333-32 -.—and see
definite arid indefinite.

aspirate h, 18-9.

au, diphthong, pronun'n of, 11
(40).

auxiliaries making compound ten-
ses of verb, 58, 133-3 ; of reflex-
ive verb, 185 (3) ; making passive
conjugation, 131 ; aux. of im-
mediate future, 139 (9c) ; of im-
mediate past, 146 (11*) ; causa-
tive aux., 151.

b, pronun'n of, 15.

bodily conditions, expressions of,
70 (6).

c, pronun'n of, 16 ; hard and soft
values of , 16 ; oc, 16 (58c) ; use of
cedilla with, 3 (7), 16 ; when
silent as final, 16.

capital letters, use of, 1-3, 73 (4c).

cardinal numerals, nee numerals.

carrying-on of a final consonant to
following vowel, 35-6.

cases mostly wanting in French,
33, 315 ; loss of Latin cases,
205-6 ; case relations expressed
by de and a, 315-33.

causative verb-phrases, with faire,
151 ; i.irect and indirect object
with such, 396 (1586).

cedilla, 3 (7).

ch, digraph, pronun'n of, 16 ; how
treated in syllabication, 3 (4c).

circumflex accent, 3 : — and see the
differeni vowels.

clauses, subordinate or dependent,
345-7 ; use of subjunctive in,
374-83.

close and open sounds of e, 7.

cognate object of a verb, 295 ( 1 57i).

collective subject, agreement of
verb with, 287-8.

color, nouns of, used adjectivelj',
333 (53rf).

pomparative of adjective, 54 ; of
adverb, 145 ; original comp., 54,
145 ; de after comp. , with meas-
ure of difference, 339 (Blf) ; after
plus, moins, 342 (204'i ; expletive
ne after comp., 311 (170c).

comparison of adjectives, 54-5 ; of
adverbs, 145 ; relation of Latin
and French comp., 306 (4/). _

compound forms of the verb, with
auxiliaries, 58, 86 (5).

compound nouns, gender, 313-3 ;
number, 314-5.

compound subject, agreement of
verb with, 387-8.

concessive use of subjunctive, 278
«•), 380 (1376).

conditional meaning, inversion to
express, 351-3.

conditional tense for mode), 45,
135 ; derived from infinitive,
85-6 ; imperfect used for, 365
(119/') ; pluperfect subjunctive
used for, 373 (<?).

conditional perfect tense, 58 (6),
367 (126).

conditional use of subjunctive,
373(c); of imperative, 304(142).

conjugation of verbs, 57 etc.: of
avoir, 57-60 ; of etre, 63-3 ; nega-
tive conj., 65-7;of regularverbs,
85 etc. ; of irregular verbs, 113
etc. ; relation of French to Latin
conj., 306-8.

conjugations, the three regular,
85 ; a fourth, 85 (la).

conjunctions, 157-9, 345-7 ; co-
ordinating conj., 345; subordi-
nating, 345-7 ; conjunction-
phrases, 158-9, 280 (136a).

conjunctive and disjunctive pro-
nouns, 103-10, 344r-8.

consonants, pronun'n of, 15-36 ;
relation of French and Latin
consonants, 305 : — and see the
differeni letters.

coordinating conjunctions, 345.

countries and provinces, the article
used with names of, 43-4, 335-6.

ct final, pronvm'n of, 33 (76a).

d, pronun'n of, 17 ; linking of, 36

(85).
date, expression of, 83-3, 341-2.
dative case, represented by noun

with a, 34 (4a I; dative pronoun,

103 (5), 109, 347 ; ethical dative,

so-called, 395(156/).

GENEBAL INDEX.

437

days of week, names of, 82.

dedension, TelatioD of Latin and
French, 205-6.

definite article, 27 ; combinations
with de and a, 33-4 ; use in parti-
tive expression, 36-7, 223-4 ; in-
clusive use, 37-8, 234 ; with
names of countries, 43-4, 235-6 ;
of mountains, 45, 236 (42 1) ;
with other proper names, 44r-5,
226 ; with title, 337 (43) ; makes
superlative from comparative,
54-5, 145 ; its repetition, 28 (7),
55 (54), 328 (49) ; used for pos-
sessive, 73 (Su), 337 (45) ; distrib-
utively, 337-i8; special cases,
328, 343 {to')).

demonstratives, 353 ; dem. adjec-
tives, 69 ; pronouns, 111-3.

dependent or subordinate clauses,
345-7 ; use of subjunctive in,

374r^.

diseresis, uses of, 3 (8).

dialects of French, 303 (J).

diphthongs, so-caUed, pronun'n
of, 11-2 ; real diphthongs want-
ingin French, 11 (38'i): — and see
ilie different letters.

disjunctive and conjunctive pro-
nouns, 102-10, 244r^.

division of wor(^ into syllables, 2.

double consonants, pronun'n of,
15 (56c).

e, pron'n of, 5-8 ; mute e, 5-6 ; e
acute and grave, 6-7 ; e circum-
flex, 7 (24) ; e before consonant
in same syllable, 7-8 ; exception-
al cases, 8 ; elision of , when final,
8; written to denote the soft
sound of g, 17 (62e).

e, e acute, 6-7 ; e or e before ge,
6 (200 ; e final of a verb-form
before je, 89(c).

e, e ^ve, 6-7.

e, e circumflex, 7.

eau, pron'n of, 11 (40).

ei, diphthong, pron'n of, 11.

ein, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 14
(60fl).

elision of final vowels, 3 (9) ; of e,
8 (26c) ; of a, 5 (15) ; of i, 9 (296).

em, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 13, 14

(50«, 63a), 15 (54).
-emment, pron'n of, 8 (26«).
en, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 13 ; ex-
ceptional cases, 14 (50«, S2i/,

53a), 15 (54).
ethical dative, so called, 395 (166/1.
eu, diphthong, pron'n of, 11 ; in

forms of avoir, 11 (41J).
eun, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 14

(51).
ex-, pron'n of, 34 (81^).
exclamations, 347 ; use of quel in,

70 ; of que and quoi, 118 (4c).
expletive ne, in dependent clauses,

310.-1.

t, pron'n of. 17.

factitively used verbs, 395 (1574).

feminine of adjectives, how form-
ed, 47-9, 233 ; of nouns, 313 :—
and see gender.

feminine rhyme, 355-6.

final clauses, subjunctive in, 381.

final consonants, pron'n of, 15 ;
linking of, 35-6.

first regular conjugation of verbs,
85, 87-9 ; its irregular verbs,
98-100.

fourth regular conjugation (as
sometimes reckoned), 85 (la).

fractional numerals, 80.

French language, history, and re-
lation to Latin, 308-9 ; dialects,
303 ; related languages, 304 ;
earliest literature, 304 ; relation
to Latin in regard to pronounced
form, 304-5 ; to inflection, 305-
8 ; to compounds, 308 ; borrowed
words ill French, 308.

future tense, 41 ; its uses, 366 ;
made from infinitive, 85-6 ; f ut.
of immediate action, 129 (9c) ;
present in fut. sense, 364 (118c),
266 (123fl.).

future perfect tensf), 58 (6) ; its
use, 367 ; perfect used for, 266
(121d).

g, pron'n of, 17-8 ; hard and soft
values of, 17 ; double, 17 ; final,.
17 ; when linked, 36 (866) ; or-

438

GENERAL IKDEX.

thographlc use of e and u after,
17-8 ; gn, pron'n of, 18.

ge, e or e before, 6 (20c),

gender, of nouns, 27, 209-13 ; rela-
tion of French gender to Latin,
206, 209-10 ; gender as shown
by ending, 210 ; by meaning,
210-11 ; double, 211-2 ; double
gender-form, 212 ; gender of
compound nouns, 212-3 (18J) ;
gender of adjective words, 27
(2) ; of articles, 27 ; gender-
forms of adjectives, 46-9 ; of
pronouns, 69-70, 72-3, 107-128.

genitive case, represented by noun
with de, 83 (I'O, 217-20 ; gen.
of appurtenance, 217 ; of equiv-
alence, 217 ; of characteristic,
217-8 ; of material, 218 ; parti-
tive, 218-20 ; genitive pronoun,
109-10, 247-8. ,

Germanic words in French, 203.

gerund, 57 (3c, d), 333.

gn, digraph, pron'n of, 18 ; how
treated in syllabication, 2 (4c).

grammatical subject, ce or 11, 288-
9.

grave accent, 3 (5) : — and see ilie
different vowels.

h, pron'n of, 18-9 ; mute or silent
and aspirate h, 18-9 ; h in di-
graphs, 19 (64p) ; in syllabica-
tion, 2 (4/).

hard c, 16 ; ch, 16 (SO/r) ; g, 17.

hyphen, 4 (10) ; used in interroga-
tive verb-forms, 29 (lOS, c) ; in
compound numerals, 77 ; before
object pronouns, 104, 105 (9c).

hypothetical sentence, verb-forms
used in, 267 (l^c), 275 {d), 280
(187A).

i, pron'n of, 8-9 ; accent, 9 (29a) ;
elision of final, 9 (29b) ; metrical
treatment, with following vow-
el, 8 (286), 357-8.

im, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 13
(50) ; exceptions, 15 (54c).

imperative, 49 ; use of, 283-4 ;
made from present indicative,
86 (6) ; impv. use of present

subjunctive persons, 52 (7c),
284 ; impv. sense of future, 366
(123c) ; of infinitive, 818 (176^).

imperfect indicative tense, 34-5 ;
made from present participle,
86 (4) ; uses of, 264-5 ; for Eng-
lish pluperfect, 265 (119c) ; for
conditional, 265 {119J).

impersonal or indefinite subject,
63-4, 112, 139-40, 288-9.

impersonal verbs, 139-42 ; form
of participle in compound tenses,
336 (194a).

in, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 13 (50).

inclusive article, 37 (5), 227.

indefinite article, 28 ; uses, 229-
30.

indefinite pronouns, 73-4, 127-8,.
258-60.

indefinite or impersonal subject,
ce or il, 63-4, 112, 288-9.

indicative mode, 272.

indirect object, pronoun forms for,
103 (5) ; with verb, 295-6.

indirect statement, 272 (129a), 275
(134c).

infinitive, 57 (2) ; sign of, 57 (26),
154 (46), 313 -(1726) ; other pre-
positions and preposition-phrases
governing, 154 (4, 5), 330-1 ;
constructions : inf. as ordinary
noun, 313 (172c) ; as subject of
verb, 318-4 ; as predicate, 314 ;
as attribute, 829 (6) ; in apposi-
tion, 815 ; as object : without
sign, 316-8 ; with de, 320-1 ;
with a, 323-5 ; with de or a,
825-6 ; inf. dependent on an ad-
jective, 327-8 ; On a noun, 328-
9 ; future and conditional made
from inf. , 85-6 ; imperative use
of inf., 318 (g) ; inf. with de in
sense of 'began to,' 321 (jr).

interjected phrases, inversion in,
351.

interjections, 347 ; interjectional
imperatives, 283 (140i-).

interrogatives, 70, 117-9, 149 (6a),
158 (2), 254-5 ; form of interr.
sentence, 28-9, 118-9, 350-1;
with negative, 67 (8) ; interr.
paraphrases, 97 (8a), 119 (7).

GENERAL INDEX.

439

351 {224c) ; interr. used also as
relatives, 121.

intransitive verbs, auxiliary taken
by, 133-3.

inverted order of sentence, 350-4 ;
in questions, 350-1 ; in inter-
jected phrases, 351 ; in opta-
tive pbrases, 351 ; in conditional
phrases, 351-3 ; in phrases be-
ginning with a part of the pre-
dicate, 352-3.

irregular verbs of first conjuga-
tion, 98-100 ; irr. verbs in gen-
eral, 113-4 ; their conjugation
in detail, 114-198 ; alphabetical
list, with references, 199-201.

j, pron'n of, 19.

je, pron'n of, after verb, 6 (18e).

k, occurrence and pron'n of, 19.

1, pron'n of, 19-20 ; liquid 1, after
i, 19-20; after i preceded by
other vowels, 20 (686) ; excep-
tional cases, 19, 30.

Latin, relation of, to French, 303-
9 :—and see French.

letters, French names of, 1.

linking or carrying-on of final con-
sonants to following vowels, 35-
6.

liquid 1, see 1.

m, pron'n of, 20-1 ; makes pre-
ceding vowel nasal, 12-5 : — see
nasal vowels.

masculine and feminine, see gen-
der.

masctdine rhyme, 355-6.

material, expressed by noun with
de, 40,' 218 (33).

measure, de used in. expression of,
after noun or adverb, 40, 318 ;
after adjective, 83 (6), 339 (61c) ;
expressed by noun used abso-
lutely, 316 (c).

mn, pron'n after vowel, 14 {53b),
21 (69as).

modes of the verb, their uses, 273-
86 ; indicative, 373 ; subjunc-
tive, 372-83 ; imperative, 283-4.

month, day of, how expressed, 80
(3a) ; names of months, 83.

mountain, article used with the
name of a, 45 (6«), 236 (42a).

mute e, 5-6 ; after another vowel,
8 (28a), 10 (36), 12 (45), 357-8.

mute h, 18-9.

mute syllables, restricted occur-
rence of, 6-7 ; their value in
verse, 854-8.

n, pron'n of, 21; makes preceding
vowel nasal, 13-5 : — see nasal
vowels.

nasal vowels, pron'n of, 13-5 ; an,
am, em, en, 13 ; on, om, 13 ; im,
in, ym, yn, aim, ain, ein, 13-4 ;
oin, 14 (50(2) ; um, un, eun, 14 ;
exceptional cases, 14-5 ; carry-
ing-on of their n when final, 86
(86e).

negative conjugation, 65-7, 305-
11 ; expletive negation in de-
pendent clauses, 310-1.

nominative forms, Latin, retained
in French, 306 (4c).

nouns, gender, 37, 209-13 ; num-
ber, 30-1, 313-5 ; case, absence
of, 33, 315 ; case-relations as ex-
pressed by de and a, 38, 34, 215-
22 ; absolute and adverbial
constructions, 315-6 ; partitive
noun, 86-7, 220 ; inclusive sense
of noun, 37, 224 ; infinitive de-
pending on noun, 838-9.

noun - clauses, see substantive
clauses.

number, relation of Latin and
French, 306 (id); number-forms,
see plural.

numerals, 76-84, 241-3; cardinals,
76-7, 241-2; ordinals, 79-80,
343 ; cardinals for English or-
dinals, 79-80 ; fractionals, 80,
343 ; collectives, 343 ; multi-
plicatives, 343 ; numeral ad-
verbs, 343-8 ; de for ' than ' after
a numeral, 343 (204c).

0, pron'n of, 9 ; accent, 9 (316).
object of verb, 294-8 ; direct and
indirect, 395 ; both with same

440

GENERAL INDEX.

verb, 395-6 ; two direct objects

forbidden with verb or verb-
phrase, 296 ; adverbial object,

396.
object - pronouns, 103-5 ; place,

104-5 ; other details of use, 244-

8.
objective predicate, 293 (154).
OB, diphthong, before il, 11 (41c).
OBU, pron'n of, 11 (41a).
oi, diphthong, pron'n of, 12 ; oi

written for ai, 12 (446).
oin, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 14

(SOd).
Old French, character of, 304 ;

declension in, 306.
om, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 13 (49).
on, nasal vowel, pron'n of, 13 (49j ;

exception, 15 (546).
open and close e, 7.-
optative phrases, inversion in, 351.
optative use of subjunctive, 373

(1316).
ordinal numerals : — see numerals,
ou, diphthong, pi'on'n of, 13 ; with

following vowel, 13 (42a), 358

(239).

p, pron'n of, 31.

participles, 57-8, 333-40 ; present
participle, 333-4 ; past partici-
ple, 334-40 ; in absolute con-
struction, '337.

partitive sense of a noun, 36, 220 ;
expressed by de, with or with-
out ai-ticle, 36-7, 330 ; use or
omission of article, 37 (3), 57,
67, 323-4 ; of de, 37 (4), 67 (7a),
320 (c) ; en as partitive pronoun,
110.

passive conjugation, 131-3 ; loss
of Latin passive, 307 (a) ; Eng-
lish passive otherwise expressed
in French, 137 (4^), 133 (4) ; ex-
pression of 'by' after passive,
133 (3), 304 (209).

past anterior tense, 58 (6) : its use,
266.

past definite tense, so-called, 38
(7c) : — see preterit.

past indefinite tense, so-called, 58
(6a) -.—see perfect.

past or passive participte, 57-8.
334-40 ; compound tenses and
passive made with, 58, 86, 131 ;
form of participle in such com-
binations, 58 (86), 123 (26), 131
(16), 133 (8), 135 (4), 334r40 ; re-
dundant auxiliary pple, 368.

past time, use of present for, 264
(1186) ; for paBt time continuing
to present, 364 (118(2).

perfect tense, 58 (6; ; its use, 58
(6a), 365-6 ; English perfect
represented by French present,
364(118(2).

personal endings of verb, Latin
and French, compared, 207 (c).

personal pronouns, 103-10, 244-
51 ; conjunctive and disjunctive,
102; subject, 102-3; object,
103-5 ; reflexive, 108, 247 ; en
and y, 109-10, 347-8 ; further
details of use, 344-8.

ph, digraph, pron'n of, 19 (64fir) ;
how treated in syllabication, 2
(4c).

place where expressed by simple
noun, 215 (28a).

pluperfect tense, indicative 58 (6) ;
its use, 266 ; English plupf .
represented by French imper-
fect, 265 (e).

pluperfect tense, subjunctive, use
of, 34 (16), 273 (d).

plural of nouns, how formed, 30-
1, 213-5 ; of adjectives, 46, 50-1.

poetry, irregular arrangement in,
353 ; rules of metrical construc-
tion of, 254-8.

possessives, adjective, 73-3 ; sub-
stantive, 136-7 ; rules for use,
73 (8, 5), 351 ; replaced by article
or personal pronoun, 73 {ha),
381.

possessive case, see genitive.

predicate noun or adjective, 393-
3; prepositional phrase, 293
(153) ; infinitive, 314 ; objective
predicate, 393 (154) ; form of
personal pronoun in pred., 108
(3f?, e); of mterrogative, 118 (4");
of relative, 133 (2a); omission of
article with pred. noun, 330 (6).

UJSJNJSKAL IKDEX.

Ml

prepositions, 341-4; commonest,
33-4, 48 ; otliers, and preposi-
tion-phrases, 153-4; prep, fol-
lowed by infinitive, 154, 330-1.

prepositional phrases with a and
de, as adjuncts of noun, 317-8 ;
of adjective, 239-40 ; of verb,
398-305.

present participle, 57; apparent
use with en, or gerund, 57 (3c,rf),
333 ; constructions, 333-3, 337 ;
certain tenses made from, 86 (4) ;
also plural persons of present,
86 (iu), 114 (5c).

present tense, indicative, uses.
264 ; in past sense, 264 (118/^) ■
in future, 264 (118c) ; for Eng-
lish perfect, 364 (llSd) ; its plu-
ral forms found from present
participle, 86 (4o), 114 (5c) ; im-
perative found from it, 86 (6).

present tense, subjunctive, 52 ; use
of its persons as imperative, 53-
3, 272-3(131/)), 384 (141).

preterit tense, 38 ; distinction from
imperfect, 264-5 ; imperfect
subjunctive found from it, 86(7).

principal parts of the verb, 85 ;
formation of the other parts
from them, 85-6.

pronouns and pronominal adjec-
tives, 69-74, 102-128, 244r-63;
personal, 102-10, 344-51; re-
flexive, 108, 135, 347; possessive,
72-3, 136-7, 351-3 ; demonstra-
tive, 69, 111-3, 353-4 ; interrog-
ative, 70, 117-9, 254^5; rela-
tive, 70 (54), 131-4, 355-7 ; in-
definite, 74, 137-8, 358-63:—
and see the different classes.

pronunciation, 4-26 ; of vowels,
4^10 ; of diphthongs, 11-3 ; of
nasal vowels, 13-5 ; of conso-
nants, 15-36 : — and see llie differ-
ent letters.

proper names, use of article with,
43-5, 325-6 ; prepositions used
with, 44, 343 (2054), 343 (207A) ;
plural of, 213-4 ; adjective with,
836 (c) ; capitals for, 1.

q, pron'n of, 31.

quantity of French vowels, 4 (12)-

r, pron'n of, 31-3; final, 33;

double, 33 (73'?).
reciprocal use of reflexive forms,

138.
reflexive pronoun, 108 (4), 135 (2),

247.
reflexive conjugation, 135-8 ; form
of particip] e in compound tenses,
335.
regular conjugations of verbs, 85-

97.
relative pronouns and pronominal
adjective, 70 (6b), 121-4, 255-7 ;
adverbs, 123, 149 (6a), 158 (2) ;
compound relatives, 255 (103) ;
relative not omitted, 124 (11).
repetition, of article, 38 (7) ; of
prepositions de and a, 34 (5) ; of
en, 344 (213a) ; of de with alter-
natives, 218 (134c) ; of subject
or object of a verb by a pronoun,
346 (82a), 388-9 ; of compound
subject by a pronoun, 288
(146a).
responsive particles, 149 (6c), 341.
rhyme, rules of, in French verse,
355-7 ; masculine and feminine
rhyme, 355-6.

s, pron'n of, 22-3 ; when as z, 22 ;
final 8, 23-3 ; ss, sc, sch, 23 ;
linked or carried on, 36 (856).
s, lost, replaced by circumflex on

vowel, 3 (6c).
s added to 2d sing. impv. before
en and y, 88 (10a), 129 (9a) ; s
final of 1st sing, omitted in
verse, 356-7 (2366).
sc, pron'n of, 33 (766).
ach, pron'n of, 33 (75c).
second regular conjugation of

verbs, 85,90-3.
sentence, arrangement of, 350-4.
silent e, h, syllables, see mute,
soft sound of c, 16 ; of g, 17.
ss, pron'n of, 33 (75a).
strong forms of irregular verbs,

115 (d).
subject, agreement of verb with,
286-92 ; after ce, 286-7 ; with
collective and compound subj.,
287-8 ; subj. repeated by a pro-
noun, 278-9 ; omitted, 289.

443

GENBEAL INDEX,

subject, infinitive as, 313-4.

subject-pronoun, its place, 103-3 ;
repeated, 244 (73) ; for emphasis,
244-5 ; when of disjunctive
form, 245 (74a, 76).

subjunctive tenses, 52, 55 ; rule of
sequence for, 282 ; uses of, 272-
83 ; in independent clauses, 272-
3 ; in dependent clauses, 274-82 ;
in substantive subject clauses,
274-5 ; object, 275-6 ; in ad-
jective clauses, 278-9 ; in ad-
verbial clauses, 280-1 ; tempo-
ral, 280 ; concessive and hypo-
thetical, 280-1 ; final and con-
secutive, 281 ; special cases, 281
(138) ; imperative use of subj.
forms, 52-3, 284 ; subj. present
found from present participle,
86 (4) ; imperfect, from preterit,
86 (7).

subordinating conjunctions, 345-
7.

subordiaate clauses, nee dependent.

substantive clauses, 345-6 ; sub-
junctive used in, 274-6 ; clauses
properly subst. treated as ad-
verbial," 280 (136(j).

superlative, made from compara
tive, 54-5, 145.

syllables, division of words into, 2.

t, pron'n of, 23-4 ; final, 23-4 ; ti
of endings before a vowel, 24 ;
th, 76 (28).

t, added to a 3d sing, before fol-
lowing pronoun, 39 (10c), 89
(9*), 207 (a).

tenses, uses of the, 264-73 ; of sub-
junctive tenses, 382 ; Latin and
French tenses compared, 207
(6) : — and see the various tenses.

th, pron'n of, 24 (78); treatment in
syllabication, 3 (4c).

third regular conjugation of verbs,
85 ; as sometimes reckoned, 85
(la), 190.

time when, as expressed by simple
noun, 215 (284).

time of day, expression of, 64 (a),
83.

transitive and intransitive verbs,
295 ; verbs trans, in French and

intr. in English, and the contra-
ry, 295 (157a), 299, 302.

u, pron'n of, 9-10 ; after q and g,
9 (33) ; accent, 10 (34) ; written
after g to denote its hard sound,
18 (62/) ; u and a following
vowel, 10 (35), 358.

ue after c or g, before il, 1 1-2 (41(2).

urn final in Latin words, 10 (SSc),
14 (516).

urn and un, nasal vowel, pron'n of,
14 (51).

V, pron'n of, 24.

verbs, conjugation of, see conjuga-
tion ; auxiliaries, see auxiliaries ;
passive verbs, 131-3 ; reflexive,
135-8 ; impersonal, 139-42 ; uses
of the tenses, 364-73; of the
modes, 272-86 ; adjuncts of the
verb : subject, 286-93 ; predi-
cate noim and adjective, 292-4 ;
ebject, 294^6 ; prepositional
phrase, 298-805 ; adverbs, nega-
tion, 305-13 ; infinitive, 313-32 ;
participles and' gerund, 332-9 :
— and see the various tenses,
modes, etc.

versification, rules of, in French,
354-8.

vowels, pron'n of, 4-15 ; simple
vowels, 4-10 ; diphthongs, 11-2 ;
nasal vowels, 12-5 ; relation of
Latin and French vowels, 204-5:
— and see tlie different letters.

w, pron'n of, 24 (80).
weather, phrases describing, 141
(5), 150 (9a) ; impersonal verbs
• Gf, 140.
week, names of its days, 82.

X, pron'n of, 24-5 ; when linked,
36 (85J).

y, pron'n of, as vowel, 10; be-
tween vowels, 10 ; as consonant,
25 ; interchange of i and y, 10
(37i), 100 (6).

ym and yn, nasal vowel, pron'n of,
13 (50i).

z, pron'n of, 25.

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